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J?^^ ". "^ * "^v ° (? 7^ -tofa ^^•^ (■'!, ©■ ©0 @. o <5 m u\ o o o ^.°'i] o ^1 n « o«P ?l^'3'^ f^OrO'SX O'V,' o ©O • «0 • ,o„.n iS'^.i-'-'; .-0 teoq, ■ .f.rz o ,G;vn: «^c^ o O cro/; 'ii'Ti'iS'fe.yii''' oco (J qOo'i^. °??0 ° ^ ■hJi,^^ O Q ©o m O oo C'o- O <^ »-3 ' ^o f^ -v'^'-D ,--- P8 " - ,0 o' .O o «o. "P oO ■ O O o ?, 51' ■•.-.V •»#,°,'fo. 1> : •••«" •?^ # -'o 3 0.?C2Si* 1 CONTENTS. ■ Pat* PBBLIMINART OBSERVATIONS. UiiToaiCAio CaaoiouMitai., ahb Gbosbavbical ix Th> DiTiaiom ot Hiitobt . . . i daiiBBAii HiatoBi or Mobbbh Bo- Bora >l Cbborouibt x«l Oao«B*r«CAi> SKatea or tsa WoBM . • . xvi Diriiioiia or tbb Babtb ^» -•*>.•< . xvU INTBODUCTORT OUTLINE 8KBTCH OF GENERAL HISTORY.. CUAPTBR 1. Of the Origin of the World, and tha Primitive Condition of Manltind . . 1 CHAPTER II. From the DeloM to the Settlement of the Jew* in Canaan ...... 9 CHAPTER III. The Fabalona and Heroic Agea, to the Initittttion of the Olympic Gamea . 4 CHAPTER IV. From the In«titution of the Olympic Oamee, to the Death of Cyriu . . I CHAFPER V. From the Erection of the Persian Bm- pire, to the Diviton of the Grecian Empire after the Death of Alexan- der ........... w CHAPTER VI. From the Wars of Rome and Carthage, to the Birth of Chriet 7 CHAPTER VII. From the beginning of the Chrictian Era, to the Appearance of Mahomet 8 CHAPTER VIII. Iliom the Riae of Mahomet, to the Commencement of the Cruaadea . 9 CHAPTER IX. From the First Crusade, to the Death ofSaladin .11 CHAPTER X. From the Death of Saladia, to tk* Ba4 of the Cruaadea r#» la CHAPTER XL From the Time of Ocnghia Xhas. I« that of Tamerlane 1> i:i " CHAPTBRXli,'^^' From the Time of Tameriaaia£te tkt Sisteenth Ceat«ry • . !• CHAPTER XIIL I'Pf co The Reformation, and Progroaa of " Kreuu during the Sixteenin Centnry It CHAPTER XIV. From the Commeneement of the Seven- teenth Ctatury, to the Peace of WestphaliB IS CHAPTER XV. - From the Civil War in England, to th* Peace of Ryswick SO CHAPTER XVI. Commencement of the Bighteenth Century, to the Peace of Utreeht . SS CHAPTER XVII. The Age of Charlea XII. of Sweden, and Peter the Great of Ruaaia . „ S4 CHAPTER XVIII. "^7 ■ c The AflUrs of Enrope, from ,tho Bsta*0 blishment of the Hanoverian Snccea* " aion in England, to the year 1740 . SO CHAPTER XIX. From the Accession of the Empress Theresa, of >Anstria, to the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle S7 CHAPTER XX. Progress of Events during the Seven Tears* War in Europo, iunerica, aad the East Indies . , S9 CHAPTER XXL From the Conclusion of the Sevea Tears' War, to the fiual Partition of Poland SI [if 3 Or, vi Contmtt. r— OHAPnK IXII. fnm th« Comm«M«m«ntaf th« Aai«* rtMB War, to tht BMontllon of tbo IiiapoB^lme* of i^ united lUtM. U OHArriR XXIII. fnm tka CommmiMmtBt of tho VMMh R««olatiOD, to tha Dtath of Bobn- i^nm >* CRAPTXR XXIV. ._ th« Bttabltibmralof tho Frtneh DIrMtorjr, to tb« P«m« of Amlons . n CHAFTIS XXV. Viom tbt BMommoBeemaBt of HoatU Utiao» to tba Treaty of TUilt ... 87 CHAPTBB XXVI. Tba fiwteh Invuion of Spain, and rab* Mfuant Paninaolar War 88 CHAFTXR XXVII. From the Invasion of Raiiiabrthe Freneh, to the Rcttoration of tba Sonrbraa . 88 OHAPTBR XXVin. Fram the Return of Buonaparte front Blba, to the general Peace .... 41 Boaori.— AaiA.— Araioa.— Amibioa. 43 A SERIES OF SEPARATE HISTORIES. ^%t l^istont of ICnglantr. BRITiaH JND ROMAN PSRJOD. CIUFTBR I. The Britiah and Boman Period— to the subJufatioB of the Island bjr the Saxons i .... 48 THS HEPTJRCar. CHAFTEB II. The Heptarchy, or the Seven Kinf- dome of the Saions in Britain ... BO CHAPTER III. The Heptarchy (continued) . • . 84 'CHAPTER IV. The Heptarchy (continued) .... 85 JKBLO-ajZON KINet. CHAPTER V. The ABKlo-Saxona after the Dlsaolu. tion of the Heptarchy.— Reiinis of Egbert, Ethelwolf, and Bthelbald . 68 Peflo OHAFTBR VI. The Beigaa of BthelbeH aad Rthabad 81 CHAFTBR Vlt. Tha Rdgso' Alfred the Great ... 88 CHAPTER VIII. History of the Anilo-SaaoBS, from tha Death of Alfred the Great to tha ReigB of Edward tba Martyr . . . 8i CHAPTER IX. From the Accession of Bdward tka Martyr to the Death of Caattta . . J§ CHAFTBR X. The Rcifpiii of Harold and Hardieuilbi jMl CHAPTER XI. X'/^'i The Reign of Bdward the Confoeaor . 84 CHAPTER XII. The Reign of Harold the Second . . 88 NOttMJN lIN,^, CHAPTER Xllli ^ The Reign ofWii . .675 ... 678 ^ . • .679 !D. . .690 SRLAND 697 > • . . 703 £ . . .711 CanUnU' IX C|e ^Utart; 0( Home. Pttre The Roman Republic 726 The Roman Empire 733 PapaIi Rons, OB Statu or thb Cbctrcb 739 Naplu 743 Sicily 744 Sahoinia •. 746 OlNOA . 747 Chaptbr 1 749 Chaptbr II 7S1 Chaptbr III 754 THE HISTORY OF THE OTTOMAN OR TURKISH EMPIRE . . . . 7U3 The Rite and Proc^retit of Mahommtan- lUt 768 _ PaKe BORNIO. 8IS Tfb Molcccai. or Spicb luANoa . . 815 Tbb Dawda, or NuTNua lu.ia . . .816 Tu PULLIPPINB ilLANIM . ) . • . 616 # — THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE, AND MORB PARTICULARJiY OP TBB Jbws 817 The Stale of the Jewa «|nce tlie Destruc- tion of Jeruitaleiu 830 Armbnia . . . t 833 Albania ....<..•.•. 833 THE HISTORY OF INDIA 773 THE HISTORY OF EGYPT^ wnu Stria 833 Albzandria 838 Antioch < 839 THE BARBARY STATES .... 830 Aloibbs . ( • « 831 Al?fB.!!'^^°'^\?.^!'^'* : : :m ^^ ^i^tar^ at ^moriw. Cte ^u^toru at Cl^ftta. Chaptbr I. < Cbaptbr II. • Chaptbr III. Chaptbr IV. Cbaptbr V. . 793 Tbb United Statm 835 Mbxico ...840 Canada 841 SOUTH AMERICA. Pbru 843 '9* Chili 797 I 801 I 803 &43 Brazil 843 Thb Rrpdblic of La Plata, or Unii-Bo Hrovincbs . 844 Chapter VI 806 Colombia Chapter VII. Cbaptbr VIII. 80S Bolivia 845 810 GtMANA 845 Amasonia .646 THE HISTORY OF JAPAN . . .813 €^t €nit h\ttm Muntii, Cbtlon 813 SOMATRA 814 Prince op M^alb*'* Uland . . . .814 JaTA 814 (Sometimes called the Arehiuelago of tht Cuba 846 Havti, or St. Dominso 846 Porto-Rico ......... ..850 Barbadobi 850 St. Christopher's, or St. K itt's . . 851 Contents. Nbtm . . . Antisva . . MoiinaBBAt Jakaioa . . Mabtihiqub OvABAKOvra 8r. LuoiA . . 8t. VmoBii* DoiiniioA . Obmaba . XBIHtBAO . . St. Bvbtatio'b TOBACO . . Thb Babawas PaK« .851 .851 . 851 . 851 . 853 .858 . 854 .854 . 865 . 8S8 . 855 . 858 . 854 .868 HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA AMD F0LTME8IA. AVRBAUA 857 Maw ZaAtABo 859 Lasbonbi, OB Mabiamrb laUBBB . 880 FaiBHDtT I«LANDa 860 SOOIBTT iBLAROa ........ 881 Sardwicb Iilandi 881 ICBLAND 868 GREEMLAMD .864 U ,#" # • ■# # # l: # # # ^ A # «» ••• • Si ^ PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. HISTORICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, AND GEOGRAFH^, " It It not without kmob," sttt^nin, " that Riitorf ha« always been conaidered aa the light of agea, the depoaito^ of eventa, the faithAil evidence of truth, the lource of pradmce and good counael, and the mle of oondnct and mannen. CouAned with- out it t6 the honudi of the age and country wherein we live, and ahut up within the narrow circle of auch branches of know- ledge aa are peculiar to ua, and the limita of our own private reflections, we continue in a kind of infancy, which leave* us stran- gers to the reat of the world, and pro- foundly ignorant of all that has preceded, or even now surrounds us. What is the small 'liuniber of yeara that make up the longest life, or what the extent of country ^hich we are able to progress or travel Over, but an imperceptible point in com- parison of the vaat regiona of the universe, and the long aeriea of ages which have suc- ceeded one another since the creation of the world? And yet all we are capable of knowing must he limited to this impercep- tible point, unless we call in the study of History to our assistance, which opena to us ev^ry age and every country, keeps up a correspondence betwixt us and the great men of antiquity, sets all their actions, all their achievements, virtues, and faults be- fore otir eyea; and by the prudent reflec- tiona it either presents, or gives us an op- portunity of making, sOon teaches us to be wise before our time, and in a manner tU superior to all the lessons of the great- est masters. * * * It is History which Axes the seal of immortality upon actions truly great, and acts a mark of infamy on vicea, which no after-age can ever oblite- rate. It ia by History that mistaken merit, and oppreaacd virtue, appeal to the incor- ruptible tribunal of posterity, which ren- ders them the justice their own age haa aometimes refused them, and without re- spect of persons, and the fear, of a power whieh snbsisls no more, eondemns the un- just abuse of authority with inexorable rigour. • • • Thus History, when it ia ^U taught, beepi9Mt:*enool.^r Worality Ifor all mankind. It condemna vice, throwa off the. mask from false virtues, lays open popul^ errors and prejiidicea, dispels the delasive charms of riches, and all the vai^ pomp wiiieh dkule* the imagini|(ion,laB# shews, bf a thousand eaampl«ii that are more avidling than all rcMoninga whatso- eter, that nothing is great and commend- able bat honour and probity." The fore- going exordium is aa lust as it ia eloquent -as appoaitaaa it is compleijii; It has been' very truly remarked, tieat the love of fame, and a desire to commit^ nicate information, hate inflB^nced men itt almost every age and every nation, to leave behind them some memorials (^ tbeir^-ey- istence, actions, and discovcriea. In the earliest ages of the world, the mode of conveying to posterity an accouut of im- portant facta waa very vague and uncer- tain: the most obrious and ea^f was first resorted to. Thus, when Jorittta led the twelve tribes of Israel over the river Jordan, in a miraculous manner, he set up twelve stones for a memorial ; but it waa necessary for tradition to exptstn the cireumstances which gave rise to iti and he said, accordingly, " When your children shall ask their fathers, in tifoe to come, what mean these stones? Then ye shall let your children know, saying, Is- rael came over this Jordan on dry land." (Joshua, e. iv., v. SI.) Poets who sung to the harp the praises of deceased warriors at the tablea of kings, are mentioned by Homer: the Scandinavians, Gauls, and Germana, had their bards ; and the sa- vages of America preserved similar memo- riala in the wild strains of their country. To supply the defecta of such Oral tradi- tion aa thia, foundera of statea and leadera of colonies gave their own namea to dtica and kingdoms; and national festivals and games were established to commemorate extraordinary events. From such imperfect attempts to rescue the paat Aom the ravages of time and ob- a .?A_^ o « m iL 111 *! II m iRioii, the progKM to iiii(!^ptioi» of v«- riout kind* was quule loon ttttf the inven- tion of ietteri. Tlie Beb)'ontn«, TMorded their llrat utronomical ol^mtionr won brick* I and the most M^^Unonnnflmte of Chineee|Utentare wnRMribeditefbn tablee of dnnie. In Greece a^Sonw Tery*^ ■imiilar melhode wiye Mmetinne edited ; two very tnrioae monument! o/^hiclMtre ■till extant' M which we ii ttlimlnatg ^ft»»rftat(y«» * ^ • the Arundelien merblei, upon pierts, lofty ^jni «4i iife^reek capU||il let • m i I ten, ^Be rJCcm* HT tBtteuly hUtbry of Oreeff; and the n*>nn| ^the cdViulst*-' gii^m npo|^«»^|jpU<|tllfcJnvble« ikt BoK. Bnoawn tra'^KtCliinmeqiBeigftnJf of annals wd hlitoniiat^recordif. QBdt when, in eneceeding tfanee, nation became more eiviliaed. and tqi. f arioaa J>fan,eh^ of literature were,^u]^lited, pehotit^m^ ployed themielfMlnrl^cording thtf^ctiona^ of tj^r eont^pojyriu, orilluir aq;e«tora> and iQetory by^fgn^lr^Muteed it^prOJiteit form and eharaeter. ^MiengHi " th<^|tf«>t: matters oDbjLutM9i»^ •ft* »««;•»«* euayi. pr^im3%rjr)ttte>^f^ shade, the^lOWinv 0l)teiv» u^^Wi|M^ groups of ll)erfe|E^ic "« « All bistory/'Hys Dryden. "iM>i>ly ^he precepts of moral pbiloio||^y, f^nee^. jpto. examples.'L^ He also obstrvA, " th^-jfkws of history ID general are ^ruth of toatter, method, and dcuncfs of^«»pressiQ|t: ^Thfc flrst nB>petty'iMPM«***>Xri?^^^^ 4Bf,ua- dersilldidi fi^lbe j^a^i^ffiii «f iili^ hood(BiDr bisnii is tb a^ihent^^rabctl from tiiany particular examples or inau6- tions: if tbqie esamplfs are not true) tjben those meastiO^s of liftfivhich we take from them, will be false, and leeeiye u* in^beir eonteqnence. Thp second A groulided on j|_t he former t foa|C|he m^^ttkbftetfionfuied) ^if thelbrds orr^npei^umn Qf tj^ough^j^e obsme, tbcJt the i^eas ^ich we Tcceit e ' must be impextrct, a||a if s^ah, we are not taught by them wbatitftelect, or vthny to ■luui. Tintb, therefote, is required, as the inindatioiMif history, to inform as ; dispo> sition and pnkpicuity, as the manner to in* form ns plainly •*' The maimer in which. History ought to be studied is the next importtnt oon||de* ration. To draw the lin&of pippe^ disUne* tion, says a judicious writer on this sub- ject, is the iirst object of the discerning reader. Let him- not burden 'bis memory with ewits that bbght perhaps to pass for ikblesM||t bim npt fatigue his attention ^th thr progress of empires,,or the sue- Sssion of kings, which are tJ^rMTB back into the most remote ages. He will find «Bt little 4^pendenceis to be piaefed upon a relattoot of those ^affairs in the Pagan ^1. world^%hich. preceded the inveo^n of A* ^tera, and wen built upon mer^ral tt>di- tioi^'Let hinoi leave t|>e dynasties of^ba Egyptian kin^. th^ ilpeditions (^ SMm* trisi,flacAilr; andjm^^knd the ixplolta of HmufeMmd TtaeseiistSR^^iKiets to em- bellUlii^rcbmiologists to^fttamge. The ^abij^sUBc^iiti of tbCsdltnoM^ ipi- "^nitr JDsay Mtt^nd hint «f the j(wmy de* tains, andlltoien oceans, which are Uii ilpwn in the mapf ^f the ^eient geographers, topcoflceaAh«»^4^-"-"^;^?„'^^'^°r The lliSTOBic Asa held: its b^(iBning a^ the foundation of Rome, 753 yeant- d^fore Christ, snd terminated with auciqit his- tory., Thf fou^di^tion ftf Rome is chosen for the eommeneement of this im^rtant rdiviiion, because at that time the lilouds which were spread over ,^e histbrie page began to dissipate daily t imd because tUs period, in.tlie end, haa served U an era for aU the We*t,|ud4iU8d a>irt oil the East "niis age presents^ut with the grandefjTre- volutioid»^,iA Burajpff andfAsia. In the lat- ter, the entirt destruction ot theLAsiyrian empire, and the foundation of three ^e- brated monarchies i^pon its ruins. In Europe, the estabus^inent of the Rrinet* pal ^publics, of Gree^^ the astonishii%^' progress of legislation, and the successful cultivation of the fine arts. Thia division embrac^JSW yens. : ~i _, ri TTfT 1^ & o c =£ • goc^^&ut: ^"^^■'fV£A.^P /■A' % "W ^ ''-^ ... OBNBBAL HIBTOBl^OIIte09|SBi^ XUBOPB. Tib history of Mobbb!i Boaors mid- I with the fldi of^he Romui eifi^ire til* ^Mt. and eantinu«no the prcee^ it emBiM ee nine (emvkable period^ A.B. 478 A.9. 800 8or; jwa « : tt emMTM ee nine f^pavkable period! the epoeha of whieh «re,-^ ^ 1. The fldPof'therWetreni ipire T' S. Hie re-eit«blishijient of that empiif by Charlemane 5. The tiiniUtloD ol^ t^^ Empire to Genuity; by Qihoc the Grear^, -.i- i,-/h':;i^C\ It) 4^.The-«ceB^i. of thr Batto.. oo'i o.^-c::j?/'^^4M a.)?*l» C7. Thfrpenb'of WeeVph'tuta 1648 . 1713 q(5^ the peace of tttrecht . 1713.1789 " 9. The French Bevoltf tion. tpthepr^snttimr . . ','-'--l ^o In the IfthceSutary many^of the modem monari^es of ^uropehad theif commence mettt?t jtl^'^mpire of the Eait haTing been, about'^atperiod.brb^giit to the very Terge of minify the innume^le hotts of barba«: J riMMi from t}jk north, wfaieh podnd iit upod':^'^ if; and, at liingtb, labdaed it in the yeai? 476.— TheTandali, the Sucti, md the Alans, we^ the first adventarers, These were soon followed by the VisiKothi, the Bur- i^ndians, the Germans, the Franks, the Lombards, the Angles, the Saxons, and the )Uans. These depredators taking' different routes, armed with fire and sword, soon subjected to their yqke the terrified vic- tims of their ferociiy. aiiii erected' their conquests into kingdoms. - . The Visigoth*, 'after hkving driven out the Vaudals, destroyed the Alans, subdued the Suevi, ihd founded a new kingdom in Bj^n. The Angles and the Saxons made a eon- quest of Britain from the Bomans and nk- tjives, and ,fonned the Heptarchy, or seven kingdotte. The Huni^iMtablished themselves in Pan* nonia, and the Germans on the banks of the Danube. — The Heruli, after having destroyed the Western empire, founded a ,*tate in Italy, which continued but a short time, btfing driven out by the Ostrogoths. -T-Justinian retook Italy from the Ostro- goths.— The giftater part of Italy soon after fell under the power of the Lombards, who filmed it iato a k..agdaxB. ">^e eiarehata of BavenaaMiaised, by them, mAho empm of th«^BasCtoioyed it Iwt mIA time.^ 1^ exarebate being eOnqlMmFby Char* lAagne, was set|^ by |b%«i the Pope^ wBich may he properly atnil the epoch of the temporal grandenr of tVe Bomaa poa* ti A, and of the real comnuaeement of tha combination of ehnirni^n$si»t«« Nnmerooa bodies ofhMiAf, fron variona eonntries, having taken pdlMmou of Gaal, fonnfled thorei« setmiHlttDgdoms, wUeh were, at lengtb,^nitM hy tiia Franks, an« der the name of Branee. fBhramond waa it* first moDafieh^ and wtler Clwis'it arrived at c6nsi4er(ble emttenee. Pepin le Brei'HIthe ShorlVexpclledrii^the person -df-Childerie4II.rtle iaee df tluu»no)o4 :(^l*d4he JSerovingian^^nWi the tbran*, and;assnued the g^emnait. Hlmn, Char)emagne^^4he greatest ptinee of bis timer r^rieved the honour or France, des* troyed the Lomhardian monarchy, and re- newed the empire of the Wes^^lMnf him* saelf crowned emperor at Bomr. jj^3^"^^ About the middle of thi* period. Maho* imeti styling bimaeif a pjtpphet»hyvueeess* fill imposture and the fores- of arms^d the fonndation of a eonnderable emj^^ the East, out of the fuint: of^which M formed the greater pact ot the present ex- i*ttng monai]ehie» inweatertiJUia* > # Under Charlemagne, France was thl'hiost powerful kingdom of Europe ; and the title of Boman emperor was renewed by one of the descendants of the destroyer* of that empire : the other monarchies, hai^ fbrm- cd, were eclipsed Vf the lustt««f this new kingdom. Spain was subdued by the Saracens, who formed a new kingdom in the mountains of Asturias.— The Moors and Christians arm- ing against each other, laid waste this beau- tiful country. The seven Saxon kingdoms, whieh fimn- the Heptarchy, were united by Egbert, who became the first king of England: but the incursions of the Danes prevented that power fVom making any considerable fignr* among the states of Europe. The North was yet plunged in barbarism, withoutiawa, knowing even but very little of the arts of the first neeessity. The French monarchy, which had risen to such a highpitph of grandeur under Charlemagne, became weak under his sue- cessors.— -The empire was transfnrcd to the kings of Italy; which event wis fbl* lowed by civil and foreign wars in Franee, in Germany, and Italy ; while the Hunga* C« C0° ° u o ^<^^oi^ '0 Od) opc^^' <^ O o o Oo XiT ^liminatQ OtocttaUons, rUuM, from TurUry, angmenteA th* trosblM. — Otbo the Omt raMued Italy, which he united to Germany with the dignity of em- peror, end ahewed to a barbaroua age, the talents of a hem and the wiedom of a great la|ialator. •- viHO *iBiOBd~(989— 1074.) The German empire during this period reaehed the aummit of ita grandeur under Otho the Great. Conrad II. Joined the kingdom of Burgundy to hie poiseaaiona ; «nd hia eon, Henry III., added a part of Hunguy. liiie empire arrived eta high de- gree of (tower; but was aoon after brought into a itate of decay by the inflneuoe of ita noblea, and by the feudal government. Spain, although deaolated by the con- tinual wart between the Viaigothe and tl.e Saraeena, waa again divided by the diflb- rences of worship of tboae two rival na- tion*. • '' j. In France the Carlovingian hinge wm depoMd by the uaurpaMiKi of Hugh Capet, chief of tlw third or Capetian rue of king*. The Panea ravaged England, ind now became masters of it under Canuk), the Great, who coneiliated the love of iA new BubieiMa. Bdward the Confessor sniweeded the IMuish prineee. He was succeeded by Harold II., a virtuous prince fiain in bat- tle by William duke of Noraiandy, who made- a conquest of England.— At the sante time the Normans established themselves in Sicily, and laid the foundation of a new kingdom. Italy, oppressed by little tyrants, or de- voted to anarchy, offered nothing of in- terest, if we except Venice, which wa| every day extending its commerce.— Th|B other states of Europe did not furnish any importa|^o*ent, being at this period pluih> ged in omcurity and barbarity. Tov^la MuioD.— (1074i--427^.Qi The quarrels between the emperors and the pope* diminished the grandeur and power of the empire 1 the discords which begau under the emperor, Henry IV., a^t- Uted <3ermany and Italy during several eenturies; the factions of the Guelphs and the Ghibelines (the one partisans of the popes, and the other of the emperors) were alternately destroying each other.— Erede- rie 1. and Frederie II. endeavoured to up- hold the majesty of the empire; but the house of Jlohenstauffen at lengtU yieUed: they were despoiled of their poksesSiOns, and driven from the throne. The empire waa mueh weakened by the incapacity of ia ehiefh, the disunion of ita memliera, and the authority of the po^es, ever aiming at their fhrthar aggrandiiement.— The Cra. aadee commenced 1 a part of Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine, were presently wrest- ed from the inildels; and tha banner of the cross waa planted on Mount Sion. In the meantime the crusaders established a kingdoUrai Jerusalem, which im* of short duration.— It was dqMng the ame of tha Crusades, that the Gmk empire, sapped to its foundation, paased to the Latins.— Mi- chael Paleologus. emperor of Nice, retook Constantinople.— The Cruaades ilnished in 12S1. It is said, that to them waa owing ihe origin of armorial bearings, military orders, and tournaments. 4<. Spain continued to be the theatre of wars between the Christian kings and the Moors. The kings orCastile,Arrag(>n, and Navarre signalised tMmsdves by their con- quests over the Saracens. In France, the number of great sassals was stnuewhat diminished ; but thp ^onti- iiual wars with the English exhatsted it both of men and moneyj- . 'c The pover of England incream conA- derablyithe navy became puissant; and, in cwuie^ence of the civil wars between the ^g and the people, the royal autho- rity became more weakened, and a prepon- derance was given to democraticaTinsti* tutiona. ', , , ,C The provinces of Naplee and Sicilf were erected into a kingdom. Roger, prince or Normandy, waa the firstking; and his fa- mily posies*ed the erOwn till 1194. It then passed into the house of Hohenstauffen, whicii house waa dispossessed by that of Anjou. Denmark increased in power under Wal- idemar II., but the influence of Sweden seeme^^tobe of little weight in the ^uro- peair system, .^. , <'-„■- '-''r)"".- i BuSna groaned under ue yoke of -ih^ . Tartars, who also made incursions into Po« land.— Bohemia, and the island of Sardi-' tola, were erected iuto kingdoms.— Genoa and Venice were increasing in power: by the strengtli of ,th^ navies, they support- ed an extensive commerce. — Venice be>'^; came possessed of Dalmatia, and a part of the islands in the Archipelago. i. wntR Hmio». — (1373— 146Si) rj The states of EuropfreuJoyed an equality or equilibrium during thia period. Rome alone seemed ti^ possess superior power at first, but t^is power very soon diminished considerably : it laboured without effect to drive the Ghibelines out of Italy, and to re- unita the Greeks to tho eWjrch. The empire of Cfermany, confined to itf, own limits, underwent tome changes. Ita V rfr- -■■^ o!j 'O^ o >-V;v.' :^: Gk- kJl 4 ® ^ V, o o '■ i^- 'M » U ^ Ulistotical, C^fonqlosical, mtf flingraplbical. xv «haoti« gontniMBt wu rradeNd what mo^ eleu ; »nd nnywon of difftrat hooMt •ocMMively oeenpM th* thioMii' At tht 4Mth of BigiMBond, Albert lU of tlia iMNM of HaMbors, m Anatrii^wu eleetad; firomwUOt'Ume b tUMslAtBt dsr> tUi CuBUy. with IRtIt exceptlSii, to^e poMmatd um imperial erown. ;J-^' Fnn^ WM eouidtrably asitated bjr in- ttatine finds, bat became more powerAil by the espnlaioB of the BBgUdv^,Iiegiala- tion and poUedflpen besinallr to be »»• dereta^ «hid) Mtcd to loftfiB the^uan- jiert ffthe i^pleriud mmma the trail- ■^i^niUity of the nitfiQn, " ^ ~ '-^ Edward III. renillb«3,SnglaBa th^l^- ror of iu neishbov^ri he held at the ina^ *ime thr^ kiii|;s priaonoBi; and Vrance was redneed, by ;l^is pipiWsiiko the eon/ ditioii of Ik humhTesoppUcaiit.— '^e faC'> tiouC^^fthe fMl and' wiUfe rsMf, (the llrst as the snpporters of the titKof th^ house of LanoMter, anff the latter that of Tock) were delugidtf t'aeii iml^ive httd witii th^lood of each other at^^tU^eee of this ■^ i V. S> t. Bpai^teBtinn^ tp^^nirieii itsel^with^hii ^spoils orthe Saracens:, wlu^notwithstand. ing thd«fforU of the' Spaniards, wer« iet ina«ters'of alTthe aoathem ptMC>^>-n ( In Portugal, th'sle'gttimate deaeendantt of Henry liMame extinct, and an illegitii mate prinee^f th« ifii|>e, ^us4 ascended the throne.— Bicily^ihutaheii' by Pe^' of |krragon,,qf the hooM of An^on, who alsd held the^l^ngdom of Naples. ^ llargaret, qneeil Of Dannark,the tiemi- ramii of th^ north, ujitcd in het person the three crowns of Denmarlt, Sweden, and Norwajr Thie nnfc>ii,'^ade tt Cal< mai( continued but « short tiitfei The Swedes b^ke the treaty, and cli|iM :fi>r {bhemselves a 'king. - ' j j. ^ p '^ • , Buidi (hitherto iinder the fblw of ih0 Tar^^) wak delifti^ ftoinslaTery and ob- scurity.— In Pplaiid, the royal diSl^ity be- gan to have peniianeney.'^Is Hungary, the hooM of AnJottnonnUd the throne; the crown of which, ilk well a» that of Bohemii^ soon after passed to theiiQnse of Austria. Othman, s«Utan of the Turks, erected a monarchy, whicli yrrived to great power under Mahomet II. This prince took Coni- stantinople^ and put an end to the empire of the Eut. The consequence resulting firomlthe caiitnre^ of ^his dne ciVy* was a redox of letters firom the Eut to the West, Which contributed to the establishment of the arts. Printing, engravilig of prints, paper-making, painting in oil, gunpowder, and the mariner's compass, were the prin. cipal, among many other usefhl inventions. 't'^ uzTB JFnioB^(i4f»-IM8.) The histoif of Europe dwing thia period becomee very intenatlBf. The d i ae w ety of the East ladjoi^bd AiMrie«, aU the great ehange^flnight about in tsligtwii opinioBS by the sueeessful endeofowe «f lAther, CeMn, and other*, gave a saw a^ Miranee to many statea la this qoartet «l TO world. ^ - The house of xustria iBeieased ia terri- torial pos se ee i ons.— vgjiwpe appeared Uko • vast republioMhe blMc%of power theretai being at this%m« on a WAter footing thaa pit was in Andent Greece. < Almost ewy state in Evope ibderwent important Mtolctions.— Germany waa eoa« siden>bly improved in Uk legislation aader Tt^yimtHt.1 1. . the Imperial Chamber aad Attlie ColOkeil wew established^— Hie re- ligioiia disputes bKnsht oa a sueeeseioa 4>f CiTOl aQdr>de«truAwa wMlltbey wei^ however, terminated ^ the treaty of Pas> ^n thelpaaee of Itkt.snd th«t of Weet- tfhalii. n^ ■-.'.<•.; ,!i. lo^Eranee, tlM ftudal gttv^mmt was «* Icnith deatnr^ by Chillee VII. and loDi< II- This wub agtfnst EngUnd sue- cotded th6se<)[^ Italy) and those were fok TowM by bt«atine ^tn against the a& jvenot^ or Protestants, which were terml- liA)^ed(^y the redaction of Bochelle, and tiie expulsion of th,e Proteetaats. In t^n, the three Christian kingdoaia were united. Tbieiponarehy, founded by 'Ferdiiknd V., sumamed the CathoUe, ar« m*i itt its senith of power nndes^hie l^deon, Charles Y, ^ It lost a port tA iU splendour und^ Philip III. and Philip IV., princetlrithout^eniai^ valour or n* aoureeSt. i.i -- - .--,^j i. V» - ., -^ «f Portugalliif6a]B«:fonnldabIe nnder Stni!- auel; but grew weak after the death of Sebastian. . Thekingdotteubmitted to the Spanish yoke; which it shook off in IMO, when the house of Bragansa, by an naex- peetedirevolutioa, ascended the throne. England gidned strength nnder Henry VI Wand beeame^ftom ^e to time, more powetful under hi* sueeessor^ the IMora, by its policy and its eonunerM, «nd parti* cnlariy so during thid reiga of queen BUm- beth. After the death of Elisabeth, Janus VU king of Scotland, ascended the Bi^^. lish throne, and took the title of-Jfames I., kii« of Great Britain ; but neither himad( nor his sueeessors, possessed the genias, or the activity tit that eelebrate4 prineeao. Ital) was divided into maiiy saudi ktatee. — Tusewiy, Pann«, nd Plaeentia. hereto- fore eitiea of the kingdom of It^y, were niaed to the dignity of dnkedoon^— The s» ■'Jl' <^ ■^3 id^o rd^' >, ?NS^^ o o o JU. # O ITI -.^ 1g— ^nUminBiv ^scttaiitiui, l2- •^, Cb yriacM of TlomM nie abto for it* eomnMrco JQmb fttraaerlyt ')>* iiaammy of ih* eompiM ennbUag otber natioM to pwtaka with^tba VanaUav^ ia. tha pnlta aiUiag frDilMM,]i^tioBi^C)iBoa alN eapariaaeaAii couai4enbn dimiainioaj of wamareo ftom tha Muna caiiM. > Tha Savaa United Pnydneee. fi4r,^%l« Uai, he. tl^aw off tha Spaniih yok(i^and beoiu frMi whiUt the 8«iii«^ ut; tha eailM of theit rocto fHtaeuev {omed- ROfemmeBta Sk. thi^.]rHnee^B'M Mwhr- Dentilarji, no^w the kiitltti^f^^^m» of OldcnbilvK,ikow b to ^aka aflfura amoBg the vom^»«t Bnrape.-'^e ^wedca threw off the Oanbhrok^, iud ebetMCTike- UTU Vau fotthei^Ui^i who redeemed the Itutrocof the natioi^. OuaUviki A nover.— Augustus, elector of Saxony, was elected king of Poland; and George, elec- tor of Hanover, ascended the throne of Great Batain.— Prussia was erected into .a kingdom under Frederic, the third elee- Q ,1 . tor of-teatoibBrg; w&» took Um tiUa of VNdairie 1;^ SpaM lost ptHiror uder tha latter priaeaa of Austria, aa4 waa diamembeted ky |h« r saeeasdoa " xiirar*. lirhie^ tenBiaataA ia. fhVbaT or th* honae of Bourfaoa. AlphoBsaa VI, hinf of. Portvg(^ ml deiwsed, a|id tka kiagdMa deelarad ia> depeisdaBt Of 4|paia by th^ j^^aea Of ,Ua> ^n Kngiaad. Charteki^^aB bdMadad.aai the asonarehy aboUshajLn^^OUvar CromwM wte.deelaied proteMot of thi^CoBtmoB- mettWWlkieh lasted but a short tim* after h^ jjltekk-^Tha ^aait IhmUy ;>w«ra aath- blillhed ^iiiukul tha thr<^Be.-4&iea II. abdicate. •:;■ ^nWaqL atadtholder of the United f rorinces, wia, eleeted kAig; and Menred t|ia aoecessioifc to, the house of UaaoMIr at th* death^f Anne^ ^td)/ underwent an slmbst entire ehaage by the peace of Utjreeht t the l^use of Aus> triik^wa»iintinp9S-.^ 0° "^o°^ ' Cl, O o l^iftotical, ®]^rQiioIo0lc«l» aiQl Aco^rap^i.al. xru powin of Enrop*. foiled to reconeila th« Mipcfor ud tho king of Bpftin.— Philip V. cnmntpcMl war.— TIm BBglidi and Dnljch pMcured the treaty of VieaDa, ia 17SI. ^U«k put as end to that ealanityt bat •'MW war eommeneed on the eleelkm of a king of Poland.— France declared war againit the emperor, which terminated hj the peace of Vienna.— The death of Charlea VI., I>t0, produced a new war, more im- portant than the former was, and of longer duration. France took the part of the elec- tor of Bavaria, at a competitor for imperial dicnity againat the houee of Auetria. The Mieeete of the armi of the French and Ba< trarians, induced the queen of Hungary to detach the king of Pmuia tnm the alli- ance. The defection of thia prince changed the face of affaire; and the aubMquent vie- toriea of marshal Baie obliged the bellige- rent powers to conclude the peace of Aix- la-Chapelle, which afforded but a abort calm U> enianguined Europe. — ^The houtee of Bourbon and Auitria, ao long enemiee and rivali, now united their efforti to maintain the balance of power. But the Bnglieh and French aoon found pretext for new diaagreements, and war was again de- clared. The king of Prussia took part with tiie English, and the king of Spain with the French. This war terminated much in favour of the English, and peace was concluded in 1763. In Italy, the houses of Austria and Bour- bon had the principal sway.— Savoy, as- sisted by England, augmented iu power: the island of Sardinia waa given in ex- change for Sicily.— Charles Emanuel III. joined a small part of the Milanese to this territory, and Corsica became a province to France. In Holland, William IV., prince of Orange, was declared stadtholder of the SevenUnited Provinces. Sweden, after the death of Charlea XII., underwent an entire change: the house o( Holstein-Eutin ascended the throne. Gns- tavuB III., the second king of this fismily, seised upon the liberties of his people, and became a despot. ■ In Russia the fbur princesses who had held the sceptre since the death of Peter the Great, rendered the empire worthy of the great genius who may be styled its founder. Poland was dismemberod by ita three powerful neighbours, Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Prussia, which had not ceased to aggran- diie itself since the elector of Brandenburg received the title of king, was raised to the height of grandeur and power under the wise government of that eoltbiatad haro and philoeoi^lMr, Frederic II. In Turkey. Aehmet II|. waa obliged to aormder hia crown to bia nephew, Maho- met V. Mnstapha III. espousei the came of the Poles' agaiBBi the RnssiaM, and sua- tainedgnatloeaea. Bitstteceaaor,AehaMt IV. pnt an end to thia unfortonaM war by* peaGe,to.gain which he made great aacriieea. The Bnglish coloniea in America revolt* ed from the mother country, throw off ita yoke, and declared themselves independent. France, Spain, and Holland, declared in their favonr:wheri after a war of eight yeara, it was terminated in 1783 bv a peaaa^ whoro- by they wera acknowledgea as an indefen. dent nation. j '1 niiiTi rnnioB.— (1839— ISIS.) This period was nsherod in by one of the greatest revolutions that ever happened in Europe, or the world. The Fronch, so long habituated to despotism, throw ol( as it wera in a moment, the yoke imposed upon them and their forafathen for many ages. Their king, Louis XVI., apparently joined in the effort, but at length, wanting irmneaa for so trying an occasion, provaricated, and at- tempted to fly ; he was seised, tried, ini- quitoualy condemned, and executed. His queen, Antoinette of Austria, suffered alio under the guillotine.— The powen of Eu- rope, headed by the emperor and the king of Prussia, coalesced together to cruah the Kvolutionary spirit of France. Great^ri- tain, Spain, Russia, Holland, Sardinia, Nk- ples, the Pope, and a variety of inferior powers, joined the confederacy: to thia was added a powerful party in the interiw. and the flames of civil war sproad tat and wide. Massacro, rapine and horror, atalked through the land; notwithstanding which, the Convention formed a constitution, le- vied numerous armies, and eonqnerod Hol- land, the Netherlands, and all the country west of the Rhine. Italy submitted alio to the Gallic ropublicans; and Oemtanywaa penetnted to its centro. Several changes took place in the govern- ment. Buonaparte conquered Egypt : and, in hia abaence, France lost great park of his conquests in Italy. He roturned, and assuming the government under the title of fint consul, reconquered Italy. Soon after, he established the Italian republic ; was himself constituted president; and made peace with England, which laated but a abort time.-^A new war commenced. —Buonaparte waa elected emperor of the French. Great Britain, notwithstanding the part it took in the confederate war, piished iU C-> .a. o o D ZTiU ^clfminaiD ^Mnfwtfoni, o o o J eomBMrw ami nwaniutaiM to un ntnt hcntofora nnlnowa. It mada Mferal cM* qnnta, Baarif analliUatad tha Pranali M«]V and obliflaA tkair army tai avaeata Bgypt. Paaaa waa taatorad, but waa of abort dura- tiM.— War tgaia commaBOodi a arilitafy ufMt abowad itaalf tbroogboat tha nation, and tromandonaaforta veranada.— Fmneh inipatnoaity and Britiab ? tJow wat« for yaara wilnaaaad in tba Spaaiab paainmku— Roa* aia waa invadad by n powarfol boat ander NapolaoB Baonaparta btt the invadera warn nttarly annibilatad. Thaarowninf Mt of tha war wra tba e«ar*mamorabla battia of Watailoo, wharaby the overthrow of Na- poleon Mta effieetcd, and (be psace of the world reatored, after (igantio efforta and aacriiieea, on all aidea, which have no par- allel in biatoiy. y r ; - a'-^ .r— ^Oif^^ n ' pBBONOLOtiT. CouwAtAiitkhx apeal(inf, the acienee of Obronolofy it bnt of recent origin; for qiany agea elapaed before the mode of com- puting time, or even of giving date* to im- portant eventa, waa at all refdrdedt nay, after the valne of liatorieal WTiiinita waa fett and ackttowledsed, Chronology long remained imperftcf ; tt>e moat ancient his- toriana lu^ving the piecite perioda they mord undetermined. When Homer and Bmdotua wrote, and for eenturiea after- warda, there waa no regular ds^tribation of time into such parta a* mouvha, weeks, and houn; nor any reference to clocks, diala, or other instrument!, by which the perpetual current of time was subdivided. The divisions of time whica are consi- derM in Chronology, lelate either to tlie dif- ferent methods of computing days, months, and years, or the remarkable eras or epoclin hom which any year receives its name, and b^ taieana of which the date ot any event is ttii. The choice of these epochs is foi the most part arbitrary, each nation pre- fnrriug iia own most remarkable revola- lion aa the standard by which to regulate it^ipeastttemeDtof time. Thus. tUe Greeks 'have their Argoaaiitic expedition, their aiege Of Tray, their arrival of Cccrops in Attiea, and their Olympic Games. The Bomana reckoned firom the foundation of their city ; but in their annals they also fre- quently advert to their various civU appoint- ments and estenial conquests. Tiie mo- dem Jews reckon fram the Creation; and the Cliristians from the Birth of Our Sa- ▼lour. From this we count our years back- ward towards the beginning of time, and forward to the present^ day. But it was not till the year 533 that this plan was in- trodu^; and even then the abb^ Diony- aina, who invented it, erred iik bia ealeida- lionai nor waa hie error dla c ova i ad for upward* of Mi eantwlea afkarwarda» wbm it waa found to ha daMetent four yeara of tha true period. But aa an altanUoB of a avsiem whiefa had been adopted by nearly Ml BuMpe, would bfeva oeeaaidnad inealen- lable ineonvanieneaa in eivU and eeeleaiaa tieal affiira, tba error w«a, by gimtni torn- aeut, anffmd to remain, and wa eontinva to reckon Atom what la called the " vulgar era," which wanu four yeara and ail dnya of tbe'reat Christian epoch. It cannot be denied that thara ara aaaay diAenl'iaa in the iray of ixing • oorroat Chronology I but atill there ara four data itrom whieh aatisfoetory eonelnsiona relative to certain eventa may b« Srawn ; and. by aa- certaining whether othera oeenrred before or after them, we may in general arrange the moat remote tranaaetiona with a degree of regularity that at tha first view night have appeared hopeleaa. Theae are, 1. Aa- tronomicaiobaarvationa, partionlariy of the eclipses of the sun and moon, combined with the caleulations of the yeara and area of particular nationa. S. The teatimoniee of eredible anthora. S. Tlioaa epoeba in biatory whieh are ao well attested and de- termined aa never to have been eontro* verted. 4. Ancient medals, coins, mono- menta, and inscriptions.— Wa have alio some artiflcial distinctions of time, wbieb nevtrtheleaa depend on aatronomieal cal- eulation; aueb are the Solar and Lunar Cycles, the Boman Indietion, the Feaat of Easter, the Bissextile or Leap-year, theVu- bilce* and Sabbatic Teara of the Israelitee, the Olympiada of the Greeks, the Hegim of the Mahometans, fte. Bnt it must be 'oome in mind, that the study of Chrono- logy, though so useiul to the clear under- sunding of historic records, is a distinet science, and requirea to be studied me- thodicijlr. Our purpose in Aia place is merely to point to it aa one of " the eyea of history." GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OP THE WORLD. Bt GnoonArnv is understood a descrip- tion of the Earih. It is divided into P*y> tieal or Natural Geography, and CMl and Political Geography. The first, or Physi- cal Oboorapht, refers to the surface of the earth, its divisions, and their relative situations; the climate and soil; the face of the country; and its productions, ani- mal, vegetable, and mineral. The aecond, or Civil GnoonArnv, includes the varioua nations of the earth, aa divided into em- 1 J ou O O >F THE I dMcrip- 1 Unto P*y ! Icivii •"'I Ir Phtii- Inrfece of I [r reUtWe the face pons, ani- •econd, ! ke TwrioM 1 I into < sm l^iitorical, ®^toiioIo9 '■nt, foHtleal powar, mbwotm, tdvoa* tin, vU iMBMn Mid etuloaa of tlMMa ^tiona. TiM fsna of tha aarth ia very naariy aplia* HmI I tka polar axia baldt only alioat n nllaa akortar tkaa tho aqnatorial ; and aa tha diamater ia nearly 8000 nilea. ao aligitt a diAirenea in a giobular body would be Imperceptible. In the atudy of Geography, aapa and flobea are inditpenMble s bat, owing to their form, globea gi*e a betler idea of the relative aiiea and eitnationi of conntriea than ean be learned (rom niapa. The earth haa an annnal and a diurnal motion t it inovea completely ronnd the aun ia about S6S days, 6 hours ; and turns completely round, as if on an axis or spin- dle, Oram west to east, in about 84 houra i an imaginary line, therefore, paasing through ita eentre, ia called ita AmU. The extre- mitiea of the axia are called Felse— North and South— the one nearest to the country wa inhabit being the Kvrtk Pelr. A line drawn round a globe ia obviously a circle; and aa varioua circlea are de- acribed on artUeial globes, fbr reaaona hereafter mentioned, we speak of them as though they were really ao delineated on the earth'a aurface. The principal diclea on the globe are the Kqnator, the BcUptie, the Tropic of Cancer, the Tropic of Caprieon, and the Arctic and Antarctic cfrcles. AU circlea are considered as divisible into S80 equal parts, called dt- prMi; each degree into 80 minutes, and each minute into M seconds: a degree is thna marked •, a minute thus ', and a se- cond thus * I so that 38" SS" 86^ means i9 degrees, 6S minutes, 36 seconds. And as a whole circle contains S60 degrees, a temi- eireU (or half a circle) will contain ISO*, and a ttmdrmU (or quarter of a circle) 90*. That circle on the anrlhce of the globe which ia everywhere equally distant from each pole, is called the £^a(or; and it divides the globe into two equal parta or H»mUfk*rt§, the Northern and the South- em; The appellation Equator, or Equi- noctial (aeefet •faaatar), is given to it, be- cause when the aun, through the annual motion of the earth, is seen in this circle, the days and nights are equal in every part of the world. The BelipHe ia so called because all eeUpaes of the aun or moon can only take place when the moon is in or near that cirele. This circle is described on the terrestrial globe solely for the purpose of performing a greater number of probleme. Tha IVe p fas ara two parallala to tka equator, drawn through the eeliptie, at thoee poinU where the eellptie ia at tka greatest distance tnm the equator i whiek is about 3>* Vf from tha eqaator, on either side. When the eun is opposite to one af the tropica, thoee people who are aa tar from tha corresponding pole ae tha tlopia is from tha equator, aaa the aun for mora then twenty.ftur houra. Thia Is the eaaa with every part nearer to the polec, bnt ■ever with any part farther from them. To point out this peculiarity, a circle ia described on the globe, tS)* from each pole. One of these P»l*r Cirtltt ia called the Jrelie, tha other the AntmrtUti signl> ^Ing the aert*. and that which ia «!ppes laliM laUada la Um Paaiia Otaaa, tstmd- laf autwarA ta tha PUUpfiaa laiaada aad fraai Naw Oaiaaa to tka aaaat af Aaariaa. Tha Ontm aecapiaa abaat twa Ihivda vt tka aaitk'a aafflMat aadlu watara afa aaa- ataatly aaareaekiag apaa tka laai la aama >lacaa» aad raaadiag fteai tt ta otkara. To Ikia eaaaa may ka attrikatad tha fonaatioa af Maay lalaada ia difmal parta of tha aravM. Tka paataat daptk of tha omob vUek haa kaaa aaeartaiaad b akout 800 fatkoaai ka aMaa daptk ia aati«ata4 at akoat MO fiukoau. Naar tka tiopiea it ia aitramaly aalt, kat tka laltaaaa aoaaidar- •kly diaaiaiakaa towaida tka polaa. Thia iaiBMsaa axpaaaa of watar ia U- «i4ad iata aawllar oeaaaa or aaaa, lalfa, kaya. Ae., limited partly by raal. partly by imafiaary boaadariaa.— Tha tmc\^ Onm*, wbiek aafara aaarly oaa third of tha aarth'a aarihea,aad ia about 10,000 aUlaa ia breadth, liaa batwaaa the eaatam caaat of Alia and Auatralia, aad the waatam eoaar of America. —Tha iMlaaNe Oraaa liaa hetwaca Borope aad AMea oa t tagea of a kaowledge of Hiatory could be diaeaaaed, or that maay facta aad reaaon. iaga which might elucidate obacure or con. tio*erted paaaagea could be brought for- wards but we truat it will generally be found that the raateriala we have nude nae of hafo been derived from the moat ae- eurate lonrcca of hiaiorieal information; that while a great maaa of matter haa been brought together, it may, at the aame time^ appear, that judgment and eireumapeetion have been aaed in proportion to the im- portaace and diffleulty of the taak; and, moreover, that truth and impartiality have been regarded beyond all other conaidera- llpoa eveata which have recently aeeanrad, or ate ia pia gi iM al tha BMaaaat, wa kaear that dilMBt will ptavailt aad t kwalkaa.ia nbtiaf aaah far tratk aad tka gaad af aaaiaty la tha baaadaa duty of avary aaa vha pfooaaoa to aarrate tkem. By tkia ftldaa lala w ktva eadaavaarad to akidi^ aad haaiUg kepa we kava anaeeeded. The idea of aMkiag tka Taaaavat •» HiaroBv oataad to tw aalaaMa waa al Itat eatartaiaedt aad. in tratk, ao laull portion of it waa prepared aadar aa Im- preaaioa tkat aack waa iaovitaklc. U, tkarafara, it akoald appear tkat amaa ti tka Hiatoriea kava aot daa apaea allottad to tkaai, tkia flMt ia aCared aa aar moat valid roaaoa for aaek appaiaat iaaqaalityi but it ia ky na meaaa iateadod aa an as- CUM for tka laagth of tka Hiatory of Bag- laad( for it ia alaMat impoiaiklo to apeak of any great avosM wkiek kava oeearred aaraag eiviliaad aatioaa— aapecially witkia tke laat century— tkat do aot, directly •i indiraetly, kear oa Rritiak iatenata, $aM whlck eoaaaquaatly eome witkia oar pro- viace ta notice. It aeema, kowaver, that a fiiw warda of aa asplaaatory or apologttie aatara are atill aecaaaary. To ke brieC tkaa i— A uni- form method of apelUag AtraigB praper namca haa not alwaya been rigidly adhered to « or, it may be, aneh aamea are apelt dif- ferently in other worki. For iaatanea, wa have written Oaa^Aia-JOaa, aa the moat usual orthography; but wa have found it elMwhere written MimgU Kkan, Cingit Kk*n, aad Jtngki* Ckaa. The name of MmkomH, or JfoAaaiaM^ ia written both waya, and each haa ita advoeatea, though modem cuatom, wa think, ia 1* favour of the Utter method. Many othera might, of courae, be mentioned; but in none are ao many variationa to be found aa in the Chlneae namea.— It may alao happea that the trantaetioaa of one country may ap- pear to be given more ftilly than aecaaaary in the hiatory of another; and eie* t*r»i. The neeeaiity of avoiding needleaa repeti- tiona, in a work ao eondenied, aad the do- aire at the ume time to omit nothing of importance, must plead our euatefor auoh faulta; while the too flrequent abaence of a vigoroua or elegaat atyle of eompoaitioa, may be thought to require a aimilar apo- logy. We are, indeed, fully lentible that, with all our carc^ manv imperfeetiona vrill be found, and that we must rely chiefly upon the candour and liberality («f that public, whoae kind aupport aad encouragement on former occasiona we have felt and grate- fully acknowledged. ■o> irafAi of] xvn »«• fUbwaA th«BKNt foua'> it , m Citi*\ name o( Men *»»•» , 11, though foVOttT of I indght,of I OM WO ■<> u in tho tppM that rj m»T •?• , vicf Mrf4. iloM wKti- , and the Ao- nothing of aieforeneh ibaeiieeof»l ompoeitioB* , lisnUM «po- iMible thet, ' fcetioMwiU chiefly ttfoa that pahlic, ngemroton , t and grate- TIIE TREASURY OF HISTORY. INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE SKETCH OB]raaA& bibtokt. CHAPTER I. n» JnMUutian WwU. HiiToar, beyond all other elndlet, it calculated to euliKhten the judcnient and enlarge tha undentanding. Every pnite eonveye lonie uieAil leeton, every eentence ha* ita moral ; and itt range U a* boniid- leea aa ita matter ii varioue. It i« accord ingly admitted, ae an indiepntable axiom, that there is no epeciee of literary com> poeition to which the facnitiea of the mind can be more laadably directed, or from which more uieful information may be dr- rired. While it imparte to ui a knowledse of man in hie eocial relatione, end thereby enablei ue to dirett oureelvei of many er- rora and prttindieei, it tcnde to itrengthen onr abhorrence of vice, and createa an ho- nourable ambition for the attainment of true greatneee and eolid glory. Nay, if coneidered ae a mere lource of rational amueement, Hiitory will etill be found in- flnitely luperior to the extravagant flctiona of romance, or the distorted pictures of living manners; for by the habitual peru- sal of these, however polished their style or quaint their humour, the intellect is frequently debilitated, and the heart too often corrupted. In all the records of ancient history there is a mixture of poetical fable: nor is it wholly to the historian's immaturitv of rea- son, or to the general superstition that pre- vailed in remote »t^», tnat we are to as- cribe this predilection for marvellous and wild narration. It has with peat truth been said that the first transactions of men were bold nnd extravagant— their ambition being more to astonish their fellow-crea- tures by the vastness of their designs, and the difficulties thev could overcome, than by any rational and extensive plan of pub- lic utility. Modern history, however, claims our more particular regard. In that is described those actions nnd events which have a ne- cessary connection with the times in which we live, and which have a direct influence upon the govamraent and constitution of our conntrr. It unfolds the secvet wheels of politieai intrigue, the artillcea of diplo- macy, and all thoee complicaliona of intt> rest which arise from national rivalshipi while at the same time it lays before na the cauKS and consequeneea of great eventa, and ediflea us by examples which coma home to our understandings, and are cob> genial with onr habits and feelinga. But we will not take up more of the rcader'a time in expatiating on the relative merlta of ancient and modem history; trusting that sufficient has been said to induce him to accompany us wl.ile we attempt to de- scribe the rise, progress, and subversion of empires, and the causes of their proeperity or decay. As speculations upon the origin and form- ation of the world belong rather to phi- losophy than history, we should deem it sapererogatory to notice the subiect. how- ever slightly, were it not probable that its enti^ omission might be considered an un- necessary deviation from an almost univer- sal practice, inasmuch as it has been snnc- tioned by the example of the most eminent writers of ancient and modern times. On these and other questions, alike uncertain, the most opposite opinions have been pro- mulgated, and the most irreconcilable hy- potheses advanced in their support ; we shall, however, not stop to enquire into the relative merits of the various and discor- dant theories which have so long and so uaetessly occupied the attention of philoso- phers, naturalists, and theologians. That the earth has undergone many vio- lent revolutions, no possible doubt can exist in the mind of any one who has paid even the most superficial attention to the dis- coveries in geological science during the last and present centuries ; but the mighty process by wliich our globe was originally formed is a mystery quite as unfathomable now, as it was in the darkest periods of human existence. Let us, then, oe content with the sublime exordium of the great Jewish lawgiver ; and we shall find that CBBONOLOaT DKT(BMI5BS TBB TIUB — OBOSBArHT BBOWI TBB FLACB. MM. ttfr-Mb aoy4/->BAni or asah. m nn am or MO nAsa. 2 dtttlinc illctt^ of (Sfncral llistore. Um Meoval Ke givet of the crpation, though doqnentljr brief, it neither allegoricAl nor ■lyuieal, but corretpondt. in its bold out- line, with the pheuomenn which is exhi- bited to us in the mat book of nature. It ia true that there is nothing in the writings of Moset either ealeulatedor inunded to satisfy curiosity ; his object was simpW to declare that the whole was the work of an Almighty architect, who, as the Creator and BovereigD of the Universe, was alone to be worshipped. With regard to the primitive condition of mankind, two very opposite opinions prevail. Some represent a golden age of innocence and bliss ; others a state of wild and savage barbarism. The former of these is found not only in the inspired writings of the Jews, but in the books esteemed sacred by various oriental nations, as the Chinese, Indians, Persians, Babylonians, and V.gjv- tians. The latter began their history with dynasties of gods and heroes, who were ■aid to have assumed human form, and to hare dwelt among men. The golden age of the Hindoos, and their numerous avatars of the gods, are fictions of a similar cha- racter, as well as their two royal dynastiea descended IVom the sun and mocn, with which we And » remarkable coincidence in the traditions of Peru. According to the other doctrine, the human race was origi- nalW in the lowest state of culture; and rruually, but slowly, attained perfection. It is in vun, however, for us to look to the traditionary tales of antitiuity ; for with the exception of the Mosaic history, as con- tained in the first six chapters of Genesis, we can find none which does not eitiicr abound with the grossest absurdities, or lead us into absolute darkness. " Commentators," says Anqnetil, "have ■mplifled by their reveries tlie simple, na- tural, and affecting narrative of Moses. That historian has informed us, in a few words, what was the origin of various cus- toms and arts, and recorded the names of tlieir inventors. Lamech, the son of Cain, i(ave the first example of polygamy. Cain himself built the first city, and introduced weights and measures. One of his grand- sons 'was the father of such as dwell in tents, and of such as have cattle.' Jubal invented music, Tubal-Cain the arts of forging iron, and casting brass : and a fe- male, named Naamah, those of spinning and weaving." That the antediluvians led a pastoral and a^cultural life, forming one vast commu- nity, without any of those divisions into different nations which have since taken place, seems faUj evident. But the most material part of their history is, that having once began to transgress the divine com- mands, thev followed the allurements of passion and sensuality, and proceeded in their rareer of wickedness, till at length the univer'inl corruption and iinpictv of the world had reached its senith, and the Al- mighty Creator revealed to Noah It is pur- pose of desfroyinit the wliole human rncp, except hiiuseir and his famil}', by a j^eneroi deluge; commanding him to prepare an ark, or suitable veMwl, for the preservation of the Just fh>m the impending judgment, as well as for the reception of animals des- tined to reproduce their several species. CHAPTER U. From tkt JhUge, i» the Stttlement «/ tht Jew$ i» Canaai^ ArtXB the Flood had prevailed unon the earth a hundred and fifty days, and had de- creased for an equal time, Noah became con- vinced, by the return of a dove with an olive branch, that the land had again emerged. The time when this great event took place was, according to the common computa- tion, in the 1656th year of the world ; t hough other dates have been assigned by different chronologists. Many other nations, in the mytholo^cal part of their history, narrate circumstances attending a vast inundation, or nniversal deluge, which in their essential particulars, correspond with the scriptural account, and are supposed to owe their origin to it. The Chaldeans described a universal deluge, in which all mankind wu destroyed, except Xisuthrus and his family. According to the traditionary history of the Greeks, the inhabiUnts of the eaHh all perished by a flood except Deucalion, and his wife Pyrrha. By the Hindoos it is be- lieved that a similar catastrophe occurred, and that their king, Satyavrata, with seven patriarchs, was preserved in a ship from the universal destruction. Even the American Indians have a tradition of a similar deluge, and a renewal of the human race from the family of one individual. But these ac- counts being uniupported by historic evi- dence, it would be an unprofitable occu- pation of the reader's time to comment on them. VTe shall therefore merely observe, that many ingenious theories have occu- pied the attention of distinguished men in their endeavours to account for this nni- versal catastrophe. The Mosaic account simply tells us, that the windows of heaven were opened and the fountains of the deep were broken up, and that as the /lood de- creased the waters returned from oS the face of the earth. That there is nothing unnatural in this, geolo^cal science fur- nishes ample evidence: in short, distinct proofs of the deluge are to be found in the dislocations of the regular strata, and in the phenomena connected with alluvial depo- sitions—which can only be attributed to the agency of vast torrents everywhere flowing over and disorganizing the surface of the earth. According to the narration of the inspired writer, the individuals preserved from the deluge were Koah and his wife, and his three sons, Sliem, Ham, and Jtphet, with their wives; in nil, eight personi . Wc are informed that the ark rested on nr/nnnt Ararat (in Armenia) ; but whether Noah and his sons remained lung in tlu.t neigh- bourhood must be left to mere conjerture. We merely learn that the greatest portion of the human race were some time after- OD I A.M. lo.3C — ll.C. 210!). — NOAU IS COMMANDED TO mitrARI! THR AHK. 4.». 1042— B.O. SMS.— ■■TB BIBI, A* TM AOI OV OlS TBABS. ®«tlii» SHutd^ of General lliatore* 3 warfU BMcmbled on the plaint of Shinar, where thef ennfcd in bnilding a tower, with the noliia and impioua intention or reaching the tkica, or, in tlie langnage of Scripture, "whoae top may reach anto beaveB." But thi* attempt, we are informed, waa fnutraied by the Almighty, who con- founded their language, ao that they no longer nnderatood each other's apeech. The •cene of this abortive undertaking is sup- posed to have been upon the Euphrates, where Babylon was built, not far from which arc extensive masses of ruins ; and the remains of a Ihrge mound, called by the Arabs the Bursi Nimrod, or Nimrod's tower, is generally believed to be the foundation of the tower of Babel. Id endeavouring to account in a natural way, and not as the effect of a miracle, for the confusion ol languages and the disper- sion of niaukin ', Dr. Sbuckford comes to the following rational conclusion ; " I ima- Stne that the common opinion about the ispersion of mankwd, is a very wrong one. The confusion of tongues arose at first from small beginnings, increased gradually, and in time grew to such a height, as to scatter mankind over the face of the earth. When these men came first to Babel, they were but few; and very probably lived together in three families, sons of Shem, sons of Ham, and sons of Japhet ; and the confu- sion arising from some leading men in each family inventing new words, and endea- vouring to teach them to those under their direction: this in a little time divided the three fam>li<^s from one another. For the sons of Japhet affecting the novel inven- tions of a son of Japhet; the sons of Ham affecting those of a son ol H&m; and the sons or Shem speaking the lsw words of a son of Shem ; a confusion would neces- sarily arise, and the three fismilies would part; the instructors leading off all such as were initiated in their peculiarities of apeech. This might be the first step taken in the dispersion of mankind : they might at first break iuto three companies only ; and when this was done, new differences of speech still arising, each of the families continued to divide and subdivide amongst themselves, time after time, as their num- bers increased, and new and different occa* sions arose, and opportunities offered; un- til at length there were planted in the world, from each family, several nations called after the names of the persons of whom Moses has given us a catalogue. This I think is the only notion we can lorm of the confusion and division of mankind, which can give a nrobable account of their being so dispersea into the world, as to be generallv settled according to their fami- ues ; and the tenth chapter of Genesis, if rightly considered, implies no more." From the families of the three sons of Noah, then, are all the nations of the earth descended. The children of. Shem were Elam, Asshur, Arohaxad, Luj, and Aram. Elam settled in Persia, where he became the father of that mighty nation ; the de- scendants of Asshur peopled Assyria ; and Arphaxad settled in Chaldea. To the fa- mily of Lttd ia generally assigned Lydia; and Aram ia beueved to have aetUed ia Mesopotamia and Syria. The children of Ham wert Cnab, Mis- ndm. Phut, and Canaan. The deacendantt of Cush are supposed to have removed from the touth-eaat of Babylonia, afkerwaroa railed Khusettan, to the eastern parte of Arabia ; bom whence they by degrees mi- g'ated into Africa. MIzraim peopled Egypt, thiopi% Lybia, and the rest of the northern parts of the same continent No particnlnr country baa been assigned to Phut, who is believed to have settled somewhere in Ara- bia, near to Cush. But Canaan is gene- rally allowed to have settled in Pbouiicia; and to have founded those nations who in- habited Judea, and wera fbr the most part subsequently exterminated by the Jews. As Moses give* no account of the life and dmth of Japhet, Xoali's eldest son, he it presumed not to have been present at the confusion of Babel ; but that his seven sons were afterwards heads of nations then is good reason to believe. Their names wera Gomer, Ma^og, Madai, Javan, Jubal, Me- shech, and Tiraa. Gomer, according to Jo- tephus, was the father of the Gomeritea or Celtes, vis. of all the nations who inhabited the northern parts of Europe, under the names of Gauid, Cimbrians, uoths, &e., and Who also migrated into Spain, where they were called Ueltiberians. From Mago^, Meshech, and Jubal, proceeded the Scythi- ans, Sarmatiaos, and Tartan ; flrom Madai, Javan, and Tiras^ the Medes, loniant, Greeks, and Tliradians. It is evident that the monarchical form of government began eariy ; Nimrod, one of the sons of Cush, having been made king of Babylon, while the rest are supposed to have planted different parts of Arabia. The aacred historian says, " Nimrod began to be a mighty one in the earth, — a mighty hunter befora the Lord." He ia said to have built several cities, but when he be- gan his reiip, how long he reigned, and #bo were his successors, we are not in- formed.^ The Jews suppose him to be the tame with Amraphel, the king of Shinar, who, with his three confederates, were de- feated by Abram. Some have imaeined him to be the same with Belus, and the founder of the Babylonish empire ; others with Ninus, the founder of the Assvrian. Nineveh, afterwards the capital of the Assyrian empire, was built by Asshur, who also founded two other cities, called" Resen and Rehoboth, of the situation of which we are now ignorant. About the same time various other kingdoms sprang up in differ- ent parts of the world. Thus we read, in the sacred volume, of the kings of Egypt, Gerar, Sodom, and Gomorrah, &c., in tne time of Abraham ;*and it is but reasonable to suppose that the nations over which they reigned had for some time existed ; for, as the learned and pious Bossuet re- marks, " we see laws establishing, mannera polishing, and empires forming. Mankind, oy degrees, gets out of its ignorance i ex- g A. K. 18S8— B.C. 2440.— IHBM, THB tBCONS SON Or HOAR, BOBM. A.II. S0S9— a.O. 075.— ■KFAKATIOir or «■■ EIHSDOM Ot IIKABI AKS cfVDAH. Outline Siktttlf of Scncral l^isiorQ* r o .0 B f f o o M t 10 •^ I pericnce inttnteta it: and arti are invented or improved. Aa men multiply, the eartlt ia more cloieljr peopled; moun taint and precipicea are passed; first rivers, tlien seas, are crossea ; and new habitations ea- tablished. The earth, which at the begin- ning was one immense foreiH:, takes another form : the woods, cut down make room for fields, pastures, Ifimlets, towns, and cities. Thejr liad at first to encounter wild beasts ; and in this way the first heroes signalized themselves. Irius originated* the invention of arms, which men turned afterwards against their fellow-creatures." The first considerable national revolution on record is the migration of the Israelites aut of Egypt, and their establishment in the land of Canaan. This event was at- tcncted with a terrible catastrophe to the Egyptians. The settlement of the Jews in the land of Canaan is suppoiied to have happened about 1491 b.c. For nearly 200 years after this period we find no authentic account of any other nations than those mentioned in Scripture. m CBAPTEa III. Tke FabuUnii and Heroie Jgeit to tht IntU- tutioH of the Olfwipie Game*. Wa now perceive, in profane history, the dawn of what ia called the heroic age ; iii which historical facts, though still tinc- tured «rith the marvellous, begin to assume something like the appearance of truth. Egypt is seen gradually recovering ftom the weakness induced by the visitation of the destroying angel, and the memorable disaster of the Red Sea, by which her no- bility and the flower of her army had been engulphed. Greece rapidly emerges from ^curity, and makes other nations feel the raects of that enterprising and martial spirit for which her sons were afterwards BO renowned. Various miKrations take place in Er[^pt and Asia, and make settle- ments in different parts of Europe. Thus was civilisation greatly extended; for by the concurrent testimony of all writers it appears, that whilst the descendants of Shem and Ham, who peopled the east and south, were establishing powerful king- doms, and making great advances in the useful arts, the posterity of Japhet, who settled in the west and north, by degrees had sunk into a state of barbarism. To the Egyptian colonists, therefore, were they in- debtel for their laws and religious mys- teries ; and they also excited amongst them a taste for science and the arts, while the Phoenicians taught them writing, naviga- tion, and commerce. The Greeks were now growing great and formidable, and their actions had an im- mense influence on the destinies of other nations. About 1184 vears d.c. they dis- tinjpiished themselves by their expedition against Troy, a city of Fhyrgia Minor; which, after a seige of ten years, they plun- dered and burnt, ^neas, a Trojan prince, cseai>ed with a small band of his country- men into Italy ; and from them the origin of the Rams'!! empire may be traced. At the period we are now speuing of we find the Lydians, Mysians, and some other na- tions of Asia Minor, first mentioned in history. Though we necessarily omit, in this brief outline, a multitude of important transac- tions which are recorded in the Bible, the reader must not lose sight of the fact that the sacred volume is full of historical in- terest ; and we shall have frequent occasion to refer to the actions of " God's chosen Eeople" as we describe events mentioned y profane writers. For the present it is sufficient to statb, that about 1060 years before the birth of Christ the kingdom of Judea, under king David, approached its utmost extent of power; that in the glo- rious reign of his son, the wise and peaceful Solomon, which followed, that stupendous and costly edifice/ "the temple of God," was completed, laid its dedication solem- nised with extraordinary pietv and magni- ficence; that the revolt of the ten tribes took place in the reign of Rehoboam, the son and successor of Solomon, by which Jerusalem was rendered a more eas^ prey to the Egyptian king, called in Scripture Shishak, and supi^sed to be the great Sesostris, whtfse deeds make so conspicuous a figure in the history of his country. After the-lre the B Africa, f nd he- 1. public, nir tliR s revo- lamely ilopon- ants of conse- l^reater )ody of ely re- a large A.M. 8330— a.o. 684.— TMi otnoa o» AacaoK, a« atubhs, ssTAaLiaiiBs. (i^tttline Siictc^ o( (SUcneral l^istort;. peninsula, sitnated at the southern ex- tremity of Greece, to which it is joined by the isthmus of Corinth. It is of an irregu- lar figure, about 563 miles in circumference, and U now called "The Horea." On the isthmus stood the city of Corinth; while the Peloponnesus contiuned the kingdoms and republics of Sicyon, Argos, LaceoKmon or Spwrta, Messenia, Arcadia, and Hyceiue. # CHAPTER IV. ^ from the Inttitution ttf the Olymjrie Oamei, U the Dtatk t^ Cyvu. Ill 776 B.C., the Olympic games, insti- tuted by Hercules, and long discontinued, were revived, and with their revival we find the history of the Grecian states, and the affairs of the world generally, are more to be depended on ; in short, the period which Varro calls fabulous ends, and the historical times begin. This is mainly attributable to the continuance of the Olympic games, which greatly facilitated not only the wri- ting of their history, but that of other na- tions; for, as each olvmpiad consisted of four years, the chronology of every impor- tant event became indubitably fixed by re- ferring it t(i its olympiad. They also great- ly contributed to tne civilization of the Grecian states, and to the general advance- ment of the polite arts. At this period Rome, which was one day to be mistress of the world, arose : its foundation being laid by Romulus about 7du years before the com- mencement of the Cfkristian era. Forty- three years after, the Spartan state Was remodelled, i^nd received from Lycurgus those laws wlitch alike contributed to the renown of him who made and they who ob- served them. If wc take a glance at the general state of the world in the following century, we sltall find that the northern parts of Eu- rope were thinly peopled, or inhabited by nulcnown and barbarous nations. The Goraerians, or Celtic tribes, had possession of France nnd Spain. Ititly was divided into a number of petty states, among which the Romans had already become formida- ble, having enlarged their douiinions by the addition of several citie^ taken from their neighbours. Foremost among the states of dreecc were those of Athens and Sparta: the ini.rtial character of the institutions of LycuTftus had rendered the latter famous in wai ; while the former were enriching thcmseivps by navigation and commerce. Corinth, Thrbes, Argos, nnd Arcadia, were the othvr states of most consideration. The sceptre of Babylon was at this time swayed by Nebuchaduezzar, by whom the kingdom of Judea was totally overthrown, 687 B. c, and its temple burned to the ground in the foUouing year. He also took and demolished the city of Tyre, despoiled Eg^pt, and niude such prodigious conquests botii in the east and west, that the fame of his victorips filled the world with awe; till at length his empire coninrehendcd Phoenicia, Palestine, Syria, Habylonia, Me- dia, Persia, and port of India. One great object of hia prMe and ambtUtm was to render his capital beyond all example gor- geous ; nor can we consider the wonders of that city, as related by Heroins, at all incredible, when we remembCT"that' the strength and resoorcet of his mighty em- pire were made subservient to the purpose. The next important event that occurred was the revolution occasioned by the mis- conduct of Evil-merodach, Ncbucluulnet- xar's son, who, without provocation, Wan- tonly attacked and began to plunder and lay waste the country of the Medes. This produced an immediate revolt, which quick- ly extended over all Media and Persia. The Medes, headed by Astyages and his son Cyaxeres drove back the intruder and his followers with great slaughter; nor does it appear that the Babylonish monarch was afterwards able to reduce them to subjec- tion. We now come to the period when the brilliant career of Cyrus .demands oiir notice. He had signalized >iimself in va- rious wars unditf Astyages, his grnndfather, when, having been appointtd generalissimo of the Median and Persian farces, he at- tacked tlie Uabylonlsh empire, and the ci^ of Babylon itself fell before his victorious arms. Cyrus now issued a decree for the restoration of the Jews, and the rebuilding of their Temple. By a succession of vic- tories be had become master of all ti^ East, and for some time the Asial-ic afiairs continued in a state of tranouillity. It is necessary to obnerve in this place, that the Medes, before liie time of Cyra% though a .^at and powerful people, were eclipsed by the superior prowess of the BAbyuinianju But Cyrus having conquered thdr ^king^ dum, by the united force of the Medes and Persians, it appears that the great empire of which he was the founder must have taken its name from both nations ; so that the empire of the Medes and that of the Persians were one and the same, though in consequence of the glory of its wise and victorious leader it subsequently retained only the latter name. Meanwhile, it con- tinued Xxt extend itself on every side ; and at length Cambyses, the son and successor of Cyrus, conquered Egypt, and added that country to hia already overgrown dominions. CHAPTER V. from the Erection of the Pertian Empire, to the Dhiiion (if the Grecian Empire after the Death cf Alexander. Thb Babylonians, groaning under the oppressive yoke of their Persian masters, in 617 n.c. made a desperate effort to shake it off; but they were signally defeated by Darius Hystaspis, who besieged the city of Babylon, demolished its fortiticatious, and caused its walls to be lowered from 2(M) to 6U cubits. Dariu^ theu turned his arms against the Scythians; after which he di- rected his course eastward, and reduced tli>' country as far as the Indus. In the mean- time (he lonians, who had submitted to Cyrus, revolted, which led to the invasion of the Grecian states, and those disasters *: e M fi K M M m m H u IB < >a ■ s H i 8 3 A.M. 3413— B.C. 591.— TUK PVTUIAN OAUBS FinST CBI.EBRATEU AT VKLFHI. [«3 ;iV||^V;.^s;j Is^-^i-V' :^'k'^t^'>'0% ■,-o^. • • a A.U. S673— S.O. 431.— TBK BltTOKT Or «U OLD TBITAMKHT XNSI. m '"^^ 6 « \o e © i< u M H ■ m *• n o u e H D H' e. m M s m Outline Siittci^ of dErcneral lltstory. u J # I to ¥he Peniant by knd and ica, which we have elMwhere related. In 459 b.c. the EnrntUne made an ineffectual attempt to regam their independence. They alto asain roTolted in 413 b.o., and, being aasiited by the Sidoniani, drew upon the latter that ter> rible destruction foretold by the propheti, while they more firmly rivetted the chaina which hound themselves to the Persian rule. The Persian histprv exhibits every cha- racteristic of oriental cruelty, treachei^ and despotism) and, with a few splendid exceptions, presents us with a series of monarchs whose lust of power was equalled pnly by their licentiousness. But the great- ness of the Persian empire was soon about to be humbled. Ten thousand Greek mer- cenaries had served under the younger Cy- rus in his rebellious attempt to seue the throne of his elder brother, Artaserxes Mnemon; but he was defeated and killed at the battle of Cunaxa, near Babylon ; and his Greciaq allies, though in a strange country, and surrounded On at! sides by enemies, effected their safe retreat under Xenophoiv whose conduct on this occasion has Dcen extolled both by ancient and modem writers, as exhibiting a matchless union of prudent caution an^^military skil]. In thiklrap|| sketch we shall not stop to notice the v^ous contests which took place betwecii the Gfrecian statet, thbugh they make a Considerable figure in their respec- tive histories } but pass on to the time of Philip of Macedon, whp, taking advantage of therwars-auddissensions lirhich were gra- diu^Iy weakening the neighbouring states bnSreece, began to meditate their conquest ; andby sometimes pretending to assist one stater and soinetimes another, he finally e&cted his object. Having become master of all Greece, he projected the conquest of Asia; his death, however, by assassination, lefvthi^'great achievement to be attempt- ed by his ambitious and warlike son, Alex- ander, suniamed the Great, No man who ever lived, perhaps, pos- sessed the necessary qualities for the exe- cution of this mighty project in a more eminent degree than the youthful Alex- ander. Brave, skilful, and impetuous, be marched firom victory to victory; till at length the power of the Persians was to- tally overthrown at the battle of Arbela, 831 B.C., and an end put to the empire by the murder of Darius by Bessus in the fol- iowing year. Alexander having subdued riM|^ nis victorious arms were now di- rccfca against the countries which bounded Pers^; and having reduced Hyrcania, Bac- tria, and Several other independent king- doms, he entered India and subdued all the nations to the river Hyphasis, one of the branches Of the Indus. At length the pa- tience of his troops became exhausted ; they taw that thA ambition of their leader was boundless, and refused to gratify his pas- sion for universal conquest by proceeding fitfther. He died at Babylon in the year 323 B.C., leaving the affairs of his vast em- pire in a most unsettled state, and not even a04 — B.C. 400. — SOCBAtES PUT TO DEATU B« TUB ATURNIANS. JS J Qii^;. 'Oov ,M-6r> «iHMi 3J,^I^|-^ 1 °o "^S ^■( ^■'' WM •^B '.^H ^^■, H g ^H ^H ^B H ' ' S ^H ^H ^M ^H ' B ^H ^^H ^H ^Hi ^H ^H ^H ' I^H I^H ^^^H ^H ^H ^H ^m ^^M ^H ^H' ^H Bl ^H ^H ^B ^B ^■' ^H . ^m "'•" ^-'-^ ^m ^m i' ■<.%'-^ * ^B-' ^m -' -'M ^H ■ ^^B M ■ ■ ■ .' ■ ■/-''. -.W ' ' ■ ,,.■.-; --o- ( ■ ■,.•,< •«■ ■ "■'■> s » 1 ■< • *> ■;:v:."'. ^'u ■; ■•••!••■! ;■« I e» I •-•.r..«J;^.-^ V>.i- • ':<&: ^ .y-,- ■.^■■ .t 1 /! 1 * 8 "^ A ti P ■■ •■ ; ■■ .tl E P ■ .i " .i"^lsf| .-■■^i f'.'^J '=."■ O.0V-" "."o^M- o o K'o 31= A.M. SS37— B-C. 167> — IHK VIBIT LIBRABV FOUMIBB AT BOMB. ^ntlinc Slctc^ of (Sxcncral l^tstoru. 'J tbii proviuce. A race of able and vigilant princes, who aisnmed the tumame of Ana' tidm, tiom the founder of their kingdom, not only baifled their eObrU. but w in- ereaeed iu power, tliat while they held eighteen tributary kingdom!, between the Caspian and Arabian aeas, they even for a time dis>)uted with the Boniani the empire of the wf "-'d.,, ^ - M CHAWBRVI. From tht War* tf ftome and Carthage, to the Birlh qf Chritt. Tbb Romans, who for more than five hundred years had been constantly victo- rious, met with an opponent in Hannibal, commander of the CarthaRiuian forces, wliose consummate generalship for a time turned the tide of fortune, and, making Italy the battle-field, he gallantly opposed on their native soil the hardy veterans of Rome. Long and doubtful were these san- guinvT contests ; but in the end the Car- thaj^niau armies were recalled into Africa, which the Romans had invaded; and he who, at the battle of Cannae, had struck the Roman legions with terror, was totally defeated at Zama ; bv which the second Punic war was concluded, in the year 188 B.C. In forty years from that date the fate of Carthage was ultimately decided. The Romans having declared war against it a third time, used all their energies for ac- complishing its final destruction. The city #as long and fiercely assailed ; the genius of the younger Scipio at length triumphed over the desperate valour of the besieged: and Carthage, once mistress of the sea ana the most formidable rival of Rome, was reduced to ashes, and for ever blotted from the list of independent nations. During the contentions between Rome and Cartilage, a confederacy was formed by the states of Greece, under the name of the Achaean League, which soon eclipsed, in splendid achievements and power, both Athens and Sparta. VTeary or the tyranny of the Macedonians, the Grecian states had entered into this compact for recovering their liberties; but having imprudently given the Romans an opportunity of inter- meddling in their affairs, they were eventu- ally reduced to a Roman province, under the name of Achaia. This celebrated league was begun about the year iS\ b.c, and con- tinued formidable for more than 130 years, under ofiicers called Praetors, of whom Aratus and Philoiioemen were the most re- nowned. About this period we read of the direful oppressions of the Jews by Antiochus Epiphanes. After their return from the Babylonish captivity, they continued in subjection to the Persians till the time of Alexander; and subsequently, as the for- tune of either Egypt or Syria happened to prevail, they were under its dominion. On the subjugation of Eicypt by Antiochus Epiphanes, the Jews being ' ti-eatrd with great severity by him, they naturally, hut imprudently, expressed their joy on hearing B report of bis death ; and it was not long before the enraged monarch took the fiercest vengeance on thenu He marched at the head ot a powerful army, took Jeru- salem by storm in 17U B.C., and committed the most horrid cruelties on tlie inhabi- tants. Their religion was for awhile abo- lished, their altars defiled, and every indig- nity offered to the people that tyranny and hate could suggest. An image of Jupiter Olympius was erected in the holy place, and unclean beasts were sacrificed on the altar of burnt oftcriugs. Hut the Jews soon rallied; and under Mattathias the true wor- ship was restored in most of the cities of Judea; the temple was purified by Judas Maccabaeus, 1R3 b.c. ; and a long series of wars ensued between the Syrians and the Jews, in which the latter gained many sig- nal advantages. About ISO vears before the birth of Christ the principal empires and states of the world may be thus enumerated. In Asia were the empires of Syria, India, and Par- thia — each of them powerful and extensive — with Arabia, Pontus, Armenia, and some other countries of less importance. In Africa were the kingdoms of Egypt, Ethi- opia, Numidia, Mauritania, and Getulia; the Inst named three, now that Carthage was destroyed, appearing to the eyes of the ambitious Romans as tbeir easy prey. In Eui-ope there were none able to oppose the Roman legions, save the Gauls and some of the nations inhabiting Spain. It was not long, therefore, after the conquest of Car- thage and Corinth that the final subjuga- tion of Spain was resolved on ; for all the possessions which the Carthaginians held in that country had already fallen into the bands of the victorious Romans. They aC'- cordingW began by attacking the Lusita- nians ; but this brave people, under the conduct of Viriatue, a leader whose skill, valour, and prudence, eminently qualified him for his post, long bid defiance to the Roman arms : in the field he was not to he suhdued ; and he at last met his death from the hands of assassins hired by his treache- rous enemy. The Romans now, in the wan- tonness of their power, scrupled not to use the basest and most corrupt means for re- ducing the whole country; and though many tribes bravely maintained their in&> pcndcuce for years, Spain ultimately he- came a Roman province. Rut all-powerful as Rome had now become, her civil and political condition was far from enviable. Her conquests in Greece and Asia brought luxury, cruelty, and 'general corruption in their train ; and those heroic virtues for which in the early days of the republic she was renowned, had totally disappeared. We must, however, reserve for its proper place an account of the civil commotions, pro> scriptions, and assassinations which fol- lowed ; and pass onward in our brief recital of such events as peculiarly appertain to general history. Attains, king of Pergamus, had left all his goods and treasures, by will, to the Roman people ; upon which his kingdom ■ U M m m « M M M *• O K o >a m B *■ H u H a M 5 I H fh 01 n A V. 38ri9— n.c. 133. — thb bistobt of tub ArocRTvnA ends. ;,<-• ,_AV-^-'i«-J3i-'ii'W\?*'l6"''''-fei-'; i^ 0^ o A.M. 3041— BkC. 63.— GATILIHk'l MHariBAOI BirBAOS BT OICBBiK e o 1$, a Outline Slctt^ of ffitnecal I^istore. wn ipeeclilf converted into a Itotnan pro- vince, under tlie name cf Asia Proper. Next followed the conqueit'uf tbe.Baleark Itlea Jfnow called Majorca, Minorca, and Ivi^a) ; 'Kumidia waa soon after reduced ; but the ■ubjugation of Maurituiia and Gctulia waa for a time duaycd. Wtiile Kome was approaching her zenith, the decline of the Synan empire was appa- rent. The civil Aissensiuns between the two brothers, Anihicbus Gryphus and Antio- chus Cyzicenus, Rave an Opportunity for the cities of Tyre, Sidon, Ptolemais, and Goca, to declare their independence; wliile the Jews not only recovered their libertjr, but extended their domiiilnns as far as in the days of Solomon. About the year 83 u.c, Tigranes, king of Armenia, became master of Syria ; but the Romans soon wrested it from him, and added it to the immensely extennlve possessions of the republic. Egypt, which had hitherto maintained ita proper station, fell after the battle of ActiUm^ and, like its predecessors, was re- duced to a Boman province, about the year 89 B.C. Rome must no lonicer be regarded M a republic; and its change from that form of government to an empire may be looked upon as advantageous to those na- dons who were still free , for the inordinate «esire of conquest which had hitherto fnarked the Roman character, for a time seemed tp be lulled ; and during the reign of AnguKtus the temple of Janus was thrice closed,— ^a ceremony coeval with the origin of the state, to deuote that it was at peace with the whole world. This paciHc prince died in the 7(>th year of his a^e, and in the 4Sth of his reign, a.d. 14; his empire ex- tending, in Europe, to the ocean, the Rhine, and the Danube ; in Asia, to the Euphrates ; and in Africa, to Ethiopia and the sandy deserts. It was in this memorable reign, in the year of Rome 752, that Jesus Christ was bom ; and the holy religion of which he was the founder, persecuted and despised tliough it was at first, gradually spread over tbe Roman world. CHAPTER VII. Front, the Beginning of the Christian Era, to £j- ■' fhe Appearance of Mahomet. iiT'tfic year 67 a.d. the memorable war with the Jews commenced, which, though it lasted but thrcR years, ended in the total destruction of their city and nation, after enduring all the horrors of war carried on by each party with sanguinary fury. About ten years after this event the real conquest of Britain was effected by Agricola. The empire had now reached its utn-.ost limits; and, under the just and upright Trajan, Rome had reason to rejoice, not merely in her extent of territory, but in the equitable administration of her laws, and in the virtue and wisdom of her senators. Adrian suc- ceeded Tngan, and followed in his foot- steps. The decline of imperial Rome was, however, fast approaching; for although Antoninus, surnaraed the Pious, obtained the regard of his subjects and the respect of foreigner!, living \ti peace darine the whole of his reign; yet scarcely hacTMar- ens Aurclius Antoninus succeeded to the throne, before the Germanic tribes united, as in the time of Marius, and puured in their warlike hordes npon Italy ; and, while they grew more and more formidable, fa- mine and pestilence ravage^ many of the Roman provinces : A. d. ISO, i ' ' From this time repeated incursions of hardy adventurers from the north of Eu- rope, under vnrluus names, took place ; but though often beaten, they renewed their attempts with a degree of courage and per- severance that required all the energy and superior discipline of the Roman legion* to overcome. From the death of Aurelius to the reign of Dioclesian, many of the Roman emperors were mere sensualists: there Were, however, some splendid exceptions ; and by the warlike genius of such the incursions of the barbarians were from time to time ar- rested. The Romans h«d also for a long period met with a most powerful adversary in the Persians ; and when, in 260, the em- peror Valerian was defeated and taken pri- soner by them, the empire seemed to be hastening to utter and irremediable de- struction. While Gallienus, the son of Valerian, and his associate in power, was revelling in luxury at Rome, numerous claimants of the imperial dignity arose in the different provinces. These were desig- nated the "tnirty tyrants," (though their numbers did not exceed twenty, and there was no good reason for designating them tyrants.) Their dominion was, however, not of long duration ; and on the death of Gallienus ne was succeeded by Claudius, who had tue merit of delivering Italy from the Goths. After him came Aurelian, who introduced order into the state, restored internal tranquillity, and defeated his ene- mies both in Europe and Asia. Under Tacitus, Probus, and Carus the empire was in a measure restored to its former lustre ; but the barbarians still, pressed onward ; and when the government fell into the hands of Dioclesian, he changed its form, sharing the imi^erial dignity with Maxi- minian, to whom he committed the West, while he ruled in the East. In this manner was the government administered till the duys of Constantine, who in a.d. 330 re- moved the imperial seat to Byzantium, which he named Constantinople; became a convert to Christianity ; and put an end to one of the most virulent persecutions against its professors that ever disgraced the world. The immediate successors of Constantine did liitle to uphold the Roman power ; and Julian, who ascended the throne in 361, renounced Christianity and openly professed the ancient religion ; but he was both too politic and too humane to per* ■ cute his Christian subjects. Wi tin", hov;- ever, that the decline of the empire vvis every where visible. Af^cr his death its in- ternal corruption and weakness continued to increase; that strict discipline which had formerly rendered the Roman legions invincible, relaxed; and while corruption T p ^1 A.M. 391)0— n. c. 44. — CiESAii h .sassinateo by bbutus, cassius, &c. i ,-• wr-'fi.- •%.;«- ^ v v.>^ -. o o u n ()A.D. 426.— THK mottiUia TAXB TUIR VINAL DBVABTUBB VROM BRITAIir. ^'yc^ g^,/ (©tttUne Sketch of (Stnttal Higtorp, ;j^y ,■ 9 and injuitice rendered the goremment odioai ot home, its frontier towni were >!• Ucked and iti diitant provin^etoverrun by fierce and uncivilised nordet inufoK from the north, east, and west. It it at this pe- riod tliatwe read of Alaric, the Vtrgoth, who plundered Rome, a. d.409 i of Genieric, the powcrftil king of the Vandals ; and of Attila. the Hun, emphatiealW termed " the scourge of God." In fact,, the Scythians, Sarma- tians, Goths, Huns, Vandals, and other barbarous nations, watched all occasions to break into it : and though some of the em- perors bravely withstood their attacks, no efforts could finally stem the ruthless tor- rent which kept pouring in on all sides. At length the Heruli, a people who migrated from the shores of the Baltic, and had grown formidable as they proceeded southwards, appeared in Italy. Theywere headed by the valiant Odoacer; and being joined by other tribes, quickly became masters of Italy, and the city of Bo.nne itself surrendered to their victorious armit, a.s. 476. The fall of t!ie western empire was thus consummated ; but the Romans still main- tained their sway at Constantinople. The eastern empire, in fact, at this time compre- hended all Asia Minor and Syria, Egypt, and Greece; but neither its domestic manage- ment nor its military prowess gave hopes of a lengthened dominion. Luxury, eflfe- minacy, and superstition sapped its vitals; continual wars with the Persians, Bulga- rians, and other barbarous nations, ex- hausted its strength ; and a similar fate to that of the western empire appeared to await it at no very distant period. Still, as We follow the stream of history, we shall find that it not only survived the wreck for several centuries, but at times displayed an energy and power worthy of the Roman name. Revolutions succeeded one another among the savage conquerors of the west with fear- ful rapidity. The Heruli under Odoacer were viven out by the Goths under Theo- dOric. The Goths were expelled by the Romans under their able general Belisarins ; but while he was absent qaelling an in- surrection in Africa, they regained their footing, and again took possession of Rome. The Franks next invaded Italy, and made themselves masters of the province of Ve- netia; but at last the superior fortune of the emperor Justinian prevailed, and the Goths were finally subdued by his pro-con- sul Narses, a. d. 552. From that time till the year 668, Narses governed Italy with great prudence and success, as a province of the eastern empire; but having incurred the emperor's displeasure, Longinus was appointed to succeed him, and was invested with absolute power. He assumed the title of exarch, and resided at Ravenna, whence his government was called the ex- archate of Ravenna ; and having placed in each city of Italy a governor, whom he dis- tinguished with the title of duke, he abo- lished the name of senate and consuls at Rome. But while he was establishing this new sovereignty, a great portion of Italy wM overmn by the Lombards. In short| we find that they steadily marched on flrom Pannonia. aecorapanied by an army of Saxou alhes, and were not long before they became masters of all Italy, with the ex- ception of Rome, Ravenna, and some of the eastern sea-coast. A warlike nation, called Franks, who were divided into several tribes, hu been gradually rising into importance; and quit- ting the banks of the Lower Rhine, they had made themselves masters of no incon- siderable part of Gaul. A warlike and am- bitious chief among them, named Clovis, undertook the conquest of the whole coun- try; and having diefeated and killed bit powerfiil rind, Alaric, king of the Ciotlu, ne possessed himself of all the conntries lying between the Rhine and the Loire, and thus became the founder of the French monarchy, a.d. 487. A few years before the conquest of Rome by the Heruli, the Visigoths erected a king- dom in Spain ; and as they advanced east- ward, about the same time that Clovis was extending his conquests to the west, the river Loire was the natural boundary of the two kingdoms; but a war soon broke out between them, which ended in favour of Clovis. Another kingdom had previously been founded in the western parts of Spain by the Suevi, who were subdued by the Goths under Theodoric, in 409; and even- tually, A.D. 584, these restless warriors sub< jugated nearly the whole of Spain. CHAPTER VIIL #0""^ From iheRiie qfJJahomet, to the Commmiet' tnent qf the Cruiadet. Lit u« now turn our attention for a mo- ment to a general view of the world aa it existed in the sixth century of the Christian era. The Roman empire in the west was annihilated, and various nations of north- em extraction were either fiercely contend- ing with each other, or meditating new conquests; the eastern empire was con- tinually at war, contending with the Per- sians on one side, or harassed by the at- tacks of the Huns and other tribes on its northern frontiers; while it was agitated and weakened by religious and political animosities. The Indians and ottier ori- ental nations, unaccustomed to war, were ready to fall a prey to the first powerful in- vader ; while tne fiery inbabitauts of Ara- bia, from their earliest origin accustomed to bold and predatory warfare, were as ready to undertake any enterprise which seemed to promise an adequate reward. This, then, was the very nick of time most favourable for such a revolution in the world as was undertaken by the wily and daring Mahomet (or Mohammed), who foreseeing the power and glory that awaited him if success should crown his efforts, as- sumed the title of " prophet," and professed to have received a oirect commission from God to become the founder of a new re- ligion, A.D. 623. This forms a marked epoch in chronology, and is designated the Hejira, M R e M H X ■ « M >. e « H e R m M s B O M *> r. A.D. 600.— THE SAaACSRS OVBURDIf SXKIA AND rUOlNICIA. ■'-'■i'-Si-, rt o u \X o O, o O m H m k o a A It A ,5 m m m a M h N A ■4 H s 'to M m x6 |{^.o. 788.— rLiA^^xfti IN coyiiTa ttr JvniOAttuBi iMtTiTutBS. >rywhere gained an influence, of which there had been no parallel; yet his success could scarcely keep pace with his zealous wishes. Under the Itumble habit of a monk, Bernard enjoyed a greater re- spect, than was paid to the most powerful princes ; he was as eloquent as he was en- thusiastic, and obtained an unbounded in- fluence over the minds of the people. The emperor Conrad, who first listened to him with a resolution to oppose those danger- ous emigrations, concluded witli enrolling himself. Neither could Louis VII., king of France, resist the appeals of the orator. The people abandoned their habitations in crowds; the nobles sold their lands, and laid the price at his feet ; and nearly a mil- lion of men solicited to be enrolled' among the champions of Christianity. It is said that each of the armies had 70,000 ' men at anus :' these consisted of the nobility, who were heavy armed, and followed bv a much more numerous body of light cavalry. The number of infantry was immense. The emperor Conrad was the first that set out : I A.O. 1053. — TBK OBBIK CUDBCH SBPARATK8 FBOH TBB BOMAN. '^,. A.D. 117s.— BIIIHI II> or ■HOLAJIB TAKBI roillltlOR Or IRBI.AIID. s Outline 9ft(t(^ of iScncral lltotorQ. 13 he wu the brather-in-Uw of Mannel-Coin> nenue, at that time ttigning in Conttantl- noplej bat the Greekt, It Utaid. apprehen- ■ive tnat limilar esccaies would be com* mitted by the cruMdere at in the former expedition, ftirnithed them with treacheroui guldei, which led to their deatroction 1 hia armv waa almost annihilated ; npon which he fled to Antiocb, made a bilRrima^ to Jeruaalem, and returned to Europe with a mere handful of men. Louia met with limilar diMwters, and followed the example of Conrad ; ao that when they were com- pelled to withdraw, the* left the Holy Lniid m a much weaker condition than they had found it. Expedition! ao ill planned and ill con- ducted, aerred only to animate the Turks to the destruction of the Christians of Jerusa- lem, and to shew them the little difficulty there would be in espellinR them. Noradin, whom they chose for their leader, promoted this design, and Saladin, his successor, com- pleted the work. The latter, after having usurped Syria, triumphed over the Persians, conquered Egypt, and made himself master of dominions that extended to the Oxus, returned by sea, in order to strip the Euro- peans of the places they still retained. Da- mascus, Aleppo, and Acre, opened their gates to the conqueror, who, after having artfully drawn the Christian army into narrow defiles, where he commanded the passes, obliged them to surrender, with Lusignnn, their king; a. d. 1187. He then marched towards Jerusalem, which, being in a manner defenceless, was easilr taken ; and thus he destroyed for ever the little kingdom which had not subsisted a cen- tury, and for the acquisition of which by the Christiaus so much interest had been excited, and so much blood had been shed. The news of the loss of the Holy Land spread consternation in Europe. Urban III., who had exerted all his influcncej spi- ritual and temporal, to prevent that misfor- tune, died of grief soon after the fatal news reached his ear. The Christian princes suspended their quarrels, and the desire of recovering Jerusalem produced a third cru- sade: A. n. U89. This was infinitely better planned than the former ones, and gave the most splendid hopes. Three princes of distingruished merit, who would have ex- cited the admiration of any age, were the leaders of this expedition. Frederic I., surnamed Barbarossa, one of the most dis- tinguished emperors that ever governed Germany, advanced hy land, at the head of 150,000 men: Philip-Augustus, king of France, also conducted thither a large and well-appointed army : while Richard Ctrur- de-Lion, king of England, the hero of tliis crusade, set out with his nobles and the flower of his troops. Isaac Angelus, the emperor of Constantinople, looking upon the crusaders as .ntruders, had formed an alliance with Saladin and the sultan of Iconium ; but Frederic triumphed over the obstacles which were opposed to him ; and though he found hostile armies every- where on his march, he obtained many sig' nal victories. In this manner he wu pro- ceeding towarda Palestine, when, after crossing Cilicia, he met hia death from having incautiously bathed in the Cydnus, the extreme coldness of which had fifteen hundred years before nearly proved tstal to Alexander. PhUip of France, and Richard the "lion, hearted" king of England, though ambi- tious rivals, were apparently united in their design of carrring on the holy wars and, in order to avoid the Oreeks, Iney prudently preferred going by aea. Philip, who ar- rived first, distinguished himself in several engagements with the Saracens, took many places, and having made himself master of the open oountry, laid siege to Acre. In the meantime, Richard was advancing to second the efTorts of the French monarch t and on his arrival thev found that their united forces amounted to about 800,000 men. There was, however, no real onion among the leaders. Philip, Jealous of the heroic character of hia rival, and tired of the fhiitless expedition, embarked with the Greatest part 01 his army to France, having rst sworn not to attack the possessions of Richard until the return of both to their dominions. Cceur-de-Liou now became sole master of the operations : resumed the siege of Acre, which at length capitulated ; de- feated the sultan in several desperate en- counters, and, by prodigies of valour and military skill, forced victory from tlie stan- dards of the brave Saladin, who till then had been deemed invincible. While Richard was pursuing his successes, and on the eve of reaping allthe fruits of his toil, he learned that Philip, on his return to France, had incited his (Richard'a) brother to take np arms against him, and was attacking the English provinces in that kingdom. Thus forced to sacrifice his expectations in the East to the interest and defence of his na- tive dominions, he renounced, with ngt and vexation, the laurels he had won, and his hopes of future conquest. lie then agreed to a truce with Saladin, by which the Christians were to be secuMly protect- ed in Palestine ; but though Acre was in their possession, and served as a bulwark for them until the entire termination of the crusades, the design of this expedition was frustrated by leaving the sultan master of Jerusalem. Saladin died in 1193. CHAPTER X. From the Death of Saladin to the End qf the Crutadei, DvRiiro the third crusade a revolution happened at Constantinople, which divided the eastern empire for fifty-eight years. Alexius Angelus, surnamed the Tyrant, having dethroned Isaac II., usurped his seat in 1195 ; and Alexius, son of Isaac, ap- plied to the French and Venetians, who passed that way to the holy wars, to assist Iiim in the recovery of his father's empire. They accordingly, in 1303, renouncing their designs against the Holy Land, laid siege to Constantinople, took it by storm, and re- A.S. 1171.— BBCKCT, ARCHBISHOP OT CANTBBBVnT, A8BASSIIIATED. *• B e m I [C A.P. 11S«^1 o w H » « s M m o H a n o w 14 dtttUnc Sllctc^ of (^tmxal 1|(Morv« plM«d Itaae on the Ihran* : the n«xl jt*T, Alexia! l)uca», lurnained Murizulphui or MunnAe, •MMiinated the emiicror, whom th* cniMdert had re-e«tahllihed, and ileieU the erpwn. On hearlnir ihl«. the /rj"'" returned, attacked the city, drpowd Murt- (ulnhui, and elected Baldwin, cooni of nan- den, In hit room i ha had four iuccemira. the (ait of whom, Baldwin II., wa* deposed la I2«3, by Michael PaleoloKU*. Thli wae the period in which tlie «)»«. leiirn pontilT* carried their attemptt aitaintt crowned headi to the itrt-iitCKt cxccm j and we ihall connequently llnd tliat ^ gcnfral hiitory of the Kuropean itatea becoinca more and more ronnecle.1 with the court of Rome. Hut before wo enter lut? tne condition of Chrintian Europe, It w"l be better that we reiuroe the thread of hutory by which the cruaades are continued, and then return. . .. , . • • It appear* that notwithntandinfr the blood which had been frultleenly ihed in the "holy" cnune, the M«l of the popea waa not icKicned. Hut Innocent III., who fnre- taw much (frenter ailvntitngcs to the tiara in the takinjr of Consitantinoplethan m the deliverance of Jerusalem, readily pardoned the leaden of the cruNade for huvinif broken through their enKagement», and wa» re- lolved to reap all the advantages he could from an event io unexpected. Up to a re- cent period tlie aniiici oC the cron» had no other view but to auack tlie intidcU. That confederacy was now about to be directed againit their fellow-chriBtianR. In tlie «outh Of France and elsewhere, the ostentatious pomp and ambition of the clerny had given great offence tonmny of the loity : who pub- licly complained that in the members of the sacred profession Ihev rould not discover the ministers of a relipoti fonmled on hu- mility and peace, and had formed a resolu- tion not to consider iliem as iheir pastors. Under the name of Patariua, Cathares, and Vaudois, they had spread themselves in the southern provinces, and particularly iu Languedoc, contiguous to Alby, which they seemed to liiive made their liend quartors. Innocent, who was too sagacious not to see the Aiture ill consequences to the papal power if the daring principles of these sec- taries were pormittpd to extend, resolved on their extermination. By the assistance of tlie clergy, who were equally interested in their destruction, he preached up a cru- sade, and formed a powerful army, tlie com- mand of which he entrusted to Simon de Montfort. At the same time he erected a bloodv tribunal, by whioh unhappy victims were drasigcd to the stake, on t'.ie testimony of the vilest informer. It was in every re- spect ns iniquitous as the Inquisition, of which it was in fact the origin. Two reli- gious orders, lately established under the auspices of Innocent, and entirely devoted to his interest, were cominisRicmed to pre- side at these executions. Thuusnnds of the inhabitants of Alby (whom wt know by the name of Alhigenscs), persecuted by the soldiers of the cross, and the members of the Inquisition, perished by the swords of the fonner, or expired in the flames kin- dled by the latter. , _, , After this Inhuman persecution, carrlca on under the banners of the Uod of mercy, Innoeent resumed hie project of conquer- ing the Holy Land: but he could not ner- iuade the emperor to Join in the design, because his throne was ton much disturbed ( nor the king* of France and Knglaiid, as they were too deeply engaged in their mu- tual quarrels. Andrew, king of Hungary, and John de Brieiine, titular sovereign of Jerusalem, commanded this crusade, and cardinal •lulien, legate of the pope, acrom* panied them. As the Christian leaders per- ceived that Egypt was the lunport of the Turks of Palestine, they formed a new plan of attack, and directed their flrat operations against that kingdom. In this they were successful. The enemy, after having sus- tained several severe defeats, abandoned the flat country to the Christians, and toolr reAige in the mountains. The generals, sensible of the great danger of marching in a country to which they were strangers, thought it necessary to secure the heights, and reconnoitre the places through which they were to pass, before they proceeded any farther. The cardinal, consulting only tlie dictates of impetuous ardour, treated their prudence as timidity, and declared fur pursuing the barbarians immedintcly. Find- ing the two kings ofiposed his opinion, he assumed tlie style of a superior, shewed them the pope's order, and being supported bv the Knights of St. John and the Tern- ulars, obliged them to pay a blind obedience to his will. The army tlius governed by this ecclesiastic, daily committed new blunders, and at length was hemmed in between two branches of the Nile. The Saracens then opened their sluices, and were preparing to drown the Christians, who thought them- selves happy to preserve their lives, by sup- plicating the mercy of the enemy, and be- ing allowed to return to Europe, though covered with disgrace. The crusades seemed now to he at an end ; for the dire iiiisrortuneswhich attended these distant expeditions had quite extinguished the zeal ot Christian warriors; and the fer- ment which pervaded all Europe would not allow sovereigns, liowever martial or ambi- tious, to leave their respective countries. But there was yet another struggle to be made for the possession of the Holy Land, the relation of which, although it carries us too forward in our attempt at chronological order in this outline of general history, must be given here. Louis IX. of France, better known by the name of St. Louis, having recovered from a dangerous illness, made a vow to take the cross ; and, with all the zeal of one who was desirous to signa- lize himself in the places that had been sprinkled \v th the blood of his Redeemer, he invited his people to follow his example, and effect the deliverance of Palestine from the power of the intidels. His consort, Margaret of Provence, marched at his side, in order to share his dangers ; his brothers and the principal nobility of the kingdom. A.V. 1190. — THB TEUTOKIC OBDER OF KNIGHTHOOD IMBTITUTBU. A,». ISII.— raa okdbb or BomniuAtii MtAiMtaaB m mkii. (iDutline Sbttcf) of Cfiencral l^istori?. 15 ■ m I H P O ■ »i O 9 4 •ccoiupauied klni. Nor wm the Krvneh imiiinrck ltd to cuiiiciid «ith the tneniy ■iiiKle- handed, rnnct) ICdward, the valiant •uii of tk« kin|( of KiiHluiid, followed with a large train ol Unglikii noblemen. llavinK arrivud on the coa»t of l'-Kypti the army made Kood their landiiiK. >i>d niarclird for Daiiiietia, A. u. 12-46. larKarel lud the (rionn. Tii« iiitrL-i>id conduct of the luaderi, and iheiucceat which had hitherto crowned their arinx, Meniud to ihcw that the dfcitive moment wai now at hand when the lubjcction of Egypt wh» to avcure the contiviuit of Judca. liut a tiidden and tbradliil pettilencu which riiKcd in (he Clirialian cuuip, a dearth of pru^uinui, niid the imprudent urdour of the count of Ar- toil, who was surrounded by the enemy, and periihcd with the Mower of tlie nobility, Kuve a moit unhappy turn to iti proiperoui oimmencenieiit. Loui* was at lacked iienr Maitioura, and, nutwithitnnduiK his heroic behaviour, hu army suatained a siitnat dis- couititure, und hu liimaelf wus made pri- soner ; A. D. I-J5U. 8uuh was the late ol the last cruiadu lor the recovery of Palestine. CHAPTER XI. From the Time qf (itnyhie Khan, to that nf Tainertaue. Vfaii,\ the crusaders were fighting in the western parts of Asia, the nations of the more easterly purls were threatened with exterminiition by Ueugliis Khan, the great- est as well as the most snnKuiuary con- queror that ever existed. The rapidity of liis conquests seemed to emulate those of Alexander; but the cruelties he committed were altogether unparalleled. The Moguls, or Mongols, over whom this tyrant assumed the sovereignty, were a people of Eastern Tartary, divided, as at the present day, into various petty governments, but acknow- ledging a subjection to one sovereign, whom they called Yang-Khan, or the Great Khan. Temujin, afterwards Genghis Khan, one of the minor princes, had been unjustly de- prived of hill inheritance ut the age of thir- teen, and could not recover it till twentv- seven years after, a.d. 1201, when he totally reduced the rebels, and caused seventy of their chiefs to be thrown into as many cauldrons of boiling water. In 1202 he defeated and killed Vang-Kban himself (known to Europeans by the name of Pres- ter John of Asia) ; and possessing himself of his vast dominions, became tliencefor- ward irresistible. In 1206 he was declared king of the Moguls and Tartars, and took upon him the title of Genghis Khan, or the great Khan of Khans. This was followed py the reduction of the kingdoms of Ilya in China, Tangut, Kitay, Turkestan, Karazim, or the kingdom of Gazna, Great Bukharia, Persia, and part of India ; all of which vast regions he conquered in twenty-six years. It is computed that upwards of fourteen millions of human beings were butchered by him during the last twenty-two years of hu reign, and that his conquests extended eighteen hundred leagues firom raat to west, and a thousand from south to north. li« died In ViiJ, One of his sons subdued In- dia; another, after emssing the Wolga, da- vaaiated ilussia, Hungary, Poland, and Uo- henika; while a third advanced into Hyria, ami romiuered all the maritime province* of the Turkish empire. The caliphate of liagdad, and the power of the Turks i« that uunrler, were ttnally destroyed by this sud- den revolution. In the meantime the Ma- melukes, a body of militia formed by tha sultan of Cairo, expelled the Turkish con- queror*, and selxrd the throne of Egypt. The vast emjiire of tirnghis Khan, how- ever, had the iate of all others : being too extensive to be governed by any one of or- dinary rnpni'lty, ii uplji into a multitude of snmll kingdoms as before; but they all owned allegiance lo the hoiiae of Genghis Khan till the tiineof Timur llek, or Tamer- lane. The Turks at this time, urged for- word hy the inundation of Tartars who poured in from the Ka«t, wire forced upon the remains of the Greek empire; nnii at the time uf Tamerlane they hnd almost con- linrd this once iniKhtv empire within tha walla of Constantinople. 'We must now again cast our eyea upon the transactions of Europe. After the death of Frederic II. the empire of Germany full a prey to anarchy. An interregnum took place on the death of the emperor Richard, in 1^71, which continued two years, and completed the destruction of the imperial domniu. The tributary nations, Uenmark, Poland, and Hungary, absolutely shook off the yoke ; each of tliem taking noiiscsaion of what lay most convenient for tiicm ; tree- ing themselves from quit-rents and every obligatiun by which they thought them- selves under restraint; and leaving nothing to the emperors but their paternal inherit- ance. Formerly taxes were paid to the em- peror by the imperial cities; from which they endeavoured to free themselves, by taking advantage of the anarchy that pre- vailed at this time, and assumed the title of free citiei, to distinguish thein from a great number of imperial cities which they admitted into their body; and thus the Ilanseatic league was formed. At length they grew tired of anarchy ; and Gregory X. having threatened to name an emperor if they did not, they elected Rudolph, count of Uapsburg, the descendant of an old count of Alsace ; from which election, hum- ble as it was, the lustre of the House of Austria is derived. The new emperor was seated on a thror s with nothing but an empty title to support the dignity ; he had neither troops iior money ; he was in sub- jection to the clergy ; surrounded by vas- sals more powerful than himself, and in the mid t of an enthusiastic people who were ri;).-; for sedition and anarchy. His tirst uiic therefore was to conciliate the af- fections of the people, and by that means he happily appeased the spirit of faction. He also studied how to increase his dominions, so as to make them respectable ; with this view, he artfully blended the idea of glory A.D. 1236.— riKST IBKl-FTIOX OF Tim TAHTAKS IN POLAND AND KDSSIA. A.D. 1870.— IBB aoUIB O* STUABt BKOIMI 10 BBieR IN •COTI.AMD. 16 <^tttline Sfcttcl^ of (Sicneral l^tetorp. and the rights of the empire with hit own intereit; and having united the forces of the Oermanio body against Ottocar, king of Bohemia, that prince was compelled to yield Austria to tne conqueror, who also obtained Buabia; so that he was enabled to leave his son Albert in possession of a rich and powerful state. From Uie time of Bodolph of Uapsburg the amaiing power of the popes begast to decline. The form of government remained the same in Germany; but it was materially altered in England and France, where the middling classes of society had obtained a voice in the assemblies of each nation. The manners of the lower classes of society rath II. after overcoming his competitors, took Thessalonica, and threatened Con- stantinople, which owed its salvation to the Hungarians under John Hunniades. Amu- rath having obtained a truce, immediately resigned the crown to bis son Mahomet II., but an unexpected attack from Uladislaus, king of Hungary, induced him again to take the field. After the battle of Varna, in which the Christians were completely de- feated, he finally abandoned the throne, A.n. 1444. In Mahomet II. were combined the scholar, the warrior, and the politician ; and he proved the most determined as wcU as formidable enemy of Christendom. He, however, met with some signal reverse^ were still rude and barbarous in the ex- particularly when engap^d i^ainst the CC' treme ; but those of the uohility exhibited lebrated Scanderbeg, pnnce of Albania. Af- a singular mixture of devotion, gallantry, and valour, in which originated the several orders of knighthood, such as the order of the garter in England, of the golden fleece in Spain, of St. Buchaelin France, of Clirist in Portugal, &c. To this strange combina- tion of religion with war and with love, may be traced the origin of judicial combats, Jonsts and tournaments, and that spirit of chivalry which pervaded all the upper classes of society. Painting, sculpture, and archi- tecture, arose in Italy through the exertions of the fugitive Greeks. The arts of printing and engraving were also enlightening the woridi and the science of navigation, and conseouently geography, were much ad- vanced by the discovery of the mariner's compass. CHAPTER XII. From ike Time qf Tamerlane, to the Sixteenth Century, Wb now revert to the East. In 1362 Ta- merlane invaded Bukharia, which he re- duced in five years. Proceeding from con- ouest to conquest, he successively sub- dued Persia, Armenia, Georgia, Karaxim, and great part of Tartary. He then turned his course westward, and having subju- gated all the countries to the Euphrates, next poured his hordes over the fertile plains of India, plundering Delhi, and pursuing the flying Indians to the banks of the Ganges. The cities of Asia Minor then felt his newer; and among his cruelties may be numbered a general massacre of the inhabitants of Bagdad. In 1393 he invaded and reduced Syria. In 1402 he brought an army of 700,000 men against the Turks, under the sultan Bi^azet, who with a force of 120,000 engaged him ; but it ended in the total rout of the Turkish host, and the captivity of its leader. At length, while on "'•way to China, in 1406, the conquest of which empire he meditated, his progress was arres'rd by a sudden death; and most of the nations he had vanquished were able ere long to regain their independence, or had to submit to new masters. The civil contentions that arose among :S" *S^* /*' Bigaiet revived tne oopes of the Greek emperor Manuel Paleologus; but they were speedily nnnihikted. Amu- ter making immense preparations, Maho- met, in the full confidence of success, un- dertook the siege of Constantinople. The defence was obstinate ; but having obtained possession of the harbour, by having, with the most indefatigable perseverance, drawn his fleet overland Uie distance of two leagues, the city surrendered ; and thus an end was put to the eastern empire. Bussia had long languished under th" heavy yoke of the Tartars, when Demetrius Iwanowitx made a desperate effort to effect the deliverance of his country; and having defeated its oppressors, he assumed the title of grand duke of Russia. But the ferocious Tartars returned with an im- mense force, his troops were routed, and their gallant leader fell in the conflict. His death was, however, shortly after revenged by his son, Basilius Demetriwitz, who ex- pelled the ferocious enemy, and conquered Bulgaria, a.d. 1460. Much confusion arose after his death ; but Russia was saved from anarchy by John Basilowits, whose sound policy, firmness, and singular boldness ren- dered him at once the conqueror and the deliverer of his country. Freed from every yoke, and considered as one of the most Sowerful princes in those regions, he dis- ained the title of duke, and assumed that of csar, which has since remained with his successors. CHAPTER XIII. The Rtformation, and Progree* qf Event* during the Sixteenth Centurp. At the beginning of the 16th century the popes enjoyed the utmost tranquillity; the commotions excited by the Albigenses, Hus- sites, &c. were suppressed ; and, according to all appearance, they had no reason to fear an opposition to their authority. Y<>t, in a short time after, a totally unforeseen event produced a singular change in the religious and political state of Europe i this was the opposition of Luther to the doctrines of the church of Rome, or the be- ginning of what is commonly called the Re- formation. The publicity with which the sale of indulgences was carried on under tne sanction of Leo X., excited the indig- nation of Martin Luther, an Augustine monk and professor of theology at Wittem- _iUP^1849.-THB OBDBB Oy TBB OABTBB IB BSTABLISHBO BY BBWABO III. M H H a M » H H a ■a M •a M u I cK to m # o K 4 ■a e K M !j M H e ■g K H a s K O •a M (( K n It H u M H « h O M s «' o It M M A.D. 1420.— TBI iai.4RD OF MABXIBA DIlCOriKBD BT THB rORTUAUESE. Outline Slctc!| df (Siencral K^istoit* r7 berg, in Saxony. Emboldened by the at- tention which he gained, not only from the people but from lome of their rulers, he Sushcd hit inquiries and attacks from one octrine to another, till he at length shook the firmest foundations on which t lie wealth and power of the church were established. Leo, therefore, finding there were no hopes of reclaiming so incorrigible a heretic, is- sued a sentence of excommunication, a.d. 1620 ; but he was skreened from its effects by the friendship of the elector ol' Saxony. On the election of Charles V. to the im- perial throne of Germany, his fint act Was the assembling a diet at Worms, to check the progress of Lntheranism. In the pro- gress of his arduous work, Luther had the assistance of several learned men, among whom were Zuinglius, Melancthon, Carlos- tadius, Ac. ; and there was the greatest prp' bability that the papal hierarchy would have been overturned, at least in the north of Europe, had it not been for the opposition of the emperor Charles V., who "was also king of Spain. On the death of Frederic^ his brother John succeeded to the electorate of Saxony, by Whose order Luther and Me- lancthon drew up a body of laws relating to the form of eccle«iastiieal government, the mode of public worship, &c., which was pro- claimed Dy heralds throughout the Saxon dominions : this example was immediately followed by all the princes and states of Germany who had renounced the pnpal ku^ premaey. In a diet held at Spires, in 15':!9, the edict of Worms was confirmed ; upon which a solemn prottett was entered again«t this decree by the elector of Saxony and other refbrmers; from which circumstance they obtained the name of Protbstahts, — an appellation subsequently applied to all who dissented horn the doctrines of the Romish church. In the same year the elector of Saxony ordered Luther and othet eminent divines to commit the chief arti- cles of their religion to writing, which they did ; and, farther to elucidate them, Me- lancthon drew up the celebrated "Con- fessions of Augsburg," which, being sub- scribed by the princes who protested, was delivered to the emperor in the diet as- sembled in that city, in 1530. From this time to the death of Luther, in 1546, various negotiations were employed and schemes proposed, under pretence of settUng reli- gious disputes. Whilst these transactions occupied the public attention in Germany, the principles of the reformers were making n rapid pro- gress in most other countries of Europe : iti soiue they were encouraged bv the govern- ing powers, while in others they were dis- countenanced, and their advocates sub- jected to cruel perseeutions. The Turks were now menacing Hungary, and Charles V. thought it prudent to forget his diifcrences with the protestant princes' and their subjects, for the sake of engaging them to assist hiin attainst the gcuenu enemy; but on the aproach of the emperor at the head of 1UU,0()0 men, although the army of Solyman was at least double that number, the XaXter retired; and Charles re- turned to Spain, and enKa|,-ed in an expe- dition to Tunis, against the famoqs'corsair Barbarossa, whom he deposed from his as- sumed scTvereigntv; \ long and obstinate war hkd beA Cfcrried on between the rival sovereigns of Germiittf and France { |ind the former, at the head ot 60,000 men, i tiAiaded the southern provinces, whik two o'tlvw armies were or« dered to enter ficardy and Champagne' Francis laid wast* ;,tlie covintry, and forti* ii'ed his town« : so that alter the lapse of a few months, disease and famine so reduced the army of the empemr, thot he was iriad to retreat, and a truce was effected at Nice under the mediation of tht^ 'popf., a.d. 1638. Charles, had also in quell a nerious insure .reetioti in Ghent, sua endi'A voured in vaih to arrange the religious affHtrtt of 'Germany at the diet of Itatisbon. The progress of the Turks, #ho hail become masters Of nearly the Whole of Hnngarj, and his dC' sire to embark in in 'J>xpedition against Al- giers, induced hito to make concessions to the protectants, from whom he expected assistance. The conquest of Algiers wn4 a fiivourite obji^ct of CharlisS ; and in spite of the remonstrances of Doria, the famous Genoese admiral, he set sail in the most ^nfttvourable season of the year, and landed ill Africa ; the result Of which was, that the greatest part of the armament was de- stroyed by tempests: a.d. 1541. The desire of Charles V. to humble the protestant princes, and to extend his own power, continued to manifest itself in every act. At length, being wholly free from do- mestic wars, he entered France; but the gallant dcferce of the duke of Guise com- pelled him t 1 raise the siege of Metz, with the loss of 30,000 men. In the following year he had some suciccss in the Low Coun- tries ; but the Austrians were unfortunate in Hungary. In Germany n reliirious peace was finally concliidod by what is called the •'recess of Aut>sburg." It was during the prog^rest of this treaty thnt Charles V., to the great astonishment of all Europe, re- signed the imperial and Spanish crowns, and retired to spend the remainder of his life at the monastery of St. Just, in Spain, where he died three years after, aged 58. A.D. 1566. Charles was succeeded by his son Philip, and no monarch ever ascended a throne under greater advantages. The Spanish arms were everywhere successful, and the rival nations appearing unanimous in their desire for repose after a series of devastating wars, peace was re-established between France and Spain, which included in it, as allies on the one side or the other, neuiy all the other states of Europe. At this time Elisabeth filled the throne of England, and Protestantism had there not merely gained the ascendancy, but it was established as the religion of the state. In France also the reformed religion was making considerable progress; but its mem- bers, who ill that counti^ were called IIu- guenols, met with the fiercest opposition, A.n. 1532.— CALTiir, thr rkformbr, tbachbs nia doctkinks in rnAifCB. IC3 W^^'^^ ^rm,~£f'%^"^g 4 % • •» m *• A.O. 1533.— TUB ItANIAKDI VlfDKB rUABSO tOKQOBB rXBV. . 18 (Outline %Un\) of iKcntral l^istor^. from the coarU of France and Spain, who joined in a " holy league," and a rancoroaa civil war raged for leveral years in manir of .the Preneh provincei. The duke of Anjon "Commanded the catholics ; the proteatanta Were led bj Coligni and the prince of Condi. At length a hollow truce was made the pre- lude to one of the most atrocious acts that stain the page of history — the savoge and indiscriminate massacre of the Huguenots throughout France, on the eve of St. Bar^ tholomew (Aug. 24, 1572). The account of this diabolical deed, by which 60,000 persons met with a treacherous death, was received in BoDie and Spain with ecstacy ; and pub> lie thanksgivings were offered up in their churches for an event which, it was erro- neously supposed, would go far towards the extirpation of a most extensive and formi- dable heresy. About tliis period a noriout insurrection of the Moors in Spain broke out, and a most sanguinary war ensued, which raged with great ^violence in the southern pro- vinces: but the insurgents were at length quelled, and public tranquillity restored. It was not long, however, before the revolt of the Dutch took place, which ended in their final emancipation from the Spanish yoke, in 1674. But of all the preparations that were made forirar and conquest, none equalled that of Philip's 'invincible armada,' which he fondly hoped would conquer England, and thus destroy the great stay of protes- tantism. But this immense armament, consisting of one hundred and thirty ships, and nearly 30,000 mcu, ;:fter being partly dispersed, and losing several vessels during a violent storm, was most sienally defeated by the English; and Philip had the morti- fication to hear that his naval force was nearly annihilated. The particulars of this event, so glorious to England and so dis- astrous to Spain, will be found in another part of our work ; and we shall here merely observe, that it greatly tended to advance the protestant cause throughout Europe, and effectually destroyed the decisive in- fluence that Spain had acquired over her neighbours: indeed, from the fatal dny which saw the proud armada shipwrecked, (1688), the energies of that once powerful country have been gradually declining, and its inhabitants seem to have sunk into a s»ate of lethargic indolence. It is worthy of remark that, in all the ■tates of Europe, towards the latter end of this century, a decided tendency towards the concentration of power in the hands of few individuals was fully perceptible. The republics became more aristocratical, the monarchies more unlimited, and the des- potic governments less cautious. The sys- !?,".'.. P"""*^ '''' '''* domineering court of Philip served more or less as an example to his contemporary sovereigns ; while the re- cent and rapid increase in the quantity of the precious metals, and the progress of the industrious arts, by producing a multitude of new desires, rendered the court more avaricious and the nobles more dependent. •"k.>!3- c- CHAPTER xiy.';^ .=: , " Fr^ thi Commeneemnt o/tki Srr^tetntk Century, to the Peace CIBCUbATIOR OK tBX ^.."W.-'Q •loop BliCOTXKBD BT DBi^ HABTBT. >n o4 '^i: Outline Siiet?|oi (Sxenetal l^istori). 19 'midst of its contest for freedom, the repab- jic erected a mighty empire in the cast \ ind its navy rode triumphant on the seas. Its recognition as an independent state was soon afterthe necessary consetiuence. The death of Henry IV. of France, was not merely a disastrous event as regarded the prosperity of that kingdom, but one which had a powerful influence on the hopes or fears of the other principal monarchies of Europe; and by none more than by the House of Austria. Uodoloh II. was suc- ceeded in the ennpire by his brother, the archduke Matliias, a man of great activity find an insatiable thirst for dominion. Though originally favourable to the pro- testants, he now evinced a disposition to oppose them ; and being supported by Fer- dinand, duke of Styria, and the court of Spain, the protestants took the alarm, and had recourse to arms ; which may be consi- dered as the origin of the celebrated " thirty years' war." On the death of Mathias, Ferdinand, who had succeeded him as king of JSohcmia and Hungary, was raised to the imperial throne. The IJoneroian protestants, dreading his bigotry, chose Frederic V., the elector pa- latine, for their sovereign. He was sup- ported by all the protestant princes of the Germanic body, while Ferdinand was aided by the king of Spain and the catholic princes of the empire. Their forces proved overwhelming : Frederic, defeated nna'hclp- less, abandoned the contest in despair, and forfeited both the crown and his electorate. The emperor Ferdinand, strengthened by victory, and by the acquisition of treasure, now turned the arms of his experienced general*, Wallenstein, Tilly, and SpinOla, against the protestants, who had formed a league, with Christian IV. kin^ of Den- mark, at its head, for the restoration of the palatinate ( a.d. 1625) : but the imperialists were victorious, and the protestants were compelled to sue for peace. They subse- quently formed a secret alliance with Gus- tavus Adolphus, king of Sweden : a. d. 1629. ' The father of Gustavus had left him a well-confirmed authority, though without treasure ; the nobles who might have en- dangered his power had been humbled in the preceding revolutions, and there was nothing to fear from Russia, Poland, or Denmark. He was zealously anxious for the success of the protestant cause ; he wished also to check the ambitious designs of the emperor ; and Germany appeared, in fact, to be the country in which be might seek for power with the greatest prospect of success. His talents, both military and civil, were of the highest order. Together with the lofty character of his genius, which manifested itself in the greatness of his plans, he combined the power of attention to minute details in the organization of his army, and a calm and penetrating insight into circumstances of the greatest intri- cacy. His habits were of the most simple kind : and though the boldness of his en- terprises astonished the world, he was per- sonally mild, beneticent, susceptible of the warmest friendship, eloquent, popular, and full of reliance on I'rovidence. Kichelieu, the minister of France, desirous of curbing the power of the House of Austria, subsi- dizea Gustavus; and England furnished him with 6,000 troops, headed by the mar- quis of Hamilton. The magnanimous king of Sweden, by his sudden and unexpected appearance in the empire, l)y his irresisti- ble progress, and finally, by the victory of of Leipsic, where he was opposed to the imperialist army under Tilly, revived the confidence of the protestant princes in their own power. He quickly made himself mas- ter of the whole country from the Elbe to the Rhine; but having been repulsed with considerable loss, in a furious attack on the intrenchments of the imperialists at Nu- remberg, and hearing that their general, Wallenstein, had soon after removed his camp to Lutzen, he proceeded thither to give him battle; The imperial army greatly outnumbered the Swedes and their allies; and from day-break till night the conflict was sustained with unabated vigour ; but though the victory was nobly gained by the Swedes, their gallant king had fallen in the middle of the fight, covered with renown, and sincerely deplored by his brave and faithful soldiers: A.n. 1642. Both the king of Sweden and the court of France had been alarmed at the union of the whole power of Germany, in the bands of a ruler who assumed the tone of a universal sove- reign; and the efficacy of a good military system, directed by the energetic genius of a single leader, was never more eminently dirplaycd than ou this occasion. The war was still cuntinued with various success; but the weight of it fell on the Swedes, the German priuceo having, after the fatal battle of Nordlingen, in 1634, de- •«erted thcin. In the following year, how- ever, the troops of France simultaneously attacked the Auetriun monarchy at every accessible point, in order to prevent the forces of the latter from acting with deci- sive eOcct in any qiiarter. In 1637 the emperor Ferdinand died, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III., who pursued the policy of his father ; but though there was considerable disunion among the confede- rates, the great events of the war were ge- nerally in their favour. It would be incon- sistent, however, with the sketchy outline we are penning, to enter into further de- tails of this memorable war; and, perhaps, limited as our space is, we may have been already too diffuse. We will, therefore, pass at once to the celebrated Vtact of WttU phalia, which was signed at Munster on the 24th Oct. 164R. It Was concluded under the mediation of the pope and the Vene- tians, between the emperor Ferdinand III., Philip III., king of Spain, and the princes of the empire wli* belonged to their party, on one side; and Louis XIV., Christina, queen of Sweden, the states-general of tlie United Provinces, and those princes of the eiTtpire, mostly protestants, who were in alliance with the French and Swedes, on the other. By this celebrated treaty all « ft A.D. 1616.— BIB WALTBIl KAI.ETCU COMPLETES TUB SETTLK.MHMT OF VIBOINIA. (S->- .;>S ^ oo o % »,«> 00 -oO "0 o !^J='-p^ J Co r - o o ^ «- c @ o ;^'j) I® o en o Q O u #'-^^^^og.,f*.ib ^ffl--^?'^*"" E'^'^ jy'^H*^'''' '*^. HIHDOITAIItj, ' ,ai(rerMce»PW«r«S;€mngeJtbei%e€(it the bjsl- C f Ugerentt.Mei'ceplf 'ftanc^cjini Jpaiii, who eontinvjedlinobottilitjepi for ;eIi$Teii jexn ¥ 9r'^^'^:;n;c'/^'^^>: Ptttjlnt «idci^ of ffiencrat IJistorB- r#!Tn •fterwilkb; bttt it npttore* tnuiqiillfty to northeift^s^M and GsJfipanyi and became a ftindiSmiital la# of th^ empire; while HoIlaaA^nA^Bwi^tzerland acquired a aininl- iancQul'recoKnitioh and gujirantee. • ? j :,i X^;? CHAPTER XV. Writk iHM twit War i% England, it thtPeae* ■ ■ I.-- : fff Rf$wick, Atidila perioA^Eiiglaiid waf c<>nvnlaed by ^ 1 cf*il( wWrDuriif the pifoaperpn* age of m^ Elizabeth the jCommont had ;greatly in- •*f , en&ted in /^ulencej and, \»ithontQTega^ g i ~,to the Kibiuceprjof he^ iucce»«ori^ ahfe . ' : ! C'^".'".C Q ^^._Jted-i»t«itL, ,, e^wak mSKnanimdu*, amiable, and but ^efi^ieiQt ID steadfast exertion^ thedignUV and Vigour i^eceMarv to the wtaatioi^il^cwtiich he stood. His ideas of the rmal JDreij^^tiTe weife extravagant ; o Jlrat,heoiui(«ho1red a timidity and irresp- Hty fatran ondHie abpearance of opposition from h[.i hiaJBarliamentt whjch emboldened them to ean^ their opp(H|itioii to the most ni war- ^ nutablsbloigths. ,I|i ordejp to raise supi-iies *i \ without the authority of parliament, the ^ ^ ^KinaPexaStedrtBe custonis and levied an H" arbitrary tax dh khips; many feudal privi- S J legea an^ ancient abuftt were exercised wuhincreased severity • contributions and l(\^ns, called voluntary, were exacted by force ; the forms of laW were disregarded by the court of star-chamber; Englishmen Were subjected to lone imprisonments and eitorbitant fines; and their rights treated with contempt. From the discussions to which these grievances gave rise, arose others relating to the nature and origin of political constitutions. The violence of par- ties daily increased; but as the king'con- ce^d, the parliament grew more arrogant in their demands, iknd the hour was rapidly approaching when it was evident anarchy would traniple upon the ruins of monarchy. At length a fierce civil war arose ; religion was made a political stalking-horse, and gross hypocrisy overspread the land. En- thusiasts, equally inaccessible to reason or revelation, to a sense of propriety or any moral restraint, exercised the most irre- sistible influence on the course of events. JThe high church sunk into misery; the an- cient nobility were basely degraded; the Vhole constitution fell into ruins; a "'so- lemn mdckery," miscalled the king's trial took place ; — and Charles finally perished by the axe of the executioner^ a. d. 1649. His death was soon followed b^ the usur- pation of Cromwell, an incorrigible tyrant, 'detested at home and feared abroad; but ,who had not long left the scene of his rest- less ambition, before the nation, weary of trranny and hypocrisy, rest{Dred..tl)e son of their murdered sovereign. t4«^he': throne: A. t>.1660. .,,.■'•;• 3 train the^wace of Westphilla tintii the death 6f Fcrdini^d ^I'i in 1657, Germany remained ^adistiirb^d; when considerable fermefit pKeyaileil in the* 4iet, reapecting |he electio'tl of his sncceasor. The choice of the electors, however, having fallen on his son Leopold, he immediately contracted rftu alliance with Poland and Denmark, ' xgainst Sweden, and a numerous army of Austrians entered Pomerania; but failing in their object, peace was quickly restorea. He next turned his airins against the Turka, Who had invaded Transylvania, and gave them a signal overthrow; In tbia aituation of nifairs the youthful an-^ ambitious liOttia XIV., king of France; disturbed the peace of the empire bv an attack upoti the Nelh- eriaiida, which lie claimed in right of his queen, sister of Philip IV., the late king of Spain. In a secret treaty, Louis and Leopold had divided the Spanish monarchy ; to the former was given the Netherlands, and to the latter Spain, after the demise of Charles II., the reigning monarch. Hav- ing prepared ample means, the king and Turenne cnteired Flanders, and immedi- ately reduced Charleroi, Toumay, Douay, and Lille. Such rapid auccess alarmed' the other European powers, who feared that another campaign would make him master of the Iiow Countries; and a triple alliance* was forrned between Englanu, Holland; and Sweden, With a view of setting bounds to his ambition, and of compelling Spain to accede to certain prescribed conditions. A treaty was, accordingly, negotiated at Aix-la-ChapellCi by which Louis was al- lowed to retain the towns he had talteit; and these he secured by entrusting thieir fortifications to the celebrated Vaubaiij and by gnrrisoning them with his best troopsc A.B. 1668. Louis now saw that his designs on the Netherlands could not be carried into effect without the co-operation of England; but believing tkat the profligate court of Charles II. was open to corruption, he easily suc- ceeded, through the medium of Charles's sister Henrietta, the duchess of Orleans, in prevailing on the prodigal king of Eng- land to conclude a secret treoty with him, in which it was agreed that Charles should receive a large pension from Louis, and aid him in subduing the United Provinces. The cabinet of Versailles having also suc- ceeded in detaching Sweden from the triple alliance, both monarchs, under the most frivolous pretences, declared war against the States, a.d. 1672. 'Without the shadow of a pretext, Louis seized the duchy of Lor- raine; and Charles made a base and un- successful attempt to capture the Dutch Smyrna lleet, even while the treaty be- tween the two countries existed. The nower that was thns confederated against Holland, it was impossible to withstand. The combined fleets of France and Eng- land amounted to more than 1 20 sail; the French army on the frontiers consisted of 12U,0UU men. The latter, in the first in- stance, bore down all opposition ; but on the command of the Dutch army being A.b. 1C52.— TUK DUTCH BSTABUSH A COIONT AT THS CArit b» OOOD HOPS. o \(f 1^ °c>0 5^ 00 o o a ,^' @ O ■ "> tUI BOTAIi BOCJKTX XSriBLISUEO AT LONDOR, 40I.T 111. M H o #ntUne Sfccttl^ of €ieneral l^tetorfi. T^ ->sr': jnTeii to the yonb^ prince of Orange, VfiU Ham III., the spints and energy of the nati<^u revived ; and both the government and the people were united in their, fleter- mination, rather than submit to disgrace- ful terms, to abandon their country, and emigrate in a body to their colonies in the East Indies. Meanwhile, their fleets under \an I'romp and Oe Rayteir engaged the combined French and Enghsh fleets under prince Rupert, in three hard-fouglit but indecisive actions ; the emperor and the elector of Brandenburg joined the Dutch cause; and Charles II., distressed for want of money, and alarmed by the discontent of his own subjects, first concluded a sepa- rate peace with Holland, and then offered •^s mediation towards bringing about a re- conciliation of the other contending parties. ° Louis at the head of one of his armies conquered Franche-Compt£ in the nest campaign; while Turenne was successful on the side of Germany; but disgraced his trophies by the devastation and ruin of the Palatinate, In 1675,he was killed by a can- non-ball ; and the French army was forced to recross the Rhine. They were success- ;/ul, however, in the ensuing campaign ; and their fleet defeated De Ruyter, after a se- ries of obstinate engagements off Sicily, in one of which he was slain. In 1677, Ano- ther campaign was opened, which proved still more favourable to the French. Va- lenciennes, Cambray, and St, Omer were taken; marshal De Luxembourg defeated the ptrince of Orange, and several important advantages were gained by the F.ench. At length the Dutchljecame anxious for peace, and signed the treaty of Mineguen, in 16/8. Louts employed this interval of peace in strengtbehihg his frontiers, and in making preparations for fresh conquests. He then treacherously made himself master of Stras- ■burg, and some other places in Flanders. By these aggressions the flames of war were nearly rekindled; but the treaty of Ratisbon prevented the continuance of hos- tilities, and left the French in possession of Luxemburg, Strasbui-g, and the fort of Khel. At this time (1683) the imperial arms were occupied in opposing the Turks, who, having invaded Hungary, and marched to- wards Vienna, ihat city was on the point of being carried 'by assault, when the cele- brated John Sobieski, king of Poland, came to its relief at the head of a numerous army. This revived the confidence of the besieged, and their assailants were repulsed ; while the main body, which had been led by the graad vizier to meet the Poles, were thrown into confusion at the first charge of the Polish cavalry, and fled in the utmost con- fusion ; leaving in possession of the victors their artillery, baggage, treasures, and even the consecrated banner of the prophet. During the siege of Vienna, Louis had sus- pended his operations, declaring that he tvould not attack a Christian power while Europe was menaced by infidels. He w^s now at the height of his power; and no sooner had the valour of Sobieski over- whelmed the Ottoman force, than he re^^ commenced his Vfiur Of aggrandixement* He had just befor» humbled the piratil! states of AfHca, trampled on the independ-^, ', ence of Genoa, concluded an advtntageoni peace with Spain, and rendered himself ob« noxious to the papal court bv insulting the dignity of the pope. But while his nmbiw tion was alarming the fears and rousing the indignation 0? Europe, he eommitted an error which, in a political point Of view, the most intolerant bigotry could scarcely be blind enough to excuse. Henry IV, had wisely granted religious freedom to the French protestants, and the edict of Nantes which secured it to them was designed to be perpetual. But after vainly endeavour- ing to control their consciences or reward their apostacy, Louis formally revoked the edict or Nantes, and treated his protestant subjects with all the injustice and cruelty that blind fanaticism could dictate, or bru- tality execute. By this insensate act he depnved his country of half a million of in- habitants, who transferred to other lands their wealth, their industry, and their com- mercial intelligence. The Turkish war having been tertainated, a league was formed at Augsburg, between the princes of Germany, to resist the fur- ther encroachments of the French king. To this league Spain, Holland, Sweden, and Denmark, acceded ; and Louis having un- dertaken to restore James II., who had lately been dethroned by William, prince of Orange, England joined tho alliance. We must here briefl> allude to the revo- lution which had placed the prince of Orange on the throne of England. James II., brother of the facetious but unprinci- pled Charles II,, was a zealous proselyte of the Roman Catholic faith, ana connected with the order of the Jesuits. One part of the nation was enthusiastically attached to freedom, and another was chiefly inspired by hatred of the papal ceremonies ; but all agreed that the kin^; had no just or consti- tutional power to dictate to the nation in matters of religion. James had offended many of the nobles; and they, instead of succumbing to the man they despised, ad- dressed themselves to the stadtholder, who was his nephew and successor, and the presumptive heir to the throne. At this juncture the queen of England bore a sou ; an event which produced different effects on the hopes of the catholics and protest, ants. The stadtholder, immovable in nil contingencies, was confirmed in his resolu- tion of rescuing England from the tyranny by which it was now oppressed: but he kept his own secret, and preserved his usual character of tranquillity, reserve, and im- peuetrability. Many of the English nobi- lity repaired to the Hague, where William lamented their situation; and, with great secresy, fitted out an armament that was to effect the deliverance of the English nation from popery and despotism. Though the king of France had sent James information of the proceedings of the prince of Orange, the infatuated king could not be persuaoed 0' A.n. 1664,— TRB ACADBUT FOB SCULFTCBB BSTABIISHED IN FBANCB, ADO. 31. « ^(^A. cfo^ OoO„0 ^ qt^.?<\':.'c.- ^ o bo >'<3s, 00°' .. «^CV,nC^ „ A.*v?lfl/«.-TII«| H0YA1, OBtKAVATOttl AT OkBK.NtiriCll •UIIT. W'2t^^ " feUne Siiculi of CScncral %i%xovS^ ( 4? ^j" -:"-^-" ",^ -;.j ....... ■ ..^ — . , -— — .' 1 'Q.f'%.t2 ».. .rM>:i >!.« <.*n«>1Uinn u'ni an ta nrcien's the balance of nower in Euro tof Irii dBitKcr iftttil the expedition wm on iftenoinilot' •ailinr. At leiiBth the ittdt- hfljair Uni^d in Ttirbari cpd the unfortu- nate iaonnrclit lindinj the tituation of bii affair* dciperate, haitiljr quitted the Eng- lish shore*, and f ought an asylum in France. A Convention wai then lummoncd, the tlirone declared vacant, and the prince and princess of Orn).g;e, as "kiiift William III. and qtifcn Miirv," were proclaiuied kinx and uuecn of England. This was followed by^ tiie passini; of the " Dill of Rights" and the *• Act of Settlement," by which the fu- ture liberties of the people were secured. At the hend of the leafcue of AuKsburg \va« the emperor Leopold ; but Louis, not daunted by the number of the confederates, assembled two large armies in Flanders; sent another to oppdne the Spaniards in Catalonia; while a toiirth was employed as a barrier on the German frontier, and ra- vaKcd the palatinate with lire and sword; driving the wretched victims of his barba- sous policy from their burning houses by thousands, to perish with cold and hunger on the froseii ground. In the next cam- paign his troops achieved several important victories, and the French fleet defeated the combined fleets of England and Holland off Iteacby-head, a.d. 16SM). Thus the war con- tinued for the three following years, ex- hausting the resources of every party eii- gaged in it, without any important change taking place, or any decisive advantage being gained by cither that was likely to produce a cessation of hostilities. With all the military glory that France had acquired, her conquests were unproductive of_any iiolid advantage; her ces were in a sinking state; her agriculture and com- merce were languishing; and the coiintiry was threatened with the horrors of famine, arising from a failure of the crfli>s and the scarcity of hands to cultivate the soil. All parties, indeed, were now grown w^eary of a war in which nothing permanent was ef- fected, and in which the blood and treasure of the combatants continued to be profusely and uselessly expended. Accordingly, in 1A97, negotiations were commenced, under the medial ion of the youthful Charles XII , king of Sweden, and a treaty concluded at Ryswick, by which Louis made great con- cessions, restoring to Spain the principal places he had. wrested from her; but the renunciation of the Spanish succession, which had been the main object of the war to enforce, was not even alluded to iu the treaty. ^^ CHAPTER XVI. Commenremenf q/" the Eighteenth Centura, to the Peace qf Utrecht. Till declining health of Charles II. king of Spain, who had no children, engaged the attention of the European powers, and ke^ oil the alert those princes who were ctaiiqants of the crown. The candidates were Louis XIV., the emperor Leopold, and the elector of Ravarin ; and it was niarti- fettljr to the interest of those who wished to preser>'e the balance of power in Europe that the choice should fall' on the latter; but he was unable to contend with his rival*. A secret treaty of partition was therefore signed by France, England, and Holland, by which it was agreed that Spain, America, and the Nrihcrlanda, should ue given to the electoral prince of Ravaria ; Naples, Sicily, and the .laliau states, to the dauphin; and the duchy of Milan to the emperor's se- cond son, the archduke Charles, This treaty coming to the knowledge of the king of Spain, he wa* naturally indignant that his possessions should thus be disposed of during his life; and he immediately made a will in favour of the electoral prince. This well suited the views of England and Ilolland; but the intention was scarcely made known, when .he favoured prince died suddenly^ liot without suspicion of h.vin;; liecn poisoned. The prince's death revi\rd the apprehcnsioiis of Eiigland and Ilolland, and they entered iiito a new treaty of par- tition. Rut the king of Spain bequeathed the whole of his dominions to the duke of Anjou, seeond son of the dauphin, who wc* uiiivers411y .ackhowledgcd by the nation after the death of Charles, who died in 1701 ; and the ybunK king was crowned under the title of Philip V. The einperpr Leopold being determined to support tiic claims of his son, war im- mediately commenced, and an array wa* sent into Italy, where he met with great success. Prince Eugene having expelled the French from the Milanese, a gi'aud alli- ance was formed between Germany, Eng- land, and Holland. The avowed objects of this alliance were " to procure satisfaction to his imperiai majesty in the case of the Spanish succes^iou ; obtain security to the Eiiglish and Dutch for their dominions mid commerce; prevent the union of the mo- narchies of France and Spain ; and hinder the French from possessing the Spanish dominions in America." James II., the: exiled king of England, died at St. Germain's, in France, on the 7th of September, 170I ; and was lucceedcd in his nominal titles by his son, James III., better knowii by the appellation of the Pretender. With more magnanimity than prudence, Louis XIV. recognised his right to the throne his father had abdicated, which could not be considered in any other light than that of an insult to William and the English nation; and the parliament strained every nerve to avenge the indig- nity offered to the monarch of their choice : but before the actual commencement of hostilities, William met with his death, oc- casioned by a fall fromhis horse, A.n. 17U2. Anne, second daughter of James II. and wife of George, prince of Denmark, imme- diately ascended the vacant throne ; and, declaring her resolution to adhere to the grand alliance, war was declared by the three powers against France, on the same day, at Il.«0T borough, who obtained considerable lae- ceiiri in Flanden; while the conibined Kiiglith and Dutch Meets captured the gal- Icons, laden with the treacurea of Spanish America, which were lyiiig in Vigo bay, under the protection of a French fleet. Meanwhile, the French had he advantage < ill Italy and Alsace; hut . Flanders the ' genius of Marlborough tnow raited to a I dukedoni) continued to be an overmatch I for the generals opposed to him. Having : secured his conquests in that country, be resolved to inarch into (ierin&ny, to the aid of the emperor, who bad to contend with the Hungarian insurgents as well as the FVench and Bavarians. He accordingly crossed the Rhine, and meeting prince ! Eugene at Mondlcsbcim, a junction was I agreed on and ettected with the imperialists I under the duke of Itaden ; and, thus united, ' they advanced to the Danube. The rival armies each aniounted to about GO,(H)U men. The French and Kavnrians were posted on a hill near the village of Ulenheiro, on the I Danube; but though their position was ! well chos2n, thrir line was weakened by detachments, which Marlborough perceiv- I ing, he charged through, and- a signal vie- 1 tory was the result. The French com- mander, Tallard, was made prisoner> and \ 3U,l|(H) of the French and Bavarian troops ; were killed, wounded, and taken; while the I losii of the allies aniounted to S,000 killed, I and7,0(iu wounded: A. D.17 and prince Eugeue, rejected it, although the objects of the grand alliance might at that lime have been gained without the furt'ter effusion of blood. Tliua refused, Louis oi.ce more exerted all his energies. His troop* having been compelled to evaeu«te Italy, ha sent an additional force into Spain, whert the duke of Berwick (a natural sop of James II.) gained a brilliant and decisive victory at Almanca, over the confederates, who were commanded by the carl of Gal« way and the marquis de las Minas ; whilst the diike of Orleans reduced Valencia, and the cities of Lerida and Saragoua. The victory of Almania restored the cause of the Bourbons in Spain ; and marshal Vil> lars, at the head of the French army in Germany, laid the duchy of ^irtewberg under contribution. The general results of the war hitherto had miserably disappointed the English ; Marl- borough felt that a more brilliant campaign was necessary to render him and his party popular. He therefore crossed the Scheldt, and came up with ths French army, under' Vendome, at Oudenardc. They were strong- ly posted ; but the British cavali' jr brolcfr through the enemy's lines at the flrst. charge ; and though the approach of night favoured the retreat of the Firench, they were put to a total rout, and 9000 prisoner* fell into the hands of the EngUsh. Shortly after. Lisle was forced to surrender; ana Ghent and Bruges, which had been taken by Vendome, were retaken. About the same time the islands of Sardinia and Minorca surrendered to the English Aeet, and th* pope was conipelled to acknowlcd|[e tha archduke Chane* as the lawful king of Spain : a.d. 1708. The treasury of Loui* being greatly ex- hausted, and his councils distracted, he again expressed his willingness to make every reasonable concession for the attain- ment of peace, offering even to abandon the whole of the Spanish monarchy to the archduke ; but his proffers being rejected, except on terms incompatible witii national safety or personal honour, the French king, trusting to the affection and patriotism of his people, called upon them to rise in de- fence of the monarchy, and in support of their humbled and aged king. Hi* appeal was patriotically responded to. Every nerve was strained to raise a large army, and the salvation of France was confided to mar- shal Villars. The allied army was formed on the plains of Lisle ; the French covered Douay and Arms. Eugene and Marl- borough invested Mons. v illars encamped within a league of it, at Malplaquet. I*' wm t 3 ^ ?o III Si ■ > w M t ■' ,' i m a « H K A So ■ ■*•■ ■.o o K: \iO o; ?0oo A. n. 1G90.— AKOr takbn raoM tub tubks bt rKTia the orsat. % nO i^^ o o n ^cS^"^". ''^^ .,,-^^fU>. 'M^f. '^^^ :■' -f^ ■1 ;jL ^"1: ," -^ck. A.O. 1703.— THi oiTt or UT. riitHtnnnv'iti MOvnouo ■» r*MB th« sbbat. 24 Outline SbUtOt of General l^istoq;. ^tedwithpait lueceii, the confederate! Attacked him in liit intrenchmcnti : the eontetit was obitinato aiid bloody: and though the allies remained masters of the fteldi »eir loss amounted to about 15,nQ0 ment wbile that of the French, who re- treated, was not less than 10,000. (Sept. It. 1709), Louis again sued for peace; and conferences were opened at Oertruyden- burg early in the following spring: but the alUes still insisting upon the same conditions, the French monarch again re- jected them with firmness. The war con- tinued, and with it the successes of the Allies in Flanders and in Spain, where the irehduke again obtained possession of Madrid. But the nobility remaining faith- ful to Philip, and fresh succours arriving from France, the duke of Yendome com- pelled the allies to retire towards Cata- lonia, whither they mfurched in two bodies. The English general Stanhope, who com- manded the rear division, was surrounded at Brighnega, and forced to surrender, with MOO men; and thouch the principal divi- sion, led by Staremberg, compelled Yen- dome to retreat, and continued their march in safety, they were unable to check the victorious progress of Philip's arms. The cipenses of a war so wholly unproduc- tive to England had by this time exhausted the^patiencie of the nation ; and a change had tWen place in the British cabinet that was "ttnfavouhible to Marlborough and his de- signs. Through the death of the emperor iToseph, which had just occurred, the arch- duke Charles succeeded to the imnerial dig- 0)^; t thus giving a new turn to tne politics of the sovereigns of Europe, who were in Blliaiice to prevent the union of the Spanish and German crowns : a great obstacle to the restoration of peace was therefore re- ihoved. Hostilities however continued, but with BO little energy, that no event of im- portance occurred during the whole cam- paign. At length the English and French plenipotentiaries concurring in the same desire for peace, preliminanes were signed between Eiigland and France, at London, Dec. 1712. The following year a congress was held at Utrecht for the general paci- ^cation of Europe; and a definitive treaty of peace was signed on the 81st of March, 1713, by the plenipotentiaries of all the belligerent powers, except those of the era- peroir and the king of Spain. It was stipu- Ated thht Philip should renounce all title to the crown of France, and the dukes of Berri and Orleans to that of Spain ; that if Philip should die without male issue, the duke of Savoy should succeed to the throne of Spain ; that the Spanish Netherlands, Nspfes, Milan, and the Spanish territories on the Tuscan coast should be secured to Austria; that the Rhine should be the boundary between France and Germany ; and that England was to retain Gibraltar and Minorca. In the following year the emperor signed the treaty of lUstadt, the conditions of which were less favourable to him than those offered at Utrecht ; and PhiUp Y. acceding to it some time after, Europe once more eqjoyed trant Shortly after having thus extritated him- self from all his difficulties, the long and eventful reign of Louis XIY. was termi- nated by his death; and his great grand- son, Louis XY. being a minor, the duke of Orleans was made regent of France. CHAPTER XYII. The Ag* t^f Ckarle* XII. vf Steedtn, and Peter the Great qf RvMia. Thovob we have confined our attention to the wars which occupied the south and west of Europe at the latter end of the 17th century, we must not overlook the events which took place in the north and east, through the rivalry and ambition of two of the most extraordinary characters that ever wielded the weapons of war, or controlled the fate of empires : these men were Charles XII. of Sweden, and Peter the Great of Russia. It is here necessary to retrace our steps for a few years. In 1661 the people of Den- mark, disgusted with the tyranny of their nobles, solemnly surrendered their liberties to the king ; and Frederic, almost without any effort of his own, became an absolute monarch. His successor. Christian Y. made war on Charles XI. of Sweden, who defended himself vrith great ability, and, dying in 1697^ left his crown to his son, the valiant and enterprising Charles XII. During the reign of Alexis, Russia began to emerge from the barbarism into which it had been plunged by the Mongolian in- vasion and the civil wars occasioned by a long course of tyranny on the part of its rulers. His sou Theodore pursued an en- lightened policy, reforming the laws, en- couraging the arts, and introducing the manners and customs of more civilized nations. At his death he bequeathed the crown to his vounger brother Peter, in preference to nis imbecile brother Ivan, who was several years his senior. Through the intrigues of their ambitious sister So- phia, a rebellion broke out ; and owing to the incapacity of one brother and the youth of the other, she continued to exercise the whole sovereign power. Being accused, however, of plotting the destruction of her youngest brother, sae was immediately ar- rested and imprisoned; and Ivan having retired into private life, Peter became sole and undisputed master of the Russian em- pire, which was destined, through his ef- forts, to acouire eventually an emment rank among the leading powers of Europe. Endowed with an arden* thirst for know- ledge, gifted with the lost persevering course, and animated by the hope of civi- lizing his nation, Peter I., deservedly sur- named the Great, exhibited to the world the unusual spectacle of a sovereign de- scending awhile from the throne, for the purpose of rendering himself more worthy of the crown. Having regulated the in- ternal affairs of Russia, Peter quitted Mos- cow, and visited France, Holland, and Eng- land incognito; investigating their laws. i ^ .„..*•"• 1732.— Tin. JESUITS, AWD CHRISTIANS eEKKnAlLT, BARISHBD FROM CIIISA. l-\. BBS oO o '^. Z>.^ ^ -°"^!^0„V0?.O c:-. -.?^<'V0„.p,.'f?^*V*^.'' --^'^^O. A.D. 1705.— TBI ■rAMIIB rLBKT OiriATBD OVV OIBmAlTAB, MABOI 31. Outline SIctcI) of (fCttncral IlistorQ. 25 •tudying their arts, icieucet, and manu- factures, and everywhere enKaging the moit ■kilful artiits and mechanics to follow him into Rustia. But his desires did not end there: he wished also to become a con- queror. He accordingW, in 1700, entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, for the puroose of stripping the youthful Charles XII. of the whole, or of a part of his dominions. Nothing dismayed, the he- roic Swedie entered into alliance with Hol- land and England, laid siege to Copen- hagen, and compelled the Danish govern- ment to sue for peace. The Russians had in the meantime besieged Narva with 80,000 men. But Charles having thus crushed one of his enemies, in the short space of three weeks, immediately marched to the relief of Narva, where, with only 10,000 men, he forced the Russian entrenchments, killed 18,000 and took 30,000 prisoners, with all their artillery, baggagv, and ammunition. I'eter being prepared for reverses, coolly observed, "I knew that the Swedes would beat us, but they will teach us to become conquerors in Our turn." Having wintered at Narva, in the fol- lowing year Charles defeated the Poles and Saxons on the Duna, and overran Livonia, Courland, and Lithuania. Elated with his successes, he formed the project of de- throning Augustus, king of Poland. Com- bining policy witit tlio terror of bis arms, he entered Warsaw, and, through the in- trigues of the primate of Poland, he ob- tained the deposition of Augustus, and the election of his friend, the young palatine Stanislaus Lnczinski: a. d. 1704. Though Peter had bcrn unable to afford his ally Augustus much assistance, he had not been inactive. Narva, so recently the scene of his discomfiture, he took t>y storm, and sent an army of 60,000 men into Poland. The Swedish king, however, drove them out of the country ; and, at the hcnd of a noble and victorious army, he marched on- wards with the avowed intention of de- throning his most formidable enemy, the czar of Russia. Peter endeavoured to avert the storm by sending proposals of peace; whichbeing haughtily rejected, he retreated beyond the Dnieper, and sought to impede the progress of the Swedes towards Moscow, by breiuing up the roads, and laying waste the surrounding country. Charles, after having endured great privations, and being urged by Mazeppa, hetman or chief of the Cossacks, who offered to join him with 30,000 men, and supply him with provisions, penetrated into the Ukraine. He reached the place of rendezvous ; but the vigilance of Peter had rendered the designs of the hetman abortive, and he now appeared rather as a fugitive, attended with a few hundred followers than as a potent ally. The Swedish nrmy had still greater dis- appointments to meet with. No supplies were provided; and general Lewenhaupt, who had oeen ordered to join the king with 15,000 men from Livonia, had been forced intr three engagements with the Russians, and his army was reduced to 4000. Brav- ing these misfortunes, Charles continued the campaign, though in the depth of win- ter. In the midst of a wild and barren country, with an armv almost destitute of food and clothing, aud perishing with cold, he madly resolved to proceed. At length he laid siege to Pultowa, a fortified city on the frontiers of the Ukraine, which waa vigorously defended. His army was now reduced to 80,000 men ; and he was suffer- ing from a wound which he had received while viewing the works. The czar, at the bead of 70,000 men, advanced to the relief of Pultowa ; and Charles, carried in a lit- ter, set out with the main body of his army to give him battle. At first the impetuosity of the Swedes made the Russians give way ; but Charles bad no cannon, and tne ctar's artillery made dreadful havoc in the Swedish lines. Nothwithstanding the desperate va- lour of the troops, the irretrievable ruin of the Swedes was soon effected; 8000 were killed, COOO taken prisoners, and 12,000 fu- gitives were forced to surrender on the banks of the Dneiper, from want of boats to cross the river. The Swedish army was thus wholly destroyed. Charles, and about three hundred men, escaped with much difticulty to Bender, a Turkish town in Bes- sarabia, where he was hospitably received, and where he remained inactive during se- veral years, buoyed up with the hope that the Ottoman Porte would espouse his cause, and declare against the cztir of Russia. In one fatal dav Charles had lost the fruits of nine years' victories; and the shattered remnant of that army of veterans, before whom the bravest troops of other countries quailed, were transported by the victorious czar to colonize the wild and inhospitable deserts of Siberia. But the inflexible king of Sweden bad not even yet abandoned all hope of hum- bling the power of bis hated rival. At length, in 171I1 WBr was declared against Russia by the Porte, and the vizier Baltagi Mehemet advanced towards the Danube at the head of 200,000 then. By this immense force, the Russian army on the banks of the Pruth was closely surrounded, and re- duced to a state of starvation. At this cri- tical juncture, the czarina Catherine, who accompanied her husband, sent a private message to the vizier, and procured a ces- sation of hostilies preparatory to opening negotiations, which were speedily followed by a treaty of peace. Charles, who had calculated on the total destruction of the czar, felt highly incensed at this disappoint- ment of his most ardent hopes, and even- tually procured the dismissal of the vizier. His successor, however, still less favourable to the views of the roval warrior, persuaded the sultan Acliraet ill. to signify his wish that Charles should'quit the Ottoman em- pire. But he resolved to remain, and the Porte had recourse to compulsory measures. His house was invested by Turkish troops, and after a fierce defence ou the part of him- self and his few attendants, he was taken and conveyed as a prisoner to Adrianople. The enemies of Sweden were, in the "2 o A.D. 1707.— TUB BMrcnon josBrii skikbb Tnn bingdom of NArLBi. to «1'«^^'W*='; ^ii °"ci-' 00 o f^O o W o CD Q O O O c:> , O Cjy, c 0' cP '0° O |. o 0® o oog O Oo 0"" % A'.mHU.— VrWABM W ll,%00 twow^ »irog wfagMlw^AtTWIfA. li 26 ^vtUnt SHictcf) 0f ®iiii»I lltoterv. tima, VTOMCuUng thair meeettftal cu«er. Ht«nUl«iM. wSom Charle; had plMMd w tba thrana of Poland, had ben «onll«an*A to ^^ ** *•> Aoffuatuai and Iha awodith flmilian wen (hraatenad on every aMa. General Bteinboek, aAer haTinn ninad a briUiant tietofy over the Danea aad iHona at Gadebuacb, and burnt Al- (ona, waa btaieaed in Tonningen, and forced to In render with the whole of hia army. BouiMl at tliia inteUigrnee. the king of Sweden quitted Turkey, and after travara- ing Germany without any attendant, ar- ri«M aafely at Stralaund, the capital of Swediali Pomerania. At the opening of the neit cunMign, (a.b. 1715) Itralaund waa besieged by the Pmuians, Danea. and Saxons, and though ohatioately defended by the king, waa forced loi capitulate, while ha narrowly eaoaped ir a iiBmU vesaal to his native shorea. All Burtfpe BOW considered that his last effort timi been made, when it was suddenly an> ntnioeed that he had invadtd Norway. He had found in his new minister, baron de Ooerti, a man who encouraged his most extravagant projects, and who was as bold in the cabinet as his master was undaunted in the Held. Taking advantage of a cool, neat that existed between Russia and the othe.^ euemieaof Sweden, Goerta proposed that i'eter and ChrWea should unite in strict ai>:UT, and dictate the law to Europe. A part of lii^r <)eiing plan was the restora- tion , h r 11 P ;^ b -|>^ ...^ li -.«■ •. Cl M m V u ft m e; d e si "" 0- '^M,l^.-y *«9??!'«'!!iS«WCTffl«iSWW»W 0* o o o ■ji — ^ ^' ^l" A.B. 179).— TM siHMtaii or aAkBiaiA cbpis to tSB auBi or tAvoT. Outline Sictc^ of (licncril ^tstorv. a? We now rclarn to th« •ffair* of Spain ■nd other conliRetolal itatM. We have mwb that the death of (he cinperor and th« a«- ectaion of the arobduke Charlea tn the im- perial ihroBc, left Philip V. vndiaputed maa- ter of HpaiB and of ita coloniea. Hia ilrat queen ueiiiK dead, he married BMaabeth FartaeUk heirea* of Ponna, Tuaeany, and Placenlia ; a woman of maaculine apirit, who, having a powerful ioliuence over the niinii of her huabaud, and beine herself di- rected bf the daring cardinal Albcroni, bit prime mini«ter, indulged in the proa- fleet of recovering tlioae poaaeasiont which iad been wreiiedOrom Suain, and contirm- ed bf the peace of Utnciit. The sciiemea of Alberoni, in fact, went much farther) by the aid or Charlea XII. of Sweden, and I'eter.L.bf Rusaia, he fleaigned (o cbann the political condition of Europe ( he de- airM i5 reatoire the Stuarta to the throne of England; to deprive the duke of Or leana of the regency of France ; and to pre- vent the iiiterference of the emperor by engaging the Tifrkatoaaaail hiadominhina. Theae ambitioui prajecta were defeated br what waa termed the "qnadrople altiaBce'* (a.d. 1716) brtwoen Auatria, France, Eng- land, and Holland- The court of Spain for a . time reaiated tbia poaferful confederacy : but ita diaaatera, by land and aea, compelled Philip to acccfc to the terma which were of- fered bim, and Alberoni was diamiatcd *. d. 1730. A privatt: treaty waa afterwarda con- cluded between the king of Spain and lh« emperor ; a^d another, for the expreaa pur- poae of counteracting it, waa concludeiT b«> tw litica of the cabinet. Sir Bobert Walpole continuing at.the head of althira alter the accai^on of George II. Seme few yeara pievibua to the death of hia father, the na- tion had expoKenced much loea and con- fbaidn by the faiilure of the' "South-aea acheme," a cammercial apecolation on ao ejitenaitc a acale that it had well-nigh pro- duced a national bankruptcy. It waa a eloae imitation of the celebrated " Mia- aiiippi acheme," which had a short time before involved in rvin thouaanda of our Gallic nei|[htiottra. 'fhepaciAo diapoaition of cardinal Fleury, prime miniater of Franc^ and the no leaa paeiile viewa of Walpole, for nearly twenty Mara accured the happtnr»s and peace eif both countries. But the pugnaciona apirtt of the people, and the remembrance of old grievances on both sides, led to new alter- eationa with the Spaniarda, which ware greatly aggravated by their attacking the Bngliah employed in cutting log-wood in the bay of Canipeachy. A war waa the con- aequence, and France became the ally of Spain, A. D. 17S9. A small force being sent to the West Indiea, under admiral Vernon, the important city of Porto-Uello was cap- tured ; which success induced the English to send out other arniamciita upon a larger acale. One of these, under commodore Anaon, sailed to the South Seaa, and after encountering severe aturnis, by which hia foree waa much diminished, he ravaged the eoasta of Chili and Peru, and eventually captured the rich gallmm annually bouna firom Acapnico to Manilla. Tlie other ei- pedition waa directed againat Carthagena; out it proved most disastrous, owing to the mismanagement and disputes of the com- mandera, and to the unhealihincaa of the climate, not leas than 1S,(MN) tioopa kaving ftdlen victima to diacaae. CUAPTEB XIX. trtnn tht Jeeeuiau of the Smpreu Theream, ^Juttria, to tht Ptact (tf Aia-la-ChMptlU, Wb now return to the atate of alhirs in aorthem Europe. On the death of the eBi> peror, Charlea VI., hia daughter, Maria Thereaa, by virtue of the Mragmatie aaad^ tion, to vened the atates, she appeared before the assembly with her infant aon in her arma, and made such an eloquent appeal, that the .O a •• . A.D. 1737.— DB. BBaOLBT BlaCOTIBB TBB ABKBBATIOR Or TUB riXBB atABB. . o t.B. 1738.— A COL 28 dtttUnc Skktult o( (Hicncral T^iMtoxn. Boblei with one accord iwore to defend her cause till death. " Moriaraur pro aaaa noetro Maria Theresa." Nor were theie mere idle wordi i her patriotic suhiecta ruihed to armi ; and, to the aatoniahment of her enemiea, a largH Hungarian army, under the command of Prince Charlea of Lorraine, marcheil to the relief of Vienna, and the elector wa» obliged to raiie the aiege. A eubaidy waa at the laroe time voted to her by the Dritiih parliament, and the war asiumed a more favourable aapect. The Auttrianitook Munich, after defeating the Bavariani at Meniberg ; and the prince of Lorraine expelled the PruRiiana and Sasona from Moravia. The elector, how- ever, had the grntiflcatioj, on retiring into Bohemia, to take the uity of Prague ; and having been crowned king of Bohemia, he proceeded to Frankfort, where he waa chosen emperor uadcr the name of Charlea VII., A.D. 1742. The king of Prussia having obtained a brilliant victory over the Austrians at Ciarslau, took immediate advantage of hia position, and sigued a separate treaty vrith the queen of llungarr, who ceded to him Lower Hilesia and tilati, on condition of hia remainlDg neutral during her contest with the other powers. The conduct of Frederick gave just cause of offence to the court of France ; for, thus deprived of its most powerful ally, the French arnijr must have been inevitably ruined, but tor the auperior abilitiea of marshal Belleisle, who effected one of the most masterly retreats through an enemy's country that ban been recorded in tlie annals of modern wart'are. Lottia XV. now made offers of peace on moat equitable terms ; but the aueen. elated with success, haughtily rejected them. In consequence of a victory gained by prince Charles of Lorraine, she had also loon the gratifl cation of recovering the imperial dominions from her rival Ciiarles VII., who took refuge in Frankfort, and there lived io comparative indigence and obscurity. England had now become a principal in the war; and the united British, Hano- verian, and Austrian forces marched from Flanders towards Germany. The king of England had arrived in the allied camp ; and the French commander, marshal ae Noailles, having cut off all their supplies, the destruction of the Uritish and Austrian army was anticipHted ; either by being rut to pieces if they aitempted a retreat, or by their surrender. They commenced their retreat; and,fununately fur them, the good generalship of Noailles, nhn had taken poaaession of the villaKC of Dettiiigen, in their fironi , was counteracted by the rash- ness of his nephew, the count de Gram- mont, who advanced into a small plain to give the allies battle ; but the impetuosity of the French troops was met by the re- solute and steady courage of the allies, which obtained for them the victory of Dettingen. The marshal retreated; but the allies, owing to the irresolution of George II., obtained no farther advantage. The haughty and ambitiooa eonduet of the empress, who avowed her intention of keeping Bavaria, gave great offience to se- veral of the German princes ; and France, Prussia, and the elector palatine, united to check the growing power of Austria. The French anus were rietorious in Flanders i the king of Prussia, who bad invaded Bo- hemia, waa defeated with great loss, and forced to make a precipitate retreat into Siivsia. a. n. 17-14. Not long after this the death of the elector of Bavaria removed all reasonable grounds for the continuance of hostilities, Itis son having renounced all claims to the imperial throne, while Maria Theresa agreed to put him in poasesslon of his hereditary dominions. During the campaicn of 174S the impe- rialists lost Parma, Placentia, and Milan. In Flanders a large French army, under nurshal Base, invested Toumay ; while the allies, under the duke of Cumberland, though greatly inferior in numbers, march- ed to its relief. The king of France and the dauphin wcrt iu the French camp, a»d their troops were strongly posted behind the village of Fontenoy. The British in- fantry displayed the most undaunted va- lour, carrying everything before them ; but they were ill supported by their German and Dutch allies, whose indecision or want of courage lost the day. The capturv of Toumay, Ghent, Ostend, and Oudenarde by the French, was the immediate eon- sequence of this important victory. In England the fatal battle of Fontenoy disappointed the expectationa of the people, and produced great irritation iu the puolic mina; while it at the same time revived the hopes of the Jacobites, who thought it a fortunate time to attempt the restoration of the Stuart family. Charles Edward, the yonng Pretender, accordingly landed in Scotland, where his manly person and en- gaging manners won the hearts of the Highunders, who were everywhere ready to give him a hearty welcome and join hia standard. Thus supported by the High- land chiefs and their clans, he took pos- session of Dunkeld, Perth, Dundee, and Edinburgh. Having proclaimed his father, he marcned against Sir John Cope, the royal commander, over whom he obtaiued a victory at Preston Pans. After receiving some reinforcements he crossed the Euglish border, took Carlisle and Lancaster, and marched boldly on to Derbv. But being disappointed in his hopes of powerful as- sistance frnm the English Jacobites, he took the advice of the minority of his offi- cers, and retraced his steps. On his re- turn to Scotland his forces were consider- ably augmented ; and, receiving a supply of money from Spain, be prepared to renew the contest with spirit. Bat though he was at first sucvesstui, by taking the town of Stirling, and defeating the troops sent against him at Falkirk, the approach of a larger army, commanded by tne duke of Cumberland, soon compelled the prince to retreat to the north. On reaching CuUo- den Moor, near Inverness, he resolved to A.D. I'£9. — TUB COnSICANS BRV0I,T taOM TUB BBrUBtlC OP ORIfOA. A.*. IiSS.— Ri II.UI. Outline SIcttb of (Scncral 1|UtoYV* 39 mall* • stand. Ai uaual, ih« IliithUnder* mad* • AirioM oiiMt ; but Iheir iinpi*rat« •liarKt was rcctiftd by a rloae and RalliUK Are of niutkclry and artillery, which tn a very alMft lime profcd dccitive. tiivinf up •II for lost. Charles Edward desired his parliiaa* to disperse, and became himself a wretched and proscribed fngitiTC, in the konrly dread of fklliuK into the hands of hi* merciless puriiuerst who, after their victory, with lendlike barbarity, laid waste the country with fire snd sword. After wanderinn in the Hiifhlands for several months, and receiflng namerous proofs of the fldelity of his I'ufortunat* adherenta, whom the reward of 3U,UU0i. for his capture did not tempt to betray him, he esca|^ to Franca: a.d. IJM. In the mean time the French troops «n> der marshal Saxe were overrunninc the Netherlands; Bmssels, Antwerp, and Na- mur were captured i and the sanjjniinary battle of Bouooui ended the campaign. In Italy, the arms of France and her allies were not equally successful; and after a series of battles in Germany and the Low Countries, in which the fortune of war was pretty equalljr balanced, conferences were opened at Ais-la-Chat»elle, and prelimi- naries of peace signed: a.d. I74>*. The basis of this treaty was the restitution of all places taken during the war, and a mutual release of prisoners. Frederic of rruMta was guaranteed in the possession of Silesia and Ulats; the Hanoverian suc- cession to the English thmne was recog- nised, and the cause of the Pretender aban- doned. We brought our notice of Russia down to the death of IVter II. in 1730. When that occurred, a council of the nobles placed on the throne Anne Iwannowa, daughter of Ivan, Peter's eldest brother, who soon broke throurt the restrictions imposed upon her at Iter accession. 8he restored to Persia the provinces that liitd been con- qtiered by Peter the Great ; and terminated a glorious «ar against Turkey, in con- junction with Austria, by surrendering every place taken during the contest : A. D. 1736. She is accused of being at- tached to male favourites, the principal of whom was a man of obscure birth, nnmed John Bircn, who was elected duke of Cour- land, and who governed the empire with all the despotism of an autocrat. Previously to her death, Anne had bei]ueathed the throne to the infant Ivan, and appointed Biren regent; but the latter enjoyed his high dignity only twenty-two days, when he was arrested and sent into exile in Si- beria. Russia has ever been noted for its cabals, intrigues, and revolutions. The soldiery had been induced to espouse the cause of Eliiabeth, daughter of Peter the Great. Anne was arrested and imprisoned ; the infant rinpcror was confined in the fortress of Sclmsselburg ; and Elizabeth was immediately proclaimed empress of all the Rnsiias. This princess concluded an advantageous peace with Sweden ; and lent her powerful assistance to Maria The- resa, in her war with the king of Prussia, fur whom lUiaabatii felt a vloUui petsenal enmity. CIIAPTRR XX. Prfrtu ^f Krtnit during tk* 8tr*n Ttmti H'ar <■ JfarejM, Jnurira, aarf tk* Ku»t lai/iM. Duaiaa the period we have been describ- ing, in which the west and the north of Europe resounded with the cries of distress or the shouts of victory, the throne of Hiu. dostan was iUed by Mahmuud Shah, a voluptuous prince ; «>ho, in order to avoid bcciiining the objirct of personal hatred, eondded all public business to the nobles and his ministers: these ofllcers oiVnded or neglected the snbahilar of the Deccan, whb invited Nadir (thah to invade the East Indies. In 1738 the Persian warriormarched into that country at the head of an army inured to war and greedy vt plunder, and defeated with the utmost ease the innu- merable but disorderly troops of the mogul. I1ie crown and sceptre of Mahmoud lay at the feet of his conqueror : Delhi, bis capi- tal, was taken ; every individual whose ap- pearance rendered it probable that he was ac peon allies by fresh concessions of l^itory on everv such occasion. This naturally rouwd the jealousy of tlieir English rivals ; who adopted a similar line of policy; ao that whenever there was a rupture between the native princes, they cocn found allies in the European settlers. A fierce conten- tion arose tor the nebobship uf the Car- natic. The French supported the claims of Chunda Sahib; the English being applied to by Mohammed Ali, sun of the late na- bob of AnM>t,eiipAu»o(t bi8 cause: a.i>. I74l. It was at this time that Mr. Olive (after- wards lord Clive) appeared in the capacity of a military leader. lie had been originally in the civil xervice of the East India Com- pany ; but lie now exchanged the pen for the sword, and soon proved himself more M t M fi m I A R a m K s ■ M m I A.D. 1741.— *■« KINO OP PRUSSIA COMPLKTRS TUB COKQUBST OP SllBSIA. [fiS A.B. 1742.— •■■AT VIBB At COmTAWTIXOrtB! 3000 H001«« OltlBOIBB. B a g s « *• K M 9 a H m I & n 4 SO ^tttliiM SIct J; of (Scncral 1|istors. tbaa B mBteb for all the talenU which were broofht into pUy Bgaintt him. With b ■mall force he took Arcot: and he aiter- warda raecnsfully defended it agjainit Chondah Sahib, who besieged it with a numerous armr. Many brilliant vietoiies foUowed on the side of the EoKlirii and their alUes. The lU^h of Taqjore and other independent chief* Joined them. The Freneh lost most of their acquisitions: Mohammed All's claim was acknowledged ; and a treat* was entered into between the Freneh and Engliih, tbat-neither party should in future interfere with the affairs of the native prinees. Time proved how useless was such a stipulation I The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was not of long duration. France and England were still at war in the East Indies, and their differences in respect to the boundaries of their respective colonies in North America still remained for a^ustment. Another war in Europe was the inevitable conse- quence; and from the term of its duration it obtained the name of "the seven years' war." England united with Prussia ; and an alliance between the emperor, France, Sossia, Sweden, and Saxony, was imme- diately concluded s a. b. 1768. The com- mencement of the campaign had a discou- raging aspect for the king of Prussia; the Russians were advancing through Lithu- ania, a Swedish army occupied his attention in Pomerania, and the united forees of the Fren^ and imperialisU were advancing through Germany. With his characteristic boldness, Frederic anticipated the attack of his numerous foes, and invaded both Saxony and Bohemia; making himself master of Dresden, routing the Austrians at Lowesits, and compelling 17,000 Saxons to lay down their arms at Parma* In the ensuing campaign the marshal d'Estrees crossed the Rhine, with 80,000 men, to invade Hanover. The Hanoverians and Hessians, under the command of the duke of Cumberland, wero driven out, and the French became masters of the elec- torate. Unawed by the formidable propa- rations of his enemies, Frederic again as- sumed the offensiire, and penetrated into Bohemia; Lut a victory obtained at Kolin, br the Austrian general Daun, compelled him to retroat hastily into his dominions, whicI^eK now threatened in every direc- tion. The French had rapidly advanced upon Masdebnrg; the victorious Russians threatened the north of Silesia, whilst the Austrians had attacked the south, and even Kenetrated to Berlin, when they levied eavy contributions ; and the prince of Brunswick Bevern had delivered up Bres- lau. In this extreme emerf^ ncy, Frederic could scarcely expect to acquiro any fur- ther iame; but, with his accustomed en- ergy, he hastened to Dresden, assembled an army, and with half the number of his French and German opponents, gave them battle at the village of Bosbach, and ob« tained over them a most brilliant victory. His loss amounted to only Ave hundred while that of the enemy was nine thousand, in killed, vrounded, and nrisoners. In four weeks after he obtained the far mon important victory of Lissa, and reco- vered Breslau. During the campaign of I76fl^ the Prus- sian monarch recoverod Schweidnits, and invested Olmutt. In the meantime prince Ferdinand of Brunswick crossed the Rhine, defeated the French at Crevelt, and pene- trated to the very gates of Louvain in Bra- bant. No commander, nerhaps, ever en- dured the vicissitudes of fortune in mora rapid succession than did Frederic in this campaign ; but though he was several times in the most imminent peril, he at length compelled his formidable rival, marshal Daun, to raise the si^es of Dresden and Leipsic, and to retire into Bohemia, while Frederic himself entered the former city in triumph. It is in crises like these that the destiny of states is seen to depend less upon the extent of their power, tnan upon the quali- fications of certain eminent individuals, who possess the talent of employing and increasing their rasources, and of animating national energies. This was in an especiiu degroe the case of Frederic the Great. HA was engaged with the powerful and well- disciplined armies of Austria; with the French, whose tactics and impetuosity were undisputed: with the immovable perse- verance of the Russians ; with the veterans of Sweden, and with the admirably orga- nised forces of the empiro. In numerical Btran^h they far mon than trebled the Prussians; yet he not only kept them con- stantly on the alert, but frustrated their combined attacks, and often defeated them with great loss. At the opening of the next campaign (1769) the fortune of war was on the side of the Prussians. They destroyed the Rus. sian mairasines in Poland, levied ^ntribu- tions in Bohemia, and kept the imperialists in check. Prince Ferdinand, in order to protect Hanover, found it necessary to give the French battle at Minden, where success crowned his efforts. And had it not been for the unaccountable conduct of lord George Sackville, who commanded the ca- valry, and disobeved or misunderstood the order to char([e tne discomfited French, a victory aa glonoua and complete as that of Blenheim would, in all probability, have been the result. A decided reverse soon succeeded ; the combined Austrian and Russian army of 80,000 men attacked the Prussians at Cunersdorf, and after a most sanguinary conflict the latter were defeat- ed. Frederic soon retrieved this disaster, and the war continued to proceed with du- bious advantage; but the English grew tired of this interminable kind of wanare, and turned their attention from the actions of their intrepid ally to matters affectinv their colonial interests in the East and West Indies, and in America. The bold and skilful operations of Clive in the Eait Indies attracted great notice. Having reinstated the nabot of Areot, his next great exploit was the recaptura of o ■ M M ► O A.D. 1765.— QtJlTO, IN rSBV, UBaTBUTXn BT AN BABTHQUAKB. - r-^ A.U. :765.— TBI CIUTAUB* BB IT. SBOBOB, (*ttB VBBtBXOBB) BIM, AOKO 70. dtttUnc Sktit^ of (general ?|U>tori|. di « M H O m o a B ■4 *■ M CalcatU, which had been taken by the nabob of BennL Thia waa followed by the unexampled victorr of Plauy, and the Inal ettabliahmentof the Britieh in north- ern India.— In America, admiral Boieawen burned the enemy's •hips in the harbour of Louisburg, and compelled the town to rar> render ; the ieUnde of St. John and Cape Breton were taken by general Amherst; and brindier Forbes captured fbrt Du Quesne ; whue the French settlements on the African coast were reduced. The island of Guada- loupe, in the West Indies, was also taken by the English. Crown Point and Ticonde. rago were conquered by r^'eneral Amherst, and Sir William Johnson gained possession of the important fortress of Niagara. The French, thns attacked on every side, were unable to withstand the power and enthu- siasm of tbisir enemies I and general Wolfe, who was io have been auisted in his attack on Quebec by Amherst, finding that the latter i^neralwas unable to form a Junction with lum, resolved to attempt the ardnoiui andhasardous enterprise alone. With this view he landed his troops at night under the heights of Abraham, and led them up the steep and precipitous ascent ; so tha^ wuen morning ■ dawned, the French com- mander, the marquis de Montcalm, to his astonishment saw the English occupying, a position wiiich had before been deemed inaccessible. To save the city a battle was now inevitable ; both generals prepared with ardour for the conflict. Just aa the scale of victory was beginniuc to turn in favour of the British, the heroic Wolfe fell mortally wounded. With redoubled energy his gal- lant troops fought on ; till at length the French fled in disorder; and, when the in- telligence waa brought to the dying herOj, he raised his head, and, with his last breath, faintly uttered, " I die happy : " nor was the death of .Montcalm less noble or soldier- like. He had been mortally wounded ; and he was no soonerapprised of his danger than he exclaimed, " So much the better : I shall not live to witness the surrendelr^f Quebec." The complete subjugation of the Canadas ouickly followed. And, amidst the exploits 0f his army and navy, George II. expired suddenly at Kensington, in the 34th year of his reign, and was succeeded by his grand- son, George III., a. b. 1760. On the European continent the last cam- paigns were carried on with less spirit than before: both sides were exhausted by their Srevious efforts, and the party which was esirous of peace endeavoured to avert such occurrences as might revive the hopes of the enemy. A family compact was now con- cluded between the courts of Versailles and Madrid; and seeing no chance of gaining any colonial advantages over Britain while its navy rode triumphant on the ocean, they resolved to try their united strength in at- tempting the subjugation of its ancient ally, Portugal. That country was defended inore by its natural advantages than by its military force j the progress of the Spaniards being retarded by the miserable condition of the roads, and by the neglect of all provision for their a|utenance. An English finrce of 8000 menJtogether with a large supply of arms and ammnnition, was sent to assist the Portuguese ; and, thon^ aeveral towns at first fell into the himda of the Spaniards, the British and native troop4 4i*pInyMl a deeided supepority tii^ugbout the cam- paign, and OMUpeUed them to mapuate the Kingdom with considerable loss. In Germany, prince Ferdi&snd and the mar- quis of Oranby not only protected Hanover, but recovered the greater part of Jiesse. At the same time Frederic experiejbced an un- expected stroke of copd fbrtune. The em- frees Elisabe^th of Bussi)^ died t and Peter II., who had long admired the heroic king, an4 vhohad never forgotten that the in- fluence' <^ Fre4erio 'hadT especially contri. butedtothe foundation of^his hones and neatness, had jm sooner ascended the f hrone thani he made peace with him, and restcHFed all the oonaueits of the Bussians. nom that time the idilig was not only ena- bled to concentrate his whqle force aninst the Ausi^ahs, but was supported hy rater, who concluded an alliance with him, and despatched to hu aid a corps of 30,000 men. 'P>e reign of Peter HI. was, however, of Very brief dar«tion ; and Catherine II., al- though she confirmed the peace, recalled the auxiliary Bussians from the Prussian Wmy, Meanwhile the English were extending their conquests in the West Indies. They took Havannah and Manilla from the Spa- niards; with Martinique, St. Lucie, Gre- nada, and St. Vincent, from the French. Tired of a war which threatened the whole of tWr colonies with ruin, the cabineti of France and Spain were glad to ilnd that the British minister was equally anxious to bring the war to a close. Peace, which waa now the universal object of desire to all parties, was concluded at Versailles, on the 10th of February, 1768, between Great Bri- tain, France, and Spain ; and five days later, at Hubertsburg in Saxony, between Aus- tria and Prussia. This memorable contest, which had required such an extraordinary expenditure of blood and treasure, — a war in which the half of Europe bad be'^n in arms against England and Prussia,— was concluded, with scarcely any alteration in the territorial arranp^ments of Germany, and without producing any great or Jest- ing benefit to either or the belli^rents, so far, at least, as their interests in Europe were concerned. But in the East and West Indies, as well as in America, it had added greatly to the colonial possessions of Great ritain. :«1%. »«..B«..T!; CHAPTER XXI, From the Conelution of the Seven Teartf War to the final Partition of Poland. Tnn "seven veers' war," the principal features of wbicn we have given, left most of the contending powers in a state of great exhaustion but none had been more af- fected by it than France. While that coun- try, however, was declining, Russia, under S A.D. 1764.— rnn socinir or tub jbsdits is AnoLisnxD ih vbancb. '& 9 (-J A. >. 1767.— tBB KBPUBLIO OV OBNOA CBOBt GOBIICA TO VBARCB^ the empren Catherine II., was rapidly ac- quiring a preponderating influence among the nations of Europe t and bo opportnnitjr of adding to her already extensive territo- ries were ever ne^lect^. On the death of Augustus III., king of Poland, the diet as- aembfed at Warsaw to choose a successor. Catherine espoused the cause of Stanislaus Poniatowsky : and as the discussions were not conducted with the temper which ought to diaracterixe deliberative assenihlies, the prudent empress, as a land had long been agitated by disputes, both religious and political; and the new sovereign was unable to control the'^le- vents of discord by which he was,' sur> rounded. The animositv which existed be- tween the catholics and the chMidimfs; as the dissenting sects Were called. Had risen to a height incompatible with the safety of the kin^om. The dissidents, who had been much oppressed by the catholics, claimed an tquality of rights, which, being ri^fused, they appealed to foreign powers foe. protec- tion — those of the Greek church to the empress of Russia, and the Lutherans to the kings of Prussia and Denmark. A civil war now arose in all its horrors ; and its miseries were greatly aggravated by the insolence and brutality of the Russian troops which Catherin.^ had sent to the aid of the dissidents. The catholic nobles fbrmed a confederacy for the maintenance of their privileges and their religion: but it was useless to contend agaiiist the over- whelming forces brought against them. Cracow, where they (or a long time held out against famine and pestilience, was at length taken by storm, and; the unhappy ftigttives were pursued beyond the Turkish frontiers. The protection which the confederates received in Turkey, and mutual complaints eonceming the incursions of the wandering hordes of Tartars and Cossacks, had, some jrears before, furnished a pretence for war between the Porte and the Russians. It was impossible that Mustapha III. dould, any longer contemplate with indifference* the transactions which took place in Po- land: not only was the securitv of his northern provinces endangered, but he felt justly indignant at the violation of his do- minions. He, accordingly, remonstrated with the empress; and she speciously re- plied, that having been requested to send a few troops to the assistance of her unhappy neiKhbour, in order to quell some internal commotions, she could not refuse. But a body of Russians having afterwards burned the Turkish town of Balta, and put all its inhabitants to death, war was declared, and the European and Asiatic domiuious of the Porte summoned to arms. While all the olllcers who were to compose the suite of the grand vizier were preparing at Constan- tinople for their departure, the multifarious hordes of militia assembled themselves out of Asia, and covered the Bosphorus and Hellespont with numerous transports. On the other hand, the different nationt composing the extensive empire of the autocrat of all the Russias, most of whom were but a few degrees removed from bar- barisni, nut themselves in- ,nM^iojn';J and. a body^of troops selected from pm9ngJthe^^ corps^dispersed over Poland wis asse'mbled': on the^side of ihe Ukraine. The capitation:' taxpofjhe ^Russian empire was rwsf;d,.and i|i^e<|ii^bution of 20 per cent, k-vied on m^salsiriep. Large armies on' both si,4es advanced agaiqfi the I)ani|bei;and in the snringof 1769the Turkish sti^dai^ was dis- played on tlicfrontiers;bf RM8sia> where the Ottoman troops committed' frightfhl ra- vages, and drove the' enemy'- across the Dneister: they, however, suffered a severe defeat at Choczim; and a more decisive blow was soon after struck bv the Russiaiis/ who twice defeated the Turkish fleet, and at length bnrnt fifteeii of their shipsof the line in the bay ofChesm«. Mje.aintime, the Russian landforees wereequfdlyosuccessAil ; the grand OttVmaii army was^ tbtsdly iover^. thrown near the Pruth, and the capture^ of Bender, Ismail, and other places,.. quickly followed. Greece, long accustomed .to.,, siibjection, was but ill-provided vrith trobps, and the: inhabitants punned their'- 9wn affairs.;. un-° molested: but when they; received ratelU- gehce of the enterprisejof the Russians^a Christian people of the Greek, church— to deliver the Greeks from the yoke of the; barbarians, the love of liberty was rekiiiw died in many of their h^-irts. All Laconia, the plains of Argos, Arcadia, and a part of Achaia, rose in insurrection, and spared none of their former rulers. The Turks, in the mean time, crossed the isthmus in onier to relieve Patra ; and the pasha of Bosnia. vvith:.TO,000 men, advanced with little re- sistance into the ancient Messene ; at Mo- don the Greeks were defeated with great loss, and it 'Was evident- that their° hope of. regaining their freedom was.adelnsive one. At the end of the campaign the plague broke out at Yassy, and spread to Moscow, where it carried off 9U,U0U persons, at the rate of nearly lOOO victims (Uily. The Crimea was seised by the Russians, and the grand vizier was forced to retreat into Haenius: th^' janizaries rose, put their aga to death, and set fire to their camp. The Porte in the meantime was delivers from All Bey, the Egyptian pasha, who. fell in battle against his brothvr-in-law, iMo-- hammed. Europe had taken-a'more- lively interest in his adventures, because he,. ap- peared to be elevated above national pre- judices ; but his fault consisted in his mani- festing his contempt for those errors too early, and in too decided a manner. The Russians at length crossed the Danube, and the janizaries gave way. They were twice compelled to abandon the siege of Silistria, and they lost a great part of their artillery hear Varna. But a reverse of fortune was nigh : for not long afteir, Hassan Pasha, a man of great courage and intelligence, by birth a Persian, aiid who was high in the A.n. 17f>8.^THlt HOtAL ACAPHMT BSTABLISHEn IN lONDOK. J'^ ^ Z'^ o 0"o ?*4"Ov 'KiA.oiiti or it. rA3r;i^ick toumobd in laiLAifi^ in ^ ■ ^ ■',..' ■'" -it' - - ■ *y^^^^^^ 7IM vw-'w' ^^^o]aiidi-;" Ah atteiiap't; on the'per- .iMhaFliberty, of Stanislaus haViht^ beeii .;iiiful'e l>y^the;tarbuieDt'ahd bigoted hoblesi: j'4t''sjema 'M '«°«'Tc nbf in &! condition to-v^a^e war ,agH' ri8t \ 'Vij^we'ful trio, their iiiediatorial i'nteiiWi' v.'uld have bceh ineffectual. A diet v:.: ' d to ^ve a colour to the transa j\. 4<), a unijuority of vote's. being secuirek' ' . .imies'pf the' Spoilers se.vcirially tiook possessiaii bf'the districts which had been previously parcelled 'out.; and little vise reinained'of'lPlbland^findifependent Poland^ batato.liuiguairaV<^dlls''iiame;: A. Di'l From' iiie''C6mmenMment tf the jmeriean Waritotht'ReeogniUon'pf./the Ikdifpen- :dinfe! is the Anie- ricah war. Oiii notice bf it, as a matter of course, will be most brief and cursory. Among the earliest settlers in North Ame- rica, were many who emi^ated from Great Britain on account of civil or religious per- seCution-^men, who 'being of republican iirinciples/ and jealous of the sniallest eh- croachiiients of their rights, natiiridly in- stilled: those pnneiples into the minds of their children; and thus laid the fbundation of that spirit of resistance to arbitrary acts of powers which kindled the llames of war between the mother countrv and the colo- nies, and ended in the establishment of a povrerfiil republic. The constitution of the American colonies bore the.original impress of liberty. t7uder the protection of Great ^.ritain. North America stood in fear of no^ fprei^h enemy'; and tlie consciousqessof her nalive strength was already too great to per- mit her to feel much appreheusion even of her ^mother country. tUligion was every- where'free from restraint ; agriculture was held in. honour ; and peace Rtiiojeief were ;.pfotected against the atteihpt|^ of p/trti^s, and wilid and lawieBJi m^n. lli.e people, like the counti7 thejrUtihjibited. appeared to be in the fiill vigour of jroutn; ardent, inde- pendent, and capable of astonishing cxer^ tions ,ii;lien uoused by the stimulus of the passions, , In 'i7Gb a.Btamp-dutjr on various articles : was imposed bv. the; British parliament bh 'the colonists;; oiitpn their remonstratiii^, the act was' -soon '.after repeided. Subset qnently .a'duty was lai'd on tea: this WiaS .;'«si'sted;'and,at Boston the tea was thrown into the sea. Coercive measures were then tried; andvm. 1775 a civil war began. In the fbl|bw.illg^ yetur' the Americans issued' their declaration bf independicfnce. Many battles.vvere fojigbt, but nptlii^hg very de- cisiyetbpk'piaM' 'till; the' jreair 1777> when - (^nei:al':Bur|R>yue, the British cohim'ander^ ■was surronn'dcd at Saratoga, and compelled to surrender,.with.al)but 4U00 men. . Witha blind infatuation, little dreamihg of tiie danger of espousing principles pro- fessedly republictm^:au^ With hPotner yievr> indeed, than thkt of humbliiig a powerflu n'eighbou^'^Frah'ce npw entered the lists as the iill'y of the A>nericahs ; and Spai'hihb lie|isj blindly.followred tbie example. But England: had aiig^en ted the number of her troops, and', placed them under the cpmraahd' of lords .C.oi;nw^s and Bawdpn; whb defeated the. .Anle'ricah general 'Washington; wmie ' admiifjd Rodney displayed his. shpertofity in a'naval'engagemeht with the Spaiiiards. But it .wu itbt merely the hostilitjr of the French; ahd Spaniards that the English had to cope with :. the jealpiisy. of the (pn^lf nehtal powers displayed i'tsielfbT their ehV :te'rin^:into an arihed heutrali'ty, the avowed object of which was .to resist the rigltt of search which England's long established naval superiority littdt^uglit her to exer- cise as a right bver the vessels of other nations. Holland was now added to the; list of epemibsi the. fkithless; po.ndiict of thAt staite having induced the British gbr vernraent to declare war against it; aiid many of the Dutch ppfisessiPns in 'Spu't'h America and the 'West Indies vrere talc£n from them. Meantime the war in America, as well as on its coasts, was carried on with increased Vigour ; the French exerting them* selves not as Dicre partisans in the cause, but .as principals. It was evidcut that, al- though the war might be long protracted, the recovery of the North American colo^ nies was not likely to be accomplished 1 and as the English bad been several times out-generaled, and the last loss on their part consisted of GOOD men at York-toyrn, under Cornwallis, who had been CompelKeid tP surrender to apowcrful combined FreiicH and Americain aihtiy commanded by Wash- ington, England began to think seriously H A. B; '1783. — A MOST WOKOBRFUI, BRUrTION or K.OVVT UBCLA TAEBS PLACB. Li, ry f ^ .'.00 ;■' X /ir.; ,■•0 ^'? o 01 |5^^>i\^-ff^ Q a o M. o ,0 O o 'cO e ■^' o ce;^ o / J? ,^3. I ^c^l o -r— C — TTP k.I>» il780.-r4VITATOV III. •'. w '.we ^4 #ttll(ne Sketch of «ren*rat Utetorp. ^^ acgSiKj5 ^-\:;^ tii? J^« Si 'I- a « So >l s H m 'O •• M M H K o O O s M s ■-■■f B M I s H t* of making up the qoanrel with her rebel- JiontsDnt, ^ O Darinf the latter part of the war admiral Bodneyfi^Teihe Erench fle^t, commanded Sy ctfunt de Oraste, a memorable defeat in the West Indies; whilst general Elliot iHewed the prench and Spaniard* how fti. ^lewere ^heir attempts against Gibraltar, jcshort, mat as were the disadvantages ^ii|th which t>e English had to contend, the jeibergieS and resources of the nation were still equal to the task of successAillf coping iwltH its enemies in Europe; whiW iu the "iiast empire of British India fresh laurels Were continually gathered, and the French were there dispossessed of all their settle- Hients. ... oOn the 20th of J«nuary, 1783, the mde- jpendenee of the United States was formally Acknowledged by England; and George Washington, the man who had led the ar- mies and directed the counpila of Aijnerica, !wai chosen pre»ident*i-'^;r::!rf:i-':/>S- '•■Si-'-: CHAPTER Xitlli. Prom thi Comtkenement of the French Be- folmtion, to the Death of Robetpierre. The most eventfUl period of modem liisr tory now bursts upon our view. In the course of the ages that )iave passed sueces- liively before us, we have witnessed sudden revolutioiis, long and Sanguinary contests, and tne; tranifer of some province or city from om sovereign to another at the ter- miiiktioh of a war. These have been ordi- nary events. We have also marked the gradual rise and fall of empires, the subju- Satiou of kingdoms, and the annihilation of y nasties ; but they bear no comparison to that terriftc.era of anarchy and blood fami- liarlj^,4^«ignated "the French Revolution." "^e history of that frightful period will be elsewhere related; we shall not here at- tempt lodescribe its causes, or notice the rise pf that stupendous military despotism Which so long threatened to bend the whole civilized World under its iron sceptre. The apologists of tlie French revolution tell us that it was owing to the excesses of an ex- pensive if a' ^1 A.S. 1787.— IHt-nACBMENT OF WARBItll UASTIMOS, WnOSB TRIAt. BROINI. -^"•o^ r^.o"^^^- X^ 8 rtj^f^: "Vo :A.B.,,1794l,— *■• rOU»B rATBIOTB BiriA* THI'BirillAlfS AT WAmSAW. s?=*rs! ?f- Outline S6 These E reparations were met in' a suitable manner y the English, whose effective male popu- lation might almost literally be said to be embodied for the defence of the country. At the same time a dangerous and exten- sive rebellion broke out in Ireland ; but the vigilance of the government defeated the intentions of the rebels, and they sub- mitted, though not without the severest measures being adopted, and the consequent effusion of blood. A secret naval expedition upon a large scale, with a well-appointed army on boards under the command of Buonaparte, had been for sonic time preparing. It at length set sail from Toulon, took possession of Malta On their way to Egypt, and, having eluded the yigilance.of Nelson, safely landed near Alexandriai which town they stormed, and massacred the inhabitants. The vete- ran troops of France everywhere prevailed over the ill-disciplined Mamelukes, and the whole of Egypt spoin submitted to the con- queror. Meanwhile admiral Nelson dis- covered and totally destroyed the French fleet in the bay of Aboukir. Whilst these events were passing in Egypt, the French government prosecuted its revolutionary principles wherever its emissaries could gain admittance. Rome was taken by them, the pope imprisoned, and a republic erected. Switzerland was also invaded, and notwithstanding the gallant effort* of the Swiss patriots, the countrr was united to France under the title of the Helvetian ire- public. The territory of Geneva was also incorporated with France. These unjusti- fiable invasions showed so plainly the ag- grandizing policy pursued by the French directory, that the emperor* of Russia and Austria, the king of Naples, and the Porte united with England to check their am- bitious designs. The year 1799 presented a continued scene of active warfare. The Neapolitans, who had invaded the Roman territory, were !. A.O. I79S.— SIR SIDRST SMITH SFfKCTS UIS KSCAPB VBOH TBI TBMFLB, AT PAUIS. d ©0 ® A. D. 17»7.— rOUTltAl CLUB! AiTD BIAPIRa kOOMI •OrF»1HI»» lH^ *P»*» BIIITAIlTt (iDtttUni Sltit^ of CEitttcral '^iatotij. 37 not dnlf tlriten' back, but the whole kijc- doni 01 Naples labmitted to the French, and the kinK was compelled to seek refuge in Sieiiy. The French armies also took possession of Tuscany and Piedmont ; but the operations of the allies were conducted with vigour and success. The archduke Charles routed the French under Jourdan in the hardfouKht battles of Ostrach and Stockach; and the Austro Russian amiy obtained a decisive victory at Cassano, and drove the eiiemy to Milan and Genoa The amis of the republic were equally unfor- tunate in other parts. Turin, Alessandria, and Mantua were taken ; and the French ttUdcr Joubcrt and Moreau, were totally routed at Novi. Switierland afterwards became the principal scene of action ; and there also the army of Suwarrof was suc- cessful; but another Russian army, com- manded by Koraskoffi was attacked and de- feated bv Massena> and Zurich taken by storm, in Italy, however, success still at- tended the idlics. The French were ex- pelled from Naples and Rome, and the papal chair waa soon after occupied by F us VII. 'While these important military opera- tions were occupying the armies in Europe, lluonaparte ha^ reduced Egypt, and formed the reaolution of invading 8yria. El-Arish, Gaza, and Jaffa had surrendered; and, with the confidence of certain success. Acre waa invested; but there, as in days of old, a British warrior waa its defender. The courage and activity of Sir Sidney Smith resisted the repeated assaults of the French during a siege of sixty-nine days ; and Auohaparte, though at the head of IS.OUO veterans, was completely foiled in all his attempts, and was obliged to retreat into Egypt. lie was afterwards successful in several encounteirs with the Turks, particu- larly at Aboukir; but foreseeing tnatj^tbe expedition would ultimately prove disas- trous, he confided the command to general Klebcr, and secretly returned to France. Buonaparte^s invasion of Egypt was consi- dered as pircparatory to an attempt on In- dia ; where, at the very time, the British arms were orowned with great success — Seringapatam having been taken, and our furmiaable enemy, Tippoo Saib, being found among the slain. Discord and anarchy reigned throughout France, under the weak, yet arbitrary, ad- ministration of the directory ; and the sud- den appearance of Buonaparte was the signal for a new revolution in the govern- ment. At the head of the conspiracy was his brother Lucien, president of the coun- cil of five hundred, who was supported by Cambaceres, Talleyrand, Siiyes, Fouch^, &C. The directory was speedily overturned, a senate and three consuls were appointed, and Buonaparte was chosen first consul. One of his first acts was that of making pacidc overtures to England, which were rejected. He then put himself at the head of the army, crossed Mount St. Bernard, and marched from victory to victory, till the uiemorable battle of Marengo decided the ' fi^te of Italy. The kudcesaes of the FreilMi* in Germany were of a less decisive natuni but the defeat of tlie aUics at Hohenlinden induced Francis II. to sign th^ treaty of , Luuevillc, by which he ceded some of his possessions in Germany, and transfemd , Tuscany to the duke of Forma. At the beginning of 18U1 England wU without an ally, and had to contend with ' another formidable opponent in Paul I. of I Russia, who bad induced Sweden and Den- t mark to unite with him in fomiing an, I armed neutrality. To crush this nortnerb ' confederacy in the bud. a lor»e fleet wa« ' sent to the Baltic, unde' ^u: ■ fUmand of ' Sir Hyde I'arker and loru ' .:ispn: Cooen- ' hagen was attacked, and the whole of the Danish ships were eithertaken or destroyed. This victory gave a fatal blow to the northertt confederacy, which was eventualU annihi- lated by the death of Paul, and tnu accea- sibnof his son Alexander, who immediately released the British vessels detained in hia ports, and otherwise shewed his inclination to be on amicable terms with England. In Egypt general Kleber had been assaa- ■inated, and the command of the French troops devolved on Mennu. An English airmy, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, had now arrived; and a decisive victory was gained by them at Alexandria; but they had to lament the loss of their {tallant eom- miinder, who fell in the action. Grand Cairo, Rosetta, and Alexandria, soon after surrendered, and the French agreed to evacuate the country. The other events of the year 1801 were of minor importance; and in the spring of the following year peace was signed at Amiens. England con- sented to surrender all its conquests, with the exception of (Dejyan and Trinidad ;the Ionian islands werewforra a republic ; and Malta was to hi restored to its original possessors. A new constitution was given to Frunoe in 18U2, by which Buonaparte was declared chief consul for life ; the whole of the ex- ecutive authority, and even the appoint- ment of his two colleagues being vested in him. New constitutions were alio given to Switzerland and the Italian republics. About this period Buonaparte sent a con- siderable force to reduce the island of St. Domingo, where Touissant L'Ouverture, a negro, had erebted a republic. After an obstinate and sanguinary contest, the re- bellious negroes submitted, and Touissant was treacherously seized and sent to France ; but the French were unable fully to recover the island. CHAPTER XXV. From the Reeommencement »/ HottilititI, to the Treaty of Tiltif. Tb:< treaty of .^icns was little better than a hollow truce; and many disputes arising respecting its fulfilment, the war was resumed. In open violation of the law of nations, Buonaparte immediately com- manded the arrest of all the English whom business or pleasure had drawn into France AT PAUIS. A.D. 1/93.— TUB ORAM) SBTaiVtOlk DECLABBS WAH AOAIKST VBANCB, aBfT. IS. ■'.'■m I* '-Jo -Q y S''^,^.'-'»'' S^i»'\Jteiii&i "•<;' C|^&» , .'ffl '^o"r^°^J ^fnera|H!|{^t0r^ !I3 '9; ■';a J'^ a u . O'. I'S M M M ■/a. • *"■-, o o .>] I. ,•5' M o r. §3 ^ii,( tbc people an idea ' ■ " ■' "ra^ticeacwerecRrryingbn ^nil^Mnfttcit desirous, ai ^mm^iiiithi tlie highest k^ei^atbelnore effiec- ^)^t^oK)(f) proclai nied Mnch.-^^ title which mmi^lately byall the iirope, Great' Britain and feb'jfepted; A.p. 180-1. _/jVflf'»?Jl!Sli»"foll9wing year Buonaparte Sntl'iRid; RiUaiii. But ah event n-hich V]pf;'ii(l£6thers was most calculated to raise iliechopcs of the ajlics, was the unexampled victory gained by Nelson off Trafalgar (Oct. 21) Qverthc combined fleets of France and Spain, In GermaiDy. the Austrian .army wu doomed to suffer grcA'lbsii. At the head of MU.OUO soldier.!!, I^appleon crossed the Rhine ; and at Ulm, the Austrian gene- ral Mack surrendered his whole fdrcfe, con- sisting of 140iOUO men^ Vienna was soon after entered by Napoleon, ati'd at length the Austrians were completely defeated at the battle of Austerlitz. This induced Francis to sue for pence ; and.a treaty was concluded at Presburg, by which he ceded, ifo France the states of Venice, and resigned i the'^Tyrol, &c., to the ncwlyrcreated king of Wirtemburg. Early in Ispe the English re-took the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch'. About the same time Naples' wias invaded by the French, and Napoleon gave his brother, j^oseph Buonaparte, the crown of that king- 'tlomi its legitimate sovei-eigh having p're- iViously retired to Sicily. Holland was also erected into a kingdtim, and given to his brother Louis. Amidst these and other important changes. for the aggrandizement of his family, Buonaparte formed the " con- federation, of the Rhine," the name given to those states whose rulers renounced the aijcient laws of the.empire. The continued encroachments of France now roused the „king of Prussia, who rushed precipitately into a war, and imprudently staked liis for- tnoe on the chance of one battle. This yrit thd celebrated battle of jeoa, where rlO.pOO. Pfussian* and Saxont contended with 1((),0U0 of tM French, and were. de< feate^Jkn^ closely pursued. Berlin fell 'intb ^be liAiida 6r the yictbiCSt and tu^ Prussian gcner^li Blucheft n(i€if ai brave resistatire, was fbriied to capitiilatii'. Prince Hohenloe ah'd ;hit; army surrend'r d at Prent|p)an. Silesji" vvaksoverrun by the French, who pe- XiiftT$> ' into Poland, and excited the PuTca t'b- ii'^tri their independenee. The Rus- ■iaUii, who were now advancing, met and 4bf^ated the French at Pultusk ; and, not- ^fithftanding the combined efforts uf Murat, Linnet, ptnd Ney, they were also succe«sfui at Gplomyn. In the insolence of pdwert Napoleon, M Berlin, issued his famous de- crees, prohibiting' all commercial inter- course with the British isles, arid command- ing the confiscatioi) of eVery irticle of Bri- tish manufacture ; which scheme of ekclu- sion.he dignifled with the name of th^ "tocitipental system." The grand Russian arm;^ niider Benning- sen, encountered a superibr French force near Eyiau, wh^re a sanguine, but indeci- sive conflict ensued. Da:ntzic surrendcrea to Lefeyre; and a complete victorr being gained by the French at Friedlaind, it wais shortly followed by the treaty of Tilsit. The^&ui^siana and Pirussians aiibmitte.dto all tlxe iihperious demands, of Napplbpn; but GustavuSj king; df Sweden,' alone re- fused to treat with him, or to recognise liia imperial dignity. The Dane's having yielded, to the influ- ence of France, an expedition was sent thither by. England, for the purpose of preventing the Danish fleet from falling into the nands of the French. Coipen- hagen surrendered after a few days' siege, and the ships and naval stores were deli- vered to the English.' This act of aggres- sipn was resented by the emperor of %iis^ sia,''w.ho declared war against England. Among other remarkable events of this year,, were the departure of the prince re- gent pf Portugju and his court to . the Brazils ; the cbnqueci of Portugal by the Frehch; and the erection of Saxpny into; akiiigdi^t^- CHAPTElt XiVI. The French Jnvagion of Spain, and ttibse- quent I'enintular War, What open force could not effect, was earned by intrigue and treachery; Napo- lepn having invited Charles I'V. .kin^ pf Spain, to a conference at Bayonne> seized his person, compelled him to abdicate, and transferred the crowii to Joseph Buonai- parte, whose place at Naples was. soon after occupied by Murat, Napoleon's brother- in-law. Spain was filled With French troopsi and no opposition was dreaded : but as sopii as the Spainiards recovered from their consternation, the people rose in. all parts, and proclaimed Ferdinand VII. The patriots began the war with great spirit;; the usuper fled from Madrid ; whilst Falafpx and the brave inhabitants a.D. 1802, — BUONArABTB IS DECLARED CONSUI^ VOR I.IPK, MAT S. O"- ■ o. ■;. o « 1 °'^:\Q pA'j^' r^K"}) ''^;«'^°°. 0*^0 ?<^0^ On' O j'O., « u. »,,, ,A II j/;i raAci^'coiict.oDBD wira taanATiTi rmticsi o» inou. taken by them. Marshals Junot and Ney commenced the ensuing campaign with the capture of Astora and Cuiaad Rodrigo; while Massena entered Portugal, and took Almeida. At Busaco lord Wellington defeated hiin; and, reach- ing the impregnable lines of Torres Vedras, he took up a strong position, Arom wl^icli the French could not dislodge him; iiii4 Massena soon afterwards comm«Dced a dia< •Htrous retreat. The campaicn of 1811 was distinguished by a series pf battles, in which' tqe con- tending armies displaced great bravery, but witnout anj decided advantage ro either in the end. Among those in which th^ allies most successful, were BaaiOoi| Albu .nd Barrosa. The year 1811 waa also .•inoraUn as the period when the Spanish American colonies began to re- nounce their allegiance to Spain^ and Strug, gle for independence. In 1812 the events of the war assumed a new complexion. A change had takes place in the government of Spain, and more earnestness and energy was displayed in its councils. Lord Wellington com> menced with the capture of Cuidad Bodrijpi and Badajoi! then advancing into Spain, he gained a decisive victory over Marmont near Salamanca; which was followed by his entraiice into Madrid, where he waa received with the most enthusiastic accla- mations. Iu the mean time the patriot armies in the north of Spain were emi- nently successful; and in the south the French viere compelled to raise the siege of Cadiz, and evacuate Granada, Cordova, Seville, &c. CHAPTER XXVII. From the- larfltion tif Ruitia by the French, to the Reetoratio* of the Hourboni. Wa must now take a rapid review of those extraordinary scenes in the North which rivettcd the attention of all Europe^ and filled every breast with anxious ex- pectation. The emperor Alexander felt nimself humiliated, and his countrr in- jured, by that rigid observance of the "continental system" which Napoleon had insisted on ; and the boundless am ' bition of the latter, added to his hatred of all that was English, led him to attempt the iBiibjugation of the Russian empire. He coiicluded an offensive and defensive alliance with Austria, Prussia, and the confederation of the Rhine, whose forces were destined to swell his ranks. TliC im- mense army, amounting to above -(75,000 men, now marched towards the Russian frontiers; and the Russians gradually re- tired at the approach of the enemy, who, though checked and harassed in every way possible, pressed onward wi^h amazing rapidity. At length a tremendous battle was fought under the walls of Siuolensko, and the city Was quickly after evacuatcH, the Russians retreating on Moscow. Hav- ing received daily accessions of troops, among whom were numerous bodies of Cossacks, Kutusoff,a the Russian com- mander, determined on bazardin||^ a grand battle; when a most sanguinary contest ensued, in which the French lost about 40,000 and the Russians 30,000 men. But Napoleon being reinforced, he was enabled to take possession of Moscow ; he had A. D. 1810. — BERNADOTTB IS CHOSEN CnOWN PBINCK OF SWEnEIT. > 0' M •» • A^;?SRig^'t?^' .0 . % =S3C 9 S^ "?, K tV.TiVMr ^lljV>/,',lillVr-i ■■..■■.r.i I II , I II B>RBa AMU IHDirKNDall^. (^utUnc 9lttic^ of (Iicnrral l^iston?. p«)y, however, taken up hU b^ad ttri in the Kremlin, before he die- ■eath ft ai long aa an enemy remained in aci bis 4Qni|nion»," indipfnnntly rejected every 'f^M pir0po«S(iuri. Cut oil frpm nil auppiies, and n^y:>expqicd to the incessant attacka of the ex- li&pe^iited Ruiaian's, among whom were !lu)^i!|( of Cosiacki, the wretched troops i^mifienced one of' the most disastrous re- trajaTfever^ecorded in hisioiry* Again and igMpiad t(>ey to sustain ;the tlkoriius at- tkckit^'|^f|"t^ieir pursuers, till the ijHhQilb.route walT iti^iy.ed with baggage, aitillery, and . . ^jininiunitSbp, and with the mangled and '"^m, '•• i'ifrf>%n bodies of men and horses. Of the 3§ ''^1Hi(^iy force that invaded Russia, only ' f?^]00'0,rcturned to France; 400,000 perished or, were made pVisoiiers; white the author ^f all their unparalleled suflferings basely deier,t«d. his aniiy, travelled through I'o- iaiiid and Gerinany in disguise, and reached tils capital in safety. The unexampled reverses of Napoleon yrerc hailed bvtbe nations on the continent ,as the signal for. their deliverance from ;hi| iron grasp. Alexander concluded an ^idt^ance with Sweden and Prussia, and iht'y prepared for hostilities. Some san- guinary but indecisive battles were fought, ;a'^4>'iik' short armistice was agreed upon, during which time Austria joined the l^guie, and all parties preji>ared for the riifewal.of the contest with increased yi- 'gtfUjr. The greatest uoaiiimity prevailed in '^he^councila of tbe.ijilie'd sovereigns. Their ^|rt|ics^a4.e a formidable, attack on Dlrei- den, though they failed in their object of taking th^ city by a coup de-main: but the Vet'^ran Ulucher defeated the enemy at jKabibach, and thereby delivered Silesia. J^ratd'amnie was beaten at Culm, and Ncy ^^C'^lft^^rbpck. It was now resolved that j^he v(:lioli! ofthe allied armies should make a (ini^ltaneouseffbrt to crush the common igneray. The forces of Nhpoleon were con- centrated at Leipsic, and there it was that t^e allies attacked and totally defeated htm. The sanguinary battle raged from dawn of day tillnight ; bgith sides suffered 'imm^Dse loss, but that 6f the French was t'^f^'-fitr the greatest. Consulting his owrn T]g^$9llaiia> whose ,inibabitanCs expeljed the fX'reneb, and recalled the prince of Orange. The Russian campaign aniihA ufar that now raged in Germany, had proved bene- icial to the Spanish cause, by withdrawing many of Napoleon's experienced generala and veteran troops. Lord Wellington crossed the Douro, and, marching north- wards, came up with the French army, commanded by marshal Jourdan, at Vit- toria, where he obtained a decisive victory, June 21, 1N1.3. The memorable siege of St. Sebastian, and the defeat of marshal Soult, to whose skill the task of defending the frontiers of France was conflded, were the other most prominent events of the campaign ; and France waa soon after en- tered on the south-west by the English ann. Suck wae the encounM- nmuumt lie leeeiv^ UuU whea, oa we IMi. Im reatihei FoBtainUeau, he waa at tlia keM of I6,0W Tcuraut, «'itk tbe oer- tatBty that biubuoiu corps were adfaaeing on every aide to join hit atandard. Prepara- tiona were nude to anreat hie pro(reea ; but on hi* niaroh he was powerfully reinforced, and he reached Parts luiiaotestcd. Louie had nrevioiuly quitted the capital, and now •ougut an aaylum in the Netherlands. The allied sovereijfns in the iiM«n time issued a manifes'o, in which it was declared, that Napoleon Buonaparte, bv Titrating the con- vention in virtue of which he had Men act- tied at Elba, hr forfeited every claim to protection, and >vas solemnly pronounced an outlaw. In answer to this manifesto Napoleon published a declaration, assertinc tliat he was recalled to the ihrnnc by ttie unani- mous wish oi the French people. Large armies were assembled with all possible ex- pedition ; and Iluonaparte, with extraordi- nary celerity, opened the short but ever- meraorattle campaign, by attacking the ad- vanced posts of the Prussians on the lAth of June. On that and the foUowing day considerable success attended his arms; but oii the field of Waterloo (June 18) the g«;nius of Wellington and the steadv valour of the British troops gave a death-blow to his hopes, and once more rescued Europe froin its degrading thraldom. Having wit- nessed the irreinerablt ruin of bis army, he lied with the greatest j-recipitation from the field of battle ; while the residue of his discomfited troops were pursued by the Prussians under Blucher. The comoined armies how rapidly iidvanced towardsParis ; and Duonaparte^ndin^ that his reig^ was at aii Qnd, fled to the sea-coast, ia the hope of making Ills escape tp Aiuerica. Ip this, howi'ver, he was foiled by the vigUapce of the Bfitij^h cruisers; and he at length surrendered to captain Maitland, of the Bflleriiphon, who, at his request, brought him to the British shores, though be waa not j^ermitted to land. After sQme dis- cussion it was resolvied that he should be imprisoned for life in the island of 8t. He- lena, whither, acconipahied by a sradl train of attendants, he was forthwith sent. Louis XVIII. was a second time restored to his throne. An act of amnesty waa passed; from which a few of Napoleon's moat aire- BttooB Bttpportan were excluded ^ whibt Ne* and L&edoyire weie shot. By the terms Bf the treat r entered into between France and the allied powersu it waa agreed that aixteen of the frontier ror- Sisscs of France abould be garrisoned by e allies for Ave years, and that 1M,UM al- lied troops, under the duke of WelliBgtoB, should DC maiBtained in ih*t kingdom lur the same space of time. The followiBg ar- rangements were also eoncluded at the coBgi-eas of Vieana ; Prussia was enridied by Uio annexatioB of a portion of Saxony, and recovered Lusatia ; Russia received a large part of Poland ; tiaa Venetian territo- ries were given to Austria; Genoa was as- signed to the king of Sardinia ; ihe Papal dominions were restored s while the United Provinces and the Netlierlands were formed into a kingdom for the prince of Orange. England restored to the Uuteh some of tne colonies she had taken firom them, and various minor changes also took place. A confederation was then entered into by the sovereign states of Germanv for mutual defence and the nrevention or internal war. And, to crown the whole, the emperors of Russia and Austria, with Ihe kingoi Prussia, bound themselves by a solemn compact, called the Holy Alliance; the pro f e seed object of which waa to preserve the peace of Bnrojpe, and to maintain the nrineiplea of Chnstianity in their respective domi- nions. 'Having brought our "Outline fflcetch of General History " down to a period so mo- mentous, we shall leave all subsequent events for narration in tbe Histories of se- parate countries which follow. In the brief and cursorv Introduction we have given, the reader has had a rapid view of the rise and fall of empires, the excesses of despotic povircr, and some of the countless evils at- tendant on a state of anarchy. Still it must be reinemhered that in this slight sketch we have onlv pioneered the way. As we proceed, it will he our aim mure full^ to de- velope the motives, while we describe the actions, of those responsible individuals in whose hands the destinies of nations arc entrusted; and the judicious reader, im- pressed, as he cannot fail to be, with the mutability of human institutions and the instability of human grandeur, will be na- turally led to contemplate and admire the overruling conduct of Divine Providence in i the moral government of the world. el M O A.n. 181*.— BKDUCIIOM or TIIR ARSVt OF OCCUPATlO.f ISI PHA.N'Ca. [KZ n "'mm '.**l»fc ^ avt no atuioM. BvBori Itei alniMt tntinlyin th« north •ni tampcrata loiia t • •mall part of it at tha northam axtramltT ia estandad bayond tha arctlo elrela, but it doat not approach aaarer to tha oquatof than U| dasreaa. Ob tha aaal and aonthaaat it ia boundad by Alia i on f lie weat, north-waat, and louth' waat, hi the Atlantic Ocean i on tha north, by the Froten Ocean ; and on tha aonth, br tha Mediterranean Ilea. It ia about 8,400 milea in leniftb, from Cape St. Vincent in Portttsal, to the Urallan mouutaiua in Rna< aia I and 9,600 milea in breadth, from Cape Matapan, to tha North Capa in Lapland. In proportion to it* liae, Barope ia tha moit populona of all the ireat diviiiona of tha globe i and, eieept in ita northern atatea, {t anjova an agreeable temperatutc of climate. The aoil, though not equal in luiurianee to that of the tropica, i« well adapted to tillage and paaturage ; ao that it aflbrd* a copioua aupply of tha neceaaariaa of life, whlUt ita minea produce the moat uaafUl metala, and ita aaaa teem with flah. EUROPE. In no part of the world tra maanflietuna carried to auch perfection u in aavanl of the European eountriaa, aapacially in Great Britain, Prance, and Oomanyi and that commercial intarcouraa which of lata yaara haa ao vary greatly inereaaad. ia gradnally obliterating national prcjudieea, asaiting emulation, rewarding indnilry. cultivating feelinga of mutual aateem, and incrcaaing tha comforta, convenieneea, and luiuriaa of all. To the commerce of Burope, in fact, there appeara to be no limita ; ita tradera are to ba aeen in every conntry. and every aea ia flUed with ita ahipa. Moreover, aa tha aeat of art and aciancet aa the region where civiliaation ia aver in active progreaa, and where Chriatianlly ia attending ita ba> nign influence fhr and wide, Europe indeed maintains a proud pre-eminence i and, judg- ing firom nreaenf. appearances, ita inhabl- tanta bid fair at nu olatant day, to estend their dominions, already vast, by coloniiing and giving lawa to nationa now aearealy emerging from barbafiam. ASIA. general biatory of thia diviaion of irTd carriea us back to tha creation. Tan the won Tha cradle of our ilrst parents, and the por- tion of the earth where the most stnpend- oua acta of divine power and wisdom have been displayed, Asia presents a most inte- resting subject for the contemplative mind. It waa here that the world before the flood, as far as we know, was concentered. It waa bare that the antediluvian patriandis Battled, and spread abroad the families of the earth. After the flood, Asia was the heart of life, the source of all that popu- lation which haa since covered the glob* with ita myriada of inhabitants. Tlie pre* sent race of Asiatica ia deduced fIrom the Hebrewa, tha Indians, and the Tartara. It is foreign to our purpose to follow tha aeriea of the variooa tnbea of population, which, Arom the great fountain, overspread the earth, and espeeially Europe. Indeed, the whole of Europe, however elevated in the scale of reason and intelligence above their primitive sources, derived its people and language from Aaia; whilat from Asia Mi- nor have flowed arma, arts, and learning. AFRICA. ArniOA is situated to tne aouth of Eu- rope, and to the west and aouth-west of Asia, it is separated from the former by the Mediterranean Sea and the Straits of Oibraltar ; and from Asia by the Red Sea, at the most northerly extremitv of which it is united to Asia by the isthmus of Sues. The history of this immense peninsula, like several of the kioKdoms of which it is composed, is involved in much obscurity. Interesting as are the monuments of for- mer greatneaa to be found in this part of the world, especlallv in Egypt, there are no memorials on which the eye of science rests with more intensity of attention than upon those tablets which have enslirined the names of her several martyrs, from tlie time of Pharaoh Necho, to the inhuman murders of many an cnterpriiing Euro- pean traveller. The sun of civilisation which once illumined with all ita aplen- dour one portion of thia division or the world has been greatly obscured; and of the (creater part of it we may uy, ' 8hadows,cIouds, and darkness rest upon it.' AME This vast continent, or, New World of the Western Hemisphere, lies between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the former se- parating it from Europe and Africa, and the latter from Asia and Australia. Its immense rivers and prodif;ious mountain chains are quite unequalled in the world ; and the bays, lakes, cataracts, and forests, are also of unrivalled extent and grandeur. It is divided into North and South Ame- rica, and is in length above 9U00 miles ; possessing, of course, every variety of cli- mate, from the burning heat of the torrid ■one.to the intense cold of the arctic circle. RIGA. Since its discovery by Columbus, vast numbers of Europeans have made this con- tinent their home, the generality being at- tracted hither by the capabilities it seemed to afford them of enriching themselves: America has also been an asylum for the victims of political and religious persecu- tion. But, though abounding with every production necessary for the comfort and convenience of man, the avarice of its Eu- ropean settlers has not only driven ita ori- ginal inhabitants from their native homes, ut stamped the land with the curae of African slavery. HIMnlMH-TWBNTIBTHS OF TUB rOFDL&TION Of EI;B0PX ARB CHRiaTIANS. A sBmxBS or sspabatb nisTomiss. THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. ' [Thb propriety of commencing our tcries of uparatt hUtoriti with CnaLANB mnit, wa think, be obTioui to efcry reader. Itt pre-eminent rank in the icali if nettont; it* unriridled commerce and esteniive foreign poMetiion* ; iti natal and v. iliary proweia ( and the intelligence, entcrpriie, and unexampled induetry of its inhabitanta— fully entitle it to the honour of precedence. But this ia not all: the lore of our country * v. 'tea in ui a laudable curiottty to inquire into the conduct and condition of our aneettort, and to become acquainted with the memorable eventa of their history ( while our revereu .c for the glorious Conititution by which our most valuable privileges are secured, prumpta us in an especial manner to trace its rite and progress, and thoroughly to ascertain upon what foundation our political and reli^ua liberties are based. "If an Englithman," said the great Frederic of Prussia, "has no knowledge of those kings that filled >. throne of Persia, if his memory is not embarrassed with that in6nite number of ] '>pes that ruled the church, we are ready to excuse him ; but we shall hardly hare the iame indulgence for him, if he is a stranger to the origin of parliaments, to the customs of his country, and to the diferent linea of kings who have reigned in England."] CHAPTRR I. The Britiik a»d Roman Ptriod—to the 8»b- jugalion qf the Ulanil 6y the Saxone. TuM rule Inid down by the celebrated his- torian, David Hume, fur his treatment of early British history is so reasonable, so obviously the only rule by whicli tlie his- torian can avoid disfiguring his narrative of realities, by connecting it with fables and figments, that it would be to the last degree unwise to depart Arom it, even were it laid down by a writer of far less celebrity and genius. We cannot better account for the silence with wliich we pass over the very early ages of Britain, than by quoting the short para- giaph m which the eminent writer to whom we have referred, at once suggests and vin- dicates that course. "The fables." says he, "which are com- monly employed to supply the place of true history, ought to be entirely disregarded ; or if any exception be admitted to this general rule, it can only be in favour of the ancient Grecian fictions, which are so celebrated and so agreeable, that they will ever be tlie objects of the general attention of mankind. Neglecting, therefore, all traditions, or ra- ther tales, concerning the more earlv history, of Britain, we shall only consider the state of the inhabitants as it appeared to the Romans on their invasion of this country. 'We sliall briefly run over the eventa whiith attended the conquest made by that empire as belongingmore to Uoman than to Bri- tish story. We shall hasten through the obscure and uninteresting period ot Saxon anuals, and shall reserve a morn full narra- tion for those times when the truth is both BO well ascertained and so complete as to promise entertainment aud instructiun to the reader." That Britain, Lke » ul vas originally inhabited by a tribe i.r t ..; Celtte, is as well ascertained as sucii a remote fact can be with respect to a people destitute of let- ters ; language, manners, government (such as it was), and religion, all tend to show their common cii/,;in. But the Britons, from their insular situation, retained their full rudenes' a;td their primitive mannera and custom;) long after the Gauls, from their intercourse with the inhabitants of other parts of the continent, had consider- ably improved iii both respects. The British people were divided into many kingdoms or tribes ; alid though each tribe haaa monarch, each nionarcny was prin- cipally founded upon physical force, and of course greatly tempered by it. For des- potism, indeed, there was but little opuor- tunity , whatever the inchnation of the king. War was the principal occupation of tribe • If M M S s \ m It THB " DAMMONII INUABITICn COaNWALL AND OEVOaSHiaB. *HK "CAHTII}" m«llT.— tUB "»0«U HI ;" OLOVCBSTKBSniRI AMD OZON. rrrr-i 44 JE\)t ©icasuri) of l^tetoru, $cc. against tribe, nnd hunting at once tlie chief amusement; and, next to the feeding of flocki and herds, the most important means of subsistence. Wandering hither and thi- ther in searcli of pasture iror their cattle, these wild tribes were perpetually coming into collision with each other ; and bo fre- Jiuent and fierce were their wars, that but or the interference of the Druids— in this respect, a body of men as useful as in many respects they were mischievous— their mu- tual rancour would have proceeded well- nigh to mutual annihilation. Though we have stated the Britons to have been free from kingly despotism— though, in fact, the king was only the first freeman of a tribeoflreemen, there yet was a despotism, and a terrible one, for both king and people— the despotism of the Druids. The x)ruids were the priests of the Britons; ond they were also their teachers, their lawgivers, and their magistrates : and the pefuTiar tenets which were inculcated upor the British from their earliest cliild- hood, were such ab to render the Druid priests omnipotent, as far as that terra can De applied to men and man's attributes. He who dared to offend the Druid priest in any one of his multifarious offices, lost all peace in this world, even if his life were spared; he was excommunicated, utterly and hopelesslv ; shunned by his fellow men, who dared neither to aid nor to soothe him, he could but retire to the deepest solitudes c^ the forest, battle for his precarious ex- istence with the forest brutes, and perish like them, obscure and unregarded. Nor was the pang with which he closed his eyes for ever upon this world mitigated by any bright and cheering hope in a future life. The metempsychosis had been apart of his belief from infancy, nnd he who died under the fearful ban of the Druids died in the assured and terrible conviction that he would live for ever under successive forms, each more obscene and contemptible, or more hated, persecuted, and tortured, than that which had preceded it. With such means of upholding their Sower over a rude people, it will easily be elievcd that the Druids had little trouble in ruling both king and subjects. And, de- testable as were their cruel sacrifices of human victims, this exceeding power over the minds of the people was so for valuable, that it kupplied the want of more legiti- mate power to prevent wild courage pro- ceeding to frenzied ferocitv, and to prevent war from being prosecuted to the extent of extermination. Humanity can never foil to regret the miseries and the crimes that characterize wars, or to detest the injustice and the in- solence of the feeling which prompts the ■tronv to trample upon the weak, and the wealthy to plunder the poor. But, while we necessarily look with tliese feelings upon Invasion and war in the abstract, we must not close our eyes to the fact, that the suf- ferings, however great, of a barbarous peo- ple Invaded and overrun by a civilized peo- ple, are but temporary, and are followed and more than counterbalanced by a per- manent deliverance from the squalid mi- series and the mental darkness by which savage life is every where characterised. The poet may tunc liis barmoniouB lay to the bli»* of those primeval ages, ' When wild in woods the noble savage ran ;' But the sterner pen of history, informed by the actual experience of the voyager, must give no such nattering picture of barbarism. Whether in the praines of America, or in the wild bush of New Holland, we find the savage invariably a miserable and mere ani> mal ; superior to thu other animals in con- formation, but alas ! even more subject to disease r.nd famine than they are. We may sympathize with the terror which the poor savage feeli when civilized man invades hit haunts, and we have every right to demand that conquests be effected with the least possible cruelty ; but we still must admit that it may become a great and enduring mercy to the conqucreu. Britain, whose fleets are upon every sea, and upon whose conquests and possessions the sun, literally, never sets, was the home of numerous tribes of mere savages Ions after the mighty name of Home was heard with awe or admiration, with love or hate, in every civilized nation o> the earth. Dwelling in wattled huts of the meanest construction, most of these tribes shifted their habitations from place to place a« new pasture became necessary tor their cattle ; but some tribes were stationary and practised asrriculture, which, though of the rudest kiucl, served to improve their sub- sistence. Julius Cscsar, the renowned Roman, hav- ing overrun Gaul at the head of his irresisti- ble legions, had his attention attracted to Britain b.c. 65. He determined to conquer it, and it is to his invasion that we primarily owe our present splendour and importance. From his own history of his GaUic wars it is that WQ chiefly derive our knowledge of the state of Britain ; and it is on his au- thority that wc describe its rude and poor condition. The conquest of such a country could have nothing but the love of conquest for its motive ; but to a Roman, and, aoove all, to a Cn:sar, that motive was sufficient | to incite to the utmost enterprize, and to reconcile to the utmost danger and the ut- most suffering. Not far from the present site of the town of Deal, in Kent, Ctesar made a descent upon Britain. The savage appearance of the natives, and the fierce reception they at first gave to their invaders, struck a tem- porary terror even into the hearts of the veteran soldiers of Rome. But the check was only momentary. A standard-bearer leaped upon the inhospitabU shore, and the legionaries followed their eogle. Cssar advanced some distance into the country ; but every mile of progress was made under harassing attacks of the natives, whose de- sultory mode of warfare, and their intimate acquaintance with the wild country, made them formidable in spite of their want of TUB "CATTIBUCnLAKI ; BUCKIKGUMTSUIRB, BRni'OItD, AND UKBTS. f Ji9t^* •**-? ^ tun ' BKUMtMi" rBXamOBI, CABOIOAN AND CAIKMABTUB!! I,.!/ lEnglantr.— ISrittsl^ nuts ^men ^eriot). 45 discipline and tho nide nature of their arini. But the iteady perseverance and serried ranks of the Roman* enabled them still to advance; and the; gained so much advantage, that when Cnsar deemed it ne- cessary to return to his winter quarters in Gaul, he was able to extort promises of a peaceabi . reception when he should think proper to return, aud received hostages for their fidelity. He withdrew accoraingly, and the Britons ignorant and, like all bar- barous people, incapable of looking forward to distant consequences, flagrantly failed to perform their engagements. Disobedience was what the Roman power would not at that time have brooked from a people far more civilized and powerful than the Bri- tons, and Caesar early in the ensuing sum- mer nj^nin made his appearance on the coast of Kent. On this occasion he fouud a more regular and jrganized force await- ing him ; several powerful tribes having laid aside their domestic and petty differ- ences, and united themselves under Casii- bclaunus, a brave man, and so 8uperi<;r to the majority of the British kings, that he was posse )s<'il of their general respect and confidence. But mere valour could avail little against the soldiery of Rome, inured to hardships, rather enjoying than fearing danger, thoroughly disciplined, and led by so consummate a soldier as Julius Cxsar. The Britons, accordingly, harassed him in his march, and disturbed his camp with frequent night alarms ; but whenever they came to actual battle they were ever defeat- ed, and with dreadful loss. This time Cxsar made his way far into the country, crossed the Thames in face of the enemy, and in despite of the precaution they had taken to stake the bed of the river, destroyed the ca- pital of Cassibelaunus, and established as King of the Trinobantes a chieftain, or petty king, named Mandubratius, who, chiefiy in disgust at some ill treatment, real or ima- gined, which he had suffered at the hands of his fellow-countrymen, hod allied himself with the Romans. But though Csesar was thus far success- ful, the wild nature of the country and the nomadic habits of the people prevented him from achieving anything more than a nominal conquest of the island. He was obliged to content himself, once more, with the promises which the islanders the more readily made him because they never in- tended to fulfil them, and he again left the island, never to return to it ; for the domes! ic troubles of Rome, greatly caused by his own ambition and daring genius, left neither him nor the Roman people any leisure to attend to a poor and remote island. His successor, the gpreat Augustus, was wisely of opinion that it rather behoved Rome to preserve order in her already vast empire, than to extend its bounds. Tiberius was of the same opinion ; and Caligula, flighty and fickle, if not absolutely mad, though he made a demonstration of completing the work which Ciesar had begun, seized no spoils more valuable than cockle-shells, in- flicted only a fright upon the Britons, and gave Rome nothing for the vast expense of his eccentric expedition, save materials for many a merry pasquinade and hearty laugh. For nearly a century after the fi-ret descent of CKsar, the Britons enjoyed peace un- broken, save by their own petty disputes. But in the reign of the emperor Claudius, A.D. 43, the design of conquering the island of Britain was again revived ; and Plautius, a veteran general, landed and fairly estali- lished himself and his legionaries in the country. As soon as he received tidings of the success and position of his general, Claudius himself cameover ; and the Cantii, the Regni, the Trinobantes, and other tribes of the south-eastern part of the island, made their formal submission to him, and this time, probably, with something like sin- cerity, as they bad experienced the po«'cr of the Roman arms and the superiority of the Roman discipline. The more inland Britons, however, were still fiercely determined to maintain their liberty and preserve the|r territory ; and se- veral tribes of them, united under the com- mand of Caractacus, a man of courage and of conduct superior to what could be anti- cipated in a mere barbarian, made a stout resistance to all attempts of the Romans to extend their progress and power: a.d.50. Indignant that mere barbarians should even in a slight degree limit the flight of the de- stroying eagle, the Bopians now sent over reinforcements under the command of Os- torius Scapula, whosevigorous conduct soon changed the face oi affairs. He beat the Britons farther and farther back at etcry encounter, and penetrated into the country of the Si lures, (now forming part of South Wales), and here in a general ehgagemeut, he completely routed tliem and took a vast number of prisoners, among whom was tho brave Caractacus. This brave though unfortunate prince was sent to Rome. Arrived in that mighty city, he was scarcely more astonished at the vast wealth and grandeur which it contained, than at the cupiditv of the possessors of such a city, and their strange desire to deprive a people so poor ns the Britons of their wild libertv and wattled huts. It is to the honour of the Romans of that day, that Caractacus was treated with a gene- rosity which was at once equal to his me- rits, and in strong contrast with the treat- ment which Rome usually reserved for de- feated kings who had dared to oppose her. And this generositv of the Romans to Ca- ractacus individually is the more creditable and the more remarkable, because his cap- ture by no means prevented his compatriots from continuing the struggle. Though always distressed, and often decisively worsted, the Britons still fought bravely on for every cere of their fatherland ; and as they improved in thcii'style of fighting, even in consequence of the defeats they received; Britain was still considered a battle-field worthy of the presence of the best officers and hardiest veterans of Rome. Irritated at the comparatively slow pro- (press of their arms against so poor and rude a m o i 3 : K M I S I M ! S M S TUU "OBDOVICES;" UONTGOURnT, MKRIO^tBTH, CARNARVON, FLINT, AND DENBIOB. % ':>» j'V ■ '''^i^.J^f^^''^^^-'^^^^^^^^^^ III II I ■ ■ - ■ ■ - ■■ ■'■ m—m *■■ "OTtASim;" KOBTIVMBSKIiilllD TO TBI BIVKK VWXfD. 9, (!■» 46 ^^e ^»a»nrQ of l^istorn, 6cc. a people, the Bomant now ^ave the chief oommand of their troops in Britain to Bnetoniue PauUnns, a man of equal courage and conduct, and noted even aroonf; that warlike ntoe for unwavering fttemnesi-. Thii^neraJ perceived the true cause of the Britiak pertinacity of reiiatance in the face of M many deeiaive defeats and ecverechas- tiaementt. That caaee, the only one, prob' ably, which could ao long hay6 kept auch rade people united and arm under miafor- tnne, was the relifrioua influence of the ^ntida. Whose terrible anger had more terror for their deluded foUowera than even the wat4ike prowess and atrange ariins <» the Bomans. Suetonius, then, deteriqincfd to strike at the ferf root of British obsti- nacy ; and as the little isle of Anglesey, then ealtcd Muna, was the chief resort of the Druids, he proceeded toattaeki^ rightly judging that by racking a terrible example of the ^bief seat o( their religion and their priests, he should strike moretetror into the refractory- firitons than by defeating them in a hundred desultory battles. His landing was not eiected without consider- able dimcttltv; for here the naturally brave Britons fought under the very eyes.of their Sowerfol iknd dreaded priests, and with- the' oable motive of desire to win their praiise, and terror of incurring an anger which they believed to be potent m the future worid.aa in this. Urgea bjr such considerations, the Britons fougl^t with unexanapled fury and determinatioii, and the priests and priest- esses mingled in the ranks, shneking strange curses upon the iuvaders, waving flaming torches, and presenting so -un- earthly and startling an appearance, that many of the Bpman soldiers. Who would have looked coolly upon certain death, were struck with a supcretitiona awe, and half imagined that they were actually engaged ill personal warfare with the tutelar de- mons of their mortal foes. But Suetonius was as disdaiai'ul of superstitious terrors as of actual danger, and his exhortations and example inspired his men to exertions that apeedily put the ill-armed and undisciplined Britons to flight. The worst crime of which the Druids were guilty was that of oifcring to their gods hunian sacrifices. Even in times of peace, victims selected by the Druids, either in actual malice or in mere and wanton recklessness, fed the devouring flames. But it was more especially in wartime that these truly horrible aacriiices v e frequent, and the victims numerousi Coafident in their hope of defeating the Bomans by force, and the terrors of their superstition, the Oniids of Mona on this occasion had pro- mised their cruel deities a plenteous sacri- fice. The fires were prepared; but they who were to have been the ministering priests became the rictims; for Suetonius, at cruel as those against whom he fought, burned the captive Druida at their own altars. . . Having wreaked this cruel vengeance, and cut down or burned the dense groves in which the Druias hud for ages performed the dark rites of their myate'rioai reHjpoii, he left Anglesey and returned into Britain, conildeiit thiat the blow he had thntoatruck at the most venerated seat of °the British; faith would so shake the courage" and coii- fldence of its votaries, that he would have for the future only a series of easy triumphs. But his absence from the iofmisland nmt have been of mo|^ dispamg^ment to nil C^nae than hia.feats at Monl^had lMien°to its adyantaj^,' V^^tingby thefr'brieffree- dom.frbin lus°pie Britons to drive the invaders from' their shores. Even allowing somewhat fbr the error or exaggeration of early historians, it is certain that the loss inflicted upon the Romans and their adherents by Boadicea was immense. But the return of Suetonius iuspired his countrymen with new spirit ; and the tide of fortune soon left the native islanders. Flushed vrith numerous suc- cesses, and worked up to a frenzy of enthu- siasm even bjr the cruel use which they had' made of their success, they collected all their forces for one flnid And mighty e^prt.i Suetonius and Boadicea in perton -Mtm-- raanded their respective forces. The latter harangued her troops with great spirit ; the former contented himself with making hin i.B. 60.— T.OWDON FOaTlrlKfl BT THB ROMANS ABOUT THIS TIMB. o G M H < m u 9r wif-um' m u mmnm m x^" --- ^i^ .••*•-•, Wft 3^ ''-4? ,o % iinsiit < wh the t ladicea etoniui a Pfeint; s iinative l«. »J>C^ s jfpthu- lr#had :ted all (t^tfort, a «Qm- ^ latter it ; the ^Bghin A. p. 370. — ooiaTAMTiiui, ArtKnwABDS tub okbat. ^^y?? .— 3Bviti!j{]5 ant* 9Roman ^criotr. BOBW AT TOBTI.' 00 /i 47, iiJ^H- airanEe^ents wiih coniammavv' p'V, tfjrell knowing that hisVlegionaries required no exhortation to strike nard and home at an entoy that had put 'the Romaic ca(:le .to flighC* ai^d made earth drink/deep of the proM Botnan blood, l^he ba/tle%as obsti- nate; and terrible ; !>i^t' once, again the marr vellous superiority of disciplilae oVeir niere numbers ^nd couragei'h'oWever vast the one oreuthuaiastie thJB other, was strikingly displayed:*-'The. dense maises of the Britons jrere' pierced and broken o^'the Roman pha- ianxTr'the defeat became a rout ( the rout a massaelre.'' Boadicea escaped from the field by the swiftness of the horses of her own chariot : but despairing of ever ag^in being able to make h'ewl against the detested iur vaders ofher couiitryi and preferring death to Calling again into the hands ot'those who bad so mercilessly maltreated Holh herself and her daughters, she swallowed a potent poison, and when pvertaken by the pur- soing; soldiers was beyoud their malice, b'eingt-'then in the agonies of death. .Though Suetonius had achieved great successek^iii Britain, he ht^d done so only at the-.-expeiise of such extraordinary losses and*°cruel)(y onbOth sides, that NcrO re. CaUed'-hini from his jpavernment, appiairently under the impression that, bis excessive sternness and severity unfitted Lim for a post in which it was not merely necessary to know how to combat the resisting, but also liow to conciLate the conc|Ucred. Two or three other generals were briefly entrust- ed.with this difficult and delicate post, which they filled with credit to themEelvcs and theRbinan qpmfs ; but it was the good for- tune of Vespasian, through the prowess and judgment of his famous general, Julius Agricola, completely to subdue Britain to the Roman dominion. A consummate soldier, Julius Agn'icola wis no less consummate as a civil governor; and while he led his victorious legions against the Britons, driving farther and farther backwards, to the bleak rocks and forests of Caledonia those who did not perish in the field, or were too proud to do homage to their conqueror, he snowed him- aclf admirably fitted for the peculiar duties to. tirhich. he had been appointed, by the skill with ^.hich he made kindness and li- berality to the submissive go hand in hand with.stem severity to those who still dared to resist the ROinan arms. Having fol- lowed the more obstinate of the Britons from post to post, and defeated their col- lected force under Galgacus in a pitched battle ; be erected a chain of forts between the Frith of Forth and that of Clyde, and thus divided the northern retreat of the hostile Britons from the southern parts, that now formed a great and settled Bioman province. In thiB province the British inhabitants were by this time but little inclined to give any farther trouble to their all-powerful conquerors, of whose warlike prowess they bad seen too many proofs to give them even a faint hope of successful resistance. More- over, Agricola skilfully and assiduously avail- ed himself of their peaceable disposiiiCi^^^o instruct them in the Romith tongue, as well as in the Roman habits a^hd aitt. HiKef-i, forts in this direction were as succeaif^l W ' his former exertions to piit dowu resiat-^ aneie liad been ; and both London ana thi^. snihUcr places sOon began to wear a '>usr (kud civilised aspebt. The skill with>#hicB the tlomans. incorporated with themielyea even the rudest and tnpst intractable pe6- pie, when they had Once by their conquer- ing proWeSs fairly gf>t footing among them, was to the full as astonishing and admirable as that prowess itself. The Romans from lime to time stren^hened the northern fortifications of Britain, and thus prevented any inroad from the still untamed horde* nativ.e to Scotland or shelteretl there ; and the jioUthern Britons were so fully coii- tenteA with their situation, and became so perfectly incorporated with their conquer- oips, ioitid iifitiated into their habits and feel- ings, that the only disturbances we read of in Britain during a long series of year* arose, not from insurgent attempts on. tha part of the Briton\ but from the turbulence of the Roman soldiers, or from the ambition of soiiie Roman governor who, made pre- suming by holding high state and authority in so distant a province, was induced to as^ surae the purple and claim the empire. The wonderful improvement made in the condition of Britain by the residence of the Romans was at length brought to a period. The barbaric hosts of the north were. now pressing so fiercely and so terribly upon Rome herself, that the old and long sacred rule of the Roman senate, never to contract the limits of the empire by aban- doning a colony once planted, was obliged to be disregarded, ''.he outlying legions were wanted for the defence of the very heart of the empire ; and the insular situa- tion of Britaiu, and its very slight conse- quence witlk respect to wealth, naturally pointed it out as a colony to be earliest and with the least regret abandoned. Scarcely had the Roman legions departed when the Britons were assailed by the Ficts and Scots. The chain of northern forts was strong and admirably planned ; but hardy and warlike defenders were no less necessary ; and the Britons had so long been accustomed to look for all inilitary service solely to the veterans who had dwelled amon^ them, that they had lost much of their ancient valour, and were no match for the fierce barbarians whose bodies were as little enervated by luxury as their minds were untamed by any approach to letters or politeness. An appeal to Rome, where an interest in Britain was not yet wholly lost in the more pressing instincts of self-preservation, was answered by. the immediate dispatch of a legion, which drove away ^e barbarians.. Tlie departure of the Romans was im- mediately followed by a new incursion; aid was again sent from Rome, and the enemy again was driven back. But the situation of the Roman empire was now so critical, that even a single legion conld no longer be spared from home defence ; and A.n. 212.— AT THIS TIMB SCOTtAIlD FIRST KMnRACKD CURISTIArf ITT. A H M o (9 m M s q K ■< & f < H 9 o s» w 'ot? «» M ^^»>» # C5 o'''^5^£^sl^?o"h :yoi- ==s: ^£ A.B, 347.^TaB OABBtsoMk tN o^HMAWir aviniztt \^iTn iqtti raoM bkitain. ,o a"" 48 5C^8 il^reasutw of l^istory, $cc. the Romans having put the northern forti- fications into repair, exhorted the Britons to defend themselves with perseverance and valour ; and took their final leave of them in the year 4-18, after having been masters of the island, and exerted their civiliKinit influences upon its inhabitants, for yen nearly four centuries. It had been well for the Britons if tliey Had not been in the habit of reiving so im- plicitly upon the Romans for defence. Now that Rome left them thus suddenly and completely to their own masterv, they were in precisely the worst possible stage of transition to' fit them for a struKle with their more barbarous northern. neighbours ; they had lost mucb Of the fierce and head- long valour of barbarians, without acquir- ing the art and discipline of civilized war- riors; and they had just so much of wealth and luxury as sufficed to tempt cupidity. Many of t.heir boldest and most vigorous youth had either been incorporated in the Roman soldiery, or had fallen in support of Oratian and Constantine in their ill-fatc l^^ :^%^^'->J^:'>'^^''^^^c ^i^. A. i.V47S^.— yOB^IMIB^^OIIONKD B* BIS MOTRBB-IM-I.AW, BOWBRA. fv^cvs%^ lEnglanl^.— lOrltia^ anti IRotnan ^ctiotr. ^9 to the Saxons for aid, two brothers, hy name Heneistand Horsa, were the most famous ancT respected warriors among that warlike' people. They were reputed de- scendants of- the god Woden ; and this fa- bulous ancestry joined to their real personal qualities and the great success which had attended them in their piratical expeditions had pven them great influence over the most daring and adventurous of the Saxons. Perceiving that the Romans had abandoned Britain, tliey were actually contemplatinz a descent upon that island When the British envoys.waited upon them to crave their aid as. mercenaries. To • request which har- monized so well Willi ir own views and wishes the brothers of ifse gave a ready assent, and speedily arr. 4 at the isle of Thanet with sixteen hv idred followers, inured to hardship and in love with danger even for its own sake. Thev marched against the Ficts and Scots, who speedily fled before men whose valour was as im- petuous as their own, and seconded by superior arms and military conduct; yVhcn the Britons were thus ouce more delivered from the rage and cupidity of their fierce neighbours, they became anx- ious to part with their deliverers on such friendly terms as would insure their future aid should it be required. But the Saxon leaders had seen too much of the beauty and fertility of the country, aiid of the weakness and divisions of its owners, to feel any inclination to take their departure ; and Hcngist and Horsa, so far from making any preparations to return home, sent thither for reinforccnients, which arrived to the number of live thousand men, in seventeen war-ships. The Britons, Who had been unable to resist the Pints and Scots, saw the hopelessness of attempting to use force for the expulsion of people as braye and far better organized; and therefore, though not without serious fears that those who had been called in as mercenary sol- diers would prove a more dangerous enemy than the one they had so fiercely and ef- fectually conibatted, the Britons affected the most unsuspecting friendship, and yielded to every encroachment and to every inso- lence with the best grace that they could command. But it is no easy matter to con- ciliate men who are anxiously watching for a plausib - excuse for quarrel and out- rage. Some disputes which arose about the allowances of provisions for which the Saxon mercenaries had stipulated, fur- nished this excuse, and, siding with the Picts and Scots, the Saxons openly de- clared war against the people whom they had been liberally subsidized to defend. Desperation and the indignation so natu- rally excited hy the treacherous conduct of their quondam allies, roused the Britons to something like the vigour and spirit of their warlike ancestors. Their first step was to depose Vortigcrn, who was before unpopular on account of his vicious life, and who Was now universally hated on account of the bad consequences of the measure he had recom* mended, though, as we have already ob- served, when he suggested the subiidizing of the Saxons, the Britons were in such a position that it would not have been easy to suggest a better measure. His son Vor- tirher, who had a good reputation for both courage and military conduct, was raised to the supreme command, and the Britons fought several battles with great courage and perseverance, though with almost inva- riable ill fortune. The Saxons kept ad- vancing ; and though Horsa was slain at '.he battle of Aylesford, Uengist, who then hid the sole command of the Saxons, show- ed himself fully equal to all the exigencies of *'.'} post. Steadily advancing upon the Bri;ons, he at the same time sent over to Germany for reinforcements. These con- tinued to arrive in immense numbers ; and the unfortunate Britons, worsted in every encounter, were successively chased to and from every part of their country. Whether with a desire to make terror do the work of the sword among the survivurs, or with a real and savage intent to exterminate the Britpud, Horsa made it an invariable rule to give no quarter. Wherever he conquered, man, woman, and child were put to death ; the towns and hamlets were again razed or burned, and again the blackened and arid fields bore testimony to the presence and the unsparing humour of a conqueror. Dreadfully reduced in numbers, and suf- fering every description of privation, the unfortunate Britons now lost all hope of combating successfully. Some submitted and accepted life on the hard condition of tilling as slaves the land they had owned as freemen; others took refuge in the inountain fastnesses of Wales, and a still more considerable number sought refuge in the province of Armorica in Gaul ; and the district which was there assigned them is still known by the name of Britauny. Hengist founded the kingdom of Kent which at first comprised not only the county now known by that name, but also those of Essex and Middlesex, and a portion of Surrey. Being still occasionally disturbed by revolts of tue Britons he settled a tribe of Saxons in Northumberland. Other north- ern tribes, learning the success of Hengist and his followers, came over. The earliest of these was a tribe of Saxons, who came over in the year 477, and, after n'uch fight- ing with some of the Britons who had par- tiSly recovered their spirit, founded the kingdom of Sussex. This kingdom, of which the Saxon .^Ua was the founder and king, included the present county of Sussex and also that of Surrey. Though from many causes there is consi- derable difficulty in asccrtHining the exact dates of the events of the very earliest Snxnn adventurers in Britoin, it is pretty certain that the victorious and successful Hengist enjoyed the possession of his ill-acquired kingdom until the year 488, when he died at Canterbury, which city he had selected as his capital. In the year -igs a tribe of Saxons landed nndcr the command of Ccrdic and his sou Kenric. lie was warmly resistpd. by the M M M e la H H ta n o «« n H t' K M a .4 n ■4 U 19 A W H A K < it t ei o H n o h w M. >9 ►< < O M f H < a N M t> *• A INVASION. A. 0. 476.— rouTir.Giiit witu 300 oi' uis Moni.GS assassinates. ['i (>.•- , .r'Nfic-, 80 >a.->,'!3 i'l '60. %i^ ^^Q iff^ .H^frllwtPOM 0» K«i" ■*•*" *•»• ^'' ^■"' "'°"' ".& BTJje ©wasttfB of l^iatorg, ice Britons, who itiU temainei »ttMhed to their country and in amU for their free- dom, and he wM obliced to ieek the a..i*t- ance of the Saxona of Kent, and Saiaex to eiiabie him to jnointain hi« ground until re- iilfoTcementi po^ld arrive from Ge'mwy- Theae at lenrth came under the commana of his sons Meyla and Bledda, and havmg cousolidatfcd their forces with his own he brought the Britons to a general action in the year 608. The Briton^ who mustjered in numbers far greater than could hate been cipectcd after so many and such great losses, were commanded by AAsan licoo. At the beginning of the day the courage and skiU of this leader gave him greatly the advaiitage, and had actually broken the main army of the Saxons, wbjch was led by Cerdic in person, when Uenhc, who had been more successfiil against another divi- sion of the Britons, hastened to his father's aid. The fortune of war now turned wholly against the Britons, who were completely routed, with the loss of upwards 6f five thousand men/among whom was the brave Naian leod himself The Saxons under Cerdic now established the West Saxon kingdom, or Wesscx, which included the counties of Hants, Wilts, Dorset, and Berks, and the fertile and picturesque Isle of Wight. The discomfited Bntons next applied for aid to their fellow-couutrymen of Wales, who, under the prince Arthur, whose real heroism has been so strangely exaggerated by romance,, hastened to their aid, and inflicted a vei^ severe defeat upon Cerdic, in the neighbourhood of Bath. But this defeat, tliough it prevented him from extending the kingdom he had founded, did hot disable him from maintaining himself in it. He did so until his death in 534, when he was succeeded by his son Kenric, who. reigned there until his death inSEfO. In other parts of the island other tribes of adventurers had been equally successful with the two of which we have more pwti- cularly spoken; but as a mere repetition of fierce invasion on the one hand, and of resistance, often heroic but always unsucr Cessfui, would neither amuse nor instruct the reader, we at once pass to the event, which was that the whole island, save Corn- wall and Wales, was conquered by bands of Saxons, Jutes, and Angles, and divided into seven pettv kingdoms, and called by the name of AnKlcslaud, subseqnentlv cor- rupted into England. Of each of these kingdoms we shall give a very concise ac- count up to that period when the whole island was united under one sole sovereign, and at which tlie history becomes at once clearer in its details and more interesting. CHAPTER II. The Heptarchy, or the Seven Kingdovu of the Saxotui in Britain. It has already been seen that Hcngist, the earliest Saxun invader of Britain, found- ed the kingdom of Kent, and died in estab- lished and sucure possession of it. He was succeeded by his son, Escus. This prince. though ha possessed neither the mUitnrr prOwesS nor the love of adventure which had distinguished his father, maintained hia talace in peace, and not without dignity, to bis death, which occurred in 512, when h« wu succeeded by his son Octa. Octa, like hi* father, was a man of the- diocie talept, and unfortunately for him he lived in a time when his neighhourbood was anything .but tranquiL The. kingdom of the East Swions, newly established, greatly extended its limits at hia expense, and at his death, in 634, he left his kin(^dora less extensive than he had received it by the whole of Essex and Middlesex. To Octa succeeded his son Tmrick, who reigned ill tolerable tranquillity during the long period of thirty-two years. Towards the dose of his reign be associated with him in the government his son: Ethelbert. who in 566 succeeded him. While the kings of the Heptarchy were as yet in any danger of disturbance and reprisals on the part of the outraged Britons, tne mere instinct of self- preservation had prevented them from hav- ing any considerable domestic fends ; but this danger at an end, the Saxon kings speedily found cause of quarrel amongthera- selves. Sometimes, as we have seen in the case of Kent, under Octa, one state was en- croached upon by another ; at another time the spirit of jealousjr, which is inseparable frotn petty kings of territories having no natural and emcient boundaries, caused struggles to take place, not so much for territory 0- for empl, eupremacy ; naerc ti- tular chief om. When ' heibert, himself of a very adven- turous auU ambitious turn, succeeded to his kingdom of Kent, Ceaulin, king of WesseX', was the most potent prince of the Hieptarchy, and used nis power with no niggard or moderate hand. Ethelbert, in the endeavour to aggrandize his own do- minions, twice gave battle to this formid- able rival, and twice suffered decisive de- feat. But the cupidity and tvrannous tem- per of Ceaulin, having induced htm to annex :thc kingdom of Sussex to his own already considerable possessions, a confe- deracy of the other printea was formed against him, and the command of the allied force was unanimously voted to Ethelbert, who even in defeat had displayed equal cou- rage and ability. Ethelbert, thus strength- sned, once more met his rival in arms, and I'.iiis time with better success. Ceaulinwas put to the rout with great loss, and, dying shortly after the battle, was succeeded both in his ambition and in his position among the kings of the Heptarchy by Ethelbert, who very speedily gave his late allies abun- dant reason to regret the confidence and the support they had given to him. He by turns rediiced each of them to a complete dependence upon him as their chief; and haviug ovcmih the kingdom of Mercia, the most extensive of all the kingdoms of the isiaiid, he for a time seated himself upon the throne, in utter contempt of the riglit atid the reclamations of Webba, the son of Crida, the uri'gin'til' founder of that kiug- THK KIWODOM OF TUB WBST SAXONS BKOAII A.U. 621, AWD EHDED IN 800. ( 1 J ( r 1 » . 1 S b < I H ►• a n a p a t( 9 • i ti a ti K u tl « tl S ai !J P' a n( « SI 1 E; e M a C - be se so ** pa 5 fu 5i le, .. ati " an UJ . an ill •* Be IS he a wa ^Z g alt ^ be <* M aci g »o 5 ^V IS «', H .§ att K pa •• to " M 1 cei B pat g Sid an '■S 'ie « tov coi tio ers he th« w;o of ..J rin Do eai Y<: ^ o„o,e .■?. fXsa,-^ fl t^^^Ort.-'^, ery iidTen- ceeded to , kins of ince of the r with no lelbert, in own do- lls formid- cisive de- mons tem- him to bis own a confe- formed the allied Bthelbert, iqual cou- strength- anns, and aulinwas ,nd, dying eded both on among Bthelbert, lies abun- ience and He by complete fai^f ; and iercio, the ms of the self upon the rit;ht he son of hat king- 800, thK kinodoM ov tbb bait AHObBS BxnAM A. ». 57>> Ann iADin m 793. lEnBlantJ.— ^^e l^cptardjy. 4V dom. But whether from « tense of the in- justice of his conduct, or from fear tliat a continued possession of so extensive a ter- ritory, in addition to that which of right belonged to him, should arm against him- self a league as compart and determined as that by the aid of which he had tri- umphed over his formidable riTal Ceaulin, he subsequently resigned Mercia to Webba, but not without iropos'.ng conditions as in- sultint; as they were wholly unfounded in anv right save that of the strongest. From the injustice which marked this portion of Ethelbert's conduct, it is pleasing to have to turn to an important event ivhich shed a lustre upon his reign— the introduc- tion of Christianity to the Saxon popula- tion of England. Though the Britons had long been Chris- tians, the terms upon which they lived with the Saxons were especially unfavourable to any religious proselytism between the two people ; and, indeed, the earty historians do not scruple to confess that the Britons con- sidered their conquerors to be unworthy to participate in the blessings of Christian knovyledge and faith. Ethelbcrt, fortunately, was married to a Christian lady, Bertha, daughter of Cari- bert, king of Paris, who, ere ne would con- sciit to \w daughter's marriage with a pagan, stipulated that the princess should fully and freely enjoy her own religion. On leaving her native land for England she was attended by a bishop, and both the princess and the prelate exerted their utmost credit and ability to propagate the Christian faith in the country of their adoption ; and as Bertha was much beloved at the court of her husband, she made so much progress to- wards this good end, that the pope, Gre- gory the Great, flattered himself with the hope of converting the Saxons of England altogether, a project which even before he became pope he had conceived fh>m having accidentally seen some Saxon slaves at Rome, and been much struck with their sin- gular personal beauty and the intelligence with which they replied to his questions. Encouraged by the success which had attended the efforts of Bertha, Gregory dis- patched Augustin and forty other monks to Britain. They found Etfaelbert, by the influence of his queen, well disposed to re- ceive them hospitably and listen to them patiently. Having provided them with a re- sidence in the Isle of Thanet, he gave them time to recover from the fatigiiies of travel, and then appointed a day foi;«a;public inter- view ; but friendly as the brave pagan was towards the co-religipnists of his wife, he cpiild hot wholly divest himself of supersti- tious terrors ; and lest the stranger preach- ers should have some evil spells of power, he appointed the meeting to take place in thje open air, where, he thottg|ht, such spells would be less effective than within the walls bf'a building. Augustin set before the king the inspi- ring -and consoling truths of 'Christianity. Doctrines so mild, so geiitle, so free from eahhly taint, and from all leaven of ambi- tion and violence, struck strangely, but no less forcibly, npon the spirit of the bold Etiielbert. But though much moved, he was not wholly convinced ; he could admire, but he could not instantly embrace tenets so new and so different fVom those to which from infancy he had been accustomed. But if he could not on the instant abandon the faith of his ancestors for the new faith that was now preached to him, he was entirely convinced that the latter faith was, at the least, incapable of injuring his people. His reply, therefore, to. the addresses of Augus- tin was at once marked by tolerance and by caution ; by an unwillingness to abandon the faith of bis youth, yet bv a perfect wil- lingness so allow his people a fair oppor- tunity of judging between that faith and Christianity. "Your words and your promises," said he, "sound fairly; but inasmuch as they are new and unproven, I cannot entirely yield my confidence to them and abandon the principles so long maintained by my ancestors. Nevertheless, you may remain here in peace and safety ; and as you have travelled so far in order to benefit us, at least as you suppose, I will provide you with everything necessary for your support, and you shall have full liberty to preach your doctrines to m^ subjects." Well would It have been for mankind if all potentates in all times and countries had been as wisely tolerant as this pagan Saxon of an early and benighted age. The degree of toleration that was thus accorded to Augustin was all that he re- quired; his own faithful zeal and well culti- vated talents assured him of success; and so well and diligently did he avail himself of the opportunities that were afforded to him by the king's toleration and the&uecn's favour, that he speedily made numbers of converts. Every new success inspired him with new zeal and nerved him to new ex- ertions. His abstinence, his painful vigils, and the severe penances to which he sub- jected himself, struck these rnde people with awe and admiration, and not merely fixed their attention more strongly than any other means could have done upon his Ereachings, but also predisposed tnem to elieve equally in the sincerity of the preacher and in the truth of his doctrine, numbers, not only of the poorer and more ignorant, but also of the wealthier and better inforn^ed, became at first attentive auditors and then converts. They crowded to be baptized, and after a great majority of his subjects had thus been admitted into the pale of Christianity, the king himself became a convert and was baptized, td the great joy of Rome. Augustin hail constantly impressed ujioa the king that conversion to tne Christian faith must be the result ncft of force or threateuings but of conviction ; that the religion of Christ was the religion of love and of perfect faith in doctrines set forth in faithrol preaching. He had constantly exhorted the king to allow no worldly mo- tives to weigh in his own conversion, and a B u ■ K O s M U K < I THB KINODOM OF MEKCIA BBOAN A. D 684, AMD BNDBD IN 823. .' • e ssjituir '■^■^^^^ • ^ 0« • 4^0 /.. a: !9a ''~^:^"^A^li7'65&^IHl HitMOFBIC Of •». BAT1D'« MUKBMB »Tf >«II«OB A«»S^?; H H M > a K ■< M n H n M <9 H H I 52 V^jtM^tSiimn. o( l^iatorp, 8cc. *!^^ I — T— ";»;'*;i,^v'V''' ' '■' • ' ' ' by no niMnt to txett hU authoritjr, or the terror of it, to produce an unwilliiiK astent bti th« iMuft or ally iiortion of hi* people, h6we*cr humbl*. seeing that in the. tight df Heaven, and in thinp .Bpiritual^ the httinblett peasant waa a« unportarit and u precious as the proudust atd most powerful monarch. But Gregory ^he, Great was tealoui in the extreme in the cause of i>rose1ytisni, and by no means baclcward in availing himself of tcmporal.powerfortliefulfllinent of spiritual ends. Aiid as soon as he learned that Ethelbert anil a considerable portion of his subjects had embraced Ghristianity, he sent to the former at once to congratu- late him upon liis wise and happy conver- sion, and to ursre him, by his duty as a mo- narch and by his sympathies and faith as a Christian, not any longer to allow even a part of his subjects to wander on in the darkucss and error of \. gpanism. To have the kintrly power, be arf_,u6d, implied aiid included the duty of using it in all ways tbat coul'd conduce to the welfare of his subjects; and what more wei^;hty and tre- mendous matter could concern them than the possession of that true faith which alone could secure their happiness in this world and their safety in the world to come. Exjiortiug the king to blandishment and persuasion, he also exiiorted him, in the case of those means failing with any, to resort to terror, and threatening, and even chastisement.^ So different were the policy of the papal statesman and the pious and sincerely Christian: feelings of his iealous missionary! 'Gregory at the saine time sent his in- structions to Augustini and very particular answers to some singular questions put by the missionary as to points of morality wbicb he thought it necessary to enforce upon the understandings and practice of his new and numerous flock ; but these questions and answers would be out of place here, as thc^ bnly tend to illustrate either the exceeding grossness of the flock, or the cxcieediug simplicity and minute anx- iety of their spiritual pastor. Well pleased with the zeal of Au^stin, and with the success witb which it had thus far been crowned, Gregory made him archbishop of Canterbury, sent him a pall from Rome, and gave him plenary autho- rity over all the British churches that should be erected. But though Augus- tine was thus highly approved and ho- noured, Gregory, who was shrewdly ac- quainted with human nature, saw, or sus- pected, that the good missionary was very proud of a success which was, indeed, little liess than miraculous, whether its extent or its rapidity be considered. At the same time, therefore, that he both praised and exalted him, he emphatically warned him agaiUHt allowing himself to be seduced into a too great elation on account of his good work ; and, as Augustine manifested some desire to exert his authority over the spiri- tual concerns of Gaul, the pope cautioned him against any such interference, an^ ex- Sressly informed him th^it he waa to coml- er the bishops of that country wholly be- yond hi! jurisdiction. Strange contradic- tions in hiiman iteatoning and conduct I We have the humble thissionalry dehorting anewlyiouverted pagati frpm persecution; a pope, the visible Bead of the whole Chris- tian world, and the presumed infallible ex- pounder of Christian doctrines, strongly and expressly exhorting him to it; and anon we have the ambitious and despotic patron of forcible proselytism wisely and reasonably interposing his authority and advice to prevent the recently so humble missionary from making shipwreck of his character and usefulness, by an unbecoming and unjustifiable indulgence in the sparing ambition so suddenly and strongly awaken- ed by the gift of a little brief authority I It wa« not only in tbe influence that Bertha had in the conversion of the Saxdh subiects of her husband to Christianity that she was serviceable to them, though compared to that service all others were of comparatively small value, But even in a wojridly point of view her marriage to Ethelbert was of real and very important beneAttp bis subjects. F)or her intimate connection with France led to an inter- course between that nation and Englaiid, which not merely tended to increase the wealth,, ingenuity, and commercial enter- prise of the latter, but also to soften and polish their as yet rude and semi-barbarous manners. The conversion of the Saxons to Christianity had even a more extensive in- fluence in these respects, by bringing the people acquainted with the arts and the luxuries of Italy. Stbrtnv at its commencement, the reign of Ethelbert was subsequently peaceable and prosperous, and it left traces and seed of good, of which thi; English are eveiltd this day reaping the benefit. Besides the Share he had in converting bis subjects to Christianity, and in encouraging them to devote . themselves to commerce and the uscful.arts, he was the first Saxon inonarch who gave his jieople written laws; and these laws, making due allow<;nce fur the age and. for the condition Of thie people fur vi^ose government they were promulged, show him to have been, even if regarded only in bis civil capacity, an extremely wise man and alpvcr of peacefulness and jus- tice. Aftera long and useful reign of fifty yiears, Ethelbert died in the year 6IG, and was succeeded by his son Eadbald. liistory but too frequently shows us the power of worldly passionsVin perverting re- ligious faith. During the iifetime of his father, Eadbald had professed the Ghris- tian religion; but when he became king he abandoned it and returned to the grosii errors of paganism, because the latter al- lowed the indulgence of an iucestuous pas- sion, which he had conceived, and which Christianity denounced as horrible and sin- ful. It is much to be feared that among the very earliest converts, in the case of the conversion of a numerous people, many, if not even the majority, are glided into the 685.— THB SAXOna CUANGB THE NAMB OP CAMBRIA INTO WALES. a K M U •9 M M A M >- I M 3 I < M O re-c( PO'V* and? abilt pcac with* tvieft tWO;! m. • :; M Q'^^ffi - - » ■ n -H — »-,;-*■. „ — - — : -T, , ' * ' — f^ A.D. e04.~IT. fAVL'l CIlUKCHt LONDONi VQURDKD Hi XTH^LH^T; new way ikther byjtnr, poltcjr, mere fuhion, or mere indolence, thUi by lincere convic- tion. In the present initance this |t !•• racntably apparent ; for on EadbAld re< turning to tlia xrois and senaelesi prac- tieea of hit forefathcri, the Kiiii formally to abjiup Christianity, was hdt prepared to aeCi uhmoTed, such proof of brutality anid irreverence haying been shown to the chief teitchcr of hia abandoiied creed ; and he eagerly and in- dignantly demanded who had dared thus to ill-treat a personage so eminent. Lauren- tius,. in reply, assured him that hia wounds had been inflicted not by living hands, bat by thosfe of St. Peter himself, who had ap- peared' to him in a vision, and had thus chastised him for his iutended desertion of a flock upon which his departure would in- evitably draw down eternal perdition. The result of this bold and gross invention shoVred how much more powerful over gross aiid ignorant minds are the coaursest fables of superstition, than the aublimest truths cir the most affectionate urgings of genuine religion. To the latter, Eadbald had been conteuiptuoualy deaf; to the former, he on the instant sacrificed his incestuous pas- sion and the object of it. Divorcing nim- self from her, he fbtumed to the Christian peJe; and his people, obedient in good as in evil, returned with him. The reign of Eadbaldi apart from this apbstacy and re-cpnversion, was not reiriarkable. The power which his father had established, and the prestige of his father's remembered ability and greatness, enabled hiin to reign peaceably without the exertion, prpbably without the possession, of any very remark- able ability of his own. After a reign of twenty-five years, he died in 640, leaving two sons, Enhinfrid and Ercombert. Ercomb(!rt, though the yoanKcr brother, locc^edcd hll father. He reigned for twenty- four year*. This reign, loo, was on the whble peaceable, though he showed, great Mid in rooting out the remain* of idolatry firom among his people. He was sincerely and zealously uttaclled to the church, and he it was who Qrst of the Saxon monarcns enforced upon bis subjects the observance of the fast of Lent. Ercombert died in 664, and was suc- ceeded bv his sou Egbert. This prince, sensible that hia father had wrougfUlly ob- tained the throne, and fearing that factions might be found in favour of tne heirs of his father's elder brother.put those two princes to death— an act of barbaroua policy which would probably have cauacd his character to descend to us iu much, darker and more hateful colours, buit that his iseal in enabling Dunriina, his sitter, to found a monastery in the Isle of Ely caused him to And fa- vour in the eyes of the monkish bistoriant, who were ever far too ready to allow appa- rent friendliness, to the temporal protpenty of the church to outweigh even the mptt fla- grant and hateful sins against the doctrines taught by the church. It is nevertheless true that, apart from his horrible and merciless treatment of his cousins, this prince displayed a character so mild and thoughtful as makes his commis- sion of that Clime doubly remarkable and la- mentable. His rule was moderate, though fii-m, and during his short reign of only nine years he teems to have embraced every opportunity of encouraging and advancing learning. He died in 673, and was Sttc- ceededj>y his brother Lothaire; so that his cruel murder of his n,ephey;B.,did,not even prove sdccesitftil iii secuiiid^ithe thirone to his son. Lothaire associated with himself in the government his son Richard, apd every thing seemed to promise the usurpers a long and prosperous reign. But Edric, the son of Egbert, unappaUed by the double power and abUity which thus barred him from the throne, took shelter at the court of Edilwalch, king of Sussex. That prince heartily espoused his cause, and furnished him with troops; and after a reign of eleven years, Lothaire was slain in battle, A.D. 6S4, and his son Richard escaped to Italy, where be died in comparative ob- scurity. Edric did not long ei^joy the throne. His reign, which presents nothing worthy of record, was barely two years. lie died in 6S6, and was succeeded by his sou ■Widred. "The violence and usurpation which had receiitly taken place in the kingdom pro- duced the usual effect, disunion amonj the nobility ; and that disunion, as is also usually the case, invited the attack of ex- ternal enemies. Accordingly, Widred had hardly ascended the throne when bis king- dom was invaded by Cedwolla, king of Wessex, and his brother Mollo. But though the invaders did vast da: iage to the king- dom Of Kent, titeiir appearance had the M ^' M a ' H A r. o o k< M e 9 f A..il. 560. — TBK BISHOraiC OV ST. ASirn 70t'KDt:D BT kEIttlOSB, A SCOT. [f 3 'm I L._ ,r> •rS-i ■ ,i, i ,. I ..,!., i.i, ' I. ' i t , '. ;''irJ.< . v J ' i i ,, 1 i' i )? : ., ii i >y . i" " i » i i u «i " »;^iStt«iiiiL»iii». ta di M M jtood effect Qf puitiiiit an end to domestic ditunioii, Md Wldrtd WM «bl? to aii0m- ble « pQWerfvil for<;e for the defence of his tbr""*!. In a icvere battle which wae fought aeaihst the invftMri, MoUo was ■lain; add Widred lo «bly availed himielf of th^,bpportunijty affdrded to him bji ttaii events ;^hat hit reign extended to the lonfr term of thirty-two yeari. At hia death, in 718, li« left the kingdbm ip his family: but ft the death of his third successor, Alrio, ho died in 79-1. all pretence, even, to a [gitiiiiat^orAcr of aucceijiion to the throne .■as ahanaonelj,. To wish was to strive, to conquer was to have right; and whether it were n powerful noble or an illegitimate connection of the royol family, every pre- tender who could maintain his claim by force of arms seemed to consider himself fU)ly thtitled to Strike for the vacant thrOne. Thif f narchical condition of the kingdom, andi |tne weakness and disorder which were nepesifanly produced by such frequent civil wiiiV payed the Way to the Utter annihila- tion bt Kent as a separate kingdom, which annihilation was accomplished by Egbert, kingp of Wessex, about the year 820. CHAPTEUni^ i The tlefitarek^ {continued). The kingdom of Northumberland first made a cousiderable figure and exercised a great share of influence in the Heptarchy under Adelfrid, a brave and able but ambi- tious and unprincipled ruler. OriKinally king of Bemicia, he married Acca, daughter W Alia, king of the Dciri;ahd at the death ofthnt monarch dispossessed and expelled bis youthful heir, and united all the country north of the Humber into one kingdom, the limits of which he still farther extended by his victories over the Picts and Scots, and the Britons in Wales. An anecdote is related of this prince which seems to indi- cate that he held the clergy in no very great respect. Having found or made occasion to my siege to Chester, he was opposed by tb^ Britobs, who marched in great jforce to compel him to raise thesiege, and they were accompanied to the field of battle by up- wards of a thousand monks from the mo- nastery of Bangor. On being informed that this numerous body of religious men had come to the field of battle, not actually to fight against him, but Only to exhort their countrymen to fight stoutly and to pray for their success ; the stern warrior, who could not understand the nice distinction between those w:ho fought against him with their arms and those who prayed that those arms might be victorious, immediately detached some of his troops v.ith orders to charge upon the monks as heartily as though they had been armed and genuine soldiers ; and so faithfully was this ruthless order obeyed, that Only fifty of the mOnks are said to have escaped firom the sanguinary scene with their lives. la the battle which immedi- ately followed this wanton butchery the Britons were completely defcatedl M H »■ a K A.D. 680. — THB BI8B0FBIC OF BEBBFOBD FODNBED BT MILFBIDB, A NOBLEMAN. "'^ -^^V^^r^-'— - "' ^ 0*.r?*« O ,^ •-««!'9«'^ ^fft - A^ .3 ■ I I I H .j" ' l\ ' • "^" ' — - ■ ■'-' ■ —-^. '■" r^.iiir W4.-^-*lia htaaotmis O' toiittoR voonsbb by %tu*h%nmi. lEnglantf.— ^i)i l^tptard^v. 65 monftrch, ditplayed abilltr equal to the l«t> ter lot ai he liad diiplayed tirm and dignU fled retignation in tne fonner. Juit, out inflexibly Mvern in restraining hi* lubjecta fnim wrong-doiiiK. he put such order into the kingdom, which at hit acceision waa noted fur it* licentiouanei* and disorder, that of him, as of tome other well-governing princes, the old historian* relate that he caused viduable property to be exposed un- guarded upon the high roads, and no man ared to appropriate It. A mere flvurative and hvperbolical anecdote, no doubt ; but one winch evidences the greatness of the truth on which such an exaggeration must be founded. Nor was it merely within even the wide limits of his own kingdom that the fine character of Edwin was appreciated ; it pro< cured him admiration and proportionate in- fluence tliroughout the Heptarchy. Hi* be- nefactor, Redwald, king of the East Angles, helns involved in serious disputes with his kuluects, was overpowered by them and put to death. The conduct of Edwin, both while a fuititive and a sojourner among them and in his subsequent proaperity and greatness, caused them to offer him their throne. But they were incapable of understanding the whole greatness of his spirit. He had too deep and abiding a sense of gratitude for the favours he owed to Redwald, and, still more, to the queen of that prince, to see their offspring; disinherited ; and, instead of accepting the offered throne, h<: threatened the East Angles with chastisement in the event of their refusing to Kive possession of it to the rightful owner, Earpwold, second heir of the"^ murdered king. Earpwold ac- cordingly ascended the throne, and was protected upon it by the power and reputa- tion nf Edwm. Edivin married Ethelburgn, daughter of Ethelbcrt, king of Kent, by Bertha, to whom, cliiclly, tnat monarch and his people hfid owed their conversion to Christianity. Ul' such a mother, Ethelburga on the occa- sion of her marriage proved herself the worthy dnugbtpr; she, as her mother had done, stipulated for full and free exercise of her religion, and she also took with her to lier new realm a learned bishop, by name Paulinus. Very soon after her marriage she began to attempt the conversion of her himband. Calm and deliberate in all that lie (lid, Edwin would not allow the merely human fnelins of conjugal affcctioi. to de- cide liiHi in a matter so vitally important as an entire change of religion. The most that her affeetionate importunity could obtain, was his promise to give the fullest and most serious attention to all the arguments that might be urged in favour of the new faith that was offered to him ; and, accordingly, he not only held frequent and long confer- ences with Patilinus, but also laid before the gravest and wisest of his councillors, nil the arguments that were urged to him by that prelate. Having undertaken the enquiry in a sincere and teachable spirit, he could not fail to be convinced; and the truth having fallen bright and full upon his enlightened mind, he openly declared him* self a convert to Christianilf . His conver- lion and baptism were followed by those of the greater part of his people, who were the more easily periuadea to tiii* great and total change of faith wh(>n they saw their chief priest, Coifl, renounce the idolatry of which he had been the chief pillar and pro- pounder, and excel in hi* conoclastie seal against the idols to which he had so lung ministered, even the Christian bishop, Pau- linus himself. The reign of Edwin produced great bene- fit to hi* people, but rather by his activity and industry than by it* length, he being slain in the seventeenth year of his reign in a battle which he fought against CKd- walla, king of the Wekh Briton*, and Penda, king of Mercia. At tfce death of Edwin the kingdom of Northumberland wa* dismembered, and its inhabitant* for the mo*t part fell back into paganism. 8o general, indeed, was the defection from Christianity, that the wi- dowed Ethelburga returned to her natal kingdom of Kent, and was accompanied by Paulinus, who had been made archbishop of York. After the dismembered kingdom of Nor- thumberland had been torn by much petty but ruinou* atrife, the severed iwrtions were again united by Oswald, brother of Eanfrid. and son of the usurper Adelfrid. Oswald was strongly opposed by the Britons under the command of the warlike Ctedwalla; but the Britons were so desperately beaten that they never again made any general or vigorous attack upon the Saxons. A* sooa a* he had re-established the unity of the Northumbrian kingdom, Oswald also re- stored the Christian religion, to which he wa* zealously attached. It is, probably, rather to this than to any of his otlier good qualities, that lie owes the marked favour in which he is held bv the monkish historians, who bestow the hiehest possible praises upon his piety and cnurity, and who more- over afltrm that his mortal remains had the power of working miracles. Oswald was slain in battle against Penda, the king of Mercia. After his death the history of the kingdom of Northumberland is a mere melange of usurpations, and of all the distractions of civil war, up to the time when Egbert, king of Wessex, reduced it, in common with the rest of the Hep- tarchy, to obedience to his rule. CHAPTER IV. The Heptarchy (continued). The kingdom of East Anglia wa* founded by Utfa ; but its history affords no instruc- tion or amusement : it is, in fact, in the M'ords of an eminent historion, (ftily "a long bead-roll of barbarous names," until we arrive at the time of its annexation to the powerful and extensive kinjtdom of Mercia, to which we now proceed to direct the read- er's attention. Mercia, the most extensive of all the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, could not fail 1 >r A.O. 710. — TUB WORSUir OF IMAGES INTHOUUCBD INTO ENGLAND. .•0 A. 0. 7M.— 't IVi — n) 66 ^Ift ZfTrcastiro 0( l^toiory, $cc. to b« T«ry yowarfUl wkentrcr ralcd bv a brava or wIm Uag. Utuatfld in tha mUMla of tha ialand, it la aoma ona point or mora toQcbed aaeh of tha other tii kingdoma. Fenda, in battia aftaiMt whom wa hava airaady daacribed Oawald of Northumber- land to have lost both throne and life, waa the flrit raallf powerful and diitlnguiihed kinf of Merna ; but he waa diatinipiiihad etuMjr for penonal courage and the trraa- uoua and violeni temper in which he to exerted that quality m to rendv himietf tha terror or tiie doteitation o( all hit con- temporary Rnfliah priacei. Three kinga of Eiaat Anglia, Bigabert, Bgric, and Annai, were in auecetaion tltiu in attempting to oppoie him— at did Edwin and Otwald, de- oidedty the mott powerful of the kinga of Nurtliumberlanil ; and yet thii monarch, who wrought tuch havoc among hit fellow- princet, did not aRcend hit throne until be wat more than Hftj yeari of age. IHwjr, brother of Oiwaltl, now encountered him, and Fenda wni tluin; thit occurred in the year 465, and tlie tyrannical and Aerce war- rior, whom all hatui and many feared, aaa auceeeded by hit aon, Penda, whoie wife wut a daughter of Uawy. Tliii priueeaa wat a Chriation, and, like Bertha and Uthel- burn, she ao luccetsfully exerted her eon- lugal influence, that the conrerted her hut- band and hit tubjoctt to her faith. Tha axaet length of thit roonarch'a reign it aa uBoertaia aa the manner of hit death. At regardt the latter, one hiitorian boldly aa- terti that he wat treacherouily put to death by the order and oonniranee or hit <]ueen ; but thit leemt but little to tally with her acknowledged and affectionate zeal in con- verting him to Chrittianity ; and aa no- thing In the thape of proof can be produced to tupport to improbable a cliarge, we may pretty tafely conclude that either ignorance or malice hat given a mictakun turn to tome circumttancet attending liit violent death. He wat tucceeded by hit ton Wolf- here, who inherited his father'a couraj(a and conduct ; and not merely maintained hit own extensive kingdom in excellent order, but alto reduced Esaex and Eaat Anglia to dependance upon it. He wat succeeded by bia bfother, Ethelred, who thowed that he inherited hit apirit as well as hit kingdom. Though a sincere lover of peace and willing to make all honourable tacriAces to obtain and preserve it, he was also both willing and able to ihow bimielf a ttout and true toldier when the occasion really demanded that he should do to. Being provoked to Invade Kent, he made a very successful 1n- curtiou upon that kingdom ; and when bis own torritorv wat invaded toy Egfrid, king of Northumberland, he fairly drove that monarch back again, and ilew Elfwin, £g- frid't brother, in a pitched battle. He reign- ed creditably and prosperously for thirty years, and then resigning the crown to his iiephew, Kendrid, he retired to the monas- tery of Burdney. Kendrid, in hit turn, be- coming wearied of the cares and toils of royalty, resigned the crown to Ccolred, the ■on of Ethelred ; he then went to Rome, and there patted tha raraainder of hit Ufa in devout preparation for another and a batter world. Caolrad wat aueccedcd by Btbalbald, and the latter by OU, who at- ceadcd the throne in tha yaar JU i ha waa an active and warlika prince. Verr airly in hit reiga he dafeatad Lothaire, Ung of Kent, and Kenwulph, king of Wetaax ; and annexed Oxfordshire and Olooeettertliira to hit already large dominion!. But though brave, be wat both eruel and traacheroua. Bthalbert, king of th« Eatt Anglet. bad paid hit addrettet to tha daughter of Offa. and waa accepted aa her afllanced husband, and at length invited to Hereford to oelo- brate the marriage. But in the very midst of the featting and amutementi Incident to ao important and ioyful an event, the voung prince wat teiaed upon by order of Olfa, aud barbarously beheaded. Tha whole of his retinue would have shared the tame fate, but that Elfrida, the daughur whom OiTa thus barbarously deprived of her affianced hutbatid. found out what cruelty had been exercited upon their matter, and took aa opportunitv to warn them of their danger. Tneir timely escape, however, did not in the least affect the treacheroua ambition of Oifa, who teiied upon Eaat Anglia. Aa he ^rew old, Offa became tortured with remorae for bia crimes, and, with the auper- ttition common to hit age, aought to atone for them by ostentatious and prodigal libe- ralitjr to the church. He gave the tithe of all hit property to the church; laviabed do- nationt upon the cathedral of Hereford i and made a pilgrimage to Borne, where hit wealth and consequence readily procured him the absolution of the pope, wnote ei- pecial favour he gained by undertaking to tuoport an Enghsh college at Rome. In order to fulttl this promise, he, on hit return to England, impoted a yearly tax of thirty ficnce upon each house in his kingdom ; the ike tax for the same purpose being subse- quently levied upon the whole of England, was eventually claimed by Rome at a tri- bute, under the name of Peter's pence, in detpite of the notoriety of the fact that it waa originally a free gift, and levied only upon one kingdom. Under tlic impression or the pretence that he hud been mvourcd with an especial command revealed to him in a vision, this man, once so cruel aud now so superstitious, founded nnd endowed a magnificent abbey at St. Albans, in Hert- fordshire, to the honour of the relics of St. Alban the Martyr, which he asserted that he had found at that place. Ill as Uffa had acquired hit great weight in the Heptarchy, hia reputation for cou- rage and wisdom waa so great, that he attracted the notice and was honoured both with the political alliance and the i)«ersonal friendship of Charlemagne. After a long reign of very nearly forty years, he died in the year 704. Offa was ancceeded by hia son Egfrith, who, however, survived only the short space of five months. He was succeeded by Kc- nulph, who invaded the kingdom of Kent, barbarously mutilated the king, whom he A. D. 758.— OaOAHS FIRST lilTBODUCEO INTO DITIKK WORSUir. %^ %. ,• .• . . . .- A A.B. JtOf—An mtlMSB VBOIV WHICH UHHB riOM OOTOIIM ffO tlBBVABV. lEnglanti.— ^|ic l^cptarc^D. 67 took priMBcr md dtthroned, and erownrd Ml own brother Cnlhred in his itead. Ke- nulph, •■ if by a retributive juetioe, w«t liillad in a rerolt of the Bait Anslikni, of wbote Itiogdom he held potiCMion.tbrouKb the treachery and tyrannnue cruelty of Ona. After the death of kenul|ih the throne wai utually earned and vacated by murder; and in thU anarchical condition the kinn' dom remained until the time of Egbert. And here we may remark, ra pattant, that neither in ita political nor civil orKaniia- tion did the AnglO'Saxon itate of lociety exhibit higher euunplei of locial order than are uiually to be found in communitiei en- tering on the early etagei of civilisation. EiMX and 8uiiex were the imalloit and the moit insignificant of all the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, and deserve no particular mention, even in the most voluminous and detailed history until the union of the whole Heptarchy, to which event we shall now hasten. We have already spoken of the stout re- siitonce which the Britons made to Cerdio and his son Kenrie, the founders of the kingdom of Wessex. A succession of am> bilious and warlike kings greatly extended the territory and increased the importance of this kingdom, which was extremely powerful, though in much internal dis- order, when its throne was ascended bv Egbert, in the year 800. This monarch came into possession of it under some pe- culiar advantages. A great portion of iiis life had been spent at the court of Charle- magne, and he had thus acquired greater polish and knowledge than usually fell to the lot of the Saxon Icings. Moreover, war and the merit attached to unmarried life had so completely extinguished the original royal families, that Egbert was at this time the sole male royal descendant of the ori- ginal conquerors of Britain, who claimed to be the descendants of Woden, the chief deity of their idolatrous ancestors. Immediately on ascending the throne, Egbert invaded the Britons in Cornwall, and inflicted some severe defeats upon them. But before he could completely sub- due their country, he was called away from that enterprise by the necessity of defend- ing his own couutr)', which hod been in- vaded in hia absence by Bernulf, king of Mercia. Mercia and Wessex were at this time the only two kingdoms of the Heptarchy which had any considerable power ; and a struggle between Egbert and Bemulf was, as each felt and confessed it to be, a struggle for the sole dominion of the whole island. Ap- parently, at the outset, Mercia was the most advantageously circumstanced for carrying on this struggle: for that kingdom had placed its tributary princes in the kingdoins of Kent and Essex, and had reduced East An^lia to an almost equal state of sub-, jection. Egbert, on learning the attempt that Bemulf was making upim his kingdom, hastened by forced marches to arrest his progress, and speedily came to close quar- ters with him at Blandum In Wilts. A sangoinarr and obstinate battle ensued. Both armies fought with spirit, and both were very numerous; but the fortune of the day was with Egbert, who completely routed thti Mercians. Nor waa he, after the battle, remiss in following up the great blow he liad thus struck at the only En- glish power that could for an instant pre- tend to rivalry with him. He detached a force into Kent under his son Ethelwolf, who easily and speedily expelled Baldrcd, the tributary king, who was supported there by Mercia; Egbert himself at the same time entering Mercia on the Oxfordshire side. Essex was conauered almost with- out an effort ; and the East Anglians, with- out waiting for the approach of Egbert, rose against the power of Bemulf, who lost his life in the attempt ^o reduce them again to the servitude which his tyranny bad ren- dered intolerable. Ludican, the successor f Bemulf, met with the same fate after two years of constant struggle and frequent defeat ; and Egbert now found no difficulty in penetrating to the verv heart of the Mercian territory, and subduing to his vrill a people whose spirit was thoroughly broken by a long and constant succession of calamities. In order to reconcile them to their subjection to him, he skilfully flattered them with an empty show of in- dependence, by allowing their native king, Wiglaf, to hold that title as his tributary, thouf^h with the firmest determination that the title should not carry with it an iota of real end independent power. He was now, by the disturbed and turbu- lent condition of Northumberland, invited to turn his arms against that kingdom. But the Northumbrians, deeply impressed with his high reputation for valour and success, and probably sincerely desirous of being under the strong stern government of one who had both the power and the will to put an end to the anarchy and con- fusion to which they were a prey, no sooner heard of bis near approach than they ren- dered all attack on his part wholly unne- cessary, by sending deputies to meet him with an oner of their submission, and with power to take, vicariously, oaths of allegi- ance to him. Sincerely well pleased at being thus met even more than half way in his wishes, Egbert not only ^ave their en- vovs a very gracious reception, but also voluntarily allowed them the power to elect a tributary, king of their own choice. To East Anglia he also granted this flattering but hollow and valueless privilege; and thus secured to himself the good will of the people whom he had subjected, and the interested fidelity of titular kings, whose royalty, such as it was, depended upon his breath for its existence, and wHb, being on the spot, and having only a comparatively limited charge, could detect and for their own sakes would apprise him of the slight- est symptoms of rebellion. The whole of the Heptarchy was now in reality subjected to Egbert, whom, datin;; from the year 827, we consider as the first king of England. A. O. 763. — BUBIAIiS, FORMXRIiT IN TUB niOHWAYS, NOW r£RMITTED IN TOWNS. nr'T •"••,. m BILIMO* Of ntl »■«!•» ««••!•«■ 0» yomm *HB tKKAKJCBl. 68 ^^ crnafurB of l^totsre, Ire. CHAPTER V. TsB figoMtu riiaiMter of Egliert wu Will MiMdilei to indi:* the laxoM proud of IwtinK Mm for • monareh ; md the Cut ortbafordfamUiwof tiM Haptarehy beiitff, ftoM wrioiu MiuM, Mtimet, •till tether aUM ia wakinf kit rule weuome, and the mirni of the vMriou* eUtee into ene apee- •ble. At the Suoni of the varioiu king- doou had oriKiaaily eome not from differ- ent CMinlfiet ae much aa Awn diihmit pro- vineca ; and ai, dniiBf their lonf reudenee ia io cireumaeribed a territory aa Esf land, and frooMRt interaonna had, ia deapite of their liemg under different king*, BMU them to a wj great extent one people^ thrir habita and pomdu were ri- ■Uar; and tn their langaagc, that naoat impartant bond of union to mankind, they BcaNeir differed moreooMidefablf than ttie inhabitanta of Cornwall and tkoaa of Com- bariaad do at the preaent da*. Vtecd (h»a the anwroidable differeneea aad atrife wbieh had occurred while so maay Jarring royaltiea were crowded into eaeh a aariow and andirided apace, they n»w aeemed, by the mere fi>ree of their union into one Body, to be destined to be at once proaperoua aautng tbemarirei, and fbimldalMe to any one who ahoold dare to attack th«n from without. All thing* had ooneorred to give Egbert the aupreme power in England; and all things aeemed now to concur to ma]eeimated when goaded into re- volt, deprived of their Bropcrty by fire, and of their dearert relativee by the aword, many thousanda of the pagan Saxons of Germany sought refbge in Jutland and Denmark: and naturally, though incor- rectly, ittdging of the Christian faith by the conduct of the Christian champion, Charlemagne, they made the fbrmer hate- M by their mere rdationa of the crueltiea of the latter. When the feeble and divided posterity of Chariemagne made the French provmcea a fair mark for bold invaders, the mingled races of Jates, Danca, and 8axons, known In France under the general name of Northmen or Normans, made descents upon the maritime countriea of France, and thence pushed their devastating enter- prises for wland. England, as we have said. Dram its mere proximity to France, wna viewed by these northern marauders as being in some sort the same country ; and its inhabitants, as being equally Christian with the French, were equally Bated, and equally considered fit objects of spoliation and violence. As early as the reign of Britbric in the kingdom of Vfessvx, in 787« a body of -these bold and nnscrupulous pirates lauded in that kingdom. That their mtentioB waa hostile there can be little doubt t for, when merely questioned about it, they slew the magistrate, and hastily made off. In the year 794 they landed in Northnmberiand, and completely aackedji monastery: but a atorm preventing the'm from making their escape, they were sur- rounded by the Northumbrian people^-^nd completely cut to pieces. ^ During the first five years of Egbert's supreme reign in England, neither domes- tie disturbances nor tlie invasion of foreign foes occurred to obstruct his measures for Sromoting the prosperity of his peoAle. lut about the end of that time, and wnil he was still profoundly engaged in promot ing the peaceable pursuits which were so necessary to the wealth and comfort o^he kingdom, a horde of Danes made a sudflcn descent upon the isle of Sheppey, plundered the inhabitants to a great amount, . and made their debarkation in safety, and dinost without any opposition. Warned by this event of his liaoility to ftiture visits of the same unwelcome nature, Egbert held him- self and a competent force in readinem to receive them ; and, when in the folloWing year (A.s.es^), they landed from thirty-ttve ahips upon the coast of Dorset, they were suddenfy encountered by Egbert, near Charmouth, in that county. Au obatinate and severe contest ensued, in which the Danes lost a great number of their force, and were, at length, totdly defeated ; but, aa they were akilfollv posted, and had taken core to preserve a line of communteation with the sea, the survivors contrived to escape to their ships. Twd yearn elapsed from the -.battle of Chafmottth before the pirates a^n made their ippearance; and, as in that battle they haa Buffered very severely, the English began to hope that they would not again a 0- t. M H (4 •* B4 M M H < M • N H K rt m M M m M H » »HB rsOPLB CORSISTKD 07 «W0 CLASSES— FBBBMaN AHD aLATllS. a » ,iati o kac M tha a Brii i ani thai s to : vim s acti M Bgb m mer cam ¥ agai ""* ? port land cnce s mort H IS the< S waa Th f wasi o Q O # A.m. 840.— «■■ Mon >i eonTiavAii WABS ais UTMv*nw vaa vien. M Q M IS (9 3 M t« «a o ie >4 N ■ K « a o a H 4 .Ntora to molMt them. B«* tka VtaUa, kaowinf the uMicst umI •bUting •nmity tli*t esMtad iMtwetn th* Buoiw and tlM British ramnaat la CofBW«U. entered into an allianee with the latter, ahd* Uodiag U their coaatry, had an eaay and opnn read to Deronahire and the ottier fertile pr»> viaeea of t|kf Weat. But here andn the Mtivity aad oaaluaiberiag wauhfalacia of %bert eaablfld hiai to limit thdr ravana merely to their firat furioua oaaat. ^e caaie up with them at Hennadowa, aad •gain tney were defeated witn a great di- BiiDUtioB of their aumbirfa. This waa the la»t aervice of brilliaat im- aortaace that Egbert performed for Enf • land; and juat aa thfra waa every ^^aeav* ence that hia Tahmr Md aagacity would be more than ever aeeessary to the safety of the country, he died, ia the year 8^ aad waa aoceecded by hia son Bthelwolf. The tery first aet ft Bthclwolfa rein was the divisioa of the eouatry which the wisdom and abiUtyo(4»ia father, aided by •ingnlar jnod fortaA«« aad ao happily aniled. Tkreatened is the kingdom so fre- quently waa from without, its best and cbiefest hope obvioualy rested upon its union, and the conaequenti facility of con- centrating ita whole fighting force upon any threatened pointi^ Bat, unable to see this, ir too iadment o bear the whole go- vernment of the country, Bthelwolf made over the wholeaf Keat, Huasex, and Essex, to his son Athelstan. It was fortunate that, under such a prince, who at the very outset of his reign could commit an error 80 capital, England had, in moat of ber principal places, magistratea or governors of bravery and ability. Thus Wolf here, governor of Hampshire, put to the rout a- strong parU of the ma- rauders, who had landed at Southampton, from nbievrer than three-and thirty sail; and, in the same year, Athelhelm, gover- nor of Dorsetshire, encountered and ie- feated another powerful body of them who had landed at Portsmouth ; thoagh, in this case, unfortunately, the gallant governor died of his wounds. Aware of the certain diaadvaatagea to which they would be ex- posed ia fighting pitclied battles iu aa enemy's country, the Danes, in their sab- sequent landing, took all poasible care to avoid the necessity of doing so. Their ^laa was to swoop suddenly down upon a xetirnd part of the coaat, plunder the country as far inland as thejr could prudentlv advance, and re-embark with their booty oefore any considerable foree eould be got together to oppose them. In this manner they plun- dered East Anglia and Kent, and their de- predations were the more distressing, be- diAse they, by no means, limited them- sebres to boet^ in the ustul sense of that terin, but earned off men, women, and e^en children into slavery. The frequency and the desultorineaa of these attackn, at length, kept the whole country coastwaru m a perpetual state of anxiety and alar.-n ; Jie inhabitants of each place fearing to hasten to assist the inhabi- fanta of anther plaet« leat' aomi" lithar l^avty of tha pirates, ia tha meaa tiaM^ ahoald ravage and bora their owa hoaaaa,. There waa aaotbei peaaUavity ia thia ktaNlt of warfiua, which* toone ordtr of maa, at leaat, aiade it ntore terrible tbaa evea civil wa* itself} nmkiag their daeeeata aot mmdy ia the love of gafn, bat also ia a bnraiag and inteaae . hatred of Christiaaity. the Danes aiada n« distinction betwcea layaMn aad clerks, ualesa, indeed, that they often showed theaaselves, if possible, more inei. orably erael to the latter. Haviag their capidity excited by large and frcqueat boo'y, aad beiag, moreover, flashed with theii aaeeessea oa the eoaat or Fraaee, the Daaea or Northmea at length made their appcarauee almoat annually in Englaad. Ia each suoceediag year th«^ appeared ia greater aumbera^ ami eoadacted theaMeWea with greater audaeity t and they BOW visited the English shores, in anch awanas, that it waa apparent they eontenb plated Bothiag lesa tbaa the actual cou. queat aad setusment of the whole coaatry. Dividiag themselves iato diatiaet bodiea, they directed their attaeka upoa diSereat poiBts; bat the Saxoas were nataially war- like} the governors of most of the import- aat places seaward were, aa we have al- ready remarked, well fitted for their impor- tant trust ; and the very frequency of the at- tache of the Daaea had induced a vigilance and organisation among the people them- aelvea which rendered it far less easy than it had formerly been to aurprise them. At Wtgaaburgh the Danes were defeitted with very great lose by Ceorle, governor of Devonshire; while another body of the Bwrauders waa attacked aad defeated by Athelstau, in person, off Sandwich. In thU uaae, in additmn to a considerable loaa in men, the Daaea had nine of their vessels sunk, and oaly saved the rest by a pre- cipitate flight. But ia this year the Danes showed a sign of audacious confidence in their ttrength and resources which pro- mised but ill for the future repoae of Eng- land; for though they had been severely chaatised in more than oae quarter, and had sustained the loss of some of their bravest mea, the main body ''f them, iastead of .-etreating wholly from 'he island, aa they usually had ione towards the close of the autumn, fortified themselvea in the Isle of Sheppy, and made it their wiater quarters. The promise of early recom- mencement of hostilities that waa thua tacitly held out waa fully and promptly fulfiHed. Eari^ in the spring of 862, the Danea who had wintered in the Isle of Thanet, were reinforced by the arrival of a fresh horde, in 3S0 vessels; and the whole marched firom the Isle of Thanet Inlan^i bnming and destroying whatever was not sum- ciently portable for plunder. Briehtrie, who— so far had Bthelbert allowed the die- Junction of the kingdom to proceed— was now governor and titular king of Mereia, made a vain attempt to resist them, Canterbury and I and waa utterly rouicd. a. a. 854.- aruBiiWOir orakts onaAT raiviLsoas to tbb CLaaar. o ^ ..© 'I BKIoll WiPa Olft^'cOHTillDaO «C«I«B 0» DAWHH WTASIOHi. U' BTOBLBBBT' ,;,f5 n CO ^^e ^reasurn of llistoty, $c(. ^"•"ns London ''Sre Racked and burned, and the disorderly bands of the victorious enemy spread into the very heart of Surrey. Ethel- Wolf, though an indolent king, was by no means destitute of a certain princely pride and daring; Enraged beyond measure at the audacity of the marauders, and deeply leved at the sufiferinga which they m- dupon his subjects, he assembled the ^'^ ;ons, whom, accompanied by: his ii Ethelbald at his lieutenant, he ffinst the most considerable body of the Danesi He encountered them at Okely, and, although they foun^bt with their usual reckless and pertinacious courage, the Saxons discomfited and put them to flight. This victory gave the country at least a temporary respite; for the Danes had suf- fered so much by it, that they were glad to postpone furttier operations, and seek shelter and rest within their intrcnchment in the Isle of Thanet. Thither they were followed by Hudaand Ealher, the governors of Surrey and Kent, who braviely attacked them. At the commencement of the action the advantage was very considerably on the side of the Saxons : but the fortune of war suddenly changed, the Danes recovered their lost ground, and the Saxons were totally routed, both their gallant leaders remaining dead upon the tiuld of battle : A. D. 853. Desperate as the situation of the country was, and threatening as was the aspect of the Dane^ who, after defeating Huda and Ealher removed from the Isle of Thanet to that of Sheppey, which they deemed more convenient for winter quarters, Ethelwolf, who was extremely superstitious and bi- gotted, and who, in spite of the occasional flashes of chivalric spirit which he exhi- bited, was far more fit for a monk than for either a monarch or a military commander, this year resolved upon making a pilgrim- age to Rome. He went, and carried nith him his foiirth son, the subsequently " Great" Alfied, but who was then a child of only six years old. At Rome Etiielwolf re- mained for a '-ear, passing his time in prayer ; earning the flatteries and the favour of the monks by libernlities to the church, on which he lavished sums which were but too really and terribly neeaed by his own ira- povcrisued and suOeriii^ country. As a specimen of his profusion in this pious squandering, he gave to the papal see, in Serpctttity. the yearly sum of three hun- red rr.vicuses — oacu maiicus weighing, says Kume about the same as the Ecj;)ish haJf crowd, — to be applied in three e4aal portions : l»t, the providing and m .iutain- ing lamps for tSt. Peter's ; 2nd,{ot the same to St. Paul's, and Srill}/, for the use of the po[ :' himself. At the end of tlie yepya re- sidence which he had promised himself he returned home ; happily for his subjects, whom his prolonged stay at Rome could not have failed to impoverJHh ; his foolish facility in giving, being not a whit more re- markable than the unscrupulous alacrity of the papal court in taking. On reaching England, he wxa far more astonished than gratified at the state of affairs there* AtbeU Stan, his eldest son, to whom, M wejiave before mentioned, he had given Kent, Sussex, and Essex, had beer, some time dead ; and Ethelbald, the second son, hav- ing, in consequence, assumed ths regency of the kingdom during his father'sabsence, had allowed filial affection and the loyalty duci to a sovereign to be conquered by .am- bition. Many of the warlike nobility held Ethelwolf in contempt, and did not scrup'e to aflirm that he wcs far more fit for cowl and cloister than for the warrior's weapon and tlie monarch's throne. The young and ambitious prince lent too facile an ear to these disloyal deriders, and suffered himself to be persuaded to join and bead a party to dethrone his father and set him- self up in his place. But Ethelwolf, though despised by the ruder and fiercer nobles. Was not without numerous and sincere friends ; his party, long as he had been ab- sent, was as strong and as zealous as that of the prince ; both parties were of impe- tuous temper and well inclined to decide the controversy, by blows ; and the country seemed to be upon the very brink of a civil war, of which the Danes would no doubt have availed themselves to subject the island altogether. But this extremity was prevented by Ethelwolf himself, who volun- tarily proffered to remove all occasion of strife by sharing; his kingdom with Ethe' . bald. The division was accordingly made ; the king contenting himself with the eastern iiioiety of the kingdom, which, be- sides other pomts of inferiority, was far the most exposed. It were scarcely reasonable to expect that he wiio had not shrewdness and firmness enough to protect his own rights and inte- rests, would prove a more efficient guardian of those of his people. His residence at Rome had given the papal court and the clergy a clear view of the whole extent of the weakness of his nature ; iand the faci- lity with which he had parted with bis cash in exchange for hollow and cozening compliments, marked him out as a prince exactly fitted to aid the English clergy 'S nEICN ENGLAMD WAS UNMOLESTED UX TUB UANliS. e«. • 6 , .f^ .t.?*^:5„ •••J. 'if^->S j^>«k .A. D. 869.— THK IMIIK* BST riB« TO THB CITY OV tOUS. I'l lEnglanV.— 1lngIo=Saxon lyings. 61 m. by wilVcopflrmed to Ethelbald the we»tf rn moietjr.of the kingdom, of which he had already put him in possessiou, ant left the eastern moietv to his second eldeK surviv- inrson Ethelbert. The reign of Ethelbald was shorn i>or was his character such as to make it desir- able for the sake of his' people that it had been longer. He was of extremely de- bauched habits, and gave especial scandal and disgust to his people by marrying his mother-in-law, Judith, The second wife of ins deceased father. To the comments of the people upon this incestuous and dis- graceful connection he paid no attention ; but the censure of the church was not to be so lightly regarded, and the advice and authority of Swithin, bishop of Winchester, induced him to consent to be divorced. He died in the year 860, and was succeeded by his brother Ethelbert ; and the kingdom thus, once more, was united under one so- ' eilAPTERVI. The Reigna of Ethelbert and FAhelred, Tub reign of Ethelbert was greatly dis- turbed by the frequent descents of the Daues. On one occasion they made a fu- rious attack upon Winchester, r .d did an immense deal of mischief in the neighbour- hood, but were finally beaten off with great loss ; and, on another occasion, the horde of them that was settled in the Isle of Thanet, having thrown Ethelbert off his guard by their apparent determination to keep sacred a treaty into which they hnd entered with him, suddenly broke' from their quarters, marched in great numbers into Kent, and there committed the most wanton outrages in addition to seizing im- mense booty. Ethelbert reigned solely over England but little more than five years ; he died in 866, and was succeeded by his brother Ethclrcd. He, too, was greatly harassed by the Danes. Very early in his reien, con- nived at and aided by the East Angles, who even furnished them with the horses neces- sary for their predatory expedition, they made their way into the kingdom of Nor- thumberland, and seized upon the wealthy and important city of York. ^Ua and Osbricht, two high-spirited Northumbrian princes, endeavoured to expel them, but were defeated, and perished in the assault. Flushed with this su:!'-'">s, the Danes now marched, under the commr.iu of their ter- rible leaders, Hubba and Xliuguar, into Mercia, and after much jnrnage and rapine established themselves in Nottingham, from which central situation they menaced the ruin of the whole kingdom. The Mercians finding thattheir local authorities and local forces were no match for desperadoes so numerous and so determined, dispatched messengers to Ethelred, imploring bis per- sonal interference on their behalf, and the king, accompanied by his brother Alfred, 'vho liad already begun to display those ta- lents which subsequently won him an im- ,'eous posi- o' hHt- . lu (irn- ■ i-':c£j. s' '( ivs ^lel.'fd w 'y refused to r ■ , ilad the a„ perishable fame, marched to Nottingham with a powerful army, a.d. 870. The gallantry and activity of the king and his brother speedily drove the Danes from Mercift, and they retired into Nor- thumberland with the apparent design of reinainiD? there quietly. But peace was foreign to their very nature ; and, forgetful of their recent obligations to the treachery of the East Angles, they suddenly rushed forth upon them, butchered Edmund, their tributary prince, in cold blood, and com- mitted the most extensive havoc and depre- dations, especially upon the monasteries. The Danes havmg, in 871, made Beading a station, from which they greatly harassed the surrounding country, Ethelred deter- mined to dislodge them. On desiring the aid of the Mercians he was disloyally re- fused; they, unmindful ol the benefit they had received from him, being desirous of getting rid of their depcndance upon hira, and becoming a ueparate people as in the Heptarchy. Even this shameful conduct of the Mercians could not move Ethelred from his purpose. Aided by Alfred, from whom, during his whole reign, he received the most zealous and efticient assistance, he raised a large force of bis hereditary sub- jects, the West Saxons, and marched against Reading. Being defeated in an ac- tion witliout the town, the Danes retreated witliin the gates, and Ethelred commenced a sfige, but was driven from before the place by a sudden and well-conducted sally of the garrison. An action shortly after- \Mtrds took place at Aston, not far from Rending, at which an incident occurred whic'.i gives us a strange notion of the man- ners of the age. A division of the English army under Alfred commeuce^ the battle, and was so skilfully surr, itr/ 'd by the cntmy while yet in a disndvant tiub, and not fairlj formed in : tie, that it was in the T^o%t in gev of being cow,;'!, tcis i-t Alfred sent an urgent 'me ■ brother for assistance; bi' hearing mass, and p."' 1 1 '' a step until its con "n si gone against the S.'.cotip, Ethelred's cot. duct on this occasion .-id . '. 'bably have been censured even by ihe l}<'K■^^■',■i ou as the Danes were put io theVjit and with signal slaughter, the whole 'Credit of the victory was given to the piety of Ethelred. B<-ateu out of Berkshire, the Danes now took up a strong pof^itit n at Basing, in Hants. Here they rec^iv d a powerful re- inforcement from abroad, and sent out marauding parties in all directions with great success. Such, indeed, was their suc- cess, that Englishmen of all ranks ber,f M a B> o M o n H t< M ■4 nI >• O U o THE tlF.ION OF ETUKI.nEn WAS MF.MORAnLi: FOR A CBBAT FLAOUB. [0 n o ^ • •, % '-*'^ ^^ fy n^ 10 U A.]>. 878.— THIt TbA U.tBMB WOVQMl •■TBM BA*TI.«t WITH TH« DAlfll. 62 tlTl^t treasure oM^istorPt ^(> tie at Bdsing, that it terminated Lis life, in the year 871. CHAPTER yi^lgff:^^ ■ The Reign of Alfred iheOnitt. Alfred lucceeded iiit brother Ethelred ; and scarce were the funeral rite* performed before he found it nccessarjr to march against the enemjr, who had now seized upon Milton. At the cuUet, Alfred had considerabljr the advantage ; but his force was very weak compared to that of the enemy, and, advancing too far, he not only missed the opportunity of completing their defeat, but even enabled them to claim the tictory. But their victory— if such it wafc — cost them so manv of their bravest men that they became alarmed for the conse- quences of continuing the war, and entered into a treaty by which thcv bound them- selves altogether to depart from the king- dom. To enable them to do tl.' they were conducted to London, but on at -ig there the old leaven became too strong for their virtuous resolutions ; and, breaking oiffrom their appointed line of march, they began to plunder the country round London for many miles. Burthred, the tributary prince of Mercia, of which Ix>ndon formed a part, thinking it improbable after his shc'meful desertion of Alfred's brother on a former occasion, that Alfred would now feel in- niined to assist him, made a treaty with the Danes, by which, in consideration of a con- siderable sum of money, they agreed to cease from ravaging his dominions, and re- move themselves into Lincolnshire. They so far fulfilled their part of tlic agreement as to mnrch into Lincolnshire ; but they had on foiTner occasions laid that county waste, and finding that it had not yet so far recovered as to promise them any booty worth having, they suddenly marcheil back again upon Mercia; then establishing them- selves at Repton, in Derbyshire, they com- menced their usual career of slaugliter and rapine in that neighbourhood. Tliis new instance of Danish pertidy filled Burtlired with despair ; and seeing no probability of his being able either to chase the Danes away, or to render them peaceablv disposed either by force or bribe, he abandoned his territory altogether, proceeded to Rome, and there took up his abode in a monas- tery, where he continued until his death. Burthred, who was brother-in-law to Alfred, was the last titular and tributary king of Mercia. The utter abandonment of the English cause by Burthred left it no other leading defender but Alfred : a.d. 8/5. Brave and able as that prince was, his situation was now truly terrible. New swarms of Danes came over, under the leadership of Guth- rum, Osital, and Amund. One hand of the host thus formed took up their quar- ters in r ways, when practicable, returning again before the morning, he harassed and spoiled the Danes to a very grcnt extent ; and his attacks were so sudden and so desultory, that his enemies were unable either cflfect- ually to guard against them, or to conjecture from what iiuarter they proceeded. liven by this warfurc, petty and desultory as it was, Alfred was doing good service to his countrjr. For with the spoil which he thus obtained he was enabled to subsist and from time to time to incre^se his fol- lowers; and while his attacks, which could not be wholly uuknowr to the Saxon popu- lation, gave them vagi e hopes that armed friends wore not wholl> lost to them, hey moderated the cruelty ai. J iniperiousue.ss of the Danes by constantly reminding them of the possibility of a i- iccessful and general revolt of the Saxons. For upwards of a year Alfred remained in this secure retreat, in which time he had gathered together a considerable number of followers ; and now at length his perse- verance had i:s reward in an opportunity of once ptorc me>7tiag bis foes iu the formal array of bcttlc. Hubba, tlio most w.:rlikc of all th<> Da- nish chiefs, h'd r, large army of his country- men to bebiegc tlie cusde of Uinwitb, in De- vonshire. The earl of that county, a brave and resolute man, deeming death in the battle field far preferable to starving within his fortili'^d wal's, or life preserved oy sub- mission to the liated Danes, collected the whole of his {garrison, and, having inspired them with his own brave determination, made a sudden sally upon the Danish camp in the darkness of night, killed Hubba, and routed the Danish force with immense sla'ighter. He at the same time captured the enchanted Renfen, the woven raven which adorned the chief standard of the Daucs, and the loss of which their super- •'.citious feelings made more terrible to them than that of tiieir chief and their comrades <\lio had perished. This lUc^fen had been woven into Hubba's standard by his \iree sisters, who accompanied their work with ceria'u t^iagiral formulae which the Danes I lirnil'; 'iclieved to have g-iven the represent- I eu b'Ird the power of prtdictiQg the go id or evil success of any enterprise oy the mo- ^¥. Mi A. O. flat. — TUB WELSU raiNCaS did nOMAOB TO ALFBED AS TXtBUTARIES. •Jr.'/ flsw tion of it't Wingi; And^ considenng the icrcat power of superstition pyprwde .m.4 untutored minds,, it is yerrvprpbBble/that tAe loss of this highly valued ■standwrd, xo- S^diwidiriftwith n6tonVtt»e de/^^^^^ .wy. S»'yral!edVto dispose tliem, shortly alter, to fr <3 >•&■ peace mi Alfred: , ;S.^?W*^80on ai Alfred heard of the sptnt ?nd .a^AiicctM-irith which the earl of Dev6«istare '»} €«d«Sefended hi::n8elf aii'd Toutiea the most li'-V fareadfa'^diyision 6f^he Danisharmy, he rc- ,/f Jjbfvcd to quit his ohscure ifetfcat and once ■ S'ii'Snofe endeavour to arouse the Saxon popu- '^'-■^Irttiod to arms. But as he had only too >' vcrcat'aiid painful experience of the extent , to irliich his unfortunate people had heen i-i'rdep*i"BMia in spirit by their long continued S- Inll'lfoitune, he determined to act dehbe- I rately and cautiously, so as to avoid an ap- peaiimade eiihpr too early to find the Sax- ons "sufliciehtly recovered to make a new effort for their liberty, or too early to allow of their oeing prepared to make that effort successfully. ■ Still leaving his followers to cciceal ih'emaclvbsin the retreat of which we have iipoken, he disguised himself as a harper^ a J; •'•1? very'popular charncter in that day, and one ^^hlch his g^at skill as a musician enabled him.succcssfullv to maintain. In this cha- ncier-he was able to travel alike among >Danes;and Saxons without suspicious recog- iSiti6n5;-;Rnd his music tc once obtained him ■Hmi'ssion to every rankiand the opportunity of conversing with e>'cry description of peo- ple. Emboldened by finding himstll' unsus- pected by even his own subjei^ts, he now fomcd the bold project of penetrating the very camp of the enemy to note their forces and disposition. To soldiers in camp. imuse- meiitjis ever welcome, anutlie skilful music of Alfrcjd not merely i;Tniified the common soldiers and inferior Dficers, hut even pro- cured him, from vheir recommendations, admittance to' tit: tent of Guthrum, their prince and leart'jr. Here he remained long enough to dtMcover every weak point of the enemy, wh;ther as to the position of their camp, '■ ii.ch was situated at Eddington, or as < the carelessness of discipline into whicL tlieir utter contempt of the " Saxon swiue '' caused them to fall. Having mtxle all viecessary observations he o<. \ the ar • lie it opportunity to depart, :.na. cut mea- sagea to all the principRi Saxoni n »on whom he could depend, requiring t'">tp to meet him on a specified day, al Brix' on, hi the fo- rest of Belwood. The Saxons, \^ ho had long mourned their kingas dead, and wert i^oan- ing beneath the brutal tyrannies of the Daura, joyfully obeyed his summoni, and at the appointed time he found himst^lf sur- rounded by a force so numerous and so en- thusiastic as to give him just hopes of being able ' to attack the Danes with recent visit tsd made him acquainted with ; the most p)*;ticable poihti. Bjink in apa^: thetic indclerice, and thinking of nothing less than of seeing a nuiuerour band xif English itistimbled: to attack themii the Dahet were jo pahic-stnick and surprised that they foiight with none of theiracctis- tomedyig'Jjiir or obstinacy* and the battle w'aaspfe^dyj? converted' into a mere roiiit. Great numbers of the Danes perished in this affair; uh4 though the rest, under the orders ot' (3uthrUih, fortified themselves in ii cami> aad inade prtjpairations for con- tinuing tlie struggle, they were so closely hemmed in by Alfrtd, that absolute hunger proved too itrong fbir their lesolutioa, and once mere they offered to treat for peace with the men whose mercy they had so often abused, and wh&se valour and ability they had long since believe''., and exultingly be- lieved, tobe buried in au olscure and pre- mature pfriiyc. The cnduriugand persevering inclination to clememiy which he cohstiintly displa , ed is by no ircans one of the least remarkahle and admirable traits in the character of Alfred. Though he now had the very lives of h>3 fell and malignant foes in his power, a'A though they were so conscious of their pywerlessness that tliey offered to submit on any terms however humiliating, he gave them their lives without attempting to im- pose even moderately severe terms. Peace for his subjects was stillthe great lode-star of all his wishes and of all his polity ; and often as he had been deceived by the Danes, his real magnanimity led him to believe that even their faithlesssness could not always bo proof against mercy and indulgence; he, therefore, not only gave them their lives, but also full permission to settle iii his country, upon the easy condition of living in peace with his other subjecta, and hold- ing themselves bound to aid in the defence of the co'intry m whose safety they would have a stake, should any new invasion ren- der their assistance necessary. Delighted to obtain terms so much more favourable than they hnd any right to hope for, Guth- rum and his ft.Uowers readily agreed to this ; but Alfred's mercy had no taint of weakness. He, with his usual sagacity, perceived that one great cause of the persevering hostility of the Danes to his suhjects was their dif- ference of religion. Reflecting that such a cause would be perpetually liable to cause the Danes to break their peaceable inten- tions, I Oenianded that Guthrum and hia people si.i. j'.il give evidence of their since- rity by embracing the Christian religion. This, also, was consented to by the Danes, who were all baptized, Alfred himself be- coming the godfather of Guthrum, to whom he gave the honourable Christian name of Athelstan. The success of thio measure fu'ly justiucd the sagacity which hnd sug- gested it to Alfred. The Danes settled in Stamford, Lincoln, Nottingham, Leicester, to attack the Danes with success. Knowing the importance of not allowing 1 and Derby, were called the Five Burghers, this enthusiasm to cool, he wasted no time and they lived as peaceably as any other in useless delay or vain form, but led them . of Alfred's subjects, and gave him as little a^ once to Guthrum's camp, of which )iis 1 trouble. Fo "nme years after this signal II O o a as H > a m a H IB as es f ta H A.n. 890. — ALFRIiD INTnODUCBn BVILniNO WITH BRICK AND STOIfB. ^^^^^^^^^p^|^^^« wis % is -:^ ^ '9 • • 9 ijg C-A. .ifcTs. WfiC^A ^KUtt OMTB UCTlVl ri^olTii COMTiUVItB iron *■■■■ ■lalui "mtH'Sfisiei y-jj».,'.i{-i.-',j.-.;«'.', an)i.— Iftngio'Saxoii Itiiijis. tirijlitiiipl) of AlD>Iii- Tkey comBittled omMid«riibii) h«Toe on their route, bat on krhvingat FUlMm thn found the country to wiell prepa^ b]r::Altired to reiiat them,, that thejp nuUte • 'v»nie ictreai to their' ship*, and deputed with iiuch apoil m in tlieir baate thef were able to aecnre. Freed (rom- the warlike buatle in which M larm a portion of hie iife had been tiient, AifrecF now devoted himself to the taslc of regttUting the civil affiiira of the kingdon. He committed the former kingdom oi Mer- eiato the government of hit brother-in-law, Ethelbert, with the rank and title of earl or duke ; .and in order to render the incorpora- tion of ^e Danes with the Saxon* the more complete, he put them upon the uine legal footing in eveHrreapect. In each division of the kingdom he est^iUibed a militia force, and msM .wraniil^iiieiita for its concentra- tion npon.ahy given point in the event of any new invasion. He also repaired the va- riottC; towns tiiat had suffered in ^he long disojrdiers of the kingdom, and erected for- tresses in commanding Mtuations, to serve both as depots for armed men, and as ral> lying points for the militia and levy, un mamt, of the country around, in case of need. But though the admirable niilitary dispositions thus inade by Alfred, made it certain that any invaden would tind themselves botly opposed in whatever quarter they might make their attack, Alfred was more anxious to have the internal peace of the country wholly unbroken, than to be obliged, hew- ever triumphantly and surely, to chastise the disturbers of it ; he therefore nnw turn- ed his attention to the organixation of such a naval force as should be «ulHcii who tome yeart bdbre had made a thort jtredatorv tacuraion into Eogiaud, bat who recenily:Lad confined his ravages to France, finding that he. had reduced that country, to far as he could get, access to it, to a eon- ditiOB which rendered it unproductive of farther booty, suddenly appeared this year off the coast of Kent, with an imntenae horde of his pirates, in upwards of three hundred vessels. Disembarking the main bbdyin the.Eoiher, and leaving it to guard the fort of Apuldore, which be surprised and seised, he, with a detachment of nearly a hundred vessels, tailed up the Thamet »m far at Milton, where he established hia head quartiert, whence he tent out hit ma- rauding parties in everv direction. As soon as tidings of this new incursion reached Alfired, that gallant monarch concentrated an immense force from the armed idilitia in various parts of the country, and marehed ai^dnst the enemv. Setting down before Milton and Apuldore, AlfrM, by his supe- riority of force, completely hemmed in tlie main bodies of the pirates, and their de- tached parties were encountered at they returned with their booty, and cut off to a man. Finding that, to far from having any prospect of enriching themselves, they were, in fact, coro|.elled to live in Biiglaad ufion the pluuder that they had tciced in France, the pirate garrison of Apuldore made a sudden sally with the aesign of ere— ing the Thames into Essex. But the visniant eye of Alfred was too constantly upon them to allow cither secrecy or sud- denness to give them success in this at- tempt. He arrested their inarch at Faru- baiii, utterly routed them, and spoiled them of all their property, including numbers nf valuable horses. The slauj^hter was very great, and those Danes who were so fortu- nate •• to survive the battle, made their way m pauio haste to their pi'atical ves- SL'is. and sailed over to Essex, where they entreaichcd themselves at ISIe/scy ; Hast- ings, with the division under ^>is command, at tiie same time, going also into the county of Essex and entrenching himscif at Can- vey. Guthrum, who from the time nf liia bap- tism had been constantly faithful to the engngrvmeut into which he had entered with Alf>-ed, was now dead, as also was Guthred, another Diuie of rank, who was very fiu>liful to Alfred, by whom be hr.d been made governor of Northumberland. No longer restrained by the example and authority of tliose two cmii;ent chiefs, the East Anghan and Northumbrian Danes now suddenly exhibited their old propen- sity to ttrife and rapine, got together a fleet of nearly two hundred and fifty vessels, and made their appearance iu hostile array before Exeter. Leaving a suSicient force under competent command to make head TnR NOBLES WERB COMFKLLBD BY ALVIIED TO BUUCATIS TUBIG SONS. [0 ».f,«, ^{n., i}^f^ if^ypfc^fl^^f^**^^^!^^ ^S « %! !•*. H 4 H 5 M : m e rjg>^t,f»..t M»ti.*T»0 into Ai.an.ot*xo» « ■ofcTuim pb co»toi.Atioa». M^t Vixttatxx^ of ^ifttbnjf, dsaintt the DiuroTln Eisex, Alfred Imroe- diatelr haatened to Exeter, and fell so tud- denW upon them, that, with little loii on kit aide, ther were driven. In eomplet* ditr order and with immenie Iom> to their fleet. of the country ; hut the preparation* which Alfred had everywhere made of militia and ari»iedfrcemen,;Whom therecent alarraa had kept'mo're than uiually on the alert, caiiMd the pirates to be to warmly received, that thnr at length lailed from, the island alto- gether, in utter. de«pair of making any fur- ther boofy: ; The Panes in Eiisex, nnitcd under the eoqiiiiand of the formidable Hastings, did ;:imraenae mischief in that county. But the force left behind by Alfred, increased by ■ large number of Lohdviners, marched to Bamflete; forced thepirates' entrenchments, put the greaitcr number of the garrison to the sword, and captured the wife and chiU dren of the pirate chief. This caoture waa the most importantly useful result of thia well-conducted enterprise. Alfred had now in his bands hostages through whom he could command any terms ; but so generous was his-.nature, thait he restored the women and ohildren to Hastings, upon the sole and easy condition that he should quit the king- dom immediately, under a solemn engage- ment to ret uni to it no more as a foeman. But though the worst band of the Danes was thus forced to depart ^he kingdom, the plague of the Danes was by no means 't'^bolly at an end. There were very nume- rous scattered hordes of them, who neither owned the leadership of Hastings, nor were willing to quit the country empty-handed. These united into one large force, and for- tilied themselves at Shobury, at the mouth of the Thames, whence they marched into Gloucestershire, and being reinforced by a numerous body of Welchiricn, fortitied themselves very sttongly at Boddington. Having now only this body to deal with, Alfred gathered together the whole force he could command, and drawing lines of circuravallation around the pirates, delibe- rately sat down with the determination of starving them into submission. They held out for some time, slaying their horses to subsist upon ; but, at length, even this mi- serable resource failing them, they sallied out in utter desperation. The most consi- derable portion of them fell in the fierce contest that ensued , but a still formidable body escaped, mid, ravaging the country as they passed along, were pursued by Alfred to Watford, in Hertfordshire. Here ano- ther severe action ensued, and the Danes were again defeated with great loss. The remnant found shelter on board the fleet of Sigcfort, a Northumbrian Dane, who possessed ships of a construction very su- perior to those of the generality ot his countrymen. The king pursued this fleet to the coast cf Hampshire, slew a great number of the pirates, captured twenty of their ships, and— even his enduring mercy being now wearied— hanged, at >Vinchcs- ter, tlie whole of his prisoners. The efflcicnt and organix^ed' ife*latiilice which bad of late been experienced bjr the pirate*, and the plain indicationa Kiveii;by the Winehciiter executions that tue king orucr .oa w,» ..u..... was determined to show no more lenity to They made attempts to land in other parts I pirates, but to consign them to an ignomi- »."V '"""° * . •. .. ..1 ui-u nious death, as common distarbora and enemies of the whole human race fairly struck terror even into < the bitherio incorr rigible Danes, 'llipse of Nortbumberland and East' Anglia, against whom Alfred now marched, deprecated his resentment bv the humblest snomission/aiid the most solemn assurances of their future peaceable beha- viour;, and their example waa imitated by the IVelch. The same admirable arrangementa which had enabled him to free his country from the Danes, were now of inflnite service to Alfifed in restoring and enforcing order among his own subjects. It waa almost inevitable that great disorders should pre- vail among ■ people who so frequently, and during ao many years, had been aubjected to all the horrors and tumnlta incident to a country which is ao unhappy as to be the theatre of war. In addition to making very extensive and wise provisions for the true and efficient administration of justice in the superior courts, and framing a code for their guidance, so excellent that its sub- stance and spirit subsist to this day in the common law of England, he most effec- tually provided for the repression of petty offences, as well as more serious ones, whether against persons or property; and the manner in vrhich he did so, like the manner in which he, as it were, made his whole kingdom a series of garrisons to re- strain the Danes, shows, that he, with ad- mirable ijenius, perceived the immense im- portance of an attention to details, and the ease with which many graduated efforts and arrangements will produce a result, which "would be but in vain aimed at by any one effort however vast. Of what may be called the national police established by Alfred, we take the follow- ing brief and condensed, but extremely lucid and graphic, account from Hume: — " The English," says Hume, " reduced to the most extreme indigence by the con- tinued depredations of the Danes, had shaken off all bands of government ; and those who bad been plundered to-day, be- took themselves on the morrow to the like disorderly life, and, from despair, joined the robbers iri pillaging and ruining their fel- 1ow-citt2.cns. These were the evils for which it was necessary that the vigilance and ac- tivity of Alfred should provide a remedy. " That he might render the execution of justice strict and regular, he divided all England into counties; these counties he subdivided into hundreds, and the hun- dreds again into tithings. Every house- holder was answerable for the behaviour of his family and his slaves, and even of his guests if they lived above three days in his house. Ten neighbouring householders were formed into one corporation, who, un- der the name of a tithing, decennary, or BK WAd .\\.V,0 THE TRAN8I.AT0I1 OV " OUOSIUs's UlSTOnT OF THE PAGANS." i •3^; «j m 1 »■ '■i,j^ M »•■ an hi th( H J th< H eil M ho 13 to 4 tic a h O M •i m t> n h a SiSH H whu H sma a mon h in c B of . H broi •i h d a a asse M cidir juric and kft._--^; h^ ctremeljr [ume:— m luced to H 1 a he con- H es, had a nt ; and w ■day, be- « the like ined the >i heir fel- or which » ■ and ac- H ta ;ution of f ided all M ntiet he M he hun- asrA*iiB A cum ov tAwa iil fHi laIt isAm o» ■» •ma'*. lEngtantr.— lEthsUcSaxon IXings . 67 fribourg, were iiDswerabl« for each other's copduct, and over whom one man, called a tithinR-man, headbourg;, or, bondholder, was appointed to preside. Every man waa punished as an outli^w who did not register himself in some tithing; and no man could change Kis habitation without a warrant or certinbate firorti the bondholder of the tith- ing to which lie fonneriy belonged. when any person; in an^titliing or de- cennary, was guilty of a crime, the bond- holder was summoned to answer for him ; and if he were not willing to be surety for bis appearance and his clearing himself, the cniiiinal was committed to prison, and there detained' till his trial. If he ded, either before or after finding surety, the bondholder and decennary became liable to enquiry, and were exposed to the penal- tics of the law. Thirty-one days were al- lowed them for producing the criminal ; and if the time elapsed Wi'tnont their being able to find him, the bondholder, with two otlier members of the deccnnarv, was otiliged to appear, and, together with three cliief members of the three neighbouring decennairiea, mukiug twelve in all, to swear that liis decennary was free from all pri- vity, both of the crime committed and of the escape of the criminal. If the bond- holder could not find such a number to answer for their innocence, the decennary was compelled, by fine, to make satisfaction to the king, according to the degree of the offence. By this institution every man was obliged,, by his own interest, to keep a watchful eye over the conduct of his neigh- bour ; and was in a manner surety for the behaviour of those who were placed under the division to which he belonited -, whence these decennaries received the name of frank pledges. Siicn a regqiar distribution of the people, with such a strict confinement in their habitation, may not he necessary in times when men are more inured to obedience and justice ; and it might perliaps be re- garded as destructive of liberty and com- merce in a polished state ; but it was well calculated to redui-e that fierce and licen- tious people aiider the salutary restraiot of law and governmeut. But Alfred took care to temper these rigours by other in- stitutions more favourable to the freedom of the citisens ; and nothing could be more popular or liberal than his plan for the ad- ministration of justice. The bondholder summoned together his whole decennary to assist him in deciding any lesser difference which occurred among the members of this small community. In affairs of greater moment, in appeals from the decennary or in controversies arising between members of different decennaries, the cause was brought before the hundred, which con- sisted of ten decennaries, or a hundred fa- milies of freemen, and which was regularly assembled once in four week* for the de- ciding of causes. Their method of decision deserves to be noted, as being the origin of juries; an institution admirable iu itself, and the best calculated for the preservation of liberty and the administration of justice that ever was devised by the wit of man. , Twelve freeholders were chosen, who having sworn, together with the hundreder, or pre- siding magistrate of that division, to admi- nister impartial justice, proceeded to the examination of that cause wliicb was sub- mitted to their jurisdiction. And beside theM monthly meetings of the hundred, there was an annual meeting appointed for ; a more general inspection of the police of the district, for the inc^uiry into crimes, the correction of abudcs in magistrates, and the obliging of cverr person to show the decennary in which hr was registered. The people, in imitation of their German an- cestors, assembled there in arms, whence • hundred was sometimes called a wapen- take, and its courts served both for the sup- port of military discipline, and for the ad- ministration of civil justice. The next superior court to that of the hundred waa the county court, which met twice ft-year, after Michaelmas and £aster, and consisted of the freeholder* of the county, who possessed an eaual vote in the decision of causes. The bishop presided in this court, together with the alderman;; and the proper object of the court was the receiving of appeals fhim the hundreds and decennaries, and the deciding of such con- troversies as arose between men of different hundreds. Formerly the alderman possesa- ed both the militanr and the civil authority ; but Alfred, sensible that this conjunction of powers rendered the nobility dangerously independent, appointed also a sheriff to each county, who enjoyed a co-ordinate au- thority with the former in the judicial func- tion. His office also empowered him to guard the rights of the crown in the county, and to levy the fines imposed, which in that age formed uo contemptible part of the public revenue. There lay an appeal, in default of justice, from all these courts to the king himself in council ; and as the people, sensible of the equity and great talents of Alfred, placed their chief confldonce iu him, he waa soon overwhelmed with appeals from all parts of England. He was indefatigable in the dis- patch of these causes, but finding that his time must be entirely engrossed by this branch of duty, he resolved to obviate the inconvenience by correcting the ignorance or the corruption of the inferior magistrates, from which it arose. He took care to have all his nobility instructed in letters und the law: be chose the earls and sheriffs from among the men most celebrated for pro- bity and know!edge; he punished severely all malversation in office, and he removed all the earls rt'liom he found unequal to their trust, allowing only some of the more elderly to serve by deputy, till their death . should make room for more worthy succes- sors." Without any qualification or allowance for the age nud circumstances in which he lived, the military, and even more the civil, talents of Alfred, and their noble and con- sistent devotion to the maguilicent task of ALFKKn's DAUGUTKR AI.TRITBA MARRIKD BALDWIN, COUNT OF riANUKKS. .6/ (I 'n '^0^^B^M-^-'M^'!^''^^^;^i'^i w^ ^*f \.f O r.m „ t9 m a ' M f i "'<3 — t: ~~" — ' . l " ' . ■ v■^.yJ ^ .w^ P ■l .r " ALFRED Villi R ^o^fji» Hit i^MO T«A>i ARB K'AS ■ BOIIIBD A* wiacBBifi^a. :^^ G a a e e M M H H O M ■ M M ft. IE 3 -' M ' (K ■* 68 tST^c ^YcasnrB of 1|UtocQ, (cc. mnkinir • ffmt ud ciTilited nation out of • people diiiunited, rude, ignorant, A«rM, and diMtrderljr, would juitly entitle him to t>t« praiM of MiHR amoiiR the greatett and bett monwrcha that have erer exiated. But wbfn we rcfleet that he had to contend againat a late, an imprrfect, and irregular i education ; tliat he, who, in a compara- ' tively khort life, •<' largely figured b<)th a* warnor nnd Mge, was twelve yean old ere he began to learn even the very elcmenti uf literature; and that, during the latter year* of hii glorioui life, he laboured ander frequent and painful fits of illneu alnoat amounting to bodily ditability, it would not l>e an eaty taik to exaggerate hia me- rita. '>ood aa well aa great, a patient and thoughtful atudent, aa well aa a mighty chirflain in the lield and a aape atateaman at the council board, he probably ap- pronrlied aa nearly to perfeetion, both aa man and monarch, aa ia poanible for one r . our fallible and frail rare. To the EngKaii of hia own age he gave benelita, aome o( which have deacendcd evon to our own ge- neration ; hia renowu ahines forth in the page of hiatory like aoinK bright particular ataf, a beacon of greatncta to things and of coodneaa to nrirate men ; and aad will that flay be for tsngli^nd, and degraded will be the English eharaetel-, whim the general heart shall fail to throb with a lively, a grateful, and a gladly proud emotion at the mention of him whom their aturdy fathers heartily and juatly hailed by the proud name of ALrBBU Tnx Gbbat. CHAPTER VIII. Wslurynf the JnD!a->^''xons, from the Death V At/retl (he Great to the iiteig» of Ed- uiord the Mprf^r. Ai>i>RBD THB GuKAT, wlio died in the yenr 901, had three rnus anil three daugh- ters liy hia wife Ethelawitlia, the daughter of ail carl of Mercia. His eldeiit sou, Edmund, died before hiui, and he was suc- ceeded by his second son, Edward, who, be- ing the' tirst English kiug of that name, was surnamed the Elder. Though Edward was scarcely, if at all, inferior to bi8 truly great father in point of miliiiuy talents, his reign was, upon the whole, a turbulei.t one, and one that by no means favoureu the growrii in the king- dom of that civilized prosperity, of which Alfred had laid iiie foundations both deep and broad. But the fault was nut witu Edward ; he had to contend against many verjf great difficulties, and he contended against them with both eourairc and pru- dence. He had scarcely paid the last sod ottces to his royal fatlier when his title to the tliroue was disputed by his cousin Ethel wold, son of Ethelbcrt, the elder brother of Alfred. Had the hereditory and linftiil descent of the crown been as yet strictly settled with a regard to primogeni- ture, the claim of Ethelwold would have, undoubtedly, bi.;n a just one. But such was far from being the cuse; many circum- stances, the character, or evcii the infancy at tk* actual heir, in the order of prime- genitnre, very often inducing the magnMM •■d people, as in the case of AV'-cJ iiim- self, to pass over him who in tbirt pol -^ of view waa the rightful heir, in f^vou.- ^: one better qnalided, and giving kiglwr promiaa of safety and pms|>cnty to the nation. Ethelv old UB<< a considerabU number of partizan.<, by whose aid he cull<'cted a large and imposing force, and fortified himself at Wimbume, in Dorsetshire, with the avosred determination of referring his claim to the decision of war. But the military condi- tion in wliich Alfred had left tlic kingdom now rendered his son good service. At tii« first intimation that he received of his cou- sin's opposition, he, on the instant, col- lected a numerous and wsU appointed army, and marched towards him, aeterinined not to have the internal peace of the wliole kingdom disturbed by a series of petty struggles, but to hauurd life and crown upon the decision of a single great battle. As the king approached, however, the in- formation of bis overwhelming force that waseonveyedto Ethelwold so much alarmed him, that he suddenly broke up his army a\id made a hasty retreat to Normandy. Here he remained inactive for aome time ; hut just as all observers of hia conduct imagined that he had finally «d>«ndon«d hia pretensions, he passed over into Nor- thumberland, where he was well rteeived by the Danes of that district, who were glad of any pretence, however slight, for dis- avowinr their allegiance to the actual king of England. The live burghers, who had so long been in a state of rarely broken tranquillity, also joined Uthelwold, and tlie country had once inoi'e ttte prospect of end- less and ruinous internal warfare. Ethel- wold led his freebooter^ into Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, and Oxfordshire, and made their escape good, with an immense booty, ere the royal forces could cente np with them. But the king followed his foes into Ehsi Anglia, and fearfully retaliated upon that district the injuries that had been in- flicted upon his peaceable subjects. When, laden with spoil, he gave the order to re- tire, a part of his army, chiefly Kentish men, disobeyed him. They were, conse- quently, left beliind in the enemy's coun- try, and, while busily engaged in adding to their already rich bootv, were suddenly and furiously set upon by the Danes. The bat. tic was obstinate on both sides. In the end tlie Danes were victorious ; but though they remained masters of the field of battle, they lost their bravest leaders, and among them the original promoter of the war, Ethelwold himself. 'The East Anglians were now glad to accept the terms of peace of- fered to them by the king; and he, having now nothing to fear firom them, turned bis whole attention to subduing the Danes of Northumberland. He accordingly fitted out a fleet, under the impression that by carrying the war to their own coast, be would, infallibly, compel them to refrain from plundering his people, b/ the ucces- sily they would experience of sUying at f^anAMnalPOB UWIVERSITT IB g^tP TO HAVB BRBH FOUNBEB BT XOWABD. m. 1 a K the dire B 9 not The M the a ■ trus com u they S olf t ^ curs a had 2 corr : ii< 5 hyh g then ^ K'ca 1 cove 1 :; i take H ! of tl 5 a mo H into 5 D. g reigt a anot ^ chast and. S 1 rality a 1 chest a 1 as to a den i a corou K the^ < > Britii tiers ; f. reccn ^ to hi ous p * dow ( a was A as ma a Up h Edwa •i scarc( h many habit for pi in ]\u a a he w other perity Ed^ h remai h law o Anutl a a Edwa H were their a under « iu th being a chief a those M thron 1 thed ■d Stan 1 e> men. a those i great deavo to th( fell u '-,. ^'^ 'V ^ .!f^ ,i»^l ^^vg^4' . .to*.^. ^^c./ •y^^ji ■bWABB piBD AV VABamaDoirt and WA« SlrBfllP At WmOBllTBB. lEnglantf.— 9lngIo«2axon ISings. 09 home to defend their own property. Out the coniequence of thla nmniruvre was the direct contmrjr to what the king had, and not illo^iealljr either, euppoied it would be. Thejr judfed ttiat the king'a fleet carried the main aniied ttrenRth of England; and, truiting the aafetjr of their own property to eonceafment and the chapter of accidenta, tlipy no aooner saw the royal fleet appear off tlieir coast than they made a land in- cartion apon the English. But they, too, had reasoned with more leeming than real correeineis. Edward was tally prepared to meet them by land as well as dt sea; and he attacked them at Tctenhall, in Siaffordshirr, nut a Krcat nnmber of them to the swoni, re- covered the whole of the spoils they had taken from iiis subjects, and dro*e all those of them who cscnprd death or captivity, in a most desolate and poverty-stricken state, into their own country. During the whole rrmaindcrof Edward's reign he was engagrd with one party or another of the English Danes. But he chastised each party severely in its tnrn; and, by constant care and unsparing libe- rality, he fortitied Chester, Warwick, Col- cbesti-r, and many other cities, so strongW, as to le.tve them little to fear from any sud- den incursion of their persevering ana ran- corous enemies. In the end he vanquished the Northumbrians, the East Anglians, the British tribes of Wales nearest to his fron- tiers ; and compelled the Scots, who had recently been very troublesome, tc submit to him. lie was much aided in his vari- ous projects by his sister Kthelricda, wi- dow of the Mercian earl lilthelbcrt, who was a woman of masculine genius as well as masculine haliils and fceliuKS. Upon the whole, though the rci^ of Edward the Elder was a victorious, it can scarcely be called a fortunate one ; fir in it many of those Danes who had long lived in habits of peace returned to their old tnste for plundering, and so many battles fought in his own country could not, even when he was the most signally victorious, be otherwise than injurious to both the pros- perity and the morals of his people. Edward died in 923. We have already remarked upon the unsettled state of the law of succession to the throne in that age. Another instance of it occurred now. Edward left legitimate children, but they were of years far too tender to admit of their assuming the reins of government, under any circumstances, and especially so iu the then imminent danger of England being again convulsed by the Danes. The chief people of the nation therefore passed those young children bv, and gave the throne to Athelstan, an illcgitiniate son ot the deceased monarch. But though Athel- stan had the general suffrages of the great men, there vrere some exceptions. Among those were Alfred, a Saxon nobleman of great influence and popularity, who en- deavoured to organize an armed opposition to the new king. But the king's suspicion fell upon this nobleman before his con- spiracy was ripe for execution, and he was seised and charged with the offence, or rather with the intent of offending. He by some means asrerinined, or he Doldly presumed, that the king, however vehe- mently he might suspect him, had in re- ality no tangible evidence, and he offered to clear himself of the imputed crime by an oath taken before the pope. 8uch was the awfUl respect in which the pope was then held, and such was his sanctity supposed to be. that it was finally and universally be- lieved that the fate of Ananias and Sap- pliira would inevitably bcfal any one who should dare to make oath falsely in his pre- sence. This belief, absurd as it was, had singular corroboration givrn to it by the fate of this Alfred. He « "'iiitted to purge his guilt in the ^ .posed by nimself, ana he took th( i-d oath in the presence of nope J»iii. , but had scarcely pronouncea tiie words dictated to him ere lie fell into convulsions, in which he continued till his death, which occurred in three days. This story has been spoken of as bciiig a pure monkish invention. We think differently. The monks frequently did exaggerate and even invent, bat that is no reason for assuming their guiltiness of like conduct where there is no proof against them, and where, without attaching the slightest consequence to the alleged sanc- tity of the pope's person, we can explain the actual occurrence of the event ny a simple physical cause. And what more easy than to do so in this case f Supersti- tion was in those days by no means con- fined to the poor and the lowly. Ignorance — iu the scholastic sense of that word — was the birthright of the powerful baron as well as of the trampled and despised ■^hurl, long after the time of Althestan ; and many a noble who defied all human laws, and looked scornfully upon all merely physical danger, would blench and cower at tales that the simplest village lass of • more enlightened day would smile at. There is nothing upon record to lead us to bt'lieve that this Alfred was more sceptical in such matters than the generality of nobles. Urged by a desire of safety for life and possessions, and perhaps enter* taining a hope of escape from the conse- quence alleged to await peijury such aa he proposed to commit, he might be buoyed up sufliciently to commit the peijury, and yet, at the very moment of committing it, terror, compounded of the consciousness of a tremendous guilt, and terror of the tre- mendous consequences which from infancy he had heard predicated of such guilt, would surely be not unlikely to affect his brain. Men have maddened on the instant at beholding some horrible sight; others have grown ^y in a single night c^ intense and h.irrowing mental agony; why then should we suppose it impossible that the awful feelings incident to such a situa- tion as that of Alfred should produce sud- den epilepsy and subsequent death ? The result was as fortunate for Athelstan as it was disastrous to Alfred. The king BDWABD WAS THBBB TIMB8 MABHIBD, ANU UAD FIFTKKK CBII.ORBW. I m i;yfe;^: 1$^^^%^^ ^."*^^^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I l^|28 12.5 1^ Ui2 1112.2 1)0 ^ iig 1.8 L25 iu 11^ '/ ^% 0% ■W it v"' Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14380 (716)872-4503 o^ % A.». •W^ATBEMTAM •■■•■01» »■■ CAItH Of lOBK. 10 0^c CTrcastttv of IQtetors, ice. «u HtmA from tl« opiHMiUoii of a aobto wlw Miiht hafM bMB ««rr tronbleioroo to Un, ul tho auBMr of thitt ■oble'i dntk WM to all naka of mm a no;! eemdnciiiv prooT not oilr that Alfred bad bees doubly nUtr. flrat of oonniranr aad then of p«r. fWT. bat abo that tha Unx waa the ri^t- M poMMaor oT tha eiova. anl.that to di*. pwlahiafifht waa ao iaear aU AlAvd'a daa- nMmdmSahorAlfred'apiUt. ThekinK tookaaM to atrmiftban and pondniidtto IMbMPbr tnauHSoM the wh^aof Alfr^'a piwMrtr' aa thoagh hia death, nnder the eiMMmataaeae, weia taatamoant to ajadi- eial aaataMat and, aa ha pradcBtlr be< Btowad thU larne prowrtr opon the alteady wsallhy monaatarf of Mdmabarr. be made the AiU of a einile powerAtl eBemjr the fan- madiata maani of teeBriiiK tha frienddup of aa iBflnMalv more powerflU corporatioa. HaviBg thua beoomit firce from what at flnt teemed a fory immtoent perd, Athel- ■tan turned hie attention to quietibg the MorthnmbrUn Danea, who Juat at tbia time were very dUeontented under the Engliah rata. On hia arrival he law reaion to be- liava that he eoald better aecnre their obe- dtenee by liviMr them a tributary prince of their own raeethan by the utmoet errerity ; and ha aeeordinaly nve the title of king of Northumberland to Bithric, a powerful I»a- niab ehieftain, to whom he alM gave the hand of hia own aiater Editha. Bu£ though thii waa lagaeiout, and aeemed to be espe> eiaily safe policy. It gave riie to eoniiderable diflculty. Bithric. who waa a widower when honoured with the hand of Editha, died about a year after thti lecond marriage, aud Aniaf and Oodefrtd, hie aona by tite former marriage, aaaumed the lovereignty of Nor- thumberland, at a matter of permanent and settled hereditary tenure, and not of the Ung'a favour and conferred during hi* plea- aure. Highly offended at thii preramption of the young men, AtheUtan apeedily ^ct- ed tliem fram their anumed sovereignty. AnIaf look shelter in Ireland and Uodefind in Beotland, where he was very kindly and honourably treated by Constantine, then king of that country. Athelstan, on learning that the presnmp- tvous Dane who was so likely to prove a troublesome enemy to him was protected by Conslantine, Importuned him to put his guest into tlte BngUsh power. Desirous of avoiding, if possible, an open quarrel with BO poweiAil a prince as Athelstan, the Scot- tlsB monareh gave a feigned consent to a proposal which it waa almost as infamous to make as it would have been to baveeom- nlied with t but he gave Oodefrid private intimation whieh enabled him to get to sea, where, after makinf himself dreaded as a pirate, he at length finished his life. Athelstan, who, nrobably. was well in- formed by spies at the Baottish court of the ?iart which Constanline had taken in aiding be escape of Oodefrid, marched a nunier- oua armr into Beotland, and so much dis- tressed that country, that Constantino found Mmself obliged to make his submiitsion in oeder to save his country and himself from total ruin. 'Whether his submissioa went to the extent of Constautine's actually ac- loMwledglng hlmaelf to hold hia crown in real vassalage to the king, whieh some his- torians stoutly afflrm and othera just aa stoutly deny, or whether it went no fiurtber than apology and satisfactioa fior actual of- fence given, eertain it ia» that Constcntiae took the earliest and most open opportunity of showing that he looked upon the king of Eni^d in any other rather than a friendly light. For Anlaf, brother of Con- stantine's deceased urotegtf, having gotten together a body of Welsh maleontento and Danish pirates, Constantine joined forces with him, and they led an immense body of marauders into England. Undismayed by the numbera of the invaders, Athelstan marched his army against them, and, chiefly owing to the valour and conduct of Turke- tnl, the then chancellor of England, the in- vaders were completely routed. In this bat- tle, which was fought near BninanburKh in Northumberland, a great number of the Welsh and Danish iMders perished, and Anlaf and the Scottish king, after losing a great part of their force, were barely able to effect their own escape. It is said, that on the eve of this great battle Anlaf was the hero of an adventure in the English camp, like that of Alfred the Great in the camp of Outhrum the Dane. Habited like a minstrel, he approached the English camp, and his music was so mucli admired by the soldiers, that they obtained him admission to the king's tent, where he played during the royal repast, so much to the delight tx the king and his nobles, that on being dismissed he received a very hand- some present. Too pohtic to betray his dis- guise Dy refusing the present, the noble Dane was also far too haught|^ to retain it ; and as soon as he believed himself out of the reach of observation, he buried it in the earth. One of Athelstan's soldiers, who had formerly fought under the banner of Anlaf, had at the very first sight imagined that he saw his old chief under the disguise of a minstrel. In the desire to ascertain if his suspicion were correct, he followed An- laf from the royal tent, and his suspicion was changed into conviction when he saw a professedly poor and wandering minstrel burying the ainK's rich gift. He accord- ingly warned the king that nis darlnf^ enemy hM been in his tent. At first the king was very angry that the soldier had not made this discovery while there was vet time to have seized upon the pretended min- strel; but the soldier nobiy replied, that having served under Anlaf, he could not think of betraying him to ruin, anv more than be now could peril the safety of Athel- stan himself by neglecting to warn him of Anlafs espionage. To such a mode ofrea- soning there could be no reply, save that of admiring praise. Having dismissed the sol- dier, Athelstan pouderM on the probable consequence of this stealthy visit paid to his tent by Anlaf ; and it having struck him that it was very likely to be followed by a night attack, be immediately had his tent a s A. D. 987.— A SBvaaa vaosT ir xnolano, whico lastco foub months. sDMoaD HAM nm iiiti* xma that romaniD xobbbbt witb dxatb. lEnglantf.— 1lngIo»Saxon IStings. 71 femoved. The blikopt of that day were to the fall aa bn«e and a* fond of war aa the kitjr, and on that tery aight a biahop ar- rived with an armed train to the aid of hit •o/ereign. The prelate took up the itation which the kiny had taeated: and at night the king"* euspicion was verified with great eiaetitade. A sudden attack was made up- on the camp, and the enemy disdaining all meaner prey rushed straight to the tent which they suppojed to be oeenpied by the king; where tne belligerent bishop and his immediate attendants were butchered before they had time to prepare for their defence. The decisive battle of Bmnanburgh gave Athelstau peace from the Danes, and he devoted the remainder of his reign to wise and active endeavours to improve the cha- lactcrand condition of his subjects. Several of his laws were well calculated to that end, and there was one which peculiarly entitles hinii even without any reference to the barbarism o( the age in which he made it, to the character of a profound and sagaci- ous thinker. Anaions to encourage a mer- cantile spirit amona hie subjeets, he or- dained by this law that any merchant who on his own adventure should make three sea voyages should, as a reward, be pro* moted to the rank ot a thane or gentle. After an extremely active and prosperous reign, upon which, however, his endeavour to persuade the Scottish king into the com- mission of an act of the foulest treacherv has left one dark and indelible stain, though the ollly one, this king died in the year 941, and was succeeded by his half brother Ed- mund, the legitimate son of Edward the Elder. Stimulated by the accession of a new king, and the unsettled state of things na- turally connected with a new reign, the Danes of Northumberland broke out into rebellion against Edmund as soon as he had ascended the throne. But Edmund marched so promptly against them, and at the head of so imposing a force, that they net him with assurances of the most hum- ble and nermanent submission^ and even voluntarily offered to prove their sincerity, u Outhrum and his followers had formerly done to Alfred, by becoming Christians. Edmund accepted their submission, but he wisely judged that the submission extorted by an armed force was not likely to last much longer than the fear which that force awakened; and he therefore removed the five Burgher Danes from the Mercian towns in which they had been allowed to settle. A wise precaution ; as they had invariably taken advantage of their situation to aid rebellious or invading Danes to penetrate into the very heart ot the kingdom. Cumberland, in the hands of the Welsh Britons had been on many occasions a sore snnoyance to the northern portion of the En^.ish dominion, and Edmund took an apportunity to wrest it from the Britons and to bestow it as a military fief on Scot- land, that power accepting it on condition of protecting the northern part of England from Danish incursion. Edmund's active and usefld reign had only endured six years, when he was mur- dered oader eirenmstances which give oa a atnwga notieo of the domestic habita of royalty at that day. He waa seated at a banquet, at Oloneester, when aa intanonV robber, named Leolf, whom he had some time before condemned to banishment, en- tered the hall of banquet, and seated him- self at the royal table with aa cool an aa- surance as though he had been a favoured a« well aa an innocent and loval subject. The king angrily ordered the fellow from the room, and, on receiving some insolent refusal, seised him b^ the throat and en- deavoured to thrust him out. Whether the ruiHan b?d from the ilrst intended to as- sassinate the king, or whether the king's strength and passmn alarmed the robber for his own life, is uncertain ; but itom which ever cause, Leolf suddenly drew his dagger and killed the king on the apoti A. n. iM6. Edmund was anecaeded by his brother Edred ; another instance of irregularity in the succesaion, aa Edmund left children, but so young that they were deemed unfit for the throne; and it would seem that the mutual jealousy of the Saxon nobles as yet prevented them firom thinking of a tempo- rary regency, as a means at once of pre- serving the ^rect order of succession, and remedying the nonage of the direct heir to the crown. The new king had no sooner ascended his throne than tne Danes of Nor- thumberland proved how justly Athelstan had judged or their sincerity, by breaking the peace to which they had so solemnly pledged themselves. But Edred advancing npon them with a numerous army, they met him with the same submissive aspect which had disarmed the wrath of bis predeces- sor. The king, however, was so much pro- voked at their early disobedience to him, that he would not allow their humilitjr to prevent him from inflicting a severe punish- mert upon them. He, accordingly, put manv of them to the sword, and plundered and burned their country to a considerable extent ; and then, his wrath appeased, he consented to receive their oath ot allegiance and withdrew his troops. Scarcely had he done BO when these ever-faithless people again broke out into rebellion, perhaps prompted on this particular occasion less oy any merely mischievoua feeling, than by the real and terrible distress to which the king's severity had reduced them. This new revolt was, however, speedily quelled, and he appointed an English governor of Northumberland, and placed garrisons in all the chief towns to enable him to sup- port his authoritv. Edred about this time also made Malcolm of Scotland repeat, his homage for his fief of Northumberland. Though Edred, as his conduct thus earlv in his' reign demonstrated, was both a brave and an active prince, he was extremely sn- Eerstitious. He delighted to be surrounded y priests ; and to his eiipecial favourite Dunstan, abbot of Canterbury, he not only committed some of the most influential and KD9IV!ln WAS BUBIKD AT •LASTOItaURY, WBRRB DUNSTAH WAS ABOOT. ■UIBS* At A »AI» BXFIIIH, BMBIW «I.AWOII>l>mT A»»1I. 72 tffte ®n»nr6 of lltetorp, $rc. important offlees of the ltat^ but alio, to a Tcry lidicoloni extent lomndend the miduee of his own eonunbo mbm. ^ Of a haaghtv temper, and extrerely ambiboni, thia monlc, in cider to have tools tor the -aeoompUshment of hiswide-spreadinKpar* poses of self-assrandiiement, intradnced into England a great number of a new order of monks, the Benedictines, who, lajr- ing a stress upon eelibacv beyond that laid by any former order, and profesdng gone- ralb a more rigid way of life and a greater parity of heart, were, in truth, the mere tools of the vast and still inereasmg ambu tion of Borne, to whieh the practice of ceU> bacy among the priesthood was especially ihvottrable, as they who thus debarred them- sqlres bom coqjngaland paternal ties could not iiul to be more willing and passire ser- 1V> introduce this new and entirely sub- servient order of monks into England was greatly desired by the pope; and the am- bitious policy of Uunstan. and his almost despotic power over the superstitious mind of Edied. aibrded full opportunity for doing ■0. The influence of Dunstau. indeed, was very great over the people as well as over the lung; though he commenced life under circumstaaxs wb'eh would have ruined a man of lest dete.mined ambition, and of less pliant and accompliihed hypocrisy than his. Of noble birth, and enjoying the great advantage of having been educated by his nnele. the accomplished Adhelm, arch- bishop of Canterbury, he entered the church eariy in life, but with so little of real vocation to the sacred profession, that his way of . life procured him a most unen- viable character; and king Edmund, in whose reigp this famous saint of the Uomish calendar commenced his career, looked coldly upon a priest whose debauchery was represented to be such as would disgrace even a layman. Enraged at finding hie am- bition thus suddenly checked", he was not the less determined that the check should be but temporary. Affecting to be suddenly stricken mth penitence and shame, he se- cluded himsell; at first from the court, and then altogether from society. He had a cell made for his residence, of such scant dimensions, that he could neither stand flilly upright in it, nor stretch himself out at full length when sleeping ; and in this miserable dwelling, if dwelung it can be called, he nerpetutJly turned from prayer to manual labour, and from manual labour to prayer, during all his hours, except the very few which he allowed himself for sleep. The austerity of his life imposed upon the imaginations of the superstitious people, who considered austerity the surest of sll proofs of sanctity; and when, whether in mere and unmingled hypocrisy, or in part hypocrisy and part seu-delusion, he pre- tended to be frequently visited and tempted by Satan in person. Us tale found greedy listeners and ready believers. From one degree of absurdity to another is but an easy step for vulgar credulity. It being once admitted that Satan, provoked or grieved by the immaculate life and fervent piety of the recluse visited him to tempt him into sin; what diAonlty could there be in supposing that the reclnse resisted a long time only with prayer, but at length resorted to pnysieal force, and held the fiend by the nose irith a red hot pair of tongs, until he shrieked alond vrith agony, and promised to abstain for the Aitnre firom his unholy importunity T Such Iras the tale which Dunstan, the recluse, had the auda- city to offer to public belief, and anch waa the tale to which the public listened with attentive ears, and gave " foith and fUU credence." When a long •eclnsion. and careftdlv circulated rumours of his piety and telf.mortification, had done away vritn the ill impressions which had been excited by wilder, but, in reality, far kss censur- able conduct of his earlier days, Dunstan once more made his appearance at court ; and, as Edred was deeply tinged with su- perstitious feeling, the pnest was kindly re- ceived at first, and very soon favoured and promoted above all the other courtiers. Baised to the direction of the treasury, and being, moreover, the king's private adviser in all important concerns, Dunstan had immense power and influence, which he used to advance the great object of Borne in substitutin(p the devoted monks for the comparatively independent secular clergy, who, having family ties and affections, were not Bufliciently prostrate or blindly obe- dient to suit the papal purpose. During nine years — the length of Edred's relf^ — the monks made immense progress in Eng- land. They enlisted the feelings of the people on their side by their severe and pas- sionate declamations a^nst the worldly lives, and especially against the marriage, of the secular clergy, 7/nose vrives they per- sisted in calling by the opprobrious name of concubines. And though the secular deny, who possessed both talent and weuth, exerted themselves manfully, not only to defend their own lives, bat also to expose the hypocmsy, pretended purity, and actual and even snameful wortdliness and sensuality of their opponents, the power and creut of Dunstan weighed fearfiilly against them. The death of Edred, which occurred in 96S, revived their hopes, and threatened to stop the progress of the monks, and to lower the credit of their patron, Dunstan. The children of Edred were still in their infancy when he died; and his nephew, Edmund's son Edwy, who had himsell been passed over in favour of Edred ok the same account, now succeeded to the throne. He was at the time of his accession only about seventeen years of age. and blessed urith a fine person and a powerful and well-trained mina. But all his natural and acquired good qualities were rendered of but little use to him by the enmity of the motaks, with whom he had a serioi^s quarrel at the very commencement of his career. Opposed to the marriage of clerks alto- gether, the monks were scarcely less hostile to the marriage of laics within the degrees BOKKO BBionan hihr vbabs, awd was Buiiinn at winchkstbd. r— • of E( ' a ce th ■ i- K e p' a n es| » SU1 a Et ^ sev ■ wh ■ in H of ■ 9 cle I 1 ■• mc " bitt 1 ^ fen( ; M the H aval t) wer a and 4 nee( i see victi m Ai to c they s fort H upoi M sovei »• man, n able a little a andi ! I» siste ■ Tb B cicnt ■* to be ■ inth M natui M rude ^ at hi j boun < tunit and A queei H byfh SI byU ^ presu a m th axon to tb ■e tbrus n and a •"S cnce f direc « disgr K to pt a least, that s culal < posed stron vanta of Ec fe and fenrent him to tempt T conid then luM resiated a but At length and held the id hot pair of id with agony, he AitUTO from ihlraa the title had the anda- and inch waa liatened with fUth and Aill leclnaion, and I of hii pietjr one away with I been excited r loss censur- lays, Dunstan race at court; aged with su- was kindly re- favoured and her courtiers. ! treasury, and private adviser Dunstan had ice, which he bject of Rome monks for the lecular clergy, iffections,were r blindly obe- Sose. During red's reiint— bgress in Eng- lelings of the evere and pas- the worldly the marriage, rives they pcr- obriotts name the secular talent and manfully, not but also to . purity, and irldliness and the power lied fearfiilly Edrcd, which hopes, and ;ress of the edit of their still in their his nephew, himself been oii the same throne. He only about eased with a well-trained nd acquired of but little the moUks, larrel at the .■er. clerks alto- r less hostile the degrees THi MOMKa oBiiaaAiAT waaa wbll skillbd im th iiacaAiiioAt aata. lEnsIantf— ^nglooSaxon Kings. 73 of affinity forbidden by the canon law. Edwy, passionately in love with the prin< cess Elsiva, to whom he was related within those degiees, was too inexperienced to perceive all the evils that might result to both himself and the fair Elgiva from hia provoking the fierce, bigoted, and now very powerful monks; and in despite of all the advice and warnings of the ecclesiastics he espoused her. The coarse and violent cen- sure which the monks took occasion to Ea*s upon the marriage aggravated the dis- ke which, on account of their gloom and severitv, Bdwv had always felt tu tne monks, whoin ne took every ocr«sion to disappoint in their endeavours to possess themselves of the convents belonging to the secular clergy. If the king had disliked the monks, the monks now hated the king with a most bitter hatred. By his mamage he had of- fended their rigid bigotry, bv his favour to the seculars he disappointed their aching avarice ; and, favoured and advised aa they were by a personage at once so able, crafty, audacious, and powerful as Dunstan, it needed not the spirit of prophecy to fore- see that Edwy would infalubly be their victim. As if to show that they were determined to cnrry their hatred to the utmost extent, they chose the very day of the coronation for their first manifestation of it; the day upon which they had sworn fealty to the sovereign, at which to outrage him as a man, and commit little less than treason- able violence upon him aa tbeir king t So little does the rancour of mingled bigotry and avarice regard even the forms of con- sistency and decencv. The Saxons, like tneir ancestors the an- cient Germans, drank deep, and were wont to be but riotous and uncouth companions in their cups. Both fnim his youth and his natural temper, Kdwy was averse to this rude and riotous wassail; and as his nobles, at his coronation fcaat, began to pass the bounds of temperance, he took an oppor- tunity to quit the banqueting apartment and go to that of hia young and lovely queen. He was instantly followed thither by the haughty and insolent Dunstan, and by Odo, archbishop of Canterbury. These presumptuous churchmen upbraided him in the moat severe terms for his alleged uxoriousness, applied the coarsest rpithcta to the alarmed oueen, and finished by thrusting liini back into the scene of riot and drunkenness from which he had so ktclv escaped. Edwy had not sufficient power and influ- ence in his court to take immediate and direct revenge for this most flagrant and disgracefiil insult ; but he felt it too deeply to pass it ovlr without visiting it, at the least, with indirect punishment. Aware that Dunstan was bv no means the imma- culate and unworldly person he was sup- posed to be by the ignorant multitude, and strongly suspecting that he had taken ad- vantage of the weakness and superstition of Edred greatly to enrich himself, he de- sired him to give an account of his receipts and expenditure during that prince's reign. Dunstan, with characteristic insolence, re- ftised to give any account of monies which he affirmed to have been expended by order of Edred, and which he, on that account, pretended that Edwy had no right to en- quire about. Enraged at the insolence of Dunstan, and yet not altogether displeased at being ftirnished with so good a pretext fat rid- ding the court of the powerful and haughty eectesiaatic, Edwy urged this refusal against him as a certain proof of conacioua malver- aation, and ordered him to leave the king* dom. Powerful aa Dunatan was, he was not yet in a condition to dispute such an order; he could brutally insult the king, but he did not as yet dare openly to rebel against the kingly authority. He went abroad, therefore, but he left behind, in the person ot' Odo, the archbishop of Can- terbury, one who waa both qualified and willing to anpply hia place in brutality to the king peraonally, and in traitorous intrigue againat his royal authority. Odo and the monks seized upon the oanish- ment of Dunstan, richly as his conduct had merited a severer punishment, as a theme npon which to sound anew the pritises of that accomplished hypocrite, and to blacken the character of the icing and queen in the eyes of the people. In ao bigoted and ignorant an age auch tactica aa tlieae were sure to aucceed ; and having made the king hateful, aa well aa the queen, whom they repreaented aa the wicked and artful se- ducer of her huaband into all evil conduct, both aa a man and sovereign, Odo and hia base toola at ^ength ventured from whia- pcred calumny and falsehood, to violence the most undisguised, and to cruelty the most inhuman and detestable. Considering their opposition to Edwy's marriage with hia cousin to be the chief cause of his opposition to their interests, Odo and the monkish party hated the queen even more bitterly than they did the king himself. Proceeding to the palace with a atrong guard, Odo seized upon the lovely queen, branded her face witli hot irons to efface those charms which had uTOught so much evil to the ambitious churchmen, and carried her into Ireland, where it was intended that she should be kept under strict aurvcillance for the remainder of her life. Edwy waa naturally both brave and pas-'ionate, but he was powerless in the hands of tha wily monks as a lion in the toila of the huntera ; he tenderly loved hia unhappy queen, but he could neither aave her trom thia horrible outrage, nor even punish her brutal and unmanly persecutors. Nay more, when Odo, after having tor- tured and exiled the oueen, dcmfflide^ that abe should be fennally divorced, ao much more powerful waa the crazier than the aceptre, that the unhappy Edwy was obliged to yield. Brutally as Elgiva had been treated, the brutality of her enemies failed of its main object ; though she suffered much from her ALK WAS TUB FAVODBITR nni»K OV THB A.<«0L0-aAX0N8 ARO SANBS. [//! in BpaAK'a timb »u» »o»At Ji*Tt eonuittan otmuuiri. M M s a a ta u ••I la «• M a 74 ©i^i ©wasufi? of l^igtoro, »c. wounds, they, ringolarly eaoagh, left i It a tear to dimiiirih.ber rare beauty. ■caree- ly a Mar to dimiiirih.ber rare beauty. Aware of the tyranny which had been practiied to cauM Bdwy to divorce her, andconiidennf herMlfitill hie lawful wife in thewghtof Heaven, the eluded the vigilance of thoie who were appointed to watch her move- menti, and made her escape back to Eng- land. But before the couid reach her bus- band her eacape waa made known to Odo, and ibe was intercepted on tlie road by a party of his cmissanei, by whom she was hamstringed; and all surgicat aid being de- nied lier, she in a few days died, in the most fearlul aeunicii, in the city of Gloucester. So completely monk-ridden were the igno- rant people, that even this most detest- able and unnatural cruelty, which ought to have caused one universal outcry against the miscreants who instigated it, was look- ed upon by the people merely as a punish- snent due to tbe sinful opposition of king and queen to the canon law and tbe holy monies. Ilaving gone as far as we have related, in treason, it cannot be wondered at that the monks now proceeded to arm for the de- thronement of their unhappy king. Th«y set up as his competitor his younger bro- ther Edgar, who was at this time a youth of only uiirteen or fourteen yean of age ; and they soon took possession, in his name, of East Anglia, Hercia, and Northumber- Isnd. Edwy was now confined to the south- ern counties of his kingdom : and to add to his danger and distress, his haughty and im- placable enemy, Dunstan, openly returned to England to lend his powerful influence to Edgar in this unnatural civil strife. He was made bishop, first of Worcester and then of London, and, Odo dying, Di stowed church preferment on the partisans of the monks exclusively. To Oswald and Ethelwold, two of the creatures of Dunstan, he gave the valuable sees of Worcester ana Winchester; and he consulted them, and espeeiall/ DunsUn, not merely upon thoso affairs which more especially concerned the church, but even in many cases upon those of a purely civil nature. By this general subserviency to the ecclesiastics. Eager aa- cured so strung an interest with tbem, that even when he occasionally differed Arom them, and preferred the dictates of his own strong sense to their bigoted or interested advice, he waa allowed to proceed without any angry feeling, or at least, without any open opposition. There was a most fKnrtUng diff'erence in the treatment bestowed bv the monks upon this prince, and that wnick they inflicted upon his unhappy brother' As the monks founded their clJum to ibe veneration of mankind upon their superl(r intereited eed without witfao«t any loitii^iinKng towed bv the that whieh jipy brother slalm to the lieir auperii/r on their in- vofohaatity, lewdneu or linable treat- Elgiva. Yot [0 nateful to irity toward* n, and to re- ir lovereign, irving their their own Tlie lewd- and politic :henio«tdi«- !r. On one . a convent, ind forcibly lid outrage le b^pocrite "■.Igiva, and IS untimely Ihich wa« at firom the ■entenced tttiiiihmcnt im wearing pwn to him ai to the Iwhich they |e brother, In dieKracc- 1 hie second laufficieiltly f related at tend* to bo Ive proif of \n m their It of kinit bf the carl N > ffllM CHIMIRAt, AMOIJBa OV tUU BAIRTLT KDOAk WSai BZOBiaiTI. 'S lEnsIanU.—'^nglo'SBxon IXings. 75 of l)«vmtiitilrR, waa m extremely beautiful (hat it wno no wonder the renown of her vharii)* rfMche'l the court, and the intlam- tiiabltt HdKttr rHxoWed that if report liad not OKHtfgfntKHl the beauty of the lady he would inNNif her bit wife i the wealth, power, and niiHrHiiierof her father forbidding eveu the Utinorttuulnui and lewd Kdgar from hoping M iibtHin her on any leai honourable tcrmti. tiainif MHIlloua not to commit himeelf by any advanct** to the pnrenti of the lady unlll tinild *ute that the waa really as sur- : MNiinKly beautltbl a* she was reported to HP, lit) Mitt his fkrourlte and conlldant, the #arl Atlielwold, lo visit the earl of Devon as If by mere anoldent, that he might judge whotliMP the eharina of BIfrida really were lUPH ai would adorn the throne. Earl Alholwttld fttlHIIcd his mUslou very faith- hilly, «« reVHrded the visit, but, unhappily for lilnill«ir he found the charms of Elfrida •0 mutfll to hie own taste, that he forgot tlt8 fiuriostty of his master, and sued the indy All hia own account. Well knowing lIlHt with the king for an avowed rival hia lult would have little chance of success, bli flr*( OMfO waa to lull the eager anxiety of m^M hf amurlng him that in this case, ai In molt oniet, rumour with her thousand tOORUM had been guilty of the grossest ez- AVtli'fAdofli and that the wealth and rank of Klrrlda had «aulloil a« long «« possible, he ttamei a vartflty of ptet^nees for keeping his lovely bridd at A diltanea ttom the court ; and as bU ritiort of (he homeliness of Elfrida had fli)lHpf«(«ly cooled the fancy of the king, «nn Alhmwold began to hope that his de- evit wiMttd nevef be discovered. But the old Adage tliAt " A tinvourlte has no friends" WRR tirnved in hia ease t enemies desirous of rttiiiffig bim mado hia fraud known to the kiiigi Rtid «|toke more rapturously than ever of I UN (•Irnrinn of Elfrida. Enraged at the dxiuititioii prAOttited upon him, but carefully diniionibliiig hia real motives and purpose, the king (old Athelwold that he would pay bliii A vlilt and be introduced to his wife. To Ittoli AU liitlttidtlon the unfortunate earl could make uo objection which would not wholly and at once betray his perilous secret ; hut he obtained pcriiiisision to pre- cede the king, under pretence of making due preparation to receive him, but in reality to prevail upon EtfVida to dinguise her beauty and rusticate her behaviour as fsr as possible. This she promised, and probably at flrst intended to do. But, on rertection, she naturally considered herself injured by the deception which had cost her the throne, and, so far from complying ^'ith her unfortunate husband's desire, she called to the aid of her charms all the as- sistance of the most becoming dress, and all the seductions of the most graceful and accomplished behaviour, fascinated with her beauty, Edgar was beyond all expres- sion enraged at the deceit by which hia favourite had contrived to cheat him of a wife so lovely ; and having enticed the un- fortunate earl into a forest on a hunting excursion, be put him to death with hii own hand, and soon after married Elfrida, whose perfldv to her murdered husband made her, indeed, a very fit spouse for the murderer. Though much of tbia monarch'a time was devoted to dissolute pleasures, he by no means neglected public business, morj especially of that kind which procured him the indulgence of the monks for all his worst vices. Much as tbe monks and the king^ bad done towards wresting tbe church property from the hands of the secular clergy, much Btill remained to be done; and Edgar, doubtless acting upon the advice of Dun- Stan, Eummoned a council, consisting bf the prelates and heads of religious orders. To this council lielnade a passionate speech in reprobation of tbe dissolute and scanda- lous lives which he affirmed to be notoriously led by the secular clergy : their neglect of Clerical duty ; their ouenly living with con- cubines, fbr so he called their wivea; their participation in hunting and other sports of the laitv; and — singular fault to call forth the declamation of a king and em- ploy the wisdom of a solemn council— the smallness of their tonsure I Affecting to blame Dunstatt for having by too much lenity in some sort encouraged the disorders of the secular clergy, the accomplished dis- sembler supposed the pious Eared to look down from Heaven, and thus to speak : " It was by your advice, Dunstan, that I founded monasteries, built churches, and expended my treasures in the support of religion and religious houses. Tou were my councillor and my assistant in all my acnemes ; you were the director of my ron- acience : to you I was in all things obe- dient. When did you call for supplies 'Arhich I refused you? Was my assistance ever withheld from the podr ? Did I deny esta- blishments and support to tbe convents and the clergy. Did I not hearken to your in- structions when you told me that these charities were, beyond all others, the most grateful to my Maker, and did I not in consequence fix a perpetual fund for the Itil tun VAVOOK OV TUa MONKS KDOAB WAS CAKONIBKD AS A SAINT. DURITAII WAi ■0«ll in 046 AT 0I,A»TO»»U«T, AWB «HB»B BPUCATKD. 76 flT^t tJreMurB oC l^tetory, ice. nnport of rellgloii » And art •» our piou» eadeavbura now to be fru»tr«ted by the dis- ■olute livee of the clergy T Not that I throw any blame upon you ; yon hate rea- ■oned, bk-tonght, inculcated, and in»elghed. but it now behowi you to nie iharper and more figorous remediee; and, tonjointnf MMr $pMtual aHtkoritf uith tkt eitil pe»er, U purge ^eciuallp <*• t*mplt qf Otd/roM tUtniandMnultr*.'' , , ,. „ „ The wordi which we f l»e in lUlici were decieivc as to the whole question : he inno- cence of the secular clergy, a* a body, conid avail them nothing againit thii union of civil power and ipiritual authority, backed and cheered ai that nn on was by the people, whom the hypocriticnl pretences of the monks bad nude sincerely fafourable to those affected purists ; and the monkish discipline shortly pretaUed in nearly every religious house in the land. Much as all honourable minds must blame the means by which Edgar preserved the favour of the formidable monks, all candid minds mnst award him the praise of having made good use of the power he thus preserved in his own hands. He not only kept up a strong and well-duciubncd land force, in constant readiness to defend any part of his kingdom that might be at- Ucked, but he also bait and kept up an excellent navy, the vigilance and strength of which greatly diminished the chance of any such attack being made. Awed by his navy, the Danes abroad dared not attempt to invade his country ; and constantly watched and kept in check by his army, the domMtie Danes perceived that turbu- lence on their part could produce no effect but their own speedy and utter ruin. His neighbours of Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and the adiacent isles, held him in eoual re- spect; and, upon the whole, no king of England ever shewed himself either more desirous or more able to preserve to his kingdom the invaluable benefits of peace at home and respect abroad. In proof of the extent to which he carried his ascend- ancy over the neighbouring and tributary princes, it is affirmed, that being at Chester, and desiring to visit the abbey of St. John the Baptist, in the neighbourhood of that city, he actually caused his barge to be rowed thither by eight of those princes, in- cluding Kenneth the Third, king of Scot- land. Thensefnl arts received a great impulse dnring this reign firom the great encourage- ment given by Edgar to ingenious and in- dnstrions foreigners to aettle among his subjects. Another benefit which he con- ferred upon his kingdom was that of the extirpation of wolves, which at the com- mencement of his reign were very nume- rous and mischievous. By giving rewards to those who put these animals to death, they were at length hunted into the moun- tainous and woody country of Wales, and in order that even there so mischievous a race might find no peace he commuted the money tribute due from Wales to England to a tribute of three hundred wolves' heada to be sent to him annually, which policy speedily caused their utter destruction. Attn a busy reign of sixteen years this prince, still in the flower of hia age, being only thirty-three, died, and was aucceeded by flis son Edward in the year 076. CHAPTER IX. From iht Aeeei*h% «f Kdteard the Martyr to thi Death qf Canute. EnwABO II. subseauently sumamed the Martyr, though his death liad nothing to do with religion, was the son of Edgar by that prince's first wife, and was only fifteen years of age when he aucceeded to the throne. His youth encouraged his step- mother, EliWda, to endeavour to set aside his succession in favour of her own son and his half-brother, Ethelrad, who at this time was only seven years old. This ex- tremely bad woman pretended that the marriage of her husband to his first wife was on several accounts invalid, and as her beauty and art had been very successfully exerted in securing favour durinr the life of Edgar, she would probably have suc- ceeded in her iniquitous design had the circumstances been less favourable to Ed- ward. But though that prince was very young, he was at least much nearer to the age for reigning than his half-brother; the will of his father expressly gave him the succession ; many of the principal men of the kingdom imagined that the regency of Elfrida wonld be an extremely tyrannical one ; and Dunstan, who was in the pleni- tude of his power, and who reckoned upon the favour and docility of youuc Edward, powerfully supported him, and crowned him at Kingston, before Elfrida could bring her ambitious plans to maturity. The prompt and energetic support thus given by Dunstan to the right Atllieir would entitle him to our unqualified applause, were there not good and obvious reason to believe that it originated less in a sense of iustice than in anxiety for the interests of his own order. In spite of the heavy blows and great disconragjement of Edgar, the secular clergy had still many and powerful friends. Among these was the duke of Mercia, who no sooner ascertained the death of king Edgar than be expelled all the monks from the religious houses in Mercia, and though they were received and pro- tected by the dukes of the East Saxons and the East AngUans, it was clear to both Dunstan and the monks that there was a sufficient dislike to the new order of eccle- siastics, to render it very important that they should have a king entirely favourable to them. And as Dunstan had watched and trained Edward's mind from hia early childhood, they well knew that he wontd prove their fittest instrument. But though they had thus secured the throne to a king as favourable and docile as they could desire, they left no means untried to gain the voices of the multitude. At the occa- sional synods that were held for the settle- ment of ecclesiastical disputes, they pre- H M : 2i THIBI ABB KUMEnOIJB FOPCLAB I/EGBNOS RKLATITB TO OtASTONBUBT. J A. 9. 987.— ITHBLBBO II. WAB CBOWRBS Al BIRBBTOII BI BORITAII, AFBIL 14. lEnslantH.— Unglo-SlBxon IKings. 77 tended that minusUi were worked in their favour i and, in the ignorant itate of the people, that partf who could work or in- voke the moat miracles waa rare to be the most popular. On one of these ocea- lioni a voice that loemed to iMue from tlie great erucitlx which adorned the place of meeting, proelai;ned that he who oppoied the ettabliahment of the monka oppoied the will of Heaven t on another occasion the floor of the hidl feil in, killing and maiming a great number of persons, but that portion which supported the ehair of Dunstan remained Ann; and on another occasion, when the votes of the synod were ■o unexpectedly against him that he was unprovioed with a miracle for the occasion, Dunstan rose, and, with an inimitkbly grave impudence, assured the meeting that he had just been fhvoured with a direct revelation from Heaven in favour of the monks. So utterly etultifled was the general mind, that the populace received this impudent falsehood with samuoh fervent favour, that tlio party hostile to the monks actually dared not support any farther the view of the question upon which they had a clear and acknowledged majority ! Edward's reign deserves little farther mention. No great evtmt, good or evil, mark- ed it ; he was, in fact, merely in a state of pupilage during the foi ir years that it lasted. Having an excellent dinpositioo; it is proba- ble that had he lived to mature years he would have shaken «IOS IT WAS ■SACTKB t»t1 raiMTi lUUVLO NOT XIAIIB». 78 Cbc ^rcosurtj of l^istonj, Ut. A B. M3.— Thetiparienee the Danes bod •cquired of the weakneM of Bthelred and the defeneeleM condition of Ui kincdom. encouraged them to make new and etill more formidable deacenti. Bweyn, king of Denmark, and Olave, king of Norway, •ailed up the Humber with an immense fleet, laTing waste and plundering in CYery direction. Those of the Danes, and thef were but few, who retased to Join the in- vaders, were plundered equally with the Knglish. An army advanced to give battle ( and so fierce was the contest, that the Danes were already beginning to gire war, when the tide of fortune was suddenly turned against the BngUsh by the treachery of Frena, FrithegUt, auw Godwin, three leaders, who, though of Danish descent, were entrusted with large and important commands. Theu men withdrew their troops, and the £ngUsh were in conse- qnence defeated. . . _ The invaders now entered the Thames with a ileet of upwards of ninety ships, and laid siege to London. Alarmed for their large wealth, the citisens defended them- selves with a stoutness strongly contrasted with the pusiUanimity which had been dis- played by both the king and the nobles, ana their resistance was so obstinate that the pirates at length gave up the attempt in despair. But though they abandoned the metropolis of the kingdom, they did not Iherefoie give up their determination to plunder. Ipreamng their bands over Essex, Sussex, and Hants, they not onlv procured large booty there^ but also a suf- tloient numMr of horses to enable them to extend their depredations far inland. It mi'iit have been supposed that, after the noble example set by the traders of Lon- don, the king and his nobles would be pre- vented by very shame from ever again re- sorting to the paltrv i^nd imnolitic scheme of purehniing the absence oi the invaders : but to thi.r. expedient they did resort. Mes- sengers were sent to offer to subsist the invaders if they would preserve peace while they remained in the kingdom, and to pay tribute on condition ot their taking an eariy departure. The Danes, wily as they were hardy, probably imagined that they had now so far exhausted the kinedora that the tribute offered to them would be more valuable than the further spoil they would be likelv to obtain, and they readily ac- cepted tne proposed terms. They took up their abode at Southampton, and there conducted themselves very peaceably. Olave carried his complaisance so far as to pay a visit to Ethelred, at Andover, and received the rite of confirmation. Many rich gifts were consequently bestowed upon him by the king and the prelates, and the sum of sixteen thousand pounds having been paid to him and Sweyn, they took their departure. Olave, who never returned to England, was so great a favourite with the churchmen that he was honoured with a place among the saints in the Boman calendar. A.D. 897.— The repeated proofs Ethelred had given ofhis willingness to purchase the absence of pirates rather than battle against them, produced, as was nataral, • new in- vasion. A large fleet of the Danes this year entered the Severn. Wales was spoil- ed for miles, and thence the pirates pro- ceeded to commit similar atrocities upon the unfortunate people of Cornwall and Devonshire, lltenee the marauders went first to Dorsetshire, then to Hants, then Kent, where the inhabitants opposed them at Rochester, but were routed with terrible slaughter, and the whole of their county was plundered and desolated. Many at- tempts were made by the braver and wiser among the English to coneert sueb a united defence as would prevail against the enemy; but the weakness of the king and the noblee paralysed the best efforts of nobler spirits, and once more the old expedient was re- sorted to, and twenty-four thousand pounds were now paid as the price of the absence of the Danes, whose demands very naturally became higher with their increased expe- rience of the certainty of their being com- plied with. It was probably vrith some vague hope that even an inJirect connec- tion with these formidable norlhmen would cause them to respect his dominions, that Ethelred, having lost his first wife, this year espoused Emma, sister of Bichard the second duke of Normandy. Long as the domestic Danes had now been established in England, they were still both a distinct anda detested race. The old English historians accuse them of effeminacy and luxnriousness ; but as they instance as evidence of the truth of these charges, that the Danes combed their hair daily and bathed once a n-cek, we may fairlv enough acouit the Danes of all guilt on this head, ana conclude that, rude and bad as the race was in many respects, they assuredly were superior to the English of that day in the very important matter of personal decency. But a dislike to men's personal habits, oe it well or ill founded, is a very powerful motive in the increasing and perpetuation of hatred founded upon other feelings ; and that hatred the Enelish deeply felt for the Danes on account of the origin of their settlement among them, their great propensity to gallantrv, and their great skill in making themselves agreeable to the English women ; above all, on account of their constant and shameAilly faithless ha- bit of ioining their invading fellow-coun- trymen in their violence and rapine. Ethel- red, like all weak and eowardly people, was strongly inclined towards both cruelty and treachery, and the general detestation in which the Danes were held by the English encouraged him to plan the universal mas- sacre of the former. Orders were secretly dispatched to all the governors and chief men of the country to make all prepara- tions for this detestable cruelty, for which the eame day, November the 13th being St. Brithric's day, a festival among the Dane^ was appointed for the whole kingdom. The wicked nnd dastardly orders of the king were but too agreeable to the temper of the populace. On the same day, and at the •I BBPORB THIS I1M« A PRIEST MIOUT TAKE TWO OR THRIiR WIVRS. sam atu lpt tion M crin at tun a butt J they n ture 4 was com M amo triui K Gun i 2 Den her thou M lent a M n Chri nate M u bytb advic kinr, toldi ■4 by til * need' ■» that < lyfai peopi H chast a such invas 4 lenee a H and : • suasit M positi H the 1 hithe H of thi M mark, a const M attael Id ft* more goldt « ofEtl * M most hute a pearet H tieet. H witho the ii a while ij last <9 thate H being H office s appoii queen liharit the p nectet Exete traver a comni h war n their a forth men. perpe dome could menc hadn 1 A.B. lOM.— II mo. lEnSlanV.—IRnsIO'Saxon Kings. 79 ••ma hour, tha UBtrnpaetiiiK Danet were •tueked. Tonth mi afe, witlMmt diitinc- tion of MX, were alike attacked with India- criminate furr, and they wart the moat for- tunate among tha anhapvjr Danea whoio butehcra were ao eager to deatray them that they omitted flrat to auhjact them to tor- tures terrible even to read of. Bonnaparlng wa* the rage against them, and ao bund to eonaequeneea were both high and low among tha inforiated and temporarily triumphant Bnghah, that tha princeaa Gunilda, aiiter to tha redoubtable king of Denmark, was put to death, after aeelng her huiband and children alanghtered, though her peraonal character waa excel- lent and though aha had long been a Chriitian. Aa aha expired, thia unfortu- nate lady, whose murder waa chiefly canted by the ad* ice of Ediio, earl of Wilta, (which advice waa ahameAilly acted upon by the king, who himielf ordered her death), fore- told that her fate would tDeedily be avenged by the lotid ruin of England. In truth, it need'd not the spirit oiprophecy to foretel that such wholesale alaughter could acarce- ly fail to call down defeat and ruin upon a people who had ao often been glad to pur- chase the absence of the Danea, when no such cowardly atrocitv had excited them to invasion, or Justified them in nnsparing vio- lence. The prophecy, however, waa speedily and fearfully realised. Though the per suasions and example of Olave, and his positive determination to fulAl liia part of the agreement made with Ethelred had hitherto saved England from any repetition of the annoyancea of Sweyn, king of Den- mark, that fierce and warlike monarch had constantly felt a strong desire to renew his attack upon a people who were ao much more ready to defend their country with gold than with steel. The cowardly cruelty of Ethelred now fbrnished the Dane with a most righteous pretext for invasion, and he hastenM to avail himself of it. He ap- peared off. the weatem coast with a strong fleet, and Exeter waa delivered up to him without resistance; some bistorisma say by the incapacity or neglect of earl Hugh, while othera say by his treachery. This last opinion haa some support in the fact that earl Hugh was himself a Norman, and, being only connected with England bv the office to which he had but recently been appointed through the intereat of the queen, he might, without great breach of charity, be auspected of leaning rather to the piratical race with which he waa con- nected by bbth, than to the English. From Exeter, as their bead quarters, the Danea traversed the country in all directions, committing all the worst atrocities of a war of retaliation, and loudly proclaiming their determination to have ample revenge for the slaughter of their fellow country- men. Aware, immediately that they had Serpetrated their inhuman crime upon the omestic Danes, how little mercy they could expect at the hands of the country- men of their murdered victims, the English had made more than usual preparations for resistanee. A large an4 well fUmiahed army waa ready to march againat the in- vader^ but the commnnd of it waa com- mitted to that duke of Mercia whose former treason has been mentioned, and be, pre- tending iUneaa, contrived to delay the march of the traopa until they were thoroughly dispirited and the Danes had done enor- moua miachlef. He died shortly after and waa auflfleadad by Edrie, who, though son- in-Uw to tha king, provediust aa trcacher- onaaa hla predecessor. The consequence waa, that the country waa ravaged to such an extent that the horrora of famine were aooB added to the horrora of war, and the degraded English once more sued for peace, and obtained it at the price of thirty thou- and pounds. A. D. 1007.— Clearly perceiving that thry might BOW reckon upon Danuh invasion aa a periodical plague, the English govern- ment and people endeavoured to employ their interval of care in preparing for their fiitnre defence. Troops were raised and disciplined, and a navy of nearly eight hundred abipa waa prepared. But a quar- rel which arose between Edric, duke of Mercia, and Wolfhoth, governor of Sussex, caused the latter to desert to the Danes with twenty vessels. He was pursued by Edrio's brother Brightric, with a fleet of eighty vesaels ; but this fleet, being driven asnore by a tempest, was attacked and burned by 'Wolfnoth. A hundred vessels were thua lost to the English ; dissensions spread among other leading men ; and the fleet which, if concentrated and ably di- rected, migUi have given safety to the na- tion, was dispersed into various ports and rendered virtually useless. The Danes did not fail to take advantage of the dissensions and imbecility of the English, and for some time firom thia pe- .riod the history of England presents na with nothing but one melancholy mono- tony of unsparing cruelty on the part of the invaders, and unmitigated and hopeless suffering on the part of the invaded. Re- peated attempta were made to restore some- thing like unanimity to the English coun- cils, and to form a settled and unanimoua plan of resistance ; but ail was still dissen- sion; and when the uttermost wretched- ness at length made the disputanta agree, they agreed only in resorting to the old, the base, and the most impolitic plan of pur- chasing the absence of their persecutors. How impolitic this plan was common sense ought to have told the English, even had 'they not possessed the additional evidence of the facS that at each new invasion the Danes increased their demand. From ten thousand pounds, which had purchased their first absence, they had siiccessively raised their demands to thirtv thousand, and now, when their rapine ban more than ever impove- rished the country, they demanded and, to the shame of the English people, or rather of the king and tlie nobles, were paid the monstrous sum of eight-and-forty-tnousand pounds I This immense sum was even worse ex- A r. M H I M *■ O H H m t> e u TO WAR AND FAMINB WEBB ASSBD TnR BATAOBS Of VBSTILBUCB. IWI. 60 «f)c Crcuitrv of l^itton?, Ire. Maded than tli« former lumi had btan; tM thir timt tba Danes took tha moncjri bnt did not dcMurt. On the eonUarr, that aonltnuad thtir daanliory ■Innderinf, and at tha aama tlma mada Ibrmal demandi ■pen cartain dUtrieta fcr larfa and ipeci- led anma. Thua, in the conntf of Kent the* le*led tUe torn of eight thouaand fonndai and the arehbiihop of Canterbury tanturiny to reaiit tbia moat inkmitoua de- mand, waa coolh mnrdored. The genenU elate of the kingdom and the butcherjf ofa Mreonage so eminent alarmed the king fbr Ue pereonal eafety t the more etpeciallT, as nanf of hia chief nobility, hafini loit all eonlldenee in his power to redeem his king- don from ruin, were daily transferring their allegiance to Sweyn. HaTing ilrst sent o»er his queen and her two ehfldren to her brother the duke of Normandy, Bthelred himself took an opportunity to escape thither, and thus the kingdom was virtnaUy Aalivered oTCr to Sweyn and his Danes. A. D. lOM.— Sweyn, under all the eireura' ataneee, would harj found little difficulty la eanaing himself to be crowned king of England; nay, it mayeten be doubted if either noblee or neople would have been greatly diipleaaed at receiving a warlike wrereign Instead of the ftagitive Bthelred, to whom they had long been aoenstoihed to apply the soornAil epithet of Ms Unrtari//. But whUst Sveyn was preparing to take pJrantage of the magnifleent opportunity that olhred itself to him, he was suddenly siesed with a mortal illness, and expired at Gainsborough, in Lincolnshire, abatit six weeks after the flight of Ethe||ad from the kingdom. This circumstance gave the weak Ethel- red yet one more chance of redeeming his kinglr character. The great men Of his kingdom, when they informed him of the eveut which, so auspiciously for him, had- occurred, invited him to return. They at the same time plainly, though in a friendly and respeetftil tone, intimated their hope that he would profit by his experience, to avoid fnt the fvlmt those errors which bad Eroduced so much evil to both himself and is people. Bthelred gladly availed himself of the in- vitation to resume his throne, but the ad- vice that had accompanied that invitation he wholly disregarded. Among the most glaring proofs which he aave of His conti- nued tncapacity to rule wisely, he reinstated his trea61ierous son-in-law, Edric, in all his {brmer influence. This power Edrie most shamefully abused i in proof 0f this we need give but a single instance of his mis- fjondnet; Ttro Mercian ndbles, by name Morcar and Sigefert, had unfortunately ^vi>n iatUt oifence td Edric, who forthwith endeavoured to persuade the kinc that they fthtt hostile to his rule ; and tne equally cruel and weak monarch not only con- dived iit their murder by Edric, but gave to that crime a quail leg^l sanction by coniig- catlng the property of the victims as though they had been convicted of treason, and he conflned Sigebert'a widow in a convent. Here aha was accidentally seen by the king's son, Edmund, who not only eon- trived her eseapo from the convent, but immediately married her. a. D. luU.— Bthelred waa not allowed to ai«)oy hia recovered throne in peace. Ca- nute, the son of Sweyn, waa to the ftall as warlike as his famous father, and aet up his claim to the throne with as much grave earnestness aa tliougli his father had flilcd it in right of « long ancestral possession. He committed dreadftil havoe in Kent, Dorset, Wilts, and Somerset i and, not eon* tented with slaughter in and jslunder after the battle, he shockingly mutflated his pri- soners, and then gave them their liberty, in order that their wretched plight might strike terror into their fellow-countrymen. Bo much progress did Canute make, that Bthelred would, in all probability, have been a second time driven from his throne and kingdom, but for the courage and ^ergy of hit son Edmund. The treteherous Edrie deserted to the Danes with fbrty ahins, after having dispersed a great part of tne English army, and even made an attempt at seiiiUg upon the person of the brave prince. Undismayed by so many difficulties, which were much increased by the general contempt and distrust felt for the king, Ed- mund, oy great exertions, got together a large force, and prepared to give battle to the eneUiy. But the English had been ac- customed to see (heir kings in the vanauard of the battle ; and, though Edmunu was universally popular, the soldiers loudly de- manded that his father should head them in ticrson. Ethelred, however, who suspected lis own subjects fully as much as he feared the encmv, not merely refused to do this, on the plea of illness, but so completely left his heroic son without supplies, that the prince was obliged to allow the whole northern part of the kingdom to fall into subjection to the Danes. Still determined not to submit, Edmund marched his dis- couraged and weakened army to London, to make a final stand against the invaders; but On his arrival he round the metropolis in a state of the greatest alarm and confu- sion, on account of the death of the king. A. n. lOlfi. — Ethelred the Unready had /eigned thirty-five years, and his incapacity liad reduced the country to a state which would have been sutBeiently pitiable and diiflcult, even had not the fierce and vfkr- like Danes been swarming In its northern Srovinces. The people were dispirited and isaffected, and tne nobles were far less jn - tent upon repelling the common enemy than upon pursuing their own mischievous and petty quarrels ; and Edmund had only too much reason to fear that the example of his treacherous brother-in-law would be followed by other nobles. Rightly judging that occupiition was the most efrcctual re- medy for tiie discouragement of the people, and the best safeguard against the treach- ery of the nobles, Edmund lost no time in attacking the enemy. At Gillingham he defeated a detachment of them, and then marched against Canute in person. The * I u I hi SI a e ' u ; H I H a K XTHELRBn WAS BORIED IN ST. F^Ul's CUUnCU, T.OKnOX. -— »! « M » M » 5 » a IS i u tl K ti s w u at li $ hi 01K. » a u a •4 a M o 0) M «» M 82 ®i)t ©reaattip of listorB, «fc. his DanUh mercenariet; he made not the ■lichtett differenae between Dauith and EuKliah aubject* in the execution of the law* KUarding property and life; and, atiJl farther to engan the affections of tlie Eng- Ush, he fonnaUy, in an assembly of the atates, restored the Saxon customs. In order also to inmt^te himself with the BncUsh. aa well as to nropitiate the powerful duke of Normandy, who had ahovrn a strong disposition to disturb him in his UTsurped power, he «»;'"•»,"■* Srince's sister, Emma, widow of Ethelred. ly dint of tliis conciliatory policy, he so far succeeded in gaining the affections of the Ruglish, that he at length ventured to Bail to Denmark, which was attacked by his Ute ally, the king of Sweden, against whom he felt additibuiJ anger on account of his contumacy in refusing to put the exUcd English princes to death. He was completely rictorious in this expedition, chiefly owing to the energy and »dour of the anerwaras famous, and more than re- gaily powerful, earl Godwin, to whom, in rewara for his conduct on this occasion, he gave his daughter in marriage. In 103S he made another voyage, and expeUed Olans, king of Norway. Powerful •broad and at peace at home, be now de- voted his attention to religion ; but he did so after the grossly superstitious fashion of ^e age. Hk did not renal the exiled prin- ces, or make restitution of any of the pro- perty which he had unjustly acquired either in Norway or in England; bat he built churches and showered gifts upon church- men I showed his sorrow for the slaughter of which he still retained the profit, by causing masses to be said for the souls of . the slaughtered; and compounded for con- ; tinning his usurped rule of England by obtaining certain privileges for Englishmen dt Rome, to which city he made an osten- tatious pilgrimage. An anecdote is told of Canute when at the very height of his glory and power, which is highly characteristic of the base- ness of the EtigUsh nobles of that day, and which at the same time shows him to have possessed a certain dry humour us well as sound good sense. It seems that while walking on the sea-shore with some of these degenerate and unworthy nobles, they in the excess of flattery attributed omni- potence to him. Disgusted by their ful- some eulogy, he ordered a chair to be placed upon the beach, and seating himself he commanded the waves to approach no nearer to him. The astonishea courtiers looked on with a fueling of contempt for the king's credulity, which was speedily [ to be transferred to their own baseness. ; The tide surged onward and onward to the ' shore till it benn to <«'et his feet ; when he I calmly rose and rebuked his flatterers for i ai:ributing to him the great characteristic I of the Deity, omnipotence. ! The Scots in «.lie rcigin of Ethelred had I beer taxed one shilling a hide ou their I flef of Cumberland, for Dantgtlt, or money I to be applied to the protection of the king- dom against the Danes. The Scots re- fused to pay it, and though Ethelred at- tempted force, he, as usual with him, failpd. Malcolm, the thane of Scotland who had thus failed in his vassalage to Ethelred, on the ground that he could defend himself against the Danes, now refused to do homage for Cumberland to Canute, on the ground of that king not having succeeded to the throne by i-ihentance. But Canute speedily brought h::.i to his senses ; at the first appearance of the English army Mal- colm submitted. This was Canute's last expedition ; he died about four years after, in the year 1036. CHAPTER X. The ReiffM tf Harold and Uardieanute. CANUTii l«it three soni, Sweyn and Harold by his first wife, AlfWeii, daughter of the earl of Hampshire ; and Hardicanute by his second wife, Emma, the widow of £theh«d. On the marriage of Canute and Emma the former had formally agreed that his children by her should inherit the throne. But as her brother, the duke of Normandy, died before Canute, the latter thought fit to depart from this agreement, and to leave the English throne to Harold, his second son by tne first wife, rather than entrust it, with its abounding difficulties, to the weak hands of so young a prince aa Hardicanute, his son by Emma. By his last will, therefore, Canute left Norway to Swevn, his eldest son, and England to Harold, his younger son by the first mUriage ; and to Hardi- canute, his son by Emma, he left his native Denmark. The difference between the arran^ment made by the king's will and that which was agreed upon bv his treaty of marriage with Emma, placed the kingdom in no small danger of a long and sanguinary civil war. Harold, it is true, had the express last will of his father in his favour, and being upon the spot at the moment of his father's death, he seized upon the royal treasures, and thus had the means of supporting his claim either by open force or corruption. But Hardicanute, though in Denmark, was the general favourite of the people, and of not a few of the nobility; being looked upon, on account of his mother, in the light of a native English prince. To his father's last will, upon which it would have been easy to throw suspicion, as though weakness of mind had been superinduced by bodily suf- fering, he could oppose the terms of the grave treaty signed bjr his father while in full possession of his vigorous mind, and in full possession, too, of power to resist any article contrary to his wish. And, above all, Hardicanute had the favour and influ- ence of the potent earl Godwin. With such elements of strife in existence, it was extremely fortunate that the most powerful men on both sides were wisely and really anxious to avert from the nation the sad consequences inseparable from civil strife. Conferences were held at Which the jarring SUniLOA, DAUSHTKB Or CAKUTS, WAS MARniBD TO TBB BMPBROK HBRUY IT. A.D. 1039.— OHK or TUB BAKDSST WINTIKS BTIB KBOWH IR BnaLiRD. lEnglanH.— Unglo-Saxon anti Banislb ^Kings. 83 claimi of the two princei were diacnued with unnsnal candoar and calmneai, and it was at length agreed, that, aa each had a plea so powerful to he wholly done a«-oy with hj his competitor'a counterplea, the kingdom should once more be divided. London and the country north of the Thflmes fell to the lot of Harold ; the conn- try south of the Thames to Hardicaunte, in whose name Emma took possession, and fixed her residence at MTinchester till he should reach England to govern for himself. The two young princes, Alfred and Ed- ward, the sons of Emma by Ethclred, had hitiierto remained at Normandy ; but find- ing themselves, from the circumstances of that court, less welcome than they had been, they resolved to visit their mother, whose high state at Winchester promised them aU possible protectioti and comfort, and they accordingly landed in England with a numerous and splendid suite. But the appearances by which they had been allured to take this step were exceedingly deceitful. Godwin, whose ambition was restless and utterly insatiable, had been skilfully tampered with by the crafty Ha- rold, who im>mised to marnr the earl's daughter. The idea of being father-in-law to the sole king of England put an end to all Godwin's moderate notions, and to all the favour with which he bad previously looked upon the expedient of partitioning the kingdom; and he now very readily and zealously promised his support to Harold in his design to add his brother's nosses- sions to his own, and to cut off the two English princes, whose coming into Eng- Iftnd seemed to indicate a determination to claim as heirs of Ethelrcd. Alfred was, with many hypocritical compliments, in- vited to court, and had reached as far as Guildford, in Surrey, on his way thither, wlien an assemblage of Godwin's people suddenly fell upon the retinue of the un- suspecting prince, and put upwardn of six hundred of them to the sword. Alfred was himself taken prisoner; but far happier had been hit fate had he died in the battle. His inhuman enemies caused his ej^es to be put out, and he was then thrust into the monastery of Ely, where he perished in agony and misery. His brother and queen Emma readily judged, from this horrible affair, that they would be the next victims, and they immediately fled from the country; while Harold forthwith added the southern to the northern division of the kingdom. Commencing his sole reign over England by an act of such hypocrisy and sanguinary cruelty, Harold would probably have left fearful traces of his reign if it hud been a lengthened one. Happily, however, it was but short ; he died unregretted, about four years after his accession, leaving no trace to postcritv of his having ever lived, save the one dark deed of which we have spoken. He was remarkable for only one {jersonal quality, his exceeding agility, which, ac- cording to the almost invariable practice at that time adopted of designating persons by some trait of character or physical qua- lity for which they were remakable, pro- cured him the appellation of Harold Hare* foot. A.D. 1039. —Although Hardicanate had been deemed bv his father too young to sway the English sceptre, he himself held a different opinion, and he had occupied himself in his kingdom of Norway in pre- paring a force with which to invade Eng- land and expel his brother. Having com- pleted his preparations, he collected a fleet under the pretence of visiting queen Emma who had taken refuge in Flanders, and was upon the point of sailing when he received intelligence of Harold's death, upon which he immediately sailed for London, where he was reeeivea with the warmest welcome. He commenced his reign, however, very in- auspiciously, by the mean and violent act of havingHarold'sbody disinterred and thrown into the Thames. Being found by some fishermen, the royal body was carried to London and again committed to the earth ; but Hardicanate obtaining information of what had occurred, ordered it to be a;aiB disinterred and thrown into the river. It was once more found; but this time it was buried so secretly, that the king had no opportunity to repeat his unnatural bru- tality. The part which Godwin had taken in the murder of the unfortunate Alfred led prince Edward, who was invited over to the Eng- lish court by Hardicanutc, to accuse him of that crime, and to demand justice at the hands of the king. But Godwin, who had already exerted all the arts of servility to conciliate the king, made him a present of a magnificent galley, manned with sixteen handsome and gorgeously appointed row- ers ; and the king was so well pleased with the present, that he merely required that Godwin should swear to his own innocence, which that personage made no scruple of doing. The reign of Hardicanutc was short, yet his violent temper and cupidity caused it to be marked by a revolt. He had the injus- tice and imprudence to renew the tax known by the name of Danegelt, and charged a very heavv sum for the fleet which had conveyed nim from Denmark. Complaints and resistance arose in many parts ; and in Worcester the people not only refused to pay the tax, but actually put two of the collectors to death. Godwin, with Siward, duke of Nort)iumberIand, and Leofric, duke of Mercia, were immediately sent to Worcester with a powerful force, and with orders to destroy the city. They actually did set fire to it and gave it up to the pillage of the soldiery, but they saved the lives of the inhabitants until the king's anger was cooled and he gave them a for- mal pardon. ' Though possessed of uncommon bodily Etrpngth, Ilardicanute was an ultra North- man in the hnbit of drinking to excess; and he had scarcely reigned two years when, being at the wedding feast of a Danish no- bleman, he indulged to such an extent that he died on the spot. S •r' lY IV. nARDICANCTB DIBO AT I.AMni:Tn, AND WAS BORIED AT WINCHRBTUn. in» MOKAKCHt OF TH» BA.^BS 1» »HOI.*«D I.*IT»D ABOUT SflTlABl. 84 W^t ©Kaaare of 1|(»torB« ^t- CHAPTBn XI. m« JUVm tif Edward the Confutor, A. B. lOia.— 8#«»n, the remaiuinK «on of Cannta, waa in Norway when Hardicannts thui ittddenlr died \ andas there wm no one whom the Dane* could let up in hu place, or •• hit repreicntatira. the English bad a meet faTouraWe opportunity to place upon the throne a prince of their own race. Tlie real Bngliih heir waa undoubtedly the elder aon of Bdmnnd Ironiidej but that pnncc and hit brother were in Hungary, and Ed- ward, the ton of Ethelred. wai at the Eng- lith court I and the necetaity of initant ac- tion to prerent the Danetfrpm recovenng from their turpriie wat too obviout to allow the Englithto affect npon thit occasion a punctllioutneit upon direct tucceuion which they had not yet learned to feel. There wat but one apparent obstacle of any magnitttde to the peaceable sncceision of Edward, and that wat the feud exiiting between him and the powerftal ewrl Godwin relative to the death of prince Alfred. So powerftal waa Godwin at thit time, that hit oppotition would have been far too great for Edward't meant to turmount. But Godwin'a power lay principally in westex, which waa almoit exclntivdy inhabited by Bngliih, among whom Edward't claim wat very popular i and m Edward't friendt in- duced liim to ditavow all rancour againtt Godwin, and even to content to marry hit daughter Editba, the powerful and crafty earl eatily contented to onaure his daughter a throne. He forthwith tummoned a coun- cil, at which he to well managed matters, that while the majority were Enzlith and in favour of Edward, the few Danes were fairly tilenced, and the more eatily because whatever warmth might be in their indivi- dual feellngt towardt the absent Swcyn, they hod no leader of influence to unite I cm, or of eloquence to impress and sup- port their withes. Tlte Joy of the Eni^ith on finding tITfe go- vernment once more in the handt of a native prince wat exoettive, and would have been attended with estentive ill-conscqucnces to the Danes, had not the king very equit- ably interpoted on their behalf. As it was, thoy tuifered not a little in property, for one of the flrtt actt of the king's reign was to revoke all the grants of his Danish prede- cessors, who had Iteapcd large possessions upon their fellow-countrymen. In very many catet it may be assumed that the 8ranit had been made unjustly; but the liiglish made no distinction between cases, but heartily rct|oieed to tee the resumption of the grants reducing many of the hated Danei to their original poverty. To his mother, the (^ueen Emma, Edward behaved with an unnordonable levcrity ; unpardon- able even admitting that he was right wlicn he affirmed that, having been so much better treated by Canute than by Ethelred, the had alwayt given the preference to Uardicanute, and held her children by Ethelred in comparative contempt or in- difference. Ue not only took from her the great riches which she had heaped up, but also committed her to close custody in a nunnery at Winehester. Some writers have gone so far at to tay that he accuted her of the absurdly improbable crime of having oonnived at the murder of the prince Alfred, and that Emma purged herself of this fuilt by the marvellous ordeal of walking arefooted over nine red-hot ploughshares ; but the monks, to whom Emma was pro- fusely liberal, needed not to have added fable to the unfortunate truth of the king's unnatural treatment of hit twice-widowed mother. Apart from mere feelingt of nationality, the detire of the Englith to tee their throne filled by a man of their own race was, no doubt, greatly excited by their unwilling- ness to see lands and lucrative places be- stowed by stranger kings upon stranger courtiers. In this respect, Iiowever, the accession of Edward was by no means so advantageous to the English as they had anticipated. Edward had lived so much in Normai^dy that he had become almost a Frenchinan in hia tastes and habits, and it was almost exclusively among Frenchmen that he had formed his friendships and now chose his favourites and confidants. In the disposal of civil and military employ- ments the king acted with great fairness towards the English, but as the Normans who thronged his courts were both more polished and more learned, it was among them principally that he disposed of the ecclesiastical dignities, and from them that he chiefly selected his advisers and intimate companions. The favour thus shown to the Normans gave great disgust to the English, and especially to the powerful Godwin, who was too greedy of power and patronage to look with complacency upon any rivals in the king's good graces. He was the more offended that the ex- clusive favour of the king did not fall upon him and his family, because, independent of the king having married the earl's daugh- ter Editha, the mere power of Godwin's own family was so princely as to give him high claims, which he was by no means in- clined to underrate. He himself was earl of Wessex, to wliich extensive government the counties of Kent and Sussex were add- ed; Sweyn, his eldest son, had like autlio- rity over the counties of Hereford, Glouces- ter, Oxfor'd, and Berks ; while Harold, his second son, was duke of East Anglia, with Essex added to his government. Possessed of such extensive power, still secretly bating Edward on account of their open feud about the murder of prince Al- fred, and considering that to his forbear- ance alone, or principally, Edward owed his throne, Godwin, who was nativally haughty, was not inclined to bear the neg- lect of the king without showing his sense of it; and his ill-humour was the more deep and the mure bitterly expressed, be- cause his daughter Editha as well as him- self suffered from the king's neglect. The king had married her, indeed, in compii anee with hit tolemn promise, but he S! s H Ik B t> a n e ] raoM Tnii PRniuu tub nt^iis itr enolako abb scabcblt iieabo of. A.D. lOfil.— Tl^ia TBAK WAI TItlTXD WITH VAMINI AMD PBSTILBNCB. lEnglanti.— ?ln8lo=5axon Hings. 85 would never IWe with her. Ilii determina- tion on this head wa» rightly attributed b; Godwin to hia having transferred to the daughter a part of the natred he entertain- ed for the father; though the monks, with their usual ingenuitv In finding piety where no one else would think of looking for it, attribute this conduct to his religious feel- ing ; and to this conduct it is that he chief- ly owed the being honoured by the monks with the respectable surname of The Con- fessor. A.D. 1048.— Entertaimng strong feeun|;s of both disappointment and discontent, it was nut likely that a nobleman of Godwin's great power, and great ill-temper too, would fail to find some pretext upon which to break out into open quarrel. Politic as he was ill-tempered, Godwin seized upon the favouritism of the king towards the Nor- mans as a cause of quarrel upod which he was sure to have the sympathy of the En- glish, who were to the full as much preju- diced as himself against the foreigners. While Godwin was thus anxious to quar- rel with the king whom he had done so much to put upon the throne, and only waiting for the occurrence of an occasion sufficiently plausible to hide his meaner nud more entirely personal motives, it chanced that Eustace, count of Boulogne, passed through Dover on his wa^ back to his ovra country after a visit paid to the English court. An attendant upon the count got into a dispute with a man at whose house he was quartered, and wound- ed him ; the neighbours interfered, and the count's attendant was slaiu ; a general battle took place between the count's suite and the townspeople, and the former got so much the worst of the affray, that the count liimself had some difilculty in saving his life by flifrht. The king was not merely an- gry, but felt scandalized that foreigners who had.-just partaken of his hospitality should be thus roughly used by his sub- jects ; and he ordered Godwin — to whom, as we have said, the government of Kent belonged— to make enquiry into the affair, and to punish the guilty. But Godwin, who was delighted at an occurrence which furnished him with a pretext at once plau- sible and ponnlur for quarrelling with his sovereign and son-in-law, promptly refused to punish the Dover men, whom he alleged to nave been extremely ill-treated by the foreigners. Edward had long been aware of the hostile feelings of Godwin, but as he was idso aware of tlie very great and widely spread power of that noble, he had pru- dently endeavoured to avoid all occasion of open disagreement. But this blank refusal of the cuA to obey his orders provoked the king so much, that he threatened Godwin with the full weight of his displeasure if he dared to persevere in his disobedience. Aware, and p/obably not sorry, that an open rupture was now almost utterly un- avoidable, Godwin assembled a force and marched towards Gloucester, where the king was then residing with no other guard timn his ordinary retinue. Edward, on hearing of the approach and hostile bear- ing of his too potent father-in-law, applied for aid to Biward and Leofiric, the pow- erful dukea of Northumberland and Mercia ; and to give them time to add to the forces with whieh they on the instant proceeded to aid him, he opened a negotiation with Goflwin. Wily as the^earl was, he on this occasion forgot the reb«l maxim— that lie who draws the aword against his sovereign should throw away the acabbard. He al- lowed ^he king to amuse him with mesaagea and proposals, while the king's friends were raising a force suiBciently powerful to aa- anre nim aucceaa ahould the quarrel pro- ceed to blows. As the descendant of a long line of English kings, and himself a king remarkable for humane and just conduct, Edward had a popularity which not even his somewhat overweening partiality to fb- nigneraconld abate; and when hia anbjects learned that he waa in danger from the an- ger and ambition of Godwin, they baatraed to hia defence in auch numbera that h« waa able to aummon him to anawer for his treasonable conduct. Both Godwin and his sons, who had joined in hia rebellion, professed perfect wiUingness to proceed to London to answer for their conduct, on condition that they should receive hostages for their personal safety and fair trial. But the king waa now far too powerful to grant any sucn terma, and Godwin and his sons perceiving that, in negotiating with the king while he was but slenderly attended they had lost the golden opportunity of wresting the sovereignty from him, hastily disbanded their troops and went abroad; Godwin and three of his sons taking refuse with Baldwin, earl of Flanders, and his other two sons taking shelter in Ireland. Having thus for the time got rid of ene- mies so powerful, the king bestowed their estates and governments upon some of his favourites; and as he no longer thought himself obliged to keep any measures with his imperious father-in-law, he thrust queen Editha, whom he had never loved, into a convent at Wherwell. But the ruin of tlie powerful Godwin waa more apparent than real ; he had numerous friends in England, nor was he without such foreign alliances as would still enable him to give those friends un opportunity of serving him. His ally, the earl of Flan- ders, who was the more interested in his behalf on account of Godwin's son Tosti having married the carl's dau|;hter, gave him the use of his harbours m which to assemble a fleet, and assisted him to hire and purchase vessels ; and Godwin, having completed his preparations, made an at- tempt to surprise Sandwich. But Edward had constantly been informed of the earl's' movements, and had a far superiq^r force ready to meet him. Godwin, who depended fully as much upon policy as upon foree, returned to Flanders, trusting that his seeming relinquishment of his design would throw Edward off his guard. It turned out preciselv as Godwin had anticipated. Edward neglected his fleet and allowed hia A.D. 1049.— MAN! FAItMS IN OBBBYSUiaS DKSTROTBD BY TUX WIl.D-riaE. u TUU UbKllOX UAD AIiWAia BIBM SXKMfT VBOM TUB TAX Of DAnia«I.T. n m H f m o s r. M o o M K M ft O M M a n u s H M M O 86 Vll)t ^rcasurn of l^istorn, $cc. aearara to disperse ; and Godwin, informed of this, suddenly sailed for tlie Isle of WiKlit, where he was joined iiy an Irish force under Harold. Seizing the vessels in the southern ports, and summoning all his friends in those parts to aid him in ob- taining justice, he was able to enter the Thames and appear before London with an overwhelming torce. Edward was undis- mayed by the power of the rebel carl ; and as he was determined to defend himself to the utmost, a civil war of tlie worst de- scription would most probably have ensued but for the interference of the nobles. Many of these were secretly friends of God- win, and all of them were very desirous to accommodate matters; and the result of their timely mediation was a treaty, by which it was stipulated on the one nana that the obnoxious foreigners should be sent from the country, and on the other, that Godwin should give hostages for his future good behaviour. This he did, and Edward sent the hostages over to Nor- mandy, being consciuas that he could not lufely keep tiiem at his own court. Though a civil war was undoubtedly for the present averted by this treaty between the king and Godwin, yet the ill example thus gi^en of the necessities of the king compelling him to treat as upon equal term* with his vassal, would probably have produced farther and more mischievous acts of presumption on the part of Godwin, but for his death, which Ruddenly occurred as he was dining with the king shortly af^er this hollow reconciliation had been patched np between them. Godwin was succeeded both in his go- vernments and in the very important office of steward of the king's household by his son Harold, who had all his father's ambition, together with a self-command and seeming humility far more dangerous, because more difHcult to be guarded against, than his father's impetuous violence. Although unavoidably prejudiced against him on account of his parentage, Edward was won by his seeming humility and anxiety to please. But though Edward could not refuse him his personal esteem, his jealousy was awakened bv the anxiety and success with which Harola endeavoured land; and his death speedily left Harold without Deer and without competitor. 8i- ward haa greatly distinguished himself in the only foreign expedition of this reigu, which was undertaken to restore Malcolm, king of Scotland, who had been chased from that kingdom after the murder of his fhther, king Duncan, by a traitorous noble, named Macbeth. In this expedition Si- ward was fully successful; but unfortu- nately, though be defeated and slew the usurper Macbeth, he in the same actiou lost bis eldest son Osborne, who had given high proRiise of both will and power to uphold the glory of his family. Siward's character bad much of the Spar- tan resolution. He was consoled for the death of his gallant son when he learned that his wounds were all in front; and when he felt the hand of death upon him- self he had his armour cleaned and a spear placed in his hand, that, as he said, he might meet death in a guise worthy of a noble and a warrior. Owing to the health of the king being fast declining, and his having no children, he grew anxious about the succession ; and as he caw that Harold was sufficiently ambitious to seize upon the crown, he sent to Hungary for his elder brother's son Edward. That prince died almost imme- diately after his arrival in England; and though the title of his son Edgar Atheling would have been fully as good and indispu- table as his own, Edgar did not, to tlie anx- ious eyes of the king, seem either by yeara or character a competent authority to curb the soaring ambition of Harold. Willing to see any one rather than Harold Bcrure in the succession, the king turned his attention to William, duke of Nor- mandy. This prince was the natural son of William, duke of Normandy, by Har- lotta, the daughter of a tanner of the town of Falaise ; but illegitimacy in that age was little regarded. He had she\i'n great vigour and capacity in putting down the opposi- tion made to his succession to the dukedom, and though he was of very tender age when his father died, his conduct, both at that difficult crisis and in his subsequent go- vernment, fully justiiicd the high opinion of him which had induced his father to be- to make nartizans ; and, in order to curb • queath him the dukedom, to the prejudice his ambition, he played off a rival against him in the person of Algar, son of Leofric duke of Mereia, upon whom was conferred Harold's old government of East Auglia. But this notable expedient of the king wholly failed. Instead of the power of Algar balancing that of Harold, the dis- putes between the two rivals proceeded to actual warfare, in which, as usual, the un- offending people were the greatest suffer- ers. The death of both Algar and his father put an end to this rivalry, or pro- bably the very means which the king had taken to preserve his authority would have wholly and fatally uubvertcd it. A. n. 1055. — ^There was now but one rival from whom Harold could fear any effectual competition ; Siward, duke of Northumber- of other branches of the ducal family. He had paid a visit to England and gained much upon the good opinion of Edward, who had actually made known to him his intention of making him his heir even be- fore he sent to Hungary for prince Ed- ward and his family. Harold, though by no roeans ignorant of the king's desire to exclude him from all chance of succeeding to the throne, stead- fastly pursued his plan of conciliating the powerml, and making himseif noted as the friend and protector of the weak. In this respect he was eminently successful, but there was an obstacle in the way of his final triumph from which he anticipated very freat difficulty. Among the hostages given y his father, earl Godwin, were a son and H U I ?! >'• M " I a ' t. i oi H I •-i " I ■4 I •" I n a u o a u d is A.n. 1053.— TDK Loxo imcADBn KAni, ooDwijt WAS Buninn at wuvcobstkr. KDWABD FOBIfXD TBI rinsT COOK OV LAWS COMMOM TO ALL SlfOLANIi. ^nglanV.— 1BlngIo=9axon Kings. 8'. a grandson of that nobleman ; and when Ilirold perceived that duke 'William, to whote cattody the hostages were com- mitted, had hopesof being left heir to the Englisn crown, he naturally became anx- ious about the consequences of his in- tended iivalry to relatives so near. To get them out of the duke's power previous to the death of the king was of the utmost impor- tance ; and he applied to the king fbr their release, dn-elliuK much upon the constant obedience and dntifalness of his conduct, upon which he argued it was in some sort an injurious reflection longer to keep the hostages. As his conduct really had oeen to all appearances of unbroken faith and undeviatm^ loyalty, the king was unable to make any solid reply to his arguments, and at l(fnetn yielded the point and empowered Harold to go to Normandy and release them. He htistened to fuIAl this Tery agreeable commission, but a violent tem- {)est arose while he was at sea and drove lim ashore upon the territory of Guy, count of Ponthieu, who made him prisoner in the hope of extorting a v6ry large sum from hiiu by way of ransom. Harold sent to the duke of Nommndy for aid in this dilemma, representing that the duke's honour as well as his liberty was infringed by this impri- sonment of a nobleman bound to the court of Normandy. Nothing could have hap- pened more agreeable to the wishes of William, who, if of a more hasty tempera- ment than Harold, was no less politic; and he at once clearly perceived tliat this unexpected incident would give him the means of practising upon his only formida- ble competitor for the English throne. He immediately dispatched a messenger to de- maud the liberty of Harold ; and the count of Ponthieu complied on the instant, not daring to irritate so warlike and powerful a prince as duke William. Harold then proceeded to William's court at Rouen, where he was received with every demon- stration of the warmest good will. William professed the greatest willingness to give up the hostaifcs, and at the same time tbok the opportunity — as if ignorant of Harold's own secret intentions— to beg his aid in his pretentions to the crown of England, as- snrinz him in return of an increase to the grandeur and power already enjoyed by his own family, and offfeting him a daughter of his own in marriage. Though Harold had the least possible desire to aid in his own defeat, he clearly enough saw that if he were to refuse to promise it he would be maile a prisoner in Normandy for the re- mainder of his life. He agreed, therefore, to give William bis support. But a mere Eromisc would not serve William's turn; e required an oath ; and as oaths sworn upon reliques were in that age deemed of more than usual sanctity, he had some reliques of the most venerated martyrs pri- vately hidden beneath the altar on which Harold was sworn ; and, to awe him from breaking his oath, shewed them to him at the conclusion of the ceremony. Harold was both surprised and annoyed at -the shrewd precaution of the duke, but was too politic to allow his concern to appear. Imagining that he had now fullv secured the support of Harold instead of having to fear his opposition, William allowed nim to depart with many expressions of favour and friendship. But Harold had no sooucr obtained his own liberty and that of his relatives, than he began to exert himself to suggest reasons for breaking the oath which actual though nominal durance had extortfed from him, and the accompaniment of which had been brought about by an actual fraud. He shut his eyes upon tlie fact that, having consented to take the oath, it really mattered little whether he was aware or not of the prebcuce of the reliques ; had they not been there his oath would still be in full force, and he coald only act in contravention of it by gross perjurv. Determined to have the crown if possible, even at this fbarful price, be now redoubled his efforts at gaining public fa- vour, hoping that his superior popularity would deter the king from making anv fur- ther advances to duke William, nndi«fying, in the last resort, upon the armed defence of the nation. In pursuance of this plan he headed an expedition against the Welsh, and pressed them to such straits that they beheaded their priuce, Griffith, and con- tented to be governed by two noblemen appointed bv Edward. The popularity he gained by this expedi- tion was greatly enhanced by his politic and ostentatious display of rigid impar- tiality in a case in which his own brother, Tosti, duke of Northumberland, was a prin- cipal party. Tosti had conducted himself with such tyrannical violence that the Nor- thumbrians expelled him ; and the deceased duke Leofric's grandsons, Morcar and Ed- ward, having sided with the people, the former was by them elected to be their duke. The king commissioned Harold to put down this insurrection, which it was naturally supposed that he would be all the more zealous in doing, as the interests of his own brother were concerned. But Morcar, having demanded a conference with Harold, gave him such proofs of the misconduct of Tosti, and appealed so flat- teringly to his own very opposite conduct, that Harold not merely withdrew the army With which he was about to chastise the Northumbrians, but made such a repre- ■entation of the case, as induced the king not only to pardon the Northumbrians but also to confii-m Morcar in Tosti's go- vernment. Tosii fled to the court of Flan- ders, but subsequently took an opportunity to show the extent of his dissatisfaction with his brother's decision. Shortly after this aifuir Harold mttrried the sister of Morcar, a step which plainly intimated how little he held himself bound to perform his sworn engagements to Wil- liam of Normandy. In fact, he was now so very popular, that he made no secret of his pretension to the throne, but openly urged that as Edgar Atheling was by all acKnowledged to be unfit to wear the Eng- A.D. 1053.— di;kb lxofric died, ard was buried at cotbntuy. BBWABB WAI BORII A» liUF, OXOW, AHO BPBHP A» W«1T«IIH««B. 88 ^(c ^nasttrfi of 1|tetorv, $cc. Uih ciown, he wu the Attest man ia the Mtion to ■uceeed Edward t and thooRb the kine wu too much oppoeed to Harold • tae- eeitloB diKctlf and poiitWely to Mnetion hii prcteMion, he was too weak in both mind and bodr to take any enenRtic stepi for KCurioK the ■ucecetion of WiUiam. The kinK had long been Titibly ainkini; and yet, though conecioui of hit approach- ins end, and really anxioui to prevent the aeceieion of Harold, he could not mutter resolution to invite duke William, bat left chanee, policy, or armt to decide the tuc- cession at his death, which occurred in the sixty-flfth year of hit age and the twentv- ilflh of his rcicn. Though both Godwin and Harold excited his disUke by the infln- ence they acquired over him by tnpenor talent and energy, the peaceableneti of hts reign was, in fact, mainly attributable to th«r power and influence. Edward was naturally weak and superstitioot ; and if it had chanced that he had fallen into other handt, it it probable that his reign would have been both troubled and shortened. The superstitions custom of toucking for the king's evil originated with this prince. CHAPTER XII. Tht Rtiffn tf Harold tk* Second. A.D. IOCS.— Tbh death of Edward the Confessor had so long been probable, that Harold had ample time to make hit pro- parationt, and in the mere fact of hit being on the spot he had a great and manifest advantage over his Norman rival. Not only were his partizans numerous and powerful by their wealth and station ; they vrcre slso compactly organized. Neither duke 'William nor Edgar Atheling was for- mally propoted. but it wat taken for granted that the unammout voice of the people wat represented by that of the lay and clerical noblei who iturrounded Harold ; and, with- out even wuting for the formal sanction of the states of the kingdom, he was crowned by the archbiihop of York on the very day alter the deccate of Edward. Nor, in fact, was the consent of the nation so mere an assumption as it sometimes has been ; for Harold was universally popular, and the Normans were as universally hated as foreigners, and feared on account of their fierce and warlike character. But popular as Harold was in England, he was not long allowed to enjoy his elevation in peace. His brother Toiti, who had remained in volnntary banishment at the court of Flan- ders ever since Harold's memorable de- cision against him, deemed that his time was now arrived to take revenge. He ex- erted hit utmost influence with the earl of Flanders, and sent mcstengers into Nor- way to raise forcet, and jonmeyed pereon- alljr to Normandy to engage duke William to join him in avenging both their (priev- ancet. This ast step Tosti had not the slight- est occetion to take, for duke William was far too much engaged at Harold's breach of faith to require any urging. He had al- ready determined that Harold ihoold at tba least have to light for his throne t but H it was obviously important to stand as well as possible with the English people, ha sent ambassadors summoning Harola to perform the promise he had made under the most solemn form of oath. Harold it' plied at some length and with eonsidarabla show of reason to the duke's message. As related to his oath, he said, that had been extorted firom him under circumstanoes of durance and well-grounded bodily terror, and was consequently null; and, moreover, he as a private person could not lawfully swear to forwara the duke's pretenalone. He had himself, he added, been raised to the throne by the unanimous voiee of his people, and he would indeed be unworthy of their love and trust wen he not prepared to defend the liberties they had entrusted to his care. Finally, ho said, should the duke attempt by force of arms to disturb him and his Kingdom, he would soon learn how great is the power of a united people, led by a prince or its own choice, and one who was firmly determined that he wonld only ceate to reign when he thould eeata to live. William expected such an answer as this, and even while his messengers were tra- veiling between Normandy and the English court he was busily engaged in prepara- tions for enfoKing his pretensions by arms. Brave, and posietted or a high reputation, he could count not only upon the sealous aid of his own warlike Normans, who would look on the invasion of such a country at England in the light of an abtolute god- tend, but also of the numerous martiaino- bles of the continent, who literally made a trade of war. and were ever ready to range themtelvet and their ttalwart men at arms under the banner of a hold and famous leader, without expressing any troublesome curiosity as to the rightfulness pf his causa, Among thete untcmpulous sworders the wealth, fame, and a certain blunt and hearty hospitality of William had made him ex- tremely popular; and in the idea of conquer- ing tuch a kingdom at England there was much to tempt their cupidity as well as to inflame their valour. Fortune, too, favoured William by the sudden death of Conan.count of Brittany. Between this nobleman andWU- liam there was an old and a very inveterate feud, and Conan no sooner learned dnkeWil- liara's design upon England, than he endea- voured to embarrats and prevent him by re- viving his own claim to the duchy of Nor- mandy, which he required to be settled upon him in the event of the duke succeeding iu England. This demand would have cauied the duke much inconvenience, but Conan had scarcely made it when he died ; and count Hoel, hit ittc(n hnd he thought it necessary to do M, Nor Wflg it merely by dint of numbers lliNt his force was imposing. His veteran Htid dls(le the pope's bull in favour of his enterprise, it being a document which he well knew would have a great effect upon the superstitious minds of the multitude, and thus disincline them to aid the resistance planned by their leaders, he marched towards London. A large body of Londoners attempted to arrest bis course, but thev were routed with ter- rible slaughter bv anout five hundred horse of th« Norman aavance ; and this new dis- aster, together with the little confidence and enthusiasm excited by Edgar, so com- pletely dispirited the people, that even Morcar ana Edwin now despaired of suc- cess, and retired to their respective govern- ments. All Kent submitted; Southwark attempted some resistance, and was set on fire ; and the Normans seemed so wholly ir- resistible, that Stigand, archbishop of Can- terburv, Edgar Athcling, and other leading men or the kingdom, tendered William the crown and made their submission to him. With a degree of hypocrisy, which the vast preparations he had made and the great toils he had undergone for the purpose of obtaining the crown made ridiculous, the duke pretended to have scruples about ac- B U > *■■ : H f m f< H 2' H H A 21 O I *^ \ H k I I H h 1 n ! H < u K ■ < m l> TBS BATTLK OF OASTINGS WAS FOCOHT Olf HAROLU's BIBTH-DAY, OCT. 14. A.D. lM7^-VOBTI ■■lOTID IM UtIfDOII, ROKWIOB, WIROHIITBB, OOVBII, &C. ceptInK the crown without some more for- nutl content of the EngUth people. But hii own fViendi, uhamed of hie gntuitout hypocrisy, or aflraid that hit affected tcruplet iniKkt give riie to tome advene tnm of eventi, remonstrated to plainly with him that hie feigned reluctance waa laid aaide, and orders were given for the necessary nre- parations for liis immediate coronation. Stigand, archbishop of Canterbury, was, according to etiquette, the proper person to have crowned William. But the alacrity that prelate had shown in defending his country made him an object of the Con- querors dislike, who refused to be crowned by him, on tlie plea that his pall had been irregularly obtained; and the melnnoholy office fell upon Aldred, archbishop of York. CHAPTER XIII. Tkt Reiff*jf William I., unally ttyltd " William the Conqueror." Tnn principal English and Norman no- bility being assembled in Westminster ab- bey, (Dec. 25, 1066), Aldred asked them if they were willing to have William for their king, and being answered by affirmative ac- clamations, he admonished him to uphold the church, love justice, and execute justice with mercy ; and then put the crown on his head amid the loud applauses of the spec- tators of both nations. A strong guard of Normans surrounded the abbey, and hear- ing the shouts within, they imagined that the duke was attacked ; upon which they immediately fell upon the populace and flrcd the houses around, and tt was only by great exertion and his personal presence that William was enabled to put an end to the outrage and disturbance. Tliough he had experienced so much good nill from the principal English, Wil- uam even yet felt doubtful bow far he might rely upon the peaceable conduct of his new subjects, especially the sturdy Londoners, and he showed the jealousy he felt by causing strong fortresses to be erected to overawe the English and serve as places of refuge for his own people. A.D. 1067.— His jealousy of his new sub- jects was still further sho^'n by his retiring from London to Barking in Essex, where he held a court for the purpose of receiving the homage of those English nobles who had not been presented at the coronation. Edric, sumamed the Forester, the' brave earl Coxo, Edwin and Morcar who had so sca- lously though incHectually endeavoured to prevent him from enslaving their country, and a crowd of nobles of smaller note waited upon him there, made their submission in form, and were confirmed by him in their authority and possessions ; and tbougli the new reign had commenced in war and usur* pation, there was thus far every appearance of its being both a just and a tranquil one. Having received the submission of all his principal English subjects, William now Dusied himself in distributing rewards among the Norman soldiery to whom he owed his new crown. He was enabled to behave the more liberally to them, because in addition to the larse treasure of the un- fortunate Harold which had fallen into his handa. he was enriched by great pre- sents made to him by numerous wealthy English who were desirous of being among the earliest to worship the rising sun, that thev might enlaiwe, or at the least preserve their estatea. As the clergy had greatly aasisted him he made rich presents to them alto ; and he ordered an abbey to be erected near the aite of the late battle, and to be called after it. An anecdote is related, in connection with this abbey, that William was inform- ed, after the foundations were laid, that the workmen could not find any spring of water for the supply of the intended edifice. " Let them work on," repUline for which he had been remarkable in Normandy. Victors though they were, and both ordered and encouraged to keep the Saxon popula- tion in strict obedience to the new gover^i- ment, they were not allowed to add inso- lence to authority, and the slightest dis- order or invasion of property ^.-as promptly and strictly punished. lbs conciliating policy extended to the metropolis. That city had been warmly opposed to him, but his anger for the past opposition waa kept OM William's accession nn onANTin Tni LONDOifBRS a crabtbr. i,a. 1087.— TBI >tRTltUM>I« 4tT«UrTlfD »d ■■COVM TBII» LIfttatl. 93 IS^e fRtmm of l^iflton;, 6(c. down by « prudent con«ideration of the imuortant p«rt »o powerful a city might at • fatnre time take either for or ««in«t him i and he therefore conflrmed its charter and privilegea at early and with •• much apparent good-will ai be did thoie of the Other citici of the kingdom. The»e intlances of Juttiee and modera- tion produced the greater effect on account of the warlike fame and jfenerally ttern chardcter of the king: and while hie ira- poeing preience niid brilllaut reputation cauied dim to be looked upon with awe wherever ha appeared, as he took care to do in those parts of which he most suspect- ed tiie loyalty, his studied courtesy to the high and benignitv to the lowly obtained bim »ery general liking. But at the same time that he was thus eonciliatiug his new subjects by justice and moderation, which latter, under all the cir- cumstanceH, might in tome eases be called bj the stronger name of mercy, he took aoundant care to keep the one thing need- ftil, power, in his own hands. While he con armed the (jrivUeges of the prosperous and populous cities, he built fortresses in many of them and carefully disarmed them all. Ho thus commanded all the best mili- tary posts of the kingdom, and had them constantly occupied by his veteran soldiers ; while by bestowing upon the leaders, to whose valour and conduct he owed so much, the confiscated possessions of the Saxou nobility end gentry, he created numerous minor despotisms, dependant upon his sway, and vitally interested in its pros- perity. His politic mixtnre of rigour and mild- ness had all the success he could have an- ticipated or even wished ; and the kingdom settled down so calmly under his authority, and so implicitlv obeyed his orders, that he even considered it safe to pay a visit to France. On this occasion, however, he ex- hibited his usual policy ; while he entrusted the goveniment of England to 'William Fitzosborne end his own half brother, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, whom he knew that he could safely trust both as to ability and &• delity, he tKvUed the principal Saxons to accompany him on his journey, thus making them hostages while seeming to make them attendants upon his state and companions in his pleasure. Among the personages whom he tlius deprived of the power, even Bupposiug them to have the will, of exciting any disturbances during his absence, were the earls Edwin and Morcar, and Stigand, archbishdp of Canterbury, of whose faith he was somewhat doubtful on account of their opposition to kim when he first in- vaded their country. He also took with him Edgar Atheling, whose very name he thought likclv to prove a spell to tempt the English to rebellion, and numerous perso- nages who, though of less note, had great influence from wealth or civil or ecclesias- tical station. Though William on arriving in his old dominion played the hospitable host to his English attendants ; and though they, anx- ious to furnish him with every inducement to continue in his gracious and just coursp, wore joyful and contented countenances, and endeavoured to do honour to their new master by displaying before hie ancient lubjects their utmost wealth and magnifl. eence, they were in secret much gained and irritated by the insolent superiority which the Norman baroni and courtiers did not fail to assume. The complete submission and order to Which Wilhom bad reduced the kingdom of England, a submission and order so per- fect as to encouraKC a monarch naturally so suspicious and politic to pay a transmarine visit within a Quarter of a year from the date of his hostile landing in that kingdom, seems almost incredible, and can only ho accounted for by the prodigious power and vindictiveness attributed to him personally. But Normandy is the near neighbour of England ; and, on the slighteat intimation from Odo and Pitsosborne, William could speedllr return in person to exert his dreadea power in repressing rebellion, and to manifest his terrible vmdictiveness in punishing the revolted ; how then are wo to account for the personal absence of the king almost immediately producing revolt in England 7 Are we to suspect that William absented himself purposely. to encourage revolt, not doubting tnat t)ie English, de- prived of their best and most sealous friends and leaders, who were in close attendance upon him, would easily bo put down by his victorious army, and that lie would thus, without any risk to his new conquest, acquire a plausible right to make a vast and sweep- ing transfer of the property of the kingdom from Saxon to Norraon hands 7 Or shall we rather suppose, that the Saxon population willingly remained quiet while the personal presence of the stern and strict conqueror prevented his officers and soldiers from trampling and oppressing the conquered ; and that the latter were so ill treated during his absence as to be driven into an utter recklessness of consequences 7 The first supposition, though any thing but honourable to William, tallies indifferently well with liis dark and deep policy; the latter is in the very nature of things highly Erobable. Perhaps, however, the truth lies etween. William's wishes and views would, no doubt, govern the chief men among the Normans left in England, as to the greater or less degree of severity they should exer- cise during his absence in keeping the Norman soldierv in order; and the latter would be abundantly ready to avail them- selves of uny relaxation in the strictness of discipline to which they had been accus- tomed, without greatly troubling them- selves to dive into the politic motives in which that relaxation had its origin. Ai.d this view of the case is the more reasonable, because, while policy obliged William to conciliate the Saxons at the commence- ment of his reign, the vastncss and the number of the Norman claims upon him must have made him much in want of more extended means to satisfy them than IS M K ■* i > » ' > M >< i * a A = i u ! H a A. D. IOCS.— CASTLES ERBCTBD AT NOTTIHOnAM, YORK, Li:«C0LN, &C. ktl. ' 1 iducement utt counc, ntenances, • : r. ■ * II " I a m % , * s et h (• tl 9 • N'l 'I' ■ ■ a I M •i ■ bI' K \ ing them- motivei in igin. And reasonable, William to coramence- !s and the upon him u want of them than I o i :c. J TBIAL >T JUkI (a ■axon OU»OM) WAI COIiriKMBB aV WILLIAU. lEnsIanTf.— Noman ICinc— SRilUam 3E. 93 his tuly ostantatloD of leritjr h*d left him t And, eertainlr, the Norman knighta and leaders, who were so sure to proAt by new oonAseatlons of Saxou property, wottld not be slow to provoke the Bason population, bjr every insult and iqiurr in their power, to suoh conduct as woiud lead to eonflseation. This view of the ease, flnally, is much strenRtbened by the impro- babilHy that so suspicious and politic a person as William would so early have ex- potcu his new conquest to danger, however guarded against by the trustiness of those left to rule for him, in mere childish impa- tience to dasile the eyes of his ancient sub- jects with his new splendour, and without some deep and important ulterior view. From whatever cause, however, it is quite certain, very soon after the conqueror's de- parture from Normandy the English began to exhibit symptoms of impatience under their yoke. Kent, which had been the first to saomit to him after the great battle of Hastings, waa-now also the first to take advantage of his absence and rebel against his authority. Headed bv Eustace, count (ft Boulogne, they not only did much da- mage in the open country, but even had the boldness to attempt the capture of Dover castle; and almost at the same time Edrio the Forester, whose possesidons lay towards the Welsh border, leagued himself with some discontented Welsh chieftains, being induced to do so by the wanton insolence with which some of the Norman leaders in the neigbourhood had spoiled his property. These attempts at openly opposing the Normans were too hastitv and loosely made to be successful, but tnev served to fan into a flame the smouldeiing fires of dis- content which secretly, but no less steadily, bnmed in the heart of the neople. Not merely to revolt against the Norman rule, but to rise on the same day in every village and town in the nation and massacre the Normans to a ma^n, was now made the ob- ject of a general conspiracy among the Bason population ; and so general and so determmed was the frensied desire to carry this object into effect, tliat earl Coso, hav- ing refused to place himself at the head of his numerous serfs, was actually put to death as an enemy to his country and an ally of the Norman oppressors. Information of the rebellious state of his new kingdom was speedily conveyed to Wil- liam, who hastened over and apphed himself to the task of punishing those who had openly revolted, and of intimidating those who, though still in outward appearance loyal, u^lit be contemplating a similar course. The estates of the revolted were, as a matterof course, confiscated ; and William thus obtained a large increase of sure means to gratify the rapacity of his myrmi- dons and to ensure their seal and fidelity. But while he thus availed himself to the utmost of a plausible reason for confisca- tion or plunder, and at the very ihoment when he at once insulted and oppressed the Saxon people by reimposing the tas of danegelt, so especially onerous and odious to them, ho with consummate art nreterved an appearance of moderation ana of strict adherence to instice, by orderiug the resto- ration to their possessions of Saxons who had been violently and unjustly dispossessed during his absence in Normandy. By this plausible measure he at once tanght his subordinates that he would allow no wrong to be done but with his own sanction, pro- cured a certain popularity among tho Bas- ons, and obtained a sort of anticipativo counter plea against the complaints that might be made of his subsequent injustice, even though it should be displayed towards the very proprietors whom he now restored. A.D. 1008.— The activity, watchfulness, and severity of William rendered the gene- ral rising of the Saxons wholly impracti- cables but the desira fur it had spread too widely to pass awav without some appeals to arms, however ill concerted and partial. The inhabitants of Exeter, a city which had always been among the greatest sufferers from invaders, and in whicn neat influence was possessed by Githa, mother of the de- ceased Harold, ventured openly to brave the Ksentment of William bv refusing to ad- mit a Norman garrison within its walls ; and when the men of Exeter armed in support of this determination, thev were instantly joined by m vast number or Devonshire and Cornwall men. But the more prudent among their leaders, ^eatly influenced, no doubt, by selfish considerations, no sooner heard that William was approaching them with a vast body of his discliplined and un- sparing troops, than they counselled sub- mission, and induced their followers to send the king hostages for their good beliaviour. Hut. as it is even far easier to excite tho multitude to revolt than to lay the spirit of violence when once raised, the people broke out anew even after the delivery of the hostages. They soon found they had to do with one who had little inclination to halt at half measures. He immediatelv drew up his force under the walls of the place, and by way of showing the revolted people how little mercy they had to expect from him, he barbarously caused the eyes of one of the hostages to be 'put out. This stern and savage severity had all the effect he expected from it; the people instantly submitted themselves to his mercy, and he contented himself with placing a strong guard in their city. Githa, whose wealth would have furnished a rich booty for William and his followers, was fortunate enough to escape to Flanders with the whole of her treasures. The submissive example of Exeter was speedily followed by Cornwall ; and William, having strongly garrisoned it, returned with his army to Winchester, where he then held his court, and being now joined by queen Matilda, who had not previously thought it safe to visit her new kingdom, he caused her coronation to be solemnized with much pomp. Soon after this cere- mony the queen presented her husband with their fourth son, Henrv; the three elder brothers of this prince, Robert, Rich- ard, and William, were born and stilLgre- or H « r. o u WILLIAM AB0LI8HBD THK FBACTICK OF TRIALS BT OBDXAL. Vlil.«» Ml •AXOMOMUttCII UKBI Wim »««■ »HO>l MIUTABT tKNUBIt. 04 t!rf>« lEuMWxv of I^Utoro, e<^t. malnid hi Normi»n uliaiice with suck a request, hut he revoked his grants in the case of all who made it, telllrig them that the land and its dafend- crs must go together. And though soma of his bravest leaders lefk him upon Ikesa unfriendly terms, he had little occasion to regret them, for bis liberality and ample means of displaying it ensured him abun- dance of new adventurers, not merely wil- ling hut eager to enlist under his banner. A.D. 1U60.— The departure of so many malcontents from England had by no roeana the effect, as it might seem certain to have, of diminishing the chances of disturbances. The voluntary exiles carried their griefs oud their rancour with them, and lost no opportunitT of making friends for England and foes ror England's Norman tyrants. Niir did thev want for a reliving point. When Harold fell, bravely batthng against tlio invaders, liis three sons, Godwin, Edmond, and Magnus, sought shelter in Ireland. They were well received by the princrs and cliiefs of thiit wild country, and inon became very popular amon|; them. Enraged at the cause of their exile from I'.DKlnnd, and constantly surrounded by sucii practical lovers of strii'c as the Irish princes of that time, they naturally began to contemplate a descent upon England, and to calculate what aid thev could rely npon beyond that which Ireland's own wild cliioflains and strife-loving kerns could af- ford them. Denmark tliey could with tole- ral)le certainty depend upon ; and tliey hoped that both Scotland and Wales would be induced to aid them when the strife should ouce fairly be afoot. Encouraged by these confident expectations of aid, they landed with n considerable but disor4erly force upon the coast of Devonshire. But instead of finding the English peasantry flocking around thcin, grateful for their coming and eager to join in their enter- prize, they, on the contrary, had scarcely set foot upon the shore when they found themselves vigorously assailed by the train- ed hirelings of the Norman, under the com- mand of Brian, son of the count of Brit- tany, who worsted them in several petty buttles, and at length drove them oack, with much loss and some disgrace, to their vessels. Unsuccessful as this attempt of the sons of Uarnid was in itself, it served as a signal for numerous risinx;s, especially in the northern part of the kingdom. The Nortli- umhrians rose, took Durliam by surprise, and slew upwards of seven hundred men, among whom was the governor, Bobert de Comyn, to whose negligence the .Msxon* were laid to have been mainly indebted fur their success. From Durham (lie inclina- tion to revolt spread to York. There the governor, Robert Fitz-Ki'-liard, and iii.wiy of his people were slain . "nd the oecoud In command, William Mollut, sctured the castle, to which the rebels pruinptly laid siege. They wereaided in this boldatiempt by the Danes, who now landed from three hundred ships, and by the appearance among them of Edgar Atheling, who was accompanied by several Saxon exiles of rank and some influential Scots, who pro- mised the aid of large numbers of tlieir countrymen. Tlie castle of York waa so •tronc and so well garrisoned, that it is probable it might easily have held out against all the rude and unscientiflo attacks that the rcTolted Northumbrians and their allies could have made made upon it, but far an accident. William Mallet, the gal- lant defender of the castle, perceiving that tome houses were situated so near as to command a portion of the walls, ordered them to be tired, lest they should serve ai works for the besiegers. But lire is a ser- vant as uncertain and uncontrollable as it is swift. A brisk wind carried the flames beyond the houses which were specially devoted to thcirdestroying ministry ; every- where the flames found abundant fuel, nearly all the buildings being of wood, and the conflagration defying the inadequate means by which the people tried to stop it, destroyed nearly tlie w-hole of the city, which even at that time was very populous. The alorm and confusion which were caused by this event enabled the rebels to carry the castle by storm; and scarcely a man of the garrison, numbering nearly three thousand, was spared alive. Herewnrd, an East-An- glian nobleman, at the same time wrought much confusion and dilllculty to the Nor- mans; cuttint; off their marching parties and retiring with tlieir spoils to the Isle of Ely. Somersr-t and Dorset were in arms to a man : and Dcvoa and Cornwall also rose, with the cxccntion of Exeter, which ho- nourably testitied its sense of the clemency twice shown to all its population, save one unfortunate hostage, and held its gates closed for the kini; even against its nearest neighbours. Edric the Forester, who had many causes of quarrel with the Normans, allied himself with a numerous body of Welsh, and not only maintained himself against the Norman force under Fitzos- borne and earl Briant, but also laid siege to the castle of Shrewsbury. When to these instances of open and powerful rebellion we add innumerable petty revolts in other parts and the univer- sal hostility and restlessness of the Saxons, it will he admitted that there was enough in the state of the country to have made the boldest of nionarchs anxious. And William was anxious, but undismayed. To his en<;le eye a single glance revealed where force was absolutely requisite, and wliere bribery would still more readily succeed. To the Danes, who were headed by Os- I e u m e f M ifORMAif, on rRBitcn, was kowt tub iakguaob or tub cocnr. IN THIS »«I01« tUK COMrLMIOW Or IHB FEUDAl BISTEM OCCURBKI). 96 l^e ^rcasunj of listovp, $cc. H O *} m »< B M 14 < « A borne, brother of the king of Denranrk. nnd by Harold and Canute, son» of thiit monarch, he well knew that the freedom of the country was a mere pretext, and that their real incentive to itnte was desire ot gain. Them he at once resolved to buy off: and he quickly succeeded in getting them to retire to Denmark, by paying them a Bum of money in hand and giving them leave to plunder the const ou their way. Deserted hy so considerable an ally the na- tive leaders became alarmed, nnd William found no difficulty in persuading Waltheof, who had been made governor of York by the Saxons on their taking the castle by storm, to submi* on promise of favour; n promise which the king strictly kept. Cospatric followed the example and was made earl of Northumberland ; and Edric the Forester also submitted and was taken into favour. Edgar Atheling had no course open to him but to hasten back to Scotland, for, while the loss of all his allies rendered any strug- gle on his part so hopeless that it would hare been ridiculous, he feared, and with great apparent reason, that his Saxon blood royal would incite William to put him to death. The king of Scotland, to whose tardy coming the confederates ir some de- gree owed their ill success, seeing that the northern confederacy was broken up, marched his troops back again. The fai- lure in the north struck terror into the rebels throughout the kingdom ; aiidWilliam ■aw all his late opponents subject to him, save Hereward, who still maintained his partizan warfare — not quite exclusively preying upon the Normans it is to be feared —owing his protection to the difficulty of access to his swampy retreat. CHAPTER XIV. The Reign of yVthhiiLii I. [continued.) A.n. 1070.— Havino by force and po- licy dissipated the confederacy which had threatened him, William now determined to show that whatever kindness and favour he might extend to individual Saxons, whether from genuine gc d feeling or from deep po- licy, the great body of the people had no mercy to hope from' him. And as the north had been especially troublesome to him, so he selected that part to be the first to feel how terrible his wrath could be. Between the rivers Humber and Tees, avast expanse of sixty miles of country as fertile as it was beautiful, was by his stern order utterly laid waste. The cattle and such other pro- perty as could be convej-cd away became the booty of the Norman soldiery ; the houses were burned to the ground and the wretched inhabitants left to perish upon their desolated lands, without shelter, with- out food, and without hope or pity. Vast numbers of them made their wny into the lowlands of Scotland, but many there were who could not do so, or were so attached to the site of the'.r once happy homes, tliat they remained in the woods, and perished slowly by hunger or the terrible diseases produced by«xposurc to the elements. It is calculated that by this one act of mer- ciless severity not fewer than a hundred thousand Saxons miserably perished I Though the north was thus especially marked out for the exterminating rigour of the Conqueror, the rest of the country was by no means allowed to escape. The unsuc- cessful revolts had placed nearly all the great landholders of the nation at his mercy , for they, being especially interested in throw- ing off his yoke, had nearly to a man been implicated either by personal appearance in the field or by furnishing supplies. Hitherto the king, as a matter of policy, had affected something like moderation and mercy in putting the laws of attainder and forfeiture into effect. But now he no longer needed to pursue that wily policy ; the un- successful attempts to shake off his autho- rity had terminated in making it absolute and even unassailable. The whole nation lay bound hand and foot at his pleasure, and he proceeded so to dispose of the lands that he in fact became the one great land- lord of the nation. No one knew bcttvt than he did that the property of a nation is its power; and that power uf the Saxons he now transferred to the Normans in ad- dition to their terrible power of the sword. No antiquity of family, no excellence of character, even, could save the Saxon pro- prietor from being despoiled of his posses- sions. The more powerful and popular the family, the more necessary was its abasement and impoverishment to the completion of William's purpose ; he who had taken any share in the revolts was mulcted of his property, and assured that he owed it to the king's great lenity that his life was spared ; and he who had taken no such part, but was convicted of the crime of oeing wealthy, was equally de- spoiled, lest his wealth should at sonic future time lead him into rebellious prac- tices. Having thus effected the utter spoliation of the noble and wealthy Saxons, William's next care was to dispose of the lands of 1 England in such wise as to give himself the most absolute power over them ; and here he had no need of any inventive genius, he hud merely to apply to England the old feudal law of France nnd his native Normandy. Having largely added to the already large demesnes of the crown, he divided all the forfeited lands — which might almost without hyperbole be said to be all the lands of England— into baronies, which baronies he conferred upon his bravest and most trusty leaders, not in fee simple, btit as fiefs held upon certain payments or ser- vices, for the most part military. The in- dividual grants thus made were infinitely too vast to be actually held in use by the individual grantees, who, theret'oro, lar- celled them out to knights and vassals, who held of them by the same suit and service by which they held from their lord para- mount, the king. And that the feudal law I might universally obtain in England, and ' that there might be no exception or quali- iication to the paramount lordship of the A. p. lOyO. — ST. ALBAW'S AnilKY DDSrOII.ED Olf ITS IIICIIF.S Bt TUB KINO. \F TUK LANDS Of KKGLAND WRHB HOW DlaTIlIOUTBU AMONG TUE NOHUAIIS. -1 act of iner- a hundred .shed 1 I especially DK rigour ut' country was The unsuc- all the great . 9 mercy , for id in throw- A man been appearance ig supplies, jr of policy, deration and ttaindcr and he no longer icy ; the un- iff his autho- ; it absolute vhole nation his pleasure, ; of the lands e great land- knew bcttei of a nation is f the Siixons rmans in nd- of the sword, excellence of ic Saxon pro- )f his possus' and popular sary was its iient to the pose ; he who ! revolts was assured that It lenity that bo had taken rictcd of the equally de- luld at sonic bclliou» prac- ter spoliation )ns, William's the lands of give himself er them ; and any inventive ly to England und his native added to the he crown, he , -which might i said to be all aronies, wiiich 18 bravest and :e simple, btit mcnts or ser- ary. The in- here infinitely in use by the hcrelbre, lar- . d vassals, who ] * lit and service ^ 5 , . ,eir lord para- 5 I ha feudal law , 5 England, ami i « ^tion or (|uaU- ;; )rdship of the lEnglantr.— l^Torman ICinc— afiRiUtam 11. 97 king over the whole land, even the few Saxon proprietors who were not directly and by attainder deprived of their lands were compelled to hold them by suit and service from some Norman baron, who in his turn did suit iind service for them to the king. Considering the superstition of the age, it might have been supposed that the church would have been exempted from Wil- liam's tyrannous arrangement. But though, as we shall presently have occasion to show, he was anxious to exalt the power of Rome, he was not the less determined that even Rome should be second to him in power in his own dominions. lie called upon the bishops and abbots for quit-rents in peace, and for their quota of knights and men at arras when he should be at war, in proportion to their possessions attached to sees or abbeys, as the case might be. It was in vain that the clergy bewailed the tyranny of the king, which, now that it affected themselves, they discovered to be quite intolerable ; and it was equally in vain that the pope, who had so zealously aided and encouraged William in his inva- sion, remonstrated upon his thus con found- ing the clergy with the laity. William had tlie power of the sword, aud wailiugs and remonstrances were alike ineffectual to work any change upon his iron will. As by compelling the undeprived lay Saxons to hold under Norman lords he so com- pletely subjected them as to render revolt impracticable, so he took care that hence- forth all ecclesiastical dignities should be exclusively conferred upon Normans, who, indeed, we:e by their great superiority in learning far more fitted for them, as was shown Dy the great number of Norman compared to Saxon bishops even before the invasion. Ihit there was one Saxon, Stigand, the archbishop of Canterbury, whose authority was too great not to be obnoxious to the suspicions and fears of William, the more especially as Stigand had both wealth and povterful connections in addition to his official dignity, and was a man of both talent and courage. These considerations, while they made William desirous of ruin- ing the primate, at the same time made him dissemble his intentions until he could securely as well as surely carry them into effi'ct. He consequently seemed, by every civility, to endeavour to efface from the {irimate's recollection the affront offered to liin at the coronation ; and a superticial oh.^crver, or one unacquainted with the king's wily as well as resolute uature, would for a long time have imagined Stigand to have been one of his prime favourites — for a Saxon. But when William had subdued the rest of the nation so completely that he had no fear of his attempt upon Stigand elicit- ing any powerful or perilous opposition, the ruin of the primate ^^'as at once determined upon and wrought. And circumstances furnished him with au instrument by wliosc means he was able to accomplish his unjust work with at least some appearance of judicial regularity. Pope Alexander II., whose countenance and encouragen)ent had rendered William good service in bis invasion, anxious to leave no means untried of increasing the papal influence in England, had only await- ed William's seemingly perfect establish- ment upon the throne, and he now sent over Ermcnfroy, a favourite bishop, as his legate. This prelate, who was the tirst le- gate ever sent into England, and the king served each others' ends to admiration. AVilliam, by receiving the legate at once, confirmed the friendly feeling of the papal court, and secured the services of an au- thority competent to deal with the primate and other prelates in ecclesiastical form, and nominally upon ecclesiastical grounds, while in reality merely wreaking the ven- geance of the temporal monarch ; and the Icfate, while serving as the instrument of till' King's individual purposes, exalted both hi^ own power and that of the pope in the eyes of the people. Having formed a court of bishop and abbots, with the assistance of the cardinals John and Peter, he cited Stigond to answer to three charges; viz. of holding the bishopric of Winchester to- gether with the primacy of Canterbury; of having ofilciated in the pall of bis prede- cessor; and of having received his own pall from Benedict IX., who was alleged to have intruded himself into the papacy. The substance of this last chnrgc the reader will doubtless recognize as the pretext upon which William refused to be crowned by Stigand; and all the charges are so trivial ! that the mere mention of them must suf- ficiently show the animus in which they were made. Even the most serious charge, that of being a pluralist, was then com- paratively trivial; the practice being fre- quent, rarely noticed at all, and never visit- ed by any more severe condemnation than that of being compelled to resign one of the sees. When so powerful and wilful n monarch as William had determined upon the ruin of a subject, however, it matters but little how trivial may be the charge or how in- conclusive the evidence; Stigand was dc- f graded from his dignity by the obsequious cgate, and thus thrown helpless into the hands of the king, who not merely confis- cated all his possessions, but also com- mitted him to prison, where he lingered in most undeserved suffering and neglect for the rest of his life. Having thus easily crushed the chief and by far the most important Saxon person- age of the hierarchy, William proceeded to bestow the same hard treatment upon bishops Agelric and AgeUviire, who, being formally deposed by the obsequious legate, were imprisoned by the king. Egelwin. bishop of Durham, was marked out for the same fate, but he had timely warning and escaped from the kingdom. Aldred, arcU- Lisliop of York, was so grieved, that in having performed the ceremony of Wil- liam's coronation he had even incidentally aided in raising up so unsparing au enemy ot his brethren of the hierarchy, that his M H U A. n. 1069.— WILLIAM IS AGAIN CUOWNKi) TUIS lEAIl AT WlWClIEXTKn. [fi 4,B. iorl).— WUMAM SWKAB8 TO OBKI TU" I.AWi OP TllK COMFKaaOll. OH Crije treasure of listoru, ^c nmntal nuffering* produced a mortal dis- order, and tt i» unid that with his dying bri'atli he enlled down henven'i vengeance upon William for liis gnneral tyriinny, and for lili Cioecial niisconJiict towardi the church Id direct violation of hi» coronation oath. Apparently regardless of the curses of the archbishop or of the deep hatred of the Saxons in general, William steadily pur- sued his course. He took care to fill all ccclosiantlfiiil vacancies with foreigners, who, while doing their utmost to promote the papal authority and interests in Eng- land, wore at the same time zealous sup- porters of the authority of the king; whom tliey especially aided in that surest of all means of destroying a conquered people's nationality, the introduction of the language of the coiujucrors into general, but more esiiccially into legal use. lu the recent general and signally un- successful revolt, the cnrls Morcar and Ed- win h»d taken no part, or, at the least, no open part. Hut now that thi! Conqueror liad no lonnor any temptation to hypo- Ci'itical ami politic mildness, the situation of those noblemnn was a truly perilous and difllcult one. Their very lineage and the popularity they enjoyed among the men of their own race made them hateful to the king, who felt that thoy were constantly looked up to as leaders likely at some period to aid tlie Saxons in throwing oif his yoke. Their wealth, on the otlier hand, exposed them to the envy of the needy and graMpiiifr among the Normnn nobles, who eagerly longed to see them engaged in some eDtcr|)rl/.o which would lend to their at- tainder and forfeiture. Being too certainly convinced that their ruin was only de- ferred, and would be completed upon the first plausibli: occasion that might present itsell, they drterniined openly to brave the worst, and to fall, if fall they must, in the attempt to deliver both themselves and their country. Edwin, therefore, went to his possessions in the north to prepare his followers for one mure struggle against the Normnn power ; and Morcar, with such fol- lowers as ho could Immediately command, joined the bravo Hcrcwnrd, who still nmin- inlned his position among theialniost in- aecesilble swamps of the Isle of Ely. But Willinm was now at leisure to bring his gigantic power to bear upon this chief shelter of the eomparativcly few Saxons who still dared to strive nijninsf his tyranny. He caused a large number of tlat-botlomed punts to be constructed, by which he could Iiind upon the i^tland, and by dint of vast labour bo made a prartieablc causeway througli the moraascs, and 8uri'ound(;d the revolted with such an overwhelmiuii; force, that a surrender nt discretion was the o ily courHO that could bo token. llLrcnvaid, however, made his way through the onriny, and having gnincd the sea, continued, upon that clement, to be to daring and effective an enemy to the Norninns, that Williimi, who had ciumgli generosity remniuiiis to value oven in an enemy a spirit so con- genial to his own, voluntarily forgave him all his acts of opposition, and restored him to his estate and to his standing in the country. Earl Morcar, and Kgelwin, the bishop'of Durham, were taken among the revolted, and thrown into (trison, where the latter speedily perished, cither of grief or of the severities inilicted upon him. Ed- win, on the new success ot the king in capturing the garrison of the Isle of Ely, set out for Scotland, where he was certain of a warm welcome. But some miscreant who was in the secret of his route divulged it to a party of the Normans, who overtook him ere he could reach the border, and in the conflict that ensued he was slnin. His Kallantry had made him admired even by his enemies, and both Normans and Saxons joined in lamenting bis untimely end. The king of Scotland, who bad lent his aid to the revolted, was ('onipclled to submit to the victorious William; and Edgar Athe. ling, no longer able to depend upon safety eveu in Scotland, threw himself upon Wil- liam's mercy. The Conqueror, who seems to have held the chnructcr of that prince in the most entire contempt, not only gave him life and liberty, but even allowed him a pension to enable him to live in comfort as a subject in that land of which he ought to have been the sovereign. Upon this occasion, as upon all others, William's policy made clemency and seve- rity go hand in hand. While to the leading men of the revolted he showed either com- parative or positive lenity, he visited the common herd with the most frightful ri- gour, putting out the eyes and cutting oiT the hands of very many of them, and send- ing thum forth in this horrible condition as a wp.rning to their fellow-countrymen. A. I). 1073. — From England William was now obliged to turn liia attention to France. The province of Maine in that country liml been willed to him, before ho became king of England, by count Herbert. Recently the people, encouraged by William's residence in Eiiglund, and rendered discontented by the vexatious oppression of the Normans, to whom he had entrusted the government, rose and expelled thcni ; to which derisive course they were encouraged by Fulke, count of Anjou, who, but for count Her- bert's will, would have succeeded to the Province. The complete subjection of Inglaud furnished the king with leisure to chastise the people of Maine, and he ac- cordingly went over with a large force, chiefly composed of English from the dis- tricts most prone to revolt. With these troops, who exerted themselves greatly in the hope of winning the fiivoui of a mo- narch whose power they had no longer any means of sbnUing off, and with a fuflicioiit number of natives of Normandy to ensure him against any treachery on the part of the English, he entered Maine, and coiu- pellcd the submission of that province, and the reliiKiuishnient by the carl of Aujou of all pretensions to it. A. D. 1074.— While William was thus suc- cessful in France, England was distmbed. A. D, 1073. — TUK KINO 0» SCOTS DOKS nOMAGR FOIl HIS FOSSKSSIONR. TIIX COUnAOS AND rOLICT or WILLIAM AIIK ALtKX INDIirVTABLIS. lEnglant^ — ^Kotman 3i;ine.— asiilUam K. 91) not, by the Englisli, but by the most pow- erful ul'the king's own favourite Norinnns. Ubedii'nt to their leader in the tield, the Nnriiinn barons were acciistofhed in civil lite to deem theinselves perfectly inde- ]icnilent ; anil these feudal cnieft having in their own territory absolute power, even to llie intlii'tion of di-atb upon offenders, were too sovereign to brook without reluctauce the arbitrary wiiy in which William was ac- customed to issue and rii force his orders. The consequence was a very |!;encral, thoueh hitherto a secret, discontent among the NoriiiHU barons of England. The long smoulilcrinK discontiint was brought to licht by the arbitrary interference of the king in the domestic nffairs of Ilogcr, son of his favourite Fitzosbornc. Roiter, who liad been created earl of Hereford, wished to give his sister in marriage to llulpli de Guader, earl of Norfolk, and, rather as a respectful formality than in the expectation that the king would interpose any obsta- cle, had requested his sanction, which William arbitrarily and without assigning a reason refueled. Surprised, and still more indignant, at the king's refusal, both the earls determined that the marriage should proceed notwithstanding. They accord- ingly assembled the friends of their re- spective houses, and at the banquet which followed the ceremony they openly and warmly inveighed against the caprice'of the king, and c&pecially against the rigour of the authority which he seemed so much determined to exercise over those very Bobles to whose gallantry he owed the richest of his territories and the proudest uf his distinctions. The company, alter the Norman fasbicn, had drunk deeply; and to men warmed with wine an^ arguments will seem cogent. And certainly many of the arguments which were now used to induce some of the most powerful of the Norman nobility to rebel against the king, required all the aid of wine and wassail to enable them to pass muster before even the most superficial judges. Though every Norniuu present owed all that be had of English wealth or English rank to the ruin of the rightful Saxon owners, the cruelty of the king towards the Saxons was invciglicd against with a most hypocritical and loathsome cant ; merely because Wal- theof, earl of Northumberiand, who was present, was a Suxon by birth and well known to be still Saxon in heart, though he wns a prime favourite of the kinj, who had given liini his niece Judith in marriage. Again, the illegitimacy of William's birth was dwelt upon as a reason for revolting against his authority ; though it had from his very childhood been not the slightest bar to his succession to his father's duke- dom; though it was considered no dis- honour in any country in Europe ; and though William himself made so little secret of his irregular birth, that he very commonly, as duke of Normandy, signed himself Gulielmiia Bastardui. The malcontent Normans, as it turned out, had far better have left AValtheof out of their CHlculution. The enthusiasm of a festive meeting, acting upon hi* strong though deeply conceulva sympathy with his unfortunate fellow-countrymen, caused him to enter very readily into the conspiracy that was now formed against tlje authority of William. Uut with cooler moments cumu other -feelings. Tyrant though William was to others, to him he had been a most gra- cious monarch and liberal friend ; there wa* danger, too, that any conspiracy against a kin^ so watchful and so powerful would be rumous only to the conspirators them- selves ; and, iinally, setting aside both per- sonal gratitude and personal fears, was it not probable that in aiding to overthrow William, he would, in fact, be aiding to overthrow a single and not invariably cruel despot, oiilv to set up a multitude of des- pots to spoil and trample the unhappy peo- ple f Whichever way his reflections turned he was perplexed and alarmed; and having confidence equally in the otTeciion and in the judgment of his wife, he entrusted her with the secret of the conspiracy, and con- sulted her ns to the course that it would best bctit him to take. But Judith, whose marriage had i.ccu brought about with less reference to her inclination than to the king's will, had suffered her aft'ections to be seduced from bcr husband, and in the abominable hope of ridding herself of him by exposing litiii to the fatal anger of the king, she sent William nil the particulars which she had thus confidently acquired of the conspiracy. Walthrof, in the mean- time, growing daily more and more per- plexed and alarmed, confided his secret and his consequent perplexities to Laii franc, whom, from being an Italian monk, the Conqueror had raised to the archbishopric of Canterbury, on the degradation and im- prisonment of the unfortunate Stignnd. Lanfranc advised htm faithfully and well, pointing out to liim how paramount his duty to the king and his own family was to any consideration he could have for the conspirators, ar.d how likely it was that even bv some one of them the conspiracy would be revealed to the king, if he did not by speedy information at once secure him- self from punishment, and obtain whatever merit William might attach to the earliest information upon so important a subject. These arguments coincided so exactly with Waltheof's own feeling.^, that he no longer hesitated how to act, but at once went over to Normandy and confessed every thing to the king. With his usual politic tact, William gave the repentant conspira- tor a gracious reception, and professed to feel greatly obliged by his care in giving bim the information: but knowing it all already by mean»of Waltheof's treacherous wife, William inwardly determined that Waltheof, especially as he was an English- man, should eventually profit but little oy bis tardy repentance. Meanwhile, Waltheof's sudden journey to the king in Normandy alarmed the con- spirators ; not doubting that they were be- trayed, yet unwilling to fall unresisting vic- UU WAS 30 STU0N3 TD.VT KO MAN BUT IIIMSGI.F COULO ni!ND IltS BOtV WALTBIOV WAI «BB ONLT XHeUM MOBLCUAIT BBKCUIBU IB IHIt BBIOK. 100 Vt^t tlrcMun) of lUtorp, $rc. timi to the king'i rage, they broke into open rerolt far more prematurely than otherwiie they would. From the first dawn- ing of the conipiracy it had been a leading point of their agreement, that they »hould make no open demonitration of hostihty to the king until the arrival of a large fleet of the Danes, with whom they had secretly allied themselves, and whose aid was quite indispensable to their combating, with any reasonable chance of success, the great majority of the nobility, who, fVom real at- tachment to the king or from more selfish motives, would be sure to defend their ab- sent sovereign. But now that they were, as the papal IS which ki termit franc. 9 under were their 5 Willia allow ( niastei a prcssly IcdRin; i s A.D. 1076.— WILLIAM TUITa HORMAnilT, AND IIUTVUKS MBIT YKAB, lEnglantJ.— Norman ICine.— aailUam 3E. 101 O a Tour of tlie kinic, to whom he was ieally and gratefully attached, he would not allow the rightgnf the church to be in anywise in- fringed upon. On the death of Aid red, by wliora it will be remtmbcred that 'William had chosen to be crowned, Thomas, a Nor- man monk, was appointed to succeed him in the archbishopric of York. The new archbishop, probably presuming upon the king's favour, pretended that the arclii- epincopal see of York had precedence and tnperiuritv to that of Canterbury. The fact of Aldred, bis predecessor, having been called upon to crown the king, most pro- bably weighed with the prelate of York ; in which case he must have forgotten or wil- fully neglected the circumstances of that case. Lanfranc did neither one nor the other; and, heedless of what the king mij^lit think or wish upon the subject, be boldly commenced a procession to the papal court, which, after the delay for wliicli Home was already proverbial, was terminated most triumphantly for Lan- franc. It will readily be supposed that under such a prelate tne people of England were not allowed to lose any portion of their exorbitant respect for the papacy. 'William, indeed, was not a monarch to allow even the church, potent as it was, to master him. Very early in his reign he ex- fircssly forbade his subjects from acknow- edging any one as pope until authorized to do so by the king ; he required all cnnons of the synods to be submitted for his ap- proval ; and though even he did not deem It safe to dispute the right of the church to excommunicate evil-doers, he very effec- tually curbed that right, as applied to his own subjects, by ruling that no papal bull or letter should be held to be an authorita- tive or even an authentic document, until it should have received his sanction. It was rather, therefore, in imbuing the minds of the people with a solemn awe and reve- rence of the pope and the church, that Lnnfrnnc was nusy and successful during this reign ; and in this manner he was so busy and so successful, tliat subsequent ninnarchs of less ability and firmness than William were grievously incommoded. Gregory VII. probably pushed the power of the papacy over the temporal concerns of the kingdoms of Europe further than any previous pope. He excommunicated Nicc- pborus, the emperor of the east, and Robert Guiscard, the Norman conqueror of Naples ; he took away from Poland her very rank as a kingdom ; and he pretended to the right of parcelling out the territory of Spain nmon^ those adventurers who should conquer it from the Moors. Though he was ooldly and ably opposed by the emperor Henry I'V. he was not a whit deterred in bis am- bilious course; and even the warlike, able, and sonicwhat fierce character of William (lid not shield him from being assailed by the extravagant demands of Rome. Gre- gory wrote to him to demand the payment of Peter's pence, which Rome had con- verted into a rightful tribute, though a Saxon prince had originally given the con- tribution, so called, merely as a voluntary donation ; and he at the same time averred that William had promised to do homage to Rome for his kingdom of England. William sent the money, but he plainly and somewhat tartly told the pope at the same time, that he had neither promised nor ever intended to do homage to Rome. The pope wisely forbore to press the sub- ject : but though, in addition to this plain refusal to comply with an unreasonable de- mand, William still further showed his in- dependence by forbidding the Unglieh to attend a council which Gregory had sum- moned, he bad no means, even bad he him- self been more free from superstition than he appears to have been, of preventing the progress of the clergy in subjecting tlic minds of the people. The greatest ellbrts were made to render the celibacy of the clergy general, and to give the appearance of additional Sanctimoniousness to their out- ward life, ill order the more deeply to im- press the people with the notion of the genuine sanctity of their character. Prosperous as William was in bis public affairs, he had much domestic trouble. He was obliged to remain for some years in Normandy, though as a residence he greatly preferred England. But his eldest soil Robert, surnnmed Courthose, on account of the shortness of his legs, made his father fear for the safety of Normandy. It ap- pears that when Maine submitted to William, be promised the people of that province that they should have Robert Cor their prince ; and when he set out to con- quer Englntid, he, in compliance with the wish of the I'Vench king, whom it was just then his especial interest and desire to satisfy, named liobert nr, his successor in the rlucby of Normandy. lie was well aware that doing this was his sole means of reconciling I'mnce to bis conquest of England ; but he bad not the slightest in- tention of performing his promise. Indeed, when he was subsequently asked by his son to put him ill posscs^sion of Normandy, iic ridiculed the young man's Cicdulity by re- plying, in the vulgar proverb, that he did not intemi to undress till he went to bed. The dija):pointment enraged the naturally bad temper of Robert; some quarrels with his brothers 'William and Henry, whom be hated for the superior favour they enjoyed with their father, inflamed him still farther, and he factioi^sly did all that he rould to thwart his father's wishes and interest in Normandy ; nay, he was more than sus- pected of Imvin;.', by his intrigues, con- firmed the king of France and the earl of Brittany in their support of his rebellious vassal the earl of Norfolk. So thoroughly bent was Robert upon undutil'ul opposition to his father, that he seized upon the opportunity atforded by an extremely childish quarrel between him- self and ills bTothcrs, in which he accused his father of partially siding against him, and hastened to Rouen, where he endea- voured to surprize and seize the citadel. He was prevented from succeeding in this A. B. 1078.— WIM-TAM lAID TUB FOUNDATION OF TUB TOWKB OF lOKnOIf. [Kli J Ill THIS ■»i« tnlAl. B» W*6Ba 0» »4TT« WAS IZITSODDOKD. ii o M M H »■ ia O f H s H o e M u K M M H !• * O M ki IS » e M u H H K •« O n f • M a) H H H 102 ®f)e treasury of l^istori), $fc. treaion by the suspicion and activity of the governor, Roaer do Ivery. Still bout upon this unnatur^ opposition, Eobert retired to tlie castle of Hugh de Nenchatel, who not only gave him a hospitable reception, but assisted and encouraged him to make open war upon his sovereign and fatlier. lue fiery but generous character of Robert maie him a very great favourite among the chivalrous Normans, and especially among the younger nobles of Normandy nj>* *'»« neighbouring provinces; and as llobert was supposed to be privately favoured by his mother, he had no difflcultv in raising forces sufficient to throw his fathei's he- reditary dominions into trouble and con- fusion for several years. , , , i So troublesome did Robert and his ad- herents at length become, that Will'«™. growing seriously alarmed lest he should actually have the mortification and disgrace of seeing Normandy forcibly wrested from him by his own son, sent over to England for forces. They arrived under some of the veteran chiefs who had heljped to con- quer England; and the undutiful Robert was driven from the posts ho had conquer- ed, and compelled to take refuge in the castle of Gerberoy, which refuge the king of France, who had secretly counselled and abetted his misconduct, had provided for him. He was followed thither by his father in person, but the garrison being strong ana well provided, the resistance was ob- stinate in proportion. Frequent sallies were made, and on one of these occasions Robert was personally opposed to his fa- ther, whom, from the king's visor being down, he did not recognize. The iight was fierce on both sides; and Robert, having the advantage of superior agility, wounded and unhorsed his fattier. The king shouted to one of his officers for aid to remount ; and Robert, recognizing his parent's voice, was so struck with horror at the narrow escape he had had of slaying the author of his being, that he threw himself upon his knees and intreated forgiveness for his misconduct. But the king was too deeply offended to be reconciled on the instant to his erring and penitent son, and, mounting Robert's horse, he rode to his own camp. The siege was shortly afterwards raised; and ^ueen Matilda having succeeded in bringing about a reconciliation, the king not only allowed Robert to accompany him to England, but also entrusted him with an army to chastise the Scotch for some incursions tliey had made upon the north- ern parts of England. The Welsh who, as well as the Scotch, bad taken advantap;e of the king's absence to make incursions, were now also chastised and brought into submission. A. D. 1081.— Having both his Norman and English dominions now in a state of pro- found quiet, William turned his attention to the important object of a survey ond valua- tion of the lands of England. Taking for his model the survey which had been made by order of Alfred, and which was deposited at Winchester, he had the extent, tenure. value, and kind of the land in each district carefully noted down, together with the names of the proprietors, and, in some cases, the names or the tenants, with the number, age, and sex of the cottagers and slaves. By good arrangement this im- portant work, in despite of its great ex- tent, was completed within six years, and, under the name of the Domesday book, it to this day remaina to give us the most ac> curate account of England at that time,— with the exception of the northern pro- vinces, which the ravages of war and Wil- liam's own tyranny had reduced to such a wretched condition, that an account of them was considered not worth taking. The king's acts were not always of so praiseworthy a character. Attached, like all Normans, to the pleasures of the ehase, he allowed that pleasure to seduce him into cruelties more characteristic of a demon than of a man. The game in the royal forests was protected by laws far more se- vere than those which protected the lives of human beings. Ho who killed a man could atone to tne law by the payment of a pecuniary fine; but he who was so un- nappy as to be detected in killing a deer, a boar, or even an insignificant hare, in the royal forest, had his eyes put out I A. ». 1087.— The royal forests which Wil- liair found on coming to England were very extensive; but not sufficiently so for his more than regal passion for the chase. His usual residence was at Manchester; and desirinfc to have a spacious forest in the immediate vicinity, he mercilessly caused no less an extent of country than thirty miles to be laid waste to form one. Houses, whole villages, churches, nar, even con* vents, were destroyed for this purpose ; and a multitude of wretched people were thus without any compensation deprived of their homes and property, and cast upon the world, in many cases, to perish of want. Besides the trouble which William had been caused by the petulance of his son Robert, he towards the end of his reign had two very great trials ; the unj^rateful conduct of his half-brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and the death of queen Mtttilda, to whom throughout he was fervently at- tached. The presumption of Odo had led him not only to aim at the papal throne, bat also to attempt to seduce some of Wil- liam's nobles from their alleppance and ac- company him to Italy. William ordered the proud prelate to be arrested; and find- ing that his officers, deterred by their fear of the church, were afraid to seize the bi- shop, he went in person to arrest him ; and when Odo, mistakenly imagining that tlie king shared the popular prejudice, pleaded his sacred character, William drily replied, " I do not arrest the bishop of Bayeux, but the earl of Kent"— which title William had bestowed upon him. He then sent him to Normandy, and there kept him in coiiline- ment. William's end, however, now ap- Sroached. Some incursions made upon _ Formandy by French knights, and a coarse joke passed upon his corpulence by the H : M in 5i u ! WILLIAM BR0I7GUT THE »W8 FBOH ROUBN TO U. .ABIT BtfOLAIfD. WlitUM t. W«l BUMI«0 IN TUK ADBXT OUUKCn or CABIf, MORMANDT. lEnglanTl — l<^orman ICine.—tHSBiUiam E 103 ^rc)i«h lili>i(( *o much provoked him, that tin piimimUa to Isjr waite the town of Mitntfl»i with the nvnwcd intention of oar' rvinif III* MK0 *tlll further. But while he WHlntiMl the uurnina of the town hii horse lUttM, unit the ItinR was so severely brumoii that he died a few days aftervtards Hi (h» liiionaslery of 8t. Oervas. During hilt n(«r(Nl Illness he made great grants to flliurfliffs and tnonnHtcrics, by way of atone- IIIOIil toi tht* hideous cruelties of which liD JiHti been Kullty; but, with the usual itM'oitNlstenoy of superstition, he could nmrt'cly he pcrsuiuled lo accompany this flKlfiilHtlous branch of penitence by the forKlvi )lv« (0 (he glint»\ofjiea\ rightliy which the ftititro mottlii'ohi of England snccessively «lHiMi(<(t the throne. The Norman conquest, M Wd htive Men, Introduced an entire change it) (he Inwii, language, manners, and cus< (flma. Kiitflniid began to make a more con- llitiirilhle fltftirc among the nations of Eu- rope lltHti H had assumed previous to this iiniltif lint event t and it received a new race of NOVt^relKtiii, wnloh either by the male or tmm\» line linn continued down to the pre- ii#iit t\ttf, These monarchs were of several "liOKWll" or families, according to the n^moitil who espoused the princesses of Klif land, ttttil from such marriages gave to (il« llHlii«itS Its kings or queens ; or accord- JiiK to (lie different branches into which the rojfMl fttwily was divided. Thus the Nor- M/tNit bfKHn with William the Conqueror. (lit< Ii«a4 of (he whole race, rind ended with llfMry I, In whom the male line failed. ifl(i|lli«n (generally Included in the Nor- nmii lititj) WHS the only one of the house of l(i/Ofit, from the marriage of Adela, the (itilii)(t('rnr's fourth daughter, with Stephen, m\ of lllolsi The Flantaornbts, or ihmie of Smov, began with Henry II. from (lie tnarrlage of Matilda or Maud, dAMKlitfr of Henry 1. witli Geoffrey Plan- lllKi^ til with fidward IV. son of Richard, :'- H H a A M H u *ihi l(l37i'^WII,t,IAM II. WAS rnOCLAIHED ANH CROWNUn AT WKSTMINSTEIt. A.u. 1088. :-TUia T«AH tUlO WA. A<»TAHTiiat;A«B 1.1 tONHOH. ""1 104 ®5c ©rcaauri) of l^istovi}, See. •uminu the jcovemment of Mmtie nnd Nor- mandy which it con lerieJ upon hiin. But though no opposition was ""aOf '« the accMsion of William Ruius at ll.c time when, if ever, snch opposition co"^ r"'""" ably have been made, namely, P'evio"' »» hw coronation, he was not long.ea ed u on hi. throne befor* he experienced li;* °1"«; ■ition of eonie of the most powerful Normnn noble*. Hatred of Lanfrac. «"d e'-^V " his (treat power, actuated some of tl.em . and many ofthciu, possesMng prT^ly b» ^ in EiiKland and Noru.nndy, were anxious ihafbSth co.,ntrie« should be united uiuler Robert, foreseeing dun^er to their proper y in one or tlie other country wlicnsovcr the separate sovercisns should disagree. 1 hey held that llobert, as eldest son, was ent t ed to both England and Normnndy; nnd they were the more anxious for his success, be- cause his careless and excessively generous temper promised them that freedom from interference upon which they set so high a value, and which the haughty and hard cha- racter of William Rufus threatened to de- prive them of. Odo. bishop ot Baycux, and Robert, carl of Mortaignc, another half brother of the Conqueror, urged these ar- Buments upon some of the most eminent Sf the Norman nobility. Eustace, count of Boulogne, Roi?er Bigod. Hugh de Greats- mil, William, bishop of Durham, Robert de Moubray, and Other magnates, joined iij the conspiracy to dethrone William; and they severally put their castles into a state of defence. William felt the full value of promptitude. Even the domestic conspira- tors were powerful enough to warrant con- siderable alarm and anxiety, but the km-'s danger woald be increased tenfold by the arrival of reinforcements to theui from Normandy. The king therefore rapidly got lojcether as strong a force as he could and marched into Kent, where Rochester and Pevensev were seized and i;arrisoned by his uncles' Odo and Robert. He starved the conspirators at both places into sub- mission, and he was strongly inclined to {mt the le.iders to death; but the more lumane counsel of W^illiam de Warentie and Robert Fitzhamniond, who had joined him, prevailed upon him to content himself with couliscating the property of the offenders and banishing them frotn the kingtlom. His success over the foremost men of the rebel ;'arty decided the struggle in his favour. His powerful fleet had by this time stationed itself upon the coast, so that Ro- bert no longer had any opportunity to laud the reinforcements his imlolcnce had, so fatally for his cause, delayed. The earl of Shrewsbury, upon whom the conspirators bad greatly depended, was skilfully won over by the king ; and the rest of the leaders became hopeless of success, and either fled from the country or made their submission. Some were pardoned, and others were very lightly punished ; the majority were attaint- ed, and their estates were bestowed upon those barons who had sided with the king while his crown was yet in danger. As soon as he had completely brolsen up the confederacy which had so early threat- ened his throne. Kufus began to exhibit himself in his true nature towards his Eug> lish subjects. As long as his cause was nt all doubtful, he had promised the utmost kindness and consideration; and he espe- cially won the support and the good wishes of his English subjects by promising a great relaxation of tl>e odious forest laws of his predecessor. Now that be was so. cure, he not merely failed to mitigate the tyranny under which the people groaned, but he increased it. While Lanfranc lived, the zeal nnd ability of that prelate, added to the superstition of the age, rendered the property of the church sacred. But Lan- franc died soon after the accession of Wi|. iiani Rufus, who made his own will the sole law for all orders of his subjects, whether lay or clerical. On the death of a bishop or abbot he either set the see or abbey up for open sale, as he would any other kinduf property, or he delayed the uppointnieni of a new bishop or abbot, and so kept the temporalities in hand for his own use. Such conduct produced much discontent and murmuring; but the power of the king was too great, nnd his cruel and violent temper was too well known, to allow the general discontent to assume a more tan|.;i- blc and dangerous form. So confident, in- deed, did the king feel of his power in Eng- land, that he even thought it not unsafe tu disturb the peace of his brother Robert in Normandy, where the licentious burous were already in a most disorderly slutc, owing to the imprudent indulgence nnd lenity of their generous and facile duke. Availing himself of this state of tliiugs, William bribed the governors of Albi;nuu-le nnd St. Viilori, nnd thus obtained posses- sion of those inipoi'tant fortresses. Hew.'»s niso near obtaining possession of Rouen, hut was defeated in llint object by the singular lidelity of his brother Henry to Robert, under circumstances of no small provocation to very diflerent conduct. Henry, though he had inherited only some money out of nl! the vast possessions of his father, had lent duke Robert three thousand marks to aid him in his nttenijit to wrest the crown of England from ^^il- liaiu. By way of security for this money, Henry was put in possession of consider- able territory in Normandy : yet upon some real or pretended suspicion, Robert not only deprived him of this, but also threw hiiu into prison. Tlioui;ili he was well aware that Robert only at lust liberated him in consequence of requiring I'is aid on the threatened invasion of Eiiglund, Henry behaved most loyally. Haviuj.' learnt that Conan, a very powerful and influen- tial citizen of Rouen, had traitorously bar- gained to give up the city to king William, the prince took him to the top of a lufty tower, and with his own hand threw him over the battlements. The king at length landed a numerous orniy in Normandy, nnd the state of things became serious and threatening indeed ns regarded the duke. But the intimate eou- A. D. 1088. — A OKEAT SCARCITI; KO COK."» niPU TILL NOVEMUKH. =i\ a a I a t. ly tlireat- exhibit 1 his Eng- 80 was nt le utmost I he espc- lod wisiies oiuiisinfi; a urest Itkws le was 80- tignte the ! Kroitncd, ranc lived, lute, added ndered tliu But Lbii- on of WiU '111 the 8olc 8, whetlier if a bishop r abbey up :lier kind of ointment of io kept the I own use. discontent iver of tlie and vioh'iit t } allow the i % more tangi- ^ anftdent, in. , iwer in Kng- i ot unaat'e to i i; jr Robert iii i ^ ioua barons rderly state, i ilt;eneu and facile duke. I c of thiiii,'!<, I if Albemarle | ined posses- ses. lossession of nt t)bjeet by ther Henry of no small induct, lerited only possessions lobert three his ntteiHjit from ^^ il- this money, of consider- upon some Robert not , also threw le was well ist liberated ring li's aid of EugliinJ, jivin^lcarnt and iutluen- orously bar- ng Wihisni, ip of a lufty ■ threw him a nnmermi3 ite of things indeed as utiiuate con- :i s t A. B. 1004. — A 1KAB or SBRAT MOkTAMTY BOTU TO MAN A7IO BKAST, lEnglanU.— INTonnan ICine.— asailUam KK. 105 B. ncclion and mutual interests of the leading men on both sides favoured him ; and a treaty was made, by which the English king, on the one hand, obtained the terri- tory of Eu and some other territorial ad- vantages, while, on the other hand, he en- ea$;cd to restore those barons who were banished from England for espousing the cause of Robert in the late revolt, and to assist his brother against the people of Maine who had revolted. It was further agreed, under the witncBs and guarantee of twelve of the cliief barons on either side, that whoever of the two brothers should survive should inherit the possessions of the other. In all this treaty not a word was inserted in favour of prince Henry, >;ho naturally felt indignant at being so much neglected by his brother Robert, from whom he cer- tainly had merited better treatment. With- drawing from Rouen, he fortified himself at St. Michael's Mount, on the Norman coast, and sent out plundering parties, who greatly annoyed the whole neighbourhood. Robert and William besieged him here, and during the siege an incident occurred which goes to show that Robert's neglect of his brother was owing rather to carelessness than to any real want of generous feeling. Henry and his garrison were so mucu distressed for water that they must have speedily submitted. When this was told to ^bert, he not only allowed his brother to supply himself with water, but also sent him a cousiderable quantity of wine. Wil- liam, who could not sympathize with this chivalrous feeling, reproached Robert with being imprudent. " What I " replied the generous duke, " should I suffer our bro- ther to die of thirst 7 Where shall wc find another when he is gone ? " But this tem- porary kindness of Robert did not prevent the unfortunate Henry from being pressed so severely that he was obliged to capitu- late, and was driven forth, with his handful of attendants, almost destitute of money and resources. A. D. 1091 . — Robert, who was now in strict alliance with the king and brother who had sn lately invaded his duchy with the most hostile intentions, was entrusted with the chief command of an English army, which was sent over the border to connpel Malcolm to do homage to the crown of England. In this enterpruc Robert was completely suc- cessful. A.D. 1093.— But both peace and war were easily and quickly terminated in this age. Scarcely two years had elapsed from Mal- colm's submission and withdrawal of the English troops, when he invaded England. Having plundered and wasted a great por- tion of Northumberland, he laid siege to Alnwick castle, where he was surprised by a party of English under the earl de Mou- bray, and in the action which followed Mal- colm perished. A. D. 101)4.— William constantly kept his attention fixed upon Normandy. The care- less and generous temper of his brother Ro- bert, and the licentious nature of the Nor« man harons, kept that duchv in constant uneasiness ; and William took up his tem- porary abode there, to encourage his owu partisans and be ready to avail himself of anything that might seem to favour hi* de- signs upon his brother's inheritance. While in Normandy the king raised the large sum of ten thousand pouuds by a roguisli turn of ingenuity. Being, from the nature of the circumstances in which he was placed, far more in want of money than in want of ipen, he sent orders to his minister, Ralph Flambard, to raise an army of twenty thousand men, and march it to the coast, as if for instant embarkation. It is to be supposed that not a few of the men thus suddenly levied for foreign service were far more desirous of staying at home; and when the army reached the coast, these were gratified oy the information that on payment of ten shillings to the king, each man was at liberty to return to his home. With the money thus obtained, William bribed the king of France and some of those barons who had hitherto sided with Robert. But before he could gain any decisive ad- vantage from his Machiavelian policy, he wai obliged to hasten over to England to repel the Welsh, who had made an incur- aion in his absence. A. D. 1095.— While William had been so discreditably busv in promoting discord in the duchy of his Di-otber, his own kingdom had not been free from intrigues. B«bert de Moubray, earl of Northumberland, the count D'Eu, Roger de Lacey, and many other powerful barons, who had been deeply offended by the king's haughty and despotic temper, were this year detected in a conspi- racy which had for its object the dethrone- ment of the king in favour of Stephen, count of Aumale, and nephew of William the Conqueror. With his usual promptitude, William, on gaining intelligence of the con- Siracy, took measures to defeat it. De oubrajr was surprised before he had com- pleted his preparations, and though he re- sisted gallantly he was overpowered and thrown into prison. Attainder and forfei- ture followed as a matter of course, and for the long period of thirty years the un- fortunate noble lingered in prison, where he died. The count D'Eu, who also was surprised, firmly denied his participation in the conspiracy, and challenged Geoffrey Baynard, by whom he had been accused, to mortal combat. The count was defeated, and the brutal sentence upon him was cas- tration and deprivation of sight. The his- torians speak of William deAlderi, another of the conspirators, who was hanged, as havin|; been more severely dealt with ; but we think most people would consider that death was among the most merciful of the sentences of this cruel and semi-barbarous age. A war, or rather a scries of wars, now commenced, to which all the skirmishes of Scotland, and Wales, and Normandy, were to prove as mere child's play in comparison. We allude to the first crusade, or holy war, the most prominent events of which we CAFITAL FUNISBHBIITS WEBB COMMOTED FOB rECUNIABY FINES. A. 0. 101)8.— tHB TOWUR or tOWDOW ■NOOMrAIIIO WITU A WAI.t. 106 tE^t CTrenaMtu of 1$i«tor», $cc. I Imvf. (fivnii In onr brief " Outline of General HiKKirv." I'rie»t anil Inymnn, soldier «iid triulor, noble and pcaRiint, all were lud- deulf aeizcd with an cnthiiiiHara little *liort of madneM. Men of all rankx and almost of all u\(e» took to nrrai. A holy war, a rru- ■ade of the Cliriitlan* against the inHdclH ; > warfare at onee rinhtcotis and perilous, where rulour fought jinder the siiered •ymbul of the cross, so dear to the Christ ian and so hiuefut to the inHdell Nothing could hate more precisely and completely ■nited thn spirit or an age hi which it was ditHcult to say whether courage or super- stition \Ycre tlie master-passion of all orders of men. The temper of Hohcrt, duke of Nor- mandy, was not such ns to allow hi.n to remain upmoved by the fierce enthusiasm of all around him. Uravc even to rashncsg, and easily led by his energetic bi t ill dis. ciplined feelings to fall into the general de- lu8i(m, which combined nil the attractions of chivalry with all the urgings of a mis taken ana almost savaRO piety, he very early added his name to that of the t^iristian leaders who were to go forth to the rescnc of the holy sepulchre and the chastisement of heathenism. Hut when, in the language of that book which laymen of his period but little read, he " sat down to count the cost," he speedily discovered that his life- long carelessness and profusion had left liiiu destitute of journeying to the cast in the style or with the force which would become his rank. It was now that the cooler and more sordid temper of William of England gave that monarch the fullest advantage over his improvident and head- strung brother, who recklessly mortgaged his duchy to William for the comparatively insignificant sum of ten thousand marks. William raised the money by means of the most unblushing and tyrannous imposts upon his subjects, and was forthwith put in possession of Normandy and Maine ; while Robert, expending his money in a noble outfit, proceeded to the east, full of dreams of temporal glory to be obtained by the Self-same slauitliter of pagans which would ensure his eternal salvation. Though William was thus ready, with a view to his own advantni^'e, to expedite the departure of his brother to the Holy Land, he was himself not only too free from the general enthusiasm to go thither himself, but he also, and very wisely, discouraged his sub- jects from doing so lie seems, indeed, though sufflcicutly superstitious to he easily worked upon by the clei-gy when he deemed his life in danger, to have been careless about religion even to the verge of impiety. More than one unbecoming jest upon re- ligion is on record against him; but we liiBy, perhaps, safelj believe that the clergy, the sole histoiians of those times, with whom his arbitrary and ungovernable na- ture made him no "avourite, have painted him in this respect somewhat worse than he was. It was in one of his fits of superstition that, believing himself ou the point of death, he was at length induced to fill up the archbishopric of Canterbury, which he had kept unfilled fVam the death of Lnn- franc. In terror at his supposed approach- ing death he conferred this digiiiiy upon Anselm, a pious and learned Norman ab- bot. Anselin at first refused the promo- tion, even with tears; but when heal length accepted it, ho abundantly proved that he was not inclined to allow the interests of the church to lack any defence or wnteli- fulncss. His severity of demeanour and life, and his unsparing sternness towards every thing that either reason or supcrsti tion pointed out as profiinc and of evil report, were rcinarkablc. He spared not in his censures even the king himself; and a^ William, on recovering from the illucsK which had caused him to promote Anselm, very plainly showed that tie was not a jot more pious or just than before, disputes very loon grew high between the king and the archbishop whom he had taken so much trouble to persuade into acceptance of dig- nity and power. The church was at this time much agitated by a dispute between Urban and Clement. Each maintained himself to be the true, and his opponent the anti-pope. While yet only an abbot in Normandy, Anselm had acknowled^'cd the authority of Urban ; and he now, in liis higher dignity and wider influence, still espoused liis cause, and resolved to esta- blish his authority in England. As the law of the Conauerorwas still in force that no pope should be acknowledged in Eng- lanil until his authority should hitve re- ceived the sanction of the king, William determined to make this disobedience the pretext upon which to endeavour to deprive the archbishop of his high ecclc-iiasticfti dignity. The king accordingly summoned a synod at Rockingham, and called upon it to depose Anselm. But the assembled suf- fragans declined to pass the required sen- tence, declaring that they knew of no au- thority by which they could do so without the conimaud of the pope, who alone could release them from the respect and obedi- ence which they owed to their primate. \yhile the case was in. this state of incer- titude and pause, some circumstances arose which rendered it expedient for William to acknowledge the legitimacy of Urhau's election to the papal throne, but the ap- parent reconciliation which this produced between the king and Anselm was but of short duration. The main cause of griev- ance, though itself removed by the recon- ciliation of William and the pope, left be- hind an angry feeling which required only a pretext to burst forth, and that pretext the haughty state despotism of William and the no less haui;htv church zenl of An- selm speedily furnished. We mentioned among the numerous de- spotic arrangements cf the Conqueror, his having required from bishopries and abbeys the same feudal service in the field na from jay baronies of like value. William Riifus in this, as in all despotism, followed closely upon the track lett by his father; aud 5| WEaiMINSTBB HAIT, BUltT, 270 FEET lONO A.NB 74 BROAO. ■ IE WAI.TIK TTSklti IIHI.D TUB OtriC* Ot KOVAb BOW-IBAHEM. * a h 3 lEiiglantt.— l«rorman ICiiw.— aatilltam IE. 107 having resolved upon an expedition into Wnle«, he cnllf d upon Aniclm for liii renu- 1 lured quota of nu-n. Anielin, in coninion \ witli nil the churulimen, deemed thii soe- ; ciei of (crvitudu very grievoui nnd uni>e> I ciiniinjf to churolimuD; but the dexpotio iiuture of William, ond that feeliuK of feudal tubiniasion which, next to Hubmiiiion to the cliui ch| secuit to have been the most powerful and irresivtible feelinK in tltoie days, prevculed him from givinif an al)to. lute rcfuRni. He, therefore, took a middle course ; he sent his quota of men, indeed, but so insufliciuntly accoutred and provided 1 that they were utterly useless and a dis< erace to the well-aupointed force of which they were intended to form a part. The king threatened Anselm with a prosecution fur ibis obv'ousljr intentional and insulting evasion of the spirit of bis duty, while com- plyiug with its mere letter; and the prelate retorio'l by a demand for the restoration of the revenue of which bis see had been «rbitr'..'Uy ond unfairly deprived by the im^, Appealing to the pope at the same tim:< t> [ bey durinic the vacancv, but would leave the whole to be reaped by the successor ; and that he would never let to farm any eccleriastical beneHce, nor dispose of it for money. After his concession to the church, whose favour was of so great importance to him, he proceeded to enumerate the civil grievances which he purposed to redress. ' lie promised that upon the death of any ' earl, baron, or military tenant, his heir should be admitted to the possession of ' his estate on paying a just and lawful re- ; lief, without being exposed to auch violent ' exactions as had been usual during the late I reigns; he remitted the wardship of mi< I nori; and allowed guardians to be appoint- { ed who should be answerable for the trust ; i he promised not to dispose of nny heiress m ' mnrriage but by the advice of all the ba- ! rous ; and if any baron intended to give his > daugliter, sister, niece, or other kinswoman ' in marriage, it should only be necessary for liim to consult the king, who promised to : take no money for his consent, nor ever to I refuse permission, unless the person to I whom it was purposed to marry ner should be his enemy. He granted his barons and military tenants the power of bequeathing by will their money or personal estates ; aud if they neglected to make a will, he promised that their heirs should succeed to them. He renounced the right of imposing moneyage and of levying taxes at pleasure on the farms which the oarons retained in their own hands and he made some general professions of moderating tines, ottered a Ssrdon for all offences, ana remitted all the ebts due to the crown. He required that the vassals of the barons should enjoy the •sme privileges which he granted to his own barons; and he promised a general confirmation and observance of the laws of king Edward. This is the substance of the chief articles contained in that famous charter." Though, to impress the people v ith the notion of his g^eat anxiety tor the full pub- hcity and exact performance of these gra- cious promises, Henry caused a copy of this charter to be placed in an abbey in every county, his subsequent conduct shows that he never intended it for anything but a lure, by which to win the support of the barons and people, while that support as yet appeared desirable to his cause. 'Hie grievances which he so ostentatiouily pro- mised to redress were rontiniird during his whole reign ; and as regnrds the charter it- self, so contpletcly neglected was it, that when, in 'heir disputes with the tyrant John, the iitiglinh barons were desirous to make it the standard by which to express their demands, scarcely a copy of it could be found. The popularity of the king at the com- mencement of his reign owed iint a little nf its warmth to his just and oolitic dismistml and imprisonment of Rnlpii Flambard, bi- shop ol Durham, who, as principal mininier and favourite of William Rufus, had been guilty of great oppression aud cruelty, es- pecially in raising money. The Dudley and Kmpson nf a later reign were scarcely more detested than this man wns, and no- thing could be more agreeable to the people than his degradation and punishment, liut the king, apart from his politic desire to gratify the public resentment against his brother's chief and mo^^t unscrupulous in- strument of oppression, seems to have had his own pecuniary advantage chicriy in view. Instead of immediately appointing a successor to the bishopric, he kept it va- cant for Ave years, and during nil that time he, in open contempt of the positive pro- mise of his charter, applied the revenues of the see to his own use. This shameful invasion of the rights nf the church, however, did not prevent him from otherwise seeking its favour. Well iiware of the high rank which Anselm held in the affections of both the clergy and the Eeople, he strongly invited him to leave lyons — where he now lived in great state— and resume his dignity in Uni^land. Uut the king accompanied this invitation with a demand that Anselm should renew to him the homage he had formerly paid to his brother. Anselm, however, by his residence nt Rome, had learned to look with a very different eye now upon that homage which formerly he had looked upon as so mere and innocuous a form, and he returned for an- swer, that he not only would not pay lio- range himself, but he would not even com- municate with any of the clergy who should do so, or who would accept ot lay investi- ture. However much mnrtifled Henry was at finding the exiled prelate thus resolute, he was too anxious for the support and counten2 BCI«NC«8 AGAIN TAU8HT AT CAKDBIBOK. no V^^t ^rcasurp of llCstore, Sec. Wel' knowing how dear the royal Sawn lineage of this lady made her to the Engliin nation, Henry proposed to espouse her. It is a striking instance of the extent to which the public mind was enslaved by Borne, that the mere residence and education of this princess in a convent, the mere wearing of tlie veil without ever having taken or in- tended to take the vows, seemed to make it doubtful whether she could lawfully con- tract matrimony I So it, however, was ; and a solemn council of prelates and no- bles was held at Lambeth to determine the point. This council was held so soon after the restoretion of Anselm to his dignity, that we may, without great breach of clia- rity, suspect that a desire to secure the support of Anselm upon this venr subject WHS at least one of the motives, if not the chief one, by which the king was actuated in recalling him. Before this council Ma- tilda stated that she had never contemplated taking the vows, and that she had only worn the veil, as it was quite commonly worn by the English ladies, as a safeguard from the violence of the Norman soldiery. As it was well known that against such violence even an English princess really had no other secure guard, the council deter- mined that the wearing of the veil by Ma- tilda had in no wise pledged her to or con- nected her with any religious sisterhood, and that she was as free to marry as though she had never worn it. Henry and Matilda were married. The ceremony was perform- ed by Anselm, and was accompanied with great and gorgeous rejoicing. This mar- riage more than any other of his politic arrangements attached the English people to him. Married to a Saxon princess, ne seemed to them to have acquired a greater right to the throne than any Norman prince, without that recommendation, could draw from any other circumstances. A.D. 1101.— It soon appeared, that great as Henry's care had been to fortify him- self in the general heart of the people, it had been neither unnecet-uiiy nor excessive. Bobert, who had wasted so much time in Italy, returned to Normandy about a month after the death of his brother Rufus. Henry had given no orders and made no prepara- tions to oppose Robert's resumption of the duchy of Normandy. Possessed of that^iotnt d'appui, and being much endeared to the warlike Norman barons b^ his achievements in the Holy Land, Robert immediately com- menced preparations for invading England, and wresting his birthright from the usurp- ing hands of his brother. Nor were the wishes for his success confined to those barons who chiefly or wholly lived in Nor- mandy. On the contrary, many of the great barons of England decidedly pre- ferred Robert to Henry; and. feeling the same dislike to holding their English and Norman possessions under two sovereigns, which had been so strongly expressed at the acccesion of William, they secretly encou- raged Robert, and sent him assurances that they would join him with their levies as soon as he should land in England. Among these nobles were Robert de Belesme, earl of Shrewsbury, William deWarenne, earl of Surrey, Hugh de Greatmesuil, Robert de Mallet, and others of the very highest and most powerful men in England. The en- thusiasm in his favour extended to the navy ; and when Henry had, with great ex- pence and exertion, made a fleet ready to oppose his brother's landing, the seamen deserted with the greater number of the ■hips, and put themselves and their vessels at the disj^sal of Robert. This incident gave the king great alarm, lest the army, too, should desert him, in which case not only his crown but his life would be in the most imminent danger. Henr^, notwith- standing this peril, preserved his coolness, and did not allow, as men too frequently do, the greatness of the danger to turn away his attention from the best means of meet- ing and overcoming it. Well knowing the superstition of the people, he considered nothing lost while he could command the immense influence which Anselm had over the public mind. Accordinglv he redoubled his court to that prelate, and succeeded in making him believe in the sincerity of his professed design and desire to rule justly and mildly. What he himself firmly be- lieved, Anselm diligently and eloquently in- culcated upon the minds of others; and as his influence and exertions were seconded by those of Roger Bigod, Robert Fitz- hamond, the earl of Warwick, and othpr Jowerful nobles who remained faithful to lenry, the army was kept in good humour, and inarched in good order, and with appa- rent zeai as well as cheerfulness, to forts- mouth, where Robert had landed. Though the two armies wore in face of each other for several days, not a blow was struck ; both sides seeming to feel reluctant to commence a civil war. Anselm and otiicr influential men on. either side took advan- tage of this pause to bring about a treaty between the brothers ; and, after much ar- gument and some delay, it was agreed that Henry should retain the crown of England, and pay an annual pension of three thou- sand marks to Robert; that the survivor should succeed to the deceased brother's possessions ; that they should mutually ab- stain from encouraging or harbouring each others enemies ; and that the adherents of both in the present quarrel should be un- disturbed in their possessions and borne harmless for all that had passedt A.D. 1102. — Though Henry agreed with seeming cheerfulness to this treaty, which in most points of view was so advantageous to him, he signed it with a full determination to break through at least one of its provi- sions. The power of his nobles had been too fully manifested to him in their encourage- ment of Robert, to admit of his being other- wise than anxious to break it. The earl of Shrewsbury, as one of the most powerful and also the most active of those who Imd given their adhesion to Robert, was iirst fixed upon by Henry to be made an exam- ple of the danger of offending kings. Spies were set upon his every word and action, A.D. 1102.— ANSKI.U BXCOMUIIIflCATKD AM TUB MARRIBD CI.RROT. A.D. 1113.— COLOR IKS OP VLSMINOS PLAHTBD IN WALX8 BT HBNAT I. lEnglantJ.— "Norman llinc— l^cnri) E* 111 and his bold and haughty character left them but little difficulty in finding matter of offence. No fewer than flve-and-forty articles were exhibited against him. He was too well aware both of the truth of some of the charges, and of the rigid seve- rity with which he would be judged, to deem it safe to risk a trial. He summoned all the friends and adherents he could command, and threw himself upon the chances of war. But these were unfavourable to him. In the intluence which Anselm possessed, and which he zealously exerted on behalf of the kinK, Henry had a most potent means of defence, and he with little difficulty reduced the earl to such straits, that he was glad to leave the kingdom with his life. All his great possessions were of course confis- cated, and they afforded the king welcome means of purchasing new friends, and se- curing the fidelity of those who jvere his frieuds already. A.D. 1 103.— The ruin of the earl of Shrews- bury produced that of his brothers, Roger, earl of Lancaster and Arnulf de Moutgo- mery. But the vengeance or the policv of the king required yet more victims. Robert de Pontefract, Robert de Mallet, and William de .Varenne were prosecuted, and the king's power secured their condemnation ; and William, earl of Cornwall, though son of the king's uncle, was deprived of all his large property in England. The charges against these noblemen were artfully made, not upon their conduct towards the king in his dispute with his brother, but upon their miscouduct towards their vassals. In this respect, indeed, they were guilty enough, as all the Norman barons were; but it was not this guilt, which was equally chargeable upon tlie king's firmest and most powerful defenders, for which they were prosecuted and ruined. Robert of Normandy, with his characteristic gene- rosity and imprudence, was so indignant at the persecution of his friends, whose chief crime in the king's eyes he well knew to be their friendship they had shewn to himself, that he crossed over to England, anil sharply rebuked his brother with the shameful and ill-veiled breach of a princi- pal part of their treaty. Confident in his tinjiily power, Henry was but little affected by the just and eloquent reproaches of his brother. On the contrary, he so clearly gave him to understand how far his im- Srudent rashness in venturing to England ad compromised his own safety, that Ro- bert was glad to get liberty to return to Normandy at the expence of making a formal resignation of his pension. The time soon came for Henry to com- plete the ruin of the brother whom he had already despoiled of the fairest and most precious portion of his inheritance. The imprudent thoughtlessness and levity of Rooert not merely affected his conduct as far as he himself was concerned ; it made him wholly unfit to rule, and opened the widest poEstible doors to the needy and the profligate, the avaricious and the tyrannical among his turbulent and unprincipled ba- rons, to plunder him, as well as to rob and then ill-treat his unfortunate subjects. A monarch who was so utterly careless that his domestic servants plundered hiin, not merely of the little money which his prodi- gal habits left to him, but even of his clothes and furniture, was but ill-fitted to preserve his subjects from the ill-treatment of the most licentious nobility in all Eu- rope. And it waa very natural, that when the more thoughtful and observant among the Normans contrasted the loose govern- ment of Robert— if indeed it deserved the name of a government at all— with the steady, firm, and orderly rule of Henry over a much larger and more important state, they should begin to think, and to whisper, too, that even a usurper, such as Henry, was far better for the welfare of his subjects, than such a legitimate, but utterly incapable, ruler as the good-natured and generous, but extravagant and de- bauched Robert. Disorders at length rose to such a height in Normaudy, as to give Henry a pretext for going over, nominally to mediate between the opposing parties, but, in reality, personally to observe how far affairs were in train to admit of his depriving his brother of the duchy alto- gether. Skilled in every art of intrigue, and having both the means and the will to bribe most profusely, Henry soon formed a strong party ; and having returned to Eng- land and raised the necessary force by the most shameless and 'unsparing extortion, he, in 1105, landed again in Normandy, no longer under the hypocritical pretence of mediating, but with the avowed purpose of conquering, if possible. He laid siege to Bayeux, and, although obstinately and bravely resisted, at length took that ])lace by storm; Caen he prepared to besiege, but it was surrendered to him by the in- habitants. He then laid siege to Falaise, but here he was successfully opposed until the setting in of the winter compelled him to raise the siege. A. D. 1106. — With the return of favourable weather, Henry returned to Normandy and recommenced his operations ; opening the campaign with the siege of Tinchebray with a force so mighty, that it was quite evident he contemplated nothing short of the en- tire subjugation of Normandy. It required all the success that Henry had as yet achieved, and all the persuasions of his own fri^ds, to arouse Ilobert from his le- thargy of natural indolence and sensual pleasure. But once roused, — he showed that the warrior had slumbered, indeed, in his heart, but was not dead. Aided by Robert de Belesme, and by the earl of Mor- taigne, the king's uncle, who was inve- terately opposed to Henry on account of his treatment of Mortaigne's son William, earl of Cornwall, Robert speedily raised a powerful force, and marched against his brother, in the hope of putting an end to their controversies in a single battle. Ani- mated at being led by the valiant prince whose feats in the plains of Palestine had struck terror into pagan hearts, and won A.D. 1113. — THIS THAR WAS MRMORADI.IS FOR A GRSAT rtAGITR. TUa AUTHOniTT OK TKB tAVAV »K1 BBCOMBS AtMOST OMniFOTBHT. 112 ®;i^c Ercasure of listorn, $ct. (he applnuie of olirifitian Europe, Robert'! troopi charged lo boldly and so well, that the ISngliih were thrown into confusiou. Ilad the Norman auccesi been well fol- lowed up bjr the whole Norman force, nolhlDK could have saved the English army iVom defeat and destruction. But the troops of Roger de Belesme were suddenly aud most unaccountably seized with a pa- nic, which communicated itself to the rest of the Normans. Henry and his friends skilfully and promptly availed themselves of this sudden turn in the state of affairs, charged the enemy again and again, utterly routed them, killing vast numbers and ma- king ton thousand prisoners, among whom was Ilobert himsc'it This great victory gained by Henry was soon after crowned by the surrender of lloucn. and Falaise ; and Henry now be- came completely master of Normandy, hav- ing also got into his power Robert's son, the young prince William, who was unfor- tunarely In ralaise when that importaui fortress siirrendcred. As though there had bei^n nothing of violence or unfairness in his conduct, Henry now convoked the •tatcs of Normandy and received their ho- mage as though he had been rightfully their duke; after wliich, having dismantled such fortroHses as he deemed dangerous to his inlerosts, ami revoked the grants which Robert's foolish facility had induced him to make, he returned to England, taking his unfortunate brother with him as a prisoner, and committing young William to the cus- tody of Helie de St. Laen, who had married Robert's natural daugiiter, and who treated the captive prince with a tenderness and respect which do him the hishest honour. Ronert himself was committed to the cus- todv of the governor of Cardiff castle in Wales, where for tweuty-eight years, the whole remainder of his life, he became a melancholy spectacle of fullen greatness, and a striking example of the utter useless- ness of courage without conduct, and of the danger of generosity if unregulated by prudence. At 1*19 battle of Tinchebray, so fatal to duke ilobert, his friend Edgar Atheling was taken prisoner. Though on more than one occasion this prince gave signal proofs of bravery, both his friends and his enemies seem to have held his intellect in considerable contempt. The two Williams and Henry I., princes of such different qua- lities, yet so perfectly agreeing in' despotic and Jealous tempers, equally held his powers of exciting the English to revolt in the ut most scorn. Though his Saxon descent could not but endear him to the English people, and though both at home and in the Holy Land he had proved himself to possess very high courage, there was so general and apparently so well founded an opinion of hU dcAciency in the higher in- tellectual qualities, that neither did the Saxons look up to him, as otherwise they gladly would have done, as a rallying point, nor did the Normans honour him with their suspioioui fear. Even now when Henry, whose treatment of his own brother suHiciently proves how inexorable he could be where he saw cause to fear injury to his interests, had so fair an excuse for com- mitting Edgar to safe custody, he showed bis entire disbelief of that prince's capa- city, by allowing him to enjoy his full li- berty in England, and even granting him a pension. A.D. 1107. — Henry's politic character and his judgment were both emmeutly dis- played in managing his very delicate dispute with the pope on the subject of ecclesiaa- tica) investitures. While showing the most profound external respect, and even affec- tion, to both the pope and archbishop An- selm, Henry proceeded to fill the vacant sees concerning which there was dispute. But Anselm, though he had been on many important occasions a staunch and useful friend to the king, was far too good a churchman to brook disobedience to the papal authority, even when that disobedi- ence was veiled by smiles and couched iu gentle and holiday terms. He refused to communicate, far less to consecrate, the bishops invested by the king ; and those prelates saw themselves exposed to so much obloquy by their opposition to so revered a personage as Anselm, that they resigned their dignities into the king's hands. The complete defeat of a scheme which he had prosecuted with such dex- terous and painful art deprived the king of his usual command of temper ; and he let fail such signiticaut threats towards all opponents oi his authority, that Anselm became alarmed for his personal safety, and demanded permission to travel to Rome to consult the pope. Well knowing the popu- larity of Anselm, Heurv was very well pleased to be thus peaceably rid of hi) pre- sence. Anselm departed, and was attended to the ship by hosts of both clergy and laity, who, by the cordial respect with which they took their leave of him, tacitly, but no less plainly, testified their sense of the justice of his quarrel with their sove- reign. As soon as Anselm bad left England the king seized upon all the temporalities of his see ; and, fearful lest the presence of Anselm at Rome should prejudice him and his kingdom, he sent William de Warel- wast as ambassador extraordinary to Pas- cal, the pope. In the course of the argu- ment between the pope and the king of England's envoy, the latter warmly ex- claimed that his .sovereign would rather part with his crown than with the right of investiture; to which Pascal as warmly replied, that he would rather part with his head than allow the king to retain that right. Anselm retired to Lyons, and thence to his old monastery of Bee. The king re- stored him the revenues of his sees, ani great anxiety was expressed by all ranks of men for hia return to England, where his absence was affirmed to be the cause of all imaginable impiety, and of the most gross and disgusting immorality. The disputes, meantime, between Henry and the pope e « i 1 1 a \ lOTB THI aUIBRS OV BBRRT I, WEBB rATBOKB OV LITBHATUBB. A.D. 1131.— HMBT MAKBIBI ABIIiAII, DAUaHTSB OV TBI SUKB Of LODrAIRB. ^Enjlantf.— INTorman line — ^l^jnro I. 113 H ■a ► ** ■ \l I" 1 R I" ! H 1 < \* : k 1 grew warmer and wanner. The emperor Henry V. and the pope were at feud on the same subject, and the pope being made an actual prisoner was compelled by a formal treaty to grant the emperor the right of investiture. The king or England was less advantageously situated than the emperor. He could not, oy getting the pope into bis power, cut the gordian Knot of the contro* versy between them. The earl of Mellent and other ministers of Henry were already suffering under the pains of excommunica- tion; Henry himseli was in daily expecta- tion of hearing the like dreadful sentence pronounced on him, and he well knew that he had numerous and powerful enemies among his nobles who would both gladly a^d promptly avail themselves of it to throw off their uneasy allegiance. He and the pope were mutuuW afraid, and a com- promise was at length entered into, by which the pope had the right of ecclesias- tical investiture, while Henry had the right of demanding homage from the prelates for their temporalities. The main difference being thus settled, minor points presented no difficulties, and Henry now had leisure to turn his attention to Normandy. In committing the natural son of his brother Robert to the care of Helie, Henrr was probably desirous to show the world, by the umblemished character of the man to whom he entrusted the infant prince, then only six years old, that he meant fairly by him. But as the young prince grew up, and became remarkable for talent and gracefulness of person, he acquired a popularity which gave so much uneasiness to Henry, that be ordered his guardian to rive up his young ward. Helie, probably doubtful of the king's intentions, yet feel- ing himself unable to shelter him should the king resort to force, immediately placed voung William under the protection of Fulke, count of Aqjou. The protection of this gallant and eminent noble and his own singmar graces enabled William to create great interest on his behalf, and at every court which he visited he was able to ex- cite the greatest indignation against the injustice with which his uncle had treated him. Louis le Oros, kin^ of France, joined with Fulke, count of Anjou, and the count of Flanders, in disturbing Henry in his ni^ust possession of Normandv, and many skirmishes took place upon the frontiers. But before the war could produce any deci- sive results, Henry, with his customary artful policy, detached Fulke from the league by marrying his son AiViUiara to that prince's daughter. The peace consequent upon this withdrawal of Fulke did not, however, last long. Henry's nephew was again taken in hand by the gallant Baldwin of Flanders, who induced the king of France to join him in renewing the attack npon Normandy. In an action near Eu Baldwin was slam ; and the king of France, despairing, after the loss of so capital an ally of liberating Normandy from the power of Henry by force of arms, resolved to try another method, of which, probably, he did not perceive all the remote and possible consequences. The papal court had always manifested a more than sufficient inclination to inter- fere in the temporal concerns of the nations of Christendom ; and Louis now most un- wisely gave sanction and force to that am- bitious and insidious astumption, br ap- pealing to Rome on behalf of young William. A general council having been assembled by the pope at Rheims, Louis took his protege there, represented the tyranny of Henry's conduct towards both tne young prince and his father, and strongly and eloquently dwelt upon the impropriety of the church and the Christian powers al- lowing so trusty and gallant a champion of the cross to linger on in his melancholy imprisonment. Whatever might be the personal feelings of Calixtus II., the then pope, he sliowrd himself stronicly inclined to interfere on behalf both of William and his father. But Henry was now, as ever, alert and skilful in the defence of his own interest. The English bishops were al- lowed by him to attend this council ; but he gave them fair notice at their depar- ture, that whatever might be the demands or the decisions of the council, he was fully determined to maintain the laws and customs of England and his own preroga- tive. " Go," said he, as they took leave of him, " salute the pope in my name, and listen to his apostolical precepts ; but be mindful that ye brine back none of his new inventions into my kingdom." But while he thus outwardly manifested his determi- nation to support himself even against the hostility of the church, he took the most effectual means to prevent that hostility from being exhibited. The most liberu presents and promises were distributed; and so effectually did he conciliate the pope, that having shortly afterwards had an interview with Henry, he pronounced him to be beyond comparison the moat elo- quent and persuasive man he had ever spoken with. Upon this high eulogy of the sovereign pontiff, Hume, with dry caus- ticity, remarks, that Henry at this inter- view " had probably renewed his presents." Louis finding that he was out-manoeuvred hj Henry in tne way of intrigue, renewed his attempts upon Normandy in the way of arms. He made an attempt to surprise Noyen, but Henry's profuse liberality LAused him to be well served bv his spies, and he suddenly fell upon the French troops. A severe action ensued, and prince WilUam, who was present, behaved with great distinction. Henry also was present, and, penetrating with his customary gal- lantry into the very thickest of the fight waa aeverely wounded by Crispin, a Nor- man officer in the French army. Henrys who possessed great personal strength, strucK Crispin to the earth, and led his troops onward in a charge so fierce and heavy, that the French were utterljr routed, and Louis himself only escaped with great difficulty from being made prisoner. The result of this action so discouraged Louia A.D. 1123. WOODSTOCK PABK MADI, BRIICO TUB FIRST lit BNOLAKD. [7-2 A.D. 1122.— BABtBttOAEBS IW OIOOCBSTBBBHIBB AND WOBCBSTBBBBIBB. M a 9 114 ®^e ^Treasure of l^tistoro, $rc. that he shortly nfterwards entered into a treaty with Henry, in which the interesti ofWilli»m and the liberty of Eobert were wholly left out of qnestion. Thu* far the career of king; Henry had been one unbroken leries of prosperity; he was now, under circumstances the least to have been feared, doomed to suffer a very terrible misfortune. Judging from the facility with which he had usurped the crown of England and the duchy of Nor- mandy, that similar wrong— as he chose to call it, though wrong it would surely not have been— -night easily be done to his own son, unless proper precaution were taken, he accompanied his son William to Normandy, and caused him to be recog- nized as his succesoor by the states, and to receive in that character the homage of the barons. This important step being taken, the king and the prince embarked at Dar- fleur on their return to England. The weather was fair, and the vessel which conveyed tlie king and his immediate at- tendants left the coast in safety. Some- thing caused the prince to remain on shore after hi» father had departed ; and the captain and sailors of his ship, being greatly intoxicated, sailed, in their anxiety to overtake the king, with so much more haste than skill, that they struck the ship upon a rock, and she immediately began to sink. William was safely got into the long boat, and had even been towed some distance from the ship when the screams of his natural sister, the countess of Perche, who in the hurry had been left beliind, com- pelled his boat's crew to returu and endea- vour to save her. The instant that the boat approached the ship's side, so many Sersons leaped in, that the boat also foun- ered, and William and all his attendants perished; a fearful loss, there being on Doard of the ill-fated ship no fewer than a hundred and forty English and Norman gentlemen of the best families. Fitsste- phen, the captain, to whose intemperance this sad calamity was mainly attributable, and a butcher of Rouen clung to the mast ; but the former voluntarily loosed his hold and sank on hearing that the prince had perished. The butcher, free from cause of remorse, resolutely kept his grasp, and was fortunate enough to be picked up by ■ome fishermen on the following morning. When news reached Henry of the loss of the vessel, he for a few days buoyed himself up with the hope that ma son had been saved; but when the iiill extent of the ca- lamity waa ascertained he fainted ; and lO violent was his grief, that he was never afterwards known to smile. So deeply could be suffer under his own calamity, though ■0 stem and unblenching in the infliction of calamity upon others. The death of prince William, the only male legitimate issue of Henry, was, as will be perceived in the history of the next reiftn, not merely an individual calamity, but also a very serious national one, in so far as it gave rise to much civil strife. ])ut it was probable that William would have been a very severe king, for he was known to threaten whenever he came to the throne he would work the English like mere beasts of burthen. The early Norman rulers, in fact, however policy might occasionally induce them to disguise it, detested and scorned their English subjects. Prince William, son of the wronged and imprisoned duke of Normandy, still ei\joyed the iriendship and protection of the French king, though circumstances bad induced that monarch apparently to abandon the prince's interest, in making a treaty with Henry. The death of Henry's son, too, broke off the couneLtion between Henry and the count of Anjou, who now again took up the cause of prince William, and gave him his daughter in marriage. Even this connection, nowever, between Fulke and William did not prevent the artful po- licy of Henry from again securing the friendship of the former. Matilda, Henry's daughter, who was married to the emperor Henry V. was left a widow ; and the king now gave her in marriage to Geoffrey Plan- tagenet, earl of Anjou, and he at the saine time caused her to receive, as his successor, the homage of the nobles and clergy of both Normandy and England. In the mean time prince William of Nor- mandy was greatly strengthened. Charles, earl of Fland'>rs, was assassinated, and his dignity and possessions were immediately bestowed by the king of France upon prince William. But this piece of seeming good fortune, though it undoubtedly gave greater strength to William's party and rendered his recovery of Normandy more probable, led, in the result, to his destruction ; so blind are we in all that relates to our future I The landgrave of Alsace deeming his own claim upon Flanders superior to that of William, who claimed only from the wife of the Conqueror, and who moreover was ille- gitimate, attempted to possess himself of it by force of arms, and almost in the first skirmish that took place William was killed. Many disputes-during all this time had taken place between Henry and the pope; chiefly upon the right to which the latter pretended of having a legate resident in England. As legates possessed in their respective provinces the full powers of the pope, and, in their anxiety to please that great jpver and source of their power, were even disposed to push the papal authority to the utmost, the king constantly showed a great and a wise anxiety to prevent this manifestly dangeroua encroachment of Rome. After much manoeuvring on both sides, an arrangement waa made by which the lep^ative newer was conferred upon the archbiahop of Canterbury ; and thus while Rome kept, nominally at least, a controu! over that power, Henry prevented it being committed to any use disagreeable to him, and had, moreover, a security for the le- gate's moderation in the kingly power over the archbishop's temporalities. A perfect peace reigning in all parts of England, Henry spent part of 1131 and 1132 in Normandy with his daughter Matilda, < ; A. D. 1131.— A ORBAT PART OF LONDON DB8TB0TBD Bt FIBB. TUB SNISHTS TK1IFI.ABS XXBBCIIVD SBBAT INFLVBIICE At THIS FBRIOD. CEnglanti — Gorman ICinc— Stepl^tn. 115 nf whom he waR passionately fond. While he was there Matilda was delivered of a son, who was christened by the name of Henry. In tlie midst of tlie rejoicing this event caused to the king, he was summoned to England by an incursion made by the Welsh; and he was just about to return when he was seized, at St. Dennis le For- ment, by a fatal illness, attributed to his having eaten lamprey's to excess ; and he expired Dec. 1, 1135, in the thirty-iifth year of his reign and the sixty-seventh ofhis »ge Though a usurper, and though somewhat prone to a tyrannous exertion of his usurped authority, Henry at least deserves the praise of having been an able monarch. He pre- served the peace of his dominions under circumstances of great difficulty, and pro- tected its interests against attempts under which a less firm and politic prince would have been crushed. He had no fewer than thirteen illegitimate children. Other vices he was tolerably free from in his private capacity; but in protecting his resources for the chase, of which, like all the Norman princes, he was passionately enamoured, he was guilty of very unjustifiable cruelty. In the general administration of justice he was very severe. Coining was punished by him with death or the most terrible mutilation ; aud on one occasion fifty persons charged with that offence were subjected to this horrible mode of torture. It was in this reign that wardmotes, common-halls, a court of hustings, the liberty of hunting in Middlesex and Surrey— a great and honour- able privilege at that time— the right to elect Its own sheriff and justiciary, and tu hold pleas of the crown, trials by combat, and lodging of the king's retinue, we.j granted to the city of London. CHAPTER XVII. The Reign of Stephen. A.D. 1135.— The will of Henry I. left the kingdom of England and the duchy of Nor- mandy to his daughter Matilda. By the pre- cautions which he had taken, it was very evi- dent that he feared lest any on^ should imitate the irregularity by which he him- self had mounted to power. Strangely enough, however, the attempt he antici- pated, and so carefully provic'ed against, was made by one who to Henry's own patronage and liberality owed hia chief power to oppose Henry's daughter. A new proof, if sucn were wanting, of the blind- ness on particular points of even the most politic and prudent men. Adela, daughter of William the Con- queror, was married to Stephen, count of Blois. Two of her sons, Henry dnd Ste- I phen, were invited to England by Henry I., ; who behaved to them with the profuse li- \ berality which he was ever prone to show ' to those whom he took into his favour. Henry was made abbot of Glastonbury and , bisliop of Winchester; and Stephen was I even more highly favoured by the king, i who married him to Matilda, daughter and ' heiress of Eustace, count of Boulogne ■, by which marriage he acquired both the feudal sovereignty of Boulogne as well as enormous landed property in England. Subseauently the king still farther enriched Stepnen by conferring upon him the forfeited posses- sions of the earl of Mortai^e, in Normandy, and of Robert de Mallet, in England. The king fondly imagined that by thus honour- ing and aggrandizing Stephen he was rais- ing up a Mst and powerful friend for his daughter whenever she should come to the throne ; and the conduct of Stephen was so wily and skilful, that to the very hour of Henry's death he contrived to confirm him in this delusion. Brave, active, generous, and affable, he was a very general favourite ; but while he exerted himself to the utmost to retain and increase his popularity, espe- ciallv among the Londoners, of whom he anticipated making great use in the ulti- mate scheme he had in view, he took good care to keep those efforts from the king's knowledge. He professed himself the fast friend and ready champion of the princess Matilda; and when the barons were re- quired by the king to do bondage to her, as the successor to the crown, Stephen ac- tually had a violent dispute with Robert, earl of Gloucester, who was a natural son of the king, as to which of them should first take the oath I But with all this lip loyalty to the king and seeming devotion to the princess, Ste- phen seems all along to have harboured the most ungrateful and la'th'.ess inten- tions. The moment the king had ceased to live, he hurried over to England to seize upon the crown. His designs having been made known at Dover and Canterbury, the citizens of both those places honotirably refused to admit him. Nothing daunted by this honest rebuke of his ungrateful de- sign, he hurried on to London, where he had emissaries in his pay, who caused him to be hailed as king by a multitude of the comiaon sort. The first step being thus made, he next busied himself in obtaining the sanction and suffrage of the clergy. So much weight was in that age attached to the ceremony of unction in the coronation, that he con- sidered it but little likely that Matilda wo«ld ever be able to dethrone him, if he could so far secure the clergy as to have his coronation performed in due order and with the usual formalities. In this impor- tant part of his daring scheme good ser- vice was done to him by his brother Henry, bishop of Winchester, who caused the bi< shop of Salisbury to join him in persuading William, archbishop of Canterbury, to give Stephen the royal unction. The primate havmg, in common with all the nobility, taken the oath of allegiance to Matilda, waa unwilling to comply with so startling a step; but his reluctance, whether real or assumed, gave way when Roger Bigod, who held the important office of steward of the household, made oath that Henry on his death-bed had evinced his displeasure with Matilda, and expressed his deliberate pre- ference of Stephen as his successor. It is u M M H M a if « 5 >l h" M IE O X IB m m K A m * M k) O n H >a m o K M m THERR WAS NO SGCIIHITY FOB FEHSON 00 FROFBRiy IN THIS BKION. A.l>. I135.-iT«rHlll WAI CBOW»«» A» W«8TliIICM«» D«0. 20. m H M M H M e K A M K 2 a < H H M o la H M 9 H M H »4 H ■ h O H o tl H > H IS H H a as 116 ®t>e CTrcaaurB of l^tetors, 8cc. BOt ewy to believe that lo »hrewd a per- ■onage a« the archbishop really gave anr credence to thia ahallow tale : but he af- fected to do ao, and upon ita authority rrowned Stephen. The coronation waa but meagrely attended by the noblei; yet as none of them made any open opposition, Stephen proceeded to exercise the royal au- thority as coolly as though he had ascended the throne by the double right of consent of the people and heirship. Having seired upon the royal treasure, which amounted to upwards of a hundred thousand pounds, Stephen was able to sur- round his usurped throne with an immense number of foreign mercenaries. While he thus provided against open force, he also ttok the precaution to endeavour, by the apparent Justice of his intentions, to ob- literate from the general memory, and es- pecially from the memory of the clergy, all thought of the shameful irregularity and ingratitude by which he had obtained the throne. He published a charter calculated to interest all ranks of men .; promising to abolish Danegelt, generally to restore the laws ofking Edward, to correct all abuses of the forest laws, and— with an especial view to conciliating the clergy— to fill all benefices as they should become vacant, and to levy no rents upon them while va- cant. He at the same cine applied for the sanction of the pope, who, well knowing what advantage possession must give Ste> phen over the aosent Matilda, and being, Dcsides, well pleased to be called upon to interfere in the temporal affairs of England, very readily gave it in ahull, which Stephen took great care to make public throughout England. In Normandv the same success attended Stephen, who had his eldest son, Eustace, put in possession of the duchy on doing nomage to the king of France; and Geof- frey, Matilda's husband, found himself re- duced to such straits, that he was fain to enter into a truce with Stephen, the latter consenting to pay, during the two years for which it was made, a pension of five thou- sand marks. Though Stephen was thus far so successful, there were several circum- stances which were calculated to cause him considerable apprehension and per* plexity. Robert, a natural son of the late king, by whom he had been created earl of Gloucester, possessed considerable ability and influence, and was very much attached to Matilda, in whose wrongs he could not fail to take great interest. This noble- man, who was in Normandy when Stephen usurped the throne of England, was looked upon, both by the friends and the enemies of Stephen, as the most likely person to head any open opposition to the usurper. In truth, the earl was pluced in a very de- licate and trying situation. On the one hand, he was exceedingly zealous in tlie cause of Matilda ; on the other hand, to refuse when rpquircd to take the oath of allegiance to Stephen, was inevitably to bring utter ruin upon his fortunes, as far as England was concerned. In this per- Slexing dilemma he resolved to take • mid* le course, and. by avoiding an open rup- ture with Stephen, secure to hitiiself the liberty and means of acting according to the dictates of his conscience, should cir- cumstances become more favourable to Matilda. He, therefore, consented to take the oath of allegiance to Stephen, on con- dition that the king should duly perform all that he had promised, ai 1 tliat he should in no wise curtail or infringe tlie rights or dignities of the earl. This sin- gular and very unusual reservation clearly enough proved to Stephen, that he was to look upon the earl aa-bis good and loyal subject just so long as there seemed to be no chance of a successful revolt, and no lonf^er ; but the earl was so powerful and popular, that he did not think it safe to re- fuse his oath of fealty, even on these ur. usual terms. Though we correctly call these terms nn- nsual, we do so only with reference to for- mer reignns ; Stephen was obliged to con- sent to them in still more important cases than that of the earl of Gloucester. Tlis clergy, finding the king wiHiug to sacrifico to expediency, and well knowing ho-v ;,). expedient he would find it to quarrc! with their powerful body, would onlv give liiin their oath of allegiance vrith tne reaerva- tion that their allegiance should endure so long as the king should support the disci- pline of the church and deiend the ecclesi- astical liberties. To how much dispute, quibble, and assumption were not those undefined terms capable of leading, uiidur the management of the possessors of nearly all the learning of the age ; men, too, espe- cially addicted to and skilled in that subtle warfare which renders the crafty and well schooled logochamist absolutely invulnero* ble by any other weapon than a precise de- finition of terms 7 To the reservations of the earl of Glou- cester and the clergy, succeeded the still more ominous demands of the barons. In the anxiety of Stephen to procure their submission and sanction to his usurpatinn, the barons saw an admirable opportunity for their aggrandizing their already great Eower, at the expence of the security of oth the people and the crown. They de- manded that each baron should have the right to fortify his castle and put himself in a state of defence ; in other words, that each baron should turn his possessions into an imperium in imperio, dangerous to the authority of the crown on occasions of especial dispute, and injurious to the peace and welfare upon all occasions, as making the chances of wrong and oppressions more numerous, and making redress, already difiicult, for the future wholly hopeless, A legitimate king, confident in his right and conscientiously mindful of his high trust, would have periled both crown and life ere he would have consented to such terms | but in the case of Stephen, the high heuit of the valiant soldier was quelled and spell- bound by the conscience of the usurijer) and to uphold his tottering throne in pre. A.n. 1137.— THB WBLSB MADB AN IRBVFTIOK ON TUB VnONTIKRS. A.Oi 1137.— THI CATHSDBAI. OF HOCUKSTER BUBNT, JUNI 3. (JEnglantJ — ICorman lEinc— 5tcpf)tn. 11: UPlit (ilrtuntiitatire* of difficulty, he was fHtii («• rmiMitl to temiR wliich would both iiM'ttlHlit)' Mtid ipeedily increase those dif- rtiiidtlM tenfold. 'l'li)< burons were not slow to avail them- tfU)'* of the cotisent thus extorted from lll« kitix. Ill every direction castles sprang ti*iwi» iiP( nr were newly and more strongly fttrtl/i«d< Vi^Btt those oarons who had at lliff outset DO care for anv such privile|{e, w»f« doott In their self-defence obliKcd to fiiliow (he exitrnple of their neighbours. JcwIiiMK of each other, the barons now rurrixd I heir feuds to the extent of abso- lul« p*>t(y WMfS) and the inferior gentry Nliri p«Nintttry could only hope to escape fmn beltiK plundered and ill used by one Vnrly, Hi the expence of siding with the ii>\ivt. In (|uarrels for neither side of which llit<« lisd the slightest real care. 'flit* hMfotis having thus far proceeded in ^HlNhlUiiing their qitnii sovereignty and in- lit'ltfiMlenne of the crown, it is not to be wmUteA ni that they soon proceeded still f«tftlit0, llil7<-~'*tta CITY or bath nearly sestroxbd bx firb, jvnb 27. A. D. 1140.— BOiTACl, STKrHKH's «OII, WABRIII TBI FBBWOH KlBO't SIITBB. 118 CT^e ©rcaauri? of l^latorp, Uc duty to the church pBramount to the ties of blood, he assembled a synod at West- minster, which he opened with a formal complaint of, what he termed, the impiety of the king. The synod was well inclined to acquiesce in Henry's view of the case, and a formal summons was sent to the king to account to the synod for the conduct of which it complained. With a strange neg- lect of what would have been his true po- licy— a peremptory denial of the right of the synod to sit in judgment upon the sove- reign on a question which really related, ana relattd only, to the police of his king- dom—Stephen virtually put the judgment of his case into the hands of a court that, by the very charge made against him by Its head, avowed itself inimical, partial, and prejudiced, by sending Aubrey de Vere to plead his cause. De Vere set out by charg- ing the two bishops with seditious conduct and treasonable designs; but the synod re- fused to entertain that charge until the for- tresses, of which, be it observed, the bishops had been deprived upon that charge, should be restored oy the king. The clergy did not failto make this quarrel the occasion of exasperating the minds of the always credulous multitude against the king. So general was the discontent, that the earl of Gloucester, constantly on the watch for an onportunitv of advocating the cause of Matilda, brought that princess ta England, with a retinue of a hundred and forty knights and their followers. She fixed her residence first at Bristol, but thence re- moved to Gloucester, where she was joined by several of the most powerful barons, who openly declared in her favour and exerted every energy to increase her already consi- derable force. A civil war speedily raged in every part of the kingdom ; both parties were guilty of the most atrocious excesses, and, as is usual or, rather, universal in such cases, whichever party was temporarily tri- umphant, the unhappy peasantry were mas- ■acred and plundered, to the sound of watchworda which they scarcely compre- hended. A.D. 1140.— While the kingdom was thus torn and the people thus tormented, the varying successes of the equally selfish op- posing parties led to frequent discussions, which led to no agreement, and frequent treaties, made only to be broken. An action at length took place which promised to be decisive and to restore the kingdom to peace. The c&stle of Lincoln was captured and garrisoned by the parti- cans of Matilda, under Ralph, earl of Ches- ter and William de Romnard. The citizens of Lincoln, however, remained faithful to the cause of Stephen, who immediately proceeded to lay siege to the castle. The earl of Gloucester hastened to the support of the beleagnred garrison, and on the 2nd of February, 1141, an action took place, in which Stephen wa« defeated, and taken Erisooer while fighing desperately at the ead of his troops. He was taken in tri- umph totilloucester, and though he was at fint treated with great external rr«nect. some real or pretended suspicions of his friends having farmed a plan for his rescue caused him to be loaded with irons and thrown into prison. The' capture of Stephen caused a great accession of men of all ranks to the party of MatiUa; and she, under the politic guidance of the earl of Gloucester, now ex- erted herself to gain the good will of the clergy, without which, in the then state of the public mind, there could be but little proapect of permanent prosperity to her cause, just as it doubtless was. She invited Henry, bishop of Winchester and papal legate, to a conference, at which she promised every thing that either hia individual ambition or nis zeal for the church could lead him to desire ; and ns all the principal men of her party had offered to become responsible for her due fulfil- ment of her promises, which she made with the accompanying solemnity of an oath, Henry conducted ner with great pomp and form to Winchester cathedral, and there at the high altar solemnly denounced curses upon all who should curse her, and invoked blessings apon all who should bless her. To give still greater triumph and security to ner cause, Theobald, arch- bishop of Canterbury, also swore allegiance to her. Subsequently the crown was formally adjudged to Alatilda, in a speech made b]r Henry to the assembled clergy and a few of the chief men of London ; and Henry, with an assurance perfectly marvellous after having been so powerful an instrument of his brother's usurpation, now spoke of him as having merely filled the throne in the absence of the rightful owner, and dwelt with great force and bitterness upon the breach by Stephen of the promises he had made of respect and protection to the church. Matilda to a masculine daring added a very harsh and and imperious spirit, and she had scarcely placea her cause in ap- parently permanent prosperity when she most unwisely disgusted some of those whose favour was the most important to her. The Londoners, though circumstanres had compelled them to submit to Matilda. were still very partial to Stephen. Thejr joined his wife in petitioning that he might be released on condition of retiring to a convent. A atern and laconic refusal was Matilda's answer both to this petition and a subsequent one presented oy the Lon- doners for the establishment of king Ed- ward's laws instead of those of Henry. An equally harsh, and still more impolitic re- fusal was given to the legate whoreq^uesteo that his nephew, Eustace, should inherit Boulogne and the other patrimonial pos- sessions of Stephen ; a remsal which gives one as low an opinion of Matilda's sense of justice as of her temper and policy. Her mistaken conduct was not long in producing its appropriate ill effects to her cause. The legate, whose very contradic- tory conduct at different times can only be TUB ABBITBART COWnOCT 0» MATILDA DISOUSTBD THR WHO'.B NATION ruBLic staws wkbb iitabliihbd ai iaw in lomoon. englantr.— ^lantagenttg. —T^mn M, 119 latiiifactorily explained upon the suppoii- tion, that to hii thoroughly telllsh ambi- tion that cause ever teemed the best which promised the irreateit immediate advan- tages to himself or to the church, marked the mischief which Matilda's harshness did to her cause, and promptly availed himself of it to excite the Londoners to re- volt axainst her government. An attempt was made to seize upon her person ; and so violent was the rage that was manifested by her enemies, that even her masculine aud scorning spirit took alarm, and ihe fled to Oxford. Not conceiving herself safe even there, and being unaware of the un- derhand conduct of the crafty legate, she next flew for safety to him at Winchester. But he, deeming her cause now so far lost as to warrant him in openly declaring his real feelings towards her, joined his forces to the Londoners and other friends of Ste> phen, and besieged her in the castle of that Rity. Here, though stoutly supported by her friends and followers, she was unable long to remain, trom lack of provisions. Accompanied by the earl of Gloucester and a handml of friends, she made her escape ; but her partv was pursued, and the earl of Gloucester, in the skirmish, was taken pri- soner. This capture led to the release of Stephen, for whom Matilda was glad to exchange the earl, whose courage and judg- ment were the main support of her hopes and the main bond of her party ; and with the release of Stephen came a renewal of the civil war, in all its violence and in all its mischief. Ta.d. 1143] Sieges, battles, akirmishes, and their ghastly and revolting accompaniments, followed with varying suc- cess ; but the biJance of fortune at length inclined so decidedly to the side of Stephen, that Matilda, broken in health bjr such long-continued exertion, both bodily and mental, at length departed from the king- dom and took refuge in Normandy. A. D. 1 147-— The retirement of Matilda and the death of the earl of Gloucester, which oc- curred about the same time, seemed to give to Stephen the utmost opportunity he could desire firmly to establish himself in the possession of the kingdom. But he kin- dled animositiea among his nobles by de- manding the surrender of their fortresses, which he justly deemed dangerous to both himself and his subjects ; and he offended the pope by refusing to allow the attend- SDce of five bishops, who had been selected by the pontiff to attend a council at Rheims, the usual practice being for the EngUsh church to elect its own deputies. In revenge for this affront, as he deemed it, the pope laid all Stephen's party under hi* interdict ; a measure which he well knew could not fail to tell with fearful effect against the interests of a prince who was seated not only upon a usurped, but also a disputed throne. A.D. 1153.— Prince Henry, son of Matilda, who had already given signal proofs of talent and bravery, was now encouraged by the di> Tided state of the public mind to invade England. He defeated Stephen at Malmei- bury, and they again met before Wallingford, when a negotiation was entered into, by which Henry ceded his claim during the life of Stephen on condition of being secured of the succession, Boulogne and the other patrimonial possessions of Stephen being equally secured to his son William — his eldest son Eustace being dead. Thia treaty having been executed in due form, prince Henry returned to Normandy ; whence he was recalled by the death of Stephen on the 25th of October, 1154. CHAPTER XVIII. Thi Reign (^ Hbnrt II.; preceded 6y 06- vationt on the right qf the Engliek to Ter- ritory in France, Mbthodical reading, always desirable, is especially so in reading History ; and before we commence the narrative of the eventful and, in many respects, important reign of Henry II., we deem that we shall be doing the reader good service in direct- ing his attention to tlie origin of the earlier wars between England and France ; k point upon which all our historians have rather too confidently assumed the intuitive know- ledge of their readers, whom they have thut left to read of results without acquaintance with processes, and to indulge their ima- ginations in the details of warlike enter- prises, without any data upon which to judge of the justice or injustice with which those enterprises were undertaken. Even with the invasion of William the Conqueror, England, by its new sovereign, became interested in no small or insignifi- cant portion of France. Up to that period England's connexion with foreigners arose only from the invasions of the Northmen, but with William's invasion quite a new relation sprang nu between England and the continent. From thia moment the connections of Normandy, and its feuds, whether with the French king or with any of his powerful vassals, entered largely into the concerns of England. With Henry II. this connection of England with the affairs of the continent was vastly increased. In right of his father that monarch possessed Touraine and Anjou ; in right of his mother he possessed Maine and Normandy: and in right of his wife, Guienne, Poictou, Xaintogne, Auvergne, Perigord, Angour- nois, and the Limousin; and he subse- quently became really, as he was already nominally, possessed of the sovereignty of Brittany. If the reader now cast his eyes over the map of that vast and populous territory which is called France, he will perceive that Henry thus possessed a third of it, and the third of greatest fertility and value. Left unexplained as thia usually ia by our historians, the impression upon the minds of even readers not wLoUy deserving of the censure implied in the term super- ficial, must almost necessarily be, that the wars of which by and bye we shall have to speak between France aud England, origi- nated in the mere greed and ambition of I kings of the latter country, who, dissatis- n K •• u ■4 la M H i< M % M H m P o m M H *• UOBB ABBBTS built IN STEFUBN's BRI6N THAR IN 100 YBABS BKFOBB. IN •THrniN'l •HION tH« CANON L»W WAi INTBOUUCliU IIKHK. 120 ®I)e tjreasuro of l^tetorn, Src. fled with their insular pniaeiiioni, desired to uiurp territory in France; whereas the direct contrary is the case; and they in these wars made use of their GnKlish con- quest to retain possesnion of, or to extend by way of reprisal, their earlier conquered or fairly inherited French territory. The kings of France, in point of fact, at this early period of French history, were not kings of France in the present acceptation of that title. They bad a nominal rather than « real feudal superiority over the whole country ; there were six ^reat eccle- siastical peerages, besides the sis lay peer- ages of Jlurifundy, Normandy, Guienne, Flanders, Toulouse, and Champaime. Each of thene peerages, though nominally subject to the French crown, was, in reality, an independent sovereignty. If it chanced that the warlike designs of the king coin- cided with the views and interest of his great vassals, he could lead an immense and splendid force into the field ; but if, as far more fi-equentlv happened, any or all of his great vassals chanced to be opposed to him, it at once became evident, that he was only nominally their master. That in be- coming masters of our insular land, the Norman race should sooner or later see their French territory merging itself into that of the French king and adding to his power was inevitable, a» we can now per- ceive t but in the time of our second Henry, the king of France feared— and the aspect of things then warranted hl^ fear— the pro- eisely opoosite process. By bearing this brief explanation carefully in u.ins, the reader will find himself greatly Assisted in understanding the feelings and views of the sovereigns of England and France, in those wars which cost each country rivers of its best blood. Previous to the death of Stephen, Henry married Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII. of France. She had accompanied that monarch to the Holy Land, and her conduct there partook so much of levity and immorality which marked that of too many of her tex in the same scene, that Louis felt bound in honour to divorce her, and he at. the same time restored to her those rich provinces to which we have al- ready alluded as her dower. I7ndeterred by her reported immorality, Henry, after dix weeks courtship, made her his wife, in defiance of the disparity in their years; having an eye, probablv, to the advantage «'hich her wealth could not fall to give him, should he have to make a struggle to obtain the English crown. A.n. 1155. — So secure, however, was Henry in the succession to England at Ste- phen's death, that not the slightest attempt was made to set up any counter claim on the part of Stephen's surviving son William ; and Henry himself, being perfectly acquainted with the state of the public mind, did not even hasten to England immediately on re- ceiving news of Stephen's death, but de- ferred doing so until he had completed the subjection of a castle that he was besieging on the frontier of Normandy. This done, he I proceeded to England, and he was received with the greatest cordiality by all rnnlii and condilioiis of men. The popularity ilmt he already enjoyed was greatly increAicd by the first act of his reign, which was the equally wise and just dismissal of the hordes of foreign mercenaries whom Ste- phen had Introduced into England, and who, however serviceable to the usurper in question, had been both in peace and in war a burthen and a curse to the Enp'ljiih people. Senniblo that his popularity wai such as to enable him to dispense with these fierce prastoriana, who, while mii. chievous and offensive to the subject under all circumstances, might bv peculiar cir- cumstances be rendered mischievous and even fatal to the sovereign, he sent them all out of the country, end with them he sent 'William of Ypres, their commander, who was extremely unpopular from having been the friend and adviser of Stephen, many of whose ..orst measures, perliapi untruly, for Stephen was not of a temper requiring to be prompted to arbitrary courses, were attributed to his councils. In the necessities caused by civil war, both Stephen and Matilda had made many and large grants, which— however politic or even inevitable at the time — were ex- tremely injurious to the interests of the crown ; and Henry's great object was to resume these grants, not even excepting those of Matilda herself. His next measure was one as dangerous as it was necessary. The country was in a perfectly dreadful state of demoralization ; the highways and bye-ways alike were traversed by troops of darinc and violent robbers, and these obtained encourage- ment and opportunity from the wars car- ried on by the nobles against each other. The troop of soldiers following the baron's pennon, or keeping watch and ward upon the battlements of his strong castle, be- came, whenever his need for their services ceased, the banditti of the roads and forests. In such a state of things it would have been hopeless to have attempted to reduce the country warder, without first dismant- ling those fortresses to which the disorder was mainly owing. A weak or unpopular sovereign would most probably have been ruined had he made any attempt uiion thia valued and most mischievous privilege of the nobles; and even Henr^, young, tirm, and popular, did it at no inconsiderable risk. 'The earl of Albemarle and one or two other proud and powerful nobles pre- pared to resist the king ; but his force was so compact, and his object was so popular with the great body of the people, that the factious nobles submitted at the approach of their sovereign. A.n. 1136. — Havini^byan admirable mix- ture of prudence and firmness reduced all parts of England to complete peace and te^ curity, Henry went to France to oppose in person the attempts his brother Geo£frey was making upon the valuable provinces of Maine and Aiijou, of some portions of wliich that prince had already possessed WILtlAM OP MALMESRUKT FI.OfRISUKD IS THE DEIGN OR RTKPIiKN. was receivei by all rniiki )pularity tliKt tly iiicrcrtied liich wai the iiial of the ■ whom 8te- England, and he uaurper in peace and in I the Enflial) spularity wai liepense with ), while mil- subject under peculiar cir- ichievous and lie lent them with them he r commander, r from having r of Stephen, urea, perliapa It of a temper to arbitrary lis councils. I by civil war, ad made many owever pohtic Lme — were ex-' iterests of the object was to iven excepting Imirable mix- I reduced all E>eace and »«■ ^o oppose in Iher Geoffrey \ provinces of I portions of ay possessed [kn. mCNDT tCNT AN IMBABSf TO BOHI TO CONSaATULATB torm ADRIAK. lEnglantJ.— "^lantagcnew. — H^cnrj} IE 121 himself. The mere appearance of Henry had the effect of causiuK the instant sub- mission of the disaflTectcd, and Geoffrey consented to resign his claim in consider- ation of % yearly pension of a thousand A.D. II57.— Justas Henry had completed his prudent regulntiona for preventing fu- ture disturbances in his French |)osses8ions, he was called over to England by the turbu- lent conduct of the Welsh, who had ven- tured to make incursions upon his territory. They were beaten back before his arrival ; but he was resolved to chastise them still farther, and for that purpose he followed them into their mountain fastnesses. The difficult nature of the country was so unfa- vourable to Ills operations, that he was more than once in ereat danger. On one occasion bis van guard was so beset in a rocky pass, that its discipline and valour could not pre- vent it from being put to complete rout ; Henry de Essex, wno held the high office of hereditary standard bearer, actually threw down his standard and joined the flying soldiery, whose panic he increased by loudly exclaiming that the king was killed. The king, who fortunately was on the snot, gal- loped f: m post to post, reassured his main body, and led it on so gallant I v, that he saved it from the utter ruin with which it was for a time threatened by this foolish and disgraceful panic. Henry de Essex, whose behaviour had been so remarkably unkoigbtlv on this oc- casion, was on its account charged with felony by Robert de Montford, and lists were appointed for the trial by battle. De Essex was vanquished, and condemned to pass the remainder of his life in a convent and to forfeit all his property. A. D. 1158.— The war with the Welsh ended in the submission of that people, and Henry's attention was again called to the continent. When hishrother Geoffrey gave up his pretensions to Anjou and Maine that prince took possession of the county of Nantes, with the consent of its inhabitants, who had chased away their legitimate prince. Geoffrey died soon after he had usumed his uew dignity ; and Henry now claimed to succeed as heir to the command and possession which Geoffrey had himself owed only to the voluntary submission of the people. His claim was disputed by Couan, earl of Brittany, who asserted that Nantes properly belonged to his dominions, whence it had, as he alleged, only been se- parated by rebellion; and he accordingly took possession of it. Henry secured him- self against any interference on the part of Louis of France by betrothing his son and heir Henry, then only five years old, to Louis's daughter Margaret, who was nearly four years younger. Having by this politic stroke rendered it hopeless for Conau to seek any aid from Louis, Henry now march- ed into Krittany; and Conan, seeing the im- possibility of successful resistance, at once agreed to give up Nantes. Soon after, Co- nnn, anxious to secure the powerful support of Henry, gave his only daughter and heiress to that prince's son Geoffrey. Co- nan died in a few years after this betrothal, and Henry immediately took possession of Brittany in right of hit son and daughter- in-law. A. u. 1150.— Henry, through his wife, had a claim upon the country of Toulouse, and ho now urged that claim against Ravmond, the reigning count, who solicited the pro- tection of the king of France; and the latter, both as Raymond's feudal superior, and as the prince more than nil other princes in- terested in putting a check on the vast ag- grandizement of Henry, imnaediately grant- ed Raymond his protection, in spite of the startling fact, that Louis himself had for- merly, while Eleanor was his wife, claimed Toulouse in her right, as Henry now did. So little, alas 1 are the plainest principles of honesty and consisteucy regarded in the strife of politics. Henry advanced upon Toulouse with a very considerable army, chietly of merce- naries. Assisted by Trincarid, count of Nismes, and Bcrcnger, count of Barce- lona, he was at the outset very success- ful, taking Verdun and several other places of lesser note. He then laid siege to the capital of the county, and Louis threw himself into it with a reinforcement. Henry was now strongly urged by his friends to take the place by assault, as he probably might have done, and by thus malting the ;- 'cnch king prisoner, obtain whatever terms he pleased from that prince. But Henry's prudence never forsook him, even amid the excitement of war and the flush of success. Louis was his feudal lord ; to make him prisoner would be to hold out encouragement to his own great and turbu- lent vassals to break through their feudal bonds; and instead of prosecuting the sieg^e more vigorously, in order to make Louis prisoner, Henry immediately raised it, say- ing that he could not think of fighting against a place that was defended by his superior lord in person, and departed to de- fend Normandy against the .ount de Drenx, brother of Louis. The chivalrous delicacy which had led Henry to depart from before Toulouse did not immediately terminate the war be- tween him and Louis ; but the operations were feebly conducted on both sides, and ended first in a cessation of arms, and then in a formal peace. A new cause of bitter feeling now sprang up between them. When prince Iienry, the king's eldest son, was affianced to Mar- garet or France, it was stipulated, that part of the princess's dowry should be the im- Sortant fortress of Gisors, which was to be elivered into the hands of the king on the celebration of the marriage, and in the mean time to remain in the custody of the knights templars. Henry, as was suspected, bribed the -grand master of the templars to deliver the fortress to him, furnishing him with a pretext for so doing by ordering the immediate celebration of the marriage, though the affianced prince and princess were mere children. Louis was naturally URHRy RBMAINKD III FRAMCB FBOH TBI TEAR 1149 TO 1153. [M *■■ ■rLinaovB or ■■»» iicbllbd itrh tbb BArioiTT or nil kuc 122 ^I)c CrtasurD of l^istoro, Sec. much olTendfd at tliii thKrp pntcllre on th* part of Henry, and wm on the point of reroromendnK war aRain, when |ioi)i! Alex- ander III., whom the triuiniih of the aiiti- m>pe, Victor IV , coiiipi'llcd to rciida in PranM, lucceMfuUy interpoied hit media- tion. A. D. 11(13.— Friendihip bein(r. at the least nominally and cxtcrnnfly, eiitabliahcd be- tween Louii and Henry, the littter monarch returned to Enijland, and dcvutod his atten- tion to the delicate and difllculi ta«k of re- itrainins the authority of the cler|(v within reasonable limits. Thnt he miiclit the more safely and readily do this, he took theoppnr- tunitv now afforded him by the death of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, to place that dignity in the hands of a man whom he deemed entirely dcvottd to him- self, but who, in the result, proved the grent- est enemy to the authority of the crown, and tlie stoutest and hnuKliticst rliampion of the church, and taught Henry the dauber of trusting to appearances, by embittering and perplexing whole years of his life. This man, in whose character and temper the king made so grievous a mistake, was the celeorated Thomas ft Becket. Born of respectable parentage in London, and having a good education, lie was fortu- nate enough to attract the attention and obtain the favour of archbisliop Theobald, who bestowed some offices upon him, the emoluments of which enabled him to go to Italy, where he studied the civil and canon law with so much success, that on liis re- turn archbishop Theobald |j;ave him the lu- crative and important appointment of arch- deacon of Canterbury, and subsequently entrusted him with a mission to Rome, in which he acquitted himself with bis usual ability. On the accession of Henry, the archbishop strongly recommended Bec- ket to his notice ; and Henry, finding him remarkably rich in the lighter accomplish- menta of the courtier, as well as in the graver qualities of the statesman, gave him the high office of chancellor, which in that •ge included, besides its peculiar duties, nearly all those of a modern prime minis- ter. Kings often take a delight in over- whelming with wealth and honours those whom they have once raised above the struggling herd. It was so even with the prudent Henry, who proceeded to confer upon his favourite chancellor the provost- ship of Beverley, the deanery of Hastings, and the constableship of the Tower ; made him tutor to prince Henry, and gave him the honours of Eye and Bcrkbam, valuable new baronies which had escheated to the crown. Becket's style of living was pro- portioned to the vast wealth thus heaped upon him ; his sumptuousness of style and the numerous attendance pitid to his levee* exceeded all that had ever been seen in the case of a mere subject ; the proudest no- bles were his pests, and gladly placed their sons in his house as that in which they would best become accomplished gentle- men ; he had a ^reat number of knights ac- tually retained in his service, and he at- tended the king inthe war of Toulouse with seven hundred Knight* nt his own chnrgc ; on another occasion ho miiintained twelve hundred knights and twelve hundred of their I'ollowcrs during the forty days of their stipulated service ; and when sent to France on an embassy, he comulctcly astoni'lied that court by his magnmecnt attendanre. With all this splendour llccket was a gny companion. Having taken only deacon's orders, ho did not hesitate to join in the sports of laymen, or even to take his share of warlike adventure. He Wbs consequently the favourite companion of the king in hit leisure hours. It is said that Henry, riding one day with Becket, and meeting a poor Wc-tch whose rags shook in the wind.seised tuo chancellor's scarlet and crmine-lincd coat, and gave it to the poor man, who, it may well be supposed, was much surprised at such a gift. Living thus in both the official and prl. vate intiinpcy of the king, Becket was well acquainted with all his views and designs towards the church ; and as he had always profeased to agree with them, and was ma- nifestly possessed of all the talent and reso- lution wliich would make him valuable in the struggle, the king made him archbinhop at the death of his old patron Theobald. HaviiiK thus obtained the second place in the kingdom, Thomas h Becket at once I cost off all the gay habits and light humour which he had made the instruments of ob- taining and llxing the personal favour of the king. His tirst step on being couse- j crated archbishop of Canterbury whs to re- \ sign his chancellurithip into the hands of ; the king, on the signilicant plea that bis : spiritual function would henceforth de- mand all his energies and attention, to tlie utter exclusion of all secular affairs. In bis household and equipages he retained all his old magniticence, but in his own person he now assumed a rigid austerity betitting an anchorite. He wore a hair cloth next his skin, whicli was torn and raw with the merciless discipline that he inflicted upon himself; bread was almost his only diet, I and his only beverage was water, which he rendered unpalntabie by an infusion of dis- agreeable herbs. He daily had thirteen beggars into his palace and washed their ; feet ; after which ceremony they were sup- ; plied with refreshments, and dismissed j with a pecuniary present. While thus ex- citing tne wonder and admiration of the laity, he was no less assiduous in aiming at : the favour of the clergy, to whom he was stu- 1 diously accessible and affable, and whom he | still further gratified by his liberal gifts to • hospitals ana convents ; and all who were admitted to his presence were at once eiiitied and surprised by the grave and devotion.il ' aspect and rigid life of one who had bu: recently been foremost among the gaveit and giddiest of the courtiers. Far le>s penetration than was possessed by Henry might have enabled him to see in all this sudden and sanctimonious austerity, a sure indication that he would find a powerful foe in Becket whenever he should attempt CORPOUAI. FDNISUMENT WAS INFLICTKD AS A BIJBSTITUTX FOB FIEIT. TO coaa ?■■ iioKKiTAMT rowiB or th^ cL«a«t. ! % » s t- k N K s I * 9 k •• M M u M • lEnglanti.— ^lantagtncts.— IQcnrn 3EIE. 123 to inrriiiKr upon the reM or Mium«d riKtiti of tlie cliorch. Uut, in truth, Ilrckrt wni too riiK''' to ihow hit eccIciiMticnl iral, tien to wnit until tho in«a«ur«i of tlie klui( ii\ould nrt'ord him op|)ortunit)r, and himself ciiiiimenced the itrile between the inltre mid the crown by cnllioK upon the earl of Cl«rp to surrender the barony of Tunhriilice to (ho lee of Canterbury, to whirh it had fiirnii'riv bclnnKed, and from which Drclcet AlHriiiril that the cnnon» prevented hit pre- decemiori from Irfcally lepnratinK it. The carl of Clare wan a noble of Krcnt wenlth Rnd power, and allied tn tunie of the limt fitmilici, and hi* liater was aunpoied to have gained the affectioni of the kinK; and u the barony of Tunbridge had been in hii family from the conqueit, it lernii nrohable thM Becket wai induced tn select hiiii fur thi* demand of restitution of church property, in order the more eniphaiically to •how his determination to prefer the in< trrests of the church to all personal cousi- derations, whether of fear or favour. William D'Eyntford, one of the military tenants of the crown, was the patron of a living in a manor held of the archbishop of I'tnterbury. To this living Becket pre- iiented an incumbent named Laurence, thereby infringing the right of D'Eynslbrd, who instantly ejected Laurence t'j et armit. Uerkct forthwith cited D'Kynsford, and, acting at once as accuser and judge, passed sentence of excommunication upon him. IVHynsford applied for the interference of the king, on the ground that it was illegal that such a sentence should be passed on one who held in capite from the crown, without the royal assent first obtained. Henry accordingly, acting upon the prac- tice established from the conquest, wrote to Becket, with whom he no longer had any personal intercourse, and desired him to absolve D'Eynsford. It was only re- luctantly, and after some delay, that Becket complied at all ; and even when he did so he coupled his compliance with a message, to the effect that it was not for the king to initruct him as to whom he should excom- municate and whom absolve I Though this conduct abundantly showed Henry the sort of opposition he had to expect from the man whom his kindness had furnished with the means of being ungrateful, there were many considerations, auart from the boldness and decision of the king's temper, which made Henry resolute in not losing any time in endeavouring to put something like a curb upon the licentious insolence to which long impunitv and the gnross super- stition of the great body of the people had encouraged the clergy. The papacy was juat now considerably weakened by its own •chiimatical division, while Henry, wealthy in territory, was fortunate in having the kingdom of England thoroughly in aub- niisiion, with the sole exception of the cle- rical disorders and assumptions to which he had now determined to put a stop. On the other hfMid, those disorders were so scandalous, and those assumptions in many cases were so startlingly unjust, that Henry could scarcely fail to have the best wishea of his subjects in general for the success of his project. The pnu'tice of ordaining the sons of villains had not merely caused an inordinate increase in the number of the clergy, but had also cauned an even mora than corresponding deterioration of the clerical character in England. The incon- tinence, gluttonr, and rnystering habits, attributed to (he lower order of clergy by the writers of a much later dav, were light and comnaralivi'ly venial olTences com- pared tn those which seem hut loo truly to ne attributed to that order in the reign of Henry IL Robbery, adulterous seduction, and even rape and murder, were attributed to them ; and the returns made to an in- quiry which Henry ordered, showed that, only counting from the commenccnirnt of his reign — i. i. a period of somewhat less than two years, a hundred murders had been committed lir men in holy orders who had never been called to account. Henry resolved to take steps for putting a stop to this impunity of cnminals whose •acred profession only made their crimi- nality the greater and more detestable. An opportunity of bringing the point of the clerical impunitv to issue was nttbrded by • horrible cnme that was just now committed in Worcestershire, where a priest, on being discovered in carrying on an illicit inter- course with a gentleman's daughter, nut her father to death. The king demanded that the offender should be delivered over to the civil power, but Becket contincd the clerkly culprit in the bishop's prison to prevent his being apprehended by the king's ofdcers, and maintained thnt the highest puniKhment that could be intlicled upon the priest was degradation. The king acutely caught at this, and deninnded that after degradation, when he would have become a mere lavman again, the culprit should be delivered to the civil power to be further dealt with as it might deem fit; but Becket demurred even to this, on the pica that it would be unjust to try an ac- cused man a second time upon the same charge. Angered bv the arrogance of Becket, and yet not wholly sorry to have such a really sound pretext for putting xome order into the pretensions of the church, Henry sum- moned an assembly of the prelates of Eng- land, for the avowed purpose of putting a trmiination to the frequent and increasing controversies between the ecclesiastical and the civil jurisdiction. Henry himself commenced the bnsiness of tlie assembly by asking the bishops, plainly and categorically, whether they were willing or unwilling to submit to the ancient laws and customs of the kingdom. To this plain question the bishops, in if more Jesuitical spirit, replied, that they were willing bo to submit, " saving their own order ;" a mental reservation by which they clearly meant that thev would so sub- mit — until resistance should be safe and easy I So shallow and palpable an artifice could not impose upon so shrewd a prince A. ». 1164. — tna covnciii at ci.abknoon bkld ov thb SSin or janitart. A. D. 1164.— A OBNBRAI. ISSURBKCTIOW AND CIVIL WAR IK WALES. 124 ^1)6 SFreasury of listori?, 8cc. as Henry, whom it greatly provolced. He departed from the assembly in an evident rage, and immediately sent to require from Becket the surrender of the castles and honours of Eye and Berkhani. This de- mand, and the anger which it indicated, greatly alarmed the bishops; but Becket was undismayed ; and it was not without more difficulty that Philip, the pope's legate and almoner, prevailed upon him to consent to the retractation of the offensive saving clause, and give an absolute and unquali- fied promise of submission to the ancient laws. But Henry was now determined to have a more precise understanding; a for- mal and definite decision of the limits of the ecclesiastical and the civil authority ; and thus in some measure to destroy the undue ascendancy which, as effectually as insidiously, the former had for a long time past been obtaining. He therefore collated and reduced to writing those ancient cus- toms of the realm which had been the most egregiously contravened by the clergy, and having called a great council of the barons and prelates at Clarendon, in Berkshire, he submitted this digest to them in the form of a series of articles, which are known in history under the title of the " Constitu- tions of Clarendon ;" which are thus briefly summoned up. " It was enacted by these constitutions that all suits concerning the advowsou and presentation of churches should be determined in the civi! courts ; that in future the churches belonging to the king's see should not be granted in per- petuity without his consent; that clerks accused of any crime should be tried in the civil courts; that no one, particularly no clergyman of any rank should depart the kingdom without the king's licence ; that excommunicated persons should not be bound to give security for their continuing in their present place of abode; that laics should not be accused in spiritual courts, except by legal and reputable promoters and witnesses; that no chief-tenant of the crown should be excommunicated, nor his lands be put under an interdict, except with the king's consent ; that all appeals in spi- ritual causes shotdd be carried from the archdeacon to the bishop, from the bishop to the primate, and from the primate to the king, and should proceed no farther but with the king's consent ; that should any law-suit arise Dctween a layman and a cler- gyman concerning a tenant, and it be dis- puted whether the land be a lay or an ec- clesiastical fee, it should be first determined by the verdict of twelve lawfux men to what class it beionged, and if the land be found to be a lay fee, then the cause should finally be determined in the civil courts; that no inhabitant in a lay demesne should be ex- communicated for non-ap|}earance in a spi- ritual court until the chief officer of the place where he resides be consulted, that he may compel him by the civil authority to give satisfaction to the church; that the archbishops, bishops, and other spiritual dignitaries should be regarded as barons of the realm, should possess the privileges and be su^jjected to the burthens belonging to that rank, and should be bound to attend the king in his great councils, and assist at all trials, till the sentence either of deatli or of loss of members be given against the criminal ; that the revenue of vacant sees should belong to the king, the chapter, or such of them as he chooses to summon should sit in the king's chapel till they made the new election with nis consent, and that the bishop elect should do homage to the crown ; that if any baron or tenant in eapite should refuse to submit to the spiritual courts, the king should employ his authority in obliging him to make such submissions; that if any one threw off his allegiance to the king, the prelates should assist the king with their censures in re- ducing him; that goods forfeited to the king snould not be protected in churches or churcliyards ; that the clergy should no longer pretend to the right of enforcing payment of debts contracted by oath or promise; but should leave these law-suits, equally with others to the determination of the civil courts ; and that the sons of vil- lains should not be ordained clerks without the consent of their lord." The barons present at this great council were all on the king's side, either from ac- tual participation of his sentiments towards the clergy or from awe of his power and temper; and the prelates, perceiving that they had both the King and the lay peerage against them, were fain to consent to these articles, which accordingly were voted with- out opposition. But Henry, misdoubting that tne bishops, though they now found it useless to oppose the united will of the crown and the peerage, would whenever circumstances should be favourable to them deny the authority of the constitution;, as being enacted by an authority in itself in- complete, would not be contented with the mere verbal assent of the prelates, but de- manded that each of them should set bis liand and seal to the constitutions, and to their solemn promise to observe them. To this demand, though the rest of the prelates complied with it, Becket gave a bold and flat refusal. The earls of Cornwall and Leicester, the most powerful men in tlic lay peerage, strongly urged him, as a matter of policy as well as of obedience, to comply with the king's demand. He was so well aware of Henry's drift, and so far from being desirous of securing the permanent observance of the constitutions of Claren- don, that no intreatics could induce him to yield assent, until Richard de Hastings, Englisli grand prior of the knights tem- plars. Knelt to him, and in tears implored him, if not for his own sake, at least fur the sake of the church, not to continue an op position which must be unsuccessful, and would only excite the ruinous opposition of a monarch equally resolute and powerful. Stern and resolved as Becket had shown himself as regarded the importunity of laymen, this evident proof that upon this point, at least, he no longer had the sym- pathy of even churchmen, caused Becket TBB WBISB MAKB OBRAT KFrORTS TO SHAKE OFV THB EMOLIRH TOKX- A.D.4169.— BKCKXT XXCOMUDKICilTaS MOST OP TBI BNOLISU CLIBOT. lEnglantJ. — "piantagcncts — l^enru 3E5E. 125 to give way ; and he therefore, though with evident reluctance, took an oath " legally, with good faith, and without fraud or reserve, to observe the constitutions of Clarendon." ,..,,, But the king, thongh he had thus far triumphed even over the Arm and haughty temper of the primate, was by no means so near to complete success as he deemed himself. Pope Alexander, who still re- mained in Franre, and to whom in his contests with the anti-pope Henry had done no unimportant services, no sooner had the constitutions presented to him for ratification, than he perceived how com- pletely they were calculated to make the king of England independent of his clergy, and the kini;dom itself of the papacy ; and he was so far from ratifying, that he con- demned and annulled them. When Becke'^ found his own former opposition thus sanc- tioned by the present feelings and conduct of the pope, he regretted that he had al- lowed any considerations to induce him to give his signature and assent. He imme- diately increased his already great and paint\il austerities of life and severity of discipline, and would not even exercise any of the functions of his dignity until he re- ceived the absolution of the pope for what he deemed his offence against the eccle- siastical privileges. Nor did he contine himself to mere verbal repentance or his own personal discipline, buc used all his elo- quence to induce the English prelates to engage with him in a fixed and firm con- federacy to regain and maintain their com- mon rights. Henry, hoping to beat Becket at his own weapons, now applied to Alex- ander to grant the legatine commission to the archbishop of York, whom he obviously only wished to arm with that inordinate and dangerous authority, in order that he might make him the instrument of Becket's ruin. But the design was too obvious to escape so keen an observer as Alexander, who granted the commission of legate, as desired, but carefully added a clause inhi- biting the legate from executing any act to the prejudice of the archbishop of Can- terburv. On Hndini; himself thus batfled upon tlie very point on which alone he was solicitous, Henry so completely lost his temper, that he sent back the document by the very messenger who brought it over ; — thus giving to Alexander the compliment of discernment, and the satisfaction of having completely baffled his. plan. The anger which the king now exhibited threatening extreme measures, Becket twice endeavoured to leave the kingdom, but was detained on both occasions by contrary winds ; and Henry was thus ena- bled to cause hiin great expence and an- noyance, by inciting John, maresrhal of the exchequer, to sue the archbishop in his own court for some lands belonging to the nianor of Pageham, and thence to appeal to the king's court. When the day ar- rived for trying the cause on the appeal, the archbishop did not personally appear, but sent four knights to apologize tor his absence on the score of illness, and to make certain technical objections to the form of John's appeal. The king treated the ab- sence of Becket as a wilful and offensive contempt, and the knights who bore his apology narrowly escaped being committed to prison for its alleged falsehood. Being resolved that neither absence nor technica- lity should save Becket fnim suffering, the king now summoned a great council of barons and prelates at Northampton. Be- fore this court Xecket, with an air of great moderation, urped that the marescnal'i cause was proceeding in the archiepiscopal court with all possible regularity, though the testimony of the sheriff would shew that cause to be iniquitous and unjust ; that he, Becket, far from shewing any con- tempt of the king's court, had most expli- citly acknowledged and submitted to his authority by sending four of his knights to appear for him; that even if their appear- ance should not be accepted as being tanta- mount to his own, and he should be tech- nically made fTiilty of an offence of which he was virtually innocent, yet the penalty attached to that crime was liut a small one, and as he was an inhabitant of Kent, he was entitled by a law to an abatement even of that ; and that he was now, in loyal obedience to the king's summons, present in the great council, aud ready before it to justify liimself against the charges of the mareschal. Whatever may be thought of the general arrogance of the primate and of his ambition, both as man and church- man, it is impossible not to perceive that his reasonings were here very just, and that the king's whole conduct was far more in- dicative of the monarch who was intent on crushing a too powerful subject, than of one who was sincerely and righteously de- sirous of " doing justice and loving mercy ;" and it is equally impossible not to feel some sympathy with the haughty and courageous primate, who, when pressed down by a foe so powerful and so vindic- tive, was abandoned by the dignitaries of that very church for whose sake, principally at least, he had so courageously combatted. In the present case, as in the case of the constitutions of Clarendon, the bishops wee induced to coincide with the lay barons, who had from the first determined to side with the king, and notwithstanding the convincing logic of his defence, he was pronounced guilty of contempt of the king's court and of neglect of the fealty which lie had sworn to his sovereign; and Henry, bishop of Winchester, the once powerful brother of the late king Stephen, was, in spite of all his remonstrances, compelled to sentence the primate to confiscation of all his goods and chattels. Even this severe sentence, upon what we cannot but consider a most iui()uitous judgment, did not suRiciently satisfy the vengeance of the king, who on the very next day demanded from Becket the sum of three hundred pounds, which had been received by him from tlie manors of Eye and Uerkham. To this demand Becket replied, AT TOI'Na HENRY S COk-; "tATION PBA8T HIS FATHKIl»WAITED ON UIM. [ilf.3 CBDXI.TT AND IWBIKCBBITT WBIIB CHABACTBBHTIOS O? TBB ACIB. 120 JH'fyt ^tcBSttce of llistorg, $rc. that M thii luit WM not mentioned in his (Uinmoiii to the council, he ought not to be called upon to answer it; that, in point of fact, ho had expended more than that sum upon Eye and Berkham castles and the royal palace in London ; but that rather than a dispute about •■ >oney should make Bny difference between his sovereign and himself, he would at once consent to pay the sum, for which he immediately gave the necessary sureties. Even this subniis- ■ion could not soften the king's determi- nation I he demanded five hundred marks which he had lent to Hecket in the war of ioulouse- -during which war he had done the king much zealous and good service I— and a simiinr sum for which the king al- leged that ho had become Becket's surety to a Jew ; and then, as if to leave him with- out the slighcst hope of escape, he called upon hitn to fUrnish an account of his ad- ministration as chancellor, and to pay in the balance due from him on account of all tiie baronies, prelacies, and , which in some sort severed the king- ui ■ from its dependance on the papal „, were made not by the great council oi the nation, but by the king's will alone. As Becket still possessed '.-ast influence over the clergy, who in that age had an al- most absolute power ovet the minds of the great mass of the people, Henry did not deem himself sufficiently armed by these orders, but entered into a close engagement with the celebrated emperor Frederic Bar- barossa, who was at open war with pope Alexander ; and still further to alarm the pope, Henry showed some inclination to acknowledge the anti-pope Pascal III. A.D. 1166.-^NothiDg daunted by the pru- dent arrangements of Henry, or by the effect which they undoubtedly had upon the mind of Alexandeir, Becket now issued a censure in which he excommunicated the king's chief advisers by name and gene- rally all persons who should favour or even obey the constitutions of Clarendon. Thus placed in the dilemma of being unable to release his friends from the terrible effects of excommunication, without undoing all that he had done, and making a formal and complete acknowledgement of the pope's power to absolve and therefore to excom- municate, Henry listened to the advice of John of Oxford, bis a^ent with the pope, and consented to admit the mediation of the legates Otho and William of Pavia. When these personages proceeded to exa- mine into the affair, the king required that all the constitutions of Clarendon should be fully ratified ; Becket, on the other hand, insisted that before any such agreement were made, both himself and his adherents should be restored to their possessions and position. The legate William, -who was greatly interested for Henry, took cnre to protract the negotiation as far as possible, lUBLAND WAS ANNKXKU TO TUB BNOMBR CHOWN IN THIS HEIGN. rniBiTLV riiin« aud intoLKaANCB wkbb ai its bbiort in this beioi*. 128 ^f)e tS'Xtamxvi of l^istorp, $cc. and to represent Henry'* disposition in the most favourable liibt to the none. But the pretensions and demands of the opno- nent parties were far too much opposed at the very outset to admit of any good result, and the neKotiation soon fell to the pound; Henry, however, profited by its duration and the partial restoration of the pope's good opinion, to procure a dispensation for the marriage of nis third son Geoffrey to the heiress of Brittany, a favour to which he attached all the more importance be- cause it very deeply mortified both Becket and the king of France. A.B. 1167.— The countofAuvergne, a vas- sal of the Duchy of Guienne, havingoffended Henry, that monarch entered his vassal's do- main ; and the count appealing to the king of France as superior lord, a war ensued be- tween the two kings ; but it was conducted with no vigour on either side, and peace was soon made, on terms sufficiently unfavour- able to Henry to show that his quarrel with llome had lost him not a little of that supe- riority which he had previously enjoyed over the king of France. Both the pope and Henry began to tire of their disputes, which they at length per- ceived to be mutually injurious, and still more dangerous as to the future than pre- sently injurious. This consideration inclined both parties to a reconciliation, but was not sufficient to put an end to their jealousies and suspicions. Several attempts at coming to a good understanding were frustrated by petty doubts or petty punctilio on either side; but at length the nuncios Gratian and Vivian were commissioned by the pope to bring about an accommodation, and for that purpose tliey had a meeting with Henry in Normandy. After much tedious discus- cussions all difficulties seemed happily brought to an end. Henry offered to sign a treaty in the terras proposed by the pope, only with a salvo to his royal dignity. But Becket, who, however much wronged at one time seems at length to have learned to love strife for its own sake, took fire at this limitation, and the excommunication of the king's ministers was immediately renewed. No fewer than four more treaties were broken off by a similar pettiness of temper on either side ; and it is quite clear from all accounts, that the fault lay chiefly. with Becket, who certainly, whatever other qua- lities of a Christian prelate he was endowed with, was sadly deficient in meekness. A.B. 1169. — Henry, who perceived this fault of Becket, did not fail to point it out to the attention of king Louis. " There have been," said Henry, with great force and shrewdness, "many kings of England, some of greater, some of less authority than my- self; there have also been nmny archbishops of Canterbury, holy and good men, and en- titled to every kind of respect; let Becket but act towards me with the same submis- sion which the greatest of his predecessors have paid to the least of mine, and there shall be no more controversy between us." This view of the case was so reasonable that it induced Louis for a time to withdraw his friendship and support; bat bigotry and interest proved an overmatch for reason, and the prelate soon regained the French king's favour. A. D. 1170.— At length, to the great joy of all sensible men and well-wishers to Eng- land, all difficulties were done away with,uiid Becket returned to England. By this treaty he was not required to yield any of the ori- ginal points in dispute ; he and his adherents were restored to their possessions, and in cases where vacancies in the see of Canter- bury had been filled up by the king, the incumbents he had appointed were now ex- pelled, and their places filled by men of Becket's own choice. On the king's side the only advantages derived from this re- conciliation were the removal of the terrible sentence of excommunication from his friends and ministers, and the termination of the dread in which he had so long lived of seeing an interdict laid upoi^his whole dominions. But that was an advantage the preciousness of which it is scarcely possiole for our generation, so happily tree from terrors which Rome could then strike into the hearts of the mightiest nations, adequately to appreciate. "That Henry set no ordinary value upon the peace thus pro- cured may be judged from the fact, that this proud and powerful king, among the many servile flatteries with which he wooed the good-humour of the man whose great- ness was his own creation, actually on one occasion stooped so low as to hold the stir- rup of Becket while the haughty church- man mounted 1 In a king this excessive and unseemly condescension passes for policy and astuteness ; in a meaner man it would scarcely escape being called by the plainer and less complimentary names of hypocrisy and servihty. But the peace procured by so much sacrifice of dignity did not last long. Henry during Becket's absence had aseo- ciated his heir, prince Henry, with him in the sovereignty, and had caused the unction to be bestowed upon him by Roger, archbishop of York. This had not been done so secretly but that the exiled prelate had been informed of it, and both he and the king of France demanded that the archbishop of Canterbury, who alone could regularly bestow the unction, should renew the ceremony both upon prime Henry and his youthful bride, Margaret of France. To this reasonable demand, which indeed was of the utmost importance to the prince and princess, the king readily and frankly acceded; but not contented with this tacit confession, that in a case of ur- gency the king trenched upon his privilege and was now ready to make the best repa- ration in his power, Becket had scarcely landed in England ere he suspended the archbishop of York and excommunicated the bishops of London and Salisbury, by authority with which the pope had armed him. De Warenne and Gervase, two of the king's ministers, astonished and disgusted at this wanton and gratuitous breach of the peace so lately made up, indignantly a! BCCI.BSIASTICS CLAIMED AN EXEMPTION FHOM MA0E8TERIAL ADTHOItlTT. THC BLOOD AilD BBAIIII OF BBCKBT BESPBINKIBD TUB ALTAR. lEnglanti.— ^Blantagcncts. — l^cnrfi 3EE 129 demanded whether the archbishop really desired to return to his native land only to bring lire and sword with him. Utterly unmindful of the construction which sensible and just men might put upon his litigious and vain-glorious airs and conduct, he proceeded to make a tri- umphal entry into his see; and he was re- ceived by the multitude with a rapturous joy and applause well fitted to confirm him in his uncompromising humour. Stimu- lated by his evident popularity, he now published sentence or excommunication against Nigel de Sackville, Robert de Broc, and others, on the ground of their having either assisted at the coronation of prince Henry, or joined in the king's persecution of the exiled clergy. When the archbishop of York and the bishops of London ana Salisbury arrived at Bayens, where Henry then was, and in- formed him of Becket's new violence, the kinjfs indignation that all his careful po- licy, and the condescension which could not but have been most painful to so proud a prince, were thus completely thrown away, was tremendous. He broke out into th; most violent invectives upon the arro- gance and ingratitude of Becket, and un- fortunately allowed himself, in reply to the archbishop of York, who remarked that peace was hopeless while Becket lived, to say that it was the want of zeal on the part ofliis friends and servants that had caused him so long to be exposed to so much inso- len''e and annoyance. Such words could liot in that age fall innocuously from the lips of a monarch far less powerful and far lets beloved by his courtiers than Henry was. Reginald Fitzurse, William deTracey, Hugh de Moreville, an2 Richard Brito, four gentlemen of the king's household, taking a mere expression of very natural peevish- ness for an actual wish for the aeath of Becket, immediately agreed to cross over to England and put their master's enemy to death. They we.e missed by Henry, who, fearing their desperate purpose, dis- patched a message charging them on their allegiance to do no personal injury to Becket. Unhappily they were not over- taken in time to arrest them in their ruth- less design. Becket, proud of the power he had displayed, was residing at Canterbury in all the haughty security of one who felt the peace and safety of the whole nation to be in some sort hostages for his safety ; of one, in fact, whose person the most daring of his enemies must look upon as something sacred and inviolable. This high opinion of his value in the eyes of mankind was fatal to him. When the four resolved as- sassins reached Canterbury the archbishop was but slenderly guarded, and they saw him go without fear or suspicion to hear vespers in the church of St. Benedict, whi- ther they followed and brutally butchered him ; unopposed equally in the commission of tlieir foul and cowardly crime and in their subsequent departure. To Henry the news of this detestable and uoless impolitic crime came like a thunder- bolt. Confident that even the pope woula see the impropriety of Becket's conduct, he had already contemplated the arrest and re- Sular punishment of the proud prelate, not oubting that by dexterous management he could induce the pope not merely to ap- prove, but even to aid his measures. But now his position was complete!* altered; instead of proceeding as an injured and insulted king, he would have to defend himself against the odious charge of as- sassination. He could not but see that, even in the judgment of the most disinter- ested and unprejudiced men there would be but too many circumstances of shrewd suspicion at the least ; while the pope, whose policy it was to seize upon every cir- curantance that could tend to increase the subjection of so powerful a king to Rome, would not fail publicly to attribute this crime to him, whatever might be his pri- vate judgment ; and for himself a;id liis devoted kingdom he could now anticipate nothing but excommunication and inter- dict I So completely was the king unmanned by his fears, that he shut himself up in his own apartments for three days, allowing no light to enter them, wholly abstaining from food, and not permitting even tlie most fa- voured of his subjects to approach him. Alarmed lest this conduct should actually be carried to the extent of self destruction, his friends at length forced their way to him, and prevailed upon him to emerge from his solitude, and resume the cares of government, which now more than ever de- manded the fullest possible exertion of his fine talents. A.s. II71.— Itmust be evident that the main difficulty of Henry's situation origi- nated in the unwillingness which the pope would feel to admit even the most cogent reasonini^s against the king's participation of the ^uilt of Becket's murderers. Men do not easily yield credence to arguments— and Henry could only offer arguments, not S roofs — that militate against their own ear and cherished interests. But this calamity both to king and kingdom woa too terrible and too instant to allow of anything being left nnattempted which promised even the probability jf success ; and Henry immediately sent the archbishop of Rouen, together with the bishops of Worcester and Evreux, and five other men of talent and station, to make, in the king's name, the most humble submission to the pope. There was some difficilty in gain- ing admission to his holiness, who was at the very time that his forbearance was thus abjectly sought by the potent and proud Henry, almost a prisoner in his own palace ; so surrounded and pressed was he oy his enemies. It was now nearly Easter, and it was expected that the name of Henry would be included in the list of those who at that season received the so- lemn and terrible curses of the church. Happily, however, Richard Barre, one of Henry's envoys, and others, contrived so far to mollify the anger of the pope, that IfDMBERLBSS MinACLBS WBtIB I MD TO BE WROITOHT AT BBCKRT's TOMB. A.I>. 1172.— HKHRT mVADKS IRBIANS, WHICH SUBMITS TO HIM. 130 ^^t STrcasure of l^tatorp, $rc. I his fearful anathema was bestowed only in general terms upon Backet's murderers and their instigators or abettors. Two legates were appiiinted to inquire into the affair; and thus, after all his fears, Henry escaped the worst consequences of a crime of which he seems really to have been innocent, but of wliich the circum- stances would as certainly have enabled the pope to teem to think him guiliy— if, indeed, it had not been, just then, rather more to the papal interest to obtain a strong-hold upon England, by accepting the king's submission and allowing his as- sertions to pass for proof, than harshly to drive Loth Vivg and nation to despair. Thus happily delivered from a peril so imminent, Henry directed his attention to Ireland. , , , , A. ». 117.1.— All men's eyes had of late been anxiously turned upon the king's heir, the young prince Henry. He had given many proofs that he possessed in no ordinary degree the princely qualities of courage, liberality, and a kindly dispo- sition ; but those who looked beneath the surface perceived that his very kindness, unless ruled by a severe and uncommon discretion, was likely to give him a fatal facility in listening to the advice of any friends who should unduly minister to his other chief characteristic— an exces- sive ambition. At the time when, during Becket's absence, he irregularly received the royal unction, he made a remark which was much commented upon, and which many did not fail to interpret into proof of a haughty and aspiring turn. His father waited upon him at table, and good-humour- edly observed that never was king more royally attended; upon which the prince remarked to one of his favourites, that it surely was nothing so very remarkable that the son of a count should wait upon the son of a king. Agreeable to the promise made by the king at the period of the return of Becket, young Heury and the princess Margaret were now crowned and anointed by the archbishop of Rouen ; and in the subsequent visit whicn the prince paid to his father- in-law, it is thought that the latter per- suaded him that the fact of his being crowned during the life-time of his father, instead of being a mere ceremony to secure his future succession, gave him an instant claim upon a part, if not upon the whole, of his father's dominions ; and the prince was, unfortunately but too well inclined to give credit to the arguments by which this view of the case was supported. Eager to enjoy the power, of whicn he probably but little understood the pains, he formally demanded that his father should resign either Eng- land or Normandy to him. The king very properly refused to comply with so extra- vagant a request ; and after upbraiding his father in undutiful terms, he hastened to Paris and put liimself under the protection of the king of France. Nor was this the only domestic vexation that assailed the king just as his public affairs looked so hopeful. Queen Eleanor, who as queen of France had been rcMmrli. able for her levity, was in her st.cond marriage no less remarkable for her jus. lousy. Being just now labouring under « new access of that feeling; her angrr with her husband led her to the most unjuniiK. able length of exciting their children nKsiritt him. Acting upon the hint afforded by |||« demand of prince Henry, she periUHded the princes Geoffrey and Richard that tlii.7 too were unkindly and unjustly used bv ihrir father who, she alltrmcd, ought no Imiget to withhold from them possession of the portions he had formallv assigned to them, Offering them aid in tlie undutiful cuuma which she recommended to them, she ae. tually disguised herself in male attire, and was on the point of departing for the French court, there to carry on iiitri|(uei contrary to her duty alike as wife, mutlicr, and subject, when the king obtained iu. formation of her designs, and placed her in confinement. This, liowever, did not |jut an end to the misconduct she liad nminly originated; and there were prini^es wlia were sutHciently envious of the power Hiid prosperity of Henry, to lend their aid and countenance to this unnatural coalition of sons against their father, and of subject! against their sovereign. Judging by liii own experience of the terror in which even the proudest and boldest men lield the censure and interdict of Rome, Henry in this most distressing situation did not jictj. tate to apply to the pope. But he had to learn, that to arm the papal interdict wirli all its terrors, it was necessary that the clergy should have some strong iutvreil in the question. The pope issued his bulls, cxcommuni. eating the enemies of Henry; but as the interests of the church were in no wiie concerned, the clergy cared not to etutt themselves, and the duUs fell to the ground a mere brutum fulmeu. Disappointed and disgusted at liuding that weapon so power. less for him which was so formidable OK'ainat him, Henry now had recourse to the sward; and, as he had prudently amassed great treasures, he was able to take into his pay large bodies of the banditti-like soldiery witli whom the continent swarmed, and who were always ready to flght zcalouiily and bravely, too, in any cause that alfiirded regular pay and promised large plunder, His sons, on the other hand, were nut without the means or the inclination to imitate this part of their father's conduct ; and most of the barons of Normandy, Out- cony, and Brittany willingly took part with the young princes, who they knew must in the course of nature become their rightful sovereigns, their several territories oein/ already irrevocably settled upon them in the usual forms. Nor, to the disgrace of the English chivalry, did the disaffection to the injured king and parent stop even here ; several powerful English barons, and among them the earls of Chester and Lei- cester, openly declared against the kini;. That no sane man could have been led into A. D. 1173.— OIIKKN ELKANOR IS MADB A STATB PBISONER. A, III Il77i— Tua Kiiia or imancb tisiti bbckkt's tomb as a pilorim. lEnglanTJ — ^lantageneta — ^tnxn M. 131 B llil« impn»Mi>n to tho king by any doubt «« in tho jnxtice of his cause is morally mln\ni Ntiit 'a all ihe other foulness of lr)'N«*)ti, Iht'fXi «t the least laid themselves mmt ttt '•«> 'n* """l disgraceful charge of |«ii«)iU dcMftltitf from wliat they knew to bn tliD morn Just side, but deemed to be also Ititt wfNlt«r otifl. And tlie weaker one, to Itll himiNn judiment, it doubtless appeared Iti |||i, Mut hw, comparatively, of his ha- tim» hrouKht their retainers to the aid of ilm klHKi whose chief disposable force was m Mttif of Mbout twenty thousand of those fiifftKlt miircfiiiaries of whom we just now Hindi) invnlion, and some well disciplined KhkIIhIi whom he withdrew from Ireland. ()lt ili# nthcr hand, the combination was tK>(«0, tl77<— I'OCtS KIKB or rUANCK UII.S; fUILIP BUCCERDS n IH. aiioaa iOPBiisTiTiO!* i« ■»«« foilowkd dt abjrct skouadatiun. =1 132 VLlt ^rcasttrn of Ijistorn, $rt on the coast of Suffolk, and thence marched into the very heart of the kingdom. In the action which eniued, the Fleroiah force, con- •iitinir for the moit part of hastily-raised and fll-diiciplined articans, were routed almost at the first charge of De Lacy s disciplined followers, and nearly ten thou- sand were slain or made prisoners, the earl of Leicester himselfbeing among the latter. This dofeat of the Flemings delivered the kingdom from that particular danger, in- deed, but in no wise abated the evil deter- mination of the king's heartless sons and their allies. The earl of Ferrers and seve- ral powerful friends of the earls of Leices- ter and Chester were openly in arms against their king; the earls o' Clare and Glouces- ter were strongly suspected of being pre- pared to take the same course ; and the king of Scotland scarcely allowed the term to expire during which lie had engaged to keep the peace, ere he invaded the northern counties of England with a force of eighty thousand men, who committed the most wanton and extensive spoliation. In this state of things, Henry, having put his con- tinental territories into a state of compara- tive security, hastened over to England to try the effect upon his enemies of his per- sonal presence. Well knowing the effect of all supersti- tious observances upon the principal part of his subjects, he had no sooner landed at Southampton than he hastened to the city of Canterbury, distant as it was, and, ar- riving there, quitted his horse and walked baretooted to the shrine of that now-sainted Thomas h Becket, who in life had caused him so much annoyance and danger. Hav- ing prostrated himself before the shrine, he next caused the monks of the place to be assembled, and, stripping off his garments, submitted his bare shoulders to the scourge. How humiliating an idea does it not give us of that age to reflect that this degrading conduct was, perhaps, the most politic that Henry could nave chosen, to forward the great object he just then had in view, the conciliation of the zealous good-willof all ranks of his subjects, — for amongst all ranks, not excepting the very highest, su- perstition then had a mysterious and a mighty power. Having completed all the degrading ceremonials that the monks chose to consider essential to the final and complete reconciliation of the king to the saint, absolution was solemnly given to Henrv, and he departed for London. News shortly after arrived of a great victory that Henry's troops had obtained over the Scots ; and the monks, ever inclined to the pott hoe, proper hoc, principle, did not fail to attribute that victory to the pious means by which Henry had appeased Saint Thomas h Becket, who had thus signalized his for- giveness. William of Scotland, though repulsed by Henry's generals, still shewed himself un- willing to deprive his troops of the agree- able employment of wasting the northern provinces of England; and, like a half- gorged vulture disturbed in its ravening feast, he still lingered near. Having formed a camp at Alnwick, in Northumbcrlund, he sent out numerous detachments in quest of spoil. However favourable this course might be to his cupidity, it greatly weak- ened him in a military point of view \ and Glanville, the celebrateid lav "»r, v.lio at this time was a very principK. eadcr and support of the Englirn army, having ob. tained exact information of William's situa- tion, resolved to make a bold attempt to surprise him. After a fatiguing inarch to Newcastle, he barely allowed his tronpi time for hasty refresnment, of which both man and horse stood in dire need, and then set out on a forced night inarch to Alnwick, a distance of upwards of thirt; miles, where he arrived very rarly in the. morning of the 13th of July, and, (ot^- nately, under cover of a genuine Scotch mist, so dense as to prevent his approach from being observed. Though, after making all allowance for the detachments wliich William had sent out, Glanville felt that he was far inferior in force to the Scots, he gallantly gave his troops the order to charge. So completely secure had William felt from any such attack, that it was not until English banners flew and English blades flashed in his very camp, that he dreamed of any English force being within many miles of^ him. In the furious scene that ensued he behaved with great per- sonal gallantry, boldly charging upon the serried ranks of the English with only a hundred of his immediate followers. But his negligence as a commander had pro- duced a state of disadvantage which was not to be remedied by any valour, however great. This little band was speedily dis- persed, and he being fairly ridden don-n was made prisoner. The news of his cap- ture speedily spread among his troops, whose confusion was thus rendered too complete to allow of their leaders rallying them; and they hastily retreated over' the borders, fighting among themselves to furiously during their retreat, that they are said to have actually lost more in killed and wounded by Scottish than by English swords. This utter defeat of the Scotch, and the captureof William, upon whom the English rebels had so mainly depended for diversiou of their king's strength, as well as for more direct assistance, left these latter no >afe course but submission; and that course, accordingly, was speedily followed by all ranks among them. The clergy with their usual self-complacency attributed all this success to the submission which they hod induced the Icing to make to Becket; aid Henry, well knowing how much more powe ■ superstition had over the minds of his sub- jects than any political or even moral con- siderations, however clear or important, astutely affected to believe all that they affirmed, and by every means endeavoured to propagate the like belief among hii subjects. Meant ime the serpent of revolt was on the continent, " scotched not killed ;" the TUB rnion anb -honks op st. augiistink wrrb henu\'s h,aoem,ators. ig formed L-rlund, he n quest of \% courM rtlf *eak- (iew; and r, v.lio at eadcr and laving ob- ani's situa- DLttcmpt to ; inarch to j J his troopi I I vbich both ■ need, and I . t inarch to la of thirt; arly in the, and, foKst. line Scotch ia approach ifter making { ^ents which | > felt that he I tie Scota, he | le order to { had William | it it was not and English imp, that he being within furiouB scene h great per- ing upon the 1 with only a lUowers. But j ; ider had pro- ;e which was [our, however speedily di» ridden down •s of his cap , his troops [rendered too [aders rallyin? ■atcd over the lemselves lo that they are iore in killed in by English lotch, and the Im the English i Id for diversion I lell as for move j ! Ilatter no safe ' „ that course, ; tUowed by all |rgy w'*'* **""' Ibuted all this Ifhich they had Becket ; Mi fchmorepowej jida of his sub- ten moral con- [or important, 1 all that they ! . Is endeavoured ] ,| If among li«l revolt was on 1 Lt killed;" the) |l,I.ATORS. LONOOlt BBIDal BBOAII TO BB BVILT Of ITOIII IN TUII BBIOIt. lEnglanK.-^lantagjneta.— l^cntB 3E3E. 133 young prince Henry, with a peraeverancc worthy of a better cause, having in spite of til his father's triumph persisted in carry- ing on bis rebellious designs. He and the earl of Flanders had assembled a large array, with which they were preparing to embark at Oravelines ; but when they heard of the signal defeat which king Henry's troops had inflicted upon the Flemings, they laid aside their intention of invading England, and proceeded to Join their force to that of the King of France, who was be- liepng Rouen, in Normandy. The people of Rouen, who were much attached to king Henry, and proportionally fearful of falling under the rule of Louis, defended the place with so much courage and success, that Louis deemed it neces- sary to have recourse to a stratagem that did far more credit to his ingenuity than to his honour. The festival of St. Laurence occurring just at that time, he proclaimed, under pretence of a pious desire to keep it with due solemnity, a cessation of arms. This was agreed to on the part of the un- iuspecting citizens ; and Louis, hoping to surprise them, immediately made prepara- tions for the attack. It chanced that while all in the French camp were in motion, some priests of Rouen had mounted to a steeple to overlook it, merely from curio- sity. Struck with a degree of bustle that seemed so inappropriate to the solemn truce that had been proclaimed, they caused the alarm bell of the city to be rung, and the soldiers and citizens immediately has- tened to their appointed stations, and were but just in time to repulse the enemy, many of whom had already succeeded in mounting the walls. The French lost muny men in this attack; and on the following day, before they could renew it, king Henry marched into the place in full view of the enemy, and, ordering the gates to be thrown open, dared them to the renewal of their attack- Louis, who now saw Rouen completely safe at the very moment when he iancied it completely within his grasp, bad no thought lelt but how he should best release himself from the danger of a decisive defeat. Trusting to the desire which Henry had all along manifested to come to peace- able terms, Louis proposed a conference. Henry readily fell into the snare, and Louis profited bv the interval which he thus gained, and marched his army into France. Having thus secured his army, however, Louis, who by this time was nearly as anxious as Henry for a termination of their disputes, agreed to a meeting, which ac- cordingly took place near the ancient city of Tours, and peace was concluded on terms far more favourable to Henry than those he had offered at the memorable con- ference which was abruptly terminated by the insolent misconduct of the earl of Leicester. CHAPTER XX. The Reign of Henry II. (concluded), A.D. 1176.— Firm in adversity, Henry had the still farther and more uncommon merit of being moderate in prosperity. He had in various actions taken nearly a thousand knights prisoners, and these he now liberat- ed without ransom, though the customs of the age would have warranted contrary con- duct without the slightest impeachm*n* ' either his honour or his generosity, T liam of Scotland, as the repeatea enn of that monarch fully warranted, he beuuved wii h more wgour. As the price of his release 'William was obliged to agree to do homage for his territories to Henry, to engage that the prelates and barons of his kingdom should also do homap;e, and that they should swear to side with the kin^ of Eng- land even against their native prince ; and that, as security for the peforniance of this agreement, the five princinal Scottish for- tresses, namely, EdinburKii, Stirling, Ber- wick, Roxburgh, and Jedburgh, should be placed in the hands of king Henry. Even when the terms of the agreement had been duly complied with by the Scotch, Henry showed no inclination to relax from his seve- rity upon a people who had caused him so much annoyance by their inveterate en- mity. Contrariwise, he now required that Berwick and Roxburgh should be given up to him altogether, and that he should for a given time retain the castle of Edinburgh. Thus the eagerness with which William lent his aid in the endeavour to crush Henry ended in the latter prince obtaining the first triumph over that kingdom which was ever obtained by an English monarch. A.D. 1176.— Henry wisely employed the peace which his victories had procured him, in remedying those disorders which had sprung up amone his own subjects. He made or restored Taws against those crimes which had the most flagrantly increased, such as counterfeiting coin, arson, robbery, and murder. If when we read of his enact- ing such severe punishments for those of- fences as amputation of the right hand and foot, we feel iuclined to censure the king, we must bear in mind that he had to deal with an age little better than semi-barbar- ous, and was probably obliged against his will to legislate down to the public intelli- gence. We are the more inclined to make this allowance for him in some cases, be- cause in others he gave very plain proofs that he possessed both understanding and good feeling far in advance of his age. In the case, for instance, of the absurd trial by battle, which disgraced the statutp- book even so lately as the reign of George III., Henry, though the time was not ripe for its utter abolition, enacted that either of the parties might challenge in its stead a trial by a jury of twelve freeholders. To make the administration of justice more certain, with a view both to repress- ing crime and to protecting the commu- nity against the oppressions of the nobles, Henry divided England into four great cir- cuits, to be traversed by itinerant justices selected from among those prelates and lay nobles most remarkable for learning and their love of justice. He also made e m >? M K 1* a » m a m a m K B H M M ► ■ m ■4 2 M M M H t< ta e FBBTIOUB TO THIS TIMB WAOBR OF BATTLB WAS UNIVERSAL. [If A.O. 1185.— All BAKTBQVABI. WITS A TOTAL ICMHB 0> f» ■WW. a R if s M M s H M a M I 134 Sr^e ©rwsuni of l^lgtoro, $cc. 1 lomii Tery meful regulations with the niew to the defence of the kingdom, each nmn being obliged to arm himself according to hie rank. , , , While the kinp was thus wisely employ- ing his leisure, his sons were meditating farther annoyance to him. Prince Henry renewed his demand for the complete re- signation of Normandy, and on receiving a refusal proceeded to the court of France with his queen with the evident design of renewing his hostilities avainst his too in- dulgent father. But Phihp, who hod just succeeded to Louison the throne of France, was not just now prepared forwHr against so powerful a king as Henry, and the young prince was theretore once more obliged to -lake his submission to his much enduring sovereign and patent. Prince Henry and Oeofl'rey now became engaged m a feudal strife with their brother, prince Richard. The king, with his usual anxiety for the welfare of these most turbulent and undu- tiful princes, interfered to restore peace among them, but had scarcely succeeded in doing so when he once more found prince Henry arrayed against him. A.D. 1183.— To what end the shameful conspiracies of this incorrigible and un- grateful prince would at length have ar- rived it is difficult to judge, though we may but too reasonably presume that his real aim was the actual deposition of his father. But the career of the prince now drew to an end. He had retired to the castle of Martel, near Turenne, to mature his schemes, and was there seized with a fever. Finding himself in danger, he sent to in- treat that his father would visit him and perHonally assure him of forgiveness. But the king, though not less affectionate than of yore, had received so many proofs of his son's perfidv.that he feared to trust him- self in his bands. The prince died on the 11th of June; and the king, who fainted on hearing the news, bitterly, but surely most unjustly, reproached himself with hard- heartedness in having refused to visit him. Prince Henry, who died in the twenty- eighth year of his age, though married left no children. The prince Richard therefore now tilled the important situation of heir to the English throne ; and the king pro- posed that in this altered state of things, prince John, who was his favourite son, should inherit Guienne. But Richard, un- mindful of the grief which his father was alfeady enduring, not merely refused to consent to this arrangement, but proceeded to put that duchy into a condition to make war against his brother Geoffrey, who was in possession of Brittany, and to resist, if needful, the king himself. Well knowing how much more influence Eleanor had over their sons than he had, the king sent for her, and as she was the actual heiress of Guieune, Richard, so undutiful towards his father, at once delivered the duchy up to her. A.B. 1185.— Scarcely had Richard become reconciled to his father, when Geoffrey, be- ing refused Anjou, of which he had de- manded the annexation to his duchy of Brittany, levied troops and declared war against his father ; but before this unna- tural prince could do any considerable por- tion of the mischief which he obviously in- tended, he was slain accidentally by one of his opponents at a tournament. His uos- thuinous son, who was christened Arthur, was invested with the duchy of Brittany by king Henry, who also constituted himself the guardian of the youthful prince. The attention of both Henry and hia rival, Philip of France, was soon called from their personal differences to a new crusade, which Home was now anxious that the European sovereigns should vngiiKe in. Snladin, a gallant and generous spirited prince, but no less a determined opponent of the cross, having seated himself on the throne of Egypt, boldly undertook the task of expelling the Christians from the Holy Land. His object was Ki'^'atly favoured by the folly of the Christian leaders, who, in- stead of'^uniting to oppose the infidels, were perpetually at enmity among thcmgelvea. To this general follv treason was added, and the count of Tripoli, who had the command of the Christian forces on the frontier, perfidiously allowed Saladin to advance, and deserted to him at Tibcriad, where the soldan was completely victorious, ' the long tottering kingdom of Jerusa* lem being completely overturned, and the I holy city itself captured. The kingdom of ^ Antioch was also subdued ; and of all that '• the Christians had possessed in the Holy ' Land nothing now remained to them but a few petty towns upon the coast. So soon and so easily was that territory lost which it had cost the warrior-hosts of Christen- dom so much blood, treasure, and time to conquer from the iufidela of an earlier generation. A.D. 1188.— The intelligence of this tri- umph of the crescent produced a general and profound grief in Europe. Pope Urban III. actually sickened and died from sorrow at the calamity, and hisjsucccssor, Gregory VIII. bestowed nearly all his attention during his short reign upon the necessary preparations for attempting, at the least, the re-conquest of the holy city. ' Henry of England and Philip of France, as by far the most powerful monarchs in Europe, were naturally a{)pealed to by Rome, a.nd William, archbishop of Tyre, caused them to have a meeting at Giscrs. His description of the sufferings of the Christians in the East, and his eloquent appeal to the love of military glory, which, after superstition, was the most powerful passion of both monarchs and private men in that age, so wrought upon both princes, that they at once assumed the cross and commenced the necessary preparations. A.I). 1189. — As the clergy, notwitlistand- ing the zeal of tlie papal court, did not shew their usual alacrity in aiding the new enterprize either with money or eloquence ; some delay and ditHculty were experienced by both kiiign in obtaining the necessary supplies, and in the mean time new quanels A.D. 11S5.— SBTXRAL CBUBCBES OVBRTBROWN BY THK FAUTHQIJAK R. ■ ■Hai'l SWAT BXTBHDID OTBB ORB-rirTB 0» MOOBBB rBAMCB. lEnglantl.— ^lantagcneW. — l^cnrB 3EK. 135 iprang up between them. Philip, always ieslou* ot Henry't suieriority, found that liiiiif's ion, prince Richard, fully at credu- loui and a« prone to dialoyal and undutiful conduct as hit dcceatcd brother Henry had been; and he had no dilHculty in pcriuading him that he waa more interested in the welfare of France than in thnt of the kiuff- dom over which he was one day to rule. In a fewwnnls, Richard wai the credulous and hnthcnded dupe, and Philip the reiolved and wily deceiver. Philip, detirout of a cauae for iiuarrcl with Henry, and yet un- willing to incur the disgrace which could not but attach to one crusader who should without strong provocation make war upon another while Palestine yet groaned be- neath the yoke of the proud and bigoted pagnu, persuaded Richard to furnish him with a pretext for war bv making an inroad upon Toulouse. At Philip had foreseen, Baymond, count of Toulouse, appealed to him for support at superior lord; and with as much gravity at though he had then first heard of Richard's achievement, I'kilip complained to the king of En|)|lanci of his son's infringement upon the rights and property of a vassal of the crown of France. But Richard, if wicked or thought- less enough to undertake the evil measures against bis own sovereign and father, was not prudent enough to keep bis own counsel ; and Henry was able to reply to the hypocriti- cal complaint of Philip, that prince Richard had confessed to the archbishop of Dublin that it was at the express desire and per- lopr.'. L'uggestion of Philip himself that he had made his unprovoked attack npon the county of Toulouse. Far from being either abashed or dismayed by this discovery of his treacherous designs, Philip, on receiv- ing Henry's reply, immediately invaded Berri and Auvergnc, and did so under the pretence of retaliating the injury to the count of Toulouse, which it was so well known that he had himself caused to be done. Henry, now thoroughly provoked as Philip himself could have desired him to be, crossed the French frontier, and, be- tides doing much other damage, burned the town and fortress of Dreux. After much mutual injury and a vain attempt at treaty, the two kings were at length induced once'more, but in vain, to attempt to come to terms ; chiefly, however, as far as Philip was concerned, ny the refusal of some of bis most powerful vassals to serve any lon^r against Henry, whom, as well as their own sovereign, they desired to see combating for the redemption of Palestine. On Henry's side the feeling was as much more sincere as it was less compulsory ; but the terms proposed by Philip were so insidiously calculated to work future evil to England, that Henry had no choice but to refuse them. For well aware as he was of the mischief which had accrued to Henry in consequence of his having consented to the coronation of his former heir, he de- manded that the same honour should now be bestowed upon Richard, and with this aggravation, that whereas Richard in the very act which had produced this war had shewn how ready he waa to do aught that would injure and annoy his father, Philip demanded his being put into iuimediala possession of all the French possessions of nit father, and that hit nuutiiils should forthwith be celebrated with Alice, Philip's titter. In full expectation, as it should seem, that Ileifry's good sense would dic- tate this refusal, Philip had caused Richard to agree that on receiving such a refusal he would immediately disiclaim farther nlle- Sinnce, and do homage to Philip for all the iikIo- French possessions, as though he had already and lawfully been invested wi 'hem. ine war accordingly recommenced as furiously as ever between the two kings i and cardinal Albano, the pope's legate, de- spairing of ever weing the two powerful monarchs arrayed side by side against the infidels while these quarrels existed be- tween them, and looking upon the unna- tural conduct of Richard as a chief cause of them, pronounced sentence of excom- munication against him. The sentence fell innocuously on his head, owing to the luke- warmnessof the clergy ; and Richard having formally received from Philip the investi- ture of Guienne, Normandy, and Anjou, the nobles of those provinces tided with him in spite of the declared will of Rome, and overran the territories of all who still main- tained the cause of the king of England. At Henry's reauest, cardinal Adngni, who had Buceeedc i Albano as legate, threatened Philip with an interdict upon his domi- nions ; but Philip scornfully replied, that it Vns no part of the papal duty to interfere in the temporal quarrels of princes ; and Richard, who was present at tiie interview, went so far as to draw his sword upon the cardinal, and was not without difiiculty withheld from proceeding to still more out- rageous and criminal lengths. Mans, Amboise, Chateau de Loire, and several other places were successively taken by Philip and Richard, or treacherously delivered to them by their governors. In this state of the war, when every thing seemed to threaten Henry with utter ruin, the archbishop of Rheims, the duke of Burgundy, and the earl of Flanders stopped forward as mediators. Intelligence at the same time reached Henry that Tours, long menaced, was at length taken; and hard as the terms were that were proposed, he now saw nothing left for him but to agree to them. And hard those terras indeed were to a prince who hitherto had been so much accustomed to dictate terms to others. He consented to the immediate marriage of Richard and Alice — though some historians relate that he was himself enamoured of that princess — and should receive homage and fealty, not only for the Anglo-French do- minions, but also for England itself; that the king of France should receive twenty thousand marks to defray his expences in this war ; that the barousof England should be security for Henry's due performance of his part in this treaty, and should undertake s o K •f ta e m f m * m (• p m f m H A M K M < s o BENttl's WBOLB BEION IS ONB SERIES OF BUCCKSSES AND DISASTERS. IN HIS DIMIAHOUII ■■■•■T WAI ArrA«LB *IIO COUMTKUUI. 136 JKl)t JSxtM\\x\) of '^{sioru. Sec. to ioin their force* with thoie of Richard •nd the king of France In the event of hi* breakiDR hia enMgrment, and that all and tundry ui* Taaial* who had aided with hia eon ahould b« held harmleaa. If the laat mentioned clauie wai in itaelf ealculated to wound the feelinKi of lo proud a prince aa Henry, it led to hit bring wounded in a feeling far deeper than pride; for, on hit demniKlinir a liit of tboie whom ha waa thua tngtiged to pardon, the very drat name that met hi* eye waa that of hi* favourite eon, prince John, on whom he had conferred kindne** even to the extent of arouiing the anKcr and Jealouty of the paiiionate Richard. Though proud and bold, Henry waa a aingularly affectionate parent; he had al- read/ ■un'ered much sorrow horn the unna< tural conduct of hi* ion*, and thi* new proof of the utter callouinek* of heart of the beat beloved and moit trusted of them wa* a blow too lovere for his decliuinff atrength. He eickened on the instant, and bestowed upon hi* ingrate and heartlea* children a eoleran cur*e, which no intreatie* of the friend* who were about him could induce him to recall. A* he reflected upon the barbarity of hi* children hi* chagrin in- ereaaed instead of diminishing, and a low nervous fever *oon after deprived him of hi* life, which happened on the *ixth of July, in the fiftyeiglith year of his age and thirty-fifth of his reign. His corpse was conveyed to Fontevraud by his natural son Geoffrey, who had ever behaved to him with the tenderness and dutv so fearfully want- ing in the conduct of his legitimate chil- dren. MThile the royal corpse lay in state at Fontevraud, prince Richard visited the sad scene, and exhibited a sorrow sincere and passionate as it wa* tardy and uaele**. Talcen altogether, the reign of Henry II. wa* both a prosperous and a brilliant one ; and it seems probable that had not the cruel misconduct of his sons engaged him in war when he fain would have heen at peace, he would have done still more than ne did towards providing for tbe internal welfare of his kingdom. V^hat he did to- wards that end, if it appear of too stern and cruel a nature to us who live in times so much milder and more civilized, seems to be but too completely justitied by what the historians tell us of the gross and evil daring of the populace of those early days. In the cities especially, where the congre- fating of numbers had given increased aring to offenders, but had not as yet led to any sound and safe arrangements of fiolice, the insolent violence of the popu- ace attained to a height of which we can form but a very faint notion. Street brawls and street robberies, attended with violence always and not unfrequently with actual murder, were every-day occurrences. Bur- glary was not then as now contined to the darkness and security of the night hours, but even the wealthiest traders, though their shops were situated in tbe most pub- lic streets, had constant reason to fear assault and robbery even at noon-day, so bold and *o *trong were the Rang* of thieve*. A (ingle *p«cimen of the doing* of the *treet robber* of tho*c time* may not be unacceptable. The houae of a cititen of known and large wealth wa* attacked by a band of robber* who actually plied their wedgea and axe* *o effectually as to make a breach in a aubstantial stone wall. Just a*, aword in hand, they were mukiiiK good their entrance, the citizen led on hit aervanta to reaist them, and so stoutly de- fended his premises that hia neighbours had time to arm and assist him. In the course of the fight which, though short seems to have been severe, one of the robbers had his right hand cut off. This man was subseouenily taken prisoner, and as the loss he nad sustained rendered all denial of his identity perfectly idle, he agreed, in order to save his own life, to give full information of all who were con- cerned with him. Among the accomplices thus named was a very wealthy citizen who up to that time had been looked upon as a person of the greatest probity. Denying the charge, he was tried by the ordeal ana convicted. He then offered the large sum of five hundred marks ;n commutation of his offence ; but the king, rightly .iudging that the rank and wealth of the offender only made the offence the more ahameful ana unpardonable, sternly refused the mone? and ordered the citizen felon to be hanged. Unlike the other Norman princes, Henry II. was not so attached to hia game as to hold the lives of his subjects in utter con- tempt on its account. He greativ mode- rated the forest laws, which under nis pre- decessors had been ao fruitful a source of misery to tbe people; and punished in- fringement* upon them, not by death or mutilation, but by fine or imprisonment. Though generally of a grave and dipified habit, this King waa not destitute ol a cer- tain dry humour. Thus Oiraldu* Cam- brensis relates, that tbe prior and monks of the monastery of St. Swithin made grievous complaint to Henry of the rigour with which, as they alleged, they had been treat- ed by the bishop of Winchester in the or- dering of their diet. "We have but ten dishes allowed us now I" they exclaimed. " But ten I" said the king, " I have but three I 'Tis the fitter number, rely upon it ; and I desire that you be confined to it henceforth." Henry was survived by two legitimate sons, Richard and John, and three legiti- mate daughters, Maud, Eleanor, and Juan. He also left two illegitimate sons, Kicliard, sumamed Longsword, and Geoffrey, who became archbishop of York. These fon* were borne to bim by Rosamond, daughter of lord Clifford. Of all that runianci whether in its own guise or in that of his- tory, has said of this lady, nothing seems to be true save that she was both fair and frail. Her bower at Woodstock, and the fileasant choice offered to her, by the jca- ous queen Eleanor, between the dagger and the poisoned chalice, are mere inven- tions. nilNRT II. WA* BCniBD IW TBI HUNHKRT HF FOCNDBD AT FONTRVRAUO. TMS ■IISN or BtCHAkB It MORI M>B >lii him with presents of great value. Having A| either massacred or escaped, the plundering of the rabble went on with equal zeal in the houses of men who were not Jews, and who indignantly impressed that fact upon the minds of the plunderers. Though the known hatred which the king bore to the Jews was doubtless influential in encourasing the rabble to excess on this occasion, it is certain that he gave no direct orders or encouragement to them. On the contrary, as soon as actual force had re- stored comparative order iu the country, Richard commissioned his chief justiciary, the celebrated Glanville, to make the ne- cessarv enquiries and to punislj as many as could be discovered of the original instiga- tors of these detestable enormities. But even partial enquiry showed that the rabble were, with all their violence and grossaess, by no means the most blameworthy party upon tliis occasion ; and so many powerful and wealthy men were found to be deeply implicated, that after the punishment of a very few persons, to vindicate the law from tlie reproach of utter inefficiency, the en- quiry was wholly laid aside. Scarcely had Richard tinished the cere- mony of ikis coronation ere he commenced his preparations for an expedition to Pa- lestine. The distance of that country made it impossible for him to rely upon England to furnish him f^om time to time with the requisite supplies; his first care, therefore, was to provide himself with such an amount of money as would place him above any danger from want of means to provision bis followers. His father had left him above a hundred thousand marks— a very large sum in that age— and, to add to that im- portant treasure, the king resorted to the sale not only of the manors and revenues of the crown, but even of many ofiice», the nature of which rendered it especially im- portant that they should be held by pure hands. The office of sheriff, which con- cerned both the administration of justice and the crown revenue, was thus sold, as was the scarce less important office of forester; and at length, as if to show that all considerations were trivial, in his judg- ment, when compared to that of forwarding his favourite scheme, Richard openly and sharaefully sold the high office ot chief jus- ticiary — thit office upon which the 'ibertica and properties of the whole nation were to a very considerable extent dependant, to Hugh de Puzas, bishop of Durham, for a thousand marks; this prelate being also, " for a consideration, invested for his own life with the earldom of Northumberland." Utterly reckless how he obtained money, and really seeming to have no single tliought to bestow upou liis country, except as a sourct! of money, he next sold back to tlie king 3f Scotland the Scottish fortresses which his wiser father had so carefully guarded, and released William from all sign of vassalage beyond the ordinary homage for lands held by him in England; the price of all tl.is advantage on the one side and disgraceful sacrifice on the other being ten thousand marks. Besides selling, in this reckless way, much in which he justly and legally held only a mere life interest, he wearied all ranks of his subjects for loans or gifts ; the distinction in words being, it will easily be believed, the only distinction between' the two ways of parting with their money I The utmost having been done to raise money in these discreditable ways, Ricliard next applied himself to selling pcrinission to remain at home to those who, after having taken the cross had, from whatever cause, become less enamoured of the task of combating the infidels. To dwell no longer upou this most disgraceful passage in our history, Richard, in his anxiety to raise money to aid him in his merely selfish pursuit of fame, showed himself so reckless a salesman, that his ministers ventured to remonstrate with him ; and be, shamelessly exulting in his own want of principle and true pride, replied, that he would gladl' sell his good city of London, could he but find a purchaser. While Richard was thus making such great sacrifices, nominally for the sake of the Christian cause iu Palestine, but really for the sake of his own fierce vanity, of that peculiar quality to which men have slavishly agreed to give the more sounding name of love of glory, his life and conversation were by no means of the most Christian pattern, and gave great offence to those crusaders whose piety was sincere and practical, though occasionally carried to the extreme of bigotry in feeling and of grimace in manifestation. Fulke of Neuilly, a zealous and eloquent preacher of the crusade, preaching before Richard, boldly assured nim that he had three favourite most dan- gerous daughters of whom it behoved him speedily to rid himself, namely, pride, ava- rice, and voluptuousness. " You are quite right," repliea Richard, " and I hereby give the first of them to the Templars, the se- cond to the Benedictines, and the third to my prelates. Previous to departing for the east Richard committed the administration ol the go- Tcrnment in England to Hugh, bishop of Durham, and Longshamp, bishop of Ely ; but thou{;h he at first swore both his brother prince John and bis natural brother Geoffrey, archbishop of York, not eveu to enter the kingdom during his absence, he subsequently withdrew that politic prohi- bition. Longchamp, the bishop of Ely, though of mean birth, was'a man of consi- derable talent and energjr ; and the better to enable him to govern with effect, Richard, who had already made him chancellor of the kingdom, also procured him to he in- vested with the authority of papal legate. While Richard and Philip had been en- gaged in prepaving for their eastern expe- dition, the emperor Frederic had already led from Germany and the neiglibnurinit countries of the north an army uf 15U,l)UU HBSSINA, IN SICILY, WAS THB OBHKRAL IIBNUBZVOUS OF TUB CBOISBS. sun. (land; the le one side ither being kicu way, sgallf held weaned all r Kilts ; the ill easily be etween the sir money) ne to raise lys, Richard permission who, after im whatever of the task 'o dwell no eful passage 3 anxiety to lerely seltish [f 80 reckless ventured to , shamelessly )rinciple and nould gladl; could he but making such • the sake of ne, but really mnity,of that have slavishly ding name of rersation were istian pattern, bse crusaders lad practical, the extreme grimace in ally, a zealous the crusade, loldly assured te most dan- [behoved him ly, pride, ava- fou are quite ll hereby give •lars, the se- the third to I cast Richard ti ol the go- Hi, bishop of Ihop of Ely; te both his Itural brother 1 not even to absence, he iiolitic prohi- Ihop of El^, lian of consi- Id the better lect, Richard, Ihancellor of Im to be in- Ipal legate. lad been en- lastcrn cxpe- 1 had already leitchbourini? | 'm of 150,000] |bs. MILITABl aLOBT WAI BUT HALV COKCBAbBD BT TUB HASK OF riBTT. lEnglantt.— ^lantaQcncta — laicljatlr E. 139 men ; and though the force of the infidels and the intrigues of the court of the east- em empire — which feare^ the western Christians nearly aa much as it did the in- fidels themselves,— caused him both great delay and a considerable loss of men, he had already reached the frontiers of Syria, when, bathing in the Cydnus, he was caused so violent an illness bv the exces- sive coldness of the water, that he very shortly afterwards died. His son Conrad assumed the command of the array, which, however, reached Palestine reduced to about ei|;ht thousand men, and even of these many were in a state of pitiable weakness from the diseases incident to the climate and season under which so many of their comrades had perished. Philip and Henry perceiving how much mischief accrued from the utter cutting off of such immense bodies of men from all chance of succour from Europe, resolved to equip fleets, not only for the purpose of carrying over their armies and such stores of provisions as would inevitably be requi- site, bat also to form, aa it were, a line of ■ommanication with Europe whether for tipplyor for retreat. A. D. 1190.— And indeed when the forces of Richard and Philip met on the plains of Ve- lelay, on the frontiers of Burgundy, men the least sanguine in trusting to human prowess might have been pardoned for deeming that that mighty host must be invincible by any power that the infidels could muster against it. After all the necessary and cautious weeding by which the minor lead- ers had taken care, as far as possible, to have none inrolled among their troops save those who were strong of body and masters of their weapons, this force amounted to more than a hundred thousand men, well armed, abundantly provided for, and ani- mated to the highest possible pitch of zeal by the double feeling of religious zeal and militarv amb'tion. Richard and Philip pledged both themselves and the other leaders of this mighty host to mutual faith and friendship in the fif^ld; and the two monarchs engaged their barons and pre- lates who remained at home, on oath, to refrain from any infringement of the re> spective kingdoms, and called down inter- dict and excommunication upon whosoever should break this solemn engagement. This done, Philip marched towards Genoa, and Richard towards Marseilles, where, respec- tively, they had rendezvoused their Meets. Though they sailed from different ports, they were both, and nearly at the same time, tempest-driven into the harbour of Messina, in which port tliey were detained during the whole remainder of the year. The adage which represents a long con- finement on board ship as a peculiar test of temper and touchstone of friendship, applies equally to all cases of very close roinpanionship. Brought thus long into daily contact, these young princes, who were (0 well fitted to have been friends under almost any other circumstances, vere the mure certain to disagr..e, from their mutual possession, in a very high de> gree, of a haughty determination, ambi- tion, courage, and obstinacy ; and as Philip was as cool and reserved, as Richard was Sassionate to the verge of frenzy, and can- id to the verge of absolute fully, their dis- agreements were pretty sure to tend chiefly to the advantage of Philip. 'While residing at Messina, and settling some difference which both kings, in some sort, had with Tancred, the reigning usur- per of Sicily, Richard, extremely jealous of the intentions of both prince and peo- ple, established himself in a fort which commanded the harbour. A quarrel was the consequence, and Richard's troops hav- ing chastised the Messinese for an attack which he rather guessed than had any proof that thev meditated, Richard had the English flag displayed in triumph on the walls of the city. Philip, who had pre- viously done all that he could to accommo- date matters, justly enough considered this display as being insulting to bim, and gave orders to some of his people to pull the standard down. Richard, on the other hand, chose to treat this order as a perso- nal insult to him, and immediately sent vord to Philip that he had no objection to removing the standard himself, but that no one else should touch it, save at mortal risk. Philip, who was too anxious for the aid of Richard when they should arrive in the Holy Land to be willing to drive him to extremity, accepted the proposal with seeming cordiality ; but the quarrel, petty as it was, left the seeds of dislike in the hearts of both princes. A. o. 1191. — Tancred, the Sicilian usurper, deeming that his own safety would be pro- moted by whatever sowed discord between these two powerful princes, was guilty of a deception which in tneir mutual temper of suspicion might have led to even fatal conse- quences. He showed to Richard a letter which he stated that he had received from the hands of the duke of Burgundy. This let- ter, which purported to be written by Philip, required Tancred to cause his troops sud- denly to fall upon the English troops, and promised that the French should aid him in the destruction of the common enemy. Richard, with his usual fiery and unreflect- ing temper, believed this clumsy fiction without examination, and being wholly un- able to dissemble his feelings, he at once told Philip what he was charged withal. Philip flatly denied the charge, branded the Sicilian usurper with his falsehood, and challenged him to support the atro- cious charge he had made; and as Tan- cred was, of course, wholly unable to do so, Richard professed to be completely sa- tisfied. As this attempt of Tancred and its near approach to success had warned both Philip and Richard of the danger to which their friendship, so important to both their kingdoms and to the great cause in which they were both engaged, was per- petually liable from the arts of the enemies of either, they agreed to hare a solemn treaty, in which every passible point of M U M M ■9 M m s. H H TUB OREATBST O^.iECTS ABB OFTRN MAURED BY PAT.TRT PRIVATB FE(IDS. 00411 or ABMI VBKM riBST D»D IN BlfOLANO ABOUT THIS TIHB. 140 CTfic treasury of l^istorp, $cc. difTerence between them should be bo ar- ranged thnt no future difficulty could arise. But this very attempt at formalizing ftii'nd- ship waa itself the cause of a dispute, wliich at the outiift threatened to be a fatal one, inasmuch ai the family honour of Phiiip'^ was very much concerned in the matter. It will be remembered tiiat, in his shame- ful opposition to his father, Richard had constantly expressed the utmost possible anxiety for permission to espouse Alice, daughter of I/uuis, the late king of France, and (ister of that Philip who was now Eichard's fellow-crusader. Alice, who long resided in EnKl'tnd, was confidently, thougii uerliaim only scnndaluusly, reported to have been engaged in a criminal amour with Richard's own father; and Richard, well knowing the current report on that bend, was far indeed from desiring the aUiance which, as a sure means of annoying his father, he was thus perpetually demanding. Now that he was king, he not only had no longer anr intention of marrying Alice, but had, in fact, made proposals for the hand of Berengaria, daughter of the king of Navarro, and was expecting that princess to follow him under the protection of his mnihcr, queen Eleanor. Philip, probably suspecting or knowing this new passion, formally required that Richard should espouse Alice, now that there was no longer any hostile father to oppose him. But Richard on tliis occasion gave proof that he was not actuated merely by his constitutional levity, by bringing forrvard proof so clear that it carried conviction even to the unwilling mind of Philip, that Alice had actually borne a child to Rich- ard's father, the late king of England. To such a reason for breaking olT the engage- ment no valid reply could be made; and Philip departed for the Holy Land, while Richard remained at Messina to await the arrival of his mother and the princess Be* rengaria. Thev soon after arrived, and llienard, attended by his bride and hia sister, the dowager queen of Sicily, departed for the Holy Land; queen Eleanor retui'n- ing to England. Riehard's fleet was met by a heavy storm, which drove part of it upon the isle of Cy- prus, the (irince of which, Isaac, a despot whose limited means and power did not prevent him from assuming all the state aiid tyratmous bearing of an emperor, threw the wrecked crews into prison, instead of hospitably administering to their wni ■, and even carried his barbarity so far as to prevent the princesses, on their peril, from being sheltered in his port of Limisso. But the triuinnh of the ill-conditioned tyrant was only brief. Richard, who soon after arrived, landed his troops, beat the tyrant before Limisso, took that place by storm, threw Isaac himself into prison, and es- tablished new governors in all the principal places of the island. A singular favour was in the midst of this severity conferred by Richard upon the defeated and impri- soned tyrant. Isaac complained bitterly of the degradation of being loaded, like a tuI- ' gar malefactor, with chains of iron; his sense of degradation being apparently li. ' mited to the material of his fetters, and not extending to the fact of his being fet. I tered at all. With an indescribably droll courtesy, Richard not only admitted the I justice of the complaint, but actually had a I set of very substantial silver fetters made for Isaac's' especial use I I The nuptials of Richard and Berengaria I were celebrated with great pomp at Cyijrus, ! and they again set sail towards Palestine, ; taking with them Isaac's daughter, a beau- ! tiful woman, who was reported to hare : made conquest of Richard's heart. A ! Btrange companion to be given to his newly I married wife by a prince professing the most chivalric feelings of old knighthood, and especially bound, too, on the service of religion I Richard and his troops arrived in time to take a distinguished part in the siege of the long beleaguered Acre. At first the English and French troops and their kingly leaders acted most amica- bly together, alternately taking the duty of guarding the trenches and mounting to the assault of the place. But this good feeling between the two princes would probably not have endured very long, even had there been no other cause for their disagrecnienti but the warlike superiority of Richard, whose headlong courage and huge personal strength made him conspicuous in every attack. But to this latent and ever rankling cause of quarrel others were speedidy added. The first dispute that arose between the two kings to call into open light the real feelings which policy pr courtesy had pre- viously enabled them to veil, originated in : the claims of Guy de Lusignan, and Con- rade, marquis of Montferrat, to the more showy than profitable title of king of Jeru- salem. De Lusignan sought and obtained the advocacy of Richard, and Philip ipio fa ".to waa induced to give the moat strcnoui support to Conrade. Nor did the evil rest with giving the two monarcha a cause of open and zealous opposition to each other. Their example was naturally followed b; the other Christian leaders. The kuighti of the hospital of St. John, the Pisans,and the Flemings, gave their voices and support to the side embraced by Richard, while the Templars, the Germans, and the Genoese, gave theirs to Philip ; and thus, while every circumstance of interest and duty demanded the most cordial and unwavering unani- mity amon^ the Christian princes and leaders, their camp waa divided into two fierce parties, who were almost as ready to turn their arms upon each other as upon the infidels. < The distressed condition to which the in- fidels were already reduced, however, did ' not allow of their profiting, as they other- ! wise might have done, by the Clirisi an dissensions; and they surrendered the long contested city, stipulating for the sparing of their lives, and agreeing, in return, tc give up all Christian prisoners, and tlie | true Cross. The joy of the Christian powers j of Europe at this long desired triumph was i *\, Ml Ml t\ 51; > ■ ' 3, HAST or THB OBIOIIfAI, MOTTOES ARB BTILL BOHNB D» OUB ANCIENT HOBII.ITI. iron; hit arently li- 1 itters, and ! being fet- 1 jably droll nitted the ' iially had a Iters made : Berengaria ; I , at Cyprus, | « I Palestine, : ^ i ter, a beau- ' g ed to have j heart. A ; :o his newly i ! ifessing tlie ■ knighthood, i \e service of , joys arrived e , part in the i lore. I I ■encb troops i most arnica- 5 the duty of mting to the good feeling l uld probably en had there isagreenients of Uichard, lUge personal > ouB in every ; ever rankling (cedidy added. I c between the ijrht the real tesy had pre- ^ originated in : ^ lan, and Con- j, to the more f kingofJcru- i and obtained j id I'hilip ipio . moststrcnous '; d the evU rest , ; ihs a cause of • t o each other. \ ,y follov\ed by j The knights , IhePisans^"'"' s ■8 and support » ,ard, while the « . the Genoese, ^ us, while everv . luty denianueH ^ ivering unam- j princes and , ,ided into two ; pst as ready to ^ [other as upon , Id which the ir^' however, diil , las they other- J the Christ an Idered the Ion? lor the sparuig in return, to Iners, and the , liristian powers i M triumph wa« It UODlMTT. WaUB aiCHABD WAS IN rALBITINB TUB LAWS WBRB IBT AT BBFIAMCB. 141 10 raptnmns as to make them utterly un- mindlul of the fact, that, setting almost in- calculable treasure wholly out of considera- tion, this result had in the course of a few Tears cost Christendom at least thres hun- dred thousand of her bravest lives. After the surrender of Acre, Philip, dis- gnated probably at finding himself cast so much into the shade in a scene in which, and in which only, Richard was so well cal- culated to outshine him, departed for Europe, on the ground that the safety of his dominions would not allow of his re- maining to take a part in what promised to be the very slow and difficult recapture of Jerusalem, which it was only reasonable to suppose would be still more obstinately de- fended and more dearly purchased than Acre had been. But though on the plea that the weal of his kingdom and the state of his own health would not allow of his ovn longer presence, he guarded himself against the imputation of being wholly in- diQ'erent to the Christian cause, by leaving ten thousand of his best troops to Richard, under the command of the duke of Bur- gundy. And in order to allay the very natural suspicions of Richard, lest he should make use of his presence in Europe to do any wrong to the English power, he so- lemnly made oath that he would, on no pretence, make any attempt on the English dominions during Richard a absence. But, so lightly were oaths held even by the highly bora and the enlightened of that day, that scarcely had Philip landed iu Italy ere he bad the mingled hardihood and meanness to apply to pope Celestine V. to absolve him from his oath. The pope, more just, refused to grant it ; but though Philip waa thus prevented from the open hostility vbich be had most dishonourably planned, he did not hesitate to avail himself to the utmost of every opportunity to work evil to RicLnrd ; and opportunity was abundantly affotied him by the conduct of the un- grateful and disloyal John, and the discord that reigned among the English nobility, almost without an exception of any note. It has already been mentioned that Rich- ard on his departure for the Holy Land had delegated the chief authority in England to Hugh, bishop of Durham and earl ot North- umberland, and Longchanip, bishop of Elv. The latter was not only far superior to his colleague in point <^l' capacity and expe- rience iu the arts of intrigue, but h'as also possessed of an audacious and violent spirit little becoming the churchman. The king had not long left England ere the domi- neering spirit of Longchanip began to ma- nifest itself, not only towards the nobility in general, but also towards his milder col- l«ague in the government. Having, in ad> dilion to his equality of civil authority the legatine power, then so very tremendous as not easily to be resisted even by a powerful and wise king in his own proper person, wngchamp could not endure to treat the meeker bishop of Durham as anything more liian his first subject. At first he raani- jftMed his feeling of superiority by petty means, which ^''tj rather annoying than positively hostile or injurious; but finding himself unresisted, he grew more and more violent, and at length went to the glaringly inconsistent length of throwing his col- league in the government into confinement, and demanding of him the surrender of the earldom of Northumberland which he had paid for in solid cash. This took place be- fore the king had departed firom Marseilles on his way to the east ; and though imme- diately on Richard hearing of the dissen- sion between the two prelates upon whose wisdom and perfect accord he so mainly de- pended for the peace and safety of hia do- minions, he sent peremptory orders for the earl-bishop's release. Longchamp had the consummate assurance to refuse to obey the king's command, assuring the astounded nobli^a that he knew that thu king's secret wishes were directly opposed to his pubUc orders I This misconduct was followed up by so much insolence towudh the nobility in ge- neral, and so many complaints were in con- sequence made to Richard, that he apiioint- ed a numerous council of nobles without whose concurrence Longchamp for the fu- ture was strictly forbidden to transact any important public business. But his vast authority aa legate, added to his daring and peremptory temper, deterred even those named as his councillors from venturing to produce their commission to him, and he continued to display the qiagnificence and to exercise the power of an absolute sove- reign of the realm. The g^cat abbots of the wealthy monas- teries complained that when he made a progress in their neighbourhood, his train in a single day's residence devoured their revenue for years to come ; the high-born and martial barons complained of the more than kingly hauteur of this low-born man ; the whole nation, in short, was discontented, but the first open and efficient opposition was made by one whose personal character- istic was certainly not too great courage— the prince John. That the bishop and legate misused his authority, to the insulting of the nobility and the impoverishment of the nation, would not a jot have moved John ; but he could not endure that he, too, should be thrown into shade and contempt by this overbearing prelate. The latter, with a want of policy strangely at variance with his undoubted ability, imprudently allowed himself to be guilty of personally disobliging John, who, upon that aflront, conceived an indignation which all the disobedience shown to his brother, and all the injury inflicted upon his brother's best and most faithful subjects, had been insufficient to arouse. He summoned a council of prelates and nobles to meet him at Reading, in Berkshire, and cited Longchamp to appear there to accoiint for his conduct. Aware when it was too late of the dangerous ene- mies he had provoked by the wanton abuse of his authority, the prelate, instead of ap> pearing before the council, entrenched him- R0Bi:( noon and uis ukn puincipallt pwblt in siibrwooo fobest. IN TBI8> WABI LITTI.B ■■KCT WAS RBOWN OR BITUItR RIDB. 142 ^l^e ©rcaaurp of ll^latorp, $cc. »elf in the Tower of London. But the man- ner in which he had wielded his authority had left him «o few and such lukewarm friends, that he »oon found tliat he was not (afe even in that strong fortress, and, dii- guising himself in female apparel, he con- trived to escape to France, where he was sure to find a cordial recc))tion at the hands of Philip. He was now in form deprived of the high civil offices which by his tliglit he had virtually surrendered, and the arch- bishop of Rouen, who had a high reputation for both talent and prudence, was made chancellor and justiciary in his stead. As Longchairip, however, held the legatine power, of which no civil authorities could deprive him, he still had abundant means, which he lost no opportunity of using, to aid the Insidious endeavours of Philip to disturb the peace of £ni(lacd and injure the absent Richard. A.D. 1192. — Philip's neighbourhood to Ricliard's French dominions held out an opportunity, far too tempting to be resisted, for invading them, which he was on the point of openly doing when he found him- self prevented in his treacherous schemes by the almosit general refusal of bis nobles to aid him in so inglorious an enterprise against the territories of a prince who was gloriously— though anything 'mt prudently —perilling life and limb in the distant wars of the cross. Philip was discouraged, more- over, in this part of his dishonourable plan hf the pope, who, especially constituting himself the guardian of the rights of all princes engaged in the crusade, threatened Philip with the terrors of an interdict, should he venture to persist in attacking the territory of his far worthier brother so- vereign and fellow crusader. But though obstacles so formidable ren- dered it impossible for him to persist in his open course of injustice, save at the hazard of utter ruin to himself, he resolved to work secretly to the same end. Thoroughly un- derstanding the dishonourable character of John, he made overtures to that base and weak prince ; offered him in marriage that princess Alice whose blotted character had caused her to be refused by the usually im- prudent and facile Richard, and gave him assurance of investiture in all the French possessions of Richard, upon condition of his taking the risk of invading them. John, whose whole conduct through life showed him to be utterly destitute of all feelings of faith or gratitude, was in no wise startled by the atrocity that was proposed to him, and was in the act of commencing prepara- tions for putting it into execution when queen Eleanor, more jealous of the kingly rights of her absent son than she had for- merly showed herself of those of her hus- band, interposed her own authority, and caused the council and nobles of England to interpose theirs, so effectually, that John's fears overcame even his cupidity, and he abandoned a project which none but an utterly debased mind would ever have entertained. While these things were passing in Eu- rope, the high-spirited but unwise Richard was gathering laurels in Asia, and, uncon- sciously, accumulating upon his head a huge and terrible load of future suffering; and an occurrence which just now tooli place in that distant scene was, with an ex- ecrable ingenuity, seized upon by piiilip to calumniate in Europe the ansent rival, each new exploit of whom added to the pangs of his ever-aching envy. There was in Asia a mountain prince, known to Europeans b^ the title of the "old man of the mountain," who had ob- tained so absolute a power over the exces- sively superstitious minds of his subjects, that, at a word or a sign from him, any one of them would put himself to death with the unmurmuring and even cheerful com- pliance of a man in the performance of some high and indefeasible religious duty. To die at the order of their despotic prince was, in the belief of these unlettered and credulous beings, to secure a certain and instant introduction to the ineffable deligliti of paradise ; and to die thus was conse- quently not shunned or dreaded as an evil, but courted as the supremest possible good fortune. It will readily be understood that a race of men educated to commit suicide at the word of command, would be found no less docile to their despot's orders in the matter of murder. The care with which they were instructed in the art of disguis- ing their designs, and the utter contempt in which they held the mortal consequences of their being discovered, rendered it cer- tain death to give such offence to this ter- rible potentate of a petty territory as might induce him to dispatch his emissaries upon their sanguinary errand. Conrad, marquii of Montferrat, who seems to have possessed a considerable genius for quarrelling, wss unfortunate enough to give deep offence to the old man of the mountain, who im- mediately issued against him his infor- mal but most decisive sentence of death. Two of the old man's devoted subject!, known by the name of assassins— which name their practices have caused to be ap- plied to murderers— rushed upon Conrad, while surrounded by his guards, and mor- tally wounded him. About the author of this crime there vas not, and there could not be, the slighteit difference of opinion. The practice of the old man of the mountain was only too well known ; it was equally notorious that the marquis of Montferrat had given him deep offence by the contemptuous style in which he refused to make any satisfaction for the death of certain of the old man's subject! who had been put to death by the citizcni of Tyre ; and to put the cause of Conrr.d's death beyond all seeming possibility of i lis- take, the two assassins, who were seized and put to death with the most cruel torture!, boasted during their dying agonies that they died in the performance ot their duty to their prince. But the king of France pretended wholly to disregard all the cir- cumstances which thus spoke trumpet- tongucd to the truth, and loudly protested OS BEVBRAI, OCCASlnNS IMMRNSIi nOOIY WAS TAKEN FROM THE TURIt!". TBI MOST BAHOCINABT SKrEISALI WSHB MAD! *T BOTH rARTISH. lEnglanT) — ^lantagentts, — 3ai(f)art( £. 143 his belief in the foul murder of Conrad hifing been committed by order of Richard, the former opponent of the marquis; and sffecting to imagine that hi* person was in danger of attack hy assassins, this accora- pliihed hypocrite ostentatiously surrounded himself with a body-gward. This calumny was far too gtoi» to be believed by any one ; but it was easy to seem to believe it, and to convert it into an excuse for viulat- inK both the rigbts and the liberties of the most valiant of all the crusaders. Tlie valour and conduct of Richard and the other Christian leaders, vast and bril- liaut as they were, could not co\interba- lance the dissensions which sprang up among them. An immense host of inti- dels under 8aladin was vanquished, nearly forty thousand of them remaining dead apon the field of battle; Ascalon was tpeedilv afterwards taken ; and Richard had lea the victorious Christians within light of Jerusalem, when the impolitic dis- tentions to which we have alluded com. pelled him to make a truce with Saladin, futt as the perfect triumph of the cross teemed inevitable. The dukeof Burgundy, whom Philip had left in command of the French, openly and obstinately declared hia intention of immediately returning to Eu- rope; the German and Italian companies fallowed the evil example thus set ; and Hichard, compelled to treat, by this unwor- thy defection, could but exert himself to obtain from the chivalrous Saladin terms at favourable as possible to the Christians. By the terms of tliis treaty, which was con- cluded for the fanciful term of three years, three months, three weeks, three days, and three hours, Acre, Joppa, and other parts of Palestine were to be held by the Chris- tiana, and Christian pilgrims were to pro- ceed to Jerusalem without let or molesta- tion. The concluding of this treaty was nearly the last important public act of Saladin, who shortly afterwards expired at Damascus. On his death-bed he ordered lepcies to a large amount to be distributed among the poor of Damascus, without dis- tinction of religion, and he ordered his winding-sheet to be exposed in the public itreets, a crier the while making procla- mation, " Tiiis is all that remains of tb mighty Saladin, the conqueror of the East.' Takmg advantage of the truce, Richard now determined to return to England, to oppose his own power and authority to the intrigues of his ungrateful brother John >nd the unprincipled king of France. Being aware that he would be exposed to great danger should he venture through France, he sailed for the Adriatic, and being shipwrecked near Aquileia, he took the disguise of a pilgrim, in the hope that it would enable lum undiscovered to pass through Germany. Driven out of his di- rect road by some suspicions of the go- 'wnor at Utria, he was so imprudently la- ^iih of his money during his short stay at Vienna, that his real rank was discovered, «nd he was thrown intj prison by Leopold, duke of Austria, who had served under and been grievously affronted by him at the siege of Acre. The emperor Henry VI., whom Richard by his friendship with Tan- cred of Sicily had also made his enemy, not only approved of Richard's arrest, but re- quired tne charge of his person, and offered the duke of Austria a considerable sum of money as a reward for it. A. D. 1 19S.— The grief of Richard's friends and the triumph of his enen:ie8 were alike excited when the news- of his capture reached England ; the pot.t him from answering before any jurisdiction except that of heaven, he yet condescended, for the saVe of his repu- tation, to justify his conduct before that great assemblv. He observed that he had no hand in Tancred's elevation, and only concluded a treaty with a prince whom he found in possession of the throne; that ijn king, or rather the tyrant, of Cyprus, liwt provoked his indignation by the muii ungenerous and unjust proceedings, «n4 though he had chattised tliis aggresaor, Ik had not for a moment retarded (he priiurtfii of his chief enterprite ; that if he had tt anv time been wanting in civility tu ilm duke of Austria, he had already been iiiRl' •iently punished for that tally of p«s*lrrenM to make his apology or to plead the nisiir irrefragable arguments which he could |iru' dttce in his own favour ; and, finally, \mw- ever he might regret the necessity, he »»• •o far from being ashamed of his Itun with Saladin, that he rather gloried in ilmt event, and thought it extremely bnnnursltit that, though abandoned by all the wnrid, supported only by hi* own courage ami hf the small remains of hi* national troo|ii, he could yet obtain such cnn'^itions froiii the most powerful id most itt;\'i]ie mn- peror that the east .\ad ever yet proiluccd, After thus deignit.. to apologue (or lilt conduct, he burst oot into indignation ii the cruel treatment which he bad iiw( with ; that he, the champion of the ctoti, ■till wearing that honourable badge, sliouU, after expending the blood and treasiira uf ; his subjects in the common cause of t'lirli' ' tendom, be intercepted by Christian |irln' ces on his return to his own countr^, b< thrown into a dungeon, be loaded will) irons, be obliged to plead hi* causs m though he were a subject and a malefaci»r, and what he still more regretted, bn there- by prevented from making preparations for a new crusade which he had projected, hUtt the expiration of the truce, and from tt' deeming the sepulchre of Christ whii'li had so long been profaned by the dominion of the inhdels." The force of Richard's reasoning and t'lt obvious justice of his complaints wnu nearly all present to his side; the German imnrti themselves cried shame ui>on the conduct of the emperor, whom the pope even tlir««i' enedwitb excommunication. The eniiieror DOW, therefore, perceived that it would he impossible for him to complete hisiiiellsblr base purpose of giving up to I'liillv "f France and the base and cruel prince Jul'i the person of Richard in exchange (o' m- did gold ; and as it seemed unsafe even to continue to confine him, the emperor con- sented to his relief at a ransom of Ifi'V" marks ; two-thirds to be paid prevloui I'l Richard's release, and sixty-seven liu | by tlie ntuti • roc«adini!«> in4 | • lin nggrtttor, In { ded thtt iiri>|{ri!w ' , lat U h« Iift4 m I ! n civtllt|r iu llm I ready been iiiHl' I •ally of pHmii ,1, a who wore mn- ' f a cauM to fur- I, than to purmit unrelenting vcii. cienily H|)|i plead the niiu|r iitcb he enulil pni' and, Anally, liow- necenity, h« *»• med of hi» trm ' tier Kloried in iliHt { remely honour»l)U j by all the worlil, ; rn coiirAKe and hy , • nationiil tro<)|ii, i U con'titiona frnin > molt wc.-like mU' { ever yet proilui'eil, apoloifiite fur hit •; nto indiKnation •> licli he had ml uion of the croM, , ible badge, ilwulil, jd and treaiure u( lon came of t-'lini- ly Christiitn prin- own country, h' ,, be loaded wiili lead hii cauM h ; and a malefactor, i, igretted, be liters , g preparation" for { lacl projected, «fi« , ruce, and from re- I of Chri«t wliiiii i ,d by the doiniui'"' Ireaioning and t'>« Iplainti won newlf he German priiiw' luiion the conduct 5 pope even tliresi- Ion. Theen.iwnir that it would li* npletehitinell'»''iy . up to I'liiliM o' Icruel prince Jul'" I cYchange to- nr- led unsafe even i" Ithe emperor w"; Iranfom of IW*"< 1 paid prcvi""' *" Ity-neven hod, fircnt individual exertions were insdp, tlie clergy and nobility giving large fiutiis hcjrnnd what could have fairly been detHxnded of them, and the churches and r«ll|(io(is bouses actually melting down lliMf plate to the amount of 30,00U marks. ^» soon as the money by these extraordi- flsry exertion* was got together, queen ktiBtinr, accompanied by the archbishop of linuftt, went to Mcnts and there paia it to iUt emperor, to whom she at the same lltiii> delivered (he hostages for the pay- tiirnt of the remainder. There was some- ttittiK perfectly providential in the haste ttisde hy (he friends of Richard; for had {Itffi) been the least delay, he would hav. UfKlt SAcrlHced to the treacherous policy of fli« cinpi>ror. who, anxious to obtain the litppoft of the king of France against the lhr<nlnK discontent of the German princes, was induced to determine upon pt^'petuating the captivity of Richard, even sricrthe release of that prince on the pay- lKt many a subsc( LONDON ODTAINBD M*Nt Ot ITS PRITILB6B8 IN BICHARO'S BBTOW. A.O. ViOO.—A ItHOD AT WB«*liINITia TO BlaVLATI DIVIRB ••■TICB. lEnglanti ^'Mantagtntta — 3lo^n. 147 hutentd to France to prepare the neeei- ury opposition to whatever exertioni Phi- lip might mnke on behalf of youDR Arthur. A. D. 1200.— The action* between John and rhilipwere of but little importance; and the latter having inspired young Ar- tliur'i mother with the notion that he louftht to benefit himiclf rather than her ion, icized upon an opportunity to with- draw Arthur from the French court, and plsced him under the protection of John. Finding their mutual want of power to ob- tain any great and permanent advantage by war, the two kinga now made a treuty, in which the limiti of their levcral territoriea were laid down with great exactitude ; nine barona of each nation swore respectively to maintain the treaty in good faith, even should it be necessary to make war upon their own sovereign, and still farther to en- lure its due and faithful observance John lave his niece, Blanche of Castile, with Mrtain fiefs as her dower, to prince Louis, eldest son of the French king. Ueing thus relieved from all appari-nt danger on the i^deof France, John, though he had a wife li-ing, determined to gratify his passion for Iiabellt, heiress of the count of Angouleme, though she was already married to the eonnt de la Marche, her youth alone having hitherto prevented the consummation of the union. John, reckless of the double difficulty, persuaded Isabella's father to give him his daughter, whom he espoused after having very unceremoniously divorced hit lawful wife. k.v. 1201.— The count dc la Marche, in the highest degree provoked at the fiagraiit and insolent wrong that thus was done him, found it no difficult task to excite commotions in Poictou and Normandy ; the barona there, as elsewhere in John's domi- nions, being already very much offended and disgusted by the mixture of weakness and insolence in which, probably, John has never been equalled. Alarmed as well as enraged by the disobedience of his French barons, John determined to puui!. 1804.— 0OIIIT*HTINOri.B TIEIR ■! THB VBailCB AIIO ▼aHaTIAIIl. 148 ^|)c ^rcasntQ of l^istorQ, ^c. ■Imderlf attended, It occnrred to him that if he eould obtain poHesiion of her penon he would obtain the meani of raerciiing con- aiderable inflaence upon hit uncle'i mind, and he accordingly Mt down to beiieice the place, the fortiAcationa of which promiied no Ttrjr long reiiitanee. John, though at aome diitance when he waa informed of hit mother'a danger, battened to her ai- aittance with a ipecd very unntual to him, aurpriaed young Arthur"! camp, diipened hit forcet, and took Arthur, together with the count de la Marche and other dittin- guithed leadcrt of the reroltrd baront, pri- tonert. Moit of the prisoncrt were for neater tecuritjr thipped off to England; but Arthur wat contined in the cattle of Falaite, where he wat tpeediljr admitted to the dangerout honour of an interview with hit tyrannical uncle. John reproached Ar- thur lett with the injuitice of liii caute in general, than with thch appanage* tna to his jus LisaBD. SIO«. lEnglanty.—^piantagcnctf. — Hol^n. 149 s 4 tlec, the unwise advantafcn afforded to him by John's default of aupcnrnnce, and the unanimous sentence of the French pccrK, now seemed to give him somcthinif like u subitanlial and judicial right aa against The exertioni and sni^acinua noliry of Henry would have evoked French ()i))>osi- tioii '0 any such attempt ; that skilful poli- tician would have found hut little dilll- eulty in leading the French barons to ab- stain from endeavouring to add to the authority of their superior lord, lest in so doing they should ensure their own ruin, Neither would it have boen safe to try such a plan while the Lion-hcurtcd Iticlmrd lived to shout his fierce baltlc-cry in that popu- Ur voice which would have been heard in hall and tower, and which would no where have been unheeded where chivalry still abode. Uut John, destitute alike of cou- rage, popularity, and of triio pulley, was little likely to unravel or defeat a dexteroua Kliev or long to withstand actual force, ted as he was even by his own barons. The opportunity was the more tempting to Philip, nccause those of his great vassals who would have been the most likely to oppose his aggrandizement were cither nh- KDt.orso much enraiccdagainst John, that tbeir desire to annov liim and abridge the power he had so shamefully abused, over- came in their minds all tendency to a eooler and more aclti d«r andertook iti blockade bjr land. The earl of Pembroke, br far the ableit peraon whom John then had about him, a«»rmbled a force of four thoutand foot and three tkovMnd bone, with which he purposed to attack Philip's camp, while a Ard uf ■avenljr flat-bottomed craft, numeroutljp manned, waa aimultaneouily toiakl up the Heine and attack the bridice, and thus throw relief into the fortreia. The earl waa exact in performing hie part of the attatk, and even at the outtet obtained wme condder- able advantage oter Philip ; but the weather chancing to retard the fleet on its paatage, ita astiitance arrived too late for the aitp- port of the earl, who waa already defeated. Had the attack been made aimultaneouiljr and by night, according to the earl'a plan, it had mott probabl« been tuecMiful ; a* It waa, Philip waa enabled to deal with hU aasailanti in detail, and beat them both off with very con»iderable loie. John, who waa eaally depreued bjr defeat, waa lo much discouraged oy the ill lucoeii of the earl, that ha conid not be induced to make any farther attempt to relieve this Important fortreaa, though ample opportunity and in- ducement! were offered to him to do so by the gallant eondact of De Lacr, who for a whole year continued to defend himself, in spite of great auffering flrom want of provi> Bion. He waa at length overpowered io a night attack, and he and his whole garrison made prisoners. To the credit of Philip, he showed his sense of the courage and fldelity with which De Lacy had continued to acrve his master even alter he had been abandoned bv him, by giving him for his place of connnement toe whole extent of the city of Paris. It is dilBcttU to understand the ntter in- dolence and incapacity which could induce John to neglect the relief of chateau Gail- lard, upon whieh the safety of his whole Norman territory depended. This dcpend- ance he could not oe ignorant of ; and it I waa rapidly and perfect^ illustrated by the ! aaccesaea which Philip obtained after its capture. Falaise, Caen, Contance, Bvreux, Baveux, and other fortresses successively fell into his hands; Lupicaire, a Brabanfon leader, to whom John had entrusted the defence of the flrat-named pkce, deserted vrith all his men to the standard of Philip, and while the lower division of Normanay waa thus overrun by the French under Philip, Upper Normandy was entered by the Bretons under Guy de Thouari, who took Avranchea, Mont St. Michel, and the other strong holds of that part. Pressed thus by an active prince, who waa served by men of conduct and courage, and utterly abandoned by John, whose hasty and secret departure for England might almost be called a flight, the Normans had uo re- aoarce but to submit to Philip, much as they disliked the idea of subjection to the French government. A.D. 1206.— As there waa still a portion of the Normans who, though abandoned by the king of England, determined to defer, if not wholly to avoid, their submission to Philip, Rouen, Argues, and Verneuil eonfederatrd for this purpose. Philip immediately advsu. ced his troops against the flrst named ritv, the inhabitanta of which signallied then hatred of France by forthwith pulling to death every inou of that nation who was living among them. The cruel are rarely brave; and the defence of Rouen by no means answered to the promise of deipera. tiou given bv this treacherous butcnery. Scarcely had the bealeKers commenced operations when the besieged lost heart, and merely demanded a truce of thirty daya to enable them to obtain succour firom their prince. Philip, who well under* stood the character of John, and there, fore felt sure that he who had abandoned chateau Gaillard was little likely to show more courage in the less hopeful cnieof Rouen, complied with this demand. Ai Philip had foreseen, no supplies or aid ar- rived, and the city was vielded. All ths rest of the province equally submitted to Philip, who thus Ird the credit— much abated though by the character of hit op- ponent—of reuniting to Prance this im- portant portion of its proper territorr thret centuries after Charles the Simple had alienated it bv cession to the flrst duke, the valiant Rollo. From Normandy, Philip easily extended his victorious arms to An^u, Maine, Touraine, and a portion of Poictou; John, the while, instead of en- deavouring to arrest the progress of hit enemv, was railing against his barons for, what lie called, their desertion of him, and adding to the national mischiefs done bv his indolence, the mischiefs which he atill had the power to do i mulcting his barou in the seventh portion of all their moveable property aa • pHniskment for this pre- tended offence. Not content with even this impudent and excessive extortion, John next de- manded a scutage of two and a half marks upon each knight's fee to enable him to conduct an expedition into Normandy; but the money once received, the expedi- tion waa no longer thought of I Subie- quently be collected a fleet, aa if fully deter- mined to make an attempt to recover hit transmarine poaseaslons; but on some ob- jections being made, he abandoned this design, too, on the plea that he was de- serted and betrayed by bis barons ; and at length mustered courage enough to put to sea, but speedily returned to port without aught being done or attempted. ConH- dering the flery temper and warlike habit* of the barons, it is perfectly astonishing that they so long endured the insults of a king, whose very style of insulting was so characteristic of his weakness. A.n. 12U6.— Au ally was at length pre- sented to John in a person from whom he had but little right to expect aid or en- couragement, Guy de Tliouars, to whom, in right of his daughter Alice, the Bretoui had committed their government. Tbii noble, perceiving the immense strides made by Philip, became alarmed for the safety of i I Tiai LITTLI or MATBKMATICa OB SCIBHCI IV SBNBBAL WAS KKOWIf. A.». 1106.— Tl in to Philip, ionfedcratM iately adTtu* iMmed rit^, laliicil tlieir li puitiDR to S on who wu ; I el tre rarely i * Muen by do I le of deipcrt' | j us butchery, ^ commenced | * i loit hPArt, ' t ice of thirty J tain luecour , ,0 well under- 1 j 1, and there- 1 4 A abandoned ' g ikely to thow • ipeful CMC of . ' demand. Al ' • lien or aid ar- ! idcd. All the tubmitted to ■ credit— much * iter of hit np' b ; ance llii* im- > territorr three , I Simple had ■ he tint duke, * rmandy, Philip * ioua armi to ^ I a portion of > initead of en- ) rogreet of hit j liii baront for, ^ pn of hira, and ^ chiefi done by ; which he stiU ; inn his baroDi t their moveable ■ for thia pre- , | I I ihia impudent , )hn next de- ; i d a half marki enable him to Normandy ; the expedi- ofl BabM- __ If fully deter-, to recover hii tt on aome ob- landoned tbii at he wai de- aroni ; and at jugh to put to I port without jpted. Consi- warlike habiu y astonishing >e insults of a lulting was so ,.' length pre- "rom whom n« ct aid or en- s, to whom, in ^1, the Bretout pment. This |e strides made Ir the safety of lEnglanti.- V^Iantagmts. -3o^n. 161 Brittany, tmi ihtrafore made a proposition to John for their Junction against Philip, and John accordingly left Kngland with a e^ntiderable force aud landed in safety at Bochelle, whence he marched to Angers, which ht captured and burned. Philip now rapidly approached, and John, becoming alarmed, gained time by making proposals for peace, and then covertly (Ted back to Eailand,— safe, indeed, in person, but loaded with disgrace and contempt, which 10 any one less debased in sentiment would have oeen far more terrible than death it- lelf. Thus all the vast aums which John had Mtnrted from his barons, under pre- tence of recovering his lost footinj; in Frsnee, were expended, not in repairing the loss, but in adding disgrace and disgust to it. We have already remarked that it was sitonithing that flcr» and martial men could so long endure the doings of a man •0 mean in act and weak in character as Mb ; and astonishing it certainly was, even : msking all poasible dlowance for the very Hteniive power which the very nature of the feudal tenure gave in realitjr, and the still veater power which tt gave in idea, to the Norman sovereigns. It is to be consi- dered, however, that this great power, wielded as it had been by the art of some of John's predecessors and the martial ' taerinyof others, was not to be either easily or early shaken, even by the personal mis- conduct of a John, in whom the kin(p, the mat feudal lord paramount, would atiU be feared and obeyed by the most powerful of his vassals, after the man John had over- whelmed himself with the contempt and ' the disgust of the meanest horseboy in i kit train. But even the vast prestige of I the feudal monarchy was at length worn ! oat by the personal misconduct of the weak I monarch ; and the church, ever ready to I iciie upon opportunity of extending and I eoDioliaating its immense temporal power, I wss the first to encroach upon the autho- ; rity which John hod ao often proved him- { lelf unworthy to hold, and unable to wield with either credit to himself or advantage to his people. I A.D. 1307.— The then pope. Innocent III., I having arrived at the papal power at the inBnsnally early age of thirty-seven, had aerer been unmindful of the opportunities that presented themselves to him. Taking advantoj^e of the plausible pretext afforded to him by the state M . " I SI e •9 M K o g M H N A H H ■ 5 H M M « IE '4 M (M ■• o tq K m » H U e a M H tbority of tlieir convunt to warrant them ; but, with the single exception of Ehas do Brantefteld, they succumbed to the pope's authority, and the election was made ac- cordingly. Innocent now followed up his arbitrary proceedings by what our hii'orians call a mollifying letter and present :o John ; but what would certainly be called an addition of mockery to injury in the case of any clearer minded and higher hearted prince. For, by way of consoliiiK John for the pre- cedent thus set of transferring to the papal court one of the most valued and, in many respects, important prerogatives of the Eng- lish crown. Innocent sent him four gold rings set with precious stones, and an ex- planatory letter of no less precious conceits. " lie begged him," says Ilume, in his con- densed account of tins admirably grave papal jest, " to consider seriously, the form of the rings, their number, their matter, and their colour. Their form, being round, shadowed out eternity, which had neither beginning nor ending; and he ought thence to learn nis duty of aspiring from earthly objects to heavenly, from things temporal to things eternal. The number, four, being a square, denoted steadiness of mind, not to be subverted either by adversity or by prosperity, fixed for ever on the firm basis of the four cardinal virtues. Gold, which is the matter, being the most precious of metals, signified wisdom, which is the most valuable of all accomplishments, and justly preferred by Solomon to riches, power, and all exterior attainments. The blue colour of the sapphire represented faith ; the green of the emerald, hope; the redness of the ruby, charity ; and the splendour of the topaz, good woi-ks." Never, surely, were mystical conceits vended at a higher price I Even John, weak and tame as was his spirit, did not consider four rings and a bundle of conceits quite an adequate consideration for the more precious and substantial jewel of which the pope had so unceremoniously de- prived him, and his wrath was tremendous. As the monks of Canterbury showed them- selves willing to abide by the election which their fellows at Rome had made in obedi- ence to the pope, the first effects of his anger fell upon them. He dispatched Henry de Comhule and Fulke de Cantelupe, two resolute knights of his retinue, to expel the prior and monks of Christchurch not only from their convent, but also from the king- dom, a duty which the knights performed quite literally at the point of the sword ; a piece of violence at once partial and child- ish, which Innocent noticed ouly by a new letter, in which he earnestly advised the king no longer to oppose hnnself to God and the church, nor longer to uphold that unrighteous cause which had cost the mar- tyr St. Thomas of Canterbury his lite, but at the same time exalted him to an equality with the highest saints in heaven ;— a very plain allusion to the possibility of Bpckets being easily found to maintain the cause of Rome against a prince so much meaner than he to whom " the martyr" Becket bad done BO much evil ! As this significant hint had not as much effect as the pope had anticipated in re- ducing John to submission. Innocent now commissioned the bishops of London, AVor- cestor, and £1^ to assure him that should he persevere in his disobedience to the Holy See an interdict should be laid upon hii kingdom ; and both these and their brother prelates actually knelt to him, and with tears besought him to avert a renult so fearful, by consenting to receive arch- bishop Langton and restoring the monks of Christchurch to their convent and revenue. But John, though well aware how little he could depend upon the love of his states, whom he did not even dare to assemble to support him in an open struggle, was en- couraged by the very humility of the pos- ture assumed by the prelates not merely to refuse compliance with their advice, but to couch his refusal in terms fully as disgrace- ful to him as they could be offensive to those to whom they were addressed. Not contented with personally insulting the prelates, he declared his defiance of the poor himself; swearing "by God's teeth" that should the pope lay an interdict upon his kingdom, he would send the whole of the English clergy to Rome for support and take their estates and revenues to his own use ; and that if thenceforth any Komans ventured into his dominions they phould lose their eyes and noses, that all who looked upon them might know them from other and better men. Innocent was not to be deceived by this vague and vulgar abuse ; he well knew the real weakness of John's position, and finding that half mea- sures and management would not suffice to reduce him to obedience, he at length issued the terrible sentence of interdict. As this sentence frequently occurs in our history, and as it is essential that renders should clearly and in detail understand the nature of the decree by which Rome could for nj^es send terror into the hearts of the mightiest nations in Christendom— a terror from which neither rank, sex, nor scarcely any staije of life was exempted— we pause here, in the regular march of our history, to quote the brief but clear description of it which we find succinctly given in Hume, from the accounts scattered in many pages of more prolix writers. " The sentence of interdict was at that time the great instrument of vengeance and policy employed by the court of Rome; was denounced against sovereigns for the lightest offences ; and made the guilt of one person involve the ruin of millions, even in their spiritual and eternal welfare. The execution of it was calculated to strike the senses in the highest degree, and to operate with irresistible force on the superstitious minds of the people. The nation was sud- denly deprived of all exterior exercise of its religion ; the altars were despoiled of their ornaments ; the crosses, the rcliqucs, the iniagt^s, the statutes of the saints, were laid on the ground; and, as if the air itself ■ i 1 were 1 5 its CO \ •■ them 1 A.». 1209. — JOHN CAUSE! AIL Hlfl VASSALS TO BENDER TUEIR HOMAOE. I I Tcncrn I ceased selves laid 01 ! utensil ! doors, ' mitted ' partooli to newl to the ( consecr I ditches, their • prayers, j riage « j and, till I the mat { people j as in Le I penance, and ent( even to s I ahave tin tention t( circilasti deepest ( diate ap{ and vengi Unwari of this sti obstinatel contempt Ua barons whatever the ipiritu Tenyeance clergy who interdict, i rents of ar< of these cli i monks he I the barest 1 poral nece made hims nues. Con of the cler annoy then: into prison them upon which was t J, because he ! 1 i those who J the clergy J V, t . (idelity of w , I consequence ; : odious exeri ? I compel the ( J I Meantime " , the pope CO) 1! , "des, and lai 3 who had no .■•> nposedtoal |! 1 1 we have des 2 parntively fe i! , persuasions i . to induce tht " . diet. Willi ! * j J en the luit 1 "y the iutiT( THE DI! AND. r"Becketbad 1 not as much cipated in re- Innocent now London, Wor- [n that should lience to the i be laid upon ese and their elt to him, and I avert a result I receive arch- ig the monks of It and revenue. •e how little lie s of his states, to assemble to •uggle, was en- lity of the nci- !B not merely to r advice, but to ally as disisrace- he offensive to iddressed. Not r insulting the defiance of the jy God's teeth" I interdict upon id the whole of : for support and nues to his o«ii :th any llomftns < ins they should J s, that all wlio enow them from t inoccnt was not * igue and vulgar ■eal weakness of s „ that half mea- ' lid not suffice to j , he at length ; ce of interdict. ; occurs in our • ial that readers \ understand the j ch Uome could » hearts of the | jndom— a terror ^ BX, nor scarcely pted— we pause 1 of our history, . description of given in Hume, in many pug" let was at that ! vengeance and ourt of Kome; ercigns for the the guilt of one aiillions, even in welfare. The ed to strike the ', and to operate e superstitious nation was sud- r exercise of its ^spoiled of their lie reliqucs, the le saints, wert Tif the air itself M i.D. 1310.— JOHN TiX>D THX CLIBOtr TO TBI AHOUIIT Of 120,00U{. lEngJantl — ^lantagtncts. — Ho^it. 153 . I were profaned and might pollute them by its contact, the priests carefully covered them up, even from their own approach and Tcncration. The use of the bells entirely ceased in all the churches ; the bells them- aeives were removed from the steeples, and laid on the ground with the other sacred utensils ; mass was celebrated with closed doors, and none but the priests were ad- mitted to that holy institution; the laity partook of no religious rite, except baptism to newly born infants and the communion to the dying; the dead were not interred in consecrated ground ; they were thrown into ditches, or buried in common fields, and their obsequies were not attended with prayers, or. any hallowed ceremony. Mar- riage was celebrated in the churchyards ; and, that every action of life might bear the marks of this dreadful situation, the people were prohibited the use of meat as in Lent ; and, as in times of the highest penance, were debarred from all pleasures and entertainments, and were forbidden even to salute each other, or so much as to ■have their beards and give any decent at- tention to their person and apparel. Every circmnstance carried symptoms of the deepest distress, and of the most imme- diate apprehension of divine indignation and vengeance." Unwarned by even the commencement of this state of things in his kingdom, and obstinately closing his eyes against the contempt in which he was held by those lay barons upon whom he must depend for whatever support he might need against the spiritual power, John now turned his Tenjteance especially against those of the clergy who ventured to pay attention to the interdict, and generally against the adhe- rents of archbishop Lan^tnn. The prelates of these classes he sent into exile, and the monks he confined to their convent with tlie barest possible allowance for their tem- poral necessities; and in both cases he made himself the recipient of their reve- nues. Concubinage being a common vice of the clergy, he seized upon that point to annoy them by throwing their concubines into prison, wlience he would only velease them upon payment of high fines ; conduct which was the more cgregiously tyrannical, because he well knew that, in most cases, those who were called the concubines of the clergy lived with all the decency and fidelity of wives, and only were riot wives in consei|uence of the cruel, unnatural, and odious exercise of the power of Rome to compel the celibacy of the clergy. Meantime the quarrel between John and the pope continued its inveteracy on both sides, and lasted for some years ; the people, who had no part in the quarrel, being thus nposed to all the evils and vexations which we have described, excepting in the com- paratively few cases where the threats or persuasions of John were powerful cnouifh to induce the clergy to disregard the inter- dict. With these exceptions, upon which e en the h'ity, much as they were injured by the iutirdict, looked with disilike and contempt, all the clergy remaining in Eng- land were the enemies of John. But he, affecting the utmost contempt for public opinion, clerical as lay, loaded all classes of his people with heavy imposts to defray the expences of Scotch, Welsh, and Irish expe- ditions, in wh'.'rity upon their heads, the next step was ''vcomniunicatiun, which, as John well k.:»w, put an end to allegiance, and would a It a r, m ■k o I " M M H H f> O H m m >i m IBE SISF'ITE BRTWGRN JOH?( AJtH THK POTB WAS A TniAI, OF STHKNOTn. A.D. 1311.~J0BN AKBIVCO IN XHOLANO VBOM SUBLIII, AUBOIT 10. 164 ^]^e ^iTreasucQ of 1|istor@, $cc. i 2 V •* K 3 14 a ■■ 9 ■ i s m a O 3 H K. M M M 9 u M M 9 H •r n 9 9 M M ■ arm many a hand against him that now w&i bound by "that divinity which doth hedge • kine." And yet this i lexphcable man, unually 10 cowardly, still held out against the pope, thouffh excommunication was certain to fall with such peculiar severity upon him, should he provoke the pope to pronounce it : and he exerted himself, alike ill his rule and in his pastime, to in- crease that very linte from which much of itspeculiar severity would spring. Tnn patience of tlie pope was at length cxiiniiHted ; or, perhaps, to speak more cor- rectly, his policy no longer required delay, and the terrible sentence of excomraunicn- tlon was issued. But even now there was no fr)rinnl abnolulion of the people from their oath of allegiance. That mint terri- ble step of all the pope still held in reserve, as a last resource, being well aware how powerful an effect the ordinary results of cxconimiinication were calculated to have upon a king of far stronger nerve than John could boast. For how could he claim to be served with zeal and fidelity who was thus disclaimed aud cut off by the cliurch t Scarcely had the pope's orders been obey- ed by the bishops of London, Ely, and Wor- cester — those very prelates upon whom John had formerly heaped insult, as coarse as undeserved, and as unbecoming as iin- fiolitic— when a s]iecimen was exhibited of ts paralysing effect by Geoffrey, archdeacon of Norwich. Like most of the grcnt church- men of that day, he held a judicial situa- tion, and he was engaged in its duties when ho received the news ; upon which he im- mediately rose and quitted the court, ob- serving that it WHS too perilous to continue to servo an excommunicated king. This fironipt abandonment of the archdeacon, lowcvcr, cost him his life ; for John threw him into prison, had a large leaden cope filled tightly to his liead, aud i:illictcd other severities upon him until he lit<;rHlly sank undi;r them. Warned, perhaps, by this severe exHm))le, other clerirol dignila- ries, though quite as ready to abandon their detested and dangerous king, took care to place themselves beyon I his reach in the very act of abHndonmcnt. Among these was llugh dc Wells, tlie chancellor. Hfiing apiiointed bishop of Winchester, he reciuested leave from the king to go to Nor- mandy to obtain consecration from tlie nrcliblshop of Itouen ; but leave being granted, be went not thither, but to Pon- tigny, the residence of the archbislmp Lani|[ton, to whom he paid the forma! sub- mission due from a suili'Hga'. to his pri- mate. The frequency of tliese desertions among both the prelates and the Iny nubi- lity at length gave the king very serious alarm, the more especially as he receivi'd but too probahle hinto of a widely-spread conspiracy against him, in which he knew not wlio among those who slill remained apparently faithful to him might be en- gaged, Now tliHt moderate conecssion could no lonsjcr avail him ; now that his nnkcdncsi and his weakness were so evi- dent to his foes that they would richly de- serve his contempt if they did not pruvi>^e his violence with an effectual bridle fur the future, even should they choose to show some moderation in dealing with him as to the past ; now, in a word, when he no longer had it in bis power to negotiate to advantage, John commenced a netcotiation with the hitherto exiled and despised hang- ton. A meeting accordingly took place ba. twcen them at Dover, and John offtred to submit himself to the pope, to receive I.anj;. ton as primate, to reinstate the whole of the exiled cler)^y, and to pay a certain sum in compensation of the rents which he had conliscated. Dut these terms, which John might have commanded at tho outset of the dispute, and at which, in fact, he had then manifested such childi'^h and unbe- coming rage, were far too favourable to be allowed him now that Home had at once his terror and his helplessness to urge her to severity. Langton demanded that, in- stead of a certain limited sum in tlic nay of compensation for the wrong done to the clergy, John should pay all that he had un- justly received, and, still farther, that hs should make full and complete satisfaction for all injuries suffered by the clergy in con- sequence of their exile and the contiscRtion of their revenues. It was less, now, from unwillingness to make peace with Rome, on even the hardest terms, than from slicer terror at the thought of having to collect again all the vast sums he had wantonly dissipated, and of having still farther to lind money for damages which tluisc who had suffered them were, of all men, the least likely lo undervalue, that John pro- nounced it impossible for him to comply witli Langton's demand. A.D. 1212. — The pope, who most probably did not fully appreciate the extent of the pecuniary ditHcutty which caused John to shrink from Langton's proposal, now so- lemnly absolved John's subjects from their allegiance to him, and denounced excom- munication upon all who should venture to have any commerce with him, at the coun- cil board or in the festive hall, in private or in public, as a monarch or even as an indi- vidual. As even this terril)le sever''y, hy which the most powerful man oouUl lie in an hour deprived of ail support r.nd ot nil demonstration of affeotiou, and iiiade— so much more powerful weri: superstitious fears than the urgiugs of either duly or af- fection—desolate find shunned as tlie pa- riah of the desart or the Ilebre .v leper, did not instantly force John to submission, In- nocent follow d it up by a so'cmn sentence i)( (leimsition. The pontiffs in .bat superstitioiis spe were wiser in their generation than ilic lay princes with wlioiu they bed to deal, and they well knew how to make those princes each the instrument of the other's subjec- tion. Accordingly, on this occasion, the pope, who weir understood the ambitious character of the king of France, and lh5 animosity that mutually existed between John and Philip, promised the latter not > I A.n. 1212.— onKAT taut op i.oNnoN brstuoybd by firk, jut.t 10. B« CBUHCB. 5i' ( onljr remission of sins hut „uSZi~ of his invaling it and auM„L f P '■^*«''<1 Piiilip readily consen?n-i . "'^ ''°'"'- force and «ummoned all W« nfil r'*"^ * *"*' to attend and aid hira hi i...i m'"^**"*''' of seventeen hundred'safl n„ h"*'''-"'' " ««« Normandy and Picardv «n5 ''" •=*"»"" •"" |u.ejediateanrefcaa?orSJ land incapable moSare .^^l". '''"■'{l'^^'^ popular, warlike anVl « r.- ''''''"' V a , fwiip. unless hde?d f L'"" ""'^' li^e ! latter simuld, a, va8bv'„ "'"■ °^ "'« ble, fail to reduce the fJrmor TT ,P''°''«- i In this dcoidediv tl.» '^.'° obedience. W. P«rils from Si out"?', ''■''?"« •''•'«'' joraethinfr like a flash nf h'" ''."P'a.vfd darinir .pirit of his Norman rZ ^T '?"J or 'crs not only for t 1 o „ "j^" I»s"in)r his military vassals atC'f""^ "<■ «'l I the arming and nrpnL„.° '• •"" «'«» 'or able to bea? arms \hCZZ h' T'^ ""»» ;he .eemed detern. ncd"ehher '♦" '''"«^''''»'' ) hi« crown or to die in ,lf.f ' *". Pfeservc 'hi. temporary Jlcam of"" ?* ''• «"' ' c««..e ton *',te, JncfuL too s ro,": 'r' ''"'^'""^ ., '•['"'cravcnconductonfnrml "'>'"Pf"'«ed . "htain him any gennr"! • 'i""''""* *° Mus people. Hisc^vo""^' "y.'npa'l'y amonif I ^'«neral'unpopdarit;u"ew"r';''" «"<* '''« ! 'Prnts of even the bravest „? ^'''''P PP *''« I ■ '.m tlie most zealmi, ni '",* subjects, W^nds whom his v^es h^l" '.'".v"'."- ^"^ '•««^ , Wed for the issue. Nevcnhe?^ J"™ *'*="- ! I %\7f sixty thousaS'' ''""=« '''« ^^^e ""•ed to giv'e him 30 va ? i''"'^ "'»'='' P'o- ; ««al of the pop^ and dfre^f "'"'. ""'• «» « ^"{^ajedin sSpporf"n„,hn ^''V''''P'''^'«''y ' »Wiwd to be observant if .?"''." """'orit^^ landolf the panal W ' ' '^"■''''"°n' of :»'econduct'ot^?L eTt'diti" '*"'°"' "'« '""ed. Pandolf well „/ ''"°" *as com- : f' «nd occult views otl?^'"'''^^"'"' 'he more of Plulip^raid „V "",T?'' ?'*'''""«"l ffpa-ed and displaved M '.■'P"'"^« ''a^ ^^'&^^^^^^^. ;•"' «ily and emZfo '1^' ^'"^ '^^ate" ' 7'y tlint now rem«fnl^^ ""'y ^eaus of l-^l^:i^ang^n3S4,^^j|-^ 165 day of battle Tl^TJ.'" """* "P"" the «"e true, and jX. 1"' kn " ^"''^ '''«'«« «o, passed in aa inwi^f f? """T '»""" to be ffavado and obstma"/r,""'""^°"' "^ '"■erne and far more !i, ""• *'i"«»y «- and obedience. John n„*^'"""K ''""'ility most entire submi,s°o" to ^iT P'-"miscd the knowledgemcnto CnJm /''"P,\= ""e ac Canterbury; the reH^n^i?" *« ""-bbishop of clerks or fayme'^ w.omh^ ^^ !!''•.*'''''''" on account of this loni.'L'""' ^nnished dispute ; restitution ot"^!!"!^ ""'o"unate ""cs that had been rnnfi *'°?''? ""^ '"ve- ; payment of all damn J,^"'^''"'•«'"l 'u" f «Kon ; and a , immed; ''*'*"•' ^^' "'« '^°"fi«- ^ tliousand pounds m.o Payment of eieht " «^ immediate ''aee'^rc?^'°»^P^'''■'•'^^'b = andfayourofallv^Kd ,..ff 1- '^'"'"^ » 'or ndherinif tn ti L suffered n them - of his great ba?ons°,^fso'"lwn "?'' ""^ '""' - faithful compliance Vrn^'? '^'"'^e his ^ h tbatlandolf^ot he\i,f/°'" "'e instant, < degrading conditions 1 ,f i", "P"^. '" 'bese » merit of the quarrel Vn, , '" '" "«'" and '"'alterably assiKned tn K ^"''sfantialiy «nd ««n solemn con ess on "^''^ "'" '''"g'' /^ndolf was, fo?X°u !''"'' ""' P"'nt to secure prior to runnTnlMr"":' *"•*'""» ng and startlina- even l^f 'be risk of sting. "'to desp,,ratio"r p^.t-'tvM ''*"■""•'' ^P'^t tbekingvirtuali.ooness %?.'•''"'' "'ado ' tbe quarrel was such „, tn ' '"'. "''«'-e in be support of 1 is .vL /''^•'"•'fle him to S?^-ofde-d^;^:^r^i;ftj^»;^: \->ld. as the first ronviL '*''" '"O"' rc- "b-dience, to res gn ,1 , Tp^^f o*' 'bat ^burcb ; an act of obed P„r"^f !"» to the assured was hi, mast eft^l"'',"^'' ''« '^as protecting his kinedoin „'"' """■« ^f ",'•0 would not d"?P 1 "f "r'. ^'''"ip. ! Pbiced under the immedi«ri "'''' ',' "'""n ' and custody of !{„„"! Jn?/„\^''"'"''ianship too far to reccdettn^, ..'""' now gon'e ;vbich made hfm for ever hf "'"^''dalon ral as well as spirituirv„! ."T *''mpo. and overrcachiirg R„7„:'''«'l' of baugl'ity subscribed a charter 1,?!;,) • ^^"^ therefore to be under no rest^n L i ''' P'''"'es8i..g "ouneed Kn:dand and , " V ^ ""'''"'"'^ '^■ ""cent and in./,"", ','^'«"'' 'o popp'i„. agreed thencel..- f „ '^//'^r^""' ""d annual rent of fltC, ."''* 'bem at thp ""•y of tbe papaV ™^ T^-'' «" '^"da! c'ssors as Wl as & . ^"'^^'''S bis sue- tormance of this eo di io^^ '" """ ''"o Per. lute h,rfeiture in t le evlnf "f"" "''«bso- disobedience. v.jl .?^'". "' . ""penitent signing of this It^ d^obedi;;,;:^^';^,^^, - degrading aereemn.?^ "- *'- .■ - .. "■nninat? K "2e J'' hn ""' «''"«ed to was comnellprf i„ ""^P buir- ""<: ^onns dppi, i,„ > """»ea to was compelled in r.nM^'^ bumiliation. He '" "'e nsual a? onfi'TV 'I" '"""age -"-'."Ponwhife^.^-n^nhe BARONIAL FBSTITITISI WSRS COIIDUCTBD ON A rnlNCBLY RCALB. H a M M u H M >j O •• o la A H 19 K O >4 a IS o m m •4 D ki i; o m M M o u M n H M » It o M H 9 9 156 ®^e ^Treasury of 1|i8torp, $cc. open acorn. And ro much had John'a mis- conduct degraded hia brave aubjccts as well M himseU', that, with the gingle exception of the archbialiop of Dublin, no one present had the spirit to resent I'AndolfB rude and impolitic behaviour. After John had submitted to all this ignominy, he was still compelled to feel himself dependent upon the very doubtful generosity of Rome ; for Pandolf refused to remove tne interdict and excommunication till the damages of the clergy should be both estimated and paid. Yet even in this terrible and galline state of his fortunes John relaxed not irom his tyranny to his subjects. An enthusiast or impostor, named Peter of Pomfret, a hermit, had in one of his rhapbodies prophesied that the king would this year lose his crown, a prophecy which had been likely enough to be accom- plished in any one of many preceding years. This man, and his son as hu accomplice or abettor, were tried as impostors ; and though the hermit stoutly maintained that the king's surrender to Rome, and the vassalage in which he had now consented to hold his formerly independent crown, verified the prophecy, they were both dragged at horses' neels to the gallows and there hanged, Jol>", the baseness of whose temper made him callous to many reflections which would have stung a prouder and more ho- nourable man almost to madness, was, amid all his degradation, less to be pitied just now than the duped and baffled Philip. His rage on learning that his expensive B i display of force had only served the pur- 3 I pose of driving John into the protection of M { the pope, could scarcely be kept within g either safe or descent bounds. He bitterly „ ] complained of the insincere offers and pro- % mises by which he had been gulled into an 3 ' outlay of sixty thousand pounds ; and, his | indignation being shared by his barous, he | went so far as to declare that not even the pope's protection should save England from him. It indeed seems probable, that he would at all risks have invaded England but for the influence and intrigues of the carl of Flanders, who, being in a secret confederacy with John, loudly protested against the impiety of attacking a state that was now become a part of St. Peter's patrimony. Shrewdly judging that the earl would follow up his words by correspond- ing deeds, PhiHp resolved to chastise him ; but while he was engaged in so doing, his fleet was attacked by John's natural bro- ther, the earl of Salisbury, so that Philip deemed it the wisest plan to lay aside his meditated attack upon England, at least for the present. John, as easily elated as depressed, was 80 puffed up by his novel safety, accompa- nied though it was by so mucli ignon.iny, that he boasted his intention to invade France. But he was met on the part of his barons with cold and contemptuous refusal to take part in his entcrpvisc ; and when, in the hope of elmming them into joining him, he sailed with only his personal fol- lowers as far as the island of Jersey, he o H M K 91 o u u < o H * n IS ■* n o IS M a H »■ O ■9 H K < K a u M n M H had the mortification of being compelled to return, not one of the barons having so far relented as to follow him. On his return he threatened to chastise them for their want of obedience ; but here lie was met by the archbishop Langton, who reminded hira that he was but the vassal of Rome, and threatened him with the most signal punishment if he ventured to levy war upon any of his aubjects. Rome removed the inflictions upon Jolin and his kingdom to the full as gradually aa she had laid them on ; but in the end the pope himself interfered to protect him against the extortion of the clergy, ami commanded them to take forty thousand marks instead of a hundred thousand, which John had offered, and instead of the infamously excessive sum beyond that which they had rated their losses at. In the end, the king's submissive beha- viour and his disbursement of large sums of money procured the interdict to be re- moved from his kingdom ; and the prelates and superior clergy having received their dan es, the inferior clergy were left to consuio themselves as they be. might without any repayment at all ; Nicholas, bishop of Frescati, who was now IcKate in England instead of Pandolf, showing him- selt more favourable to John than his pre- decessors had been. A. D. 1'2H. — Not deterred by the evident dislike ot his barons, and their determina- tion never to assist him when they cbuld make any valid excuse, John now pro- ceeded to Poictou, and his authority being still held ill respect there, he was euahkd to carry the war into Philip's territory. But before John had well commenced his depredations he was routed by Philip's son, young prince Louis, and fled in terror to England, to engage once more in his con- genial task of oppressing his subjects. For this amiable pursuit he deemed that his submissions to Rome had furnished him with full immunity ; but mortificationr, of the most severe description were still in store for him. The barons, shocked out of even their feudal notiont of suhmission, became clamorous for the practical and formal establishment of the liberties and privileges which had been promised to them by both Henry I. and Henry II. In their demands they were much backed and aided by archbishop Langton ; less, it would f ecm pretty clear, from any genuine patriotism on his part, than from old dctc talion of John, exacerbated and festered by the ob- stinacy with which John had resisted Langton's admission to the primacy. At a private meeting of the most zealous of the barons, Langton not only encouraged them by hib own eloquent advice, but also pro- duced a copy of the charter of Henry I- which he had rummaged out of some mo- nastic crypt, and urged them to make that the guide ond basis of their demands, and to persevere until those demands were bnili fully and securely conceded to them. I'lf ceiving the effect of this conduct, he re- peated it at another and more nauicrnns TOORNAMBNTS AND OTUER INSTITUTIPNS OP CHIVALIIT NOW rnrVAII.r.l' ,Y RCALB. ► I f being cnmpeUed to baTODKhavingMifar lim. On his return itiso them for their ut here he was met igton, who reminded the vacsal of Rome, fith the most signal iittured to levy war inflictions upon John ue full as gradually a« ; but in the cud the red to protect him _ n of the clcrfty, and i. ) take forty thousand : . hundred thousand, ! red, and instead of the , e sura beyond that I their losses at. ing's submissive bclia- rsement of large sumi the interdict to be te- ;dom; and the prelates having received their ior clergy were left to I as they be. might nent at all; Nicholas, who was now legate in Pandolf, showing him- e to John than his pre- ietcrred by the evident IS, and their dctcrmina- t him when they cciild Ixcuse, John now pro- and his authority being there, he was enahlvH into Philip's territory, ad well commenced his routed by Philip's son. and fled in terror to p'once more in his con- easing his subjects. »or lit lie deemed that his me had fumiBhed him , - but mortification!-, ol - escription «*;'« *"" " ! B barons, shocked out , iiotiont of sutmf ">"! ; for the practical and > „t of the liberties and . 1 been promised to t^^m "^d Henry II. In""' : much backed and aided , jton; less, it would feem kny genuine patriotism from old dettaalion ot ^iBiid festered by the ob- cb John had resisted .n to the primacy. At » the most zealous the Lt only encouraged them fit advice, but a so pro- le charter of Henn !■• „aged out of som , '•Eud them to make tiw .^of their demands, «i Lose demands were InK onccdedtothoui. 1 of this conduct, he re "r and more numerous i , < I i I E I r. < I ff I A. U. 1316.— MASNA CUABTA ■lONBO AT ftUHHTUBOE, JU.NH 15. ^nglantJ.— ^lantagtnets — I^enrp 3EIEE. 157 meeting of the barons at St. Edmund's Bury in Suffolk; and the charter, sup- ported Ijy his wn vivid eloquence, so wrought upon the baroui, that ere they separated they solemnly swore to be true to each other, and never to cease to make war upon their faithless and tyrannical king until he should grant their just demands. This done they separated, after fixing upon s day for their reunion to cororoence their open and, if need were, armed advocacy of their cause. *.D. 1215.— On the given day they punc- tually met, and demanded their rights, as promised by his own oatU and as laid down in the charter of Henry I. Alarmed at their union, John promised that they should be answered on the following Easter; and the primate with the bishop of Ely and the earl of Pembroke becoming surety for the performance of the king's words, the barons contentedly retired to their castles. Hut John had sought delay, not fur the purpose of considering the nature and pro- priety of the demands, but for that of find- ing, if possible, some means by which at once to Daulk the baronsund to be avenged of them. Having experienced to his cost I'le power of Rome, he thought his best nay to baffle his nobles was to couciliate the church, to which he voluntarily made many concessions and compliments; one of the former being his voluntary relin- qnitliment of that right of investiture which the previous Norman kings had so stoutly battled for, and one of the latter, an equally vuluutary proffer and promise to lead an army against the infidels in the Holy Land ; and, to signify his entire sin- cerity upon this last point, he at once as- sumed the Cross. Both from John's ur- gency for his protection and from the coun- icr and no less urgent instances of the barons, the pope was excited to much alarm about England, for the peace and prospe- rity of which he had, since John basely became his vassal, conceived a sort of pa- ternal interest. Knowing full well how much more difficult it would be to deal with the power of Englana under the bold barons than under a despised and weak prince like John, it was obviously to the interest of Innocent to uphold the latter as far as possible against the former ; and he therefore issued a bull, in which he charac- terised the proceedings of the barons as illegal and treasciiablc ; forbad them, un- der pain of excnmraunication, from per- sisting in their demands ; and enjoined John, under the same penalty, not to com- ply with them. The primate, being in favour of the barons, refused to give formal publicity to this bull; and though he was suspended for his conduct in this respect, the failure of the bull was not the less ensured ; and ' thus a new proof was afforded how much ihe pope's power depended upon the cx- ifnt and the cordiality of the co-operation of the rest of the church. But though the pope and the king thus exerted themselves to defeat the barons, the latter succeedod in wresting from the king that well-known declaration of rights and detinition of pre- rogative known as Magna Charta, or the Great Charter,— a document which we need not insert here, on account of its general notoriety. But no charter or agreement CLuld bind the king; he introduced foreign mercenaries, besieged and took Rochester castle, and barbarously put all but the very highest of the garrison to death, and then carried fire and sword into *he towns and villages throughout England. The barons, chieny from some faults or oinissious on their own part, were reduced to such straits, that they ventured on the unpatriotic and dangerous expedient of offering the crown of England to prince Louis, sou of Philip of France. A. B. 1216. — The prince accordingly landed in England with a large force, in spite of the menaces and orders of the pope ; John was deserted by the foreigners upon whom he chiefly depended, and who, though will- ing enough to slaughter his English sub- jects, were naturally unwilling to fight against their own native prince. Most of the English nobility who had heretofore sided with John, now deserted hiin ; town after town, and istle after castle, fell into the hands of h. > '.uemies ; and every thing seemed to threaten him, when a report, true or false, got currency, that Louis merely used the English nobles as his tools, and would execute them as tVaitors when- ever his success should V>o complete. This report had visibly turned the scale once more in favour of John. Several nobles re- turned to their allegiance, and he was ra- pidly collecting powerful forces to combat for his kingdom, when a heavy loss of trea- sure and baggage, which occurred as he was passing towardb Lincoln, so much ag- gravated an illness under which he already laboured, that he expired at Newark, on the 17th of October, 121 ti, in the forty-ninth year of his age, and in the eighteenth of Lis agitated, mischievous, and inglorious reign. It was in this reign that the citizens of London -'rst were privileged annually and from .'<> ir own body to choose their mayor and common council, and to elect and ain- charge their sheriffs at pleasure. Of the king's character no summary is needed; both as man and as sovereign he is but too forcibly depicted in the events of which we have given a brief, but complete and im- partial account. CHAPTER XXIII. The lieiyn of lleni-y III, A. p. 72ir). — At the death of John his el- dest son, Henry, was only nine years old; but happily he had in the carl of Pein'oroke a friend and guardian who was b-'-th able and willing to prevent his infnnr from be- ing any disadvantage to him; and Louis of France, wlio expected to derive grc.it bene- fit from the death of John, found, on the contrary, tliat very circumstance most lu- jurious to him. H M O * «s M M Tim QUJKCT OK MAGNA CHARTA WAS TO COnnFCT FKlinAI, ABUSES. H P) H •< -I r, a o [r A.». 1318.— hbubt obowmbd in n* catbidbal or movcbitbb, oct. 38, 158 C^e V^xtnmvet of l^istori), $c(. Immediately after the death of John, the earl of Pembroke took every neceisary pre- caution on beh»'f of the young prince. He had him crowr^:2d immediately after tlie funeral, and caused him publicly to iwear fealty to the pope ; measures most impor- tant towards ensuring the enthusiasm of the people, on the one hand, and the. sup- port of Rome, on the other. Still farther to increase the popularity of the young king, the earl of Pembroke, now regularly authorized with the title of protector of the reelm, conferred upon him by a great coun- cil, issued in his name a new clnrter, chief- ly founded on that which John had granted and broken through ; and subsequently he added sceral still more popular articles to it, disafore.-ting much of the vast quantity :^f land whii h had arbitrarily been enclosed by Richaril > i<1 .'ohi., nnd substituting fine and irap.18'. v.vn lor the more brutal punishment 8 'licii had heretofore been awarded t-; •'o/eht offences. While K.'t. 'J in taking these Rcneral mea- .inrnK u) wcuf '.lie uffcctions of the pcoiilo, t)i' eari iliil ii )t omit to exert his individual tutltierce to di:tach the barons who lip.d »il«d Titb ..'-uiS. He pointed out, with f.Jtai' J lie uxi;, the vast dili'erence between tlilitii-"' ak'niiift ."sovereign of mature years r.'Iio ;..ii v 'ovrd nnd insulted them, and varring (i>r J au infant priuce of the race ,(' their, UK i ■.' inoanrchs, to set up in liis pi.ico the sjn of the French king; he dwelt upoi! the good measures which had already been taken by the government of tlie in- fant king, and besought them to take the favourable opportunily that now offered, of abandoning the cause of Louis, which was unjust in itself, anathematized by the pope, and had hitherto been as singularly unfortunate as it was obviously unblest. The character of Pembroke was so high, that his remonstrances had a great effect on those to whom they were addressed. Many barons forthwith abandoned Louis, and carried over their strength to their native prince ; and many more, thougl' not yet quite prepared to go all that lenRlh, en- tered into a correspondence with P*: nbroke which showed their leatiing that v.'ny. Louis added to this leaning by the impolitic open- ness with which he evinced h-.a distrust of the English. IU)bert Fitz-'T,ilter, that pow- erful baron under whom . 'le whole of the barons of England hai^ Uioui^ht it no dis- grace to range themselves when they com- menced their struB'.;le with the tyrant John, applied to Louis for the government of the castle of Hertford, and was refused, although he had a personal claim upon the fortress. With such an example before thsir eyes, how could the barons help feel- ing that be v.'e.s, indeed, making mere tools of them ? Louis bping obliged, by the great losses he had sustained, to go to France for rein- forccmeuts, afforded tlie doubtful an oppor- tunity to return to their alle.dance and join Pembroke, who at length laid siege to Lincoln any, which was giimaoned by the French uuder count Perche, who in their tarn hemmed in and besieged the RnKliih parrison of Lincoln castle. A sally fnnu tne castle waa made at the same uionient that Pembroke and hi* troopi roounlud to the assault of the town ; and so coiiiplett -vas the success of the English on this oc- casion, that the fate of the kingdom mtr be said to have depended on the issue, When Pembroke obtained this great id- vantage Louis was besieging Hover laatk', which was as ably as obstinately defended by Hubert de Burgh ; and on hearing t|i« tidings from Lincoln he hastened to Lon- don, where the farther ill news awaiipd him of the defeat and dispersion of a Frmclt fleet which was bringing him over rein- forcements. These two events caused new detertloni of the English barons to Pembroke; and, instead of entertaining farther hope of m In. ning the English crown, Louis now tliniiKlit only of securing a safe and speedy depsrturr from a kingdom in which he had met v.iu so many misfortunes ; he accordingly K,r,tfi:i to evacuate the kingdom fortliwiili, upon the sole condition that neither in properly nor in liberties should those barons wliu had adhered to his cause be made to sultiir for that adherence. The protector readily agreed to so es»f i condition ; and the o;vil war being tlim happily terminated Pembroke, as to\catM the lay barons wl>o had supported I ouii, fully performed hU part of the iigrtcincni, not only restoring them to their pnatei- sions, but also tuking every opportunity lo show that their former conduct was imi allowed to have the slightest wciKlit in preventing favour or preferment from ri'ar'li- ing them. For the clerical rebels a tar ee- verer fate was in store. As far as regardtd the merely civil portion of their oft'ciici! Pembroku molested none of theni ; hut Gualo, the pope's legRte, dealt somewhat more sternly for the contempt and diboliB- dieuce with which, in spite of the inttriliL't and excommunication, they had dariMl tu continue to support Louib. in si, nuincroiii a body of nit-n it was obviuui>ly impoitihle but tl'mt there should be degnics of guilt j and accordingly, while some were Jeimscd, others were only suspended ; muL- wi're banished, but all, whatever thc.r degree ul gui't, had to pay a fine to the Icgatp, In whom this wholesale chastisement ul' the erring clerks produced an immense (uni. The earl of Pembroke, to whom the pi'iicn w>' - -r. gre,' t!s owing, died soon after ii« c'\n.'ii sion, 'luI the protectorate imsBed inin the iiands of Hubert '"..^ llurg't, the j»«- l)iKll(l|l tif l'C% ticisi., and Peter des W-,!:cit';ster. Though the r.-iuier, who look thi- c(.it;f part in the governnicnt, wsi a great and able man, he had not liiat (ler- sunal reputation among the barons uhiili iiad been en.ioyed by tlie enrl of Peiiilirnite, and whici! had chiefly enabled that nnhh • man to curb the evil disnosition* whii'h now broke forth into fall and full nctivily, insulting the royal authority, and eviry where pillaging and coercing *.lio people. Among the most disorderly of these wan HRNRT " nv wixcnrsTKn ' w.vs .so namkd prom nEINO bork "-tebb. » 0. 1331.— BBNItT tAID TBS rl«l> IIOIII OF WMTMininB ABBCT. f lEnjjlanti — ^lantagtntta.— l^tnrn 3EE3E. 169 \\\¥ t!M\ nf Allicinnrtc. He had lerved under t^iiil*, )iiit hfiil quickly returned to his duty fHiditltliMKiiitlK^dhiiiinclf in HghtinK against IliK Krrncli. Ilia dinordcrly conduct in the iHiftii of Krivland now became ao notorious Kftil M misniicvnus, that Hubert de Burgh, IIiimikI) K'*'ally averse to hnrsh measures mn\ml lii'ise pnwcrrul nobles whose future fntiiur inlglit be of such important conse- iliifncfi til Ills young king, seized on the i'Sitle of Rorkingham, which the earl had nlji'ij wllh Ills lirrntious soldiery. The earl, iiH|i|iiftfd by Kawkcs de Hrenut^ and other '^flrllkc and (urhulcnt barons, fortifiud the f'ititjii nf tlllhnm, put himself upon his open (lifoifc, and seized upon the eartle of Ko- ll;l>rilMNy ; and it seemed not unlikely that •li<< iliirltiK and injustice of this one man wifflliliivnTn kindle the so lately extinguiKhi'd (tottips (if civil war. Fortunately, I'andolf, *|mi*«s new restored to tlie legatine power III t'/iiKliind, was present to take a part on klmlf (if the constituted authorities. He i>«iied n senlenco of excommunication not iitii; Afcniiist Allicmnrle, but also in general Ifriit* fl)fn)nst all who should adhere to that iiilili'iiiiin'i* cause ) and an army, with means (if (myl'ig It, were provided. The pronipti- liiili< ntiil vigour of these measures soalann- ||(| Allicinnrle's adherents, that he was on (lie Itntiiiit (lenerted by the most powerful (if tlii'iiti and saw nothing left but to sue fill' (lie HJiig's pardon, which was not only KfSllled Id lilin as regarded his person, but jii< *im at the sauio time restored to his tlmlc eslnln. J) *rts pfdbiihly the confidence of bcinir, III tliH last resort, able to ensure himself (t llhc liiiprilitic degree of tcuity, that en- m\tW(\ Kawkcs du lircaute to treat the fldvcriiiiiciit with a most unheard of inso- |||M'(« find contempt. Having been raised fruiii A l(m origin by king John, whom he (iillimid in the discreditable capacity of a tlillllNry bully, Ibis man carried the conduct tlllil linnticrs of bis original station into the lilltlicr fortune to which he had attained, «it(l w«s (niKiiig the most turbulent and un- HWii/iftPflble of all the barons. Td (Ic^lrp a freehold, and forcibly to expel •lie rmhlfiil owner and take possession, »»CcW(tl( him hut one and the same thing; Will fur literal robberies of this summery w>\ Hlidjesnle description, no fewer tlmn llMHC-Ihe vcrilicts were recorded against Ihki «l one (iine. Far from being abashed (/f Hlutiiied by such a plurality of crime, ^»l»ltc» titnrched a body of his staunclicst mmii\pt\\i<* to the court of justice which *ii» tlifn sitting, sei/.cd upon his bench the )i«((jcwhi» had ventured to decide against «(( |((itciit 1)11 difender, and actually impri- •('llcd ilini judicial dignitary in Hcdt'ord cii'llc. lla'.iiiK gone to tliisextent, Fankes f(Htl(t liaVH but little roiiipunction about 8''ittK ft III farther, and he openly and in jiirill Ic^lt'd war upon the king. Hut he IW'I lidW gone to the full length of his '"•ll(ifj lie v.as opposed so vi;j;iiri)U8ly that III* f'llldwerswere mhio put to the rout, and lie, licliig taken pricmier, was punished by fKBKsPftllon and banishinent. A.D. 1222.— In tliia year a riot broke out in the metropolis. Cominencir.g in some petty dispute that occurred during a wrest- ling match between a portion of the rabble of London and Westminster, it at length rose to a desperate and dangerous tumult, in the course of wiiich several persons were much hurt and some houses were plundered and demolished. These houses oelonging to so important a person as the abbot of Westminster, that circumstance alone would probably have caused the riot to be looked upon in a serious light at court. Uut it farther appeared, that in the course of the contlict the combatants on cither or both sides had been heard to use the French war-cry " Mcmntjoy St. Denis ! " and the recent attempt by I,ouis ujinn the English crown caused tlie use of this war-cry to give to an ordinary riot something of the aspect of a political and treasonable at- tempt ;, and Hubert, the justiciary, person- ally took cognizance of the matter. The ringleader, Constantine Fitz-Arnulf, be- Iwved with much self-possession and au- dacity when before the justiciary, and was forthwith led out from his presence and hanged; while several of those whose guilt was confessedly less heinous had their feet amputated; an awful severity under any possible circumstiinces — how much more 80 when contrasted with the lenity shown to so desperate au offender as Fuwkes de BreautC' ! Shortly after this affair, which Was much complained of as being contrary to the Great Charter, Hubert procured a bull from the pope, pronouncing the king of full age to govern. He then resigned into tlx- young king's hands theTower of l^ondun und Dover Castle, which had been entrusted to him ; and having by this example acnuired the greater right to demand iit the hands of other nobles a siinlUi slriiiKtheniug of the much-impaired po»cr of the crown, be for- ma ly did so. Bvit the barons of tliat day were like the rakvof a later dramotist ; they " rouW admire virtue, but couM not imitate it." AU murmured, most refused »/» com- ply, and raanv, among whom were the carls of Chester and Albenuirle, John, remstable of Chester, Jolin de iicy, and Wiijiam dc Coarlel, absolutely laet in arms at Wal- tham and prepared -ra march in hostile array upon L(mdon. But before they had time to commence this actual levying of civil war, they had tidings that the king was prepared to outnumber and defeat them. They, therefore, abandoned their design, and appeared at court, whither they were summoned to answer for their con- duet. But tliough, as a matter of prudence, they had l»id aside the design of levying absolute war upon their sovereign, they made no profession of repentance. On the con- trary, while they CHKeily disavowed any personal hostility to the king himself, they equally admitted that they were hostile to Hubert, and that they vtcre still ab deter- mined as ever to insist upon his removal from his power and authority. They were too numerous and potent to be ■;ubjected B *,». 1339.— THR CONCUBtWES OF rRIBSTS DEMBI) CIiaiSTIAN nURIAI,. A.v. 1339.— *■■ torm couiotbd •■■ tbdths or thb wholb KinaBow. 160 QT^e ^rcasuris of l^istorQ, txt. a o to tbe pnniihment which their iniolent le- ditlon merited; and probably it was their perception of that aa the real cause of their beinK luflTerfd to retire anicathed from court after so open a declaration of their hoitility to Hubert, that encouraged them very shortly afterwards to hold another armed meetioK at Leicester. Here again they determined that the king, then resi- dent at Northampton, was too strong and too well prepared to allow of their aeiziiig upon his person, which, despite their former disclaimer, it was all along their desire to do. But, as if watching for some relax- ation of the vigilance of the justiciary, or some dimiiiution of the royal forces, they kept together under the pretence of ccle- brating Christmas. As it was evident that mischief would spcei^ily occur to both king and people, unless theiie bold bad men wire stopped before they had encouraged each other too far, the archbishop and the pre- lates sternly remonstrated with them, and threatened them with immediate excommu- nication as tlie penalty of their longer delay- ing their submission to the king and their disbandin;; of their hostile array. Most of the castles were, upon this threat, given up to the king, and we may judge how neces- sary a step Hubert had taken on behalf of his young sovereign, when wc read that there were in England at that time no fewer than Ills of these castles. When Hubert's just and wise design was fulfilled, the king restored to that faithful subject and servant the fortresses he had surrendered, and this restoration was bitterly complained of by the factious barons, who chose not to per- ceive the immense difference between for- tresses held for the king and fortresses held against him. Parliament having granted the king a fifteenth, he was obliged to employ it in carrying on war against France, in spite of the disaffected state of so many of hi:i most powerful subjects. For Henry having de- manded the restitution of his ancestral Normandv, Louis VIIL was so far from making that restitution, that he made a sudden attack upon Poictou, besieged and took Rochelle, and showed an evident de- termination to deprive the English of their very small remaining continental territory. The king sent ever, as his lieutenants, his brother the carl of Cornwall, and his uncle the earl of Salisbury, who succeeded in preventing any farther progress on the part of Louis, and in keeping the vassals of Gascony and Poictou in obedience; and, after two y.iars stay in France, during which the military operations amounted to nothing higher than what modem generals would term a skirmish, the earl of Corn- wall returned to England. A.D. 12?7— Though Richard, earl of Cornwall, seems to have cared little enough for the ordinary ends of ambition, he had a greediness of gain which answered all the ])urposcs of ambition in arraying him against his brother and king ; and a petty dispute which arose out of the earl's greed and his unjust course of gratifying it, not only produced feud between tbe brothers, but had well nigh involved the whole nation in a civil war, and certainiT would have done to but for the weak ana yielding cha- racter of Henry, whose irresolution even thus early became manifest to both hii friends and his enemies. Taking advantage of a dispute which had occurred between Richard and one of the barons, relative to the possession of • certain manor, a powerful confederacy of discontented nobles was formed against the king, who at length yielded the point through fear, and made concessions as im. politic as they were inglorious to him as a sovereign. So weak and pliant, in fact, was the character of Henry, that it may be doubted whether he would ever have rei)(ned at all had the care of his minority fallen into the hands of a less able and upright man than Hubert de Burgh. And it wns no small proof of his weakness that after all the important and steadfast services which he had received from De Burgh, that minister was dismissed his office, deprived of hit property, driven to take sanctuary, drawn thence and committed to close custody in the castle of Devizes, for no other reason than that he had been faithful to the king. Other real charge than this there was none ; though several pretences were urged against him, such as the frivolous ones of his havine gained the king's favour and affection ay larts of enchantment, and of purloining from the royal treasure a gem which had the virtue of rendering its wearer invulnerable 1 Hubert was at length driven into exile; but recalled and taken into favour A'ith just as little apparent reason as there had been for his persecution. He seems in his adversity to have at least learned the valuable lesson of the danger of counselling wisely a weak king ; for, though he was now personally as much a favourite as ever, he never afterwards showed any desire to resume his perilous authority; which was bestowed at his overthrow upon Peter, bishop of Winchester, a native of Poictou, arbitrary and violent, but without any of Hubert de Burgh's talent or courage, and so little fitted for the almost sovereign authority that was entrusted to him, that it was mainly owing to his misconduct and tyranny, as justiciary and a regent of the kingdom during an absence of king John in France, that the barons had been stun;; into that memorable combination which re- sulted in the great charter, the foundatioD of constitutional liberty in England. A. ». 1231. — Like all weak persons, Henry, while he felt his own incapacity for govern- ing, W08 unwilling to abide by the advice of those who were worthy of his contiJciice; and feeling that his true nature was shrewd- ly understood by his own subjects, he in- vited over a great number of Poictcvins, in whom he rightly supposed that he would find more pliancy and less restraint. Upon these foreign sycophants he conferred va- rious ofBces of trust and power which he feared to bestow upon his English subjects. Confident in the protection of the king, in- A. D. 1230.—- HsMBv nBTirnNS from his KxraniTioN to francb. A. D. mo.— r lEnglanTf.— ^lantagencts.— I^cnri? 3E1E1E. 161 fltt«d hj the itream of good fortune which io luddcBl; flowed in upon them, and either iltnonuit of the hate and Jcaloua^ of which they were the objects, these foreiini favour- ites, br their insolence, added to the ran- eour of the pownrful enemies by whom the mere favour and profuse liberality of the king were of themselves sufficient to sur- round them. The barons, on the other hand, Andinft all indirect tokens of their ditpleasure unattended to, at length refused to attend their parliamentary duties, under pretence of fearing the power of the fo- reiirners ; and when the king remonstrated and plainly commanded their attend nnee, they replied that they would attend no more until the king should have diRinissed the Poictcvins, attd that if he did not •peedily dianiiss those men, both they and he should be driven from the kingdom. At length, however, the barons, altering their pisn, did proceed to parliament, but in so warlike a guise, that it was evident they intended to overawe the kins, and make their own will serve for law both to him «nd to the kingdom. And this they doubt- .»!■ would speedily have done with the itrong hand, had they been opposed by no abler antaKonist than the king. But the juiticiary, Peter des Roches, so ably em- ployed their interval of irresolution, that he aetached from them not only the carls of Chester and Lincoln, but also the earl of Cornwall, the king's brother, and thus so I much weakened the confederacy, that it was I broken up and its leaders exposed to the ! Tcngeance of the king. Richard, the carl i marshal, fled into Wales and thence to Ire- I land, where he was assassinated ; others of the barons were fortunate enough to escape, but their estates were conflscated, and, with ; the king's usual fully and profusion, distri- ! buted among the already wealth-gorged fo- ! reigners ; and the justiciary publicly said I that the barons of England must learn to know themselves as inferior to those of France I i To what extent of insolent tyranny he ' who uttered such a speech might have pro- ceeded it is not easy to guess; but his pride met writh a sudden check, and that from a quarter whence he miglit reasou- abty have least anticipated it. The church became alarmed for iu own interests; several of the prelates, well knowing the general discontent that was spreading >mong the people in consequence of the inio'cnt and tyrannical conduct of the jus- ticiary, attended the archbishop of Canter- bury to court, where he strongly repre- sented to Henry the impolicy as well as in- ju'tice of the course he had pursued him- telf and allowed the justiciary to pursue in his niinie ; and, attributing all the evil to tbe justiciary, demanded his dismissal on pain of an instant sentence of excommnni- I cation against the king himself. Timid by nature, though well enough inclined to- wards despotism while it could be practised safely, llcnry was struck with alarm at the ] threat of exroniinunication, which he right- ; ly judged would be satisfactory to the op- pressed people as well as to the barons, and ne consented to the dismissal of Peter dca Roches. The primate succeeded him in the task of ordering state affairs; and being a man of promptitude as well as of good sense, he speedily restored content by banishing the detested foreigners and re- instating the English magnates in the offices from which they had, a* insultingly ai unjustly, been banished. A. D. 1236.— The inclinations of a weak prince, however, are usually loo strong fur the advice of the most prudent minister, and the complaints of tlie king's nrcfer- ence of foreigners soon became louder than ever. Having married Eleanor, daughter of the count of Provence, Henry surrounded him- self with her countrymen and with those of her maternal uncle, the bishop of Va- lence, who was of the house of Savoy. The Proven<;als and Savoyards now tasted of the king's indiscriminate bounty as largely as the I'nictevins had. The bishop of Va- lence became as potent a personage as Peter des Roches had been ; another mem- ber of the family of Peter was presented with the manor of Richmond and the great wardship of the earl of Warenue, and Boni- face, also of Savoy, was made archbishop of Canterbury. Nor were men alone thus fortunate ; to the ladies of Savoy the king gave in marriage the young ami wealthy nobles who were his wards. Profusion like tliis soon exhausted even the monarch's ample means, and an attempt was made to put the king in possession of funds for far- ther liberalities, oy obtaining an absolution for him from Rome from the oath which he had taken to support his former grants to his English subjects. In truth, it soon be- came necessary cither that the king should obtain new funds, or that he should aban- don his system of profusion; for a new claim, which had some show of reason, was now made upon him. It will be remem- bered that Henry's mother, Isabella, had been by the violenre of king John taken from her lawful husband, the count de la Marche ; and to him, as soon after John's death as decency woaid allow, she had given her hand in second marriage. By this second marriage she had four sons, Guy, William, Geoffrey, and Aylmer, whom she sent over to visit Henry. Tlieir being fo- reigners woiild perhaps hare been (]uite suf- ficient to procure for them a cordial recep- tion ; but having the additional recommen- dation of being his half-brothers, they were rapturously received by him, and l>« heaped wealth and dignities upon theia, with a mo»t entire unconcern as to his own means and as to the feelings and claims of his subjects. In church as in state, foreigners were constantly preferred to natives, and while Henry was lavishing wealth and civil honours upon the Poictevins, Savoyards, and Gasconx, the overwhelming influence of Rome filled the richest church benefices of England with nameless Italinn monks, and it was at one time proved to demon- stration that the Italian intruders into the A. n. 1241. — A OnEAT DEARTH FBECEDED BT AN KARTUQUAKB. [P3 A.D. 13(1.— WAbBI WHOLLY •UIDUBD, ANB BOTBaiiaS BT BIlaLIIB LiW«. 162 ^^t ^rcasuro o( l^istorv, ^t* clinrch were in the yearly receipt of a reve- nue roniiderably larger than that of the king himaelf I Under tuch circumitancet it wai natural that the parliament ihould (how Rome un- willingneis to grant luppliei to a Icing who 10 ill Knew how to uae hii funds, or that men of all rnuka should murmur .igoinst a V.mg so utterly deatitutc of patriotic feel- ii.g; and the more eipecially, as he was thus laviiih to foreigners while utterly care- less to flutter the English with that martial enterprise which then, as lon^ after, was viewed by them as oi.iple covennR for many defects, personal and political. Whenever he demanded itupplics he was obliged to listen to the complaints of the violence done to his faithful subjects, of the mean marriugea forced upon those of the highest ranks, of the actual violence by which his taMe was supplied, his person decorated, and his religious solemnities adorned. A. u. 1253.— To all complaints of this na- ture Henry listened with impatience, and replied with vague and general promises of amendment i at length, in 1253, having ex- hausted the patience of his long enduring subjects, he nit upon a new mode of ob- taining funds from them, by soliciting a supply to aid him in the pious design of a crusade againat the infidels. But he had now so often been tried and found wantinjf, that the j^arliament could not put faith in this specious profession. The clergy, too, who rightly deemed their interests perilled by the infatuated conduct of the kini;, were as much opposed to him as the loitv ; and they sent the archhibhop of Can'o-r- bury, and the biahops of Wir/cluitter, Salis- bury, and Carlisle, to renionstratu with him upon his general extravagance, as well as upon the irregular manner in which he disposed of church dignities. Upon this occasion Henry displayed more than bis usual spirit. Availing himself of the fact that he had greatly favoured these very personages, he replied, " It is true, I have Deen in error on this point of improper promotions; I obtruded you, my lord of Canterhorr, upon your see ; I was obliged to employ both threats and persuasions, my lord of Winchester, to have you elected ; and irregular, indeed, was ray conduct, my lords of Salisbury and Carlisle, when fron. your lowly stations I raised you to your present dignities." There was much truth in this, but there was no apology ; and the prelates shrewdly replied, that the question was not of errors past, but of the avoidance of future errors. Notwithstanding the sarcasm with which the king met the complaints of the prelates, he promised so fairly for the reformation of botn ecclesiastical and civil abuses, that the parliament at length consented to grant him a tenth of the ecclesiastical benefices, and a Bcutage of three marks upon each knight's fee, on condition of his solemnly ratifying the great charter, while, with the ceremony of " bell, book, and candle," they cursed whoever should henceforth violate it. The king joined in the ceremony, audibly and emphatically agreed in the awful curse in- voked upon any violation of his oath— and immediately afterwards returned to lii> old Kractices as though nothing extraordiuarr ad occurred t A.D. 1358.— Conduct so infatuated on the part of the king almost seemed to intite rebellion, and at length tempted one smbi- tious and daring noble so far, that lie de- termined to endeavour to win the throne from a king who proved himself so un- worthy of filling it with dignity or honour. 8iinon de Montford, a son of the fcreat warrior of that name, having, though burn abroad, inherited large property in England, was created carl of Leicester, and in the year 1238 married the dowager countcianf rembroke, sister to the king. The earl had been sometimes greatly favoured, some- times as signaHv disgraced by the king, but being a man oi great talent he had con* trived always \ > recover his footing at court, and, whether i i or out of favour with the king, to be a general favourite with the people, who at his first marrying the king's sister had hated and railed against him for his foreign birth. Perceiving how inveterately the king was addicted to his tyrannies and folliea, tbii artful and able nobleman determined to put himself at the head of the popular— or, more properly speaking, the baronial and church — party, trusting that Henry might su far provoke his enemies as to lose his throne, in which case Leicester trusted to his own talents and influence to enable him to succeed to it. Accordingly he took I'.p the cry, now become as general as it was just, against the king's oppression of the people, and his preference of foreigners,— Leicester conveniently overlooking nis own foreign birth I — and sought every occasion of putting himself forward as the advocate of the native barons and the prelates. When by persevering efforts in this way he had, aa he considered, sufficiently strength- ened his own hands and inflamed the gene- ral resentments against the king, he took occasion of a quarrel with Henry's half- brother and favourite, William de Valence, to bring matters to a crisis. Calling a meeting of the most incensed and powerM of the barons, he represented to them all those violations of the charter to which we have already alluded, and demanded whe- ther they had so far degenerated from the high feelings of the barons who had wrest- ed the charter from John, that they were prepared, without tven a struggle, to see it a mere dead letter in the hand of Henry, whose most solemn promises of reformation they had so often experienced to be unwor- thy of belief. There was so much of truth in Leices- ter's harangue, that the position which he occupied as a favoured foreigner was over- looked, his recommendations were made , the rule of the barons' conduct, and they i agreed forthwith to take the government of public affairs into their own liauds. They were just then summoned to meet the king I for the old purpose, namely, to grant Uim A.B. 1215. — THAT MAGNIFICENT HTRDCTUBB WBSTMINSTEB ABBET FINISUKD. »u«a LiW(. ;i he awful cnne in- n of hit oath— and returned to liia uld hing extraordinary infatuated on the t acemed to invite tempted one ambi- ao far, that he de- to win the throne ed himself to un- dignity or honour. , ton of the Heat laving, though burn >roperty in Enicland, iiceiter, and in the lowagcr countem of 10 king. The earl >ntly favoured, some- ced by the king, but talent he had con- hi* footing at court, of favour with the favourite with the marrying the king's kiled against him for lerately the king w»s Dies and follies, this sman determined to ad of the popular— iaking, the baronitl trusting that Henry lis enemies as to lose ase Leicester trusted 1 influence to enable I Accordingly he took e as general as it WM J oppression of the ince of foreigners- overlooking liis own Dught every occasion ward as the advocate a and the prelates, efforts in this way he sufficiently strength- id inflamed the gene- St the king, he took with Henry's half- William de Valence, a crisis. Calling a iccnsed and powerful esented to them all ■ , charter to which we | , and demanded whe- 1 g "generated from the | •• Tons who had wrest- i 5 ohn, that they were 1 i 1 a struggle, to see it » the hand of Henry, ; jmises of reformation . rienced to be unwor- i jj of truth in LeicM- le position which he ! foreigner was over- idations were made ' conduct, and they ;e the government ot r own hands. 1 atj led to meet the kmi! ., amely, to grant Uim 1 knat FiNisHKD. *.». 13t7-— •'CiAaD, tmm Kiiia'a bbotmsb, cbowheo kin* or mm bomani. I J lEnglanTi — ^lantascncts.— l^cnrp WSl. 163 topplie*! •0(1 to !>■* Batoniahment he foand them all in complete armour. Alarmed at •iftunasual a sight and at the aolemn ai- IcDce with which he was received, he de- naaded whether he was to look upon them u his enemies and himself aa their pri- soner} to which Roger Bigod, aa apokea- man, replied, that they looked upon him not as their prisoner, but as their sove- reign; that they had met him there in the most dutiful desire to aid him with suppliea that he might, as lie wished, Hx his son upon the throne of Sicily ; but that tlu y at the same time desired certain reforms which the experience of the past plainly showed that he could not make in his own person, and that thejr therefore were under the necessity of requiring him tu confer au- thority upon those who would strenuously use it for the national bcnettt. The evident determination of the barons, and the great and instant need which he had of supplies, left the king no choice; he therefore aa- tured them that he would shortly summon svither parliament for the election of per- tors to wield the authority spoken of, and also CO settle and define that authority within precise limits. A parliament was accordingly called, at which the barons made their appearance with so formidable an armed attendance, that it was qnite clear that, whatever they mi^ht propose, the king hod no power to resist tnem. Twelve barons were selected by the king snd twelve by the parliament, and to the body thus formed' an unlimited reforming power n AS given, the king himself swearing to agree to and maintain whatever they should deem fit to order. Their instant orders were most reasonable; th&t three times in each year the parliament should meet; that on the next meeting of parlia- ment each shire or county should send four knights to that narliament, that so the es- pecial wants ana grievances of every part of the kingdom might be known ; that the iheriffs, offlcera of great power and influ- ence, should thenceforth be annually elect- ed by the counties, and should no longer hare the power to fine barons for not at- tending their courts or the justiciaries' cir- cuits ; that no castles should be committed to the custody, and no heira to the ward- ibips, of foreigners ; that no new forests or warrens should be made ; and that the re- venues of counties or hundreds should no longer be farmed out. Thus far the barons proceeded most eouitably. But bare equity and the good nt the people did not include all that the barons wanted. As the shameful profusion of the king had heaped wealth upon fo- reigners, so the destruction of these fo- reigners would yield an abundant harvest to the native barons. Accordingly when the king, having acquiesced in the regula- tions above-mentioned, looked for the pro- niieed and much-needed supplies, he was met by loud outcries against foreigners in general, and against his half-brothers in particular. So wud was the clamour against these Utter, that even the king's presence seemed insufficient to secure their lives, and they took to flight. Being hotly pur- aued by some of the more violent of the barons, they took refuge in the palace of 'Winchester, to which see Aylmer bad been promoted. Even here they were surround- ed and threatened, and the king, a* the aolu mode of saving them from destruction, agreed to banish them. Having 'hus nearly attacked the king in the perHons of those who had sonic rcasonaole and natural claim u)ion his favour, the bnrons next proceeded to dismiss the justiciary, trea- surer, and other chief ministers ; and hav- ing tilled these important posts with per- sons upon whom they could implicitly rely, they next proceeded to the virtual usurpa- tion of the throne, by adniinisterinK an oath to all the lieges to obey and execute all the regulations of the twenty-four ba- rons, under pain of being declared public enemies ; and such was the power which, under the pretence of the purest patriot- ism, these barons had usurped, that even the powerful earl Wareune and prince Ed- ward, the heir to the throne, were not exempt from the obligation to take thia oath. A. D. 1261.— 80 arrogantly did the barons use their extensive and usurped authority, that the earl of Gloucester, flrom being b chief in their confederacy, separated from it to side with the king; ana prince Ed- ward, encouraged bv the general mormura of the people that the barons were becom- ing more tyrannous than even a king could be, threatened the barons that he would peril his life in opposing them if thejr did uot speedily bring their reforms to a close. The apirit of the prince Edward rallied so much favour to tne side of the crown, that Henry thought he might safely ven- ture to endeavour to put a curb upon ibe exorbitant power of the twenty-four barons ; but aa he itnew how prejudicial to his in- terests it would be to leave it in the power of his enemies to accuse him of perjury, he in the first place applied to Rome for abso- lution from the oath he had made to sup- port the barons in their authority— on an- solution which he readily received, both because of the misconduct of the barons, and because the pope was seriously offended with the English clergy for having shown a greater tendency towards indejiendence than squared with either the papal interests or the papal maxims. Prince Edward re- fused to avail himself even of this absolu- tion until the outrageous misconduct of the barons compelled him to do so ; and the scrupulous fidelity with which he thus kept to an engagement which he had been forced into, procured him a general admiration which subsequently was very importantly beneficial to him.. A. D. 1262. — As soon as Henry received the absolution he had solicited from Rome, he issued a proclamation, in which he bit- terly and, for the most part, truly painted the personal and selfish views with which the twenty-four barons bad both sought A.D. 1263.— THIS TIAB THH WAR BBTWBEN THB XllfO ANU BAROHS BROAIC. ^> > IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1^12^ |2.5 1.8 L25 iU 11.6 - 6" Photographic Sciences Corporation ^ ^ // ^ »*.* 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. MSSO (716) 873-4503 y^^ i^^^ ^^> A.V. 180S.—VHH OmailB rOKTS BBCbABB IB FATOVB Of THB BABOBI. 164 tr^ ^rcasun) of l^iatorp, tec. •ad used their aittbority. BBd declared that ia dntf to himaelf and hi* people be ahould from that time finrth um die royal aatho> rity without ita diminution or participation by any one ; he changed all the cliief of- fleers of state and of lus own household, as also most of the sheriffs of counties and gof ernors of castles. Having thus far se> cured himself he suuimoned a parliament, which met on the twentT- third of April in this year, and which, with but Ave dissent- ing votes, confirmed bis resumption of his authority. But the snake of disaffection was only "scotched, not killed;" many of the ba- rons still corresponded with Leicester, and that haughtv noble, though resident in France, was busily emploved in fomenting evil for England, which he now the more conffdentlv hoped to reign over, because bis powertttl rival Gloucester was dead, and Gilbert, that nobleman's son and successor, had given his adhesion to Leicester. While Leicester and his adherents were busily preparing to attack the power of the king, tiie Welsh suddenly maae an irrup- tion over the border, probably prompted by Leicester. The prince Edvrard, however, repulsed Llewellyn and his ill-disciplined troops, and then returned to aid his father, against whom Leicester was now openly and in great force arrayed. Leicester directed his attacks chiefly against the king's demesnes, and excited the seal of his followers to perfect fury by encouraging them to spoil and plunder to their utmost. The bishops of Hereford and Norwich were seized ana imprisoned, and in spite of the determined and able conduct of prince Edward, the king's cause began to wear an unpromising aspect. The rab- ble of the great towns were the zealous adherents of Leicester, whose cause and liberty to plunder they coupled; and in London, especially, the very dregs of the population were up in arms, beaded and encouraged by the mayor, a violent and ill- principled man named Fitz-Richard, by whom large gangs of desperadoes were en- couraged to pill^e the wealthy and assail the peaceable. The season of Easter was especially marked by these outrages in the metropolis. A cry was at first raised against the Jews; from attacking them the mob proceeded to attack the Lombards, then the chief bankers and money lenders ; and, as usual in such cases, the violence speedily proceeded to be directed indiscriminately against all who had or were euRi>ected of having any tbini; to be plundered of. To such a height did the fury of the mob pro- ceed, that the queen, who was then lodging in the Tower, became so seriously alanned, that she left it by water with the iutcntion of seeking safety at Windsor. But as her barge approached London Bridge the rab- ble assailed her, not only with the coarsest abuse, but also with voUies of filth and stones, so that she was obliged to return to the Tower. Prince Edward was unfortunately made prisoner during a parley at Oxford, and that event so much weakeaed the king's party, that Henij, finding Leicester's party trium- phant and insolent aU over tM kmgdom, was fain to treat for peace. Aware that they bad the upper hand, the rebels would allow of no terms short of the full power formerly |^ven to the twenty-four iMrons being again entrusted to a like number, of whom a list was given to the king; and as prince Edward bad showed great talent and daring, Leicester stipulated that the treaty now made should remain in force during the life of the prince as well as that of the king. Henry had no choice but to sub- mit; the barons restored their own crea* tures to office in the fortrcises, the coun. (ien, the state, and the kind's household, and then summoned a parliament to meet them at Westminster, and determine upon future measures for the government of the country. ?rince Edward being restored to liberty by this treaty, lost no time in exerting him- self to prepare for a new stru{|;gle against the insolent pretensions of Leicester; but though many powerful barons mvc him their adhesions, including the lords of the Scotch and Welsh marches, Leicester's party was still too strong to give the young prince hopes of success ; and the people clamouring loudlv for peace, the prince and king proposed that tne dispute between them and the barons should be referred to the arbitration of the kin^of France. That upright prince, on examination of the af- fair, decided that the king should be fully restored to his power and prerogatives on the one hand ; and that, on the other hand, the people were entitled to all the benefits of the great charter. Unfortunately, thouKh this decision was just, it only left the con- tending parties precisely where they were at the commencement of the quarrel, and stated in form that which was perfectly notorious before, namely, that the king bad overstretched the power to which he was entitled, and that the barons had assumed a power to which they were not entitled. Leicester, to whose personal views peace was utterly destructive, represented to bis party, that the award of the French king was wholly and unjustly on the side of Henry ; he caused seventeen other baioni to join him in a compact with the diacon- tented Londoners, by which they mutually bound themselves never to make peace with the king but with the full and open concurrence of both these contracting par- ties ; and while some of Leicester's friends rekindled the civil war in the provinces, he and Fitz-Richard did the like in London ; so that the whole country once more brist- led with arms and resounded with cries of war. Finding civil war inevitable, l the kinf( and his brave son promptly made their preparations. In adoition to their miV^ary vassals, whom they summoned from all quarters, they were joined by forces Knder Baliol, lord of Galloway, Brus, lord of An- nandale, John Comyn, and other northern leaders of power. With this array they A.n. 12S9.— TUB KllfO AWD QVBBN OF SCOTLAND VISIT BH6I.ARO. *■ »l. iag** p«rty, party trium- le kingdom, Awww that rebels would 3 full power ■four baront e nuiAb«r, of king: and as «t talent and iBt the treaty force during B that of the but to sub- •ir own crea- les, the conu' ;'8 household, ment to meet itenuine upon rnment of the ircd to liberty , exerting him- ■uggle agwnst Leicester; but ens gave him 1 le Uras of the it, Leicester's give the young tnd the people , the prince and spuie between L oe referred to f France. That ition of the af- should be fully prerogatives on the other hand, all the benefits unately,thoui!h hy left the con- here they were [he quarrel, and L was perfectly [at the king had which he was 18 had assumed fe not entitled. al views peace Wesented to his le French king in the side of ,1 other barons ith the discon. they mutually |o make peace full and open mtracting par- fiester's friends [e provinces, he like in London ; ice more btist- with ciies of Lble,vtbe WnR fly made their B their mi'-aiy loned from u\ by forces under Vi, lord of An- other northern ftis array they kVV. a. v. ISM.— THB BiaavrBono babohb bzcomhumioatbb bi *bb ton. XnglanV.— ^lantagtntts.— I^enn; IHEIE. 165 commenced their proceeding* by layiog liege to Northampton, in which waa a Strang garrison commanded by some of the principal barons. This place behig apeedil* taken by assault, the rmral army marched against Leicester and Nottingham, which opened their gatei. ?rince Edward now led a detachment against the propertv of the earl of Derby, whoae lands were laid waste u a punishment of bis disloyalty. Leice'ter, in the meanwhile, taking care tb keep up a eommnnieation with London, gpon the support of which he greatly de- pended, laid siege to Kochester castle, which was the only strong hold in Kent that still held out for the king, and which was ably defended by earl Warenne, ita ^ vemor. The royal army, flushed writh it* iuececs elsewhere, now marched in all hsate to relieve this important fortress ; and Leicester hearing of their approach, and fearing to be outnumbered in a disadvan- tsgeous position, hastily raised the siege and fell back upon London. From Lon- don, Leicester sent proposals to Henry, but of so arrogant and exorbitant a character, that he must have been aware they would not be listened to ; and, on a stem answer being returned by the king, Leicester pub- hely renounced his allegiance and marched the whole force be could collect towards Lewes, in Sussex, where the royal army lav; the bishop of Chichester giving the reads a formal and general absolution, and SHnring them that all who should fall in fEhtlng against the king would undoubt- edly p) to heaven. Leicester, though a shameful rebel, was s skilful general, and on this occasion he he so ably conducted his march, that he slmost surprised the royalists in their ouar- ters; but the short time that elapsea be- tween the alarm and the arrival of the rebels sufficed to enable the active prince Edward to march the arm^ to the field in good order; one division being bd by him- lelf, the earl IVarrenne, and William de Tslenee, a second by the king of the Ro- msns and his son Henry, and the third forming a reserve under the personal com- mand of the king himself. The prince led hiadivision against the enemy's vanguard, which wua composed of the Londoners, who ted at the very first charge. Forgetting that his assistance might be required else- where, prince Edward allowed himself to b« governed entirely by his headlong rage SKsinst these inveterately disloyal men, and pnrsned them, with great slaughter, for sesrly five miles fVom the field of battle. This impetuosity of the prince lost his father the day; for Leicester, promptly availing himself of the prince's absence, charged so hotly upon the remaining two divisions of the royalists, that they were defeated with terrible loss, and both the king and hi* hrother, the king of the Romans, were taken prisoners ; as were Rms, Comyn, and all the most considerable leaders on the Ung'a side. Earl Warenne, Hugh Bigod, and William de Valence escaped beyond ■es;but prince Edward, unappalled by the eonsequenees of hi* own imprudence, kept hi* foree tonther, added to it aa many aa could be rallied of the defeated divisions, and presented *o bold a front, that Lei- cester thought it more pmdent to amuse him with pretended desire to treat, than to urge him to a desperate attack. The earl accordingly propoaed terma; and though they were aevere, and *nch a* under other circam*tanee* the prince woald have laugh- ed to scorn, a little examination of the royal resource* *howed *o hopele** a *tate of things, that Edward, despite his pride, wa* obliged to agree. These terms were, that prince Edward and Henry d'Allmaine, son of the king of the Romans, should snirender themselves prisoners in exchange for their father* ; that six arbiters should be named by the king of France, that these six *bottld choose two other*, also French, and that one Englishman should be named by these last ; the council thus named to have power definitively to decide upon all mattera in dispute between Henry and bi* baron*. In compliance vrith theae terms, Edward and hia cousin yielded themseh»s, amd were sent prisoner* to Dover castle; but Lei- cester, though he nominallv gave the king his liberty, took care to keep bim com- pletely in hi* power, and made use of the royal name to fora-ard hi* own deeign*. Thu* the most loyal governor* readily yield- ed up their imnortant fortresses in the king's name; ana when commanded by the king to disarm and disband, no loyal soldier could longer venture to keep the field. Lei- cester made, in fact, precisely what alter- ations and regulations be pleaaed, taking care to make them all in the king's name ; and *o evidently considered himself virtu- ally in possession of the throne at which he had so daringly aimed, that he even ventured to treat with insolent injustice the very baron* to whose participation of hia dis- loyal labour he owed so much of its success. Having confiscated the large possessions of some eighteen of the royalist barons, and received the ransom* of a host of prisoners, he applied the whole spoil to hia own use, and when his confederates demanded to share with them, he coolly told them that they already had a sufficiency in being safe from the attainders and forfeitures to which they would have been exposed but for hi* victory. As for the reference to parties to be named by the king of France and bis nomi- nees, though the earl, in order to hoodwink Srince Edward, laid so much stress npon it urin^ their negotiation, he now took not the slightest notice of it, but summoned a parliament, so selected that he well knew that his wishes would be law to them. Arid, accordingly, this servile senate enacted that all acts of sovereignty should reouire the sanction of a council of nine, wbicfi council could be wholly or in part changed at the will of the earls of Leicester and Gloucester and the bishop of Chichester, or a majnrHf of theie three. Now, the bishop of Chi- chester being the mere convenient tool of Leicester, the earl was in reality in fhll A. n. I267-— TRK DISCOtlTRKTRO BARONS SRICB THB I*LB Of BLT. A.B. 1388.— BALIOI. COLI.ISI » OXVOBD fOOnDID BT BIB JOBR BALIOb 166 ^l^c ^rcaBttte of IlistorQ, ^c. power OTf T the council— in other wordi. he WB* B Aeipotie mouBroh in every thisK but BBme. The queen, •eeretlyauitted by Loois of France, coUecMd b force together, with BB intention of invading England on behalf of her huiband, in wboie name the coast of England waa lined with force* to oppoie her; but the queen'a expedition waa flrst delayed and then broken up altogether by contrary winds. The papal court issued a bull against Leicester, out he threatened to put the legate to death if be appeared with It ; and even when tb&t legate himself be- came pope under the title of Urban IV. Leicester still ventured to brave him, so confidently did he rely upon the dislilce to Rome that was entertained, not only by tlie Keople in general, but also by the great ody of the English clergy. A.». 1265.— Still desiring to govern with a show of legality, Leicester summoned a new parliament, which more nearly resem- bled tlie existing form of that assembly than any which had preceded it. Before this parliament the earl of Derby— in the king's name— was accused and committed; and the earl of Gloucester was intended for the same or a worse fate bv his powerful and unscrupulous colleague, but avoided all pre- sent collision with him by retiring from parliament and the council. This obvious quarrel between the earls ^ve great en- couragement to the king's friends, and the general voice now began loitdly to demand the release of the brave prince Edward who had remained a close prisoner ever since the battle of Lewes. Leicester consented on conditions to release the prince, but he took care to keep both him and the king within his reach ; and they were obliged to accompany him on his march against the earl of Gloucester, who had retired to his estates on the borders of Wales. AVhile Leicester lay at Hereford, threatening the enrl of Gloucester, the latter nobleman con- tinued to communicate with prince Edward, and so to arrange matters that the young prince escaped from the " attendance," as It was called, but really the confinement, in which he had been kept, and was speedily at the head of a gallant army, which daily received accession, when the glad news of his real liberty became generally known. Simon de Montfort, Leicester's son, hasten- ed from London with an army to the assist- ance of his father. Prince Edward, having broken down the bridges of the Severn, turned away from the earl's position, and fell suddenly upon Simon de Montfort, who was carelessly encamped at Kenilworth, put his force utterly to the rout, and took the earl of Oxford and several other barons pri- soners. Leicester, ignorant of this, had in the mean time managed to get his army across the Severn in boats, and halted at Evesham, in Worcestershire, in daily ex- Sectation of the arrival of that force which ad already beea put to the rout. Prince Edward, vigilant himself and well served by his scouts, dexterously availed himself of the earl's misapprehension of the state of afl'airs, and having sent part of his army OB ita march towarda the earl, bearing D« Montfort's banners and otherwise provided for representing his routed force, be with the main body of his armjr took another route, so a* to fall upon the earl in a dif- ferent quarter ; and so completely was the deception successful, that when Leicester at length discovered the real state of the case, he exclaimed, " Now have I taught them to war to some purpose I May the Lord have mercy on our souls, for otir bodies belong to prince Edward!" But there was not much time for reflection; Edward led his troops to the attack vi-' gorously and in excellent order; Leicciter'i troops, on the other hand, were dispirited by their bad position and suffering much from sickness ; and victory speedily declarrd for the prince. In ihe heat of tlie battle Leicester was struck down and immediately dispatched though he demanded quarter, and his whole force was routed, upward) of a hundred of the principal leaders and knights being taken prisoners. The king himself was on the point of losing bis lift. The earl had cruelly placed him in the verv front of the battle, and a knight who had already wounded hn.i was about to repeat his blow, when Heury saved himself by exclaiming, "I am Uenry of Winchester, your king." The victory of Evesham re-established the king's authority ; and to the great credit of the royal party, no blood disgraced that victory. Not a single capital punishment took place; the family of Leicester alone was attainted to full effect; for though many other rebellious families were form- ally attainted, their sentences were re- versed on payment of sums, trifling indeed when the Iieinousness of the offence they had committed is considered. The kingdom being thus restored to peace and released from all danger from the turbulent Leicester, prince Edward de- parted for the IIolv Land, where he ao greatly distinguished himself, that the in- dela at length employed an assassin to destroy him ; but though severely and even dangerously wounded, the prince fortu- nately escaped with life, and his assailant was put to death on the spot. A. D. 1272.— Lest Gloucester should imi- tate his late rival in rebellion, Edward took that powerful noble with him to the East; but his own absence was very injurious to the public peace in England. No one pre- aumptuops and even powerful baron, in- deed, dared to dispute the crown with his royal master, but there was a general ten- dency to disorder among both barons and people; and the rabble of the great towns, and especially of London, became daily more openly violent and licentious. Henry was little able to contend agalcst such a state of things. Naturally irresolute, he was now worn out with years, and with infirmities even beyond those incident to age. Perhaps, too, the disorder of his kingdom aggravated his sufferings ; he per- petually expressed hici wish for the ret'im bf his soE, and lamented his own helplets- THR TBIAIi BT WATKB AND FIBB OROEAL WAI ABOLISBBB IN THIS BBIOlf. JOBN BALIOk I the eurl, bearing De id otherwiie provided routed force, be with ■ tttmj took another ipon the earl in a dif- 10 completely was tlie that when Leicester the real etate of the " Now have 1 taught e purpoMl May the n our aouli, for onr I ince Edward!" But 1 time for reflection; ops to the attack ti- 1 llent order; Leicester*! ; hand, were dispirited i n and tuffering much I ictory speedily dt-clarrd (he heat of the battle down and immediately he demanded quarter, i was routed, upwards ! principal leaders and I prisoners. The king point of losing his life, [ly placed him in the ittle, and a knight who led Una was about to en Henry saved himself m Henry of Winchester, Bvesham re-established r; and to the great credit 10 blood disgraced that gle capital punishment imily of Leicester alone full effect; for though lus families were form- ir sentences were re- of sums, trifling indeed less of the offence they onsidered. eing thus restored to 1 from all danger from jster, prince Edward de- ily Land, where he so himself, that the in- nployed an assassin to hough severely and even led, the prince fortu- life, and his assailant .the spot. . Gloucester should urn .1 rebellion, Edward took le with him to the East; ice was very injurious to I England. No one pre- ■^en powerful baron, in pute the crown with his there was a general ten- gimong both barons and bble of the great to»-n», London, became daily t and licentious. Henry contend agalcst such » Naturally irresolute, M ut with years, and with eyond those incident to ,0, the disorder of his >d his sufferings; he per- hii wish for the retim lentcd his own helpless (D IK THIS BBIOS. iswAKV !• WAS oai)BA«iooa« Ti«iii*RT, iNTiBraisina, aud rouric. lEnglanV— ^lantascncts.— lEDbiarti 3E. )67 and at length breathed bis last on the Wth'of November, 1372, aged aixty-four; having reigned ftfly years, with little ease and vntb little credit, being obviously, from his youth npward, rather fitted for a private than for a public station. CHAPTER XXrV. Tke Reign t^ Edward I. 4.D. 1873.— Prince Edward was already as far as Sicily on his way home when he received tidings of the death of his father. He at the same time heard of the death of his own inDsnt son John ; and when it was observed to him that the former loss seemed to affeet him the most painfully, he replied that the loss of his sou might be supplied, but that of his father was final and irreparable. Hearing that all was peaceable in F.ng. land be did not hasten home, but pnsHcd nearly twelve months in France. Being at Chalons, in Burgundy, he and some of his knights engaged in a tournament with the Burgundian chivalry, and so tierce was the spirit of rivalry that the sport became changed into earnest; blood was spilt on both sides, and so much damage was done before the fray could be terminated, that the engagement of this day, though commenced merely in sport and good faith, was se- riously termed the little battle 'if Chalons. A.D. 1274. — After visiting Paris, where lie did homage to Philip the Hardy, then king of France, for the territory which he held in that kingdom, he went to Guienne to put an end to some disorders that existed there, and at length arrived in London, where he was joyfully received by his people. He was crowned at Westminster, and immediately tamed his attention to the regulating of his kingdom, with an especial view to svoiding those disputes which had caused to much evil during the life of bis fkther, and to putting an end to the bold practices of malefactors by whom the country was tt once much injured and disgraced. Making the great charter the standard of his own duty towards the barons, he in- lilted upon their observing the same stan- dard of conduct towards their vassals and inferiors, a course to which they were by no means inclined. k, D. isrs.— Having; summoned a parlia- ment to meet him in February, 1275, he cansed several valuable laws to be passed, weeded the magistracy of those who lay under the imputation of either ne;;ligence or corruption, and took measures for put- ting a check alike upon the robberies com- mitted by the great, under the colour of jaitice and authority, and upon those vhich, in the loose state into which the kingdom had fallen during the close of the late reign, were so openly and daringly committed on the highways, that men of lubitance could only safely travel under eicort or in great companies. For the sup- ptesiion of this latter class of crimes the ling showed a fierce and determined spirit, which might almost be judged to have oeen over severe if we did not take into conside- ration the desperate extent to which the evil had arrived. The oadinary judges were intimidated, the ordinary police was weak and ill-organized, and the king therefore established a commission which was ap< pointed to traverse the country, taking cof^izance of everjr description of evU doing, from the pettiest to the most hein- ous, and inttieting condign and prompt punishment upon the offenders. The old Saxon mode of commuting other punish- ments for a pecuniary fine was applied by this commission to minor offences, and a large sum was thus raised, of which the king's treasury stood much in need. But the zeal of the commission — and perhaps some consideration of the state of the royal treasury,— caused the fines to be terribly severe in proportion to the offences. There was, also, too great a readiness to commit upon slight testimony; the prisons were filled, and not with the guilty alone; the rutlian bands, who had so long and so mis- chievously infested the kingdom, were broken up, indeed, but peaoeable subjects and honest men were much hnrassed and wronged at the same time. The king him- self was so satisfied of the danger of en- trusting such extensive powers to subjects, that when this commission had finished its labours it was annulled, aud never after- wards called into activity. Though Edward showed a real and cre- ditable desire to preserve his subjects, of all ranks, from being preyed upon by each other, truth compels us to confess that he laid no similar restraint upon himself. Having made what profit he could by put- ting down the thieves and other offenders i.i general, Edward now turned for a fresh supply to that thrifty but persecuted peo- ple, the Jews. The counterfeiting of coin had recently been carried on to a most in- jurious extent, and the Jews beiuK chiefly engaged in trafficking in money, this mis- chievous adulteration was very positively, though rather hastily, laid to their charge. A general persecution of the unhappy peo- ple commenced, of the fierceness aud ex- tent of which some judgment may be formed from the fact, that two hundred and eighty of them were handed in London alone. While death was inflicted upon many in all parts of the kingdom, the houses and lands of still more were seized upon and sold. The king, indeed, with a delicacy which did not always characterize him in money matters, seized in the first instance only upon one half of the proceeds of these confiscations, the other being set apart ns a fund for those Jews who should deem fit to be converted to Christianity; but so few of the Jews availed themselves of the temptation thus held out to them, that the fund was in reality as much in tltc king's possession as though no such pro- vision had been made. It had been well for Edward's character if this severity had been exercised against the Jews only for the crime with which they were charged ; but urged probably still more by his want of TB1I OFFICB OF JUSTICE OF THR FRACB FIBST K8TABI.ISBBD BT BnWABD. A.D. 1379.— lOWABB CAUIBB TBB ITATCTB OV " MOBTIf AIM " TO BB BMACTIB. n M M M b 9 M M » 168 C^c ^rcastttQ of l^istoro, (cc. money than by the bigoted hatred to thii race which he had felt from hii earliest youth,Ed> ward ihortly afterward* commenced a per. ■ectttion againit the whole of the Jews in England; not a« coinera or as men being concerned in any other crimes, but limply as being Jews. The consUnt taxes paid oy these people, and the frequent arbitrary levies of large sums upon them, made them in reality one of the most valuable classes of Edward's subjects; for whether their su- Serior wealth was obtained by greater in- ostry and fhigality than others possess- ed, or by greater ingenuity and heartless- ness in extortion, certain it is that it was very largely shared with their sovereign. But the slow process of taillages and forced loans did not suit Edward's purposes or wants; and he suddenly issued an order for the simultaneous banishment of the whole of the obnoxious race, and for tiieir depri- vation of the whole of their property, with the exception of so much as was requisite to carry them abroad. Upwards of tifteen thousand Jews were at once seized and plundered, under this most inexcusably ty- rannous decree ; and as the plundered vic- tims left the country, many of them were robbed at the ^lea-ports of the miserable pittance which the king's cupidity had spared them, and some were murdered and thrown into the sea. While taking this cruel and dishonest means of repleninhing his treasury, Ed- ward had at least the negative merit of fru- gally expending what he had unfairly ac- quired. Aided by parliament with a grant of the fifteenth of all moveables, by the pope with a tenth of the church revenues for three years, and by the merchants with an export tax of half a mark on each sack of wool and a whole mark on everv three hundred skins, he still was cramped in means ; and as he was conscious that during the late long and weak reign many encroachments had been unfairly made upon the royal de- mesnes, he issued a commission to enquire into all such encroachments, and also to devise and seek the best and most speedy ways of improving the various branches of the revenue. The commission, not always able to draw the line between doubtful ac- 3uisitions and hereditary possessions of nn- oubted rightfulness, pushed their enqui- ries so far that they gave great oSience to some of the nobility. Among others they applied to tba earl Warenne, who had so bravely supported the crown against the ambition of Leicester during the late reign, fbr the title deeds of his possessions ; but the indignant earl drew his sword and said, that as bis ancestors had acquired it by the sword so he would keep it, and that he held it by the same right that Edward held his crown. This incident and the general discontent of the nobles determined the king to limit the commission for the future to cases of undoubted trespass and en- croachment. A. D. 1276.— Not even pecuniary necessi- ties and the exertion necessary to supply them could prevent Edward's tctive sal warlike spirit from seeking employment in the Held. Acainst Llewellyn, prince of Wales, Edward had great cause of anger. He had been a sealous partisan of Leicci.' ter; and though he had been pardoned, in common with the other barons, yet there had always been aomething of jealonir to- wards him in the mind of Edward, which jealousy was now fanned into a flsKe b; Llewellyn refusing to trust himself in Eng. land to do homage to Edward, Qnleis the king's eldest son and some English nobles were pnt into the hands of tne Welth u hostages, and unless Llewellyn's bride, s daughter of the earl of Leicester, who hsd been captured on her way to Wales snd was now detained at Edward's court, were released. A. o. 1277.— Edward was not sorry to heir demands, bis refusal to comply with which would give him the excuse he wished for, to march into Wales. He accordingly gsTe Llewellyn no other answer th..n a renewal of his order to him to come and do homage, and an offer of a personal safe conduct. Edward was both aided and urged in hii invasion of Wales by David and Roderiek, brothers of Llewellyn, who, having been de- spoiled of their inheritance by that prince, had now sought shelter and taken senice with his most formidable enemv. When the English approachea Walei.Lle* wellyn and his people retired to the mouD- 1 tain fastnesses of Snowdown, judging thil j there he could maintain against Edward that desultory warfare which had harus- ed and tired out the 8axon and the Nor- man invaders of an earlier day. But in- stead of exposing his forces to being ha- rassed and beaten in detail, Edward guard- ed every pass which led to the inacceaiible retreats of the enemy, and then coolly waited until sheer hunger should dispose them either to treat or to fight. Nor was it long in occurring ; brave as Llewellyn was, he saw himself so completely hemmed in that he was unable to strike a single blow, and he was compelled to submit to the terms dictated to him by Edward. And severe these terms were ; Llewellyn wai to pay 50,00G{. by way of cxpences of the war; to do homage to the king ; to allow all the barons of Wales, save four of those nearest to Snowdown, to swear fealty to Edward; to yield to the English crown the whole of the country between the river Conway snd the county of Cheshire ; to settle a tbuusiod marks per year on his brother Rodericlt and half that sum upon David ; and to give ten hostages for his future good and peace- able behariour. All the articles having been duly performed, with the exception of the payment of the large sum of fifty thousand pounds, Edwardforgave that ; and j considering his great love of money, or rather his great need of it, we may sun- pose that he gave up so large a sum only because the payment of it was rendered ut- terly impossible by the excesbive poverty of the country. But the imperfect subjection of a country A.D. 1280.— IN THIS T«AB TBB STATUTB OF " QBO WARRANTO" PASSFO. t Edwud'i ictive nd ■eekiitK employment in t Llewellyn, prince of 1 great cause of anger, sua partisan of Leiee*. » haa been pardoned, in other barons, yet there i )niethinK of jealonif to- mind of Edward, wnich fanned into a (lane by to trnst himself in Eng- e to Edward, unlets the nd some English nobles hands of tne HVelah u ess Llewellyn's bride, s rl of Leicester, who hsd 1 her way to Wales snd at Edward's court, were rard was not sorry to hesr I ud to comply with which he excuse he wished for, ies. He accordingly gsTe ir answer th-n a renewal n to come and do homage, personal safe conduct, th aided and urged in hi» I by David and Roderiek, iUyn, who, having been de- nheriunce by that prince, shelter and uken senice •midable enemy, ish approached Walei, Lie- , , eople retired to the moun.j J f Snowdown. jndK'W '"!! maintain against Edward warfare which had hsrsst- t the Saxon and the Nor- fan earlier day., Butu. le his forces to being ha- m in detail, Edward guard-, lich led to the inaccessib e enemy, and then cooUy ■er hunger should dispose i •eatortottght. Norwa.it IB -brave as Llewellyn w««, £o completely hemmed in lie to strike a single blow, ! mpelled to submit to the Ro him by Edward. And '„were;tleweUy«wMto Byofcxpencc8 0fthe»M, I the king; to rilow all the . save four of those nesrert ';. wear fealty to Edward; I inglish crown the whole of j- ,ein the river Conway and ; 'shire; to settle a thousand!, on his brother Rodcrck m upon David; and to give fcs future good and peace- All the articles having rmed, with the exception 'of the large *«»«»«♦ ^"? | . (.Edwardforgavethat; and 1 1 great love of money, on,. .Seed of it, we may sup-! I ve up so large a sum only J £ent of it was rendered ut-» [by the excesbive poverty of .B. ISU.— TBB " STATUTA ClTITATia," OB tOBBOR tOLIOB AOT* FAIBBB. lEnglantf — ^^lantagcncts.— HUbuirt) 3E. 169 like Wales could not co-exist with peace. The Welsh, impetnous, proud, and con- nceoas, lemembered the noble and obsti- BSte defences their land had formerly nwde ; the English, on the other band, re- ferred in tones of insolence and tanntingto the bloodless and undisputed conquest they had now made. The lords of the marches, too, connived at or encouraged many in- tuits and depredations; a general spirit prevailed among the Welsh that preferred dettruction itself to the insults they had to endure, and this spirit caused David to forget his personal wrongs, and to Join hand and heart with his brother in oppos- ing the English. The Welsh flew to arms, ind Edward entered their country with an army that seemed to leave them but little hope. Luke de Tenay, commanding a de- tsenment of Edward's troops, was attacked u he pasted the Menai, and his defeat in- spired the Welsh with the most extravagant hopes; but Llewellyn was shortly after- wards surprised by Mortimer, defeated, and killed in the action, together with upwards of two thousand of his men. David, who now saeeeeded to the Welsh sovereignty, exerted himself, but in vain, to collect another army sufficiently numerous to allow of his (heing Edward in the open field. Terror had been struck into the inmost heart'of the people by the defeat and death of Lle- wellyn. David with a few followers was obliged to seek shelter among the most dif- ficult fastnesses of his native hills, and he was at length betrayed to Edward and sent in chains to Shrewsbury, where he was tried br the English •geen, and condemned to be hanged, drawn, and quartered, as a traitor —a sentence so disgraceful to Edward, that not even his deeds of a brighter and nobler character can wash off the stain of it. The death of Llewellyn and David put an end to all hope of successful opposition on the part of the Welsh, who lully submit- ted; English laws and English oracers were permanently established, and Edward con- ferred the principality upon his eldest sur- viving son, the prince Edward, who was bom at Caernarvon. A. D. 1286.-— Though, as yn^.i inevitable, tome national rancours still «!xiated between the two people, the Welsh were now so com- pletely subdued, that Edward found himself St liberty to go abroad to interfere in the differences which had arisen between Al- phonso, king of Arragon, and Philip the Fair of France, who disputed the kingdom of Sicily. While Edward was engaged in lettling this dispute, which occupied him for nearly three years, his absence from England had given rise to numerous disor- ders and mischiefs. The administration of justice was openly defied by lawless bands; snd robbieries had become nearly as com- mon as they were before the severe exam- ples made at the beginning of his reign. The disputes wliinh existed in Scotland shout the crown of that kingdom gave Ed- ward an opportunity, of which he was not alow to avail himself, to interfere in the af- fairs of that nation ; and at every interfer- ence he mada larger and more obviona claims, not to the mere fealty of its king^ but to its actual sovereignty. A. n.l293.— The two principal competiton were Baliol and Bruce. It waa agreed that Edward should arbitrate between them, oad the caatles of Scotland were put into his hands. This demand, alone, would go far to abow Edward's real intentions ; ^et, while he was fully bent upon subduing Scotland to his own rule, he put the dis- pute upon the true footing, as though ha meant to act justly, in the foUowinK ques> tion to the commissioners anpointea to re- port to him on the case, ana to the princi- pal legists of Europe. Haa a person de- scended from an elder sister, but farther removed by one degree, the preference as to succession to a kingdom, to one descended from the younger sister, but one degree nearer to the common stock ? Tiiis ques- tion was answered him in the affirmative i and Baliol, being in the first category, was pronounced bv Edward to be the rightful sovereign; a decision which so mucn en- raged Bruce that he joined himself to lord Hastings, who was another claimant, but only for a portion of the kingdom, which he maintained to be divisible. A.n. 1293.— John Baliol having taken the oath of fealty to Edward as his feudal su- perior, was put into possession both of his throne and the fortresses of the kingdom. But having thus far acted with apparent good faith, Edward now began to exer- cise his feudal authority in so vexatious a manner, that it was quite evident he desired either to cause Baliol to throw up his sovereignty in disgust, or to burst out into " some sudden flood of mutiny," auch as would by the feudal usages cause the forfeiture of his fief. He gave every en- couragement to appeals to his authority tVom that of the Scottish king, haraased Baliol by repeated summonses to London upon matters comparatively trivial, and in- stead of allowing him to answer by bis pro- curator, compelled him to appear personally at the bar of the English parliament. Such treatment could not fail to urge even the quiet temper of Baliol into anger, and he at length returned into Scotland with the fUll determination to abide the chances of a war rather than continue to endure such insults. In this dcternnnation he was en- couraged by a dispute in which Edward was now involved in another quarter. It will readily be understood that in an age iu which robbery and violence were so common on land, piracy and violence were no less common upon the sea ; and both French and English sailors were but too ready to engage in contests, without care as to the possible consequences to their respective countries. It chanced that a Normau and an English vessel met qff Bayonne, and both sending a boat ashore for water the parties quarrelled at the spring.. From words they proceeded to blows, and one of the Normans having drawn a knife, an Englishman closed witn him; both fell and the Norman died on the kBRAKTO" PASSFD. A. n. 1290. — THB CRBATIOIf Of IfBW HAHORB rBOHIBITBO BT BTATUTB. a [Q 170 i.D. 1290.— QVMIII MIAMOII BIBD AT HOHIIIT, I.IIICOLR, HOT. 38. V^^t Crcasurti of l^istor?, 9rt. ■pott the Engliih allegliiK, that he acci- dentally fell upon hie own knife, the Nor- mani loudly afflrminK that he was tUbbed. The Nonnane complained to king Philip, who bade them aTenge themtclvci without tronbling him. The worda, iflightW tpoken, were taken in all teriouineu; the Normani ■ieted upon an Enitliih ahip, hanged tomo of the crew aide by tide with an equal number of dogi, and dicmisied the rest of the ihip'a company, tauntingly aiisuring them that they had now latigfactorily avenged the Norman lailor who waa killed at Bayonne. When this intelligence reached the ma- riner* of the Cinquo porta they retaliated upon French vesiels, and thus an actual war waa soon raging between the two na- tiona without a lomial declaration of hos- tility having been made or sanctioned by either aovcreiKn. As the quarrel proceeded it grew more and more savage; seamen of other nations took part in it, the Irish and Dutch joining the Knglish, the Genoese and Flemish joining the French. At length an incident in this singular war rendered it impossible for Edward and Philip anv longer to remain mere spectators of it. A Norman fleet, numbering two hundred Teasels, sailed southward for a cargo of wine, and to convey a considerable military force; and this powerful fleet seized on every English ship it met with, plundered the goods, and hanged the seamen. Tliis news more than ever enraged the English sailors, who got together a well manned fleet of sixty sail, and went in quest of the Normans, whom thejr met with and de- feated, taking or sinking most of the ves- sels; and these being closely stowed with military, and the English giving no quar- ter, it waa asserted tliat the Norman loss was not less than fifteen thousand men ; an enormous loss at any time, but especially in an age when battles which altered the destinies of empires were frequently de- cided at a far less expence of life. Philip now demanded redress from Ed- ward, who coldly repjied that the English courts were open to any Frenchman who had complaints to make; and then he offered to refer the whole quarrel to the pope, or to anv cardinals whom himself and Philip migbt agree upon. But the parties most concerned in the quarrel were by this time too much enraged to hold their hands on account of negotiations ; and Philip finding that the violence was in no wise discountenanced by Edward, sum- moned him, as duke of Guienne and vassal of France, to appear in his liege lord's court at Paris and answer for the offences his subjects had committed. A. n. 1294. — The king instructed John St. John to put Guicnnc into a state of de- fence, and at the same time endeavoured to ward off attack from it by sending^ his brother the earl of Lancaster to Pans to mediate with Philip. The earl of Lancaster having married the queen of Navarre, mother of Jane, the queen of France, the latter offered him her aid in accommo- dating the dispute ; and the queen dowager of France joined har, in all apparent guod faith. But the two princeaaea were acting moat insidiously. ThcT assured the earl that if Edward would giTO Philip siezin or Eossesaion of Guienne, to heal the wound ia honour had received from hia aub-vas- sala of that province, Philip would at onn be aatialied and immediately restore it. To this Edward agreed, and gave up the province as soon as hia citation to Paris was withdrawn ; but the moment he had done so, he was again cited, and, on hit non - appearance, condemned to forfeit Guienne. The trick thus played by Philip waa so precisely similar to that which Edward had himself planned for Scotland, that it is truly wonderful how so astute a prince could ever have foller. blindfold into such an uncovered pit. A. D. 1295.— Edward aent an army to Guienne, under the command of his ne- phew, John de Bretagne, enrl of Richmond, together with John St. John, and otlier officers of known courage and ability ; and as his projects upon Scotland did not ena- ble him to spare so many regular soldiera as were needed, he on this occasion opened all the gaols of England and added the most desperate of their tenants to the force he sent over to France. While a variety of petty actions were carried on in France, fiillip endeavoured to cause a diversion in his favour by enter- ing into an alliance with John Baliol, king of Scotland ; and he, smarting under the insults of Edward and longing for re- venge, eagerly entered into this alliance, and strengthened it by stipulating a marriage between his own son and the daughter of Charles de Valois. A. n. 1296. — Conscious how deep was the offence he had given to Baliol, Edward had too carefully watched him to be unaware of his alliance with France ; and having now obtained considerable supplies from hii parliament, which was more popularly com- posed than heretofore, he prepared to cbaa- tise Scotland on the slightest occasion. In the hope, therefore, of creating one, he sent a haughty message desiring Baliol, ai hia vassal, to send him forces to aid him in his war with France. He next demanded that the castles of Berwick, Roxburzh, and Jedburgh should be placed in his hands during the French war, as security for the Scottish fidelity; and then sum- moned Baliol to appear before the English parliament at Newcastle. Baliol, faithful to his own purpose and to the treaty that he had made with Philip, complied with none of these demands; and Edward having thus received the ostensible offence which he desired, advanced upon Scotland with an army of thirty thousand foot.aud four thousand horse. The military skill of Baliol being held in no very high esteem in Scotland, a council of twelve of the most eminent nobles -xm appointed to advise and assist him — in other words to act, for the time, at least, as " viceroys over him." A.D. 1295. — THE rora AnsoLvas nAi.ioT. from bis oath op fraltt. n, HOT. 38. nd the queen dowager , in all apparent iprad iiinceue* were acting 'hev Miured the ean I give Philip lietin or ne, to heal the wound ved from hit •ab-vai' , Philip would ai onr^ [tmediately re«tore it. reed, and K**e up tbe I his citation to Parii t tlie moment he had ain cited, and, on hit ;ondemncd to forfeit c thua played by Philip ilflkilar to that which r planned for Scotland, iderful how to astute a Rve faller blindfold into pit. ■ard Bcnt an army to le command of hi« ne- lagne, enrl of Richmond, in St. John, and other ourage and ability ; and jn Scotland did not ena- 10 many regular »oldier« on this occasion opened Bngland and added tlie their tenants to the force ance. I of petty actions were ince, Pl'ilip endeavoured on in his favour by enter- 1 cc with John Baliol, king | I he, smarting under the rd and longing for re- ared into this alliance, and »y stipulating a marriage son and the daughter of [scions how deep was the ■en to Baliol, Edward had hcd him to be unaware of France ; and having now [rable supplies from hw ; was more popularly eom- iforc, be prepared to e hai- the slightest occasion, lefore, of creating one. be essage desiring Baliol, m him forces to aid him in Ince. He next demanded of Berwick, Boxbureh, Ihould be placed m ha French war, as security 1 fidelity; and then sum- ppear before the Englwli twcastle. Baliol, faithfu [se and to the treaty tliat | h Philip, complied with ,ands; and Edward having ostensible offence which iced upon Scotland with thousand foot.awd four ill of Baliol being held in Vm in Scotland, a council fcost eminent nobles was ^se and assist him-m [t, for the time, at least, l^him." JATH OF FKALTT. A.D. 1395.— AH OL lEnglsnTf.— ^lantascnttfli.— lEllfDar'd 3E. 171 Under the management of this council vigorous preparations were made to oppose Edward. An army of fortf thousand foot and about five hundred uorse marched, after a vain and not very wisely planned titempt upon Carlisle, to defend the south- eastern provinces threatened with Edward's Int attacks. Alreadv, however, divisions began to appear in the Scottish councils : and the Brucea, the carls of March and Angus, and other eminent Scots, saw so much danger to their country from such a divided host attempting to defend it against so powerful a monarch, that they took the opportunitv to make an early sub- mission to nira. Edward had crossed the Tweed at Coldstream without experiencing any opposition of either word or deed ; but here he received a magniloquent letter from Baliol, who having obtained from pope Celestine an absolution of both himself and his nation from the oath they bad taken, now solemnly renounced the homage he had done, and solemnly defied Edward. Litllo regarding mere words, Edward had from the first moment of commencing hif enterprize been intent upon deeds. Berwick had been taken by assault, seven tbonund of the garrison put to the sword, tad sir William Douglas, the governor, made prisoner; and now twelve thousand men, under the command of the veteran earl Warenue, were dispatched ngninst Dun- bar, which was garrisoned by the very best of Scotland's nobility and gcuty. Alarmed lest Dunbar should be taken, and their whole country thus be laid open to the English, tbe Scots marched an immense army to the relief of that place ; but the earl Warenne, though his numbers were so inferior, attacked them so vigorously that they fled vith a loss of twenty thousand men; and Edward with his main army coming up on the following day, the garrison perceived that further assistance was hope- lets, and surrendered at discretion. "The castles of Roxburgh, Edinburgh, and Stir- ling now surrendered to Edward in rapid succession ; and all the southern parta of Scotland being subdued, Edward sent de- tachments of Irish and Welsh, skilled in mountain warfare, to follow the fugitives to their recesses amidst the mountains and islets of the north. But the 'rapid successes which already attended the arms of Edward had com- pletely astounded the Scots, and put them into a state of depression proportioned to the confidence they had formerly felt of teeing the invader beaten back. Their heavy losses and the dissensions among their leaders rendered it impossible for them to get together any thing like an im- posing force; and Baliol himself put the crowning stroke to his country's calamity bv hastening, ere the resources of his peo- ple could be fully ascertained, to make his tabmitsion once more to that invader to whom he had but lately sent so loud and so gratuitous a defiance. He not merely apo- logized in the most humble terms for his breach of fealty to his liege lord, but made a solemn and Anal iturender of bit crown ; and Edward, having received the homage of the king, marched northward only to b« re* ceived with like humiliiv bv the people, not a man of whom appreacnea him but to pay him homase or tender him service. Having thus, to all outward appearance, at leas^ reduced Scotland to the most perfect obe- dience, Edward marched his army south and returned to England, carrying with him the celebrated inauguration stone of tbe Scots, to which there was a superstition attached, that wherever this stone should be, there should be the government of Scotland. Considering the great power which such legends hu at that time, Ed- ward was not to blame, perhaps, for this capture ; but the same cannot be said of his wanton order for the destruction of the national recorda. Baliol, though his weak character must have very effectually placed him beyond the fear or suspicion of Edward, was confined in the Tower of London for two years, at the end which time he was allowed to retire to France, where Le remained during the rest of his life in that private station for which his limited talents and his timM temper best fitted him. The government of Scotland was entrusted to earl War- rennc, who, both from policy and predilec- tion, took care that Englishmen were pre- ferred to all ofiices of profit and influence. In Guicnne Edward a arms had been less successful ; his brother the carl of Lancas^ ter had at first obtained some advantages ; but, he dying, the earl of Lincoln, who succeeded to the command, was not able to make any progress. Edward's success in Wales and Scotland had, however, made him more than ever impatient of failure; and he now projected such a confederacT against the king of France as, he imagined, could not fail to wrest Guicnne from him. In pursuance of this plan, he gave his daughter the princess Elizabeth to John, earl of Holland ; and at the same time sti- pulated to pay to Guy, earl of Flanders, the sum of 7o,iiUUf. as his subsidjr for joining him in the invasion of the territory of their common enemy, Philip of France. Ed- ward's plan, a very feasible one, was to assemble all his allies and march against Philip's own capital, when Philip would most probably be glad to remove the threat- ened danger from himself by giving up Guicnne. As a large sum of money was requisite to carry out the king's designs he applied to parliament, who granted him, — the barons and knights a twelfth of all moveables, and the boroughs an eighth. But if tlie king laid an unfair proportion of his charges upon the boroughs, he pro- posed still more unfairlv to tax the clergy,, from whom he demanded a fifth of their moveables. Pone Boniface VIII. on mount- ing the papal throne had issued a bull for- bidding the princes of all Christian nations to tax the clergy without the express con- sent of Rome, and equally forbidding the clergy to pay any tax unless so sanctioned ; and the English clergy gladly sheltered A. D. 1"97.— INFRACTIONS OF TUB ORKAT CIIABTBB BIQIDbT BHaUIRBD INTO. 179 ^^c Qrcasurv oC llUitotg, (cc. tlMfluelTM onder that ball, now that Iha king propoaad to bnrthen them to ihame- tally oat of all proportion to hU ehargei apoa other ordera of hla aubjectt. Though Idward waa mach enraKcd at the tacit ou- podtlon of the clergy, he did not inttantljr ■raceed to any ? iolence, but cauaed all the Dama of the clergy to be locked up and prohibited all payment o( rent to them. Having given thua mnch intimation of hie determination to peraitt in hia demand, he ^ipointed a new synod to confer with him *MOB its reaaonableneaai bat Robert de winehelsey,arehbithop of Canterbury, who had auageated to Boniface that bull of which the clergy were now availing them- aelvea, plainly told the king that the clergy owed ooedience to both a temporal and a apiritual iovereign, and that the obedience due to the former would bear no compari- aon a« to importance with that which was due to the latter ; and that consequently it was impoasible that the? could pay a tax demanded by the king when they were ex- pressly forbidden to pay it bv the pope. A. n. 1397.— Really in need of money, and at the same time equallv desirous of avoid- Ibg an open qnarrel witn the pope on the one hand, and of making any confiessions to obtain a relaxation of his bull on the other, Edward grimly replied that they who would not support the civil power could not fairly expect to be protected bv it. He accordiuglv gave ordera to all his Judges to consider tne dergv as wholly out of his protection. He, of course, was obeyed to the letter. If anv one had a suit against a clerk the plaintiff was sure of success, what- ever the merits of his case, for neither the defendant nor his witness could be heard ; on the other hand, no matter how grossly a clerk mi^ht have been wronged in matters not cognisable by the ecclesiastical courts, all redress was reftised him at the very threshold of those courts whose doors were thrown open to the meanest layman in the land. Of such a state of things the people, al- ready sufficiently prone to plunder, were not slow to avail themselves ; and to be a clerk and to be plundered and insulted were pretty nearly one and the same thing. The rents both in money and kind were cut off from the convents ; andif the monks, in peril of being starved at home, rode forth in search of subsistence, robbers, embol- dened by the king's rule, if not actually prompted by his secret orders, robbed them pitilessly of money, apparel, and horses, and sent them back to their conventa still poorer and in more pitiable plight than they bad left them. The archbishop of Canterbury issued a general excommunica- tion against all who took part in these ahamenil proceedings ; but it was little at- tended to, and bad no effect in checking the spoliation of the clergy, upon which the king looked with the utmost indifference, or, rather, with the double satisfaction aris- ingfrom feeling that the losses of the clergy would at length induce them to submit, even in despite of their veneration for the papal commands, and that the people wnt thus gradually accustoming themselves to look with less awe upon the papal power. Whether, in wishing the latter consumma- tion Edward wished wisely for his succes- sors we need not now stay to discuss; is anticipating Iha former consammalion h* most aasuredly waa quite correct i for tbi clergy soon began to grow weary of a pas- sive struggle in which they were being tor- tured imperceptibly and incessantly, with- out either the dignity of martyrdom or tlie hope of ita reward. The northern provines of York had flrom the flrst paid the dfth demanded by the king, not in any prefer- ence of hia orders to those of the pope, nor, certainly, with any peculiar and persossi predilection for being taxed beyond their ability, bat becauae their proximity to Scotland gave them a fearflil personal in- terest in the ability of the king to have luf. flcient force at hia command. The bishopi of Salisbury and Ely, and some others, next came in and offered not indeed Mtrallf to disobey the pope by paying the flfth di- rectly to Edwanl, bat to deposit equivalent sums in cenain appointed places whence they could be taken by the king's collector*. Those who could not command ready mo- ney for this sort of commutation of the king's demand privily entered into recog- nisancea for the payment at a future time, and thua either directly or indirectly, me- diately or immediately, the whole of the clergy paid the king's exorbitant demand, though reason warranted them in a reiiit- ance which had the formal sanction, nay the express command, of their spiritual io- vereign. In thia we see a memorable in- stance of the aame power applied to dif- ferent men ; the power that would have crushed the weak John, however just hii cause, was now, with a grim and triumph- ant contempt, act at naught by the intrepid and politic Edward, though it opposed him in a demand which was both sliamcful in its extent and illegal even in the manner of its imposition. But with all this assistance, the suppliei which Edward obtained still fell far snort of his necessities, and the manner in which he contrived to make up the difference wai characterized by the injustice which wu the one great blot upon what would other- wise have been a truly glorious reign. Though the merchants had ever shown great wilUngness to assist him, he now ar- bitrarily fixed a limit to the exportation of wool, and aa arbitrarily levied a duty of forty ahillings on each sack, being some- thing more than a third of ita full value ! Nor did hia injustice stop here; this, in- deed, was the least of it ; for he immediate- ly afterwarda aeixed all the wool that re- mained in the kingdom, and all the Itather, and sold them for his own benefit. The sheriffs of each countv were empowered to seize for him two thousand quarters of wheat and two thousand of oats. Cattle and other requisites were seized in the same wholesale and unceremonious fasliion ; and though these aeizures were made under *BB AooaBssioiia or war hbth bbas aoBurnLOi/a bxamihatiok. iob'i ioib. Bd that the people weft iitoininf themtcltn to BpoB the papal power, fthe latter eontamoM- wiiely for hU •uceci- low stay to diicnit; la irmer contammatloii b* I quite correct i for the to grow weary of a p«i> ich they were being tof' y and inceteantly, with- Ity of martyrdom or the The northern proTinee the flrat paid the tfth kinf, not in any prefer- to thoie of the pope, nor, y peculiar and penooil eing Uxed beyond their aee their proximity to im a fearfixl personal in- y of the king to hare luf- command. The biihopi Sly, and ■omeothert.nnt id not indeed Mtratlt to i by paying the ftfth di. but to depoiit equiTalent I appointed placet whence n by the king*! eoUectort. not command ready mo- t of commutation of tlie irivily entered into recog. layment at a future time, directly or indirectly, me- liately, the whole of the ling's exorbitant demtnd, irranted them in a reiirt- the formal eanction, nay aand, of their spiritual to- I we see a memorable in- me power applied to dif- power that would ha»e » John, however juit hii vith a grim and triumph- i at naught by the intrepid rd, though it opposed him ch was both sliamcful m egal even in the manuer lis assistance, the suppUei ttained still fell far short , and the manner m which lake up the difference was the injustice which was upon what would other- a truly glorious reign. rchants had ever shown ■ to assist him, he now ar- limit to the exportation of litrarily levied a duty of a each sack, being some- a third of its full value 1 istice stop here; this, in- »t of it; for he immediate- sed all the wool that re- jgdom,andalltheUather •or his own benefit, ine ounty were empowered to wo thousand q>»rter8 oi thousand of oats. Cattle teswereseiiedinthesame ceremonious fashion; ana ixttres were made under OLOUS SXAMIIIAIIOW. lEnglanH.— ^lantagcncts.— lEStDatU X. 173 Moaise to pay, the anlbrera nalurally L|awd little reliance upon auch promise udi under such cireurostancea. In re- trailing bis army Edward acted quite as •rbitrarily as in provisioning it ; compell- iac every proprietor of land to pay the Mfly value of twenty pounds, either to lene in person or Hnd a proxy, even though kit land were not held by military tenure. Notwithstanding the great popularity of Bdwsrd, and the terror of his power, he could not under such circumstances of pro- Tocation prevent the people from munnur- ingi nor were the munnurs confined to the poorer sort or to those who were personally ■ulferera from the king's arbitranr conduct, but the highest nobles also felt the outrage that was committed upon the eeneral prin- ciple of liberty. Of thia feeling Edward wu made aware as soon as he had com- pleted his preparations. He divided his forces into two armies, intendinfjp to assail Prance on the side of Flandera with one of ihem, and to send the other to assail it on the tide of Gaseony. But when everything was readv and the troops actually assem- bled on the sea const, Roger Bigod, earl of Norfolk and marshal of England, and Bo- iins, earl of Hereford and constable of Enitland, to whom he intended to entrust the Gascon portion of hia expedition, re- fiued to take charge of it, on the plea that by their ofllces they were only bound to at- tend upon his person during his wars. Uttle used to be thwarted, the kin|c was neatly enraged at this refusal, and in the high words that passed upon the occasion be exclaimed to the earl of Hereford, " Bv God, air earl, yuu shall cither go or hang ;" to which Hereford coolly replied, " By God, •ir king, I will neither go uor hang ;" and be immediately left the expedition, taking with him above thirty other powerful ba- rani and their numerous followers. Finding himself thus considerably weak- ened in actual numbers, and still more so by the moral effect this dispute had upon men's minds, Edward now gave up the Gascon portion of his expedition ; but the opposition was yet not at an end ; for the two earls now refused to perform their duty on the ground that their ancestors bad never served in Flanders. Not know- ing how far the same spirit might have ipread, Edward feared to proceed to extre- mitiet, aggravated and annoying as this disobedience was, but contented himself with appointing Geoffrey dc Ueyneville and Thomas de Berkeley to act for the recusant officers on the present occasion ; for as the offices of marshal and constable were he- reditary, he could only have deprived the oCendera of them by the extreme measure of attainder- He farther followed up this conciliatory policy^ by tAking the pnmate into favour again, in hope of thus securing the interest of the church ; and he assem- bled a great meeting of the nobles in Westminster Hall, to whom he addressed a speech in apology for what they might deem exceptionable in his conduct. He pointed out how strongly the honour of the erown and the nation demanded the war* like meaaurea h« propoaed to take, and how impossible It was to take thoae meaaurea without money ; he at the aame time pro- tested, that should he ever return be would take care that every man should be reim- bursed, and that wherever there was a wrong in his kingdom that wrong ahould ba re- dressed. At the same time that he made these prorai«es and assured his hearers that they might rely upon bis fulfilment of them, he strongly urged them to Uy aside all ani- mosities among thrinselves, and only strive with each other who should do most to- wards preserving the peace and upholding the credit of the nation, to be faithful to him during his absence, and, in the event of his falling in battle, to be faithful to bia son. Though there was something extremely touching in the politic pleading of the king, coming as it did from a man usually so fierce and resolute, bia arbitrary conduct had injured too widelv, and stung too deep- ly, to admit of woras, however pathetic, winning him back the friendship of bia people ; and just as he was embarking at NVinchelsca, a remonstrance which Here- ford and Norfolk bad framed was preaented to him in their names and in thoae of other considerable barons. In this remonstrance, strongly though courteously worded, com- plaint was generally made of his recent system of government, and especially of his perpetual and flagrant violation of the great charter and of tlie charter of the forests, and his arbitrary taxation and aeiiures, and they demanded redress of these great and manifest grievancea. The circum- stances under which this memorial was de- livered to the king furnished him with an excuse of which he was by no means sorry to avail himself, seeing that he could nei- ther deny the grievances nor find the means of redressing them ; and he briefly replied, that he could not decide upon matters of auch high importance while at a distance from his council and in all the bustle of embarkation. But the two earls and their partisans were resolved that the king's embarkation should rather serve than injure their cauaei and when the prince of Wales and the go- vernment summoned them to meet in par- liament they did so with a perfect army of attendants, horse and foot, and would not even enter the city until the guardianship of the gates was given up to them. The council hesitated to trust so much to men who had assumed so hostile an attitude; but the archbishop of Canterbury, wlio sided with the carls, overruled all objec- tions and argued away all doubts ; the gates were given into the custody of the malcon- tents, and thus both the prince and the parliament were virtually put into their power. That power, however, they used with an honourable moderation, demanding only that the two charters should be solemnly confirmed by the king and duly observed for the time to come ; that a clause should i A 4 MANY SCOTS AND WELSH JOIN nDWABU'S IRTADIMS AEHT. [0» m m m • A l o 4 MOW 10 OALLIB. 174 Q|c CTriUttrv of l^tstorv, Ice. b« added to tha grtat ehaHar Mouring tha pcopla firom being tued without the con- ■eat of parliament t and that they who had rafUied to attend the king to Flanden ihould be held harmleea on that account and received into tha king'a favour. Both the prince of Waica and hie eonnell agreed to tbeea really Juet and moderate termt \ but when they were eubmitted to Edward, In Flandcra, he at flrtt objected to agree to them, and even after three daye' delibera- tion ha waa only with difficulty perauaded to do M. The varioua impediment* which the king had met with in England caused him to reach riander* too lata in the aeaaon for any operations of importance i and enabled Philip to enter the Low Countries before his arrival, and make himself master, in succession, of Lisle, Bt. Omer's, Courlrai. and Tpres. The appearance of Edward with an English army of Hfty thousand men put an end to this march of prospe> ritv; and Philip not only was compelled to retreat on France, but had every reason to fear that he should be early invaded there. Edward, however, betides beiuR anxious for Englana, eiposcd as it was to the hostlli- tiea of tha Scots, was disappointed of a considerable force for the aid of which he had paid a high price to Adolph, king of the Romans; ana both monarchs being thus disposed to at least temporary peace, they agreed to a a trace of two vears and to submit their quarrel to the Judgment of the pope. i. D. 1298.— Though both Edward and Philip expressly mamtained that they re- ferred their quarrel to the pope, not as ad- mitting the papal right to interfere in the temporal affiurs of nations, but a* respect- ing hia personal wisdom and justice, he was too anxious to be seen by the world in the character of mediator between two such powerful princes, to make any excep- tion to the terms upon which hia mediation wu accepted. He examined their dif- ferences, and proposed that a permanent peace should be made by them on the fol- lowing terms; via. that Edward, who was now a widower, should espouse Margaret, aiater of Philip, and that the prince of Walea ahould espouse Isabella, daughter of Philip, and that Guienne should be restor- ed to England. Philip wished to include the Scots in his peace with Edward, but tha latter waa too inveterate against Scot- land to listen to that proposal, and after some discussion the peace was made; Philip abandoning the Scots, and Edward in turn abandoning the Flemings. So care- less of their allies are even the greatest monarch* when their own interests call for the Racrifloe of those allies I It is but seldom that projects of conquest will bear scratiny ; still more seldom that they merit praise. But certainlv, looking merely at the geographical relations of England and Scotland, it ii impostible to deny that the latter seems intended by na- ture to belong to the former whenever any considerable progresa ahould be made in civlliaatlon. That Scotland ahould loat and Aereely etragele for independence ws* natural, and excite* our admiration «n4 aympathy ; but, on turning f^om aentlmtni to rraeon, we cannot but approve of i|m Englisli determination to annex a* fritn^i and fellow-eubject* a people *o command- ingly altuated to be mischievous and eoitlt as enemies. It is probable that Heotlmd would never have made a straggle a'^pr ih« too prudent submission of John BalinI, Lid the English rale been wisely managed. But earl Warenne was obliged hv falling heslth to retire firom the bleak climate of Scut. land ; and Ormesby and Cressinirliam, who were then left in possession of full sutho. riiy, used, or rather abused it in such wim as to arouse to hate and indignation sll high spirited Scots, of whatever rank, and of whatever moderation In their former temper towards England. Their shameAii and perpetual oppressions. In fact, excited so general a feeling of hostility, that on\j a leader had been for some time wanting to produce an armed revolt, and turh a leader at length appeared in the person of the af- terwards famous William Wallacr. MTiltiam Wallace, a gentleman of mode- rate fortune, but of an ancient and honour, able family in the west of Scotland, thon|h his efforts on behalf of hi* country deierre at least a part of the enthutiastie praiu which his countrymen bestow upon him, would probably have died unknown, anil without one patriotic struggle, but for that which often leads to patriotic cfforti— a grivate quarrel. Having, like too many of la fellow-countrymen, been gronljr in. aulted by an English officer, Wallace killed him on the spot. Under so tyrannou* t rule aa that of the English in Scotland, such a deed left the doer of it but little mercy to hope ; and Wallace betook him««lf to the wooas, resolved, as his life was al. ready forfeit to the law, to sell it as dearly as possible, and to do awav with whatcter obloquy might attach to his first act of violence by mixing up for the future hit own cause with that of hia country. Of aingnlar bodily aa well aa mental powers, and having a perfect acquaintance with every morasa and mountain path, the ind. dennesa with which Wallace, with the small band of ontlawa he at flrst collected round him, fell upon the Engliah oppressors, snd the invariable facility and safety with which he made good his retreat, soon made him looked up to by men who longed for the deliverance of their country, and cared not if they owed it even to a hand guilty of deliberate murder. The followera of Wal- lace thua apeedily became more and more numerous, and from the mere outlaw's band grew at length to the patriot's army. Every new success with which Wtllace struck terror into the hearts of the Engtiih increased the admiration of his country- men ; but though the number of his adher- acta was perpetually on the increase, for i long time he was not joined by any men of rank and consequence sufficient to stamp his exertions with a national character. ALL WHO HBtS LANDS OV THK CBOWN WKBI FKBTIOUaLT CALLBD BABONS. W 10 OALIiBB. ieolland ■hovid loni (tor Independcncd wm our •dmtnttlon u4 rniiiK from Mnltnitnl t but tpprote of th< n to annra m friend* , I people to comtMnd- { iikMhievoue Mtd eoitU robkble that HeoiUnd 4e ••lrttRgie«r*«rth« ion of John BkUoI, i.ad n wiMly mftnef ed. But ilifcd b* falUng health ))e«k elimate of 8ci)t- and CrcaiinKham, who •teaaion of lull autho- abuaed it in anch wiH t« and indiienatian all of whatercr rank, and ition in their former (land. Their ahameAil eaaiona, in fact, excited of hoatility, that onlr , ir aome time wanting to erolt, and lurh a leader in the person of the af- ILtlAM WAM.*ca. a gentleman of mode- an ancient and honour' | reat of Scotland, though i If of hla county deietw the enthuiiaatie praiu men beatow upon him. i ave died unknown, and tic atruggle, but for that 1 to patriotic efforti— a laving, like too many of rmen, been gro»»>T., »: lahofBcer, Wallace killed Under »o tyrannou* a le Engliih in Scotland, the doer of it but little t Wallace betook himwlf (Wed, aa hla life wa» A- law, to aell it as dearly „ do away with whateter Kach to hi* first act of t up for the future bvi liat of hia country. Of well aa mental powers, ffect acquaintance with ■mountain path, the snd- h Wallace, with the small B at «r«t collected round Engliah oppreasors, and lityindaafitywithwhicli retreat, aoon made him nen who longed for the ir country, and cared not ven to a hand guilty of The followers of ww- became more «nd "ore | rom the mere outlaw* hh to the patriot's army. C„ with which W»ll.c« the hearts of the Engli*h niratlon of his country- the number of his adher. IWon the increase, for a Kot joined by any men of Uce sufBcient to stamp | [h a national character. tt CAitan aAaoNs. Ilea. lEnglantl.— ^lantastnitff.— 'Sfeitoatli S. 17A Batlhl* great dlfllcttlly waa at length re- Borad (Vnm hi* path. After a rariMy of auaor sueceases he prepared hia fullowera to attack Scone, which waa held br the kairdBnilish Justiciary Ormesby i and thai inaanical person being informed by hi* sM* of (ha deadly inlentiona of Wallace toward* him, wa* so alarmed, that he pre- ciaiiaiely departed into England ; and hi* ts*Bpl* *** closrlr followed br all the i«aediate aceompllcea and loola of hla tracliy and tyranny. Ths panic Hight of Ormeaby added greatly te the effect which the courage and con- duel of Wallace bad already produced upon the minds of hla fellow-oounirymen i and (Ttn the great, who hitherto had deemed it prudent to keep aloof from him, now ibowed him both sympathy and confidence. Mr William Douglas openly Joined him, and lobcrt Bruce secretly encouraged himt the smaller gentry and the people at large Hft biro the full confidence and support of which the efforts be had already made ■rofsd him capabli- of profiting ; and so lenoal was the Scottish moreraent, that !■ a short time the English government wu vlttuallT at an end in Scotland. The nor* sanguine among the Scots already be- nn to hope that their countrr'a indepen- Mnee was completely re-established, but the wiser and more eaperieneed Judged that Eigland would not thus easily part with a (oaqaest so desirable and, perhapa, even es- Nniiai to her own national safety ; and their judpnent waa soon Justified by the appear- ine* of earl Warenne at Irvine, in Annan- dile, with an army of upwards of I'ortv thou- land men ; a force which, if prudently used under the existing circumstances, must on the instant have undone all that Wallace hid u yet done for the enfranchisement of Ui country. For the mere appearance of •OTSit and well appointed an army, under Ik* command of n leader of the known liloor and ability of Warenne, struck such terror into many of the Scottiah noblea vho bad joined Wallace, that they hastened to submit to Warenne, «nd to aave their persons and property by renewing the oath of fealty to Edward; while many who were Mcretly in correspondence witn Wallace, ud among hia moat lealoua frienda, were tomBclled, though aorely againat their will, tsjeintlieEngh*h. Wallace, then, being thai weakened, a pnident uae of the vaat Eii|liih force waa all that waa required to hire ensured success ; and had Warenne uted solely upon hia own judgment, auc- Nil most certainly would have been his. Bat Cressingham, the treasurer, whose op- PTMiions had only been aecond to those of Ormesby, was so tranaported by personal W, and had so much influence over wirenne, a* to mislead even that veteran eominander into an error as glaring aa in ill eonieouence it wa* mischievous. Urged by Cressingham, Warenne, who bid advanced to Cambuskenneth, on the buki of the Forth, resolved to a*8ail Wal- Um. who had most skilfully and strongly foited himself on the opposite bank. Sir Richard Lnndy, • native Beotchman, kal sincerely and aealonsly attached to the English raus*. in vain pointed out to War- enne thedisadvanlagea under whirh he waa about to make the attack. The order waa given, and the Engliah began their mareh over the bridge which crossed the river at that point. Wallace allowed the leading divisinna to reach hia aide of the river, hut before they could fully form in order of battle he gave the word, his Iroopa rushed upon the English in overwhelming foree, and in an incredibly short time the battle became a mere rout, tlie English flying la every direction, and thousands of trem being put to thr sword or drowned in their vain endeavours to escape from their en- raged vnemiea. Cressingham, who behaved with much gallantry during the short but murderous conflict, wa* among the number of the English slain; and so inveterate and merciless wa* the haired with which hia tyranny had inspired the Scots, that they actually flayed hia corpse and had hia akin tanned and converted into girtha and bella. The great loss sustained by the English upon the field, and the complete {lanio into which the survivors were thrown, eft Warenne no allcmaiive but to retreat into England. The castles of Berwick and Roxburgh were speedily taken, and Scot- land saw herself free once more, and loudly hailed Wallace oa her deliverer. The title of regent waa bestowed upon him by accla- mation ; and both from being elated by hia almost inarveiloua success, and from the absolute famine which prevailed in Scot- land, he waa now induced to carry the war into England. lie accordingly marched his troops across the border, and, spreading them over the northern counties, plundereS and destroyed without mercy, till at length haviug penetrated aa far aa tlie blshoprick of Durham, he obtained enormous booty, with which be returned in triumph to Scotland. The newa of this great triumph of the Scot* reached EdwaA while in Flander^ where, fortunately, he had Juat completed a truce with France. He waa thua at li- berty to haaten to England and endeavour to retrieve the lo*a of nis moat valued con- quest. Sensible that bis paat conduct had greatly offended aa well aa alarmed hia people, of whose utmost aid and teal he now stood in so much need, hia firat care waa to exert every art to regain hia lost popularity. To the citiaen* of London he paid hia court by re*toring to them the privilege of electing their own magi*trate*, of which hia father had deprived them; and he gave oitentatious directions for ex- act enquiry to be made as to the value of corn, cattle, and other commodities, which a short time before he had ordered to be seized; thua leading the more sanguine among the aufferera. to believe, and to per- suade others, that he intended to pay lor the gooda thua violently obtained. To the nobles he equally endeavoured to recom- mend himself by solemn professions of his determination to observe the chartcra; and t M ■ a i A.n. 1298— A TWO TBABS TBUCB CONCLUDBn WITH TRB rBBRCH. A.I>. tS99.— TBI BOTAIi tAhkOm AMD MOHASTBBI At WBITMIlia*» BUKIIT. 176 V^\)t Crcasnre of llistore, Sec. having thus inmtiated bimielf with all order* of men, ne made esteniif e lefies and preparationa for the re-eonqueit of Scotland, against which he was (o«n en- abled to march with an army of nearly a hundred thousand men. The masntlude and excellent equipment of Fdward'a force were not iiit only ad- vantage! ; disseniiona were rife and fierce among the Scots Ht the very moment when it was obvious that nothing but the moit unanimous and disinterested zeal coulb E've them even a chance of success. Wal- ee had done wonders in raising his country from the extreme degradation and despair in which he had found her; but then WaU laM was onl^ the son of a private gentle- man, and his elevation to the important nost of regent gnve deep offence to the proud nobihty, each of whom deemd him- self more worthy than the other. Per- ceiving both the cause and the danger of the divided spirit, Wallace showed himself truly noble in soul, bv di interestedly re- signing the authority he had so well won, and retaining only the command of Lis immediate followers, who would have obey- ed no other commander; and the chief authority was divided between Cummin of Badenocn and the steward of Badenoch, who agreed in concentrating all the Scottish forces at Falkirk, there to await the attack of the English. Each of the Scottish com- manders-in-chief headed a great division of their army, while a third division was under the immediate command of Wallace himself. The pikemen formed the front of each division, and the intervals between the three were occupied by strong bodies of archers ; and as the English had a vast superiority in cavalry, the whole front of the Scottish position was protected as well as possible by stakes strongly secured to each other by ropes. Edward, rn arriving in front of bis enemy formed his army, also, into three divisions. His archers, probably the most skilful in the world, commenced the attack, and so galled the Scottish bowmen, that they were speedily seized with a panic and fled from the held. The fearful shower of the Eng- lish bolts and arruv, ^ was now turned upon the Scottish pikemen, and the charge of the English pikemen and cavalry followed up the advantage thus obtained. The Scots fought bravely and well, but the superiority of the English, in disciulinc and equipments as well as in numbers, was so great, that the utmost effocts of the Scotch were in vain, and they were at leuKth completely routed, with a loss of 10,000 men, but which the popular lamen- tation rated as high as fifty thousand. Even in this appalling scene of confusion and slaughter, Wallace contrived to keep his division unbroken, and to lead it in good order behind the river Carron, lining the bank of that river in such n'tsc as to render the attack of the English highly perilous, if not actually impracticable. An interview here took place between Wallace and young Bruce, who, despite his own high birth and not weak claim npoa the Scottish royalty, was then serving in Edward's army. The account given by the Scottish historians of this interview !• w precise as to be somewhat suapicioua, np«. cially as authors quite as credible affirm that Bruce was not then with the EngUib army, or even in that part of the country, If, however, the interview took place, ^he subsequent conduct of Bruce showt, that, «o far from succeeding in his enileavour to induce Wallace to struggle no luiier for his country's independence, he was hiniKlf converted by the great hero to a nobler way of thinkiuK. A.D. 1299.— While Wallace still remained unconquercd and in some force, Edward felt that his triumph was not complete; hut after having subjected the south of Scotland, Edward was obliged, by then want of provisions, to march his troopi back into England and to leave the north of Scotland still unconquered, A. D. 1300.— The Scotch having in vain applied for aid to Philip of France, now betook themselves to the mediation of Home ; and Boniface wrote on their behalf a long and justly arcued letter to Edward, in which he strongly put forward all the solid arguments that existed against hii equally unjust and arrogant claim to Scot- land. But as the anibition of Boniface was fully equal to his ability, he weakened the justice of his opposition to the arrozant claim of Edw.... by putting forwanl an equally arrogant and unfounded one on the part of Rome, to which he asserted Scot- land to have by right appertained from the most remote antiquity. The real claim of Edward was plainlf founded upon the right of the strongeil; his only justification was to be found in the geographical connection of Scotland and England. But, in replying to the letter of the pope, Edward advanced argu- ments which were quite as remarkable for grave and absurd assurance as even the claim of the pope himself. Commencing with Brutus the Trojan, Edward cited and assumed historical sayings and doingt down to the time of Ilenrv II. in support of his claim ; but carefully leaving out every thing that told for Scotland, though he commenced his elaborate document by a solemn appeal to the Almighty to witneit his sincerity and good faith I It is itill more extraordinary that Edward's preten- sions were backed by no fewer than a hun- dred and four barons, who, to his defence of his claims, added, tliat though they bad condescended to justify them to Buniface, they by no means acknowledged Lis right to judge, and that if their sovereign were willing to give up the prerogatives which they were determined at all hazards and all sacrifices to uphold, they for tleir parti would in no wise allow him to do so. A. D. ia03.— While Edward was thus en- deavouring to give to a politic and tempt- ing usurpation the character of a jusi and | ancient claim, the Scots, relieved from hii ' immediate and fatal activity, were cxerliDj! I A.D. 1302.— THB MAEINXH's COMPASS FIBIT BBOUSUT INTO DSB. lltlMX»a» BIIBIIT. :t. 1 ^s. 1303.— iconAiiD mnnumo a voustb timb, arb coiirLBTBi.i bataobo. ind not weak claim upoa ilty, wa» then terving in The account given by the na of thia interview w n omewhat suspicious, npe- I quite as credible affirm lot then witli the Engliib tliat part of the country, interview took place, .h« [act of Bmce ihowi, that, ceding in hit endeavour to to struggle no lm%n for iependence, he was himielf le great hero to a nobler hile Wallace still remained id in some force, Edward iumph was not complete; ig subjected the south of ird was obliged, by iheer ions, to march bis troopi ind and to leave the north I unconquered, he Scotch having in vain to Philip of France, now lives to the mediation of i : niface wrote on their behalf ly argued letter to Edward, :rongly put forward all the ts that existed against hi» and arrogant claim to Scot- the ambition of Boniface I to his ability, he weakened is opposition to the arrogant '.- by putting forward an It and unfounded one on the to which he asserted Scot- ^ right appertained from the iim of^ Edward was plainly the right of the strongetl; ication was to be found in cal connection of Scotland But, in replying to the jpe, Edward advanced argu- irere quite as remarkable for lurd assurance as even the )ope himself. Commencing le Trojan, Edward cited and orical sayings and doingJ ime of Henry II. in support but carefully leaving out at told for Scotland, though his elaborate document by ,1 to the Almighty to witneM md good faith 1 It H Jtill inary that Edward's pretcn- ■ked by no fewer than ahun- barons, who, to his defence idded, that though they had to justify them to Boniface, ans acknowledged bi» right that if their sovereign wet* ! up the prerogatives which crmincd at all bBzards and (Uphold, they for tl eir patti _3e allow him to do so. iVhile Edward was thus en- eive to a politic and Icrapi- "7 the character of a juai and the Scots, relieved Irom »« fatal activity, were cxettiB? hi l l il •I ll :| iW tl lEnglant).— ^lantagcntts.— lEtiiuarTl 3E. 177 OUeUT IHTO rsB. ikeMielvet for another effort in behalf of ikeir national independence. John Cum. mil «u made regent, and he did not con> teit himself with keeping a force together In tbc Bortb, but made frequent incursiona ■DM the subdued soathern provinces. Mb de Segrave, whom Edward had left H hii represenutive in ScotJand, at length ledottt his army to oppose the Scotch, and akmgand sanniinary action took place at BoiKn, near Edinburgh, in which the Euriiah were completely defeated, and the whole ef the southern province* freed from tkeiB by the regent. Edward, to hi* infinite indignation, novr Bcrceived that he had not to complete, iierely, but actually to recommence the (onqvest of this brave people, and he made pitparatians for so doing with his aocus- toned vigour and activity. Assembling aaval as well as military forces, he entered Scotland with a large army, which his gavy, sailing along the coast, put out of all dinger u regarded want of provision. The laoeriority wliich this arrangement gave to Eowsrd rendered the resistance of the 8 dtavour to reconcile the existing genera- tion of Scots to their loss of real indepen- dtnee by flattering them with as much at fMMt of the appearance of it, by govern- tag them by their own laws anid by •in- doling them in their national customs, nntil, habituated to rule and influenced by the propensity of imitation, which is every- where so strong, they should gradually as- limilate themselvea in those respects to their conquerors. But this slow though lore process did not accord with his pas- lionate disposition ; and he not only made •weeping alterations in the Scottish laws, bat atill more deeply wounded the national aride by the malignant seal with which he leitioyed all their most precious records, lid moat valued monuments. By this injudicious cruelty he powerfully ncited the hatred of the Scots, and that batred was now pushed to its utmost excess by what even an English historian can only term the murder of the brave but unfortu- ute Wallace. Resolved never to despair of his country, and never to cease in his eiertions for her but when he should cease to live, Wallace sought shelter in the moun- tain fastnesses, confiding the secret of hit retreat to only a few Ujpon whom he though* that be could implicitly rely, and watched eagerly and hopefully for some opportunity of again rousing Scotland to resistance. But the anxiety of Edward to get into hia power this most formidable enemjr to him, because most devoted friend to his native land, led him to hold out the promise of such reword and favour to whomsoever would put Wallace into his power, tliat a traitor waa unhappily fauna even among the mere handful of Scots to whom the power of being thus treacherous waa con- fined. The man to whose name this eter- nal infamy attaches was Sir John Monteith, an intimate and confidi-ntial friend of Wal- lace. This dastardly and treacherous per- son revealed the place of the patriotic chief- tain's shelter, and he was seixed, loaded with irons, and sent to London. Distin- guished as Edward himself was for courage, the almost romantic bravery and devotion of Wallace might have been expected to have excited his admiration. It is scarcely possible to read this portion of our history without, for Edward's own sake, feeling shocked and disappointed at the unknight- ly want of generosity he displayed. Had he kept Wallace even a close prisoner, though the wrong doer would still have been exer- cising the unjust right of the strongest, Edward had been excusable, as it was quite obvious that so long as Wallace was at li- berty tlie conquest of Scotland was not se- cure fur a single day. But the courage and perseverance which ought to have secured Edward's sympathy, only excited his im- placable hatred ; and the unfortunate Scot- tish patriot, after the mere mockery of a trial for treason and rebellion against that power to which he had never made sub- mission, was publicly beheaded on Tower- hill. If Edward hoped by this shameful seve- rity to put an end to the Scottish hopes and determination, he was signally mis- taken; the dying resentment of the people was aroused ; even those who had been foremost in envying the supremacy of Wal- lace now joined in deploring his fate, and the general mind was put into the most favourable state for ensuring welcome and support to the next champion of indepen- dence, who soon presented himself in the person of Robert Bruce. A. D. 1306. — Robert Bruce, grandson of the opponent of Baliol. was now, by the decease of both bis grandfather and father, the inheritor of, at the least, a plausible claim to the Scottish crown, and had there- fore a personal as well as a patriotic mo- tive for opposing the tyranny of Edward. Though he was himself personally well treated; though, indeed, he was viewed lest as a prisoner at large than as a favoured native noble. Bruce could not but feel dis- gust and indignation at the numerous cru- elties of Edward, crowned as they were by the damning injustice of the murder of Wallace ; and after having long pondered the subject, he determined to succeed to that hero in hit task, even at the risk of s' A.B. 1304. — TUB SCOTTISH HOBILITT AOAIN SUBMIT TO BBWABO. VHB SOCIBTT OF MBBCBAMT ADTBHVDBBBI BITADLISBBB IB TUII BBIQII, 178 7S,^t treasure of 1|lstorii, $cc. ■ttceeeding alio to his violent end. Thii determination Bruce confided to hit inti- mate friend John Cummin, who approved of his deiign and encouraged him in it. Whether Cummin firora tlie flrit liatcned only to betray, or whether he at first en- tered sincerely into ttie views of Bruce, and only betrayed them from horror at the mag- nitude of the danger, does not clearly ap- pear. But certain it is that, from whatever motives, he did reveal the sentiments and intentions of Bruce to the king. Edward, though little prone to sparing, knew how to dissemble ; and being desir- ous of getting into his power the three bro- thers of Bruce, who were still at liberty in Scotland, and fearing to alarm them ere he could do so, should he take any decisive measures agninat Uobeit,he for the present coutentcd himself with putting his every act and word under the most severe surveil- lance of persons practised in that most con- temptible species of employment. This po- licy, intended to make the ruin of Robert Bruce more certain and complete, proved his safety ; for an English nobleman who was privy to Edward's desiji^ put Bruce on his guard in time. The friendly nobleman in question, being aware how closely Uruce was watched, could not venture to warn him personally and in plain terms of the danger which beset him, but sent him by a sure hand a pair of spurs and a purse of money. The sagacity of Bruce rightly interpreted the meaning of this double present, and he instantly set off for Annandale, and arrived there safely ; having taken the precaution to have his horse shod backward, so that even had a pursuit been commenced, the pursuers would speedily have been thrown out. High as Brncc ranked in the Scottish nobility, he had hitherto been looked upon as wholly lost to Scotland; as the mere miniou of the English king ; less anxious about the land to which he owed his birth, than to thnt in which he lived a life of splendid slavery. It was, therefore, with no little surprise, and perhaps in some cases even with suspicion, that the Scottish nobility then assembled at Dumfries saw him suddenly appear before them, with the avowed determination of following up the mighty efforts of Wallace, and of liberating his trampled country or nobly perishing in the attempt. The eloquence and spirit with which Bruce declared his intentions and exhorted the assembled nobles to join him in his efforts, roused their spirits to the highest enthusiasm, and they at once declared their intention to follow the noble Bruce even to the death. To this ctithu- siasm and assent there was but one excep- tion : — Cummin, who had already betrayed the designs of Bruce to the king, now en- deavoured to iiitroclure discord into the council, by dwelling with great earnestness upon the little probability that existed of their being successful against the tremen- dous power of England, and upon the still smaller probability of Edward showing any mercy to them, should they fall into bis hands after insulting him by a new breick of their oath of fealty. The discourse of Cummin had thegreattr weight because he was held to be a true patriot; and Bruce clearly perceived thu this man, who had so nearly bctrayc' him to certain imprisonment and verv probable execution, had so strong a hold on the I minds of the nobles, that they would moit likely follow his advice, until the arrival of I Edward with an overwhelming power would I render exertion useless. Enraged at luch I an opposition being added to the treachery | of which he was aware that Cuinmin had already been guilty, Bruce, when the meet- i ing of nobles was adjourned to another da;, ] followed Cummin as far as the inonsiter; ' of the Grey Friars, in the cloisters of whicb \ he went up to him and ran him through : the body. Bruce imagined that he had '' killed the traitor, but on being asked by a ' friend and confidante, named Fitspairick, ' whether he had done so, he replied, " I be- ' lieve so." "Believe I" exclaimed Fitzpa- trick, "and is that a thing to leave toi chance? I will secure himi" So 8a;iD|;, the tierce knight went back to the tpot ; where Cummm lay, and stabbed him ■ through the heart. This brutal violence which in our more enlightened day we can- not even rend of without horror and dis- gust, was then deemed a matter not of shame but of triumph and boasting, and the murderer Fitzpatrick actually took for his crest a hand and blo^idy dagger, and the words " I will secure him 1" t'ur hit motto. I The murder of Edward's spy— and mnr- ] der it assuredly was, however base the cha- racter of the victim — left the aascinbled nobles, and Bruce especially, no choice ai to their future course; they must eitlicf shake off the power of Edward, or perish beneath Edward's aroused vengeance. Bruce in this emergency proved himself wtU adapted for the lofty and perilous mistion to which he had devoted himself. lie ilcw from one part of the country to another, everywhere raising armed partisans, and sending them against the. most important towns and castles that ventured to hold out for Edward; and by this activity he not only obtained strong holds in every di- , rection, but organized and conrentrnicd a ' force so considerable, that he was able to . declare Scotland independent, and tohaK himself crowned as her king in the abbe; of Scone, the archbishop of St. Andrew'i officiating. Bruce, though both policv and ambition led him to be crowned, did not suffer mere ceremonial to occupy much of , the time for which he had so much more important a use, but busily pursued the English until they were all driven from the „ kingdom, save those who found shelter in || the comparatively few-fortresses that ftill held out for Edward. i «{ A.n. 1307.~Edward, who sctmod «> enl ^-l thusiastic in ^i^ desire to conquer Scotland i as the Scots were in their desire to live free from his yoke, received the tidings of thii new defeat of his purpose only as a aufflj A. D. 1307.— COAt. FORBinOBlf TO BB VIBD IN LONDON AND ITS SUBURBS. D IM TUI* BBIOR. *■■ rtACI Of BOWABO'S BBAVB WAS BDl ing him bj a new bmck ilty. Cummin had the greater le was held to be a true :e clearly pcrceiTed that 1 BO nearly betraye'" bia nmcnt and very vrubable } atrong a hold on the , , es, that they would moit \ j idvice, until the arrival of i verwhelming power would i | ieleaa. Enraged at such i ng added to the trcachet; | ' aware that Cummin had ty, Bruce, when the meet- 1 adjourned to another day, i 1 as far a» the monarterj i :«, in the cloisters of which ; liim and ran him through : •e imagined that he had< •, but on being asked by a dante, named Fitipairick, \ done BO, he replied, " I be- ; lievel" exclaimed Fitrpa- that a thing to leaw to Bccure himl" 80 sajim, It went back to the »pot i I lay, and atabbcd him: •art. Thia brutal Tiolenw ire enlightened day we can- , of without horror and dis- I deemed a matter not of triumph and boastinK, "id itzpatrick actually took for nd and bloody dai;gcr,aDd will secure himl" lorhUj ,f Edward's spy— and mur. was, however base the cha- victim— left the assembled uce especially, no choice a« • course ; they must ciiliej (lower of Edward, or pcnsh i's aroused vengeance. Bruce •ency proved himself *eu lofty and perilous tiH««ioB 1 devoted himself. He «cw of the country to another, sing armed partisans, and igainst the. »uo8t important, ttea that ventured to ho d j d ; and by this activity he . ed strong holds in every di- • ;anized and concentrntcd a • erablcthathewasable ,d independent, and to ha« ] d as her king in the abbey I archbishop of St. Andrew, tice, though both policy wi ■imto be crowned, dii no temonial to occupy much of , hichhe had so much more ,e,but busily pv-rsued he hev were all driven trom the IhU who found. he. etm jly few fortresses that stiU wftrd I ;dward,who •ccmcdMeY Wesire to conquer Scotland ^re in their des.re to live rte received the tidings otth. Via pur pose only as ^jwu^ U AWD ITS SUBURBS^ }| lEnglantf — ^^lantagcntts.— lEDioattl 3ES. moDi to advance to the conqnests yet once more; and, while making bis own arrange- ments, h« sent forward a large advance force under 8lr Aylnier de Valence, who fell suddenly upon Bruce, in Perthshire, and put him completely to the rout. Bruce himielf, with a mere handfull of personal friends, took shelter in the western isles ; fir Simon Fraser, sir Christopher 8eton, sod the earl of Athol were less fortunate ; being taken prisoners, Edward ordered their immediate execution, as rebels and traitors. Similar severity was shown in the treatment of other prisoners, and Edward in person now commenced his march against Scotland, vowiiij; vengeance upon the whole of the nation for the trouble and diiappointmcnt to which it had exposed him. But a mightier than Edward now was at hand to render farther crnelty or injus- tice impracticable. He was already arrived u far on his journey of vengeance as Cum- berland, when he was suddenly seized with illness, and died on the 7th of July, 1307, in the thirty-fifth year of his reign and the lixty-ninth of his age. WarUke, politic, and so eapcciall^ atten- tive to amending and consolidating the laws of his country that the title of the English Justinian was not quite unjustly bestowed upon him, Edward yet was rather Xat than a good monarch ; better cal- ed to excite the pride of his subjects than to deserve their love. Self-will, a ne- cessary ingredient, perhaps, to a certain extent, of every great character, was in him carried to an excess, and made him pass fram becoming pride to prrogance, aud from jait command to unprincipled extortion and unaparing despotism. \Vitb less of ar- Xnee he would have been in every way Iter king; yet, such is 'he temper of all uncultivated people, the tyrannies of this iplendid and warlike tyrant were patiently, almost affectionately, borne by the nation who revolted at the far less extensive and daring tyrannies of John. CHAPTER XXV. Tke Reign of Edward II. A.D. 1307.— Thb dying commands of Ed- ward I. to his son and Rucressor were, that he should follow up the enterprise against Scotland, and never desist until that nation ihould be completely subdued. An abun- dantly sufficient force was ready for the pang king Edward II.; and as Bruce had by ibis time rallied forces round him, and indicted a rather iuiporlant dcf<>at upon I «ir Aylmer de Valence, the English peo- I pic, too fond of glory to pay anv scrupulous attention to the justice of the cause in whii'h it was to be acquired, hoped to see Edward II. at the very commencement of his K'ign imitating the vigorous conduct of his martial father; and they were not a little difgusted when Edward, after marching •ome abort diatance over the border, gave up the enterprise, not from any cunsidera- jions of its injustice, but in sheer indo- lence, and returned into England and dis- 179' s ■ ■ 1 banded that army npon the fonnatiou of which his father bad bestowed so much ex- ' ertion and care. Hitherto the character of , thia prince had been held in esteem by the 1 English people, who, with their accustomed generosity, took the absence of any positive , vice aa an indication of virtue and talent, 1 which only needed opportunity to mani- fest themselvcB. But this first act of his i reign, while it disgusted the people in ge- i neral, at the same time convinced the tur- I bulent and bold nobles that they might { now with safety put forward even oqjust claims upon a king who bade fair to sacri- ! iice all other considerations to a low aud , contemptible love of his personal ease. The baroii«, who had not been wholly kept from showing their pride even by the stern and detennined hand of Edward I., were not : likely to remain quiet under a weaker rule ; I and the preposterous folly of the new king ' was not long ere it furnished them with sufOcicntly reasonable cause of complaint. I The weak intellect of Edward II. caused | him to lean with a child-like dependency , upon favourites : but with this difference, ; that the dependency which is touching r.nd beautiful in a child, is contemptible in a man, and must to the rough and warlike barons have been especially disgusting. The first favourite upon whom Edward be- stowed his uumeaaured confidence and fa- vour was Piers Gavcston, a Gascon, whose father's knightly service in the wars of the late king had introduced the son to the cMabliahmcnt of the present king while prince of Wales. The elegant though fri- volous accomplishments of which Gavcston was master, and the pains which he took to display and employ them in the amuse- ment of the weak-minded young prince whom he served, obtained tur uaveston, even during the lifetime of Edward I. so alarming an influence over the mind of the hcir-apparcnt, that the stem monarch, who had little taste for childish pursuits, ba^ nished Gaveston not only from the court, but from the realm altogether, and exacted the most positive promise from the prince never on any account to recall him. His own interests and his promise to his deceased father were utterly forgotten by young Edward in his anxiety again to enjoy the company of his accomplished favourite, and having astounded his rugged barons by disbanding his army, he completed their wondering indignation by hastily sending for Gaveston. Before the favourite could even reach England the young king con- ferred upon hiin the rich earldom of Corn- wall, which had lately escheated to the crown by the death of Ediuond, son of the king of tlie Romans. In thus bestowing^ upon an obscure favourite the rich posses- 1 sions and liege title that had so recently sulHced a prince of the blood royal, Edward . had only commenced his career of liberality ; '■ wealth and honours flowed in upon the for- I tunate young man, whom Edward at length • allied to the throne itself by giving him for his wife, his own neice, the sister of the earl of Gloucester. I p M M o H « ■ B n TH« CoarSB OF XDWARD I. WAS INTRRBan IN WR9THIIV8TRB ABBBT. BDWABO II. WAl ■OBRAIim " Ot OABBNAKTON," HIS BIBf ■•riiAOa. 180 ^l^c ^ITreBSttYS of l^totorfi, $rc. e I I ■ ' m » I H ' D e N •« A M a m n The folly of the king wm in nowite ex- euied or kept in the oack ground bj the favourite. Instead of endeavorring to dis- arm the anger and envj of the barons by, at least, an affectation of humility, Oaveston received each new favour as though it were merely the guerdon and the due of his eminent merit; in equipage he surpassed the highest men in the realm, and he took delight in showing the wisest and most powerful men that he, relying only npon the king's personal favour, had in reality a power and influence superior to all that could be won by wisdom in the council or valoar in the field. Witty, he made the nobles his butt in the court conversations ; aceomplished, he took every opportunity to mortify them by some dexterous slight in the tilt yard or at the touniey ; and the in- solence of the favourite thus completed the hatred which the folly of the king had first aroused. Soon after his accession to the throne Edward had to visit France, in order to do homage to Philip for Guienne, and also to espouse that monarch's daughter Isabella, to whom he had a long time been betrothed ; and on his departure he gave a new proof of his infatuated affection for Gaveston, by not only preferring him to all the English nobles for the houourable and important office of gtiardian of the realm, but also giving him in that capacity more than usu- ally extensive powers. When Edward brought his young queen to England he introduced Gaveston to her, and showed so anxious an interest in the favourite's welfare, that Isabella, who was both shrewd in observation and imperious in temper, instantly conceived a mortal hatred for the man who evidently possessed so much power over a mind which she deemed that she alone had a right to be- guile or to rule. Gaveston, though too quick of perception to be unaware of the queen's feeling, was not wise enough to aim at conciliating her, but a<(gravated her already deadly enmity by affronts, which were ooubly injurious as being offered to a queen by the mere creature and minion of her husband ; a prosperous and inflated ad- venturer, whom a breath had made and whom a breath could just as easily destroy. A. D. 1308. — Enraged that such a person should both share her husband's confidence and openly deride or defy her own influence, Isabella gave every encouragement to the nobles whom she perceived to be inimical to Gaveston ; and it was with her sanction, if not actually at her suggestion, that a confederacy was formed for the express purpose of expelling the insolent favourite from the court. At the head of this con- federacy was the king's own cousin, Tho- mas, earl of Lancaster. First prince of the blood, he was also possessed of both greater wealth and greater power than any other subject in the realm ; and it was probalily less from any patriotic feeling than from vexation, at seeing his private influence with the king surpassed by that of an up- start favourite, that he now so strenuously Z3 opposed him. This powerful noble sssna^ bled around him all those baroos who wera inimical to Gaveston, and they ta> tered into an agreement, which they u- lemnuted bv an oath, never to breu np their confederacy until Gaveston should b* expelled the kinpdom. From this vaia current of opposition many open distoib. ances arose in the kmgdom, and thsrerere evident symptoms of a near approach to se- tual civil war. At length aparlismentwu summoned to meet at Westminster, which Lancaster and his associates attended with so great a force, that they were able to dic- tate their own terms to the king. Gsr^ ston was accordingly banished, Ming si the same time sworn never to return, ud the prelates threatening him with excom. munication should he venture to do lo. Though Edward could not prevent thii sentence being passed upon his minion, he contrived to deprive it of its sting, h. stead of sending Gaveston home to hit own country, he conferred upon him the office of lord lieutenant of Irelsnd, went with him on his way thither as far u Bristol, and made him a parting gift of some valuable lands. During his residence in Ireland, Gstc- ston displayed both courage aud condnci iu putting down rebellion, and prubabl; was far happier in his new post than whiie mingling in the inane gaieties of the Eng- lish court. But Edward was abwlatclf wretched at the losu of his favourite. Com- parative peace was restored by that per- son's absence, but peace itself to the weait king seemed valueless until GaTestoaihould return to grace it. In order to pave the way for the restoration for which be wu so anxious, the king endeavoured to gratiff the most powerful of the barons. The office of hereditary high steward was girti to Lancaster, and gifts and grants wm profusely lavished upon the earls Warenne and liincoln. When by these means Ed- ward had, as he thought, sufficiently molli- fied Gaveston's enemies, he applied to the pope for a dispensation for the favourite, recalled him from Ireland, and battened to Chester to meet him at his landing. Ai the absence of Gaveston had in a great measure caused his insolence to be (ot- gotten, the barons, willing to oblige the king, consented to the favourite's reettab- lishment at court. Had Gaveston been taught by the psit to enjoy his good fortune unobtrusively and inoffensively, all might now have been well with him. But the doting folly of hii ■nastcr was fully equalled by his own in- curable insolence and presumption, and he had not long been restored to hia former station, ere his misconduct aroused tlie barons to even more than their former hate and indignation. At first they silently indicated their an- ger by refraining from their attendance in parliament; but perceiving that no altera- tion was made in the profusion of ti.ekin; or in the insolence of Gaveston, the; at- tended parliament, indeed, but did so, in IN rRBSON KOWARD WAS ROBI.B, HANDSOMB, ANO HAJRSTIC. VUOB. ] lUl noble aiMm- 1 | M bkront «ho| t, and they ra- 1 which thn lo- ! er to breu up \ veston should b« , 'rom this nndcri ny open diitnib- 1 1, and there vm r approMh to k- I a parlumeDt wu ' stminiter, which ' tea attended with; were able to die- 1 the king. Gate-! Dished, being at ! er to letam, ud '■ him with exeom- entuie to do m. not prevent thii on his minion, he if its sting. In- ton home to hit , ed upon him the 1 1 of Ireland, went * thither as far ti ■ a parting gift ot < in Ireland, Gs«- {I irage and conduct ' 'J on, and probably ew post than while lieties of the Ene- ird was absolute!; lis favourite. Com- tored by that pet- ! itself to the weak tilGaTestonshoull order to pave the I for which he wu leavouredtogratifj the barons. The steward was giiea and grants weie the earls Warenne f these means Ed- ' :, aufSciently moUi- he applied to the ^ u for the favourite, id, and hastened to Lt his landing. Ai )n had in a gre«t isolence to be fi»- ling to oblige the 'avotjritc'a re estab- t taught by the pat tune unobtruMvelj ght now have been B doting folly of bn lied by his own lo- resumption, and M ;ored to his fonuef nduct aroused the their formerbaie indicated their •«• their attendance la ving that no alte* rofusionof ti.el!iii! Gaveston, they at- 1 eed, but did so, «J rasTic. VBB BABOHI BrtTCa IZVTO A CUNripaBACT AOAINIT THB KIHa. IcnglanQ.— ^lantagencts.->1EKtDarIl M. 181 contempt of au especial law to the con- trary, with a force powerful enough to enable them once more to dictate to the kiag, to whom, in the form of a petition, they presented their demand that he should delegate bis authoritjr to certain barona and prelates, who, until the following Mi- ehaelnias, should have power to regulate both the kingdom and the king's houae- bold; that the regrulations thus marie should become perpetual law; and that the barons and prelates in question ahould further be empowered to form association* for se- etuing the observance of those regulationa. Id brief terms, this petition did really create an imptrium in imperio ; and the de- nadatiou of the roval authority was not a jot the less complete because the peti- tioners professed to receive the vast powera they demanded solely from the free grace of the king, and promised that this cou- eesaioD should not oe drawn into a prece- deni, and that the powers demanded should determine at the appointed time. A. D. 131 1 .— Man^ of the regulations made under the extraordinary power* thus usur- ped by the barons deserve all praise, inas- much as they tended to provide for the sc- eoritv of thp people at large and the regu- lar adminismition of justice. But tbe main object of the borons was to rid themselves of Gaveston, who was accordingl|^ again banished, aud it was at the same time or- dained that should he ever again return he should be considered and treated as a pub- lie enemy. To all other alterations Edward was ut- terly indifferent; but the banishment of Gaveston filled him with rage and grief. He therefore retired to York, and, gathering forces about him, openly invited Gaveston back from Flanders, while he declared that he had been tyrannously and illegally ba- niibed, and re-established him in all his former pomp and power. The insolent and haughty nature of Gaveston was now so well known to the barons, tlint they felt they must either wholly crush him or pre- pare to be crushed by him; Lancaster accordingly summoned around him a for- midable confederacy, at the head of which were Guy, earl of Warwick, Bohun, earl of Hereford, and Hymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke. Robert de Winchelsea, arch- bishop of Canterbury, brought the whole of the clergy to the aid of this mighty con- federacy ; and so general was the disgust caused by the king's absurd and ruinous folly, that earl Warenne, so long faithful, now openly declared against him. Lancaster led the army of the confederacy to York, but the king escaped thence to Teignmouth, whence he embarked fur Scar* borough castle. Here he left the favourite, while ne himself returned to York, to en- deavour to raise an army sufficiently nu- merous to admit of his meeting the barons io the field. In the meantime Gaveston was far less lecurc than Edward had supposed. The cattle of Scarborough was very strong, but it was inaufficiently garrisoned, and still more insufficiently provisioned; aud, Pembroke being sent to beseige ii, Gaveston found himself compelled to capitulate. He did so on condition that he should remain in the custody of Pembroke dariug two months, which time should be employed in endeavours to bring about an accommoda- tion between the iiing and the barons; that should such endeavours fail, the castle should be restored unimpaired to Gave- ston ; and that Henry Piercv and the earl of Pembroke should nith all their lands guarantee the due performance of these articles. On the surrender of Gaveston, the earl of Pembroke treated his prisoner with all civility, and conducted him to Dedington castle, near Ban'^ury, where, on pretext of business, he left him with only a very weak guard. Scarcely had Pembroke departed, when Guy, carl of Warwick, who bad from the nrst exhibited a most fUrious teal against Gaveston, attacked the castle, which was readily surrendered to him by the feeble and probably tutored garrison. { Gaveston was now hurried away to War- I wick castle, where Warwick, Hereford, ' Arundel, and Lancaster, after a very sum- { marv ceremony, ordered him to be be- I headed, in contempt alike of the terms , granted to him by Pembroke, and of the gcni-rnl laws uf the land. I When Edward flrst heard of the death of \ his favourite, his rage seemed unappeasable ! and his grief inconsolable. But lie was too ! weak-minded to be dangerous; and even while he was threatening the utter exter- mination of the barons, tlicy reconciled themselves to him by the politic aud empty form of feigning to regret the deed that was irrevocable, and proffering to ask upon their knees pardon for the offence. The quarrel between the king and the barona was, for the present at least, patched up; and the people hoped from this reunion of such powerful interests some signal vindi- cation of the national honour, especially as regarded Scotland, where Bruce had for some time been both bravely and success- fully exerting himself. Of the hill country he had made himself entirely master, and thence he had carried destruction upon the Cummins in the north lowlands. Seconded by bis brother Edward Bruce and by the renowned Sir James Douglas, Robert waa continually achieving some new conquest: and the muniiicpnce with which he bestowed ; upon the nobility the spoils he took, greatly ' tended to secure him that coiifidcncc, for want of which alone the murdered Wallace ' had failed in his patriotic efforts. With the exception of a few fortresses he had : subdued the whole kingdom ; and Edward, | by the distractions of England, had been > forced to consent to a truce, which Bruce> i wisely employed in consolidating his power and in employing it to the reformation of . the numerous abuses which war and U- ! cence had necessarily introduced. { A. D. 1314.— The truce, ill observed from > the beginning, at length came to au end, and Edward now assembled a vast army J I IR I s H a A.D. 1312.— Plans OAVisTort behiadbo ox BLACXLOW-niLt, jonb 19. [R A OBBAT FAMINB AND SICIiBBSa IN BlfOLAND rOK TBBia TBAKa. 182 ^^c ^reaaucQ of l^istorn, ^c. ii with the deii^n of at once cruthing Brace, and ttnally (ubduinK thnt kinKdoiu which had given to much trouble to hii politic and warlike fHther. Ueaidcs aaReiiibling all the military force of Ungland, he called over loiiie of hit powerful vaatala of Gas- cony, and to the niiifhiy army thus formed he added a \i\xge disorderly forcp of Irish and Welsh, ea^er for plunder and peculiarly well lit ted for the irreicular warfare of a mountain land. With this various force, amounting to at least a hundred thousand men, he marched into Scotland. Robert Bruce, with an arniyof only thirty thousand men, awaited the approach of his enemies at Hnnnockburn, near Stirling;. On his right flank rose a hill, on his left stretched a morass, and in his front was a rivulet, along the bank of which he caused sharpened stakes to be set in pits which were then lightl|r covered with turfs. Towards evening the English appeared in sight, and their advanced guard of cavalry was iiercely charged by a similar body of Scots led by Bruce in person. The light was short but sanguinary, and the English were put to flight upon their main body; one of their oravest gentlemen, Henry de Bohun, being clelt to the chin by the battle-axe of Bruce. The combat proceeded no further that night, but very early on the following murniug the English army was led on by Edward. The left wing of the cavalry was entrusted to the command of the earl of Gloucester, Edward's nephew, whose youth- ful ardour led to a terrible calamity. Dis- daiuing all caution, he led on his force at full charge, and rider and horse were speedily plunging among the staked pits which Bruce had prepared for just such an emergencv. The young earl himself was slain at the very outset, the greater num- ber of his men were utterly disordered and helpless, and before they could recover and form in line of battle, they were so Iiercely charged by the Scottish cavalry, under Sir James Douglas, that they were faisly driven off the field. As the hopes of Edn-ard and the anxiety of Bruce had chiefly referred to the English superiority in cavalry, this event had a proportion- ate effect upon the spirits of both armies ; and the alarm of theEnglish was now chan- ged into a perfect panic by the success of the following simple stratagem. Just as the Englisih cavalry were in full retreat from the field, the heights on the left were thronged with what seemed to be a second Scotch army, but what really was a mere mob of peasants whom Bruce had caused to appear there with music playing and banners flying. At sight of this new cnc- iny — as this mere rabble was deemed— the English on the instant lost all heart, threw down their arms, and betook themselves from the field in the utmost disorder. The Scots pursued them, and the road all the way to Berwick, upwaids of ninety miles, was covered with the dead and dying. Be- aides an immense booty which was taken on the field and during the pursuit, the victors were enriched with the ransoms of upwards of four hundred gentlemen of nnie, who were taken, in addition to a perftct host of meaner prisoners, to all of whom Bruce behaved with the humanity smi courtesy of a true hero. Determined to follow up his suceeu, Robert Bruce, as soon as he could neiW his troops from the pursuit and slaughteri led them over the border and plundered the north of England without opposition ; and •till farther to annoy the Knglish govetr- ment, he sent his brother Edward to Ire- land with four thousand troops. Lancaster and the other malcontent ba- rons who had declined to accompany Ed. ward upon his Scottish expedition, no sooner beheld him n^turn beaten and de- jected, than they took advantage of Ma situation to renew their old demand fur the establishment of their ordinances. The king was in no situation to resist such for- midable domestic enemies; a perfectly new ministry was formed with Lancaster at its head, and great preparations were made to resist the threatened hosllHties of the noiv once more independent Scotland. But though Lancaster showed much apparent seal against the Scots, and w^ actually at { the head of the army destined to oppose I them, it was strongly suspected that he wai { secretly favourable to them and actiinlly ; held a secret correspondence with Uruce, j judging that while the kingdom was thai threatened from without he could the more easily Koveru the king. In the mean time Edward, utterly inca- pable of self reliance, had selected a luc- cessor to Gaveston in the splendid but dangerous honour of his favour and confi- dence. This person was Hugh le Despenser, more commonly called Spenser, who to all j the eloquent accomplishments and pcrso- j nal graces of Gaveston, added no small (lor- \ tion of the presumption and insolence ' which had consigned that adventurer to an untimely grave. The elder Spenser wai \ also very high in the king's favour, and as { he possessed great moderation as well as i great experience and ability, he might pro- 1 nably have saved both his son and the kin; , fh>m many misfortunes, had they not been | self-doomed beyond the reach of advice j or warning. I A. u. Mil.— Any favourite of the king would, ipso facto, have been disliked Dy the barons; but the insolence of yoiin^ Spenser speedily made him the object of as deadly a hate as that which had ruini'd Gaveston. To insolence Spenser added cupidity. He had married a niece of the king, who was also a co-heiress of the young earl of Glou- cester who fell at Bannockburn, and had thus acquired considerable property on the Welsh borders, which he was so auxiods to extend that he became involved in hot dis- pute with two neighbouring burons, Aubrey and Ainmori, towards whom common re- port made him guilty of great dishonesty and oppression. In the same neighbourhood he got into a I ' il FAnLIAHEMT LIMITS THE FRICES OF MEAT AKO OTMEU PROVISIONS. imaa ybaks. Rd with the rananma of iilred gentlemen of nnte, a addition to a ptrtta isonera, to all of *hom ' I ith the humanity and j : lero. t. follow up his aurcMa, I aoon aa he could net'.'. I - K purauit and alnnghter, { >■ lorder and plundered the I i ivilhout oppoaition ; and | , noy the fcnKlish govnr- 1 . brother Edward to Ire- uaand troopa. he other malcontent ba- :lined to accompany Ed- Scot tiah expedition, no n return beaten and de- ' took advantage of hit ' their old demand fur the their ordipancea. The uation to reaiat aueh for- enemies ; a perfectly new ned with liancnstcr at iu reparations were made to I >ned hoatitiiica of tlie noiv { pendent Scotland. But | r showed much apparent i Scots, and w|r actually at | army destined to oppoie I ugly suspected that hewM I )le to them and actually rrespondence with Brace, le the kingdom was thai without he could the mure king. , . .ime Edward, utterly inca- iance, had selected a suc- lon in the splendid but ir of his favour and cnnfi- 3U was Hugh le Dcapenser, called Spenser, who to all j »mplishment8 and pcrso- j : eston, added no small por ; \ :sumptiim and insolence ■ . iifned that adventurer to : e. The elder Spenser was 1 s the kiug's favour, and ai | i sat moderation as well a« j > and ability, he minht pro- i both his son and the king , ^ rtunes, had they not been | = ond the reach of advice i ^ favourite of the king , , have been disliked by \ the insolence of young j made him the object of as i that which had ruined ". dpenser added cupidity. He | liece of the king, who was | lof the young earl of Glou- V Bamiookburn, andlmi ksiderable property t« the Thich he was so auxioas to icarae involved in hot dis- ighbouring barons, Aubrey l\ards whom common to- ■guilty of great dishonesty lighbourhood he got into a linn PBOViaioss. A.B. 1320.— TnS OBSATSIT lAIITMQUAKS KTBK KMOWR IU BDALARD, MOT. U. lEnglantf — ^lantagcntts.— lEtitoarTl IE3E. 183 itill more serious dispute retpccting the barony of Gower. This barony came, by inheritance, iuto the possession of John de Moabray, who imprudently entered upon poMcaxian without complying with the feiidul duty of taking seisin and livery from the crown. Spenser being very desirous to poa«eM this property, persuaded the king to take advantage of De Mowbray's merely technical lachtM, declare the barony es- cheated, and then bestow it upon him. Tbia was done, and the Hagrnut injustice of ihf case excited such general and lively iu- dignation, that the chief nobility, including the carls of Lancaster and Hereford, Aud- ley, Auimori, Uoger de Mortimer, Roger de Cuirord, and other barons, flew to arm* and declared open war both agcinst the favourite and the king himself. As the barona had long been nuraing a suiienand deep discontent, they had already made preparations ; they, accordingly, ap- peared at the head of a powerful force, and tent a mcaaage tu Edward, demanding the instant dismiasal of Spenser, and threaten- ing, should that be refused, to take hia pu- nishment into their own handa. Both the Spoosers were abacnt on the king's busi- ; ness, and Edward replied to the message of | hia barons, that he could not, without ' gross and manifest breach of his corona- tion oath, condemn the absent, against whom, moreover, there was uo formal charge made. The barons probably expected some such answer; and tliuy scarcely waited to receive it ere they marched their forces, devastated and plundered the estates of both the Speniers, and then proceeded to London and tendered to the parliament, which was then sitting, a complicated charge against both father and son. The parliament, without obtaining or demanding a single one of the many articles of this charge, sentenced both the Spcnsera to condsca- tion of goods and to perpetual exile. Thii done, they went through the mock- ery of soliciting and obtaining from the king an indemnity for their proceedings, which they thus plainly confessed to have been deliberately illegal, and then dis- banded their troops and retired, in haughty coDlidence of security from any attempt at vengeance on the part of the weak king, etch to his own estate. So weak and indolent was the nature of Edward, that it is probable that he would have left the barons to the undisturbed en- jovment of their triumph, but for an insult which had been offered to his queen. Her majesty being belated in the neighbourhood of Leeds castle, was denied a night's shelter there by the lord Badlesmere, to whom it belonged, and on her attendants remon- strating, a fray arose, in which several of them were wouuded and two or three killed. In addition to the fact that the refusal of > night's lodging was churlish, and in the caK of a lady doubly so, the queen had ever conducted herself so as to win the re- ■pect of the baronage, especially in her with their hatred of both Gave- ston and the younger Spenser; and every one, therrfcre, agreed in blaming the un- civil conduct of the lord Badlesmere. Taking advantage of thin temper, which promised him an easy victory, Edward assembled an army and took vengeance on Badlesmere, without any one interfering to save the of- fender. Thus fiur successful, the king now com- munioatcd with hia friends in all parts of the country, and instead of diahanaing his force on the accomplishment of the object for which alone he had ostensihiv aasem- bled it, he issued a manifesto recaUing the two Speusers, and declaring their sentence unjust and contrary to the laws of the land. A. ». 1323.— This open declaration he in- stantly followed up by marching his troops to the Welsh marches, where the posses- sions of hia moat considerable enemiea were situated. Aa his approach was sud- den and unexpected he met with no resist- ance; and several of the barons werescixcd and their castles taken possession of by the king. But Lancaster, the very life and soul of the king's o^iponents, was still at liberty; and, assembhngnn army, he threw off the mask he had so long worn, and avowed his long suspected connection with Scotland. Beingjoined by the earl of Here- ford, and having the promise of a rein- forcement from Scotland under the com- mand of Sir James Douglas and the carl ttf Murray, Lancaster marched against the king, who had so well employed his time that he was now at the head of an array of thirty thousand men. The hostile forces met at Burton on the Trent ; and Lancaster, who had no great military genius, and who was even suspected of being but indiffer- ently endowed with personal courage, fail- ing in his attempts at defending the pas- sages of the river, retreated northward, in the hope of hein^ joined and supported by the promised reinforcements from Scot- land. Thouk'h hollv pursued bv the royal forces, he retreated in safety and in perfect order as far as Boroughbndge, where he found hia farther progress opposed by a division of the royal army, under Sir An- drew Harclav. Lancaster attempted to cut his way through this force, but was ao stoutly opposed that his troops were thrown into the utmost disorder ; the earl of Here- ford was slain, and Lancaster himself was taken prisoner and dragged to the presence of his offended sovereign. The weak- minded are usually vindictive ; and even had Edward not been ao, the temper of the times would have made it unlikely that a king so offended should show any mercy. But there was a petty malignity in Ed- wards's treatment of Lancaster highly dii- graceful to his own character. The re- cently powerful noble was mounted upon a sorrv hack, without saddle or bridle, his head was covered with a hood, and in this plight he was carried to his own castle of Pontefract and there beheaded. Badlesmere and upwards of twenty more of the leaders of this revolt were legally « IS s u s M A.S. 1332.— ORDBR or XlflSBTS-TEMPLABa AB0LI8HBD BT rOFB CLBMBNT I. A. P. 1823.— tlM Kisa MAKBt AM OIIIOCOBISrVL AITBHfT OR ICOTLAaB. 184 E^t tSrcunry of l^ifttorQ, $cc. I tried and executed; a great number were ' condemned to the minor penalties of for- ' feiiure and imprieonment > and a etUI greater I number were fortunate enough to make I their eieape berond teai. Sir Andrew Har- I elar, to whom the Icing*! tuccete was mainlf I owing, was railed to the earldom of Car- ' liale, and received a goodlj ihare of the nu- I meroos forfeited eetatee which the king I had to dittribute among hit friende. Had < this distribution been made with any thing I like Judgment, it had afforded the king a I spleudidopportunitjr of increasing the num- I ber of his friends and of quickening and I eon&rming their seal. But the king and his fnvourite were untaught bf the past ; ' and to the younger Spenser fell the lion's I share of these rich forfeitures i a partiality I which naturally disgusud the true friends I of the crown. I To the enemies whom Spenser's enpidity , thus made even among his own party, other and scarcely less formidable enemies were I added in the persons of the relations of the , attainted owners of the property he thus I grasped at ; and his insolence of demean- our, which fully kept pace with his in- j crease in wealth, formed a widely-spread, I though as yet concealed, party that was pauionately and determinedly bent npon his destruction. A fruitless attempt which Edward now BVde to recover his lost power in Scotland convinced even him that, in the existing temper of his people, success in that quarter would be unattainable; and after making an inglorious retreat he signed a truce for ' thirteen years. A. n. 1334.— If this truce was seasonable to kiug Robert Bruce— for king he was, though not formally acknowledgea as such by England- it was no less so to Edward; for, in addition to the discontent that ex- isted among his own subjects, he was just now engaged in a dispute of no small im- portance with the king of France. Charles the Fair found or feigned some reason to complain of the conduct of Edward's mi- nisters in Ouienne, and showed a determi- nation to avenge himself by the confiscation of all Edward^s foreign territory; and an embassy sent by Edward, with bis brother the earl of Kent at its head, had failed to pacify the king of France. Edward's queen, Isabella, had long learn- ed to hold him in utter contempt ; but on the present occasion she seemed to sym- pathise with his vexation and perplexity, and offered to go personally to the court of France and endeavour to arrange all matters in dispute. In this voluntary office of mediation Isabella made some progress ; but when all the main points in dispute were disposed of, Charles, auite in accordance with ieudal law, demanaed that Edward in person should appear at Paris and do homage for his French possessions. Had he alone been concerned, this requisition could not have caused him an hour's delay or a minute's perplexity; not so, bound up as his inter- ests were with those of Spenser. That in Solent minion well knew that he had given the deepest offence to the pride of li«bf|. la ; he well knew her to be both bold and malignant, and he feared that if he ven- tured to attend the king to Paris, Isabella would exert her power there to his dektnie. tion ; while, on the other hwd, should b« remain behind he would be scarcely able to defend himself in the king's absence, while his influence over that weak prince woold most probably be won away by some new favourite. Isabella, who probably pene- trated tbe cause that delaved her hui. band's journey, now proposea that,initesd of Edward proceeding to France in person, be should send his son young Edward, st that time thirteen years of age, to du ho- mage for Ouienne, and resign that domi- nion to him. Both Spenser and the king gladly embraced this expedient ; tbe voung prince was sent over to France ; ana lis- Delia, having now obtained the custody of the heir to the crown, threw aside all dis- guise, declaring her detestation of Spenwr and her determination to have him haniih- 1 ed from the presence and influence he hsd so perniciously abused ; a declaration whieb made Isabella very popular in England, where the hatred to Spenser grew deeper and moie virulent every day. A great nuin- i ber of the adherents of the unfortunate ; Lancaster, who had escaped from England ; when their leader waa defeated and put to j death, were at this time in France; and u they, equally with the queen, detested Spenser, their services were naturally ten- ured to her. Foremost among them wai Soger Mortimer. This young man had been a powerful and wealthy baron in the Weltb marches, but having been condemned for high treason, his life waa spared on eondi- : tion of his remaining a prisoner for life in the Tower of London. Aided by friends, he had been fortunate enough to escape to France, and having in the first instanM been introduced to Isabella only in tbe character of a political partisan, his hsnd- : some person, accomplishments, and wit ' speedily obtained him a more tender end . more criminal favour. Having thus fallen away from her duty to her husband, the was easily induced to include him in tbe enmity she had hitherto professed to con- fine to his minion. As Isabella henceforth lived in the most nnconcealed intimsey \ with Mortimer, and aa their mutual cor- \ respondence with the most disaffected barons in England was made known to the king, he became alarmed, and sent a pe- remptory message reouiring her not on!; to return to England, nut also to bring the young prince home with her. To thii message Isabella as peremptorily replied, that neither she nor her son iculd ever again set foot in England until Spenser sooald be definitively removed. . ' Edward's situation was now tmly terri- [ ble. At home secret conspiracies were formed against him ; abroad a force w»i \ rapidW preparing to invade him ; the mi- ; nion for whom he had I'ncountered lonisnf enmities could do but little to aid him ; sua A.n. 1333.— TBI QVKXN Alin BBR ADHBaBNTS ABB DBCLABBB TBAITORS. tas luM tiiiitkB Mkp tat M'otATioli or aliiii* «iu« ah* ■■atb. lEnglanH.-Pantq^tntts.— IfttMT^ 3E3E. Ilia 0*11 wift •Bd child, thounew and pre* eioM connMion* upon wUoin h« ought to lute been kblc to reljr in the wont of cir* euiDiiueef, were at the very head of th« una that tWatened hi* crown, If not kia pcrMB. Thfkin* of franoeentwd warmly btothe eatt»e of the oueep : %nd Ww|tfd> own brother, the e«rl of Ke«t, beiM in- tacti to believe that the aole Wtention of lubflla irt« to procure the banUhmcnt of SMuer, Joined the queen, M did the «arla of lcl(Cttcr «nd Norfolk. Nor waa the eamity »( the clerical order vanting to tb« (Mrmldable array afainat Edward. 4.0. 1S26.— \fitn all thcae eiementa pi«- ■tred fur the deatruction of the unhappy Idvwrd. it waa cleat that uolhins «a« wanted towards tht conraencenient of ai eitil war but the appearance of the oueen at the hMd of an itif ading force. Thia ap- pcarancf laabella wa* very willinR to make ; bat lone delay waa cauaed by the decent agf iUinitneia of the king of France to have an Mpcdiiioih headed by the wife and aoo^ tail from aoi of hia porta againat the hga- band and lAtner. Petenniued in her pur- fo^t, iMbella removed thia obttacle to it« acttvpliahment. by betrothiog young Ed- ward to Philipua, daughter of the conitt of Hqlltnd and Htvtnault. Having thua aUita ueraelf with thia prince, Isabella waa ipeedily enabled to collect u tbrcc of up- vardi of three thouaand men; ai\d with tliia force the aailed from Oort, and lapded lably and unoppoacd upon the coaat of Suf- folk. Uere ahe waa joined bv the earia uf Norfolk and Leicester, and the biahopa of Ely, Hereford, and Lincoln, wlio brought loner aid all their vassala; and Robert de Vaitevillc, who waa aent down to Suflbik at the head of a force to oppose her, actu- all; deserted to her with tne whole of hia tNopi. A« ahe progreaaed her forcea were ttill iJarther increaaed ; men of aubatance^ tUnkiug that they ran no risk in aiding with the heir to thecrowq, and the common •ort being allured by the general profea- iioas of juiiiiceand love of liberty, ofyrhich jiabella took care to be abundantly liberal is her proclaniatinna. Ua hearing that his queen had landed ind waa advancing at;ainst him in force, Edward's first endeavour waa to raiae the Londoners in hia defence; rightly judging that if he could do that, he would atUl have t (kance of obtaining reasonable terms. Biit h>* attempt met with no auccesa; his tntreaties and menaces alike were listened to in a sullen silence, and he departed to BMike a similar attempt in the west. The king's departure was the signal for a feneral iusurrectiop in London. VTealth, It may be easily supposed, waa the chief mme sKainst which the inaiirgent popu- late levellc'l its rage; the next liemous Mime vas that of being passively loyal to the ftigitive monarch. Robbery and inur- dei; vtere committed wholesale and i^ the broad light nf day ; and among the victima v*s the bisliop of ExetKr. "This prelate, vho was as remarkable for kindly diapoai- tion as for talent and loyalty, waa aeised aa 185 1 i 8 he pasted along the aireet, bcbeadcd. m4 hi« bo4y throtfya into the Tha,mc«. tht rioters, or rather the rehcla, now by a atrt- tagcQ ohtained potaeaaion of the To«ca> and then entered into a formal aaaoeiatioii avijl eovenaut, by which they bound them* ictvea to put to death all who should dare to oppoae the deaigna and desires of tke queen. The advanced Koard of the treaekcroM and viodictive Iipabclla paascd through London in purauit of the king, and eon- aistrd of a body of mi«ed EnKlisk and Hol- landers, the lAtter commandea by John dit Haiuauit, aua the forvier, kotriiUe Jutif, by the king'a own brother the carl of Kent. Arrived at Bristol, the unfortunate king «raa utterly dia4ippo>Qie4 of the aid and auppoct he espectea to ttnd there; and hia fUrioits pursuera being but a ahort diatanco in hia rear, he hastily departed for Wales, leavinf tke elder Spenser, vrho liad been some tune before created earl of It'inckea- ter, to defend Briatol castle, of which ke waa cotteraor. Tlie faithlcM garrison na- tinicd agaiitat the venerable enrf, i|ho waa then nearly ninet* years of age, and deli- vered him into tne hands of the queen's partitans, by whom, withput even the mockery of a trial, he waa kaogei). Nor did the brutality of kia enemies end even here; he waa acarcely dead ere he waa taken from the gibbet, and bis body cut up and thrown to the dogs; his head being atuck upoa a pole and exliibited to the po- pulace. After equally ineffectual attempts to es- cape and to raise sufficient force for his defence in field or fortreaa, the unfortunate king was discovered aoiong the mountaina of Walea, and impriaoned in Keuilworth caatle, in the cuatody of the earl of Leices- ter. The younger Spenser about the same time was taken, and he speedily met with the fearf^il (ate of his f«tker; a fate which even in the case of tkia arrogant minion, whatever hia faulta or crimes, waa iUrgally and brutally inflicted. The earl of Arundel waa alao put to deatk by tke dominant party, tbougk tke utmost malice could al- lege nothing againat him, aave that he had maintained nis loyalty unshaken and uncorrupted, %midat the abamrlesa diahiy. alty and diagraceful succeaa of the minority of the Rngliah baronage. Balduck, the chancellor, who, aa being tke moat active aa well aa the ablest of the king'a advisers, waa especially hated by the populace, and who, moreover, waa doteated by laabella, could not so aat'ely be put to death by the direct tyranny of the barons; for, he being a priest, his death would have been offensive to Rome. But the barons, well knowing the power and temper of thf London mob, sent the unhappv man to the bishop of Hereford's palace in liondon. As had been foreseen, hia slender g^iard was overpowered, and after he had been bru- tally maltreated by the mob he was thrown into Newgate, where he shortly afterwarda died of bis wounds or of poison. A. 0.1327.— Having, by this long aeries of TUK T0t7NGKB SrllfSEB WAS COKSinBBBD AN ABLB STATESMAN. fJin Ulagal and emal deedi, givan abaadant !■• Untatlon of tha fata that would await thoaa who akoald dare to oppoM her maaauiea, laabella bow aummoncd a parliameat to ■leet her at Waatminitar, and a long and Ibrmal ebarfa waa preaeoted to it affaiaat the king . Tliouf h the charge waa laboured with the tttmoat ingenaitf, and obviouaiy inapirad by the utoioat malignity, it did not from beginning to ana eonuin a aingla aeeniatlon upon which the meanaat of hia aubieeta eouM juatlT have been pn- niahed, hoiwever alightly. either in puree or Caraon. The worat that waa allegea againat im waa a moat pitiable want of talent t unlea^ indeed, we may condeacend to bo> tica that moat atrange charge againat a aovereign, that he had impriaoned anndry barona and prelatea who had been con- victed of treaaon. A more abiurd charge it would have been acarcely poiaible to flramei but if aueh a charge haid been pre- aented to that acandaloua parliament, the unhappy king would atill have been pro- nounced guilty, for they who aat in judg- ment upon him could only confeaa ma in- nocence br confeaaing their own treaaon and injuatice. ▲t the very commencement of theaa die- graeeftol proceedinga, the young prince of walea bad been named aa regent; he waa BOW pronouuced to be king in the room of hia father, whoae depoaition waa declared in the aMne breath. But, aa if to ahow more fVilly bow conacioua tbev were of the ii^uatiee and illegality of tneir conduct, theae malignant and aervile noblea aent a deputation to Edward, in hia dungeon, to demand hia re$ignation after they had pro- nounced him juatljr d»po*td. Utterly helpleaa in the handa of hia ene- miea, whoae paat conduct aufficiently warn- ed him againat truating to their juatice or compaaaion, the unhappy king gave the reaignation required; and laabella, now wholly triumphant, lived in the moit open and ahameleaa adultery with her accom- plice Mortimer. The part which Lelceater had takeu in thia moat diaguating revolution had pro- cured him the earldom of Lancaater ; but not even thia valued and coveted title could reconcile him, conapirator and traitor though he waa, to the odioua taak of adding peraonal ill naage to the many miaeriea under which hia royal captive waa already auffering. The honourable and gentle treat- ment which Lancaater beatowed upon the king filled the guilty laabella and her pa- ramour with feara, leat the earl abould at length be moved to aome more deciiive manifeatation of hia good feeling; and the royal priaoner waa now taken from Kenil- worth, and committed to the cuatodyof lord Berkeley, Maltravera, and Gournay, each of whom guarded him an alternate month. The lord Berkeley, like the earl of Lancaater, had too much of true nobility to add to the miaeriea of hia priaoner, but when he paaaed to the handa of the other two atate gaolera they added personal ill- treatment to his other woea. Every thing that could irritate first and then utttrtv proatrata tha apirit of the unhappy kiaa waa put in practice; and when at IcnitC they deapalred of breaking down hta eoa- BtitutioB with auflleient rapidity by ikcai indirect meaBa, they broke through all it< atrainta and nut him to death. Wa shall not deacriba witB tha miauteneaa of aonie ot our hietoriana the barbaroua and disgait. ing proeasa by which the ruflan keepers perpatrated their diabolical act. Huflce it to aay, that a red-hot iron had been forci- bly introduced into the bowela of tha aa- happy aufiterer; and though the body ciki- bited BO outward marka of violence, the horrid deed waa diacovered to all the gnar4« and atte,ndanta by the acreama irith whieb the agoitiaed king filled the caatle. It la in well to atate here what becama of theae moat deteatable and ferociou wretchea. The public indignation wu m atroug againat them, that, even before tkc impudent guilt of laabella cauaed her dowa. iill, their Uvea were in danger, and «hea that event at length took place they wen obliged to fly the country. Oonmav wti aeiacd at Guieune and aent to England, bat waa beheaded on the war, probably at the ia- atigation of aome of tne inatigatora of hii rufflanly crime, who feared leat he shoaU divulge their concern in it. Maltravm lived for aome yeara on the continent, and at length, on the atrength of aome aervicn to hia victim'a aon and auceeasor, ventaiei to approach him and sue for pardon, whitb, to the eternal diagrace of Edward III., wu graated. CHAPTER XXVI. Th» Reign ttf Edwabd III. A.o. 1827.— 'Wuxii Isabella and her pan. mour had conaummated their hideous guilt by the murder of the unoffending Edward ll., the earl of Lancaater waa appointed guardian of the peraon of the young kini, and the general government of the kingdom waa committed to a council of regency, con- aiatingof the primate and the archbishop of Tork, the biahopa of Worcester, 'Winebet- ter, and Hereford, the earls of Norfolk, Kent, and Surrey, and the lords Wake, Ingham, Fiercy, and Boaa. The firat care of the dominant party was to procure a formal parliamentary indem- nity for their violent proceedings; their next, to remove all atigma from the leaden and head of the Lancaatrian party, and to heap all possible odium and disquaUfication upon the adhcrenta of the Spensers. Diaguated aa the people were by the groH i miaconduct of laabella, her power waa u i yet too formidable to be opposed, and the first disturbance of the young king'a reigs came from the Scota. Though Robert! Bruce, by hia advanced age and feeble health, was no loneer able to take an antite peraonal part in the field, as had been hit wont, his brave and sagacious spirit slill animated and instructed the councils of hia people. Feelinji^ certain that England would never give him peace ahould its do- >ni BBioir or inwAnn ii. WAa one or bqual cbukitt and weakkkss .». 1M8.-A InglanH.— ^Umtagcnfti.—'Clfiiuiitf ISS. 187 Mttia afUn ba m completely ud ealmly Miiltd u to oubU it odvoategoouly to ■ik* WW npoo him, ho molvtd to utiel- MM in hoaiiUty wUlo it wu laboaring Sot the aiMdTratuio wWch mo aver iMinmblo ftom tbo nimoritjr of o kiof mi ikeplonUtyorthaNgOBey. Hoviaymado M uMCCMtlhl ottomft opon Dnrkiun eao- Ik he pm tho eommud of twenty-ftTO tkeama men to lord DongUa tad tho aarl «f|f array, with ordara to eroaa tho bordor ud darastata u wall aa plnndar tka north- in BafUahaoontiaa. Tha BngUah reganey, tiMtnly daairoaa of avoidinr war, at laaat fcrthat tima,with ao diflenlt aadobatinato u wcmy aa Beotlaad, mada aoma attampta It Biaintaiiiinf peace, bot, inding thoao UMBptt oBiaeeeaaAil, aaaembled an army of listy thouaad men, eMluaive of a strong bodr teded that of the whole council. A. o. 1K3H.— Toall the other offenoet com- mitted by Mortimer he now added the very teriout one of woundini the pride of the nation. War upon Scotland, and the mott ttrenuout atteupta to reduce that nation once mora to the condition of a conauered province, were univertally popular o>>jecta in England. But Mortimer, aware that he waa daily becoming more and more hntied, concluded a peace with Robert llruco, fear- ing that the continuance of a furciKii war would put it out of hit power to kevu bis dpmcttio enemlet in checlc. He itipulated that David, ton and heir of Robert Itruce, thould ranrry the priDcesi Jane, tikter of the voung king Edward; that England thould give up all cinini to the homage of Scotland) and rccognixc that country at be- ing wholly independent : and that, in re- turn, Robert Bruce tliould pay 30,000 markt, by way of expcniet. Tbit treaty waa exceitively unpopular; and Uortiiner, oontcioui of that tact, now began to fear that the dote fricndihi)) and unanimity that esittcd among the three royal priucet, Kent, Norfolk, and Laneat- ter, boded him no good. He acoordinKly, when tummonmg them to attend parlia- ment, took upon himtclf to forbid them, in the king't name, from being attended by an firmed force. Whatever had been their previout intentions, the three prineet paid unfilicit obedience to thit order; but, to their great astonishment, they, on reaching Salisbury, where the parliament was to meet, found that Mortimer and his friends were attended by an armed force. Natu- rally alarmed at this, the earls retreated and raited a force strong euough to chase Mortimer from the kingdom. Tlicy ad- vanced (\it the purpose of doing to, but unfortunately the earls who had hitherto been to closely united now uuarrelled, Kent and Norfolk declined to follow up the cn- terprize, and Lancaiter, too weak to carry it out by himself, wns compelled to make his submission to the insolent Mortimer. A. p. 1329.— But though, at the interces- sion of the prelates, Mortimer consented to overlook the past, and bore liimself towards the princes as though the whole quurrcl wer« forgotten aa well u forgiven, he if. ' tcrmined to make a victim of one of iImm ' In order to strike terror into the survivors' Accordingly, bis emissaries were inslriieud to deceive the earl of Kent Into the b«li(( that king Edward II. had not been yut lu death, but was ttiU secretly impri*oiii4. 1 The earl, who had sulsred much lium rt- morsoful remembrance of the pari h* hv taken against hii unhappy brothrr, tSKtrW fell into ihe snarr, nuil entered into sn uii. { dertaking for tctiinir the imprisoned kioi I •t liberty and replacing him upon ilit ' throne. The deception w«s kept up ustil the earl had committed hlmstslf sutlcitiilr < for the purpose of his ruthless enemv, wkia be wai teiied, wcuted before parlitnient, aud condemned to death and forfeiture t while Mortimer and the execrable IssbtlU hastened hit axeouilun, to that the yoikni Kdward had no opportunity to inttrpow, A. n. 1330.— Though tbt corrupt tiid dt- based parliament so readily lent iiseir to the deugns ot Mortimer, the feeling of Iks commonalty was very different indeed, tml ' It was quite evening before any one could ' be found to behead the betraved end us- fortunate prince, who during the day wbick intervened between his sentence and nt- cution must have been tortured indeed with tiioughtt of the unholy leal with wbicb ht had terved the royal adulteress, to wboit rage, at much at to that of her ptrtmoiir, he wat now tacrittced. Perceiving that the tymnathy of (he peonle was less courageous than deep w\A tenaer, Mortimer now tlirew Lancnster tnd numerous other nobles into prison, on tbs charge of having been concerned in lbs conspiracy of Kent. Any evidence, how- ever slight, sufficed to ensure conviction; and as forfeiture was invariably a part o{ the sentence, Mortimer had abunoant metni of ernichlng himself and his adherents ; snd how little scruple he made about avsilinK himself of this opportunity may be judxed from the fact, that the whole of tbc large uosaessions of the earl of Kent were seized tor Geoffrey, younger son of Mortimer; though this latter person was himself si- ready In possessiou of the greater portion of the vast wealth of the two Spenf^ers nnd their adherents. The cupidity and inin- leuce of Mortimer at length produced their natural consequence ; a detestation to gc neral and so fierce, that nothing wat wast- ing to his destruction but for some one to be bold enough to make the first attack upon him; aud, fortunately, tlint person was found in the youn^ king himself. Moit fortunate it assuindlv was that Mortimer, in his insolence and pride of plare, bnd overlooked the necessity of so treating the king while yet a minor, as to secure his fa- vour and support when he should at length attain his majority. Edward was of far too high and generoui a nature to have been otherwise than deeply stung by the petty insults and Ktll- iuK restrniuts luiposed upon him by Miir- tinier : and now that he was in his eigh- teenth year he determiued, at the least, to I « I • I I I 5 '' M s I ) s l\ TUR CRIMISS OP MOItTIMKR AMI IS.VIIBII.A HASTENED TlllilU OWN ItUIX, 1131.— 1«« wool lEnglanV.—pantagcntts. -Ictiuiartt lEIIE. 18tf purtniottf, I ■akt u tfort at obtklnlng th* Independ- „(, lot which ha had long lifhcd ; he llwrffort rammunieated hia wiihea to the lord Monlacutf, who fnMti hit Wcuda iJM lord* Cliflbrd and Mount, tir John Nttil, ilr Bdward Bohun, and othrrt, to lota him in a bold attempt at ilelivering lotk king and |ieupl« ttoia the tyranny of Qiierti habella and her paramonr Mnr' timer at Ihit time rettded in Nottinghun (Mtit) and to jealoutW did Ihojr guard ikMBieWeti that even the king wat only illowed to have a few attendanta with him wliea ht lodiied there, and the keyt of the naier ftte* were deliTcred to the queen ! ktncli every evening. Lord Montacute, |iow(««r, armed with the king'a authority, I bad no ditlcully in procuring the concur- ftate of tir William Eland, the goremor, wko let the king't party enter by a anbter- nuMout paitage wnich bad long lain for. |oiien and choked up with rubbith. io oaictl; wat every thing done, that the imrdmen reached the quecn't apartment ud Mixed upon Mortimer before be could pttpare lo make reiittance. Itabella im- plored them lo " ipare her gentle Morii* neri" but the paramour'a doom waaaealed beyond the power of her entreatiea to alter it. A parliament wat immediately aum- ■oned, and wat found at lupple and facile IB inilrument for hit ruin nt it had been for doing hit pleaaure. He wat accused of kiving usurped regal power, of having proenred the death of king Edward II., of htving diiiipated the royaltreaaure, ana of JMiiag obtained exorbitant grantt, of te- eitiiDg twotbirdt of the 30,000 marba ptid by Scotland, and a variety of aimilar ■iidcmcanottra. The thoroughly icrvile piiliament in ita eagcmett to conrict could tot letally convict even thit moit outrage- oai eruninal. Evidence wat not called to a nBile point, though every point might have bMB proved by a perfect cloud of witnettca ; bttthii parliament convicted Mortimer and Mienced him to the eibbct and forfeiture, tot upon teilimony, out upon what they ttUed the notoriety of the facta ! A looie lyitem of condemning men, which none but t]mntt or their toolt would ever tolerate, tten could no other evidence be found. Though at the period of the conviction of Mortimer, men were too much irritated ipinit him to look to ttrict juttice, tcarcely twenty veart had patted ere hit illegally itttintea rank wat rettored to his ton, upon tiie right and honourable principle that, hovever detettable and however morally undeniable the guilt of the elder Mortimer, hit conviction had been the reault not of evidence, but of mere rumour and assump- tion. Simon de Beretford and tome othert oftiie mere aatellitet of Mortimer were ex- ecuted, and the vilest criminal of all, the idulterest Isabella, was confined for the mntinder of bur life to her cattle of Riiingt. The king allowed her four hun- itti a year for her support, and he paid liet one or two formal visits every year ; but having once deprived her of the in- fluence n< which the had mode to bad and bnse a ii ''. he took carf that 'be should never aj;aiii have an opportuniiy of rrgniiiirii; it. At siiou as Edward h.id wrested trom the usurimiK, litnds of Mortimer the roval rower, he sho«rd himself well worthy of ii y the manner iu which hu used It. He not only exhorted his Judges and other great offleers to execute jusiico, and to pal a stop to the open depredations and armed bands of robbers by which the country waa now more than ever infetted and ditgraced, but he pertonally exerted himtelf in that good work, and snowed both courage and conduct in that important task. a. D. 1332.— Boon after the completion of the Ireatv between England and Scotland, at related under the head of the year 1338, the great Robert Bruce, worn out even Biorc by infirmities and lull than by rears, terminated his life; and his son and heir, David Bruce, being as yet a minor, the re- gency was left to Ilandolph, earl of Murray, the constant sharer of Hubert's perils. In this treaty it was agreed, that all Scots who Inherited property in England, and all Eng- lishmen who inherited property in Scot- land, should be restored to possession ta free and secure oa though no war had taken place between the two countries. This part of the treaty bad been failhAiUy performed by England ; but Robert Bruce and, subsequently, tne regent Murror had contrived to refute the restoration of con- siderable properties in Scotland, either (torn actual dimcuity of wresting them from the Scottish holders, or from a politic doubt of the expediency of so far strengthening an enemy— which they Judged England must always in reality be— by admitting so many Eugfishmen to wealth and consequent power in th^very heart of the kingdom. Whatever the motive by which Bruce and Murray were actuated in this matter, their denial or delay of the stipulated restoration gave great offence to the numerous Eng- lish of high rank who had a personal in- terest in it. Many who were thus situated were men of great wealth and influence; and their power became more than ever formidable when they were able to com- mand the alliance of Edward Baliol. He wat the son of that John Baliol who had briefly worn the Scottish crown ; and he, like his father, settled in France, with the determination of leading a private life ra- ther than risk all comfort for the mere chance of grasping a precarious and anxious power. Tnis resolution, though consonant with the toundctt philotophv, wat not cal- culated to procure him much worldly etti- mntion ; and his really strong claim to the Scottish royalty procured him so little con- sideration in France, that for some in- fraction of the law he wat thrown into gaol, at though he had been the meanett Srivate person. In this situation he wat iscovert'd by lord Beaumont, an English baron, who laid claim to the Scotch earl- dom of Buchan. Beaumont without loss of time procured Boliol's release and carried 3 a •i rOLLIRS, OVKIta, AND OTRRR AKTirlCERS INVITBD TO SSTTLB BBBK. A. p. 1833.— BALIOt CaoWHBB KINO OF SCOTLAHD A* aCOSB, lir*. 3S. him over to Englan'l, where he placed him, nominally at Icait, at the head of the con- federation which already bad meditated the invasion of Scotland. King Edward aecretlr aided Baliol and the EnpUib baron* in preparing fur their enterpnze, thuugh he would not be per- ■tiaded to give uiem any open encourage- ment, a* he had bound himself to pay 2U,0U0 pound! to the pope, should he, Ed- ward, commit any hostilities upon Scot- land within A certain period which had not yet expired; moreover, the youug king Da- vid, itiU a minor, was actually married to Edward's sister Jane, though the marriage was not yet consummated ; and the world would scarcely fail to censure Edward should he, under such circumstances, cause a renewal of war between the two countries. Under these circumstances, eager as £d> ward might be to aid his nobles in their enmity to Scotland, he determined to con- flne himself to secret proceedings on their behalf; and, thus aided, their nominal leader, Baliol, was speedily at the head of a force of two thousand five hundred men, command<^d by the lord Beaumont before inentioueu, Umfreville, earl uf Angus, the lords Talbot, Mowbray, and other eminent barons interested in the adventure. As snch a torce could not be so secretly raised as wholly to have escaped the notice of the Scottish regent, who would naturally ex- Sect to be attacked by the English border, i^ioi and his friends embarked at Raven - spur and landed their force on the coast uf Fife. The former regent, Murray, was dead; and his successor, Donald, earl of Mar, was far inferior to him in warlike experience and ability. Nevertheless the English were promptly and vigorously op- posed the moment they landed ; and though they succeeded in beating back their un- disciplined opponents, time ^as thus af- forded to Mar to collect a very large army, which some historians reckon as high as fortv thousand men. The hostile forces came in sight on the opposite side of the river Erne ; and Baliol, crossing that river in the night, attacked the unwieldy force of the Scots so vigour- ously and unexpectedly, that he drove them from the field with considerable slaughter, their numbers being a disadvantage to them amid the confusion. Bnt as daylight ap- proached, the Scots resolved once more to try their fortune against an enemy whose inferior numbers made it disgraceful to yield to them ; but they were charged while straggling over some broken and difficult ground, and so complete was the rout that ensued, that while the English lost scarcely fifty men, the Scots lost twelve thousand, including the earls of Athol and Monteith, the lord Hay of Errol, constable of Scot- land, the lords Keith and Lindsey, and the earl of Carrick, a natural son of Robert Bruce. Baliol foll^jwed up this victory by taking Perth. Here he was blockaded by sea, and besieged on the land by an army of forty thousand Scots, under the earl of March and sir Archibald Douglas; but the Ear lish ships dispersed the blockading sqiu}. ron ; and as Baliol was thus enabled to ! command an abundant supply of protitiom ' the besieging Scots were shortly obligrd to i retire from that very approach to faiuine » by which they had anticipated reducinr * him ; and the nation being in effect taV. ■ dued, for the present at least, Biiiiol ws> ** solemnly crowned at Scone on the 7th of • September. So little chance did there now a appear to be of a change of fortui>e in It. { vour of David Bruce, that he and his b^ k trothed wife departed for France ; and their • hitherto zealous partizant sued Baliul fort i truce, that his title might be fairly eu- i mined and decided upon by the Scottiih ' " parliament. \ t A. D. 1333.— Baliol'* prosperity was u I * fleeting av it had been sudden. Haviuii i ' owed all his success to the presence of hii I English aupportera, he was no sooner I obliged to allow them to depart, from vani ° of means to support them, than sir Archi- : ■ bald Douglas and others of the friends of '. I Bruce fell upon Baliol and his slender tt- ; tendance, slew Ballot's brother John, tod • drove himself back to England in the noit ' ' complete destitution. Baliol had previously * to this reverse proposed to Edward that ' [ his sister Jane should be divorced from i ^ David "Bruce, in which event Baliol nould \ e marry her and also do homage to Edwtrd ■ S for Scotland; thus restoring to Enislind » that superiority which the minion Mar- ' ?_ timer had given up during Edward's mi- nority. As Edward now began to despair of Baliol's success by any other means, he resolved to interfere openly, and having obtained a considerable grant from parlia- ment for that purpose — which grant waa ac- i > companied by a very blunt, though very rea- 1 { sonable desire, that he thenceforth " would ' « live on his own revenue and not grieve hii I i subjects with illegal taxes " — he led a con- 1 I siderable amy to Berwick, where a power- 1 o ful garrison was commanded by sir William I s Keith. The plan of the Scottish lenders \ \ was, that Keith should obstinately defend { • Berwick, and while he thus engaged the j c attention of Edward, Douglas should lead a numerous enemy over the border, and carry the horrors and losses of war into the enemy'* own country. But Edward's arm; was so well disciplined and so well pro- vided, that before Douglas could march into Northumberland his plan of operations wai changed, by the information of sir William Keith being reduced to such extremity, that he had engaged to surrender Berwick should no relief reach him within a few days. Dou- glas marched to the relief of that import- ant place, and in a general action that en- sued the Scots were utterly defeated, with a loss of nearly thirty thousand men. The English loss was certainly very trifling; yet we cannot without considerable heii tation adopt the accounts which concur in assuring ua that the total English loii amounted to thirteen soldiers, one esquire, and one knight ; a loss which can only be imagined by considering that battle to havt BAMOL nOBB nOHAOE TO KnWARD FOB TnB XINGDOU OV SCOTLAND. oiB, »nn. 38. C. Douglat; bnt theSnt- the blockading iqui2- waa thus enabled to iDt tupul; of pro«iiio«i, were aliortly obliftrd to ry approach to fainioe I anticipated reducing Dii being; in effect tal- ent at least, Baliolvu at Scone on the 7th of i • le cbance did there now : i ' ihange of fortune in («■ { cc, that he and hit be- ; > ed for France ; and theit ,• rtizani sued lialiul fora ! i le miKbt be fairly exa- l 1 upon by the Scottiib i S is ol'a prosperity wa« u | been auaden. Haviug; i ' 18 to the pretence of hii ' > rs, he «a« no sooner | lem to depart, from wont « irt them, than sir Arcki- i ■ others of the friendi of '. ' kliol and his slender at- ; liol's brother Jnlin, and j ( to England in the watt an. BalioUiad prcvioualy I reposed to £dward that ; \ ihould be divorced from i K'hich event Baliol would \ so do homage to Edward ■ IS restorini; to Entiland \ which the minion Mor- : up during Edward's mi- rd now began to despair s by any other means, he fere openly, and hating erable grant from parlis- lose— which grant was ac- 1 ry blunt, though very res- it he thenceforth " would venue and not grieve hit ;al taxes "—he led a con- Berwick, where a power- ammanded by sir Willism of the Scottish leaden , hould obstinately defend | ile he thus engaged the i trd, Douglas shnuld lead ny over the border, and and losses of war into the trv. But Edward's army pllned and so well nro- )ouglas could march into lis plan of operations wai iformation of sir William ed to such extremity, that surrender Berwick should 1 within a few days. Duu- the relief of that import- t general action that en- re utterly defeated, with s rty thousand men. The certainly very trifling; i^hout considerable heti- ccountt which concur in the total English loti een soldiers, one esquire. \ loss which can only be dering that battle to halt lU CV BCOTLAND. A.B. 1334.— BAUO!.'* ViaST rABLIJtXKMT HELD AT BDIMfetJEaK, VKB. 10. lEnglantr — laiantafitntts.— lETitDart 3E3EE. 191 bMB little better than a diaorderiy flight oa the one part and a murderous puratiit n thfe other. As the result of thia battle, Scotland waa min apparently submissive to Baliol. He vu aeknowledged as king by the Scottish aiilis(neDt,and he and many Of the Scottish Sobles did homage to Edward, who then ntamed to England, leaving a detachment t« lapport Baliol. As long as this detach- ment lemained Baliol was most aubmis- iiwly, not to say servilely, obeyed by the Scots, even when he stung their national pride full deeply by cedinK in nerpetuity to Engl«nd,Berwick, Dunbar, RoxDurgh, Edin- batrt, and the whole of the south eastern conntles of Scotland. But at soon as Baliol, costidering himself safe, and perhaps being itrioaily inconvenienced by the rxpence of kNpingtbem, tent away his En.;ll«h mer- ceotries, the Scots again rose a^.iinst him, ud after a variety of ktrugglea between him and sir Andrew Murray, who acted as regent in behalf of the absent David Bruce, J; Buiol Vm once more chased from all that ' he fondly imagined he had permanently (onquired for himself Or England. 1.B.1335- — Edward again marched to (hattite and subject the Scott, who aban- doned or destroyed their homes and sought shelter in their mountain fastnesses, but only to return again the moment that he had retired. In this obstinately patriotic conrte the Scots were greatly encouraged by Edward's position with regard to France. He hid for years laid an unfounded claim 10 the sovereignty of that country; and thon^ he bad on one occasion in the most diiiinct terms recognised riiilip's right, mid done hotr.age to him for his lands there held, the encouragement of Robert d'Artois ind the concurrence of Edward's father-in- hw, the count of Mainault, the duke of Brabant, the archbishop of Cologne, and leteral other sovereign princes, had in- duced Edward to persevere in a claim vhichwas contradictory to cotnmon-scnse, and plainly contradicted by his own delibe- rate act and deed, and thus laid the foun- dation of a mutual hatred which has only completely subsided within the memory of nen who at yet are but young. He pre- tended that he ought to succeed in right of hit mother Isabella, though Isabella her- le'if was legally and fnrniallti excluded from succeeding ; he was thus guilty of the spe- cial absurdity of claiming to inherit from a voman a crown to which a woman could not tucceed — and he could only support tiiat apecial absurdity upon a general prin- . ciple— that of the natural riglit of women I to tacceed being wholly indefeasible by imisl regulation ; and in that case each of thi! three last kings had left daughters I those right upon that general principle , vould take precedence of his I And ^et I uch a monstrous absurdity of assumption found friends, and caused rivers of the beat blood of both nations to be shed in fierce conflict I To all hit other abettors in thii really ridiculous as well as unjust claim, was now added the well known Flemish demagogne James d'Areteveldt, a brewer .of Ghent, who had reached to so despotic a power over his fellow cititens, that, after excititag them to furious resistance against thetr legitimate sovereigns, he himself conid fill all the other towns of Flanders with his adroit and unprincipled spies, and could put down all chance of opposition in Giieut Itself by the simple process of ordering the Opponent to be butchered — and he teti$ bntcbered without remorse or delay. To this demagogue Edward had no difficulty in recommending himself; for, with the servility that even accompanies the hmbi- bition of such men, the demagogue, who detested his natural superiors, was in a perfect flutter of gratified vanity at being solicited by a powerful foreign monarch, and invited Edward to make the Low Coun- tries his 'vantage point against France; suggesting to him that, to prevent the Flemings from having any scruple about aiding nira, he should claim their aid, ks rightful king of France, in dethroning the Usurper Philip of Valois. That uiurper, to whom, both personally and by a formal written deed, he had done homage ftUd owned fealty I The king of France was greatly aided by the influence of the pope, who at this time resided at Avignon, and was to a consider- able extent dependent upon Philip; the king of Navarre, the duke of Brittany, the king of Bohemia, tlie bishop of Liege, and numerous other powerful allies, tendered their aid to Philip, as being really inte- rested for him ; while Edward's allies, looking onlv to what they could get of the large sums ne had wrung from his people for this unjustifiable enterprise, were slow and cold in theirs. A. D. 1339. — .\ftermuch difficulty in keep- ing his hopeful allies even apparently to their faith, and after having his pretensions to the crown of France very accurately pronounced upon by two of those allies, the count of Naniur and the count of Ilninault, — who succeeded his father and Edward's father-in-law in the interval between the old count joining in Edward's scheme and the actual commencement of operations — the two counts in question abandoning Edward solely on the plea that Philip was their liege lord, against whom they as vas- sals could not fight, Edward cucainped near Capelle with an army of nearly 5U,000, the majority of whom were foreign merce- naries. Philip advanced towards the same spot with nearly a hundred thousand of his own subjects; but, after simply gazing at each other for a few days, these mighty armies separated without a blow, Edward marching his mercenaries back into Flan- ders and there disbanding them. In this hitherto bloodless and unproductive con- test Edward' had not only expended all the large sum granted by his people, and pnwned every thing of value that he could pawn, even to the jewels of his queen, but he had also contracted debts to the fright- ful amount of 300,0001. ; and probably it A.n. 1338.— KnwARD s.\ii,s fhom England A^n AnnivF.s at ANTWKnr. A.D. 1387.— AH ACT rAIIBD TO rBBTKIlT TUB BXrODTATlOM U* WUOt. 192 V!>^t treasury of l^isiorn, $cc. was the verv vutnesi of the lacrifice he had made tnat determined him to perae- Tere in a demand, of the iiyuitice of which he must hare been conscioua from the very ontMt. Aware that he had unmercifully preiscd upon the meant of hit lubjecti, and finding that thejr were daily growing more and more impatient of his demands, Edward now returned to England and of> fered his parliament a full and new con- irmation of the two charters and of the privileges of boroughs, a pardon for old debts and trespasses, and a reform of cer- tain abuses in tne common law. The first of these the king ought to have been ashamed to confess to be necessary. But public spirit and the controul of parlia- ment over the ro^al expenditure were as yet only in their infancy; and the whole concessions were deemed so valuable, that the parliament in return granted the king, —from the barons and knights, the ninth sheep, fieece, and lamb firom their estates, for two years ; from tlie burgesses, a ninth of their whole moveables at their real value ; and from the whole parliament, a duty of forty shillings on 1st, each three hundred wool fells, and 2nd, each last of leather, also for two years. It was ex- Sressly stated that this grant was not to be rawn into a precedent ; but as the king's necessities were great, it was additionally determined that twenty thousand sacks of wool should immediatelv be put at his dis- posal, the value to be deducted from the ninths which would of necessity come in more slowly. While the parliament of England acted thus liberally in forwarding Edward's design upon France, they made a formal declaration that they aided him as king of England, and not as king of France ; and that in the event of his con- quering the latter country, the former must ever remain wholly distinct from and inde- pendent of it. But had Edward been suc- cessful it certainly would not have been this bare and idle protest that would have prevented so resolute and self-willed a monarch from removing the seat of go- vernment to France, and making England a mere province and treasury. A. D.I 340. — Philip kept a watchful eye upon the English movements; and when Edward at length sailed in a fleet of two hundred and forty vessels, he was encoun- tered off Sluys by a French fleet of nearly four hundred vessels, carrying forty thou- sand men. The inferior force of the Eng- lish was at the very outset fully compen- sated for by the skill of their naval com- manders, who got the weather-gage of the enemy, and the advantage of fighting with the sun to their backs; while the action taking place so near Flanders, the Flem- ings hastened out to join the English, and the result of the obstinate and sanguinary action was the total defeat of the French, with the loss of two hundred and thirty vessels and thirtjr thousand men, including two of their admirals. Edward, whose loss had been compara- tively trifling, now marched to the frontiers of France with an army a hundred thoounj strong, his recent triumph having csuMd i host of foreigners to Join him on hit land, inc. Robert d'Artois, in the hope of coti roborating the tucceta of Edward, laid tiege to St. Omert. But though hia forte numbered 60,000 men, it was chidly com- posed of a mere rabble of artificers, ao little experienced in war or in love with iia pe. rils, that a sally of the garrison put the whole of this doughty army to flight, to the great annovance of its really able ud brave commander. Edward's subsequent operations were bt no meant so tuceessful. He greatly dit- 1 tretied Toamay, indeed, and he aufleredno very great advantage even in the way of ma- noeuvre to be gained by the French; but every day brought some new proof that hii very allies were at heart hottue to hia par- pose, and only supported him in their okb greediness of gain; while, on the other hand, supplies arrived to tlowk from Eng- land, that he waa utterly unable to meet the clamorous demandt of his crediton. A long truce, therefore, was very gladly agreed to by him, and he hastily and b; absolute stealth returned to England. An- noyed at his want of success, and attribut- ing it chiefly to the slowness with whicli supplies had reached him, Edward no sooner arrived in England than he beean to vent his anger upon his principal officen; aud he with great impolicy showed especial rage in the case of Stratford, archbishop of Canterbury, upon whom had devolved the difficult and not very pleasant task of real- izing the taxes granted by the parliament. It was in vain to urge to Edward that the ninth sheaf, lamb, and fleece, being unusual taxes, were necessarily collected with no- usual slowness ; he was enraged at his ovn ill success, and was determined to vent it upon his officers; sir John St. Paul, keeper of the privy seal, sir John Stoncr, chief justice, the nioyor of London, nnd the bi- shops of Chichester and Lichfield, were imprisoned ; and the archbishop of Canter. bury only escaped the like indignity hy chancing to be absent from London on Ed- ward'a arrival. A.D. 1341.— Archbishop Stratford, who really seems only to have failed in his duty from the novel and difficult nature of it, was not of a temper to quail before the un- just anger even of so powerful and passion- ate a prince as Edward ; and on leamingto what lengths the king had gone with the other great officers of state, the archbishop issned a general sentence of excommunica- tion against all who should assail tlie clergy cither in person or property, in- fringe the privileges secured to tbem by the ecclesiastical canons and by the great charter, or accuse a prelate of treason or any other crime to bring him inder the king's displeasure. Nor did the bold and somewhat arrogant archbishop stop even here. After having thus generally aimed at the king's conduct, and after tiavin; taken care to employ the clergy in paintin; that conduct in the darkest colours to the TUB TITI.B OF DUKB nRKORE THIS TIMK WAS UNKNOWN IK BNGLAND. ATio:« ur WOOL, C. n army a hundred thonunl | > triumph having cauiied t ' I to join him on bit land- 1 < rtoia, in the hope of coi- i 2 lucceaa of Edward, laid 1 1 a. But though hii forM ' men, it waa chiefly com- abble of artificen, u little ar or in love with iti ft- of the garrison fot the mgUty army to fliiht, to mce of its really able ud r. , equent operations were b; [ ccessful. He greatl; dii- 1 , , indeed, and he suffered no i ■ tage even in the way of tul- \ I ;ained by the Frencb ; but e lit some new proof that bii | at heart hostile to bis par- upported him in their own ;un; wbdle, on the oihn irrived 80 slowly from Eng- 'aa utterly unable to meet demanda of his crediton. therefore, was very glsdly m, and he hastily and bj | « I returned to England. As- 1 , ut of auccess, and attribut- { i I the slowness with vhicb > * reached him, Edward no I in England than he began to \ upon his principal officen; I eat impolicy showed especial ] e of Stratford, archbisbop o( i >on whom had devolved the j it very pleasant task of real- 1 granted by the parliameiit. to urge to Edward tbst the | nb, and fleece, beingunuaual j L-essarily collected with on- 1 ; he was enraged at his own I d was determiiied to vent it i rs; air John St. Paul, keeper leal, sir John Stoncr, chief; lyor of London, and the bi- j ihester and Lichtteld, were i nd the archbishop of Csntet. j [aped the like indignity h; | absent from Loudon on Ed- Urchbishop Stratford, whoi My to have failed in hii duty ll and difficult nature of it, Wper to quail before theun- 'i of so powerful and passion- I Edward ; and on leamingto Ithe king had gone with the Iceraof state, the archbiihop U sentence of excommumca- , fall who ahould assail the j I in person or property, in-i Ivileges secured to tbem hj ' leal canons and by the great Tiuse a prelate of treason or le to bring him inder the sure. Nor did the bold and pgant archbishop stop e?n Caving thus generally aimed ' conduct, and after iiavinj employ the clergy in paintint [a the darkest colours to i^ CNOWM IK BWOLAPID. .0. 1341.— corren mokbt ymar vsbo in acoTLaNB and ibblakd. lEnglanb.— ^lantagtncts.— (KtltDarti 3E3HE. 193 people, Stratford personally addressed • ' letter to the king, in which he asserted the jnperiority of the clerical to the civil power, reminded him that the priesthood ' were answerable at the dirine tribunal aa well for kings as for subjects, and were the ipiritual fathers of the former as of the latter, and were therefore manifestly and (Uly entitled both to direct them to right i condact and to cemure tbem for trans- I Rcssions. This bold and unlimited aaarr' i tion of superiority waa in no virise calcu- I iited to soothe Edward's irritation, and he ' marked his sense of Stratford'a conduct by ' tending him no summons to attend the Earliament. But the archbishop, attended y a numerous and imposing train of peers ipiritual and teuporal, presented himself, crosier in hand and in full pontificals, and demsuded admission. For two days the king refused to admit him : but at length, feanng the consequences of too complete a bresch with the ecclesiastical power, he not ; only permitted him to take his scat in par- liament, but also restored him to his for- mer high office. The maxim of the English parliament leems at thnt time to have been, that the necessity of the king should be made the advantage of the subject. The close re- strictions which had been laid upon Henry 111. and Edward II. were now, as far as was deemed safe, made the basis of the parliament's demands upon Edward III. for concessions to be granted by him in re- turn for a grant of twenty thousand sacks of wool. Edward was so pressed by his creditors, that he was obliged to comply with the terms, hard as they were; but as loon as his necessities became somewhat mitigated he revoked all that he deemed offensive, alleging that be was advised to do so by tome of his barons, and that in originally making such concessions he had diisembled and had made them with atecret protest. A most dishonest plea in itself; and one which, it is obvious, would if al- lowed render all the most solemn public engagements mere deceptions and mock* cries. 1. D. 1342.— Dissensions in Brittany led ' ton state of affairs which revived Edward's expiring hope of conquering France. He accordingly sent a strong fleet and army thither to the aid of the countess of Mount- fort, who was besieged by Charles of Bloia, Robert d'Artois, who commanded this force, fought a successful action with the ' Frencb, and landed his troops in Brittany. He laid siege to Vannes and took it, but I shortly afterwards died of a wound received I at the retaking of that place by a party of i Breton nobles of the faction of Charles. Deprived of the services of Robert, upon whose ability and valour Edward had great reliance, he now determined to proceed in person to the aid of the countess. The truce between England and France had ex- pired, and thewnrwas openly and avowedly to be carried on between these two powers, which for some time had really been break- ing their truce in the character of parti- tans to the respective competitors for the duchy of Brittany. Having landed near Vannes with an army of twelve thonsand men, Edward, anxious to make some im- portaut impression, and greatly over-rating his means of doing so, simultaneouslT com- menced three sieges ; of Vannes, of Ren- nes, and of Nantes. As might have been expected, but little progress was mode bva small force thus divided. Even the chief siege, of Vannes, that was conducted by Edward in person, was a failure; and Ed- ward waa at length obliged to concentrate all his troops in that neighbourhood, on account of tne approach of Philip's eldest son, the duke of Normandy, with an army of thirty thousand foot and four thousand horse. Edward strongly entrenched him- self; but he soon became so distressed for provisions, while his antagonists, both of the fortress and the army, were well and fully supplied, that he was glad to enter into a truce of three years, and conaent to Vannes remaining in the hands of the pope's legates, who negotiated the truce, and all the other strongholds of Brittany to remain in the hands of those who then held them. Edward returned to England, and though he had made & truce for the long term of three years, it is quite clear from his conduct that he merely did so to extricate himself and his followers from actual capture. He made complaints of a virtual breach of the treaty by the punishment of certain Breton nobles who were partisans of England ; and the parliament, adopting his views, granted him a fifteenth from the counties,and a tenth from the boroughs for two years, to which the clergy added a tenth for three years. Henry, earl of Derby, son of the earl of Lancaster and cousin of the king, was now sent with a force into Guiennc ; and having beaten off all assailants from that pro- vince, he followed the count of Lisle, the French general, to Bergcrac, beat him from his entrenchments, and took the place. He afterwards subjected a jp;rcat part of Peri- gord; and the count of Lisle, having re- collected and reinforced his troops, at* tempted to recapture Auberoche, when the earl, at the head of 1000 horse, surprised him, completely routed his force, and took him prisoner. A. s. 1345. — After this the earl made a most rapid series of conquests on the side of Ouienne, partly ovring to the general discontent of the French at some new taxes, especially one on salt, which Philip's necessities had compelled him to lay upon his people. A. n. 1346.— As soon as Philip's finances became in better order, vast preparations were made by the French to change the aspect of affairs. A very splendid army was led towards Guiennc by the dukes of, Normandy and Burgundy, and other of the chief nobles of France; and the earl of Derby found his force so inadequate, that he was compelled strictly to confine his movements to the dcfensiive. The French army, therefore, was left full opportunity to lay siege to Angouleme, and they in- A.D. 1345. — OOI.D FIRST COINXB IN ENGLAKD THIS TBAR. A •i A.O. 1344.— KDWABD VKRT lOLBMNLT KBtlKWa MAONA CHaRTA. 194 tlDl^e tIEreasttre of 1^istot|9, ^c. vested it «o closely, that lord Norwich, the gallant English goTemor, was reduced to the most painful extremities. Despairing of relief and unvrilling to surrender himself and troopa as prisoners, he had recourse to a hot very creditable stratagem, which, moreover, was only successflil in conse- quence of the rigid honour of the duke of Normandy. Desiring a conference with that noble leader, lord Norwich proposed a cessation of arms for the following day, which, as heing the feast of the Virgin, he profewed ii dislike to desecrating. The cessation of arms being agreed to, lord Norwich marched his troops through the beleaguered city, and, as he wished to pass through the Freneh lines, sent a messenger to remind the duke of the existing truce. " / Me the governor has ouitoitted me," was the noble reply of the duke, who allowed the English to pass without annoyance, and contrnted himself with obtaiuiag pos- k'essiou of the pla6e. While these and minor transactions were passing in ("ranee, Edward had been en- gaged in England in preparing a splendid expedition with Which he and liis son the prince of Wales, how about fil'teeu years of ai;e, at length set sail from Southampton. The original destination of this expedition, which amounted to nearly a thousand sail, was Guienne ; bat contrary winds prevail- ing for some time, Edward listened to the advice of tieofifrey d'Harcourt, and resolved to make a descent upon Normandy, the rich fields of which would supply his army, while the very proximity to the capital would render any impression made there of proportionate importance. This determi- nation made Edward speedily disembark at La Hog^ue, with four thousand English men- at-arms and ten thousand archers, together with ten thousand Welsh and six thousand Irish infantry, who, if not very important in actual line of battle, were admirably adapted, in quality of foragers and scouts, to be serviceable to their own force and most mischievous to the enemy. Havine destroyed the shipping in La Hogue, Cherbourg, and Bartteur, Edward, who on landing had knighted his son Ed- ward and some of the young nobility, dis- persed all his lighter and more disorderly troops all over the country, with orders to plunder and destroy, without other restric- tion thnn that they should return to their camp by night. The effect of this order was to spread the utmost consternation not only all over the province, but even to Paris itself; and as Caen seemed most likely to be the next object of Edward's entci'prize, the count d'Eu, constable of France, and the count of Tancarville were dispatched with an army to its defence. As had been foreseen, Edward could not resist the temptation to attack so rich a place ; and the inhabitants, encouraged by the presence of regular troops, joined them in advancing ai;ainst the English. But the zeal oi these civilians gave way at the very first shock of buttle; the troops were swept away along with them, both the counts were taken prisoners, and the conquering troops entered and plundered the city with every circumstance of raite and violence. The unhappy people touirht to procrastinate their doom by barricading their houses and assailing the Englith with missiles from the windows and hotuc-topi- and the soldiers, enraged at this more in' suiting than injurious opposition, set 6re to two or three houses in various parts of the town. But Edward, alanncd lest the spoil should thus be lost, stopped the vio- lence of his troops, and, having made the inh^ibitants give up their vein resistance allowed his soldiers to pliknJcr the place ia an orderly and deliberate way for three davs, reserving to himself all jewels, plate kiltc, and fine linen and woollen cfotha! Tkese, together with three hundred of the most considerable citizens of Caen, he lent over to England. Edward now marched towards Rouen, where he expected to have a similarly pro- fitable triumph ; but finding the bridge over the Seine broken down, and the king of France in person awaiting him with an array, he marched towards Paris, plunder- ing and committing the most wanton de- struction on the road. He had intended to pass the Seine at Poissy, but found the ooposite bank of the river lined nith the French troops, and that and all the neighbouring bridges broken down. By a skilful manoeuvre he drew the French from Poissy, returned thither, repaired the bridge with wonderful rapidity, passed over with his whole army, and having thus diaeu- eaged himself from danger, set out by hasty marches from Flanders. Hi> van- guard cut to pieces the citizens of Amieni, who attempted to arrest their march; but when the English reached the Sommc they found themselves as ill situated as ever, all the bridges being either broken down or closely guarded. Guided by a peasant, Edward found a ford at Abbeville, led his army over sword in hand, and put to tlight the opimsing French under Godeiuar de Faye ; the main body of the French, undir their king, being only prevented from fol- lowing Edward across the ford by the rising of the tide. After this narrow escape, Edward, un- willing to expose himself tu the enemy's superior cavalry force in the open pliiins of Picardy, halted upon a gentle ascent near the village of Crcscy, in a position very fa- vourable for his awaiting the approach of the French. Having disposed his army in three lines, he intrenched his flanks, and there being a wood in his rear, in that he ftlaced his baggage. Ills first and second ines he committed to the young prince of Wales, with the earls of Warwick, Oxford, Arundel, and Northampton, and the lords Chandos, Holland, Willoughby, Uoos, and other eminent leaders ; while the third line, under his own immediate comuiund, he kept back as a cocpg de reserve, cither to support the former two if beaten l)ack, or to improve any impression that they might make upon the enemy. I \SZ A. n. 131(. — Tiin MAi)i-:ii!A islands discovered nv macitas, an englishman. AHA cbaiita. CC. taken pritoneri, and the fe entered and plundered !ry circumttance of rate le unhappy people aouKht :heir doom by barricading | assatling the English with | I windovri aud huiiac-topt; ' enraged at this more in ' irious oppotition, act tre housps in various parts of '■ Edward, alanned test the ; ! he lost, stopped tlie tIo- tps, and, liaviu); mnde the I np their vtin resistance, \ iers to pliinJcr the place ia i deliberate way for three ! o himself all jewels, plate, j inen and woollen clothi. i with three hundred of the { le citizens of Caen, he sent ; marched towards Rouen, | :ed to have a ainiilarly pro- 1 ; but finding the bridge I iroken down, and the king ) rson awaiting him with an j ed towards Paris, plundpr- 1 itting the most wanton de- le road. He had intended eine at Poisay, but found | ink of the river lined with jops, and that and all the iridgcs broken down. By a j re he drew the French from i i thither, repaired the bridge j rapiditv, passed over with y, and "having thus disen- from danger, act out by from rianders. His von- CCS the citizens of Aniieni, ^ I to arrest tlieir march; but j ' sh reached the Sommc they j e xs as ill situated as ever, '; h being either broken down i \ Jed, Guided by a peasant, 1 ; [a ford at Abbeville, led Ins , , in hand, and put to llight 1 , 'rench under Godcmar de ; , body of the French, undi r | , ig only prevented from fol- j acroBS the ford by the lising ; krrovr escape, Edward, un- , Ise himself to the enemy « I \ force in the open plmns of j I upon a gentle ascent new j Ircscv, in a position verv la- \ awaiting the approach of i laving disposed Ina army m 1 [intrenched his flanks, and lood in his rear, in that he , Vagc. His tirst and second i Vtcd to the voung prince of i \ earls of Warwick, Oxford, f orthampton, and the lords Ind, Willoughby, Uoos and 1 leaders ; while the third own immediate cmuinnnd, lis a corps tie resene, cither former two if beaten hack, lany impression that they kn the enemy. [ciIAN, AN ENGLISHMAN. 1347.— KOWABS BtfCTBD KMriKOK OV OK«MAHT> WUICU UB BKrV*KP. lEnglantl — ^^(antastnets.— lEDtoartl 3E3ES. 195 In addition to tne care with which Ed- wcrd hid secured hi* flanka and rear, he slaeed in liis front some cannon, then only gpaly invented and never before used to any extent in actual battle. His opponent, thougb be also possessed cannon, had, it iboufd seem, left tbem behind in hii iiasty ind furious march from Abbeville. Philip's army amounted to upwards of a hundred and twenty thousand men; but the superiority of the English archers, and the inefficiency cf the bow-strings of tlic archers on the French side, from their not having, been secured against rain, (tnted the very tirst charge tn be injuri- out to this vast and tumultuous host. Toang Kdward no sooner perceived the confuiion tnat took place in the crowded ranks of liis enemy, than he led his line steadily into the mel^c, aud so furious was the combat, that the carl of Warwick, aiarmed lest the gallant young prince ■hould be overpowered, sent to the king, who surveyed the battle from a neighbour- iag bill, and intreated him to send a rein- forcement. Learning that the prince was not wounded, the king said in reply to Warwick's message, " Return to my son, and tell him that I reserve the honour uf the day to him ; I am contident that he will show himaclf worthy of the honourof knighthood which I so lately conferred upon him. He will be able to repel the enemy without my Mi^itance." The king of France, far from inactive, did bis utmost to sustain the tirst line by that which was under his own command. But the tirst disadvantage could not be re- medied, and the slaughter momentarily be- came greater. Philip had already had one liorae killed under him, and, being re- mounted, was again rushing into the thick- nt of the fight, when John of Ilainault leized the bridle and literally dragged him from the tield. The battle was now changed iato a complete rout, and the vanquished French were pursued and slaughtered until nightfall. When the king received his gallant son, he rushed into his arms, ex- claiming, " My brave son, persevere in your honourable course. You are my son in- deed, for valiantly have you acquitted your- lelf to-day. You have shown yourself wor- thy of empire." The loss to the French on this most fatal occasion amounted to 1200 knights, 1400 gentlemen, 4000 roen-at arms, and about 30,0(10 men of inferior rank. Among the ilain, of superior rank, were the dukes of Lorraine aud Bourbon, the earls of Flan- ders, Blois, aud Vaudemont, and the kings of Majorca and Bohemia. The latter king, ihoudi very old and quite blind, would not be dissuaded from taking a personal part in the battle, but had his bridle fattened to those of two attendants, and iras thus, by his own order, or at least by his own act, led to perish in the thickest of the tight. His crest and motto were a triple ostrich plume and the words Mk din, I serve, which were adopted by the prince of Wales, and have been borne by •U his successors, in memory of this most decisive battle. Of this battle we may remark as of a for- mer one, that it seem:! to have been rather a chase murderously followed up; fur while the French lost so awful a number of all ranks, the English lost only three knights, one esquire, and a few common soldiers. Great as Edward's victory was, he clearly perceived that for the present many cir- cumstances warned him to limit his ambi- tion to capturing some place that would at all times afford him a ready entrance into France ; and accordingly, after employing a few days in burying the dead and resting bis army, he presented himself before Calais. Jolm de Vienne, knight of Burgundy, commanded this important garrison; an honour which he owed to his very high reputation and experience. He was well supplied with means of defence ; and Kd- ward at the very outset determined not to attempt assault, but to starve this import- ant garrison into submission. He accord- ingly intrenched the whole city and formed his camp, causing his soldiers to raise thatched huts for their protection from the severity of the weather during the win- ter. De Vienne, juJi^ing what was Ed- ward's dcti^n, sent all the superduous hands out ot the city, and, to the honour of Edward be it said, he not onl]r let the help- less people pass through his lines, but even supplied them with money to aid them in seeking some other place of refuge. During twelve months Edward was en- gaged in the siege of Calais, and the earl of Derby was during that period carry- ing on war in Guienne, Poictiers, and the southern provinces of France. Charles of Blois at the same time invaded Brittany, and laid siege to the castle of Kochelle de Rien, where he was attacked and taken prisoner by the countess of Montfort. While she and her rival and antagonist, the wife of Charles de Blois, were displaying their courage and talents in France, king Ed- ward's queen, I'liilippa, was still more im- portantly exerting herself in England. The Scots had a few years before recalled their king, David Bruce ; and though they could not greatly rely upon his talent or prowess, they were encouraged by the engagement of Edward in France to make an irruption into the northern English counties, to which they were strongly urged by the king of France, who in all his truces with Edward had shown great regard for the safety and welfare of Scotland. With an army of 50,000 men David Bruce broke into Northumberland, and ravaged and devas- tated the country as far south as the city of Durham. Philippa, doubly indignant that such an outrage should be committed during the absence of her husband, got together an army of only about 12,000 men, which she placed under the command of lor' Piercy,'and accompanied it and him to Neville's Cross, near Durham. Here she addressed the troops in a very spirited speech, and could scarcely be persuaded to J. 4 «.D. 1347. — aUEBH'S COLLBOl, OXFORD, AHI> CI.ABB HALL, CAMBRIDOB, VOnNDBD. A. D. 1349.— BDWAMD INIVITUTMS «■■ ORDSm OV TSB OABTBK, ArBIL 2X M at m M I of a retire eren when the battle actually corn* menced. The result was proportionate to the gallantry of the attempt. The Boots were completely routed, witn a loss of from fifteen to twenty thousand killed, amonc whom were Keith, the earl marshal, and sir Thomas Charteris, the chancellor ; and among a vast number of prisoners were David Bruce himself, the earls of Fife, Su- therland, Monteith, and Carrick, the lord Douglas, and many nobles of less note. Queen Philippa. after lodging her im- portant prisoners in the Tower of Loudon, was herself the bearer of the uews to Ed- ward, who was still before Calais, where she was received with all the applause and admiration due to her gallant and more than womanly devotion under circumstan- ces so difficult. A. D. 1347.— John de Vienne in his de- fence of Calais had well justified his sove- reign's choice of him. But as Philip had in vain endeavoured to relieve him, und actual famine had begun to do its dread- ful work upon the garrison, De Vienne now offered to surrender, on condition thai the lives and liberties of his brave fel- lows should be spared. But Edward was so irritated by the very gallantry which, as De Vienne ver.' pertinently argued, he would have exptcted from any one of his own knights under similar circumstances, that he at first would hear of nothing short of the whole garrison surrendering at dis- cretion ; but he was at length persuaded to alter his terms, though even then he re- quired that the keys of the place should be delivered to him by six of the principal citizens, bareheaded, and with ropes upon their necks, and that, as the price of the safety of the garrison, these six men should be at his absolute disposal for either life or death. To send six men to what seemed certain destruction could not fail to be a terrifying Sroposilion. The whole garrison was in ismay ; but Eustace St. Pierre nobly vo- lunteered; his example was followed by five other patriots, and the six brave men appeared in the prescribed form before Ed- ward, who only spared their lives — even after this touching proof of their excel- lence — at the intreaties made to him upon her knees by his queen Philippa. On taking possession of Calais, Edward adopted a plan far more politic than any inhuman execution of brave men could have been ; for, considering that every Frenchman must needs be an enemy to him, he cleared this important key to France of all its native inhabitants, and made it a complete English colony. A. D. 1349. — Even this politic measure, and a truce which now existed between France and England, had well nigh failed to preserve to Edward this only valuable fruit of all his expense of blood and trea- sure. He entrusted the governorship of Calais to a native of Pavia, who had the reputation of bravery, but who was utterly unrestrained by any feeling of fidelity ; and this man volunteered to deliver his import- ant trust to Geoffrey de Charni, the com- mander of the nearest French troops, on payment of twenty thousand crowns. Tlit traitor was himself betrayed by his secre- tary, who despatched tidings of the intend- ed treacherv in time to enable Edward, vrith sir Walter Manny and the prince of Wales, to reach Calais with a thouaand men. The governor was secured and taxed with his cnme; and easily consented, aa the price of his pardon, to lead the French into the ambush prepared for them by Ed> ward. The French appeared and were nt. tacked and conquered. Edward hinueh' fought as a mere private gentlemen, and was twice felled to the earth by his gallunt antagonist, sir Eustace de Ribaumout, who at length surrendered to him. Tboaeof the French officers who were captured were treated with much distinction by Edward and his heroic son ; and the king not only gave Eustace de Ribanmont lits liberty without ransom, but also presented him with a handsome chaplet of pearls, which he desired him to wear in memory of hi> having proved the stoutest knight with whom the king of England had ever been personallv engaged. Edward, partly in commemoration of hit toils in France and partly to elevate the warlike spirit among his nobles, sliortly af- terwards established the order of the Gar- ter ; an order which, being to this very day limited to twenty-five persons beside the sovereign, is one of the proudest and moat envied rewards of eminent merit. A. D. 1349.— This year deserves especial remark from the awful pestilence which, arising in the East, swept with fierce and de itroying power through England, as through all the rest of Europe, carrying off on an average a full third of the popu- lation of every country in which it made its terrible appearance. A. o. I35U.— The miseries inflicted by the pestilence upon both France and England tended to prolong the cessation of arms between them; but Charles, king of Na- varre, surnamed, very appropriately, the Bad, caused much bloodshed and disturb- ance in France; and Edward, at length wearied with peace, allied himself with the French malcontents, and sent an army un- der the heroic prince of Wales— who was now generally known by the title of the Black Prince, from the colour of his armour —to make an incursion on the side-of Gui- enne, while he himself broke in on the side of Calais. Each of these incursions was productive of great loss to the French, and of nume- rous prisoners and much spoil to the Eng- lish, but led to no general or decisive en- gagement ; and bel'ore any such could he brought on, Edward was called over to England to prepare for a thr"f.c;i .' inva- sion by the Scots, who had ivpii'^rd Ber- wick, and had gathered an army there ready to fall upon the north of England. But at Edward's approach they retired to the mountains, and he marched without en- countering an enemy from Berwick to 1 9 A.D. 1349.— A CO»ri!»'AIi UAIK FROM MISS(}MMEU TO CHRISTMAS. lAKTBK, AraiL 23. C. tty de Charni. the com- irett French troopi, on ' thoUHand crown*. The f betrayed by hii lecre- led tidiiiKi of the intend- ime to enable Edward, 'annv and the prince of Dalais with a thouaand ar was secured and taxed ind easily consented, t% rdon, to lead the French irepared for them by Ed> li appeared and were at> lered. Edward himself private gentlemen, and | I the earth by his gallant j itace de Ribaumout, who i ered to him. Those of ' who were captured were 1 distinction by Edward ; and the king not only Ribaumont lits liberty but also presented liira ;haplet of pearls, which I wear in memory of bis e stoutest kniglit with England had ever been ' a commemoration of hit ! id partly to elevate the | IK his nobles, shortly af. i ed the order of the Gar- ' :h, being to this very day | ■five persons beside the ! if the proudest and moat i eminent merit. I year deserves especial ' awful pestilence which, t, swept with tierce and j throu);h £ng;land, as ! !st of Europe, carrying i full third of the popu- 1 atry in which it made its i miseries inflicted by the { th France and England ; ' the cessation of anni j It Charles, king of Na- very appropriately, the bloodshed and disturb- and Edward, at length e, allied himself with the ts, and sent an army un- nee of Wales— who was >wn by the title of the the colour of his armour rsiou on the side-of Gui- self broke in on the side cursions was productive e French, and of nunie- much spoil to the Eng- general or decisive en- fore any such could he ird was called over to s for a thr"f.c;i.,' inva- who had - -.rpii'ifd Ber- ered an army there ready rth of England. But at ii they retired to the e marched without en- emy from Berwick to a CURI8TMAS. 3 ■I A.D. 1330.— SKBAT MATAb TICTOBT OTCB TUB arAHIABDI, AVO. 39. •JEnglnntt.— ^lantagerwts — ^lEUtoart 3EEE 107 M ' ■* I' a Edinburgh, plundering and buminc at every step. Baliol attended Edward on this occasion, and was either so disgusted with the ruin which he saw inflicted, or so utterly hopeless of ever establishing him- self upon the Scottish throne, that he made atiualand formal resignation of his pre- tensions, in exchange for • pension of two thousand pounda. *.p. ) 1156.— The prince of Wales in the mean time had penetrated into the very heart of France, and committed incredible iiavnc. Having only nn army of U.UUO men, most of whom were foreign mercena- riei, he was anxious to marcn into Nor- nianrljr, and form a- junction with the king of Navarre and the English force that was assiitting that monarch, under the com- mand of the earl of Lancaster; but every bridge being broken down and ^very pass guarded, he next directed bis march to- wards Guienue. John, king of France, who hod succeeded PhiMpof Aralois, though t mild and just prince, was a very brave nan; and, being enragel at the destruction wrought by the young iTince. he got toge- ther an army of nearly 60,000 men, with which he overtook the Black Prince at Unupertuis, near Poitiers ; and the prince having dune all that could be done to pre- vent himself fronk being compelled to fight at a disadvantage, now exerted himself no lets to avoid defeat even while so fighting. With so great a luperiority of force, the French king, by merely surrounding the English, might without any risk have starved them into submission; but both John and his principal nobles were so ea- ger to close with and utterly destroy so daring and mischievous an enemy, that they overlooked all the cooler suggestions cf prudence. Even this hot haste would rerhaps have proved fatal to the English; ut, fortunately for them, though John had not patience to surround his enemy and starve him into submission, he did allow his impetuosity to be just sutticiently check- ed to afford that enemy time to make the very best of his situation, bad aa it really was. The French had already drawn up in or- der of battle, and were preparing for that furious and instant onset which, next to patient hemming in of the English, would have been their most certain means of suc- cess, when king John suffered himself to be delayed to enable the cardinal of Peri- gord to endeavour to bring the English to terms without farther bloodshed. The hu- mane endeavour of the cardinal was not ill received by the Black Prince, who was fully sensible of the disadvantageous position which he occupied, and who frankly con« fessed liis willingness to make any terms not inconsistent with honour; and offered to purchase an unnssailed retreat by, Ist, the cesBion of all the conquests he had made during thia and the preceding cara- paisn, and 2dly, pledging himself not to serve against France for seven years from that date, Happy would it have been for John had he been contented with these proffered advantage*. But he imofincd that the fate of the English wu now abso- lutely at his disposal, and he demanded the surrender of Calais, together with prince Edward and a hundred of bis knignts u {trisoner* ; ternu which Edward indlgniuit- y refused. By the time that the negotiation waa thus terminated the day was too far ipeat to allow of the commencement of action, and Edward thus gained the inestimable advantage of having the whole night at hit disposal to strengthen his post and alter the disposition of his forces. Besides great- ly adding to the extent and strength of hia entreuclunents, he caused the captal de Bnche, with three hundred archers and the like uumberof men-at-arms, to make a cir- cuit and lie lu ouibush ready to seize the first favourable opportunity of falling sud- denly on the flank or rear of the enemy. The main body of his troops the prince had under his own command ; the van he en- trusted to the earl of Warwick ; the reat to the earls of Salisbury and Suffialk ; and even the chief subdivisions were headed, for the most part, by warriors of icarcely inferior fame and experience. The king of France also drew out hia army in three divisions: the ficiit of which was commanded by his brother the duke of Orleans, the second by the dauphin and two of John's younger sons, and the third by John himself, who was accompanied by his fourth son, Philip, then only fourteea years old. The comparative weakness of the English army was compensated by its position, which only allowed of-the enemy approach- ing it along a narrow lane flanked by thick hedges. A strong advanced guard of the French, led by the marshals Clermont and Andrelteu, commenced the cngagcuicut by mai'ching along this lauc to open a passage for the main army. This dctachiucut was dreadfully galled and thinned by the Eng- lish archers, who from behind the hedges poured in their deadly arrows without be- ing exposed to the risk of retaliation. But, in spite of the terrible slaughter, this gal- lant advanced guard pushed steadily for- ward, and the survivors arrived at the end of the Inue nud bravely charged upon a strong body of the English which awaited them under the command of the prince in person. But the contest was short as it was furious ; the head of this brave and drvoted column was crushed even before its rear could fairly emerge from the lane. Of the two ninrslu!l!<, one was taken prisoner and the other slain on the spot, and the rear of the beaten column retreated in disorder upon its own army, galled at every step by the ambu&hed archers. At the very instant that the hurried return of their beaten friends threw the French array into confu- sion, the captal de Buchc and his detach- ment made a well-timed and desperate charge upon the French flaak.Ro close to the (laupliin, that the nobles who had the char^" of that young prince became alarmed for his Eafety, aud hurried him from the field. I *•"• 13J5.— nAI.IOI. RELINQUISHES UIS BIOBT TO SCOTtAMD VOB 2000J. FEB AMKUU. [53' A.D. 13£6.— A vuauo Tn*KK«aiviNa for BiaaT bati obdbbid bv tbb bibo. 198 IT^e ^rtasuto of l^istori), $cc. The (light of the danphin and hit imme- diate attendant! wai the lignal for that of the whole division; the d«ike of Orleans and his division followed the example ; and the vigilant and gallant lord Chandos seised upon the important instant; and called to prince Edward to charge with all his chivalry upon the only remaining divi- sion of the French, that which was under the immediate command of John himself. Feeling that all depended upon this one eiTort, John fought nobly. The three ge- nerals who commanded the German aux- iliaries of his army fell within sight of him ; young Philip, whose sword was wielded with a hero's spirit in defence of his father, was wounded ; and the king himself was several times only saved from death by the desire of his immediate assailants to make him prisoner ; yet still he shouted the war- cry and brandished his blade as bravely as though his cause had been surely triumph- ant. Even when he was sinking with fa- tigue he demanded that the prince in per- son should receive his sword ; but at length, overwhelmed by numbers, and being in- formed that the prince was too far off to be brought to the spot, he threw down his gauntlet, and he and his gallant boy were taken prisoners by sir Dennis de Morbec, a knignt of Arras, who had fled from his country on being charged with murder. The gallant spirit which John had dis- played ought to have protected him from rarther ill ; but some English soldiers res- cued him ftom de Morbec, in hope of get- ting rewarded as his actual captors ; and some Gascons, actuated by the same mo- tives, endeavoured to wrest him from the English : so high, indeed, ran the dispute, that some on both sides loudly threatened rather to slay him than to pwrt with him living to their opponents, when, fortunate- ly, the earl of Warwick, dispatched by the prince of Wales, arrived upon the spot and conducted him in safety to the royal tent. Prince Edward's courage and conduct in the field were not more creditable to him than the striking yet perfectly uua£fected humanity with which he now treated his vanquished enemy. He received him at bis tent, and conducted him as an inferior waiting upon a superior; eamestiv and truly ascribed his victory less to skill than the fortune of war, and waited behind the royal prisoner's chair during the banquet with which he was served. The example of the prince was followed by his army; all the prisoners were released, and at such moderate ransoms as did not press upon them individually, though their great num- ber made the English soldiers wealthy. Edward now made a truce with the French for two years, and conducted John to London, treating him not as a captive but as a monarch; taking care to appear, alike as to horse and attire, as a person of inferior station. King Edw&rd showed his approval of his son's modest and delicate conduct by close- ly imitating it ; advancing to Southwark to meet John on his landing there, and in every sense treating him not as a captive ' but as a monarch and a voluntary visitor. ' Edward had now tn-o kings his prisone'n in London. But tlie continued captivity of David Bruce had proved less injurioui to Scotland than Edward had anticipated, the powers of that country being ably and indei'atigably directed by David's heir and nephew, Robert Stuart. Edward tliere fore restored David to liberty at a ransom of 100,000 marks, for the payment ut' wlijcli the sons of his principal nobles became hostages. A. o. 1358.— Though the very virtuca of John, king of France, were calculated to encourage disobedience to him in so tur- bulent and ill regulated an age, and in a country so often orutalised as France wai bv being made the theatre of war, yet hit absence was early and visibly productive of injury and disturbance to his kingdom. If his goodness had been sometimes im- posed upon and his kindness still more fre- quently presumed upon, yet, as it was well known that he had ooth wisdom and cou- rage, his presence had kept the ill-diapoted within certain bounds. The dauphin, upon whom the difficult task now lay of ruling during the imprisonment of his father, wai brave and of good capacity ; but he had one fatal defect, in itself^ sufficient to incapaci- tate him for fullv supplying his father*! Since : he was only eighteen years of age. [ow far that circumstance weakened hii authority appeared on the very first occa- sion of bis assembling the states. Thongh his father was now made captive in defend- ing the kingdom, the young dauphin no sooner demanded the supplies which hit father's captivity and the situation of tlie kingdom rendered so necessary, than be was met not by a generous vote of sympa- thy, confidence, and assistance, but hy a harsh and eager demand for limitation of the royal authority, for redress of certain alleged grievances, and for the liberation of the king of Navarre, who had been so mia- chievous to France even while John was at liberty to oppose him, and whose liberation now might rationally be expected to be productive of the very worst consequences, This ungenerous conduct of the states did not lack imitators. Marcel, provost of the merchants, the first and most intluentinl magistrate of Paris, instead of using the weight of his authority to aid the daupliin, actually (y)nstituted himself the ringleader of the rabble, and encouraged them in the most insolent and unlawful conduct. The dauphin, thus situated, found that he was less the ruler than the prisoner of these ungrateful men, who carried their brutal disrespect so far as to murder in his pre- sence the marshals de Clermont and do Conflans. As usual, the indulgence of ill dispositions increased their strctig'h ; all the other friends and ministers of the dau- phin were threatened with the fate of the murdered marshals, and hent length seized an opportunity to escape. The frantic de- magogues of Paris now openly levied war against the dauphin, and it is scarcely ne- A.D. 1359.— A BOOT OF MORMANS LARD AT WIBCBKLSBA AND FlUllDEn IT, MABCH 25. D BY THI KIRO. i.P. (i7l-— '■■ GIAKtBB-BOVSC IM tOKDOM VIHIIBBO BT IIB W. MBRHT. ^Englantf.— IBIantBgtncts.— lEVinarTl 3E1E3E. 199 the very virtuct of i >, were calculated to ce to bim ih so tur- i ted an age, and in a jtlited at France wri [leatre of war, yet hit ' nd visibly productive ance to his kingdom. been sometimes im- indness still more fre- an, yet, as it was well loth wisdom and coa- 1 kept the ilt-dispoMd a. The dauphin, upon ask now lay of ruling nent of his father, \tai paelty ; but he had one sufficient to incapaci. lupplying his faihet'i ' eignteen years of a|e. ,'! astance weakened bit )n the very first occa- . ig the states. Though l\ lade captive in defend- , i le young dauphin no ji supplies which hit : the situation of the « I ID necessary, than he j| nerouB vote of sympa- ; t assistance, but by a i, nand for limitation of n for redress of certain J nd for the liberation of j who had been so mil- iven while John was at ; ji, and whose liberation ► ly be expected to be » ry worst consequences. iduct of the slates did ^ Marcel, provost of the j and most intluential i B instead of using the , ■ity to aid the dauphin, | himself the ringleader i ncouraged them in the nlawful conduct. The ted, found that he was the prisoner of these 10 carried their brutal to murder in his pte- de Clermont and df , the indulgence of il ed their strctig'li; a" 1 ministers of the dau- id with the fate of the and he at length sewed icape. The frantic dc- low openly levied war I, and it is scarcely ne- .DIfUEB IT, MABCH 23. Mttarr to add that their example wai ^teiilf followed by every large town in the kingdom. Those or the nobles who deemed It time to exert themselves in sup- sort of the royal authority were taunted mtb their flight from the battle of Mauper- tuii or, as it is more cenerally termed, of Poitiers; the kiny of Navarre was liberated from pri«on by aid of the disaffected, and the wnole kingdom waa the prey of the most horrible disorders, ^ , . , , The dauphin, rather by his judgment than by his military talents, reduced the country at length to something like order. Edward in the mean time had practised so laeeewfully, and, we may add, so ungene- rously, upon the captive John, aa to induce him to <>wer «tt given to this petition; but though tlic an- swer was couched in those general termi which really bind the parties using tlirm lo no particular course, it speedily culled I'nrtli another petittuu of a fur more auibitioui nature, and calculated to add at one ttrp most prudiifiuusly to the inHuence of th« commons, who now prayed that duriiiK the minoritv uf the king all the great ofticpra should lie appointed by parliament— clearly j meaning, that the mere appointment by the ' lords should thenceforth be of no validly, | unless it were cnnlirmed by the comniom, I This petition did not meet with so I'aTnur able a reception ; the lords still reuincil to ' themselves the power of appoin*.ini( to the great offices of state, anti the i' minmn* took part in the appointments on);.- by tacit \ acquiescence. Previous to this parliament b»ing dii- solved the commons gave another proof of their consciousness of their owu gmuing importance, by representing the neccuity as well as propriety of their being anniislly i assembled, and by appointing two of their number to receive and disburse two lif- \ teenths and two tenths which had been voted to the king. | A. D. 1381.— Though the war with Frnn«e i broke forth from time to time, in spite of ' the prudent coiduct of Charles, who moil j justly was'ca.'e.. fA« Witt, the military operations wcrr- not such as to demand detail. But if ucproductive of glory or territory, the war was not the less destruc- tive of treasure; and on the parliament meeting in )3H0, it was found requisite, in order to providing for the Dressing and in dispensable necessities of tbe government, to impose a poll-tax of three groats upon every person, male and female, who ^vu more tiian fifteen years of age. There was no foreign country with which England had so close and continued an in- tercourse as with Flanders, which greatly depended on England for its supply of the wool necessary for its manufactures. The spirit of independence that had arisen among the Flemish peasants, as esempli- lied in the brutnli^jcs which tliey had com- mitted upon their natural and lawful rulers, and the servility with which they had sub- mitted to the utmost tyranny at the hands of a brewer, now began to communicate itself to the lower order in England. Then, as in far more modern times, there were demagogues who sought to recommend themselves to the credulous people, and to prey upon them by the loud inculcation of an equality among mankind, which no man, not decidedly inferior to all the rest of his race in the quality of intelligence, can fail to see is but partially true in the abnlract, and wholly false by force of circumstances A. S. 1381. — A LAW MADB TO EltCOtTBAOK THIS t]SB OP BILLS OF KXCHAKGB. St. n«jor part ami the moit their Umt petition been er proscotcd •notlier, iu I the kiDg and biit louu- ei to prevent the hnrimn , ig toKPther to u|ih<.l(| leir fuilowrra in vjnltnt i: A civil nn^wpr «ti I ion; but ibouRh ilic m- i in thnie guiinral tcriin i hepartiei uiinntlipiii to I «c,itiipecdilyrull«-ainrili >r a far nioro ambitioui I ated to add at one itrp I to the inHut'iice of ih^ I w pinvcd that durinit the i nn all the (treat otAem id by parliament— clearly i j mere appointment liv the ' ' •eforth be of no valid ty, I i Hrmed by the eonmiom. ! ' not ment with tn favour I he lords still retained to ' ' wer of appointins; to ihe i ate, and the i" mily, refused to ao so for a daughter whom, whether truly or falselv does not appear, he stoutly averred to be under the pre- scribed aee; and the tax-gatherer, a low brutal feliow, offered a violent indecency to the girl in proof of his right to the demand. The father, poor, irritated at the loss of the money he had already paid, and doubly in- dignant at the outrage thus offered to his child, raised the ponderous hammer he had just been using in his business, and dashed the ruffian's brains out on the spot. Un- der a state of less violent excitement the by- standers would probably have been shocked at the smith's fatal violence ; but, as it was, the murder acted like a talisman upon the hitherto suppressed rage of the people, and in a few hours a vast multitude, armed with every description of rude weapon, was gathered together, with the avowed in- tention of taking vengeance on their ty- rants and of putting an end to their ty- ranny. Prom Essex the flame spread to all the adjoining counties ; and so sudden and so rapid was the gathering, that before the astounded government could even de- termiue on what course to follow, upwards of a hundred thousand desperate men had assembled on Blackheath, under the com- mand of ^at Tyler, the blacksmith, and several other ringleaders who bore tb« assumed names of Hob Carter, Jack Straw, and the like. The king's mother, the widow of the heroie Black Prince, in returning (Irom a pilgrimage to Canterbury, bad to pass through thia desperate and diaaolute multitude; and such was their indiscrimi- nate rage, that she, to whom they owed so much respect, was taken from her vehicle, insulted with the familiar salutes of drunk- en clowns, and her attendants were treated with eqnal insult and still greater violence. At length, probably at the intercession of tome of the least debased of the leaders, the was allowed to proceed on her Journey, The king in the mean time had been con- ducted for safety to the Tower of London, and the rebels now tent to demand a con- ference with him. He sailed down the river in a barge to comply with their re- quest, but as he approached the shore the mcb showed such evident inclination to bruie violence, that he was compelled to return to the fortress. In London the disorder was by this time at its height. The low rabble of the city, always iu that age ripe for mischief, haid joined the rioters from the country : ware- houses and private houses were broken open, and not merely pillaged, but the con- tents burned or otherwise destroyed when they could not he carried away ; and the Savoy palace, the property of the duke of Lancaster, which nad so long been the abode of the king of France, was in wanton mischief completely reduced to ashes. As- cribing their sufferings to the richer and better iustructed classes, the mob not merely maltreated, but in very many caaes even murdered, such gentlemen as were unfortunate enough to (all into their hands ; and lawyers, especially, were treated with- out mercy. The king at length left the Tower and proceeded to a field near Mile End, where one of the main bodies of the rioters hod assembled. Thev surrounded him with pe- remptory demands for a general pardon for all concerned in the insurrection, the in- stant abolition of all villeinage, and of tolls and imposts in all markets, toj^ther with a fixed money rent of land-holdings instead of personal service. The government was as yet in no condition to proceed to forcible measures; and, consequently, charters to the above were hastily drawn out and de- livered, and this body of rioters waa thus sent peaceably away. But the danger was as vet only partially past. A larger body of the rebels, headed by Wat Tyler and other leading insur- rectionists, had in the mean time broken into the Tower and put to death Simob Sudbury, chancellor nnd archbishop of Can- terbury, and sir Robert Hales the treasurer, with some other persons of high rank, though of less note ; and were .passing through Smithlield just as the king and his attendants entered that place. The king, with a spirit and temper far beyond his years, for he was now only sixteen. CAriTATIOX tax: — A KNIOHT, GSQUIS8, OR GREAT MSRCIIANT, II. A. p. IIM-T U. 202 JE\t Cicasurv of I^Utorv* Ut. •Btcred into eonfcrenrt wiiU Wiit TyUr, who had prrviouily Irl't liU baud wit li au order (<> ruih forward nt a givvn ilvnal. murder tba whole of the ro)r«rrrliiiue, and makfl the jrnung monarch their prltoner. Fluehed wUb bU brutal and bithrrlo un- checked triumph, Wat TyUr made euch menacinK geaiuree a* he upoke tn the king, that WilTiam Walworth, the tbi-n mayor of London, wa* ao pruvokrd out of all lenu of the danger, that be (truck the ruffian to tbo ground, and he wai ipeedily diipatehed. A ffero* yell from the rcbela prnclHimed their rage at the loie of their leader; but before they could ruih upon tho royal party, young Richard ro^e itradilv up to them, and in that calm tone of high confl- denee oiid command which ha* lo great an iuduence over even tho most violent men, exclaimed, " My ffood people I What meani tki* disorder > Are ye angrv that y« have lost your leader f 1 am your king I Follow me I I myself will be my people's leader !" Without K>vin)( them time to recover from the surprise hia coolnesa and the ini^esty of his air and appearance had caused them, the king led the way into the neighbouring flelde, where he was joined by an armed force under sir Robert Kuolles. Caution- ing sir Robert and his other friends to allow nothing short of the most vilal necessity to urge them into violence, the king, after a short conference, dismissed this band as peaceably and as well rntistied as he had the former one at Mile End, and by means of giving them similar charters. While the king had thus skilfully been temporising, the nobility and gentry in all parts of the country had been actively assembling and arming their retainers ; in a few days Richard was able to take the fleld at the head of 4U,UU0 men ; the rioters dared no longer to appear openly and in force ; and the charters, which, reasonable a* they now seem, were not merely unflt for the state of the country at that time, but actuallv impracticable of execution, were formally revoked, not only upon that ground, but also as having been extorted while the king was under constraint of men who bad banded together to murder all the higher ranks and bring about n sanguinary and sweeping revolution. It is scarcely possible to imagine a sovereign so young Btving more clear proof of courage and aouity than Richard did on this sad oc- casion ; but his later years by no means ful- filled tlie bright promise thus given by his boyhood. A.D. 1385.— Scarcely was peace restored after thii alarming revolt, when the atti- tude of the Scots rendered it absolutely necessary to chastise and check tliera. Ac- cordingly the king with a numerous army entered Scotland by Berwick. But the Scots, who had a strong auxiUary body of French cavalry, had already secured all their moveable property m the mountains, and, leaving their houses to be burned, they entered England, dispersed them- selves in huge marauding parties through- out Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lan- Hi cashlre, and returned laden with b<«it without having met any show ul rriiatmrtl The Knglish army under Riclianl lisd \^ the mean time marched unoppoaed to tin. ] burgh, burning all the towns and villsun on tneir way. Furih, Dundee, and a «ait number of other plnces in the l.nwUndi, were treated in ihettme manner. Uutniiru news reached the army of tli« iticrcwrul inroad of the Hcots upon the lumlitrn counties of England, the true nature of Richard, his frivolity, and his deteniimtil preference of pleasure to action, uuly tw clearly appeared ; for he positively reruitil to make any attempt at culling off the re- treat of the spoil-laden enemy, and inmie. diately led his army home. A.D. 13H8.— The French had ftidod (he Scots chieliy, if not solely, with a vu-w to annoy the hniflisli. And Flnndcn livini{ I now at peace with France, n large ttiet nui ! army assembled in the Flemish uorl oil Sluys for liie invasion of England. The i lleet actually sailed, but was scarcely out of port when it encountered n terrible itloriu, ' which dispersed it and destroyed many of the largent ships. The Englith men gf- war attacked and took the remainder, nsil thus, fur the present at least, this new dsu- gcr was averted. But thouKh this expedition had thui completely failed, it turned the nttention of the nation, as well as the ki»Kuiidcnun- cil, towards those circumstances '.vhich made it only too certain that a similar at- tempt would be made at no great distance of time. The di^tturbanees which liaJ lo recently agitated England from one end to the other could not fail to net as an iu\ita< tion to foreign enemies; and, to nmke the matter still worse, the best uf tlid Lni;- lish soldiery, to a very great number, were at iliiH lime in Soain, supportini; the duke , of Lancaster in tne claim he hud lonK laid ' to the crown of Castile. Perhaps the alann I which called attention to these circum- 1 stances mainly served to avert the dunger; at all events, it speedily appeared that the peace of England wns in greater peril from EnKlishinen than from foreigners. We have already had occasion, under the reign of Edward II. to point out the pro- pensity of weak minded princes to the adop- tion of favourites, to whose interests they dehght in sacriiicing all other conaider aiious, including their own dignity and even their own personal safety. Richard, who had shown so much frivolity in hii Scotch expedition, now gave a new proof of his weakness of mind by adopting' a suc- cessor to the Spensers and the Gavestoui of an earlier day. Robert dc Vere, cnrl of Oxford, of noble birth, agreeable manners, and great accom- plishments, but extremely dissolute and iio less vain nud ambitious, made his company so agreeable to Richnrd, that the yniiuj; monarch seemed scarcely able to exist but in lis prescnc**. In proof of his atinch- ment to him, the king made him marquis of Dublin— the title being then first used in England— created him by patent vice- A. U. 1381. — THB ABBBT OF 8T. EnMUNO's BVHV DDRnT BT BI0TIR8. 19, JAM U. l.t. IS83.-WICI 30. I*' i l«den «ilh boQI}, njt (liow ol rriiiikBrt, mder Riclianl liitil la >d un|)Oiird to Ellin- le tiiwnt and villnnt't Duudtte, «uil a tait cea in tba l.nwlitndi, lie nianuvr. But « hru niy of tlia wrrriiifui I upon the nurthtrn I, the true naluru o( ', and hit dfteniiincd re to actinn, uuly tixi he pniilivvljr rvfuwd at cutting off the i(. en cuciiiy, and iniine' lionie. r'reucli had nidrd the Kuli-ly, with a viiw lo | i i And Flnndcit t)cin'< i , j rancc, a large Itiet tud , the Fli'minh uort ui \ ion of Uiigland, The i but wai icarri-ly out intvrrd ntcrribli: utoriu, ! ud dcilroyed many of The Unglinh nun of- ok the remuindcr, atil I at least, tUia new ilvn- expedition had tliiii t turucd the ntlenlidn il at the kiiiKuiidcoun- circumitaiiceii '.vliicli irtain that a timiUr at- de Ht no grrat diHtance I rbanuea wliich liaJ lo < iKland from one end to tail to net at an in\ita< lies; and, to make the the beat of tlie V.k%- \ iry great number, wire i n, supporting tlic dulte ' claim he had lonK laid ■ lie. Perhaps the atann Ition to these circum- 1 d to avert tlie duii|{eri! dily appeared that tlie | s in greater peril from ^ jni foreigners. |iad occatiion, under the | to point out the nto- *d princes to the adop- whose interests tbc; g all other consider ] leir own dignity and j onal aafety. Uichard, ': f much frivolity in liii i ^^- \t\ now gave a new proof j ■ ^ind by adopting a sue- ' Jf bra and the Gavcstoni 1 Lrl of Oxford, of noble iners, and great accom- 1 1 1 lemely dissolute and no j! |)U8, made his company c Ihard, that the ynuug > Irccly able to exist but ; ^ h proof of his attach- . Ing made him miirquii | •' '[ being then first used him by patent vice- I BI HIOTSRS. lEnglanT} — pianiastncta — Bict^artl HH. S03 kiM «t Irf Und for lif". •"«' •vlnced h.i pre- (rrner for him by varioua olhi r mark* of toTsI f»">»'- . . , , , , At It uniformly the case with such fa- Touriiism, the fnvonritr's rapaeiiy and in- Kilenff kept <"'• P"""" •"'' '''" '""K'» >'»lly i th* Hisniiiit of Dulilin lieoanio ilm virtual kmc ; all l«»our» were ohtniiiahle il ough hii inicresi, Jnttice Ittelf icareely i itain- ibic withiiul It i and the mnrqnls and hia Mitlhirs became at once the plairue and thtdiiettalionof the whole nohility, bnt mow"!'"''*")' "^ '•'• •''"•''• «">•'«». *•"> M« the iiillui nee which they ought to have puMcuKril, and much that ought to have been refuted even lo thrm, Iranafrrred to • Btnof ciimparHlive obacurity. The minit. tert, though they, it it (|uito clear, conid ktra hitle iMiwer to correct their matter's Hculiar folly, shared the loverrign'a di«- Itrtce, and the whole kingdom toon rang »iih romplaiiita and threatening*. The lirnl ruth of thi! long-hrrwinK tem- Mtt ihowvd itself iu a tierce attack upon Mieharl do la Pole, earl of HutlVilk, the chtncellor. Though he was originally only ihc SOD of a merchant, he had won a high ud well-deserved celebrity by hit vuhiur aod conduct during the wars of the late king, and had sincii aliowii very sptundid civd ability. lie was supposed to be the cliielconlidential friend of the king and of i>e Vere, who whs now, from the inarquia- ite of Dublin raised to the dukedoin of Ire- liud; and the duke of Gloucester conse- ((gently singled him out for persecution, (iluuceiler, who was both able and ambi- lliiut, had secured a most potent sway over both the lords and comiiions, and he now induced the latter to impeach the earl of giiiTuik before the former i a power and mode of proceeding which (he commons lisd [Miitetsed themselves of towarda the close uf the reign of Edward III. The impeachment of the most eminent nrbit iiiiiiisters niiturally alarmed the king for himself and his favourite; and he re- i tired tu the royal palace at Eltham, to be ! out of immediate danger, and to deliberate upou his future course. Rightly judging tliat while the king was thus comparatively removed from danger and annoyance they would have little chance of bringing him to compliance with their wishes, the par- liameut tent to inform him that unlesi he immediately returned they would dissolve without making an attempt at preparatiou for the French invasion with which the na- tion was at that time threatened. And lest this threat should fail to compel the king to compliance, they called for the produc- tion of the parliamentary record of the de- jKiiitiim of Edward II. This hint was too intelligible to be disregarded, and the king It once consented to return, on the sole condition the,, beyond the impeachment siready eoui'nenced against the earl of Suf- folk, no at tuck should be made upon his uiinisters; c stipulation which, most pro- , bably, he chit-Hylmude with a view to the MlVty of the duke of Ireland. j The charges against Suffolk were directed almoii wholly agaiiiit hli preuniary iraiia> actions. He wan aco'srd, for liitlancr, of havingexrhangrd a )irrp«tnal annuity, wAirA he knd /airly inkentrH, for landi of cijual value, with the king; of having iiurrhaacii • forfeited crown annuity of tiny poundk and induced the king to recognise it at be- ing valid I and of having obtained a grant of &IHII. per annum tn support hit dignity on hia being created rarl of (tuffolk. The Arat of these charges, it it clear, could only have been made by men who were aadly at a lots for some weapon with which to assail their enemy ; the second wat ilt-inp- ported; and the third proceeded with a very ill-grace IVoin (ilnucrtter, who, though at wealthy at Suflolk wat ptrar, wan him- tclf in receipt of Jutt double the aninnnt by way of pention I >Vhrn to this we add that, at to the Hrtt charge, it was positively piovca that Suffolk had made no sort of purchase, honest or dishonest, from the crown during hit enjoyment of office, tin* render wimld be greativ surprised at learning that he wat convictea and tenienccd to lose his nfllce— if it were possible for Ihc reader to have noticed the events of history even thus far without learning that when powerful men hate deeply, they do not reiiuire either very iniuortaiit charges or very clear evidence to innuce them to convict the party hated This triumph of the anti-favourite party emboldened thcni to Hy at a higher quarry. Thcv kept theletter of their agreement with the king, and made no farther attack u|H)n hit ministers; but at once proceeded to strike at his own authority by appointing a council of fourteen, to which the sovereign authority was to he transferred for a year, the council in question consisting, with the single exception of the archbishop of York, of the personal friends and partiznns of the duke of Gloucester; and thus Richard II., whose boyhood had promised so vignrnut and splendid a reign, was at the early ago of twcuty-tivc virtually deposed, and a mere puppet and prisoner in the hands of his enemies. No chance of present resistance ottered itself, and the unfortunate and weak king signed the commission which in reality uncrowned him, increasing rather than di- niinisliing the pleasure and triumph of his enemies by an impotent protest which he made at the end of the session of parlia- ment, to the effect that nothing in the com- mission he had signed was to be held to impair the prerogatives of the crown. A. n. I.^h;.— The nampered favourite and his supporters, as they had so greatly pro- flted oy the king's weak misuse of his power, did not fail to do their utmost to stimulate his anger and to induce him to make some effort to recover his lost autho- rity, in which, in truth, they were fur luure interested than he was. Utterly estranged •.« the lords teemed, he resolved to eiidt'i viiv.r to inlliicncc the sheriffs to return a ocininons' house calcu- lated for his purpose ; but here he found himself completely anticipated hy the fact that most of the sheriffs and ma|;istrates were the partizans of Gloucester, and ac- H t) u «s — I > K I s A. n. \',l^J. — TiiK vi'.tsT uion ADMinAi. or knoi,a:f Nottingham, mat- 1393.— QURKN ANNB DIK», A^ID IS BUltlBD I!( WESTMnSTKn AOBBT. lEnglantJ.— piantagcnets.— IRicljaitl 3IE. 205 mi formidable pow. cs had been intuffi. ccused, the serrile uilees in the caie, iselvei at the out. ;8 " to live and die ant, and to defend ition with their lifei i ; icholas Brembre wu { : ive accused peruu i ii >ear the thirty-nine \ ! him and the other I i He had the mockery, af a trial ; the nthert even noticed in the that did not prevent . | 1 guilty of high trea- ! t\ 1 nlso sir Uob'ert Tre- lendcd afterthetrial, I i| ;re it niiKhr Have been | hese rancorous lordi ! itry tools would have | ■ of chicane and m- i VM their actual con- idgcs who had agrerd ' at Nottingham were , 1 but afterwards ha- ' d lord Beauchamp of rs, sir Simon Burley, i iry were condemned,: m of the last-named, ; to Rpenk more truly, ! inon Burley, made a ; sensation evcnamoi!; ig ; for he was highly , I popular, both on I character and from , arliest infancy of the ; ce been the coiiitant [ nt of tliB* hero, who [I. had concurred in ■ lor of the present king; It the gallantry which I honour of the garter, ; honour of a laudatory i ig pages of Froiswrt, r the charges against { lufflcient evidence by j irges were supported, ; his case from the cir- \ \ lid have excused afar ^ ■n to the king whose id, were all as uothinj , fierce determination'! ign's implacable ene- : ! king's *il% whose her from the people 'the good queen Anne, r Knees before Glou- nble posture tor ihrce ; vainly besought, the VB Tim LAW. hfe of the unfortunate Burley. The stern enemies of his master had doomed the faith- ful knight to die, and lie was executed ac- cordingly. . , ^, . ., At if conscious ot their enormous vil- Itny. sud already beginning to dread retri- baiion, the parliament concluded this me- morably evil session by an act, providing for a general oath to uphold and maintain all the acts of forfeiture and attainder which had previously been passed during the lession. i.D. 1389.— The violence with which the king had been treated, and the degrada- tion to which he had been reduced, seemed to threaten not only his never recovering hit authority, but even his actual destruc- tion. But, whether from sheer weariness of their struggle, from disagreements among themselves, or from some fear of the in- terference of the commons, now daily be- eoming more powerful and more ready to ate their power, the chiefs of the mal- contents were so little able or inclined to oppose Richard, that he, being now in his twenty>third year, ventured to say in open council that he had fully arrived at an age to govern for himself, and that henceforth I ke would govern both the kingdom and kit own household ; and no one of all his lately tierce and overbearing opponents rrntured to gains&y him. The ease with which the king regained his authority can only be accounted for, as it seems to us, by supposing that circumstances, no account uf which has come down to us, rendered the king's enemies afraid of opposinj; him. From whatever cause, however, it is cer- tain that the king suddenly regained- bis Init power. His tirst act was to remove Fitiallan, archbishop of Canterbury, from the office of chancellor, and to replace him hy the celebrated William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester. Proceeding in the obviously wise policy of substituting friends for foes in the high offices of state, the king dismissed the bishop of Hereford from being treasurer, and the earl of Arun- del from being admiral. The earl of War- wick and the duke of Gloucester were re- moved from the council ; and even this evi- dent sign of the king's determination to deprive his enemies of the power to injure him called forth little complaint and no opposition. To the policy of what he did, the .king in what he left undone added a still higher wisdom, which his former infatuation gave but little promise of. He did not show the slightest desire to recal the duke of Ire- land; and while he took care to purge the high offices of state, he did not by any part of his demeanour leave any one room to doubt that he was heartily and completely reconciled to the still powerful uncles who had caused liiin so much misery. Nay, more, as if determined-to remove all danger of the revival of past animosities, he of his own motion issued a proclamation con- I'firniing the parliamentary pardon of all I offences, and, still more completely to in- j gratiate himself with the tax-burtliened I people, he voluntarily declined levying some subsidies which had been granted to him ■ by the parliament. I Partly as a consequence of these really wise and humane measures, and partly, perhaps, owing to the return from Spain of the duke of Lancaster, Richard's govern- ment for the next eight years went on so smoothly and so prosperously, that not a single dispute occurred of consequence enough to be related. Lancaster, between whom and Richard there had never been any quarrel — unless we may interpret the past conduct of the duke's son as tlie indi- cation of one — was powerful enough to keep his brothers in check, and was at the same time of a more mild and peace-loving temper. And, accordingly, the duke was extremely useful to Richard, who in tnrn took every opportunity of favouring and gratifying his uncle, to whom at one time he even ceded Guienne, though, from the discontent and annoyance expressed by the Gascons, Richard was shortly afterwards obliged to revoke his grant. 1 he king still more strongly testified his preference of Lancaster on occasion of a difference which sprang up between that duke and his two brothers. On the death of the Spanish grincesB, on account of whom Lancaster ad entertained such high but vain hope, and expended so much time and money, the duke married Catharine Swinford, by whom he had previously had children, and who was the daughter of a private Hainault knight of no great wcaltn. Lancaster's two brothers loudly exclaimed against this match, which they, not wholly without reason, declared to be derogatory to the honour of the royal family. But Richard stepped in to the support of his uncle, and caused the parliament to pass an act legi- timatizing the lady's child: en born before marriage, and he at the same time created the eldest of them carl of Somerset. While these domestic events were pass, ing, occasional war had still been going on both with France and Scotland; but in each instance the actual fighting was both feeble and infrequent. This was especially the case as to France; while the most im. portaut battle on the Scottish side was that of Otterbourne, in which the young Piercy, aurnamed Harry Hotspur, from his impetuous temper, was taken prisoner, and Douglas killed ; but this really was less a national battle than a combat arising out of a private quarrel and individual animosity. A. D. 1396.— The insurrections of the Irish having become so frequent as to excite some fear for the safety of that conquest, the king went thither in person ; and the courage and conduct he displayed in re- ducing the rebels to obedience did much towards redeeming his character in the judgment of his people. A still farther hope wras raised of the tranquillitv and re- < spectability of the remainder of this reign by a truce of twenty-five years which was now made between France and England. To render this truce the more solid, Rich- ard, who ere this had buried the " good A.n. I3fO. — ANOTHER TKUltlBI.B PLAOVB ANO I'AMIKE IN KNGLAND. LT A. I). 1395.— TUB CAIfART ISLANDS AHB UISOOVllRED THIS Y£An. 20G ^fie ilrcasutg of l^iBtoro, $cc. adeen Anne," was affiRnced to Isabella, the aughter of the king of France; then only seven years old. It seems probable thbt Richard, still feeling insecure of the peace- fulness of his uncles and the barons gene- rally, sought by this alliance not only to strengthen the truce between the two na- tions, but also to obtain from it additional security cgainst any domestic attacks upon bis authority. But though he thus far gnvc proofs of judgment, there were other parts of his conduct which were altogether as impolitic and degrading. Unstable, inconsistent, wildly extravagant, and openly dissolute, the king effirrctually prevented his popularity from becoming confirmed. Having shown so much wisdom in refraining from re- calling the duke of Ireland— and perhaps even tnat arose less from wisdom than from satiety of his former miuion — he now se- lected as his favourites, to almost an equally offensive extent, his half-brothers the earls of Kent and Huiiiingdon, to whom he so completely committed the patronnge of the kingdom as to render himself, in that re- spect at least, little more than their mere tool. This, with his indolence, excessive extraTagaticc, indulgence at the table, and other dissolute pleasures, not only prevent- ed his growing popularity from ever being confirmed, but even caused a revival of the former complaints and animosities. A. n. 1397.— What rendered this impolitic conduct the more surely and entirely de- structive to Richard, was the profoundly artful manner in which his chief and most implacable enemy, the duke of Gloucester, availed himself of it. Instead of endeavour- ing to vie with Ricbnrd's favourites and to invite a share of his favour, the duke almost retired from the court ; appearing there only on the public occasions which would have caused his absence to have been ill remarked on, and devoting all the rest of liis time to cultivating the popular favour by every art of which he was master. When obliged to offer his opinion in council, he took care to give the most powerful reasons he could command for his opposition to the measures of the king. As the truce and alliance which Richard had concluded with France \^'ere almost universally un- popular, Gloucester, to all orders of men who had approach to him, affected the ut- most personal sorrow and patriotic indig- nation, that Richard had so completely and shametuUy degenerated from the high anti-Gnllican spirit of his renowned and warlike grandfather, who looked upon the French as the natural fues of England, and upon France as the tre,\surc-house of Eng- land's high-born chivalry and lusty yeomen. To fall in with the interested opinions of men is the surest possible way to obtain their favour; and the more unpopular Rich- ard became, the more openly and earnestly did the people, and more eBpcciallv the military, declare that the duke of Glnu- cester's patriotism was the real cause of his want of favour at court; and that his wis- dom aud counsel alone could ever restore the honour and prosperity of the nation whote ! true interests he so well understood and BO disinterestedly advocated. i That Gloucester for a long time had hsr- ' boured the most treasonable designs Against \ Richard is quite certain from even his own confession ; and Richard, urged by the ad- vice not only of his favourites, but also of the king of France, suddenly catiaed Glou- cester to be arrested and conveyed to Ch. lais ; while at the same time his triends the carls of Arundel and Warwick were seiied and thrown into prison. As both the dukei of Laticasteir and York and their eldeit sons approved of and supported the kini*! suddenly adopted course, the friends of tne imprisoned nobles saw that resistance would only serve to involve themselves in ruin. The king, too, by influencing the sheriffs, caused a parliament to be assem- bled, which was so completely subservient to his wishes, that it not only annulled the commission which had so extensively trenched upon the royal authority, and de- ! clared it high treason to attempt the re- newal of a like commission, but even went so far as to revoke the general pardon that Richard had voluntarily confirmed at\cr he regained his authority, and to revoke it, in the face of that fact, upon the ground of iti having been extorted by fnrce and nntr freely ratified by the king I The duke of Glouces'.er, the earls of Arundel and Warwick; anJ the arclibishnp of Canterbury were now impeached by the commons. Arundel was executed, War- wick banished for life to the Isle of Mas, and the archbishop was deprived of hit temporalities and banished the kiiiidluui. That they all really were cognizant of and concerned in Gloucester's more recent trea- sonable projects there can be no moral doubt ; and yet, legally, these men were all unjustly condemned, for they were con. demned not for any recent treason, but for that old rebellion which the king had par- doned voluntarily and while under no re- straint. The chief partizans of Gloucester being thus disposed ot^ the governor of Ca- lais was ordered to bring the duke himself over for trial ; but to this order he returned word that the duke had suddenly died of apoplexy. When it is considered that this sudden death of the duke happened so con- veniently for releasing the king from the unpleasant, practical dilemma of either set- ting at liberty a powerful and most iuipln- cable foe, or incurring the odium which could not but attach to the act of putting to death so near a relation, it is difficult to withhold belief from the popular rumour which was very rife at the time, and still more so during the next king's reign, that the duke was, in fact, smothered in his bed, in obedience to a secret order of his king aud nephew. Ere the parliament was dismissco, very extensive creations and promotions took place in the peerage, ot course ninong those who had been most useful and zea- lous in aidnig the recent royal se\crit)'i and at the very close of this busy and dis- A. p. 1897.— WKBTMINSTKII H-VLIi BBrAIBED hUn rARTIALLT BEBUIIT. jl.U. l.'jtfr-— ina >INO CALLS A MBKTINa Of TUK r>ltt* AI KOTTINOHAM. "EiiQlantJ. — ^lantagcnct? laitljartr IE. 207 cr«dit»l)le session the king gave a »ingularly ilhkinid tUonK>> practically uiiiniportant, proof of )iis incongistency ; he exacted an i oatli froi" t^c parliament perpetually to i mtintain tlio act* they had passed— one of ' thuse very acts being in direct and shaine- { {a\ violation nf a precisely similar oath I ivhicli bad been suh>>C(|ueutly sanctiuni'd by I the kin);'> f'*:^ ax'^ solemn ratitiration ! ! i,B. 1398.— When the parliament met at Shrewsbury, in January, latis, the king i|[aia Diiinii'estcd his anniety fur the seen- I ril; of tbe recent acts, by causing both lords and commons to swear, upon the crossof Canterbury, that they would main- tain them. Still ill nt ease on this point, he shortly afterwards obtained the addi- lioual security, as he deemed it, of a bull from the pope, ordaining the permanence of tbcie acts. At the same time, as if to ihow the alter folly of swearing to the per- petuttion of acts, the parliament reversed the attainders, not only of Tresilian and tlio other judgciij for the secret opinions the; had Kiveu to the king at Nottingham, but aIs'j of tbc Spcnsers, father and son, vho were attainted in the reign of fid- ward II. 'fliough the enmity towards Gloucester of the nobles who had so zealously aided in the destrurtion of that prince had united tliem tit apparently indissoluble friendship while the duke lived, animosities and heart- buminfts soon sprang up among tbeui when this coiiiinon bund of union was removed. : The duke of Hereford in liis place in par- lisment solemnly accused the dnkc of Nor- folk of having slandered the king, by im puliug to him the intention of destroying lome of the highest of the nobility: Nor- folk gave Hereford the lie, and demanded the trial by duel. The challenge was al- k>wed and accepted ; and as the parliament was now separating, and legislative autho- rity might yet be rendered nccessarv by the mult of tins duel, a singular ana sume- vhat hazardous expedient was resorted to ; that of delegating the full powers of the parliament to a committee of twelve lords and an of the commons. The lists for the duel were fixed at Co- fentry, the king in person was to witness the combat, and the whole chivalry of Eng- Und was split into two parties, siding with the respective champions. But on the day of duel the king forbade the combat, ba- nishing Norfolk for ten years and Hereford for life. The great inconsistency of Richard makes it difficult to write his reign. Ity the act we have just recorded he showed sound and humane policy ; yet in the very next year we &ud him committing a must wanton and despotic wrong; as though he would ba- lance the prudence of putting an end to one source of Ktrife among his nobles by taking the earliest possible opportuuity to open up another ! A. u. 139«.— The duke of Lancaster dy- inx, his sun applied to be put into posses- lion of I lie estate and authority of his father, as secured by the king's own patent. But Uichard, jealous of that succession, caused the committee to which the autho- rity of parliament had been so strangely de- legated, to authorize him to revoke that patent, and to try and cntidfinn Lancas- ter's own attorney for having done bis duty to his cuiplnycr I This monstrous tyranny was not carried to the lcm;th of actually putting the attorney to death, in pursuance of the sentence, but that extreme rigour was only cuminnted to banishment 1 The tyranny of this strange act was in- disputable and detestable ; but by no means more strange and unaccountable than its singular impolicy. It would have been impossible to nniuc a noble then living who was more generally and universally popular than Uenry, the new duke nf Lancaster. He had served with great credit against the intiilels in Lithuania; he was closely con- nected by blood with many of the most powerful of the nobility, and by friendship with still more; and liia own popularity, and the detestation into which the king liad now fallen, caused the great majority of the nation not only to take an indignant interest in the flagrant wrong done to the duke, but also to hojie that the vnstness of his wrongs would induce him to become the avenger of theirs. Notwithstanding the mere irritating and driving out of the country a man who, alike by birtli, popularity, and talonts, was so well calculated to wrest from him his tot- tering throne, the infatuated Richard now left England, as though fur the express purpose of inviting and facilitating some attempt likely to consummate his probable ruin I His cousin, and the presumptive heir to the tliruue, Roger, earl of March, having been slain in a skirmish with the Iri;-.i kern, Richard went over to Ireland in person to avenge his deceased relative. The promptitude of the duke of Lancaster was fully equal to the infatuatiun of Richard. Embarking at Nantes with a re- tinue ouly sixty in number, the duke landed nt Ravcnsnur iu Yorkshire, and was joined by the earls of Northumberland and Wes'- moreland. In the presence of these two potent nobles, and of the archbishop of Canterbury and that prelate's nephew, the vounj; earl of Arundel, both of whom had been his companions from Nantes, the duke solemnly made oath that be had returned to the country with no other purpose than that of recovering his duchy that had been so tyrannously withheld frum him. Having thus taken the best means to appease the fears of the king's few friends, and of the numerous lovers of pence whom the dread of a civil war, as a consequence of his aim- ing at the throne, would otherwise have rendered hostile to him, the duke invited not only all his own friends, hut all in England who were true lovers of justice, to aid and uphold him in this inc»iitestauly> just and reasunable design ; and his ap- peal, partly from personal affection to Iiim, nut chiefly from general and intense detes- tation of the absent king, was so eagerly I and speedily answered, that, iu a very few BBDUILT. A.n. M98.— TIIK K:(OMSIt AND SCOTCH AORER TO AN BXCnANOR OF TBISONRIIR. A. D. 1329.— TBB KtMO ABBITBB AT WATKUVonD HAT 31. 208 ^l^e ^rcasurt) of l^istore, $c(. days, he who had so lately left Nantes with a slender retinue of only sixty persons was at the head of an army of as many thou- sands, zealous in his cause, and beyond ex- pression anxious to take sif^nal vengeance for the numerous tyrannies of Richard. On leavinK England for the purpose of chastising the Irish rebels, Richard gave the important office of guardian of the realm to the duke of York. This prince did not possess the talents requisite in the dangerous crisis which had now arisen ; moreover, he was too closely connected with the duke of Lancaster to allow of his exerting the sincere and extreme rij^our by which alone the advances of that injured but no less ambitious noble could be kept in check ; and those friends of the king whose power and zeal might have kept York to his Adelity, and supplied his want of ability, had accompanied Richard to Ireland. Everything, therefore, seemed to favour the duke of Lancaster, should ambi- tion lead him to atlimpt something be- yond the mere recovery of his duchy. The duke of York, however, did not at the outset show any want of will to defend the king's rights. He ordered all the forces that could be collected to meet him at St. Alban's ; but titter all exertion had been made, he found himself at the head of no more than forty thousand men ; and these far from zealous in the royal cause. Just as he made this discovery of <. is twofold weakness, he received a message in which the duke of Lancaster begged him not to oppose his recovery of his inheritance, to which he still with consummate hypocrisy affected to limit his demands and wishes. York confessed that he could not think of opposing 1ms nephew in so reasonable and just a design, and York's declaration was received with a joy and applause which augured but ill for the interests of the absent king. Lancaster, still pretending to desire only the recovery of his right, now hastened to Bristol, where some of the ministers had taken refuge, and, having speedily made himself master of the place, gave the lie to all his professions of mode- ration by sending to instant execution the earl of Wiltshire, sir John Bussy, and sir Henry Green. I Intelligence of Lancaster's proceedings I had by this time reached Richard, who ' hastened from Ireland with an army of ' 20,000 wen, and landed at Milford Haveu. Against the force by which Lancaster had by this time surrounded himself, the whole of Richard's army would have availed but little ; but before he could attempt any thing, above two thirds of even that smaU army had deserted him ; and he found him- self compelled to steal away from the faith- ful remnant of his force and take shelter in the isle of Anglesey, whence he probably intended to embark for France, there to await some change of affairs which might enable him to exert himself with at least some hope of success. Lancaster, as politic as he was ambitious, saw at a glance how much mischief and disturbance might possibly accrue to him from Richard obtaining the support and shelter of France or even of Ireland, and determined to possess himself of the un- happy king's person previous to wholly throwing off the thin mask he still wore of moderation and loyalty. He, therefore sent the earl of Northumberland to Richard' ostensiblv for the purpose of assurinL; hinl of Lancnter's loyal feeling and moderut^ aim ; and Northumberland, as instructed, took the opportunity to seize upon Richard,' whom he conveyed to Flint castle, where Lancaster anxiously awaited his precious prize. The unfortunate Richard was now conveyed to London nominally under the Erotection, but reit' y as the prisoner, of aucaster, who throughout the journey was everv where received with the submii- sion and acclamations that of right be- longed to his sovereign. The Londonen, especially, showed unbounded affection to the duke; and some writers even affirm that they, by their recorder, advised Lan- caster to put Richard to death. However atrocious this advice, the spirit of that age was such as hj no means to make it im- probable that It was given. But Lancaster had deeper thoughts, and had no intentioo of letting his whole designs be visible, or at least declared, until he could do so with perfect safety from having the chief autho- rities of the nation compromised by hit acts. Instead, therefore, of violently put- ting an end to the captive king, he made use of the royal name to sanction his own measures. Richard, helpless and a pri- soner, was compelled to summon a parlia- ment ; and before this parliament thirty- three articles of accusation were laid against the king. Most of the nobles who were friendly to Richard had secured their own safety by flight ; and as Lancaster was at once powerful and popular, we may fairk believe that Richard was as ill provided with friends in the commons as in the lords. But the bishop of Carlisle, in the latter house, nobly redeemed the national cha- racter by the ability and firmness with which he showed, at once, the insufticiencv of the charges made against Richard, ind the unconstitutional and irregular nature of the treatment bestowed upon him. He argued, that even those of the charges against Richard which might fairly be ad- mitted to be true, were rather eviclence of youth and want of judgment than nf ty- ranny; and that the deposition of Edward II., besides that it was no otherwise a pre- cedent than as it was a successful act of violence, was still farther no precedent in this case, because on the deposition of Edward the succession was kept inviolate, his son being placed upon the throne ; while the duke of Lancaster, whom it was now proposed to substitute for Richard, cuuld only mount the throne, even after Richard's deposition, by violating the rights of the chudl-en of his father's elder brother, Lio- nel, duke of Clarence, upon whom the crown had been solemnly entailed by the parliament. 9 I I TU8 DVK8 OF IiANCASTER'b SUCCBSB WAS QVITB UNPRBCKnENTIin. ■ ICUABO WAS AT VIBST CUMrlKKD IM LKKDS CASTbK, KKNT. lEnglanU— l@Iantagfn«t8.— 1R(cI)arll lilE. 209 4 15: The ipirited and just conduct of tlic able prtlate, however honourable to himself, and lowe»er precious as, pro tanto, rescuing tht national character from the charge of iMiBK utter;y lost to all sense of right, was of BO (ervicc V- the unhappy Richard. The liiibop was heard by the parlianicut an though he had given utterance to some- thJDg of incredible folly and injustice : the cksTKes were voted to be proven against Bicliard; and the duke of Lancaster, now wbolly triumphant, imuicdialcly had the biibop of Lincoln arrested and sent pri- loner to St. Albnn's abbey, there to ac- Quire a more subservient understanding of the principles of constitutional law. Richard being in due form deposed, the > { duke of Lancaster, who hod so recently made oath that he sought only the recovery of his duchy,— of which it is beyond all question that he had been most wrongfully deprived— now came forward, crossed him- itir in the forehead and breasc with much letming devotion, and said, " In the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, I, Henry of Lancaster, challenge tbii realm of England, and the crown, and ill the members and appurtenances also, that I am descended by right line of the blood, coming from the good king Henry the Third, and through that right that Gud of his grace hath sent me, wit It help of kin tod of my friends, to recover it ; the which realm vras on point of being undone by de- fault of governance and undoing of the good laws." The right to which the dulce of Lancas- ter here pretends requires a few, and but a few, words of explanation. " There was," I Mjis Hume, " a sillv story received among I the lowest of the vulgar, that Udmond, carl I of Lancaster, sou of Hvnry the Third, was I really the elder brother of Edward ; but that by reason of some deformity in his person he had been postponed in the suc- cession, and his younger brother imposed upon the nation in his stead. As the pre- sent duke of Lancaster inherited from Ed- mond, by his mother, this genealogy made hioi the true heir of the monarchy, and it ii therefore insinuated in his speech, but the absurdity was too gross to be openly avowed either by him or the parliament." But if loo gross for formal purliameutary use, it could scarcely be too gross fur im- posing upon the changeful, ignorant, and tucliulent rabble ; and Heuiy of Lancaster was tar too accomplished a demagogue to overlook the usefulness of a falsehood on account of its grossness. The deposition of Richard rendered it necessary that the parliament should be dissolved; but in six days after that took place a new parliament was called by his usurping successor. This parliament gave a new proof of the absurdity of bweariug the parliament and people to the perpe- tuity of laws ; all the laws of Richard's former parliament, which had not only been sworn to hut Also contirmedby n papal bull, being now abrogated at one fell swoop ! And to make the lesson still more striking and still more disgusting, nil the arts of Gloucester's parliament uhich had been so aolemuly abrogated, were now as solemnly contirmedl For accusing Gloucester, War- wick, and Arundel, many peers had been Sromoted ; they were now on that account egraded I The recent practice had made appeals in parliament the rit^htful and so- lemn way ot bringing high otlendcrs to jus- tice ; such appeals were now abolished in favour of common law indictments. How could peaceable and steady conduct be ex- pected from a people whose laws were thus perpetually subjected to chance and change, to the rise of this or to the fall of that party? Heury of Lancaster, by due course of vio lence and fraud, of hypocrisy and of per- jury, having usurped the crown, the dispo- sal of the person of the late king naturally became a question of some interest; and the earl of Northumberland, who had acted 80 treacherous a part, was deputed to ask the advice of the peers uuuu that poiut, and to inform them that the king had re- solved to spare Richard's life. The peers were unanimously of opinion that Richard should be conlined in some secure fortress, and prevented from having any communi- cation wi;h his friends. Poutefract castle was accordingly fixed upon as the deposed king's prison, and here he speedily died at | the early age of thirty-four. That he was > murdered no historian denies; but while I some say that he was openly attacked by I assassins who were admitted to his apart- | nients, and that before he was dispntched | he killed one of his assailants and nearly overpowetcd the rest; others say, that \ifi was starved to death, and that his strong constitution inHicted upon him the un- speakable misery of living for a fortnight after his inhuman gaolers had ceased to supply him with any food ; and this latter account is the more likely to be the correct one, as his body, when exposed to public view, exhibited no marks of violence upon it. Whatever his fault, it is impossible to deny that be was most unjustly treated by the usurper Henry, and very basely aban- doned by both houses of parliament; and his fate furnishes a new proof that the smallest tyranuies of a weak sovereign, in a rude and unlettered age, will provoke the most sanguinary vengeance at the hands of the very same men who will patiently and basely put up with the greatest and most insulting tyrannies at the hands of a king who has either wisdom or courage. Apart from the sedition and violence of which we have already given a detailed ac> count, the reign of the deposed and mur- dered Richard had but oue circumstance wortny of especial remark ; the comiiicucc- ment in England of the reform of the church. John Wickliffe, a secular jiricst of Oxtord, and subsequently rector of Lutter- worth, in Leicestershire, being a man of great learning and piety, and being unahlu by the most careful study of the scriptures to find any jusliticntion v)f the doctrine of the real presence, the supreinctey of Rome, O m K M Si < R f O •a 2!i H X e H a > c * RICHA.RU II. LEIT NO ISSUE DT EITURa OF HIS M.\RRIA0K8. i.T:. IC&OENTKD. THB BOOT or MICBABD WAS IHrVHBBO IN LANOLIY CUOKCH, ■■BTI. 210 ^l^e tlTrcasury of Bistorii, $cc. or tlie merit of vows of celibary, felt liimself ^ bound to make public his opinion on these points, and to maintain ",tliat the scriptures were the sole rule of faitli ; that the church won dependant on the state and should be reformed by it ; that the clergy ought to poxscss nn estates ; that the begging friars were a nuisance and ought not to be sup- ported; that the numerous ceremonies of the church were hurtful to true piety ; that oaths were unlawful, that dominion was founded in grace, that every thing was sub- ject to fate and destiny, and that all men were predestined to eternal salvation or re- probation." It will be perceived from this summary that Wickliffe in some particulars went be- yond the reformers of the sixteenth cen- turv ; but, drawing his opinions from the scriptures and the writ-n|^s of the fathers, he, m the main, agrees with the more mo- dern reformers who also sought truth in that same true source. Pope Gregory XI. issued a bull for the trial of Wickliffe as to the soundness of his opinions. The duke of Lancaster, who then, in conseqnence of Richard's minority, governed the kingdom, not only protected Wickliffe, but appeared in court with him, and ordered that be should be allowed to sit while being exa- mined by Courtenay, bishop of London, to whom the pope's duU was directed. The populace at tuis time were much against Wickliffe, and would probably have pro- ceeded to commit actual violence upon both him and liis great protector but for the interference of the bishop. But Wick- liffe's opinions being, fur the most part, true, and being maintained by an extremely earnest as well as learned and pious man, soon made so much progress, that the uni- versity of Oxford neglected to act upon a second bull which the pope directed againrt the intrepid reformer ; and even the popu- lace learned to sec so much soundness in his arguments, that when he was sum- moned before a synod nt Lambeth, they broke into the palace and so alarmed the prelates who were opposed to him, that he was dismissed without censure. On sub- se(juent occasions he was troubled for his opinions, but though he showed none of the stem and headlong courage of Luther in a later ajrc, he did that which paved the way for it ; being sufficiently tinctured with that enthusiasm necessary to unmask imposture, he gained the approbation of honest men ; while he so skiltully explained and tempo- rized, that he lived prosperously and died in peace at his rectory, in the year 1385 ; having set the example of deep and right thinking upon the important subjects of religion, but leaving it to a later generation to withstand the tyrannous assumptions of Rome even to the stake and the axe, the torture and the maddening gloom of the dungeon. The impunity of Wickliffe and his contemporary disciples must not, how- ever, be wholly set down to the account of his and their prudent temporizing and skilful explanation. These, indeed, under all the circumstances greatly served them. but would have utterly failed to do lo bat that M yet there was no law by which the secular arm could be made to punish thr heterodox ; and Home, partly from her own schisms and partly from the state of Znf. and, was just at this time in no condition to take those sweeping and stern measnrei which either in an earlier or later ago, with the greater favour of the civil ruler, the would have proved herself abundautlf will ing to take. That the power and opportu- nity, ) ither than the will, were wanting on the part of Rome to suppress the Lollardi — as Wickliffe's disciples were called— rcati not merely upon speculation. Proof of that fact is afforded by an act which about four years before the death of Wickliffe tlie clergy surrentitiausly got enrolled, though it never had tlie consent of the coromont, by which act all sheriffs were bound to appre- hend all preachers of heresy and their abettors. The raud was discovered and complained of in the commons during the next session ; and the clergy were thus de- terred from roakini; immediate use of their new and ill acquired powe-. , though they contrived to prevent the formal repeal of the smuggled act. CHAPTER XXVIII. The Reign vf Hbnrt IV. i.D. 1399.— HowBTsa Henry IV. might gloss over the matter to the servile com- mons or to the profoundly ignorant rabble, he could not but be perfectly aware that he had no hereditary right ; that his " right," in fact, was merely the right of a usurper who had paved the way to the throne bjr the grossest hypocrisy. And be must have { constantly been tortured with doubts and I anxieties, lest the ambition of some new ! usurper should be sanctioned as his own had been, by what artful demagogues face- tiously call the " voice of the people," or lest some combination of the barons should pluck the stolen diadem from his brow, to Slace it on that of the heir of the house of lortimer, whom parliament had formerl; declared the heir to the crown. But Henry could lessen these cares and fears by re- flecting that he had possession, and that possession was not so easily to be wrested from him by a fUture usurper, as it had been by himself from the weak and un- skilled arm of Richard; while, even should the parliamentary decision in favour of the true heir be brought into play, it was not so difficult or uncommon a thing to alter the most solemn acts, even when passed amid oaths and supported by a bull! Moreover, as to the difficulty that niiKht arise from the true heir, Henry probabljf placed his chief reliance here — thut heir, then only seven years old, and his younger brother, were in Henry's own custody in the royal castle of Windsor. A. D. 1400.— Had Henry been previously ignorant of the turbulent character of hit barons, his very first parliament had fur- nished him with abundant iiiforninticn upon that score. Scarcely bad the peers TUB WIIIT OP SVBPCENA WAS FIRST VSBD IN RICUABD's BEION. ■■siiT IT. •Oil or 4UUM or oaumt, was ■ukmamkd " bolikobuukk." lEngIant» "^^ouse of 1Cancast«r.— I^tnri) lEF. 21 1 'Self abundnutly will ! power and opporta- till, were wanting on upprest the Lollards lev were called— reati !Culation. Proof of y an act which about leath of Wickliffe the ;ot enrolled, though it t of the coinmoua, bf were bound to appre- of heresy and their was discoverpd and comicons during the | i. ! clerKy were thus de- ' mmediate use of their { ° ' powe'. , though the; ! j^ the formal repeal trf i R XXVIII. r Hbwbt IV. FEB Henry IV. might r to the servile com- undly ignorant rabble, perfectly aware that he I ;ht ; that his " right," I he right of a usurper j , way to the throne by i j | y. And he mnat hafc { nred with doubts and { mhition of some new : * ' anctioned as his own | tful demagogues face- j ce of the people," or n of the barons should lem from his brow, to e heir of the house of liament had formerly he crown. But Henry lares and fears by re- possession, and that 10 easily to be wrested te usurper, as it had m the weak and un- d ; while, even should cision in favour of the into play, it was not mon a thing to alter tg, even when paaaed ipported by a bull! difficulty that might heir, Henry probably ince here— that heir, . old, and his younger nry's own custody in indsor. ^enry been previ.iusly ilent character of his j parliament had fur- ■ bundant informaticn larcely had the peers aiaembled when disputes ran ao high uaong them, that not only was very " un> pirtiaioentary " language bandied about linoDg them, even to the extent of giving etch other the lie direct, and as directly chsrfiog each other with treason, but this lioiuage was supported by the throwing ion, upon the lioor of the house, of no fewer than forty gauntlets in token of their owners' readiness to maintain their words io mortal combat. For the present th" Un| had influence enough among tlip . dwi|hty peers to prevent them from coi ..tg ills actual personal collision. But he was got able to prevent their quarrel from still nnkling in their hearts, still less was he sble to overpower the strong feeling of ha- tred which some of them cherished against hit own power and person. We spoke, • little while since, of the de- padation by Henry's parliament of certain peers who had been raised by Richard's parliament, on account of the part they took at the time of the rebellion of the duke of Gloucester. The earla of Rutland, Kent, and Huntingdon, and the lord 8pen> ttt, who were thus degraded, respectively, fram the titles of Albemarle, Surrey, Exeter, iiiil Gloucester, the three first being duke- I domsand the fourth an earldom, now en- tered into a conspiracy vo seize the king at Windsor; and liia deposiliun, if not his death, must infallibly have followed had thef succeeded in the first part of their design. The earl of Salisbury and the lord Lumley joined in this conspiracy, and the meuures were so well taken that Henry's mm would have been morally certain, but that Rutland, from compunction or some less creditable motive, gave the king timely DOtice, and he suddenly withdrew from Wiudsor, where he was living compara- tltely unprotected, and reached London in private just as the couspirators arrived at Wiadaor with a party of five hundred ca- Tsiry. Before the baffled conspirators could recover fruiu their surprize the king posted himself at Kingston-on-Thames, with ca- lalry and infantry, chiefly supplied by the city of London, to the number of twenty thousand. The conspirators had so en- tirely denended upon the effect of aurpris. ing the king and making use of the pos- session of his person, that they now saw Ihcy had lost all in losing him, and they betook themselves to their respective coun- I ties to raise their friends and depend- anta. But the king had now all the advan- tage of being already in force, and strong detachments of his friends pursued the fugitives so hotly that they had not the chance of making any combined resistance. The earls of Kent and Salisbury were seized at Cirencester, in Gloucestershire, by the mhabitants of that place, and were be- headed un the following day ; Spencer and Lumlev were similarly disposed of by the men of Bristol ; and the earls of Uuntinii;- don, air Thomas Blount, sir Benedict Sely, and several others who were made pri- soners, were subsequently put to death by Henry's own order. It gives us a positive loathing for the morality of that age when we read thnt on the quartered bodies of these persona being brought to London, the mangled and senseless remains were insulted by the loud and disgusting jov, not only of immense numbers of the rabiilv of the turbulent metropolis, but also by thirty-two mitred abbots and eighteen bi- shops, who thus set an example which— can we doubt it?— was only too faithfully fol- lowed by the iuferior clergy. But the luost disgtisting as well as the most horrible part of this sad story still remains to he told. In this truly degrading procession the earl of Rutland mode a conspicuous figure, not merely as being son and heir of the duke of York, as having aided in the murder of his uncle the duke of Gloucester, as hav- ing deserted from Richard to Henry, and having conspired against the latter and betrayed to him the wretched men whose remains were now being brutally paraded before the eyes of the rabble ; these distinc- tions were not enough for his evil ambition, and lest he should be overlooked in the bloodv procession, he carried upon • pole the glinstly head of one of those victims whom he had first seduced and conspired with, and then betrayed— and that victim was the lord Spencer, his own brother-in- law I Surely this man had successfully aimed at the sublimity of inlamy ! A.D. 14U1. — I'olitic in everything, and re- solute to make everything as far as possi- ble subservient to his safety and interest, Henry, who in his youth and while as yet a subject had been, as his father had, a fa- vourer of the Lollards, now laid himself out to aid in their oppression, in order to conciliate the establislicd clerjty. And to all the other evil characteristics of this reign is to be added that of the oritrinatiug, in England; of civil penal laws agniiist the undefined and indefinable crime of heresy. Lollardism, appealing to the simple com- mon sense of the multitude, had by this time become very widely disseminated in England; and the clergy, unable to oppose the leadiug argiimtnts of the detested he- retics, and unpoisacssed of the power to silence those wiiom they could not confute, loudly demanded the aid of the civil power. Anxious to serve a vast and powerful body of men who in any great emergency would be so well able to serve him, Henry en- gaged the parliament to pass a bill, which provided, that all relapsed heretics who should refuse to abjure their errors of faith when summoned before the bishop and his commissioners, should be delivered over to the civil authorities, who should publicly commit them to the flames. An atrocious use of the king's power; but every way worthy of the atrocious hypocrisy and vio- lence by which that power had been ac- quired. 'When this act was passed with all the due forms, the clergy speedily afforded proof that they did not intend to allow it to re- main a dead letter. William Sautre, a clergyman of London, was condemned as a relapsed heretic by the convocation of A. D. 1399.— HrNIlY WAS CKOWNBD ON THB IStB OP OCTOBKK. A.O, 1400.— TM XMrlUOn or COffSTANTINOrLK VIKITI aKatAKD. 212 ^^c ^reasunj of l^istoi?, $cc. Canterbury, and beiiiK committed to the ' ehaitiieroent of the civil power, the king iasued hit writ, and the wretched man waa burned to death. Great as all the other i crimei of Henry were, they fall into com- parative iniiiKnirtcaiice in comparison of this: that he was the first, $ine» ike ««- tinelion tff the dark and brutal lupemtition of the Druifh, who tlhyusted and horrified the inhabitants of England with the awful tight of a fellow-rreature yielding vp kit breath amid the inejg^able tortures of tht ««• erUleialJlnmes. While Henry, conscious nf the badnesa of his title, was thus endeavouring, by the most atrocious sacrifices to expediency, to Btrengthrn himself in England, he, as fur as possible, avoided the necessity of making any considerable exertions elsewhere. But I even hia consummate art could not wholly preserve him from the cares of war. The king of France had too many cause* of anxiety in his own kingdom to admit of hit making, as both he and his friends were anxious to make, a descent upon Kngland, •nd he waa obliged to content himself with getting hi* daugnter safely out of the hands of Henry. But the Gascons, amon^ whom Richard was born, and who, in spite of his numerous and glaring faults, were passion- ately attached to his memory, refused to awear allegiance to his murderer; and had the king of France been able to bcaA an army to their support, they would, ocyond all doubt, have made an obstinate resist- ance. But Charles'* own situation render- ing him unable to assist them, the earl of Worcester, at the head of an English army, found no difficulty in bringing them to obe- dience ; and they were the less inrlined to make any new attempt at shaking off Henry's yoke, because he was in commu- nion with the pope of Rome, whose zealous partisans they were; while France was in communion with the auti-pope, then resi- dent at Avignon. A sturdier and more formidable opponent of the usurper was found nearer home. Owain Glendwyr, the powerful chieftain of VTales, a lineal descendant of the ancient prince* of that country, and greatly beloved on that account as well as for his remark- able personal courage, gave deep offence to Henry by the firm attachment which he displayed to the memory of the murdered Richard. Lord Gray, of Ruthyn, a con- fidential and unscrupulous friend of Hen- ry, had a large pnsseHsion in the Welsh marches ; and well knowing that he should please Henry— perhaps even personally in- atigated by him— he forcibly entered Glen- dwyr'a territory, and expelled him and his fbllowers. The personal fame and the an- tique descent of Glendwyr enabled him easily and speedily to collect a sufficient force to oust the intruders, and Henry, as probably had been agreed, sent assistance to lord Gray, whence a long and &anji;uinary war ensued. The Welsh chieftain no longer comhatted merely his personal enemy, hut made war without distinction upon all the English subject* in his neighbourhood, and ainnn" them upon the earl of Marche. Sir Ed- mund Mortimer, uncle nf that nobtemtn assembled the family retainers and tn. deavoured to make head agiiinst Giiiudwrr ' but was defeated, and both hu and thi' young earl, who, though onU a youth i would go to the Hold, were taken prisonen! Detesting the family of Mortimer in ulj its branches, Henry not only took no ttepi towards obtaining the release nf the youi;i earl, but even refused to grant the eirneit intreaties of the earl of Northumberland to be permitted to do so, although the eatl bad so mainly contributed to Henry's own elevation, and was, besides, very nearly re- lated to the young captive. Hut in point of ingratitude, as in point of hypocritv, Henry stopped at no half measureii; aiiii having thus shown hi* sense nf the etrl'i i past service, he very shortly nl'tcrwsrdi I made a new service the actual ground of a j new and even more directly insulting in- j gratitude. ! The Scots, tempted by the occasion of lo ! recent and flagrant an usurpation of thi' | crown, made incursions into the northtm j counties of England; and Henry, attcnM by the most warlike of his nobles, ninrclicii ; in such force to Edinburgh, that the Scots, ' unable at that moment prudently to give him battle, retired to the mountaina, ai was ever their custom when they could not ! light, yet would not resist. In this di- ; lemma, with a foe which he could ncitlicr I provoke into the field nor terrify into i ; formal and insincere submission, Ucnry issued a formal and pompous sunimoni to . Robert III. to come to him and doliowavio ' for his crown, and then marched homcauJ disbanded his army. ': A . ». 1 402. — Del ivered from the immediate presence of their enemy, the Srots exerted ' themselves so well, that lord Douglas vm i now able to lead an armv of twelve thousand , men, officered Dy all the heads of tlic no '■ bility, into England, where the usmij do- vastatiun and plunder marked tlii'ir pre- sence. The earl of Northumberland and | his gallant son collected a force and over- ' took the Scots at Holmcdon, as they were returning home laden with booty. In the j battle which ensued the Scots were com- 1 pletely routed, vast numbers of thciu were i alain or taken prisoners, and nmaug the latter were lord Douglas himself, the enrl of Fife, son of the duke of Albany mi nephew of tha king of Scotland, and llio earls of Angus, Murray, and Orkney. 1 In that age the ransom of prisoners was a most important part of the profit of the warrior, whether officer or private. The noble who went to war for his sovereiu'n not only ran the ordinary risks of the tinlit, but also, if taken prisoner, had to pnrcliate hi* own release, ofte at a sum so vast ns to entail comparative poverty upon h:s family for generations. Under sicli c;r cumstnnces to interfere with him ns lo tie ransom of his prisoners, when he was In- voured by the fortune of war, was as !-ci:ndii- lous a breach of faith as any other and A.S. 1401. — SBVBRAI. ACTS FAS8RD IN FAVOUR OF TtIK CLERGY. I SKOLAND. A.B. 1403.— TUB BIKa MAUBIBS JOAN OV MAVABBB, fBB. J. ibourhood, and iir.nn? I of Marche. Sir Kd- icle of that nobleniAn, ily retaineri and tn'. iieiid HKHiimt GIimhIwtt, and buth hu and iW' ;hough only a youth, . I, were taken pri&onrrf. lily of Mortimer in ull not only took no ttepi he rcleate of the youn "d to grant tlie caroeit irl of Norlhuinberl«n(l lo BO, althou|;h the eat) ■ibuted to Henry'i o«ii bciid^s, very nearly re- captive. Hut in poini in point of hypocritr, no half measuren; aiiil > his aense of the etrl'i 'ery shortly nl'tcrwtrdi i the actual ground of « ! " | e directly insultinK in- 1 ; ed by the occasion of so ! , t an usur])ation of ti.e j ; lions into the northern j < id ; and Henry, sttrmlfd J e of hi* nobles, miirolicd | i inburgb, that the Srols, ' | imcnt prudently to gi\e • I to the niountaina, ii ' om when they could not ! not resist. In this ili- i which he could noitlu'r ', idence of his troops in a degree not infe- rior to that in which it was enjoyed by the ' , etrl himself, and he marched towards I ; Shrewsbury, where he was to be joined by g Glendwyr. Henry who, whatever his crimes, was both brave and able, had just collected a force with a view to repelling or chastising the Scots, and by hurried marches he con- trired to reach Shrewsbury ere Glendwyr had arrived to the support of Percy. J j It was obviously the king's true policy to force Percy to an engagement before his 1 1 expected allies could arrive, and the fierce 'P ' tui impatient temper of Harry Hotspur •dioirably seconded the king's wish. As if fearful lest any motive should in- duce the king to decline the instant trial of their strength. Hotspur issued a manifesto, in which he urged every topic that was cal- calated to goad the king's conscience, or to wound his pride and lower his character. In the words of Hume, '* He renounced his •llegiance, set him at defiance, and in the I name of his father and uncle as well as in I hi* own, he enumerated all the gprievances of which he pretended the nation had rra- ■on to complain. He upbraided him with the perjury of which he had been guilty when, on landing at Ravenspur, he had ■worn upon the eospels, before the earl of Northumbcrlanit, that he had no other in- tention than to recover the duchy of Lan> castor, and that he would ever remain a faithful subject to king Richard. He ag- gravated his guilt in first dethroning and then murdering that prince, and in u»urp- ing on the title of the house of Mor- timer, to whom, both by lineal succession and by declarations of parliament, the throne, when vacant by Richard's demise, did of right belong. He cnmplnincd of his cruel policy in allowing the young cnrl of Marche, whom he ought to re(;ard as hit sovereign, to remain a captive in the hands of his enemies, and in even rcl'usinff to all his friends permission to treat for his ran- som. He charged him again with perjury in loading the nation with heavy taxes, after having aworn that, without the utmost ne- cessity, he would never lay any impositions upon them ; and he reproached him with the arts employed in procuring favourable elections into parliament ; arts which he himself had before imputed as a crime to Richard, and which hu had made one-chief reason of that prince's arraignment and de- position." The truths here collected tell very heavi- ly against the character of Henry; but the reader must not omit to notice that in most of the crimes here laid to his charge the earl of Northumberland had been his zeal- ous accomplice, and by his own overgrown power had mainly enabled him tu do those very things which be now charged against him as crimes, and which he so charged only because of their bitter personal feud. So rarely, so very rarely, do even the most patriotic enterprises take their rise solely in patriotic and pure feelings. On the following morning the embattled hosts attacked each other, and rarely upon English ground has so sanguinary an action taken place. Douglas and young Percy, who had so often and so bravely opposed each other, now that they fought in the same ranks seemed to strive to outvie each other in deeds of daring and Helf exposure. Hen- ry, on his side, with whom was the young prince of Wales, who now "fleshed his maiden sword," proved himself worthy of the usurped crown as far aa valour and con- duct were concerned. Yet, though he re- peatedly charged where the battle was the fiercest and the slaughter the most terrible, he even on this occasion showed that he never allowed courage to leave policy alto- gether behind. Feeling sure that the hos- tile leaders would not fail to direqt their especial exertions to slaying him or making him prisoner, he caused several of his of- ficers to be dressed and armed in the royal guise; and this policy at once proved the correctness of hist judgment, and, in all hu- man probability, eaved his life, for several of the seeming kings paid with their hves for their temporary disguise; the fierce A.S. 1404.— WILLIAM OF WTKBUAM, BISHOP OF WIIICn£STKB, DIKD JAN. 15. A.v. UM.—tum Bina •!?■■ turn iiia of man to iik ioun sianlit. 'AM Vi^t ^riasttrv o( l^istorv, (cc. DourIu roaming throuth the fleld, and •Uying each that bore the royal loinbUnce who had the mUfortune to come within the •weep of hia trenchant and unaparing blade. The alaughter waa tremendous, but the vic- tory waa on the tide of the Icing, the troops of Verey Calling into complete and irreme- diable disorder through that gallant, though too imprtuona. leader being slain by some undistWRVished hand. About tour thou- sand soldiers perished on the side of Percy, and above half that number on the side of the king, while, including the loss of both armies, considerably more than two thou- sand nobles and gentlemen were slain. The earls of Worcester and Douglas were taken ; the latter was treated with all t)iQ rvRycct and kindness due to a distinguished pri- soner of war, but the former, toKether with sir Richard Vernon, waa beheaded at Shrewsbury. The carl of Northumberland, whoby •'is time had recovered from his illness, had raised a small force and was advancing to the aid of hia gallant son, when be was shocked and astounded by the disastrous tidings from Shrewsburv. Perceiving the impossibility, with all the force he could then command, of at that time making head against the king, he dismissed all his fol- lowers, except the retinue usual to men of liis rank, proceeded to York, and presented himself to the king, to whom he ooldly af- finned that hia sob intention was to endea- vour, by uiediatir littened the com. I them to ted to the o«(d, ind taking oit nK sibouli itetion. It .heir nnk, 10 i)(trik)u> tlieir r J- 'ity of the IcuU.evea •unt bet'oie : being the hini{ wheo ' s ail theit tlicre wai m and Itii , lid hn dis- ' ic relieved [lavinK two ;u (iippott. ip, like the .witchcraft, loaed eye*. "estmore- , but the lie utterly ret orders |> a« if by ircbbishop I the kin^, , i ing forced : ^ lL))ectatiim ' . ield. The j 3 Tcbbishop ] * executed; ! J ibishop, of 5 |icb Rome , u terly awful ; I learning j liefly nttri- j ; 1 friends in i i jexfi, and in ■ ' Lyen child- , ; bsed upon, \ Jpanied by j Ingvd him- 1 |siuuntlta|S | toe, Henry Iwhom the A.l>. 1411.— •UILOBALL, I.O!«DOR, ■■■tJILT AT TBI CITt'a XXrBNIM. lEnglantl.— l^otwe oC lCanta»t«r.— HJcnrp 17. 216 Brine* of Wain had obtained tome adran- twts; but thougli Olenilwyr wa« not iu force to meet his eneniiei In the (icid, hi» moonttin fnitnetaet and the incorruptible lldelityof hi* tyiends enabled him to escape (torn beinn raptured. A.B. Uii7.— The earl of Northutnoerland and lord fiardolph, more inveterate than eteragainat Henry.slnce hehaddiamautled their eaatlet, entered the north of England trith but a slender retinue, in the hope that sympathy with them and hatred of the kinc would caase the neople to flock to their standard. But if Henrv'a crime* had made him hated, hia aucceas had made him feared: the attempt was utterly unsuccesi' h\ ; and the sheriff of York, air Thomas Rnkeby, having got together a force, sud- denly attacked the outlawed nobles, both of whom pt-rished in the battle. To com> pletc Henry's good fortune and wholly free iiim from his domestic enemlea, the forral- d&ble Glendwyr soon after died. Fortune ser\'ed Henry in Scotland as it already had served him in England. Robert III,, a mild and incapable sovereign, al- losred his brother, the duke of Albany, completely to usurp his authority; Albany, lyraanical and ambitious, threw his elder nephew, David, the heir apparent to the throne, into prison, where he was starved to death. Robert's younger son, James, who alone now atood between Albany and that throne for which }i had already committed so awful a crin.", was sent by '>'; alarmed father for safei]r to France ; but the vessel in which he sailed was cap- tured by tlic English, and the prince was carried to London. There was at this time a truce between England and Scotland, notwithstanding which Henry would not part with his ^oung prisoner ; and this vir- tual loss of his only remaining child com- pletely broke the heart of the unfortunate Itobert, who shortly afterwards died. Henry now bad a most stringent power over Al- ^ hanr, who governed Scotland as regent ; j lurde could continue the duke in that high ' olRce by detaining young James, while, : upon the slightest breach of peace on the I duke's side, Henry could at once ruin him i and gain the friendship of the Scots by re- I itoriDK them their rightful king. In tne wars which occurred among the : French factions during the latter part of this reign Henry took out little part, and ; nothing that his troops did in that country I was of importance enough to merit any de- j tailed mention. I It must not be supposed that the king, I though outwardly thus prosperous, en- joyed his usurped dignity without any drawbacks. His mental sufferings are I described to have been tremendous ; the greatest success could not fortify his mind against liarroniiig dread of future misfor- tune, and even while he was preparing for new crimes by which to support his throne, he was Imuuted by remorse for the_.old , ones by which he had acquired it. This perpetual misery at length wholly deprived ; him of his reason, and he died the victim of crime and remorse, a worn ont man, while yet a* to age only in the very prima of life, on the SOtli of March 1413, in the thirteenth year of hia reign and in the fotrty-srxth of his age. Of this reign little needs to be said in the way of summarv. Ill acquired as was Henry's authoritv, he showed himself so able to wield it, that had he been a legiti- mate sovereign his reign would undoubtedly have been one of the most glorioua in our history. The parliament, proflting hv the defeet of the king's title, made considerable ad- vances in authoirity in this rci^; but though Henry was polite enough to yield in matters of little moment, he also knew how to refuse when refusal was necessary to prevent encroachment fVom going fur- ther. Thus on one occasion he dismissed four persons from his household, including his coufeasor, at the demand of the com- mons ; while on another, he replied to the demand of the commons for greater lenity to the Lollards, by ordering a Lollard to be burned before the close of rhe session I CHAPTER XXIX. The Reign of Hkrrt V. A. D. 1413. — Thougb the bad title of Henry IV., and the care with which his fa- ther's jealous suspicions during the latter years of his reign iiad caused him to ex- clude his son from any share in the civil government, seemed to give the roung prince but little opportunity of easily a*- ceuding the throne, he had the very great advautage of being popular. The courage and conduct which ho had shown in mili- tary affairs, so far as his father liad allowed him to act in them, and a certain chivalric and fantastic generosity, had not only caused the people to set at least a full value upon wliat he did of good, but also to excuse, as the mere "flash and outbreak of a fiery mind," irregularities which would have excited their utmost indignation against t prince of a more sullen and lesa generous temper. Looked upon with jealousy by his father, and discouraged, or rather prevented, from mixing with the statesmen of the day and sharing in the cares of government, the mercurial temper of the young prince caused him to seek pleasure and compa- nionship out of his proper sphere, and to make himself talked of among his future subjects for nianv frolics, which in any other person would have been treated as crimes of no ordinarv magnitude. He not only rioted and drank with men of bad re- pute and broken fortune, but it is even said that on more than one occasion he joined them in laying the wealthy passenger under contribution on the highway. Sliakspere, who in this as in many other cases has painted faithfully, makes Falstaff exclaim to this young prince — " Rob me the exche- quer, Hal I " but the prince, if historians speak the truth, took the liberty to rob the subject ere his coin could liud its way to the « O n H M M a M o a « M (8 M ■ O A M f U M > R O u M O M '4 nOSriTALITT AND LUXURY WRRR CUARACTKRISTICS OF TUIS ACB. A>.U 1143.— A THUOK •KTWsaN KNOLAND, tCOTLAflD, ARO mitlica. 2IG 4 8 M s g S u e M « B M M s ■ m s M ■ * m R o a » s o m o >« o II a a M H a Vl\it ^rcaturi} of llistoro* ^c. ixcliequcr. Such a eoiirie wm but tli adapt- ed to reconcile the nntion to the bad title upon wliich Henry V, now aiceniled the throne, or to give them hone that the lawa would be welTadminlitered under hit go- fernment. But at bit generou* and gay nature had reconciled them to the faulta of the youthfiil prince, lo now, young aa he Btill waa, the wiadom and propriety of hie very flrat act gave them reason to think hopefully of him aa their king. On one of the many occaiioni in which prince Ilenry'a turbulent companiona had diiturbed the public peace, certain of them were indicted for their miaeondnct, and the prince Henry attended their trial in the court of Kinra Bench. Perceiving that the lord chief-Justice Oaacoigne was not over- awed by the presence of the heir apparent, prince Uenrv was guiUy of some interrup- tion, for which the chief Juatice at once or- dered him to be taken to prison. It ma* bo doubted whether some of the "courage" and "uprightness" which historians so em- phatically attribute to the lord chief Jus- tice, on account of this affair, Aid not origi- nate in the knowledge that the king would be rather pleased than angry at anv morti- flcation inflicted upon the popular neir ap- parent. At all events, however, we muat admit that Oascoigne at least showed that he did not calculate, as many more eminent men have done, the future consequences of his present performance of his duty. On the accession of Henry V., Oascoigne waited upon him with every expectation of receiving the plainest discouragement ; but th' king, so far from showing himself of- fended at the past, made it the especial subject of his commendation, and exhorted the chief Justice to continue still to admi- nister the laws faithfully and fearlessly, without reference to the rank of the of- fender. To the grave and wise ministers who had ably served his father the young king gave a like gracious reception ; and sending for the former companions of his dissolute youth, he made them liberal presents, assured them of his intention wholly to reform his way of life, and for- bade their ever again approaching his pre- sence, until they should nave followed his present example, as they had participated and encouraged his former vice. Most men were greatly surprised at this wise conduct, and all were gladdened by it; and probably none were more completely in either o{ these categories than the mi- nisters who, at the very time that they imagined they were earning the prince's bitter enmity by their disconragement of his youthful levities, were, in fact, securing both bis esteem and bis confldence. Henry's prudence and Justice were not manifested merely in thus making amends for his own early follies. Deeply conscious that his father had wrongfully acquired that throne which he himself had too much am- bition to give up, he endeavoured, in all but giving it up, to i(o all that he could to- wards repairing lue wrongs committed by his father. He caused the memory of the murdered Richard to be honoured with ih« most solemn and spleudid obnequiei ikw could have been bestowed upon t poiest sovereign newly deceased, and lie set u i|. berty the young i-orl of Marche, of whom his father had been so cxtrenielv JcaIous. and showed him every kindness. Theyounit earl, who waa of an extremely mild temM* and who seemed to have had no partieleof ambition, appeared fully sensible of Hen. ry's kindness, and not only would never loski any attempt to disturb his Rovernment, bit showed himself strongly and sincerrlt at- tached to hia person. As if anxious to leave no token existing of the sad lumulti of the last reign, Henry also restored the Percy family to their honours and pn>. party ; and by this and numerous other scti indicative of hia determination to forget aIi party distinctions, caused all parties to be loo much delighted with his use of |io»tr to have either leisure or inclination to ea. quire how he became possessed of it. But party spirit could not be wholly en. dicated f^om the popular heart even by ili« personal exhortations and example or liit king himself. The horrible puninhiiieBti which in the recent reign were for the flrit time in England inflicted upon liereiici, though it might have awed ninny who woula otherwise have continued to be Lot- lards, far more certainly made nisn; tucii, wlio, but for this terrible advertisement, would have gone to their graves in uttci ignorance of the very existence of Lollard- ism. The public attention was aroused tnd lixed by tliese brutal executions; diicui- sion and enquiry followed, and by degreei the country became divided into two pw* ties, the friends of Rome and the Lolltrdi; and if the latter were by far interior to the former in number, they were already luf- flciently numerous to cause great annoy- ance to the clergy and some anxiety ctcd to the civil power. By far the most eminent man nmong ihe Lollards at this time was lord Cobhani, who both under that title and as sir John Oldcastle, had done good service (o the nation, and had been honoured ivith the notice and approbation of both the Inte and the present king. The very excellence of his character ana the extent of his ahi- lities made his sectarianism the more of- fensive to the church ; and as it was deemed that the increasing number of the Lollardi ret^uired to be checked by some especially striking example, lord Cobham waa se- lected aa the victim, and Ihe archbishop of Canterbury, Arundel, applied to Henry for permission to indict Cobham. Henry, who seems to have been better aware than the bigoted archbishop of the real effects of persecution in mHttcrs of faith, was extremely unwilling to consent to a prosecution which, he judged, would but too snrely end in Cobham's desruction; and the archbishop was forbidden to take any steps until Henry himself should have endeavoured, by force of argument alone, to lead Cobham back to the church i'rom which lie had departed. Henry accord- i HEKBt V. \V%S CAM.BD "HKNRY OF UO!«MOUfH," FROM UI8 BIIITHFI.ACI!. !■■ oiDBOR roiiiiiioni AMOVNT110 *o SM.OOO ut lEnglanU.— H^ousc of ICancBBtcr— l^cnru V. 217 inglf Mnl for lord Cnbliam to court, und fgjcituurcU (o convince him of hia rrror; but Cobhwn wm fully equnl to llcnrjr in th< UM of intellectual wt'aponi, and wm noi, upon so important a topic, at all in- clised (0 ••criltce truth to complalunce ind (tlqiiclte. Finding it in vain to en- deaiour lo convert tlie unfortunate noble- ntn, Henrjr.with leeniiuKlr liucere rexret, »at obliged to give tlie rlcrgy their ro- quired permiulon to indict him. The arch- biihop, RMiilcd hy tlie biihopt of London. WInelirittcr, and 8t. Dnvid », proceeded Mtinit him, and he wae condemned to be bumrd. lie wm lent to the Tower, and a dtywM appointed for hit execution, but before that day arrived he manaced to (icipe from hie araulcri. Naturally of a fcrce and tomewuat haughty «pirit, the treatment he had received and tlie danger frum which he bad to narrowly eicaped eicitcd him to «0 high a pitch of anger and reiolution, that he determined to aim at a general revolution of the kingdom. And Accordingly, fnm the obicure retreat Id which he found ehelter, he iiiued orders 10 the Lollardi upon whom he could moat I depend, to join him upon a certain day, I tbat they might in the flrtt place leize apon the peraon of the king, who was at that time lodging in the palace of Eltbam, in Kent, and then take summary vengeance upon the chiefs of their persecutors. i.D. 1414.— As Cobham was very highly eiteenicd among the Lollards, and as they were nut only very numerous but also in- cluded a great number of wealthy and re- ipcctable persons, the king, who was in- formed of what was in contemplation, deemed it necessary not only to guiird him- lelf Against the intended surprize, but also to prepare to resist open insurrection. He accoraingly removed to the palace at West- minster, and prepared himself for whatever force Cobham might be able to bring. Eten now Cobham had ample opportunity to abandon his design, whicli became hope- less from the moment it became known, and to escape from the kingdom. Kut he seems to have been of a temper which difficulty and danger might enrage but could not intimidate, and he assembled all the forces he could raise in the fields of St. Giles. Being made acquainted with the appoiuted time as well as place of meeting, the king caused the gates of the city to be cloicd, tc prevent tuo discontented from getting an increase to their number from that quarter; he then went, well attended, to St. Giles, and seized those of the leaders who had already arrived, while the military, ikilfully stationed, arrested all who were found hastening to the spot. It appeared that, as is usual in such cases, the greater number of the prisoners knew little or notliiiig of the real designs of their leaders, though of the criminal and treasonable desips of the latter there remained no shadow of doubt. Those who were proved to have had treasonable designs were exe- cuted, but by far the greater number were pardoned. He whom the clergy were the most anxious to puninh, and who, indeed, was now not niucn less obnoxious to the civil than to the ecclesiastical authority, the lord (%ibham hiiiisrlf, was fortunate enough to escape, nut sentrnre was pro- nounced Again 'ur thousand men, d by fifteen ihou- id at length been and Gisors with lely did he threaten had removed in negotiations be- idy and Henry had inry, accompanied J of Clarence and Troves to finish tlie harles, butii rea- gundy ; for the un- » completely imbe- <• was at best but a ; ^ ds of whoever hau j ^ if his person. { S OF tANTUOIlNS. i D. H-0. — TUB TITLK Of KINO Or WUkJICK FlllST UaiU ON KKUMSII C01^S. "EnglantJ,— l^ouae of lEancaattr — %tnx\i V. 221 The chief provisions of this treaty, in vhich the honour and interests of the na- tion were accounted as nothing, were as fol- lows. Henry was to marry the princess Ca- tharine; Ciiarles was to enjoy the title and dignity of king during his life, but Henry wM to be his heir, and was also to be en- trusted with the immediate administration gf the affairs of the kingdom, which was to pass to his heirs in common with England, fith which kingdom it was to be united under him, though each kingdom should intcmuUy retain its own customs, privi- leges, and usages ; all the French princes, peers, communities, and vassals were to ■wear to obey Henry as regent, and in due time to adiiere to his succession as king ; Henry was to unite with Charles and the duke of Burgundy in chasing the dauphin from the kingdom ; and no one of the members of this tripartite league was to make peace with him, except with the consent of the other two. A treaty more scandalous to all parties it would be difficult to imagine. £vcn as regarded England, Henry was king only by succes- lion to an usurper ; and his claim to France, even ou that ground alone would have been icouted by the duke of Burgundy, had patriotism not been entirely banished from hii brenst by passion and personal interest. But interest, an 1 '. '-.res' alone, was at- tended to by the \ atv concerned in this very singular trek' ■, 'ci) was drawn, signed, and ratified a'' little scruple ou the side of Uurgur ' , , - ' ' .. ugh there had been no other object a,-. «iew than the mere gratification and aggrandizement of Henry. A few days after the signing of the treaty, this prince espoused the princess Catha- rine, and \Yith her and her father proceeded to Paris. Possessed of the capital, he had but httle difficulty in procuring from the parliament and the three estates a full and formnl ratification of that treaty, in every line of which their degradation was visibly written. The dauphin now assumed the style of regent of the kingdom, appealed to God to witness the justice of his cause, and pre- pared to defend it in arras ; and Henry pro- cecded to oppose him. He first laid siege to Sens, which after a very slight resist- ance surrendered to him, and Montereau was subdued with no less ease. Henry now proceeded to Mclun, but here he met witli a stouter resistance, the governor, Barbnsnn, repelling every effort lie could make for above four months ; and even at tlieend of that time the brave governor was only induced to treat for surrender by the absolute state of famine to which the gar- rison was reduced. Henry was now obliged to visit England for the purpose of obtain- ing both men and money, and during his absence he left his uncle the duke of Ex- eter in the post of governor of Paris. By this time the English, however much they were daziled and flattered by the talents and success of their iTing;, seem to have begun to take something like a cor- rect view of the possible ultimate conse- quence to them, and to their posterity, of tne proposed union of the two crowns ; and the parliament voted him a subsidy of only a fifteenth, wuicli would have been quite inadeuuate to his necessities, but that the French territory he had conquered served for the maintenance of his troops. Having got together, with the subsidy thus voted to him, a new army of twenty-four thousand archers and four thousand cavalry, he em* barked at Dover and safely reached I'nris, where everything had remained in perfect tranquillity under the government of his uncle. But during the absence of Henry the English had received a very severe check in Anjou. A Scotch brigade of seven thou- sand men had long been in the dauphin's service, sent thither by the regent of Scot- land. Henry had taken the young king of Scots, who had so long been in captivity, to France, and caused him to issue orders for all Scots to leave the dauphin's service. But the earl of Buchan, who commanded the Scots, replied, that his king while in captivity could not issue orders, at all events could not expect him to obey them. This gallant and well-disciplined body of troops now encountered the English detachment under the command of the duke of Cla- rence. That prince was sluin in the action by a Scottish knight named Allan Swiuton ; the earls of Somerset, Huntingdon, and Dorset were taken prisoners ; and the Eng- lish were completely routed ; to the great joy of the dauphin, who rewarded the earl of Buchan with the office of constable. Henry's return, however, soon damped the new-born joy of the dauphin, who was besieging Chartres, whither Henry march- ed, and compelled him to raise the siege without H strufrgle. From Chartres Henry marched to Dreux, which also surrendered without resistance, and then proceeded to lay siege to Meaux, the garrison of which had greatly annoyed the Parisians. Here the Englisli were resisted with great skill and courage for eight months, by the go- vernor Vnurus. At the end of that time the place was taken ; and it was probably in reality on account of the obstinate re- sistance that he had met with, but pro- fessedly for the cruelty which Vaurus had undoubtedly shown to his prisoners, Eng- lish as well as Bxrgundian, that Henry ordered him to be hanged upon the same gibbet upon which he had caused so mauy rave men to be executed. The capture of Meaux led to the sur- render of other places in the neighbour- hood that until tiien had obstinately held out ; and the dauphin, unable to resist the united power of the English and Bur- gundians, was driven beyond the Loire, and compelled to abandon nearly all the northern ijrovinces ; while the son of whom Henry's queen was just now delivered was as enthusiastically hailed at Paris as at London, as the future king of both nations Singularly handsome and vigorous in per- son, and having not yet nearly reached middle age, Henry might have been cx- n s' o M h n M O M M O n H O a H M H a H u m ►: A.D. 1421.— aKMBY AND HIS QUBKN ARRIVE AND ARE CHOWNF.O, VKT. 9. [ua A. D. 1412.— TUB PKACS or TROTBS CORVIHMKS BT rARlIAXB»T. 222 ^iie Exta&nx^ of l^ijitonj, $c(. pected to have very many yean of glory and triumph yet before him. But lie was af- flicted with a iiatula, a disease with which the rude surgery of that age knew not how to deal; and be, the powerful and am- bitious, the envied and the successful king, found himself hurrying to the grave by the rapid progress of a disease, from which in our own time the poorest peasant would be relieved. Conscious of his approaching end, he gave a new proof of " the ruling passion strong in death." Sending for his brother the duke of Bedford, the earl of Warwick, and some other noblemen who stood high in his esteem, he with great calmness de- livered to them his last will as it affected both the kingdom and his family. Pro- fessing to view his approaching death with- out any other regret than that which arose f^om his leaving his great project incom- plete, he assured them that they could not fail of success by the exertion of their known prudence and valour. He appoint- ed Bedford regent of France, iiis younger brother the duke of Gloucester regent of England, and to the earl of Warwick he committed the government and protection of his infant son. He at the same time most urgently enjoined these friends, on no consideration to give freedom to the French princes taken at Agincourt, until his son should be of an age to govern for himself; carefully to preserve the friendship of the duke of Burgundy ; to exert everv means to secure the throne of France to their infant king ; and, failing success in tlmtparticular, never to make peace with France unless on condition of the permanent annexation of Normandy to the crown of England. Apart from his ambition, and the violent injustice which necessarily resulted from it, this prince was in very many respects deserving of the high popularity which throughout his life he enjoyed in England, and which he no less enjoyed in France sub- sequent to his marriage with the princess Catharine. His civil rule was firm and E reductive of excellent order without being arshly severe ; and in the uniform kind- ness and confidence which he bestowed upon the earl of Marche, who beyond all question had the preferable title to the crown, betokened no common magnani- mity. Henry, who died iu 149.2, aged only thirty-four, left but one child, young Henry, then only nine months old; and the queen Catharine, rather sooner after the death of her husband than was strictly becoming, gave her hand in second marri- age to sir Owen Tudor, a private gentle- man, who, however, claimed to be descend- ed from the ancient Welsh princes : to him she bore two sons, the elder of whom was created earl of Richmond, the younger earl of Pembroke; and the earl of Richmond subsequently became king of England, as we shall hereafter have to relate. CHAPTER XXX. The Reign o/ Hbmrt VI. A.D. 1422.— Wb had occasion tnrenMrk tinder the head of Henry IV., that tW usurpation of that prince gave a great and manifest impetus to the power of the par. liament. A new proof was now afforded of the extent to which that power had in creased. Scarcely any attention was piid to the important instructions given hv Henry V. on his death-bed ; and the parli/. ment proceeded to make nrrangenicnta in accordance rather with its own views than with those of the deceased monarch, with respect to both the kingdom and the yoanc king. * Ther altogether set aside, as to the for. mer, the title of regent, and appointed the duke of Bedford, and during any absence of nis, the duke of Gloucester, to act ai protector or guardian of the kingdom- evidently placing a peculiar value on thii distinction of terms, though to all practical purposes it necessarily was a mere dis- tinction without a difference. They ghov. ed, however, a more practical judgment in preventing, or, at the least, in antici- pating, any undue stretch of authority on the part of either of the royal personaget, by appointing a council whose advice and' approbation were necessary to the legalising of all important measures. They next proceeded to show an equal disregard to the wishes of the deceased monarch, as related to the custody and go- vernment of his infant son, when they com- mitted him to the care of Henry Beaufort, bishop of Winchester, a natural but Icgiti- mate son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lan- caster; an arrangement which at least had thia recommendation,- that the prelate in question could set up no family pretension to the crown, and liad, therefore, no in- , ducement to act unfairly by his infant ! charge. The duke of Bedford, long renowned for equal prudence and valour, immediately turned his attention to France, without making the slightest attempt to alter the determination of parliament, which a less disinterested and noble- spirited man would very probably have interpreted as a personal affront. Charles, the late dauphin, had now as- sumed, as he was justly entitled to assume, the title of king of France ; and being shut out by the English from Rlieims, the an. cient and especial place of coronation of the kings of France, lie caused himself to be crowned at Poitiers. This prince, though only twenty years of age, was very popu- lar with multitudes of the French, as well for the many virf.f age, was very popu- of the French, as well of his private charac- jnd precocious .ibihtiei BtdiflScult phases of his tter than the dxke of ed though the dauphin _1 succession, by theun- rtic act of his imbtcile ties would be strongly SHOP FI.EMINO. TBI HOBTUEHN PROVinCEB Or rilANCB YTKU* HBLO BT THI INOLIIB. lEnglanT).— Il^oujse of llancaster.— l^cnre VIS.. 223 tided by a natural and inevitable revulsion offeelingon thepart of those Frenchmen who had hitherto shown themselves fast friends to England. He therefore stricUy obeyed the dying injunction of Henry a* MSiedaloui cultivation of the friendship of the duke of Burgundy, whose personal gatrrel with Charles had so mainly aided tbe laccess of the English cause thus far, isd whose support would henceforth be so fitally important to their maintaining their nsund in France. Bedford, therefore, haS' ttnti to fulttl bii part in the treaty of Troyei, by espousing Philip's sister, the princessof Arras; and he even offered bis new brother-in-law the regency of France, «hieh Philip, for not very obvious rea'<>ons, declined ; though, as he was far from being uDsmbitious, he could scarcely have over- looked that the regency, during the minor- ity of young Henry and the continued suc- ceu of the English, would be nearly equiva- lent to the actual sovereignty, and might, by wme very slight circumstance, actually letd to it. The duke of Bedford next turned hia at- tention to securing the friendship of the duke of Brittany, vrho, whether as friend or foe, was next in importance, as regarded tbe English power, to Bur^^undy himself. The dnke of Brittany had already given in hit adhesion to the treaty of Troyes ; but as Bedford knew how much that prince was governed by his brother, the count of Richc- mont, he skilfully laid himself out to fix the friendship of that haughty and not very itrictly honourable person. Richemont was among the high personages who were made prisoners at Agincourt, but had been treat- ed with great kindness in England, and eren allowed by Henry V. to visit Brittany, on ilia parole uf honour, to return at a given time. Before the time arrived the death of r*nry occurred ; and Richerhont, contrary to all the usages and maxims of chivalry, affected to believe that as his parole had been given personally to Henry v., his ho- nour was in nowise engaged to maintain it towards that prince's successor. His plea .rai as irregular as it was meanly false; but as Bedford had obviously no means of compelling Richemont to a more honoura- ble course of conduct, without involving himself in a very mischievous disagreement with the duke of Brittany, he very wisely made a virtue of necessity, and not only overlooked the count's misconduct, but even obtained for him the hand of the widow of the decenscd dauphin Louis, the sister of Philip of Burgundy. Having thus both politically and person- ally allied himself with the potent dukes of Burgundy and Brittany, Bedford now di- rected his attention to Scotland. The duke of Albany, who, as regent of Scotland, had io considerably aided the dauphin, now ling Charles, by sending him large bodies of veteran Scotch troops, was now dead, and his office and power had been assumed by his son Murdac. This nobleman had neither the talents nor the energy of his father, and he was totally unable to limit. aa the dnke of Albany had done, anv enter- prises to which the turbulent noolei of Scotland might think proper to turn their attention. This instantly became evident from the sudden and vast increase of the number of Scottish nobles who hastened to offer their swords to Charle". of France ; and the piercing glance of Bedford discerned the strong probability of the Scots, at no distant day, doing Charles the still more ef- fectual service of distracting the attention and dividing the force of his English ene- mies, by making formidable and frequent incursions upon the northern couutiea of England. As the readiest and su/est way of meet- ing this portion of his difficulties, Bedford induced the English government to restore to liberty the Scottish king, young James, on the payment of a ransom of forty thou- sand pounds. This young prince, who had resided in England from his early boyhood, and had there received the very best edu- cation which the scholastic state of that age would afford even to princes, had im- bibed much of the English feelings and tastes : and during the whole of his short reign — (he was murdered in 1437 by the earl of Athol)— whatever might be the ex- tent of the leaning he was alleged to have towards France, he never once gave the English cause to regret their generosity or to throw blame On the policy of Bedford, to which the young king owed his free- dom and the enjoyment of his throne. Even while engaged in these wise poli- tical precautions, the duke of Bedford stre- nuously exerted himself in thoso military movements and operations which were in- disp'ensable to the ultimate measures he contemplated. King Charles in person, and all theforcea under nis own immediate leading, hcd long since been driven into the southern pro- vinces bevond the Loire. But there were many of his attached partizans still pos- sessed of fortresses in the northern pro- vinces, and even in the neighbourhood of Paris. Against these fortresses, therefore, the duke of Bedford deemed it necessary to exerl himself, before proceeding to deal witii the main strength of Charles. Dor- say, Noyelle, and Rue in Picardy, were be- sieged and taken ; and Pont sur Seine, Ver- tus, and Montaigne soon after fell into the English power. These successes were fol- lowed up by still more Brilliant and im- portant ones ; till at length the constable of Scotland, with many of the French no- bles, were taken prisoners, and Bedford's army occupied La Charity and other towns upon the Loire. Every new success of the English by which they were brought nearer to his southern provinces, made Charles the more painfully anxious for the preservation of the few strongholds which he still held in those of the north, where they could so greatly annoy and impede their inimical neighbours- One of these, Yvri in Nor- mandy, had for three months held out against the utmost efforts of its besiegers. TUB TUKATBE OF WAH WAS CUIEFI.T BKTWEEN TUB LOIRE AND THK SEINE. A.O. 1433.— ABOUT ISfiOO ICOTCU TUOOrS WKBK IM TUK rilKMCII AR}|f7 224 SDIje ^reasutB of X^istore, ^c. U I S I U a ea 3 t« n K u H M under the personal command of Bedford himtelf ; but the gallant goTernor at lenuth found himtelf reduced to luch »trait«, that b« agreed to aurrcnder unleaa relief ihould reach him by a certain day. Information of thi* threatened state of Tvri no sooner reached Charlen than he sent a detachment of fourteen thousand men to its relief, one half of the detachment being Scots and the other half French. The chief command of this detachment was given to the earl of Bttchan, the titular constable of France, who made the utmost efforts to perform his mission successfully, but had the mortifica* tion to find that the place had already been surrendered ere he could arrive. Bcsolvcd not to return from so long a march without having at least avtempted some important enterprise, and, turning to the left, he inarched rapidly to Verncuil and prepaicd to besiege that place, which was delivered np to him bv the citizens, in spite of all the opposition that could be made by the gar* rison. It had been well had Buchan content- ed himself with this success. But, en- couraged by it, he called a council of war to consult whether he should now make good his retreat, with the glory he had so easily and cheaply acquired, or await the coming up of the duke of Bedford. Though the former plan was strongly and well urged by the graver and more politic of his otHccrs, the latter one was so agreeable to Buchan's own desire to engage the enemy at any risk, that he Anally adopted it, and it was not long ere his armv was confronted with that of Bedford. The numbers were tolerably equal ; and Buchan, drawing up his men in excellent order under the walls of Vemeuil, determined in thut advantage- ous position to await the charge of the enemy. This prudent precaution, in a si- tuation which greater prudence would wholly have preserved him from, was de- feated by the impetuous rashness of the viacount of Narbonne, who led his men so furiously to the charge, that for an instant the English archers were beaten from the line of palisadoes, behind which, according to their usual custom, tUey had stationed themselves. Quickljr recovering themselves, however, and forming behind and among their baggage, they poured their arrows so thickly and with such deadly precision, that Narboune's men fell fast arouud him and were soon thrown into confusion. The main body of the constable's army, nni- uiatL'd out of all sense of steady discipline by the dashing but most imprudent charge of this division, rushed to Narbonne's sup- port, and necessarily partook with his men the slaughter and the panic caused by the English archers ; while the duke of Bed- ford, perceiving the confusion of the enemy, seized upon the favourable moment, and charged them at the head of the maiu body of his men at arms. The French ranks quickly broke under this vigorous attack, and the rout in a few minutes became ge- neral. Though Bedford's victory was com- plete, it was as he considered, so dearly purchased by the loss of sixteen hundred of the English to about two thou„„dTf the French, that he would not allow anv » joioings for a tictory which had cost lU «W"hu*"" •** "'If'' Proportionid to that of the enemy. But the U,»» of Z French could not fairly be estimated bv . mere statement of numbers. It wa« un usually great among the leader.; Buchan himself, the earl of Do\iglaB and hit ion the counts D'Auniale, Dc Tone ere, and d' Vontadour, with many other nnbic., were among the slain ; and the duke D'Alenoon I the marshal de la Fayette, and the lordi Gaucourt and Mortemar among the uri aoners. On the following day Vemeuil haying now no hope of relief, surrendeni to Bedford. ™ Nothing could appear more desperate than the case of the French king. He \,ni in this fatal battle lost the bravest of Im leaders ; his particans had no longed even a chance of making an^ head againat the English in the provinces north of the Loire ; and he was so far from posicsiiiDir the necessary means of recruiting hiaarmv and enticing other gallant men to embtace his desperate cause, that he actually bad not even the means of paying for the sup- port of hii retinue, thougli he carefully ab- stained from indulging many of the frivo- lous and expensive shadows of royalty, while he was still uncertain of the isaueof his contest for its substance. But just ai he himself, as well as both his friends and his foes, began to deem his cause uttcrlr lost, a most unexpected incident occurred to save him. Jacqueline, countess of Holland and Ilainault, had, from the politic motivet which so generally determined princely marriages, espoused the duke of Burgun- dy's cousin-german, John, duke of Brabant. The bridegroom was a mere boy of fifteen; the lady was much older, and of a mascu- line and ardent temper. The sickly and weak-minded boy-husband soon became the utter detestation of his vigorous and high-spirited wife, and she applied to Itome to annul the unequal and unsuitable mar- riage. Being well aware that, venal as Rome was, much difficulty awaited, from the powerful opposition which would be made to her design by the duke of Bur- gundy, and being fearful that he would even go to the extreme of putting herunder persoqal restraint, she made hvr escape to England, and solicited the aid and protec- tion of the duke of Gloucester. The per- sonal beauty of the countess JacqueUoc, together with the temptation of her inhe- rited wealth and sovereignty, stimulated the love and ambition of Gloucester so far, that, without even waiting the result of an application to Rome, he made a contractor j marriage with her, and commenced an at- tempt to wrest her territories from the I duke of Brabant. I The duke of Burgundy was doubly an- I noycd and disgusted by this proceeding of I Gloucester ; for while it very scricusly I trcuclied upon his family power and weaiih, A. n. 1434.— MOItTIMlJR, IIAKL OF MARCUK, VNCLB OF niCHARD III. DIKD. i VUKiini ARur. :. jt.B. UM.—tU% BVKB or BIOrOBO AiaiVII IN BHOLAnn, BSC. 20. lEnglantJ.—l^ottjse of ILancastcr.— I^cntg VI, 225 ' ' 1 1 on of tixteen hundnd i > about two thouwud of T I would not allow any le- 1 T Jiy which had coit the ' I nearly proportiontd to i " . But the loai of the airly be c«timated by a numbers. It wa» un- IK the leaders; Buchiin ! f DouKlat and hit ion lie, Do Tonceif, and Dj ' nany other nnblci, were ' lid the duke D'Alen^on, 1 > Fayette, and the lordi rtemar among the pri- rullowing day Verneuii, ?e of relief, lurrendtnd appear more desperate le French king. He had ! lost the bravest of Im ini bad no longel' even a any bead agoinat the provinces north of the ■o far from poaacisiDj; la of recruiting his armv gallant men to embrace le, that he actually had M of paying for the sup- though he carefully ab- Iging nmuy of the frivo- Lve shadows of royalty, iDCcrtoin of the iiaue of aubatauce. Uut just at as both his fricndi and deem his cause utterly lected incident occurred I? el I' I el ■ I M el tess of Holland and im the politic motivei , determined princely , d the duke of Ilurgun- , , John, duke of Rrabant. I < as a mure boy of fifteen ; I t h older, and of a mascu- 1 *' empcr. The sickly and i \ husband soon become 1 1 ion of his vigorous and ' ll and she applied to Rome I ; iial and unsuitable mar- 1 , aware that, veual ei t difficulty awaited, from { i isition which would be i * ;n by the duke of Bur- ! i fearful that he would I > erne of putting her under ^ she made hir escape to 9 ited the aid and protec- { £ f Gloucester. The per- 1 > le conutess Jacqueline, I c temptation of her inbe- 1 « sovereignty, stimulated : ion of Gloucester so fur, ; » waiting the result of aa ■' 10, he made a contract of j and commenced an at- ; < er territories from the i 7 rgundy was doubly an- , ed by tnis proceeding oft fthile it very seriously (■ family power and weanh, A CIIARD III. DIRD. It fare but an unpromising earnest of the fflidnet to be expected fVom the English, •hen hsving fully established thcmseWea j france, they should no longer, from not Keding the duke's alliance and support, bavesny interested motive for putting any Unit! to their personal ambition or cupi- dity Actuated by these feelings, he not onlr counselled his cousin to resistance, bat exerted himself to induce the more lewerftal of Jacqueline'a subjects to op- gose her, and marched himself with a enaiiderablc body of his troops to support them in doing so. Too exclusively engaged with his per- Msal designs to give their due weight to political considerations, Gloucester would got be diverte* from his purpose; and a qoarrel at once political and personal thus encaged him and the duke of Burgundy in tar in the Low Countries. Gloucester, in the course of the angry torreaponilence which accompanied the warlike contest between him and the duke of Burgundy, imputed falsehood to Philip, in terms so insultingly direct, that Philip iniiited upon a retractation, and personal (halleDges now passed between them. The grave and politic Bedford was vexed to the soul at the consequences of Glouces- ter's fanprudence ; consequences as disas- trous and threatening to the English power in France, as they were fortunate and hope- ful to the cause of the rightful king of France. For, in the first place, Gloucester empioyed in his own quarrel the troops which Bedford had been so anxiously ex- pecting from England, and, in the next place, this occurrence could not bnt weaken, if it did not wholly alienate, the friendship of the duke of Burgundy, to which the English cause was so much indebted. Having endeavoured, but in vain, to mediate between the angry dukes, Bedford now saw himself obliged to abstain from following np his signal victory at Yemeuil, and to hasten to England, to endeavour by his pre- ■cnce there to repair the already very mis- ehievous consequences of his brother's headstrong temper and personal ambition. Nor was it on account of Gloucester's folly alone that the presence of Bedford nas tit this juncture much needed in Eng- land. The bishop of 'Winchester, as we mentioned before, had been selected by parliament as custos of the youn^ king's person, not only on account of his great abilities, but also because his family had no claim to the throne that could induce him to behave unfairly to his young charge. Bnt this prelate had great personal ambi- tion. He was of an arbitrary and peremi>- tory temper, and required from the council a far greater share of authority in the itate than his office of custos of the king's person could warrant him in demanding, or the council in granting. Between the prelate, thus peremptory and ambitions, and the equally ambitious and fiery Gloucester, it was inevitable that an open quarrel should take place under such circumstances ; and as each of them had his partizans in the ministry, it was not without some difficulty that even the great authorityj.of Bedford composed the existing differcvces; nor did he wholly suc- ceed in so doing until he had invokeil the anthority of parliament, before which as- sembly the two disputants were compelled to come to an apparent reconciliation, and to promise that thenceforth all their differ- ences should be buried in oblivion. While Bedford had been busy in adjust- ing this untoward and unseemly quarrel, the dnke of Burgundy had so well em- ployed his credit at Rome, as to have pro- cured a bull which not only annulled the marriage contract between the countess Jacqueline and the duke of Gloucester, but also forbade their marriage even iu • event of the duke of Brabant bein^, >- ' moved by death. The duke of Gloucester, who had all along been actuated in his ad- venturous suit far more by ambition and cupidity than by love, finding so insuper- able an obstacle interposed netween him and even his future success, very soon con- soled himself for his disappointment by giving his hand to a lady who had for a considerable time been known as his mis- tress. Soon after, the duke of Brabant died; and his widow, in order to recover her territory, was obliged to declare the duke of Burgundy her heir should she die with- out issue, and to engage not to take a second husband unless with the duke's consent. This termination of the affair prevented the immediate hostility upon the part of Burgundy, of which Bedford at first had been very justly apprehensive ; but all the circumstances of the quarrel were calcu- lated greatly to weaken the duke of Bur- gundy in his attachment to the English, from whom he could no longer expeet, in the event of their complete success, to receive much better treatment than that which on the part of king Charles had aroused the duke to such fierce enmitv ; and ultimately this quarrel did alienate tne duke from hii unnatural and, on the whole, very impolitic alliance with the English. The duke of Brittany, whose alliance Bed- ford valued only second to that of Bur- gundy, was very eft'ectunlly detached from the English side by the gift to his brother, the count of Richcmont, of the office of constable of France, vacant by the death of Buchan ; and this loss must have been the more mortifying to Bedford, because he could not be unaware that it was mainly owing to the impolitic pertinacity with which he had refused to gratify the passion of the count of Richcmont for military com- mand. But the loss, however caused or however much lamented, was wholly irre- trievable ; for whatever there was of per- sonal and selfish in the duke's motive for changing his party, the change was per- manent, and he ever after remained faith- ful to king Charles. The cooled zeal of one ally and the total loss of another, and the favourable moral A.U. 1436.— TDB Bisnor OP WINCHBBTKB BBSIGNS TUB OBBAT BBAIi. A. D. 1428.— THI UABL 0» aAUiaURt JOINS TBB AHMT WITU »IllrOBOBMtMT, 326 ^1^1 ^resiiurfi of l^lstovQ, ire. eflfect which these things and eight monthi of comparative quiet bad produced upon the partizana of king Charlci, were luf- floient to cause anxiety to tlie saKacioua duke of Bedford when he returned to France. The French garrison of Montargis waa besieged by the earl of Warwick and an army of three thousand men, and was so reduced as to be on the very point of sur- renderinir, when the Bastard of Orleans, afterwards so famous under his title of duke of Dunois, marched with only sixteen hun- dred men to Montargis, and compelled Warwick, in spita of hts superior numbers, to raise tlio siege. The first aim of the duke of Bedford was to bring back to his alliance the duke of Brittany. Sensible that that pi,nce liad chictlf been guided in his change of alli- ance by the count of Richcmont, and would, therefore, most probablv allow his own ob- vious interest to induce liim to change sides once more, Bedford secretly concentrated several detachmcuta of English upon the frontiers of Brittany, and invaded that pro- vince so auddenly, that the duke had no chance of resistance, but saw himself obli- ged to consent to give up the French alli- ance and adhere to the treaty of Troyes, to acknowledge the duke of Bedford as regent of France, and to pledge himself to do homage to the young king ileury for bia duchy. Having thus freed himself from a danger- ous enemy in his rear, Bedford preparcafor an entcrprize, the success of which would pretty completely ensure the entire success of the English cause— the siege uf the city of Orleans, which was so situated between the northern and southern provinces as to open a way to the entrance of cither by its possessor. As Bedford, having been so suc- cessful in expelling Charles from the nor- thern provinces, was about to attack him in the south, the possession of Orleans was evidently of the greatest importance to him. The conduct of the attack upon Orleaui waa entrusted to the earl of Salisbury, a distinguished soldier, who had just brought a reinforcement of six thousand men from England. The earl, quite rightly, no doubt, confined himself to the task of taking several places in the vicinity of Orleans, which, though they were but small, might prove of very serious inconvenience to him when engaged in the contemplated siege. These preliminary measures of the earl, however conformable to the rules of war, and however indispensable under the par- ticular circumstances, were at the least thus far unfortunate, that they at once dis- closed to king Charles the main design of the English, and gave him time and oppor- tunity to throw in such stores of provisions and reinforcements of men as might enable the garrison to make an effectual resist- ance. The lord of Gauoour, an officer of equal conduct, valour, and experience, ws made governor, and manv other veterai ofBcers threw themselves into the place to aid rations, Orleans Inm m ita defence ; the troops ther hsd >. command were veterans in every seiiM 1/ the word, and even the very citizens. in.7..j I of being likely to disturb' their d^K by idle Tears, were now so accustomed i« ' war that they promised to be of vcrv im i portant service. ' "*' Having completed his preliminary ow ' tions, the earl of Salisbury appro»ch^ i rleans with an anr of ten thou.«nT men : and all Europe (ooked with anxieit i for • result of a sie^ce which was likeU to i be so completely decisive -as to the fuium * fate of France, and where, conseqnentiv ii behoved Charies to make his utmost ud final effort. i Having too small a force for the com ! plete investment of a city which, tpirti from its great extent, had the advantaire of a bridge over the Lohre, the carl of galji i bury proceeded to attack ths southern lide i towards Sologne; but aslewas attsclcinil! the fortiflcationii which defended the hridite he was killed by a cannon shot while in the very act of reconnoitring the enemr 1 The command of the EnKlish now feli • npon the earl of Suffolk, and he, reccivinK ' at the same time a large reinforcement of ' both English and Burgundians, departed from Salisbury's plan of partial operation, ' led his main force across the river, and ^ thus invested the city on the other tide. The winter having now commenced, the severity of the weather rendered it im- practicable to throw up entrencnmenti com- pletely around; but by constructing le- doubta at convenient distances, Suffolk vu at once able to lodge his soldiers safely, and to distress the enemy by preventing any supplies being conveyed to them; leaf- ing the task of connecting the redoubts b; a series of trenches until the arrival of spring. It thus appears that Suffolk truited rather to famine than to force ; to confining the enemy strictly within their walls, than to hazarding his cause by splendid storm- ing feats, which were certain to coat bim many of his bravest men, and were not like- ly to be soon successful ; for though he had a train of artillery, the engineering artwai as yet far too imperfect to allow of its ma- king any speedy impression upon so strong a fortress. The attempts of the friends of the besieged to throw in supplies, and of the English to prevent them, gave rite to manT_ splendid out partial engagementi, in which both partiea displayed great gal- lantry and enterprise. So enterprising, in- deed, were the French, that upon tome occasions they succeeded in throwing in supplies, in defiance of all the vigilance and courage by which they were oppoi- ed; but the convoys that were thus for- tunate could but in a very inconsider- able degree assist a garrison so numerou), and it was evident to all military observers that Suffolk's cautious policy bade fair to be successful, and that, however slowly, the Ent;lish were steadily and constantly ad- vancing nearer to the accompUsbraent of their impprtant design. A. D. 1429.— While Suffolk was thus en- A. D. 1428. — TUB 8IE6B OF OnLEANS COMMENCED OCTODBR 13- (INtOMOBMINTI. I troop* ther h»d |« w in every mum of i'crycitiieni,in»u,4! urb tlieir defendtn ' v 10 ■ccuitoincd to id to be of very im. ST Mktil HIITOBIAIfl iOAK IS IfTLBD AN !»!«■■■?■«'■ BADSBTBB. ii> preliminuy ow. aiibury approuhtd of ten thouwna I looked v«th knxittii e I which v»a» likely to I « ive •■■ to tke futuw * ^ ere, conieqaently, it 5 ake hit utmoit ud ^ force for the com- ! ■ K eity which, tput i o lad the advanttn of I j e, the earl of lilii. i ! ck thj tout hern tide, i ' as 1 ewai atttckini I " I defended the hrid|t«, I J innon (hot while in ' noitrinjf the enemy, i ' e UnKli«h now fell » Ik, and he, recclvinii t •ge reinforcement of i ; irgundiani, deputed I ■ of partial operationi, " crow the river, and i J on the other tide. | ' ow commenced, the ber rendered it im- I entrencnmenti com- by constructing le- liatancei, Suffolk wu p hi> loldiert lafely, nemy by preventing iveyed to tnem ; leat- ting the redoubti by until the arrival of to force ; to confining ! t' liin their walla, than ! a by splendid atorm- ! ' certain to coat him | sn, and were not like- ' *; for though he had engineering art wai ' t to allow of its ma- 1 ision upon so atroig ] pt* of the friends of IT in supplies, and of i It them, gave riie to i artial engagementi, displayed great gal- So enterprising, in- h, that upon some ;ded in throwing in of all the vigilance ti they were oppoe- that were thus for- a very inconsider- rrison so numeroui, ,11 military observer! I policy bade fair to ;, however slowly, the and constantly ad- > accompliahment of uffolk was thus en- UEB 13. lEnglantt.— 1|ou«c of lanfaatcr.-l^wrg F3E. 227 ,^ in (larving the enemy within the l^ be was himself in no imall danger f iifing placed in the same predicament. tollbi with an escort of two thousand five kuidred men ; and ere it could reach Suf- folk's esmp it was suddenly attacked by geuly double that number of French and gtotcn, under the command of Dunois and the count of Clermont. Fastolffe endea- (osred to counterbalance his inferiority in men by drawing them up behind the wag- lOBS, but the enemy brought a small bat- tery of cannon to bear upon liim, which (cn einictuiilly dislud|;ed and disordered Iht English. The affair now seemed to be ■Hare oB the French side, as a steady per- icTeranee but for a few minutes in their int proceeding would have made it. But the fierce and undisciplined impetuosity of I pert of the Scotch troops caused them to break their Hue and rush in upon the En- liliih; a general action ensued, and ended in the retreat of the French, who lost five hundred in killed, besides a great number of wounded, and among the latter was Danoi) himself. The convoy that was thus wed to the English was of immense im- portance, and owinR to a part of it bein^ betringa for the food of the soldiers during lent, the affair commonly went by the game of the " battle of the herrings." The relief tluis afforded to the English egabled tliem duily to press more closely nponthe important city ; and Charles, now tklly despairing of rescuing it by force of irmi, caused the duke of Orleans, who was ttill a prisoner in England, to propose to Gloaccstcr and the council, that tnis city ind all his territory should be allowed to remain neutrnl during the whole remainder of the war, and, as the best security for neatrality, be placed in the keeping of the duke of Bur|j;undy. That prince readily ;raiped at the proposal, and went to Paris 10 arge it upon the duke of Bedford, who, however, replied, that he had no notion of beating the bushes that others might lecnrc the game; and Burgundy, deeply olfendcd both at the refusal and the man- ner in which it was made, immediately de- puted and withdrew all those of his men who were concerned in the investment of Orleans, Foiled as well in negotiation as in arms, Charles now wholly despaired of Bving Orleans, when an incident occurred to save it, and to give new hopes to h is cause, 10 marvellous, that it reads more like the intention of a romancer's fancy than the sober relation of the nutter-of-fact histo> rian. Long as Orleans had been invested, and intimately connacted as its fate seemed with that of the whole nation, it is not to be wondered at that the seige was talked of in all parts of France, and speculated upon even bv minds usually but little cog. nisant of public affairs. Among the thou- sands whose minds were strongly agitated by the frequent and various news from Orleans was Jonu d' ' the maid servant of a countrr inn i 'mremi, near Vau- Gouleurs. Though the lowest order of menial servants, this young woman, now twenty-seven years of age, was of blameless life and manners. Well formed and active, her simple living and her hard work pre- served her naturally healthy constitution ; and as she was accustomed to ride her muster's horses to their watering place, and to do other work which in other households would fall to the share of men, she was un- usually hard* and of a somewhat masculine habit, thougn, as has been said, of perfectly blameless life and unmarked by any eccen- tricitjr of manner of conduct. This young woman paid so much atten- tion to what she heard respecting the siege of Orleans and the distress and peri, of her rightful sovereign, that by degrees she accustomed herself to make then: the sole subjects of her thoughts; and her sanguine and untutored mind at length became so much inllamed by sympathy with the king, and by a passionate desire to aid him, that her reveries and aspirations seemed to as- sume the aspect of actual visions from above, and she imagined herself audibly called upon bv some supernatural power to exert herself on her sovereign's behalf. This delusion became daily stronger, and at length, naturallv cou.'ageous, and ren- dered still more so ny her imagined visions, she overlooked all the vast diRicultics which must have been evident to even her inex- Sericnced mind, and presented herself to uudricourt, the governor of Vaucoulcurs, related to him all iier fancied experiences, and besought him to listen to the voice of heaven and to aid her in fulfilling its de- crees. After some hesitation, the governor, whether really believing all that Joan af- firmed of her visions, or only considering her a visionary of whose delusions a profit- able use might be made by the king's friends, furnished her with some attendants and sent her to Chinon, where Charles and his scanty court then resided. Where so much is undeniably true in a tale of which so much must of necessity he false, it is no easy matter to separate the true from the whollv false or the greatly exaggerated. We, tnerefore, shall simply relate what passed and is said to have passed, contenting ourselves with this sin- gle caution to the reader— to conceive that, trom very many motives, even the best men then living about the French king's court were liable to be seduced into credulity on the one hand and exaggeration on the other, and that, consequently, the wise JOAN OF AnC WAS USITAII.T STVt.KD " h\ rUCTLl.!!," OR " IlltS »IAin." M M « 3 M M u M M n BS M o •9 •r H H M f- K m a M X h o O ►» c> H a •< K B A. S. 1439.— ■■MHT VI. CROW.NEO AT WKSTMiaiTBR, ROT. (. 228 ^|)c ^rcosttct) of l^(8totB, ^c. plan in readinK what foUowi will be to re- ject altogether all that assume* to be nirn- •ulcus, and to credit only what, however atraordlnary, is still perfectly natural, and •apecially under the vxtraorainary state of aflaira at that time. When Joan was introduced to the king ahe at once aingled him out from amons the courtiers by whom lie was surrounded, although it was endeavoured to baffle her on this point by the iiinK's assumption of a plain dress, totally destitute of all marks or ornaments that could discover his rank to her. Repealing to him what she had _al> ready told to Uaudricourt, she assured him, in the name of heaven, that she would com- pel the English to raise the siege of Or- leans, and would safely conduct him to Bheims, that, like his ancestors, he might be crowned there. The king expressed aome doubts as to the genuineness of her mission, and, very pertinently, demanded aome unequivocal and convincing proof of her supernal inspiration ; upon which, all the attendants save the king's conlidential friends being withdrawn, she told him a secret which, from its very nature, he had every reason to believe that by natural means no one in the world could know; and she, at the same time, described and demanded to be armed with a certain sword which was deposited in the cliurch of St. Catharine of Fierbuis, and of which, though it was certain that she never could have seen it, she described the various marks with great exactness. Though greatly staggered, the king was even yet unconvinced ; and a conclave of doctors and theologians was assembled, to enquire into and report upon Joan's alleged mission. The report of these learned persons was decidedly in favour of the damsel's truth, and she was then closely interrogated by the parliament which was sitting at Poi- tiers, and here again it was decided that her mission wns genuine. If the king and his advisers first simu- lated doubt and scrupulosity, only to in- crease the effect upon the vulgar of their subsequent and seemingly reluctant relief, the device had all the success they could have desired. Ever prone to belief in the marvellous, the people who had lately been in the deepest despair now spoke in accents not merely of hope but of conviction, that Heaven had miraculously inspired a maiden champion, by whose instructions the king would be enabled to triumph over all his ditHculties and to expel all his enemies. But it was not merely as an adviser that Joan believed herself instructed to aid her kinp:. In her former servile occupation she had learned to manage a horse with case, and she was now mounted on n war-steed, armed cap & pie, and paraded before the people. Her animated countenance, her youth, and, above all, her graceful and fearless equita- tion, which seemed so marvellous and yet might have been so easily accounted for, confirmed all the favourable impressions which had been formed of her ; and the multitude loudly averred that any enter- prim headed by her must needs be suectu ful. With these fond preposaetiions io her favour she set out for Bloii to head theti cort of a convoy about to be sent to the it lief of Orleans. The escort in question consisted of u army of ten thousand men under th- com- mand of 8t. Severe, who now hnd urderi to consider himself second in coniDiand to Joan d'Arc ;— though probably witli « „. cret reservation not to allow her superni tural fancies to militate against any ofihe precautions commanded by the lawi of mortal warfare. Joan ordered every nn in the army to confess hiutscif before marching, and all women of bad life sod character to be prohibited from fuiiowi/i» the army, which last order had at least the recommendation of removing a nuicasce which sadly militated against good diwi- pline. At the head of the troops, carr;ini in her right hand a consecrated banner upon which was embroidered a rcpreienti! tion of the Supreme Being grasping the earth, Joan led the way to Orleans, siiil on approaching it she demanded that Orletni should be entered on the side of the BeaiiHr' but Dunois, who well knew that the En;' lish were strongest there, so far interrcred with her prophetic power as to cause the other side ot the river to be taken where the English were weaker. The garriion made a sally on the side of the Beaut(e,aiid the convoy was safely taken acroat the river in boats, and was accompanied by the Maid of Orleans, whose appearance, under such circumstances, arrayed in knightly garb and solemnly waving her conaecrated banner, caused the soldiers and citizens to welcome her as being indeed an inspired and glorious prophetess, undr; nliuse or* dcrs they could not fail of success; and si another convoy shortly afterwards arrived, even Dunois was so far converted to the general belief, as to allow it, in obedience to Joan's orders, to approacli it by the side of the Beaussc. This convoy, too, entered safely, together with its escort, not evenaa attempt being made on the part of the be- siegers to cut it off. Yet a few days before Joan's first arriTal at Orleans, when she had sent a letter to Bedford, threatening him with the Divine anj^cr should he venture to resist the cau» which she was sent to aid, the veteran duke treated the matter as the ravings of a maniac, or as a most shallow trick, the mere resorting to which wns suflicicut to show the utter desperation to nhicli Cliatlei was driven. But the age was superstitious, and the natural success which had merelv accompanied the pretensions of Joanvtai by the ignorant soldiers and by their (as to superstition) scarcely less ignorant ofiicen, taken to have been caused by it, and to he, therefore, a sure proof of her supernatural mission and an infallible augury ot its site- cess. Gloom and terror were in the hearts and upon the countenances of the £ni;iiib soldiery, and Suffolk most unwisely aliened these feelings full leisure to exert them- selves by having his men unemployed is TUB KISS BBING CHOWMF.n, TBB mOTBCTORSHir IS KOW ABOtlSllKD. t.a, H29.—imM BiioLitu aAim tub sikai or o«lbari, mat 13. lEnBlanU.— l^oune of ICancasttr— l^enro Ul£. 229 »1 lion conaiated of u I . men under th'! com- lie now lind urderi to ond in command to probably witli a h- ;o allow her luperni. < ite ngainat unjr of the ded by the Uwi of n ordered every mm [ifoii hiiii«clf Wore )men of bad life and , ibited from fullowiag' order had at leaat tkt removinK a nuitance d againat good disci, if the troops, carrying k conaecrated banner, roidered a reprnenti- : , 5 Being grasping the j ;l ray to Orleana, audoc ' '■ eroandcd that Orlnni ' the aide of t lie Beanw; \ 11 knew that the Eng- ! here, lo far interfered ' power a« to cauie tbe ver to be taken where i vcaker. Tlie gnrriion lide of the Ueau8ae,aiid rdy taken acroas tlie ] as accompanied by the lose appearance, under : . arrayed in knightl; ' raving her consecrated » loldiers and citizens to ! jl ng indeed an inspired | ^ ;tcsB, undr: n\iuseor'| fail of auccess ; and at tly afterwards arrived, J far converted lo the ) allow it, in obedienee , itpproach it by the side > lis convoy, too, entered its escort, not even an ! on the part of the be- 1 fore Joan's first aniial j >e had sent a letter to ; him with the Divine \ turc to resist tbe cause ; It to aid, the veteran : ' ittcr as the ravings of a, ost shallow tricii, the I'liich was stiflicient to ! iration to which Cliarlei ', c age was superstitioo!, ; cccss which had merely rctensions of Joan wu j liersandby their (as to, ly less ignorant ofticen, caused fay it, and to be,: )of of her lupernaturel i llible augury ol its sue- 1 error were in the hearti ; enances of the En);liih : most unwisely aliowd leisure to exert them- is men unemployed it UW ABOI-ISIIKD. \l ... military attempt ; their inactivity thus Mning at once to increase their despond- eocy, while it mcreased the confidence and .xttltation of the garrison. Vrbether merely obeyioK the promplinn o/ a naturally brave and active spirit, worked into a state of high enthusinKin by the events in which she had taken so con- ipicuoua a part, or from the politic prompt- inn of Dunois and the other French com- nanders, Joan now exclaimed that the gar- liion might no longer to )>e kept merely on the dofeuaivo ; that the brave men who had 10 long been compniaorily idle and pent up within their beleagured walls should be led forth to attack the redoubts of the enemy, ind that she was commissioned by Heaven to promise them certain success. An at- uck was accordingly made upon a redoubt and was completely succr il, the de- feodera being killed ortaki.. prisoners to a man. This success gave new animation to the French, and the forts on the other tide of the river were next attacked. On oneoccasion the French were repulsed, and Joan received an arrow in her neck ; but ihe led back the French to the charge, and they overcame the furt from which for a momtnt they had fled, and the heroine — for such ahe was, apart from her superna- tural pretensions — plucked the arrow from tne wound with her own hands, and scarcely itaid to havo the wound dressed ere she re- timed to the self-imposed duty into which ih* so sealously entered. Such was the effect of Joan's deeds and pretensions, that the English lost redoubt after redoubt, besides having upwards of lii thousand men either killed or wounded in these moat desperate though only par- tial eonteats. It was in vain that the .^ng- Uih commanders, finding it utterly useless to endeavour to convince their men that joau'a deeds were natural, laboured to per- luade them that she was aided not by lieaven, but by the powers of darkness ; for it was impossible to persuade the men that those powers were not, for the time ut least, too strong to be cambatted with any potsibiUty of success. Fearing, therefore, that tbe most extensive disaster, even a total destruction of his army, might result ftum his keeping men so thoroughly and incurably diaheartened, before a place de- fended by men whose natural courage was indescribably heightened by their belief that they were supernaturally assisted, the earl of Suffolk prudently, but most reluc- tantly, resolved to raise the siege, and he commenced his retreat from before Orleans with all the deliberate calmness which tbe deep-seated terror of his mm would allow him to exhibit. He himself with a prin- cipal part of his army retired to Jergeau, whither Joau followed him at the head of an army six thousand strong. For ten daya the place was gallantly attacked and as gallantly defended. At the end of that time orders for the assault were given, and Joan herself descended into the fossd and I led the attack. Here she was struck to the I ground by a stone, but almost immedi- ately recovered herself, and fought with her accustomed courage until the assault was completely sucrcssful. Suffolk wa« himself taken prisoner by n French officer named Renaud, and on tliis occasion a sin- gular specimen was given of Ihe nice punc- tilios of chivalry. When Suffolk, com- pletely overpowered, was about to give up his sword, he demanded whether his suc- cessful opponent were a knight. Renaud was obliged to confess that he had nut yet attained to that distinction, though he could boast of being a gentleman. Then I knight you, said Suffolk, and he bestowed upon Renaud the knightly accolade with the very sword which an instant afterwards was de- livered to him as the cantor of the man to whom he owed his knighthood I 'While these things were passinj; at Jer- geau, the remainder of the Unglish army under Faitolffe, Talbot, and Hcalvs, was making a somewhat disorderly retreat be- fore a strong body of French ; and the van- guard of the latter overtook tlie rear of the former near the village of Patav. So ut- terly dismayed were tlia Eiiglisli, and so confident the French, that the battle had no sooner commenced than it became con- verted into a mere rout, in which upwards of two thousand of the English were killed, and a vast number, including both Scales and Talbot, taken prisoners. So great and so universal was the panic of the English at this period, that Fastolffe, who had often been present iu the moat disastrous scenes of war, actually set the example of flight to his astounded troops, and was subsequently punished for it by being degraded from the order of the f^arter, which had been be- stowed upon liim as the appropriate reward of a long life and gallant conduct. So blight- ing a power hnx superstition even upon minds accustomed to treat mortal and tan- gible dangers with even an excessive indif- ference 1 During this period king Charles had kept remote trom the actual theatre of war, though he had actively and ctticiently busied himself in furnishing supplies and sending directions to the actual commanders of his troops in the field. But now that Joan had so completely redeemed her pledge as to the raising of the siege of Orleans, and now that the prestige of her supernatural mis- sion had so completely gained the ascen- dancy over the minds of all conditions of men, he felt neither surprise nor reluctance when she urgently solicited him to set out for Rheims, and confidently repeated her assurances that he should without delay be crowned in that city. True it was that Rheims could only be reached bv a very long march through a country in which tbe enemy was in great force, and in which, of course, every advantageous position was carefully occupied by them. But the army was confident of success so long as Joan marched at its head ; and Charles could not refuse to accompany the heroine, without tacitly confessing that he had less faith in her mission, or was himself possessed of less personal courage, than the lowest pike- ?A8T0I.FPn AnUVE-MAMISn IS THB " FALSTAI'P " OF SUAKSFKARK. [X A.D. Um-CC 6. 4 I 2.30 E^t ^tcasurv of l^iators, $cc. mm in hit annr. Either of theN tuppoiU lioai would neceituilT ba fatkl to hli eanie; and he ueordlnKljr Mt oat for Rhelmi, »eeoinpaiiled by Joan and an army of tweWa thonaand men. Inatead of meattng with tha oppoaition ha had anticipated, Cliarlea marched aa peaoafUly along aa though no enemy had been in tha neighbourhood. Troyea and Cholona aucceaaively opened their gatea to him t and before he reached Rheima. where ha might reaaonably hare expected that the Bngliah would rouiter their utroott force to prevent a coronation, of which they coiud not but Judge the probable influence on the rainda of the French, he waa met by a peaceable and humble depuUtion which preaented him with the keya. And in Rheima, in the eapeeial and antlane coronation place of hia fathera, Chwlaa waa crowned, aa the maid of Orleana had propheaiod that he would be i and he waa anMnted with the holy oil which waa aaid to hare been brought firom Hea»cn by a pigeon at the coronation of Clovia; and the lately obacuro and menial of the village inn wared over hie head the oonaecrated banner before which hii foea had ao often fled i and while the glad multitude ahoutod in tri- umphant Joy. ahe to whom ao much of thia triumph was owing fell at hia feet and bathed thorn with tcara of joy. CHAPTER XXXI. Th« Reign qf Uknrt VI. feontimiedj. Tnn coronation of Cliarloa in the city of Rheima wat doubly calculated to ruiae the apirita and to quicken the loyal attachment of hia aubjecta. For while, aa the cata- blishcd coronation place of the kinga of France, Rheima alone seemed to them to be cnpable of giving full nanctity and elTcct to the solemnity, the truly surprising difHcuU ties that had been surmounted by him in obtaining possesaion of that city, under the auspices ot the Maid of Orleans, seemed to all ranks of men, in that auperstitioua age, to be so many clear and undeniable evi- deuces that the cause of Charles waa in- deed miraculously espoused by Heaven. On turning his attention to obtaining posses- sion of the neighbouring garrisons, Chnrlea reaped the full beneflt of this papular judg- ment; Laon, Soissona, Chatcau-Thiery, Frovins, and numerous other towns opening their gates to him at the tirst summons. Tliia feeling spread far and wide; and Charles, who so lately saw himself upon the very point of being wholly expelled from his country, had now the satisfaction of seeing tlie favour of the whole nation ra- pidly and warmly inclining to his cause. Bedford in thia diffieult crisis showed himself calm, provident, and resolute aa ever he had been daring the greatest pros- perity of the English arms. Perceiving that the French, and especially the flckle and turbulent population of Paris, were wavering, he judiciously mixed curbing and indulgence, at once impressin;; them with a painful sense of the danger of insur- rtetion, and diminishing, as fares kindntis could diminiah, their evidently ttrnnK if. aire for one. Conscious, too, thst Unr gundy was deepiv offended, and tliai hu open enmltr would Just at this Juncture b« absolutely fatal to the English cauir, Hrd. ford skilfully laid himself out to win hin back to good humour and to coaflrm hin in hia airianoe. But there waa In Bedford'a aitualion n. other element of difficulty, against which hi found itatillmore difficult to cnniend. Ths oonqueat of France had lost much of its popularitT in the Judgment of the Kngliih, Aa regarded the mere muliitudc, thiipn! bably arose aimplv from its having lost iu noveita ; but thinking men both in and oat of parliament had begun to count the cost againat the profit ; and not a few of them n had even begun to anticipate not protit but i £ actual injury to England from the conqueit '■ i of France. These fecllnga were so genersl J ' and ao atrong. that while the parliRnient ' ateadily rofnaed auppliea of money to Bed- j ford, a cdrreaponaing disinclination wu ; * shown by men to enlist in the rcinforc*. i ; menta which he so much needed. Ilrave as ' > they were, the English soldiers of that day | i desired gold aa well aa glory ; and thry km a notion that neither the one nor the otlier ' > waa to be obtained by warring agninat the > ^ king of France, who, even by the atste. > a menta of the English commanders (hem- ! selves, owed far more of his recent and > marvellous succcssea to the hellish arti of ' k the Maid of Orleana than to mortal ikili = and prowess. Just as the dnko of Bedford wns in the utmost want of reinforcements, it most op- portunely chanced that the bishop (now cardinal) of Winchester landed at Cnlaii on his way to Bohemia, whither he wns lesd- ing an army of five thousond men to com- bat against the Hussites. This force the cardinal waa induced to yield to the more preasing need of Bedford, who was thus en- abled to follow the footatcpa and thwart the deaigna of Charlea, though not to hn- xard a general action. But in spite of this aid to Bedford, and in spite of all the skill and firmness of that general, Charles made himself master of Compeigne, Beaarsii, Senlia, Sena, Laval, 8t. Denis, and nume- rous places in the neighbourhood of Pari*. To this amount of success, however, tht Fabian policy of Bedford confined the king of France, whose forces being chiefly to- { lunteera, fighting at their own exnenie, I were now obliged to be disbanded, and I Charles himselt retired to Bourgcs. A.D. 1430-— Attributing the advantnge I which Charlea had evidently derived from I hia coronation rather to the splendour of { the ceremonv than to the real cause of its locality, Bedford now determined that hit I own young prince should be crowned king ' of France ; and he was accordingly brt ught to Paris, and crowned and anointed there : with all the pomp nnd splendour that could ' be commanded. The splendid ceremony was much admired by the Parisian popu- ! lace, and all the crown vassuls who lived i A.D. 1-130.— HHNKT'b CHOWK and jaWXLB FAWKBD TO BAI8B SCrPMES. ibi 6. hr, MferMklnilatii evidently (troiiR de- oui, loo, thkt Hnr. jndert, knd tlmt hU ' It At thu juncture b« Bnglith cauip, Hrd. iielf out to win him and to conflrm him idford'i tiluittinn ig. ! ilty,aK«initwhiehht Icult to contend. Th« ' had lost mucli of in ' ment of the Kngliih, , ) multitude, thii pro. \ iin its having loit iu ;men hoth in and out I Kun to count the coit I id not a few of them ' licipate not prottt but i tnd hom the conqiieit ' Unga were lo itenerd I whUe the pariiament ilea of money to Bed. K disinclination «u ! iliat in tlie rcinforc€< ; uch needed, llravc u | h aoldleri of that day la Riory ; and tliry ent the one nor the utlin y warrins ngnintt the 9, even by the ttate- ' h comniandcra tlieui' re of his recent and i to the helliah arta nf ' I than to mortal ikill ^f Bedford waa in the | ircemcnta, it mntt op. | hat the bialinp (now ' ter landed at Cnlais on , whither lie wna lead- 1 houaand men lo com- \ laitca. Thla force tlic to yield to the more lord, who was thui en- ' footatopa and thwart ea, though not to lin- But in spite of tliis < apite of all the ikill | :8neral, Charles made i lompeigne, Beauvaii, | It. Denis, and nume- ghbourhood of Pari*. uccesB, however, the brd confined the king cea being chiefly vo- their own expenic, be disbanded, and d to Bourgca. iiting the advantage vidently derived from i to the splendour of ! the real cause of iti | determined that liii | uld be crowned king accordingly bniight and anointed then splendour that could J splendid ceremony y the Parisian popu- ■ vn vassuls who lived BAISB SUFFMES. 4.D. 1430.— TUN UUKH Of tUIIK ArroiMkIt KKUHRT IM kMOkAMB. IcnglanH.— l^ouscoClCancaisitr.—l^mnj Vli. i2.il In ih« territory that waa actually In the hands of the English duly appeared and did lioinage to the young king i but to an obMrraiit eye it waa very evident that this (trtmony created none of the passionate enthusiasm which had marked that of Charirt at Rhelrni. ,, ,« tliiherto we have aeon the maid of Or- leant only in ""<' '""K brilliant and un- broken career nfiirotptrity j but the time DOW approached for that sad and total re. u-rie wliicli must, from the very tirst, have been anticipated by all meu who had sense euouah to dlacrvUit alike the reiiroacnta- lion of her miraculous support that was rivcB bv her friendx, and of her diabolical commerce that *as given by her cnfiinies. It would seem that she herself began to have niligivings as to the nature of her inipiration { as it waa quitu natural that ihc iliould liavc as the novelties uf military •plenilour grew stale to her cyo, and her Judgment became more and more alive to I tlie real diflicultiea of the military achicvo- Bients which must be perfuruied by her royal master, before he could become king of France iti deed as well as bv right. From ■uch miugiviiigs it probably arose that. having now perfurmed her two great and at Arit ditcrcditcd Dnimises, of riiising the liege of Orleans ana of causing Charles to be crowned at Rheims, she now urgently desired to be allowed to return to her ori- ginal obscurity, and to the occu|)atioiisand apiiart'l of her sex. But Dunois waa too well aware of the influence of her supposed lanctity, upon thu soldiers, not to be very anxious to keep her among them ; and he M strongly urged her to remain, and aid in the crowning of her prophetic and great career bv the total expukion of the ene- mies of her sovereign, that she, iu a most evil hour for herself, was worked upon to consent. As the beat service that it waa at the instant in her power to do, she threw herself into Compeigne, which the duke of Burgundy and tlie carls of Arundel and SuU'ulk were at that time hotly besieging. Her appearance was hailed bv the bealezed with a perfect rapture of joy; she had proved her miraculoua power by auch iptendid and unbroken success, that every n:an among them now believed himself in- vincible and the victory secure; and t^e news of her arrival undoubtedly imbued with very opposite feelin^a not a few of the brave hearts in the English camp. But the joy of the one party and the gloom of the other were alike short-lived and unfounded. On the very day after that on which she arrived in the garrison ahe led forth a sally, and twice drove the Burgundiana, under John of Luxembourg, fruin their intrench- ments. But the Burgundiana were so fluickly and so numerously reinforced, that Joan reluctantly ordered a retreat, and in the disorder she wns separated from her party and taken prisoner, after having de- fended herself with a valour and address which would have done no discredit to the bravest knight among her Burgundian captors. This event waa so unexpectiid, that the popular humour of the times attributed It to the treachery uf the French ultlcers, who, said thu rumour, were ao wenry uf hearing themselves depreciated by the attributing of every success to Joan, that they pur Eosely abandoned her to the anemy. But esldes that there is not a shadow of proof of this charge uf treachery, which several histuriaiis have somewhat too hastily adopt- ed, the fair presumption is entirely against it. On the one hand, we cannot imagine that the private envv of the French oiHccra would thus outweigh alike their a. 'dour for the cause in which they foui^ht and their sense of their own tnfety, which depended an mainly upon that triumph wliicb the iu- spiring eO'ect of Joan'a presence among their men was more than anything else likely to ensure. On the other hand, wl^at more likely than that a woman, in spitt' of the best efforts of her friends, ilioulu oe taken prisoner in such a scene of confu- sion? How many thousands of men had beou, in that very war, taken prisoners in similar scenes, without auy surmise of treachery ? A.o. 1431.— It is always painful to have to speak of some one cnurmous and indeli- ble stain upon a character otherwise lair aud admirable. The historian irresistibly and almost uncousciousljr tliids his sympa- thies awakened on behalf of the great ciia- racters whose deeds he describes. It ia impossible to write about the wise and valorous course of the great duke of Bed- ford without a feeling of intense adniira- tiuu ; proportionally painful It needs must be to have to describe him as being guilty of most sottish and brutnl cruelty. Aware how much the success of Joan had tended to throw disaster and discredit upon his arn^s, Bedford imagined thot to have her in Ilia power waa to secure his future suc- cess, and he vald a cnusiderablu sum for her to John or Luxembourg. It is difficult in our age, when super- stition is so completely deprived of its de- lusive but terrible power, to imagine that such a man as Bedford could seriously and in good faith give any credit to the absurd stories that were TLiated of the demoniac nature of Joan's powers. But it "oiild be rash to deny the possibility of tha^ t.<-'.f.'f, however absurd; tbt few indeed ": the men who in that age were free trom the stupefying and degrading influence of su- fierstition. Apart from ner alleged deal- ngs with the prince of the po-.vers of dark- ness, there was nothing iii ihe career ot Joan which should have excluded her from the privileges of ar. h\ .lourable prisoner. In her interference in the deadly ousiness of war she, it is true, departed from the or- dinary usages of her sex; but, except in wearing -vmour and iu daring the actual dangers of the fight, she even in this re-> apect only followed the example left to her by the countess of Mountfort and by Plii- Uppa, queen of king Edward of England. Tnc gallant and tender feeling towards the ses, which chivalry made ao much boast of ■ ^ m m m k- ?. u 5i « H »l e a< u < M o n M P A K A. S. 1430. — UKNBT CBOWKXO KINO OV VBAKCB AT PABI8, DBC. IJ. A.D. 1431.— TUB BN0LI8I1 CAUSU IX VUANCK KOW UAITKRB TO JL ClllBIS. 232 Vt'^t ^rtasutQ oC l^istonj, Src. ought to have led Bedford on this account to have treated her with even more indul- gence than he would have shown to an equally celebrated prisoner of the other ■ex ; and the more attentively we notice all the rest of Bedford's conduct, the more dUSccQt shall we find it to believe that he conld have been guilty of the baseness and cruelty of which we have to speak, unless under the influence of a degrading; and most powerful impression of superstition. It is, we repeat, very difficult for us, living in an ag;e not only free from superstition but tending very strongly and very perilously towards the contrarv extreme, to imagine such a man as Bedford so much deluded ; but ttill more difficult is it to suppose that any leu powerful influence could have made so honourable a man guilty of a vile and dastardly cruelty. Joan, being delivered into the power of Bedford, wa^ loaded with chains ana thrown into a dungeon ; and the bishop of Beauvais, on the plea that she was captured within his diocese, petitioned Bedford that she might be delivered over to the ecclesiastical power, to be tried on the charges of im- piety, sorcery, idolatry and magic ; and his Petition was seconded by the university of oris. To the eternal infamy of Bedford, this petition was complied with ; and, loaded with irons, the high-hearted and admirable, however deluded, woman was taken before her judges at Rouen, only one of them, the cardinal of Wincliester, being an English- man. She defended herself with courage and with a cogency of reply equal to what might be expected from a man who, to good early training, should add the practice and experience of a long life. She boldly avow- ed that the great aim and end of all her public acts had been to rid her country of Its enemies, the English. When taunted with having endeavoured to escape by throwing herself from a tower, she frankly confessed that she would repeat that at- tempt if she had the opportunity; and when asked why she put trust in a stan- dard which had been consecrated by ma- gical incantations, and whv slie carried it at the coronation of Cliarles, she replied that she trusted not in the standard but in the Supreme Being whose image it bore, and that the person who had shared the danger of Charles's enterprize had a just right also to share its glory. The horrors of solitary contincment, and repeated ex- posure to the taunts and insults of her per- secutors, at length broke down even the flne proud spirit of Joan ; and, in order to put an end to so much torture, she at length confessed that what she had been in the habit of mistaking for visions from heaven, must needs be mere illusions, as they were condemned by the church; and she pro- mised that she would no longer allow them to influence her mind. This confession temporarily saved her just as she was about to be delivered over to the secular arm; and, instead of being forthwith sentenced to the stake, she was sentenced to the com- paratively mild, though still shamefully unjust, punishment of perpetual imprison. ment, with no other diet than bread and water. Here, at all events, one might have lap. posed that the cruel rage of Joan's ene- mies would have stopped; for white her imprisonment rendered it impossible thftt she should personally do any farther da- mage to the English cause, her very de- tention and confesssion naturally tended to disabuse her warmest partisans of all fu. ther belief in her alleged supernatural in- spiration. But even now that she was a captive, and wholly powerless to injure them, her enemies were not satiated. Judg- ing, with a malignant ingenuity, that the ordinary habiliments of her sex, to which since her capture she had constantly been confined, were less agreeable to her than the male and martial attire in which ihc had achieved so many wonders and ex- torted so much homage, they caused a suit of male attire and appropriate armour to be placed within her reach. As had been anticipated, so many associations were awakened in her mind by this dress, that the temptation to put it on was quite irre- sistible. As soon as she had donned the dress her enemies rushed in upon her; this mere and very harmless vanity was inter- preted into a relapse into heresy, and she was delivered over to the flames in the market-place of Rouen, though the sole crime she had committed was that she lutd loved her country, and served it. A.D. 1432. — The brutal injustice inflicted upon a Joan whom the nobler delusions of Greece and Rome would have deified and worshipped, by no means produced the striking benefit to the English cause that had been anticipated. The cause of Charles was from rational reflections daily becoming more popular, and the cruelty of the Eng- lish served rather to confirm than to di- minish that tendency ; while a series of successes on the part of the French Ill- lowed as a matter of course. The death of the duchess of Bedford very much weakened the attachment of her brother, the duke of Burgundy, both to Bedford personally and in general to the £ngli!*lk cause ; and the coolness which fol- lowed this event was still farther increased when Bedford very shortly afterwards es- poused Jacqueline of Luxembourg. Philip, not without reason, complained that there was a want of decent regard to his sister's memory exhibited in so hasty a contract of a new marriage, and that a personal affront was oficred to himself by this matrimonial alliance without any intimation of it being given to him. . _ Sensible how serious an injury the con- tinued coolness between these princes must inflict upon the English cause, the cardinal of "Winchester ofiiered himself as ( mediator between them, and a meeting was a)/point- ed at St. Omer's. Both Bedford and Dur- gundy went to that town, which was in tlic dominions of the latter ; and Bcdfora ex- pected that, as he had thus far waved eti- quette, the duke of Burgundy would pay A.n, 1431.— JOAN OF ARC nUBNT AS A WITCH, AT nOUBN, MAT 30. r A.u. 1435.— A conaBMi held at abbas, to tbkat roK riAca. lEnglanlj.— l|ott«e of ICantaaUr.—l^cnri} Vl. 233 birn tLe fint vitit. Philip declined doing 10 • and upon thii idle piece of mere cere- ibJdt they both, without • (ingle interview, left ■ town to which they both profeised to lM«e gone with the sole intent of meeting ud becoming reconciled. So great ia the effect of idle cuitom upon even the wiie tod the powerful I Thit new cnuse of diicontent to the duke of Burgundy happened the more untoward- If, because it greatly tended to conlirm him in hii inclination to a reconciliation with luDK Charles. That prince and hit friends bad made all possible apology to the duke on account of the murder of the late duke liii father: and as a desire for the revenge of that murder had been Philip's chief rea- lon for allying himself with England, the more that reason became diminished, tlie mon Burgundy inclined to reflect upon the impolicy of his aiding to place foes and fo- reigners upon the throne which, failing in the elder French branches, might descend to his own posterity. ! A. D. 1435. — These reflections, and the coaitant urging of the most eminent men in Europe, including his brothers-in-law, tk:: duke of Bourbon and the count de ll|cheniont,BO far pr«> 'tailed with Burgundy, tint he consented to attend a congress ap- pointed to meet at Arras, at which it was ! proposed that deputies from the pope and I the council of Basle should mediate between i king Charles and the English. The duke \ of Burgundy, the duke of Bourbon, the ' eoont of Richemont, the cardinal of Win- (heater, the bishops of Norwich and St. I David's, and the earls of Suffolk and Hun- tingdon, with several other eminent per- sons, met accordingly at Arras and liad eoDt'erences in the abbey of St. Vaast. On the part of France the ambassadors offered the cession of Guienne and Normandy, not in free sovereignty, but only as feudal fiefs ; on the part of England, whose prior claim was upon the whole of France as rightful poisession and free sovereignty, this offer •eemed so small as to be utterly unworthy of any detailed counter offer i and though the mediators declared the original claim of England preposterously unjust, the car- dinal of Winchester and the other English authorities departed without any detailed explanation of their wishes, but obviously diuatistied and inclined to persevere in their original design. The negotiation as between France and England being thus abruptly brought to an end, the reconcilia- tion of Charles and the duke of Burgundy alone remained to be attempted by the me- diators. As the provocation originally given to Burgundy was very great, and as the present importance of his friendship to Charles was confessedly of vast importance, •0 were his demands numerousand weighty. Besides several other considerable territo- ries, Charles ceded all the towns of Picardy situated between the Low Countries and the Soinme; all of which, as well as the proiicr dominions of the duke, were to be held by him during his life, without his ei- ther doing homage or swearing fealty to Charles, who, in pledge of his sincerity in the making of thin treaty, r jlcmnly released his subjects from all allegiance to him should he ever violate it. Willing to break with England with all due regard to the externals of civility, the duke of Burgundy sent a herald to England to notify and apologise for this treaty, which was directly opposed to that of Troyes, of which he had so long been the sealous and powerful defender. His mes- senger was very coldly listened to hy the English council, and pointedly insulted by having lodgings assigned to him in the house of a mean tradesman. The populace, too, were encouraged to insult the subjects of Philip who chanced to be visiting or resi- dent in London ; and, with the usual brutal willingness of the mob to show their hatred of foreigners, they in some cases carried their violence to the extent of murder. This conduct was as impolitic as it was disgraceful, for it not only sharpened Phi- lip's new zeal fur France, but also furnish- ed him with that plea which he needed, not only for the world but also for his own conscience, for his sudden and complete abandonment of his alliance with the Eng- lisl'. Almost at the same time that Eng- land was deprived of the powerful support of Burgundy, she experienced two other very heavy losses, the duke of Bedford dving of disease a few days after he had tidings of the treaty of Arras, and the earl of Amu- del dying of wounds received in a battle where he, with three thousand men, was utterly defeated by Xaintraillei at the head of only six hundreid. A.D. 1-136. — As in private so in public af- faire, misfortuncsever come in shoals. Just as England required the most active and disinterested exevtions on the part of those to whom Bedfor I's death had left the di- rection of affairs, the dissensions which had long existed between the cardinal of Winchester and the duke of Gloucester grew so violent, that in their personal quar- rels the foreign interests of the king and kingdom seemed to be for the time, at least, entirely lost sight of. A regent of France was appointed, indeed, as successor to Bedford, in the person of the duke of York, son of that earl of Cambridge who was executed early in the preceding reign ; but owing to the dissunsions nbove-.'nen- tioncd, his commission was left unsealed for seven months after his appointment, and the English in France were, of course, during that long and critical period virtu- ally left without a governor. The conse- quence, as might have been anticipated, was, that when heat length was enabled to proceed to his post, Paris was lost ; the in- habitants, who had all along, even by Bed- ford, been only with difficulty prevented from ruing in favour of (Charles, having seized this favourable opportunity to do lo ; and lord Willuughby, with fifteen hundred men, after a bravo attempt first to preserve the city and then to maintain themselves in the Bastille, was at length reduced to such distress, that he was glad to capitulate A.D. 1430.— JOHN DUKR OP BSnFORD ntKS, AND IS DDIlIKn AT nOUBN. [.V3 A.D. 1438-9.— VAUINB AND KSTILINCB BASB IN KMeLAMD AMD VRAncx. 234 C^c ^reaaure of l^fetoru. ^c« on permission to withdraw his troops into Normandy. Resolved that his enmity to England should not lone be without outward de- monstrations, the duke of Burgundy raised an immense but heterogeneous and ill-dis- ciplined army in the Low Countries, and proceeded to invest Calais, which was now the most important territory the English had in France. The duke of Gloucester, as soon as the tidings reached England, raised an army and sent a personal defiance to the duke of Burgundv, whom he challenged to remain before Calais until tlie wcatliof would permit the English to face him there. Partly from the evident terror which Gloucesier's high tone struck into the Fle- mings, and partly from the decided ill suc- cess which attended two or three partial attempts which Burgundy had already made upon Calais, that prmce, instead of waiting for Gloucester's arrival, raised the siege and retreated, A.D. 1440.— For five years the war was confined to petty enterprises of surprising convoys and taking and re-taking towns. But though these enterprises had none of the brilliancy of more regular and sustain- ed war, they were to the utmost degree mischievous to both the contending parties and the unfortunate inhabitants. More blood was shed in these nameless and inde- cisive rencontres than would have sufficed for a Cressy or an Agincourt ; and the con- tinual presence of numerous and ruthless spoilers rendered the husbandman both un- able and unwilling to sow for that harvest which it was so improbable that he would ever be permitted to reap. To such a war- fare both the contending^ parties at length showed themselves willing to put an end, and a treaty was commenced for that pur- pose. France, as before, offered to cede NorBcandy, Ouienne, and Calais to England as feudal. fiefs ; England, on the other hand, demanded the cession of all the provinces which had once been annexed to England, including the final cession of Calais, with- out any feudal burthen or observances whatever. The treaty was consequently broken off, and the war was still carried on in the same petty but destructive manner ; though a truce was made as between Eng- land and the duke of Burgundy. For a long time after the battle of Agin- court, England had possessed a great ad- vantage in all affairs with France, from the captivity of the royil princes, five in num- ber, who were made prisoners at that bat- tle. Death had now very materially dimi- nished this advantage; only the duke of Orleans surviving out of the whole five. This prince now offered the large ransom of fifty-four thousand nobles, and his pro- posal — like all public questions at this pe- riod — was made matter of factious dispute between the partizani! of the cardinal of Winchester and those of the duke of Glou- cester. The latter urged the rejection of the proposal of Orleans, on the ground that the late king had on his death-bed advised that no one of the French princes shoald on any account be released, until his aon should be of age to govern the kingdom in his own person. The cardinal, on the other hand, expatiated on the largeness of the offered ransom, and drew the attention of the council to the remarkable and unqnn. tionable fact, that the anm offered wa«, in truth, very nearly eqttal to two-thirds of all the extraordinary supplies which the psr- liament had granted for the public service during the current seven years. To thii solid arirument of pecuniary matter-of-fact he added the ulausible argument of specu- lation, that the liberation of Orleans, tu from being advantageous to the French cause, would be of direct and signal injury to it, by giving to the French malcontents, whom Charles already had much difficulty in keeping down, an ambitious and promi- nent as well as capable leader. - The arguments of the cardinal certainly seem to deserve more weight than the wishes of a deceased king, who, however politic, could when giving his advice have formed no notion of the numerous changea of circumstances which had since taken place, and which, most probably, would have caused him very considerably to mo- dify his opinion. It was, however, less to the superiority of his advice than to hit superiority of influence, that the cardinal gained his point, and that the duke of Or- leans was released after a captivity of five- and-twenty years, the duke of Burgundy generously assisting him in the payment of his very heavy ransom. A. D. 1444. — However acquired, the influ- ence ofthe cardinal was unquestionably well and wisely exerted in the affair above de- > scribed ; and he now, though with less per- { feet success, exerted it to a still more impor- 1 tant end. lie had long encouraged every at- ! tempt at peace-making between France and | England, and he now urged upon the coun- ! cil the utter impossibility of a complete con- quest of France, and the great dillicultv of even maintaining the existing English power there while Normandy was in disor- der, the French king daily gaining some ad- vantage, and theEnglish parliament so incu- rably reluctant to grant supplies. He urged that it would be far better to make peace now than when some new advantage should make the French king still more unyicid' ing and exigeant in his humour; and his arguments, based alike upon hun:.ine mo- tives and facts which lay upon the very surface, prevailed with the council. The duke of Gloucester, indeed, accustomed to consider France the natural battle-ground and certain conquest of England, opposed the pacific views of the cardinal with all the violence arising from such haughty prepossessions increased by his fixed ha- tred of witnessing the triumph of an; pro- posal made by the cardinal. The laUcr, however, was too completely in the ascend- ant to allow Gloucester's opposition to he of any avail, and the earl of Suffolk wa: sent to Tours with proposals for peace. I The pretensions of the two parties were A.D. 1441.— Xllfo's COtL. CAMBBIDGE, AJID ETOM COM.. VOUNOKD BY URNRY VI, A.D. 1446.— LBAOBHHALL BUILT BT tlB RIMOH liTUB, MAYOIt. lEnglantr— l^onse of ICancasttr.— I^cnrn US. 23d I itOl too wide asunder to admit of a perr.; . ■ent pMce being concluded ; but a* the rari ofSomlk was in earnest, and as the dreail fa* itste to which most of Charles's territories wen reduced lijr the long continued war i made some respite of great importance to hii lubjects, as well as to his more perso- nal interests, it was easily agreed riiat a truce should take place for twenty-tnro monthi, each party as to territory remain- inc aa it then was. As Henry of England had now reached the mature age of twenty-three, this truce aforJed the English ministers opportunity and leisure to look around among the neiglibouring princesses for a suitable queen for him. To all the usual difficulties of laeh cases a serious one was added by the extremely simple, weak, and passive nature of Henry. Without talent and without energy, it was clear to every one that this prince would reign well or ill, exactly as he fell under the influence of a princess of mod or bad disposition. Easily attached, he was as easily governed through his attachments ; and each faction was conse- quently possessed with the double anxiety of marrying him well, as to itself in the first place and as to the nation in the next. The first princess proposed was a daughter of the count de Armagnac ; but u sne was proposed by the duke of Glou- cester, the predominant faction of the car- dinal at once rejected her, and proposed Margaret of Aiyou, daughter of Regnier, the titular king of Sicily, Naples, and Jcru- ulem, whose real worldly possessions, how- trer, were in exactly inverse ratio to his mtKnidcent and sounding titles. Margaret of Anjou, notwithstanding her Soverty, had personal qualities, indepen- ent of mere beai^y, though she excelled even in that, which made her indeed a pro- mising queen for a prince who, like the weak and almost childish Henry, required not a burthen but a support in the person of his wife. She had great and, for that age, very highly cultivated talents, and her courage, sagacity, and love of cnterprize were such as are seldom found in their highest perfection even in the other sex. Her own high qualities and the strong ad- Tocacy of the cardinal caused Margaret to be selected, in spite of all opposition on the part of the duke of Gloucester; and Suffolk was entrusted with the important business of negotiating the marriage. In this im- portant negotiation Suffolk proved that his party had by no means overrated either his tact or his seal. Notwithstanding the high Eeraonal Qualities of Margaret, it could not e concealed that she was the daughter of aliouae far too poor to oflfer any dowry to such a monarch as the king of England ; and yet Suffolk, desirous to prepossess the future queen to the utmost in favour of himself and his party, overlooking alto- gether the poverty from which the princess was to be raised by her marriage, consented to the insertion of a secret article in the treaty, by which the province of Maine was ceded to her uncle, Charles of Anjou, prime minister and favourite of the king of ■''ranee, who had previously made Charles the grant of that province — only the grant was conditional upon the wresting of the province from the English who at present possessed it. Had any member of the Gloucester fac- tion been guilty of this impudently politic and dexterous sacrilice of his country's in- terest, he would undoubtedly have been im- peached and ruined for his pains ; but it is most probable that Suffolk had in secret the concurrence of the cardinal, for the treaty was received in England and ratified as though it had secured some vast terri- torial aavantage; and Suffolk was not only created first a marquis and then a duke, but also honoured with the formal thanks of parliament for the ability he had displayed. { As the cardinal and his partv had cnlcu- | lated, Margaret as soon as she came to i England fell into close and cordial connec- tion with them, and gave so much increase- and solid support to the already overgrown, ' though hitherto well exerted, authority of Winchester himself, that he now deemed it safe to attempt what he had long de- sired, the utter ruin of the duke of Gloucester. A. D. 1447. — The malignity with which the cardinal's party hated the duke of Gloucester abundantly shows itself in the treatment which, to wound him in his ten- derest affections, they had already bestowed upon his duchess. She was accused of the impossible, but at that time universally credited, crime of witchcraft, and of hav- ing, in conjunction with sir Roger Boling- broke and Margery Jordan, melted a figure of the king before a slow fire, with magical incantations intended to cause his natural body to consume avtray simultaneously with his waxen effigy. Upon th's preposterous charge the duchess and hei alleged confe- derates were found guilty; and she was condemned publicly to do penance, her leas illustrious fellow-sufferers being executed. The duke of Gloucester, though noted for his hasty temper and somewhat mis- proud sentimonts, was yet very popular on account of his candour and general huma- nity; and this shameful treatment of his duchess, though committed upon what we may term the popular charge of witchcraft, was very ill taken by the people, who plainly avowed their sympathy with the sufferer and their indignation against her persecutors. The popular feeling for once was well founded as well as humane ; but as the car- dinal's party feared that the sympathy that was expressed might soon shape itself into deeds, it was now resolved to put the un- fortunate duke beyond the power of doing or causing mischief. A parliament was accordingly summoned to meet; and, lest the popularity of the duke in Londod should cause any obstruction to the fell de- signs of his enemies, the place of meeting was St. Edmund's Dury. The duke arrived there without any suspicion of the mis- chief that was in store for him, and was A. D. 1-I47. — TUB CARUINAIi OP WIN'CHRSTEB, OLOOCESTEn's OFrONBNT, BtES. A.B. 1-14B. — VU« CAVB I>« VKUD IILAMBS BIICOVBIKO. 230 ^^e ^teasur^ of l^lstori;, 6cc. immediately accused before the parliament of high treason. Upon this Charge he was committed to prison, and shortly after- wards was found there dead in his bed. It is true that his hody was publicly esoosed, and that no marks of violence coald oe de- tected; but the same thing had occurred in the cases of Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, Richard the Second, and Edward the Second, yet does any reader of snne mind doubt that they were mur- dered? Or can any sucli reader doubt that this unfortunate prince was mur- dered, too, his enemies fearing that his public execution, though the servility of the parliament would have surely sanc- tioned it, miKht be dangerous to tiieir own interests ? The death of the duke did not prevent certain of his suite, who were ac- cused of being accomplices of his alleged treasons, from being tried, condemned, and partially executed. We say partially exe- cuted, because these unhappy men, wiio were ordered to be hanged and quartered, were actually hanged, preparatory to the more brutal part of the sentence being exe- cuted ; but just as they were cut down and the executioners preparing to perform their more revolting task, orders arrived for that part of the sentence to be remitted, and surgical means to be taken for the resusci- tation of the victims. And this was actually done. The unhappy prince who thus fell a vic- tim to the raging ambition of the cardinal's party M'as a scholar and a man of intellect, far superior to the rude age in wliich he lived. Sir Thomas More gives a striking though whimsical instance of liis acute- ncss of judgment. The duke while riding out one dny chanced upon a crowd which hud gathered round an impostor, who al- leged that he, having been blind from his birth, had just then obtained his sight by touching the then famous shrine of St. Alhan's. The duke, whose learning en- abled him to see through and to despise the monkish impostures which found such ready acceptance with the multitude, hip;h as well as low, condescended to ask this vagrant several questions, and, by way of testing his story, desired him to name the colours of the cloaks of the bystanders. Not perceiving the trap that was laid for him, the fellow answered with all tlie glib accuracy of a clothier commending his wares, when the duke replied, " You are a very knave, man, had you been born blind, though a miracle had given you sight, it could not thus early have tauglit you accu- rately to distinguish between colours," and, riding away, he gave orders that the fla- grant impostor sliould be set in the nearest stocks as an exumple. It was generally considered that the queen, whose masculine nature had already given her great weight in the dominant party, had at least tacitly consented to the murderof the unfortunate Gloucester. This Srobable supposition had caused her consi- erable unpopularity, and a circumstance now occureil by which the ill opinion of the people wa« much aggravated. It wonlJ seem that that article of Margaret's nisrri«» settlement which ceded Maine to her uncle was kept secret during the life of the duke of Gloucester, to whose opposition to the cardinal's party it would of necessii. hate given additional weight. But the court of France now became so urgent for itsim. mediate performance, that king Henry wai induced by Margaret and the rainisteH 'o dispatch an autograph order to the governor of Mans, the capital of that province to five up that place to Charles of Anion he governor, sir Francis Surienne, stronell interested in keeping his post, and probably forming a shrewd judgment of the manner in which the king had been induced to make such an order, flatly refused to obe; it, and a French army was forthwith led to the siege of the place by the celebrated Dunois. Even then Surienne ventured to hold out, but being wholly left without inc. cour from Normandy, where the duke of Somerset had forces, he was at length obliged to capitulate, and to p^ve up not only Mans but the whole provmce, which thus ingloriously was transferred from Enr- land to Charles of Anjou. A. D. 1448.— The ill effects of the dii- graceful secret article did not stop here. Surienne, on being suffered to depart from Mans, had two thousand five hundred men with him, whom he led into Normandy, na- turally expecting to be attached to the force of the duke of Somerset. But the duke, straitened in means, and therefore unwilling to have so large an addition to the multitude that already depended upon him, and being, besides, of tue cardiniil't faction, and therefore angry at the disobe- dience of Surienne to the orders of the king, would not receive him. Thus sud- denly and entirely thrown on his own re- sources, Surienne, acting on the maxims common to the soldiery of his time, re- solved to make war upon his own account; and as either the king of England or the king of France would be too potent and dangerous a foe, he resolved to attack the duke of Brittany. He accordingly marchci! his daring and destitute band into that country, ravaged it in every direction, poj. sesstd himself of the town of Foiigcres, and repaired, for his defence, the dilHpida- ted fortresses of Poutorson and St. Jaciiucs de Bcavron. The duke of Brittany natu- rally appealed for redress to his lie^c lord, the king of France; and Charles, i,'lud of an opportunity to fasten a plausible qunrrel upon England, paid no attention to Somer- set's disavowal alike of connection with the adventurer Sourienne and controulover his actions, but demanded conipensatiou for the duke of Brittany, and put the grant- ing of that compensation wholly out of the question by fixing it at the prcpostcrouil; large amount of one million six hundred crowns. A.D. 1449.— Payment of this sum was, In truth, the very last thing that Charles would have desired. He bad most ably employed himself during the truce for a re- THK DUXB OF TOBK BBGINS TO ASSKRV UTS TITI.B TO THK CnOWN. A.D. 1449.— AN INCOMI TAX ON BOTB CLBIOT ANB I.AITT. =n lEnglantJ— l^ouae of ICantaater.— I^enrg FE. 237 ,^ of war at its expiration, or sooner, ihoold fortune favour bim witli an advan- tueoos opening. While he had been thus mployed, England had been daily growing ^tt; faction dividing the court and go- venment, and [poverty and suffering rcn- 4efing the people more and more indifferent to foreign wars and conquests, however brilliant. Under such circumstances Charles (Udir *t\tei upon the wrong done to the Hue of Brittany by a private adventurer as in excuse for invading Normandy, which be luddenly entered on four dilTerent points with as many well-appointed armies, under the command, respectively, of Charles in penon, the duke of Brittany, the duke of Alen^n, and the count "' Dunois. So ludden was the irruption oi \ ries, and so completely nni>repared were : Norman nmsons to resist him, that tht Vencb had onlf to appear before a place i cause its larrender ; and they at once, and at the mere expence of marching, obtained pes- lession of Verncuil, Noyent, Chateau Gail- lird, Ponteau de Mer, Gisors, Nantes, Vernon, Argentan, Lisicux, Fecamp, Cou- tancea, Belesine, and Feurt de L'Arche, an extent of territory which had cost the Eng- litii incalculable expence of both blood and trtaaure. Thus suddenly and formidably beset, the duke of Somerset, governor of Normandy, foand it utterly useless to endeavour to eheck the enemy in the field ; so far from beiup able to raise even one numerous irmyfor that purpose, his force was too itantyeven to'isupply sufficient garrisons; ud yet, scanty as it was, far too numerous for hii still more limited means of subsist- in; it. He consequently threw himself with such force as he could immediately command into Rouen, hoping that he might maintain himself there until assistance i could be sent to him from England. But Charles allowed no time for the arrival of inch aid, but presented himself with an army of fifty thousand men at the very rates of Rouen. The inhabitants, already disaffected to the English, now became drifen to desperation by their dread of the severities of the French, and tumultuously demanded that Somerset should instantly capitulate in order to save them. Thus as- sailed within las well as from without, So- merset led his troops into the castle, but finding it untenable he was at length obliged to yield it, -xnd to purchase permis- lion to retire to i^ \rfleur by surrendering Arqaes, Tancarville, Honfleur, and several other places in higher Normandy ; agreeing to pay the sum of fifty-six thousand crowns, and delivering hostages for his faithful per- formance of the articles. Among the host- ages was the earl of Shrewsbury, the ablest English general in France; and he was now condemned to detention, and to in- activity at the very moment v/hcn his s»r- Tices were the most needed, by the positive refusal of the governor of Honfleur to give up that place at the order of Somerset. Honfleur also gave a refusal, but, after a smart defence oy sir Thomas Curson, was at length compelled to open its gates to the Frencn under Dunois. Succour at length arrived from England, but only to the very insufficient number of four thousand men, who soon after they landed were completely defeated at Four- migni by the count of Clermont. Somer- set, who had retired to Cnen iu hope of aid, had now no choice but to surrender; Falaise was given up in exchange for the liberty of the earl of Shrewsbury ; and just one year after Charles's first irruption into Normandy the very last possession of the Englis'i in that province, the important town of Cherbourg, was surrendereo. In Guienne the like rapid progress was made by *Ve French under Dunois, who encountei ^d but little difficulty even from the strongest towns, his artillery being of a very superior description. Bourdeaux and Bayonne made a brave attempt at holding out, but no assistance being sent to them from England, they also were compelled to submit ; and the whole province of Guicnne was thus reunited to France after it had been held and battled for by the English for three hundred years. A faint effort was subsequently made, indeed, to recover Guienne, but it was so faint that it tuttcrly failed, and war between England and France ceased as if by their mutual con- sent, and without any formal treaty of peace or even truce. CHAPTER XXXII. The Reign of HENny YI. feoneluded.) A.D. 1450. — Tub affairs of England were as threatening at home as they were dis- astrous abroad. The court and the minis- terial factions gave rise to a thousand dis- orders among the people, besides habitu- ating them to the complacent anticipation of disorders still more extreme and general ; and it was now only too well known that the king, by whom both factions might otherwise have been kept in awe, was the mere and unresisting tool of those by whom he chanced to lie surrounded. To add to the general distress, the cessation of the war in France, or, to speak more plainly, the ignominious expulsion of the English from that country, had filled Eng- land with hordes of able and needy men, accustomed to war, and ready, for the mere sake of plunder, to follow any banner and support any cause. And a cause for the civil war which these needy desperadoes so ar- dently desired soon appeared in the preten- sions to the crown put forward by Richard, duke of York. Descended by his mother from the only daughter of the duke of Cla- rence, second son of Edward III., the duke claimed to stand before king Henry, who was descended from the duke of Lancaster, the third son of Edward III. ; and his claim being thus cogent, and he being a brave and capable man, immensely rich and con-< nected with numerous noble families, in- cluding the most potent of them all, that of the earl of Westmoreland, whose daughter he had married, he could not fail to be a o o Q^ H t> O M Hi R b o H m m « ORBAT ICMS WBBB RAISBn ON TRB BXFORT Of WOOL AXD SKINS. A.I). 1443.— qdikn'i coi.i.xa«, CAMaHiuoK, hkoan tuis tmau. 238 fEi)t ^reasttiQ of l^isiot)}, $cc. moit formidable opponent to to weak and incapable a kinx as Ilenr^; and tbe daily increating diaordcri, suSerin^t, and dis- contents of thu nation, promised ere Ions to afford him all the opportunitjr he could require of pressing hi* claim with advau- tage. Though parliament and the people at large were unwilling to make any sacriAces for the defence of the foreign intereita of the nation, and could not or would not un- derstand that much more exertion and ex> I pense are often necessary to preserve than to make conquests, they were not a jot the I less enraged at the losses in France, which, though tbey mainly originated in the ces- sion of Maine to Charles of Anjou, were consummated througii the rigid parsimony which withheld supplies and reinforce- ments when they were actually indispen- sable. The cession of Maiue to Charles of Aniou, coupled with his fast friendship with the king of France and his active ex- ertions in that prince's interest, persuaded the Knglisli people that their queen was their enemy at heart, and that her influence in the English council was a chief cause of the English disgrace and loss. Alreadv the partizans of the duke of York busied them- selves in preparing to kindle a civil war ; and already the murder of Gloucester began to be avenged uj)on its authors, not merely in the bitterness which it gave to the ha- tred of the people, but by the loss of the courageous authority of the murdered duke, now so much needed successfully to op- pose York and his seditious I'.artizans. Tlie clamour against the ministers and the queen daily grew louder and more incontrol- table , ana the name that was pronounced with the extremest and moat intense hate was that of Suffolk. However the people may, by the demagogues of their time and country, be misled to clamour against the great, it is a certain and an important truth that the feelings and affections of the people are decidedly aristocratic. It matters not that they are unconscious of the whole extent of the wisdom of rever- encing the old blood that ia glorified by long ages of high emprize and sage coun- sel ; they do reverence it ; and though they may occasionally be goaded or deluded into a temporary forgetrulness of that rever- ence, they are continually returning to it. In a thousand ways do the people exhibit their aristocratic tendencies, but in no- thing, perhaps, more unequivocally cmore strongly than in their part loathing, part mocking scorn, of the parvenu, the nov»» homo, the mushroom great man of a lucky yesterday. As the favourite minister of the unpopular Margaret, as the dexterously un- patriotic ambassador who to oblige her had robbed England of Maine, and as the man most strongly suspected of having brought about the murder of Gloucester, Suffolk would under any circumstances have been detested; but this detestation was lashed into sombthing very like insanity by the consideration which was constantly recur- ring, that this noble, so powerful that he could aid in murdering the nation's h vourite ruler, and rob the nation to cunciii ate the favour of a princes* who so UteW was a stranger to it, was a mere noble of yesterday ; the great |[rand8on, merely, of • • veritable trader I This consideration itwii " that gave added bitterness to every charire *" that was truly made against him, and thii i it was that caused not a few things to he charged against him of which he was whollr innocent. ' Suffolk's wealth, continually increaiinv as well managed wealth needs niusi be, wm contrasted with the daily increasing penurr of the crown, which caused the people to be subjected to a thousand cxtortioni While he was continually growiiijt more and more dazzling in liis prosperity, tlie crown, indebted to the enormous extent of 372,0001., was virtually bankrupt ; and the very provisions for the royal household Mere obtained by arbitrary purveyance— so arbi- trary, that it fell little short of open robbery with violence. Aware of the general detestation in wliicli be was held, Suffolk, who, apart from all the mere exaggerations of the mob, wai a "bold bad man," endeavoured to foreital any formal attack by the commons' kouiie of parliament, by rising in his place in tlie lords and loudly complaining of tlie culum- nies that were permitted to be ntterrcd against him, after he had lost his father and three brothers in the public service, and had himself lived seventeen years wholly in service p broad, served the crown in juit double tha' number of campaigns, been i> lie prisoue'., and paid his own heavy r .laom to the enemy. It was scandaloui, >. contended, that any one should dare to charge him with treachery and collusion with foreign enemies, after he had tliui long and faithfully served the crown, and been rewarded by high honours and important offices. Though Suffolk's apology for his conduct was prrifessedly a reply only to the m- mourA that were current against him among tha vulgar, the house of commons well un- derstood his real object in makiug it to be a desire to prevent them from originating a formal charge against him ; and feeling themselves now in some sort challenged and bound to do so, they sent up to the peers a charge of high treason against Suf- folk. Of this charge, which was very long and divided into a great number of clauses, Hume thus gives a summary :— -" They in- sisted that he had persuaded the French king to invade England with an armed force, in order to depose the king Henry, and to place on the throne his own son John de Lakole, whom he intended to marry to Margaret, the only daughter of the late duke of Somerset, and for whom, he imagined, he would by that means ac- quire a title to the crown ; thai lie had con- tributed to the release of the duke of Or- leans, in the hope that that prince would assist king Charles in expelling the Eng- lish from Franca and recovering full poi- session of his kingdom ; that he bad after- |> to nony liis soi A.D. 14S0.— TUB UUKB OF 8UF?0I.K IMFKACBID. im THOMAI LITTLIfOH, AM XMIRKMT JDDM, LITID IN THII mKION. lEnslantf.— 1|ou8c of ICancastcr.— llcnrQ liJl. S39 audi (Dconraged that monureh to make I ii^MCCoon intended to be lent to thoie I !J«,inceti and that he had, without any J iowen or permittion, promised by treaty ' to cede the province of Maine to Charles of ' Lon, and had ceded it accordingly, which I nroved ia the issue the chief cause of the , I i^ of Normandy." * I Tktse charges were easily renited by a re- S I lolate and self-possessed man like Suffolk. * j ., ngtrds the cession of Maine, he justly < LongD said, that he had the concurrence J of ouers of the council ; but he took care I sot to add, that though that was an excel- Itat reaion why he should not be alone in bctfing the punishment, it was no reason vbT be should escape punishment alto- letncr. ^ith respect to liia alleged inten- tiani as to his son and Margaret of Somer- Kt, he more completely answered that clurge by painting out that do title to the throne could possibly be derived from Margaret, who was herself not included in the parliamentary act of succession, and br conidently appealing to many peers pretent to bear witness that, he had intended to many Iiis son to one of the earl of War* fick'i co-heiresses, and had only been pre- TCDtel from doing so by the death of that )iJ;. Asif they were tl cmselvee conscious tbtt the particula;s of their first charge nere too vague and wild to be successful, the commons sent up to the lords a second nccntation, in whicn, amoag many other M doicgs, Suffolk was charged with im- properly obtaining excessive grants from the crown, with embeicBling the public Dione;, and with conferring officea uj^on improper persons, and improperly using hit influence to defeat the due execution of the laws. The court now became alarmed at the eiident determination of the commons to follow up the proceedings against Suffolk lith rigour, ana an extraordinary expedient vu hit upon for the purpose of snving him bom the worst. The peers, both spiritual and temporal, were summoned to the king*! preience, and Suffolk being then produce! denied the charges made against nim, but tabmitted to the king's mercy ; when the king pronounced that the first charge wa* antrae, and that as to the second, Suffolk, htfing submitted to mercy, should be ba- Diihed for five years. This expedient was fartoo transparent to deceive the enemies of Suffolk, who clearly saw that it was merely intended to send him out of the way untU the danger was past, and then to recall him ind restore him to authority. But their hatred was too intense to allow of tbeir being thus eanily baffled in their purpose ; lod they hired the captain of a vessel and lomo of bis fellows, who surprised Suffolk new Dover, as he was making for France, beheaded him, and threw his body into the ten. So great a favourite as Suffolk had been ofqueeu Margaret, it was, however, not deemed expedient to take any stepa to bring his murderera to Jtutlce, lest in the enquiry more should be discovered than would consist with the possibility of the queen and the house of commons keep- ing up any longer even the simulation of civility and good feeling. Though the duke of fork was in Ireland during tne whole of the proceedings against Suffolk, and therefore could not directly be connected with them, Margaret and her friends did not the less suspect him of evil designs against them, and were by no means blind to his aspiring views to the crown ; nor did they fail to connect him with an insur- rection which Just now broke ont under the direction of one Cade. This man, who waa a native of Ireland, but whose crimes had obliged him for a considerable time to find shelter in France, possessed great re- solution and no small share of a rude but showy abilitv, well calculated to impose upon the multitude. Returning to England just as the popular discontent was a{ its highest, he toolc the name of John Morti- mer, wishing himself to he taken for a son of sir John Mortimer, who very early in the E resent reign had been sentenced to death y the parliament, upon an indictment of high treason, wholly unsupported by par- liament, and most iniquitously, on the part of Gloucester and Bedford, allowed to be executed. Taking up the popular outcry against the queen and minister, this Cade set himself up as a redresser of grievances ; and pa 'ly from his own plausible talents, but chiefly from the charm of the very popu- lar name he had assumed, he speedily found himself at the head of upwards of twenty thousand men. Imagining that a very sinail force would suffice to put down what was considered but a vulgar riot, the court sent air Humphrey Stafford with a mere handful of men upon that errand ; but sir Humphrey was attacked by Cade near Sevcnoaks, his little force cut up or scattered, and himself slain. Emboldened by this success. Cade now marched his disorderly band towards London and encamped upon Blackheath, whence he sent a list of obvious grievances of which he demanded the correction ; but Bolemly protested that he and his followers would lay down their arms and disperse, the moment these grievances should be remedied, and lord Say, the treasurer, and Cromer, the sheriff of Kent, against both of whom he had a malignant feeling, should be coudignly punished for sundry malver- sations with which he strongly charged them. Confining^ his demands within these bounds, and taking care to prevent his fel- lows from plundering London, whence he regulorly withdrew them at nighfall, be was looked upon with no animosity, at least, by the generality of men, who knew many of the grievances he spoke of really to exist. But when the council, seeing tlint there was at least a passive feeling in favour of Cade, withdrew with the king to Kenil- worth, in Warwickshire, Cade so far lost sight of his professed moderation as to put lord Say and Cromer to death without even TUR BRUDITR KARI. OF WORCK8TKR TLOnmSURD IN THIS REION. A.O. 1463.— Tail WAH TBI riBIT IBAR OV A LORD MATOH'i mow. A.». U6i.- 240 ^i^e treasure of l^istorst ^c. the form of a trial. At loon a* he had thui let the example of iUegal violence he lost all hii previou* controiu over the mob. who now conducted themaelvei to infamously towards the citizens of Jiondon, that thejr, aided by a party of soldiers sent by lord Scales, governor of the Tower, resisted them, and the rebels were completely de- feated with very neat slaughter. This se- vere repulse so far lowered the spirits of the Kentish mob, that they glndlv retired to their homes on receiving a pardon iVom the archbishop of Canterbury, who also filled the office of chancellor. As soon as it could safely be done, this pardon waa pronounced to be null and void, upon the around that it had been extorted by vio> Icnee ; 'many of the rebels were seised and executed, and Cade himself, upon whose head a reward was set, was killed by a gen- tleman named Arden, while endeavouring to conceal himself in Sussex. Many circumstances concurred to lead the court to si: oect that this revolt had been privately si ^ on foot h]r the duke of York, to facilitate his own designs upon the crown ; and as he was now returning from Ireland they imagined that he was about to follow up the experiment, and accord- ingly issued an order, iu the name of the iniDecile Henry, to oppose his return to England. But the duke, who was far too wary to hasten his measures in the way his enemies anticipated, converted all their fears and precautions into ridicule, by coolly landing with no other attendants than his ordinary retinue. But as the fears of his enemies had caused them to betray their real feelings towards him, he now resolved to proceed at least one step towards his ultimate designs. Hitherto his title had been spoken of by his friends only in whis- pers among themselves, hut he now autho- rized them openly to urge It at all times and in all places. The partisans of the reigning klug and of the aspiring duke of York, respectively, had each very plausible arguments; and though men's minds were pretty equally divided as to their respective claims, the superiority which York had as to the fa- vour of powerful noblemen seemed to be more than counterbalanced by the posses- sion, by the royal party, not only of all au- thority of the laws, but also of that " tower of strength," " the king's name." On the side of the crown, besides the advantages to which we have already alluded, there were ranged the earl of Northumberland and the earl of Westmoreland, and these two nobles carried with them all the power and Influence of the northern counties of England ; and besides these two great men, the crown could reckon upon the duke of Somerset and his brother the duke of Exeter, the duke cf Buckingham, the earl of Shrewsbury, the lords Clifford, Scales, governor of the Tower, Audley, and a long St of nobles of less note. A.D. Hal.~The party of the duke of York was scarcely less strong ; but so far had arts and literature begun to show their civilizing effects, that instead of imtsntl. and fiercely flying to arms, the hostile d« ties seemed inclined to strugile rather ht art than force. The duke of York was tli> more inclined to this plan, because heini gined he had power enough in the usrli." ment to deprive the weak Henry of ihi presence and support of his friciidi- 1,1 which ease he would have but little i,M cutty in causing the sucoesaion to be il trred by law, or even in Inducing Heurv tii abdicate a throne which he was obviouilt and lamentably unfit to fill. ' Nor did the parliament which now met fail to confirm York's hopes ; the first 11(1) taken by the house of commons was to ne titlon the kins to dismiss from about L person the duke of Somerset, the ducheai of Suffolk, the bishop of Chester, lord Dud- ley, and sir John Sutton, and to forbid tlicni on any pretence to approach within twehi miles of the court. Tlie king agreed to banish all named, save the lords, for a whole year, unless, as the answer written for him very significantly said, he should need their services in the suppression of rebellion Still farther to show his sense of the tem- per of the lower house, the king— or rather his friends — refused to consent to a bill of attainder against the late duke of SulTullc though It had passed through all the par- liamentary stages. A. B. 1-152.— The mere demonstration thus made by the house of commons, even though it had proved but partially successful, vu sufficient to encourage the duke to more open advances, and he issued a proclama- tion demanding a thorough reform of the government, and especially the removal of the duke of Somerset from all office and authority ; and he then marched upon Lon- don with an army of ten thousand men. Greatly popular as he knew himself to be in London, where he counted upon an af- fectionate welcome and a considerable ad- dition to his force, he was astounded to find the gates fast closed against him. Scarcely knowing how to act under such unexpected and untoward circumstances, he retreated into Kent, whither he wai closely pursued by the king at the head of a far superior army. In the king's suite were Salisbury, VTarwick, and many more fast friends of the duke of York, who pro- bably thus attended the king in hope of aervin{^ York as mediators, or even, should an action take place, turning the fortunt of the day by suddenly leading their foroei to his side. A parley ensued, and Somer- ■et was ordered mto arrest to await a par- liamentary trial, and York, whom the court did not as yet dare to assail, whs ordered to confine himself to his secluded houac at Wigmore in Herefordshire. Cool and circumspect as he wasresolatt, the duke of York lived quietly in this re- tirement for some time, but was at length called from it by the torrent of popular in- dignation against the ministers, which fol- lowed a new and iflterly abortive attempt to reconquer Gascony ; in which atiMopt, besides a vast number of men, the Snglish l£n£ lost their deserve eirlofShrewsbui jifeofmore than ( lad the queen giv did away with the eatertdined that 1 ' cetd to Henrv qi trfti the Yorkisti of their chief to < * I beisr, by anilines 1 1 pletdy imbecile ev l{ I qawn and her cou I to the torrent of |i NSMBtedtosen nd 1)1 -be being now ha 1} I folk had formerly b lijduka of York lieu |> I Tht friends of the 1 J' I tiirtlly enough, des 1 1 1 tioo 10 favourable I jiieiri; but the dul ■4 ippointedanyexpet I' formed of decisive Ij'u be fairly and i |( : proper authority of I i.D. NSS.— Marg 1^ ' however well pleasec j Dwdenition, showec I taiing it irerin On the ( to j in public as if acti jfUl, was made to a ! of York, and to relet Tower, and give hir power- Even the mi * , DO longer able to a [• I u it was clear from 1 I ' hii commission, that { being, by some artfu difficulty for having I fcpt it. But even i bis forces about him i their head, he made 1 but limited his demi _ of the government ai [•;iio,\ion8 ministry. ■' i The hostile forces {and in the bat Me wh K I i)ta gained the victor] Is i M men, including t Kjthe carl of North uni ■'I Stafford, eldest son of ,:bam, the lord Cliffo J ; leading men of the p loo, were numerous, b lioK was among them I'becilityand tbemildt " , lork saved the uufort aiinoTance. The duk I possible respect and te [ 1 le availed himself of I ciert all the kingly 1 I leaving unclaimed the j Henry was little inclln 1 arrangement which sa^ j most of all detested, e: I The moderate or tim ; of York, and the spi I which Margaret kept iened party, prevented for a time, even after ti iiienced the dread war A. D. 1433- — CO?ISTANTIHOrLB WAS THIS TBAU TAKRN mOM THE TURKS. l-B. 1157.— TUB FR d Btresolatt,! in tlu» re- f at UngthI popular in- r which fol-| ive atienptl ch atifinptiT the English I JBK3. «.». H5S-~A" AOt FAtiiD vaoaiBiTina run iMroat or roBiiSR ikcm. lEnglan)).— I^uusc of Lancaster.— l|tnri) FS. 241 lo(t their deiervcdly beloved general, the url ot Shrewabur* who fell in battle at the »(of more tliau «. 'htjr yean. Thit event, ud the queen Kiving birth to a ton, which did away «*('> "^^ '>*>!>' ^te^t numbers had totertoined that York might wait and iuc- (ted to Henrv quietly and aa next heir, nrttd the Yorkiita beyond all farther power oflbeir chief to control them; and Henry b«iiiff> by •» illneaa, now rendered too com- j(tay imbecile even to appear to rule, the guen and her council were obliged to yield to the torrent of popular feeling, and they eoniented to send Somerset to the Tower, -he being now hated even more than Suf- folk had formerly been— and to appoint the juke of York lieutenant of the kingdom. The (riendi of the duke of York might, na- lunlly enough, desire to see him in a situa- tion 10 favourable to his and their ultimate Tiewi; but the duke's conduct wholly dis- ippointed any expectations they misht have formed of decisive measures on his part, u he fairly and moderately exerted the proper authority of bis office, and no more. t.D. 1455.— Margaret and her friends, boiveverwell pleased to profit bjr the duke's Djderation, showed no iutention of imi- laiing it. On the contrary, the king rcco- Tcring aufficiently to be again put forward io puDlic as if acting from his own free lil^was aiade to annul the appointment of York, and to release Somerset from the Tower, and give him back all his former power. Even the moderation of York was go longer able to avoid open extremities, 11 it was clear from the hasty annulling of hit commission, that he was not safe from being, by some artful device, brought into difficulty for having ever consented to ac- cept it. But even now, though he called bis forces about him and placed himself at ilieir head, he made no claim to the crown, bat limited his demands to a reformation of the government and dismissal of the ob- Doxioas ministry. The hostile forces met near St. Alban's, and in the batMe which ensued the York- isii gained the victory, their enemies losing iiHiO men, including the detested Somerset, Ibe carl of Northumberland, the earl of SiaSbrd, eldest son of the duke of Bucking- bam, the lord CliiFord, and man^ other leading men of the party. The prisoners, too, were numerous, and, chief of all, the iiiijc was among them. His own utter im- becUitjr and the mild temper of the duke of Toik saved the unfortunate Henr^ from all tnnoyance. The duke showed him every posiible respect and tenderness; and though te availed nimself of his good fortune to eiert all the kingly authority, while still leaving unclaimea the empty title of king, Henry was little inclined to quarrel with an arrangement which saved him from what he moat of all detested, exertion and trouble. The moderate or timid policy of the duke of York, and the spirit and ability with t'hich Margaret kept together her weak- ened parly, prevented farther bloodshed for a time, even after this battle had com- menced the dread war of " the roses ;" in which, besides innumerable skirmishes, twelve pitched battles were fought upon English i^round, and which for thirty long years divided families, desolated the land, and caused a loss of life of which some notion may be formed from the simple fact, that among the slain were no fewer than eighty princes of the blood I The parlia- ment, seeing the disinclination of the duke of York to nasp the sceptre which seemed so nearly within his reacn, shaped its pro- ceedings accordingly; and while, by grant- ing an indemnity to the Yorkists and re- restoring the duke to his office of lieutenant or protector of the kingdom, they renewed their oaths of allegiance to the unconscious and imbecile king, and limited York's ap- pointment to the time when the king's son, who was now made prince of Wales, should attain his majority. This parliament also did good service by revoking all the im- Eolitic and extensive grants which had een made since the death of the late king, and which were so extensive that they had mainly caused the excessive poverty into which the crown had fallen. A. D. 1466. — Margaret was of too stem and eager a nature to neglect any of the opportunities of strengthening her party which were afforded by the singular mode- ration or indecision of York. The king having a temporary lucid interval— for his real disease was a sort of idiotcy— she took advantage of the duke's absence to parade her unfortunate and passive husband be- fore the parliament, and to make him de- clare his intention of resuming his autho- rity. Unexpected as this proposal was, York's friends were wholly unprepared with any reasonable argument against it; and, indeed, many of them, being sufferers from the recent resumption of the crown grants, were greatly disgusted with their leader on that account. The king was accordingly pronounced in possession of his proper au- thority ; and York, constant to his mode- rate or temporising polity, laid down his office without a struggle or even a com- plaint. A. n. 1-157. — ^The king or rather, Marga- ret, being thus again in full possession of power, the court went to pass a season at Coventry, where York and the earls of War- wick and Salisbury were invited to visit the king. They were so unsuspicious of the real motive of this invitation, that they rea- dily accepted it, and were actually on the road when they were informed of Marga- r<%t's intention certainly to seize upon their persons and, not improbably, to put them to death. On receiving this startling in- telligence the friends separated, to prepare for an open defence against the open vio- lence which., it seemed probable, Margaret would resort to on finding her treachery discovered and disappointed ; York retir- ing to Wigmore, Salisbury to his noble place at Middlcham in Yorkshire, and War- wick to Calais, of which he had been made governor after the battle of St. Alban's, and which was especially valuable to the York- ist cause, inasmuch as it contained the only i.D. 1157.— TUB F&BNCU INFESTBO THE C0.1STS, AND TUB SCOTS TUB BOBD .BS. [F A.B. 1468.— ^t (S^YCBSun) of l^istorv, ^c. ngnlar militBry body which Bnghind then ■upported. Even now York wai not in< oUned to proceed to eitremitiet) and as Margaret on her part waa doubtful ai to the Buflleienoy of her military itrength, and well aware of the very great extent to which the popular ■vmpatnlei were enliited on the ■Ida of Tork, a pauee eniued, of which Bonrchler, archbiihop of York, and lome other lincere lovers of their country, avaiU ed themielvea, to attempt a mediation by which the people might be apared the ru- inous and revolting horrors of^civil war. A. D. 1458. — The humane endeavour of these personages so far succeeded, that the leaders of botn parties agreed to meet in London fbr a solemn and public reconcili* ation: butthe very manner oftheir meeting, notwithstanding the avowed purpose of it, was sufflcient to have convinced all aceu. rate observers of the little reliance that could be placed upon the friendly feelings of either party. Both came numerously attended, and ooth kept their attendants near them, and in the same close watch and serried distribution as would be ob- served in hostile armies encamped upon the same ground at evening, preparatory for the bloodshed and the struggle of the morrow. Though this mutual Jealousy and dread augured but ill for the permanence of a friendship declared under such circum- stances, the terms between the opposing parties were arranged without much difll- culty and wholly without strife; and the hollow peace having been fully arranged, the parties went in snleran procession to St. Paul's, that their union might be evident to the people; York gallantly leading by the hand las truculent and implacable enc- mv Margaret, and each of the couples who followed them in the proceasion being composed of a leading man of the opposing parties respectively. A. D. 1469. — The peace thus patched up was of exactly the frail tenure that might have been anticipated. The trivial accident of a retainer ot the earl of Warwick being insulted led to a general brawl, swords were drawn, the tight became serious, and the royal party being the more numerous, War- wick only saved bis own life bv flying to Cidais. This originally petty affair put an end to peace ; both parties took off their masks ; every where tne din of preparation was heard, and it became evident even to those who most desired peace for their country, that a civil war was now wholly inevitable. The earl of Salisbury having raised a con- siderable force, was making hasty marches to form a junction with the duke of York, when he was overtaken at Blore heath, in Staffordshire, by a much larger party of the royalists under the lord Audley. Sa- lisbury's numerical inferiority was fully compensated bv his superiority of judg- ment. To reach him the royalists had to descend a steep bank and cross a stream. Salisbury caused his men to retreat, as if alarmed at their enemies' numbers ; and Audley, falling into the snnre, gave his vanguard the word to charge and Ted thfin in full pursuit. As the vanguard reneh«4 the side of the rivulet, Salisbury suddenlv faeed about, and having only to deal withs body inferior to his own, put it cotnpletelv to the rout, the remaining body of the n». alists, instead of hastening over to support their comrades, betaking themselves to flight in good earnest. Tork's post was at Ludlow, in Shropshire and thither Salisbury now marched hli troops, whose spirits were heightened snd conflrmcd by their victory. Bo'ju after hit arrival York received a new accession to hit numbers, the earl of Warwick Joining him with a body of veterans ttom the garriion of Calais. York waa naturally delighted with this accession of disciplined men, who, under ordinary circumstances, mnit necessarily have been of immense import, ance; but their commander, sir Andrew Trollope, turned their presence into n cs- lamity instead of an advantage to the duke'i cause. The royal army arrived in sight of the Yorkists, and a general action waa to take place on the morrow, when Sir An- drew, under cover of the night, basely led his veterans over to the king. The mere loss of a large and disciplined body of rata was the least mischief tnis treachery did to York. It spread a perfect panic of auipi. cion and dismay through the camp; ttit very leaders could no longer rely upon each other's good faith; hone and conlidence fled, and the Yorkists u< 'crmined to seps- rate and await some mor^ favourable atate of things ere putting their cauae to tlic ha- zard of a pitched battle. The duke of York retired to Ireland, where he was univeraal^ beloved, and Warwick returned to Calais, where he was from time to time joined bj large reinforcements; York's friends who remained in England continuing to recruit for him as zealously as though liia cauae had sustained no check from tlie recent treason. A. n. 14G0. — Having completed his ovn preparations, and being satisfied from the advices of his friends in EnKland that he might rely upon a considerable rising of the neople in his favour, Warwick now sailed from Calais with a large and well- eauipped army, and, after capturing some of the royal vessels at sea, landed in aafet; on the coast of Kent, accompanied by ihe earl of Marche, the eldest son of the duke of York, and the earl of Soliabury ; and on his road to London he was ioined by the archbishop of Canterbury, lord Cobham, and other powerful nobles and gentlemen. The city of London eagerly opened iti gates to Warwick, whoae numbers daily In- creased so much, that he was able with confidence to advance to Northampion to meet the royal army. The battle com- menced furiously on both sides, but wns speedily decided. The royalists who had lately been benefited by treason were now sufferers from it; the lord Grey of Ruthin, who had the command of its vanguard, leading the whole of bis troops over to the A.9. 1469.— TUB ARTS OF BNOBATlIfO AND BTCHIItO INVSniED THIS TF.;I tua BABBABITI 0» TMI A«l WAI ■4VAII.ID OHLI Bt I«> INIIBOBBItT. lEngUnTJ.— 1|ottic of ICancastcr— l^cncv UH. 343 Terkiit*. A univtrMd panie ipnad through I th« rofiliili bx thii bate treacherjr. and tb« battle became a rout. The ilauvhler aiaonf lite nobilitjr wu tremendoua, and included the duke nl' Huokiniham, the earl of Shrewibury, lord EKremont, «ir William Lucie, and many other frallant offleera. The lot! of the coniinon aoldiery un the royal tide wai com|iiiratively trifling; the earl of I Warwick and liii colleaguea directing the I Torkiita. both in the battle and the ohaae, to ipare the soldiery, but tu give no quarter inoDK the leader*. The unhappy Henry, who was far more It for the quiet seclusion of some well-ur- dtred .country abode, was by the compul- lion of his imperious wife a spectator of this battle, and was taken prisoner; but liotk policy and good feeling led the Yorkist leaden to ahow every respect and kindness 10 one whose greatest misfortune was his beini a king, and whose greatest fault was a diicaie of the brain ; whose patient and ■imple bearing, moreover, had won him the I tender pitv of hia people. I Warwick marched with his loyal capi ive to London, where the duke of York ahortly afterwards arrived from Ireland, and a par- liament was summoned in the king's name to meet at Westminster on the 7tn of Oc- ! tober. The real or affected scruplea of I ifork were now wholly at an end, and he ; had determined to bring forward for the ' trtt time an open and positive claim to the \ throne. But even now he would only do M through the medium of a farce which one cannot read of without feeling some. thing like contempt for him, in apite of the remarkable ability of his general conduct. Though the archbiahop of Canterbury knew the intentions of York fully aa well as the dnke himself knew them, that prelate on teeing him enter the house of lords and advance towards the throne, asked him, in a low tone, whether he had as yet paid his reipects to the king; and York answered— u the prelate well knew that he wai to an- swer— that he knew of no one to whom be owed the respect due to that title. How two grave men could unblushingly perform this scene of needless mockery, or how thejr could perform it unchecked by the indignant and contemptuoua laughter of their fellow pee is, it really is not easy to imagine. Having by this ridiculoua scene made all the preparation that he could deaire, the duke placed himself close to the throne, and addressed a long speech to the peers in advocacy of his own right to the throne, and ! In comment upon the treason and cruelty 5 which the house of Lancaster had usurp- and kept possession of it. 80 unneces- ury was tlie farce with which the duke had thought iit to preface this statement, so well prepared were at least the majority of the peera present to hear it, that they pro- ceeded to take the subject into considera- tion as coolly as their descendants of the present day would resolve thcmsehrea into a committee for the consideration of a turnpike bill. The duke probably was not very well pleased with tha ■seess of this coolness; for the spot upon which be had placed himself and his bearing tbmnghout the scene go to show, that he expected that the peers would by acclaniatioii place hiin upon the throne against vihlch ho Iraned. The lords having invited the leading members of the lower house to aid them in the investigation of the claim of the duke of York, objections were made to it, grounded on former parliamentary settle- ments of the succession, and upon the fact that the duke, who had always borne the arms of York, now claimed through the himse of Clarence ; but to both these on- jectiuns the duke's friends replied by al- leging the prevailing power and great ty- ranny of the Lancastrians; and the peers, whom this reply satisiied — as, no doubt, had been duly agreed upon long before they met in the nouse— proceeded to de- termine that the title of the duke of York was beyond doubt Just and indefensible, but that in consideration of Henry having worn the crown during thirty-eight years, he should continue to do so during the re- mainder of his life, the duke acting during that time as regent. The lords further de- termined that the duke should succeed to the throne at Henry's decease; that any attempts upon hi* life should be equally treason witn attempts on the life of the king; and that this new settlement of the Ck'own should be flniil, and utterly abrogate and annul the settlement made previously. The duke was well contented with this jnoderate settlement of the question ; the weak-minded and captive king had of course no power to oppose it; and this transfer of the settlement was agreed to by the whole parliament with less excite- ment than a trivial party question baa often caused since. Invested with the regency, and also hav- ing the king's person in his power, York wae MOW king in all but namei but he too well understood the audacious and able spirit of queen Margaret, to deem himself permanently in possession as long as she remained in the kingdom and at liberty. Anxioua to get her into his power, that be might either imprison or baniah her, he sent her, in the name of h<>r husband, a summon* to join him in Loudon. But Margaret, who wa* bu*y raising force* in Scotland and the north of England, by pro- mising to the bravest and most turbulent men in those parts the spoiling of all the country north of the Treut, instead of com- plying with this summona, unfurled the royal standard, and showed herself at the bead of twenty thousand men, and prepared to li);ht yet another battle against York in despite of disadvantageous fortune. Whe- ther from some unaccountable want of judgment on the part of the duke, or fr^ni the exceeding popularity of Margaret among the inhabitants of the north, causing him to be wantonly misled as to her resources, the duke with only five thousand men march- ed against Margaret's army, as though he had merely to put down an ordinary revolt R e n m m B S ■ e »• a k M It e h », o M M b A H H t< a if k. XTBR1 ABTrnl, BXFKniBNT WAS VSSn TO ODTAIIf TUB SGTRnKIOlt rOWBR. A. D. Ufll.— TUB QUiail URTIHBf KOHTHWAnO AfTIK VDI tkfAV •Ji.:>t, J 244 tllbc ^riMur)} of l^lntonj, $:r. 2 ! ** I of an undiitclplined handful of men. A fatal error, from whatever cauM it aroM I Tho duke had already led hit little army at far at Wakciield, in Vorkatiire, ere he dit- covered hit error iutt in time to throw himielf into Sandal cattle, in that neigh, bourhood) and even now he might have been lafe had he not been guilty of a te> oond error, for. which no one but himielf could potiibW he blamed. He waa nrged by the earl of Balitbury and the rett of the friendt who accompanied him, to keep dote within the cattle until hit ton, the earl of March, could arrive from the bordera of walet, where he wat levving Iroopt, and thut, when he bad tomotbing like au equa< lity at to numben, to detcend into the 5 loin and give the queen battle. Thit pru- ent couniel the duke with inconceivable folly rejected, upon tho ridiculout plea that he ahould be for ever ditgraced at a toldier were he to remain thut up within a for- trett becauto threatened by a woman. Now the duke mutt fUU well have known, that, tpirited and tanguinary at Margaret mott undoubtedly wai. the wat in merely the nominal command of her army i that the wat aided by commandert of whote tulenta it would be no ditgraco to him to abow hit rctpect ; and that nnally, her force outnumbered hit in the overwhelming pro- portion of four to one. But the truth wat, that the duke had more courage at a knight tlian judgment at a commander; and, in apite of lul that could be taid by hit real and jttdiciout friendt, he obitinately per- fitted in descending to the neighbouring plain and giving battle to the queen. At might have been anticipated, the royalittt availed themtelvet of their vait numerical tuperiority, and at the commencement of the action detached a contiderable bodv to fall upon the rear of the duke't force. Thit manceuvre battened the erent, which waa not doubtful even from the commence. ment ; the duke't army wat totally routed, and he himielf waa among the number uf the tlain. That Margaret ihould choie to retitt the duke wat natural, even apart from any doubt the might have felt at to the tupe- riority of bit claim to that of her hutband ; but her conduct after the battle thowed a depraved and virulent feeling, which wat at once unwomanly and of evil augurjr to the people in the event of her ever being flrmlv fixed in power. The body of her il- luttriout opponent, whote triumph would have been tecure tome years before had he chosen to puth hit power to extremity, waa found among the tlain ; and thit ditgutt- ingly unfeminine queen had the head ttruck off and affixed to the gate of York castle, a paper crown being first placed upon the ghastly head, in bitter ana brutal mockery of the duke't nnsuccettful- endeavours. Margaret's brutal temper seems to have influenced her friends. The young earl of Rutland, ton of the duke of York, and then only seventeen years old, being taken pri- soner and led into the pretence of lord Clifford, waa by that nobleman's own hand put to death. Thit dastardly biitrherv nf » mere boy is accounted for by the liiMilrinni on the ground of Clifford's own faihir li.iv. ing perished in the battle of 8i. AlliKn'i i As though that could have been any jutti. fleation of his present butchery uf a vduiik prince who at the time of that bnltii; nm barelv twelve years old ! Another illuitri. ous victim was the earl of Hiiliibury, who being severely wounded was takrn iirmnnrr carried to Poutelract, and tliere bflicHdcd! This battle was a terrible Ion lo tlic Yorkists, upwards uf three thousand of whom perished, besiilet the dulir. Tint prince was only fifty voart of ago wIikii he tell, and was reasonably looked upon by hit party at being likely to nc their support and ornament for mnny yeart. He was suc- ceeded in his title and pretensions by hii eldest son, Edward ; besides whom he l«fi two other sons, George and tticliard, and three daughters, Anne, Elisabeth, and Mar- garet. A.D. 1401.— Immediately after this action the able and active, though roost hatefully cruel Margaret, marclied with the niaiu body of her army against the earl of Wu- wick, who was left in command of the main body of the Yorkists at London ; while she sent a detachment under Jasper Tudor, earl of Pembroke, and half brother to her unfortunate husband, against Edward tlic new duke of York, who wns still on the Welsh border. The earl of Pembroke and the duke of York met at Mortimer's croii, in Herefordsliire, when the curl was com- pletely routed with the lost of nearly four thousand men : tho remainder of his force being scattered in all directions, and be himself having no small difficulty in niakiug good his retreat. His father, sir Owea Tudor, who accompanied him to tliis diisi- trout battle, wat ttiil less fortunate ; being taken prisoner and It-d into the presence of the duke of York, that prince instantly or- dered him to be beheaded. Margaret wat more fortunate than Pem- broke. She encountered Warwick at St. Alban't, whither he had marched from Lon- don to meet her. Warwick't own force wat large, and he wat ttrongly reinforced by volunteers, the Londoners being for the j most part staunch Yurkists. At the com- 1 mencement of the battle Warwick even hud ' the advantage, but he was suddenly de- i lerted by Lovelace, who commanded under him, and who led the whole of his men over ' to the enemy. The consequence was the complete rout of the Yorkists, two thou- 1 sand three hundred of whom perished on the field. Many Yorkists also were taiien I Erisoners, as was the unhappv kin;;, who ad been taken to the battle bv Warwick, and who, in falling again into the power of hit queen, could scarcely to properly be said to be retcued at to be taken prisoner. Un- happy prince 1 Into whose hands soever he might past, the weaknett of his mind rendered him but the mere tool and pre- text of his possessors, who hurried Iiim hither and tnither, now vexing bis dull in- tellect with the aubtle achemet of party, A.D. 1461.— YORK PROCLAIMED KINO, IN THE C.IMF, MARCH 2. WAS lUITID TO TUB TVBHULIMT ITATM Or TUB TIMIt. i lEnglantf — l|ouic of Yorl.— lETitDatT} IV. 345 mJ WW iltrtUDf bit Urn* and timoroui •plril with iht Dioodr M«nt« and rude tUrmi of til* Untad flaid. Unbappjr, tbrica •ahappy princa I Marrarel hara RBTa a naw proor of bar uuKUiuarjr temper. Lord UunTillo, who kid hccn entruited with tha care of the kiDR*! peraon durioK the battle, waa rather ticreeable to tha weak princa, whok on the defeat of the Yorkiita, beidced tbii noble- iniin to remain, and aaiurad him of pardon tnii pn>tcction. Uut MarKaret, aa loon aa the confuaion of battle allowed her to inter- fert, ordered him to be beheaded ; and a limllar doom waa inflioted upon air Thomaa kfriel, who had greatly diitingulahed bim- lalf during the ware in France. Defure Margarel could turn the Tietory lb* thui abuaed to any practical advantage, Iht young duke of York rapidly approached her; and aa aba waa aenafble of her ditad- vistafea in being between bia army and London, where be waa ao popular, ahe haa- tiiy retreated northward i while Edward, whom the but narrowly avoided, and wboae may waa far more numeroua than bera, mlercd London in triumph, and to the Kraat delight of bia party. Finding hia canie ao numeroualy aupported by the Lon- danert, and greatly elated by the cordial rrttulationa which tliey buitowed upon him.which hcdoubtleaa owed tnWj aa much to his youth, the elegance of hia peraon, aad hia kindly though courtly aiddreia, he determiued to caat aaide.all the heaita- tion and delay which had proved ao fatal tohii father, to asauma the tlirone in de- ipiie of Henry'a exiNtcnce, and to maintain hii aiaumption by treating aa traitors and rebels nil who iliould venture to oppose it, Ai, however, he waa desirous of having at least the appearance of the national con- •ent to his i-lAinia, and as the appealing to parliament would l)e intinitelv too tedioua t(ir his impatience, and might even give lime fur some fotal bar to arise to hia auc> CMS, lie assembled hia army and a great multitude of the Londoners in St. John'a Fields, where an artful ar.J yet passionate harangue was pronounceu, in vituperation of the other faction, and in supnort of tlie claims and in praise of the hieh qualities of Edward himself. Such on harangue aa this, delivered before a meeting composed eiclusively of the friends and partisans of Edtvard, could not but elicit applause ; and when it was followed up by the question "which king they would have, Henry of Lsncaster or Edward of York," who can be in doubt as to the reply with which the mul- titude made the very welkin ring. Edward duke of York having thus been hailed by "tlie people " as their king under the style of Edward IV. certain peers, prelates, and other influential personages were next as- Minbled at Baynard'a casile, who confirm- ed what they obstinately affected to call "the people's decision;" and Edward lY. was duly proclaimed king on the &th of March, thus putting a formal end to the reign of the unfortunate Henry, whose in- fiucy waa graced with two crowns, and hailed by tha loyal vbouta of two nations, and wboaa manhood had been only ona long aeriaa of aervitude in tha handa of avowed encmiaa, or of friends wkoaa yoke was (lulta aa heavy, and perbmpa aven mora painful. ClIAFTED XXXIII. Tki Rtiffn nf EowAau IV. TnouoH Edward waa now only in hia twentieth year, he had already given proofa of activity, courage, and a very determined purpose) to which we must odd, that al- most the very flrst act of hia reign ahowed that if he were more prompt and resolute than hia father, he waa also by far more violent and sanguinary. A citiaen of Lon- don had the sign of the crown above bia ahop, and jocularly aaid that his aou should be ''heir to the crown." Anything more harmleaa than tbia jocular speech, or more obvious than the tradeeman'a real meaning, it would not be eaay to imagine. But Ed- ward, jealous of bia title and feeling him- aelf inaecure upon the throne, gave a trea- aonable interpretation to a merry joke, in- aisted that it had a derisive allusion tohim- aelf, and actually had the unfortunate man condemned for treason — and executed I This brutal murder was a fitting prelude to the aconca of slaughter with which the kingdom was soon tilled; and plainly pro- claimed Ihnt Margaret had now to deal with an opponent to the full aa truculent and unsparing aa herself. The nation waa divided into Lancastrians and Yorkists, tho former bearing the symbol of the red, tlic latter of the white roae ; and as Ihougli the blood shed in actual tight were insufficient to allay the tiger-like desire of the princi- pal oppunenta, the acalTolda were dyed deeply with the blood of the priaonera taken by cither party. Mnrgnrct's popularity in the northern counties had enabled her to get together an army of sixty thousand men, with which ahe took post in Yorkshire, whither Ed- ward and the enri of Warwick hastened to meet her. On arriving at fontefract, Ed- ward dispatched lord Fitzwalter with a de- tachment to secure the passage over the river Ay re, at Fcrryl>ridu;e. Fitawaltcr ob- tained possession of the important poat in question, but was speedily attacked there by very superior iiuiiibera of the Lancas- trians under lord Clidurd, who drove the Yorkists from tiieir position with great alaughtcr, Fitzwalter himself being among the eloin. When the remains of the beaten detachment carried thcxc disastrous tidings to the earl of Warwick, thnt nobleman, fear in^ ttiat the misfortune would deatroy the spirits of his troops, bad hia horse brought to him, stabbed it to the heart in presence of the whole army, and solcmnlv swore th jt he w'ould share the fatigues ana the fate of the meanest of his soldiers. He at the same time caused public proclamation to be made, giving permission to any aoldicr who feared the approaching struggle imme- diately to depart from the army ; and in a isi- WAR AND RArlNB VOIIMED TIIR CniBF NATIONAL UCCUrATION. t^'^ 1 246 A. O. 1401.— SDWAnO AABIYSS A* FONTIFBAOT, HAKCn 12. VLf)t tlFrcadury of l^istors, $cc. milar spirit denonnced the moit Revere pnn- iihment upon any who ou the actual day of battle should show any symptoms of cow- ardice while before the enemy. As the post which had been so disastrously lost by Fitz- widter was of great importance, lord Falcon- berg was sent with a new detachment to recover it ; ai<1, crossing the river at some liiles above F rrybridge, he fell suddenly upon lord Clifford's detachment and routed it, Clifford himself being among the very considerable number of the Icilled. The opposing armies at length met at Towton. The Yorkists charged under favour of a severe snow storm which the wind drove into the faces of the enemy, whose half blinded condition was still further turned to advantage by lord Falconberg, who caused a party of his archers, while yet at more than ordinary arrow-shot from the opposite army, to discharge a volley of the light, far flying, but near'iy harmless arrows called flight arrows, and immediately to shift their position. The Lancastrians, quite unsuspicious of the stratagem, and prevented by the snow from noticing their opponents' change of position, sent volley after volley of their arrows in the direction whence they had been assailed, and when they had thus bootlessly emptied their quivers the maiu body of the Yorkists, led on by Edward himself, made a grand and terribly destructive charge; the bow was laid aside on both sides for the sword and battle-axe, and the Lancastrians were rout- ed and pursued all the way to Tadcaster by their enemy. The Lancastrian loss, in the battle and the scarcely less murderous pur- suit, was calculated at six and thirty thou- sand men ; among whom were the earl of Westmoreland and his brotlier sir John Nevil, the earl of Northumberland, the lords Dacres and Welles, and sir Andxew Trol- lope, whose treachery had formerly been so disastrous to the cause of the Yorkists. The earl of Devonshire, who was among the prisoners, was carried before Edward, who sternly ordered him to be beheaded and his head to be stuck upon the gate of York castle ; whence the heads of the late duke of York and the earl of Salisbury were now taken down. Margaret and her unhap- py husband were fortunate enough to es- cape to Scotland, whither they were accom- Sanied by the duke of Somerset and by the uke of Exeter, who had sided against Ed- ward, although he hud married his sister. Scotland was so much torn by faction that the Scottish council afforded but little en- couragement to Margarcc to even hope for assistance, until she promised to give up Berwick and to contract for a marriage of her son and the sister of king James. Even then the friendship of the Scots did not as- sume an aspect very threatening to Ed- ward, who tranquilly returned to London and Summoned a parlianicnt. Edward's success rendered this parlia- ment very ready to recognize his title to the throue by descent from the family of Mortimer; it expressed the utmost detes- tation of what it now called the intrusion I of Henry IV., annulled all srants made by the Lancastrians, and declared Edward's father rightly seized of the erowo, and himself the rightful king from the very day that he was hailed so by acclamation of the soldiery and rabble, which it cumplaccDth ' termed " the people." I A.D. 1462. — Though Edward found hia I parliament thus accommodating, he soon I perceived that he had very great difflculties ■ to contend against ere he could consider himself secure in his possession of the crown. Not only were there numerous disorders at home, the necessary result of civil war, but there were enemies abroad. France, especially, seemed to threaten Ed- ward with annoyance and injury. The throne of that country was now filled by Louis XI. a wily, resolute, and unsparing despot. For' tunately for Edward, however, the tortuous policy of Louis had placed him in circum- stances which rendered his power to injure the reigning king of England very unequal indeed to his will to do so. He at tirst sent only a very small body to the assistance of Margaret, and even when that queen tabu. quently paid him a personal visit to solicit a more decided and efficient aid, his own quarrels with the independent vassals of France only allowed him to spare her two : thousand men-at-arms, a considerable force, no doubt, but very unequal to the task of opposing such aprince as Edward. With this force, augmented by numerous | Scottish adventurers, Margaret made an ir- : ruption into the northern counties of Eng- \ land, but she was defeated by lord Monta* gue, warderof the eastern marches bctwrtcn ' England and Scotland, first at Uedgcley j Invcr, and then at Hexham. In the lat* ' ter action Margaret's force was completely ! destroyed. Among the prisoners were sir I Humphrey Neville, the duke of Somertet, ! and the lords Hungerford and De Root, I all of whom, with many gentlemen of less ' note, were summarily executed as traitors. I Henry, who had been, as usual, forced to ' the battle-field, was for a time concealed ! by some of his friends in Lancashire, bat ' at the end of about a year was given up to Edward, who held him in too mnch con- tempt to injure him bevond committing \ him to close custody in the Tower of Lon- : don. j Margaret after her escape from the fatal ! field of Hexham went through adventures j which read almost like the inventions of| romance. She was passing through a forest | ivith her son when she was atiackcd by ; robbers, who, treating with contempt her j royal rank, robbed Iter of her valuable i jewels and also personally ill treated her. ' The division of their rich booty caused a general quarrel, which so mucli engaged ■■ their attention that Margaret and iici sou were enabled to escape. Slie was n^ain ; stopped in the forest by a single rubber, to j whom — deriving fearlessness from the very , desperation of her circumstances— she cou- rageously said, " Here, my friend, is the son trust n of your king ; to your honour I en- it his safety." The bold demeanour of ^ KUWARD's AUSIY at TOWTON consisted of 49,000 MBN. A. D. U6Gi— BMSABMTHt AVTBBWAnDI MAMBIBD tO HBNBX ▼!!., BOBIT. Edvrard found hii J imodating, he soon * ery great difficulties ' J he could consider I ' possession of tjie • •e there numerous s necessary result of ! i re enemies abroad, j \ led to threaten Ed. d injury. The throne I i- filled by Louis XI., ; sparing despot. For- (wever, the tortuous ! ced him in circum- J his power to injure ! igland very unequal ■ ■ so. Heat first sent ' to the assistance of ' !n that queen subse- | 'sonal visit to solicit i Hcient aid, his own i ppendent vassals of j in to spare her two i a considerable force, qual to the task of as Edward. I f cnted by numerous | largaret made an ir- ;rn counties of Eng- ^ ited by lord Monta. ' irn marches bctuKcn • I, first at Hedgeley ! 5 exham. In tlic lat> ' „ itce was completely ■ c i prisoners were sir ! ' 3 duke of Somerset, ! ^ ford aad Se Root, | < y gentlemen of leu I , xecuted as traitors, i 1 a3 usual, forced to ' ', )r a time concealed ; ' in Lancashire, bat ; 1 ear was given np to | \ 1 in too mnch con. '. ] bevond committing I i the Tower of Lon. i , i i scape from the fatal | ; through adventures | the inventions of | ling through a forest ; le was attacked by ; with contempt her '• er of her valuable | ally ill treated ber. j rich booty caused a so much engaged ; ^ ; argarct and hei sou : li > )c. Site was n^ain y a single robber, to \ sness fVoni the very imatances— she cou- my friend, is the \ your honour I en- i bold demeanour of lEnglanTl.— 1|ouSe of Yorfe— "lEtitoartJ 3EF. 247 the queen chanced to chime in with the robber's humour ; he vowed himself to ber service) and protected her through tbe fbrest to the sea coast, whence ihe escaped to her father's court, where for se- jtrujean ihe lived in a state of ease and quietude strangely in contrast with the itormT life she so long had been accustom- edtolead. , „ • • j Margaret powerless, Henry imprisoned, and Louis of trance fully engaged with quarrels nearer at home, Edward now thought himself sufficiently secured upon his throne to be warranted in indulging in the gaieties and amours which were so well suited to his youth and temperament. But though his gallantries were by no means ill taken by his good citizens of London, and perhaps even made him more popular than a prince of graver life would have been at tliat time, his susceptibility to the charms of the fair at length involved him in a serious quarrel. The earl of Warv'ick and other powerful friends of Edward advised him to marry, and thus, by his matrimonial alliance, still' farther strengthen his throne. The advice tallied well with Edward's own judgment, and tbe earl of Warwick was dispatched to Paris to treat for the hand of Bona of Sa- voy, sister of the queen of France; and Warwick succeeded so weU that he return- ed to England with the whole affair ready for formal ratification. But during War- wick's absence his fickle and amorous mas- ter had been engaged in rendering the earl's mission not merely useless, but as mischievous as anything could be that was calculated to excite the hetred and rage of luch a prince as Louis XI. The lady Elizabeth, widow of sir John Grey of Groby, who was killed at the se- cond battle of St. Alban's, was by the con- fiscation of her husband's estates, for his tiding with the Lancastrians, so reduced in her worldly circumstances, that she and her children were dependant on her I'athe ;, in whose house, at Grafton in Northamp- tonshire, they all resided. She was still young, and her remarkable beauty was lit- tle impaired by the sorrows she had en- dured; and the king, while hunting, chanc- ing to visit Grafton, the lady Elizabeth took the opportunity to throw herself at hit feet and iutreat the restoration of her husband's estates, for the sake of her un- fortunate children. At sight of her beauty, heightened by her suppliant attitude, the inflammable king fell suddenly and deeply in love with her. lie in his turn became a suitor, and as her prudence or her virtue would not allow her to listen to dishonour- able proposals, the infatuated monarch pri- vately married her. When Warwick returned from France with the consent of Louis to the marriage with Bona of Savoy, the imprudent mar- riage of the king, hitherto kept auite secret, was of necessity divulged; ana Warwick, indignant and du-^iu ted with the ridiculous Eart he had been uiide vi play in wooing a ride for a prirte who wa^ already married. left the court with no amicable feelings to- wards his wayward master. A.D. l-ifiS.— The mischief of Edward's hasty and inconsiderate alliance did not end here. Like all persons who ate raised much above their original rank, the queen was exceedingly presuming, and the chief business of her life was to use hrr influ- ence over her still enamoured husband to heap titles and wealth upon her family and friends, and to ruin those who were, or were suspected to he, hostile to her grasp- ing and ambitious views. Her father, a mere private gentleman, was created earl of Ilivcrs, made treasurer in the room of the lord Mountjoy, and constable for life with succession to his son, who, marrying the daughter of lord Scales, had the title as well as the vast estates of that noble- man conferred upon him. The queen's sisters were provided with proportionally splendid marriages, and the queen's son by her first marriage, young sir Thomas Gray, was contracted to the heiress of the duke of Exeter, a niece of the king, whose hand had been promised to lord Montague, who, with the whole powerful Neville family, was consequently very deeply offended. The exorbitant and insatiable craving of the queen's familjr disgusted every one; but to no one did it give sucli bitter feel- ings as to the earl of Warwick, who, though from his favour with the crown he had made up his fortune to the enormous amount of eighty thousand crowns per annum, as we learn from Philip de Ga- mines, was himself of so grasping a nature that he was still greedy for more gain, and, perhaps, still more disinclined to sec others in possession of the favour and influence which he formerly had almost exclusively enjoyed. This powerful noble, having vex- ations of this kind to embitter his anger at the way in which he had been treated as regarded the marriage, was urged to wishes and projects most hostile to Edward's throne ; and as many of the nobility were much disgusted with Edward on account of his resumption of grants, Warwick had no difficulty in finding sympathy in his anger and association in his designs. Among all the high porsonagfes of the kingdom to whom Edward's imprudent marriage and uxorious foil gave offence, none felt more deeply, perhfeps none more reasonably, offended than Edward's second brother, the duke of Clarence. From his near relationship to the king he had every right to expect the most liberal treatment at his hands ; but so far was he from re- ceiving it, that while the queen and her re- cently obscure relation:; were overwhelmed with favours of the mosi costly kind, his fortunes were still left precarious and scanty. Warwick, a shrewd judge of men's tempers, easily descried the wounded antt indignant feelings of Clarence, and offered him t'.iehandof his eldest daughter, who, being Warwick's co-heircss, could bring the duke a much larger fortune than the king could bestow upon him, even had the king been better inclined than he had hitherto A.D. 1467- — TUB DUKK OP BVnGVNDT MARniES BDWVRo's ■ISTEJl, A. D. 1467.— WARWICK WITUOBAWI FUOU COURT, BUT COHCIALS HIS DBSIttXI, ^^1 248 ^fie ^(castttp of l^istor^, See. appeared, to mend the slender fortunes of his bro :uer. Having thus united tlie influence of the duke of Clarence to his own, and engaged him inextricably in his projects, Warwick had no difficulty in forming an extensive and very powerful confederacy against the kinr. A.0. 1469 The unsettled and turbulent temper of the kingdom, and the preparatonr measures ot such a confederacy, so headed, could not fail to produce a state of things in which the merest accidental occurrence might lead to the most extensive and dan- gerous public disorders, especially as in spite of all Edward's success and the stern severity with which he had used it, there was still bursting throughout the country a strong though a concealed attachment to the ruined house of Lancaster. A griev- ance which at first sight appeared liUle con- nected with state quarrels, and of a nature to be easily settled by so arbitrary a mo- narch as Edward, caused the brooding dis- contents to burst forth into open violence. St. Leonard's hospital, in Yorkshire, like many similar establishments, had from a very early age possessed the right of re- ceiving a thrave of corn from every plough- land in the district; and the poor com- plained, most likely with great reason, that this tax, which was instituted for their re- lief, was altogether, or nearly so, perverted to the personal emolument of the mnnagcrs of the charity. From complaints, wholly treated with contempt or neglect, the pea- santry in the neighbourhood proceeded to refusal to pny the tax ; and when their goods and persons were molested for tlieir contumacy, they fairly took up arms, iind having put to death the whole of the hos- pital officials, they marched, full fifteen thousand strong, to the gates of the city ol York. Here thny were opposed by some troops under the lord Montague, and he having taken prisoner their leader, by name Robert Hulderne, instantly caused him to be executed, after the common and dis- graceful practice of those violent times. The loss of their lender did not iii the least intimidate the rebels; they still kept in arms, and were now joined and headed by friends of the earl of Warwick, who saw in this revolt of the peasantry a favourable opportunity for aiding their ovin more ex- tensive null ambitious views. Sir Henry Neville and sir John Conyers havir.jf placed themselves nt the head of th;; rebels, draw them off from their merely local and loosely contrived plans, and marched them southward ; tlieiv numbers increi^sin^ so greatly duriii;; tueir prng^oss as to cause great and hy no means ill- founded alarm to the government. Her- bert, who had obtained the earldom of Pembroke on the forfeitur'; of .Jasper Tu- dor, was ordered to march against the re- bels at the head of a body of Welshmen, reinforced hy five thousand well-appointed archers commanded by Stafford, earl of Devonshire, who had obtained that title on the forfeiture of the great Courtney family. Scarcely had these two noblemen, however. joined their forces, when a quarrel broks out between them upon some trivial quei tion about priority of right to quarters and so utterly forgetful did the anger of Devon I shire render him of the great and impor tant object of his command, that he m| lenly drew off his valuable force of srcheri ' and left the earl of Pembroke to stand the brunt of the aijriroaching encounter with the rebels with iiis own unaided and infe. I • rior force. Undismayed by this defection of his tol. league, Pembroke continued to approach the rebels; and the hostile forces met near Banbury. At the first encounter Pembroke gained the advantage, and sir Henry Nc. ville being among his prisoners, he had that popular gentleman immediately eie- cuted. If this severity was intended to strike terror into the rebels it wholly failed of its purpose. The rebels, so far from be. ing intimidated, were incited by their rage to a carnage more desperate than, proba- bly, aeny other means could have inspired them with, and they attacked the Welsh lo furiously that the latter were utterly routed and vast numbers perished in the purEuii the Welsh sternly refusing quarter. Pem- broke being unfortunately taken prisonsr by the rebels, was by them consigned to the same fate which he had inflicted upon their leader. The king was very nnturallv excited to the utmost indignation by the fatal results of the obstinacy and insubor- dination of the earl of Devonshire, whom he caused to be executed. | Even here the cold butcheries which ei- ' ther party dignified with the name of exe- cutions did not terminate. Some of the rebels, dispatched to Grafton by sir John Cimyers, succeeded in capturing t lie queen's mother, the earl of Rivers, and liia son, sir John Grey ; and, their sole crime bcin? that they were related to the quucn and that they were not philosophers enounh to refuse to profit by that relationsliip, they too were " executed " by the rebels. Though there is no reasonable grmind for doubting that the carl of Warwick iind bis son-in-law the duke of Clarence were the real diicvtors of the revolt, they deem- ed it politic to leave its public manitgenieut to Neville and Conyers, — doubtless to he tolerably sure of the result ere they would too far com)nit their personal safety. And accordingly all the while that »o much bloodshed had been going on in KngliinJ, , Wai iviek and Clarence live.i in great nmm- rent unconcern at Calais, of wliicli the for- niei'was governor; and, still farther to con- ceal their ultimate intentions from the king, Warwick's brother, the lord Monta- gue, was ami.ng the bravest and the most active of the opponents of the reb'^b 80 confident wan Warwick that the suspioiona of the kin)( could not light upon him, though the murder of the carl Rivers was surely a circumstance to have pointed ti the guilt of that nobleman's bitlercf>t riral, that he and Clarence, when tlie ianguiii rate r.t which the rebellion progressed seemed to promise a disastrous issue to it, A. D. 1-1G9.— BDWABD KKNKW8 AN AM.lANCB WITH TUB KINO OP ABHAGON. BII DBSiaSI, i.t ACT rABSBD PaBtCttlBINO WHAT BVBKX CLAIB Ot MKN SUOtll.D WKAB. lEnglantJ — l^ouse of York.— lEtJtoarti EU. 249 nmt oTer to England, and were entruned b< Edward with very considnrable c o> rir- ful vassal of France, the duke .j. R r/- gundy. Though the ear', .f Wiiwiok had 80 much reasun to hate th . 'wn-.ac- .if Lan- caster, the king so urgent' / premised him to a reconciliation, and to tiK- i- , imri*- to re- store that house to the thrur'c of luu.l.'.nd, that at an interview with queen liTjaret the earl consented to a reconciliation, and to doing his utmost to restore Hcury to his throne on certain conditiuns. The chief of these conditions were, that x'le carl of Warwick and the duke of Car -n^e should administer in England during (he whole minority of prince Edward, son and heir of Henry ; that that young prince should marry the lady Anne, Warwick's second daughter, and that, failing issue to them, the crown should be entailed on tiie di-.keoi' Clarence, to the absolute exelur.iun of the issue of the reigning king. By way of showing the sincerity of this unnatural confederacy, prince Edward and the lady Anne were married immediately. Edward, who well knew the innate and H a a ^, a IS o »■ I m f- I OF ABRAGON. 8U0ES WITH I.O>'G PIKKD T0K8 WEUE PnOIIinlTED TO TR WORN. ■DWABO WAI ROTMO VOB " BUBUOWINO" i.ABOB lUMB Of TUB WBALTBT. 250 VL^t ^reastttQ of l^iatorn, $ct. ineradicBble hoitility of Warwick's real feal- iDx> towards the liouae of Lancaiter, cauaed a lady of greai talent to avail herielf of lier ■ituation about the person of the duke of Clarence, to influence the duke's mind, es- pecially with a view to making him doubt- ful of the sincerity of Warwick, and of the probability of bin long continuing faithful to this new alliance ; and so well did the fair envoy exert her powers, that the duke, on a solemn assurance of Edward's forgive- ness and future favour, consented to take the earliest favourable opportunity to de- sert his father-in-law. But while Edward was inteut upon detaching the duke of Cla- rence from Warwick, this latter nobleman was no less successful in gaining over to h\% side his brother the marquis of Monta- gue, whose adhesion to Warwick was the more dangerous to Edward because Monta- gue was entirely in his confidence. When Warwick had completed his pre- parations, Louis supplied him with men, money, and a fleet ; while 'le duke of Bur- gundy, on the other hau , :losely united with Edward, and having a personal quar- rel with Warwick, cruised in tlie channel in the hope of intercepting that nobleman ere he could land in England. The duke of Burgundy, while thus actively exerting himself for Edward's safety, also sent him the most urgent and wise advice ; but Ed- ward was so over confident in his own strength, that he professed to wish that Warwick might make good his landing. In this respect his wish was soon grant- ed. A violent storm dispersed the duke of Burgundy's fleet, and Warwick was thus enabled to land without opposition on the coast of Devon, accompanied by the d ike of Clarence and the earls of Oxford and Pembroke. The king was at this time in the north of England engaged in putting down a revolt caused by Warwick's brother- in-law, the lord Fitzhugh ; and Warwick's popularity being thus left unopposed, he, who had landed with a force far too small for his designs, saw himself in a very few days at the bead of upwards of sixty thou- sand men. The king on hearing of Warwick's land- ing hastened southward to meet him, and the two armies came in sight of each ot'ner at Nottingham, An action was almost liourly expected, and Edward was still con- fldent in his good fortune; but he was now to feel the ill efifects of the overween- ing trust he had put in the marquis of Montague. That nobleman suddenly got bis adherents under arms during the dark- ness of the night hours, and made their way to the quarter occupied by the king, shouting the war-cry of the hostile army. Edward, who was awakened by this sudden tumult, was informed by lord Hastings of the real cause of it, and urged to save Dim- self by flight while there was still time for him to do so. 80 well had the marquis of Montague timed his treacherous measure, that Edward had barely time to make his c:scape on horseback to Lynn, in Norfolk, where he got on hoard ship and saiti'd from England, leaving Warwick so suddenly ni i rapidly master of the kingdom, that tl,« fickle and hesitating Clarence had no* h«d time for the change of sides he had 'con templated, and which would now havel»i>n fatal to him. " ; So sudden had been Edward's forced de parture from his kingdom, that he had not time to take money, jewels, or any valm bles with him ; and when, after narrowii escaping fVom tne Hanse towns, then «i war with both England and France, he laiided at Alcmaer, in Holland, he had no. thing with which to recompense the man. ter of the ship save a robe richly lined win! sable fur, which he accompanied with as. Burances of a more substantial recompemc should more prosperous times return. The duke of Burgundy was greatly an- noyed at the misfortune of Edward. Per. i sonally and in sincerity the duke really pre! ' ferred the Lancastrian to the Yurklit ' house ; he had allied himself with the Itt. ' ter solely from the politic motive of bcini ! allied to the reigning house of England* and now viiat the Lancastrians were so tri' ' umphant that even the cautious Vauclcr ' who had been confirmed by Edward in hit government of Calais, did not scruple to give that important place up to Warwick,- a pretty certain proof that the Lanca»t'ri. ans were secure for some time at leaat- the duke was fjreatly perplexed by the ne- cessity he was under of invidiously giving a cold reception to a near connection who was suffering from misfortune, or of being at the expense and discredit of suppotting a penniless fugitive whose very misfortunes were in no slight degree at'.ributable to his own wont of judgment. The flight of Edward from the kingdom was the signal for Warwick to give liberty to the unhappy Henry, whose confinement in the Tower had been chiefly the earl'i own work. Henry was once more pro. claimed king with all due solemnity, and ' parliament was summoned to meet hini ,.; Westminster, whose votes were, of couric, the mere echoes of the instructions of tlie now dominant faction of Warwick. Ai had fcmerly been agreed between War- wick and queen Margaret, it was now en- acted by the parliament that Henry was the rightful and only king of England, bi't that his imbocility of mind rendered it re- quisite 'iT have a regency, the pcweri of which were placed in the hands of the duke of Clarence and the earl of Warwick dur- ing the minority of prince Edward, and tlie duke of Clarence was declared heir to tlie throne failing the issue of that young prince. As usual, very much of the time of the parliament was occupied in reverting the attainders which had been passtd against Lancastrians during the prosperity j 1 1 of the house of York. In one respect, how- ever, this parliament and its dittator Wir- wick deserve considcrnble prnise, — thin power was used without that wliolcsalc and unsparing resort to bloodshed by whicii such triumphs are but too generally dif- graced. R^uny of the leading Yorkistd, it A.n. l'i7U. — BOTH TUB BIVAL KINDS WEUK lUIS TKAU I!« PRISON. »UK WIALTHT. A.p. 1471.— BDWABD ASAIN TAKXI rOIIBtllON OF LONDON, APnili 11. lEnalanU llouse of Yotli.— lEBtoarU IF. 251 ii in«> fl^ beyond sea, but still more of them were allowed to remain undisturbed in the lanctuariea in wliich they took re- fnif and among these was even Edward's naeen who was delivered of a son whom she hiid christened by the na.ne of his ab- J, B, 1471.— Queen Margaret, who was, iierhsp>> somewhat less active than she y been in earlier life, was just preparing 10 return to England with prince Edward ind the duke ot Somerset, son to the duke of t.,st title who was beheaded after the biitie of Hexham, when their journey was rrndered useless by a new turn in the af- fiiri of England; a turn most lamentable to those Lancastrians who, as Pliilip de Comines tells us of the dukes of Somerset ind Exeter, were reduced to absolute beg- nrr. Tiie turn of affairs to which we allude ,g, mainly CHuaed by the imprudence of the urlof Warwick, who acted towards the duke of Burgundy in such wise as to compel that 1 pnnce in sheer self-defence to aid the ex- iled Ed«'ard. The duke's personal predi- rciioni being really on the side of the Lancaitrians, it required only a timely and prudent policy or. the part of the earl of Warwick to have secured, at the least, the dnke'j neutrality. But the earl, laying too much stress npun the relationship between Edward and Burgundy, took it for granted that the latter must be a determined ene- my to the Lancastrians, and caused him to become 80 by sending a body of four thou- sand men to Calais, whence they made ver; mischievous irruptions into the Low Countries. IJurjnndf, fearing the conse- quences of being attacked at once b^ France and by England, determined to di- vert the attention and power of the latter by aKsisting his brother-in-law. But while determined so to aid Edward as to enable him to give Warwick's party abundant anxiety and trouble, the duke was not the lew careful to do so with the utmost at- tention to the presei-vation of friendly ap- pearances towards the English srovcrnmeut. With this view he furnished i'" iward with eighteen vessels, large and ;iiall, together with a bum of money ; but he hired the vessels in the name of some merchants, and still farther to mislead Warwick, or to give him a plausible reason for pretending to be misled, uo sooner hud Edward sailed than the duke publicly forbade his subjects from affordiuj; any aid or countenance to that prince either by land or water. Edward in the mean time, with a force of two thousand men, attempted to land upon the coast of Norfolk, but was driven off, and he then landed at Ravenspur, in Yorkshire. Perceiving that here too, from the care which Warwick had taken to till the magistracy with liis own partizant, the Lancastrian party was far the most popular and powerful, Edward adopt •.:d the policy wliich had formerly so well served the I duke of Lancaster, and issued a proclama- tion in which he solemnly avered that he had lauded without an" intention of chnl- I lenging the crown or of disturbing the na- tional peace, but had come solely for the purpose of demanding the family posses- sions of the house of York, *." 'vhich ne was incontestaLly entitled. This afifected mo- deration caused great numbers to join his standard who would not have done so had be openly avowed .his intention of endea- vouring to recover the crown ; and he spee- dily found himself possessed of the city of York and at the head of an army sufT- ciently numerous to promise him success in all his designs; while his chance of suc- cess was still farther increased by the un- accountable apathy of the marquis of Mon- tague, who, though he had the command of all the forces in the north, took no steps to check the movements of Edward, though he surely could not have been unaware how important and dangerous they were. Warwick was more alert, and having as- sembled a force at Leicester he prepared to give battle to Edward, who, however, con- trived to pass him and to make his way to London. Had Edward been refused ad- mittance here, nothing could have saved his cause from utter ruin ; but he had not taken so bold a step without carefully and, as it proved, correctly calculating all his chances. In the ftrst place, the sanctua- ries of London were filled with his friends, who he well knew would join him ; in the next place, he was extremely popular with the ladies of London, and indebted to their husbands for sums of money v.iiich they could never hope to receive unle is he should succeed in recovering the crown ; and in the third place, Warwick's brother, 'he archbi- shop of York, to whom the government of the city was entrusted, gave a new instance of the facile and shameless treachery which disgraced that time, by entering into a cor- respondence with Edward, and agreeing to betray and ruin his own brother. Being admitted into the city of London, Kilward made himself rnaster of the person of the unfortunate Henry, ■^ho thus onco more passed from the tlirom to the dun- goon. Though many circumstances gave ad- vantage to Edward, the carl of Warwick was by no means inclined to yield without a fairly stricken fleld, and having collected nil the force he could raise he stationed himself at Barnet. Here he was doomed to the deep mortification of fully expe- riencing the ingratitude and treachery of Clarence, who suddenly broke from liis quartern during the night, and made his way ove- to Edward with twelve thousand of Warwick's best troops. Had Warwick listened to the dictates of prudence he would now lave closed with the offers of a peaceful settlement which were made to him by both Edward and Clarence ; but he was thoroughly aroused and enraged, and he res'-'ved to put all consequences upon the iss, :t: of a general ^ction. It commenced accordin'^ly, and both leaders and soldiers on each iiide displayed extraordinary valour. A mere acciika* gave a decisive turn to the long uncertain fortune of the day. The cognizance of the king was a aun, that of IN I'RISOS. A.D. 147'. — IlENnV IB NCARCKLV UnKUATBO WIISJ' VV, 18 AOAI.N IMFllISOnBn. A.D. 1471.— THX BATTI.B OF TBWKBSBUBT WAI VOUaUT OH TUB 4th or »KX 232 Vl\)i ^rcasuvn of l^istonj, $ct. Warwick a otar with rays diverging from it ; and in the dense mist whicli prevailed during the battle the earl of Oxford was mistaken for a Yorkisn leader, and he and his troops were beaten from the field with very great slaughter by their own friends. This disaster was followed by the death of 'Warwick, who was slain while flghting on foot, as was his brother Montague. The Lancastrians were now completely routed, and Edward {'iving orders to deny quarter, a vast number were slain in the pursuit as well as in the battle. Nor was the victory wholly without cost to the conquerors, who lost up\. aids of fifteen hundred men of all ranks. As Warwick had determined not to make terras with Edward, his best policy would have been to await the arrival of queen Margaret, who was daily expected from France, and whose influence would have united all Lancastrians and probably have ensured victory. But Warwick, unsuspi- cious of Clarence's treachery, felt so confi- dent of victory, that he was above all things anxious tliat Margaret should not arrive in time to share his anticipated glory ; but though he had on that account liurried on the action, Margaret and her son, attended by a small ho^j of French, landed in Dor- setshire on the very day after the fatal fight of Barnet. Here as soon as she landed she learned Warwick's defeat and death .id the new captivity of her inveterately ur.Tor- tunate husband ; and she was so much de- pressed by the infcrraation that she took sanctuary at Beaulieu abbey. Sh.' was here visited and encouraged by Tudor, earl of Pembroke, Courteuay, earl of Devon- shire, and other men of rank and influence, and induced to mnkc a progress through Devon, Somerset, and Gloucestershire. In this neighbourhood her cr.use appeared to be exceedingly popular, lor every day's nmrch made a considerable addition to her force. She was at length overtaken at Tewkes- bury, in Gloucestershire, by Edward's army ; and in the battle which ensued she was completely doinated, with the loss of about three thou'-and men, among whom were the ear', r; Devonshire and lord Wenlock, who were killed in the field, and the duke of Somc'^ct and about a score more persons of dist'.iction who, having taken sanctuary in a ■ iiurch, were dragged out and beheaded, .imong the prisoners were queen Margaret aiidhL-rson. Tliey were taken into the pre- sence of Edward, wlio stersily deninuded of the young prince on wh, i ■ t 'ouiid he ."lad ven- tured to invade Englai. 1. ':'he high spirited boy, regarding rather the t'onune to which he was born than the pcvc-less and porilous situation in which th.- ariferae fortune of war had placed him, boidh and imprudently replied that he had come to England for the rightful purpose of claiming his just in- heritance. "This answer so much enraged Edward, that he, forgetful aliije of decency and mercy, struck the youth in the 'ace with his gauntletced hand. As though this violent act had been a preconcerted signal, the dukes of Gloucester and Cla- rence, with lord Hastings and sir Tliomp7 Gray, dragged the young prince into aald joining room and there dispatched him with their daggers. The unhappy MarRa/et was committed to close confinement in tliP Tower, in which sad prison Henrv had ex pired a few days after the battle ot Tewkes bury. As Henry's health had long been infirm, it seems quite likely that his dean was natural, but us the temper of the times made violence at the least probable, Ed ward caused the body to be exposed to'puh lie view, and it certainly showed no siimi of unfair means. ' The cause of the Lancastrians was now ' extinguished. The princes of that houie i were dead, the best and most devoted of iii ! friends were either fugitive or dead, and Tudor, earl of Pembroke, who had 'bees raising forces in Wales, now disbanded' thein in utter despair, and sought eafetv with his nephew, the earl of lUclunond in Brittany. The Inst effort was made by the bastard of Taiconberg, who levied forces and advanced to London ; but he was dc- ' serted by his troops, tnkpa prisoner, and executed. Edward, now wholly triump'i.ant sum-' moned a parliament, which complianiiv sanctioned his deeds ; .ind all ilangers being now at an end, he resumed the jovial and dissipated life to which he owed no small i portion of tiiat popularity which would ' most probably, have been refused to a prince of a higher cast of character and of more manly and dignified bearing. | Edward, however, was soon recalled from 1 his indulgence in pleasure, by the necessity ' for attending to his foreign interests, He was by no means unconscious of the cold • and constrained reception that had been given to him in his adversity by the duke' of Burgundy ; but considerations of inter- ! est now led Edward to make a league with | the duke against the king of France, fiy ; this league it was provided that Edward; should cross the sea with not fewer than ' ten thousand men for the invasion of! *rcnce, in which he was to be joined by the ' duko of Burgundy with all the force he coulc. command. The objects proposed by the allies were to acquire for England the provii'i OS of Normandy and Guieiine, at least, and if possible the crown of France, to which Edward was formally to challenge the right; while the duko of Burgundy was to obtain Champagne, with some farther territory, and the freedom for his hereditary territories from all feudal superiority on the part of France. Their league seemed the iiore likely to be successful, because they /.il fciood reason to hope for the co-opera- tion of the duke of Brittany, and they liad the secret assurance of the count of St. Pol, who was constable of France, and held St. Qucntin and other important plai 's on the Somme, that he would join them \,hen they should enter Franco. A French war was ah/ays sure to excite the pecuniary liberality of the Ensrlish par liament, which now granted the kinj t«o shillings in the pound on all, reins, and a I al A. n. 117J.— THIS YEAR KNGLAND WAS VISITKD WITU A DHKAOl'UI. ri.AOUF. Ik 4th or HAY, ings and sir Thoma, ng prince into an ad- ere dispatched liim he unhappy Margaiet e conHnemcnt in tlic rison Henry liad n- tlie battle of TewltM. !alth had long been likely that hia deaili B temper of the timci least probable, Ed. to be exposed to pub. inly showed no tipii lancastrians was now rinces of that home id most devoted of In > fugitive or dead, and roke, who had been ale's, now disbanded :e, and sought safety earl of Kichinond, in effort was made b; berg, who levied forccj idon ; but he was dc- takPQ nrisonor, and Uy tviumrj.ant enm- t, which compliantly And all dangers being sumed the jovial and , ich he owed no small j i,: lularity which would, '• ! been refused to a * St of character and of itied bearing. i I'as soon recalled from i isure, by the necessity oreign interests, lie conscious of the cold ption that had been idversity by the duke isiderationa of inter- make a league with .;iiig of France. By irovided that Edward , with not fewer than for the invasion of I as to be joined by the ; ith all the force he 1^, objects proposed by I [uire for En'^laud the | dy and Guieiine, at I ,., the crown of I'rancc, , 5J foruiuUy to challenge , J lukn of Burgundy «a3 e, with some farther 5 lorn for liis hereditary n idal superiority on the * At Icneue seemed the cessful, because they ope for the co-opera- •ittany, and tliey had _ of the count of St, le of France, and held r importniit pln( 's on rould join them \,hen nci!. abi'ays sure to excite y of the Knirlish par 'ranted the kinj two d ou !ill, rents, and a A. D. UJO.—tam Kma ACCOHrANiiD thb Jtrosii or aiiie*. lEnglatttJ.— I^uac of Yorl — lEtllBartJ lU. S53 lAeentb ud three quarters of a fifteenth ; but tbii money was to be kept in religious l,ogies,and returned to the coHtributors in (he event of the expedition against France not taking place. From this stringent eare of the money we may perceive how much the commons of England bad increased, both in power and in the knowledge how to make efficient and prudent use ot it. 1.0. 14rS-~So popular was the king's project against France, that all the power- ful nobles of England offered him their aid tad attendance ; and instead of the stipu- lated ten thousand men, he was enabled to ludat Calais with fifteen thousand archers and fifteen hundred mcn^at-arms. But to Edward's great annoyance, when he en- tered France he was disappointed by the eeunt of St. Pol, who refused to open his gates to him, end by the duke of Burj^undy, who, instead of joining Edward with nil hii forces, luid employed them against the du!i? of Lorraine and on the frontiers of Germany. This circumstance, so fatal to Edward's views, arose out of the tiery tem- per of Burgundy, who personally apologized, but at the same time confessed that it would be impossible for him to make his troopi availanle to Edward far that cam- paign. Louis XL, that profound politician who thought nothing mean or degrading which could aid him in his views, no sooner learned the disappointment which had be- fallen Edward, than he sent hira proposals of peace ; and a truce was easily concluded betwen them, IkhiIs paying seventy-five thoniand crowns down, and agreeing to pay two-thirds of that sum annually for their joint lives, and to marry the dauphin, when of age, to Edward's daughter. The two nionarchs met at Pecquigin to ratify this treaty; and tlie precautions which were taken 'to prevent the possibility of assassi- nation en eith«r side give us but a low notion of the honour by which either prince was actuated himself or supposed the other to be. There was one cliiuae of this treatT — otherwise so disgraceful to Louis,— whii-h was highly creditable to the French king. By it he stipulated for the safe release of the nnfortunate Margaret, for ^hose ran- som Louis consented to pay tit^y thousand crowns. She was relcHsed accordinely, and until her death, which occarred in U82, she lived in complete seclusion from that world in which she had formerly played so con- spicuous and so untortunate a part. There was in the character of Kdward a certain cnld and stubborn severity whicli made it no easy matter to recover his fa- vour after he had once been offended. His brother Clarence, much as he had done in the way of trcacliery towards his unfortn- ; j i natc futlicr-inlaw, was f"»r enough from I bcingreally restored to Edw:>rd'sconfidence and favour. The brooding dislike of the king was the more fatal to Clarence from I tli|t unfortunate prince having imprudently I siven deep offence to the queen and to his j brother the duke of Gloster, a prince who j knew not much of truth or of remorse when he had any scheme of ambition or violence to carry. Well knowing the rash and open temper of Clarence, his formidable ene- mies determined to act upon it by attack- ing hia friends, which they rightly judged would be sure to sting him into language that would ruin him with his already aas- liiciouB and offended king and brother. It chanced that as the king was hunting at Arrow, in Warwickshire, he killed a white buck which was a great favourite of the owner, a wealthy gentleman named Bur- dett. Provoked by the loss of his favourite, the gentleman passionately exclaimed that he wished the buck's horns were stuck in the hotly of whoever advised the king to kill it. In our settled and reasonable times it really is no easy matter to understand how — even had the speech related, as it did not, to the king himself— such a speech could by the utmost torturing of language be called treason. But so it was. Burdett had the misfortune to be on terms of familar friend- ship with the duke of Clarence ; and he was tried, condemned, and beheaded at Tyburn for no alleged offence beyond these few idle and intemperate words. That Clarence might have no shadow of doubt that he was himself aimed at in the persons of Iiis friends, this infamous mttraer was followed by that of another friend of the duke, a clergyman named Stncey. He was a learned man, and far more proficient than was common in that half barbarous age in astronomy and mathematical studies in ge- neral. The rabble got a notion that such learning must needs imply sorcery ; the po- pular rumour was adopted by Clarence's enemies, and the unfor'-unate Stacey was tried, tortured, and executed, some of the most eminent peers not scrupling to saac- tion these atrocious proceedings by tbeir presence. As the enemies of Clarence had anticipated, the persecution of hij friends aroused him to an imprudent though gener- ous indignation. Instead of endeavouring to secure himself by a close reserve, he loudly and boldly inveighed against the in- justice of which his friends had been the victims, and bore testimony to their inno- cence and Ikuntmr. This was precisely what the enemies ',>f the duke desired ; the king was insidioBsly urged to deem tlie com- plaints of Ciarence insulting and injurious to him, as inplying his particifiation in the alleged injimtice done to the duke's friends. A. D. 1478. — The unfortunate duke was now fairly in the toils which had been set for him by his enemies. He was committed to the Tower, and a pav'^ament was spe- cially summoned to try him for treason. The treasons alleged against him, even had they been proved by the most trustworthy evi- dence, were less treasons than mere petulant speeches. Not a single overt act was even alleged, far less proved against him. But the king in person prosecuted him, and the slavish parliament shamelessly pronounced him guilty ; the coramniis adding to their vileness by both petitioning for the duke's execution and passing'a bill of attainder Bgainst him. The dreadfully severe temper aOFUT. n.AOUF. THK COUNTBT WAS AT THIS TIME OVEnBltN WITH GANGS OP ROBBERS, 254 M.9. 14a3.-*-lDWAKV TOOK BIRWICX, AHD MAEOBBV tO ■DIllBIIMa. V!'fft ^rcasnrQ of l^istori), $cc. 4) of Edward required no inch vile prompting. There waa little danger of his aliowinK mercy even to a brother whom he had once fairly learned to hate I Tlie sole favour that he would grant the unhappy duke waa that of being allowed to ehooie the mode of hit death ; and he made clioiee of the itrange and nnheardof one of being drowned in a butt of Malraiey wine, which whimsically tragic death wa& accordingly inflicted upon him in the Tower of London. A.D. 1482.— Louis XII. of France having broken his agreement to marry the dauphin to the daughter of Edward, this king con- templated the invasion of France fur the purpose of avenging the affront. But while ne was busily engaged with the necessary preparations he was suddenly seized with a mortal sickness, of which he expired in the twenty-third year of bis reign and the forty- second of his age. Though undoubtedly possessed of both abilities and courage, Edward was disgrace- fully sensual and hatefully cruel. His vi- gour and courage might cam him admira- tion in times of difficulty, but his love of effeminate pleasures must always preclude him from receiving the approbation of the wise, as his unsparing cruelty must always ensure him the abhorrence of the good. CHAPTER XXXIV. The Reign qf Edwaro V. A.D. 1483. — FaoM the time of the mar- riage of Edward IV. with the lady Eliza- beth Gray the court had been divided into two fierce factions, which were none the less dangerous now because during the life of Edward the stem character of that king had compelled the concealment of their enmities from him. The queen herself, with her brother the earl of Rivers and her son the marquis of Dorset, were at the head of the one faction, while the other in- cluded nearly the whole of the ancient and powerful nobility of the kingdom, who na- turally were indignant at the sudden rise and exceeding ambition of the queen's fa- mily. The duke of Buckingham, though he had married the queen's sister, was at the head of the party opposed to her family influence, and he was zealously and strongly supported by the lords Hastings, Stanley, and Howard. When Edward IV. felt that his end was approaching he sent for these noblemen and entreated them to support the authority of his youthful «on ; but no sooner was Edward dead than the leaders of both factions en- deavoured to secure the chief interest with the heartless and ambitious duke of Glos- ter, whom Edward IV. most fatally had named regent during the minority of Ed- ward the Fifth. Though Gloster was entrusted with the regency of the kingdom, the care of the young prince was confided to his uncle the earl of Rivers, a nobleman remarkable in that rude age for his literary taste and talents. The queen, who was very anxious to preserve over her son the same great in- fluence she hiid exerted over his father U vised Rivers to levy troops to eieort'tht king to London to be crowned, and to pro tect him from any undue coercion on th« part of the enemies of his family. To thii step, however, lord Hastings and his friendi made the strongest and most open oppoii tion; Hastings even going so farastodti dare that if such a force were levied he should think it high time to depart for his government of Calais, and his fritndi adding that the levying such a force would be the actoal recommencement of a civil war. Gloster, who had deeper motives than any of the other parties concerned affected to think such force needlesa si least, and his artful professions of deter, mination to afford the young king all need, ful protection so completely deceived ih« queen, that she altered her opinion and re- quested her brother to accompany liis ne- phew to London with only sneh equipi» as was befitting his high rank. When the young king was understood to be on his road, Gloster set out with a nu. merous retinue, under pretence of detirinir to escort him honourably to London, and was joined at Northampton by lord Haat- inga, wiio also had a numerous retinue, Rivers, fancying that his own retinue added to the numerous company alreadv assembled at Northampton wonld cauaea want of accommodation, sent young Ed. ward on to Stony Stratford, and went him- self to pay his respects to the regent 6lo«. ter at Nortliamptou. Rivers was cordially received by the duke of Gloster, with whom and Buckingham he spent the whole even- ing. Not a word passed whence he could infer enmity or danger, yet on the folloirinK morning as hewau entering Stony Stratford to join his royal ward, he was arrested by order of the duke of Gloster. Sir Richard Gray, a son of the queen by her first mar- riage, and air Thomas Vaughan, were at the same time arrested, and all three vrere immediately sent under a strong escort to Pontcfract castle. Having thus deprived the young king of his wisest and most zealous protector, Gloster waited upon him with every out. ward show of kindness and respect, but could not with all his art quiet theregrrti and fears excited in the prince's mind b^ the sudden and ominous arrest of his kind and good relative. The queen was still more alarmed. In the arrest of her brother she saw hut the first step made towards the ruin of herself and her whole family ; and she immediately retired to tlip sanc- tuary of Westminster, together with the young duke of York and the five princesses, trusting that Gloster would scarcely dure to viol.ote the sanctuary which had proved her efflcient defence against the worst 'ury of the Lancastrian faction during the wirst times of her husband's misfortunes. Her confidence in the shelter she had chnscii was naturally increased by the consiile». tion, that whereas formerly even a family opposed to hers by the most deadly and immitigable hostility was not tempted to A.D. 1482.— moMAa pabr nonN: nu i.ivKn tii.i. hk war 152 ykaiis oi.n. tHOUOB IDWAaO V. AtCBNDKO TBI VHKONB, HI WAS HIVKB CBOWNBB. 1EngIanV»— IKouse of Voili — ^lEtftnart) V. 256 fitlat* the sanctuary, (he had now to dread oilf her own brother-ln law, while her ion, /git gpproachinK the yeara which would cn> lU* him to terminate his uncle's protecto- ^, was the kiuK- But in reasoniBK thus the queen wholly Ofcrlooked the deep and dangerous nature of her brother-in-law, whose dark mind was jirisK enough for the most desperate deeds, ua subtle enough to sugKOSt excuses tit to inpoM even upon the shrewdest and most ((utiotts. Gloster saw that the continuance of bii nephew in sanctuary would oppose ID inaarmountable obstacle to his abomi- atble desiRns ; and he at once devoted bis powers of subtlety to the task of getting [he young prince from that secure shelter without allowing the true motive to appear. Hiking full allowance for the power of the church, he reprer.ented to the arelibiahops of Canterbury and York, that the queen in in tome sort insulted the church by abusing, to the protection of herself and children igainst the dangers which existed only in her imagination, a privilege which was in- tended only for persons of mature yeara htfing reason to tear grievous injurv on ac- count of either crime or debt. Now, he argued, could a mere child like the brother oftheirvoungking be in anywise obnoxious to the king, of dangers for which alone the right of sanctuary was instituted? Was got the church as well as the government concerned in putting a stop, even by I'orce if necessary, to a course of conduct on the part of the queen which was calculated to poisess manldud with the most horrible luipicions of those persons who were the most concerned in the king's happiness tod safety? TIte prelates, ignorant of the dark designs of Glo&ter, and even of hit real nature, which hitherto he had carefully and mast dexterously disguised, could scarcely fail to agree with him aa to the folly of the queen's conduct, and its utter needlessness for securing her son's safety. But, careful of the privileges of the church, tliey would not hear of the sanc- tuary being forcibly assailed, but readily agreed to use their personal influence with the queen to induce her voluntarily to abaudou alike Iter retreat and her fears. The prelates had much diSiculty in in- ducini; the queen to allow the young duke «f York to leave Iter and the protection of the aaactuary. His continuance there she again and again ailirmed to be important, not ouly to his own safety, but to that uf the yoang king, against whose life it would tppear to be ootli useless and unsafe to •trike while his brotlier and successor re- rsained in safety. In reply to this, the pre- lates, sincerely though most mistakenly, assured her that she did but deceive herself in her fears for either of the royal brothers. But perhaps their strongest argument was thrir frank declaration that the seclusion of tlie young prince was so offensive both to the duke of York and the council, that it was more than possible that even force might be resorted to should thr- queen re- fuse to yield the point. Dreading lest fur- ther opposition should but accelerate the evil that she wished to avert, the unhappy queen at length, with abundance of tears •nd with lamentations which were but too proohetie, delivered tlte young prince up, bidding him, «• alia did to, uurewell for ever. Posseaaed of the protectorate, which the council, on account of liis near relation to the throne, had at once conferred upon him witliout waiting for the consent of par- liament, and now possessed of the persons of the youcg princes, Gloster seems to have deemed all obstacles removed to his bloody and treacherous purpose; though to any less uncompromising and daring schemer there might have seemed to be a formida- dable one in the existence of numerous other children of Edward, and two of the duke of Clarence. The first step of Gloster in his infamous course was to cause sir Richard Batcliffe, a tool well worthy of so heartless and un- sparing an employer, to put to death the carl of Rivers and the other prisoners whom he had sent to Pontefract castle, as before named ; and to this measure the tyrant had the art to obtain the sanction of the duke of Buckingham and lord Hastings ; whom subsequently he most fittingly re- paid for their participation in this mon- strous guilt. Gloster now quite literally imitated the great enemy of mankind — he made this tirst crime of Buckingham's, this participa- tion in one murder the cause and the justi- fication of farther crime. He pointed out to Buckingham that the dcatii — however justiiiably inflicted, as he affected to consi- der it — at their sugmestion and command, of the queen's brother and son was an of- fence which a woman of her temper would by no means forget ; and tliat however ink- potent she might be during the minority of her son, the years would soon pass by which would bring his majority ; she would then have access to him and influence over him ; and would not that influence be most surely used to their destruction ? Would it not be safer for Buckingham, aye, and better for all the real and antique nobility of the kingdom, that the offspring of the comparatively plebeian Elizabeth Gray should be excluded from the throne ; and that the sceptre should pass into the hands of Gloster himself — Gloster, who was so iadisRoluhly the friend of Buckingham, and so well affected to the true nobility of the kingdom ? Safety from the consequences of a crime already committed and irrevoca- cuble, with great and glowing prospect of rich benflitx to arise from being the per- sonal friend, the very right hand of the king, albeit a usurping king, were argu- ments precisely adapted to the comprehen- sion and favour of Buckingham, who with but small hesitation agreed to lend his aid and sanction to the measures necessary to convert the duke of Gloster into king Richard III. Having thus secured Buckingham, Glos- ter now turned his attention to lord Uas- )2 YK.vns oi.n. Bl'CKINGBAlI AND OLOSTBB WGBB BOTH Or ROYAL BLOOD. A.O. 1483.— «I.OITII» AMD TUa I.0HO* DO MOMAttK TO ■DWAkll, MAt 4. 9 ■ s » H D O * 8 p s a M a e N R ■« M B cr 256 t!If)t ^Kasury oi l^istor^, ^c. 1 H u B a M a ts 3 <* IE M O f» u M O H Ki Ct « O K R u R b O u H H T a •4 ting*, whoM influenee woa w extentivt m to be of TMt importance. Through the nM- dium of Cateaby, a lawyer much employed bjr Olotter when chicane icemed the pre> ferable weapon to actual violence, Uloiter iounded Hatting* ; but that nubleman.weak and wicked aa he had proved hiiiiielf, was far too lincereljr attached to the children of hi« late Mivereign and friend to conient to I their injury. He not only refuted to aid in , the trantfer of the cmwn from tlicm, but ; BO refuted aa to leave but little room for doubt that he would be active in hit oppu' •itiom. The mere nutpicion waa tuffieient to produce hit ruin, which Glottcr let about instantly and almoit without the trouble of diaguito. I A council waa lummoned to meet Glot- tcr at the Tower ; end Hattingi attended with at little fear or tutpicion at any other : member. Oloster, whose mood teemt ever to have been the most dangeroua w'.eii hit bearing wat the mo«t jocund, chkm hit lipt that couM excite doubt or fear ; who could' hove tnjpposed that he wat about to commit a foul murder who waa tufliciently at ease to compliment bishop Morton upon the tiae and earlineit of the ttrawberriea in hit garden at Holbnrn, and to beg that a dish of them might be tent to him ? Yet it wat in the midst of auch light talk that he left the council-board to ascertain that all hit villainout arrangements were exactly made. Thia done, he entered the room again with a disturbed and angry counte- nance, and i!lart'.;d all present by tternly and ahn'.ptly uenmnding what punishment wat deserved by those who should dare to plot agatiist the life of the uncle of the King and the appointed protector of the realm. Hastingb, roally attached to Glot- ter, though still more to to the royal chil- dren, warmly replied that whoever should ^ do ao wov^d merit the punishment of trat- I tort. I "Traitors, aye traitorat" taid the duke, , "and those traitors are the torceress my brother's widow, and his mistress Jane Shbre, and others;who are associated with them." And then laying bare hit arm, which all preaent knew to have been thri- velled and deformed from his earliest years, he continued, "See to what a condifiot' they have reduced me by their abomiQablu . witchcraft and incantationt I" I The mention of Jane Shore excited the firtt tutpicion or fear in the mind of Has- tings, who, tubeequrnt to the death ot' the late king, had been intimate with the beau- tiful though guitty woman of that name. I " If," taid Hattingt, doubtfully, " they have done thir, my lord, they deserve the aeverest punishment." i "If!" thottted Gloster, "and do you prate to me of ycur ift and anda f You are the chief abettor of the sorceress Shore ; you are a traitor, and by St. Paul I swear that I will not dine until your head shall be brought to me." Thut tpeaking, he ttruck the table with bit hand, and in an inttant the room wti tilled with armed men who had alrcadv r« ceived hit ordert how to a' i i l.liiitinn wa^ dragged from the room, and bdM-aded on a log of wood which clianocrt to be lying in the court-yard of the Tow jr. In two hoors after thit savage murder, a proclamation was mude to the citizens of London, apolo. giting for the sudden exfcution of Haitinn on the tcore of the equally sudden diicoterv of numerout offences which the procUmt. tion charged upon him. Thou;;!! Gloiter had but little reason to fear any actual out- break in the eity, the lord Uaitings wai very popular there ; and not a few of the cititeni, even including those who were tlie most favourable to Gloster,.seemedto«|pve with a merchant whn, noticing the elabo- rate compoiitiou of the fairly written pro- clamation, and contrasting it wiUi the shortness of the time which had elapud from Hastings's murder, shrewdly remark- ed that " the proclamation might safely be relied on, for it wai quite plaiK that it had been oiid'i fame at of nian'i life, Gloster took iJfMtage of the known luxuriousnett of ih« latelcinK^R life to alHrni, that previout loiliAt prince marrying the lady Elizabeth Gr«T he had been married to the lady Klea- gor Tilbot, the daughter of the carl of Shrewbiiry i that this niarriMge, though te- eret, was legal and binding, and had been lolrmniced by Millington, bishop of Uath; md that, consequently and necessarily, Ed- taril'i cliililreu by the InJy Elizabeth tiray were illegitimate. The children of Edwnrd being thus pronounced illegitimate, Ulot- ter, by hit partisans, maintained that the ittiinder of the duke of Clarence necessa- 'rilf dispossessed kii children of all right. But as assertion in the former case could hardly past for proof, and at attaint had neter been ruled to exclude from the crown II rrom mere private tuccetsion, Gloster loaivd to a higher and more damning pitch af infamy; hitherto he had impugned the chastity of hit litter-in-law— now be patted ! beyond all the ordinary villany of the world i and imputed frequent and familiar harlotry to his own mother 1 To make hit right to the throne wholly independent either of the ! alleged secret marriage of the late king to the lady Eleanor, or of the effect upon Cla- rence's children of the attainder of their father, Gloiter now taught his numerous and lenlous tools to maintain that his mo> ther, the duchess of York, who was still iliTChad been repeat cdlv false to her mar- ' tiage TOWS, that both Edward IV. and the duke of Clarence had been illegitimate and : the loiia of different fathers, and that the < duke of Gloster was alone the legitimate : ion of the duke and duchess of York. I As if this horrible charjte of a son against ' hii mother, who had lived and was still living in the highest credit of the moat ir< i reproachabic virtue, were not sufficiently re- 'Toltingto aU good and manly feeling, the I horrible charge was first brought forward is ehurek ; n» the oecasion if Dr. Shaw , prtacking a termon before the protector. j The preacher, well worthy of the pntron, took the significant text, " Bastard slips I ihallnot thrive;" upon which the preacher enlarged with ^reat zeal in the endeavour to throw the stain of bastardy upon Edward IV. and his brother Clnrence. Though GloBcer was far too free from sharaefuced- ncM, as well as from eyerjr thing in the ihape of " compunctious visiting," to have an; objection to being present during the delivery of the whole ot the tirade against hit own mother's chastity, yet from a poli- tic motive it was arranged that he should not enter the church until the preacher ihould finish pronouncing the following passage. Contrasting the duke of Gloster with the alleged Illegitimate tons of hit mother, the preacher exclaimed, " Uehold Ihit excellent prince, the expreit image of his noble father, the genuine descendant of the house of York ; bearing, no leat in the virtuet of hit mind than in thefeaturet of hit countenance the character of the gallant Richard, once your hero and fa- vourite, lie alone is entitled to your alle- giance ; he must deliver you from the do- minion of all intruders ; he alone can re- store the lost glury and honour of the nation." It wai inten'icd that this glowing pane- gyric on the iluke of Gloster should be prono 258 A.W.148S.— Baroni akb inaAO ov nm i.m mxtn'» nLxsitiMAcr. €fft i^rcosntB of l^istor^, $cc. M P) u H M n o The recorder, FitawiUiMis wu accord- ingly detiied to repeat- the duke's ipeeeh, which, being ne friend to Oloater'a projecti, he took care to do in tuck wne that the people could by no meana take the words, though delivered by him, to leave any echo in his wishes ; and he, like the duke, was heard to the very last word without any one giving him a woid of reply. The duke now became too mnch enraged to refrain from speaking out, and lie said " This is wonderful obstinacy ; express your meaning, my flriends, in one way or the other. When we apply to you on this oc- casion, it is merely from the regard which we bear to you. The lords and commons have sufficient authority without your con- sent to appoint a king ; but I require you here to declare, in plain terms, whether or not yon will have the duke of Uloster for your sovereign?" The earnestness and anger of the dnke, and the example set br some of his and the dnke of Gloster's ser- vants, caused this address, more fortunate than the former ones, to be received with a cry of Ood tare king Richard ! The cry was feeble, and raised by people few in number and of the humblest rank ; but it. served the purpose of Buckingham, vvho now, as had oeen concerted, hurried off to Baynard's castle to inform Gloster that the voice of " the people" called him to the throne I Bucaingham was attended to Barnard's castle by the mayor and a considerable number of citisens ; and though the wily protector was most anxiously expecting this visit, he afllected to be surprised and even alarmed at so many persons in com- pany demanding to speak to him ; which pretended surprise and alarm of the pro- tector, Buckingham took care to pmnt out to the especial notice of the thick-witted citteens. When the protector at length suffered himself to be persuaded to speak to the duke of Buckingham and the citi- lens, he affected astonishment on hearing that he was desired to be king, and round- ly declared his own intention of remaining loyal to Edward V., a course of conduct which he also recommended to Buckingham and his other auditors. Buckingham now affected to take a higher tone with the pro- tector. That prince, argued Buckingham, could nndottbtediv refuse to accept the crown, but he could not compel the people to eadnre their present sovereign. A new one they would have ; and if the duke of Gloster wovid not comply with their loving wishes on his behalf, it would only behove them to offer the crown elsewhere. Hav- ing now sufficiently kept up the disgusting farce of refusing that crown for the sake of which he had already waded through so much innocent blood, and was so perfectly prepared and determined to commit even more startling crimes still, Gloster now gave a seeminglv reluctant consent to ac- cept it; and withont waiting for farther repetition of this offer from "the people," he thenceforth threw aside even the affec- tation of acting; on behalf of anv other so- vereign than hts own will and pleasure. The farcical portion of the nsnrpstioa however, was but too soon afterward fb|. lowed by a most tragical completion of RiclMurd'S vile crime. Tertnred b; the tme bane of tyrants, suspieion and fear, Richard felt that M long as nis young sephews lar- vived, hia usurped crown would ever be m- secure ; as an opponent wonld always be st hand to be set up against him by any noble to whom he might chance to give offence. This consideration was quite enough to ensure the death of the unfortunate young princes, and Richard sent orders fur their murder to the constable of the Tower, lir Robert Brackenbury. But this gentleman was a man of honour, and he with a man of honour's spirit and feeling refused to Imts aught to do with a design so atrocious. Tli« tvrant was, however, not to be liafBed bv the refusal of one good man to bend to his infamous designs, and having found a more compliant tool in the person of sir Jsmei Tyrrel, it was ordered that for one niitbt Brackenbury should surrender to that Mr son the keys of the Tower. On that fatal night three wretches, named Slater, Digh- ton, and Forrest, were introduced to the chamber in which the two young prinen were buried in sinless and peaceful sleep. In tliat sleep the young victims were amo. thered by the three assassins just named, Tyrrel waiting outside the door while the horrid deed was being perpetrated, and, on its completion, ordering the burial of the bodies at the foot of the staircase leading to the chamber. It may not be quite nnneeesiary to men- tion here that doubts, from which inao's ingenuity allows few truths^ however plain, wholly to escape, have beea thrown npon this portion of Richard's g^ilt; but the most ingenious reasoning and the utmoit felicity at guessing are bat idle when op- posed to plain fact, as in the present case ; something more is re()uisite m oppoaition to the actnal confession made by the mnr- derers themselves in the following reign. CHAPTER XXXV. The Reign qf Richard III. A.D. 148.3. — Ha VI NO not only grasped the erown, but also put to death the two claim- ants from whom he had the most reason to fear future annoyance, Richard now turned ' his attention to securing as strong a body I of supporters aa he could, by the distribu- tion of favours. And so anxious was be | upon this point, so ready to forget all other considerations in the present usefulness of { those of whose services he stood in need, i that he cast his shrewd eye npon powerful ; enemies to be conciliated as well as devoted ; friends to be rewarded for the past and re- ! tained for the fUture. I Among those whom Richard the most ! carefully sought to keep firm lo his inte- j rests was the duke of Buckingham. De- i scended from Thomas of Woodstock, duke I of Gloncester, and uncle of Richard H. this nobleman was allied to the royal fa- mily, and from the same cause he had a A.D. 148S.— TBB loans pbtitio:« bicbabd to accbft tbb cbown, jure 25. A.B.1488.— V conriBiia tu •ma ov *■■ nw kin*. Cnglantf.— l|ouj5c of YotI — 9&ic|»attf SIIE. 259 (Iai0 npon • moiet j of (b« TMt propertv of gohnii, Ctrl of Hereford, which inoiety bad loM been held by the erown under esebeat. gg^iDgham, though hi* wealth and ho- logn were idready enormoua, deemed that the KTviees he bad recently rendered to Bichtfd sate him good ground to claim thii property, and alio the office of con- iltble or England, which had long been kmditary in the Hereford family. In tlie Int exultation caused by hii own auccei*. ) much of which was owing to Ducking- him, Richard granted all that nobleman tiled. But on cooler' reflection Bichard tttm to have imatcined, that Buckingham wu already as wealthy and |>owerfur as a luUeet could be consistently witu the safety of the erown, and though he virtually made t formal grant of the Hereford property, he took care to oppose insuperable difficnl- tie* to its actual fnltUment. Buckingham wu fur too shrewd to fail to pcrceire the itsl cause of the property being withheld firoia him ; and he wno had so unscrupu- loaily exerted himself to set up the usurper, BOW felt fuJly as anxious and resolute to aid in fulling him down. The flagrancy of RieMrd's usurpation was such as to pro- miK erery facility to an attempt to dethrone him, if that attempt were but headed by a man of adequate power and consequence. In truth, the very success of his usurpation wu scarcely more attributable to his own daring and nnprincipled wickedness than to the absence of anv powerful opponent. Etcb the lowest ana meanest citizens of London had rather been coerced into a pas- lite admission of his right to the crown than into an active support of it i and now that the duke of Buckingham was convert- ed into an enemy of the usurper, the long dormant claims of the Lancastrians were pitued upon his attention, and not unfa- wnrably looked npon by him. Morton, bi- •hop of Ely, whom Cichard committed to the Tower on the day of lord Hastings's mnrder, had recently been committed to the leas rigorous custody of the duke of Baekingham, and, perceiving the duke's diaeontent, turned his attention to a fitting rival to oppose to the tyrant, in the person of Henry, the young earl of Richmond. Throngh his mother the young earl was heir of the elder branch of the house of So- merset ; and though that claim to the crown wonid formerly have been looked upon as very slight, the failure of the legitimate branches of the house of Lancaster now gave it considerable importance in the eyes of the adherents of that house. Even Ed- ward IV. had been so jealous of the earl of Richmond's claim upon the throne, that after vainly endeavouring to get him into hia power, he had agreed to pay a oonsider- able yearly sum to the duke of Brittany to keep the dangerous young noble at his court, nominally as a guest, but really as a prisoner. The very jealousy thus shown to- wards the young earl naturally ineniased the attention and favour of the Lancas- trians ; and it now ncQurred to the bishop Morton, and, from his reasonings to the duke of Baekingham, that Bichard might be dethroned in favonr of young Henry. But as the long depression of the house of Lancaster had diminished both the leal and the number of its adherents, Morton with profound policy suggested the wisdom of strengthening the bond* of Henry, and at the same time weakeniM those of Richard, by the marriage of the former to king Ed- ward's eldest daughter, the princess Elisa- beth, and thus uniting the party claims of both families against the mere personal usurpation of Richard, who was deeply de- tested by the nation for his cruelty, and would consequently meet with no hearty support shonfd he be openly opposed with even a probability of success. Young Henry's mother, the conntes* of Richmond, was informed by Morton and Buckingham of their views in favour of her aon ; and the honour intended for him was too great to allow of an;^ hesitation on her part. Dr. Lewis, a physician who had, pro- fessionally, the means of communicating with the queen dowager, who still found shelter in the sanctuary of Westminster, knew that whatever might have been her former prejudices against the Lancastrians, they instantly yielded to the hate and dis- gust with which she thought of the success- ful usurper who had muraered her brother and three sons. She not only gave her con- sent to the proposed marriagie, but idso bor- rowed a sum of^money which she sent to aid Henry in raising troops, and she at the same time required nim to swear to marry her daughter aa soou a* he could safely reach England. Morton and Buckingham having thus far met with success, began to exert themselves among their influential friends in the va- rious counties, to prepare them for a ge- neral and simultaneous rising in favonr of the earl of Richmond when he should land ; and in this respect, too, their effort* met with an uncommon success, the tyranny of Richard becoming every day more hate- ful to all orders of his trampled subjects. But guilt such as that of Richard is ever suspicious, even where there is no real cause for suspicion; and the, sudden acti- vity of various men of influence could nei- ther escape the sharpened observation of the tyrant, nor seem inexplicable to him on any other ground than that of treason against him. Well knowing that Bucking- ham was greatly addicted to political plot- ting, Richard with many friendly expres- sions invited the duke to court, where for some time he had been a stranger. Whe. titer the king really sought a reconciliation with the duke or merely wished to obtain possession of his person does not clearly appear. The duke, however, who well knew with whom he had to deal, interpreted the* king's message in the latter sense, and only replied to it by unfurling the standard of revolt in Wales at the moment when Richard was levying troops in the north. It happened most unfortunately for Buck- ingham, that just as he had marched his troops to the Severn, that river waa so A.D. 1483. — AN RXTItNSIVn DILL OV ATTAINnSB rABBBO, ROT. 11. r A.D. 14S4.— MICHABD KlirS HU CHklSTMAB III MWhmWOQVB At WIITMIliatii, H m M II ■ 3 m K M a m 4 260 ^^c ^rrasure of l^toiorvy ^c. mollen in conseqnenee of nius of almoit unexampled copiousneM and duration, m to be quite impaasable. Thii unlooked-for check caet a damp upon the epirita of Bnekingham'a foUowera,who were itill far- ther diipirited by great diiticM from want of promiona. Deaertiona among them daily beeame more numerous, and Buck- ingham at length finding himacif wholly abandoned, ditguiied hlmielf in a mean habit and made nia way to the houae of an old lenrant of hia family. Even in tbia ob- aeure retreat, however, be waa diacovered, and carried aa a priaoner to the king, who was then poated at Salimbury. All the for- mer aeroicea rendered bjr the duke were for- gotten in the fact of hia more recent ap- pearance in arma aa the avowed enemy of the king, and he waa immediately aent to execution. Several other though leia emi- nent prisoners fell into the hands of Rich- ard, and were by him transferred to the executioner ; and one of these, a gentleman named CoUingboume, is said to have suf- fered not for his direct and open opposi- tion to Richard, but for some miserable doggrel in which he made it a complaint that " The cat, the rat, and Lovel the dog. Rule all England under the hog." Stupid aa this doggrd production waa, ita stupidity and the heinous offence of C' ring npon the namea of Catesby and cliffie, upon that of Lovel and upon the cognisance of the king, seem to have me- rited a somewhat less severe pnnishment than death 1 The bishop of Ely and the marquis of Dorset, to neither of whom would Richard have shown any mercy, 7.'ere fortunate enough to escape from the king- dom. In the mean time the young earl of Richmond vrith a levy of five thousand men had aailed from St. Haloes, in igno- rance of the misfortune that had occurred to his cause in England ; and on arriving there he found that, for the present at least, all hope waa at an end, and he sailed back to Brittanv. A. n. 1484.— The politic Richard easily saw that the recent attempt to dethrone him had, by its ill success, and the severity with which he had punished some of the chief actors iu it, very considerably tended to strengthen his cause not in the affec- tions, indeed, but in the terrors of the peo- ple. Hitherto, being sensible of the fla- grant impudence aa well as deep guilt of his usurpation, he had been well content to rest his right to the throne upon the tyrants' right, superior strength. But he judged that he now might safely call a par- liament without any doubt of its recog- nising liis title. Hia anticipation proved to be quite correct ; the parliament acted just as he vrished, echoed bis words, granted him the usual tonnage and poundage for life, and passed a few popular laws. With the same purpose in new he now addressed himself to the seemingly difficult task of converting the queen dowager from a fie into a friend. He saw that the chief source of Richmond's popularity wasbiaprqiected espousal of the princess Elisabeth, and he knew enough of human nature to feel sure that a woman of the queen dowager's tem- per would be far from unlikeW to prefer the union of her daughter with a king in fact, to her anion vrith an earl who might never b« t king at all. True it was that the princcH Elisabeth was solemnly betrothed to bis rival and foe, the earl of Richmond, and was related to Richard within the ptohi. bited degrees ; but then Rome could nsnt a dispensation, and Rome waa venal. Thu reasoning, Richard applied himself to the queen dowager, and met with all the succeu he had anticipated. Wearied with her long seclusion from all pleasure and sU authority, ahe at once consented to give ber daughter to the wretch who had de- prived her of three sons and a brother, and was so completely converted to hia inter- ests that ahe wrote to her son, the marquit of Dorset, and all the rest of her connec- tions to withdraw from supporting Rich- mond, a piece of complaisance for which she paid full dearly in the next reign. Flattering himsrlf that no material dan. g^r could assail hits throne during the in. terval necessary for procuring the diipen- aation from Rome, Richard now began to consider himself securely settled on the throne. But danger accrued to him even out of the very measure on which he mainly rested for safety. The friends of the earl of Richmond now more than ever pressed him again to try his fortune in in. vading England, lest the dispensation from Rome should enable Richard to complete his project of marrying the princess £liu. betb, which marriage would do so much to injure all the future hopes of the earl, ai far as the sympathies of the people were concerned, in a union of the houses of York and Lancaster. Henry accordingly escaped from Brittany, where he deemed himaelf in danger from the treachery of the duke's confidential minister, and proceeded to the court of France. Here he was greatlyaided by Charles YIIl., who had succeeded the tyrant Louis XI., and here too, he wai joined bj the earl of Oxford, who bad escaped from the gaol into which Richard's suspicions had thrown him, and who now brought Henry most flattering accounts of the excellent chance he had from the po- pular disposition in England. Richard in the mean time, uncontcioui or careless of the effect produced on the conduct of Richmond by the expectation of the dispensation which was to allow Rich- ard to deprive him of his promised bride, triumphe4i in his fortune of^having become a widower at only a short time before hj the sudden death— so sudden that poiaoa was suspected, but rather from the iadcJen- ness and from the general character of Richard than from anything like proof— of bis wife Anne, widow of that Edward, priuce of Wales, of whom Richard was the murderer. His actual and his proximate marriage must, in truth, have led him to believe that the murder of a lady's male re- k SI II t\ t^. «: Si 4 x k I 0; s! Ml "I (• a III SI s N R U a » A.D. 1484.— raANCB bksolves to aid tub ddkb or bichmohd. TKK CBDIL Aim UtOBriR* BIOBABB LBfT KO LBOITIMATB MIUB. lEnglantr.— lo.'sc of Yorl — ^laici^arD BES. 261 Ittivu wai anytbiag r«ther than a bar to her fMoar I ....... A. o, H85.— Bat while Utcnard was ex- glti'ng Id triumph a* to the past and in hope u to the future, Richmond with aa army of two thousand men had sailed (torn the Norman port of Ilarfleur, and landed, without expcriencinK opposition, at Mllford Haven, in Wales. Here, as he ex- peeted, the xealous though unfortunate ex< ertions of the duke of Buckingham had fieatly prepossessed the people in his fa- four, and his little army was increased by Tolantecrs at every mile he marched. Among those who joined him waa sir Rice ap Thomas with a force with which he had been entrusted by Richard; and even tiie other commander of the tyrant, sir Walter Herbert, made but a faint and inefficient thow of defence for Richard. Thus strength- ened by actual volunteers, and encouraged by the evident lukewarmness of Richard's paitiians, Richmond marched to Shrews* bnry, where he was joined by the whole iirength of the great Shrewsbury family nnder sir Gilbert Talbot, and by another nomerons reinforcement under sir Thomaa Bourehier and sir Walter Hungerford. Bichard, who had taken post at Notting- ham, as being so central as to admit of his hastening to whichever part of the kingdom might earliest need his aid, was not nearly M much annoyed by the utmost force of his known enemies as ne was perplexed about the real extent to which he could depend npon the good faith of his seeming friends. TM duke of Norfolk Richard had reason to believe that he could securely rely upon ; hat lord and sir William Stanley, wuo had vut power and influence in the north, were closely connected with Richmond's family. Tet while the usurper felt the danger of tiuiting to their professions of friendship ud good faith, he dared not break with them. Compelled by his situation to au- thorise them to raise forces on his behalf ia Cheshire and If Hbkbt YIL A. D. I486.— Tbb joy of Richmond's troopr at the defeat of Richard was proportioned to the hatred with which that tyrant had contrived to inspire every bosom. Xoajr {tc« king Henrg the SettHthl was the ex- ultwg cry which now every where saluted thelately exiled and distressed earl of Rich- mond ; and his victorious brow was bound with a plain gold coronal which hod been BIOHARB III. rOVRDBB «ND IHCOBrOBATKn THB aOCIBTT OF HBBALDI. A.V. 1485.— TBI CBOWR ■■TTX.MD VrOR BIRKT AIID BIS IIS0B, NOT. /. A m o o H *< H O M r 3 362 tlTl^e ^rtasttTQ of l^istors, ^c. won hj Richard, and had been torn from the tyrant'! forehead bjr air William Stanley in personal combat with him rrhen he fell. Thoogh Henry, late earl of Richmond, and now, by poiteetion, king Henry VII., had more than one ground upon which to rest his claim, there was not one of those grounds which was not open to objection. The Lancastrian claim had never been clearly established by Henry IV., and ifahe parliament had often supported the house of Lancaster, so the parliamcat had not less frequently— and with just as much ap- parent sincerity— paid a like compliment to the house of York. Then again, allow- ing the Lancastrian claim to be good e« j/bnte, yet Richmond claimed only from the illegitimate branch of Somerset ; and again, allowing that claim to be ever so good, it in reality was now vested not in him but in bis still living mother, the countess of Richmond. On the other hand, it was open to Henry to fix upon himself, by virtue of his mar- riage with the princess Elizabeth, the supe- rior and more popular title of the house of York ; but in this, so far as the York title was concerned, Henry could look upon himself only as a king consort, with the loss of his authority should his queen die vrithout issue. The ri^ht of conquest he could scarcely claim, seeinjj that that conquest was achiev- ed by Englishmen. On the whole review of his case, therefore, Henry's obvious po- licy was to set forward no one of his grounds of claim with such distinctiveness as to challenge scrutiny and provoke opposition, but to rely chiefly upon the strongest of all rights, that of possession, strengthened still farther by his concurrent circumstances of right, and maintained by a judicious po- licy at once firm and popular, watchful yet seemingly nndoubting. In heart Henry was not the less a Lancastrian from his de- termination to link himself to the house of York, and strengthen himself by its means in the popular love. Of the Yorkish eup- Eort he was sure while connected with the ottse of York by marriage, but this far sighted and suspicious temper taught him to provide against his possible disconnec- tion from that house, and to give every "coign of 'vantage" to the Lancastrians, whose friendship was, so to speak, more germane to his identity. Only two days after the victory of Bos- worth field Henry gave a proof of the feel- ings we have thus attributed to him, by sending sir Robert Willoughby to convey the young earl of Warwick front Sheriff Watton, in Yorkshire, where Richard had detained him in honourable and easy cap- tivity, to the close custody of the Tower of London. Yet this unfortunate son of the duke of Clarence, inasmuch as his title, however superior to that of Richard, was not hostile to the succession of either Henry or his destined bride, might have reason- ably expected a more indulgent treatment. Having thus made every arrangement, present and prospective, which even his Jealous policv eould suggest, Ilenrv nfc orders for the princecs Elisabeth bcioK conveyed to London preparatory to her marriage. He himself at the same time approached the metropolis by easy journiei Every where he was received with the moit rapturous applause : which was the more sincere and hearty, because while his per- sonal triumph was shared by the Lancts. trians, his approaching marriage to Eliu- heth gave a share of tliat triumph to the Yorkists, and seemed to put an end for ever to those contests betwea the rival houses which had cost them both so much sttlTering during so long a time. But even amidst all the excitement attendant upon the joy with which men of all ranks hsilni their new sovereign, the cold, stem, and suspicions temper of Henry displayed itielf at once offensively and vnnecessarily. Og his arrival at London the mayor and the civic coinpaniea met him in public procei. aion ; but as though he disdained their gra- tulations, or suspected their sincerity, hs passed through tnem in a close carriage, and without showing the slightest sympa- thy with their evident joy. Though Henry well knew the importance which a (rreat portion 'of his people at- tached to litj union with the princess Eli- sabeth, and, with his customary politie carefulness, hastened to assure them of hit unaltered determination to complete that marriage, and to contradict a report- founded upon an artful hint dropped by himself while he was yet uncertain of the issue of his contest with Richard— of hit having promised to espouse the princeii Anne, the heiress of Brittany, yet he de- layed his marriage for the present ; being anxious, tacitiv at the least, to affirm his own claim to the crown by having his co- ronation performed previoua to his msr- riage. Even the former ceremony, how- ever, was for a time deferred by the raging of an awful plague, lone afterwards spoken of with shuddering, under the name of the sweating sickness. The sickness in ques- tion was endemic, and so swift in its opera- tion, that the person attacked almost inva- riably died or became convalescent within four-and-twenty houra. Either by theikill of the medical men or by some sanatory alteration in the condition of the atmos- phere, this very terrible visitation at length ceased, and Henry was cniwned with the utmost pomp. Twelve knights banneret were made on occasion of this cpreniony ; the king's uncle, Jasper earl of Pembroke, was created duke of Bedford; lord Stanley, the king's father-in-law, earl of Derby; and Edward Courtenny, earl of Devonahire. The ceremony was perfonned by cardinal Bourcliier, archbishop of Canterbury, w!\o had been so much aiding in Henry's gool fortune. Even in the matter ot his coronation Henry could not refrain from evidencing that constant and haunting suspicion which contrasted so strangely with his unques- tionable personal courage, by creatini; a body guard of fiity-iive men, under tht A.O. 1486. — THB TBOMBIf OF THB SVABn FIBST INSTITUTBO, OCT. 30. TUB COMDITIOR OV TKI LABOUMllia rOOR ROW ailATLT IMPBOVII. lEnglanT^.— I^ouae o( ^Tut^or.— I^enrp VM. 263 litte of f eomen of the guard. But lest the Ml of thii guwd, that of penonal watch ud ward over the aovereiKii, chould imply iiT of the ■oipicion he really felt, Henry dieted to contradiet any such motive by rablielyand pointedly declarinK thia guard • permanent and not a penonal or tempo- nr* appointment. Heniy now lommoned a parliament, and Ui partixani to well exerted therasehei tkat a migoritT of the members were de- «ijed Lancattnana. Some of them, indeed, kid been outlawed and attainted while the koBie of Tork waa in the aacendant, and iqontion waa raiaed whether persona who had been thua aituated could rightfully elum to lit in parliament. The judges who were coDsulted upon this point had but little diliculty ; it was easily to be dealt with u a simple matter of expediency. Accordingly they recommended that the elected members who were thus situated ihoiiU not be allowed to take their scats until their former sentences should be re- mtei by parliament, and there was of counc neither difficulty nor delay experi- enced in passing a short act to that especial effect This doubt as to the members of parlia- ment, however, led to a still more impor- Unt one. Henry had been himself attaint- ed. Bat the Judges very soon solved this difficnlty by a deciaion, evidently founded •son a limitation of the power of a court of jndieature from interfering with the suc- ceuioD ; a power which, if such court pos- Mued it, might so often be shamefully per- rerted by a bad king to the injury of an obnoxious heir to the throne. The judges, thnefore put an end to this question by jedding " that the crown takes away all defect* and stops in blood ; and that from the time that the king assumed the royal iuthority, the fountain was cleared, and all attaints and corruptions of blood did cease." A deciaion, be it remarked, far more re- markable for its particular justice than for ita logical correctness. Finding the parliament so dutifully in- clined to obey his will, the king in his open- ing apeech insisted upon both his heredi- ta^ nght and upon his " victory over his enemiea." The entail and the crown was drawn in equal accordance with the king'a anxiety to avoid such special assertion on any one of his grounds of claim as should be calculated to breed disputation ; no men- tion was made of the princess Elisabeth, and the crown was settled absolutely and in general terms upon the king and the heirs of his body. It forms rather a remarkable contrast to the general reserve and astuteness of the king, that he, as if not content with all the lanctions by which he had already fortified his poBseBBion of the crown, now applied to tliepope for a conlrming bull. This applica- tion, beaides being liable to objection as ah impolitic concession to the mischievous and nnaying anxiety of Rome to interfere in the temporal affairs of nations, was still farther impolitic as showing what Henry ought of •11 things the most cautiously to have con- cealed—his own misgivings as to his title. Innocent VIII. the then pope, was delight- ed to gratify Henry and to interfere in his temporal concerns, and he immediately obliged him with a bull in . |8. 264 VL^t ^rtasun; o< l^tstorii, ^c. adfiMTB, BTOte from bit narrow and calculat- ing turn, their promotion from poorer to riuner biihoprica affordinit him the meana of atimulatingand rewarding their aeal Icm oneroualy to himMlf than could have been the caae with laymen of rank. But Hume ■ccma here to have laid a aomewhat undue weight upon Henry'a general character, and ao to nave mistaken hia motivea to a partiwular tmnsaetion: Henry, though per- ■onally brave, waa emphatically a lover of peace ; he preferred the conquest of the in- tellect to the conquest of the sword. He was himself, so to speak, iutellectHally of a clerical mould. The learning and the in- tellectual mastery of the day were chiefly in possession of the clergy ; and we need took no deeper than that fact to account for hia preference of them, that fact suffici- ently proving that they were best adapted to the cautious, tortuous, thouehtrul, and deep polity which he from the first dctcr- miued to rallow. A. D. I486. — Henry's emphatic declara- tion of his unaltered intention to espouse the princess BliMtbetb did not wholly quiet the apprehensions of the people upon that head. The parliament, even when showing its trustfulness of him and its seal for his pleasure in granting him the tonnage and poundage, expressii strong wishes upon the subject; and though they concealed their real motives under a general declara- tion of their desiro that they ahould have heirs to succeed him, his own comparative youth must have sufficed to convince so as- tute a person that the parliament had other and stronger roasons for its anxiety. This very conviction, however, was but an addi- tional reason for his hastening to comply ; and the nuptials were now celebrated with a pomp ana luxury surpassing even those which nad marked his coronation. The joy of the people was conspicuously greater iu ihe former than it had been in the latter caae -, nnd to the brooding and anxiously sttspici'x.s mind of Henry this new and plain indica lion of the warmth of affection with which t!te house of York was still looked upon by & grnat portion of his sub- jects, was to thehiKiiest degree painful and offensive. Publicly hU policy prevented this from appearing, but in his domestic life it caused him to treat the queen with a harshness and coldness which he.< amiable temper and the extreme submissiveiiess of her bearing towards her husband by no means appear to have deserved. Soon after his marriage Henry deter- mined to make a progress through the northern counties, in the view of awing some and conciliating the rest of the parti- sans of the late king and his house, who were more numerous in that part of the kingdom than elsewhere. He bad already reached Nottingham when he received in- formation that tir Humphrey Stafford, his brother, and the viscount Lovel had left the sanctuary at Colchester, in which they had found shelter since the battle of Bos- worth field. Unheeding, or at any rate not fearing the consequences of this movement. he continued ^a progress to York, when he learned that viscount Lovel, with a force three or four thouaand strong, was march- ing to York, while another army, under sir Humphrey Stafford and his brother, wu hastening to besiege Woreester. The up. rising of such enemies at the very moment when be waa in the centre of preciselr that part of England which wu tlie moit disaffected to him might have paralysed an ordinary mind; hut the resources of Henry's intellect and courage rose in ac- cordance with the demands on them. The mere retinue with which he travelled form, ed no mean nucleua of an army, and he se< tively and successfully engaKed himself in adding to their numbers. The force thus raised waa of necessitjr but ill found in either arms or the munitions of war; and Henry therefore charged the duk« o|' Bed- ford, to whera he entrusted the chief com- mand, to avoid any instant general cugim. ment, and to devote his chief exertions to weakening Lovel by seducing his adherents by promises of pardon. This policy wu even more snccessful than Henry could have anticipated. Conscious of the great effect which the king's offers were lilcely to produce upon rude minds, already by no means lealoua in the cause which they had embraced, Lovel was so terrified with the thought of being abandoned, and perhspi even made prisoner by his motley levy, that he fairly ran away from his troops, and after some difficulty escaped to Flatderi, where he waa aliclterod bv the duchcit of Burgundy. Abandoned by their leader. Level's troops gladly submitted to the kins in accordance with nis offers of mercy ; snl the utter failure of this liranch of the re- volt so terrified the revolted who were he- foK Woroester, that they hastily raised the siege of that place and dispersed. The Staffords, thus deserted by their troops and unable to find instant means of escaping beyond sea, took sheltet in the church of Colnhain, near Abingdon. It turned out, however, that this church was one which did not possess right of sanctuary, and the unfortunate Staffords were draftged forth. The elder was executed as a traitor and re- bel at Tyburn ; the younger was pardoned on the ground of his having been milled by his elder brother, who was prcaumea to have a g«a«t paternal influence over hit mind. To the joy which the dissipation of thit threatening revolt diffused among the friends of Henry was now added that ex- cited by the delivery of the queen of a son and heir, on whom was conferred the name of Arthur, both in compliment to the in- fant's principality of Wales, and in allusion to the pretended descent of the Tudon from the far-famed prince Arthur. The success of the king in putting an end to the late revolt had arisen cliirtly i from the incapacity of Lovel for the task he had ventured to undertake ; and there nas still a strong under-current of ill-feeling toward* the King, to which he was daily, tliough, perhaps, unconsciously, adding A. D. 1486. — UBrlBT'e MABBIAOB WITH BLIBABETH SOlBMNICBn, JAN. 18. A. B. 1486<— A TBDCB KIITIBIB IBtO Wltl BOOVIiA^IB FOB tlBBB IBABB. lEnsIatitf.— l^ousc of ^utror l^cncD FSS. 266 itieagth. To the rexBtion eauted bjr Henry'i (tident LuiCAttriBn feeling, •• msDifcited bT Iti* Mferitiea to men of the oppotite futj, and eiueciBlly by hii ttern ana hanh tieatment of^ the queen, much more veia- tion was earned by the lufferinya of many principal Torkiita from the reaamption by the crown of all grant* made by princei of the houM of York. Thie reaamption waa made bT Henry upon what appeara really to have oeen the Just plea that it waa abso- hitely necessary ror the remedy of the great and mischievous impoverishment of the crown. This plea baa all the more appear- ance of sincerity from the fact that by the rtry same law all the grants made during the later years of Henry VI. were resumed ; srciumption which injured not Yorkists, but Lancastrians. But losing men are rarely reasonnble men ; and aa the balance and injury was. heaviest on the side of the Yorkists, they saw in this a new proof of tbi Lancastrian prqudice of Henry, which bad caused him to imprison in " Julius' bkwdy tower," in the very place where his nofortuaate cousin had been butchered, the young earl of Warwick. Faction is de- prived of none of its virulence or activity by an admixture of pecuniary interests ; and those who were injured by the resumption of pants were not ill disposed, as events won proved, to countenance, at the least, sught that promised to iqjure the gaoler of the earl of Warwick and the harah spouse of the princess of the house of York, who, merely because she was such, waa still un- crowned, though the mother of a prince of I Wales, and wholly irreproachable whether u qiieen, wife, or mother. I The great and growinv unpopularity of j Henry's government combined with other circumstances to suggest to a priest of Ox- ford one of the most remarkable and auda- cious impostures recorded in our history. , The priest in question, Richard Simon, ! well knowing how strong the Yorkist feel- ing among the people was rendered by the king's unpopular manners and mea- sures, formed a plan for disturbing Henry by bringing forward, aa a pretender to the crown, a very handsome and graceful youth named Lambert Bimnel. This youth, though ; he was only the son of a baker, added great ahrewdness and address to bis external advantages; and Simon doubted not, by careful mstruction, of being able to form this youth to personate Richard, duke of York, the younger of the murdered princes, whose escape from the Tower end from the fate of his elder brother had become a matter of rather extensive belief. But while Simon was carefully giving young Simnel the necessary instructions and information to enable him to support the part of the duke of York, a new rumour prevailed that the carl of Warwick had escaped from the Tower. " On this hint spake the priest ;" the name of the earl of Warwick would be as good to conjure with as that of Richard, , duke of York ; and Simnel was now in- structed in all such particulars of the life I and family of young Warwick as would be neeesaary to enable him to bear the qnea- tionlng of the friend* of that family. 80 excellently waa the young impostor "cram- med " for his task, so well inrormed did he afterwards appear to be upon certain oointa of the private history of the royal family, that could by no means have come witliin the observation of an obscure priest like his instructor, that shrewd suspioiona wers entertained that certain of the royal family of York must themselves have aided in pre- paring the youth for his mission of impoa- ture. The queen dowager was among the personagea thus auspected. She and her daujrhter were both very unkindly treated bv Heurv, and the dowager was precisely of that bus* and aspiring turn of mind which would render neglect and forced in- action sufficiently oifensive to prompt the utmost anger and injury ; and she might safely promote the views of the impostor in the first place, in the full confidence of being able to crush him whensoever he should have sufficiently served the views of herself and of her partV. Aware that, after all the paina he had taken to prepare the apt mind of his pro- mising youog pupil, manv chancea of dis- covery woum exist in England which would be avoided by commencing their nefarioua proceedings at a distance, Simon determined to lay the opening scene of his fraudulent drama in Ireland. In that island War- wick's father, the late duke of Clarence, was remembered with the utmost affection on account of bis personal character, as well as of his many public acts of Justice and wiadom while he had been governor. The same public officeri now held their situations there who had done so under Clarence, and under so manv favourable circumstances Simon, probably, could not better have chosen the scene of the first act of his elaborate and very impudent im- posture. Henry, on getting the alarming int'^^ij- gence from Dublin, consulted with h' . um" nisters, and among the first meatur< c taken waa that of seizing upon all the pr perty of the ^ueen dowager, and closely confininij^ her in the nunnery of Bermond- sey. Thu rigorous treatment of the queen dowager, occurrin;j:, too, at this particular time, seems to leave no doubt that she had been discovered to have materially aided the imposture of Simon and Simnel. The alleged reason of the king for thus severely dealing with one with whom he was so closely connected, was her havinst shown BO much favour to the deceased tyrant Richard, as to place herself and her daughters in his power when she was safe within her sanctuary, and to consent to his marriage with the princess Elizaberti. But it was quite clear to every man of dis- cernment, that the king's subsequent mar- riage to the princess was a complete con- donation of all that had previously passed between him and the dowager which could materially offend him; nor was he of a temper so long to have suffered his avarice and his vengeance to remain in abeyance. A. D. 1487.— * TBBATT OV COMMBBCB CONCLUDBD WITB TBB LOW CODNTBIBB. {Z A A. B. 1487.-1 866 ^i)( ^rcasurv of l^fstore, Ice. had that really been the ground of hi* of> fence. That he dUliked, not to aay hated, hie mother-in-law. had lo3^ been certain ; and it aeemi no len lo, mm hie preient proceeding with respect to her, that ne now had ditcorered reaaon to fear her. aa being importantly aiding and abetting in an im- MMiore.wlileh had lieen eminently lucccei- nil in Ireland, and which he waa by no meana aure wonld not be equally ao in Bng> land. Having aecurely guarded against any ftiture miiehief firom the queen dow- ager, by thua conaigning her to a poverty and aeduaion which terminated onlv with her life, the king now gave hie Engliah aub- Jecta the very best possible proof of the im- pudence and falsehood of Simnel'a assump- tion of the title and character of the earl of Warwick, by producing that unfortunate young nobleman himself at St. Paul's, and causing many persons of rank who had in- timately known him to have flree conversa- tion with him i and thus not only demon- strate that the pretensions of Bimnel were false, but also that they were even founded upon a false report, the earl'a escape from the Tower, which Simon and his abettors had too hastily believed on the strength of popular rumour, never having actually taken place. In London and in England generally thia Judiclona measure waa completely decisive of the popular belief; and all who were ac- quainted with the king's tortuous mind, easily understood that he himself had caused the rumour of the young earl'a escape, for the purpose of saving nlmself from being importuned to release him, and also to prevent any plots being formed for that purpose. Henry's bold temper would probablv have prompted hlra to go over to Ireland, carrying with him the real Warwick. But, in the first place, he knew that the consum- mate assurance of Simon and his friends had led them, even after their Imposture had become a mere mockery In England, to protest that the real Warwick was the youth In their company, and that the War- wick whom Henry had so ostentatiously produced was the only Impostor. And, in the next place, Henry from day to day had information which made It quite certain that too many powerful people in England were his enemies, and inclined to aid the impostor, to render it safe for him to be absent from the kingdom for even a brief space of time. He therefore resolved to await the farther proceedings of the im- postor, and contented himself with levyine troops, which he placed under the command of the duke of Bedford and the earl of Oxford, and throwing into confinement the marquis of Dorset, not on account of any actual overt act, but leat he should be in- clined to treason by the hard measure which had been dealt out to his mother, the queen dowager. Having pretty nearly worn Out their wel- come in Ireland, and having, besides nu- merous Irish adventurers, been supplied by the dowager duchess of Burgundy with about two thousand veteran Oermsu headed by a veteran eommander, MuUn Hohwarta, Simon and Bimnel made a \ni. ing at Foudrey, in Lancuhire. not doubi! ing that the Yorklats, whom they knew to be so numerous in the northern coantici, would Join them in great numheri. In tills respect thev were grievously dlup. Jointed. The well known courage and coa- uct of the kln(N the general impmiion even among the Yorkists of England that Simnel waa a mere impostor, and the ei. cellent military arrangements and Urn military force of the king, caused the inht. bltanla of the northern counties either to look on passively, or to manifest their lot. alty by Joining or supplying the royal amiT. John, earl of Lincoln, son of John d* U Pole, duke of Suffolk, and of Eliubeth eldest sister of Edward IV.. had for tome time paat been residing with the king*! bitter enemy, the dowager duchess of Bur- gundy ; and he now appeared at the head of the mingled crew of Impostors, rtbeli, and their foreign and hireling mercenariei, This nobleman perceiving that nothing wu to be hoped fWim any general rising of the people in favour of the pseudo earl of War- wick, resolved to put the fate of the came upon the issue of a general action. The kine was ec^unlly ready to give battle, and the hostile forces at length met at Stoke, ia Nottinghamshire. The rebels, conacioni that they fought with halters aronnd their necks, fought with proportionate deapera- tion. The action was long and sanguinary; and though It at length terminated in fu- vour of tne king, his loss was far more «■ tensive than could have been expected, con- alderlng hla advantage of numbers and the ability of his officers. The loss on the aide of the rebels, also, waa very great. The earl of Lincoln, Bronghton, and the Ger- man, Schwarts, were among four thousand alain on that side; and as the viscount Lovel, the runaway of the former and leu sanguinary revolt who also took a part in this, waa missing 'and never afterwards heard of, it was supposed that he, too, was among the slain. Both the Impostor Sim- nel and his tutor Simon fell Into the hands of the king. The priest owed hla life to his clerical character, but was sentenced to pass the whole remainder of it in confine- ment; and Henry, both mercifully and wisely, signified his contempt of the bojr Simnel, bv making him a scullion in the TO^al kitchen. In this capacity, better suited to his origin than the part the priest had so uselessly taught him to play, Simnel conducted hlraaelf so humbly and satiafac- torlly, that he was afterwards advanced to the rank of falconer, a rank at that time very far higher than could ordinarily be a-- tained by one so humbly bom. Having freed himself from a danger which had at one time been not a little alarmlne, Henry now turned his attention towards making it, as he loved to make every thing, a source of profit. Few periahed on the acaffold for this revolt, but vast numbers were heavily fined for their having taken MANT STAtDTBS WKBI rASSRO AOAIRST ■NaAOIRS RBTAINaBB. A.D.148S.-1 lEnglanV.— Iconic of dTutior — 1|o|. Iiers,and Agincourt," " lasting honour," sn4 " imuortant acquisition," huw admirably are they all preased iuto; the service, in the precise places where beat calculated to set at once upon the good and the evil reelinsi of those whom be addresses t And then with what a aublime contempt of all llihy lucre does he not dehort " brave men" from caring about " the advance of a little trea- sure P' If all men were gifted with the tar sight of La Rochefoucaiut into the human heart, perhaps such a speech aa this of Usury would defeat itseli by the very excess snd exquisitenesa of its art. But all men art not 80 gifted, and never waa man better aware of that fact than Henry was. II« knew the instruments he bad to work with, and he worked accordingly. Though there were many circumstanoos in the stale of Europe which ought to have made the parliament chary of advancing hard cash for a war wiih France ; though that country waa now strengthened by the very feudal flefs which had so fatallv weakened it whca the gallant ancestors of Henry had deeply dyed with French blood those fatal fields, to which Henrv ao proudly and so effectu- ally alluded ; tnougn even on the very edge of England, to wit, in Scotland, a new snd warlike monarch, Jamea IV. had succeeded to the indolent James III. and was so much attached to the interest of France, that he was nearly aure to evince bia attachment by making war on England whenever Ilenry should lead the flower of England's forces to the shores of France, the parlia- ment hailed Henry's boaatful promises with delight. Two lifteenths were readily voted to him, and an act waa passed to ensbie the nobility to sell their estates; by which Henry accomplished the double purpose of having wealthy volunteers to defray many unavoidable expences, and of greatly dimi- nishing that baroniid power which even yet trod cloaely upon the kibes of English royalty. A. D. 1493.— Aa Henry had anticipated, many powerful nobles, inflamed with a de- sire of making in France rich territorial ac- quisitiona, auch aa their Norman ancestors had made in England, availed themsel.ei of hia politic act, and Bold or pawned their broad lands to raise troops for the invasion of the Gallic Dorado. So well, in short, were Henry's well-feigned desires seconded, that on the 6th of October in this year, he was enabled to land at Calaia, with a splen- didly equipped army of twenty-five thousand \ BKcna or gift, ir rRAUouLBNT to caBniTona, nniiDnBnD Toin. A.».U«l.-tl li f nglanV. — l^ottM of (TttVor.— 1|cnfQ VWL 269 iilwirr •"' ■litMB bndra4 eavalry, tkt «hoi« commanded, uadar tkt king kimttir, te lb* Mfl of Oxford uid tk« dukii of Bml> (iit, md ofleered by miu of tka T«ry 'rat MB in Knglnnd. Muy a bright draam of •tarica audof nobler ambition was dreamed MBong tliat Hiighljr hoiti but like other •■IfDdld dreamt, thoaa dreamt were at faU iMiout and thort-livcd aa thejr were bril- litut. Tlie truth It, that, noblf at the king iMid dtnounced wrath to France and pro* miitd wetlih to Ku|{la»>l. he had from the Mrr dnt not the tli||htett intention of friot a gun or drawing a aword. Hit ob< jMt wu, timpljr, to obtain monejr i tbeonlf liactre part of hia tneeoh waa that in •bieh he profetted hit nope of making the war maintain ittelfi and be to managed tkt affair, with both friend and foe, that he rtally did make the war not only pajr ita own cxpcncet, but contribute a very liand* lome lorplut to the royal treatury. It waa wbitprred among ahrewd men, tbat October wat a tingular teaton at wUch to invade Vranoe, if a real war of eonquett waa intended. Henry heard or Httied tbit rumour, and ho battened to coatradict it, by profeiting hit conviction that to conquer the whole of France would got cott him a whole tummer, and t hat at he kad Calait for winter quartert, the teaton of hit arrival waa a matter of perfect in- diierenee. Yet at the very time that Henry made tkit bout, which would have been marvel> loatly lilly and vain-gloriout had it not been entirely intincere, and made only for an npecial and temporary purpote, a tccret eorretpondence for a peace had for tome lime been carried on by Henry and the king oif Prance. ThelandingofHenr^ in France, with a nnmerout and well-appointed army, had, at he had foreteen, greatly ttrength. ened the detire for peace on the part of the king of France, and commitiionert were now very tpeedily appointed to aettle tht termi. Any other man but Henry would have been much puuled for even plautible rea- MM by which to account to hia tubjectt for 10 early and tuddenly agreeing to treat for peace, after making tuch magniiicent pramiiM of a war of actual conqueati pro- raiiei, too, which had cauicd to many of Mi tubjectt very largely to invett their fot' tanei in hit tervice. But to Henry thia was no difficult matter. He had repre- unled himself aa tmte of large aid from the Low Countriet; he now caused Maximi- lian, king of the Romani, to tend to inform him that tuch aid could not then be fur- niahed. Spain, too, waa at war with France, tnd Spain tuddenly received the countiet of Routillon and Cordagnc, and concluded peace with France I Thete alteratiout in the state of affaire would naturally tnggeat tome alteration in the proceedmgt and hopes of Henry I He gave full time for the circulation of the newt through hia camp, and then he caused the raarquia of Dorset, a^ nnmerout other noblet in bit confidence, to petition him to do preciaely what ha kad from the Int intended to do —to make a treaty with Franca I Btrangaly enough, too, the* were mada to allem in their petition, tnat very latcueta or the teaton which tha king had ao recently af> Armed to bo utterly without importance, and the difllenltiet attendant upon tha atrga of Boulogne, which he had only Juit eora- meneed, and which no one with a particle of common-sente could over have luppoied to be an undertaking without ita diffl. cultiea I Henry, with wellfuigned reluct- ance, tnlTered himself to be pertuaded; and France bought peace by the payment of aeven hundred and forty-llva thouaand crownt down, and a pentiirn of twenty-ive thoutand crowna yearly. Well indeed might the money-loving Henrr consider, now, that between the contributiona of hia tufajecta and those of France, the war kad indif- ferently well maintained itself. Scarcely had Henry concluded thia ain- gularly cool and aa tingularly aueceitful endeavour to convert a glaring political blunder into a meana of raiaing a largo tnm of monev, than be waa once more called upon to defend hia throne againtt a dkuring and imnudent pretender. The auchett of Burgundv, whoto hatred of Henrr wat by no meana aecreated by the caac and perfect aucceta with which he had baffled the deaigna of Simnel, onee more en- deavoured to diaturb Hennr'a throne. She cauaed it to be given out, tnat Richard, the young duke of York, eacaped from the Tower when hia young brother and aovereign waa murdered by Richard, duke of Oloster, who afterwards usurped the throne. Improbable aa it waa that the younger of the two bro- thera ahould have escaped flrom the mon- strous and unaparing murderer of the elder, the tale wat eagerly and creduloutly litt- ened to by the people, who teem to have received no warninK from the former im- pndent impottnre of Straoel. Perceiving that the fund of public credulity waa far flrom being exhauated, the duchesa eagerly looked around her for some youth ouaTiflea to tuttain the part of that young auke, of whoae approacning re-appearance emiaan- riea were now iuttmcted to hold ont ex- peotationa. The youth the detired toon pretented himaelf in the perton of Ferkin Warbeck, the aon of a cbrittianised Jew. Toung Ferkin waa born during the reign of the amorout monarch Edward IV. who waa a frequent visitor to the house of the weal- thy Jew. This circumstance, and the sin- gular likeness of younit I'erkin to the king, had occaaioned not a little acandaioua re- mark aa to the actual yarantage of the boy. The youth, who had removed with hia father to Tournay, the native country of the latter, waa subsequently thrown upon his own retourcet, and cautcd by tbe change of fortune to vitit a variety of placea ; and travel had thua added itt beneflti to thote of nature and the advantagea of a good education. The youth wat naturally verv quick witted and of graceful manuert, and tbe tiugular likenett he bora to Ed- ward IV. wat thut rendered the mora re- A.D. HOa.— TUB BXNBTOLaNCn FAID BT I.0ND0S WAS 9,C82{. 17«. 4(f. 12 J i A. D. 148:1.— THB MOOBI ABB DBITBN OU« Of SBBWADA TBIB TBAB. 270 ^l^c ^reasutQ of l^totoni) ^c. markable, Mpecially when, having been in- troduced to the ducheis of Burgttndjr, and by her initructed in the part it was desired that he thould play, he designedly made the utmost display of those qualities which hitherto he had ei^oyed almost unconsci- ously. The rapidity and completeness with which he mastered all that it was deemed ne- ccttsary to teach him delighted the duchess, who, however, in order to give time for the reports of her emissaries to spread amont' the populace in England, sent the pseudo duke of York to Portugal under the care of lady Brampton. From Portugal he was re- called on the breaking out of what Henry had called the "war" with France; and, as his predecessor in imposture had formerly been, he was sent to make the first public essay of his powers of impudence in Ire- land. His success there was sufficient to cause a great interest and cunoaity not only in England but also in France, to which country he was invited by Charles VIII., who received hiir, with all the ho- nours due to distressed royalty, assigning him splendid apartments, and giving him a personal guard of honour, of which the lord Congresal was made the captain. The personal resemblance of young War- beck to ISdward IV., his graceful exterior and really remarkable accomplishments, added to the air of entire sincerity which Charles— with the politic design of embar- rassing Henry— affected in his treatment of the impostor as the genuine duke of York, rendered the imposition so far succes- {hl, that upwards of a hundred gentlemen, some of them, (as sir George Mevil and sir John Taylor) of considerable eminence, ac- tually travelled from England to Paris to offer their swords and purses to the duke of York. In the midst of a tide of good success, which must have astonished himself more than any ose, Warbeck met with an unex- pected check in consequence of the peace that was so suddenly concluded between France and England. Henry, indeed, on this occasion tried to induce the king of France to give Warbeck up to him ; but Charles, with a degree cf spirit which did him great honour, replied, tnat no matter what was the real character of the young man, he ought to go free from France, to which Charles hoi himself invited him. Warbeck accordingly, to the great vexation of his friends, was dixmissed from the court and kingdom of Charles; and he now made his first public appearance before the duchess of Burgundy, whose instructions he bad hitherto so well obeyed. With a gravity which did infinite credit to her talents as an actress, the duchess, affecting to have been but too well instructed by tiimnel's affair ever to give credit again to mere plausible stories, received Warbeck with a coolness which would speedily have terminated his suit had be been other than au impostor, and not quite as well aware as the duchess herself was of its motive. Well knowing that her ultimate counte- nance of his pretensions would be valuable precisely in proportion to her seeming un- willingness, at the outset, to grant it, the duchess publicly and with much sceminc severity questioned Warbeck upon his pre- tensions to the title of York. As question after question was answered with a correct- ness far beyond the power of any mere un- postor— of any impostor unless assisted, as Warbeck was, by the duchess or some other member of the royal family— the duchess, by admirably regulated grada- tions, passed from scornful doubt and in- dignation to wonder, and from wonder to conviction and a rapture of delight, at, all her doubts removed, she embraced him as the marvellously preserved son of Edward, the true scion of the Plantagenents, the only rightful heir to the. throne of England, her own long lost and miraculously restored nephew 1 The scene, in short, was excel- lently performed, and was as pathetic to those who were not in the secret, as it as- suredly must have been wearisome to those who were. The duchess of Burgundy, having thus with difiSculty and reluctance satisfied her- self of the truth of her aoi-duoHt ne- Khew's pretensions, assigned him a guard of onour, and not only intimated her desire that he should be treated with the utmoat respect by all her court, but herself set the example, never mentioning him but with the honourable and endearing title of iht mkite rote (ff England. A. D. 149?. i'he English of high rank were not behind the Flemish popniaee in giving credence to Warbeck's pretensions. Men easily believe -that which they have learned to desire; and the firm rule of Henry, and the great and obvious pains be took to depress the nobility, and to derate, at their expense, the middle and trading classes, disposed very many men of power and consequence to assist Warbeck in the struggle be meditated for the English throne. Even air William Stanley, who had done so much to secure Henry's elevation, now began to look with complacency npon his possible dethronement by the pscudo duke of York ; and sir Robert Clifford ac- tually went to Flanders to join the pretender, and wrote thence that he could personsllf vouch that the yonth in question was really that Richard, duke of York, who had lo long been supposed to have been murdered by his uncle, the late king. The high rank and respectable character of Clifford made this assurance of his extensively and mis- chievously influential ; causing many, vrho would have disdained to assail Henry's throne for the sake of an impostor, to join in the wide-spreading conspiracy in favour of the supposed duke of York. In these circumstances the king's beat safeguard was his own politic and vigilant temper. Well served by his numerous spies, both in England and on the continent, he was thoroughly informed of every impor- tant step that was taken by his enemie*. Being morally certain that the duke of York had been murdered by the late kit^g, he took the necessary steps for making that fact HI a u M N X a.D. 1493.— A TRVCI BlfTERBD IRTO WITH aCOTLAND, HOV. 3, A.D. 1493.— JOi I.S. MM.— aiB SBWABB rOTmilM BirOTI-«OTIBIIOB or IBBLAHO. lEnglantf—I^OttSc of ^uHor.— I^inrv VM, 271 ipoetr from the itBtement of thoM who were itiU Uvinjc who had peraonal cogai- uaee of it. 'ffaeaa panona were two in Bomber : air Jamea iTrrel, who had anper- iatended the murder and acen the dead bodiea of the murdered youtha, and Digh- (OB, who had been one of the actual mur- Inera ; both of whom atated the murder to lum been committed on both the princea ; ind their aeparate atatementa agreed with the atmoat aecnracT in every partieular. The next point that Henry waa anxioua to elear up, waa the identity of the i>re- tended dulie of York. That he waa an im- potior waa beyond all doubt ; but it waa very important that Henry ahould be able to lay, not only who he waa not, but who he waa and whence he had aprung, to lim.by a darina impoature, at the EnKlish throne. With thia view be aent apiea into Flanders, and instructed aome of them to pretend the utrooat aeal aaainat him, and to join the opposite party. Ity thia plan he became aware of the number and rank of Watbeck'a adherenta ; and upon theae new ipiaa were set, until Henry, by alow de- gree, and through the instrumentality of men against whom he feigned the moat nngOTemable indignation, poaaeaaed him- mU of ef cry passage in the history of yonng Wsrbeck from his very childhood. The tidings thus obtained Henry took great pains to circulate throughout England; and the clearness with which every step in the Impostor's career waa traced greatly tended to diminish the popularity of hia cause, ud to weaken the seal of his partisans, — upon whom Henry determined to takt ample vengeance at hia own leiaujre and convenience. i.D. 1494.— Having taken all prudent meuures for disabuaing the minds of his own subjects as to the real history of the pretended duke of York, Henry made a formal complaint to the archduke Fhi» lip of the encouragement and ahelter wnich 80 notorious an impostor aa War- beck had met with in Flanders; and aa Philip, at the instigation of the duchess dowager of Burgundy, coldly replied that he bad no authority over the demesne of that princess, Henry banished all Fleminga ftom England, and recalled all his own rabjects from the Low Countries ; feeling •atiafied that the injur? thua done to the trade of ao commercial a people aa the Fleminga, would aoon urge them into auch revolt as would abundaSntly revenge him npon their aovereign. In the mean time Henry suddenly and limultaneously seized upon those of hia own subjects who had been the moat tealoas in conspiring against him, and some were speedily tried and executed. Others, among whom waa William Worsely, the dtan of St. Paul's, escaped with a short imprisonment. But a more important e king, who was making a state progress through the north of England, and made his appear- ance off the coast of Kent. But the care with which the king had exposed the real character and connections ot Warbeck, and the sad fate of sir William Stanley, caused the Kentish gentry to be on the alert, not to join the impostor, but to oppose him. Wishing, however, to make him prisoner, they told the messenger whom he sent ashore that they were actually in arms for him, and invited him to land and place himself at their head. Warbeck was too suvpicious to fall into the snare ; and the Kentish men flndiug that they could not induce him to trust himself ashore, fell ' upon those of his retainers who had landed, ' and took a hundred and fifty prisoners, be- sides putting a considerable number to death. This action drove Warbeck fnm the coast t and the king, who was thorough- ly determined to put down the revolt with a strong and nnsparin|( hand, ordered the hundred and fifty prisoners to be put to death, without an exception I A singular and very important law was just now enacted bv which it was provided that no man should be attainted for aiding the king d» facto, whether by arms or otherwise. Henry probably initiated this law for the purpose of giving increased con- fidence and zeal to his own partizans, by making it impossible that even his fsll could Involve them in ruin. As the first and most important end of all laws is to secnre the peace of the community, and as the defenders of the de facto king are usu- ally such by their attachment to public order, the law was a very proper one in spirit; but it was one which in the case of any violent revolution was but little liktly to be respected in practice, especially as nothing could be easier than for the domi- nant party to cause it to be repealed. Of the invasion of Italy by France, and the league formed to check the French king's ambitions schemes, we need only barely make mention here; for though Henry was a member of that league, be was a mere honorary member of it, neither the expences nor the trouble of warfare on so distant a scene suiting with his peace- loving and rigidily economical temper. CHAPTER XXXYIII. The Reign (ff Hbhbt VII. (eoneludti), A. D. 1496.— Wabbbok, on perceiving the treatment that was bestowed by the Kent- ish people upon those of his adherents who bad been so unfortunate as to land, sin- cerely congratulated himself upon the tus- picion which had arisen in his mind at the regular and disciplined appearance of the men who had pretended to be newly levied, and with an especial view to his service. He had, however, g[one too far to recede, and was, besides, without the funds necessary to support his numerous followers in idle- ness. Ireland had ever been ready to war against the king of England on any or on no pretext,- and to Ireland he accordingly steered his course. But, as we have more particularly mentioned under the history of that country, Poyning'a law and other good measures had so far strengthened the royal authority, that even in the usually turbulent Ireland the adventurer could obtain no su>i- port. Certain hospitalities, indeed, he ex- perienced at the hands of some of the chief- tains, but their coarse fare and rude habits were but little to his taste, and he left them to try his fo-tune in Scotland. The king of France, in revv...^ for the junction of Henry with the other opponents of the ambitious schemes of France, and the king of the Ro- mans, in revenge for Henry's prohibition of riVB PBBSONB EXBCVTBO FOB FUBMSHINO MBBLS AOAIIIST THB EINO. A.D. 140S.-^UUa COI.LIQS, CAMBBIBOli rOUHOU IT SB. JOBII A1.G00K. lEnslantr.— Ilonse of tlTul^or.— I^cnre VM.. 273 ■n eommraee with the Low Conntriea, u- eretly ftirniihed Warbeck with strone re< commenAatioDs to the then kmf of Scot* land, JametlV. That chivalric pnnce aeeuia at first to hare taiipected the truth of War* beck'* itory ; for while he received him other- wiie kindlj, he aomewhat pointedly told him that be whoever or whatever he might he thould never repent having truated to a king of Scotland, a remark which he would icarcely have made had he felt any conft- di'Dce that he waa really the duke of York. Bat the king** auipicion* did not long hold out against the fascinating manners and numeroaa accomplish menta of the young adventurer. So completely did James be- come the dupe, and so far was that kind- hearted monarch interested in the. welfare of the young impoator who practised upon hi* credulity, that he actuafly gave him in marriage the lady Catherine Gordon, daugh. ter oftbe earl of Hnntley, and not very dia- tantly related to the king himself. >. D. 1496.— That James of Scotland really did give credence to the elaborate fi^se- hooos which were told to him bv young Warbeck seems certain, or he would scarce- ly have given him, in marriage, a young and beaatiM lady of a noble family und even related to the crown. But policy had, pro- bably, still more to do in producing James's kindnes* to the adventurer, than anv cou- ■tderations of a merely humane and per- loiid nature. Iqjury to England, at any fate and under any circumalances, seems to have been the iuvariable maxim of the Scot- tish kings and of the Scottish people ; and James, deeming it probable that the peo- ple of the northern counties of England would rise in favour of Warbeck, led him thither at the head of a strong and well ap- pointed army. As soon as they had crossed the border, Warbeck issued a proclamation in which he formally stated himself to be that duke of York who had ao lon^ been supposed dead, claimed to be the rightful sovereign of England, and called upon all his goeck s cause un- popular in the northern countiea rather than the contrary, that lie was by no means sorry for the Scottish irruption. Neverthe- less, true to his constant maxim of making a profit of every thing, he affected to be very indignant at this violation of hia ter- ritory, and he summoned a parliament to listen to his complaints on this head, and to aid him in obtaining redress for so great and affronting an injurv. The pathetic style in which Henry so well knew how to couch his complaints, so far prevailed with the parliament as to induce them to vote him a subsidy Of a hundred and tr'enty thousand pounds, and they were then dismissed. a. D. 1497.— Tne people, always shrewd judges of character, hadby thia time learned to understand that of Henry. Comparing the frequency and the Uurgenesa of the grants made to him by the parliament with his own regal economy and personal stingi- ness, they easily calculated that he had hy him a treasure of aufficient extent to enable him to spare his subjects this new imposi- tion. It followed that, though the parlia- ment had so willingly granted the subsidy in the mass, the people were by no means so willing to pay it to the tax collectors in detail. This was more especially the case in Cornwall. Far removed from any in- roads of the Scots, the people of that part could not or would not understand why they should be taxed to repel an enemy whom they had never seen. The popular discon- tent in Cornwall was still fartner increased by two demagogues, Joseph and Flammock. The latter especially, who Was a lawyer, was much trusted by the populace, whom he assured that the tax that was laid upon them on this occasion waa wholly illegal, inasmuch as the nobility of the northern counties held their lands on the expreaa condition of defending them against all in- roads of the Scots ; and that it behoved the people promptly and firmly, but peaceably, to petition against the system under whicn their burthens bade fair to become quite intolerable. It ia scarcely worth while to enquire how far the deniatcoguea were ain- cere in their exhortations to peaceably agi- tation ; the event showed how much easier it is to set a multitude in motion than to control it afterwards. The countrv people having their own opinions of the illegality and injustice of the tax confirmed by men of whose talents and information they had a very high opinion, gathered together in great numbers, most of them being armed with the implements of their rural labour. A. D. 1496.— TBI KIIfSDOM O* NArLSS COKQUIBBO BT TUB FBXHCB. A.D. 1498.— Biei S A 274 lS>^t fSTreasurc of 1|istorc, (cc. This nnmeroni and tamoltnoni mtberiDR choie Flammock and Joieph for tneir lead- en, and paaiing from Cornwall through Devonahire, they reached Taunton, in Born- ertetthire, where they killed one of the col- lector* of the ■ubaidy, who»e activity and, perhaps, aererity had given them much of- fence. From Taunton they marched to Wells in the same county, where they got a distinguished leader in the person of the lord Audley, a nobleman of ancient family, but verv prone to popularity hunt- ing. Headed by this silly nobleman, the rebels marched towards London, breathing vengeance aitainst the principal ministers of the king, though upon the whole tolera- bly innocent of actual wrong or violence during the latter part of their march. Though the Kentish-men had so lately shown by the coarse they had adopted to- wards Warbeck how little they were in- clined to involve themselves in a quarrel with the king, Flamniock had persuaded the rcbuls that they were sure to be joined by the Kentish people, beeauu these latter bad ever maintained their liberty even against the Norman invaders. The non •#- fuitur was either nonperceived by the mul- titude or not considered of muck import- ance, for into Kent they marched in pursu- ance of Flammock's advice, and took up their position on a hill at Elthnm, a very few miles from London. So far was the advice of Flammock from being well found- ed, that there probably was not at that moment a single spot in the whole kingdom where the rebels were less likely to meet with support than they were in Kent. Every where throughout the kingdom there was considerable discontent arising out of the extortionate measures of the king, but every where there was also a great respect for the king's power, to which was added in Kent considerable kindly feeling spring- ing out of the favour and consideration with which he had acknowledged the ser- vice done to him when Warbeck appeared oif the coast. Of this feeling the earl of Kent, lord Abergavenny, and lord Cobham so well availed themselves, that, though the rebels made every peaceful endeavour to recruit their ranks, none of the Kentish-men would join them. On this, as indeed on all other emergen- cies, Henry showed himself equal to the occasion. He detached the earl of Surrey to hold in check or beat back the Scots; and having posted himself in St. George's fields at the nead of one body of troops, he dispatched the earls of Oxford, Suffolk, and Essex, at the head of another, to take the rebels in the rear; while a third under lord Daubeny charged them in the front. The more completely to take the rebels by sur- prise, Henry had carefully spread a report that he should not attack them for several daya ; nor did he give the word to Daubeny's division to advance until so late an hour in the day that the rebels could have no idra of being attacked. They had a small ad- vance at Deptford bridge, which Daubeny easily put to flight, and pursued them so closely that he charged upon their mau body at the same time that they rejoined it Daubeny charged the rebels gallutly, but allowed hia contempt of their want of dis- cipline to cause him to undervalue their number, in which respect they were far from desnicable, being above sixteen thou- sand. Tne rash gallantry of Dauheny actu- ally caused him to be for a few moment* taken prisoner, but ho waa speedily reacued by his troops, whose discipline soon pre. vailed over the raw number* of the rcbelt, and the latter were put to flight with the loss of two thousand killed, and many thou- sands prisoners; the first division of the king's troop* having aided Daubeny so that the rebels were completelv surrounded, and but a comparatively small number of them succeeded in cutting their way through. ■ Amone the numerous prisoners, were the lord AttcOey, Flammock, and Joseph, all of whom the king sent to immediate execution, Joseph actually exulting in his fate, which, he said, would ensure nim a place in the history of his country. To the other pri- soners the king gave their liberty ; partly, perhaps, because Jio deemed them to have been mere dupes in the hands of their lea- ders, and p'trtlv because, however much they had exclaimed against the oppressions of his ministers, they had in nowise through- out the whole revolt called in question hii title, or showed any disposition to mix up with their own causes of complaint the pre- tensions of the pseudo duke of York. Lord Surrey and the king of Scotland, mean- while, had made some few and inefficient demonstrations which led to no important result, and Henry took an early opportunity to get, Hialas the Spanish ambassador, to propose himself— as if without the know- ledge of Henry — to mediate between the two kings. When Hialaa was agreed to as a mediator the first and most important de- made of Henry was that Warbeck should be delivered up to him, a demand to which, to his eternal honour, James IV. replied that he could not pretend to decide upon the young man's pretensions; but that having received him and promised him hia protection, no imaginable conaideration should ever induce him to betray him. Sub- sequently, a truce of a few months having been agreed to between England and Scot- land, James privately begged Warbeck to seek some safe asylum, as it was very evi- dent that while he remained in Scotland Henry would never allow that country to have any permanent peace. The measures of Henry, meantime, as regarded the Flem- ings had produced exactly the result which he expected from them ; the Flemish nter chants and artificers had auffered so much from his system of non -intercourse, that they had in a manner forced their archduke to make a treaty by whieh all English rebels were excluded from the Low Countries, and the demesne* of the dowager duchess of Burgundy were especially and pointedly in- cluded in this treaty. Warbeck, therefore, on being requested to quit Scotland, found himself by this treaty completely shut out A. O. 1500. — Itf liONOON ALONB TUBBK WBBK 30,000 VICTIMS TO TBI FLAQUB. A.9. 1605.— ■■ILI.IIlOa WBKI HOW Visai OOIHSO 111 KHSLAHB. lEnglanH — ^1|ottSc of ^utfor.— l|inrQ VM. 275 of the Low Conntries too, asd be waa fain oaee more to take reftige among the boga ud moantaina of Ireland. Bven here, auch were the known vigi> lance, art, and power of Henry, the unfor- tunate impoator did not fcelhimaelf aecure. Bit fear on that head, and hii dialike of the rade wayt and aeant jr fare of hia entertain- en, induced bim to follow the advice of thne needy and deaperate adherenta, Aat- ley, Heme, and Skelton ; and he landed ia Cornwall, where he endeavoured to Sioflt by the atill prevalent diapoaition to iteontent and riot in that neighbourhood of hardy, turbulent, and ignorant men. On hi* huiding, at Bodmin, MTarbcck waa joined by upward* of three thousand men ; and M> much was he encouraged by even this equivocal appearance of popularity, that he now, for the first time, aasumed the title of king of England by the name of Biebard IV. He nest marched bia coura- Mou* but utterly undisciplined men to EMter, where the inhabitanta wiaely, aa well as loyally, abut their gates against him, diapatched messengers to the king, and made all preparation for auataining inch a seige as Warbeck, destitute of artil- lery and even of ammunition, might be ex- pected to carry on against them. Henrv rejoiced to hear that the pretender who baa so long eluded and amased him, had, at length, resolved to take the field. The lords Daubeny and Broke, with the earl of Devonshire, the duke of Bucking- bam, and many other considerable nobles, hastily raised troops and marched against the rebels; the king, at the same time, ac- tively preparing to follow with a numeroua army. Warbeck had ahown himself unfit for rale, by the mere elation of spirit into whieh he waa betrayed by the adhesion of three thousand ill-armed and undisciplined men; he now showed himself atill further unfit by utter want of that desperate cour- age which, if it often betrays its posaesaor into situationa of peril, no less frequently enables him, as if ny miracle, to extricate himself with advantage even where bis ruiu sj^pears inevitable. The ceal of the king's friends was so far from destroying the hopes of Warbeck's supporters, that, in a very tew days their number increased from three to about seven thousand. But the encourage- ment afforded by this enthusiasm of his friends could not counterbalance in the mind of this unworthy pretender to empire the terror excited by the number and rapid approach of his foes. He hastily raised the Biege of Exeter and retired to Taunton ; and thence, while numbers were joining him i'tom the surrounding neighbourhood, he made a stealthy and solitary flight tc the lanetnary of fieaulieu, in Hampshire. De- ■erted by their leader the Cornisb- men submitted to the kine, who used his tri- umph nobly. A few hading and particu- larly obnoxious offenders were executed, but the majority were dismissed uninjured. In the case of AYarbeck'a wife, Cathe- rine Gordon, Henry behaved admirably. That lady being among hia priaonera, he not only received and pardoned her, aa being far more worthy of pity than of blame, but even gave her ■ bignly reputable poat at court. A.n. 1408.— The long annoyance caused by yTarbeck induced Henry'a advisera to urge him to seise that impostor even in de- fiance of the church. But Henry, who ever loved the tortuous and the anbtle bet- ter than the openly violent, cauaed hir emissaries to persuade Warbeck voluntarily to leave his shelter and throw himself upon the king's mercy. This he accordingly did, and af.3r having been led in a mockerr of regal atate to London, be waa compelled to make a formal and detailed confession of the whole of his strange and hypocritical life, and was then committed to close custody. A. D. 1499. — He might now have lived ae- cnrely, if irksomely; but he had so long been accustomed to intrigue and the acti- vity of imposture, that he apeedily took aa opportunity to elude the vigilance of his keepers and escape to sanctuary. Here the prior of the monasterv mediated for bim, and the king consented once more to spare his life ; but set him in the stocks, at West- minster and at Cheapside ; compelled him, in that disgraceful situation, to read aloud his confession, and then committed bim to close custodv in the Tower of London. Even now, this restless person could not submit to his fate. He contrived to seduce some of the servants of the governor, and to associate with himself in the project of escape the unfortunate young earl of War- wick, whose long imprisonment had so weakened his mind, that no artifice was too gross to impose upon him. It would almost seem that this hopeless scheme must, in- directly, have been suggested to the adven- turera by the king himself, that he might have a sufficiently plausible reason for put- ting Warbeck to death. Nor is it any an^ swer to this opinion to say, that two of the conniving aervanta of the governor were put to death for their share in the project ; for Henry waa not of a character to allow his scheme to fail for want of even such a sacrifice as that. Both Warbeck and War- wick were executed; the latter on the ground of his intention, which be did not denv, to disturb the king's government. The fate of the unfortunate Warwick ex- cited universal indignation against Henry, who certainly sinned no less against po- licy than against humanity in this gratuitous violence upon so inoffensive a character. A.n. 1501. — Henry had always been anxi- ous for a friendly and close connection with Ferdinnnd of Arragon, wliose profound and Buccesisful polity, in many respects, resem- bled his own. He now, accordingly, ex- erted himself, and with success, to uuite Ferdinand's daughter, the princess Cathe. rine, to his own eld'est son, Arthur, prince of Wales, the former being eighteen, the latter sixteen years of age. A. D. 1503. — Scarcely, nowever, had the king and people ceased their rejoicings at this marriage when it was fatally dissolved TUB ISLANn Of MAOAOASCAH DISCOVBKKn BT THB rOBTUOCBSB. A. D. I6O7.— naLARD AOAIir TIIITXD BT TBI IWBATIBS IICBBB*!. 276 JR\)t ®Ycasttr9 of K^istort}, 9rc. hi the death of the young prince. The Mr- did monarch was mnch ancted by the lou of hia ton, for it aeemed to place him nnder the neceiiity of retnming the Urn aum of two hundred thousand ducata which had hecn received aa the dowry of the princeii. Bather than part with so large a sum, Henry exerted himself to bring about a marriage between the princess and his aecond son, Henry, who was only twelve years of an, and whom he now created prince of Wales. The young prince was as averse to this match as so young a rtrince conld be; but his father was reso- nte in the cause of his beloved ducats,^Bnd that marriage was celebrated which was afterwards the prime cause of so much crime and suffering; the prime cause, pro- bably, why Henry VIII. is not by far the most admired of all the monarchs of Eng. landL . The latter years of the king were chiefly apent in the indulgence of that detestable vice, avarice, whicn aeemsnot only to in- crease by enjoyment, but also to grow more and more craving in exact proportion to the approach of that hour in which the wealth of the world is vain. His excellent but far firom well treated queen having died in child-bed in 1603, Henry, from that time, aeems to have been, haunted with a notion that no treasure could be too immense to guard him against the rivalship of his son, the prince of Wales. Conscious that the late queen's title was better than his own, Henry probably thought that if the prince were to aim at the crown in right of his mother he would not be without support, and that, in such case, the successful side would be that side which had the best sup- ply of money. Upon no other principle can we account for the shameless and unceas- ing rapacity with which, by means of be- nevolences extorted firom parliament, and oppressive finea wruns from individuals throuKh the arts of the inramous Dudley and Empson, the now enormously wealthy monarch continued to add to his stores, which, in ready money alone, are said to have approached the large sum of two mil- lions. Even when he was rapidly sinlcing under a consumption, he still upheld and employed his merciless satellites in their vile attacka upon the property of innocent men. The heaping up of gold, however, could not stay the ravages of his fearful disease, and he expired at his palace at Richmond at the comparatively early age of fifty-two years, and after a prosperous reign of twenty -three years and eight months, on the twenty-second of April, 1509. Cold, cautious, resolute, and stem, Henry was an arbitrary and unjust monarch ; yet for the mass of the people his reign was a good one. To the wealthy his avarice was a scourge ; to the bau|hty and to the high- born his firm and vinlnnt rule must have been terrible. But he allowed no one to plunder but for him ; no one to tyrannize but in obedience to his orders. The barba- rous tyranny of the feudal nobles was for ever stricken down ; the middle classes wert raised to an importance and influence pre- vioualy unheard of in England ; and, apart /rom his arbitrary and really impolitic, be- cause needless, extortions of money, the general strain of his lawa tended to the making of a despotic monarch, but also of a regulated nobility and of an enterprisiDg prosperous people, whose enterprise and whose prosperity, having no check except the despotic power of the monarch, could not fail sooner or later to curb that one des- potism which had so far been useful that it had freed them from the many-headed des- potism of the nobility. CHAPTER XXXIX. Tke Reign qf Hxrbt VIII. A. n. 1509.— It is a sad but a certain truth that the mass of mankind have but a looie and deceptive morality ; they look rather to the manner than to the extent of crime when forming their judgments. The splendid ty- rannies of an Edward were rather admired than deplored ; even the gifted ferocity of the usurping third Richard was thought to be in some sort redeemed by the very excess of subtlety in the plan, and of mere animal daring in the execution, by that na* tion which now acarcely endeavoured to conceal its joy at the decease of the cold, avaricious Henry. Tet, bad as much of Henry's conduct was, and very contemptible as well as hateful as excessive avarice an- questionably is, Richard, nay even Edward, would not for an instant bear cumpariton with Henrv if the public judgment were not warped. It was not so mucli the vices of Henry Vll. that the people hated him for, as for his cold and wearisome firmness of rule; could he sometimes have been with impunity sinned against, he might have sinned ten times as much as he did, without being nearly so much hated as he was. The cautious policy of Henrv VII., the severity of his punishments, and his inca- rable cupidity, gave no small advantage to the commencement of the reign of his suc- cessor, who ascended the throne with pro- bably as many prepossessions in the henrti and minds of his people as any monarch in our history. Toung, handsome, gay, skilled in all manly exercises, and far better educated, scholasii- cally speaking, than was usual even among princes at that time, Henrv VIII. had the still farther and inestimable advantage of having never been in any degree associated in men's minds with the cruelties or the extortions of his father, whose jealousy had always kept the young prince unconnected with the management of public afTai's, With all these advantages, and uniting in his own person the claims of both York and Lancaster, Henry VIII. may most truly be said to have commenced his reign with the universal love and admiration ol his people. His grandmother, the dowager countess of Richmond and Derby, was still alive, and Henry had the good sense and the good fortune to be guided by her shrewdness and nENUT TII. WAS MAONIPICRMTLT BUBIBD IN WB8TMINSTBB ABBBT. i.v.iftas.— I S4. lEnglanlf — ^l^ottst of ^uTjor.— l|tnrs F3ES1E. 377 (xperienee in tha imporUot matter of fammg !>*• A'** miniatrj. The ability of the nunUtera of the late liina waa beyond ill cavil) and it waa Henry'a oDvioua policy to iciain aa mueb of the talent which had aided bii father, with aa little aa poaaible ef either the wickedneia or the unpopula- lit*. The nuinberleaa and aevere auffer- ion which had been inflicted upon men of wealth darins the laat reign, caawd a pro* ■ortionately loud and general cry to be now nj^ed againat the informera, and princi- pally the noted Dudley and Empaou, who Cd 10 aueceaafully and nnacrupuloualy leited the late king) and though the jua- tiee of Henry VIII. did not iuduce him to part with any portion rS the treasure which Ml father had ao iuiquitoualy obtained, ao neitber did it prompt him to defend hia biber'a toola. Both Dudley and Empaon were leifed and committed to the Tower, amid the joy and ezecrationa of the people ; althoagh, as we ahall, in a very few worda, be able to show, the very criminality of which these men were accused, waa no% more flagrant or hateful than that which wu now committed against them. When they were summoned before the coun- cil, and called upon to show why they •honld not be punished for their conduct daring the late reign, Empson, who waa a flneot speaker and a rcfuly able lawyer, nade a defence of hia own and his col- league's conduct, which, had the king been init and the people reasonable, would have led to such alterations in the laws as would for ever after have rendered it impoasible for unprincipled informers to ruin the weslthy subject, while pandering to the mediness of a grasping and unjust king. He very truly argued that he and hia col- leacae had acted in obedience to the king, and in accordance with lawa which, bow- ever ancient, were unrepealed, and, there- fore, as authoritative as ever; that it waa not at all to be marvelled at if those who were punished by law should rail at those who put the law in force ; that all well-re- gidated statea always made the impartial and strict enforcement of the laws their chief boast, and that that state would, in- evitably, fall into utter ruin, where a con- trary practice should be allowed to obtain. This defence, which clearly threw the blame upon the state of the laws and upon the evil inclinations of the late king, did not prevent Dudley and Empson firom being lent to the Tower. They were soon after- wards convicted by a jury, and this convic- tion was followed up by an act of attainder, which was passed by parliament, and Erap- ■on and Dudley were executed amid the lavage rejoicings of the people, whose de- meanour on this occasion showed them to be truly unworthv of the libertv they so highly valued. We do not palliate the moral feelings of Empson and Dudley, but, legally speaking, they were murdered ; they were put to death for doing that which the law directly authorised, and indirectly com- manded them to do. In compliance with the advice of his council, and of the eounteaa of Richmond and Derby, Henry completed hia marriage with the princeaa Catherine, the widow of his brother Arthur; though it aeema cer« tain, not only that Henry had-ltimaclf no preference for that princeaa, who waa plain In peraon and hia aenior oy aix yeara, bat no leaa certain that hia father on nia death- bed conjured him to take the earliest poa- aible opportunity to break the engagement. Though Henry VIII. had received a good education, and might deserve the praiae of leaminif and ability, even without reference to hia high rank, he waa far too impetuous, and too much the creature of impulse, to deserve the title of a great politician. At Ilia coming to the throne, the state of Europe waa auch that laiutM aU«r would have been the beat maxim for all aove- reigna ; and England, blest with domestic peace, and little concerned in the affaire of the continent, ought especially to have kept aloof from interference. Italy waa the theatre of atrife between the powers of Spain and France i Henry's best policy clearly would have been to let these great powers waste their time and strength against each other ; yet, at the very com- mencement of his reign,' he allowed pope Julius II. to seduce him into the grossly impolitic step of allying himaelf with that pontiff, the emperor Maximilian, and Henry's father-in-law, Ferdinand, to crush and trample upon the commonwealth of Venice. A.D. 1510.— Having aucceeded in engag- ing Henry in thia league, to which neither his own honour nor the interests of hia people obliged the young monarch, Juliua was encouraged to engage him jn the more ambitious project of freeing Italy ttom fo- reigncra. The pontiff, accordingly, sent a flattering message to Henry, with a per- Aimed and anointed rose, and he held out to Henry's ambassador at Rome, Bain- bridge, archbishop of York, a cardinal'a hat as the reward of his exertions in his inte- rest. This done, he persuaded Ferdinand and the Swiss cantons to join him, and de- clared war against the duke of Ferrara, the ally and friend of the French. A.D.I611.— The emperor Maximilian atill held to his alliance with Louis, and they, with some malcontent cardinals, now en- deavoured to check the ambition of Julius, by calling a general council for the pur- pose of reforming the church. With the exception of some French bishops, the cardinals had scarcely any supporters, and they were so ill received at Pisa, where they first met, that they were obliged to adjourn to Milan. Even here, though un- der the dominion and protection of France, they were so much insulted, that they agaift adjourned to Lyons ; and it was evident that they had but little chance of success against the pope, who, besides beinp; extremely po- pular, did not fail to exercise his power of excommunicating the clericid attendants of the council, and absolving from their alle- giance the subjects of the monarcha who protected them. e S M (a II ■ > H K M « SI ■ m R »■ O M •4 O H H H K •• O O m « e It M «. n. 1510.— ROTAIi BALLS ANO rAOIANTS SNOROSSBO PUBLIC ATTBWTIOII. [3B A, O. Itia.—A KOVAL MATIOrriCa WAS HOW VIM«« KSTAaLIIiikO, 278 ^fic iSTrcasttri; of l^iftton}, $cc. A.D. 1512. — Henr^, who at tbii period of hU life was far too impetuous to be other- wise than sincere, was reallv anxious to protect the sovereign pontiff from insult and oppression, and he was strengthened in this inclination by the interested coun- sel of his father-in-law, and bv his own hope of being honoured with the title of M»$t Chriitian King, which heretofore had belonged to the Icing of France. He con- sequently allied himself with Spain, Venice, and the pope, against the king of France, and not merely sent an embassy to dehort Louis from warring against the pope, but also demanded the restoration to England of Anjon, Maine, Guienne, and Normandy. This demand was considered tantamount to a declaration of war, and was supported bv parliament, which granted Henry a very Uoeral supply. Ferdinand, who had his own ends to serve, affected to be extremely anxious to serve Henry, and sent a fleet to convey the English troops, to the number of ten thou- sand, to Fontarabia. The marquis of Dor- set, accompanied by the lords Broke and Howard, and many other young noblemen ambitious of warlike fame, commanded this force, wliich wai extremely well appointed, though it chiefly consisted of infantry. But Dorset very soon found that Henry's inte- rests were not consulted by Ferdinand and his generals; fcnd, atler much idle disputa- tion, the English troops broke out into mu- tiny, and the expedition returned without acliieving any thing. Henry was much an- noyed by this egregious failure, and Dorset had great difficulty in convincing him of the exclusively selflsh nature of Ferdinand's designs. By sea the English were not much more Srosperous than oy land. A fleet of forty- ve sail was encountered off Brest by thirty- nine sail of the French ; the French admi- ral's ship caught fire, and Prim8ti|;et, the commander, resolutelv grappled with the English admiral, and both vessels blew up together, the enraged crews combatting to the hut. The French, notwithstanding the loss of their admiral, mhde good their es- cape with all the rest of their ships. But though Henvyvacquired no glor^^ or advantage oy these operations against France, he did Louis serious mischief by compelling him to retain in France troops whose presence was absolutely necessary to his interests in Italy. But for this circum- stance Louis would probablv have prospered there. His young and heroic nephew, Gaston de Foix, even with the slender forces that could be spared to him, during a few months of a career which a great modem poet most truly calls " brief, brave, and glorious," obtained signal advantages ; but he fell in the very moment of victory over the army of the pope and Ferdinand, at Ravenna. His genius had, in a great de^ee, compenseted for the numerical in- feriority of the French; but directly after his death Genoa and Milan revolted, and Louis was speedily deprived of every foot of his newly acquired Italian conquests. except some isolated and eomparativtly ua. important fortresses. A. D. 1618.— Pope Julius II. had scarcely time to exult over his successes against the arms of Louis when that pontiff died, and was aucceeded by John de Medicis, who under the title of liCO X. is famed in history no less for his patroT>age of the arts and sciences, than for his profound political talents. Leo X. had no sooner ascended tlit papal throne than he dexterously withdrew the emperor Maximilian from the French interests ; and by cheap but flattering com- pliments to Henry and his leading cour- tiers, greatly increased the popularity of the papal cause in England, where the par- liament imposed a poll-tax to assist tlie king in his designs against France. While Henry was eagerly makine his preparations, he did not neglect his dangerous enemy, James of Scotland. That prince was much attached to the French cause, and sent a squadron of vessels to aid it ; and, though to Uenrv's envoy he now professed the most peaceable inclinations, the earl of Surrey was ordered to watch the borders with s strong force, lest England should be assailed in that direction during the king's absence in France. While Henry was busied in preparing a large land force for the invasion of France, his fleet, under sir Edward Howard, cruised in (he channel, and at length drew up in order of battle off Brest and challenged the French force wliich lay there ; but the French commander being in daily expecta- tion of a reinforcement of galleys under the command of Prejeant de Bidoux, would not allow anv taunts to draw him from his se- curity. The galleys at length arrived at Conquet, near Brest, and Bidoux placed himself beneath a battery. There he was attacked by sir Edward, who, with a Span- ish cavalier and seventeen English, boldly boarded Bidoux's own vessel, but was killed and thrust into the sea. The loss of their admiral so discouraged the English that they raised their blockade of Brest harbour, and the French fleet soon after made a de- scent upon the coast of Sussex, but was beaten off. Eight thousand men under the command of the earl of Shrewsbury, and six thon- sand under that of lord Herbert of Cher- bury, having embarked fur France, the king now prepared to follow with the main army. He had already made the queen regent during his absence; and that she might be in the less danger of being dis- turbed by any revolt, he now caused Ed- mund de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, who had been attained during the last reign, to be beheaded in the Tower of London. On arriving at Calais Henry found tb<)t the aid aflbrded him fell very far short of what he had been promised. Maximilian, who was to have brouj^ht a reinforcement of eight thousand men in return for a hun- dred and twenty thousand crowns which Henry had advanced him, was unable to fultil his engagement. He however, made the best amends in his power by joining TBB lABOXST snip IN THE NAVY WAS OF 1,000 TOKS BVRDKN. A.». W13.-I COUHClIi OV L^T. «Alf. lEnglanTf.— I^ousc of ^utio( — ^l^cnrQ VMS.. 379 with •««!> Mtnty force m he could com- ■and i end he enlitted himielf uDdcr Henry M his officer, with a uiuj of one hundred crowai per iu. The earl of Shrewabarjr and the lord Her- b«rt immediately on their arrival in France hid laid liege to Terouane, a town on the bordert of Picardy. which waa Kitilantly de< fended by two thousand men under the com- mand of Crequi and Teligni. The atrength of the place and the gallantry of the garriaon bade defiance to the besiegersi but a dreadful want of both proviaion and ammunition waa loon felt in tne place. FontraiUea waa de- taehed by Louis from the army at Amiens to carry some relief to this place. He took eight bundled horsemen, eacli of whom carried behind him a sack of gunpowder and two qoartera of bacon, and, though thua encum- bered, thia gallant cavalry cut their way through the Engliah, depoaited their bur- thens m the fosse of the town, and returned to their quarters with scarcely any loss. The same gallant Fontrailles was shortly afterwards again about to throw some reUef into Terouane; and as it waa judged that the English would now be on the alert, a itrong body of French cavalry was ordered ap to protect him. Henry sent out a body ot his cavalry to hold them in check, and, itiange to relate,- though the French were picked troops, consisting chiefly of gentle- men who had fought gallantly and often, they were seised with a sudden panic at the approach of the English, and fled in spite of the attempts to rally them which were made by such men as the chevalier Bayard, the duke of Longueville, and other distin- Kiihed officers who were among the num- r tdcen prisoners. This battle, from the panic flight of the French, is known as the Battlt tf Spwrt. Had Henry immediately after this pushed his advantages, he might easily have marched to Paris, where both ftiends and foes fully expected to see him ; bat he allowed Maximilian to perauade him into the besieging of Toumay, which, after mneh delay, was taken. Henry then re- turned to England, having gained some re- putation aa a chivalroua soldier, but cer- tainly with no increase of his reputation aa a politician or a general. During Henrv'a absence the Scots acted precisely as had been anticipated. James, with an army of fifty thousand men, had crossed the border and taken several castles, ravaging and plundering the country in every direction around them. Having taken the lady Furde priaoner in her castle, Jamea was so much charmed with her aociety that he lost much precious time, and bis dis- orderly troops took advantage of his negli- gence and retreated to their homes, in great numbers, with the plunder they had ob- tained from the Southrons. The earl of Surrey, after much difficulty, came up with the Scots, who by these desertions were re- duced to somewhat nearer his own force of twenty-six thousand men. Jamea in per- son commanded the centre division of the Scots, the earl of Huntley and Lord Hume the right, the earls of Lennox and Argyle the left, while the earl of Bothwell had the charge of the reserve. The Enaliah centre waa commanded by lord Uowara in the flrat line, and by the gallant earl of Sarrer hin- aelf In the aecond ; the winga by air Ed- mund Howard, air Marmadule Constable, lord Dacre, and air Edward Stanley. The right wing of the Scota commenced the ac- tion, and lairlv drove the Engliah left wing off the field: out the Scottiah left, in the mean time, broke from all diacipline. and attacked so imnetuously, but in such diaor- der, that air Edward Howard and the lorA Dacre, who profited by their conAuion and received them cooUy, cut them to piecea ere they could be reacued by Jamea'a own division and the reaerve under Bothwell. Though the Scots sustained this great loss, the presence of the sovereign so mueh ani- mated their courage, that tney kept up the engagement until night put an end to it. Even then it waa uncertain which side had, in reality, sustained the greater loss. Bat, on the following day, it was discovered that the English, as well as the Scots, had lost about five thousand men ; the former had suffered almost exclusively in the ranks, while the latter had lost many of their bravest nobles. The king of Scotland was himself among the missing from this fatal " Flodden Field." A body, indeed, waa found among the slain, which, from the royal attire, was supposed to be the king's, and it was even royally interred, Henry ge- nerously pretending that James,while dying, expressed his contrition fur that miscon- duct towards the pope which had placed him under the terrible sentence of excom- munication. But though Henr* waa evi- dently convinced that he waa thus doing honour to the body of his brother-in-law, the Scots were equally convinced that he was not, and that James did not fall in the battle. By some it waa asserted that the monarch, escaping from the field, was put to death by order of lord Hume; while others no less firmly believed that he ee- caped to the Holy Land, whence thejr long subsequently continued to expect lum to return. The event of the battle of Flodden hav- ing released Henry from all fear of his nor- thern border, at least for that time, he made no dilHculty about granting peace to his sister Margaret, who waa now made regent of Scotland during the minority of her son. ' A.D. 1314. — Henry rewarded the chief in- struments in obtaining him this splendid victory, by conferring on the earl ot Surrey the title of duke of Norfolk, which had been t'ort'eited by that nobleman's father, who sided with Richard UL at Boaworth Field ; upon lord Howard the title of the earl of Surrey ; on lord Herbert that of earl of Worcester; upon sir Edward Stanley that of' lord Monteagle ; and upon Charlea Brandon, earl of Lisle, that of duke of Suffolk. At the same time the bishopric of Lin- coln waa bestowed upon the king's chief favourite and prime minister, Thomas AVol- IS t IS I A.D. 1513.— BBABBN-NOSB COLL. OXfOBD, PODNDBD BT THB BISHOP OF LIRCOLH. A.o. lAH.— TB* rora tunr aaiiBi a gohiiiobatib bat anb iwoaB. 280 lR%t QTrcBsnrtf of l^istorg, $cc. Mf, whoM part in this rei|pi wm io im- portut M to demand that we should pra- •ently spealc of him at tome length. The war with Scotland being fortunately terminated, Ilenrf again turned hii whole attention to France. There, however, he ftmnd little cause of mtulation. His fkther>ln-law, Ferdinana of Arragon. hav- ing obtained possession of the petty fron> tier kingdom of Navarre, had eagerly made peace with France, and induced the em- peror Sfaximilian to do the same ; and the pope, in whose cause Henry had saeriiloed so much, had also accepted of the submis- ■ion of Louis. The truth was now more than ever appa- rent, that, however great Henry's other qualities he was by no means skilled in tne wiles of polilin; and his present expe- rience of that truth was the more embit- tered, because he found that Maximilian had been induced to abandon him by an offer of the daughter of France to the son of that prince ; though that son Charles had already been affianced to Henry's own younser sister, the princess Mary, who was now fast approaching the age for the com- pletion of tlie contract. Thus doubly duppd and injured, Henry would, most likely, have re-invaded France, no matter at what sacrifice, but that the duke of Longueviile, who had remained a prisoner ever since the memorable "battle of spurs," suggested a match between the deserted princess Mary and Louis of France himself. It is true that that monarch was upwards of fifty years of age, and the prin- cess not quite sisteen ; but so many advan- tages were offered to Henry, that the mar- riage was concluded at Abbeville, whither Louis proceeded to meet his young bride. Their happiness and the rejoicings of the French j^ple were of but short duration, the king surviving the marriage only about three months. The young queen dowager of France had, before her marriage, shown some partiality for the duke of Suffolk, the most accom- plished cavalier of the age, and an especial favourite of Henry ; and he now easily per- suaded her to shorten the period of her widowhood. Henry was, or feigned to be, angry at their precipitate union; bnt his anger, if real, was only of short duration, and the accomplished duke and his lovely bride were soon invited to return to the English court. CHAPTER XL. The Reign nf HsNar Till. feoHti*uedJ. As Henry YIII. was, in many respects, the most extraordinary of our roonarchs, his favourite and minister, the cardinal Wolsey, was at the very head of the extraordinary men, even in that age of strange men and strange deeds. He was the son of a butcher in the town of Ipswich, and displaying;, while young, great quickness and intelli- gence, he had a learned education, with a view to his entering the church. Having, at the conclusion of his own education, been employed in teaching the children of the marquis of Dorset, he gave so much satisfketion, that that nobleman reeom. mended him to Henry VIII. as his chaplain. As the private and public servant of that monareh, Wolsey gave equal satisfsetloot and when Henry VIII., a gay, young, and extravagant monarch, showed a very e«l. dent preference of the earl of Surrey to the somewhat severe and economie Fox, bishop of Winchester, this prelate introducrlWol- sey to the king, hopin|( that, while his ae- complishments and pliability would enable him to eclipse the earl of Surrey, be would, (Vom his own love of pleasure, if not from motives of gratitude, oe subordinate in all matters of politics to the prelate to whom he owed hia introduction. The difference between the actual conduct of Wolsey, and the expectations of the prelate, fUrniahet « striking illustration of the aptitude of othrr- wise able men to fall into error when they . substitute their own wishes for the prinei. | Rles inherent to human nature, woliey | illy warranted Fox's expectations in msk. i ing himself even more agreeable to the gsy humour of the king than the earl of Surrey. ' But WolMy took aidvantage of his poiition to persuade the king that both the earl and the prelate, tried counsellors of the Iste king, felt theipMlvee appointed by him rather than by their present royal muter, to whom they considered themselves lets servants than authoritative guardians and tutors. He so well, at the same time, showed his own capacity equally for pleasure and for business, and his own readiness to re- lieve the king tnm the weight of all irk- some details, and yet to be his very and docile creature, that Henry soon found it impossible to do without him, in either his gaieties or in his more serious pursuits; and Wolsey eoually supplanted alike the courtier and the praver man of busineis, who, in endeavouring to make him his tool, enabled him to become his superior. Con- fident in his own talents, and in the favour of Henry, this son of a very humble tralei- man carried himself with an all but regal pomp and haughtiness; and left men in some difllculty to pronounce whether he were more grasping in obtaining wealth, or more magnificent in expending it. Super- cilieus to those who affected equality with him, he was liberal to the utmost towsrds those beneath him ; and, with a singular in- consistency, though he could he ungrateful, as we have seen in the case of the unsuspect- ing bishop of Winchester, no man was more prone to au exceeding generosity towards those who were not his patrons but his tooli. A. B. 1616.— A favourite and minister of this temper could not fail to make many enemiea; but Wolsey relaxed neither h haughtiness nor in ambition. Well know- ing the temper of Henry, the politic minis- ter ever affected to be the mere tool of hia master, though the exact contrary really was the case ; and by tbua making all iUi acta seem to emanate from Henry's will, he piqued his vanity and wilfulness into supporting them and kim.against all sbs- 0, I I a ■ a: N ■ VBOM VHii rnaioB ilatbet in brolaiis bxcaiib aaADUALLT bxtirct. Iter 01 1 many her 1.1 know* ■ i s minii* uf hit really all to ■ will, » ti n into 01 aha- • ___ A.B.I»l«.-a lEnglant).— I^ottsc of ilTnllor.— I^cnrv FIEIE 381 turn of oppoiltion or complaint. Made biahop 01 Lincoln, and then arcbbiahop of York, Woltcy held in eommtnilum lh« biihopric of Wineheater, tht abbey of 8t. AIImd'i, and bitd the reveiiuea at very eaajr iMMiof the bialiopricaof Bath, Woreeater, tad Hereford. Ilia influence over the king ■ade the pope aniioua to aoquire a hold •pon him ; \Volaey, accordingly, waa made a cardinal, and thenccrorlh hia whole cner* el and ambition were devoted to the en- (OUT to win the papal throne ilaelf. Contrary to.the cuatom of prieala, the pre* eiotti Dietala ornamented not only hia own attire, bat even the aaddlea and furniture of hi* boraea ; hia cardinal'a hat waa car* litd before him by a man of rank, and laid apon the altar when he entered chapel; one prieit, of noble atature and handaome eountenance, carried before him a maaaive •iWer croaa, and another the croaa of York. Warbam, arcbbiahop of Canterbury, alao held the office of chancellor, and waa but ill Itted to contend with ao reaolute a per* Ml aa Wolaey, who apeedily worried him inle a reaianation of the chancellorabip, which dignity lie himaelf graaped. Hia imolumenta were vaat, ao waa hia expendi- ture nagniflcent; and, if he (;ra*ped at many officea, it ia but fair to add ttiat he fttUlled hia varioua dutieawith rare energy, indgment, and juatice. Wolaey might now be laid to be Benry'a only miniater ; Foi, biihop of Wineheater, the duke of Norfolk, and tbe duke of Suffolk being, like the arehbiihup of Canterbury, unable to make bead againat hia arbitrarv temper, and driien from the court by a aeaire to avoid a nieleaa and irritating conflict. Fox, biahop of Wineheater, who aeema to have been greatly attached to Henry, warned him a|ainat Wolaey'a ambition, and beaought hua to beware leat the aervant ahould be- come the maater. But Henry had no fear of the kiud ; he waa far too deapotic and paiaionate a peraon to fear that any minia- ter could govern him. The aucceaa which Francia of France met with in Italy tended to excite the jea* loDsy and feara of England, aa every new acquisition made by France encroached upon the balance of power, upon which tbe lafety of Engliah intereata ao greatly de- pended. Francia, moreover, had given of- fence, not only to Henry, but alao to Wol* ley, who took care not to allow hia mast er'a anger to subside for want of a prompter. But though Henry spent a large sum of money in stirring up enmities against France, he did ao to little practical effect, and was eaaily induced to peace. A.n. 1516.— Ferdinand the Catholic, the father-in-law of Henry, died in the midat of a profound peace in Europe, and waa auc- ceeded by hia grandson Churlea. Tbia event caused Francia to aee the necessity of be- Btirring himaelf to ensure the friendship of England, as a support against the extensive power of Spain. Aa the beat meanaof doing 80, he caused hia ambassador to make his peace with Wolaev, and affected to ask that naughty ministera advice on the most con* fldential w.i important aubjeeta. One of the advantagea obtained by Francia firom thia KrvUe flattery of the nowerful minia- ter, waa the reatoration of the Important town of Tournay, a frontier fortreaa of France and the Netherlanda; Fnncia agreeing to pay aix hundred thouaaad crawna,at twelve equal annual inatalmenta, to reimbnraa Henry for hia expenditure on the citadel of Tuurnay. At the aame time that Francia gave eight men of rank aa hoe- tagea for the pavment of the above large aum to Henry, ne agreed to pay twelve thousand livrea per annum to Wolaey aa an euuivalcnt for the bishopric of Toumay, to which he bad a claim. Pleaaed with thia aucceaa, Francia now became bolder in Ua flatteriea, terming Wolaey p»t*r%or, tuttr, and even fathtr, and ao winning upon the mind of Wolaey by fulaome affectationa of humility and admiration, that Folydore Virgil, who waa Wolacy'a contemporary, apeaka of it aa being quite certain that Wolsey waa willing to nave aold him Calaie, and waa only prevented from doing ao by the general aenae he found to be entertained of ita value to England, and by bia forming cloaer connectiona with Spain, which aome> what cooled hia attachment to France. The pupe'a legate, Campeggio, being re- called on hia failure to procure a tithe de- manded by the pope from the Engliah clergy, on the old and worn-out pretext of war with the inttdela, Henry procured the legatine power to be conferred on Wolaey. With thia new dignity, Wolaey increaaed the loftincaa of hia pretenaiona, and the magniflccnce of hia habita; like the pope, he had biahopa and mitred abbota to aerve him when he aaid maaa, and he farther had noblea of the beat familiea to hand him the water and towel. So haughty had he now become, that he even complained of Warham, arcbbiahop of Canterbury, aa being guilty of undue funi* liarity in aigning himaelf " Your Imina brother;" which cauaed even the meek api- rited Warham to make the bitter remark, " thia man ia drunk with too much proape- rity." But Wolaey did not treat hia legatine appointment aa being a mere matter of dig- nity and pomp, but forthwith opened what he called the legatine court ; a court aa op* presaive and aa expenaive in ita authority aa the Inquiaition itaelf. It waa to enquire into all mattera of morality and conacience, and, aa it waa aupplementary to the law of the land, ita authority waa, in reality, only limited by the conscience of the judge. The first judge appointed to this anomalous and dangeroua court waa John Alien, a man whoae life waa but ill spoken of, and who was even said to have been convicted by Wolsey himself of perjury. In the band/ of Buch a man as this, t he extensive nowera of the legatine court were but too liaely to be made mere inatruments of extortion; and it waa publicly reported that Allen waa in the habit of convicting or acquitting aa he was unbribed or bribed. Wolaey wai thought to receive no small portion of the auma thus obtained by Allen from the A.s. 1516.— ros, nr. or wiitCHKSTiR, vouiiDa coarcs conisti coll. oxfobd. [3B3 A.*. Ills.— taa ooLtiva or raiiioiAiii m mhiboii imtitvTaB. 882 QTIc tICrtaittttt o( l^istotv, Sec. wIsMmm or th« (ban of tht luilort of hUeovrt. Much clamour wm ratted againit Wolaay, too, by the almott papal extent of poirar ha claimed for himtelf in all matlere eoiie«niiB| will* and bencfleeL the latter of which M conferred upon liU ereaturet without the illBhteet regard to the monk't rif ht of election, or the lay nntry and no- blllty'i right of patronage. The iniquity of Allen at length earned him to be proiecuted and coarleted i and the king, on that oeea> iion, eipreaeea lo much indignation, that Woleoy waa ever after more eautioua and guarded In the uie of hie authority. A.o. ISIS — Immened in pleaiuree, Henry coalrired to expend all the hnge treaeuree which accrued to him on the death of hie fkther; and he was now poor, Juet when a circumttance occurred to render hie poe. ■eieion of treaiure more than uinally im- portant. Maximilian, the emperor, who had long been declining, died s and Henry, and the King! of France and Spain were oandi. datea for that chief place among the princes of Christendom. Money wae proftiiely la> iriihed upon the electors by both Charles and Francis i but Henry's minister. Face, baring scarcely anr command of cash, found bis eflorts every where useless, and diaries gained the day. a.D. lASO.— In reality Henry was formi- dable to either France or the emperor, and he could, at a moment's warning, throw his weight into the one or the other scale. Aware of this fact, Francis was anxious for an opportunity of personally practising upon the generosity and want of cool Judnnent, iniich he quite correctly imputed to Henry. He, therefore, proposed that they should meet In a field within the English pale, near Calais : the proposal was warmly seconded by Wolsey, who was as eager as a court beauty of the other sex for every occasion of personal splendour and costliness. Each of the monarchs was young, gay, tatlehil, and magnificent t and BO well did their courtiers enter into their feelinc of gorgeous rivalry, that some nobles of botn nations expended on the ceremonv and show of a few brief days, sums whicn .involved theirfamilies in straitened circum- stances for the rest of their lives. The emperor Charles no sooner heard of the proposed interview between the kings, than he. beinfc on his way from Spain to the Netherlands, paid Henry the compli- ment of landing at Dover, whither Henry at once proceeded to meet him. Charles not only laid himself out in every possible #ay to please and fiatter Henry, but he also paid assiduous court to Wolsey, and bound that aspiring persona^ to his interests by promising to aid him in reaching the papa- cy; a promise which Charles felt the less difficulty about makin^p, because the reign- ing pope Leo X. was junior to Wolsev by some years, and very likely to outlive nim. Henry was perfectly well aware of the pains Charles took to conciliate Wolsey, but, strange to say, felt rather flattered than hurt, as though the compliment were ulti- mately paid to his own person and will. When tha emperor had taken bis depar> tnro Henry proceeded to France, where the I meeting looB place between him and Fraa* cis. Wolsey, who bad the regulation of the ceremonial, so well indulned bis own and his master's love of magnilieence, that . the place of meeting was by tlis common consent of the deliiiliied spectainri lisilrd br the gorgeous title of I'A« Jleld Ingham, who, though very wealthy, was not I very fond of parting with his money, found I the expences to which he was put on this I occasion so intolerable, that he expreiwd himself so angrily towards WoUey ai led i to his execution soma time alter, though nominally at least for a dilTer^nt offence. The meetings between the monarchs wrre for some time regulated with the most Jea- lous and wearisome attention to strict eti- quette. At length Francis, attended by only two of his gentlemen and a page, rode into Henry's quarters. Henry was deliglited at this proof of his brother monarch's con- fidence, and threw upon his neck a pearl collar worth five or six thousand pounds, which Francis repaid by the present of sn armlet worth twice as much. So proAiie and gorgeous were these young kings. WTiile Henry remained at Calais be re- ceived another visit firom the emperor Charles. That artful monarch had now completed the good impression he had si- ready made upon both Henry and cardintl Wolsey ; by offering to leave all diiputt between himself and France to the arbitra- tion of Henry, as well as by assuring Wol- sey of the papacy at some niture day, and putting him into instant possession of the revenues of the bishoprics of Bad^Jos and Placenoia. The result was, that the empe- ror made demands of the most extravsKsnt nature, well knowing that France would not comply with them ; and when the nrgo- tiations were thus broken off, a treaty wu made between the emperor and Henry, by which the daughter of the latter, the prin- cess Mary, was betrothed to the former, and England was bound to invade France with an army of forty thousand men. This treatv alone, by the very exorbitancy of its injurionsness to England, would sufficiently show at once the power of Wolsey over hit kng and the extent to which he was ready to exert that power. The duke of Buckingham, who had im- pmdently given offence to the all-powerftil cardinal, waa a man of turbulent temper, and very imprudent in expretiing himielf, by which means he afforded abundant eri- denee for his own ruin. It was proved that he bad provided arms with the intent to disturb the government, and that he had even threatened the life of the king, to whom he thought himself, as being de- scended in the female line from the young- est son of Edward the Third, to be the right- ful successor, should the king die without issue. Far less real guilt than this, aided by A.D. 1S18. — NXW SrAIN DTBOOVXnCD BT rEBMANnXB COBTRS. A.B.1MI.— •■ i ¥ 4 k * a I « J » I XnglanV.— I^ottfe of ilutior.— li^cnn; 1TH3E. 283 lb* raniir of •tieh • nuui m WoImt, wouU ka*f iHflefld lo ruko BoekiBghMii, who wu (•■dtMMwit aiMii to Iba gnuu diaeoaunt uf Um pcoplt, aiccnic4. A.B. U3K— W« Im«« already nanlioned Ihal Haarjr in kia youth had baaa iaaloutly iMlaM from all ■hafa io public butineM. Ht «ltri«cd from tbia elreumttanca the ad- Ttatap of f^ more icholaatie learulni than tMBUwnlf fall to Iha lot ot prineei, and cir- eaB»tanc«a aow oceured to aet hla literary (liaiameat* and propenaion in a atriking Hlhl. Leo X. having publiabed a general iii> ^algtBce, cireumatancea of a merely pcr< •eaal iatereit eauaed Areemboldi, a Oe- ■eeae, then a biahop but originally a mer- chant, who farmed Ilia collection of the ■oaey in Saxony and the oounlriea on the Bailie, to eauaa tne preaching for the indul- Kncet to be given to the Dominicatii, ilcad of to the Auguatinea who bad aiaally enjoved that privileRe. Martin LariMr, an Auguftina friar, feeling him- Mlf and bia whole order affronted by ihia ikaaie, preached againat it, and inveighed ij^ut certain vicea of life of which, pro-' kably, the Dominicaua really were gui'ty* thoagb not more ao than the Auguatinea. Hit ipiritcd and coarae cenaurea provoked tke eenaured order to reply, and aa tliey dwelt ■ach upon the papal authority, aa an all> Mfleient anawer to Luther, he waa induced 10 oueition that authority : and aa he ex- ICBMd hia reading ha found cauae for more lad more extended complaint ; ao that he wba at flrtt had merely complained of a wrong done to a particular order of church- ■en, ipeedily declared himaelf againat much of the doctrine and diiciplineof the church itielf, aa being corrupt and of merely hu- Bian invention for avil human purpoaea. Prom German* the new doctrinea of Luther anickly ipreaa to the reat of Europe, and found many proaclytea in England. Henry, however, waa the laitman in hiadominiona who wu likely to aaaent to Luther'a argu- ment«! u a acholar, and aa an extremely deipotio monarch, he waa alike ahocked by them. He not only exerted himaelf to pre- vent the Lutheran hereaiea, aa he termed and no doubt thought them, from taking not in Eugland, but alao wrote a book in Latin againat them. Thia book, which woald have been by nomeana diacreditable to an older and more profeaaional polemic, Henrv lent to the pope, who, charmed with the ability displayed by ao iilustrioua an advocate of the papal cauae, conferred upon him the proud title of Dtfender of the Faith, which haa ever aince been borne by our monarehs. Luther, who waa not of a tem- per to quail before rank, replied to Henry with great force and with but little decency, and Henry was thua made peraonally aa well as scholastically an opponent of the new doctrines. But those doctrinea involved so many eonsequcncea favourable to human liberty and ifattering to human pride, that neither seholaatical nor kingly power could preveut their apread, which waa much faci- litated by the recent invention of printing. The progress of the new opiniona waa atill fkrliin'r favoured by lb« death of the vigor* ous aud Kifted Leo X., and i>} ihe succea- sion to the pat>al throne of Adrian, who waa -'> far from hv\„u inclined t« go too far in til. Dupport of tbe eslabliabuient, that ha candidly admitted the nece*«t)r for mueli rcforiuatliin. A.D. liSU.— The emperor fearing lest Wttl' aey's disappointment of the papal throne ahould Injure the imperial intpreals in Eng- land, a^ain eame hither, prot'esiedly only on a visit of compliment, but really to for- ward hia political inierasta. He paid aaal- duoua court, not only to Henry, but also lo Wulsey, to wbom he pointed out that the age and iBllmiiiies uf Adrian rendered another vacancy likelv toon to occur in tha papal throne i and Wolicy saw it to be bia luteresi to dissemble (lie indignant vexation Ilia disappointment had really caused him. The emperor in consequence succeeded in his wishes of retaining Heury'a alliance, and of causing him to declare war againat France. Lord Surrey entered France with au army which, with reinrorcenieuta from the Low Countries, numbered eighteen thousand men. But the operationa by no means corroponded in importance to the force assenibiud; and after losing a great number of men by sickness, Surrey went into winter uiiartera in the month of^ Octo- ber without liavinK made himself master of a single place in France. When France waa at war with England, there was but little probability of Scotland remaining quiet. Albany, who had arrived from France, especiallv with a view to vex- ing the northern frontier of England, aum- moned all the Scottish force that could b« raiaed, marched into Annandale, and pre- Sared to cross into England at Solway Fnth. iut the storm waa averted from England by the discontents of the Scottish nobles, who complained that the intereaia of Scotland ahould be expoaed to all the danger of a conteat with ao auperior a power aa Eng- land, merely for the advantage of a foreign Sower. So atrongly, indeed, did the Gor- ons and other powerful clanamen express their discontents on thia head, that AUiany made a truce with the Engtiah warden, the lord Dacre, and returned to France, tucing the precaution of sending thither before him the earl of Angua, husband of the queen dowager. A. D. 1623.— With only an infant king, and with their regent absent from the kingdom, the Scots laboured under the additional disadvantage of being divided into almost as manT faotiona aa they numbered potent and uoble families. Taking advantage of thia melancholy state of things in Scotland, Henry sent to ttint country a powerful force under the earl of Surrey, who marched witb- out opposition into the Merse and Teviot- dale, burned the town of Jedburgh, and ravaged the whole country round. Henry endeavoured to improve his present supe- riority over the Scots, by bringing about a marriage between hia only daughter, the young princess Mary, and the infant king of Scotland { a meaaure which would at a,o. 1631.— IN TBia tbak MvauTa wann ihtxbtxd. t. D. 1634.— IVTHKB'a BOOE itOAIIIBt BOBI II ROW MUCH I>»»BMIIIiT«t, 234 ^^t ^rcasnr^ s{ l|ij$tort), $cc. once hare pot an end to all contrarietjr of intereats aa to the two coantries, by unitinK them, aa nature evidently intended them to be, into one atate. But the friends of France oppo«ed this meainre so warmly, that the queen dowager, who had every possible motive for wishing to comply with it, both as favouring her brother, and promising an otherwise unattainable prosperity to the future reign of her son, was unable to bring it about. The partizans of Rngland and France were nearly equal in power, if not in number; and while they still debated the question, it was decided against Eng- land by the arrival of Albany. He raised troops and made some show of battle, but there was little actual tighting. Disgusted with the factious into which the people were divided, Albany at length retired again to France; and Henry having enongb to do in his war with that country, was well content to give up his notion of a Scotch alliance, and to rely upon the Scots being busy with their own feuds, as his best se- curity against their hcncclbrth attempting anv itorious diversion in favour of France. In truth, Henry, wealthy as he had been at the commencement of his reign, had been so profuse iu his pursuit of pleasure, that he had now no means of prosecuting war with any considerable vigour even against France alone. Though, in many respects, possessed of actually despotic power, Henry had to suffer the usual in- convenience of poverty. At one time he issued privy seals demanding loans of cer- tain sums from wealthy men ; at another he demanded a loan of Ave shillings in the pound from the clergy, and of two shillings in the pound from the laity. Though no- minally loans, these sums were really to be considered as ffiftt; impositions at once so large, so arbitrary, and so liabla to be re- peated at any period, necessarily causing much discontent. Soon after this last ex- pedient for raising money without the con- sent of parliament, he summoned a convo- cation and a parliament. From the former, Wolsey, relying upon his high power and influence as cardmal and archbishop, de- manded ten shillings in the pound on the ecclesiastical revenue, to be levied in Kve years. The clergy murmured, but, as Wol- sey had anticipated, a few sharp words from him silenced all objections, and what he demanded was granted. Having thus far succeeded, WoIscy now, attended by several lords spiritual and temporal, addressed the house of commons ; dilating upon the wants of the king, and upon the disadvan- tageous position in wliich those wants placed him with respect to both France and Scotland, and demanded a grant of two hundred thousand pounds per annum for four years. After much hesitation and murmuring, the commons granted only one half the required sum ; and here occurred a striking proof of the spirit of independence, which, though it « as very long in growing to its present height, had already been pro- duced in the house of commons by its pos« session of the powcrof the purse. Wolsey, OQ learning how little the eomnHins had voted towards what he had demanded re quired to be allowed to " reason" with'ihe bouse, but was gravely, and with real dit. nity, informed, that the house of eommont could reason only among its own ncmberi But Henry sent for Edward Montague an inMuential member, and coarsely threatened him, that if the commons did not vote bet- ter ov the following day, Montague should )oBe his head. This threat caused the com. ntons to advance somewhat on their former offers, though they still fell for short of the aura originally asked. It may be presumed that Henry vat partly goaded to his violent and brutal threat to Montague by very argent nccei- aity; among the items of the amount granted, was a levy of three shillings in the pound on all who possessed fifty poundi per annum, and though this was to be le- vied in four years, Henrv levied the whole of it in the very year in which it was granted. While Wolsey — for to him the people at- tributed every act of the king— was thus powerful in England, either very great treachery on the part of the emperor, or a most invincible misfortune, rendered Lim constantly unfortunate as to the great ob. ject of his ambition, the papal throne. It now again became vacant by the death of Adrian, but this new awakening of his hope was merely the prelude to a new and bitter disappointment. He was again passed over, and one of the De Medicis ascended the papal throne under the title of Clement Vl I. Wolsey was well aware that this elec- tion took place with the concurrence of the imperial party, and he, therefore, deter- mined to turn Henry from the alliance of the emperor to that of Prance. When we consider how much preferable the French alliaiice was, as regarded the interests and happiness of millions of human beings, it is it once a subject of indignation and of self- distrust to reflect, that the really profound and far-seeing cardinal was determined to it, only by the same paltry personal feeling that might animate a couple of small squiret in the hunting field, or their wives at an assize ball. But he never reallj/ cam^re- hentU the tcackingt of history, uko it not toell informed upon the personal fetli»gi, and very capable of makinff allowance for the personal error*, of the great actors in the drama of nations. Disappointed in the great object of his ambition, Wolsey affected the utmost ap- proval of the election which had so much mortified him, and he applied to Clement for a continuation of that legaline power which had now been entrusted to liim by two popes, and Clement granted it to hi'Q for life, a great and moat unusual compl- ment. A. n. 1525.— Though Henry's war Ttith France was productive of much expe nee of both blood and treasure, the English share in it was so little^brilliant, that there is no necestiity for our entering here into details, which must, of necessity, be given in an- other place. We need only remark that UKNUT KNOAGEU TO FAT TUR DUKE OF BOUBBO^r 100,000 CBUWNS A MOMn, A.S. 1525.— HAMrtOR-COVIlT tkhkC* aiVSK TO TBI KINO BT WOLSBT. lEnglanU ^1|ouse of ^ut)or — ^I|cnrn IJISIE. 285 I tbe defeat and captivity of Francis at the neat battle of Pavia, in the previoui year, ■oold have been improved bv Woliey, to the probable utter eonqtteit of France, but for the deep offence he had received from the emperor, which caused him to represent to Henry the importance to him of France u a counterbalancing power to the em- peror. He carefulljr and guccetsfuUy ap- pealed to the powerful passions of Henry, b< pointing out proofs of coldness and of increased assumption in the style of the emperor's letters subsequent to the battle of Favia; and Henry was still more deter- mined by this merely personal argument than he had been by even the cogent poli- tical one. The result was, that Henry made a treaty with the nether of Francis, who hsd been left by liii? as regent, in which he undertook to procure the libertv of Francis on reasonable terms; while she acknow- ledged Henry creditor of France to the vnoant of nearly two raiHions of crowns, which she undertook to pay at tbe rate of ifty thousand in every six months. WoU tey, besides gratifying his spleen against the emperor in bnngiug about this treaty with France, procured the more soHd grati- fication of a hundred thousand pounds paid to him under the name of arrears of a pen- non granted to him on the giving up of Tonmav, as mentioned ia its proper place in this history. As it was very probable that this treaty with France would lead to' a war with the emperor, Henr^ issued a commission for levying a tax of four shillings in the pound upon the clergy, and three-and-fnurpence nponthelaity. As this heavy demand caused great murmuring, he took care to have it made known that he desired this money only in the way of benetolenee. But people, by this time, understood that loan, (enero- lenct, and tmx were only different names for the one solid matter of ready money, and the murmuring did not cease. In some parts of tbe country, the people, indeed, broke out into open revolt; but as they had no wealthy or influential leader, the king's of- ficers and friends put them down, and Henry pardoned the ringleaders on the po- litic pretence that poverty, and not wilful dialoyalty, had led them astray. A.D. 1527.— Though Henry had now so many years lived with his queen in all ap- parent cordiality and contentment, several circumstances had occured to give him doubts as to the legality of their marriage. When the emperor Charles had proposed to espouse Henrv's daughter, the young princess Mary, the states of Castile ob- jected to her as being illegitimate ; and the same objeetion was subsequently made by France, when it was proposed to ally her to the prince of that country. It is, we think, usual too readily to take it for granted that Henry was, from the first, prompted to seek the dissolution of this marriage, merely by a libertine and sensual disposition. It is quite true that the queen was considerably older than he, and that her beauty was not remarkable ; and it may be quite true that those circum- stances were «in6n^ his motives. But it should not be forgotten that he had studied deeply, and that his favourite author, Thomas Aquinas, spoke in utter reproba- tion of the marrying by a man of his brother's widow, as denounced in the book of Leviticus. The energetic reprobation of an author of whom he was accustomed to think so reverently was, of course, not weakened by the rejection of his daughter by both Spain and France, on the ground of the incestuous marriage of her parents, and Henry at length became so desirous to have some autiioritative settlement of his doubts, that he caused the question to be mooted before the prelates of England, who, with the single exception of Fisher, bishop of Rochester, subscribed to the opi- nion that the marriage was ab incepto ille- gal and null. IfVhile Henry's conscientious scruple was thus strongly confirmed, his desire to get his marriage formally and ef- fectually annulled, was greatly increased by his falling in love with Anne Boleyn, a young lady of great beauty and accomplish- ments. Her parents were connected with some of the best families in the nation, her father had several times been honourably employed abroad by the king, and the young lady herself, to her very great misfortune, was, at this time, one of the maids of ho- nour to the queen. That we are correct in believing Henry to be less the mere and willing slave of passion than he has gene- rally been represented, seeins to be clear from the single fact, that there is no in- stance of his showing that utter contempt for the virtue of the court females so com- mon in the case of monarchs. He no sooner saw Anne Boleyn than he desired her, not as a mistress, but as a wife, and that desire made him more than ever anxious to dis- solve bis marriage with Catherine. He now, therefore, applied to the pope for a divorce, upon the ground, not merely of the incestuous nature of the marriage — as that might have seemed to question or to limit the dispensing power of Rome — but on the ground that the bull which had authorised it had been obtained under false pretences, which were clearly proven ; a ground which had always been held by Rome to be suffi- cient to authorize the nullifying of a bull. Clement, the pope, was, at this time, a pri- soner in the hands of the emperor, and his chief hope of obtaining his release on such terms as would render it desirable or ho- nourable rested on the exertions of Henry, Francis, and the states with which they were in alliance. The pope, therefore, was desirous to conciliate Henry's favour; but he was timid, vacillating, an Italinn, and. an adept in that dissimulation which is so characteristic of men who add constitu- tional timidity to intellectual power. Anx- ious to conciliate Henry by granting the divorce, he was fearful lest he should en- roge the emperor — queen Catherine's ne- phew — by doing so ; the consequence was, a long series of expedients, delays, pro- mises, and disappointments, tedious to 8 A MOKtn. o *l M M M ■ f M e K H IB M M ■4 M li M '4 A.D. 1529.— THB TBBM " PUOTRSTAHTs" WAS WOW FinST U8BD. A.». I&30.— THI •KCBITABT Or aTATB'a OWWtCU IRITHOTBD TBI! TBAB. 286 Vlift V^ttasvivs of l^istots, $cc. read of in even the most elaborate histo- riet, and which, to relate here, would be an iigurioaa waste of apace and time. The cardinal Campeggio wa* at length joined with Wolsey in a commiision to try the affair in England. The two legates opened their court in Loudon; both the queen and Henry were summoned to ap- pear, and a most painful scene took place. When their majesties were called by name in the court, Catherine left her seat and threw herself at the feet of the king, re- called to his memory how she had entered his dominions, leaving all friends and sup- port to depend upon him alone ; how for twenty years she had been a faithful, lov- ing, and obedient wife. She impressed upon him the fact that the marriage between her and his elder brother had, in truth, been but such a mere formal betrothal, as in in- numerable other cases had been held no bar to subsequent marriage ; that both their fathers, esteemed the wisest princes in Christendom, had consented to their marriage, which they would not have done unless well advised of its nropriety ; and she concluded by saying, tliat being well assured that she had no reason to expect justice from a court at the disposal of her enemies, so never more would she appear before it. After the departure of the queen the trial proceeded. It was prolonged from week to week, and from month to month, by tha arts of Campeggio, acting by the instruc- tions of Clement, who employed the time in making his arrangements with the em- peror forliis own beuefit, and that of the De Medicis in general. Having succeeded in doing this, he, to Henry's great asto- nishment, evoked the cause to Rome on the queen's appeal, just as every one ex- Sected the legates to pronounce for the ivorce. Henry was greatly enraged at Wolsey on account of this result. He had so long been accustomed to see the cardi- nal successful in whatever he attempted, that he attributed his present failure rather to treachery than to want of judgment. The great seal was shortly taken from him and given to sir Thomas More, and he was ordered to give up to the king his stately and gorgeously furnished puace culled York House, which was converted into b royal residence, under the name of White- hall. The wealth seized in this one resi- dence of the cardinal was immense ; his plate was of regal splendour, and included what indeed not every king could boast, one perfect cupboard of massive gold. His furniture and other effects were numerous and cosily in proportion, as may be judged from the single item of one thousand pieces of fine Holland cloth t The possessor of all this wealth, however, was a ruined man now; in the privacy of his comparatively mean countrv house at Esher, in Surrey, he vvas unvisitcd and unnoticed by those cour- tiers who had ao eagerly crowded around him while he was yet distinguished by the king^'s favour. Rut if the inzratitude of his friends left him undisturbed in his soli- tude, the activitT of his foes did not leave him undisturbed even there. The king had not as yet deprived him of his sees, and had, moreover, sent him a ring and a kind message. His enemies, therefore, fearful lest he should even yet recover bis lost f«. vour, and so acquire the power to repay their ill services, took every method to pre. judice him in the eyes of tlie kini;, who it length abandoned him to the power of par- liament. The lords passed forty-four arti- cles against him, of which it is not too much to sav that there was not one whirh might not have been explained away, had any thing like legal form or proof beeo called for or considered. Amidst the Kane. ral and shameful abandonments of Wolsey b^ those who had so lately fawned upon him, it is delightful to have to record, that when these articles were sent down to the house of commons, the oppressed and abandoned cardinal was warmly and ably defended by Thomas Cromwell, whont hit patronage had raised from a very low ori- gin. All defence, however, was vain ; th« parliament pronounced " That he was out of the king's protection; that his land* and goods were forfeited ; and that his per- son might be committed to custody." From Esher, Wolsey removed to Rirt- mond, but his enemies had him ordered to Yorkshire, where he lived in great modesty at Cawood. But the king's differences with Rome were now every day growing greater, and he easily listened to those who assured him that in Btterly shaking off all connec- tion with the holy see, be would encounter powerful opposition from the cardinal. An order was issued for his arrest on a charge of high treason, and it is very probable that his death on the scaffold would hare been added to the stains upon Henrv's memory, but that the harassed frame ot the cardinal sunk under the alarm and fatigue of his ar- rest and forced journey. He was conveyed by sir William Kingston, constable of the Tower, as far as Leicester abbey. Here his illness became so extreme tliat he cnuld be got no farther, and here he yielded up his breath anon after he had spoken to sir William Kingston, this memorable and touching caution against an undue worldly ambition .* — " I pray you have me heartily recem- mended unto his royal majesty, and be- seech him, OB my behalf, to call to his re- membrance all matters that have pai^sed between us from the beginning, especially wiv'i regard to his business with the queen, and theu he will know in his conscience whether I have offended him. He is a priiiee of a most royal carriage, and liath a princely heart; and ratlter .than he will miss or want any part of his will, he v.W endanger the one half of his kingdom. I do assure you that I have often kneeled before him, sometimes three hours to- gether, to persuade him from Bis will and appetite, but could not prevail. Hail I but ttrved Gos a* diligently as I have irrvei the king, Hb uioutd not have given me over i» my grey hairi. But this is the just reward A. D. 1S32. — SOHB MOIfASTBBIBS SDFFRBSSBD, Atf0 SIX BISHOPRICS BRBCTBO. A. v. IU3-~CVHBAllt»i tHI HUSK BOSK. &C. tlKIT FLANTBD IK BN«1,AI(D. lERglanU.— I^ouse of ^uBor — ^l^tnrs VMS.. 287 thtl I nwt receive for my iodulgent pain* mi itudy, Bot renrding my duty to God, bat only to my pnnce. Therefore, let me «d«iie you, if you be one of the privy coun- cil, M by your witdom you are at, take care wlut yon put into the kiug** head, for yoa CM never pal it out again." Touching and pregnant teitimony of a dying man, of uo ordinary witdom, to the hollownest with which all the unriKhtcoi.a end* of am- bition appear clad, when the votary of this world receives the final and irrevocable innmons to the brighter aud purer world beyond 1 CHAPTER XLI, TlieBeigntifHKiitir YIII. (conHnnti^) Natobaliv too fond of authority to feel without impatience the heavy yoke of ftome, the opposition he had so siKiially eiperienced in the matter of his divorce had enraged Henry so much, that he gave every encouragement to the parliament to abridge the exorbitant privileges of the clergy; in doing which, he equally pleased himKlf in mortifying Rome, and in paving the *ay for that entire independence of the papal power, of which ev«;ry day made him more desirous. The parliament was eqntllv reedy to depress the clergy, and te- teral bills were passed which tended to make the laity more independent of them. The parliament, about this time, passed mother bill to acquit the king of all claims on account of those exactions which he had •peciously called loans. While Henry was agitated between the with to break with Rome, and the oppos- ing unwillingness to give so plain a contra- dietion to all that he had advanced in the book which had procured him the flatter- ioit title of Defender of the Faith, he was informed that Dr. Cranmer, a fellow of Jmui' college, Cambridge, and a man of rood repute, both as to life and learning, hii suggested that all the universities of Europe should be consulted as to the lega- lity of Henry's marriage ; if the decision were in favour of it, the king's qualms of conscience must needs disappear before ■uch a host of learning and judgment ; it the opinion were against it, equally must the hesitation of Rome as to granting the divorce be shamed away. On hearing this opininn Henry, in his bluff way, exclaimed that Cranmer had taken the right sow by the ear, sent for him to court, and was so well pleased with him as to employ him to write in favour of the divorce, and to super- intend the course he had himself sugKcated. A. D. 153"!. — The measures tnkeu by par- liament, with the evident good-will of the kinz, were so obviously tending towards a total separation from Rome, that sirThomns More, the clmuccllor, resigned the great ical ; that able man being devotedly at- tached to the papal authorit' , and clearly seeing that he could no long' : , 'ain otflce hot at the risk of being culle ! '-/on to act againit the pope. At Rome the measures of Henry were not witnesied without anxiety ; and while the emperor's agents did all in their power to determine the pope against Henry, the more cautious members of tlie conclave ad- vised that a favour often granted to meaner Srinces, should not be denied to him who ad heretofore been so good a ion of the church, and who, if driven to desperation, might wholly alienate from the papacy the most precious of all the atatec over which it held sway. But the time for conciliating Henry was now ^ne by. He had an interview with the king of France, in which they renewed their personal friendship, and agreed upon measures of mutual defence, and Henry privately married Anne Boleyn, «'bom he had previously created countess of Pem- broke. A. D. 1533.— The new wife of Henry prov- ing pregnant, Cranmer, now archbishop of Canterbury, was directed to hold a court at Dunstable' to decide on the invalidity of the marriage of Catherine, who lived at Ainpt- hill in that neighbourhood. If this court were any thing but a mere mockery, rea- sonable men argued, its decision should surely have preceded and not followed the second marriage. But the king's will was absolute, and the opinions of the universi- ties and the judgment of the convocations having been formally read, and both opi- nions and judgment being against Cathe- rine's marriage, it was now solemnly an- nulled. Soon after the new queen was de- livered of a daughter, the afterwards wise and powerful queen Elicabeth. Notwithstanding all the formalities that had been brought to bear against her rights, queen Catherine, who was as resolute as she was otherwise amiable, refused to be styled aught but queen of England, and to the day of her death, compelled her ser- vants, and all who had the privilege of ap- proaching her, to address and treat her as their queen. The enemies of Henry at Rome urged tlie pope anew to pronounce sentence of excommunication against him. But Cle- ment's niece was now married to the second son of the king of France, who spoke to the ^ope in Henry's favour. Clement, there- tore, for the present, confined his severity to issuing a sentence nullifying Cranmcr's sentence, and the marriage of Henry to Anne Boleyn, and threatening to excom- municate him should he not restore his af- fairs to their former footing by a certain day. A. D. 1635. — As Henry had still some strong leanings to the church, and as it was obviously much to the interest of Rome not wholly to lose its influence over so wealthy a nation as England, there even yet seemed to be some chance of an ami- ' cable termination of this quarrel. By the good offlees of the kin^ of France, the pope was induced to promise to pronounce in favour of the divorce, on the receipt of a certain promise of the king to submit his cause to Rome. The king agreed to make this promise and actually dispatched a A.n. 1532. — LOTD AVnLKT RIICCEKnS sin THOMAS MOnn AS ( IIANCP.LT.On. MART LiVDAIlM ATTSMm WSEB MADI TO IMrBOVB MBDICAI, KNOWLIDoa, 288 ^^t VtuMutX! of l^istorQ, $cc. courier with it. Some delay* of the road Srevented the arrival of the important oeument at Rome until two days after the proper time. In the interim it wan re- ported at Rome, probably by aome of the imperial agents, tliat the pope and car- dinal! bad been ridiculed in a farce that had been performed before Henry and his court. Enraged at this intelligence, the pope and cardinals viewed it as sure proof that IJenry's promise was not intended to be kept, aud a sentence was immediately pronounced in favour of Catherine's mar- riage, while Henrjr was threatened with excommunication in the event of that sentence not being submitted to. It is customary to speak of the final breach of Henry with Rome as having been solely caused by this dispute with Rome about the divorce; all fact, howevrr, is against that view of the case. The opinions of Luther had spread far and wide, and had sunk deep into men's hearts ; and the bitterest thiugg said against Rome by the reformers were gentle when com- Eared to the testimony borne against Rome y her own venality and her general cor- ruption. In this very case how could the validity of Catherine's marriage be af- fected oy the real or only alleged perform- ance of a ribald farce before the English court above a score of ^ears after it 7 The very readiness with winch the nation joined the king in seceding from Rome, shows very clearly that under &ny possible circum- stances that secession must have shortly taken place. We merely glance at this fact, because it will be put beyond all doubt when we come to speak of the ac- cession of queen Elizabetii ; for notwith- standing all that Mary had done, by the tealous support she gave to the church of Rome and oy her furioue persecution of the Reformers, to render the subserviency of England to Rome both permanent and per- fect, the people of this country were re- joiced at the opportunity it afforded them of throwing off the papal authority. The bouses of convocation — with only four opposing votes aud one doubtful voter — declared that " the bishop of Rome had by the law of God no more jurisdiction in England than any other foreign bishop; and the authority which he and his prede- cessors have here exercised was only by usurpation and by the sufferance of"^ the English princes." The convocation also ordered tliat the act now passed by the parliament against all appeals to Rome, Aud the appeal of the king from the pope to a general council should be attixed to all church doors throughout the kingdom. That nothing might be left undone to con- vince Rome of Henry's resolve upon an entire separation from the church of which he had been so extolled a defender, the parliament passed an act conArming the invalidity of Henry's marriage with Cathe- rine and the validity of that with Anne Boleyn. All persons were required to take the oath to support the succession thus fixed, and the only persons of consequence who refused were sir Thomas Moors ud bisho]) Fisher, who were both indicted and committed to the Tower. The parlisnent having thus completely, and we may til servilely, complied with all the wiihti of the king, was for a short time proroned. The parliament had already given to Henry the reality, and it now proceeded to give him the title of tupreme heed of the ' church; and that Rome might have no doubt that the very exorbitancy with whitk she had pressed her pretensions to aatko- rity in England had wholly transferred that authority to the crown, the parliament se. companicd this new and significant title wit h a grant of all the annates and tithei of benefices which had hitherto been paid to Rome. A forcible and practical illuatratioa of the sort of supremacy which Henry in. tended that himself and his sueceiton should exercise, and one which showed Rome that not merely in superstitious ob- servances but also in solid matters of pecu- niary tribute, it was Henry's determination that his people should be free from papal domination. Both in Ireland and Scotland the king*! tf. fairs were just at this moment, when he vai carrying matters with so high a hand with Rome, such as to cause him some anxietv but his main care was wisely bestowed upon bis own kingdom. The mere secesiion of that kingdom from an authority so time- honoured and hitherto so dreaded and lo arbitrary as Rome was, even to so powerful and resolute a monarch has Henry, an expe- riment of some nicety and daneer. Might not they who had been taught to rebel against the church of Rome be induced to rebel against the crown itself? The eon- duct of the anabaptists of Germany added an affirmative of experience to the affirma- tive which reason could not fail to sugnit to this question. But besides that there were many circumstances which rendered it nnlikeljr that the frantic republican prin- ciples which a few reforming cedota had preached in Germany, would take an hold upon the hardy and practical intellect of Englishmen long and deeply attached to monarchy, there was little fear of the pub- lic mind, while Henry reigned, having too much speculative liberty of any sort. He had shaken off the pope, indeed, but he had, as far as the nation was concerned, only done so to substitute himself; and though the right of private jud(;ment waa one of the most important priuciples of the Reformation, it very soon became evident that the private judgment of tlie Engliih subject would be an extremely dangerous thing except when it very accurately tallied with that of his prince. Opposed to the discipline of Rome, as a king, he waa go less opposed to the leading doctrines of Lu- ther, as a theologian. His conduct and language perpetually betrayed the struggle between these antagonistic feelinga, and among the ministers and frequenters of the court, as a natural consequence, "motle; was the only wear." Thus the queen, Ciom- well, now secretary of state, and Cranmer, aCIBMCa AS TBI I.AT DORUANT, BUT THB BBLLBS LBTTRBS ASVARCBD. A. D. 16SS.— BBAtl CARHOII VIBST «&IT IH *■!■ COURTMT. ! lEnglanTJ.— I^ousc of ^tttror.-l^enKi} U3E3E3E. 289 irehbiihop of Caiiterbar;^, were attached to iIm refonaation, and availed themselves of ticrr opponunity to forward it, bat they ner found it safer to impugn the papaep thsa to criticixe any of the doctrines of ca- Iholicitin. On the other side the duke of Norfolk, and Gardiner bishop of Winches- ter both of whom were high in both autho- litT and fsvoar, were strongly attached to the ancient faith. The king, flattered by iteh of these patties upon a portion of his principles, was able to play the pope over both hie catholic and his prokestant sub- teeti, and his stern and headstrong style of ioA speech and action greatly added to the tdfsniage given him by the anxiety of each Mrty to have him for its ally against the I other. , , . . , Id the mean time it was no longer in the I power of either kin^ or minister to pre- I nnt the purer principles of the Reforma- tion from making their way to the hearts lod minds of the people. Tindal, Joyce, ind other learned men who had sought in I the Low Countries for safety from the king's ' ubitrsry temper, found means to smuggle o*er vast numbers of tracts and a transla. I tion of the scriptures. These got exten- lively circulated and were greedily perused, although the catholic portion of the minis- try aided — however singular the phrase loaf toimd— by the catholic portion of the king's will, made great endeavours to keep them, but especialTy the bible, from the eyes f' the people. A singular anecdote is related of one of the attempts made to suppress the bible. Tonatal, bishop of London, a zealous cathu- lie but humane man, was very anxious to prevent the circulation of Tindal's bible, ud Tindal was himself but little less auxi- oM for a new and more accurate edition. ToDital, preferring the prevention of what he deemed crime to the punishment of of- fenders, devoted a large sum of money to purchasing all the copies that could be met with of Tindal's bible, and all the copies thas obtained were solemnly burned at the eroH of Cheap. Both the bishop and Tin- dsl were gratified on this occasion; the farmer, it is true, destroyed the first and incorrect edition of the bible by TindaU but he St the same time supplied that zealous Kholar with the pecuniary means, of which he was otherwise destitute, of bringing out s second and more perfect as well as more eitentive edition. Others were less humane in their desire to repress what they deemed heresy, and few were more severe than sir Tnomas Uore, who succeeded Wolsey as chancellor, ud of whose own imprisonment we have ilresdy had to speak, as presently we shall have to speak ot his death. Though a man of elegant learning and great wit, and though in speculative opinions he advanced much which the least rigid protestant might hitly condemn as impious, yet, so true a tjrpe was he of the motley age in which he hved, his enmity to all opposition to pa- pacy in practice could lead him to the noit dastardly and hateful cruelty. To speak, in detail, of the errora of a great man is at all times unpleasant ; we merely mention, therefore, his treatment of Jamea Baiaham. This gentleman, a student of the Temple, was during Store's chancellor- ship accused of being concerned with others in aidinfc in the propagation of the reformed doctrines. It appears that the unfortunate gentleman did not deny his awn part in the cruel act attributed to him, but honourably refused to give any testimony against others. His first exa- mination took place in the chancellor's own house, and there, to his great disgrace, he actually had the high-minded gentleman stripped and brutally whipped, the chan- cellor in person witnessing and superin- tending the disgusting exhibition. But the mistaken and maddening zeal of More did not stop even here. Knraged at the constancy ot his victim, he had him con- veyed to the Tower, and there «ai« kim put to the tortttre. Under this new and most terrible trial the firmness of the unhappy gentleman for a time gave way and he ab- jured his principles ; but in a very short time afterward he openly returned to them, and was burned to death in Smithfteld as a relapsed and confirmed heretic. It will easily be supposed that while to intellectual a catholie as More was thus furious on behalf of Rome, the mean herd of persecutors was not idle. Toneach children the Lord's prayer in English, to read the scripture, or at least the New Testament in that language, to speak against pilgrimages, to neglect the fasts of the church, to attribute vice to the old clergy, or to give shelter or encouragement to the new, all these were offences punish- able in the bishop's courts, some of them even capitally. 'Thus, Thomas Bilncy, a priest, who had embraced and, under threats, renounced the new doctrines, em- braced them once again, and went through Norfolk zealously preaching against the absurdity of relying for salvation upon pil- grimages and images. He waa seized, tried, and burned. Thus far the royal severity had chiefly fallen upon the reformed; but the monks and friars of the old faith, inti- mately dependant upon Rome, detested Henry's separation and his assumption of supremacy far too much to be otlierwise than inimical to him. In their public preachings they more than once gave way to libellous scurrility, which Henry bore with a moderation by no means usual with him, but at length the tiger of his temper was thoroughly aroused by an extensive and impudent conspiracy. At Aldington, in Kent, there was a woman named Elizabeth Barton, com- monly known as the holy maid of Kent, who was subject to fits, under the influence of which she unconsciously said odd and incoherent things, which her ignorant neighbours imagined to be the result not of epilepsy but of inspiration. The vicar of the parish, Richard Masters, instead of reproving and enlightening his ignorant flock, took their ignorant fancy as a hint A. D. 1534. — THB TAX CAI.Lin " rCTKa'S PSHCb" ABOLISHBS in BlfOLAlfD. [2C AMOna TO* LIAIIIIBD UCN AND MNCOUKAaiBI OF LBABNllia, Waai— 290 tiTl^e ^rcasurn of l^istocQ, $c(. for H deep icheme. lie lent bit aatliority to tlie report that the maid of Kent ipoke by the iriapiration of the Iloljr Ghost, and he had nut nny great difficulty in acquiring the most entire authority over the maid hcr«cir, who theiicefortli spoice whatever he deemed lit to dictate. Ilavinjp a eliapel in which stood an image of the Virgin, to which, for liis own profit's salce, lie was anxious to withdraw as many pilgrims as possible from other shrines, lie entered into a confederacy with Dr. Boeking, one of the canons of Canterhurr cathedral, and under their direction Elitaoeth Barton pretended to reeeivc a supernatural direc- tion to proceed to the image in question and pray there for her cure. At first, it seems quite clear, the unfor* tnnate woman was truly and merely an epileptic ; but ignorance, poverty, and per- haps some natural cunning, made her a readv and unRcrupulous tool in the hands of the cunning ecrlcsiHStics, and after a scries of ulTectcd distortions, which would have been merely ludicrous had their pur- pose not added something of the impious, she pretended that her prostrations before the Image had entirely irecd her from her disease. Thus fai the priests and their unfor- tunate tool nad proceeded without any in- terferyice, the severitv with which the>king and the powerful catliolics tremted all en- mity to pilgrimages and disrespect to shrines, being of itself sufficient to insure their impunity thus far. But impunity as usual produced want of caution, and the priests seeing that the wondering multi- tude urged no objection to the new miracle which they alleged to have been wrouj^ht, were now, most lucklessly for themselves, encouraged to extend their views and to make the unfortunate Elizabeth Barton of use in opposing the pro|;r«ss of the re- formed doctrine, and against Henry's di- vorce from Catherine. Henceforth the ravings of the maid of Kent were directed against here.^y, with an occasional prophecy of evil to the king on account of the divorce ; and the nonsense thus uttered was not only repented in various parts of the kingdom by monks and friars who, most probably, were in concert with Masters and Backing, but were even collected into a book by a frinr named Deerinsr. The very industry vtith which the original inventors of this grossly impudent imposture caused it to be noised abroad compelled the king to notice it. The maid of Kent with her priestly abettors and several others were arrested, and without being subjected to torture made full confession of their imposture, and were executed. From circumstances which were discovered during the investi- gation of this most impudent cheat, it but too clearly appeared that the so called holy maid of Kent was a woman of most lewd life, and that imposture was by no means the only sin in wliich Masters and Boeking bad been her ncrompUces. A. n. 1535. — The discoveries of gross im- morality and elaborate cheating which were made during the investigation of the affair of the maid of Kent seems to us to have been, if not the very first, at all events the most influential of the king's motives to his subsequent sweeping and cruel mn pression of the monasteries. Havine on this occosion suppressed three belonKine to the Observantine friars, the very little sensation their loss seemed to cause aDione the common people very naturally led him to extend his views still farther in a coune i 10 productive of pecuniary profit. But at present he required some farther I ■atisfoetion of a more terrible nature fur ' the wron^ and insult that had lately been i done to him. Fisher, bishop of Roclieaier i in common with sir Thomas More, hiui ' been, aa we already mentioned, committed . to prison for objecting to take the oath of succession as settled by the arbitrary king ! and the no less obsequious parliament. Unhappily for the prelate, though a good and even a learned man, he was very credu- lous, and he bad been among Uie believcn and, to a certain extent, among the tup. porters of the impudent Elizabeth Unrton, Still more unhappily for the ai;ed prelate, while he already lay so deeply in the king's displeasure, and after he had for a whole vear been confined with such severity that he was often in want of common necessaries, the_ pope created him a cardinal. Thia decided the fate of the unfortunate prelate, who was at once indicted under the act of supremacy and beheaded. | The death of Fisher was almost instantly followed by that of the learned, though, aa we have seen, bigoted and sometimes cruel ' sir Thomas More. His objections to taking the new oath of succession seem to have been perfectly sincere and were perfectly insuperable. We learn from himself that it was intimated to him by Cromwell, now in high favour, that unless he could show his reasons for his determined refusal, it would most probably be set down to the ' account of obstinacy. His own version of the dialogue between himself and Groin- '■ well is so carious that we extract the following from it. 1 MoKK said (in reply to the above argru- j mcnt of Cromwell), " It is no obstinacy, but only the fear of giving offence. Let me have sufBcient warrant from the king that he will not be offended and I will give m; reasons." CaoMWELi.. — "The king's warrant would not save you from the penalties enacted by the statute." | MoHR.— " In that case I will trust to his : majesty's honour ; but yet it tliinketk me, \ that if I cannot declare the causes without peril, then to leave them undeclared ia no ' obstinacy." j Ckomwei,!.— "Tou liay ^--it yo:' donnt blame any man for tr'-ini^ t'.o oath, ii ia then evident that you ai'e not convinced that it is blameable to take it; but you ^ must be convinced that it is your duty to obey the king. In refusing, therefore, to ; take it, you prefer that which is uncertain i to that which is certain." THOMAS I.INn ,RB — A Fnil.OtOOIST A1»D KMINEItT PHTSTCIA!*. gOWABDt BABIi Or lUBBXT— A DiaTIRaUiaUKD OKRAMBIIT Of LITBBATUB*. H i 9 I" lEnsIantl.— I^ottse of STutJor — ^l^cnri? 173E3E1E. 291 MoBB.— " I do not blame men for taking, the oath, because I know not tbeir reaaona aod motiTea ; but I abould blame mjracir becauae I know that I should act against mf conseieuce. And truly auch reasoning would ease ua of all perplexity. Whenever doctors disagree we have onlv to obtain the king's comniandment for either side of the Question and we rauat be right." AsBOT or WKaTMiNaTBB.— "But you ought to think your own conacience erro- neous wlien you have the whole council of the nation against you. HoBB.— "And so I ahould, had I not for me a still greater council, the whole coun- cil of Chriatendom." Hore'a talenta and character made him too potent an opponent of the king'a arbi- trar? will to allow of his being apared. To condemn him was not difficult ; the king willed hia coudemnation, and he was con- deiuned accordiDgly. If in his day of power More, anfortunar.ely, showed that he knew how to indict evil, so now in hia fall he thowed the far nobler power of bearing it. Id his happier da.'s he had been noted for « certain jocular phraseology, and this did not desert him even in the last dreadful •eene of all. Being somewhat inBrm, he craved the assistance of a bystander as he mounted the scaffold ; saying, " Friend, help mc up, when 1 come down again you may e'en let nie shift for myself." When the ceremonies were at an end the executioner in the customary terms begged his forgive- ness ; " I forgive you," he replied, " but you will surely get no credit by the job of be- heading me, my neck is so short." Even as he laid his head upon the block he said, putting aside the long beard he wore, " Do not hurt my beard, tnat at least has com- mitted no treason." These words uttered, the executioner proceeded with hia revolt- ing task, and air Thomas More, learned though a bigot, and a good man though at times a persecutor, perished in the fifty- third year of his age. A.D. I53(i.— While the court of Rome waa exerting itself to the utmost to show its deep sense of the indignation it felt at the execution of two such men as Fisher and More, an event took palace in England which, in christian charity, we are bound to believe gave a severe shock even to the hard heart of Henry. Though the divorced Catlierine had resolutely persisted in being treated as a queen by all who approached hrr, she had borne her deep wrongs with so dignified a patience that she was the more deeply sympathized with. But the stern effort with which she bore her wrongs was too much for her already broken constitu- tion. Perceiving that Iier days on earth vere numbered, she besought Henry that she might once more look upon her child, the princess Mary ; to the disgrace of our common nature, even this request waa sternly denied. Slie then wrote him a let- ter, so affecting, that even he shed tears over it, in which she, gentle and submis- sive to the last in all save the one great point of her wrongs, called him her " must dear lord, kinv, and husband," besought hii affection for tlieir child, and recommended her aervanta to hia goodneaa. Her letter ao moved him that he aent her a kind niea- aage, but ere the bearer of it could arrive ahe waa releaaed from her auffering and wronged life. Henry caused his aervanta to go into deep mourning on the dav of her funeral, which waa celebrated witb great pomp at Peterborough cathedral. Wnatever pity we may feel for the aub- aequent sufferinga of queen Anne Boleyn, it is impossible to withhold our disgust from her conduct on this occasion. Though the very menials of her husband wore at least the outward show of sorrow fur the de- Sarted Catherine, Anne Boleyn on that dav ressed herself more showily than usual, and expressed a perfectly savage exultation that now she might consider herself a queen indeed, as her rival was dead. Her exultation was as short lived as it waa unwomanly. In the very midst of her joy she saw Henrv paying very unequivocal court to one of her ladies, by name Jane Seymour, and ahe was ao much enraged and astonished that, being far advanced in pregnancy, she was prematurely delivered of a atill-born prince. Henry, nutorioualy anxious for legitimate mole isaue, waa brutal enough to reproach her with this occurrence, when ahe spiritedly replied, that he had only himself to blame, the mis- chief being entirely cauaed by hia conduct with her moid. This answer completed the king's anger, and that feeling, with his new passion for Jane Seymour, caused ruin to Anne Bulevu even ere she had ceased to exult over the departed Catherine. Her levity of manner had already enabled her foes to poison the ready ear of the king, and his open anger necessarily caused those foes to be still more busy and precise in their whisperings. Being present at a tilt- ing match, she, whether oy accident or do- sign, let fall her handkerchief cxactlv at the feet of sir Henry Norris and her oro- ther lord Rochford, who at that moment were the combatants. At any other time it is likely that Henry would have let so trivial an accident pass unnoticed. But his jea- lousy was already aroused, his love, such as it waa, had already burnt out, and, above all, he had already cast his eyes on Jane Seymour, and was glad of any excuse, good or bad, upon which to rid hiinsflf of Anne. Sir Henry Norris, who was a reputed favour- ite of the queen, not only raised the hand- kerchief from the ground, but used it to wipe his face, being heated with the sport. The king's dark looks lowered upon all pre- sent, and he instantly withdrew in one of those moods in which few cared to meet him and none dared to oppose his will. Un the next morning lord Rochford and sir Henry Norris were arrested and thrown into the Tower, and Anne herself, while on her way from Greenwich to London, was met by Cromwell and the duke of Norfolk, and by them informed that she was accused of infidelity to the king; and she, too, was LII.T WAS TUB FlaST SCnOOLUABTBR WBO TAVOUT OREEB IN LONnON. A. D. 1580.— WALKI VniTBB AHO INCORrOBATlB W1*H BII0I.AHO. ■a n -i 292 ^^ ^reastin} of listors, $cc. taken to the Tower, m, charged with being her accomplices, were Brereton, Weston, and Smeaton, three gentlemen of the court. Well^nowing the danger she was in when once charged with such au oflience against such a husband, she instantly be- came hysterical ; now declaring her inno- cence with tlie bitterest tears, and anon relying upon the impossibility of any one proving her guilty. " If any man accuse me," Mkid she to the lieutenant of the Tower, " I can but say uay, and they can bring no witnesses," Anne now liad to experience some of that heartless indifference which she had so needlessly and di8{;Tacefully exhibited in the case of the unfortunate and blameless Catherine. At the head of the commission of twenty-six peers who were appointed to try her, on the revolting charge of gross infidelity with no fewer than five men, in- cluding her own half-brother, this unfor- tunate lady had the misery to see her own uncle, the duke of Norfolk, and to see, too, that i« him she had ajudge who was far enough from being prejudiced in her favour. She was, as a matter of course, found guilty and sentenced to death, the mode by fire or by the axe being left to the king's plea- sure. We have seen that Anne had in her pros- perity been favourable to the reformed; and as Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, was well knows to have great influence over Henry, the unhappy Anne probably hoped that he ^iiiukl now exert it, at the least, to save her life. If she entertained such hope, she was most bitterly disap- pointed. Henry, who seems to have feared some such humanity on the part of Cran- mer, sent to him to pronounce sentence against— aa formerly he had pronounced it /or — the original validity or^ Anne's mar- riage with Henrv. Cranmer, learned and pious, wanted only moral courage to have been a thoroughly great and good man ; but of moral courage he seems, save the clos- ing act of his life, to have been thoroughly destitute. Upon whatever proofs the king chose to furnish for his guidance, he, after a mere mockery of trial, and with a mockery of solemnity and sincerity which was actually impious, pronounced the de- sired sentence ; and thus declared against the legitimacy of the princess Elizabeth, as he had already done in the case of the princess Mary. Anne was not ediowed to suffer long sus- pence after her iniquitous condemnation ; iniquitous even if she really was guiltv, in- asmuch as her trial was a mere mockery. She was kept for two days in the Tower, where, with a better spirit than she had formerly shown, she besought the forgive- ness of the princess Mary for the numer- ous injuries she had done her through her deceased mother; and was then publicly beheaded on the Tower green, the execu- tioner severing her head at one stroke. Of Henry's feelings on the occasion it is unneceesary to say more tlian that he put on no mourning for the deceased Anne, but on the very nroming after her execo. tion was married to Jane Seymour. As to Anne's guilt, we think it moit likely that both friends and foes judged amiss. Her general levity, and many cir cumstances which would be out of place here, forbid us to believe her wholly uino cent; and we are the more likely to err in doing so, because our chief argument id her favour must be drawn from the cha- racter of her husband, of whom it must not be forgotten that once at least he certainly was wronged by a wife. On the other hand, to believe her as guilty as the has been represented, is to throw aside all considerations of the utter impoasibititv of lier having thus long been so, with- out being detected by the numerous ene- mies whom her supplanting Catherine and her patronage of the reformed faith nm«t needs have caused to surround her during the whole of her ill-fated elevation. A new parliament was now called to pais a new act of succession, bv which the cruwn was settled on such children as he might have by his present queen, Jane Seymour ; and failing such, the disposal of the crown was left to Henry'a last will signed by hii own hand. It was thought from this laat named clause that Henry, fearing to leave no legitimate male successor, wished in that case to have the power of leavinit the crown to his illegitimate son, young Fits- roy, who, however, to Henry'a great sorrow, died shortly afterward. Henry seems to have been much grieved by the death of Fttzrojr, but he was pre- vented from long indulging in that grief by a very formidable insurrection which broke out in the October of this year. The apathy with which the people had witnessed the dissolution and forfeiture of three monas- teries on occasion of the detection of the fraud of Elisabeth Barton, had naturally encouraged Henry to look forward to that sort of summary justice as a sure and abun- dant source of revenue. So extended was his influence that he had even found mem- bers of convocation to propose the surren- der of the lesier monasteries into his hands. It was probably one of the chief causes of his determined enmity to his old tutor and councillor, Fisher, bishop of Rochester, that that excellent prelate made a very pithy, though quaint opposition to this proposal, on the ground that it would iufallibly throw the greater monasteries also into the king's hands. Subsequentljr to the affair of the maid cf Kent, the king and his minister Cromwell had proceeded to great lengths in dissolving the lesser monasteries, and confiscating their property. The resideuta, the poor who had been accustomed to re- ceive doles of food at the gates of these houses, and the nobility and gentry ly whom the monasteries had been founded and endowed, were all greatly offended by the sweeping and arbitrary measures of the blacksmith's son, as they termed Cromwell, and the retrenchment of several holidays, and the abolition of several superstit,ous practices which had been very gainful to TBS KINS BUrOWBRKD TO nSCTiABV THB SUCCBSSION TO TBB CROWN. A.O. 153S.— MANI OV TUB HONAITtBIBI ■UBBBHDBBBO THBIB GUAHTBRS. lEnalantl — "l^oust of HCuTJor.— l^wrfi VHBi. 293 the clerKTi at length cauied an open mani' fntation of ditcontent in Lincoluthire. Twenty thouiand men, headed by prior Maekrel, of Barlings, rose in arms to de- mand the putting down of " persons meanly born and raised to dignity," evidently nini' ing at Cromwell, and the redress of divers ntevances under which thuy stated the church to be labouring. Henry sent the duke of Suffolk against this tumultuous multitude, and by a judicious mixture of force and fair words the leaders were taken, and forthwith executed, and the multitude, of course, dispersed. But in the coiintiei farther north than Lincolnshire the discontents were equally neat, and were the more dangerous because more distance from the chief seat of the king's power rendered the revolted holder. Under a gentleman named Aske, aided by some of tTie better sort of those who had been fortunate enough to escape the break- ing up of the Lincolosliire confederacy, upwards of forty thousand men assembled from the counties of York, Durham, and Lancaster, for what tliejr called the pit- griinagt of grace. For their banner they had an embroidery of a crucifix, a chalice, and the five wounds of the 8avio\ir, and each man who ranged himself under this banner was requirea to swear that he had " entered into the pilgrimage of grace from no other motive than his love to God, care of the king's person and issue, desire of purifying the nobility, of driving base per- sons from about the king, of restoring the church, and of suppressing heresy." But the absence of all other motive may, in the case of not a few of these revolters be very reasonably doubted, when vith the oath taken by each recruit who joined the disorderly ranks we take into comparison the style of circular by which recruits were invited, which ran thus:— "We command you and every of you to be at (here the particular place was named) on Saturday next by eleven of the clock, in your best array, at you will answer be/ore the high judge at the great day of doom, and in the pain of pulling down your houses and the lusing of your goods, and your bodies to be at tlie captain's will." Conttdent in their numbers, the con- cealed, but real leaders of the enterprise caused Aske to send delegates to the King to lay their dcMuands before him. The king's tvriiten answer bears several marks of tlie annuyauce he felt that a body of low pea- sants should venture to trench upon sub- jects upon which he flattered himself that he was not unequal to the most learned clerks. He told them that he greatly mar- velled how such ignorant eharls should speak of theological subjects to him who something had been noted to be learned, or oppose the suppression of monasteries, as if it were not better to relieve the head of the church in his necessity, than to support the sloth and wickedness of monks." As it was very requisite, however, tobreak up as peaceably as possible, an assemblage which its mere numbers would render it ■omewhat difltcuU Bt well as dangc.vnt to disperse by main force, Henry at the same time promised that he would remedy such of their grievances as might seem to need remedy. This promise being unfulillled, the same counties in the following year ( 1537) again assembled their armed masses. The duke of Norfolk, as commander in chief of the king's forces, posted himself so advantageously that when the insurgents endeavoured to surprise Hull and, subse- quently, Carlisle, he was able to beat them easily. Nearly all the leading men were taken prisoners and sent to London, where they were shortly afterwards executed as traitors. With the common sort, of whom vast numbers were taken prisoners, there was less ceremony used ; they were banged up " by scores," says Lingiird, in all the tne principal towns of the chief scene of revolt. When by this wholesale shedding of human blood the king had at length ap- peased his wrath and that appetite for cruelty which every year grew more and more Merce, the proclamation of a general pardon restored peace to the nation. The chief plea for the late insurrection had been the suppression of the lesser monasteries. That Henry had from the very flrst, according to the shrewd pro- phecy of Fisher, bishop of llochcatcr, in- tended to go from the lesser up to the greater, there is no doubt ; and the part which the monasteries had taken in en- couraging the pilgrimage of grace, only made him the more determined in that course. The ever obsequious parliament showed the same willingness to pass an act for the suppression of the remaining and greater monasteries that had so often been shown in far less creditable affairs ; and of twenty-eight mitred abbots, — exclusive of the priors of St. John of Jerusalem and Coventry— who had seats in the house of lords, not one dared to raise his voice against a measure which must have been so distasteful to them all. Commissioners were appointed to visit the monasteries. That there were great disorders in many of them, that the bur- then they inflicted upon the capital and the industry of the country far outweighed the good done to the poor of the country — a class, be it remembered, which the mo- nastic doles had a most evil tendency to increase — and that they ought to have been suppressed, no reasonable man in the present state of political science will ven- ture to deny. It may be, nay it is but too certain, that the innocent and the guilty in some rases were confounded ; that num- bers of people were thrown out oi em- ployment, and that with a vast amount of good some evil was done; that Henry even in doing good could not refrain from a tyrannous strain of conduct; and tjiat much of the property thus wrested from superstition was lavished upon needy or upon profligate courtiers, instead of be- ing, as it ought to have been, made a per- manent national property in aid of the religious and civil expences of the nation. a M H m m ► a ■ u m B m « ■ o It »< (S H M 4 f ffl ■4 a •s o < o K m ■> o H H d H P< o « A H O A.D. 1539.— DOVBR PIBB AND SBYBBAL VOBTS BOUBD THB COAST BtilLT. [2C3 A. O. 1389.— rABLUMINTAMT ABBOTS RO LOliaBB lAt IN INB MOUIB. 294 ^iic ^reasurv of l^tstorp, $cc. But after •dmittiug bU thii, it it quite eer- tfcin that, however prompted or however enacted, this ■uppreBilon of the monaa- terie* by Henrjr Vlll. wai the moat im- portant measure aince the Norman con- quest, and was the measure which save the flrat impulse to England in that march of resolute industry which has long since left her without a rival upon the earth, whether in wealth or in power. While, however, we for the sake of argn- roent admit that Henry was arbitrary in hia conduct towards the monasteries, and that his coramissionera were infinitely less anxious for trutli than for finding out or inventing causes of confiscation, we are not the less bound to assert that, even for the single sin of imposture, the monasteries required the full weight of the iron hand of Henrv. Of the gross frauds which were committed for the purpose of attracting the attention and the money of the credu- lous to particular monasteries, our space will only allow of our mentioning two, which, indeed, will aufflcieutly speak for the rest. At the monastery of Hales, in Glouces- tershire, the relie upon which the monk* relied for profit— every monastery having relit*, some of which must have had the power of ubiquity, it beioK a fact that mdny monasteries at home and abroad have pre- tended to possess the same especial toe or finger of this, that, or the other saint ! — was said to be some of the blood of our Saviour which had been preserved at the time of the crucifixion. In proportion to the enthusiasm which such a pretence was calculated to awaken among people who were as warmly and sincerely pious as they were ignorant> was the abominable guilt of this imposture. But the mere and naked lie, bad as it was, formed only a part of the awful guilt of these monks. Thev pre- tended that this blood, though held oefore the eves of a man in mortal sin, would be utterly invisible to him, and would con- tinue to be so until he should have per- formed good works sufficient for bis abso- lution. Such a tale was abundantly suffi- cient to enrich the monastery, but when the "visitors" were sent thither by the king, the whole secret of the impudent fraud at once became apparent. The phial in which the blood was exhibited to the credulous was transparent on one side, but completely opaque on the other. Into this phial the senior monks, who alone were in the secret, everv week put some fresh blood of a duck. Wnen the pilKrim desired to be shown the blood of the Saviour the opaque side of the phial was turned towards him ; he was thus convinced that he was in mortal sin, and induced to "perform good works," t. e. to be fooled out of hia money, until the monks, finding that he could or would give no more at that time turned the transparent side of the phial to him, and sent liim on his way rejoicing and eager to send other dupes to the monks of Hales. At Boxley, near Maiastone, in Kent, there waa kent a crucifix called the r«orf ^ grace, the lips, eyes, and head of which were seen to move when the pilgrim sp- proached it with such gifts as were latii. factory ; at the desire of Hilsey, bishop of Rochester, this miraculous cruciHx was taken to London and publicly pulled to pieces at Paul's cross, wiien it was made clear that the imaj^ was filled with wheels and springs by which the so-called miraeu. loui motions were regulated by the offlci. Bting priests, literally aa the temper of their euttomer* required. How serious a tax the pretended miraco. lous images and genuine relics levied upon the people of the whole kingdom, we nisy judge from the fact, that of upwards of six hundred monasteries and two thousand chantries and chapels which Heury st various times demolished, comparatively few were wholly free from this worst of in,. postures, while the sums received bv tome of them individually may be called enor- mous. For instance, the pilgrims to the tomb of St. Thomas it Becket paid upwards of nine hundred pounds in one year— or something very like three thousprd pounds of our present money I The kn-jwledge of such a disgraceful fact as thi« Aould cf itself have Justified Henry in Hdooting mo- derately strong measures to put an end to the " Pilgrimage to Canterbkiry." But moderation was not Henry's charactcriatic, and Becket was a saiut especially hatcrul to him as having fought the battle of the triple crown of Rome against the king of England. Not content, therefore, with taking the proper measures of mere policy that were required to put an end to a sort of plunder so disgraceful, Henry ordered the saint whL had reposed for centuries in the tomb to b > 'urraally cited to appear in court to ans'.ver to an information laid against him by the king's attorney I " It had been suggested," says Dr. Lingard, " that as long as the name of St. Thomas of Canterbury should remain in the calen- dar men would be stimulated by his exam- ple to brave the ecclesiastical authority of their sovereign. The king's attorney waa therefore instructed to exhibit an informa- tion against him, and Thomas ft Becket, sometime archbishop of Canterbury, was formally cited to appear in court and an- swer to the charge. The interval of tliirty days allowed by the canon law was suffered to elapse, and still the saint neglected to quit the tomb in which he had reposed for two centuries and a half, and judgment would have been giv'en against hira by de- fault, had not the king of his special grace assigned him counsel. The court sat at Westminster, the attorney-general and the advocate of the accused were heard, and sentence was finally pronounced that Thomas, sometime archbishop of Canter- bury, iiad been guilty of rebellion, contu- macy, and treason, that his bones should be publicly burned to admonish the living of their duty by the punishment of the dead, and that the offerings which hndbeen made at his shrine, the personal property FOttTT TEMrOnAIi ANO ONLY TWENTY SPIRITUAL rHERS ATTEftnED. GREAT INS —-1 B roBrf which |J ni tp. Mti». bop of X wu led to made wheeli iirncK. offlcU f their liraea. lupon e may o( tix UMIld iry at Rlively of iiu- f lome enor. to the >ward8 ar— or )oundi d(f«of uld of igmo. end to But iriitic, latcful of the ling of , with policy a lort rderfd -ies in ear in a laid "It ngard, liumaa talcn- exam- rity of iy was forma- •ecket, , was id an> thirty iffcred :ted to ied for (?nient by de- grace sat at nd the 1, and that aiiter contu- should living 3f the d been operty A.B. Ii38.— THi vora citks bbiihi to aTmns a oouhcil ai mantua. lEnglantf — l^ousc o( ^utior.— l^cnrs FS3E3E. 20ft efilMnputedsAint thoutdbe forfeited to ihf eniwD. A eommUaion wat accordinKJjr iiiaad) th« lentence was eiecuted in oue fgin, and the gold, lilver and jewels, the iMili obtained bjr the demolition of the iliriiie were conveved in tKO pomleroui eqf- An, to the royal treaiury. The people were soon afterwardi informed bjr a royal proeltinalion that Thomai k Becket was no MiBt, but rather a rebel and a traitor, and it was ordered to erase bis name out of all books, under pain of his m^esty's indigna- tion, and imprisonment at his grace's plea- sure." We hare selected Ling^rd's account of tkis matter because that historian has a lery evident leaning to the catholic side of (very question of EnKlisb history, and yet be, unconsciously perhaps, in the words of the above passage whicn we have printed in italics, goes far towardsiustifying Henry's neasures against the monkish superstitions and impostures, no matter what bis motives may have been. What I gold, silver, and jewels, thus abstracted from the wealth of the nation and made perpetually incon- vertible and unproductive, and yet the keepers of the shrine of the pretended saint and miracle worker still so insatiate that they drew nearly a thousand pounds of the money of that time in a single year I The psltiiest smattering of true political eco- nomy would tell us that such a state of things, existing as it did all over the kiug- dom, if unchecked for but a few years by the sovereign, would have been terminated by a most sanguinary revolt of the ruined people, whose nunger would have been too girang for both their own ignorance and the vlllany and ingenuity of their dcluders. And it is to be remembered that although Henry was unwisely, nay, wickedly profuse of the property which he recovered from a Ktof vile corporations which had obtained possession of it by false pretences, it was of only a part of this property that he thus improperly disposed. Every monk who wu dispossessed of an idle ease which he ought never to have had, received a yearly allowance of eight marks, and every abbot and prior had a yearly allowance propor- tioned to his character and the income of his abbacy or priory. Making these provi- sions must have consumed a large portion of the money realised bv the seizures of monastic property ; but, besidea theae> the king made and endowed, from the same source, sis new bish^rics, AVeatminster, Oxford, Peterborough, Bristol, Chester, and Gloucester. When these facts are taken into the account, the " profit" derived by the king, that the vulgar and more violently papistical, writers are fond of talking about, will be found to amount to little indeed. Cardinal Pole, a near kinsman of Henry, and eminent alike for talents and virtue, had long resided on the continent, and to hii) powerful andelc,;ant pen Henry attri- buted many of the forciDle, eloquent— and sometimes, we may add, scurrilous— decla- mations which the papists of Italy con- tinually sent forth against him whom the popedom had once hailed and flattered aa the defender of the fliith, but whom it now denounced as another Julian alike in talents and in apostacr. Henry, unable to decoy the astute cardinal into his power, arrested and put to death first the brotliers and then the mother of that eminent person, the venerable countess of Saliabury. Real charge against this lady, then upwards of seventy years of age, there was none ; but the ever obsequious parliament passed an act attainting her in the absence of any trial or confession. After two years of ri- Sorous confinement in the Tower of Lon- on the countess was brou^ht out for exe- cution; and as she refused to lay her head upon the block, the executioner's assistant had to place her and keep her there bv main force, and even as the axe descenaed on her neck she cried out " Bleased are they who suffer persecution for righteonsness sake." At the dictation of Henry the parliament now passed a bill which declared " That in the eucharist is really present the natural body of Christ under the forms and without the substance of bread and wine ; that communion in both kinds is not necessary to the soul's health ; that priests may not marry by the laws of Goa; that vows of chastity are to be observed; that private masses ought to be retained ; and that the use of auricular confession is expedient and necessary. Heavy penalties were de< nounced on any who should act contrary to the above articles ; and Cranmer, who had for many years been manicd, could ouly save himself from the effects of this act — to the passing of which he had made a stout but ineffectual opposition— by sending his wife, with their numerous children, to Germany, of which country she was a na- tive. The frequent changes which had. during a quarter of a century, taken place in the theological opinions of the kin^ himself, did not by any means inspire him with any merciful feeling towards those who chanced to differ from his temporary opinion; he had thrown off the Clerical pope of Rome only to set up quite as " infallible" a pope in the person of the king of England. A London schoolmaster, named Lambert, was unfortunate enough to contradict a sermon of JDr. Taylor, afterward bishop of Lincoln, in which sermon the doctor had defended the prevalent catholic doctrine of the "real presence." Lambert had already been im- Erisoned for his unsound opinions, but aving learned nothing by the peril he had so narrowly escaped, he now drew up for- mal objections, under ten heads. These objections he made known to Dr. Barnes, who was a Lutheran and who consequently was as obnoxious to the existing law as Lambert, whom he caused to be cited be- fore Cranmer and Latimer. "They, how- ever much they might agree with him in their hearjta, did not dare publicly to oppose themselves to the staudaru of opiuion which tlie arbitrary Henry had set up under the protection of siibcking penalties, but they SHKAT INSITRHKCTIONS OWINO TO TUB SUFPBESSION OF THE MONASTBHIKS. A. D. 153fl.— I 290 ^^( ZfTrcasuru o( 1I)istocu« kc look a middle eourif, and cndnavnurcd to rirevail upon Lambert to »nvc hii lif« bjr k imely recnntation) but h« au^CBled from their jiidKiiieiit to that uf the King liliuii'lf. Henry, ever well pluaicd to excrctie hi* CODtrovcraial poweri, cauwd it to be iimde aa public ai poiiiblo tliitt he would in pcr- aon try the ioundiicM of niiivter Lambcrt't opioiona. Wcitininitcr hnll waa lilted up for the occaaion with acufl'ulding* and icat* for auch aa choio to bo prciriit, and tlio king took hit aeat upon the throne, clad in white (ilk robcn, and aurroundcd by the biahopi, the JudKCR, and the cliicf olllccra of atato. Lauibvrt'a nrticlui liciug rend, the king in a ict ipeuch replied to the llrtt; Craniner, Gardiner, and others following in refutation of oilier articlea, and at the concluaion of ar)(uinentt which Inited Ave hours, and in which the king was us grossly flattered as the poor vnin sclKmlniaKterwas unfairly brow-beaten, Henry nsk^d the poor man whether the aririimentshnd cleared lils mind of doubts, to w-liicli queation he adUitd tiie no Icsa interesting one, " Will you live or die f" Lambert, unconvinced by all that he had heard, Jioticed only the last i>art of the king's speech, and replied, that for his life he would hold it at his migcsty's gra- cious mercy; to which Hcurv ungraciously, not to say brutally, assured him, that he was not minded to show himself the patron of heretici, and Cromwell was ordered to pass sentence of death on the prisoner, whose chiet offence seems to have oeen his folly in craving the notice of the kini^ hv a most gratuitous and utterly useless display of opinions which no earthly power could have prevented him from enjoying in safety, had he consented to do so in secrecy. The unfortunate man was burned to death, and as he was supposed to bo personally ob- noxious to Henry from having ventured publicly to dispute with him, the brutal executioners purposely made the tire so slow that his legs and thighs were gra- dually consumed before the flames even ap- proached any vital part. The long tortures to which this poor man was subjected at length so greatly disgusted some of the Kuards, that with their halberts they llirew nim farther into the tiaincs, and ho there perished, exclaiming with his last brcnth, " None but Christ, none but Christ !" Many other cruel executions took place about this time. In August, 1537. Henry's third queen, the lady Jane Seymour, ^&ve birth to a prince, to the great delight of the king, whose joy, however, was much diminished, when, in a few days, this best beloved and most amiable of all his wives died. He soon after commenced negotiations for a new marriage, but being disappointed in his views on the duchess dowager of Longue- ville, and being then refused by Francis permission to choose between the two sis- ters of that lady precisely as he would have chosen sh"ep or oxen, he was persuaded by Cromwell to demand the himd of Anne of Cleves, sister of the reigning duke. Her portrait, of course a flattering one, from the pencil of the celebrated Han* Holbein caused Henry to fancy hlmieir very much' cnaniourrd of her, and when he Icsrntil that she had landed at Dover, he actuallv rode as far as Kochester in diiguiae, tlist he might unseen, or ol least unknown have a glance at her to, in his own phrase' " nourish his love." This glance, how! ever, " nursed" »very dilTereut feeling Tlis dilTerence between the delicate liniuini of Hans Holbein, and the especially vnat per- sou and coarse complexion of ihe Isily, lo disgusted and surprised Henry, that 'be tiassiunately swore that they had cliostn liin not a woman and a princess, but s Klanders marei and he would liavc fain sent her buck without a word said to liitr but that he waa afraid of nnendiiiK the OerinHU princes connected with her brother and thus raising against himself n ton pownr! ful coalition. Detesting the very sight of Anne, and yet feeling obliged to iiinrry her, the king was not long ere he made the full weight of his indignation full uiiou the liesd of Cromwull. That too servilely oliedieut minister now had lo feci in person the very same injustice which, at his instigation, the detestably sycophantic parliament had lo recently inflicted upon the venerable coun- tess of Salisbury. He was accused nf hivh treason, denied a public trial, and a bili of attainder passea through both hnuici, without even one of the many whom he had befriended having the generous cnursKe to show that gratitude to him which he, under similar circumstances, had shovru to cardinal Wolsev. Having got judgment fiassed against Cfromwell, Henry now turned lis attention to obtaining a divorce from Anne of Cleves. Even he could scarcely make it a capital offence to have coarse fea- tures and an awkward figure; umrcover, the influence of Anne's brother was such at to make it unsafe for Henry to proceed to any thing like violent steps against her. Fortunately, however, for the comfort of both parties, if he viewed her with disKust, she viewed him with the most entire indif- ference; and she readily consented to be divorced on Henry giving her three thou- sand pounds per annum, the royal palace of Richmond for a residence, and such prece- dence at court as she would hnve enjoyed had she been his sister instead uf being his divorced wife. Six days after the passing of the bill of attainder against Cromwell, that niinialcr was executed, no one seeming to feel sor- row for him ; the poor hating him for the share he had taken in the suppressijn of the monasteries, and the rich detesting him for having risen from a mere peasant birth to rank so high and power so grear. As if to show that he really cared less for either protestantism or popery than he did for his own will and pleasure, the kin.r or* dercd just now the execution of I'owel, Abel, and Featherstone, catholics who ven- tured to deny the king's supremacy, and of Barnes, .Garret, and Jerome, for the oppo- site oilcncc of being more protestnnt than it pleased the king that they should be I A.D. 1539. — TUB CLKaOT IN CO.NVOCATION GRANT THB KINO A SUOSIDT. «.D. Ift43.— II 5 ICnglantr.— l^ouM of ^utiot — l^cnrv UHHIE. 297 A«4 10 rrndcr ihit Inipurtiallty in drspottam lb« more nwl'iilly imiiroiktw, the pniuitant iii4 eatbolic olnnderi «nre drawu to tb« iiakt in Bmithlleld on tlitt name hurdle I «,>. It'll'— Though the king had now bMD married four timet, and, certalnir, with no each bapptneii as wnuld have made BitrritKe leem ao verjr denrable, the di- tore* front Anne of Clevea u ui icarcelv ao- eompliihed ere hi* counctl niemorialiied biin 10 take another wife, and he complied br eipouilng the niece of the duke of Nor> fulk. Thit ladjp, bjr name, Catherine Uow- trd, w«* M>*rdinal Beaton caused him to be arrested and condemned to the stake as a heretie. Arran, the governor, showing some fear and unwillingness to proceed to the ex- tremity of burning, the cardinal carried the sentence into execution on his own autho- rity, add even stationed himself at a window from which he could behold the dismal •peetacle. This indecent and cruel triumph was noted by the sufferer, who solemnly warned Beaton that ere many days he ■honld be laid npon that very spot where then he triumphed. Agitated as the mul- titude were by the exhortations of their numerous preachers of the reformed doc- trine, such a prophecy was not likely to fidl unheeded from such a man under such cir- eumstances. His followers in great num- bers associated to revenge his death. Six- teen of the most courageuus of them went well armed to the cardinal's palace at an early hour in the morning, and having thrust all his servants and tradesii)^ n out, proceeded to the cardinal's apartment. For a short time the fastenings defied their power, but a cry arising to bring fire to their aid, the unfortunate old man opened the door to them, intreating to spare his life and reminding; them of his priesthood. The foremost of bis assailants, James Mel- ville, called to the others to execute with becoming gravity and deliberation a work which was only to be looked upon as the judgment of God. " Repent thee," said this sanguinary but conscientious enthusiast, " repent thee, thou wicked cardinal, of all thy sins and iniquities, especially of the murder of Wia- hart, that instrument of God for the con- version of these lands. It is bis death which now cries vengeance upon thee ; we sre sent by God to inflict the deserved funishment. For here, before the Almighty, protest that it is neither hatred of thy person, nor love of thy riches, nor fear of thy power, which moves me to seek thy death, but only because thou hast been and still remainest an obstinate enemy to Christ Jesus and his holy gospel." With these words Melville stabbed the cardinal, who fell dead at his feet. This murder took place the year before the death of Henry VIII. to whom the assassins, who fortified themselves and friends to the num- ber of a hundred and forty, in the castle, dispatched a messenger for aid. Henry, always jealous of Scotland and glad to cripple its turbulent nobility, promised his support, and Somerset now, in obedience to the dying injunctions of the king, pre- pared to march an army into Scotland for the purpose of b«g;ppelling a union of the two countries, by marrying the minor queen of Scotland to the minor king of England. With a fleet of sixty sail and a force of eighteen thousand men, he set out with the avowed purpose of not listening to any ne- gotiation, unless based upon the condition of the marriage of the young queen of Scotland to Edward of England ; a measure which he argued and justified at great length in a pamphlet published by him before opening the campaign. Except as a means of justifying, his own conduct in commencing the war, it would seem that so well informed a statesman as Somerset could surely have expected little effect from this manifesto. The queen dowager of Scotland was wholly influenced by France, which could not but be to the utmost degree opposed to the union of Scotland and England; and she was also far too much attached to the catholic re- ligion to look with any complacent feeling upon a transfer of Scotland into the hands of the known and persevering enemy of that religion. From Berwick to Edinburgh Somerset experienced but little resistance. Arran, however, had taken up his position on the banks of the Eske at about four miles from Edinburgh, with an army double in number to that of the English. In a cavalry affair of outposts the Scots were worsted and lord Hume severelv wounded, but Somerset and the earl of Warwick having reconnoitred the Scottish camp, found that it was too well posted to be assailed vuth any reasonable chance of success. Somerset now tried negotiation, offering to evacuate the country and even to make compensation for such mischief as had already neen done, on condition that the Scots should engage to keep their younp; queen at home and uncontracted in marriage until she should reach an age to choose for herself. This offer, so much in contrast with the determination with which the protector had set out, caused the Scots to suppose that, intimidated by their num- ber! or moved by some secret and dis- tressing information, he was anxious to get away upon any terms, and the very mode- ration of the terms offered by him was the cause of their being rejected. Whoever will carefully and in detail study the great campaigns and battles, whether of ancient or of mbdern times, will find that at once the rarest and the most precious gift of a general in-chief is to know how to rtfrain a ■ m o m O m as M »< e M o M M N a •s « K m A. n. 1547. — BiBHora sabdinrr and bonner committed to thb towbb. [SB I A.D. 1647.— TBI CHARTHIia, FRRB CHAPBLR, &0. OIVSN TO TBI CKOWR. 302 VLf)t ^rcasurg of ^istorg, $c(. o M 5 ■ M t9 »■ a H 0) »■ s •4 u M M »• a K O •a '4 M M *< k H It a M H H M u a u a /t-oai action. The Fabian policy is suitable only to the very loftiest and moat admirable military genius; not because of the phy- sical difficulty of remaining tranciuil, but ■imply because to do so in spite alilce of the entreaties of friends and the taunts of foes, requires that self-conquest which is to be achieved only by a Fabius or a Welling- ton. On the present occasion the Scots leaders had to contend not only against their own utter mistake as to Somerset's circumstances and motives, but also against the frantic eagerness of their men, who were wound up to the most intense rage by the preaching of certain priests in tlieir camp, who assured them that tlie detestable heresy of the English made victory to their arms altogether out of the question. Finding his moderate and peaceable pro- posal rejected, Somerset saw that it was necessary to draw the enemy from their sheltered and strong position, to a more open one in which he could advantageously avail himself of his superiority in cavalry. He accordingly moved towards the sea ; and as his ships at the same moment stood in shore, as if to receive him, the Scots fell into the snare and moved from' their strong position to intercept him. They entered the plain in three bodies, the van- guard commanded by Angus, the main ody commanded by Arran, and some light horse and Irish archers on the left flank under Argyle. As the Scots advanced Into the plain, they were severely galled by the artillery of the English ships, and among the killed was the eldest son of lord Graham. The Irish auxiliaries were thrown into the ut- most disorder, and the whole main body began to fall back upon the rear-guard, which was under the command of Huntley. Lord Grey, who had the command of the English cavalry, had orders not to attack the Scottish van till it should be closely en- gaged with the English van, when he was to take it in flank. Tempted by the disor- der of the enemy, he neglected this order, and led the English cavalry on at full gal- lop. A heavy slough und broad ditch threw them into confusion, and they were easily repulsed by the long spears of the Scotch; lord Grey himself was severely wounded, the protector's son, lord Edward Seymour, had his horse killed under him, and the cavalry was only rallied by the utmost ex- ertion and presence of mind on the part of ■ir Ralph Sadler, sir Ralph Vane, and the protector in person. The English archers and the English ships galled the van of the Scots so severely that it at length gave way, and the English van being, at that critical moment, led on in good order, the Scots and their Irish auxiliaries took to flight. How short and unequal the flight was, and how persevering and murderous the pur- suit, may be judged from the fact.'that the English loss was short of two hundred, and that of the Scots above ten thousand 1 Full flfteen hundred were also made prisoners at this disastrous battle of I'inkey. Somerset now took several castles, re- ceived the submission of the counties on the border, destroyed the shipping on the coast, and was in a situation to have im- posed the most onerous terms on the Scots, could he have followed up his advantaitei- but information reached him of intrigues going on in England, which obliged him to return, after having appointed Berwick fo, the place of conference of the commitsion- ers, whom the Scots, in order to gain time and procure aid from France, affected to wish to send to treat for peace. On Somerset's return to England he ii. sumed more state than ever, being dated with his success in Scotland. He caused his nephew to dispense with the statute of precedency passed in the late reign, and to ^rant to him, 'le protector, a patent allow- ing him to sit on the throne, upon a stool or bench at the right hand of the king, and to enjoy all honours and privileges usually enjoyed by any uncle of a king of Englaud. While thus intent upon his own aggran- dizement, Somerset was, nevertheless, at- tentive also to the ameliorating of the law. The statute of the six articles was repealed] as were all laws against Lollardy and heresy —though the latter was still an undefined crime at common law— all laws extending the crime of treason beyond the twenty- flfth of Edward III., and all the laws of Henry Vlll. extending the crime of fe louy; and no accusation founded upon words spoken was to be made after the ex- piration of a month from the alleged speak- ing. A. D. 1548.— The extensive repeals of which we have made mention are well described by Hume as having been the cause of " some dawn of both civil and religious 1!- berty" to the people. For them great praise was due to Somerset, who, however, was now guilty of a singular inconsistency ; one which shows how diflicult it is for un- qualitied respect to the rights of the multi- tude to co-exist with such extensive power as that of the protector. What IIu..ie, with terse and signiticant emphasis, calls " that few, the destruction of all laws, by which the king's proclamation was made of equal force with a statute," was repeal- ed ; and yet the protector continued to use and uphold the proclamation whensoever the occasion seemed to him to demand it; as, for instance, forbidding the harmless and time-hallowed superstitions or absu; • dities of carrying about candles on Candle- mas day, ashes on Ash Wednesday, and palm branches on Palm Sunday. Aided by the French, the Scots rande many attempts to recover the towns and castles which had been taken from them by Somerset, and with very general success. The English were at length reduced to so much distress, and so closely kept within Haddington by the number and vigilnnce of their enemies, that Somerset sent ove. a reinforcement of eighteen thousand En^'- lish troops and three thousand German auxiliaries. This large force was com- manded by the earl of Shrewsbury, who relieved Haddington, indeed, but could not :i liaBTERX rnRB SCn00I.S WKRE FOUNDRO out of TUH CnANTRT liANnS. OWi: m m m ► M ■ H M a M o m o tk B M R M a u m a o ts M N ■ m K M Q K '4 •7 B H '4 m t* M 304 ^^e ^reasurs of l^istoro> ^t> evidence agninst tlicm; and even now the protector offered liberty and pardon to hit brother, on condition of his retiring to his country houses, and conflning himself strictly to private life. Undaunted by all the appearances against him, lord Seymour replied only by threats and sarcasms ; and, urged by his personal and political tricnds, real and pretended, the protector consented not only that his brother should be pro- ceeded against, but also that he should be refused a free and open trial which he indignantly demanded, and be proceeded against before that ready instrument of so- vereign vengeance, the parliament. A. D. 1549.— On the meeting; of parliament a bill of attainder was originated in the upper houKe. By wav of evidence, several peers rose and stated what they knew or professed to know of the criminal designs and practices of t',e admiral ; and upon this evidence given, be it observed, hy judges in the case, that house of peers in which the deluded man had auj^posed himself to have so many fast friends, passed the bill with scarcely a dissenting voice, and, as Hume observes "without anyone having either the courage or the equity to move that he might be heard in his de- fence; that the testimony against him should be delivered in a legal manner, and that he should be confronted with the wit- nesses." Contrary to what might have been anticipated, a better spirit was exhibited in the lower house, where it was moved that the proceeding by bill of attainder was bad, and that every man should be present and formally tried previous to condemnation. A message, nominally from the king, but really from the council, however, terminat- ed this show of spirit and equity, and the bill was passed by a majority of four hun- dred to some nine or ten. Shortly after- wards the admiral was beheaded on Tower- hill the warrant of his execution being signed by his brother Somerset I or rather the condemnation. After the trial of lord Seymour the most important business of this session was ecclesiastical ; one act al- lowing priests to marry, but saying in the preamble that " it were better for priests and the ministers of the church to live chastely and without marriage, and it wero much to be wished that tliey would of themselves abstain;" another prohibiting the use of flesh meat in Lent ; and a third permitting and providing for a union of cures in the city of York. Many of these cures, it was stated in the preamble, were too much impoverished singly to support ■n incumbent; an impoverishment which no doubt arose from the transfer of the ecclesiastical revenues into the hands of lay- men and absentees. There was now a very general outward conformity, at least, with the doctrine and liturgy of the reformat tion. But both Bonner and Gardiner were imprisoned for maintaining the catholic doctrine of the real presence, the princess Mar^r was threatened by the council for persisting to hedr mass, and obtained an indulgence through the influence of the emperor. A still farther and worse nroof was given that the duty of tolcraiion w«, as yet but very imperfectly understood bt the reformers, by the prosecution of a wo- man named Joan Bociier, or Joan of Kent! for heresy. The council condemned ih* poor creature to the flames. Fjr some time the young king would not Mgn tlie wm. rant for her execution Cranmer— aiasl' thataCranmcr should liave less ofchris- tian charity than his infant king !— argued him into compliance; but a comuljnnce iccompanied by tears and by the remark that upon Cranmer's tiend «\'ould the deed lie for good or evil. Tiie execution of this woman was followed by that cf a Dutch arian, named Von Pari*, who suffered hit horrible death with apparent delight— so ill adapted is persecution t o make converts I CHAPTER XIIII. The Reiin af Edwabd Vl. ^continuerf;. To deny that a great reformation was much needed in the church at the time when it was commenced by Henry VIll, would be utterly and obstinately to close' one's eyes to the most unquestionable evi- dence. Nevertheless it is no less certain that the wealth which was justly takeu from the monks was quite as unjustly be- stowed upon laymen. It was not bccauie corrupt men had insinuated or forced them- selves into the church, that therefore the church should be plundered; it was not because the monks had diverted a part of the large revenues of the church from the proper purpose, that therefore the king should wrongfully bestow a still larger part. The laymen upon whom Henry be- stowed the spoils of the greater an '{lesser houses had in few cases, if any, a single claim upon those spoils save favouritism, not always too honourable to themselves or to the king ; yet to them was given, mthovi the charge ot the poor, that property upon which the poor had been bountifully ted. The baron or the knight, the mere courtier or the still worse character upon whom this property was bestowed, might live a hundred or even a thousand miles from the land producing his revenue— from that land upon which its former possessors, its reti- ient landlords the monks, employed the toiling man, and fed the inflrm, the help- less, and the suffering. Nor was it merely by the hind who laboured, or by the needy man who was fed in charity, that the monks were now missed; the monks were not only resident landlords, they were also liberal and indulgent landlords. Tiiey for a great portion of their low rents took pro- duce; the lay landlords demanded higher rents and would be paid in money; tiie monks lived among their tenants and were their best customers; the lay landlord drew his money rents trom Lincoln or De- von, to spend them in the court revels it London or in the wart of France or Scot- land. Many other differences ini^ht be pointed out which were very injurious to the middle and lower class of men; but Hi A.D. 1549. — A Bir.L FA88KD ALLOWING CLEROYMEIf TO MAUBT. A.D. lSi9.— BBniriv or clrkox dbmibo to uoBiK-iTMALBaa and bvbolaus. lEnglantJ.— l^ouae o( BTttUor — lEtJtoarU FE. 305 enough lias been laid to shew that how- e4 u M M a a M K U H >4 M K K M •I N 9 H O m ;3 I* o M a 3 ti m H M H ■ « M M ■ o m M M l« ■» e ■ 306 ^^e ^rcasurB of l^istori), $cc. France and Scotland. The young queen of Scotland, for whose hand hn had chiefly Sone to war, could not now be married to idward of England, however much even the Scota might desire it ; and ns regards the French quarrel, Henry VIII. having agreed to give up Boulogne in 1SS4, it was little worth while to keep up an expensive warfare for retaining the place fur so few years as had to elapse to that date. But Somerset, though a man of unques- tionable ability, seems to have been singu- larly ignorant or unobservant as to the real light in which he was regarded bv the council, and still more so ot the real cha- racter and views of Warwick. He gave his reasons, as we have given them above; and sound reasons they were, and as humnne as sound ; but he did not sufficiently take into calculation the pleasure which his enemies derived from the embarrassment caused to him, and the discontent likely to arise in the public mind, on account of the state of our affairs, at once inglorious and expensive, in France and Scotland. Besides having the personal enmity of Warwick, Southampton, whom the pro- tector had restored to his place in the council, and other councillors, Somerset was detected by great part of the nobility and gentry, who accused him, perhaps not altogether unjustly, of purchasing popu- larity at the expense of their safety, by showing such an excessive and unfair pre- ference of the poor as encouraged them in riot and robbery. As an instance of this, it was objected, that he had erected a court of requests in his own house for the pro- fessed relief of the poor, and even inter- fered with the judges on their behalf. The principles of constitutional liberty such as we now eujov were at that time so little understood, that it was not the mere inter- ference with the judges, which we should now verv justly consider so indecent and detestable, that caused any disgust; but Somerset bad interfered against the very persons, the nobles and gentry, upon whom alone he could rely for support, and he was now to endure the consequences of so im- Eolitic a course. His execution of his own rother, however guilty that brother ; his enormous acquisitions of church property ; and above all, the magnificence of the palace he was building in the Strand, for which a garish church and the houses of three ishops were pulled down, and the ma- terials of which he chiefly got by pulling down B chapel, with cloister and cnarncl- house, in St. Paul's church-yard, after his labourers had been by force of arms driven from an attempt to pull down St. Mar- (Nuret's, Westminster, for that purpose! — These things, and the overweening pride which was generally attributed to him, were skilfully taken advantage of by his enemies, and he was every where described as the main cause of all the recent public calamities at home and abroad. Warwick with Southampton, Arundel, and five of the councillors, headed by lord St. John, presi- dent of the council, formed themselves into a sort of independent council. Taking noon themselves the style and authority of ,h. whole council, they wrote letters to all 1,, chief nobihty and gentry, asking for th, , support and aid in remedying the publL evils, which they affected to charge entire . upon Somerset's maladministration. Hal ing determined on their own scheme of »' medial measures, they sent for the mavm and aldermen of London and the lieutenant of the Tower, and informing ihera of tha plans which they proposed to adopt, strictl. enjoined them to aid and obey them in despite of aught that Somerset might think fit to order to the contrary. Somerset wsi now so unpopular, that obedience was readily promised to this command, in the face at once of the king's patent and of the fact that these very councillors, who now complained of the protector's acts as illeiral had aided and encouraged him in whatever had been illegally done— his original de- ^arture from the will of the late king I No farther argument can be requisite to show that personal and selfish feeling, and not loyalty to the young king or teuderness to his suffering people, actuated these factioat councillors. But faction has an eagle eye wherewith to gaze unblinkingly upon the proudest and most brilliant light of truth • and the self-appointed junto was on the following day joined by the lord chancellor Rich, by the marquis of Northampton, the earl of Shrewsbury, sir Thomas Cheney sir John Gage, sir Ralph Sadler, and the chief justice Montague. And when the protector, seeing the imminent peril in which he was placed, sent secretary Petre to treat with the councillors at Ely-house that craven personage, instead of perform- ing his duty, took his seat and sided with the Junto. Consultingwith Cranmer and Paget, who were the only men of mark and power that still abided by his fortunes, the protector removed the young king to Windsor castle, and gathered his friends and retainers in arms around him. But the adhesion to the junto of the lieutenant of the Tower, and the unanimity with which the common- council of London joined the mayor in promising support to the new measures, caused the speaker of the house of commons and the two or three other councillors who had hitherto remained neuter to join the ascendant party of Warwick ; and Somerset so completely lost all hope and confidence, that he now began to apply to his foes for pardon. This manifestation of his despair, which would have been inexcusable hpd it | not, uuliappily, been unavoidable, was de- 1 cisive. Warwick and his friends addressed ; the king, and with mnnv protestations of j their exceeding loyalty and the mischievous- 1 ness of the protector's measures, solicited i that they might be admitted to his majesty's 1 presence andconfi^ ince, and that Somerset | be dismissed from his high oflice. Thcfulten ! statesman was accordingly, with several oi his friends, including Cecil, the afterwards renowned and admirable lord Burleigh, I sent to the Tower. But though the junto i MANT VILLAOKS WRBB BlilNKD BY OPFBBSSITB KNCBOACUMBKTS. A.I). 1550.— A.D. 1550.— A JOUBNAL OV TUB HOUBI OF GOMMONt VIBIT KBPT. lEnglantr.— I^ouae of Sl^uUor.— lEBtoartJ U3E. 307 thus pronounced bU that Somerset had aone to be illegal, they appointed as coun- cil o( regency, not the persons named in the late king's will, but, tor the most part, the same men who bad been appointed by gomeraet, and whose acts under his appoint- ment, supposing it to be illegal, ought clearly to nave disqualined them now. Such ii faction I » v . .t i. When the government had thus been, firtoally, vested in the ambitious and un- principled Warwick ; when he had snatched tfaeoSTce of earl marshal, lord St. John that of treasurer, the marquis of Northampton that of great chamberlain, lord Wentworth that of chamberlain of the household, be- tides the manors of Stepney and Hackney which were pluaylered from the bishopric of London, and lord Russel the earldom of Bedford, the hot patriotism of Warwick was latiafiedi. The humbled Somerset having thus made way for his enemies, and having itooped to the degradation of making to them apologies and submissions which his admirers must ever lament, he was restored to liberty and forgiven a fine of 20002. a year in land which had been inflicted upon him. Aa though even this humiliation were not enongh, Warwick not only re-admitted him to the council, but gave his son, lord Dudley, in marriage to Somerset's daughter, the lady Jane Seymour. A.B. 1550.— The new governors of Eng- land, though they had insidiously refused to aid Somerset in his wise and reasonable proposals for making peace with France and Scotland when he was desirous to do 10, now eagerly laid themselves out for the lame end. Having, to colour over their factious opposition to Somerset, made pro- posals for the warlike aid of the emperor, which aid they well knew would be refused, they agreed to restore Boulogne for four thousand crowns, to restore Lauder and Douglas to Scotland, and to demolish the fortresses of Roxburgh and Eymouth. This done, they contracted the king to Elizabeth, a daughter of the king of France, the most violent persecutor of the protestants ; but though all the articles were settled, this noit shameful marriage treaty came to nothing. In the history of public affairs there is scarcely anything that is more startling, or that gives one a meaner opinion of the mo- rality of those public men who most loudly vaunt their own integrity and decry that of their opponents, than the coolness with which they will at the same instant of time propose two measures diametrically opposed to one and the same principle. We have >een that Warwick and his friends had agreed to marry the protestant Edward, their sovereign, to the daughter of Henry of France, the fiercest persecutor of the pro- testants. But even while they were thus proclaiming their friendship with the chief upholder of the right of Catholicism to per- secute, they visited several of the most emi> nent of their own catholics with severe pun- ishment, not for persecuting protestants, but merely for a natural unwillingncES tu be more speedy than was unavoidable in forwarding the protestant measures. Gar- diner, as the most eminent, was the first to be attacked. For two long years he waa detained in prison, and then Somerset con. descended to join himself with secretary Petre. by whom he had himself formerly been so shamefully deserted, aa a deputa- tion to endeavour to persuade or ci^ole the high minded and learned, however mis- tnkeu prelate, into a compliant mood. More than one attempt waa made; but though Gardiner showed himself very ready to comply to a certain and becommg ex- tent, he would not confess that his conduct had been wrong; a confession of which he clearly saw that his enemies would make use to ruin him in character as well as for- tune ; and a commission, consisting of Cran- mer, the bishops of London, Ely, and Lin- coln, secretary Petre, and some lawvera, sentenced him to be deprived of his bishop- ric and committed to close custody ; and to make this iniquitous sentence the more severe, he was deprived of all books and papers, and was not only denied the com- fort of the visits of two friends, but even of their letters or messages. A.D. 1551.— Several other prelates were now marked out for persecution ; aome be- cause thev were actually disobedient, others because tliejr were suspected to be not cor- dial in their obedience. Large sums of money were thus wrung from them; and, under the pretence of purging the libraries of Westminster and Oxford of superstitious books, the dominant political party — for religion really had nothing to do with the motives of Warwick and his lay friends — destroyed inestimable literary treasures for the mere sake of the comparatively small sums to be obtained by the gold and silver with which, unfortunately, the books and manuscripts were adorned. Much as we shall have occasion to blame the queen Mary for her merciless abuse of power, it is not easy to help admiring the cold, stern, unbbnching mien with which ' the princess Mary at this time of peril de- [ fied all attempts at making her bow to the I dominant party. Deprived of her chaplains, and ordered to read protestant books, she ' calmly professed her readiness to endure I martrydom rather than prove false to her faith; and this conduct she steadfastly maintained, althongh it was only from fear of the warlike interference of the emperor , that her persecutors were withheld from i offering her personal violence. Even in the midst of these (uasi religious vexations, some very useful measures were ^ taken for promoting industry, especially : by revoking sundry most impolitic patents, I by which the trade in cloth, wool, and many ' other commodities had been almost entirely thrown into the hands of foreigners. The merchants of the Hanse towns loudly ex- I claimed against this " new measure ;" but I Warwick and his friends — this at least is* ' to their credit— were firm, and a very sen- sible improvement in the English spirit of industry was the immediate consequence. A.D. 1550.— TDB bishopric op WESTMINSTEB was UJIITBD to TBAT op LOMDOIf. A.n. ISSt.— cnowni aro MALr-omuwiia fihst coimbii in iNotAHD. SOS ^f)t ^rcBSttru of l^istorQ Sec. Ii it to look too curiounl^ into public CAUse and effect to n«k whctlier our present liitch coininercial fortune may not be greatly owing to thit very measure, thougli nearly three centuries have since elapsed ? But Warwick could not long cunflne hii turbulent and eager spirit to the noble and peaceable triumphs of the patriot. Self was his earthly deity. The title and the vast estate of the earldom of Northumberland were at this time in abeyance, owing to the last earl dying without issue, and hi* brother, sir Thoma* Percv, having been at- tainted of treason. Of these vast estates, together with the title of duke of Northum- berlnnd, Warwick now possessed himself and he procured for his firiend lord St. John the title of marouis of Winchester, and for sir William Herbert that of earl of Pembroke. Northumberland's complete triumph and vast acquisitions could not but be very dis- tasteful to Somerset, who not only cherish- ed the most violent intentions to\«itrds him, but was even stung into the imprudence of avowin|; them in the presence of some of bis intimate attendants, among whom was ■ir Thomas Palmer, who appeared to have been placed in his service as a mere spy of Northumberland'!. Somerset, his duclieas,. and several of their friends and attendants, were suddenly arrested ; and Somerset was accused of high treason and felony ; the former crime as having prepared for insur- rection, the latter ns having intended to assassinate Northumberland, Northampton, rnd Pembroke. 1'ne marquis of Winchester, the friend, ahnoat the mere follower of Northumber- land, was appointed high steward, and pre- sided at the trial of Somerset ; and of the twenty-seven peers who made the jury, three were Northumberland, Northampton, and Pembroke, the very men whom he had threatened I He was acquitted of treason, but found guilty of felony, to the great grief of the people, among whom Somerset was now popular. A. D. 7553.' -As it was not to be supposed that a mild ^nd toward youni' prince like Edward VI. «ould easily, if at all, be brought to turn a deaf ear to his uncle's solicitation for mercy, great care was taken by Northum- berland to prevent all access to the king of the friends of Somerset ; and that unhappy nobleman after all his services as regent, and after his almost paternal goodness as guardian of the king's person, was executed on Tower-hill ; the grieved people dipping their handkerchiefs iii his blood as memen- tos of his martyrdom. His friends sirs Thomas Arundel, Michael Stanhope, Miles Partridge, and Ralph Vane were also execu- ted; Paget, chancellorof the duchy of Lan- caster, was deprived of his oflicc and of the garter, and lined CU002 ; and lord Rich, the chancellor, was also deprived of office for the crime of being the friend of Somerset, whose chief faults seem to have been an overweening ambition, co-cxistin); with ra- ther less than mure thun the average saga- city and flrmncta of those who take ths lead in troublous and unsettled timfi. A. D. 1563.— A new sessions of parliament was held immediately after the execution of Somerset, in which several rcgulanoni were made that were calculated to advance the cause of the reformation. Dm the commons having refused to pass a bill of deprivation ai^ainst the universally rcapcet- ed Tonstal, bishop of Durham, a new par- lianient was summoned ; and to secure one favourable to hit views Northuinbcrlond caused the king, certainly, and innat pro. bably the migority of the councillors and peers, to recommend particular Kentleincn to be sent up for particular countica. Ti,e parliament, thus conveniently cunipoied readily conlirmcd the do^rivation nrbitra! rily pronounced upon Tonstal, and two bi- shoprics were created out of that of Durham —the rich regalities of that see being con- ferred upon Northumberland liimtcJfT In. satiable, utterly insatiable, Northumber- land now got the king to bestow the duke- dom of Suffolk upon the marquis ol Dor. set; and having persuaded the new dukt to give his daughter, the lady Jane Grey, in mnriago to Northumberland's fourth son, the lord Guilillbrd Dudley, next pro- ceeded to persuade Edward, who was in an intirin condition, to pass by his si> ';rs Mary and Elizabeth, both of whom had been pro- nounced illcgitimaic, ani the former of whom ns well as the you .ig queen of Scuti was a papist, and to sett'e the crown on the marchioness of Dorset (ouchess of Suflfolk) whose heiress was the lady Jane Grey. It; a variety of arguments, some of which were both specious and solid, but all of which, as nroceeding from so ambitious a m&n, ought to hove been looked upon with sus- picion, Northumberland prevailed upon the younx king. It was in vain that the judges and the most eminent law officers protetited against being compelled to draw out a pa- tent ; it was in vain they urged that the; would subject themselves to the pains and penalties of treason should they do so; Northumberland gave Montague, chief jus- tice of common pleas, the lie; swore he would light any man in his shirt who should deny the justice of lady Jane's succession; and was so successful that the crown was accordingly set; led upon lady Jane; her mother, the duchess of Suffolk, very wil- lingly allowing herself to be passed by. This patent was by many looked upon as the death-warrant of Edward VI. signed by himself. His health daily grew worse, and his physiciims being dismissed in favour of some ignorant woninti, her quack medicines brought on symptoms at once fatal and very symptomatic of poison, and he died in the ICth year of his age and the seventh of his reign. The whole life and reign of this prince were spent literally in statu pupillari ; but so far as he could in such a state mani- fest his disposition, he seems fully to have deserved the affection with which even to this day he is spoken of. A.D. 1552— FOBBIOtl TBADie NOW FIBST KNCOURACRD IN ENGLISH BHIl'g. r*Lia notioni in SHiiaioN bbitbot «■■ bbit rBBURSi or bumaniti. lEnglanK.— KQousc of ^utior.— i^natQ. 809 CHAPTER XLIV. TA« Reign qf Mart. i.D, 1558.— Thb artful precautiom taken bf Northumberland to aecure the throne J hi) Toung and accompliihed daughter- in-Uw, by no meant rendered the succeia of the project— for which he had certainly toiled and dared much, and for which, we fear be had linoed no little— so secure ai at Ant tight it might teem. In the flrtt plaee, young Edward't reign had been to ihort tnd to completely a reign of tutelage, thtt hit will had none of that force with tne multitude which wat potietied by the will of bit bluff and iron-handed father. Henry VIII. had, it it true, battardiied both hit Jtiigbtert, but he had tubtequently reitored them to the tucceiiion; and the people were too much accuttomed to regarding Htry u the rightful tuccettor to Edward, in the event of hit dying without itiue, to allow of the almnit dying act of the young king speedily changing their opinion and directing their lovalty to the lady .fane. Agtin, the catholict, far more numerous Mcretly than might be imagined, were to a nun iMurtiians of Mary ; and if the pro- teittnts had tome misgivings, founded on her known bigotry in favour of her own ftitb, thev yet feared even the bigot far lest that the lady Jane, who, at they well knew, could be and would be a mere puppet in the handt of Northumberland, who oy thit time bad contrived to render himself at once the most powerfi-'. the mott dreaded, and the most oetetted v.xan in the whole nation. And it it worthv of ubtervation alto, that to nearly balanced were the partitant of the respective reUgiont, that each atood in dread of the other. Bat Northumberland was far too wily a personage to be ignorant of the weight which, with the minority of the people, detestation of himself and respect for the memory of Henry VIII. would have in de- ciding between the princess Mary and the Iidy Jane. When, therefore, he perceived thtt the speedy death of Edward wat in- evitable, Northumberland caused the prin- cesses Mary and Elizabeth to be sent for, as though the young king had been desirous of teeing them. Mary had reached llod- desdon in Hertfordshire, only about seven- teen miles from London, when the king died. Northumberland, anxious to get her into his power, gave orders that the melan- choly event should be kept a secret ; but the earl of Arundel sent her warning of Northumberland's deceit and probable de- signs, and she hastily retreated to the re- tired tishing town of Framlingham, in Suf- folk, whence the sent letters to the coun- cil and to the principal nobility, informing them of her knowledge of her brother's death, promising indemnity to all who had thus far aided in concealing it, but calling upon them forthwith to proclaim her as queen. While thus active in asserting her right, she carefully provided, also, for her flight into Flanders, in the event of her efforts proving unsuccessful. When Northumberland found that Ed- ward's death was known to the rightful queen, he at once threw off all disguise. Lord and the lady Jane Dudley were at thia time residing at Hion House; and Nor- thumberland, with James' father, the earl of Pembroke, and other noblemen, ap- < proached her with all the form and re- J spect due from tubjectt to their tovercign. i Young, gifted with tingular lalentt for lite- rature, and with a scarcely lest tingular propention towarda literary puriuits, Jane viewed the throne in ita true light ni a dan- gerout and an uneasy eminence. Even now when her father, her still more powerful and dreaded father-in-law, and the very chiefett men of the kingdom, with all the emblema of ttate, pretsed her to assume the authority of c^ueen, she recoiled from it at from an evil ol the tfrst magnitude. Her husband, though, like herself, but little more than sixteen years of age, had been but too skilfully tutored by his wily father, and he seconded that anibitiout mnu't en- trcatiet to well that, overcome though not convinced, the unfortunate Jane consented. She was immediately escorted to t lie Tower, the usual residence of the English sove- reigns on their first accession; and Nor- thumberland took care that she should be accompanied thither, not only by his known and fast friends, but also by the whole of the councillors, whom he thus, in effect, made prisoners and hostages fur the adhe- sion of their absent friends. Orders were now issued to proclaim queen Jane through- out the kingdom, but it was only in Lon- don, wliere Northumberland's authoritv was as yet too firm to bo openly resisted, that the orders were obeyed. And even in London the mtyority listened to the pro- clamation in a sullen and ominous silence. Some openly scuffed at Jane's pretensicms, and one unfortunate boy, who was a viut- ner's servant, was severely punished for even this verbal, and perhaps unreasoning opposition to the will of the haughty Nor- tuuniherland. While the people of London were thui cool towards tlteir nominal queen, and even the protestants listened without conviction to the preachiug of Itidley and other emi- nent protestant churchmen in her favour, Mary in her retreat in Suffolk was actively and ably exerting herself for the protection of her birthright. She was surrounded by eminent and luduential men with their le- vies of tenants or hired adherents ; and at she strongly and repeatedly professed her determination not to infringe the laws of her brother with respect to religion, even the pratestants throughout Suffolk, equally with the catholics, were enthusiastic in her cause. Nor was the feeling in favour of Mary exhibited merely in her own neigh- bourhood, or among those who might be called her personal friends. Northumber- land commieioned sir Edward Hastings,* brother of the earl of Huntingdon, to levy men in ' Buckinghamshire on behalf of Jane. Sir William executed the commis- sion with great readiness and auccestatfar ■ M M M ia O m u m e »> n t) t< a •4 K o IBB LOTB Of 80TBBBISR POWEB OFTEV DHIEB UP THE tPRINGS OF MEBCT. o (a H N M »i O t> M *) •• B •< M M : A M K P *) R M H M « H M M K < M s M IS '4 >» H a i H H K S *• « O IS 8 M a THM noLLOW INIlNCRHITt U» r«BTT inHLINa WA« MOW At ITt ■■loat 310 tUlft ^reasuro of l^istoti), ^c. u relsted to levylnKthe x" n; but he no •ooncr found liiminlf «t the head of n force of nearly four Ihouaaiid itronK llinn he marched it to t)ie nid of Mary Wtth the marine the dulce whs not more fortunate than with the land force* ; a fleet waa lent by him to criiiac olT tlie SufToIlc coa^it, to cut Mary off from lit-r ret rent to Flandcrt, ahould ill'' Htteiiipt it, and was driven by atreik of wcntlinr into Yarmoiitli, wlicre it imincdiatcU duclnrvd in favour of Marv. Perplexed and alarmed, Northumberland yet determined not to uive up the grand price withoul a stout effort for iti preier- vation. He determined to remain with Jane at the Tower, and to commit the com- mand of the troopi he had levied to her father. But tlie iinpriioncd councillors, clearly underatundiiiK both their own posi- tion and his, aittutely pcriuadcd him that he alone wai lit to head the forces upon which lo much depended, and they, at the lamo time, luccesxfully worked upon the fears of Jane on behalf of her father. The councillors were the more successful in per- suading Northumhurland to the almost suicidal act of taking the command of the troopi, because while he naturally felt great conndcnce in his own well-tried valour and ability, lie was well aware of the inferiority of Suffolk in the latter respect at least. Northumberland, accordingly, set out to combat the forces of the enemy, and was taken leave of by the councillors with every expression of attachment andof confldence of his success ; and Arundel, his bitterest enemy, was by no means the least profuse of these expressions. Scarcely, however, had Northumberland marched out of Lon- don ere Ke perceived a boding and chilling sullenness among all ranks of men ; and he remarked to lord Grey, who accompanied him, " Many come out to look at our array, indeed, but I tind not one who cries ' God tpeed your enterprize.' " Arrived at Bury St. Edmund's, the duke found that his army did not greatly exceed ■ix thouiand men, wliile the lowest reports of the opposite force gave double that num- ber. Aware of the immense importance of the event of the first encounter, Northum- berland resolved to delay his proposed at- tack, and sent an express to the councillors to send him a large and instant reinforce- ment. But the councillors had no sooner received the duke's express than they left the Tower, on the pretext of obeying his order; and assembled at Bnynard's castle, the house of Pembroke, to deliberate not upon the means of aiding Northumberland, but upon the best means of throwing off his yoke, and of dethroning the puppet queen he had set over them. Arundel, whom Northumberland had with a most unaccountable weakness left behind, expa- tiated warmlv and eloquently upon all Nor- thumberland's vices and evil deeds, and exhortud the others, 'as the only just or even prudent couiau, to join him in at once throwing their weight into the scale of Mary, and thus ensuring not merely her pardon for their past involuntary offences, but alio her favour for their preient sn,l prompt loyalty. Pembroke warmly w b auded the adviet) of Arundel, and, ldjii;» hii hand upon hii iword, exprcned liii readineii to flght on the inntaiit a.iv ,„«,, who should uretend to oppose it. i\, mayor and aidermrn of London bcin» tent for to attend this conffrencc, sliownl ti,cut most alacrity to proclaim Mnry, and tlie pro- clamation wns occordlnuly niade aniidal the most rapturous applauici of the pouuUf. The reign of Jane, if a lonely and anxloui conflneinent in the Tower for ten dsvi could be called a reign, was now at nn end. and she retired to her private residence and' private station with a rcadincn aa grint u the reluctance she had shown tu quit tlieni The councillors having thus completBlv beaten Norlhiimbcrland in hiscliief oronjt stronghold, sent mesacngers to demand that he should lay down his arms, dinbind his troops, and submit liimaelf to the merer of his rightful sovereign queen Mary. TliJ mesaage was needless; Northumberland receiving no reinforcement from London' law the utter impossibility o! reaisting the hourly increasing force of Mary, and llnd. ing hiraicif fait deaerted by his handful of foreigners, had already himielf pro- claimed queen Marv with ai much apparent heartineii and seal, as though lie had not aimed at her crown— and probably lier life, Mary, on receiving the submiaaion and hypocritical adhesion of Northumberland, set out for London. Her progrcsa waa one loud and unbroken triumph. Everywhere she was met by multitudes of the pri)|jle invoking blessings upon her; her aimter, the lady Elizabeth, met her at the head of a thousand well-appointed horse, and when she reached the Tower, she found that even Suffolk had thrown open its gates and de- clared himself in her favour. All cirenm- itanccs considered, there is scarcely an in- stance in history to enual this in the faci- lity with which a rightful princesa of no amiable character, and opposed to a large portion of her subjects in religion, van- quished the opposition of so wily, so dar- ing, and so accomplished a pre-iisurper aa Northumberlnnd. Mercy wns assuredly not the character- istic of Marr, but the utmost infatuation of mercy could not have allowed offences to gross as those of Northunibevland to past unpunished. Mary gave orders for his ar- rest, and, whether from being atterly broken- spirited by his ill success, or from sheer wilinesi and a lingering hope of saving at least his life, he fell on his knees to his bitter enemy Arundel, who arrested him, and implored mercy. His sons, the carl of Warwick and the lords Ambrose and Henry Dudley, and his brother sir Andrew Dudley, were at the same time committed to cus- tody ; as were the marquis of Northamp- ton, the earl of Huntingdon, sir Thn-nas Palmer, and sir John Gates. On farther enquiry a id consideration, the quern's ad- visers foiod it necessary to confine the duke of Suffolk, lord Guildford Dudley, ana his innocent and unfortunate wife, the lady A. D. 1633. — QUKEN MARV tIAKRS UEB FITDMC EltTRT INTO LONDON, AVO. 3. iini )| wool, lEnglanti — IQoubc of ^uUor.— iVIarU' 311 iiM. At thU ••rly period of her rel^n P0U17 OTtreame Mary's natural propeniiiy 10 enwity and tternneia. The oouneillori, fi^nR their eonttraint by Northuniber* ni, were ipeedily liberated, and even 8uf> Iblk himielf wai not exeludud from tliia act of mingled Juitii^e and mercy. North urn- Uod, iirThomat Palmer, and lir Julin Oatea ■ert brought to trial. The duke'e offence wu too clear and flagrant to admit of any iliboraia defence t but ha aiked the peera whether they could poiaibl* pronounce a nu guilty of treason who had obeyed or- im ander the great leal, and whether per- loni who had been Involved in hie alleged niilt could be allowed to lit in judgment npon himT The answer to each question ■u obvious. In reply to the Hrst, be was told that tlie great aeal of an usurper could hste no authority; to the second, that per- loDi not having any aentence of attaint Ksinit them were elearlv qnalifled to sit on inyjurr. Northumberland then plendrd |uilty,anu he, with sirThonias I'niuicr and lir John dates were executed. At the scaf- fold Northumberland professed to die in the ettholio faith, and assured the bystand- er! that tliev would never prosper until the esihelic religion should be restored to all iti authority among them. Considering the whole character of Northumberland ud the indifference he had always shown M disputes of faith, it ia but too probable that even in these his dying words lie was iniincere, and used them (o cngaite t be mer- cy of the queen, whose bigotry they nii,!;ht |latter,towards his unfortunate family. Upon the people his advice wrought no effect. Many looked upon the preparations for his death merely with a cold unpitying stem- aeia, atill more shouted to him to remem- ber Soiiieraet, and some even held up to him handkerchiefs incrusted with the blood of that nobleman, and exulted, rather like tcndi thnn men, that his hour of a like bloody doom was nt len^cih arrived. Lord Guildford Dudley and the lady Jane were alio condemned to death, but their youth and, perhaps, Mary's feeling of the impolicy of extreme severity to criminals who had so evidently offended under the constraint and tutelage of Northumberland, •aved them fur the present— alas I onli/ for the present I The reign of Mary contains so little upon which the historian can bestow even nega- tive praiae, that it is pleasing to be able to remark that the very earliest portion of her rcJKn, if stained with the bloodshed of (i necessary justice, was also marked by some acts of justice and gratitude. AVhen she arrived at the Tower of Loudon and made her triumphant entry into that fortress, the duke of Norfolk, who had been in prison from the close of the reign of Henry VIII., Courtney, son of the marquis of Exeter, who ever since his father's attainder bad been in the same confinement, though when he entered it he was a mere cliild and there was no shadow of a charge against him, with bishops Gardiner, Bonner, and Tonstal, were allowed to meet her on theTower green, where they fell uponlheir knees before her, and implored her grace and protection. They were ri'storud to liberty immediately | Norfolk's attainder was removed a* having been ub oriffine null and invalid. and Court- ney waa made earl of Devonsiiire. Oar- diner, llonncr, and Tonstal were reappoint- ed to their sees by a commission which was appointed to review their trial and condem- nation ; and Day, Heath, and Vesy recovered their sees by the same means. The queen's seal fur the catholic religion now begun to show itself. Holgate, arch- bishop of York, Coverdale, to whom the reformation owed so much, Ridley, Hooper, and Latimer, were speedily thrown into prison ; and the bishops and priesta were exhorted and encouraged to revive the mass, though the laws against it were still in un- repealed force. Judp IIiilcs, who had so well and lealously dvl'eiidi'd the right of the princess Mary when her brother desired him to draw the patent which was to ex- clude her from the thrune, opposed the ille- gal practices which queen Mary now sanc- tioned, iill his former merits were forgotten in this new proof of his genuine and uncom- promising honesty ; he was thrown into pri- son, and there treated with auch merciless cruelty and insult, that he lost his aenset and committed suicide. It will be remembered that the leal of the men of Suffolk, during Marv's retreat at Framlingham, was stimulated by her point- ed and repeated assurances that she would in no wise alter the laws of her brother Ed- ward, as to relijfion. These simple and ho- nest men, seeing the gross partiality and tyranny by whicli the queen now sought to depress the nrotestants, ventured to re- mind her of her former promises. Their remonstrance was received as thongh it had been some monstrous and seditious matter, and one of them continuing bis ad- dress with a somewhat uncourtlv pertina- city was placed in the pillory for his pains. Cranuier, archbishop of Canterbury, was by the change of sovereigns placed in a most perilous position. It is true that du- ring the life of Henry VIII. Cranmer had often and zealously exerted himself to pre- vent that monarch's rage from being felt by the princess Mary. Uut Mary's gratitude as a woman was but little security against her bigotry as a religionist; and any ser- vices tlint Cranmer had rendered her were likely enough to be forgotten, in considera- tion of the discouragements he had dealt to her religion in his character of champion as well as child of the reformation. No- thing, prnhiibly, could have snvKd Cranmer but utter silence and resig^nation of his see, or immediate emigration. But Cranmer was too hearty and sincere in liis love of the reformed religion, and, perhaps, was also too contidcut of its success, even now tliat Rome was backed by the power and zeal of the queen, to be in anywise minded for> craven silence or retreat. His enemies per> ceiving that as yet he had met with no sig- nal affront or injury from the queen, spread a report that he owed hia safety and proba- ta B a b n « m A M m M M t) D ■ 5 M ■ if M S & H h 5 u M It O M >) f ■ H B M M u te M a H ilLKS, TEI.VF,TS, AND CLOTH OF OOLD WERB IMPOHTRO FROM ITAT.T. A. S. 1663. — TBM COMFOBATION OF LONDON LINO THN QVBCN 30,000{. a I. 312 Vt'^t TfTrcasuri) of l^istors, $cc. ble favour to his having promiaed to lay mas* before Mary. Situated as Cranmer was, it would have been his wisest plan to have listensd to this iusalting report with contemptuous silence, and to have relied upon his well earned character to refute the calumny to all whose judgment was of any real consequence. But the archbishop thought otherwise, and he hastesBd to pub- lish a manifesto in which he gave the most unqualified contradiction to the report. Nav, be did not stop even here ; not content with vindicating himself he entered more generally into the matter, and thus gave his enemies that very handle against him which they so eagerly wished for. He said, after contradicting the charge, that "as the devil was a liar from the beginning, and the father of lies, he had at this time stir- red up his servants to persecute Christ and his true religion ; that this infernal spirit was now endeavouring to restore the Latin satisfactory masses, a thing of his own in- vention and device ; and, in order to effect his purpose, had falsely made use of his, Cranmer's name and authority;" and Cran- mer added, that "the mass is not only without foundation in either the scriptures or the practice of the primitive church, but likewise discovers a plain contradiction to antiquity acd the inspired writings, and is, besiaes, replete with many horrid blas- phemies." However much we may admire the general character of Cranmer— though it was by uo means without its blemishes — it is impossi- ble for the most zealous and sincere protes- tants to deny that, under the circumstances of the nation, many of the passages we have quoted were grossly offensive ; and equally impossible is it to deny that under Cranmer's now personal circumstances they were an grossly and gratuitously impolitic. His enemies eagerly availed themselves of his want of temper or of policy, and used this really coarse and inflammatory paper as a means by which to induce the queen to throw him into prison for the share he bad had in the usurpation of the lady Jane, about which he otherwise would probably have remained unquestioned. Merely as the protestant archbishop, Cranmer had more than enough of enemies in the house of peers to ensure his being found guilty, and ne was sentenced to death on the charge of high treason. He was not, however, as might have been expected, immediately and upon this sentence put to death, but com- mitted back to close custody, where he was kept, as will soon be seen, for a still more cruel doom. Every day made it more and more evi- dent that the pi attestants had nothing tri expect but the utmost severity of persecu- tion, and many even of the most eminent of their preachers began to look abroad and to exile for safety. Peter Martyr, who in the late prosperity of the reformers had been formally and with much pressing invited to £ni;land, now applied to the council for permission to return to his own country. At first the council seemed much mclincd to refuse compliance with ih<> reasonable request. But Gardiner, with, spirit which makes us the more reirret that bigotry ever induced him to act less tew rously, represented that as Peter had he#n invited to England by the government. hU departure could not be opposed withont the utmost national disgrace. Nor did Gardiner'a generosity end here t havS. obtained Peter's permission to leave the realm, he supplied him with monev to travel with. The bones of Peter MartTt*! wife were shortly afterwards torn from the grave at Oxford, and buried in a dunirhill • and the university of Cambridge about the same time disgraced itself by exhumine the bones of Buccr and Fagius, two eminent foreign reformers who had been buried there in the late reign. John it Laico and his congregation were now ordered to de- part the kingdom, and most of the foreign Protestants took so significant a hint and followed them; by which the country nu deprived of its most skilful and industrioui artizans just at they were giving a uaefiil and extensive impulse to its manufactotei The temper manifested by the court, tnd the sudden departure of the foreign pro. testants, greatly alarmed the protestanti in general ; and many of the English of that communion followed the example set them by their foreign brethren, and fled from a land which every thing seemed to threatra with the most terrible and speedy troables. The meeting of parliament by no meant improved the prospects of the protestanti. It has already been remarked that, however completely the reformation might have seemed to be triumphant, there was some- thing like a moiety, at least, of the nation that was still in heart attached to the old faith. To these the court could add as practical friends that large body which in all times and in all countries is ready to side with the dominant party ; there was consequently no difficulty experienced in getting such men returned to parliament as would be pliant tools in the hands of Mary and her ministers. To the dismay of the protestants, though it would be to im- peach their sagacity should we say that it was to their surprise also, parliament waa opened not by prayer after the reformed ordinance, but by the celebration of mass in the Latin tongue. Taylor, bisliop of Lin- coln, more sincere, or at all events more courageous than some of his brethren, ho- nestly refused to kneel at this mass, and was in consequence very rudely assailed by some of the catholic zealots, and at length actually thrust from the house. After following the good example of the parliament of the last reign in passing; an act by which all law of treason was limited to the statute of Edward III. and all law of felony to the law as it stood before (I Umtj VIII.) the parliament pronounced thequeen legitimate, annulled the divorce pronoun- ced by Cranmer between Catherine of Ar- ragon and Henry VIII., and severely cen- sured Cranmer rn account of that divorce, It is a little singular that even the acute ALI> PBRSONS PHOUIBITRD TO FRBACH WITHODT TUB QIJEBN'S LICBNSB. BBICKS WIKB BUT LITTI.B UIID IM BUILDIHA, BBINO TOO XXTBRIITB lEnglantf.— I^ouse o( ^utjor.— ittarn. 313 Hnme has not noticed the inconaistencjr with which Mary bv the vote of her parlia- ment, which in reality was her vote aa the members were her mere creature*, denied the infallibility and upset the decision of that holy see, the iufallibility of which she preicribed to her subjects on pain of the stake and the tar barrel I Continuing in the same hopeful course, the parliament now at one fell swoop, and by a single vote, repealed all thou etatute* of king Edward teith reepeet to religion, tokiek Mary had again and again, and $ome- time$ even voluntarily, eaid that nothing $kould induce her to dieturb I Dicers' oaths and lovers' vows are not more frail than the promises of a bigot 1 Mary, who even in her first youth had no feminine beauty to boaat, was considerably above thirty years of age, indeed fast ap- proaching to forty— that decline of life to even the most brilliant personal charms— when she ascended the throne ; and when her parliament showed its anxiety as to her msrriaee she herself appeared to be fully as anxious. Courtney, son of the marquis of Exeter, whom she liberated from the Tower at her accession and created earl of Devon, was at that time a very young man, and possessed not only great perfection of manlv beauty, but also, dispite his long and dreary imprisonment, all those graces and accomplishments which are so rarely to be acquired elsewhere than at court. The queen was fio favourably impressed by hia manners and appearance, that she form- ed the idea of raising him to the dignity of her husband; and as her situation would have rendered any advances on his part presumptuous, she not only showed him all possible personal distinction, but even caused official hints to be given to him of the favour with which he might hope for his highest aspirations being received. But Courtney was youngand romantic, and Mary was not only disagreeable in face and figure, and repulsive in manner, but was also very ■early old enough to be his mother, and he showed not the slightest intention of pro- fiting by the amorous condescension of his sovereign. Enraged that he should neglect her, she was still more enraged when she discovered that he was a close attendant upon her sister Elizabeth, then ih her tirst flush of youth. The parliament, by an- nulling the divorce of Mary's mother, had virtuafly pronounced Elizabeth'* illegiti- macy; and as Mary on discovering Court- ney's partiality to that princess exhibited extreme annovance and laid her under great restriction, Elizabeth's friends began to be seriously alarmed for even her personal safety, especially as her attachment to the reformed religion could not fail to increase the hatred called down upon her by the attachment of Courtney to nerself. Despairing of making any impression upon the youthful fancy of the earl of Devon, Mary now bestowed a passing glance at the graver and more elderly at- tractions of the cardinal Pole. It is true be was a cardinal, but he had never taken priest's orders. He was a man of high character for wisdom and humanity, and yet had suffered much for his attachment to the catholic church, of which on the death of pope Paul III., he had nearly ob- tained the highest honour ; and bis mother, that old countess of Salisbury who was so brutally beheaded by order of Henrv VIII., had been a most kind and belawea gover- ness to Mary in her girlhood. But the car- dinal was somewhat too far advanced in life to please Mary, and it was, more- over, hinted to her by her friends, that he was now too long habituated to a quiet and studious life to be able to recuncile himself to the glitter and bustle of the court. But though she rejected Pole as a husband, she resolved to have the benefit of his abilities as a minister, and she ac- cordingly sent assurances to Pope Julius III. of her anxious desire to reconcile her kingdom to the holy see, and requested that cardinal Pole might be appointed le- gate to arrange that important business. Charles V., the emperor, who but a few vears before was master of all Germany, had recently met with severe reverses both in Germany and France, in which latter country he was so obstinately resisted by the duke of Guise, that he was at length obliged to retire with the remnant of his dispirited army into the Low Countries. Far seeingand ambitious, Charles no sooner heard of the accession of Mary to the throne of England, than he formed the de- sign of making the gain of that kingdom compensate for the losses he had sustained in Germany. His son Philip was a widower, and though he was only twenty-seven yeara of age, and eleven years Mary's junior, the emperor determined to demand her hand for his son, and sent over an agent for that purpose. If Mary had looked with favour upon Courtney's person, and had felt a passing attachment excited by the mental endowments of cardinal Pole, Philip had the double recommendation of being a zeal- ous catholic, and of her mother's familv. Thus actuated by bigotry and by family feeling, and being, moreover, by no means disinclined to matrimony, Mary gladly en- tertained the proposal, and was seconded by the advice not only of Norfolk, Arundel, and Paget, but also of Gardiner, whose years, wisdom, and the prosecutions he had endured for Catholicism had given him the greatest possible authority in her opinion. Gardinejr, at the same time, strongly and wisely dissuaded the queen from further proceeding in her enterprize of making in- novations in religion. He well observed that an alliance with Spain was already more than sufficiently unpopular; that the parliament, amidst all its complaisance and evident desire to make all reasonable concessions to the person^ wishes and feelings of the sovereign, nevertheless had lately shown strong unwillingness to make any farther concession to Uome. He ar- gued, too, that whereas any precipitate measures in religion just at this time would greatly, perhaps even fatally, increase the b •■ e a m o K S M * a m u a H ■ U H H K a < a o o CRIMNIKS TO A BOUSR WRRR AT TUIB TIMB 8CABCET.T KlfOWIT. [2S A. S. 16S4.— A TBIATV OF MAKniAaS BBTWBXII MAET AND PBIUV OP ■rAIM. 314 ^l^e treasure o{ l^istorp, $rc. Erejudice against the Spauish al- at alliance when once brought abont'would.contrariwite, enable the queen, nnresisted, to work her own will in the other and far more important measure. To the emperor Gardiner transmitted the same reasonings, with the additional hint that it was necessary that, ostensibly or tempora- rily at least, the terms and conditions of the marriage should be such as to secure the favour of the English populace, by ap- pearing to be even more than fairly favour- able to English interests. The emperor, who had a very high opinion of Pole's sa- gacity and judgment, not only assented to all that he advised, but even enforced his advice as to religious moderation, at least for that time, in his own private letters to Mury. He even went still larther ; for being informed that Pole, the sincerity and fer- vour of whose religious ceal not unfre- quently triumphed over his great natural humanity, had sent Mary advice to proceed with rigour against open heresy, the em- Keror detained Pole at the town of Dilling- en, on the Danube, as he was on his way to England, lest his presence should pre- vent Mary from following his more pacific and politic counsels. The parliament having openly expressed a dislike of Mary's proposed marriage with a son of Spain, was dismissed, and Mary's ministers had orders to press the match on to a conclusion. The cjnvocation, which had been summoned at the same timeas the parliament, was not contented with a general profession and exhibition of its attachment to the new order of things that Mary had so rapidly introduced, but the catholic part of it coldly volunteered to put the capital article between them and the catholics, transubstantiation, into dis- pute. The protestants argued, but could rarely be heard, through the clamour raised by their adversaries, who finally, being the majority, complacently voted that they had clearly and decidedly triumphed. This triumph— at least of voices and numbers, if not of fair argument— so elated the Ro- manists, that they soon after renewed the dispute at Oxford, and as if to show how secure they held themselves to be of the victory, they caused Cranmcr, Latimer, and Ridlev to be conveyed thither under a guard to take their parts in the debate, which ended, as may be anticipated, in the com- plete verbal triumph of the catholics. A. D. 1554.— The complaisance of the par- liament, and the formal debates on religion that had been initiated by Romanist mem- bers of convocation, were merely prelusive to still farther and more sweeping altera- tions in religion, which were made in defi- ance of all that the emperor and the astute Gardiner could urge to the contrary. It is true — and the fact confirms what we have more than once said as to the wide differ- ence between the apparent and the real number of protestants existing during the two previous reigns — the mere connivance of government had in most parts of England •ufficed to encourage the people to set aside the reformation in the most important oar ticulars. But after the dismissal of parha" ment, the new regulations of Mwv or rather ner new enactments of old abuses were every where, openly, and by formal au! hority, carried into execution. Mass was re-established, three-fourths of the clerev men, being attached to reformed principles were turned out of their livings, and re- placed by lealous or seemingly lealous Romanists, and marriage was once again declared to be incompatible with the hold- ing of any sacred office. The oath of su' premacy was enjoined by the unrepealed law of Henry Vlll., but it was an instruc- tion to a commission which the queen now authorized to see to the more perfect and speedy re-establishment of mass and the other ancient rites, that clergymen should strictly be prohibited from tiding the oath of supremacy on entering benefices. While Mary was thus busied in preparing the way for laying her kingdom once more at the feet of the haughty pontiffs of Rome the discontents :;hus caused were still far! ther increased by the fears, some well found- ed and some vague, but no less powerful on that account, excited in the public mind on account of the Spanish match. On the part of the court, in compliance with the sagacious advice of Gardiner, great care was taken to insert nothing in the marriage articles, which were publisher'., that could at all fairly be deemed unfavourable to England. Thus it was stipulated, that though the title of king should be accorded to Philip, the administration should be entirely in the queen ; that no otiice whatever in the king- dom should be tenable by a foreigner; that English laws, customs and privileges should remaij unaltered; that the queen should not be taken abroad by Philip without her own consent, nor any of her children without that of the nobility ; that a jointure of sixty thousand pounds should be securely settled upon the queen; that the male issue, if any, of the marriage should inherit not ouly England, but also Burgundy and the Low Countries in any case, and that in tlie case of the death of Don Carlos, son of Philip, such male issue of Philip and Mary should also inherit Spain, Sicily, Milan,' and all other the dominions of Philip. Every day's experience serves to show that it is quite possible to carry policy too far, and to cause the sincerity of concession to be suspected from its very excess. If we may suppose that men so sagacious as the emperor and Gardiner were rendered by their anxiety temporarily forgetful of this truth, the public murmuring ver; speedily reminded them of it. The people, with that intuitive sagacity which seems the special provision for the safety of the unlettered multitude, analogous to the ii-.- stinct of the lower animals, exclaimed tha.' the emperor, in his greedy and tyrannous anxiety to obtain possession of so rich yet hated a country as heretical England, would doubtless accede to any terms. As a papist and a Spaniard he would promise anything N a i t " I ji k Kl 9 I U S I e N m m t f u IS 4 rniMP WAR SON OP rna BMrvRon, Ann mtia to tub Spanish crown. A.V.\S64.— MJi»» rVBLICLT BKSTOniD IH ALL CBDBCnES AND CiIAPILS. lEnglanU.— I^ouse of ©utJor.—JWnrB. 315 now with the full determiaation of re^ Toking every thing the moment he should baTe concluded the desired match; and tlie more favourable, argued the people, the term* now published were to England, the ireatcr the probability that the emperor nad his son would revoke them at the very first opportunity, if, indeed, they were not already provided with secret articles autho- tizing them to do so. To the fraud and ambition of the eniuerof the popular report said that Philip added suUenness, haufphti- ness, cruelty, and a domineering disposition peculiarly hie own. That the death of the emperor would put Philip in possession of bis father's dominions was clear ; the people assumed it to be equally so that England would from that moment become a mere province of Spain ; that Englishmen equally with (he other suhjects of Spain would then be subjected to all the tender mercies of the ioquisition, and that the Spanish dli- ance and the utter ruin of England and en- slaving of all Englishmen were but different terms and formula in which to enunciate the same thing. To a people already discontented, as the protestants of England were, with the re- cent and sudden changes made in religious aShirs, such arguments as these could not be addressed with any art or industry with- out be! - j)ro('uctive of great effect. Every dr^ ''nrr 'ed the general dislike of the pebpi' (> ; Spanish match. The more prudctt .1;' wen those who in principle were t t<" ". ' .>eply and sincerclv opposed to the c^ii.ciuplated marriage, did not, in- deed, see that the mere anticipation of evil to come, and an anticipation, too, which was quite opposed to the avowed purposes of the emperor and Philip, could warrant an open resistance. But the reasonable and the just are seldom the minority where either the feelings or the interests of man- kind are very much aroused and appealed to; and a few men of some note were soon found to place themselves at the head of the discontented, with the avowed intention of appealing to arms rather than allon ing themselves to become the bond-slaves of the Spaniard. Had France at this critical juncture taken advantage of Mary's difti- cultica and want of popularity, it is very probable that her reign would have ended here, and that her memory would have been saved from the indelible stains of much and loathsome cruelty. But the king of France, though at war with Philip, would lend no aid to an English insurrection. Perhaps he felt that Mary, aided as she was certain to be by Spain, would surely put down any attempts at insurrection, in which case she, of course, would aid the emperor against France ; and to this motive we may nut unreasonably be supposed to have added that feeling for the rights of sovereignty over subjects, which even the hostility of sovereigns can rarely banish from their hearts. From whatever motives, however, the king of France did refuse to aid the English in their proposed resistance to their sovereign's alliance with Philip of Spain. But this did not damp the enthu- siasm of the leading opponents of the Spanish alliance. Sir Thomas Wyatt offered to raise and head the malcontents of Kent, and Sir Peter Carew those of Devonshire; and they persuaded the duke of Suffolk to raise the midland counties, by assuring him that their chief object was to re invest the lady Jane with the crown. A time was fixed for the simultaneous action of these leaders ; and had the compact been punctually kept, it is more than probable that the enterpnse would have been fully successful. But air Peter Carew, in his exceeding eagerness, rose before the appointed time, and being, in consequence, unsupported by Wyatt and the duke of Suffolk, was beaten at the first onset by the earl of Bedford, and with diffi- culty made his escape to France. Suffolk, on hearing of Carew'a failure and flight, left town, accompanied by his brothers, lord Thomas and sir Leonard Grav, and pro- ceeded to the counties of Warwick and Leicester, where his chief influence lay. But he was hotly pursued by a party of horse under the earl of Huntingdon, and being overtaken before he could raise suffi- cient force for resistance, was obliged to disperse his few followers and conceal him- self. Accident or treachery soon discovered his hiding place, and he was sent under an escort to London. AYyatt, in the mean- time, raised the standard of revolt at Maid- stone, in Kent, where he issued a passionate proclamation, inviting the people to aid him in removing evil councillors from about the queen, and to prevent the utter ruin of the nation which must needs follow the com- Eletion of the S^ianisli match. Great num- crs of persons joined him, and among them some catholics, as he had dexterously omit- ted from his proclamation all mention of religion. The duke of Norfolk, at the head of the queen's guards and some other troops, reinforced by live hundred Londoners under the command of Brett, marched against the revolted and came up with them at Roches- ter. Here sir George Harper, who had been with Wyatt, pretended to desert to the duke, but quicKly returned to Wyatt, carry- ing with him Brett and his Londoners, upon whom sir George's eloquence so wrought, that they professed their preference of death to aiding in the enslavement of their coun- try. Norfolk, fearing that this desertion might mislead the rest of his force, now retreated, and Wyatt marched to South- wark, whence he sent to demand that the Tower should be placed in his hands, that the queen should free the nation from all terror of Spanish tyranny by marrying an Englishman, and that four councillors should forthwith be placed in his hands as hostages for the performance of these con- ditions. While Wyatt was wasting his time in sending this demand and awaiting a reply, Norfolk had secured London bridge, and had taken eflectual steps to overawe the Londoners and prevent them from joining Wyatt. Perceiving his error when too late, Wyatt now marched to Kingston, where he a m m m m » M * o •* O 1 H M H ■ H H a M M u M A f * M at M >] M < I a A. D. 1554. — CHARMER, BIDLET, AND LATIMIB BXCOMHURICATBD. turn WATCurvL jbalovit or hxbt >Naai«oBmBD ueb wobit oaiMBi. 316 ^^e CrcasutQ of l^istorg, ^t. croiied the river, and made his way unre- ■itted into Weitroiniter. Here, however, hit follower! rapidly deserted him, and he was encountered and seised in the Strand, near Temple-bar, by sir Maurice Berkeley. Vast numbers of the deluded countrymen were at the same time seised, and as the queen's rage was proportioned to the fear and peril to which she had been subjected, the executions that followed were horribly numerous. It is said, that not less than four hundred of the captured wretches were put to death in cold blood ; four hundred more were condemned, but being led before the queen with halters on their necks, they knelt to her and implored her grace, which was granted. Wyatt, the prime mover of this revolt, was executed, as a matter of course. On the scaffold he took care to exonerate, in tite most unequivocal terms, from all participation or even knowledge of his proceedings the lady Elizabeth and the earl of Devon, whom Mary's jealous hatred had endeavoured to connect with this ill- starred and ill-managed revolt. Thev were both seised and stnctly examined by the council, but Wyatt's manly and precise de- claration defeated whatever latent there might have been to employ false witnesses to convict them with his rash proceedings. But though Mary was thus prevented from proceeding to the last extremity against them, she sent Elisabeth under strict sur- veillance to Woodstock, and the earl of Devon to Potheringay castle. To Elisa- beth, indeed, immediate release was offered, on condition of her accepting the hand of the duke of Savoy, and thus relieving her sister from her presence in the kingdom ; but Elisabeth knew how to " bide her time," and she quietly, but positively, re- fused the proffered alliance. All this time lord Guildford Dudley and the lady Jane had remained imprisoned, but unmolested and unnoticed. The time which had elapsed without any proceedings being taken against them, beyond tlieir mere confinement, led every one to sup- pose that their youth, and the obvious re- straint under which they had acted, had determined Mary not to punish them be- yond inipiisonment, and that she would terminate even that when she safely could do so. But the imprudent, nay, the situa- tion of his daughter and her husband being considered, the wicked connection of the duke of Suffolk with Wyatt's revolt, aroused in Mary that suspicion which was no less fatal to its objects than her biKotry. Jane now anew appeared to her in the character of a competitor for the throne. That she was not wilfully so, that she was so closely confined that she could not by any possi- bility correspond with the disaffected, wore arguments to which Mary attached no im- portance. To her it was enough that this innocent creature, even now a mere girl and wishing for nothing so much as the quiet and studious morcd life in which her earlier nrlhood had been passed, might possibly DC made the pretext for future re- volt. The lord Guildford Dudley and lady Jane were, consequently, warned that the day was fixed for their execution. Subae quently the queen bestowed the cruel mercy of a reprieve for three days, on the plea that she did not wish, while inflictini bodily death on Jane, to peril her eternal salvation. The unhappy lady was, there- fore, during the short remnant of her life importuned and annoyed by catholic prieats who were sent by the queen to endeavour to convert her to their faith. But she sltil- fully and coolly used all the arguments then in use to defend the reformed faith, and even wrote a Greek letter to her sister, ad- juring her to persevere in the true faith whatever perils might environ her. ' It was at first intended to behead both the prisoners at the same time and on the same scaffold. On reflection, motives of policy caused the queen to alter this de- termination ; and it was ordered that the lord Guildford should first be executed on Tower-hill, and the lady Jane shortly after- wards within the precincts of the Tower, where she was confined. On the morning appointed for this double murder, lord Guildford sent to his young and unfortunate wife, and requested sn interview to take an earthly farewell ; but Jane, with a more masculine and self-poa- sessed prudence, declined it, on the ground that their approaching fate required the full attention of each, and that their brief and bloody separation on earth would be followed by an eternal union. From her prison window the lady Jane saw her youth- ful husband led out to execution, and shortiv afterwards saw his headless body brought back in a common cart. Even this sad spectacle, instead or shaking her firmness, did but the more confirm and strengthen a constancy which was founded not upon mere constitution, but upon long, serious, and healthv study. Her own dread hour had at length ar- rived, and sir John Sage, the constable of the Tower, on summoning her to the scaffold, begged her to bestow some gift upon him n'liich he might keep as a per- petual inemoria! of her. She gave him lier tables in which, on seeing the dead body of her husband, she had written a sentence in Greek, Latin, and English, to the effect that though human justice was against her husband's body, the divine mercy would be favourable to his soul ; that, for herself, if her fault deserved punishment, her youth, at least, and her imprudence, were wortliy of excuse, and that she trusted for favour to God and to posterity. Gn the scaffold she blamed herself not for ever having wished for the crown, but for not having firmly refused to act upon the wislies of oti-ers in reaching at it. She confessed herself worthy of death, and, being disrobed by her female attendants, calmly and unshrinkingly submitted her- self to her fatal doom. The duke of Suffolk and lord Thomas Gray were shortly afterwards executed for their share in Wyatt's revolt. Sir Nicholai Throgmorton was tried in Guildhall for the a H B is H h e k a e N I. B u M N a ■ a H a e h e « K M a S| *1 £1 ► : Si e : <> ' ii « a N H A.D. 1654— THB QVFKIV MAKKS AN ADDRESS TO THB CITISKNS AT OUILDHAIL. ta> roRCi or bad ixAMrLii it wmMonAtiT with tbb wobit o» cbimbi. lEnglanti.— 1|ottse of ®tit>or.— iWatfi. 817 lame offence, but there being little or no nidence agaltitt him, his eloquent and acute defence led the jury io acquit him. With an arbitrary and insolent stretch of prerogative that now teems almost incre- dible, Mary, enraged at the acquittal, not only recommitted sir Nicholas to the Tower, where she kept him for a considerable lime, but she even had the Jury tent to prison, and 6ned from one to two thousand pounds each I The end the had in view in thia abominably tyrannoua conduct, however, was fully achieved. Thenceforth jurora were little prone to acquit the unhappy gen- tlemen who, no matter how loosely, were charged with participation in the affair of Wyatt. Many were condemned merely in consequence of the terrors of their jurors, and among them was sir John Throgmor- ton, brother to sir Nicholas. Arrests took place every day, the Tower and other places of confinement were filled with nobles and gentlemen, whose offence^ was that they chanced to be popular; the affection of the people being a deadly offence to the queen, who felt that she was loathed by them, and who felt so little secure against a new out- break, that she sent out commissioners to disarm them, and lay up the teized arms in her strong holds. In the midst of this gloomy state of things, the parliament was called upon to invest the queen with the power which had formerly been granted to her father, of dis- poting of the crown at her decease. Gar- diner took care to dwell upon the prece- dent afforded by the power given to Henry VIII., and he had little fear of success be- cause, independent of the general terror caused by the queen's merciless and san- guinary proceedings, the good-will of nu- merous members of parliantent had been Surchased by the distribution of fourhun- red thousand crowns, which the emperor had sent over for that purpose. But neither terror nor purchased com- plaisance could blind the house to the I'aots, that the queen detested Elizabeth, and that the legitimacy of the queen must imply the bastardy of Elizabetli The nmnuer, too, in which Oardti:er in the course of his speech avoided mentioning Elizabeth, excepting merely as " the lady Elizabeth," aud without styling her the queen's sister, couflrnied the suspicion that, once invested with the power which she now claimed, the queen would declare l^li- tabeth illegitimate, and by making a will, bequeathing the throne to Philip, hand over the nation to all that Spanish tyranny of which such terrible nuticipatious had been and still were entertained. As if to strengthen all other grounds of suspicion of Mary's intention, the hirelings i and parasites of Philip were just now, as i zealously as imprudently, busy in dwelling : upon Pliilip's descent from the house of LHncaster, and representing him — taking Elizabeth's bastardy as a niattt^r of course —as the next heir to Mary by right of de- scent. Great then as from fear or favour, was the desire of the whole parliament to gra> tify the queen, the determination not to throw the nation bound and blindfolded into the hands of the Spaniard was ttiU greater. They not only refuted to pait the bill to give Mary the power to will away the throne, but when another bill wat intro- duced to make it treasonable to imagine or attempt the death of the queen's hutband while the lived, they coullv laid it atide; and that Philip might not be led to com- plete the marriage by any lingering hope of possessing any authority in the nation which was unhappy enougn to have Mary for its queen, the bouse passed a law enact- ing, " That her majesty, as their only queen, should solely and as a soie queen enjoy the crown and sovereignty of her realms, with all the pre-eminences, dignities, and rights thereto belonging, in as large and ample a manner after her marriage as before, with- out anj title or claim accruing to the prince of Spain, either as tenant by courtesy of the realm or by any other means." Having thus, as far as was in their power, limited and discouraged the dangerous am- bition of the cruel and bigoted Philip, the parliament passed the ratification of the articles of marriage, which, indeed, were drawn to favourably to England, that no reasonable objection could have been made to them. As nothing more could be extorted or bribed from parliament with respect to the Sueen't marriage, its attention was now irected to matters connected with religion. The bishopric of Durham, which had been divided in the reign of Edward, and which by an arbitrary edict of the queen had al- ready been re-conferred upon Tonstal, was now re-erected by act of parliament. Some bills were also introduced for revising the laws against Lollardy, erroneous preaching, and heresy in general, and for the suppres- sion of books containing heterodox opi- nions. But here again, to its credit, tlie parliament was both discriminating and tirn:; the bills were thrown out; and the queen perceiving that neither Philip's gold nor the terrors of her more sanguinary con- duct could make this parliament, at least, suittciently pliant and slavish for her pur- puses, the suddenly and sullenly dis- solved it. CHAPTER XliV. The Reign of Mauy (continued). Mabv's age, and some consciousness, per- haps of the addition made by her fearful temper to the natural homeliness of her fea- tures, had tended to make the acquisition of a young and illustrious husband all the more eagerly desired, for its very improba- bility; and though she had seen only the portrait of her future husband, she had con- trived to become so enamoured of him, that when the preliminaries of the marriage were all aiiranged, and the arrival of the prince was hourly expected, every delay and every obstacle irritated her almost to phrenzy. Though at a matter of ambition Philip wat e n X M H hb ohubcu." 318 ^^c ^reasuts of l^istore, $cc. ▼erjr dealrous of the match, a* a simple mat- ter of love he was, at the verv least, indif- ferent I and even the proverbial hauteur and ■olemnitjr of the Spanish character could not sufficiently account for the cold neglect which caused him to forbear from even fa- vouring bis future wife and queen with a letter, to account for delays which, in spite of her doating fondness, Mary could not but believe that the prince might easily have put an end to had his impatience been at all e<|ttal to her own. From blaming Philip, the impatient fondness so rare as well as so unbecoming at her advanced period of life, caused her to turn her resentment against her subjects, to whose opposition she chose to impute that indifference on the part of the prince, which really arose from dislike of her repulsive and prematurely aged per- son. A circumstance now occurred which greatly increased the queen's anger against her suojects, and whicu probably, in so sul- lam and resentful a nature as hers, did much to fan into a flame that fierce bigotry which subsequently lit the fires of persecution in every county in England, and left scarcely a village without its martyr and its mourn- ing. A squadron had been fitted out, and the command was given to lord Effingham, to convoy the prince to England ; but so unpopular was the service, and such strong symptoms appeared of a determined spirit of mutiny among the sailors, that lord Ef- fingham frankly informed the queen that he did not think the prince would be safe in their hands, and tne squadron was at once disbanded. But this measure, though indispensably necessary under the circum- stances, brought no peace to the mind of the queen, for she now dreaded not merely the inevitable dangers of the sea, but also that her husband should be intercepted by the French fleet. The slightest rumour so heightened her self-torturing, that she was frequently thrown into convulsions ; and not merely was her bodily health affected in the most injurious degree, but even her mind began to be affected to a very perceptible ex- tent. Hypochondriac and pitiably nervous, she became painfully conscious of her want of beauty ; tliough, with the usual self-flat- tery, she ascribed the repulsive aspect pre- sented to her by her unflattering mirror wholly tu her recent sufferings. From being frantically impatient for the arrival of Phi- lip, the unhappy queen now became des- ponding, and dreaded lest on his arrival he should And her displeasing. At length the object of so many hopes and fears' arrived ; the marriage was uub- li<;ly and with great pomp performed at Winchester; and when Philip had made a public entry into London, and dazzled the eyes of the gazers with the immense riches he had brought over, Mary hurried him away to the comparative seclusion of Wind- sor. This seclusion admirably suited the Erince, whose behaviour, from the day of is arrival, was as well calculated as though it had been purposely intended, to conHrin all the unfavourable opinions that had been formed of him. In his manner he was dis- tant, not with shyness but withoverweeninr disdain ; and the bravest and wisest of the oldest nobility of England had the mortil. cation to see him pass them without mani festing by glance, word, or gesture, that he was conscious of their respect, salutations or even their presence. The unavoidablv wearisome etiquette of court was now to much increased by Spanish formalities, that both Philip and Mary may almost be said to have been inaccessible. This circum- stance, however disgusting to subjects, was in the highest degree pleasing to the queen ■ having at length possessed herself of her husband, she was unwilling that any one should share his company with her for a moment. More like a love-sick girl than a hard-featured and hard-hearted woman of forty, she could not bear the prince to be out of her sight ; his shortest absence annoyed her, and if he showed the com* moncst courtesy to any of the court ladies her jealousy was instantly shown to him', and her resentment to the fair who had' been so unfortuate as to be honoured with his bare civility. The womanly observation of Mary soon convinced her that the only way to Philip'a heart was to gratify his ambition ; and sbe was abundafitly ready to purchase his love, or the semblance of it, even at the price of the total sacrifice of tlie liberties and inte- rests of the whole English people. By means of Gardiner she used both fear and hope, both power and gold, to get membere returned in her entire interests to a new parliament which she now summoned ; and the returns were such as to promise that, in the existing temper of the nation, which had not yet forgotten the sanguinary pu. nishment of the revolt under Wyatt, she might safely make her next great onward movement towards the entire restoration of Catholicism and the establishment of her own absolute power. Cardinal Pole, who was now in Flanders, invested with the office of legate, only awaited the removal of the attainder passed against him in the reign of Henry VIII. The parliament readily passed an act for that purpose, and the legate immediately came to England, when, after waiting on Philip and Mary, he presented himself to parliament, and formally invited the Eue- lish nation to reconcile itself to the holy see from which, said the legate, it had been so long and so unhappily separated. The well-trained parliament readily ac- knowledged and professed to deplore the defection of England, and presented an ad- dress to Philip and Mary, intreating them, as being uninfected by the general guilt, to intercede with the holy father for their for- giveness, and at the same time declared their intention to repeal all laws that were preju- dicial to the church of Rome. The legate readily gave absolution to the parlianien'. and people of England, and received tliem into the communion of Borne ; and pope Julius III. with grave and bitter mocKcry observed, when the formal thanks of the nation were conveyed to him, that the Eng- ruiLiF WAS lit TUB 29Ta, uAar in tub SStb vbah or bbb agb. A. D. 1354.— raiLir and naht haki thbib bmtkt into LoifooR, aus. 12. lEnglantl.— I^ousf of ©ullor.— JWaro. 319 liib b«d v^range notion of things that to thank him for doing what he ought, in fact, to thank them for letting him do. It mutt not be luppoied that though th« nobility and gentry in parliament attembled that readily and crouchingly laid England once again at the feet of the Roman pontiff, that they were prepared fully to undo all that Henry had done. Indifferent at to the mode of faith pretcribed to the multitude, they had not an objection to make thia sud- den and iweeping re-transl'erot'the spiritual tathority over England. But before they wonid consent to that transfer of spiritual authority, they obtained from Rome, as well u from the queen, the most positive assur- utee* that the church property, snatched from the church and di vided among laymen by Henry, should not be interfered with, hut thould remain undisturbed in the hands of iu lay possessors. The parlinmcnt, also, in the very act by which it restored the pope's ipiritual authority, enacted that all mar- ris^s contracted during the English sepa- ration from Rome should remain valid, and also inserted a clause which secured all holders of church lands in their posse: sion ; and the convocation presented a petition to the pope to the same effect, to which peti- tion the legate gave an attirmative answer. Bigoted and arbitrary as Mary confessedly was, it appeared that the could not fully restore, even temporarily, the power of Borne. The sentence had irrevocably gone forth against that grasping and greedy despot- ism; and though tne accidental occurrence of a fiercely and coldly cruel bigot, in the person of Mary, being seated upon the throne gave back for a time to Rome the ipiritual jurisdiction, and the power to dic- tate and tvrannize in spiritual affairs, all the power and teal of that bigot could not re- jwstess the church of the lands which had became lay property. In the first ini>tance, indeed, Rome hoped, by forgiving the past fruits of the lands, to be able to resume the lands for the future ; but when Pole arrived in England he received information, amply confirmed by hit own observations, which induced him without further struggle to agree to the formal and complete settle- ment of the lands, of which we have above given an account. Perhaps no greater misfortune could have occurred to England than this very cession in form, bv the pope, of the right of the laity to the lands of which they bad possessed themselves at the expense of the church. Had Rome attempted to resume the solid property, as well as the spiritual rights, of the church, considerations of in- terest in the former would have caused the nobility and gentry to hesitate about sur- rendering the latter; but having secured their own property, the great were easily induced to hand over the bulk of the people to a spiritual tyranny which they Mattered themselves that they would not suffer from. The vile old laws a^ninst heresy, which the former parliament had honestly and indig- nantly rejected, were now re-enacted ; sta- tntet were patted for punishing " teditiona wordt or rumourt," and it was made trea- son to imagine or to attempt the life of Philip during that of the queen, which, alto, the former parliament had refused. But, amidst all this disgusting tyco- phancf , even this complaisant parliament had ttill tome Eoglith sense of reserve, and retiated every attempt of the queen to get her hutband declared presumptive heir to the crown, entrusted with the administra- tion, or even honoured with a coronation. The same anti-Spanish feeling which caused the firmness of parliament ou those points, also caused it to refuse all subsidy in sup- port of the emperor, in the war which he was ttill carrying on against Fr»»>'.'B. These very plain indications of ih .i i s of the nation towards himself pet. .dUy caused Philip, not indeed to lay aside his morose and impolitic hauteur, for that was nart and parcel of his nature, and as inseparable from nis existence as the mere act of breathing, but to endeavour to diminish his unpopu- larity by procuring the release of several distinguished prisoners, confined cither for actual offence against the court, or for the guati offence of being agreeable to the peo- ple. The most illustrious of these prisoners was the ladv Elizabeth ; and nothing that Philip could have done could have been more pleasing to the nation than his re- leaiing that princeat, and protecting her from tne petty but no lest annoying tpite- fulnest of her aister. About the same time, Philip's politic in- tervention also gave liberty to the lord Henrr Dudley, sir George Harper, sir Nicho- las Throgmorton, tir Edmund Warner, sir William St. Loe, and tir Nicholas Arnold, together with Harrington and Trcmaine. The earl of Devonshire also was released from Fotheringay castle, and allowed to go abroad, but he onlv reached Padua when he was poisoned, and the popular rumour and belief ascribed the murder to the Im- pcrialittt. Bafifled in her endeavonra to get her hat- band declared her heir presumptive, the queen became more than ever anxiout for the honours of maternity, of the approach of which the at length imagined that she felt the symptoms. She was publicly de- clared to oe pregnant, and Bonner, bishop of London, ordered public prayers to be put up, that the young prince — for the catho- lics chose to consider not merely the preg- nancy of the queen, but even the sex of the child a matter perfectly settled ! — might be beautiful, strong, and witty. The people in general, however, manifested a provoking incredulity even as to the pregnancy of the queen, whose age and haggard aspect cer- tainly promised no very numerous offspring ; and the people's incredulity was shortly af- terwards justified, it proving that the queen had been mistaken by the incipient symp- toms of dropsy. To the last possible mo- ment, however, Philip and his friends con- cealed the truth, and Philip was thus en- abled to get himself appointed protector during the minority, should the child sur- al e m e H H ■ a o s M IS It H K e M M u R O <-• 1 m » as H * < m ti M <4 »■ >a >^ t3 A.n. 1554. — TUB CITIZKNS OF LONOON SHEW THGin PBTOTEDMESS TO mil.ir. A.B. lft5S.— A COUAT OfBRKO VOB TUB TBIAb OV UBBNTICS, JAM. 38. 320 ^tt treasure of l^istors, ice. vi«e and the queen die. Finding that thii was the ntmost conceHion that conld at preient be wruuK from the parliament, and truHting that it might by good management be made productive of more at some future time, the queen now diuolved the parlia- ment. A.o. ISM.— The diasolution of parlia- ment waa marked by an occurrence which of itaelf would be sufficient to indicate the despotic character of the times. Some members of the commons' house, unwilling to agree to the slavish complaisance com- moiuy shown by the majority, and yet, as a minority, quite unable to stem the tide, came to the resolution to secede from their at- tendance. No sooner was ^ae parliament dissolved than these members were in- dicted in the king's bench. Six of them, territted at the mere thought of a contest with the powerful and vindictive queen, made the requisite submissions and ob- tained pardon; and the remainder exer- cised their right of traverse, thereby so long postponing the trial that the queen's death Sut an end to the affair altogether. Gar- iner's success in bringing abuut the Spa- nish match to which the nation had been so averse, and the tact and seal for the Sueen's service which he had shown in his exterous management of the house of commons, made him now more than ever a weighty authority, not only with the queen but with the catholic party in general. It is singular enough, as Hume well remarks, that though this very learned prelate was far less zealous upon points of theology than cardinal Pole, yet, while the mild tem- per of the latter allayed and chastened his tendency towards bigotry, the sterner and hardier character of the former caused him to look upon the free judgment of the com- monalty as a presumption which it be- hoved the rulers of the land to put down, even by the severest and most unsparing resort to persecution. For some time it was doubtful whether the milder course, recommended as politic^ by Pole, or the sterner course, advocated'^as essentially ne- cessary bv Gardiner, would prevail. But Gardiner had the great advantage of advo- cating the system which was the most in accoruance with the crueland bigoted tem- per of both Philip and Mary ; and Pole had the mortidcation not only of being vanquished by his opponent, but also of seeing full and terrible licence and ft-eedom Siven to the hitherto partially restrained emona of persecution. Having determined the queen and court to a course of severity, Gardiner had no difficulty in persuading them that it was politic to select the first victims from among the eminent for learning or authority, or both ; and Rogers, prebendary of St. Paul's, a man still more remarkable tor virtue and learning than for his eminence in the church and in the reformed party, had the melan- clioly honour af being singled out as the first victim. As instances of conversion were even more sought after by Gardiner than punishment, there was probably yet another reoion why Rogers was selected for I the first proicctttion. He had a wife and I ten children, and was remarkable for bit i affection both as a father and as a huiband ' ' and there was every probability that ten! derness for them might lead him to avoid by apostacy, a danger which ntherwiac he might have been expected to brave. But if Gardiner reall; reasoned thus, lie was greatly mistaken. Rogers not only refused 'o recant an iota of his opinions at wbst was called his trial, but even after the fatal sentence of burning was passed upon him he still preserved such an equable frame of mind, that when the fatal hour arrived bia gaolers actually had to awaken him from a sweet sound sleep to proceed to the stake. Such courage might, one would suppoiej have disarmed even the wrath of bigotry • but Gardiner, when the condemned gen- tleman asked permir sion to have a parting interview with his wife, brutally and scolf- ingly replied, that Rogers, being a priest, could not possibly have a wife I This un- fortunate and learned divine was burned at Smithfteld, and the flames that consumed hiin may be said to have kindled a vast and moving pile that swallowed up sufferers of both sexes, and of nearly all ages, in every county in England. Hooper, bishop of Gloucester, was tried at the same time with Rogers, and was also condemned to the stake, but, with a refine- ment upon cruelty, he was not executed at Smithfteld, though tried in London, but sent for that purpose into his own diocese, that his agonies and death in the midst of the very sbene of his labours of piety and usefulness, might the more effectually strike terror into the hearts of his flock. Hooper, however, turned what his enemies intended for an aggravation of his fate into a conso- lation, and an opportunity of giving to those whom he had long and faithfully taught, a parting pixraf of the sincerity of his teach- ings, and of the efficacy of genuine religion to uphold its sincere believers, even under the most terrible agonies that ruthless and mistaken man, in his pride of fierceneu, can inflict upon his fellow worm. And tcrriole, even beyond the usual terrors of these abominable scenes, were the tortures of the martyred Hooper. The faggots pro- vided for his execution were too green to kindle rapidly, and, a high wind blowing st the time, the flames played around his lower limbs without being able to fasten upon the vital parts. Ohe of his hands dropped off, and with the other he con- tinued to beat his breast, praying to heaven and exhorting the pitying spectators, until his swoln tongue could no longer perform its office; and it wAs three quarters of an hour before his tortures were at an end. Of the courage and sincerity of Hooper there is striking evidence in the fact tti U the queen's pardon was placed before him on a stool after he was tied to the stake, but he ordered it to be removed, preferring the ifirest torture with sincerity to safety with apostacy. Sanders, burned at Coventry, also had B M 51 U : s! Si ■ I It i >i I AT THB "HKRRTICS COURT" SAnniNRn AND TIIIRTEE:! OTHBR BISHOFS OFPICIATRD. A.D. l&tS.— Tn« QVBaR aMT»«B* THB CBVBCB LARBI tV Bim roiBBIIIOII. >le for lii» I J ! nuiband ; I « | that ten- a to aToid, icrwiic hf ve. But if I, h« «M aly refuted » at what it the fatal upon him le frame of arrived his lim from a < the ttake. d suppoje, )f hizotry; inned gen- e a parting r and scolf. ig a priest, This un- I burned at consumed a vast and sufferers of es, in every lEnglantf.— I^ousc of ^utisr.— ittatQ. 32) the qaeen'i pftrlon offered to him, and he alio rejected it, embracing the atatce and ncUumiDKi " We havn llie crow of Chriat I Welcome everlaating life." Taylor, the (lerKTiuan of Hadley, in Hertfordshire, was burned at that place, in the presence of his MrishioDera. when tied to the stake he becui to pray in Enirlisb, which io enraged his guards, that, biddinK him apeak Latin, they struck him to violently on the head with their halberts, that he died on the instant, and waa spared the lingering ago- oies prepared for bim. Fhllpot, archdeacon of 'Winchoater, had very greatly distiiifruished himaelf by hia leal tor protestantism. On one occasion, being engaged in a controversy with an Arian, the zeal of the archdeaeon ao far got the ascendanoy over his good manners, that he actually spat in the Arian'a face. Sub- sequently, and when he might have been Muecled to have repented on reflection of what he had done in the heat of passion, he published a formal joatidcation of hia conduct, in which he aaid that he felt bound to give that atrong proof of the detestation of hia opponent's blasphemy. 80 impetuous a man waa not likely to escape notice in the persecution that now raged, and he was brought to trial for heresy and burned to death in Smithfield. If Gardiner waa the person to whom tlic persecution chiefly owed ila commence- ment, it was Bonner, bishop of London, who carried it on with the coarsest and most unrelenting barbarity- Apart from all mere bigotry, tliia sinf|[ufarly brutal man appeared to derive positive sensual giati- fication from the act of inflicting torture. He occasionally when he had prisoners under examination who did not answer to hii satisfaction, would have them stripped and flog them with his own hand. Nor waa even this his worst brutality. An unfor- tunate weaver, on one occasion, refused to recant, when Bonner endeavoured to per- suade him, and, as ia veraciously recorded, this disgrace of his sacred profession first tore the unfortunate man's beard out by the root, and then held his hand in the flame of a lamp until the sinews burst, by way of givin([ him, as he said, some notion of wrbat burning rcallv was like I When we say that this horrible systebi of persecution and cruelty endured for three years, and that iu that time two hundred and twenty-seven persons are known to have suffered— while probably many more were similarly butchered of whom we have no account— while that, besides men of all ranks from bishops to day labourers, fifty- five women and four children thus perished, it must be obvious that a detailed account of this terrible season of cruelty would be disgusting, even were it not quite impracti- cable. We shall, therefore, add but a few more cases, and then leave a subject which cannot be treated of even at this distance of time without feelings of disgust and horror. Ferrar, bishop of St. David's, in Wales, being condemned to death as a heretic, ap- pealed to cardinal Pole ; but his appeal was wholly unattended to, and the unfortunate bishop was burned in his own diocese. There yet remained two still more illus- trious victims to be immolated. Ridley, formerly bishop of London, and Latimer, formerly bishop of Worcester, had long been celebrated for both the seal and the effi- ciency of their support of the cause of the reformation. In the preaching of both there was a certain nervous homeliness, which made t<<<>ir eloquence especially effective upo . minds and hearts of the lower ordi (Uid on that very account these two prel...es were more formidable to the Ro- nwnlsts than they would have been had they affected a more learned and chastened style. That two such capital enemies of Romanism— one of whom, moreover, had even for some time been possessed of Bonner's own sec — should escape, could not be expected. They were tried and con- demned, and both burned at the same stake at Oiford. Both died with courage and a calm constancy not to be surpaaaed. liven when they were already tied to the stake, and the revolting tragedy commenced, Lati- mer cheerfully called out, " Be of good courage, brother Ridley, we sball this day kindle such a torch in England, as, I trust in God, shall never be extinguished." Lati- mer, who was very aged, suffered but little, being very early killed by the explosion of some gunpowder whieli the executioner had raercitully provided for that purpose ; but Ridley was seen to be alive Bame time after he was surrounded by flames. As neither age nor vouth, neither learn- ing nor courage, could make any impres- sion upon the flintv heart of Bonner, so neither could even the most heroic proof of filial piety. A young lad, named Hunter, who was only in hia nineteenth year, suf- fered himself, with the imprudence com- mon to youth, to be drawn into a religious argument with a priest, in the course of wliioh argument he had the farther impru- dence to deny the real presence. Subae- rent and almost incredible offence against humanity committed by this detestable magistrate, he was, even in the rigid in- terpretation of law, murderer, ondought to have been executed ns one ; fur, whatever the offence of the wretched mother, the child clearly was not contemplated in the sentence paHsi'd upon her. Hut, alas I the spirit of bigotry tramples alike upon the laws of nature and of man ; and it is pro- bable that : liis detestable murderer, so far from receiving merited punishment for his brutality, miglit have been even applauded forhi»"zcul." As though the national dread and detes- tation of the Spanish alliance had not al- ready been but too abundantly justilicd by the event, spies were sent out in every di- rection, ana a comiiiission was appointed for inquiring into and punishing all spiri- tual and even some civil crimes ; and two Tcrv brief extracts from the commission and instructions will show that in object, powers, and process, the commissioners were, only under another name, inquisi- tors, and their spies and iuforraera oificiali of the inquisition. The commission said, that " Since many false rumours were published among the subjects, and many iierctical opinions were also spread among them, the commissioners were to inquire into those either by presentments, by wit- nesses, or any other political way they could devise, and to searcii after oil heresiea, the bringers in, the sellers, the readers of all heretical books ; to examine and punish all misbehaviours or negligences in any church or chapel ; to try all priests that did not preach the sacrament of the altar; all per- sons that did not hear mass, or go to their parish church to service ; that would not go in processions or did not take holy bread or holy water ; and if they found any that did obstinately persist in such here- sies they were to put them into the hands of their ordinaries, to be punished accord- ing; to the 8]iiritual laws ; giving the com- missioners full power to proceed as their discretion and eon«r/eneM should direct them, and to use all such means as they would intent for the searching of the pre- mises, empowering iheni, also, to call be- fore tliem such witnesses as they pleased, and to force tkem to make oath of such things as might diteottr what they sought after." This new commission was, in fact, an English inquisition ; and the fol- lowing extract from Hume abundantly shows the determination that that inqui- sition should not want for officials and familiars. " To bring the method of proceeding in England still nearer to the practice of the Inquisition, letter! were written to lord North and others, enjoining them "to out to the torture" such ubatiuato pt'r«on» «• would not confess, and there to order them I at their discretion. " Secret spies, also, and informers were I employed, according to the proctlceuf tli«t iniquitous tribunal. Instructions were given to the justices of the peace tluit tlicT should 'call secretly before them one or two honest persons within their iiiuita, or more, at their discretion, end command them, by oath or otherwise, that tlicy ihall secretly learn and search out such pcranni as shall evil behave themselves in tlie church, or idly, or shall despise, openly b* words, the king's or queen's pi'ocevilings or go about to make any coiuuiotiun, or tell any seditious tales or news. And alio that the same persons, so to be apiwintcd bliull declare to the same justices of the peace the ill behaviour of lewd dimrderiv persons, whether it shall be for usIuk un- lawful games or any such other light beha* viour of such suBi)ected persons ; an«rli»raent bad little ctuu or right to Interfere in a nuuter which, at far at the terma of the bill went, roneemed only the queen heraelf. Out the Ur potteitort of church land* naturalW enongh eontidered that 'luhiecta would icareelr be tnared after the aorereign bad been muleteo. Moreorer, while some, pro- bablr a great number, of the member* were chieflr moved bjr thii coniideration, all be- gin to be both terriAed and disfniited by Hie brutal executiona which had diigraccd the whole nation. A ateady oppositioo eooiequently arose ; and when the govern- ment applied for a tttbiidy for two yeara and for two A' !nth«, the latter were re- fnied, and th. ^ppoaition, with equal bit- ternest and Justice, gave aa the reason of thii refusal, that while the crown was wil- fully divestiug itself of revenue in behalf of Some, it was quite useless to bestow wealth upon it. The dissatisfaction of the parlia- ment was still farther evidenced by the rejec- tion of two bills, enacting penalties against lueh exiles as should fail to return within a certain time, and for incapacitating for the office of Justice of the peace such ma- (iitrates as were remiss in the prosecution of heretics. This fresh and pointed proof of the displeasure of the parliament deter- mined the queen to dissolve it. But the dissolution of the parliament did not dimi- nish the pecuniary embarrassment of the queen. Her husband had now been several months with his father in Flanders ; and the very little of his correspondence with which he favoured her ch.'efly consisted of demands for money. Stern and unfeeling u she was to every one else, the infatuated queen was passionately attached to the husband who certaiulr took no pains to conceal his dislike of her; and as the par- liament, previous to its dissolution, nad granted her but a scanty supply, she was led, by her anxiety to meet her husband's demands, to extort money from her sub- jects in a manner the most unjustiflable. From each of one thousand persons, of whose pc'sonal attachment she affected to be quite certain, she demanded a loan of 601.; and even this large sum being inade- quate to her wants, she demanded a farther general loan from all persons possessing twenty pounds a year and upwards; a mea- sure which greatly distressed the smaller ^ntry. Many of them were obliged by her inroads upon their purses to discharge some of their servants, and as these men sud- denly thrown upon the world become trou- blesome, the queen issued a proclamation to compel their former employers to take them back again I Upon seven thousand yeomen who had not as yet contributed, she levied sixty thousand marks, and from the merchants she obtained the sum of six and tiiirty thousand pounds. She also ex- torted money by the most tyrannous inter- ference with trade, as regarded both the foreign and native merchant* ; yet after all thi* ■hamele** extortion she was to poor, that she offered, and in vain, so tad waa her credit, fourteen per cent, for « loan of 30,U00{. Not oven that high rate of inte- rest could induce the merchants of Ant- werp, to whom she offered it, to lend her the money, until by menaces the had in- duced ber good city of London to be lecu- rity for her I Who would imagine that we are writing of the aclfiaine nation (hat *o *hortly afterwards warred even to the death with Charles I. for the comparatively tri- fling matter of the ship money ? The poverty which alone had induced Philip to correspond with her was now ter- minated the emperor Charles the Fifth, that prince's father, resigning to him all his wealtli and dominion, and retiring to a monastery in Hpaiu. A lingular anecdote la told of the abdicated monarch. He apcnt much of his time in the constructing of watche*, and finding it impocsible to make them ^o exactly alike, he remarked that he had indeed been foolish to expect that he could coniuel that uniformity in minds which he could not achieve even in mere machines I The reflection thus pro- duced i* *aid even to have given him some leaning towards those theological opinion* of which he and his son had been the most brutal and ruthless persecutors. A. D. 1556.— Crnnmer, though during the whole of this reign he had been left unno- ticed in contiueincnt, was not forgotten by the vindictive queen. She was daily more and more exacerbated in her naturally wretched temper by the grief caused b* the contemptuous neglect of her husband. Her private hours were spent in tears and complaints; and that misery which usually softens even the most rugged nature had in her case only the effect of making her still more ruthless and unsparing. Cranmer, though he had during part of Henry's reign warded off that monarch's rage from Alary, was very much hated by her for the iiart he had taken in bringing about the divorce of her mother, and she was not only resolved to punish him, but also to make his death as agonizing as pos- sible. For the part he had taken in the op- position to her ascending the throne she .could easily have had him beheaded, but nothing short of the flames seemed to her to be a sufHciently dreadful punishment for him. She caused the pope to cite him to Rome, there to take his trial for heresy. Being a close prisoner in the Tower, tlie unfortunate prelate perforce neglected the citation, and he was condemned par eontu- mact, and sentenced to the stake. The next step was to degrade him from his sacred ofnce ; and Bonner, who, vuth Thirle- by, bishop of Ely, was entrusted with this task, performed it with all the insolent and , triumphant brutality consonant with his nature. Firmly believing that Cranmer's eternal as well as earthly punishment was assured, the queen was not yet co4itented ; she would fain deprive him in his last hours even of numan sympathy, and the credit * A.O. 1557. — THB FIRST COMMKRCIAf. TKBATT CONCI.UDBD WITH RUSSIA. norm AsmoAB akb a* qomi tiii wai "nil a«i ov raiiMOTiuN." o M H M H » H M M ■ « s m %. at M 8S4 ^^c CTrcBSurQ of l^totorg, $cc. attached to eontiiteneir and (Idelity to tha eauie h« had embraced. Peraoni were employed to pcnuade hliii that the door of mercy wm (till open to tilm, and that he. who wan 10 well qualified to be of wide and permanent lerviceto mankind, waa in duty Douiid to (nve himielf by a teentinf com- pliance with the opinioni of tlie queen. The fear of death, and the itrong urginR* of higher motive*, induced Cranmcr to conipry, and he ai;rccd to lubicribe to the doctrine* of the real pretence and the papal enprenmcy. dliullow writer* have blamed Crannier for this compliance; none will do so who eoniider " liow fearfully and bow wonderfully wo nre miidc"— in mind a* well a* in body ; linw many and uriccnt were the motiTes to thi* wenkncti, how much hi* mind wa* ihaken by long peril and im- priionment, and, abuvo all, w'ho remember and reflect bow nobly he lubtequently thook off all earthly motive* " like dew drop* from the lion's mane," and with what calm and hidy *ereuity he endured the laat dread torture*. Having induced Crnnmer privately to ijipi hi* recantation, the queen now demanded that he ahould complete the wretched price of hi* aafety by publicly maVing hi* recan- tation at St, Paul* * before the whole people. Even thia would not have *aved Cranmer. But, either from hi* own judi^ment, or from the warning of lume iccrct fnend, Cranmcr perceived that it wa* intended to tend him to execution the moment that he ahould thui have completed and publiihed hit de- gradation. All Ilia former high and cou- rageous spirit wa* now again aroused within him; and he not onlv refuted to comply with tliis new demand, but openly and boldly said that the only passage in his Ufa of wliich he deeply and painfully re* pented was, that recontation which, in a moment of natural weakness, he already had been induced to make. He now, he said, most sincerely repented and disavowed that recantation, and inasmuch as his hand had offended in signing it, so should his hand first suffer the doom which only that single weakness and insincerity had made him deserving. The rage of the court and its sycophants at hearing a public avowal so different from that which they expected, scarcely left thero as much dece&cy of pa- tience as would allow them to hear him to the end of his discourse ; and the instant that he ceased to speak he was led away to the stake. True to his promise, Cranmer when the faggots were lighted held out his hnnd into the rising flames until it was consumed, repeatedly exclaiming as he did so, " ThU MHteorthy hand I" " Thii hand hat offended I" The fierce flames, as they reached his body, were not able to subdue the sublime sere- nity to which he had wrought his christian courage and endurance, and as long as his countenance was visible to the appalled by- standers, it wore the character not of agony but of a holv saorifice, not of despair but of an asBurea and eternal hope. It is said by some protestant writers of tlve time. that when the sad seene wa* at an end hit heart wa* found entire and uninjured I'but probably this assertion took its rise In ih« ■ingular constancy and calmness with which the martyr died. Cardinal Pole, on th* death of Cranmer, was made archbithnp of Canterbury. But though this ecdesiutie was a man of great humanity as well si of great ability, and though he was sincerely anxious to serve the great interests nf re. liltion, not bv ensnaring and dcMroyiriKtht unhappy and ignorant laity, but by tievsi. ing the clergv fn the moral and intillcctuil scale, to render them more efficient in iheir awftiily important service, there were cir. eumstances which made bis power far in- ferior to his will. He was personally dii. liked at Rome where, his tolerance, hit learning, and hia addiction to studioui re- tirement, had caused him to be suspected of, at leart, a leaning to the new doctrines. A. D. 16fi7.— In the midtt of Mary't fierce persecutions of her protestant suhjeeti, she was self-tortured neyond all that the had it in her power to Inflict on othen, snd might have aslied, in the words of the dyjnt inca to hia complaining soldier, "Think you that I, then, am on a bed of roaet ?" War raged between France and Spain, snd next to her desire flrmly to re-establiihct- Iholicism in England, was her desire to lavish the blood and treasure of Iter people on the side of Spain. Some nppualtion being made, Philip visited London, snd tlie queen's seal in his cause was increstcd, instead of being, as in the case of a noblr r spirit it would have been, utterly dRstroyed, by his aullen declaration, that if Lnglaod did not ioin him against Frauee, he wnujij see Eofpland no more. Even this, however much It affected the queen, did not bear down the opposition to a war which, at the clearer-headed members discerned, would be intolerably expensive in any cnBe, snd, if successful, would tend to mnk(! England a mere dependency of Spain. Under the circumstances a true English patriot, in- deed, must have wished to see Spain hum- bled, not exalted ; crippled in its finances, not enriched. It unfortunately happened, however, that an attempt was made to seize Scarborough, and Stafford and liia fellows in this attempt confessed that they were incited to it by Henry of France. This de- claration called up all the doniiimnt na- tional antipathy to France ; the prudrnce of the opposition was at once laid aalcep ; war was declared, and every preparation that the wretched financial state of En|i;lBnd would permit, was made for carrying it on with vigour. By dint of a renewal of the most ahameless and excessive extortion, the queen contrived to raise and equip an army of ten thousand men, who were sent to Flanders under the earl of Pembroke. To prevent disturbances at home, Mary in obedience probably to the advice of her cold and cruel husband, caused many of the first men in England, from whom she had an; reason to fear any opposition, to be seized and imprisoned in places where even their nearest friends could not find them. A. D. la.'ir.— A VBsr sEvana pansECuTioN poli.owbd thb dbath or cbanmsr. A. I>. l&iH.— CA ;. lEnglanD.— H^ottsc oC ^uTlor.— 1£U>abct^. 825 Tb* itUtti ot Iha military •(Tain be. twMU Frauea and Bpalii witli her EiiKliiti tuxiliariaa balonf to the liitlory of Frnnco. In ilii* plaea It niajf auOlce to lajr, tliat ilio Itltni* of Ouiie rendered all our atirnipta nielMi; and that, ao far from bcnetiiiiig riiilip, w« l«**t (^alaii that key to France, of which England wai lo chary and ao proud. Even the cold and unpatriotic Heart of Mary waa touched by tlii* capital nitfortune « and ahe wai often heard to •ay, in the agonies of her uxnrioua grief, that, after her dvath " Calait" would b« found bottring under a dropsy, was seized with mortal illness and died, iii the jrear 158.4, after a most wretched and misohievous reign of Ave years and four months. This miierable woman haa been allowed the vir- tue of sincerity aa the sole good, the one oasis iu the dark desart of her character. But even this virtue must, on careful esami- nation, be denied to her by the impartial historian. Aa a whole, indeed, her course is sot marked by insincerity. But why T Iler ferooity and despotism were too completely unresisted by her tame and aghast people to leave any room for the exercise of falsaliood, ahn the very first daya of her disgraceful reign. But in those Arst days, while it was yet uncertain whether ahe could resist the power and ability of the ambitious and un- principled Northumberland, she proved that she could use guile where force was wantin|;. Her promises to the protestants were in nany cases voluntary, and in all profuse and positive; yet she no sooner grasped the sceptre liriuly in her hand, thnn she scattered her promises to the winds, and commenced that coarse of bigotry and cruelty which has for ever affixed to her memory the loathed name, which even yet no Englishman can pronounce without horror and disgust, of tun Blooax Qubbr Mabt. CH.\PTEtt XLVI. The Reign qf Elizabbtr. A, s. 1538.— So completely had the arbi- trary and cruel reiicn of Mary disgusted her subjects, almost without distinction of rank or religious opinions, that the accession of Elisabeth was hailed as a blessing unalloj'' ed and almost too great to have been hoped for. The parliament had been called to> gether a few davs before the death of Mary, and when Heath, as chancellor, announced that event, he was hardly allowed to con- clude ere both houses burst into the joyful cry ofOod save queen Elisabeth I Long and happilv may she reign I" Deep ana dradly indeed must have been the olTences of the deceiiscd queen lo have rendered her death an actual subject of ji>y, instead of grief, to a nation proverbially so loyal and affectionate as EuKlaiid I Elisabeth when she received the newa of her sister's death was at llatHeld, where she had for some time resided in studious and studied retirement; for, even to the last, Mury had shown that her nialigniiy BKainst her younKor sitter had suffered no abatement, and requi*ed only the kliglitcst occasion to burst out in even fatal vituence. When she had devoted a few days to the ap- pearance of nmurning, she urocceded to London and tAnk up her abode in the Toner. The remembrance of the very dif- ferent circumstances under which she had forinerlv visited that blood lained fortress, when she was a prlsonei , ,nd her life in danger from tho malignity of her tl^en all- powerful sister, affected her so much, that ahe fell upon her knceaandreturn« I banks anew to the Almighty for her safe deliver- ance from danger, which, »h\) truly sa<.\ was scarcely inrerior to that of Daniel :u the den of lions. Her immediately subse- quent conduct showed that her heart waa |»ropcrly affected by the emotions 'vhick called forth this act of piety. She had be^a much injured and much insulted durin , "^ . life of her sister; for such waa tbe bi^-oriM and petty cast of Mary's mind, that here were few readier ways to win her fnvour than by insult or injury to the then friend- less daughter of Aune Uoleyn. But Elisa- beth now seemed determined only to re- member the past in her thankfulness for her complete and almost miraculous deli- verance rrom danger. She allowed neither word nor glance to express rcsentu -ut, even to those who had most injured lier. Sir H. Bedingfleld, who had for a oonsider- able time been her host, and who had both harshly and disrespectfully caused her to feel that, though nominallv his guest and ward, she was in reality hiajealouslv watch- ed prisoner, might very reasonably have ex- pected a cold if not a stern reception; but even this man she received with affability when he first prssep' ^i himself, and never afterwards inflicted any st.>"!rer punishment uDonhim than a goto. - Vi .laurcd sarcasm, Tlie sole eaae iu which she manifested a feel- ing of dislike was that of the brutal and blood-stained Bonner, from whom, while she addressed all the (;ther bishops with almost affectionate coriutdity, she turned away with an exprcRsWc and well warranted appear- ance of io> I or and disgust. As soon as the necessary attention to her private aQMrs would allow her, the new queen sent off messengers to foreign courts to announce her slater's death and her o^n accession. The envoy to Philip, who at this time was in Flanders, was the lord Cobham, who wras ordered to return the warmest thanks of his ruyal mistress for the protec- tion bo hud afforded her when i>he so murh needed it, nud to express her sincere antl BLIBABBTH's COUONATION WAt COKDUCTFD WITH TUB UTMOST MAaTtlFICKNTB, [2 P A. D. I55S.— IIB NICaOLAI BACON MADS LOBD KSXrCII, DKO. 27. M H ■ K '4 M M O m « ■ * m t> m a M M ■ M M B 9 ti K •* M M M 4 I O »• M > M » O 326 ^ijc ^reasucQ of 1^(story, Src. earneit desire that their friendihip miitht continue unbroken. Tbe friendljr earnest* ness of Elisabeth's message strengthened Philip in a determination he bad made even during the illness of Marjr, of whose early death he could not but have been expect- ant, and he immediately instructed his am- bassador to the court of London to offer the hand of Philip to Elisabeth. Blinded by his eager desire to obtain that dominion over England which his marriage with Mary had failed to secure, Philip forgot that there were many objections to this measure; ob- jections which he, indeed, would easily have overlooked, but which the sagacious Elisa- beth could not fail to notice. As a catho- lic, Philip was necessarily disliked by the protestants who had so lately tasted of catholic persecution in its worst form ; as a Spaniard, he was cordiallv detested by Englishmen of either creed. But apart from and beyond these weighty objections, which of themselves would have been fatal to his pretensions, he stood in precisely the same relationship to Elisabeth that her fa- ther had stood in to Catherine of Arragon, and in marrying Philip, Elizabeth would Tirtually, and in a manner which the world would surely not overlook, pronounce her mother's marriage illegal and her own birth illegitimate. This last consideration alone would have decided Elisabeth against Philip; but while in her heart she was fully and irrevocably determined never to marry him,' she even thus early brought into use that duplicity for which she was afterwards as remarkable as for her higher and nobler qualities, and sent him so equivocal and nndecided an answer, that, so far from de- sparing of success, Philip actually sent to Some to solicit the dispensation that would be necessary. With her characteristic prudence, Elisa- beth,, through her ambassador at Eome, announced her accession to the pope. That exalted personage was grieved at tbe early death of Mary, not only as it deprived Some of the beueftt of her bigotry, but as it made way for a princess who was already looked up to with pride and confidence by the protestants; and he suffered his double vexation to manifest itself with a very in- discreet energy. He treated Elisabeth's assumption ot tbe crown without bis per- mission as being doubly wrore; wrong, as treating v, ith cQsrespect the holy see, to which ne still deemed England SMbject, and m the order here laid down. Before the conclosion of the session, the parliament . nve a still farther proof of its attachment to the queen, and of its desire to aid her in her designs, by voting her a subsidy of four iliillings in the pound on land, and two- ' and-eightpence on goods, with two fif- teenths. Veil knowing all the dangers of a disputed succession, the parliament at the same time petitioned her to choose a huabnnd. But the queen, though she ac- knowledged that the petition was couched in terms so general and so respectful that she could not take anv offence at it, pro- tested tliat, always undesirous of changing her condition, she was now more than ever Ro; she was anxious only to be the wife of England and the mother of the English, Bpdbad no higher ambition than to have for Ilier epitaph, " Here lies Elizabeth, who lived and died a maiden queen." I A.D. 1S69.— The parliament just proro- gued had, as we have shown, got through a vast dv&'i of important business in the ses- sion ; but though that was the first session of a new reign, and of a reign, too, immedi- ately following one in which such horrors of tyrannous cruelty had been enacted, it is to be remarked, to the nraise of the mo- deration of both queen and parliament, that not a single bill of attainder was passed, though some attaints bv former parliaments were mercifully or justly removed. I T/hile the queen had been thus wisely busy at home, she had been no less active abroad. Sensible that her kingdom re- I quired a long season of repose to enable it to regain its power, she ordered her ambas- sadors, lord Efflngham and the bishop of Ely, to conclude peace with France on any terms; and peace was accordingly con- cluded. But as the marriage of Henry and Anne Boleyn had been concluded in open opposition to Borne, France chose to deem Elizabeth wrongfully seated upon the throne; and the duke of Guise and his bro- thers, seeing that Mary, queen of Scots, the wife of the dauphin, would— supposing Eli- zabeth out of the question— be tne rightful heir, persuaded the king of France to order his sok. and his daughter-in-law to assume both the title and the arms of England. The death of Henrv of France at a tourna- ment not being followed by any abandon- ment on the part of Mary and her hus- band, then Francis II. of France, of this most unwarrantable and insulting assump- tion, Elizabeth was stung into the com- mencement of that deadly hatred which subsequently proved so fatal to the fairer : but less prudent Mary of Scotland. I A. D. 1561.— The situation of Scotland and the circumstances which occurred there at this period will be found in all necessary detail under the proper head. It will suf- fice to say, here, that the theological and civil disputes that raged fiercely among the turbulent and warlike nobility of Scotland and thwir respective followers, plunged tliat country into a state of confusion, which encouraged Elizabeth in her hope of ex- torting from Marr, now a widow, a clear and satisfactory abandonment of her as- aumution ; an abandonment which, indeed, had been made for her by a treaty at Edin- burgh, which treaty Elizabeth now, through Throgmorton, her ambassador, demanded that Mary should ratify. Hut wilfulness and a certain petty womanly pique deter- mined Mary to refuse this, although imme- diately on the death of her husband she hod laid aside both the title and the arma of queen of England. Mary's residence in France, meanwhile, had become very disagreeable to her from the ill offices of the queen mother, and she resolved to comply with the invitation of the slates of Scotland to return to that kingdom. She accordinglv ordered her ambassador, D'Oisel, to apply to Elizabeth for a safe conduct through Eai$lund ; but Elizal>eth, through Throj^morton, refuHed compliance with that request, except on condition of Mary's ratitication of the treaty of Edinburgh. Mary remonstrated in severe though chastened terms, and im- mediately determined upon proceeding to Scotland by sea, for which purpose she em- barked at Calais. Elizabeth at the same time sent out cniizers, ostensibly to purisue pirates, but, as it should seem, with the in- tention of seizing upon the person of Mary, who, however, passed through the English squadron in a fog, and arrived safely at Leith. But though safe, Mary was far from happy. She had loved France with even more than a native's love, and only ceased to gaze upon its receding shores when they were hidden bv the darkness of night. The manners of the French were agreeable to her ; she bad become, as it were, " native and to the manner bom," in that land of gaiety and frivolity ; and all that she heard of the stem harsh bigotry of the predomi- nant party in Scotland, led her to anticipate nothing but the most wearisome and me- lancholy feelings. Her youth, her beauty, her many accomplishments, and, above all, the novelty of seeing their sovereign once moie among them, caused the Scots to give her a most joyous and affectionate recep- tion. Her first measures were well calcu- lated to confirm the favourable opinion which her people appeared to entertain. She gave, at least ostensibly, all her contt- denee and nearlv all her attention to the leaders of the reformed party, who, indeed, had now complett' power over the great mass of the Scottish people. Secretary Liddington and her brother, lord James, whom she created earl of Murray, ably se- conded her endeavours to introduce some- thing like order into that land so loi^ and BO grievously torn by faction and strife, and as the measures taken were at once firm and conciliatory, every thing seemed to promise success. But there was, amidst all this seeming promise of better- times, one fatal element M tt O m a 4 SI m M K ■ < u M a m a < o i o m J a ^ M •i K P ts M B O * O •• M B e ■I m > o « K m t> a s It B m r. o w o H A. D. 1660.— ALt ARABArriSTS COMMAMDBD TO LRATB TUB BlIfODOM. A. D. 1561.— TUB irikji ow it. vaul's CBUBCB AIITHOTBD BT VIKI. K M M ki e •a ■ •r 328 ^Ije treasure of l^istori), $cc. which rendered her tnccesi nearly impos- aible. Bigotry in England was penouifled mildiiess and moderation, compared to the intense and envenomed biKOtry which at that time existed in Scotland. Mary on her Tery tint entrance into Scotland had issued an order that every one should submit to the reformed religion. But she herself was still a papist ; and scarcely was the (irst joy of her arrival subsided when the reform- ed preachers began to denounce her on that account. The celebration of catholic rites in her own chapel would have been sternly refused her by the scalous preach- ers and their zealous followers, had not the multitude been induced to side by her in that matter, from fear of her returning to France in disgust. But even that consi- deration did not prevent the preachers and some of their followers from proceed- ing to the most outrageous lengths ; and this single consideration sufficed to throw the whole Scottish people into confusion and uneasiness. Wisely chary of expenee, and profoundly politic, Elisabeth saw that the bigotry of Mary's subjects would find that princess other employment than that of making any attempt to disturb the peace of Eng- land. She therefore tamed her attention to improving the arts, commerce, navy, and artillery of England ; and with so much Judgment, and with such great as well as rapid success, that she well merited the title that was bestowed upon her, of " the restorer of naval glory and queen of the northern seas." Her spirit and prudence had naturally enough encouraged foreign princes to believe, that though she had in some sort pledged herself to a maiden life, it was not impossible to dissuade lier from Sersevering in that resolution. The arch- uke Charles, second son of the emperor; Casimir, son of the elector palatine ; Eric, king of Sweden ; Adolph, dulce of Holsrein ; and the earl of Arran, presumptive heir to the crown of Scotland, were among the suitors for her hand. Nor were there wanting aspirants to that high and envied honour even among her own subjects. The earl of Arundel, though old enough to be her father, and sir William Pickering were among those who flattered themselves with hope ; as was lord Robert Dudley, a son of the ambitious duke of Northumber- land beheaded in the reign of Mary ; and as the fine person and showy accomplish- ments of this last caused the queen to treat him witl nore favour and confidence than his actual talents seemed to warrant from so acute a judge of men's merits as Elisabeth, it was for some time very gene- rally imagined that he was a favoured lover. But the queen answered all ad- dresses with a refusal, and yet not such a refusal as to utterly destroy that feeling of attachment which was so useful to her as a queen, and — can we doubt it? — so agree- able as well as flattering to her as a woman ? But though Elizabeth appeared to be de- cidedly disinclined to marriage, nothing appeared to offend her more than the mar- riage of any who had pretensions to suc- ceed her, A remarkable instance of this occurred in the case of the lady Catherine Gray, youngest sister of the hapless ladv Jane. This lady married, in second nup- tials, the earl of Hertford, son of the pro- tector Somerset, and, the lady provine pregnant, Elisabeth confined both husband and wife in the Tower, where they remained for nine years. At the end of that time the countess died, and then the queen at length gave the persecuted earl his liberty. A. D. l.'>r>2.— Besides all considerations of his personal and ineradicable bigotry, Phi- lip of Spain had yet another motive for fuililling the vow which, on escaping from a violent tempest, he had made, to do all that in him lay for the extirpation of heresv Of that " heresy" Elizabeth, by the com- mon consent not only of her own subjects but of the protestants of all Europe, was looked upon as the child and champion ; and her rejection of Philip's hand, and her consequent baffling of alt his hopes of ob- taining sway over England, had excited bis gloomy and vindictive nature to a fierce and personal hatred. In every negotiation, under every circumstance, he made this hatred to the queen appear in his virulent and obstinate opposition to the interests of England. Not content with the inoit vio- lent persecution of the protestants wher- ever his own authority could be stretched to reach them, he lent his aid to the queen mother of France. That aid so fearfully turned the scale against the French Hugue- nots, that their chivalrous leader, the priuce nf Cond^, was fain to apply for aid to the protestant queen of England. Though, during the whole of her long and giorious reign, Elizabeth was wisely chary of in- volving herself in great expences, the cause of 'protestantism would probablv of itself have been too dear to her to allow of her hesitating. But the priuce of Cond^ ap- pealed to her interest as well as to her re- ligious sympathies. The Huguenots pot. sessed nearly the whole of Normandy ; and Condi proffered to give Elizabeth posses- sion of Havre-de-Grace, on condition that she should put a garrison of three thousand men into that place, send three thousand men to garrison Dieppe and Rouen, and supply money to the amount of a hundred thousand crowns. The offier was tempt- ing. True it was that the Fr<>ncii were by treaty bound to restore Calais, but there were many reasons for doubting whether that agreement would be fulfilled. Pos- •essed of Havre, and thus commanding the mouth of the Seine, England would be the more likely to be able to command the restitution of Calais; the offer of Cond^ was accordingly accepted. Havre and Dieppe were immediately garrisoned, but the latter place was speedily found to be untenable, and evacuated accordingly. To Rouen the catholics were laying siege, and it was with great difficulty that Poynings threw in a small reinforcement of £ng:1ish to aid the Huguenot garrison. Thus aided the Hugneoota fought bravely and well, but A. n. 1562.— TBB rtnaT roTAon hadk to trb coast o* ai;iiiBA ron slavks. A. D. 1663 — WAKWICK lUBMXIIO.BKI kATBK DM ailACB TO TBB rBBnCn. lEnglantl.-^llottae of tiTntlor.— 1EIi?a(til). 829 wen at length oTeriiowei«• hrr marrying and having issue — named by an act of par- liament. Nothing could hhie been less agreeable to the queen than this petition. 8he well knew the claim of Mary of Scotland, and shrewdly judged that the being named as her successor would not diminish the in- clination of that queen to give her disturb- ance. On the other hand, to deny that claim and to decide in favour of the honse of Suffolk, would be to incite Mary to in- stant enmity, and at the same time to create in another quarter the impatience, rarely unmixed with enmity, of the de- clared successor. In this dilemma she acted with her usual caution and policy ; gave the parUament to understand that she had by no means irrerocably made up her mind against marriage, and assured them, in general terms, that she could not die with any satisfaction until she had settled the succession on solid and satis- factory foundations. The parliament, sincerely attached to the queen, and, besides, well aware that her temper would but ill bear aught that bore the appearance of importunity or of dictation, was obliged to be contented, or seemingly so, with this reply; and pro- ceeded to busy itself in passing need- lessly severe' laws against the catholics, and ridiculously severe laws against thoae imaginary and impossible offenders, witches and wizards. A suhsidjr and two fifteenths, and a subsidy of six shillings in the pound, the last to be paid in three years, were then voted to the queen, and parUament was again prorogued. Alter long aud mutually cruel butcheries the French Huguenots and catholics came to an agreement. An amnesty and partial toleration of the Huguenots was published bv the court, and Cond< was reinstated in his appointments. To the great discredit of this gallant leader, his own aud his party's interests were never attended to by him, almost to the entire forgctfiilness of his agreements made with Elizaf cth when she so nobly and liberally ass .jted him. He stipulated, indeed, that she should be repaid her expences, but in return she was to give up Havre, and trust, as before, for the restitution of Calais to that treaty which the French had so evidently resolved upon breaking. Enraged at Condi's breach or faith, and believing the possession of Havre to be her best if nut her sole security for the restitution of Calais, Elizabeth re- jected these terms with dindain, and sent orders to the earl of Warwick to take every precaution to defend Havre from the attacks of the now united French. Warwick, in obedience to these orders, expelled all French from that place, and prepared to defend himself against a large French army, encouraged by the presence of the queen mother, the king, the consta- ble of France, and Cond£ himself. But the courage, vigour, and ability of War- wick, which promised to baffle all attempts upon Havre, or at the least to make it a right dear purchase to the enemy, were counterbalanced by the breakingout among his men of a most fatal and pestilential sickness. Seeing them die dailv of this terrible disease, which was much aggra- vated by the great scarcity of provisions, Warwick urgently demanded a reinforce- ment and supplies from England. But these being withheld, and the French havinfr succeeded in making two practical breaches, the earl had no alternative but to capitulate, and he was obliged to surrender the place upon the sole condition of being allowed life and safe conduct for his troops. He had hardly surrendered when a reinforce- ment of three thousand men arrived trom England under lord Clinton, but, besides that they were too late, they also were suf- fering under the plague which at that pe- riod raged in England. As a consequence of the Toss of Havre, Elizabeth was glad to consent to restore the hostages given by France for the restitution of Calais, on re- ceiving two hundred and twenty thousand crowns, — but it was stipulated that nothing in this transaction should be held to preju« dice the claim of cither nation. Though in reality the hatred and jealousy that subsisted between Elizabeth and Mary queen of Scots were bitter and constant, nothing of quarrel had as yet been openly allowed to appear. They corresponded weekly and assumed quite a sisterlv tone of affection. So far was this deceptive con- duct carried on the part of Elizabeth, that Htdes, a lawyer, having published a bbok opposing the title of Mary as Elizabeth's successor, was fined and imprisdiied ; add Bacon, the lord keeper, on the mere sus- picion of having encouraged that publica- A.D. l.i!)3.— A STATVTB WAS PASSXO rOR THK rREVUrfTION OF WITCBCRAFT. [2 P 3 A. D. 15S1.— OUDLKT, lAEL 0» LBICBITIB, OHOtBR CHANCBLLOB Of OXVOBor 330 IJTl^e ^reasurs of Igtstorn, Src. tion, was visited for some time witli the queen's displeasure. An interview was even appointed to take place between tlic two queena.at York, but Elisabetli, probably not very anxious to let her subjects sec Mary's sunerioritjr of personal beauty, pleaded puoUc affairs, and the meeting was abandoned. A new source of care arose for Elizabeth. Mary, young and lovely, and of no frij^id teniperameut, was naturallv uot disinclined to a second marriage ; and her uncle's rest- less ambition would scarcely have allowed her to remain unmarried even had she been so. To prevent Mary's marriage was ob- viously not in Elizabeth's power; but «s she, at least, had the power of getting her formally excluded from the English suc- cession, she thought it not so impossible in the first instance to procrastinate Mary's choice, and then to cause it to fall on the least likely person to aid and encourage her in any attempts prejudicial to England. With this view she raised objections, now of one and now of another sort, against the aspirants to Mary's hand, and at length named lord Robert Dudley, her own sub- ject, and, as some thought, her own not unfavoured suitor, as the person upon whom it would be most agreeable to her that Mary's choice should fall. The lord Robert Dudley — as the reader has hitherto known liim, but who had now been created earl of Leicester — was hand- some, (p-eatly and generally accomplished, and possessed the art of flattery in its utmost perfection; an art to which, far more than to his solid merits, he owed his power of conceoling from Elizabeth his am- bition, rapacity, and intolerable haughti- ness, or of reconciling her to them. The great and continued favour shown to him by tlie queen had made himself as well as the multitude imagine, that he might reason- ably hope to be honoured with her hand ; and it was even believed that the early death of his young and lovely wife, the daughter of a wealthy gentleman named Robsart, had been planned and ordered by the earl, in order to remove what he deemed the sole obstacle to the success of his loftier views. To so ambitious a man, whatever the personal superiority of Mary over Elizabeth, the crown matrimonial of Scotland must have seemed a poor substi- tute indeed to that of England ; and Leices- ter not onl]r oligeeted to the proposal, but attributed Us conception to a deep scheme of his able and bitter enemy, Cecil, to de- prive him of his influence by weaning Eli- zabeth from all personal feeling for him, and causing her io identify him with her rival Mary. The oueen of Scotland^ on the other hand, wearied with the long and vexatious delays and vacillations of Elisabeth, and influenced perhaps, by the personal beauty and ac- complishments of the earl, as well as anx- ious by her marriage with him to remove Elizabeth's evident reluctance to naming her to the English succession, intimated her willingness to accept the powerful favourite. But Elizabeth had named him only in the hope that he would be rejected • he was too great a favourite to be parted with ; and though she had herself distinctlv named the earl as the only man whom she should choose to see the husband of Mary she now coldly and suddenly withdrew her approbation. 'rlie high, and never too prudent, spirit of Mary naturally revolted from this new proof of duplicity and unfriendly feeUng- the correspondence between the rival queens grew less frequent and more curt and for- mal, and at leneth for n time wholly ceased. But Mary, probably under the advice of her friends in France, resolved to make yet another effort to avoid a final and irre. mediable breach with Elizabeth, and for that purpose sent sir James Melvil on a mission to Loudon. Englishmen are greatly and justly prond of queen Elizabeth ; taken as a whole her reign was one of the greatest and wisest in our history. But even making all allow- ance for the prejudice Melvil mav be sup. posed to have felt against Elizabeth, the account he gives of what he saw of her conduct on this occasion places her in to weak, so vain, so utterly puerile a light, that, would rigid impartiality allow it, nue would gladly overlook this portion of our great Elizabeth's reign altogether. Every day she appeared in some new style of dress ; every interview was marked by some question as to the difference in feature, person, or manner between herself and her far lovelier, far more accomplished, but far less worthy and less estimable rival, which is infinitely more characteristic of the petty but aching envy of some ill-nurtured school- girl, with vanity made only the more rest- less and craving of flattery from the occa- sional suggestions of shrewder sense on the score of personal inferiority, than of that high-souled and calm-browed queen who knew how to endure a dungeon and to dare an armada. An accomplished courtier, Melvil was also a shrewd and practised man of the world ; and it is quite clear, from his me- moirs, that he saw through Elizabeth alike in the weakness of her vanity, and in the strength of her deep and iron determination. His report, and probably both her frienda' advice and her own inclination, determined Mary no longer to hesitate about choosing a husband for herself. Lord Darnley, son of the earl of Lenox, cousin-german to Marv by the lady Margaret Douglas, niece of Henry \'III., was by all parties in Scot- land considered a very suitable person. He was of the same family as Mary ; was, after her, next heir to the crown of England, and would preserve the crown of Scotland in the house of Stuart. While these consi- derations me.de him eligible in the eyes of Mary's family and of all Scotsmen, he had been born and educated in England, and it was therefore not to be supposed that Eli- zabeth could have any of that jealousv to- wards him which she might have felt in the case of a foreign prince ahd a papist. i »i ! m I >■ e I SI BOTiL raOCI.ARtATIONS WBUB OMMFOTBNT WHI'.R TUB TUDOBS BBIORBn. D. ~] i ** 1 ncd him ► j ejected ; SI e parted Ri ■siinctly horn she Si of Mary, Q : irn heV m t. spirit I* i his ne«r feeliDK, N Iqueena M and for- f ccaaed. !• dviec of h : to mal(e a >Dd irre- S ; < and for vilon a 4 ■• ly proud liole her H 4 wiseit »l Hallow- m be Bup- cth, the k •* 1 V of her k' !r in to M a liglit, t> n it, one a n of our N Every H •tyle of M by some tt feature, > and her M but far 'l 1, which * ; be petty 1 school- ^j ire rest- S le occa- S' ense on It than of K i queen M sou and a vil was M of the K his me- g th alike R in the ination. N . friends' tl irmined 1 : hoosing u ley, son r. ■ man to (• 9, niece n Scot- >n. He E 18, after 4 ^ nd, and 9 1 land in K 1 : const- • i eyes of «■ he had ■ t and it « lat Eli- » UST tO- fet in ; paiiist. •J ! n. 1 1 i A.D. ISU.— THB rUBITAMI BXri/aa TO OONVOkM TO TBI CflVKCB Or inaLAND. lEnglantT.— 1§ott«e of ^uUor.— 1EU?ali«i^. 331 And, in truth, pereeiviDg that it was nut to be hoped that Marv would remain single, Elisabeth was not ill pleased that Mary's choice should fall upon Darnley. He could (dd nothiDK in the way of power or vUiauce to the Scottish queen, whose marriaKe with him would at once release Blizabetli from the half-defined jealousy she felt as to Lei- cester's real sentiments, and would, at the same time, do away with all dread of the queen of Scots forming any one of the nu- nierous foreign alliances which were open to her, and any one of which would b& dan- gerous to England. Lenox hadlieen long in exile. Elizaoeth now secrc' V'ised Mary to recall hi i., reverse bis at nciliation of the whole of her domi- ■>it)us to the holy see. Considering her i knowledge of Elizabr'h's temper and feel- ings towards her, and considering, too, how much advantage Elisabeth wouldobvionsW obtain from everj circumstance which could cause the Scutch zealots to sympa- thize with Elizabeth against their own queen, nothing couid well have been more imprudent than this missive. Under any circumstances, probabl;?, Mary, a zealous catholic, would have had but an uneaav reign among the fierceljr bigoted Scottish Srotestants; but there is little reason to oubt that this very communication to the council of Trent was a main first cause of all her subsequent misfortunes. The protestants of Scotland were at that time no whit behind (he catholics of any part of the world, either in self-righteousness, or in bitter and bigoted detestation of all who chanced to differ from tiiem. Alarmed as well as indignant at the queen's ostenta- tious attachment to her own creed, the pro- testants not only murmured at her exercise of its rites, even in her own private resi- dence and chapel, but abused her faith in the grossest terms while importuning her to abjure it. The queen answered these rude advisers with a temper which, had she always displayed it, might have spared her many a sorrowful day ; assured them that besides that her apostacy would de- prive Scotland of her most powerful friends on the continent, she was sincerely at- tached to her own faith and convinced of its truth. AVith the self-complacency pe- culiar to narrow-minded bigotry, the re- monstrants assured her that they alone had truth on their side, and bade her prefer that truth to all earthly support and alliances. The rude zeal of the reformed was still far- ther increased by the belief, carefully en- couraged by the agents of Elizabeth, that the Lenox family were also papists. It was in vain that Darnley, now king Henry, en- deavoured to show that he was no papist by frequently making his appearance at the established church ; this conduct was attri- buted to a Jesuitical and profound wiliness, and the preachers often publicly insulted him ; Knox, especially, not scrupling to teU him from the pulpit that boys and women were only put to rule over nations for the punishment of their sins. While the violence of the clergy and the arts of Elizabeth's em'ssaries vvere thus irritating the common people of Scotland against their queen, the discontents of her nobility began to threaten her with a yet nearer and more ruinous opposition. 'The duke of Chaterault and the earls of Murray and Argyle, with other malcontent nobles, actually raised forces, and soon appeared in arms against the king and oueen, insti- gated to this treasonable conduct merely by their paltry fears of being losers of in- fluence and power by the rise of the Le- nox family consequent upon Damley'a nftr- riage to the queen. "The reformed preach- ers openly, and English emissaries secretly, aided the molcontent lords in endeavouring to seduce or urge the whole Scots popula- tion from its allegiance. But the people TRfc rUBITAXS FOI.LOWEO TH8 TB!«BTS OF CALVIX, TUB SWISS BBFOBMBR. .jrimAtft THIATail AMP TBB BiaVLAB DBAMA WKBB ROW riB«T rATBOnutn. 332 ^|)e ^tcasunjf of l|istor|), (cc. were, for once, in no humour to follow the •editioua or the fanatical; and after but very trifling ihow of luccesB, the rebels, being pursued by the king and queen at tlie head of an army of eighteen thousand, were fain to seek safety in England. We dwell more upon the affairs of 8cot> land just at this period than we generally do, because thus much of Scottish history ii necessary here to the understanding of that portion of English history with whicli Mary, queen of Scots, is so lamentably, and •o disgracefully to England, connected. The event of the Scottish revolt having thus completely disappointed all the hopes of Elisabeth, she now strenuously dis- avowed all concern in it; and having in- duced Murray and Chaterault's agent, the abbot of Kilwinning, to make a similar de- claration before the Spanish and French ambassadors, she, with a bitter practical satire, added to the force of their declara- tion, by instantly ordering them from her presence as detestable and unworthy trai- tors I A. D. 1566.— Hard is the fate of princes I Rarely can they have sincere friends ; still more rarely can they have favourites who do not, by their own ingratitude or the envy of others, call up a storm of misfor- tune for both sovereign and favourite. Hitherto the conduct of Mary had been morally irreproachable; for the coarse a- buae of Knox is itself evidence of the strongest kind, that, save her papacy end her sex — of which he seems to nave felt an about equal detestation— even he had not wherewithal to reproach her. Having f«^r her second husband a handsome and youti • fttl man of her own choice, it might h. been hoped that at least her domestic fe;.- city was secured. But Darnley was a vain weak-minded man ; alike fickle and violent ; ambitious of distinction, yet weary of the slightest necessary care ; easily offended at the most trivial opposition, and as easily Sovemed by the most obvious and fulsome (.;iery. tjtteriy incapable of aiding the queen in the government, he was no jot the less anxious to have the crown-matrimo- nial added to the courtesy-title of king which Mary had already bestowed upon him. In this temper he was inclined to detest all who seemed able and willing to afford the queen counsel ; and among these was an Italian musician, by name David Riszio. He had attended an embassy sent to Scotland by the duke of Sa\ oy, and was retained at the Scotch court, in ..ae first in- stance, merely on account of his musical talents. But he was both aspiring and clever, and he soon testified so much shrewd- ness and inclination to be useful, that he was made French secretary to the queen. Brought thus intimately into contact with the queen, he so rapidly improved on his advantages, that in a short time he was universally looked upon not only as the queen's chief confidant and counsellor, but ilso as the chief and most powerful dispenser of her favours. As is uoually the case with favourites, the ability which had enabled Risrio to eonqner court favour AiA not teach him to nse it with moderation • and he had scarcely secured the favour "f the queen, ere he had incurred the deadlv hate of nearly every one at court. The r# formed hated him as a papist and the n puted spy and pensionary of the popei the needy hated bim for his wealth, the hiX born for his upstart insolence; the aipij. ing detested his ambition, and many mm -nrobably not too pure in their owb mo- rals— could find no other supposition on which to account for Mary's protection of him, save a criminal connection between them. It is true that Rizzio was ugly and by no means very young even whenhefirit came to court, and some years had now passed since that event; and, moreover Rizzio, whose ability had done much to clear away the obstacles to the raDrrlaire of Mary and Darnley, had at one time, at least, been as much in the favour of'the king as of the queen. But Darnley, sonred by the queen's coldness, which be 'vaa wil. ling to attribute to any cause rather than to his own misconduct, easily fell into the snare set by the enemies alike of himielf his queen, and Rizzio, and became fbriouily Jealous of an ugly and almost deformed ae- cretary. Tet Darnley was one of the hand- somest men of the age and a vain man too ! Among the extravagant reports to which the excessive favour already enjoyed by Rizzio bad given rise, was one, that it was the intention of Mary to make him chan- cellor in the room of the earl of Morton 1 It Wcis true that Rizzio knew nothing of the la i^nage or of the laws of Scotland; but the report was credited even by the as* tute Morton himself, who forthwith exerted himself to persuade Darnley that nothing but the death of Rizzio could ever restore peace and safety to either king or kingdom. The earl of Lenox, the king's father, George Douglas, natural brotlier to tlie countess of Lenox, and the lords Liudenay and Ruthven, readily joined in the conspi- racy against the unfortunate foreigner, and, to guard themselves against the known fickleness of the king, they got him to sign a paper authorising and making himself responsible for the assassination of Ritzio, as heing " an undertaking tending to the glory of God and the advancement of re- ligion I" The banished lords who were ever hovering on the borders in hope of some event productive of disturbance, were invited by the king to return, and every preparation being made, a night was at length appointed for the murder of Ritzio. Mary, now in the sixth month of her pregnancy, was at supper in her private apartments, attended by Rizzio, the coun- tess of Argyle, her natural sister, and ntliert of her personal attendants, when the king suddenly entered the room and pla(!ed him- self behind the queen's chair. Imntedietely afterwards lord Ruthven, cased in armou- Kad gbafitly from long illness and anxiety, George Douglas, and others, rushed in and seized upon the unfortunate Rizzio as he sprang up to the queen and clung to bcr TBB aUBKlf WAS FONU OF SBOWT PIKORS AMD tlOIST BNTHaTAI.IMKNTl. A.D. 1567.— TBI KOTAL BZCBANai VOUIfDED lEnslanU.— I^ottjsc o< ^uT)or — lEU^abctf). 333 wrmenti, •hriekiug the while for pre- lection. The queen, with tear*, intreatiei, Mid even threats, endeavoured to save her nccretRrv, but the resolved conipiratort forced I'lim into the antichambcr, where he died beneath no fewer than flfty-siz wonndil The condition of the qneen beinu con- •idered, the presence of her husband while the was thus horribly outraged by being made witness of the atrocious murder of her servant, must necessarily have turned her former colducss towards Darnley into aclttsl loathing. On learning that Ilizzio »M indeed dead, she immediately dried her tears, saying " 1 will weep no more ; hence- forth I will only think of revenge." Assuming Mary to be guilty of the par- ticipation in the murder of her husband with which she was afterwards so disas- trously oharged, though even this outrage upon her both as queen and woman would be no excuse for her misconduct as queen, woman, and wife, yet it ought not wholly to be left out of sight while we judge of the character of Mary. In a court such as the court of Scotland clearly was at that time, notbing short of the purity of angels could bsve escaped the general pollution of cru- elty, deceit, and sensuality. All resentments felt by Mary were now, it should seem, merged into detestation of the cruelly and insolently lavage conduct of her husband. She showed him every mark of contempt in public, anu avc-ded iiimin priva^i as though in mingled uate and terror. At length, however, she was conAned at Edinburgh castle of a son ; and as Darnley had apartments there, they were at least apparently reconciled and living together. A messenger was instantly sent to Eliza- beth, who received the news while at a ball at Greenwich. She was much cast down at first, and even complained to some of her attendants that she was but a barren stock, while Mary was the gl>id luoiher of a fair hoy. But she soon recovered her wonted self-possession, and ou the follow- ing day she publicly congratuUted Alelvil, Mary's envoy, and sent the earl >f Bedford and George Cory, son of her kinsman the earl of Hunsdon, to attend the christening of the young prince, and to carry some ricli presents to his mother. But whatever cordiality Elizabeth might afiect upon this occasion, the birth of a son to the queen of Scots, ns it increased the real of her partiznns in England, so it made even the best friends of Elizabeth dC' sirous that she should take some effectual •teps for the settlement of the succession. It was proposed by some leading mem bers of parliament that the question of the •accession and that of the supply should go together. Sir Ralph Sadler, in ordei to elude this bringing of the question to a point, affirmed that he had heard the queen ssy that for the good of her people she had come to the resolution to marry. Others of the court affirmed the same, and then ilie house began to consider about joining the question of the aueen'a marriaga to that of the settlement in general, when a mes- sage was bronght from the queen ordering the house to proceed no farther in the mat- ter. Slie pledged her queenly word as to her sincere intention to marry; and she said that to name any successor previiiusly would be to increase her already great per- sonal dangers. This message by no means satisUed the house, and Peter Wentworth, a popular member, bluntly said that such a prohibition was a breach of the privileges of the house ; while some of the members on the same side added, that unless the ?[ueen would pay some regard to their uture security by fixing a successor, she would show herself rather as the step- mother than as the natural parent of her people. The debates still continuing in this strain, the queen sent for the speaker, and her remonstrances with him having failed to produce the desired effect upon the house, she shortly afterwards dissolved the parliament, sharply reflecting, at the same time, upon the pertinacity with which thcfy had pressed her to marry or fix the succession. A. o. 1567.— The debates in parliament had more than ever awakened the zeal of the partiznns of the queen of Scots. The catholics of England were to a man ready to rise on her oehalf, should Elizabeth's death or any national calamity afford an inviting opportunity ; and, moreover, the court of Elizabeth was itself full of Mary's partisans. But while Elizabeth and her sagacious friend and councillor Cecil — to whom it is not too much to say that Eliza- beth owed more than half the glory she acquired, and owed still more freedom from the obloquy her temper would but for hiin have caused her to incur — were using every expedient to avoid the necessity of declar- ing ao dangerous a successor as the ^ueen of Scots, that ill fated princess was in the very act of plunging herself into a tissue of liorrors and infamies, which were to render her the prisoner and the victim of the prin- cess whom she had dared to rival and hoped to succeed. After the death of Rizzio, Mary's perilous and perplexed situation had made some confidant and assistant indispensably ne- ccssnrjr to her, especially situated as she was with her frivolous and sullen husband. The person who at this time stood highest in her confidence was the earl of Bothwell, a man of debauched character and ereat daring, but whose fortune was mucli in- volved, and who was more noted for his opposition to Murray and the rigid reform- ers, than (or any great civil or military ta- lents. This nobleman, it is believed, sug- gested to her the expedient of being di- vorced from Darnley, but from some diffi- culties which arose to its execution that project was laid aside. < The intimate friendship of Mary with Bcthwell, and her aversion to her husband, made observant persons much astonished when it was announced that a sudden re- turn ot the queen's affection to her husband TIIR riBST STOrtB or TUE HEW KXCHAHSB L.IIO BT VRITICE ALBEBT, FEB. 1842* A.D. It07.— rainos jambi okowhed Km* or uotiaiid, 4t tTiauii*, ac«. lu' ■ A » M t» e u M N ■ a H M ■ a- R I? e E K D 334 JEh* ^reasurv of l^totors, (re. bad Uken place ; that the had even Jour- neyed to Glaagow to attend hii tick beds that the tended him with the utraoet kind- neH ; and that, aa loon a* he could aafeljr travel, the had brought him with her to Holyrood-houte, in Edinburgh. On their arrival there it waa found, or pretended, that the low aituation of the palace, and the noiie of the persona continually going and coming, denied the king the repote neceiiary to hii inttrm state. A solitary house, culed the Kirk o' Field, at some dts- tauce from the palace, but near enough to admit of Mary's frequent attendance, was accordingly taken, and here she continued her attentions to him, and er«N $lept for teveral nigktt in a room immediatefy below Alt. On the ninth of February she excused herself to him for not sleeping at the palace, as one of her attendants was going to be married, and she had promised to grace the ceremony with her presence. About two o'clock in the morning an awful ex- plosion V \8 heard, and it was soon after- wards discovered that the Kirk o' Field was blown up, and the body of the unfortunate Henry Darnley was found in a field at some distance, but with no marks of violence upon it. It is a singular fact that, amidst all the disuutation that has taken place as to the guilt or innocence of Mary in this most melancholy affair, no one of the disputants nas noticed Mary's selection of a room im- mediately below that of the king for several nights before the murder. lra$ ike gun- powder deliberately, in email quantitiee and at interval*, depotited and arranged in that apartment t That Darnley had been most foully mur- dered no sane man could doubt, and the previous intimacy of Mary and Bothwell caused the public suspicion at once to be turned upon them ; and the conduct of Mary was exactly calculated to confirm, instead of refuting, the horrible suspicion which attached to her. A proclamation was in- deed made, offering a reward for the disco- very of the king's murder ; but the people observed that far more anxiety was dis- played to discover those who attributed that terrible deed to Bothwell and the queen. With a perfectly infatuated folly, the queen neitlected even the external decencies which would have been expected from her, even had she been less closely connected in the Sublic eye with the supposed murderer, lothwell. For the earl of Lenox, father of the murdered kin^, wrote a letter to the queen, in whichj avoiding all accusation of the queen, he implored her justice upon those whom he plainly charged with the murder, namely, Bothwell, sir James Bal- four and his brother Gilbert Balfour, Da- vid Chalmers, and four other persons of the queen's household ; but Mary, though she cited Lenox to appear at court and support his charge, and so far seemed to entertain it, left the important fortress of Edinburgh in the hands of Bothwell at governor, and of his creature Balfour aa his deputy. A day for the trial of the charite made b* Lenox was appointed; and that noblcmsn *"'••. ■717 .•""•' •{tendance, had alrcadv reached Stirling on his way to Sdinbnrtb when his information of the extraordinarv countenance shown to Bothwell, and th* vast power entrusted to him, inspired Le. nos with feara as to even his personal safety should he appear in Edinburgb • he therefore aent Cunningham, one of his suite to protest avainst so hurried an investin' tion of this important affair, and to intrcst Mary, for her own sake as well as for ths sake of Justice, to take time, and to make arrangements for a Aill and impartial trisi which obviously could not be had while Bothwell was not only at liberty, but in possession of exorbitant and nverwhelniinc power. Not the slightest attention was paid to the manifestly Just demand of Le- nox ; a jury was sworn, and as no prosecutor or witness was present, that Jury could only acquit the accused — the verdict being accompanied by a protest, in which they stated the situation in which the very nature of the proceedings had placed them. But even had witnesses been present, their evidence could have availed little towards furthering the ends of Justice, for, by a ver^ evident wilfulness, those who drew the indictment bad charged the crime as having been committed on the tenth day of the month, while the evidence must have proved it to have been the ninth, and this significant circumstance increased the odium of both Mary and Bothwell. Two days after this shameful trial a parliament waa held, and Bothwell, whose acquittal was such as must have convinced every im- partial man of bis guiltiness, was actually chosen to carry the royal sceptre I Such indecent but unequivocal evidence of the lengths to which Mary was prepared to go in securing impunity to Bothwell, awed even those who most detested the proceedings ; and a bond of association wu signed, by « liich all the subscribers, con- sisting of ail the chief nobility present at this parliament, referred to the acquittal of Bothwell as a legal and complete one, en- gaged to defend him agunst all future im- putation of the murder of the late kinr, and recommended Mary to marry Bothwell I Degraded, indeed, by long and shameieas faction must the nation have been, when the chief of its nobles could insult public Justice and public decency by the publica- tion of auch a document as tnis I Having thus paved the way towards his ultimate designs, Bothwell assembled a troop of eight nundred cavalry on pretence of pursuing some armed robbers who in- fested the borders, and waylaid Mary on her return from Stirling, where she hsd been paying avisit to her infant son. Mary was eeized near Edinburgh ; but sir Jam'i Melvil, her attached and faithful servan' who was with her at the time, not only confessed that he saw no snrprize or un- willingness on her part, but adds, that some of Bothwell's officers openly laughed at the notion of seisure of Mary's person. A. O. 15C7.— A RKBaLMOll or o'lf SAL III IRBLAIin A6*IN aurrRBSSRn. TABLB-LIHIR ARO IILVIB IFOOIIt WIBB GOMllOII At Till TIMa. lEnglantr.— D^ousc of ^ttVor.— 1Eli?a(ctl^. 335 1114 *ated tha wboln matter to have been irruigeJ between the parties theinieivei. Botbwell carried bU privoner to Duubar, ■nd there made bimtcif matter of ber tier- ion even if be had not been m before, gome of the nobility, either itill doubtful of her guiltr con«ent, or detirout, at the If lit, of forcing her into a more explicit de- elmtioa of it, now eent to offer their tcr- fieeito reicue her; but ihe, with infinite (ooIdch. replied, that though Botbwell had originallT obtained poMesiion of her per- WB bf tiolence, be bad tince treated hereo well that the waa now quite willing to re- auin with him. That no circumitance of infamjr and (Sronterv might be wanting to this dii- tuiting Dusinesa, Botbwell, when he had himiel? proposed as the queen's husband lod leised upon ber peraon, waa already a ourried man I But a divorce waa now aued for, and obtained in four daya from the commencement of the auit ; the queen waa Ihea taken to Edinburgh, and the banua of marriage put up between her and the duke of Orkney, which title Botbwell now boN> In the midat of the awful degradation exhibited bv the Scottiab nation at t^ia time, it ia pleaaing to notice that Craig, a elergvman, being deaired to aolemnize the marriage thua abominably brought about, DOt only refused to perform the ceremony, but openly reprobated it, with a coura|(e which so put the council to shame that it dated not punish him. The bishop of Ork- ney, a protestant, waa more compliant, and was aubsequently very deservedlv deposed bybiscburcb. Unvtrnedby theaisgustof ber own people ana by the remonstrances of her relations, the Guises of France, the infatuated Mary thua puraued her deaigna, anil it became known that BothweU, with her conaent, waa taking meaaores to get the young prince Jamea into hia |>ower. This at length fairly aroused public indig- nation; the chief nobility, ineludinE moat of those who had signed the ever infamous bond in favour of Botbwell, now formed an tuoeiation for the protection of the young Srince and for the punishment of the mur- erers of the king. The army of the asso- ciated lords and the royal troops under Botbwell met at Carbery-hill ; but it waa io dear both that Botbwell had no capa- city equal to the occasion, and that ber own troops looked upon their cause with dia- f;u8t, that Mary, after making nertain stipu- ttions, put herself into the hands of the confederates and waa taken to Edinburgh, the populace reproaching her in the coarseat terms, and holding up banners representing the murder of ber husband and the distress of her infant son. Botbwell, in the mean time, escaped to the Orkneys, and for some time lived by actual piracy ; he at length went to Denmark, wnere he waa thrown into prison, maddened under the aeverity of his confinement and the horror of hia re- flections, and died about ten yeara after- wards, so miserably, that even his atrocity cannot deprive him of our pity. Though treated with acorn and humbled by the indignitiea to which ah. waa now daily expoaed, Mary waa atill so infatuate in her affection for the unworthy Bothv ell, that abe ia reported to have aaid in a letter to him, that ane would aurrender her crown and dignity rather than hia affectiona t and aa ahe appeared to be thua determined, the confederatea, to decrease the chance of her once more getting power into her handa, aeut her to a aort of honourable impriaon- men! in the caatle of Lochlevin lake. The owner of thia place waa mother of the earl of Murray, and aa ahe pretended to have been the mother and not the mere miatreaa of the late king, she bore Mary a hatred which fully inaured her vigilance. Elisabeth waa accurately informed of all that had pasaed in Scotland, and her eagle vision could not fail to perceive the advan- tagea to her own security to be obtained by her interference between Mary and ber en- raged aubjecta. She accordingly, through Throckmorton, aent a remonatrance to the confederated lorda, and advice, mingled with aome severity, to Mary, to whom she offered assistance, and protection at the English court for her infant son, but on condition that she should lay aside all thoughts of revenge or punishment, except as far as re- lated to the murder of her late husband. As both queen and woman, Elisabeth acted well in both her remonstrance to the lorda and her advice to Mary ; but, judging from her whole course of policy at other times, it is no breach of charity to suppose that even her womanly pity for Mary's present distressed and perilous situation, aid not prevent ber from determining to make it available towards her own security and peace for ihe time to come. In the mean time the confederated lords proceeded to arrange mattera with very lit- tle deference to either the righta of their own queen or the remonatrancea of the oueen of England. After much intrigue ana dis- pute. It waa agreed that the regency of the kingdom ahould be placed in the handa of MurrajTt and that Mary ahould reaign the crown in favour of her aon ; nav, ao deape- rate were her circumstances, that, though " with abundance of tears," she actually signed the deeds that made theae extenaive alterationa, without making heraelf accu- rately miatreaa of their contenta. The prince Jamea waa immediately pro- claimed king and crowned at Stirling, and in the oath which the earl of Morton took in hia behalf at that ceremony, an oath to extirpate hereay waa included. Elixabeth waa ao much annoyed at the diaregard with which her remonatrance had been treated, that ahe forbade Throckmorton to attend the young king'a coronation. Aa aoon aa Murray had aaaumed the re- gpncy a parliament waa aaaemhled,in which It waa aolemnly voted that ahe waa an un-' doubted accomplice in the murder of her huaband, but ought not to be impriaoned. Her abdication and her aou'a aucceaaion were at the aame time ratified. Murray proved himaelf equal to hia high rOltKS BAD HOT TVT COMK IKTO U8K : VINGBBa DID rUKIR WOBK. A. D. 1568.— A OONVIBimCa WAI HBLO AT tORB ON ICOTTIIR AVr*l*|. § 389 fR'^t ^(tBSury of l^istoro, ^c. pott. lie obtMined poi«e««ioii of the for- treiMi which held out for Mary or Both- well, and every where compelled at leatt ex- ternal obedience to hit authority. But he had many eneiniet even among bii. teeming flriendt: many of thote who had been moit enraged againit Mary, while the liad open- ly lived in what wat no better than ndulicry with Bothwell, were toftened by the con- templation of lier torrowt now that he wat a fugitive upon the face of the earth, with- out the poiiibilit/ of ever regaining hit gLilty power. To all thete pertont were added the eminent catholict and the great body of the people, who pitied her torrowt now with the tame merely inttinctive and nnreaioning impulse with which re- cently they had heaped the coartett con- tempt upon her miitcondurt. Even yet, then, it was quite within the boundtofpoa- aibility that she might recover her power, and to exert it at to caute the pa«t to be forgiven. A. o. 1508. — But Mary't own conduct, even when leait blameworthy, wat ever to be inimical to her. The constant insulti and vexationt that the endured from the lady of Lochlevin determined her to attempt her etcape from that melancholy conline- ment; and by those artful and winning blandishments which no beautiful woman ever better knew bow to employ, the in- duced George Douglas, brother of the laird of Lochlevin, to aid in her escape. After many vain endeavourt the enamoured youth at length got her from the houte in dia- guiie, and rowed her acrott the lake in a tmall boat. At toon at her etcape waa known many of the nobility hastened to offer her their aid, and to aign a bond to defend her afjainst all comer*. Among thote who thut tigned weretheearltof Argyle, Huntley, Egliutoun, Cassilis, Crauford, Uothet, Montrote, Sun- derland, and Errol, betides uumeroui barona and nine bishops, and in a very few daya the found her ttandard turrounded by up- wards of six thousand men. Elitabeth, too, offered to astiit her, on condition that the would refer the quarrel to her arbitral ion and allow nuFrench troopt to enter the kingdom, but the offer wat too late ; Murray hnstily drew together an army, and attacked her forces at Langside, near Glasgow; and though the regent wat tomewhat inferior in force, his superior ability inflicted a com- plete defeat upon Mary, who liastily fled to a flshing-boat in Galloway, and landed the tame day at Wokineton, in Cumber- land, whence the immediately tent a met- tenger to crave the protection and hospita- lity of Elitabeth. The reality and extent of the generous tympathy of that princess were now to be developed; intervat was now atraightly and sternly opposed to real or pretended generosity. Mary had evidently relied upon the power of her insinuation and eloquence to be of ■ervire to her in a personal interview, which the immediately solicited. But the able and tried ministers of Elizabeth were not alower than Mary herself in perceiving the probable contequence of tuch an inter- view, and Elitabeth wat advised bv Ihrm that the aa a maiden queen could not con titteutly even with mere decency, tdmit to her prenenca a woman who was clurvMl with murder and adultery, and that, too under circumttancet which made even i heat horrible Crimea more than usually horrible The queen of Scott wat very indignant at being, and on auch a plea, deprived of the interview upon which the had to very much reckoned. She replied to the miDiitrrt with great tpirit, and to evidently showed her determination to consider herself u a aitter sovereign teeking Elicabeth's friend, ship, and not at a charged criminal ahom Elitabeth could have any eartlijy right to tit in Judgment upon, that Cecil detrr- mined to force her. mdirectly at least, upon an invettigation, bv allowing Murray and hia party to charge her before the queen in council with having been " of fore-know- ledge, countel, and device, pertuader and commander of the murder of her hut. band, and had intended to caute (he inno. cent prince to follow hit father and so to ti-anifer the crown from the right line to a bloody murderer and godleit tyrant." To thit point of thit intricate aud moit painful affair the attention of general retd- eri hat never been tulHciently directed. The utual narrative of hitiorians leaves the careless or tuperHcial reader to fancy that the conductor Elitabeth must through- oat have been unjuatifiable, at to even the detention of Mar?, the whole question being Mary't guilt and Kliiabeth't right to puniib. We nave already tufHciently thowu that we are not inclined to tacriflce truth to our admiration of the many admirable qua- litiet of Elizabeth. For much of her treat. ment to Mary the is deserving of the highest blame, and at rcgardt her execution eiery one mutt feel the utmott indignation; but the mere detention of her, and inoairy into her guilt oa to her huiband, and her inttn- tinn$ lu to her infant $on, were jnatilied alike by the lawa of nationt and by every feeling of humanity ond of morality. That Mary wat "an independent aovereign" can only be affirmed by a mere play upon worda. Stained with the deep charges of mur- der and adultery, beaten onthe battle-fleld, and fugitive from her enraged and horrilied tubjcctt, Mary wat in no condition to ex- ercise her sovereignty until thethould have re-ettablithed it by armt or treaty. By armi the could not proceed without great peril to England, for ahe mutt have relied upon aid from France ; by treaty she could not proceed but by the aid of Elizabeth, wliote territory might be perilled by some clauie of such treaty. Situated as England was, both as to France and as to Spain, it it } quite clear to all who pay due attention u the whole of the circumstances, that in an honourable detention of Mary, and a full, fair, and impartial inauiry into her con- duct, Elizabeth would 'nave been fully jut- tifled. I The subsequent conduct shown to Mary, A. ». 15C8. — A WAB AOAi:l>icli wound women more painfully thiD the (word ittelf, greatly provoked the hHmh reeling of Elizabeth by her perpetual rrnilhieit to lend her name and inlfuence to |ilu(* invuivinK the life as well as the eronn of Elisabeth. It iccm* quite certain that, at the outset of the business, the main desire of both Elitabeth and her ministers was to place Mary in snch a position that she would be unsble practically to revoke her settlement of the crown upon her infant son, whose rrj(rncy, being proteslant, would have a coiuinon interest with England, instead of steniplHtiun to aid France or Spain to her snnuyance. One ncheme for this purpose »«■ to give l>'f '" marriage to an English uubleman, and Elizabeth proposed the alii- snce to the duke of Norfolk, who bluntly replied, "That woman, madnm, shall never be my wife who has been ynur competitor, and whose husband cannot sleep in secu- rity upon his pillow." Unfortunately for the duke, his practice was bj no means governed by the sound sense or his theory, and he very soon afterwards consented to olfer himself to Mary, in a letter, which was also signed by Arundel, Pembroke, and Leicester. Mary pleaded that " woeful ex- perience had taught her to prefer a single life," but she hinted pretty plainly that Elisabeth's consent might remove such re- luctance as she felt. Norfolk, through the bishop of Ross, kept up the correspondence with Mary. ElizaDeth was from the very flrst aware of it, and she at length signifl- ctntly quoted Norfolk's own words to him, warning him to "beware on what pillow he should rest his head." Shortly after- wsrds the duke, for continuing the corres- pondence, was committed to the Tower. Leicester was pardoned for the share he had had in the original correspondence ; but there seemed so much danger that both Norfolk and the queen of Scots would be severely dealt with, that all the great catholic families of the north joined in a formidable insurrection. Mary, on the breaking out of this affair, was removed to Coventry; but the contest was short; the earl of Northumberland, who headed the revolt, was defeated and taken prisoner, and thrown into Lochlevin castle. His conntess, with the earl of Westmoreland and some other fugitives, were safe among the Scotch borderers, who were able to protect them equally against the regent Murray and the emissaries of Elizabeth. Upon the English of the northern counties who had been beguiled into this hopeless revolt, the vengeance of Elizabeth was ter- rible and extensive. The poor were handed over to the rigours of martial lavr, and it is affirmed that from Newcastle to Netherby, in a district sixty miles long and forty miles wide, there was not a town or even a village which was not the scene ot'exccution ! The wealthieroifenders were reserved fur the or- dinary course of condemnation by law. It he - iu^ anticipated that their forfeitures would reimburse the queen the large sums which it had coat her to put down the revolt. A.D. 1670.— The vigour of the regent Mur- ray had kept the greater part of Scotland perfeetlv quiet, even while the north of England waa in arms for Maryi and aa among the numerous projects suggested to Elisabeth for safelv ridding herselt of Mary was that of delivering her up to Murray, it is most probable that the Scottish queen would have been restored to her country and —tlioiij|;h partially and under strong restric- tions— to her aulhurity, but for the death of the regent. While amusing Mary with a va- riety of proposals which came to nothing, varied by sudden objections which had hern contrived from the very Hrst, Elizabeth's ministers were sedulously strenKthening the hands and establishing the interests of their mistress in Scotland ; they, however, seem really to have intended the eventual restoration of Mary under the most favora- ble circumstances to England, when the enmity and suspicion of the English cabi- net against her, aa a zealous papist, were made stronger than ever by the publication of a bull by Pius V., in which he insult- inglv spoke of Elizabeth's as a merely "pre- tcnaed" right to the crown, and absolved all her subjects from their allegiance. Of this bull,insolcnt in itself and cruel towards Mary, several copies were published both in Scotland and in England ; and a catholie gentleman, named Felton, whose leal bade deiiance alike to prudence and decency, was capitally punished for affixing a copy of this document to the gatcaof the biahop of London. It must be clear that no lOTereini could overlook such an invitation to rebellion and assassination. It would in an* atale of society be likely to arge some gloomy and half insane fanatic to the crime of murder ; though as to any national effect, even while the catholics were still so numerous, the papal bull had now become a mere bnlem /ulmen, Liugnrd, even, the ablest catholic historian, says, upon this very transaction, " If the pontiff promised himself any par- ticular benelit from this measure, the result must have disappointed his expectations. The time was gone by when the thunders of the Vatican could shake the thrones of princes. Uy foreign powers the bull was suffered to sleep in silence; among the English catholics it served only to breed douDts, dissensions, and dismay. Many contended that it had been issued by in- competent authority ; others, that it could not bind the natives until it should be carried into actual execution by some fo- reign powers all agreed that it waa, in their regard, an imprudent and duel ex- pedient, which rendered them liable to thfe suspicion of disloyalty, and afforded their ciiciniesa pretence to brand ihrm with the nHme of traitors. To Elizabeth, however, though she affected to ridiriile the scitence, it proved a source of considerable uneasiness and ulnrm. o « M J H 4 U m < » I, .4 '4 A.D. Iii70. — KI.IZABFTn niNKI) WITH SIR T. GRFSUAM IN THE CXraAMOB. [3 G A.O. It7<— BUBMiai •UOCBIDI TO THB OVVICB OV VOU't t,h , •||«t%7 33S V^l)i V^ttMUtu of llUtoro, ^c. Tka pwliament, at once alarmed and in- 4i(nant at Iha bull of Piu* V. «cry naturally laid loma heavy ratlrlotioni upon tbn ea> thotlM, who were feared to be ready at any moment to rkie in favour of the aueen of Beote and for the depotition of Eliiabeih. ahottld Philip of Spain or hie niieral Alva, governor of the Netherlande, land a luM- eienlly numeroua army of foreign papieta in Bngland. And tbcae feare of the par- liameut and the minietry had but loo eolid fbundation. The duke of Norfolk from hie eonllnement wae constantly intriguing with Mary i and that unhappy prinoete, wearied and goaded to desperation oy her continued Imprisonment, and the constant failure of aH'attempts at gaining her liberty, even when she the most fraokly and completely agreed to all that was demanded of her, sent Eudolphi, an Italian, who had her confldence, to solicit the co-operation of the pope, Philip of Spain, and Alva. Some lettere firom Norfolk to the latter person- age were intercepted by the English minis- try, and Norfolk was tried for treasor ible leaguing with the queen's enemies, to the danger of her crown and digiiitv. Norfolk protested that his aim was solely to restore Mary to her own crown of Scotland, and that detriment to the authority of Elisabeth he had never contemplated and would never have abetted. A. s. 1A79.— His defence availed him no- thing t be was found guilty by his peers and condemned to death. Even then the qnean hesitated to oarr^ the sentence into Mfect against the premier duke of England, who was, also, her own relative. Twice she was indueed by the ministert to sign the warrant, and twice she revoked it. This •tale 01 hesitation lasted for four months. At the end of that time the parUnnient pre- •entcd an address strongly calling upon ner to make an example of the duke, to which aha at length consented, and Norfolk was beheaded i dying with great courage and constancy, and still protesting that he had BO ill design towards his own queen in his desire to md the unhappy queen of Scote. We ai« inclined to believe that the duke was sincere on this head ; but certainly his iudgment did not equal his sincerity; for bow could he expect to overturn the vast power of Elixabetn, so far as to re-establish Mary on the throne, but by such civil and international lighting aa must have perilled EUsi^th's throncL wid, most probably, would have led to the saeriflee of ner life. Burleigh, devoted to the glory of his royal mistress and to the welfare of her people, and plainly perceiving that the ca- thouea, both at home and abroad, would either find or feign a motive to mischief in the detention of the oueen of Scots, reso- IttteW advised that that unhappy queen should be violently dealt with, as being at the bottom of all schemes and attempts against the peace of England. But BU- tabeth was not even yet— woaid that she had never been!— so far irritated or alarmed as to consent to aught more than the de- tention of Mary; and to all the suggestions of Burleigh sbs contented herself will. ..I li wn: ing, with a touch of that po«tio7eeli'nt wnloh evenintrigues of state never wliully banished ftrom her mind, that " tbe cuuli not put to death the bird that, to eicsue the lure of the hawk, bad flown to ber fctt for proieeilon." Burleiirh was i^dcd in bis endesfoars against Mary bv the parliament; but £11. sabeth, though both her anxiety and Iter anger daily grew stronger, persoiialU inter, fered to prevent a bill of attainder •lainu Mary, and even another bill which mertlv went to exclude her from the sucreiiioa. Towards the friends of Mary. Eliuibetk was less merciful. The earl of Nortbum. berland was delivered by Morton— who had succeeded Lenox in the Scotch rcgeney— into the hands of the English miuiiteri: and that chivalrous and uuFortunate noblt* man was beheaded at York. The state of France at this time was iueh from the lierce enmity of the catholics to the Huguenots or protcstants, as lo gif« serious uneasiness lo Elisabeth. The deep enmity of Charles IX. of France toward* the leaders of his nrotestant subjects wsi disguised, indeed, oy the most srtful cs* resses bestowed upon Colig ui, the king of Navarre, and other leading Huguenots i but circumstances occurred to show that the king of France not only detested those per- sonages and their French followers, but that be would gladly seise any good oppor- tunity to aid Philipof Spain in the destruo- tion, if possible, of the protestant power of England. The perfidious Charles, in order to plann the Huguenots into the more profoundly fatal security, offered to give his sister Msr- garet in marriage to the prince of Navarre; and Coligni, with other leaders of the Hu- guenot party, arrived in Faris,to celebrate a marriage which promised so much toward* the reconciliation of the two parties. But so far was peace from being the real mesu. ing of the court of France, that the queen of Navarre was poisoned. This suiplci- ously sudden deatn, however, of so eminent a person did not arouse the doomed Coligni and the other protestants to a sense of their real situatioiu The marriage was con- cluded; and but a few days after, on the eve of St. Bartholomew, tne designs of Charles IX^ or, more strictly speaking of his execrable mother, burst forth. The venerable Coligni, waa murdered almost by the king's side ; men, women, and children alike were butchered by the king's troop*, so that in Paris alone about Ave hundred persons of rank and above ten thouMnd of the lower order are known to have perished in this moat sanguinary and cowardly affiur. Ordera were at the same time sent to Bouen, Lyons, and other great towns of Firanei, wnere the same detestable butcheries were committed on a proportionably large scsle. The king of Navarre and the prince of Condd narrowly escaped. The duke of Guise advised their destruction, but the king had contracted so much personal affection for them as he could feel for any one but the a.D. It72.'-*>IANY FRENCH PROTBSTAMTS TAKB XXrUOK IN aNaltANO. A. D. 1178— TV" >**fc or ■■■■> APromra* ■ABiHAaiviL or ibblard. 1£ngIanTf.~1[ioiifi of ^nVor.— lEIi^abctl). 839 flM-woir hit molher, and he eauacd Ihtir Htn 10 b« tiMired on oondltion of tliclr M«mliif conftMlon to popenr. . Tb* nlfhiftil muMcre of Bt. Barthoio- ■itw could not but be fraati* alarmiiif aa «(ll ai ditguitluK to Eliiabetn. She could Bot but perceive, from a butchery m Aright* M and MtcntiTe, that there wna amoDR the •atbolle prineet of the continent a deter- Biaation to exterminate proteitantism t nor could the hut feel that ihe, at tlie cBampion of that (kith, waa henceforth more eoutpicuouiljr than ever marked out for dettrtietion, could it be accompliahcd cither by warfare or in the mora daatardly way of private aiiaitination. Charlei IX. wai himirlf eonaciont of Ihe oVcDce this atrocioua matiaere of bis pro* testant subjects mast necessarily |ri*e to EliMbeth, and he sent a stronfc apology to her through Fenclon, his ambassador. To Bs it has ever appeared that thia apology did, in reality, only make the offenee the blacker ; Charles now calumniated the un- foriiinate persons whom he had murdered. He pretended that he had discovered, Just u it was about to b« carried into execution, a Huguenot conspiracy to seite hia person, •nd that it waa as a necessary matter of stlf-defenee that his catholic aoldiery had acted. The single fact that ordera for wholesale massacre were acted upon at diitant provincial cities, as well as at Paris, would at once and for ever give the lie to this statement. Even Chanea'a own am* bassMdor confessed that he was ashamed alike of bis eonntrr and of the apology which he waa, by hia office, compelled to make for so outrageous a crime. Hiaofflce, however, left him no choice, and he went to court. Here he found every one, male and female, attired in the deepeat mourning, and bearing in their features the marks of profound pief and alarm. No one apoke to him, even, until he arrived at the throne, where the queen, who respected his per- sonal character, beard his apology with all the calmness that ahe conla muster. Eli' labeth very plainly, in her reply, ahowed that she utterly msbelieved Cnarlea's ca- lumny upon his protestant subjects, but she concluded that she should defer making up her mind upon the real feelings of Cnarles until she should see how he would act in itature, and that in the mean time, as requested by his own ambassador, she would rather pity than blame him. The massacres in France, Joined to the Spanish massaerea and persecutions in the u>w Conntriea, and the fkvour into which Charles IX. noir visibly took the Guises, made it evident to Elisabeth that nothing but opportunity waa wanting to induce the French and Hpimiarda to unite for her de- simetion, and she took all possible precau- tions. She fortified Portsmouth, paid all requisite attention to her militia and fleet, and, while she renewed her open alliances with the German princes, she lent all the aid that she secretly could to the people of the Low Countriet to assist them againat their Spanish tyrants. A.B. 1570.— Bevnnd what wt hava Just now said of the foreign policy of Bliaaketk we need not here say anything i tka events that look place, whether in Spain, the No* iherlands, or France, falling properly under thoae heads. Tlie altentioB of Bliiabeth, as to foreigners, was addressed chiefly to aiding the protestants with secresy and with as rigid economy and stringent coadi* tions as were consistent with effectual aid t and to keeping up sueh a constant demon* stration of vignur and a prepared position, as might intimidate catholic princes flrom any such direct hostility to her as would be likely to provoke her into openly encou- raging and assisting their malcontent sub* jects. This policy enabled Elisabeth to enjoy a profound peace during years which saw nearly all the rest of Europe plunged in war and misery. A. B. 1580.— The aflairt (if Scotland just at this time gave Elisabeth some unraainesa. During several years the regent Morton had kept that kingdom in the strictest amity. But the regent had of late wholly lost the favour of the turbulent nobles, and he found himself under the neceasity of giving in his resignation ; and the govern- ment waa formallv assumed by king James himself, though he was now only eleven vears of age. The count D'Aubigny, of the house of Lenox, was employed by the duke of Guise to dcMcn Jamea tnm the inter- ests of Elisabeth, and to cause him to espouse those of his mother. Elisabeth endeavoured to support and reinstate Mor* ton, but D'Aubignv had now obtained so much influence with the king, that he waa able to have Morton imprisoned and sub* aequently beheaded, as an accomplice ia tb« murder of Ihe late king. With Spain, too, iflisabeth'a relations were at this period uneasv and threatening. In revenge for the aid which he knew Elisa- beth to have given to his revolted subjects of the Netherlands; Philip of Spain sent a body of troops to aid her revolted subjeets of Ireland; and her complainta of this in- terference were answered by a reference to the piracies committed by the celebrated admiral Drake, who was the flrst English- man who sailed round the world, and who obtained enormous booty flrom the Spa- niards in the New World. A.D. 1581.- The Jesuits, and the seholan generally of the continental seminaries which the king of Spain had estahliahed to compeiisate to the catholics for the loss of the universities of England, were so ob- viously and so intrusively hostile to the queen and the protestant faith, that aomc stringent lawa against them and the ca- tholics generallv were now passed. And let any who feel inclined to condemn the severity of those lawa flrst reflect upon the continual alarm in which both the oneen and her protestant subjects had been Kept, by the pernicious exertions of men who never seemed at a loss for a subtle casuistry to induce or to justify a brutal cruelty or an impudent sedition. S. B. 1677'— BMB4BBTB ASSISTS TBI DUTCn AOAIRST TBB Rtna Or SrAIN. A.D. 1M4.— alK WALTKK BAI.KISH SlaCOVBBa AND RAHKt TIBOIHIA. ? § S40 Vx^t treasury of l^istorc $cc. Campion, a Jesuit over to explain who had he^n sent in to the catliolics of England that they were not bound, in obedience to the bull of Piua V. to rebel until the pope •hould give them a aecond and explicit order to that effect— t. «. not until the sute of England should by accident, or by je> aniticM practice*, be placed in convenient Gonfusioii I— being detected in treasonable practices directly oppoMd to hia professed errand, was first racxed and then executed. Eliubeth had formerly been addressed with offers of marriage by Alen^n, now duke of Anjou, brother to the late tyrant Charles IX. of France, and he now renewed hia addresses through his agent Siraier, a man of great talent and most insinuating manners. The agent so well played his part in the negotiation that he excited the jealousy of the powerful and unprincipled Leicester, who offered hiui every possible opposition and insult. The queen, whom Siroier informed of Leicester's marriage to the widow of the earl of Kssex, formally took Simier under her especial protection, and ordered Leicester to confine himself at Greenwich. Simier so well advocated the cause of Anjou, that Elisabeth went so far as to in- vite that prince to England; and after making stipulations for the aid of France, ahould the mterests of Anjou in the Nether- land* involve her in a quarrel with Philip of Spain^ Elizabeth, in presence of her whole court and the foreign ambassadors, placed a ring on Anjou'* finger, and dis- tinctly said that she did so in token of her intention to become his wife. As she was now nine-nnd-forty years of age, and mi|;ht be supposed to have outlived all the youth- ful ficklenes* imputed to her sex, and as she gave orders to the bishops to regulate the form* of the marriage, every one sup- posed that it was certain. Despatches were aent to notify the approaching event abroad, and in many parts of England it was anti- cipatively celebrated by public holiday and rqoicing. But tne marriage of Elizabeth to Anjou was looked upon with great dislike by the leading men of the English court. The duke, a* a catholic and a member of a most persecuting family, could not but be viewed with fear and sUHpicion by sound statesmen like Walsingham and Hatton ; while Lei- cester, conscious that with the queen's marriage his own vast power and influence would end, heartily wished her not to marry at all. These courtiers employed her favour- ite ladies to stimulate her pride by hinting the probability of her husband, instead of herself, becoming the first personage in her dominion* ; and to appeal to her fears by auggesting the dangers to which she would be exposed *hould she have children ; the latter, surely, a danger not very probable at her time of life. However, the courtiers' artifices were fully succesful. Even while the state messengers were on their w-ay to foreign courts with the news of the queen's approaching marriage, she sent for Anjou, and told him, with tears and protestations of regret, that .ler people were so much prejudiced against her union with him tiim though her own happiness must needs be sacrificed *he had resolved to cuniuit tlie happiness of her people, and therefore could not marry him. The duke on leaving Iter Iiresence threw away the costly ring slie lad given him, and declared that English. women were as capricious as the waves that surround their island. He soon after de- farted, and being driven from Belgium to 'ranee, died there; deeply and sincerelv regreted by Elizabeth. ' A. n. 16S4.— Several attempts having been made to raise new troubles in EnglRiid jq favour of the queen of Scots, the miniatera of Elizabeth made every exertion to detect the conspirators. Henry Piercy, earl of Northumberland, brother to that earl who was some time before beheaded for his connection with Mary'* cause; Howard earl of Arundel, *on of the duke of Norfolk' that princeas's late auitor; lord Paget and Charles Arundel ; and Francis Tlirogmor- ton, a private gentleman, were implicated. Most of them escaped, but Throgmorton was executed. Mendoza, the Spanish am bassadnr, who had been the prime mover of this plot, was sent home in disgrace. Some farther proofs of a widely spread and dangeroua conspiracy having been dis- covered in some paper* seized upon Creigh- ton, a Scotch Jesuit, the English ministers, who found Mary connected with all taeie attempts, removed her from the custody of the earl of Shrewsbury, who seemed not to have been aufficiently watchful of her conduct, and committed her to that of sir Amias I'aulet and sir Drue Drury, men of character and humanity, hut too much de- voted to Elizabeth to allow any unreason able f.-eedom to their prisoner. Farther law* were at the same time passed against Jesuit* and popish priests, and a council was named by act of parlia- ment with power to govern the kingdom, settle the succession, and avenge tiie queen's death, ihould that occur hy vio- lence. A aubsidy and two fifteenths were likewise granted to the queen. During this session of parliament a new conspiracy waa discovered, which greatly increased the general animosity to the catholics, and proportionally increased the attachment of the parliament to the quern, and their anxiety to shield her from the danger* by which she seemed to be perpe- tually surrounded. A catholic gentleman named Parry, who had made himself so conspicuous in the house of commons by his intemperate opposition to a bill lor re- straining the seditious practices of Romisb priests, that he was committed to the cm- tody of the seijeant-at-arm* and only libe- rated by the clemency of the queen, wai now, in but little less than six weeks, charged with high treason. This man had been employed as a secret agent by lord Bur- leigh, but not deeming himself sufficiently well treated he went to Italy, wliere he seems to have deeply intrigued witli both the papal party at Rome and the ministers A.n. 158-1. — XMMANIIEI. COLI.EGK, CAMnalDOK, POUNPKn BT RIB W. Mll.DMAT. A. >• M8S>~C0ACaBI riKST IHTEODDOBB AMD UIBS SR BIISI.AIIB TUII tKAB. lEnglan'D — ^1|ousc of ^uUor — ^XU^abttl^. 341 In B k ofbUowD soTereign at home. Having pro- 1 cured from the Bomish authorities a warm unction of bis profeised detign of killing ! queen Bliiabeth with hit own band, this : unction he hastened to communicate to Bli- ubetb, and being refused a pension he re- turned to bis old vocation uf aspy, and was emplojed to watch the pemiciuua Jesuit Persons, in conjunction with Nevil. Though tctually in the serrice of the government, both Nevil and Parry were men of despe- rate fortune, and their discontent at length new 80 desperate that they agreed to shoot the queen when she should be out rtdin(p. The earl of Westmoreland, under sentence of exile, chanced to die Just at this period, tnd Nevil, who, though a s laried spy, was siso in exile in Normandy, thought it very likely that be, as next heir to the deceased earl, would recover the family estate and title by revealing the plot to which he was a party. Nevil's revelations to the govern- ment were confirmed by Parry's own con- fession, and the latter, a double traitor,— alike traitor to his native land and to his foreign spiritual sovereign,— waa very de- servedly executed. A fleet of twenty siUl under admiral sir Ftancis Drake, with a land force of two thousand three hundred volunteers under Christopher Carlisle, did the Spaniards immense mischief this year, taking St. jago, near Cape Verd, where they got good store of provision, but little moneyr; St. Domingo, where they made the inhabitants uve their houses by the payment of a large •am of money; and Cartbagena, which they similarly held to ransom. On the eout of Florida they burned the towns of 8t. Anthony and St. Ht'len's ; and thence they went to the coast of Virginia, where they found the miserable remnaut of the colony so long before planted thrre by sir Walter Baleigh. The poor colonists were at this time reduced to utter misery and despair by long continued ill success, and glaaly abandoned their settlements and re- turned home on board Drake's fleet. The enormous we^th that was bruucht home by that gallant commander, and the ac- counts given by his men of both the riches and the weakness of the Spaniards, made the notion of piracy upon the Spanish main extremely popular, and caused much evil energy to be employed in that direc- tion, .vhich would otherwise have been of serious annoyance to the government at home. Meanwhile the earl of Leicester, who had been sent to Holland in command of the English auxiliary forces to aid the states against Spain, proved himself to be unfit for any extensive military power. His retinue was princely in splendour, and his courtly manners and intriguing spirit eaucea him to be named captain-general of the United Provinces, and to have the guards and honours of a sovereign prince. But here bis achievements, which gave deep offence to Elizabeth, began to diminish in briUian'y. Though nobly aided by his ne- phew, is'.r Philip Sidney, one of the most gallant and accomplished gCKtlcmen who have ever done honour to Engl and, he waa ! decidedly inferior to the task of opposing ao accomplished a general as the prince or Parma. He succeeded in the first instance in repulsing the Spaniards and throwing succours into Grave ; but the cowardice or treachery of Van Hemert— who was after- wards put to death pursuant to the sen- tence of a court martial — betrayed the place to the Spaniards. Venio waa taken oy the prince of Parma, as was Nuys, and the prince then sat down before Bhimberg. To draw the prince from before this last named place, which waa garrisoned br twelve hundred men and well provided with stores, and upon which, consequently, Lei- cester should have allowed tlie prince to have wasted his strength and then have brought him to action, Leicester laid siege to Zutphen. The prince thought this place far too important to be allowed to fall into the hands of the English, and he hastened to its aid, tending an advanced guard under the marqnit of Cuesto to throw re- lief into the fortress. A body of English cavalry fell in with this advance, and a gal- lant action commenced, in which the Spa- niards were completely routed, with the loss of the marquis of Gonzago, an Italian noble of great military reputation and ability. In this action, however, the Eng- lish were so nnfortunate as to lose the noble sir Philip Sidney, whose accomplish- ments, humanitv, and love of literature made him the idol of the great vrriters of the age. The humanity which had marked his whole life was conspicuous even in the last sad scene of his death. Dreadfully wounded, and tortured with a raging thirst, he was about to have a bottle of water ap- plied to his parched lips, when he caught the eyes of a poor private soldier who lay near him in the like fevered state, and wat looking at the bottle with the eager envy which only the wounded soldier and the desart wanderer can know. "Give him the water," said the dying hero, " Idt ne- cessity is still greater than mine." While Leinester was barely keeping ground against Spain in the Netherlands, and Drake was astounding and ruining the Spaniards in various parts of the New World, Elizabet.h was cautiously securing herself on the si 'e of Scotland. Having obtained James's dliance by a dexterous admixture of espionage und more open conduct, Elizabeth felt that she had but little to fear from foreign invasions ; it be- ing stipulated in their league " that if Eli- zabetii were invaded, James should aid her with a body of two thousand horse and five thousand foot ; that Elizabeth, in the like case, should send to his assistance three thousand horse and six thousand foot; that the charge of these armies should be defrayed by the prince who demanded aa- tistance; that if the invasion should be made upon England, within sixty miles of the frontiers of Scotland, this latter king- dom should march its whole force to the assistance of the former ■ and that the A. ». ?5Sc.— LICKNCB ORiXTSn TO lONnON MERCB^KTS TO (RAnB TO BAABABT. [2 6 3 AK AOt rAHta TO •!?■ XHB ■BBKir* rODRSAai OR MBCVTIOill. 342 ^^e CteaaurQ of l^fstorn, $rc. present leazne shoald luprnede all former ■Uiancei of either ttate with any foreiKn kingAom so far u religion was concerned." And, in truth, it was requisite that £li> labeth should be well prepared at home, for her enemies abroad grew more and more furious against her, as every new occur- rence more strongly displayed the sagacity of her ministers and her own prudence and firmness in supporting them. Partly on aecouFt of the impriionment of the queen of Scots, but chieflv on account of those rigorous laws which their own desperate and shameful conduct daily made more ne« cessary, the foreign papists, and still more the English seminary at Rheims, had be- come wrought up to so violent a fury, that nothing short of the assassination of Eli- sabeth was now deemed worthy their con- templation. John Ballard, a priest of the seminary at Rheims, having been engaged in noticing and stirring up the fanatical zeal of the catholics of England and Scotland, pro- posed, on his return to Rheims, the attempt to dethrone Elizabeth and to re-establish papacy in England, an enternrize which he pretended to think practicaole, and that, too, without any extraordinary difficulty. At nearly the same time a desperate and gloomy fanatic, John Savage, who had served for several years under the prince of Parma in the Low Countries, and who was celebrated for a most indomitable resolu- tion, offered to assassinate Elizabeth with his own hands. As that deed would greatly facilitate the proposed revolution in Eng- land, the priests of Rheims, who had long preached up the virtuous and lawful cha- racter of the assassination of heretical sovereigns, was encouraged in his design, which lie vowed to pursue, and the more fanatical catholics of England were in- structed to lend him all possible aid. Sa- vage was speedily followed to England by Bulard.who took the name of captain For- tescue, and busied himself night and day in preparing means to avail himself of the awe and confusion in which the nation could not fail to be plunged by the success of the attempt which he doubted cot that Savage would speedily make. Anthony Babington, a Derbyshire gen- tleman, had long been known to the initi- ated abroad as a bigoted cn.tholic and as a romantic lover of the imprisoned queen of Soots. To this gentleman, who had the property and station requisite to render bim useful to the conspirators, Ballard ad- dressed himself. To restore the catholic rel-gion and place Mary on t)annot see how he was to avoMi t hat resort to spies, which under any other circumstances we should be among the first to denounce. But with whom, then, did theae spies act ? With catholics of station and wealth, whom no spies coild possibly have engaged in perilous and wicked proceedings, but for their own fierce fanaticism. Aud how and from whom did these spies procure WhI- linKham the important letters which di- Tttlged all the particulars of the intended ?ilhiny ? By letter carrying from Mary to the enamoured Babington, and from Ba- bington to Mary. What film bigotry may throw across the eyes of fierce political par- tisans we know not, but assuredly we can imagine nothing to be clearer than the guilt of Mary, as far as she could be guilty of eonspinng against the life of Elizabeth— who had so long embittered her life and deprived her of oil enjoyment of her crown and kingdom, who had mocked her with re- peated promisee which she never intended to fulfil, and who had carried the arts of poUcy so far as to outrage nature by making the utter neglect of the imprisoned mother a tacit condition, at the least, of friendship and alliance with the reigning son. The commissioners on their return from Fothe- ringsy castle pronounced sentence of death upon Mary, queen of Scots, but accompa- nied the sentence with what — considering that from the moment of her abdication in his favour, his right to reign became wholly independent of his mother — seemed a some- what unnecessary clause of exception in favour of James ; which said that " the sen- truce did in no wise derogjate from the title and honour of James, king of Scotland; but that he was in the same place, degree, and right, as if the sentence bad never been pronounced." It is an extraordinary fact, and one which is unnoticed not only by the partial writers who have endeavoured to throw the de- served degree of blame upon Blisubeth, and alio to represent Mary as altogether free from blame even where her criminality was the most glaringly evident, but even by the impartial Hume, that when the sentence on Mary was published in London, the people received it, not with the sadness and silence or the fierce and fiei7 remonstrance with which the English are wont to r''buke or restrain evil doing, but by the ringing oH bells, lighting of ^tnfires, and all the ordi- nary tokens of public rejoicing. Does ujt this single fact go lu prove that it was notorious that Mary, during her confine- ment, was perpet'jallv plotting against the life of the queen, and endeavouring to de- liver England and Scotland over to the worst horrors that could befall them— the restoration of papacy and the arbitrary rule of Philip of Spain ? We repeat, whatever the former conduct of Elizabeth, Mury of Scotland was now notoriously a publit: ene- my, prepared to slay the queen and expose the protestants of the nation to massacre, 80 that she might obtain her own personal liberty, and take away liberty of conscience from the whole nation. That this was the true state of the case was made evident not merely by the rejoicings of the multitude out of 'ioors, but by the solemn applica- tion of the parliament to Elizabeth to allow the sentence to be executed. The king of i France, chiefly by the compulsion of the { house of Guise and the league, interceded for Mary ; and James of Scotland, who had | hitherto been a most cold and neglectful I son, whatever might be the errors of his ' icother, now sent the master ul Gray and \ sir Robert Melvil to try both argument and menace upon Elisabeth. I Most historians seem to be of opinion ' that the reluctance which Kliinheth for some time exhibited to comply with what was undoubtedly the wish of her people, the execution of Mary, was wholly feigned. We greatly doubt it. ' That Elisabeth both hated and feared Mary was inevitable t Mary's position, her bigotry, the personal ill-feeling she had often shown towards Klizabetli, and her obvious willingness to sacrifice her life, were surely not additions to the character of a woman who had con- nived at her husband's death and then married his murderer, which could liave engendered any kindly feelings on the part of a princess so harassed and threatened as Elieabeth was by that faction of which Mary, in England at least, was the recog- nised head. But apai't from all womanly and humane relenting, Elizabeth could not but be conscious that the death of Mary would cause a great accession to the rage of the catholic powers; and apathetic as James had shown liiniseli hitherto, it was but reasonable to suppose that the violent death of his mother would rouse him into active enmity to ED;'fi;c', However, the queen's hesitotion, real n assumed, was at length overcome, and : !i'- -'^ncd the fatal warrant which Davison. U ,c ■.'■■ary, act- ing under the orc-rr r.t .' r.dvi:* . t, .^ho were charged v 1 u boci ;i^ it exccu' J. A. ». 1587.— ' mmediately on the a -ivol of the two earls, t': re^f' the warran:, and warned Mary to be p.■''l>a^'o,l for "xecution at eight on thr foUowii.^ r orning. She re- ceived the news with iipparcnt resignation; professed that she could not have believed that Elizabeth would have enforced such a sentence upon a pc son not subject to ths laws and jurisdi.''tioi, rf England, but added, "As such is her wii!, death, which puts an end to all my miseries, shall be to me most welcome ; nor can I esteem that soul vvi rthy the felicities of hoaven which ee-w , sup- port the body under the horrors :> ■; ' it passage to these blissful matisiot «." f'he then asked for the admission of her own chaplain, but the earl of Ken' said that the attendance of a papist priesx wco unnecessary, as Fletcher, dean of I'eter- horough, a most learned and pious divine, M '4 H M iJ M H H e SB. joun BAI.B, A Voluminous coNTnuVEnsi.\LisT, niso in 1563. ■ IB taOMAI IMITH, A MSTArHTIICIAR AHO ITATItlfAII, BIBD III I677, m m ■ M t* O M «S o m 344 ^^e flTrcasttro ot H^istorp, $cc. would afford her all necessary consolation and instruction. Blie refused to see him, which so much angered the earl of Kent, that he coarsely, though truly, told her that her death would be the life of the protcstant religion, as her life would have been the death of it. Having taken a sparing and early sup per, the unhappy Mary passed the night in mhking a distribution of her effects and in religious offices, until her usual hour for retiring, when she went to bed and slept for some hours. She rose very early, and resumed her religious exercises, using a consecrated host which had been sent to her by pope Pius. As the fatal hour approached she dressed herself in a rich habit of velvet and silk. Scarcely had she done so when Andrews, sheriff of the county, entered the room and summoned her to the last dread scene, to which she was supported by two of sir Araias Fanlet's guards, an infirmity in her legs preventing her from walking without aid. As she entered the hall adjoining her room she was met by t' » earls of Shrews- bury and Kent, sir Am._. Paulet, sir Drue Drury, and otl.er gentlemen ; and here sir Andrew Melvil, her attached steward, threw himself upon his knees before her, lament- ing her fate and wringing his hands in an agony of real and deep grief. She com- forted him by assurances of her own perfect •...r^-i^ation, bade him reporv in Scotland that" she dl?d a true woman to her religion, and said, as she resumed her way to the scaffold, "Recommend me, Melvil, to my son, and tell him that, notwithstanding all my distresses, I have done nothing preju- dicial to the state and kingdom of Scotland. And now, my good Melvil, farewell ; once again, farewell, good Melvil, and grant the assistance of thy prayers to thy queen and mistress." She now turned to the earls, and begged that her servants might freely enjoy the presents she had given them and be sent safely to their own country ; all which was readily promised. But the earls objected to the aumission of her attendants to the execution, and some difficulty was even made about any of them being present in her last moments. This reallv harsh re- fusal roused her to a degree of anger she bad not previously shown, and she indig- nantly said to the earls, " I know that your mistress, being a maiden queen, would vouchsafe, in regard of womanhood, that I should have some of my own people about me at my death. I know that her majesty hath not given you any such strict com- mand but that you might grant me a re- quest of far greater courtesy, even though I were a woman of inferior rank to that which I bear. I am cousin to your queen, and descended from the blood rovaf of Henry VIII., and a married queen of France, and an anointed queen of Scotland." Tnis remonstrance had due effect, and •he was allowed to select four of her mnle and two of her female servants to attend her to the bcaffold ; her stev/ard, physician. apothecary and inrgeon, with her maids Curie and Kennedy. Thus attended, she was led into an ad Joining hall, in which was a crowd of spec tators, and the scaffold, covered with black cloth. The warrant having been read the dean of Peterborough stepped forward and addressed her in exhortation to repentance of her sins, acknowledgment of the justice of her sentence, and reliance for mercy and salvation only upon the mediation and merits of Christ. During the dean's ad- dress Mary several times endeavoured to interrupt him, and at the conclusion she daid, "Trouble not yourself any more about the matter, for I was bom in this religion I have lived in this religion, and 1 will die in this religion." She now ascended the scaffold, saying to Paulet, who lent her his arm, " I thank you sir ; it is the last trouble I shall give you, and the most acceptable service that you have ever rendered me." The queen "of Scots now, in a firm voice, told the persona as- sembled that " She would have them recol- lect that she was a sovereign princess, not subjecf to the parliament of England, but brought there to suffer by violence and in- justice. She thanked God for having given her this opportunity to make public pro- fession of her faith, and to declare, as she often before had declared, that she bad never imagined, nor compassed, nor con- sented to the death of the English queen nor even so.iglit the least harm to her per- son. After her death many things, which were then bnried in darkness, would come to light. But slie pardoned, from her heart, all her enemies, nor should her tongue utter that which might chance to prejudice them." At a sign from the earls the weeping maid servants now advanced to disrolie their mistress. The executioners, in their sordid fear lest they should thus lose their Eerqnisites, the rich attire of the qneen, astily interfered. Mary blushed and drew back, observing that she had not beer ,, . customed to undress before such an a, ''■ eTice, or to be served by such valets. But as no interference was made by the earla L-he submitted; her neck was bared; her maid Kennedy pinned a handkerchief, edged with gold, over her eyes ; and an executioner, taking hold of each of her arms, led her to the block, upon which she laid her head, saying audibly, and in firm tunes, " Into thy hands, God, I commend my spirit," The executioner now advanced, but wai so completely unnerved that his first blow missed the neck, deeply woundingthe skull; a second was hkewise ineffectual; at the third the head was severed from the body. The unhappy lady evidently died in intense agony, for when he exhibited the head to the spectators, the muscles of the face were so distorted that the features could scarcely be recognised. When tlie executioner, on exhibiting the head, cried "God save queen Elizabeth," the dean of Peterborough replied, "And «o perish alt her enemies;" to which the earl gi u a M B w. FL- 1 iwoon. An kminknt i.awyf.r ano ANTianABiAW, Diun IN 15:1;). TUOXAS TDSSKIt, A FKACTIRAL fABHEB AMD BORAL rOKT, BIXO in 15tH). lEnglantr.— H^ouse of ^utlor.— lEU^abctl^. 345 of Kent added, "So perith all the eiiemiet oftheKOHpel." .. ,„ . , The Doay wm on the follovnng day em- balmed and buried in Peterborough cathe- dral, whence, in the next reigu, it wut rc- moTed to Weatirinster abbey. CHAFTEa XLVII. TkeRfig'* qf Elieabbtu fiontinuedj . A, s. 1587.— Tub tragical scene we have jait described must have convinced even the most devoted of Elizabeth's subjects that their "virgin «^ueen" was not over •baodantly blesud with the " godlike qua- lity of mercy," whatever opinion they might entertain of Marr's participation in the crime for which she taSiered. But there are many circumstances connected with the history of this period which may he pleaded in extenuation of conduct that in less criti- cal times could only be viewed with unal- loyed abhorrence and disgust. The massa- cre of St. Bartholomew was still fresh in the recollection of every one, and the bigot- ed seal which the queen of Scots ever dis- played iu favour of the catholics, whose as- cendancy in £n);land she ardently desired, cave a mournful presage of what was to be exnccted by the protestant population aliottld their opponents succeed iu their desperate machinations. Neither must we disregard the assertion, so often made and never disproved, that when Elizabeth sign- ed the warrant of execution, she i:ct only did so with much apparent reluctance, but placed it in the hands of Davison, her pri- vate secretary, expressly charging him not to use it without further orders. What- ever, indeed, may have been her secret withes, or her real intentions, her subse- quent behaviour had the semblance of un- feigned sorrow. Could it be proved to have been otherv.ise, no one would deny that her conduct throughout was characterized by unparalleled hypocrisy— a profound dis- simulation written iu characters of blood. Elizabeth, iu fact, did what she could to throw off the oilii'-a that this sanguinary transaction hs'i : '.st upon her. She wrote to the king of Scotland in terms of the deepest regret, declaring that the warrant she had been induced to sign was to have lain dormant, and, in proof of her sincerity, she imprisoned Davison, and lined him iu the sum of 10,000^ which reduced him to a state not far removed from actual beggary. One of the roost memorable events in English history was now near at hand ; onii which called for all the energy and patri- otic devotion that a brave and independent people were capable of making ; and con- sequently, every minor consideration van- ished at its approach. This was the pro- jected invasion of our island by Thilip of Spain. This monarch, disappointed in !■' i hopes of marryin;); Elizabeth, returned tk\u qu(.'cn her collar of the garter, and frota that time the moat irreconcilable jcaloury appears to have existed between them. In all t!ie portp throughout his extensive do. minions the note of preparation was heard, and the most powerful navy that ever had been colli'Cted was now at his disposal. An army of 6'.\"00 men were also assem- bled, under experienced generals, and the command of the whole was given to the celebrated duke of Parma. The catholics on the contiueai. were in an ecstasy of de- light; the pope bestowed his benediction on an expedition that seemed destined once more to restore the su^iremacy of the holy see, and it was unanim ^usly hailed by all who wished it success as the invincible ar- mada. To repel this mighty array, no means within the reach of Elizabeth and her able ministers were forgotten, nor could any thing exceed the enthusiastic determina- tion of her subjects to defend tlieir altars and their homes. Among the newly-raised levies the militia formed a very important item ; the nobility also vied with each other in their eflforts of assistance ; and lord Hun- tingdon nlone raised 4O,0U0 foot and 1U,U00 horse. The royal navy had, fortunately, been on the increase for a long time pre- vious, and the successful exertions of admi- ral Drake iu the Indies had infused a de- gree of confidence into our sailors, before unknown in the service. The views of the Spanish king having been fully ascertained by the emissaries of Elizabeth, she ordered 20,0110 troops to be cantoned along the southern coast of the kingdom, in such a -.iianner that in forty- eight hours the whcle might be assembled at any port where there was a probability of the enemy's land.ng. A large ai.d well disciplined corps, also, amounting to 24,OflO men, was encamped at Tilbury-fort, near the moutli of the Thames, under the immediHto command of the earl of Leicester, who was appointed generalissimo of the army. These troops the r^ueen reviewed, and iiaving ha- rangued them, rode through the lines with the geneivl— her manner evincing great firmness and intrepidity, which while it gave eeldt 10 the Rccrr, fiHeu every breast with patriotic ardour. The residue of her troops, amounting to 34,0UO foot and Som.- horse, remained About the queen's pcrsifn; and the militia were iu readiness to reinforce the regular troops wherever there might be occasion. All the ports and accessible points on the coast were fortified and strongly garri- soned; but though orders were given to oppose the enemy's descent, wherever it might be, the respective commanders were directed not to come to a general engage- ment in the event of their landing, but to letire and lay waste the country before tnem, that the Spaniards might meet with ni) subsistence, and be perpetually haras- sad in their march.- Nor was anything left undone that might be likely to contri- bute to the defeat of the armada by sea. Lord Hov/ard of Efllngham was created lord high admiral, and sir Francis Dranj vice- admiral, who, together with Hawkins and Frx'-n'sher, were stationed near Plymouth, to oppose the enemy as he entered the chaniifl ; while lord Henry Seymour com- <« « at o m TUSSKB WA* TUB AUTnOIl OF " FIVE Ui;NDlH5;) FOINTKS OP OOOD nUSBANDUIR." ■ IK rHILir IIBIIIT, TUH ACCOM rilinSD AUTBOB or "ARCADIA," DICD IN 1S80 346 tr|)e treasure of l^istorn, ice. manded another 4eet upon the coast of Flanderi, to prevent the duke of Parma from bringing over troopt from that quar- ter. A. D. 18S8.— The armnda lailed from Lis- bon on the anth of Mny, but being dis- persed by a storm, reudesvoused at Corun- na and aid not enter the English channel until the 19th of Julv, when Effingham suffered them to pass nim, but kept close in their rear until the 31st. The duke of Medina Sidonia (the Spanish admiral) expected to have been here joined by the duke of Pnrma and the land forces under his command, but the latter had found it impracticable to put to sea without encoun- terinj; the fleet of lord Sevmour, by which he justly feared that botik his ships and men would be put in the utmost jeopardy. For four days a kind of brisk running flght was kept up, in which the English had a decided aavantage ; and the alarm having now spread from one end of the coa«t to the other, the nobility and gentry hastened out with their vessels from every harbour, and reinforced the English fleet, which soon amounted to 140 sail. The earls of Oxford, Northumberland, and Cumber- land, sir Thomas Cecil, sir Robert Cecil, sir Walter Raleigh, sir Thomas Vavasor, sir Thomas Gerrard, sir Charles BIoi>.ilI., and many others distinguished tbpniso'.ves by this generouij and asonable pror ;' of their loyalty. On the 24th the lord -idmiral di- vided the fleet into four squadrons, the Tietter to pursue and annoy the cnrniv ; the first squadron he himself coinmand'^a ; the second he assigned to sir Francis Drake ; the third to sir John Hawkins ; and the fourth to sir Martin Frobisher. The re^^ult of this was, that in the three succeeding days the armada had boctvnie so shattered by the repeated skirmishes in which it had been eni^aged, that it was compelled to take shelter in (he roads of Calais. The EuKlish admiral having been in- formed tlvtt 10,000 men belonging to the duke of Parma's army had marched to- wards Iiunkirk, and apprehending serious consc-((aences from the enemy's receiving such a reinforcement, determined to spend r,.f more time in making desultory attacks 'jn the huge galleons with his t;omparatively small vessels. Accordingly, in the night of the 28th of July, he sent in among them eight or ten fire-siiiDf, and -wh was the terror of the Spcnis.; lailors »l*\t they cut their cables, hoisted s..il, and put to 8e>\ with the utmost hurr; and confusion. 1 > their anxiety to er--a^f the English the loss was so trifling as scarcely to deserve mention. ^ The destruction of the Spanish armada inspired the nation with fgelings of intense delight; the people were proud of their country's iiaval superiority, proud of tlieir own martial appearftuje, and proud of their queen. A medal was struck on the occa- sion with this inscription, " Fenit, vidit ' fagit"—" It ^«me, saw, and fled:" another* with flre-shif'S and a fleet in confusion, with this motto., " Duar/(Bminu/ac eourfegcd tliia spirit, but declared her trea- sury was too poor to sustain the expenses of a war. An association was soon formed by (he people, and an army of 21,000 men, under the command of Norris and Drake, tailed from Plymouth to avenge the insult offered to England by Philip of Spain. The •oung earl of Essex, without consulting the pleasure of his sovereign, made a pri. late journey to Plymouth, and joined the expedition. No sooner was the queen made tcquainted with his absence, than she dis- patched the lord Huntingdon to bring the fugitive to her feet; but he had already tailed. It was the queen's order that the arma> ineDt iliould first proceed to Portugal, and egdcavour to join the army of Don Antonio, who contended with Philip for the pos- leiiion of tbL throne of Port ugal ; but Drake vould not be restrained by instruction, and he proceeded to Corunna, where he lost a number of men, without obtaining the ilightest advantage. In Portugal they were scarcely more successful ; but at their re- turn their losses were concealed, their ad- vantages magnitted, and the public were •atialied that the pride of Spain had been humbled. Elizabeth might probably have expected that the death of the queen of scots would put an end to conspiracies against her life ; but plots were still as rife as ever : nor can we feel surprise that it should be so, consi- dering that Elizabeth, as well as Philii> of Spain, employed a great number of Sj'ies, WDO, being men of ruined fortunen and bad principles, betrayed the secrets of either party as their own interests led them ; and lometimes were the fabricators of alarming reports to enhance the value *»f (Iteir ser- vices. England and France were «ow in alli- ance, and the Preudi king called for Eng- lish aid in an attack upon Spain, but the queen had began to repent of the sums she had already advanced to Henry, and de- manded Calais aa a security for her future assistance; for rhe preparations on the pen- insula alarmed her majesty, Ick Philip should make a second attempt tm invade England. At length the English council adopted a measwe proposed by the lord admiral, Howard of Effingham, to send out an expedition that should anticipate the desij^n of the enemy, and destroy his porta and shipping : Essex had the command of the land forces, and Howard that of the navy. When the English troops entered Cadiz, the counc'l of war was divided in opinion as to the fitness of that step, which ended in the possession of the city and fleet, from which the troops returned with glory for their bravery, and with honour for their humanity, as no blood had been wan- tonly 8;)ilt, nor any dishonourable act com- mitted. Though Essex hnd been the lead- ing conqueror at Cadiz, the victory was re- ported •■ chiefly attributable to sir Walter Raleigh, and to have been in itself a cheap and easy conquest. A. D. 1591. — The maritime war with Spain, notwithstanding the cautious temper of the queen, was strenuously waged at this time, and produced some striking indications of the rising spirit of the English navy. A ■ouatron, under lord Thomas Howard, whici ht.d been waiting six months at the Azores to intercept the homeward-bound ships from Spanish America, was there sur- prised by the enemy's fleet, which had been sent out for their convoy. The English admiral, who had a much smaller force, put to sea in all haste, and got clear oft, with the exception of one ship, the Uevengc, the captain of which had the temerity to confront the whole Spanish fleet of fifty-six sail rather than strike his colours. It was however a piece of bravery as needless as it was desperate ; for after his crew had dis- played prodigies of valour, and beaten off fifteen boarding parties, his ammunition bein^ gone and the whole of his men killed or disabled, the gallant commander was compelled to strike his flag, and sonn after died of his wounds on board the Spanish admiral's ship. A. D. 1593.— In those days, when an Eng- lish sovereign required money, and then only, the services of a parliament were call- ed tor; and Elizabeth was now under the necessity of summoning one. But she could ill brook any opposition to her will; and fearing thatthe present state of herflnances might embolden some of the members to treat her mandates with less deference than formerly, she was induced to assame a more haughty and menacing style than was habi- tual to her. In answer to the three cus- tomary requests made by the speaker, for liberty of speech, freedom from arrests, and access to her person, she replied by her lord keeper, that such liberty of speech as the commons were justly called to — liberty, namely, of aye and nn, she was willing to grant, but by no means a liberty for every one to speak what he listed. And if any idU heads should be found careless enough for their own safety to attempt innovations in the state, or reforms in the church, she laiii her injunctions on the speaker to re- t'uae the bills offered i'nr such purposes till they should have been examined by those who were better qualified to judge of these matters. But language, however imperious or scornful, was insufficient to restrain some attempts on tht part of the commons to exercise their known rights and fulfil their duty to the country. Peter Wentworth, a member whose courageous and independ- ent spirit had already drawn upon him re- peated manifestations of the royal displea- sure, presented to the lord keeper a peti- tion, praying that the upper house would join with the lower in a supplication to the queen for fixing the succession. Elizabeth, enraged at the oare mention of a subject so offensive to her, instantly committed Went- worth, sir Thomas Bromley, who seconded him, aud two other members, to the Fleet m m M A.D. 1590.— SAll.CT.OTIt VinST WOVEN IN KNOIiANn FOB TDK USB OF TUB NAVY. A. O. 1593.— WUALKBONB riHIT BHOVOUT TO eNOLARD IKOM OAn BUCTON, 348 dTfje STrcasurc of l^istory, jcc. priton ; and luch was the general dread of offended majesty, that the house was afraid to petition her for their release. A. D. 1698.— Essex, whose vanity was on a par with his impetuosity, had now attained the lenith of his prosjierity ; but conAdent in the affections of Eliiubeth, he frequently suffered himself to forget that a suDject's dutiful respect was due to her as his queen. On one memorable occasion, it is related, that he treated her with indignity uncalled for and wholly indefensible ; a dispute had arisen between them in the presence of the lord high admiral, the secretary, and the clerk of the signet, respecting the choice of a commander for Ireland, where Tyrone at that time gave the English much trouble. The queen nad resolved to send sir William Knolles, the uncle of Essex; while the earl with unbecoming warmth urged the pro- priety of sending sir George Carew. whose presence at court, it appears, was displeas- ing to him, and therctore, with courtier- like sincerity, he thus sought to remove him ont of the way. Unable, cither by ar- gument or persuasion, to prevail over the resolute will of her majesty, the favourite at last forgot himself so far as to turn his back upon her with a laugh of contempt ; an indignity which she revenged in the true " Elisabethan style," by boxing his cars, and bidding him " Go to the devil," or " Go and be hanged !"— for our chroniclers differ as to the exact phrase, though all agree that she suited the word to the action. This re- tort so inflamed the blood of Essex, that he instantly grasped his sword, and while the lord admiral interposed to prevent a further ebullition of passion, the earl swore that not from her father would he have taken such an insult, and foaming with rage he rushed out of the palace. For a time this affair furnished ample scope for idle gos- sip and conjecture: the friends of Essex urged him to lose no time in returning to his atteudance at court and soliciting her migesty's forgiveness. This, however, he could not be prevailed on to do : but, like like many other quarrels among individuals of a humhler grade, it was at length patch- ed up, and the reconciliation appeared to the superticial observer as perfect, as it was, in all probabilitv, hollow and insincere. _ Essex had long thirsted for military dis. tinction, and had often vehemently argued with Burleigh on the propriety of keep- ing up a perpetual hostility against the power of Philip ; but the prudent and ex- perience! minister contended that Spain was now sufiiciently humbled to render an accommodation both safe and honourable ; and his prudential counsel was adhered to by the queen. Economy in the public ex- penditure was, in fact, necessary ; and one of the last acts of Burleigh's life was the completion of an arrangement with the states of Holland for the repayment of the sums which Elizabeth had advanced to them, whereby the nation was relieved of a coDtiiderable portion of its former annual expense. After exercising very considerable in- fluence in the adminstration of sffairs in England for forty years, the faitliful hat. leigli, whose devotion to the quccu aud st tachment to the reformed faith were con" stant and sincere, died in the 78th year of his age; and in about • month after hit ftreat opponent Philip II. also bowed to death's stern decree. Under his successor the Spanish monarchy declined with atce lerated steps ; all apprehensions of an inva- sion ceased, and the queen's advisers had an opport unity of turning their whole atten- tion to the pacification of Ireland. A.D. 1598.— The Irish rebel Tyrone had successfully resisted the English forces in several encounters; and at length the whole province of Munstcr declared for him. It was evident that much time had been spent on minor objects, while the great leader of the rebels was in a manner left to overrun the island and subjugate it to his will, 'fhis subject was earnestly can- vassed by Elizabeth and her council ; by the majority of whom lord Mountjoy was con- sidered as a person fully c()ual to the office of lord-deputy at so critical a juncture. Essex, however, offered so many objections to his appointment, arguing the point with so much warmth and obstinacy, nnd withal intimating his own superior tltness tor the office with so much art and address, that the queen, notwithstanding certain suspi. cions which had been infused into her mind respecting the probable danger of commit- ting to Essex the chief command of on army, and notwithstanding her presumed unwillingness to deprive herself of his pre- sence, appears to have adopted his su<;i;es- tion with an unusual degree of earnest haste. The earl of Essex was accordi»i;ly made lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and with 20,000 choice troops he went forward ou his long-desired tnission. A. D. 1599. — Having landed at Dublin in the spring, Essex immediately appointed his friend tlie earl of Southampton to the office of general of the horse; hut instead of opening tho campaign, as was expected by his friends in England, with some bold and decisive operation against Tyrone, the summer was spent in temporising, and be- fore tiie close of the year a suspicious truce between the parties put an end t«> all hit anticipations of success. Nay, so cnex- pected was the issue of this expedition, that it afforded the best possible opportunity to his enemies to shake the queen's confidence even in his loyalty. An angry letter from her mtgcsty was the immediate conse- quence; and Essex, without waiting tor the royal permission, hurried over to England in order to throw himself at the feet of his exasperated sovcreijcn. The sudden nppear- »noe of her favourite, just after she Imd risen from her bed, imploring her forgive- ness on bis knees, disarmed the queen of hcran;(er; and on leaving the apartment, he exclaimed cxultingly, " that though he had encountered much trouble and many storms abroad, he thanked God he found a perfect calm at home." The carl of Essex doubtless thought the ••I si A. D. 1596. — HOWABD AND BSSKX TAKK AND FI.UNDKK TKK CITY OK CAUI8. A,D. IA97.— MBARLT 18,000 rBKIOHl DIBD Or THI ttkOVU IN tOHOOH. lEnglantt.— lilouse of ©utjor.— lEli'^abctf). 349 tnablrd wateri were at rest: hii vanity f««oured the notion, and lelf-graiulation fallowed ai a matter of coune ; but hn loon found that the tempeit waa only hushed for the moment, for at night he found bim- iclf a priioner in hii own home by the peremptory ordera of Elicabetb. Heart- liek and confounded, a severe illneta waa the quick reiult of thit proeeedins ; and for • brief interval the queen not only thewed •ome tign* of pity, but adminiatered to bia comfort. A warrant waa, however, soon (flerwards made out for his committal to the Tower, and though it was not carried into elfect, yet hi* chance of liberty seemed loo remote tot prudence to calculate on. But the flery temper of Essex had no alloy of prudence in it; be gave way to his na- tural violence, spoke of the queen in peevish ind disrespectful terms, and, among other thiup. said, " she was grown an old woman, tnd was become as crooked in ber mind aa in ber body." A.D. 1600.— Shortly after hia disjrrace, Eiux wrote to Jamea of Scotland, inform- ing bim that the faction who ruled the court were in league to deprive him of hia right to the throne of England, in favour of the infanta oi Spain; and he offered his lervices to extort from Elisabeth an ac- knowledgment of his claims. It appears, indeed, from concurrent testimony, that the conduct of Essex had now become highly traitorous, and that he was secretly collect- ing together a party to aid him in some enterprise dangerous to the ruling power. But his plans were frustrated by the acti- vity of ministers, who had received infor- mation th«t the ^and object of the conspi- rators was to seize the queen's person and take possession of the Tower. A council wu called, and Essex was commanded to attend; but he refused, assembled his friends, and fortified Essex-house, in which he had previously secreted hired soldiers. Four of the privy council bein^ sent thither to enquire into the reason ot his conduct, he imprisoned them, and aaltied out into the city; but he failed in his attempt to euite the people in his favour, and on re- turning to his house, he and hit friend the curl of Soutliampton were with some diffi- culty made prisoners, and after liaving been first taken to Lambeth palace, were com- mitted to the Tower. A.D. 16U1.— The rash and aapiringf Essex now onlv begged tliat he might have a fair trial, still calculating ou the iiilluence of the queen to protect him in tlie hour of his ut- most need. Proceedings were commenced against him iiistanter; his errors during his administration in Ireland were repre- sented in the most odious colours ; the un- dutil'ui expressions he had used in some of his letters were greatly exaggerated; and his recent treasonable attempt was dwelt on as calling for the exercise oLUie utmost severity of the law. His condemnation fol- lowed; judgment waa pronounced ngainst him, and against his frieml, the earl of Southampton. This iiolileman was, how- ever, spared; but Essex was conducted to 1 the fatal blork, where he met his death with great fortitude, being at the time only in the thirty-fourth year of his age. Hia most active accomplicea were CuflT, hia secretary, Merrick, his steward, sir Chris- topher Blount, his father-in-law, and sir Rabert Davers, who were executed some few days after. The parliamentary proceedings of this year were more elaborate than before, par- ticularly as regarded the financial state of the country. It was stated that the whole of the last subsidies amounted to no more than 1GO,OOOI., while the expence of the Irish war alone was 300,000/. On this occa- aion it was observed by sir Walter Raleigh, that the estates of the nobility and gentry, which were charged at thirty or forty pounds in the queen's books, were not charged at a hundredth part of their real value. He also moved, that as scarcely any justices of the peace were rated above eight or ten pounds a- year, they might be ad- vanced to twenty pounds at least, which waa the qualification required by the sta- tute for a justice of peace ; hut the com- mons declined to alter the rate of taxation and leave themselves liable to be taxed at the rack-rent. Monopoliea upon various branches nf trade were next brought under consideration ; and as they were generally oppressive and unjust, (some obtained by purchase and others given to favourites) many animated discussions followed, which ended in a motion, that the monopoliea should be revoked, and the patenteea pu- nished for their extortions. Of course there were members present who were venal enough to defend this iniquitous mode of enriching certain individuals at the expense of the public. A long list of the monopo- lizing patents being, however, read — among which waa one on suit, an article that had been thus raised from fourteenpence to fourteen shillings a bushel — a member in- dignantly demanded whether there wax not a patent also for making bread ; at w hich question some courtiers expressing their resentment, he replied that if bread were not already among the patented luxuries, it would soon become one unless a stop waa put to such enormities. That the argu- menta of the speakers were not lost upon the queen seems certain; for although she look no notice of the debates, she sent a mes- sage to the house, acquainting them that several petitions had been presented to her against monopolies, and declared " she was sensibly touelied with the people's griev- ances, expressing the utmost indignation against those who bad abused her ^i'ruir, and appealed to God how careful she had ever been to defend them against oppres- sion, aud promised they should be revoked." Secretary Cecil added, " her majesty was> not apprised of the ill tendency of these grants when she made them, and hoped there would never be any more;" to which gracious declarntion the majority of the house responded, " Amen." In this nicr.-^orable session was passed the cclcbrutcd act, to which allusion is so A.D. IfiOl. — ST. nVI.KNA TAKKN rOSSBSSION Ot BT TUB EN0LI8II. [2 If yODB TlAta WAI l,SUO,OOUl. 360 ^l^e ^rcasuTQ oC l^Utorn, (k't. often mada in the preicnt day, for the re- lief and employment of the poor. Sioca the breaking up of the religiout eitablith- menta, the country had been overrun with idle mendicanta and thievea. It waa a na- tural conaequence that thoie who Bought in vain for work, and aa vainly implored' charitable aid, ahould be induced by the eravinir* of hunger to lay violent haiida upon the prooerty of other*. A* the dia- treiiea of tlie lower orders incroaaed, ao did crime; till at length the wiiie-npreading evil forced itaelf on the attention of parlia- ment, and provision wa* made for the bet- teriug of tneir condition, by levyiuK a lax upon the middle and upper classes for the support of the aged and inflrm poor, and for aObrdintc temporary relief to the desti- tute, according tu theiv several necessities, under the direction of parochial offlcers. We must now brictty^ revert to what waa going on in Ireland. Thouxh ' he power of the Spaniards waa consider! \ aa at too low an ebb to give the English ;ovemment any great uneasiness for th. safety of ita possessions, it was thought sufficiently for- midable to be the means of annoyance aa regarded the assistance it might afford Ty- rone, who was still at the head of the in- aurgenta in Ireland. And the occurrence we are about to mention shews that a rea- aonable apprehension on that head might well be entertained. On the 33rd of Sep- tember the Spaniarda landed 4000 men near Kinsale, and having taken possession of the town, were speedily followed bv 2000 more. They elFected a Junction with Tyrone ; but Mountjojr, who was now lord- deputy, '.urp.iscd their array in the night, nnd eiiti...iy defeated them. Thia led to 'Alt aurrender of Kinsale and all other fikcofi in their poaseasion ; and it waa not ong before Tyrone, as a captive, graced the triumphal rtturn of Mountjoy to Dublin. A. D. 1002.— I'he moat remarkable among the domeatie occurrencea of thia year waa a violent quarrel between the jesulta and the aecular prieata of England. The latter accused the former, and not without reaaon, of having been the occasion, by their aaaaa- sinationa, plota, and conspiraeiea against the queen and government, of all the severe enactment* under which the English catho- lics had rroaned aince the fu^miuation of the papal null against her majesty. In the height of this dispute, intelligence waa con- veyed to the privy council of aome freah plota on the part of the Jeauita and their adherenta; on which a proclamation waa immediately iwued, baniahing thia order from the kingdom on pain of debdi; and the aame penalty waa declared against all secular pneata who ahould refuse to take the oath of allegianee. That queen Elisabeth deeply regretted the precipitancy with which she aigned the warrant for the execution of her favourite Eftsex there is every_ reason to believe. She aoon became a victim to hypochondria, aa may be aeen from a letter written bjr her godson, air John Harrington ; and as it ex- uibita a cnrioua example of her behaviour, and may be regarded aa a specimen of the epistolary style of the age. we are induced to quote aome of the scniences:— "glie is much disfavoured anc* uimttired, and thts* troubles waito Ser nrnch. <1tie di*r«gardrth everie costlie cover * *«at cumeth to her table and taketh little but manchet and succory Sottayre. Every new mesiaKC from the cltl oth disturb her. Nod she frowns on all Hie ladies." lie fartlier on remarks, that " The mauv evil plots 'and designs hath overcome her highness's sweet teinper. 8he walks much in her privy chamber, and stamps much at ill news : and thrusts her rusty sword, at times, into the arras in great rage." And in hia noatcript he says, " 8o disordered is all order, that her highneis has worn but one change of raiment for many dales, and awears much at those who cause her griefs in such wise, to the no small discomfiture of those that are about her : more especially our sweet lady Arun- del." Her daya and nights were spent in teara, and ahe never apoke but to meution some irritating subject. Nay, it is recorded, that having experienced some hours of alarming atupor, aha persisted, after her re- covery from it, to remain seated on cushions, from which she could not be prevailed upon to remove during ten days, but sat with her finger generally on her mouth, and her eyes open and fixed upon the ground, for she ap- prehended that if ahe lay down in bed she should not rise flrom it asain. Having at length been put into bed, she lay on her side motionless, and apparently insensible. The lorda ol the council being summoned, Nottingham reminded her of a former apeech respecting her successor: she an- awered, " I told von mv seat had been the aeat of kings, and I will have no rascal to aucceed me. Who should succeed me but a king?" Cecil, wiahing a more explicit declaration, requesting her to explain what she meant by "no rascal," ahe replied that "a king ahould aucceed, and who could that be out her cousin of Scotland T" Early the following morning the queen tranquilly breathed her laa» ; aiie waa in the 70th year of her age and the 46th of her reign. Elicabeth waa tall and portly, but never handaorae, though fh>m tne fulsome com- Elimenta which ahe tolerated in those who ad accese to her person, ahe appears to have entertained no mean opinion of her beauty. Her extravagant love of finery was well known, and the presents of jewellery, Ac. ahe received from auch of her loving Bubjecta aa hoped to gain the royal favour were both nnmeroua and coatly. Like her father, she waa irritable and passionate, often venting her rage in blows and oaths. Her literary acc)uirementa were very con- aiderable; and in those accomplishments which are in our own day termed " fashion- able," namely, music, ain^ing, and danfing, she also greatlv excelled. The charges which have been made against the " virgin queen" for indulging in amatory inti-igues are not sufficiently sustained to render it the duty of an historian to repeat them ; and when it is considered that though she possessed a § run qvRRN'a puivt pukxr ano notisKiioLn cost 4?,nno(. a vPAn. A.>. 1003.— Till lEnglantf.— l^ottsc of Sftuart.-Samcfi I. Sfil hofi of iturdy friandi, yet that aha bad mtBT bitter enemici, we need not be ear- ■ri*ed that in the rnont vulnerable point Cer character aa a female baa onen Men aniiiii*r auailed. - CHAPTER XLVIII. Tkt JtW^N qf ikutu I. A.D. IMS.— Taa advanced age to which the lace queen lived, and the conttant at' Irntion which her remaiulnK nnaiarried had eauied men to pay to the subject of the locceition, had made the luccetalon of iime* become a thing as fully settled In public opinion as thoagh it had been set< lied by ner will or an act of parliament. All tlie ari(umcnts for and against him had been canvassed and dismissed, and he ai- ended the throne of England with as little opposition as though he had been Blisa* betli's eldest son. As the king Jonmeyed from Edinburgh to London dl ranks of men hailed him with the thronging and applause which had been wont to seem so graterul to his prpdeccs- ior. But if James liked flattery, he detest- ed noise and bustle; and a proclamation was issued forbidding so much congrega- tine of the lieges, on the ground that it tended to make provisions scarce and ex- orbiUntly dear. It was only shyness, how- ever, and not any insensibility to the hearty kindness of his new subjects, that dictated the king's proclamation. Bo pleased, in- deed, was ne with the cealous kindness shown to him by the English, that he had not been two months before them when he had honoured with the order of knighthood nearly two hundred and forty persons I Peerages were bestowed pretty nearly in the same proportion ; and a good humoured pasquinade was posted at at. Paul's, pro- mising to supply weak memories with the now very necessary art of remembering the titles of the new nobility. It was not merely the king's facility in granting titles that was blamed, though that was in remarkable, and, as regarded his judgment at leayt, in by no means fa- vourable contrast to the practice of his pre- decessor ; but the English, already jealoua of their new fellow-aubjects, the Scots, were of opinion that he was mure than fairly libe- ral to the latter. But if James made the duke of Leuox, the earl of Mar, lord Hume, lord Kinross, lir Oeorge Hume, and secre- tary Elphinstone members of the English privy council, and nve titles and wealth to sir Oeorge Hume, Hay, and Ramsay, he at least had the honour and good sense to leave nearly the whole of the ministerial honours and political power in the hands of the able English who had so well served his predecessor. Secretary Cecil, especially, who had kept up a secret correspondence with James towards the close of^ the late reign, had now the chief power, and waa created, in succession, lord Efflngdon, vis- count Cranborne, and earl of Salisbury. It is not a little surprising that while James was so well received by the nation at large, and had the instant support of Iha mi- nisters and friends of the late queen, he had scared V flnished fcnewing treaties of peace and friendship with all the great foreign {lower*, when a eonapiraey waa diseovered or placing hiseousin, Arabella Stuart, npoo the throne. Such a conspiracy waa ao ab- surd, and its sueresa so completely a physieal impossibility, that it Is difleult not to sna- pect that it oriffinattd In the king's own excessive and unnecessary Jealousy of the title of Arabella Stuart, who, equally with himself, was descended tnm Henry VII., hut who in no other respect could have tlia faintest chance of competing with him. But, however it originated, such a conspi- racy existed ; and the iord» Grey and Cob- ham, and sir Walter Raleigh, lord Cob- ham's brother Mr Broke, sir Griffln Mark- ham, sir Edwari! ' nm, and Mr. Copley, together with .liolio priests namM Watson and , were auprehended fur being eoncenna in it. The catholic Rrieats were executed, Cobharo, Orey and (arkham were pardoned while their heada were upon tlie block, and Raleigh waa also reprieved, but no( pardoned ; a fact which was fatal to him many years after, aa will be perceived. Even at preaent it was mis- cliievous to him, for, though spared flrom death, he was confined in the Tower, where he wrote his noble work the Uiatory of the Worid. A. D. Ift04.— A conference was now called at Hampton court to decide upon certain differences between the church and the puritans, and generally to arrange that no injurious religious disputes might arise. As James had a great turn for theological dia- Sutation he was here quite in his element ; ut instead of showing the puritana all the favour they expected from him in conse- quence of his Scotch education, that very circumstance induced the king to aide againat them, at least as far aa he pru- dently could; as he t'lad had abundant proof of the aptness of puritanical doctrine to prodi«ee seditions politics. He waa impor- tuned, for distance, bv the puritana to re« peal an act paased in tne reign of Bliiabeth to suppress certain puritanical societies called pkrophetgingi, at which there waa usually more leal than sense, and more elo- quence than religion. The reply of James was at once so coarsely practical, and so indicative of his general way of thinking upon auch points, that we transcribe it literally. " If what you aim at is Scottish presbytery, aa I think it is, I tell you that it agrees aa well with monarchy aa the devil with God. There Jack, and Tom, and Will, and Dick, shall meet and censure me and my counciL Therefore I reiterate my former speech; the king e'aeisera. Stay, I pray you, for seven years before yon de- mand, and then if I be grown pnrsy aqd fat, I may perchance hearken to you, for that sort of government would keep me in breath and give me work enough I" Passing over the business of parliament at the commencement of this reign, as concerning matters of interest rather to the It B O ■ »• II <4 m m t o m t> e H A.n. 1603.— TBB KINO ARD QVSIN CBOWNID AT WiaTNIRSTBK, JVIV 35. 1^ >, ^:.v^ V' IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 2.2 ^ lis IIIIM m F' 1 '-^ i:*_ ^ 6" ► Photographic Sciences Corpordtion 33 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 £: s^ \ \\ m ^ 6^ krA^ 1.0.1604.- 352 -JAUM WAS ««■ »AB VIBST STILU Kiatt OV «BKAt •MITAia. IS^t tlTrtasunj of 1|i«torQ, S:c. ■taleaman and MlioUir tlian to tbe general reader, we have now to advert to one of the moat atriking and remarkable event* in our bialory— tbe gunpowder plot. A. D. Ifi04.— The affection that the catho- liea had ever shown hi* mother, and tlieir interpretation of aome obliging expression* that be had either artfully or in mere care- le**aeu made u*e of, had led them to heme that he wonld greatly relax, if not wholly repeal the aeverc law* passed against them during the reign of his predecessor. But James bad clearly and unequivocally shown that be had no intention of doing ought that could diminish tbe authority and se- curity of the crown ; and the more enibusi- •*tio catholics were in consequence very greatly excited against him. Caiesby, a gentleman of good birth and excellent character, first looked upon the subject as one demanding the absolute pu- niahment of the king, and he commani. eated his fieelinn to his fHend Piercy, • descendant of the time-honoured house of Northumberland. Piercy proposed simply to asaassinate the kins, but in the course of their discussion of the plan Catesby sug- gestcd a wider and more effectual plan, by which the^r would rid Catholicism not mere- ly of the king, but of the whole protestant atrength of tbe kingdom. He pointed out that the mere death of the king, and even of his children, would be of little avail while the protestant nobles and gentry could raise another king to the throne who, in addition to all tbe existing causes of the protestant severity, would be urged to new rigour by the very circumstance to which be would owe bis power to indulge it. To make the deed effectual, Catesby continued, it would be necessary to take tbe opportunity of the first day of the pariiament, when king, lords, and commons would be all as- sembled, and. by means of a mine below the house, blow the whole of their enemies up at once vrith gunpowder. Nothing but a fierce and mistaaen fana- ticism could allow one man u» suggest so dreadful a scheme, or another man to ap- prove of it; but Piercy at once entered into Catesby's plan, and they took means fbr preparing for ita execution. Thomas Winter was sent over to Flanders in search of Ouido Yaux, an officer in the Spanish service, and well known alike aa a bigoted eaibolic and a cool and daring soldier. Ca- tesby and Piercy in the mean time, aided by Desmond and Garnet, jesuists, and the lat- ter the superior of the order in England, were busily engaged in communicating their awfiil design to other catholics ; and every newly enlisted confederate had the oath of aecreey and faithfulnesa administered to him, in conjunction with the communion, a rite peculiarly awful as understood by the eathokcs. ' The destruction of protestants all the confederates seem to have considered to be a quite unexceptionable act ; and some of ttie more thoughtAil and humane among them Buggested the certainty that, besides several catholic peers who would attend. there might be many other catholics pre. sent, either as mere spectators or as official attendants. Even this suiqcestion, which one might suppose effectual as to forbid, ding the execution of Catesby'* wholesale *clieine, was silenced by the truly jesaitical remark of the two Jesuits, that tbe sacriliee of a few innocent among the guilty nisnv was lawful and highly meritormus, bKcaute it was required by the interests of rclijcinn' Alas 1 in abusing that sacred name buw many Crimea have not mistakeo men com- mitted 1 A. D. 1605.— Towards the end of summer Piercy hired a house adjoining to that in which parliament used to assemble; and havine instruments arms, and provisions with tnem, they laboured hard in it for msny hours each day, and had already mined tliree feet through the solid wall when they were stopped and alarmed by plainlv hearing on the other side a noise for whicn they could give no account. On enquiry it seemed tliat the noise arose from the sale of the stork of a coal dealer who had occupied a vault, next to their own, and immediately below the house of lords. Thr opportunity was seis- ed; Piercy hired the vault, and six-and- thirty barrels of gunpowder were clandes- tinely conveyed thither and concealed be- neatn the loads of wood, for the reception of which alone Piercy hsd seemed to need the place. Having thus surmounted all the great and apparent obstacles to the success of their design, the conspirators distributed among themselves the several parts they were to act on the eventful day. Uuido Yaux was to fire the fatal train ; Piercy was to siese or slay the infant duke of York; and the princess Elisabeth, also a mere 'u- fant who would be a powerless instrument in the hands of the catholics, was to be seized and proclaimed queen by Grant, Rookwood, and sir Everard Digby, three of the leading conspirators, who were to have a large armed party iu readiuesa on pre- tence of a hunting match. The dreadful scheme had now been on foot for above a year and a half, and was known to more than twenty persons, bat neither fear of punishment, the hope of re- ward, or any of the motives which ordina- rily make conspirators untrue to each other, had caused any one of the desperate bsnd to falter. A personal feeline of gratitude now did what no other feeling, perhaps, could have done, and caused one of the con- spirators to take B atep which saved the nation firom horrors of which even at this distance of time one cannot contemplate the mere possibility but with a shudder. Some one of the conspirators lying under obligations to lord Monteagle, a catholic and a son of lord Morlev, sent him the fol- lowing letter, which evidently was intended to act upon his personal prudence and secure his safety, without enabling him in any wise to oppose the ruthless butchery that was designed i— "My lord, " Out of the love I bear to some of year o > M ■ t. s M > »• M ' S H a; R I < I A. D. 1604.— A RBW TBAHSLATIOn OF TBI BIBLB (TUB rBBSBIf 1 ) oaDBRXD. A.B< 16M.— AliOIIS OTKBB FBOCIJiaAtlORt, OIIS WAB A«AIIiat aOlitlll*. lEnglantf.— l^ottJBc of Stuart.— 3ianics I. 853 Mm'* I iMve • e>K of ypnr prewrration, IkwtlbN I would «df Im yoa u you tender , wear life to detiae loroe eicuw to abift off > your attendance upon thia parliament. For God and man hare eoneurred to puniah the i wiehcdncM of the time. Think not lightly ! of tbii adTertiaemcnt, but retire youraeff into your country, where yon may expect tht event in aafety. For though there be BO appearance of any atir, vet, I lay, they will rcceire a terrible blow tniaparliament, and yet they ahall not aee who hurta them. This eouniel ia not to be contemned, be- eaoM it may do you good, and caa do you ao harm, for the danger ia paat aa aoon aa yon burn ;hia Itfvt. And I hope God will give you the grace to make good uw of it. unto whose holy protection I commit you." Cecil, now earl of Salisbury, waa the principal and moat active of the king'a mi. aiitera, and to that nobleman Montragle fortunately determined to carry the letter, though he waa himtelf strongly inclined to think it nothing but some auly attempt to fiigbten him (ram hia attendance in parlia- ment. Balisbnn prafesaed to have the same opinion of the letter, but laid it before the king some daya before the meeting of par- licment. James, who, amidst many absur- dities, waa in the main a ahrewd man, saw the key to the enigma in the very style of the letter itself; and lord Suffolk, the lord chamberliin, waa charged to examine the vaults beneath the bouses of parliament on the day before that appointed for opening the session. He did so in open day, ana, as if as a aimple matter of form, went tbrongh the culara and came out without affecting to see any thing amiss. But he had been struck by the singularity of Pierey, a private gentleman who lived but little in town, having amassed such an inor- dinate store of tatX ; and he read the con- spirator in the deaperate countenance of duido Vaux, who waa lurking about the place in the garb and character of a ser- vant to Pierey. Acting on these suspicious, the ministers caused a second search to be made at midnight by a well-armed party under sir Thomaa Knivet, a justice of peace. At the very door of the vault they seised Vaux, who bad made all hia preparations and even had hia tinder-box and matches ready to fire the trun ; the faggots of wood were turned over, and the powder found. Vaux was sent under an escort to the Tower, but was so far from seeming appal- led by his danger, that he aneeringly told his captors that if he had known a little earlier that they intended to pay him a se- cond visit, he would have Area the train and sweetened his own death by killing them with him. He behaved in the same daring stvle when examined by the council on the foUowing day ; but two or three days resi- dence in the Tower and a threat of patting him on the rack subdued him, and he made a full discovery of his confederates. Ca- tesby, Pierey, and their other frienda who were to act in London, heard not only of a letter being sent to lord Monteagle, but alio of the first search made in the ▼anlto; yet were they ao infatmted and so resolute to persevere to the laat. that it waa only when Vaux waa actually arraatod that they left London and hurried down to War- wickabire, where Digby and hia frienda were already in arms to seiae the princeaa Elisabeth. But the aheriff raiaed the county in time to convey th? young princeaa to Co* ventry; and the baffled conspiratora, never more than eighty in number, had now only to think of defending themselveo until they conld make their eacape from the country. But the activity of t he sheriff and other gen ■ try surrounded them by such numbers that escape in any war was out of the qneation, and naving confessed themselves to each other, they prepared to die with a desperate gallantry worthy of a nobler cause. They fought with stern determination, but some of their powder took fire and disabled them ; C atesby and Pierey were killed by a single shot ; Digby, Rook wood, and Winter, with Garnet the jeauit, were taken prisoners, and soon after perished by the hands of the executioner. It is a terrible proof of the power of superstition to close men's eyea to evil, that though Garnet's erime was of the most mffianlj description, though he had used his pnestly influence to delude his confederatea and toola when their bet- ter nature prompted them to ahrink from such wholesale and unsparing atrodty, the catholics imagined miradea to be wrought with this miserable miscreant'a blood, and in Spain he waa even treated as a martyr I Throughout this whole affair, indeed, the evil nature of superstition waa to blame fbr all the guilt and all the suffering. The conspirators in this case were not Tow ruf- fians of desperate fortune ; they were for the most part men of both property and character; and Catesby waa a man who possessed an especially and enviably high character. Digby also was a man of excel- lent reputation, so much so, that his being a known and rigid papist had not prevented him from being highly esteeuMO and no- noured by queen Eliaabeth. When the punishment of the wretehea who had mainly been concerned in this plot left the court leisure for reflection, some minor but severe punishments wen inflicted upon those who were thought by connivance or negligence to have been in any degree aiding the chief offenders. Thus the earl of Northumberland was fined the then enormous sum of thirty thousand pounds, and imprisoned for seven yeara af- terwards, because he had not exacted the usual oaths from Pierey on admitting him to the oiRce of gentleman pensioner. The catholic lords Stourtou and Hordannt, too, wero fined, the former four and the latter ten thousand pounda by that ever arbitrary court, the star-chamber, for no other offence than their absence from parliament on this occasion. This abtenee waa taken aa a proof of their knowledge of the plot, though surely, if these two noblemen had known of it, they wonld have warned many other catholics ; while a hundred more innocent reasons might cause their own absence. A.D. 1S0S.— A SrLBKDin EHBASST TO MADaiD, XBCOOTin BT SOO KRIOBTS, fto. [3 H S xs: A. Bk 160t.''CH«HB4 COfclBSB VOB BIIABfcBB BOkDlBBB rODBBUt BI tAUM. h SM Q:^ tlTrcasars of l^totocc, $cr. Of the eondnct of Janeak in reBBrd to tlw dutT k« owed to Ju«ti«e -n puniahing the fuHty^ and eoaAninf panithment atrietly to tlioae of whoae ituilt there is the nioat niteqaivoeal proof, it ia not eaaf to miak too wBrmlT. The prc;iudice shown tgainat eathollea in the case of tlie lorda Stoarton and Mordaont, and the infinite bratatitlea inflicted upon the wretched con- spirator, were the crimes of the age; bat the severe and dignified attention to a just and larve charity of indnnent as a general principle, which is displayed in the king|s speech to this parliament, ia a merit all his own. He observed, says Hame, "that though religion had engaged the conspirators In so criminal anattempt, yet ought we not to inmlTC all the Roman catholics in the same guilt, or suppose them equally disposed to commit such enormous barbarities. Many holy men, and oat ancestors among the rest, had been seduced to concur with that chnrch in her scholastic doctrines, who yet had never admitted her seditious princi' pies, concerning the pope's power of de> throning kings or sanctifving assassination. The wrath of heaven is denounced against crimes, but ii-aocent error may obtain its favour; end nothi « can be more hateful than the uncharitableness of the puntans who condemn alike to eternal torments even the most inoflienslve partisans of po- pery. For his own part, that conspiracy, Lowever atrocious, should never alter, in the least, his plan of government ; while with one hand he wonld punish guilt, with the other he wonld still support and protect in- nocence." A.D. 16M4->-The protestants, and espe- cially the puritans, were inclined to plunge to a very great extent into that injustice of which the kind's speech so ably warned them. But the king, even at some hazard to himself and at aonie actual loss of popu- larity, persisted in looking at men's secular conduct as a thing quite apart from their ghostly opinions. He bestowed employ- ment and favour, other things beiuj; equal, alike on catholic and protestant ; and the only hardship caused to the great body of the papists by the horrible gunpowder plot was the enactment of a billobliging every one without exception to take oath of alle- giance. No great hardKhip upon any good subject or honest and humane man, since it only abjured the power of the pope to dethrone the king I Almost as soon as James arrived in Eng- land hp showed himself in one respect, at the least, very far rdore advanced in true statesmanship than most of his subjects. They for a long time displayed a small and apiteful jealousy of the Scots; he almost, aa soon as he mounted the English throne, endeavoured to merge England and Scot- land, two separate nations, always sullen and sometimes sanguinary and despoiling enemies, into a Great Britain that mixht indeed bid defiance to tlie world, and that should be united in laws and liberties, in prosperity and in interests, as it already was by the band of nature. There was no- thing, however, in the earlier part of his reign, bv which so mneh heart-bnming wu caused between the king and his pariia- ment, as by the wisdom of the former and the ignorance and narrow prejndiee of the latter on this very point. All the exercise of the king's eamestnesa and influence aided by the eloquence of, perhaps, ali tliinga considered, the greatest man Ear- land baa ever bad, sir Francis Bacon, could not succeed over the petty nationalities of the Scotch and English parliaments any farther for the present, than to proeure an ungracious and reluctant appeal of the di- rectly hostile iawa existing in the two king- doms respectively. Nay, so hostile, at the onset, was the English parliament to a measure the grand necessity and value of which no one could now dispute without being suspected of the sheerest idiotey, that the bishop of Bristol, for writing a book in favour of the measure which lay ignorance thus condemned, was so fiercely clamoured against, that he was obliged to save himself from still harder measures by making a humble submission to thew ig- norant and bigoted legislators. A.D. I607.— The practical tolerance of the king as opposed tb his arbitrary maxims of government, and the parliament's lust of persecution as contrasted with its perpetual struggles to obtain more power and liberty for itself, were strongly illustrated this year. A bill was originated in the lower house for a more strict observance of the laws against popish recusants, and for an abatement to- wards such protestant clergymen as should scruple at the still existing chnrch ceremo- nials. This measure was doubly distasteful to the king ; as a highly liberal protestant he disliked the attempt to recur to the old severities against the catholics ; and as a high prerogative monarch he was still more hostile to the insidious endeavour of the puritans, by weakening the church of Eng- land, to acquire the power to themselves of beardinjc and coercing the civil government. In this same year, however, the very par- liament which, on the remonstrance of the king, obediently stopped the progress of that doubly disagreeable measure, gore a striking proof of its growing sense of self importance by commencing a regular jour- nal of its proceedings. A. D. 1610.— James was so careful to pre- serve peace abroad that much of his reign might be passed over without remark, but for the frequent bickerings which occurred between him and his pariiament on the subject of money. Even in the usually ar- bitrary reign of Elisabeth the parliament had already learned the power of the purse. The puritan party was now gradually ac- quiring that at once tyrannicaland republi- can feeling which was to be so fatal to the monarchy and so disgraceful td the nation, and althou{i;h James was allowed a theofe- tical despotism, a mere tyranny of maxims and sentences, some merely sillv, atid others —could he have acted u{Jon tncm— to the last degree dangerous, the! true tyrattny was a. n. 1009.— TUB cnARTsa ov thb e\8t ixdia tourANt rkxb«1!d; A. S. Ill I.— Tl ■ OTtOJI. ¥ngIaiiT).~1^ou8c of Stuart.— 3)amc9 IE. 355 1 tbil of the parlUunent which exerted their cower with the mercileM and fitful malig- JiiM of ■ dwarf which ha* inddenly become MUMsed of a giaDt'i strength. The earl of Saliibury, who waa now the treasurer, Itil before both houses, this session, the TCf* peculiar situation in which the king vss pUeed. Queen Elisabeth, thonxh she halreeeifcd large supplies during the latur part of her reign, had made very consider- (Ue alienations of the erown lands ; the (town was now bnrthened with debt to the gmoDDt of 800,000 pounds, and the kinx was obliged, instead of a single court as in the late reign, to keep three courts, his own, that of the queen, and that of the prince of Wales. But though these really strong and noit reasonable arguments were also urged br the king himseli-irhis speech to parlia- inent, they granted him only one hundred thoniand pounds— his debts alone being thrice that sum I It cannot, after this itatement of the situation of the king and the temper in which parliament used the power we have spoken of, be astonialiing that henceforth there was one perjpetual straggle between them, he striving tor the means of supporting the national dignity, and indulging a generosity of temper which, imptadent in anv king, was doubly so in one who had to deal with so dosenstcd a parliament; and they striving at once to abridge the king^s prero^tive, and to escape ftorn supplying even hu most reasonable demands. An incident occurred this year which, tsken in contrast with the extreme horror of foreign disputes which James usually displayed, aJlbrds a rather amusing illustra- tion of tbe extent to which even so petty a " ruling passion" as pedantry may domineer over all others. Torstius, a divinity professor of a German oniversity, was appointed to the chair of a Dutch university. He was a disciple of Ar- minius, and moreover had the presumption to be opposed in argument to Icing James, who did not think it beneath his royal dig. nity. or too manifest and dangerous a de- parture from his pacifle foreign policy, se- riously to demand of the states that they should deprive and banish the obnoxious professor. The procedure was at once so absurd and so setere, that the Dutch at iirst refused to remove Vorstius; but the king returned to the charge with such an earnest fierceness, that the states deemed it politic to yield, and the poor profossor. who was luckless enough to differ from king James, was deprived of both his home and employment. In the course of this dis- pute, James, who had so creditably argued for charity in the case of the attempt of his puritans to Oppress their catholic fellow- sublets, made use of this revolting obser- vation:-^" He wbuld leave it to the states themKlves u» to the bnrntnp tf Forttiu* fir blttipketnie* and atMtm, but turely acrcr ktrttit betttr iuentd tkejlawut /" Of James's condiCt in and towards Ire- land we hsve glten a full account, which is very creditable to him, under the -head of that country. We now, therefore, pass for- ward to the domestic incidents of England, commencing with the death of Henrr, prince of MTales, an event wliich waa deeply and with good reason deplored. a.D. 16)3.— This youug prince, who vras only in his eighteenth year, was exceedingly beloved by tne nation, having given every promise of a truly royal manhuod. Ge- nerous, high spirited, brave, and anxious for men's esteem, perhaps, in the turbu- lent days that awaited England, even, his chief fault— a too great propensity to things miUtary would have proved of service to tne nation, by bringing the dispute between the crown and the puritans to an issue before the sour ambition of the latter could have auincientiv matured its views. Dignified and of a nigh turn of mind, he seems to have held the finessing and the somevthat vulgar familiarity of nis father in some- thing too nearly approaching contempt. To ualeigh, who had so long lieen kept a prisoner, he openly and enthusiastically avowed his attachment, and was heard to say, " Sure no king; except my father would keep such a bird in a cage." So sudden was the young prince's death that evil tongues attributed it to poison, and aome even hinted that the prince's popularity and free speech had become intolerable to his father. But the surgical examination of the body clearly proved that there wat no poison in the case; and moreover, if James failed at all in the parental character, it was by an excessive and indiscriminate fondness and indulgence. A. D. 1613.— The marriage of the princess Elisabeth to Frederic, the elector palatine,- took place this year, and the entertain- ments in hr-nonr of that event served to dispel the deep gloom which had been caused by the deatn of prince Henry. But this event, so much rqoiced at, was one of the most unfortunate that occurred during the whole generally fortunate reign oi James, whom it plunged into expences on account of his son-in-law whicn nothing could have induced him to ineur for any warlike enterprise of his own* But before we speak of the conseqaence of this unfortunate connection, we must, to preserve due order of time, refer to an event which created a strong feeling of horror and disgust throughout the nation — tlie murder of sir Thomas Overbnry at the instance of the eart and countess of So- merset. Robert Carre, a youth of respectable but not wealthy family in Scotland, arrived in London in the year 1609, bringing with him letters of recommendation to lord Hav. Carre, then auite a youth, was sinjinlarly handsome and possessed in perfection all the merely external accomplishments; though his education was so imperfect, that it is stated that long after his introductioib to the king's notice he was so ignorant of even the. rudiments of the then almost in- dispensable Latin, that James was wont to exchange the sccntre for the birch, and personally to play the pedagogue to the boy* SlD. 1611. 1 — -TUB MKW TBARSLATION OF THB BIIII.B FIHST FUBLISHBD. A.D. ICU.— •mtMrUI.B MBIT tArmn, AIID t» MW ■!▼■■ COMrLITKB. 356 tlTf^c ^nainrQ e( l^totorg, ^c. farmriU. NotinR the comely Hoeet and mceAil bmrinK of jwmg Cam, lord Hay took an opportunity to place him. in the king's eiiilit at a tilting match, and it chanced that on that very occasion James's attention was the more strongly drawn to him by an accident occnrring by which young Carre's leg was broken. The sight of this so affected the king, that in the course of the day he went to the young Csticnt's chamber, consoled him with manv iud words, and became so pleased with his spirit and general hehavionr, that he instantly adopted him as an especial and favoured personal attendant. Attentive to the lessons of the kingly pedoRogue, and skilful in discovering and managing his weaknesses, young Carre also possessed the art so many favourites have perished for lack of; he was a courtier not only to the king but to all who approached the king. Bv thus prudently aiding the predilection of the Ung, Carre rapidly rose. He was knighted, then created earl of Boehestcr and K. O., and iatrodneed into the privy council. Wealth and power accompanied this rapid rise in rank, and in a short time this new Ihvourite, without any definite office in the ministry, actually had more real influence in the management of affairs than the wise Salisbury himself. Much of his success Carre owed to the wise counsels of sir Thomas Overbury, whose friendship he claimed, and who be- came at once his adviser and his client, and counselled none the less earnestly and well because he felt that his own chief hope of rising at court rested upon the success of Carre. Thus guided, the naturally aaga- eious and flexible vonth soon ripened into the powerful, admured, and singiuarly pros- perous man. Unfortunately he became passionately attached to the young coun- tess of Essex, who as unfortunately re- turned his passion. This lady when only thirteen years of age, as lady Frances How- ard, daughter of the earl of Suffolk, was, by the king's request, married to the young ! earl of Essex, then only fourteen. In con- sideration of their extreme Touth the cere- I mony was no sooner eompleted than the i youthful bridegroom departed to the conti- nent, and did not return from his travele nntU four years after. In the mean time the Tonng countess of Essex and viscount Roenester had met, loved, and sinned ; and when the young earl, with the impatient ardour of eighteen, flew to his fair coun- tess, he was thunder-struck at being re- ceived not with mere coolness, but with something approaching to actual loathin* and horror. Tne coiutess's passion for and guilty connection with Eochester were not even suspected, and every imaginable means wen resorted to for the purpose of over- eoming what was deemed to be a mere ex- cess ofmaidenly coyness. All means, how- ever, were alike vain, nothing could induce her to live with her husband, and she and Rochester now determined to make way for their matriage by a divorce of the lady from the earl of Essex. Boehester eonsnlted sir Thomas Over, bury; but that prudent courtier, though ha had been wivv to and had even enconraitd their criminal connection, waa too stn cerely anxiously for the character and hsai pinesa of his Mend not to diunade kirn from the ignominy of proeuring this dl. Toree, and the folly of committing hit own peace and honour to the keephig of a woman of whose harlotry be had personal know. ledge. Connected as Boehester and the eountesa were, the latter was not bng ino- rant of this advice given by Overbary, ud. with the rage of an insulted woman and the artful brandishments of a beauly the easily persuaded the enamoured Rochester that he too was injured by that very eon- duet in whieb Overbury had nndonbtediv most proved the sincerity and the wiidom of his fHendthip. Having bronght Bo- Chester to this point, the countftst foand little difficulty in determining him to the ruin of that friend to whom he oked lo much, and by artfteUy getting Overburv a mission from the king and then pri- vately counselling Orerbnrr to reject it. he managed so to dupe and enrage James that the unfortunate Overbuy was com- mitted to the Tower, where, however, it does not appear that James meant hhnlong to remain. But the instant he enlend there, sir Thomas was fhlly in the po^erof his arch enemies. The lieutenant of the Tower, a mere creature and dependant of Boehester, confined Overbury with tucb ktrictness, that for six months the unfortu- nate man did not see even one of hit nearest relativea. Having got nd of the grave and tranble- some opposition of Overbury, the guilty lovers now pushed forward matters ; and the earl of Essex, completely cured of hit love for the ladv by what appwed to him the unaceonntaDle eapridousness of her eon- duct, very gladly consented to a ridicnlooily indecent plea, which induced the proper authorities to pronounce a divorce between the earl and countess of Essex. The latter waa immediately married to her psrsmour Boehester, upon whom, that the lady might not lose a step in rank by her new mv- riage, the king now coniierred the title of rl of Somerset. Though the impriaonment of Overbniy had thus completely served her purpow it to her divorce and re-marriage, it hid by no meana satiated the revenge of the eoantett. The forcible and bitter eontempt with which Overbury had spoken of her was itiU fir- ther envenomed oy her own contcioninen of iu justice, and she now exerted all the power of her beauty and her bUndith- menta, nntil she persuaded the uxorioni Somerset that their secret was too much in danger while Overburr still lived, and that their safety demanded his death. Pbiton was resorted to; both Somerset and hit eonntesa's uncle, the earl of Northampton, joining in the cowardly crime with tome «e- complices of lower rank. Slight dotes, only, were given to the doomed victim in the first place, but these failing of the dciirtd earl A.n. 1614.— LOOABITUMS INVSRTaB BT LOUO RArilB, OV ICOTLAIIB A.B. 1618.-1 BVTOH. lEnglanH.— I^ottsc of Stttart.'Hamcs I. 357 tttet, the foul eontpintora mtc hSm a 4oM w violent tbM he died, «nd with raeh (vidcDt marki of the foul treatment that Im bad met with, that an intUnt dkieovert waeonlf avoided by burying the body witn u iadeent haite. Even in this world of imperfect know* Mm and often mistaken Jndnncnt, the plotting and cold-blooded murderer ii«e«r Mcapci pnnithment. The icallbld or the pUowi, the galley* or the gaol, indeed, be m*y, though that but rarely happens, con. trin to elude. But tiie tortures of a guilty toDuience. a constant remorse mingled with a constant dread, a constant and haunting remembrance of the wrong done to the uad, and a constant horror of the jnad retribution which at any instant the ntereit aud most unforeseen accident may bring upon his own guilty head— these ptt> Dlthmeuts the murderer never did and never can escape. From the moment that tlie unfortunate Overbury vras destroyed, the whole feeling and aspect of the once Sy and brilliant Somerset were changed, e became sad, silent, inattentive to the humeurs of the king, indiflercnt to the fatal charms of the countess, morose to all, •hy of strangers, weary of himself. He had a doomed aspect; the wild eye and huty yet uncertain gait of one wlio sees bimielf surrounded oy the avengers of blood and is every instant expecting to feel their grasp. As what was at first attributed to tem- porary illness of body or vexation of mind became a settled and seemingly incurable habit, the king; almost boyish in his tore of mirth in his hours of recreation, gradually grew wearied of the presence of his favourite. All the skill and polity of Somerset, all the artful moderation with which he had worn his truly extraor* dinary fortunes had not prevented him from miJung many enemies ; and these no sooner perceived, with the quick eyes of courtiers, that the old favourite was falling, than they helped to precipitate his fall by the introduction of a young and gay can> didate for the vacant place in the royal bvour. Just at this critical moment in the for- tnne* of Somerset, George Villiers, the cadet of a good English family, returned from his travels. He was barely twenty* one years of age, handsome, well educated, gay, possessed of an audacious spirit, and with precisely that love and aptitude for personal adornment which became his youth. This attractive person was placed full in the king's view during the perforin- anee of a comedy. James, as had been anticipated, no sooner saw him than he be- eame anxious for his personal attendance. After some very ludicrous coquetting be> tween his desire for a new favourite and his unwillingness to cast off the old one, James had the young man introduced at court, sod very soon appointed him his cup-bearer. Thougli the ever-speaking conscience of Somerset bad long made him unfit for bis former gaiety, he was by no means pre- pared to see himself supplanted in the royal favour I but before he could make any eHbrt to ruin or otherwise dispose of young Villiers, a discovery was made which veiy cfTectually ruined himself. Among the many persons whom 8omer< set and bis guilty countees bad fonml it necessary to employ in the execution of their atrocious design, was an apothecary's apprentice who bad been employed in mixing vp the poisons. This man, now living at Flushing, made no scruple of openly stating that Overbury had died of poison, and that he bad himself been em- ployed in preparing it. The report reached the ears of the English envoy in the Low Countries, and was by him transmitted to the secretary of state, Winwood, who at once communicated it to the king. How- ever weary of his favourite, James waa struck with horror and surpiise on receiv- ing this report, but with a rigid impar- tiality which does honour to his memory, he at once sent for sir Edward Coke, the chief justice, and commanded him to ex- amine into the matter a* carefully and as unsparingly as if the accused person* were the lowest and the least cared for in the land. The stem nature of Coke scarcely needed this injunction; the enquiry was steadily and searchingly carried on, and it resulted in the complete proof of the guilt of the earl and countess of Somerset, sir Jervis Elvin, lieutenant of the Tower, Franklin, Weston, and Mrs. Turner. Of the temper of Coke this very trial affords a remarkable and not very creditable in. stance. Addressing Mrs. Turner, he told her that she was " guilty of the seven deadly sins; being a harlot, a bawd, a sorceress, a witch, a papist, a felon, and a murderer I" The honourable impartiality with which the king had ordered an enquiry into the murder of sir Thomas Overbury was not equally observed afterwards. All the accused were very properly condemned to death ; but the sentence was executed only on the ae- complices ; by far the worst criminals, the earl and countess were pardoned t A very brief imprisonment and the forfeiture of their estates were allowed to expiate their enormous crimes, and they were then as- signed a pension sufficient for tlieir support, and allowed to retire to the country. But the pardon of man could not secure them the peace of heart which their crime had justly forfeited. They lived in the same house, but they lived only in an alternation of sullenness and chiding, and thus they dragged on many wretched years, a mutual torment in their old age as they had been a mutual snare in their youth, until they at- length sank unregretted and unhonoured into the grave. A.0. 1616.— The fall of Somerset neces- sarily facilitated and hastened the rise of, young George Villiers, who in a wonder- fully short time obtained promotions — which, thiit the regularity of narrative may be preserved, we insert here — as viscount Villiers, earl, marquis, and Anally duke, of a.D. 1616.— BArriK's hat Discovxaan nv w. BArri.v, a!i knomsiiman. A. B. I8I7.— aALBIH ■Allt TO AMIBICA IB tBABOB OB A BOLB MIBB. m m n m m i m m 9 M o •4 •1 a <4 358 ^i^c ^rcBSnrs of l^tetorv, $rc. BttckiBRham, katxht of th« narter, oiMter of the luirM, chief Juitiee io eyre, warden of (he cinque ports, matter of the Kins*! Bench office, ■tewara of Wettminster, con- itable of Windsor, and lord high admiral of Bncland. His mother was made coun- tess of Bttckinf ham, his hrother 'viscount Purbeck, and a whole host of Us previ- ously obscure and needy fiiTonrites ob- tained honours, places, patents, or wealth. The proAision of the kiiiK— to which Jus- tice demands that we add the parsimony of the parliament— made him throuKhout his whole reign an embarrassed man ; and he BOW incurred great, thouKh undeserved, odium by the course he took to supply his pressing and immediate wants. When Eli- sabeth aided the infant states of Holland against the gigantic power of Spain, she had the important towns of Flushing, the Brille, and Rammekint placed in ber hands as pledges for the repayment of the money to England. Various payments had been made which had reduced the debt to 600,0001.. which sum the Dutch were under agreement to pay to James at the rate of 4U,n00I. per annum. This annual sum would doubtlen have been of vast service to the king— but a6.000{. per annum were spent in oiaintaining his garrisons in tne cautionary or mortgaged towns. Onlr 1-1,000/. remUBcd elear to England, and even that would oease in the event of new warfare between Holland and Spain. Considering these things, and being pressed on all siden for money to satisfy Just de- mands and the incessant cravings of his favourite and the conrt, the king gladly agreed to surrender the cautionary towns on the instant pajment by the Dutch of 850,000(.; and, unoer all the circnmstances of the case, James appears to have acted with sound policy in making the bargain. A. D. 1017.— In the course of this year James paid a visit to Scotland with the view to a (avourite scheme which he had long pondered, — probably even before he as- cended the English throne, and while he still was personally annoyed by the rude and intrusive presumption of the puritans. Uis scheme was " to enlarge the episcopal anthoriiy ; to establish a few ceremonies in publie worship, and to settle and fix the superiority of the civil to the ecclesiastical Jurisdiction." But though the king's personal influence was now very high, as well fivm the peace he had preserved throughout his dominions and the pride the Scotch, themselves a pe- dantic people^ fblt in hearing the king whom they had given to Bnglana cited as " the British Solomon," as irom the great, not to say unjust, preference which the kinx took every opportunity to show to Scottish suitors for promotion, even his influence, after much opposition on the part of the clergy, could only procure him a sullen adoption of but a small portion of his plaf . " Bpiscopaev" was so much the detestation of the Scotch, that it iS; surprising that so shrewd a king as Jiimes should have made a point of endeavouring to force it upon them. But aaifhe had Bot done suflkieat JB the wa» ^ aftontinc the religious mi JudicM of the Scotch, James no sooner lei turned home than be equally annntcd those of that large partv of £is Engliah snUeeta, the puritans. That dark, sutlnT Joyless, uid Jov-hating set of men bad. bv degrees, brought the original decorous Sun- < day of BngUnd to be a day of the mett ' silent and intense gloom. This was noticed by the king in his return flrom Seotlaad. and he immediately issued a proelamatioa by which all kinds of lawful games and ex. ' ereises were allowed after divine service ' However impnident this proclamation on the part of the king, we are inclined to be- 1 lieve that in spirit his extreme was wiwr ' than that of the puritans. But whatever ' may be the good or the bad policy of the practice, it is certain that theking chow a wrong time for recommendiDg ft. Even ' his authority was as nothing against super- stitious fanaticism. But while be failed to ' check or persuade the puritans, did he not ' irritate them T Might not the sharpening I of many a sword that was bared against Charles I. be traced to the vexation caused in puritan bosoms by this very proeltma- ' tion of his father} CHAPTER XLIX. Tki KeiffH nf Jambs I. (tmtitmti). A. n. 1618.— Sia Walter Raleigh, the fa- vourite of Elisabeth, the opponent and ene- my of Essex, to whom he had shown sa implacable and savage spirit which makes us doubt whether the world had not been ' greatly mistaken in deeming him a good u well as great man, had now been for Ihir teen years lingering in his prison. Thongh advanced in years and broken in fnrtane, even imprisonment could not break his an- questionably daring and resolved spirit. soldier, seanun, courtier, and man of in- trigue during so much of bis life, it wu when, amidst the yells of the public bmts- lity, which his own brutality, however, bed provoked and exemplared. he was led to the Tower of London, that he. instead of resigning himself to despair, commenced his elaborate and really learned History of the World t Thirteen years of conflnement could not quell that enduring and daring apirit; and aa the report of his friends in- formed him that puolie opinion was very favourably and greatly changed on his be- half, he now began to achemeforobtaininc his enlargement. He caused it to be noised abroad that, during one of his voysges, he had discovered a gold mine in Guisns, so rich, that it woulnaffird enormous wealth not only to any gallaat adventurers who, under proper guioance, should seek it, but also to the entire nation at large. Theae report^ as Baleigh from the first intended, reached the ears of the king; but Jsmet doubted the existence of the mine, and the more so because it was clear that a man in the sad situation of Raleigh might be ex- pected to say almost anything to obtsin freedom. But the report was so far ler- A n. I6I7.— TBB " BOOa OF SVOBTS" WAS BBH TBAB rVBLISflXO. A. D. ICID*— 'HB BAaLtMT MOTICM IF MClillB OV T» VOWBB Or ITBAM. XnglanTi.— I^ottsc o( Stuart.— 3lamc8 3E. 859 ^cttV' to BalaiKh, that it remiaded tha klaf of the lona areary yrara tha oneo gal- list toUiw >»<> ft eoortier of Eliaabeth M paaaed in iiu aloom of a dnnKaon, and Im lileraiad him from the Tower, but re- 1^ to releaie him from the original len* MM of death which, he aaid, he conaidered t nteeuary eheck upon a man of Baleigb'a gkaneter, which aasuredly had more of ta- int and audaeity than of either probity or Tbongh Jamea waa by no meaaa inclined to liTC credit to the Inaigniflcant tale of |taMi|b, he nve full lea*e to all private alTtniurera who might ohoote to Join him : and Baleigb'a intrepid aaaertiont, baekea by Uf great renute for both talent and eoorage, soon plaeed him at the head of t«d«e uiipa, well armed and manned, and prarided with every thinjg neeeiaary for ■iraey and plunder, out with nothing cal- calated t, Selden, and Pym; and, in hit whimtical way of {innishing reflraetory people, tent tir Dud- ey Digget, tir Thoraaa Crew, tir Nathaniel wek, and tir Jamet Perrot on a commit- sion to Ireland, a country to which a tcho- lar and a fine gentleman of that time would about u readUy go at a club-lounger of our day would to Siberia, or the talt minea of Poland. We do not deem it necetiary to dwell at all minutely upon thit parliamentary oppo- sitioB to the king, because it it leti impor- tant in ittelf than in itt consequences, which we shall have to develope in the tuc- ceeding reign. The teed eif the civil vmr KM MOW being towed. The comment were daily gaining power and the contciouinett of power ; but without the large and gene- rous as well aa wise tpirit which knowt how to Tifmm gradually. Even the king himielf, with all hit high opinion of prerogative and hit only too great readinett to exert it, perceived that the day wat paat for governing with the hifb hand alone. A curiout instance of this occurs in hit buying ott, from the nthering opposition, of sir John Saville. While others were leut to prison, or, which was but little better, to Ireland, sir John, whose opposition had been eager and spi- rited, made bit talent to much feared, that the king made him comptroller of the honsehold, a privy councillor, and a baron. Ok, if his successor could but have been induced to ponder this fact, and to take it in conjunction with the nature of mankjnd, bow much misery had been spared to him- self and his people, and how many a name that bat come down to us in conjunction with the mott eialtcd patriotitm,fiiraooth I would be forgotten in the lordly title* ba- ttowed upon parliamratarr utefulneta I A.B. laaa. — AlVhatever Intentioa Jamaa might have profeited of going !• war on behalf of hit ton-in-law. bit real iatantion waa to tecure the DrteBdthip of Spain, and that tecure the aeoomplithiMBi or hit own and the nation't withea by marrying hia ton, prince Charlei, to the Spaniard a utter. Upon thit marriage, beaiaea bit looking upon it at a matterttroke of polity, ha waa paationately bent upon aa a matter of per- tonal feeling; at he deemed bo one below a Jtrinceit of Bpaia or France a fltting match ior hia ton. The war between the emperor and the Kalatine waa ttill vigoroutly kept up, the itter prince. In tpite of all bit mitfortunei making the mott heroic exertiout. The detaila of thit war will be found in their proper place. Here it tuffleei to tay, that though Jamet greatly aided hit oallant ton- in-law with money, he did him almoat equal injury by his negotiations, which every one saw through, and of course treated with disrespect proiiortioned to their knowledge that tliey originated in the most intense political prudence, carried to the very verge of actual cowardice. Tliis excessive caution of the king, and hit equally excettive ad- diction to perpetual negotiation perpetually ending in nothing, wat made the tubject of much merriment on the continent. At Bruttelt a farce wat acted, in the coarie of which a metienger wat made to announce the tad newt that the palatinate wot at length on the eve of being wretted from the houte of Auttria. Nothing, the met- tenger taid, could retitt the aid which Frederick wat now about to receive ; the king of Denmork having agreed to tend him a hundred thousand picxled herrings, the Dutch a hundred tiiouaand butter- boxet, and the king of England— a hundred thousand dispatches I But thouKU Jamet waa in reality some- what ridiculously nrofute in hit eobrtt to " negotiate " the duke of Bavuria into re- ttoring the palatinate, he really waa retting hit main hope upon the Spanish match. Digby, afterwards earl of Bristol, wat tent to Madrid to endeavour to hasten the negotiation which, with more or leat ear- nc:itness, had now been carrying on for five years. The princess being a catnolic, a dit- pentation from the pope wat necessary for the marriage: and at variuut motivet of policy made Spain anxiout to avoid a total and instant breach with James, this cir- cumstance wat dexterously turned to ad- vantage. Spain undertook to procure the dispensation, and thus posteised the power of retarding the marriage indefinitelv or of concluding it at any moment, should cir- cumttancet render that courie advitable. Suspecting at least a part of the deception that was practised upon him, James, while lie tent Digby publicly to Spain, secretly sent Sa^e to Rome to watch and report the state of affairs and feeling there. Learning from that agent that the cliief difficulty, as A. D. 1621.— LICBNSas riBST GRAMTBn FOB VUBLIC-HOUtBS THIS TBAB. [2 J A.». lMf.~l •M. ^ 868 fR%t ^rcuttrv of l^totorvt Ire. hi H Boma wu eoneerntd, wm tha 4lAr- flRca of raligion, h« IroimdUtcIf dUehaifcd all popish nottaanta who wara in enatody. Bjr thla naaaara ha hopad to propitlala Bonat to his own anhleela ha statad hia roMon Ibr raaoriini to it to ha— hia daairo to nrgo it aa an aripimant in aupport of Iha applieationa ha was oontinualljr maliinK to reraign prlneaa for a mora indulgani traat- mant of their protastant sukjects. Digby, now aarl of Bristol, waa incaaaant in hia axarttona, and seams to hare been minntelv Informed of the real inientiona and feellnga of Spain ; and tlie resnit of hia ansiona and well-dirceted inquiries waa hia informing Jamaa that there waa no doubt that the prineeaa would shortly bestow her hand npon his son, and that her portion would be the then enormous sum of eight hundred thousand pounds sterling. Pleased aa James waa with the news aa regarded the antieipated marriage, he was enraptured when ne eonsldered it in conjunction with the restoration of the palatinate, which undoubtedly would instantly follow. No- thing now remained but to procure the diapensation fVom Bome; ana thar, aup- esing, aa seems to hare been the case, that ain waa sincere, waa not likely to be long delayed when earnestly solicited by Spain— when idl James's hopes were shipwrecked and hia flnely drawn webs of imlity scat- tared to the winda by Buckingham. Did a prince ever fail to rue the folly of making an npstart too great for even hia master's control I A. n. 1638.— It would have been compara- tively a email mischief had the king made Buckingham merely an opulent duke, had ha not uao made him, practically, his chief minister. Accomplished, showy, and plau- aible, he waa, however, totally destitute of the solid talenta neceasary to the statesman, and waa of ao vindictive as well as impetu- ous a nature, that he would willingly have plunged the nation into the most destruc- tive war for the aake of avenging a personal iiljury or ruining a personal enemy. Im- Eortunate and tyrannical even with the king imself, he was absolute, arrogant, and in- aulting to all others ; and he had even in- aulted the prince of Wales. But as the king grew old, and evidently waa fast sink- ing, Buckingham became anxious to repair his past error, and to conuect bimtelf in auch wise with Charles, while still only prince of DValea, as to continne tu be the chief minion of court when the prince should have expanded into the king. Perceiving that the prince of WaIcs waa greatly annoyed by the long and seemingly Interminable delaya that had taken place in bringing about the Spanish match, Buckingham resolved to make that circum- atance serviceable to his views. Accord- ingly, though the prince had recently shown a decided coolness towards the overgrown favourite, Buckingham approached his royal highness, and in bis most insinuating man- ner — and no one could be more insinuating or aupple than BuckiuKham when he had an object in view — professed a great desire to ha servieeabla. Ha deaeaated lou aa4 wall upon the unhappy lot of nrinna i. goneral in the Important art claof aaniaJT In which both hMband and wife U!JS%: ally the viatima of mere atau poliev. and atrangera even to each other'a parsons natU thev mat at the alUr. From theaa nade! niable premisas he paasad to the eoaeladoB. aowallealenlatad to infama a yoaaiaad anthnaiaatie man, that for the aake both af making the aoqnaintanea of hia fatnra wife and of haatening the aattlement of the affair bv intaraating Ear feelinga la behalf alike of hia gallantr* and of hu peraonal aceom- plishmenta, Charles would act wisely b* going intpgnito to the Spaniah court. A step so unusual and ao trusting eould not fail to 6atter the Spanish prioe of Pbllin and his court, while, aa seeming to proeeed firom his paasiouata eagerness to see her the Infanta herself must inevitably be de- lighted. Charlea, afterwarda ao grave and so me- lancholy— alaa I good prince, how macb he had to make him so I— was then young, in- f tenuous, and romantic. He fell at once nto Buekingliam'a views, and, taking ad- vantage of an hour of unusual good hnmoar they so earnestly importuned the king that he gave hia consent to the scheme. Sub- sequently he changed his mind; cool re- flection enabled him to aee aome good reasona against the proposed expediiioa, and hia natural timidity and suspicion no doubt suggested still more than bad any such solid foundation. But he was sgain importuned by the prince with earnostneti, and by the duke with that tyrannous into- lenee which he well knew when to use and when to abstain firom { and again the khig eonaented. Endymion Porter, gentleman of the prince a chamber, and sir Francia Cotling- ton were to be the only attendants of the prince and duke, except their mere groomi and valets. To sir Francis Cottington the king communicated the scheme, in the duke's presence, and asked bis opinion of it. The scene that followed ia so graphi- cally characteristic of the terms upon which the duke lived with his benefactor and lOTe. reign, that we transcribe it in fiill from the pages of Hume. " Jamea told Cottington that he had al- waya been an honest man, and, therefore, he waa now about to trust him with an alTair of the higheat importance, which be waa not, upon hia life, to disclose to sny man whatever. 'Cottington,' added he, ' here ia baby Charles, dog Steenie, (tlieie ridiculous appellationa he usually gave to the prince and Buckingham), who have a great mind to go past into Spain and fetch home the infanta. They will have but two more iu their company, and they have chosen you for one. What think you of the journey ?' Sir Francis, who was a prudent man, and had resided some years in Spain as the king^s agent, was struck with all the obvioua object tone to auch an enterprise, and acrupled not to declare them. The king threw himself upon his bed and cried i. B. 1634.— run notca taxi thi ariox islanob, Ann MAaaAcnn tri KneLisH. *.». IfM.— VII iRTiiiiv or Momv bbsocbi rioM 10 to • rii oint. lEnglanV— H^ottsc of Stnatt.— 3!amcs I. 363 'Itol4yMaU this btbra,' and fell Into a MW MMton and icw laiiMnUlloni, com- eBUf tkal Im was Badona and tbottld I baby Charln. " Tba prlBoa thowcd by hit eonntananea Ikat ka wa^ extramaly diitatitlled with CottiagtoB'a dlMoarae, but Bueklngham braka Tolo an opau paaaioD againit him. IIm kiaf, ha tola him, had aakad him oBly of tha jottrnoy. and of the manner of tra- vallinf, partiealan of whleb ha miifht be a MBMtaot JadM, ha*iBg gone the road ao often by poati out that he, without being ealled to it, had the pieaumpton to giro hie ■dtiee upon mattera of atate and againit tha prinee, which he ahould repeat aa long MheUvrd." " A thoBiaBd other reproaehea he added whleh put the poor king Into a new agony OB behalf of a aerrant who, he foresaw, woald infer for aniwering him honeitly. Upon which be aaid, with aome emotion, 'Nay, by Ood, Bteenie, you are mucli to blaae for uiing him ao. He aniwered me directly to the queation which I asked him, ■ad very honestly and wiiely; and yet you know he uid no more than I told you be« fore he wu called In.' IIowcTcr, after all Ibis passion on both sidei, James renewed his consent, and proper directiona were Sen for the Journey. Nor was he at any I to discoTor that the whole intrigue waa oriiinslly contrifed br Buckingham, as weU as pursued violently by hie spirit and inpetuoilty " The prince and BuekinRham, with their attendants, paased through France; and so well were tney disguished that they even ventured to look in at a court ball at Paris, where the prince saw the princess Hen> rietta, his afterwards unfortunate and hof niealiy attached queen. la eleven daya thev arrived at Madrid, where they threw on their disguises and were received with the utmost cordiality. The highest honoura were paid to Chariea. The king paid him a visit of welcome, cor- diallv thanked him for a step which, un- MUSI aa it was .among princes, only the more forcibly proved the conAdcnce he had in Spanish honour, gave him agold passport key they that he might visit at all hours, sad ordered the council to obey him even u the king himself. An incident which in England would be trivial, but which in B^n, so haughty and so pertinacious of etiauette, was of the utmost importance, will at once ihow the temper in which the Spaniards responded to tue youthful and gallant confldence of Chariea. Olivarei, a grandee of Spain— a haughtier race far than any king, out of Spain— though he had the right to remain covered in the pre- wnee of his own sovereign, invariably took off his hat in presence of the prince of Wales I Thus far, in point of fact, whatever «b- vions objections there might be to Buck- ingham's scheme, it had been really sue- eessful; the pride and the fine spirit of honour of the Spaniard had been touched precisely aa he anticipated. But if he bad by accident, ha waa speedily to done undo it ov nia Insteaa of taking any advanis ft by hie selAsh wilfulness. ilaga feneroua eonttdeneit o^ the prinea, tha of tha Spaniard gave way upon soma points which otherwise they moat probablv would bava insisted upon. The pope, indeed, took some advantage of the prince'a poailion, by adding aome more alringent religioua con* ditiona to the dispensation; but, on tha whole, the visit of the prince had doua good, and the dispensation waa aetualljr granted and prepared for delivery wbea Gregory XV. died. Urban VIII., who att«- oeeoed him, anxioua once more to aea B catholic king in England, and Judging from Charlea'a romantic eipedilion taat lova and impatience would probably work Ma conversion, found some pretexts for delay* ing the deliverv of the dispensatioa, and the natural impatience of Chariea waa graded into downriglit anger by the artful insi* nuationa of Buckingham, who affected to feel certain that Spain had been inaincera from the very int. Chariea at length grewr so dissatisfled that he asked permissioD to return home, and naked it iu such evident ill-humour, that Philip at once granted it without even the affectation of a desire for any prolongation of the visit. But tha princes parted with all external flriendihip, and Philip had a monument erected on the spot at which they bade each other adieu. That the craft of Urban wou)d speedily have given way before the united inducncea of James and Philip there can be no doubt, and as little can there be of the loyal since- rity of the Spaniard. Whv then should Buckingham, it maybe asked, overset when so near its completion the project he had so greatly exerted himself to advance? We have leen that hii object in luggeiting tha Journey to the prince wai one of nurelv ael- Hih policy. He thi'n wai selflih with re- spect to future benefit to himself. Hia lowing discord between Chariea and tha Spaniard was equally a lelflih procedure. Ilii diisolute and airy manners disgusted that grave court; and liis propensitv to de- bauchery disgusted that sober people. He insulted the pride of their proud nobility in the person or Olivarex, the almost omnipo- tent prime minister of Spain ; and when by ail theae means he had worn out his wei* come in Spain, and perceived that even re- spect to tue prince could not induce the Spaniard! to endure himself, he resolved to break off the amity between tlie prince and Philip, and succeeded as we nave seen. When Buckingham was taking leave of Spain he had the wanton insolence to say to the proud Olivarez, " With regard to you, sir, in particular, you must not consider me as your friend, but must ever ( ;pect flrom me all poisilile enmity and opposition." To thia insolent speech, the grandee, with calm greatness, merely replied that he very willingly accepted of the offer of enmity ao obligingljr made. On their return to England both Chariea and Buckingham used all their influence with the king to get him to break off all lONDOB NOW BBSAN TO IROBBAaB BATIDLT IN SIXB AND WBAITH. iOUn ■lOWK, TM ANTiaUART, HIITOBIAR, AND TOrOOIAVDIB > DIID, 160S. 864 ®l^e ^nasuYL) of 1|i8torp> $:<. Aurther neji^tiating the Spaniih match; Charles being actuated by a r:al though er- roneous belief of tlie insincerity of the Spa- niard, and Buckingham, by a consciousness that ho could expect nothing but ruin should the Infanta, after being; stung by so much Insult shown to herself and her country, become queen of England. In want of money, and loekinK upon the Spanish match as a sure means by which to get the Jalatinaf) restored witliout going to war, ames was not easily persuaded to give up all thought of a match be had had so much •t heart and bad brought so near to a con- oluilon. But the influence of Buckingham WHS omnipotent in parliament, and his in- solence irresistible by the king ; the Spanish match was dropped, enmitv to the house of Austria was henceforth to oe the principle of Bnglish polity, and a war was to be re- sorted to for the restoration of the palati- nate. It was in Tain that the Spanish ambassador endeavoured to open James's Men. The deluded monarch was utterly in tno hands of the haughty duke, and more- over, from growing physical debility, was dally growing less fit to endure scenes of violent disputation. The earl of Bristol, who throughout this strange and protracted a£fair had acted the part of both an honest and an able minis- ter, would most probably have made such representations in parliament as would have overcome even Buckingham; but he had icarcelylandedin England ere, by tlie favou- rite's influence, he was arrested and carried to the Tower. The king was satisfied in his heart that the minister was an honest and an injured man ; but though he speedily released him from the Tower, Buckingham only suffered him thus far to undo his invol- untary injustice on condition that Bristol should retire to the country and abstain from all attendance on parliament t From Spain the prince turned to France In search of a bride. He had been much Struck by the loveliness of the princess Henrietta, and he now demanded her hand ; negotiations were accordingly immediately entered into on the same terms previously granted to Spain, though the princess could bring no dowry like that of the infanta. James, in the mean time, found himself, while fast sinking into the grave, plunged into that warlike course which during his whole life he had so sedulously, and at so many sacrifices of dignity and even of pretty certain advantage, avoided. The palatinate, lying in the very midst of Germany, possessed by the emperor and the duke of Bavaria, and only to be ap- proached by ait English army through other powerful enemies, was obviously to be re- taken by force only at great risks and sa- erlrtcei. But the coul'm.'Is of Buckingham urg d James onward. Count de Mansfeldt and his array were subsidized, and an Eng- lish arinr of two hundred Itorse and twelve tlious'^na foot was raised by impressment. A free passage was promised by France, but when the army arrived at Calais it was discovered that no formal orders had been received for its admission, and after Tainlv waiting for such orders until they actually began to want provision, the comnianden of the expedition steered for Zealand. Here again, no proper arrangements had been made (pr the disembarkation, a sort of plague broke out among the men from short allowances and long confinement in the close vessels, nearly one half of tlie troops died, and Mansfeldt v.^ry rightly deemed the remainder too miail a force for so mighty an attempt as that of the reconquctt of the palatinate. A. D. 1625.— Long infirm, the king had been so much harassed of late by the mere necessity of looking war in the (uee, that this awful loss of lil'e and the utter failure of the hopes he had been- persuaded to rest upon the expedition, threw him into a tertian affue. 1 :om the first attack he felt that his days were numbered ; fur when told, in the old English ada^e, that " An ague in spring Is health to a king,** he replied, with something of his old quaint- uess — " Hoot mon ! Ye forget it means a young king." He was right. Every sueecssive fit left him still weaker,, till he sank into the arms of death, on the 27th of March, 1625, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, the fifty-eighth of his reign over Scotland, and the twenty- third of his reign over England. Few kings have been less personally Jig. nified, or less personally or royally vicious than James. As a husband, a father, a friend, master, and patron, he was unex- ceptionable save upon the one point of ex- cessive facility and good nature. As a pri- vate man he would have been prized the more on account of this amiable though weak trait of character. But as a king it weakened him both at home and abroad, and would assuredly have conducted him to the scaffold, had puritans been as far advanced in their fanatic and mischievous temper, and in their political and misused power, as tliey were on the reign of hia more admirable but less fortunate sou. CHAPTER L. Tk$ Reign of Cuablbs I. A. D. 1625.— Tub singular submissivciiess with which James had been obeyed, even when his principles and practice were the most exorbitantly arbitrary, was well cal- culated to mislead his son and successor Charles I. into a very fatal mistake as to the real temper and inclination of his people. Authority had not as yet ceased to be obey- ed, but it had for some time ceased to be re- spected. Even as early as the reign of Eliza- beth, a sturdy and bitter spirit of puritanism had begun to possess considerable intlneiice both in parliament and among the people at large, and that spirit had vastly increased during the long reign of James I., whose familiar manners and undignified diaracter were so ill calculated to support his claim to nn almost eastern submission on the part of subjects towards their anointed sovereign. WIM.IAM CAHPBN, TUB HISTORIAN; AUTBOU OF TUB "BRITANNIA:" DIED 102.1. CBABLBl'l IfAZIHa Of •OTBBRMIIIT WBBB fOVROBS III ABSOLUTIIIf. lEnglantf.— 1|ouse of Stuart Charles E 365 Bnt the real temper of the people wat, u it seeui* to ui, totally miittnderatood both by Charles I. and hit couneillora. Cbarle* had imbibed very much of his father'* extravagant notion of the extent of the royal prerogative; and while the bit- ter puritan* were ready to carry out their fanatical feelings to the extent of crushing (like the throne and the church, the Icing eommeneed his reign by the exaction of a itnevolena, an arbitran mode of raising money which had been dsnounced long be- fore. The pecuniary situation of the king was, in fact, such as ought to have excited the sympathy and liberality of his subjects, and even the unconstitutional and arbitrary conduct of the king in issuing privy seals for a benevolence must not blind us to the ea»i* of that conduct. lu the reign of James, as we have seen, the cause of the prince palatine was unreasonably popular, and England had entered into a treaty to keep up the war on behalf of that prince. Bound oy that treaty, Charles appealed to his parliament, which gave him only two snbiidies, though well aware that sum would be quite unequal to the military de- monstrations which both the cause of his brother-in-law and the credit of the Eng- lish nation required at his hands. An inefficient expedition to Cadis plainly showed that, even with the aid of the forced btnetolenee, the king was very insufficiently supplied with money, and a new parliament was called. Warned by the experience he now had, the kin| exerted himself to exclude the more obstinate and able of the opposition members from the new parlia- ment. Something like what in later times has been called the management of parlia- ment had already been tried in the reign of James. But the chief step now taken was arbitrarily to name the popular members of the late parliament sheriff's of counties, by which means they were effectually excluded from sitting in the new parliament. But the puritanical spirit was too widely spread, and, while the expedient of the king aggra- vated the excluded and their friends, the members who were returned proved to be quite as obstiaate and unreasonable as their predecessors. The king and his friends and advisers &irly stated to parliament the great and urgent necessity of the crown ; ut in the face of the fact that those ne- cessities were in a great measure created by the former enthusiasm of parliament and the people in favour of the palatine, the new parliament would only grant three subsidies, or something more than a hun- dred and fifty thousand pounds, a sum really paltry as compared to the king^s need. It cannot be too emphatically im- pressed upon the reader that here, at the very outset of the king's reign, the founda- tion of all its subsequen't troubles was laid. Measures over which the king had had no control made a vigorous and ofrensive course of action imperative upon him ; but the parliament, while looking to him for that course, doled out the sinews of war with a paltry and huckstering spirit, that left the king no choice save that between dis- grace abroad or arbitrary conduct at home. Charles, unfortunately, looked rather at the abstract nature and privileges of his royalty than at the power and fierceness of reiu popular feeling which he had to combat or to elude. He openly authorised commis- sioners to sell to the catholics a dispensa- tion f^om all the penal laws especiallv en- acted Mainst them; he borrowed large sums of money from the nobility, many of whom lent them with great reluctance ; and he levied upon London, and upon other large towns, considerable sums, under the name of ship-money, for the equipment and support of a fleet. Wholly to justify this conduct of the king is no part of our busi- ness or desire; but again, and emphati- cally, we say, that the chief blunie is due to the niggardly and unpr.triotic conduct of the parliament; an unjust extortion was the natural and inevitable result of a no less uDJust and unprincipled parsimony. War being declared against France, the haughty Buckingham, who was as high in favour with the dignified and retined Charles as he had been with the plain and coarse James, was entrusted with un expedition for the relief of Rochelle, which at that time was garrisoned by the oppressed pro- testants and besieged by a formidable army of the opposite persuasion. Buckingham's talents were by no means equal to his power and ambition. He took not even the sim- plest pre6autions for securing the concert of the garrison that he was sent to relieve, and on his arrival before Rochelle he was refused admittance, the beseiged very natu- rally suspecting the sincerity of a com- mander who had sent no notice of his in- tention to aid them. This blunder was im- mediately followed up by another no less glaring and capital. Denied admittance to Rochelle, he disregarded the island of Ole- ron, which was too weak to have resisted him and abundantly well provided to have subsisted his force, and sailed for the isle of Rh6, which was strongly fortified and held by a powerful and well provisioned garrison. He sat down before the castle of St. Martin's with the avowed intention of starving the garrison into submission ; but abundant provisions were thrown into the fortress by sea, and the French effected a landing in a distant part of the island. All that mere courage could do was now done by Buckingham, who, however, lost nearly two-thirds of his army, and was obliged to make a hurried retreat with the remainder. His friends, quite truly, claim- ed for him the praise of personal courage, he having been the very last man to get on shipboard. But mere courage is but a small gart of the quality of a great general ; pro- ably there was not a private sentry in his whole force who was not personally as brave as Buckingham himself; certainly there could have been but few private soldiers who would not have failed less disastrously and disp;racefully in the main objects of the expedition. The failure of this expedition could not 4 CBABLBB DBSriSBD rUBMO OriNIOM WHBN IN orPOIITION TO HIS OWB. [313 DI8D 1023. A.V. 1138.— «BA>I.Ba CAUaiO THB " THIBTT-HIRB AKTieiiVa" fa BB rUBLUBBD. 306 Uriftc flTriasuri) of l^istore, ^(* St (O ^^ A bnt increaie the miscUeToaa bints between the king and pwrUament. The latter, with- out coniidering the dilemna in which their own illiberal conduct had placed the king, loudly exclaimed against tnose, certainly, very arbitrary measure* to which tliey them- ■elves had compelled him. Duties called tonnage and poundage had been levied, and for renisal to pay them, many merchants had had their property seized by the officers of the customs. The parliament now call- ed those officers to account, alleging that tonnage and poundage bad been illegally demanded, and the sheriff of London was aetually sent to the Tower for having of- ficially supported the king's ofiieers. To these cireumstanoes of ill feeling the more zealous puritans added religious grievances ; and every day produced some new proof that a very large proportion of the nation was infected with a feeling of intolerance and bigotry that could not but prove ruin- ous to both church and state. A. D. 1629.— Alarmed at the zeal and ob- stinacy with which the popular members seemed determined to prosecute the ton- nage and poundage question, the king de- termined at least to postpone the discus- sion ; and when the question was brought forward, sir John Finch, the speaker, rose and informed the house that the king had given him a command to adjourn it. This intelligence, instead of alarming the Sopular members, infuriated them. Sir ohn Finch was forcibly held in the speak- er's chair, which he was in the act of vacating, by two members named Valen- tine and HoUis, and thus compelled to. sanction by his presence a short resolution which condemned tonnage and poundage as being contrary to law, and all persons concerned in collecting those duties as guilty of high crimes, and denounced Armi- nians and papists as capita) enemies to the state. T' ' s scene of violence and passion on the pan of the commons was followed by the king's eommittal to prison of sir Miles Ho- bart, sir Peter Ilayman, the learned Selden, with Coriton, Strode, and Long, on charges of sedition. At this period Charles seems to have acted rather upon passionate and perplexed impulse than upon any settled and defined principle, even of a despotic character. He had scarcely sent these members to prison upon his own authority, when he set them free again without fur- ther punishment. To other members he was just as inconsistently severe. HoUis, Valentine, and sir John £lliot, were sum- moned before the court of king's bench to answer for their violent conduct in the house of commons. They pleaded, and it should seem quite reasonably, too, that the house of commons being a superior court to the king's bench, the iBttcr could not take cognizance of an allef^ed offence com- mitted in the former. The judges, how- ever, treated this plea with contempt; the three persons above named were found Suilty in default of appearance and con- emned to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure, to nay fines of ftom five hundred to a thousand jpoand* each, and to give secu- rity for then: future conduct. TheavMtrarv severity of tins sentence had n doubW iu effect ; it exalted te the public mind men whose own rash anger wonld otherwise have been their most efficient opponent and it added to the unpopularity of the king just at the precise moment when no- thing but a cordial and iViendly expression of public opinion was at all likely to have been effectually serviceable to him in hit contest with the obstinate and envenomed partv • men who denied him the means of perform- ing those duties which the popular outcrv had mainly contributed to impose upon bim. So entirely had Buckingham obtained the ascendancy over the mind of Charles that the favourite's disgraeefal failure in the Roehelle expedition, though it caused a loud and general indignation in the nation did not seem to injure him with the kiag! Another expedition for the relief of Roehelle was determined upon, and the command was bestowed upon Buckingham. His bro- ther-in-law, the carl of Denbigh, had failed in an attempt to raise the siege. Bucking- ham, naturally anxious to wipe off the dis- grace of two failures, exerted himself to the utmost to make the new expedition under his own command a successful one. To this end, he went to Portsmouth and per- sonally superintended the preparations. He was at this moment decidedly the most unpopular man in the kingdom; denounced on all bands as the betrayer and at the same time the tyrant of both king and country. The libels and declamations which were constantly circulated found a ready eclio in the breast of one Felton, an Irish soldier of fortune. By noture gloomy, bigoted, and rareless of his owu l^e, this man had been rendered desperate by what appears to have been very unjust treatment, Ue had served bravely at St. Rh£, where his captain was killed, and Buckingham, whe- ther in caprice or mere indolence, had re- fused to give lieutenant Felton the vacant step. This personal injury aggravated his hatred to the duke as a public enemy, and he determined to assassinate him. Having travelled to Portsmouth, this resolute and violent man contrived to approach the duke as he was giving some orders, and struck him with a knife over the shoulder of one of the surrounding officers. The duke had onl^ strength enough to say, " the villain has killed tiie," when he fell dead upon the spot. In the confusion that ensued the assassin might easily have escaped, for the blow was so sudden that no one saw by whom it was struck. But the assassin's hat hod fallctn among the astounded spec- tators and WAS found to contain some of the strongest lines of a very violent remon- strance which the house of commons had voted against the duke's conduct ; and while some persons were remarking that no doubt the villain must be near at hand, and would be recognized by the loss of his hat, Felton deliberately stepped forward and I n H ■ A. n. 162.S.— TUK KlNQ FOROADK TUK COMMONS TO MKnOLB WITH IlKtlOION. SIOWI , sitive bimt » leieni » could sKun 5 dukei 9 iltin 1 itsnc •■ testin H icienc » Unch( menc * ednesi * imput h A.n 4 of the minist * pereoi A was n 4 dttlgei and so e ButtI • he, as H 1! he DOS luable M lis fee H The H the p • Buckii A IE 4 to dim friendl It the for redun S 3 so littl M from t • reign \ 1 Wentw 1 and Li u terbar] t theint « which a andth H tiou ol 5 most ii t Unfc ■ fluencc * clined arbitra n were t J! rity;p 3 a regal 3 andth R eourag trsry n ureof with These seized violent Laudt ways t *• miasio 1. ofwhic ^ ing th IH and in a Thisc A law, ir severii to the of law ance, < A.B.1639.— T» scoTi ArrLT to nm vamcH kim» ros fbotbotioh. ICnglant).— Ilouse of S^tnart.— Cf^arUs S. 367 (towed hi* crime. When queitioned he po- titWely denied that any one had inetigated him to the murder of the diike. Uie con- science, he said, waa bis only adviser, nor could any man's advice cause him to act (cainit his conscience ; he looked upon the dukeasa public enemy, and therefore had he iliin hiin. He maintained the same con- stancy and self-complacency to the last, pro- testing even upon tne scaffold that his con- science acquitted him of all hlarae. A me- Uncboly instance of the extent to which men can shut their eyes to their own wick- edness in their detestation of the real, or imputed, wickedness of others I A.D. 1639.— Charles received the tidings of the assassination of his favourite and minister with a composure which led some pertons to imagine that the duke's death was not wholly disagreeable to the too in- dulgent master over whom he had so long and so unreasonably exerted his influence. But this opinion greatly wronged Charles ; he, as a man, wanted not sensibility, but he possessed to a remarkable extent the va- Inaole power of coitrolling and concealing Ua feelings. The first consequence of the cessation of the pernicious counsel and influence of Buckingham was the king's wise resolution to diminish his need of the aid of his un- friendly subjects, by concluding peace with the foreign foes against whom lie had war- red under so many disadvantages and with so little glory. Having thus freed himself from the heavy and constant drain of fo- relKn warfare, the king selected sir Thomas Wentworth, afterwards earl of Strafford, and Laud, afterwards archbishop of Can- terbury, to aid him in the task of regulating the internal affairs of bis kingdom ; a task which the king's own love of prerogative and the obstinate ill humour and disaffec- tion of the leading puritans rendered al- most impracticable. Unfortunately, Laud, who had great in- fluence over the king, was by no means in- clined to moderate the king's propension to arbitrary rule. Tonnage and poundage were still levied on the king's sole autho- rity; papists were still compounded with, as arrgular means of aiding the kingp's revenue; and the custom-house officers were still en- couraged and protected in the most arbi- trary measures for the discovery and seiz- ure of goods alleged to be liable to charge with the obnoxious and illegal duties. These erroi-s of the king's government were seised upon by popular declaimers and the violence of libellers provoked the king and Laud to a most arbitrary extension of the al- ways too extensive powers of the high coiu- mistion court of star-chamber, the sentences of which upon all who were accused of oppos- ing the goveruuient Were truly iniquitous, and in precisely the same degree impolitic. This court, though really authorized by no law, inflicted both personal and pecuniary severities which to us who are accustomed to the regular and equitable adtuinistrntion of law cannot but be revolting. For inst- ance, a barrister of Lincoln's inn, named Prynne, a man of considerable talent thongb of a factious and obstinate temper, was brought before this arbitrary court, eharged with liaving attacked and abused the cere- monies of the chnrcb of England. Bur- ton, a divine, and Bastwick, a physician, were at the same time charged with a simi- lar offence ; and these three gentlemen of liberal professions, for libels which now, if punished at all, would surely not cost their authors more than two months impri- sonment, were condemned to be placed in the pillory, to have their ears cut off, and to pay, each, a fine of five thousand pounds to the king. The impolicy of this and similar severe sentences was the greater, because there were but too many indications already of extensive and determined disaffection to the crown. Refused the really requisite pecuniary assistance by his parliament, the king continued to levy *hip money, and against this tax an especial and determined opposition was raised ; though it ought to be observed that it had often been levied in former reigns, not because of so reason- able a motive as the factious refusal of par- liament to provide for the necessities of^ the state, but in sheer despotic preference on the part of sovereigns to act on their own will rather than on that of parliament. The puritans and the popular leaders in general, however, made no allowance for the king's really urgent and distressing situation. Among the most determined opponents of the ship money was Mr. John Hamp- den, a gentleman of some landed pro- perty in the county of Buckingham. The moral character of this gentleman was, even by those whom his political conduct the most offended or injured, admitted to be excellent ; but his very excellence as a private man served only to make him the more mischievous as a public leader. If instead of lending himself to the support of that bitter and gloomy party whose piety not seldom approached to an impious fa- miliarity, and whose love of liberty degene- rated into a licentiousness quite incom- Satible with good government, John Hamp- eu had thrown the weight of his own high character into the scale ogainst the in- sanity of genius as displayed by Vane, and the insanity of hate to all above them and contempt of all below them which was manifested by ninetcen-tweiitieths of the puritan or republican party, how sternly, how justly, and how efliciently miKlit he not have rebuked that sordid parliament which so fiercely and capriciously com- plained of the king's extortion, while actu- ally compelling him to it by a long and ob- stinate parsimony as injurious to the people as it was insulting to the sovereign I But he took the opposite course. Being rated at twenty shillings for his Buckingham- shire estate; he refused payment, and caused the question between him«eif and the crown to be carried into the exchequer court. For twelve days the ablest lawyers in England argued this case before the 1 A.O. 1639.— A FACIFICATIO.t COXCLUDkO WITH THX SCOTS, JUKI 17 A. p. IMO.— *■■ cm* BBaoLTaB to oail a vasiiIamiiit. 368 ^i^c IRttaMutu ot l^istors, $rc. whole of the judgea, all of whom, with the exeeption of four, deoided in favour of the kinra claim. without entering into the intricaciei of leyal argumentation, we muat briefly re- marl^ that all the writera who have treat- ed of thia celebrated caae appear to ua to have beatowed very undeaerved praiae upon Hampden, and quite to have mia- onderatood or miarepreaented the caae aa between the king and the people at large. Waa it the klng'a duty to anpport ^e peace of the kingdom and the dignity of the crown T By so mnch aa he might have fallen abort of doing ao, by ao much would he have fallen abort of the fulfilment of hia coronation oath. But parliament, the power of which waa comparatively recent and in itaelf to a very considerable extent a usurpation, denied liim the necea- aary auppliea. An odioua and insolent ty. ranny, aurely, to impose responsibility, yet deny the means of sustainiug it I The king, then, waa thua driven, insolently and moat tyrannoualy driven, to the necessity of choosing between a crime and an irregu- larity; between peijury, violation of his coronation oath, and a direct levy of that money which he could not obtain through the indirect and constitutional meana of parliament. It ia quite idle to dwell upon the irre- gularity of the klng'a mode of levying money without charging, primarily, that irregularity to the true cause, the abame- fttl niggardliness of parliameut. Then the question between Charlea and the aturdv patriot Hampden becomes nar- rowea to this point ; were the twenty shil- linga levied upon Hampden'a property an unreaaonable charge for the defence and aecurity of that property? No one, we ahould imagine, will pretend to maintain that, and therefore the refiisal of Hampden to pay the tax,— unaccompanied aa that refuauwaa by a protest against the vile 'conduct ofpuliament,—8macked far more of the oraftmess and factioua spirit of hia £ arty, than of the aturdy and aingle-minded onestv which the generality or writera ao markedly affect to attribute to the man. We have dwelt the longer upon the pe- cnniary disputea between Charlea and hia narrow-minded parliament, because the real origin of all the aubsequent disorders waa the wanton refiiaal of the parliament to proride for the legitimate expences of the state. Later in order of time the dis- putea became complicated, and in the courae of eventa the parliament became better juatified in oppoution, and the king both leaa justified and less moderate ; but even in looking at those sad passages in onr history which tell us of royal insin- cerity and of Englishmen leagued under opposing banners, and npon their English aou apilling English blood, never let the reader forget that the first positive injus- tice, the first provocation, tfie first guilt, belonged to jiarliamenl, which practised ty- rannv and injustice while exclaiming aloud for liberty. CHAPTER LI. Tkt JM^'M ^r CsAaLxa I. feontimui.) A. B. IMO.— Thouoh there vras a most bit- ter spirit existing againat the church of Env- land, though the press teemed with puritu libels aa vulgar and ailly aa they were mail- cioua, Charlea, a aincere friend to the church most unhappily aaw not the storm-clouj that hovered over him. Instead of con- centrating hia energies, his friends, and his pecuniary resources, to elude or smite down the gloomy and bitter puritans of England, and to awaken again the cheerful and loyal spirit of his English yeomanry, he most unwisely determined to introduce episco- pacy into Scotland. An order was given for reading the liturgy in the principal church of Edinburgh, which so provoked the congregation, that the very women joined in an attack on the officiating mi- nister, and the place of public worship was profaned by funous and disgusting impre- cations. Long inured to actual warfare with England, and always jealous of a na- tion ao much wealthier and more powerful than themselves, the Scotch gladly seised upon the attempt to introduce episcopacy among them aa a pretext for having re- course to arma, and the whole of that dis- affected and warlike population wai in- atantly in a atate of insurrection. Ijven now, could the king have been induced to perceive the real inveteracy and determi- nation of the Scottish hatred of episco- pacy, he might have escaped from this por- tion of his embarraasments with but httle worse evil than some diminution of his cherished notion of the absolute supremacy of anointed sovereigns. A negotiation was resorted to^ and a treaty of peace quicklv succeeded a mere auspensionof arms; each party agreeing to a disbandonment of their forces. Unhappily, neither party was quite earnest in desiring peace ; the king could not give up hia long-cherished ideas of their abaolute monarchy, and the rigid Scottiah Presbyterians were not a jot more inclined to yield up any portion of their entire free- dom and self-government in matters of re- ligion. The negotiations and treaties were in consequence marked by mutual insincer- ity ; mutual ehargea of bad faith were made, and both Charlea and his Scottish people speedily resumed their hostile attitude. The dispute in which the king had thus needlessly and unwisely involved himself aerioualy increased his difficulties, Al- though he still continued to levy ship money and other arbitrary taxes, he was dreadfully distressed for money ; and the disaffected of England saw, with scarcely dissembled pleaaure, that their cause was virtually being secured by the disaffected of Kcotland. It waa while the people were in this ominous temper that Cliai-les, hav- ing exhausted all other means, even to forced loans from bis nobility, was obliged to call a parliament and make one more appeal for pecuniary aid. But this parlia- ment was even less than the former one in- clined to aid the king. He bad been re- A. n. 1639.— TU DDTCa DBSTBOT TBB SrAIIIBH ItBBT IN TBB BOWIfS. A.P. 1640.— TBI aOOTI CSOiaiB TBB BOKSBK AHO LKTIBD COBTBIBUTIOBI. lEnglanK — I|onsc of Stuavt.— Charles 3E. 369 iati aid for the ordinary espencea of the kinadom i he waa atill leaa likely to be fairly treated when he, in terma, demanded aid that he might quell and chaatiae the Scotch lebeli whose principlea were ao near akin to tboie of the Engfiah puritans, who now vere namerically powerful enough to con- ititute tbemselvea the national purse- holder*. Instead of the aid he aaked for, the king received nothing but remonstrance ind rebuke, on the score of the meana by which when formerly refused aid b^ par- tisment he had aupplied himself. Finding the parliament quite impracticable, the king now dissolved it. But the mere dis- ■oltttion of this arbitrary and unjust as- sembly could not diminish the king's ne- eeititie*, and he soon called another par- liament—that fatal one whose bitter and organised malignity pursued him to the death. The puritan party waa preponder- ant in this parliament, and so systematic aud serried were the exertions of those resolute and gloomy men, that they at once felt and indicated their confidence of success at the very commencement of the session. Instead of granting the auppliea which the king demanded, they paased at once to the impeachment of the earl of Strafford, the faithful minister and the per- sonal friend of the king. Strafford at a forAier period had to a certain moderate extent acted with the puritans ; and they resented his opposition to their more inso- lent proceedings so deeply, that nothing but the unfortunate nobleman's blood could appease their malignity. It was well known that Charles required no one to urge him to support the preroga- tive of the crown to its fullest legal extent, at hatt ; and it waa equally well known that Laud was of a far more arbitrary turn than Strafford, and had fully as much influence with the king. But Strafford, as we have said, had given deep offence to the puri- tans, and deep and deadly was their re- venge. He was solemnly impeached of high treason before the peers. His defence was a perfect model of touching and yet manly eloquence. liVith a nresence of mind not to be surpassed, he tooK up and refuted each accusation in the exact order in which it had been made ; and he concluded bv as- suring the peers that he would not nave troubled them so long, had he not felt the defence of his life to be a sacred duty towards his children, " pledges of a dear saint now in heaven." But neither the cogent logic of his defence, nor the unim- peachcd excellence of his private character, could avail aught against the political fury of the time. He was pronounced guilty by both houses of parliament, and his death was Glamoured for with an eagerness that redects but little credit upon our national character at that period. There waa but one thing that could have saved the carl of Strafford ; and it is with pain that we record that that one thing was sadly absent — a just firmness of character on the part of the king. On a fair and careful examination of the proceedinga againat Strafford, we can only discover one serious fault that waa commit- ted by that miniater ; he allowed hia per- aonal attachment to the king to induce bim to incur ministerial responsibility for mea- sures which, both as minister and private man, he greatly disapproved of. But this great fault waa one bearing no proportion to the dread penalty of death; moreover, however faulty Strafford on this point waa towards himself and the nation, he had committed no fault against the king. Con- trariwise, he had given the utmost possible proof of personal and loyal feelinga ; and Charles, in abandoning a minister whose chief fault was that of being too faithful to hia aovereign, acted a part ao uuchivalric, so totally unworthy of his gen. ral charac- ter, that we scarcely know how to speak of it in terms sufficiently aevere. A truly futile apology has been attempted to be made for Charles's abandonment of hia too devoted minister. That ill-fated nobleman, while confined in the Tower, heard of the clamour that was artfully and perseveringly kept up by his enemies, and in a moment of unwise exaltation he wrote to the king and advised him to comply with tlie san- guinary demand that was naade. The advice was unwise, but, such as it was, it ought to have had the effect of only increasing the king's resolution to save such a man and audi a minister from destruction. But Charles took the advice literally aa piei dt la lettre, and signed the warrant for the execution of, probably, after liis queen, the most sincerely devoted friend that he pos- sessed. " Put not your trust in ptinces" was the agonized commentary of Strafford upon this most shameful compliance of the king ; and he submitted to his undeserved execution with the grave and equable dig- nity which had marked his whole course. From this unjust murder of the king's friend and minister, the parliament passed to a verv righteous and wise attack upon two of the most iniquitous of the kin(['s courts. The high commission court, and the court of star-chamber were unanimoualy abolished by act of parliament. While the protestants of England were divided into churchmen and puritana, and while the latter were busily engaged in en- deavouring to throw discredit upon the church, papacy saw in these disputes a new temptation for an attack upon protestant- ism as a whole. The king's finances were well known to be in such a state as must necessarily prevent him from any thing like vigour in military operations ; and the papists of Ireland, aided and instigated by foreign emissaries, resolved upon a general massacre of their protestant fellow-aub- jects. A simultaneous attack waa made upon these latter ; no distinction was made of age or of sex ; neighbour rose npon neighbour, all old obligations of kindness were forgotten, all old animosities, how trifling soever their origin, were terribly remembered, and upwards of forty thousand persons were inhumanely slaughtered. The king made every exertion to suppress and A. O. 1640.— TUB NOBILITX AND BBIITBT LBMD TBB KINO 300,000{. A.D. 1641.— A S70 ^|t ^rcasttfti of l^istotQ Sec. paniah this inCunont muMen and, feeling that the chief obitacle to hit luccaas l«f in hit crippled ftnancet, he once more ap- pealed to Ilia BoKlith parliament for a ta^< ply. Bat not eren the maatacre of their Jiroteatant fellow-aabjeeta could alter the itotioua temper of the puritani; they not only refUaed the aid he aaked, UDon the abanrd plea that England waa itaelr in too mnoh danger to apare any aid to Ireland, bnt even Mded inault to injuatice by inai* nnating that the king had himaelf fomented the diaturbancea in Ireland. Aa though the unfortunate monarch had not already too numerooa claima on hia imporeriahed flnancea I A. D. 1641.— The attachment of the king to the church waa well known, and both he and hia opiioneuta well knew that on the aupport aua affection of the church rested the chief hope of preserving the monarchy. The puritan party, therefore, determined to attack the monarchy through the church, and thirteen bishopa were accused of high treason, in having enacted canona tor church government without the authority or conaent of the parliamimt. The opposi- tion, or, aa they are commonly called, " the popular membera," at the aame time ap- Jilied to the peera to exclude the prelatea rom apeaking and voting in that house; and the bishops, with more discretion than dignity, deprecated the nuritan animosity by ceasing to attend their duty in the houae of lorda. The king waa thua, at the verv moment when he most required aid in parliament, deprived of the talents and the votes of precisely those peera of parliament Xkpoxt whose aasiduity and devotion he had the most dependence. Foathumoua blame ia both cheap and easy. The writer, aitting calmly in hia closet, can easily and safely point out the errors of the great men of a bygone age ; it ia a nobler and more necessary task to as- certain and hold up to view the circum- atancea that rendered those errora excua- able, at least, if not actually inevitable. Goaded, inaulted, and atraitened as Charles was, he would have possessed something more than human ttrmneas if he had not at length deviated into rashneaa. Hia most devoted friend slain, the prelatea of hia church ailenced, and himself made a mere cipher, except aa to the continuance of a vast and fearfiil responsibility, he resolve4 to try the effect or severity ; and he gave orders to the attorney-geueral, Ilerbert, to accuse before the house of peers, lord Kim- bolton, together with the prominent com- moners UoUia, Hampden, Pym, Strode, and sir Arthur Haslerig, of high treason in having endeavoured to subvert the laws and government of the kingdom, to deprive the king of his regal power, and to substitute for it an arbitrarrand tyrannical authority, ipittcioas to the king and oppressive to his lieg^ subjecta. Thua far we are by no meana unprepared to approve of the king'a proceedinga ; for aurely the conduct of the accused peraona had been marked by all the tendency attributed to it in the terma of the aecnaationl But, unfoHnnatelv Ohariea. inatead of allowing the ptocmj' inga to go forward vrlth the grave and deu" berate eameatneaa of a great Judicial mat ter, waa ao wilftd or ao ill adviaed aa to tak. a neraonal atep which, had it been tuccei fill, would have expoaed him to the IniDn tution of a moat uneonatitutional tyrannv' and which, in being unaucceuful, npoied him to that ridicule and contempt which injurioua to any man under any circuml atancea, could be nothing leaa than fatal to a king who waa in diapute vrith a naioritv of his people, and who had already seen no small portion of them in actual battle arrav againat hia authority. ' On the very day after the attornev-gene. ral had commenced justifiable proceedinrs against the factious leaders whose names are given above, the king entered the houw of commons, without previous notice and without attendance. On his majesty's first appearance, the members to a man respect- fully stood up to receive him, and Lenthai the speaker vacated hia chair. Hia ma- jesty seated himaelf, and, after lookine atemly round for aome moments, said, that underatanding that the house had refused or neglected to give up five of its members whom he had ordered to be accuaed of high treason, he had personally come there to seixe them, a proceeding to which he was sorry to be compelled. Perceivinfthat the accused were not present, he called upon the speaker to deliver them up t when that officer, with great presence of miud and jus- tice, replied that he waa the mere organ and aervant of that house, and that he had neither eyes to aee, nor eara to hear, nor lipa to utter, aave what that house com- manded. Finding that he could in no other respect gain by a procedure in which he was so great a loser in dignity, his majesty, after sitting sUent for some moments longer, departed from the house. He now pro- ceeded to the common-council of tlie city, and made his complaint of theconduct of the house of commons. On his road be waa saluted by cries of " privilege," not un- mixed with still more insulting cries from many of the lower sort, and his complaint to the common council was listened to in a contemptttoua and ominoua silence. Irri- tated and alarmed ot this new proof of the unpopularity of his proceedings, he de- parted from the court, and as he did so was saluted by some low puritan with the sedi- tious watchword of the Jews of old—" To your tents, O Israel 1" It is utterly inconceivable how a sove- reign possessed of Charles's good sense, and aware, oa from many recent occurrences he nceda muat have been, of the resolved and factious nature of the men to whom he waa oppoaed, could have compromised him- self by so rash and in everyway unadvisable a proceeding aa that which we have de- acribed. In truth, he had acarely returned to the comparative aolitude of Windsor be- fore he himself saw how prqudicial this affair was likely to be to bis interests, and he hastened to address a letter to pariia- e u M B f I. s ".I A.D. 1641.— AR ACT FOB AB0M»1II« THI tTAB CHAMBBB FAItBO. A.P.164I.- Xnglanti.— I^ottsc of S^tuatt.— Charles I. 371 ■nil ia whieh he uid that hii own life (b1 crown were not more preeioae to him iban the pririlefea of parliament. Thia virtoal apoMfy for hia direct and peraonal tatfffeienee with thoae privilegea waa ren- jHtd neceuary hy hia prefiona preeipi- UMtj, bat thia ill-fated monarch now ran iato another extreme. Having offended ■(riiamen^ hia apology to parliament waa BtcMury, nay, in the tmeat aenae of the mrd, it waa dignified ; fpr a peniatence in gtnt ii bat a falae dignity, whether in mo- narch or in private man. But here hia eon- cMiion ahould have atopped. Hia offence wti one ajpUnst good mannera, hot the of- feaee with which Fym and the memhera were charged waa one of aubatance, not of form. Their offence waa not in the alight- Mt degree diminiahed or atoned for by the king*! folly ; yet, aa though there had been •ome doie lopcal connection between them, be now informed the houae that he ahonld not futher proaecute hia proceedinga igainit ita aecuaed membera I Could in- eonie<|aence or want of dignity go farther, or be more fatally ahown } If, while apo- logiaiiig to the house for hia unquestionable onnce against ita privileges, be still had calmly and with dignity, out sternly and inexorably, carried on hia proceedings against the aecuaed members, it is quite within the pale of probnbility that he would have saved himself from an untimely end, and bis country from the stigma of a most barbaroas murder. The opposite conduct, though in no wise efficient in softening the stern hearta of hia enemies, taught tiiem the fatally important truth that their king knew how to yield, and that if unwisely null in a moment of irritation, he could be no less unwisely abject in a moment of cal- culation or timidity. It was a fatal lesson ; and from this moment, in spite of any seeming and temporary advantages, Charlea of England was vinuidly a dethroned mo- narch and a doomed man. There waa a deep art, beyond what waa at first apparent, in the insolent insinuation of the popular declaimers that the king had himself fomented the recent horrors in Ireland. The awful massacre among the protestants of that country had naturally raised a new horror and dread of papacy in the minds of the protestants of England. The artfhl popular leaders took advantage of this very natural feeling, and worked upon it as might promise best to aid their own ambitious and blood-thiraty viewa. The ignorant and the timid were taught to believe that the massacre of protestants, though the deed of bigoted papists, waa far enough from being disagreeaole to the king and his friends, who would not impro- bably cause similar proceedings iu England unless due power hnd means of prevention were timeously placed in the bands of par- liament, which waa constantly represented as an integer that necessarily loved and watched over the people, instead of what it really was, an aggregate composed of va- rious dispositions and rates of talent, having but one common bond of union, a hatred of all authority save that of the agmgate in question, and having a deference for no opl* nion aave that of each individual member of that aggregate. Treated aa Charlea had been almoat mm the flrat day of hia reign, it mnat he dear to the most superficial ob- server, that nothing but hia fortreases and hia troona remained to him of the auh- stance oi monarchy. The parliament now determined to deprive him of theae. They had sekn that he could yield, they calcu- lated upon a paaaionate resistance to their first exorbitancy and inaolence of demand: but they doubted not that the vacillation of the king'a mind wonid begin long ere the resolute obstinacy of their own would ter- minate. The result but too wellproved the aeo^racy of their reasoning. The people w re skilfully worked up into an ecstacy of horror of the designs and power of the papiata, and thus urged to petition that the Tower, the fortresses of Hull and Porta- moutb, and the fleet, should be committed to the hands of officers in the confidence of parliament. Demands so indicative of sus- picion, so insultingly saying that the king would place such important trusts in hands unfit to use them, were, aa the opposition had anticipated, warmly resenteaat flrat, and then, unwisely complied with. Emboldened by this new concession, the popular party affected new and inereaaed feara of the designs of the Irish papists, and demanded that a new militia ahould be raised and trained, the commandera as well as the merelysubaltern officers of which should be nominated by parliament. Charlea now, when too late, perceived that even to concede safely requires judgment ; and being urged to gave up the command of the army for a limited space of time, he promptly re- plied, " No I not even for a single hour I" Happy for himself and his kingdom had it been if he had earlier known how to say " No," and to abide by it not only with firmness but also with temper. A. o, 1642.— In making this demand par- liament had completely thrown off the mask i and as the very extremity to^which the king was driven supplied him in this one case with the firmness which in general and bv his natural temper, he so sadly wanted, it at once became evident that the dis|>tttes between the king and his loyal subjects on the one side, and the puritana and their only too numerous and enthu- siastic dupes on the other, could only he decided by that saddest of all meana, a civil war. On either aide appeals to the people were printed and circulated in vaat numbers, and, as usual in such cases, each side exaggerated the faults of the other, and waa profoundly silent as to its own faults, whether as to past conduct or pre- sent views. The king^* friends, being for the most part of the more opulent ranka, assumed the title of the cavaliers, while the Euritan, or tibel party;, from their affected abit of wearing their hair closely cut, were called roundheads, and in a short time the majority of the nation ranked under the one or the other appellation, and every BOTH Tan KiRO Ann rAnLiAUiRi lurLOTXo mamt ainin SFina. A.D. 1643. — 0>L. OATIMDISn TOOK •BARTHAU FOB *■■ 11110, MABOH 33. m ■ It H M s o M H « M 5 M 5 372 t!lfft tlTreasuri} oC IlistotQ, Sec. thing portended that the ciril strife would be lonr, flerce, and saiiKuinary. In addition to the train-bands aiMinbled ander the command of lir Jolin Digbjr, the king had barely three hundred infantry and eight hundred cavalry, and he was by no means well provided with arms. But, in spite of all the exertions of the puritans, tuere was still an extensive feeling of loy- altv among the higher and middle orders ; ana as the King with his little army marched slowly to Derby, and thence to Shrewsbury, large additions were made to his force, and some of the more opulent loyalists af- forded him liberal and most welcome aid in money, arms, aud ammunition. On the side of the parliament similar preparations were made, for the impending struggle. When the important fortress of Hull was surrended into their hands, they made it their dep6t for arms and ammuni- tion, and it was held for them by a governor of their own appointment, sir John Ho- tham. On the plea of defending England from the alleged designs of the Irish pa- pists, great numbers ofitroops had been raised ; and these were now openly enlisted and officered for the parliament, and placed under the command of the earl of Essex, who, however, was supposed to be anxious rather to abridge the power of the existing monarch than actuallv to annihilate the monarchy, which, doubtless, had from the very first been the design of the leaders of the popular party. So great was the enthu- siasm of the roundheads, that they in one day enlisted above four thousand men in London alone. Tired of the occupation of watching each others' manoeuvres, the hostile troops at length 'met at Edge-hill, on the borders of the counties of Warwick and Stafford. A furious engagement took place, which lasted several hours ; upwards of five thousand men fell upon the field, md the contending armies separated, wearied with slaying yet not satiated with slaughter, and each claim- ing the victory. The whole kingdom was now disturbed by the incessant marching aud counter- marching of the two armies. Neither of them was disciplined, and the disorders caused by their march were consequently great and destructive. The queen, whose spirit was as high as her affection for her husband was great, most opportunely landed from Holland with a large q\iantity of am- munition and a considerable reinforcement of men, and she immediately left England again to raise farther supplies. In the ma- noeuvring aud skirmishes which were con- stantly going on, the king, from the supe- rior rank and spirit of his followers, had for some time a very marked advantage; but the parliamentariang, so far from being discouraged, actually seemed to increase in their pretensions in proportion to the loss and disgrace they experienced in the field. That the king was at this time sincere in his expressed desire to put a stop to the outpouring of his subjects' blood appears clear from the fact, that on obtaining any advantage he invariably sent paeiflo prono. sals to the parliament. This was espe! ^...^uuo «. ..u. «>w.i:ia ui iiie Other partv was so great and conspicuous, that even the most moderate writers have blamed the king, as having carried his desire for pacific measures to an extreme, itgurious alike to his dignity and to the very cause he was anxious to serve. But if he bore somewhat too meekly with the insolence of his opponents in the cabi- net, the king in his first campaign of the disastrous civil war was abundantly success, ful in the field, in spite of the savage seve- rity of his opponents, who treated as trai- tors the governors of those strong places which from time to time were opened to their sovereign. Cornwall was thoroughly subjected to the king; at Stratton-hill, m Devonshire, a fine anny of the parliamentarians was routed ■ and at Roundway-down, near Devises, in Wiltshire, another great victory was gained over them by the royal troops, who were again successful in the still more important battle of Chalgrave-field, in Buckingham- shire. The important city of Bristol was taken by the royalists, and Gloucester was closely invested. Thus far all looked in favour of the royal cause during the first campaign, and at its close great hopes of still farther success were fouuded upon the fine army that was raised for the king in the north of England by the loyal and high-hearted marquis of Newcastle. Nor was it the loss only of battles and strong- holds that the parliamentarians had now to deplore. John Hampden, who had made so sturdy, although, in our opinion, so ill-founded an opposition to the ship-money, while acting with the perverse men whose conduct made that undoubted extortion inevitable, took the field with the parliamentarians at the head of a well appointed troop which chiefly consisted of his own tenants and neigh- bours. On several occasions he displayed great courage, and it being proposed to beat up the quarters of the king's gallant rela- tive, prince Rupert, Hampden was foremost in the attack. When the parliamentary troops were subsequently mustered Mr. Hampden was missed, and it was then re- marked that he hnd been seen, contrary to his usual custom, to leave the field before the fight was ended, and it was noticed, too, that he was leaning forward on his saddle- bow as if exhausted and in pain. The fears thus excited were soon realized; he had been severely wounded. The king would have sent his own surgeon to endeavour to save this infiexihiy honest though mistaken foe ; but the ill-fated gentleman was hurt beyond human remedy, and died soon after the action. This loss on the parliamentary side was even more than balanced by the death of the royalist officer, Lucius Gary, lord Falk- land, one of the finest and purest charac- A. D. 1643. — MALMBSBURT 8URBRNDBRBD TO THB PARMAMBNT, MARCH 19. A.O. IMS.— BBADtHO lOKKIRDaKBD *0 T» lABL OV ■••BX, AfBIL ^b. lEnglanTf.— I^ousc of Stuait.— pear to us to smack very much of unconscious and uncontrollable breakings forth of the old Adam of the natural man ; fever fits of the natural heart and temper that were too strong for the artificial training of resolved hypocrisv. Such, upon repeated and most impartial examination, appears to us to have been the real character of Cromwell. Though forty-four years old before he drew a sword, Cromwell at the very outset of the rebellion showed himself what has been emphatically called a born soldier. Stalwart though clumsy in frame, a bold and a good rider, and — as most men of any respectability at that time were— a perfect A.D. 1644. — TBB CITT OF TOBX TAXBIf BT TOB rABLIAMBNT, JUIiT 6. A.D. IS-M.— All OaBIRlNOI VOK TVMIIR« OH>ISTaAI-0AY IHVO A VAN. than « K able Q ived »1 tlier •t iR.a h »far 9 that » ein- ithe t rest, he « ape H lore lent cca- H rse- 4 r to H and H old A the « too ^ Ived <1 < dost > lave » he M tset 1 has 1, iier. ^ )0ld M any feet lEnglantf.— I^ottst of Stuart.— CJ^arlcs S. 37ft BMtir of the ponderoiM iword than in uae, lie waa the verjr man for a partiian captain of heaTjr eavalr*. Hit troop waa almoat en tbeir eompoied of the aona of reapectable firmen and yeomen, and aa thejr were deepiT tinctured with the religioua feeling of puritaniim, and filled to orerilowinK witn the phyaioal daring of weiMiom and wellnurtnrcd Engliahmen, hia aaauroed •nnpathy with them in the former reapect and hit genuine equality or auperiorlty in the latter, ahortljr gare dim the moat nu- bounded power of leading them into any danger that human beinga could create, and through or over any obatadea that human proweii and daring could eurmonnt. Indefatigable, active, patient of fatigue, Cromwell apeedily attracted the notice of the parliamentary leadera, who beatowed firaiie and diatinction upon him none the fti cheerfully becauae aa ret he did not affect to aim at an* thing higher than the character of a bold, atem, and active par- tiian captain, who waa ever ready with «word in hand and foot in atirrup when the enenqr'a night quartera were to be beaten ap, a convoy aeiied, or any other real though comparatively obacure aervice waa to be rendered to the good cattae. Such was the estimate Cromwell'a commandera formed of him ; aueh the estimate he wisb> ed tliem to form, of the man who waa one day to dictate to the proudest and to laugh to scorn the wiliest among them t The too famous and disastrous battle of Long Marston Moor, as it was the iirst great military calamity of the king, so it was the first great occasion upon whieh Crom- well had the opportunity (which he so well knew how to seize) of openly and signally displaying himself. A junction had been formed between the Scotch army and the English parliamentary forces, and this com- bined host invested York. This city, both from its own wealth and from its situation as the capital of the northern counties, waa too important to the royal cauae to be lost without a strufrgle ; and prince Rnpert and the marquis of Newcaatle joined their forces in order to raise the siege of the ancient city. The opposing forces, in number about fifty-thousand, met on Long Marston Moor, and a long and obatiuate contest ensued. The right wing of the royalist troops, com- manded by prince Rupert, was broken and driven off the field by the highly trained cavalry under the command of Cromwell, who after having dispersed the royalists' right wing, promptly gallo|)ed back to the field, and very materially aided in putting to flight the main body of the royalists under the marquis. The result of this hard day's fighting' was the capture by the par- liamentarians of the whole of Rupert's ad- mirable train of artillery, and a loss of men, reputation, and self confidence, from which it may safely be averred that the royalists never recovered. The successes of the parliamentariana made them all the haughtier in their pre- tensions and all the more unsparing in their resolves. Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, had for a long time been confined, in the Tower i hia devotion to hla master being the only crime with which he eoold be justly charged, except the kindred crime of atill warmer devotion, if possible, to the righta and the aupremaey of the church of England. Thia eminent man waa therefore brought to trial by hia bitter enemiea the puritans, condemned, and executed. Aa if to set a peculiar and characteristically puri- tanical mark upon this dastardly act of vulgar and ignorant vengeance, the now dominant power ordered the abolition — by what thev called law— of the church of England liturgv on the very day of the exeeution of the learned and energetic S relate whose devotion to his dutv waa in- omitable. By this act of abolition the English church was reduced, as regarded power in the state, to the same level as the newest, meanest, and most insane of nu- merous petty sects Into which conceit, or ignorance, or sheer knavery had by this time split the puritans; and the Scotch rebel army appropriately enough joined the London rebel citiiens in giving public thanks for an alteration of which not one of them could have pointed out a aub- atantial advantage, while ita inatant and perspective disadvantaKO might have been perceived by a tolerably educated child. But faction lovea a change— even though it certainly be not for the better, and pro- bably may prove to he for the worae I A.n 1645.— Thougli the rnyaliats, aa re- lated above, were seriouslv injured and de- Sressed by the result of the battle of Long larston Moor, neither the king nor hia frienda despaired of ultimate auccess. While the parliamentariana exerted them- selves to crush the royalists whenever thtf next general action should ensue, the king anil his friends made equally strenuous ef- forts to redeem their fortune and character on the like contingency. A variety of counter-marching and mero partisan akir- misliing took place during the earlier months of the year 1646, and at length, on June the 14th of that year, the main st/ength of the two parties met near Nase- by, a village in Northamptonshin. The right wing of the royal army waa com- manded by the gallant and impetuous Ru- Eert, the left wing by sir Mannaduke angdale, and the main body by the lord Astley, while a choice force was com- manded, as a reserve, by the king in person^ The left wing of the parliamentariana waa commanded by Ireton, who had married Cromwell's daughter, the right wing by Cromwell himself, whose gallant and skil- ful charges at Lone Marston Moor wero not forgotten, and the main body by gene- rals Fairfax and Skippon. The parliamen- tary left wing was so hotly charged by the impetuoua and dashing Rupert, that it waa fairly broken and driven through the street of Nasehy. But this success was rendered of comparatively little advantage, for Rupert lost so much time in attempting to seize Ire- ton's artillery, that Cromwell, meanwhile, broke the royal horse under sir Marmaduke TBB raiaaTTKRiANa Attn iNDnrsNnniiTa wnan now the rital bkcts. A.P. 1M6.— «■■ VABLumaT paut AtavMii a moim BmoeaATio voam. .376 S^c llCrcasttn} o( llistorv, Vc LaDKdali, beyond all the etbrti of that offl* car ror lu re-forroatlon. While the cavalry on either tide waa thai occupied, the in« fantry waa hotly encaged, aud to much lo the advautan of the royal aide that the battalionaof the parliament were actually AtllinK back in diaorder. The whole fate of the day now mainly depended upon which aide ahould ilrat aee ita cavalry return. If Rupert, inatead of employiuf himaelf in aeiiing or apiking artillery, nad at thia time returnca and made one of hia fearfully impetttoua ehargea upon the flank of the falteiing roundheada, whom the beat effurta of Fairnx and Bkippon could icarcely keep from falling into utter rout, the fortune of that day, and moat probably the iaiue of the whole atrugffle, would have been in the favour of the King. But the niarvelluua good fortune of Cromwell attended him ; he returned to the field with hia iron troop- era elated with their aucceia over air Mar- maduke Langdale'a diviaion, aud charged the flank of the main body of the royaluta ao fiercely aa to throw them into hopeleaa and irremediable coufuaion. Rupert now returned with hia cavalry and Joined the king'a reacrve ; but the fate of llio day waa aeaicd ; not even the gallantry of that able commander could lead the reacrve to the aupport of the beaten and fugitive boat of the royaliati; and the kiue was obliged to fly from the field, leaving liis nrtillvry and valuable baggage, aa well aa five thouiand priaoncra, in the banda of the victorioua parliamentarian!. Nor did the advantagea to the victor end even there. The defeat of the king and the magnitude of the loaaea he had auatained greatly aided the parliamentariana in re- ducing the chief of the fortified places in the kingdom. Driatol, Bridgewater, Chea- ter, Sherborne, and Bath Tell into tlieir handa; Exeter waa closely invested bv Fair- fax, and held out gallantly, but at length waa obliged to surrender at discretion, all the western countica being so completely cleared of the king's troops that there was not the slightest chance of ita being re- lieved. In all the aapecta of his fortune Charles had found the city of Oxford loyal and tie- voted. As well became that city of science and learning, it had constantly showed itself "glad in his prosperity and sad in hia aorrow," aud thither he retreated in liis pre- sent misfortune, well knowing that there he would be loyally received, and hoping that even yet he might by negotiation re- trieve some of the sad loss he had experi- enced in the field. But the unfortunate king waa cloaely puraued by Fairfax, at the head of a victorious army eager for yet farther triumph over the defeated sove- reign ; and aa the parliamentariana loudly expreased their intention of laying siege to Oxford, and were abundantly supplied with every thing requisite for that purpose, Charles hM aeveral, and verv cogent, rea- sons for not abiding there. That the loyal inhabitants of Oxford would defend him to the tttmoat, Charlea had no room to doubt; but neither could there be any doubt that the well known loyalty of the cii, w„u|j on that v^rv score, be moat signally puni»h«| by the parliamentarians. Moreover, Charl.i had a moat Juatifiable and well ground.d horror of falling into the Imiids of t|,. English puritans, from whom, espetiall* now that they were tuW and freshly tlmheJ with victory, he might fear every insult even to the extent of personal violeure' Reasoning thus, and believing that the Scotch army was less peraonally and in- veteraiely hostile to him, Charlea took what firoved to be the fatal resolution of deliver- ng himself into the handa of the Scots To their eternal disgrace, they received him aa a distreaaed king only to treat him aa a malefactor and a prisoner. Tliev worried and inaulted him, with aanclimo- nioua remonstrances and reflections, bv every possible neglect of tlie reapectfiU ceremonials due to a sovereign; they re- minded him of and embittered his mis- fortunes ; and, to complete the infamy of their conduct, they added gross venality to faithleaancaa and disloyalty, and literallv sold him to the rebellioua Engliah parlis- ment for the aum of two hundreil thousaad pounds t With thia atrocious act of the Scots, who returned to their country laden with ill. earned wealth, but laden also with the exe- cration of all good men and with the con- tempt even of those bold bad men to whom they had basely aold the unfortunate prince, the civil war may be said to have ended. Wholly and helplessly in the power of bis foes, Charlea had no course left to so ho- nourable a mind as hia, but to absolve his atill faithful followera and aubjecta from the duty of farther atriving in hie bchaif, and to truat for the aafety of even his Ufe to the mercy of men " Whose mercy was a nickname for the rage Of tameless tigers hungering for blood." But if the rebellious parliamentarians were triumphant over their king, they had yet to deal with a more formidable enemy. The parliament had been made unanimous in Itself and with the army by the obvious and pressing necessity for mutual defence, as long as the king was in the field aud at the head of an imposing force. But now that the fortune of war and the base venality of the Scotch lind made Charles a powerless and almost hopeless captive, the spoilers began to quarrel about the dispositiun of the spoil ; and they_ who had united to re- volt from their lawful monarch were ready with equal eagernesa and animosity to cabal against each other. There is a sure retributive curse attendant upon all need- less and groundless dissent ; its destitution of a real and an abiding bond of union. The civilians of tlie parliamentary party were, for the most part, presbyterians, who were eager enough to throw off all allegi- ance to the king and all submission and respect to the church of England, but wlio were not the less inclined to set up and exact respect both from lay and clerical authori- A. D. 1646. — OXrUBO BDaBBMOaBBD, OBTAININO UOKOUBABbB TUBMB, JUNB 20. itution a union. M party 8, Who 1 allcgi- 10 n and vith loul MTing effect to hie equally ignorant fallow. The independent!, armed and 'vcll ■killed in arma, would under any eonceiv. ible eireumttanea have been aometlMng ■ore than a match for the mere dreamera lod daelaimera of parliament ; hut thny had 1 itill further and deeisive advantage in the leiin and energetic, though wily and aeeret, prompting and direction of Cromwell, who utmil profeued himaelf the moat ttaunch indepeaaent of them all. and ahowed him* •elf ae willing to lead them at their deTo- tioM in their quartera, aa he had ahown Umtelf willing and able, too, to lead them to the charge and the victory upon the well ftwitbt fleld. He was, in appearance, in- imi, only aecond in command under Fair- f», bnt, in reality, he waa anpreme over hit nominid commander, and had the fate of both king and kingdom completelv in Ui own bandi. He artfully and carenilly fomented the jealousy with which the mili- tary looked upon the parliament, and the diuontent with which they looked upon their own comparative powerleaineti and obicurity after all the dangers and toils by which they had, as the* affected to be- lieve, permanently secured the peace and comfort of the country. Without appearing to make any exertion or to use any influence, the artful intrixuer urged the soldiery so far, that they openly lost all confidence in the parliament for which they had but too well fought, and Mt about the consideration and redress of their own grievancea aa a aeparate and ill- used body of the community. Still, at the ioitigation of Cromwell, a rude but efficient miltary parliament was formed, the princi- pal officers acting aa a house of peers, and two men or omcera from each regiment setiag as a house of commons, under the title of the " agitators of the army." Of these Cromwell took care to be one, and thus, while to all appearance he waa only acting as he was autnorised and commanded by his duty to the whole army, he in fact en- joyed m the opportunity that he required to suggest and forward measures indispen- •able to the gratification of bis own am- bition. While Cromwell was thus wickedly but ablv scheming, the king, forlorn and seem- ingly forgotten, lay in Holmby castle; strictly watched, though aa yet, owing to the dissensions that existed between the army and the parliament, not subjected to any farther indignities. From this state of comparative tranquillity the unhappy Charles was aroused by a coup d« maw biKhly characteristic alike of the boldness and the shrewdness of Cromwell. He de- monstrated to bis confidants of the army that the possession of the king's person must neeos give a vast preponderance to any of the existing partiea. The royalists, it waa obvious, would at the otdftr of the king rally round him, even in coniuiietlon with the parliament, whieli by forming iir U a Junction could at any uuii.<<'nt command the pardon of the kingi when the army, besides other difficulties, would be placed in the disadvantageous position of fighting against all branches of the government, including even that one to whose will and authority it owed its own existence. Aa usual, his arguments were successful ; and cornet Jovce, who at the breaking out of the rebellion had been only a tailor, waa dispatched with five hundred cavalry to seise the king's person at Holmby castle. Though strictlv watched, the king was but slenderly guaroed, for the parliament had no suspicion of the probability of any such attempt on the part of the army. Cornet Joyce, therefore, found no difficult* in ob- taining acceu to the king, to wnom ha made known the purport of hia mission. Surprised at thia sudden determination to remove him to the head quartera of the army, the king, with some anxiety, asked Joyce to pn^bice his commission for so extraordinary a proceeding i and Joyce, with the petulance of a man suddenly and un- expectedly elevated, pointed to his troops, drawn up before the window. " A goodly commission," replied Charles, "and writ- ten in fair characters ;" and he accompanied Joyce to Triplo-heath near Cambridge, the headquartera of the army. Fairfax and other discerning and moderate men had by this time begun to see the danger the coun- try was in firom the utter abasement of the kingly power, and to wish for such an accommodation aa might secure the people without destroying the king. But Crom- well's bold seisure of his majesty had enabled him to throw olT the mask : the violent and fanatical spirit of the soldierv was wholly subjected to his use, and on bis arrival at Triplo-heath, on the day after the king waa taken thither by Joyce, Cromwell waa by acclamation elected to the supreme com- mand of the army. Though, at the outset, the parliament was wholly opposed to the exorbitant pre- tensions of the army, the success of Crom- well's machinatioua rendered that opposi- tion less unanimoua and compact every day, and at length there was a considerable majority of parliament, including the two speakers, in favour of the array. To en- courage this portion of the parliament, the head-quarters of the army were lixed at Hounslow-heath i and as the debatea in the house daily grew more violent and threatening, sixty-two members, with the two speakers, fled to the canip at Houns- low, and formally threw themselves, oSicl- ally and personally, upon the protection of the army. This accession to his moral force was so welcome to Cromwell, that he caused the members to be received with a perfect tumult of applause ; and he ordered that the troops, twenty thouaand in number, should move upon London to restore these fugitives to the place which A. D. 1647.— OaRUAIi MIBV&X WAS MADB •OTMNOR Of TKI TOWia, AUO. 6. [3f S! A.B. 1047.— A BICOMCILIAIION BVriCTIB BKTWIIN TUB PABUAMBNT ABD ABMT 378 tlTfje ^reasurs of l^istori), ^(> they had voluntarily ceded and the duties they had timorously fled from. While the one portion of the house had fled to the protection of the soldiers, the other portion had made some demonstra- tions of bringing the struggle against the pretensions of the army to an issue in the Held. New speakers were chosen in the place of the fugitives, orders were given to enlist new troops, and the train-bands were ordered to the defence of the lines that en- closed the city. But when Crumwell with twenty thousand trained and unsparing troops arrived, the impossibility of any linstlly organized defence bein^ available against him became painfully evident. The gates were thrown open, Cromwell restored the speakers and the members of parlia- ment, several of the opposite members were arbitrarily expelled the house, the mayor of London, with three aldermen and the sheriffs, was committed to the Tower, other prisons were crowded with citizens and militia officers, and the city lines were le- velled; the more effectually to prevent any future resistance lo the sovereign will and pleasure of the army, or, rather, of its inattcr.spirit, Cromwell. CHAPTER LII. Th* Reign of the army faction, there fore, now enr uraged their dupes and tools of the lower sort to throw off the mask • and rabid yells for the vvniskment of the king arose on all sides. Peace and security had hitherto been the cry; it was now changed to a cry for vengeance. From Windsor the unhappy king was conveyed to Hurst- castle, on the coast of Hampshire and opposite to the Isle of Wight, chiefly' it should seem, to render comnmnication between him and the parliamentary leaders more dilatory and difficult. But the parlia- ment, growing more and more anxious for an accommodation in precise proportion as it was rendered more and more impracti- cable, again opened a negotiation with the ill-treated monarch, and, despite tlie cla- mours and threats of the fanatical soldiery, seemed upon the very point of bringing it to a conclusion, when a new coup de mam on the part of Cromwell extinguished all hope in the bosoms of the loyal and the just. Perceiving that the obstinacy of the parliament and the unhappy vacillation of the king could no longer be relied upon, Cromwell sent two regiments of his sol. diery, under the command of colonel Pride, to blockade the house of commons. Forty- one members who were favourable to ac- commodation were actually 'imprisoned in a lower room of the house, a hundred and sixty were insolently ordered to go to ilieir homes and attend to their private niTaira, and only about sixty ineinbcrs were allowed to enter the house, the whole of those be- ing furious and bigoted independents, the pledged and deadly enemies of the kine, and the mere and servile tools of Cromwell and the army. This parliamentary clear- ance was facetiously called " Pride's purge," and the members who had the disgraceful distinction of being deemed fit for Crom- well's dirty work ever after passed under the title of" the rump." With a really ludicrous impudence this contemptible assembly assumed to itself the whole power and character of the parlia- ment, voted that tall that had been done to- wards an accommodation with the king was illegal, and that his seizure and imprison- ment by " the general " — so Cromwell was now termed, par excellence — were just and praiseworthy. All moderation was thrown to the winds, nnd as the aetuiil private murder of the king was thought likely to disgust the better men even among the fanatical soldiery, a committee of " the rump" parliament was formed to digest a charge of high treason. It would seem that the subtlest casuist would be puzzled hi h B I O ' ! u I •I : o' A '. « I It ; < ; is SI S : B I AD. I(i48.— TUB ABMY DKSISTBD FIIOM MEDDLINO IN 8TATB AFFAIHS. HT. )f the : •4 iliim A 1 cty of SI orian H 1 into fy' elyto ■* kini?, anger 1 \ xioua n 1 The f his life, the time he was Rllowcd to live be- tween sentence and execution exhibited him in the not unfrequently combined cha- racters of the christian arid the hero. No invectives against the iniquity of which he was the victim escaped his lips, and he slept the deep calm sleep of innocence, though on each night his enemies, with a refiuement upon cruelty more worthy of fiends than of men, assailed his ears with the noise of the wen erecting the scaffold for his execution. When the fatal morning at length dawned, the king at an early hour called one of his attendants, whom he desired to attire him with more than usual care, as he remarked tha( he would fain appear with all proper preparation for so great and so joyful a solemnity. The scaffold was erected in front of Whitehall, and it was from the central windows of his own most splendid banqueting room that the king stepped on to the scaffold on which he was to be mur- dered. When his majesty appeared he was attend- ed by the faithful and attached Dr. Juxon ; and was received b^ two masked executi- oners standing beside the block and the axe. The scaffold, cntirctv covered with fine black cloth, was densely surrounded by soldiers under the command of colonel Tmuliuson, while in the distance was avast multitude of people. The near and violent death that awaited him seemed to pro- duce no effect on the king's nerves. He gazed gravely but calmly around him, and said, to all whom the concourse of military would admit of his speaking, that the late war was ever deplored by him, and was commenced by the parliament. He had not taken up arms until compelled by the war- like and illegal conduct of the parliament, and had done so only to defend his people TUB IHDICTMBNT CUABOKD CHARLES WITH BBINO A TBAITOR AND MURUKRER. CBABlBt I. WAI *ORO 0» HBaAL ITATB, BUT HB WAS STILL rmvOAL. 382 ^l^e ^tcajsurfi of 1|tstore, ^c. from oppressloo, and to preserve intact the authority which had been transmitted to him by his ancestors. But though he posi- tively denied that there was any legal au- thority in the court b^ which he had been tried, or any truth in the charge upon which he had been condemned and sen- tenced, he added that he felt that his fate was a just punishment for his weakly and crimiuidly consenting to the equally unjust execution of the earl of Strafford. He em- phatically pronounced his forgiveness of all his enemies, named his son as his suc- cessor, and expressed his hope that the people would now return to their dutj under that prince: and he concluded his brief and manly address by calling upon all pre- sent to bear witness that be died a sincere protestant of the church of England. No one heard this address without being deeply moved by it, and even colonel Tom- linson, who had the unenviable task of superintending the murder of his prince, confessed that that address bad made him a convert to the royal cause. The royal martyr now began to disrobe, and, as he did so. Dr. Juxon said to him, " Sire I there is but one stage more which though a turbulent and troublesome one, is still but a short one ; it will soon carry you a great way; it will carry vou from earth to heaven, and there you shall find, to your great joy, the prize to which you are hastening, a crown of glory." " I go," replied the king, " where no dis- turbance can take place, from a corruptible to an incorruptible crown." "You exchange," rejoined the bishop, " a temporal for an eternal crown,— a good exchange." Charles having now completed his pre- parations, delivered his decorations of St. George to Dr. Juxon, and emphatically pro- nounced the single word " Remember I " He then calmly laid his head upon the block, and it was severed from his body at one blow; the second executioner im- mediately held it up by the hair, and said " Behold the head of a traitor 1" Thus on the 3Uth of January, 1649, perished Charles I. in the forty-ninth year of his age, and the twenty-fourth of bis reign.' He was not executed but murdered; he was guilty of no crime but weakness or vacillation of judgment ; his greatest mis- fortune was his want of the stern energy of a Henry VIIL or an Elizabeth ; such an energy exerted at the beginning of his reign would have enabled him to crush the trai- torous, and would have warranted and en- abled him subsequently to increase and systematize the liberties of his country, witliout danger of subjecting it to the rude puriiication of a civil war. The blood of the royal martyr had scarcely ceased to flow, before the lately furious multitude began to repent of the violence which their own vile shouts had assisted. But repentance was now too late; more than the power of their murdered monarch had now fallen into sterner hands. With that suspicion which " ever haunts the guilty mind," Cromwell and his friends attached much mysterious importance to the "Rehbmbeb" so emphatically pro- nounced by Charles on delivering his George to Dr. Juxon, and that learned and excellent man was authoritatively com- manded to give an account of the king's meaning, or liis own understanding of the word. To the inexpressible mortification of those mean minds, the doctor informed them that the king only impressed upon him a former and particular request to deliver the George to the prince of Wales and at the same time to urge the command of his father to forgive his murderers I CHAPTER LIII. Thb Cohhonwbalth. Whatbtbr nught have been Cromwell's original views, his military successes, the vast influence he had obtained over the army, and, perhaps, still more than either of these, the base and evident readine>ia of the parliament to truckle to his military power and meet him even more than half way in his most unjust and exorbitant wishes, opened up a prospect too unbound- ed and too tempting for his ambition to re- sist. But policy, as well as the circum- stauces of the time, made it incumbent upon Cromwell, in the first instance, to exalt still higher his character for military skill and daring. Ireland had a disciplined host in arms for the royal cause under the duke of Ormond, and large multitudes of the na- tive Irish were at the same time in open revolt under the restless and daring O'Neal. Cromwell procured the command of the arm^ appointed to put down both these parties, and fully succeeded. How merci- lessly he used his victory we have related under the proper head. A, D. 1650.— On the return of Cromwell to England his pocket parliament formally returned him the thanks wliich, except for his needless and odious cruelty, he had well merited. A new opportunity at the same moment presented itself for the aggrandize- ment of this bold and fortunate adventurer. The Scots, who had basely sold Charles I. into the hands of his enemies, were now endeavouring to make money by venal loy- alty, as they had formerly made it by venal treason. "They bad invited Charles II. into Scotland, where that gay younR prince speedily found that they looked upon him rather as a prisoner than as their king. The grossness of their manners, and the rude accommodations with which they fur- nished him, he could probably have passed over without much difficulty, for young as Charles II. was, he bad already seen more of grossness and poverty than commonly comes within the knowledge of the great. But Charles was frank as he was gay ; and the austere manners and long and uneea- sonable discourses which they inflicted upon him did not annoy him more than their evi- dent determination to make him at the least affect to agree with them. As, however, the M I « e « t, H M E HBW MONBT WAS NOW COINBD, AND A HBW 6R8AT BBAL VADB. A.B. 1649.— mi riiiiCB or wai.» taki* *■■ nna or chabi.bi ii. lEnglantl.— ^fie CommoniDcaltl). 383 geoti were bis only present hope, Charles aia his utmost to avoid qaarrelling with them; and however they might annoy hiiu while among them, whatever might be their ultimate views respecting him. certain it is that they raised a very considerable army, and showed ever^ determination to rein- itate him in his kingdom. Even merely as being presbyterians the Scotch were detested by Cromwell and his independents; but now that they bad also embraced the cause of " the man Charles Stuart," as these boorish English independ- ents affected to call their lawful sovereign, it was determined that a signal chastise- ment should be inflicted upon them. The command of an army for that purpose was olTered to Fairfax, but lie declined it on the honourable ground that he was unwilling to act against presbyterians. Cromwefl bad no auch scruple, and he immediately let out for Scotland with an army of sixteen thousand men, which received accessions to ta numbers in every great town through whch it marched. But not even the mi- litary fame of Cromwell, nor his but too well known cruelty to all who dared to re- sist him and were unfortunate enough to be vanquished, the Scots boldly met his inva- sion. But boldness alone was of small avail against such a leader as Cromwell, backed by such tried and enthuniastic soldiers as his; the two armies had scarcely joined battle when the Scots were put to flii;lit, their loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners bring very great, while the total loss of Cromwell did not exceed forty men. As Cromwell after this battle pursued his course northward, with the determina- tion not only to chastise, but completely and permanently to subdue the Scots, the young king, as soon as he could rally the Scottish army, took a resolution which ahowed him to have an intuitive know- ledge of militarv tactics. Making a detour to get completely clear of any outlying par- ties of Cromwell's troops, he commenced a forced march into England, the northern counties of which lay completely open and defenceless. The boldness of this course alarmed a portion of the Scottish army, and numerons desertions took place from the very commencement of the march southward ; but as Charles still had a nu- merous and imposing force, there was every reason to believe that long ere he should reach London, the great object of his expe- dition, the gentry and middle orders would flock to him in such numbers as would ren- der altogether out of the question any re- sistance on the part of the parliament, es- pecially in the absence of Cromwell and the flower of the English troops. But the hold manoeuvre of the young prince was doomed to have none of the success which it BO eminently deserved. Before his pro- gress was sufficient to counterbalance in the minds of his subjects the terrorin which they held Cromwell, that active commander had' received news of the voung king's ma- noeuvre, and had instantly retrograded in pursuit of him, leaving Monk his second in command, to complete and maintain the ■ubjection of the Scotch. There has always appeared to na to be a striking resemblance, which we do not remember to have seen noticed by any other writer, between the Cromwellian and the Buonapartean systems. Toeompare the bat* ties of Cromwell to the battles of Buona- parte would be literally to make mountain! of molehills ; yet the principles of these two commanders seem to us to have been the same, and to be summed up in two general maxims, marcA rapidly, and, attack in masiei. The phrases are simple cnougli in themselves, yet no one who has studied a single battle-map with even the slight- est assistance from mathematical science, can fail to perceive the immense, we had almost said the unbounded, powers of their application. On the present occa- sion the celerity of Cromwell was the de- struction of the young king's hopes. With an army increased by the terror of his name to nearly forty thousand men, Crom- well marched southward so rapidly, that he absolutely shut up the forces of Charles ill the city of Worcester ere they had time to break from their quarters and form in order of battle in some more favourable situation. The irresistible cavalry of Crom- well burst suddenly and simultaneously in at every gate of the town ; every street, al- most every house became the instant scene of carnage; the Pitchcroft was literally strewed with the dead, while the Severn was tinged with the blood of the wounded ; and Charles, after having bravely fought as a common soldier, and skilfully, tliough un- successfully, exerted himself as a com- mander, seemed to have no wish but to throw himself upon the swords of his ene- mies. It was with difl[iculty that his friends turned him from his desperate purpose, and even when thev had done so it appeared to be at least problematical whether he would be able to escape. Accident, or the devo- tion of a peasant, caused a wain of hay to be overturned opposite to one of the gates of the city in such wise that Crom- well's mounted troops could not pass, and, favoured by this circumstance, Charles mounted a horse that was held for him by a devoted friend, and sought safety in flight. "The triumph of Cromwell was completed with this battle of Worcester, but his venge- ful desire was not yet laid to rest ; and under his active and untiring supcrintendnnce prodigious exertions were made to capture the young king, whose difl[iculties, in fact, only commenced as he escaped from the confusion and the carnage of Worcester. Almost destitute of money and resources of every kind, and having reason to fear an enemy, either on principle or from lucre, in every man whom he met, Charles was obliged to trust for safety to disguise, which was the more difficult on account of his remarkable and striking features. Three poor men, named Pcnderell, disguised him as a woodcutter, fed him, concealed him by night, and subsequently aided him to reach H M iS M m H H » < a ft o m m M •9 K o a 8 e u H & TUE king's STATL'KS WBRB D8M0T.iSnBD WnBnRVRR KRECTCn. A.D. 1469.— AN ACf rAIIID VOK THI lALI OF TBI CSOWII LANBI. o •4 384 'JKlft ^rcasun) of llistorg, 9cc. wealthier though not more faithfully de- voted frieiida. While with these poor men, Charles in the day time accompanied them to their place of labour ia Boscobel wood. On one occasion on iic-arinx a party of sol- diers approach, the royal fuKitive climbed into a large and spreading oaK, where, shel- tered by its friendly foliage, he saw the sol- diers pass and repass, and quite (distinctly beard them expressing their rude wishes to obtain the reward that was offered fur his capture. Thanks to the incorruptible fide- lity of the Penderells and numerous other persons who were necessarily made ac- quainted witli the truth, Charles, tlioughhe endured great occasional hardship and pri- vation, and was necessarily exposed to great constant anxiety, eluded every effort of his almost innumerable pursuers, urged on though they were to the utmost activity by tlie malignant liberality with which Crom- well promised to reward the traitor who should arrest his fugitive king. Under a variety of disguises, and protected by a va- riety of persons, the young king went from Slace to place for six weeks wanting only one ay, and his adventures and hair-breadth escapes during that time read far more like romance than the history of what actually was endured and survived by a human being persecuted by evil or misguided men. At the end of this time he was fortunate enough to get on board a vessel which landed him safely on the coast of Normandy ; an issue to so long and varied a series of ndventures which is more remarkable when it id con- sidered that forty men and women, of vari- ous stations, circumstances, and disposi- tions, were, during that terrible season of his flight, necessarily made acquainted with the secret, the betrayal of which would have made any one of them opulent for life, and infamous for ever. Cromwell, in the mean time, after having achieved what he called the " crowning mercy" of the victory of Worcester, made a sort of triumphal return to London, where he was met, with the pomp due only to a Bovercign, by the speaker and principal members of the house of commons, and the mayor and other magistrates of London in their state habits and paraphernalia. General Monk had been left in Scotland with a sufUcient force to keep that tur- bulent people in awe ; and both their pres- byterianism and the imminent peril in wnicli Charles's bold march of the Scottish army had placed Cromwell himself and that " commonwealth" of wliich he was now fully determined to be the despot, had so enraged Cromwell against that country, that lie seized upon his tirst hour of leisure to complete its degradation, as well as submission. His complaisant parliament only required a hint from him to pass an act which might have been fitly enough entitled " an act for the better punishment and prevention of Scottish loyalty." By this act royalty was declared to be abo- lished in Scotland, as it had previously been in England, and Scotland itself was declared to be then annexed to England aa a conquest and a province of " the eom monwealth." Cromwell's hatred of th« Scotch, however, proceeded no forther than insult; fortunately for the Scots, Monk who was left as their resident general or military governor, was a prudent and im. partial man, free from all the worst fanati cisms and wickednesses of the time- and his rigid impartiality at once disposed the people to peace, and intimidated the En? lish judges who were entrusted with the distribution of justice in that country, from being guilty of any injustice or tyranny to which they might otherwise have been in dined. England, Scotland, and Ireland-I where Ireton and Ludlow had completed the very little that Cromwell had left un. done— were thus effectually subjected to a parliament of sixty men, many of whom were the weakest, as many more of them were the wickedest, the most ignorant, and the most fanatical men that could have been found in England even in that age So says history, if we look at it with a merely superficial glance. But, in truth, the liats which covered the heads of those sixty men hud fully as much concern as the men themselves in the wonderfully rapid and complete subjugation of three countriei two of which had never been otherwise' than turbulent and sanguinary, and the third of which had just murdered its legal sovereign and driven his legal successor into exile. No; it was not by the fools and the fanatics, carefully weeded out of the most foolish and fanatical of parlia- ments, that all this great thiugh evil work was done. Unseen, save by the few, but felt and seen throughout the whole Eng- lish dominion, Cromwell dictated every measure and inspired every speech of that parliament which to the eyes of the vulgar seemed so omnipotent. His sagacity and his energy did much, and his known vin- dictiveness and indomitable firnineas did the rest ; those who opposed failed before his powers, and their failure intimidated others into voluntary submission. The channel islands and the Scottish isles were easily subdued on account of their proxi- ndty ; the American colonies, though some 01 them at the outset declared for the royal Cause, numbered so many enthusiastic re- ligious dissenters among their populations, that they, too, speedily submitted to and followed the example and orders of the newly and guiltily founded " Common- wealth " of England. Wliile all this was being achieved, the real government of England was in the hands of Cromwell, though, in form, there was a council of thirty-eight, to whom all addresses and petitions were presented, and who had, nominally, the manapug of the army and navy, and the right and re- sponsibility of making war and peace. The real movinc; principle of tiiis potent council was the mind of Cromwell. And, while we denounce the flagrant hypocrisy of liis pre- tensions to a superior sanctity, and his traitorous . jntcmpt of all his duties as a subject, impartial truth demands that we A.D. 1650.— CIIARLBS II. 80LBMNI.T rBOCLAIMBO KINO AT XOINBUROH, JIJLT 15. Its (0 r-t fian \ assasi ■i man ( tify t cerne oiipoi mitte New — — ■ «.D. 1651.— LIMIBICK TAKBN BY TUB BBFUBLICANI AFTBB 16 MONTHa' IIBOI. lEnglanty.— tlT^e dTommontDcalt^. 386 gdnit that never was ill-obtained power better wielded. Next after the petty and cruel persecution of individuals, nominally on puolic gr9unds, but reolly in revenge of private injuries, a political speculator would infallibly and very naturally predict that a Cr and, comparatively speaking, meanly D private man, like Cromwell, being suddenly invested with so vast a power over a great and wealthy nation, would make bis ill-acquired authority en infamous and especial scourge in the fiimiiciul de- partment. But, to the honour of Croniwt-ll be it said, there is no single period in our history during which the public Anances liefe been so well managed, and adminis> tend with so entire a freedom from greed, dialionesty, and waste, as during this strange man's strange administration. It is quite true that the crown revenues and the lands of the bishops were most vio- lently and shamefully seized upon by this Kovernment, but they were not, as migh', Tiave been anticipated, squandered upon he gratification of private individuals, These, with a farther levy upon the national resources that amounted to only a hun- dred and twenty thousand pounds per mouth, supplied the whole demands of a governoient which not only maintained Seace in its own commonwealth and depen encies, but also taught foreigners that, un- der whatever form of government, England still knew how to make herself feared, if not respected. Holland, by its protection of the royal party of England, had given deep o£fence to Cromwell, who, literally "as the hart panteth for cool waters," panted fur the blood of Charles II. " Whom we have in- jured we never forgive," says a philosiophic satirist; and Cromwell's hatred of Charles II. was a good exemplification of the said truth. Hating Holland for her generous shelter of the royalists, Cromwell eagerly seized upon two events, which might just as well have happened in anv other country under heaven, as a pretext for making tvar upon that country. The circumstances to which we allude were these. At the time of the mock trial that preceded the shameful murder of the late king, doctor Dorislaus, the reader will remember, was one of the "assistants" of Coke, the "solicitor for the people of England." Under the government of the " commonwealth" this mere hireling was sent as its envoy to Holland. A royalist whose own fierce passions made him forget that it is written " vengeance is mine, I will repay, saith the Lord," and who would see no difference between the rufiian who actually wields the instrument, and the more artful but no less abominable ruf- fian who instigates or hires the actual assassm, put Dorislaus to death. No sane man of sound Christian principles can jus- tify this act; but how was Holland con- cerned in it ? The same man w ith the same o|i|)urtunity would doubtless have com- mitted die same act in the puritan state of' New England ; and to make a whole nation answerable in their blood and their treasure for the murderous act of an individual who had taken shelter among them was an ab- surdity as well as an atrocity. The other case which served Cromwell aa a pretext for declaring war against Holland was, that Mr. 8t. John, who was subsequently sent on an embassy to Holland, received some petty insult from the friends of the prince of Orange I But, alas I it is not only u$urped governments that furnish us with these practical commentaries on the fable of the wolf and the lamb t The great naval commander of this time was adiniral Blake. Though he did not enter the sea service until very late in life, he was a perfect master of naval tactics, and his daring and firmness of character could not be surpassed. When the war was declared against Holland he proceeded to sea to oppose the power of tiie Dutch admiral, Van Tromp. The actions between them were numerous and in many cases tolerably equal, but the general result of the war was so ruinous to the trading interest* of the Dutch, that they anxiouslv desired the return of peace. But though it was chicfiy the personal feeling and personal energy of Cromwell that had commenced this war, his hitherto patient and obsequioua tools, the parliament, now exerted them- selves to prolong the war at sea, hoping thus to weaken that power of the army, wielded by Cromwell, which of late they had felt to a scarcely tolerable degree. But efTcctual resistance on tlie part of the parliament was now wholly out of the question ; they had too well done the work of the usurper, who was, probably, not ill pleased that their present petty and fu- tile attempt at opposing hipi gave him a pretext for crushing even the last sem- blance of their free will out of existence. But though he had fully determined upon a new and decisive mode of overruling them, Cromwell initiated it with his usual art and tortuous procedure. He well knew that the commons hated the army, would fain have disbanded it, if possible, and would on no account do aught that could increase either its power or its well- being; on the other hand, he was equally aware that the sol- diers had many real grievances to complain of, and also entertained not a few prejudices against the commons. To embroil them in an open quarrel, and then, seemingly as the mere and sympathizing redresser of the wronged soldiery, to use them to crush the parliament was the course he determined upon. A.D. 1653.— Cromwell, with that rugged but elHcient eloquence which he so well knew how to use, urged the ofiicers of the army no longer to sutfer themselves and their men to labour under grievances unre- ' drcased and arrears unpaid, at the mere will and pleasure of the selfish civilians for whom they had fought and conquered, but remon- strate in terms which those selfish persona cuuld not misunderstand, and which would wring justice from their fears. Few things could have been suggested which would AD. 1552.— JUDOBS PROM BNOI.AilD AOMINISTBR JUSTICB IK SCOTLAND. [2L TIB aOTIIIIItlllT Of OftOIIWBLi; WAB A BABBVAOIS BBirOTIIM. 886 JS,^t VLxtMuxii of IlistorQ, (cc. bBve been more entirely agreeable to the wiihea of the offlcera. They drew up a pe- tition—if we ought not rather to call it a re- monitrance— in which, after demanding re- dreii of grievance! and payment of arreari,- they taunted the parliament with having formerly made fine profestiona of their de- termination ao to remodel that asBcmbly M to extend and ensure liberty to all rank* of men, and with having for year* conti- nued to ait without making a tingle ad- vance toward! the performance of these voluntary pledges. The house acted on this occasion with a spirit which would have been admirable and nonourable in a genuine bouse of commons, but which savoured aomewhat of the ludicrous when shown by men who, consciously and deliberately had year after year been the mere and servile tools of Cromwell and his prKtorians. It was voted not only that this petition should not be complied with, but also that any per son who should in future present any such petition should be deemed guilty of high treason, and a committee was appointed immediately to prepnre an act in confor- mity to this resolution. The officers pre- sented a warm remonstrance upon this treatment of their petition ; the house still more warmly replied; and it was soon very evident that both parties were animated by the utmost animositjr to each other. Crom- well now saw that his hour for action had arrived. He was sitting in council with aome of his officers when, doubtless in obe- dience to his own secret orders, intelligence was brought to him of the violent temper and designs of the house. VfMi well acted astonishment and incontrollable rage he atarted from his seat, and exclaimed that the misconduct of these men at length compelled him to do a thing which made the hair to stand on end upon his head. Hastily assembling three hundred soldiers he immediately proceeded to the house of commons, which he entered, covered, and followed by as many of the troops as could enter. Before any remonstrance could be offered, Cromwell, stamping upon the ground, as in an ecttacy ot sudden passion, exclaimed, " For shame I Get ye gone and give place to honester men I you are no longer a parliament, I tell ye you are no longer a parliament." Sir Harry Vane, a bold and honest man, though a half insane enthusiast, now rose and denounced Crom- well's conduct as indecent and tyrannical. " Ha 1 exclaimed Cromwell, " sir Harry ! Oh ! sir Harry Vane I the Lord deliver me from sir Harry Vane I" Then, turning first to one prominent member of this lately ■ervile parliament and then to another, he dealt out in succession the titles of glutton, drunkard, adulterer, and whoremonger. Having given this, probably, very just de- scription of the men by whose means he had so long and so completely misgoverned the suffering nation, he literally turned " the rump" out of the house, locked the doors, and carried away the key in his pocket. A servile parliament being the most con- venient of tools for the purposes of detpo. tism, Cromwell when he had thus summa- rily got rid of " the rump," very soon pro. ceeded to call a new parliament, which, if possible, surpassed even that in the quali. ties of brutal ignorance and ferocious fana- ticism. A practice had now become general of taking scriptural words, and in many cases, whole scriptural sentences or cant- ing imitations of them, for Christian names; and a fanatical leather-feller, who was the leading man in this fanatical par- liament, named Praise-God Barebone, gave his name to it. The utter ignorance dis- played by the whole of the members of Barebone's parliament even of the forms of their own house, the wretched drivelUng of their speeches, and their obvious in- capacity to understand the meaning of what they were secretly kai imperiously in. structed to do, excited so much ridicule even from the very multitude, that the leas insane among the members themselves be- caraed ashamed of their pitiable appear- ance. A small number of^ these, with the concurrence of Rouse, their speaker, waited upon Cromwell at 'Whitehall, and wisely tendered their resignation, which he wil- lingly received. But many of this precious parliament were far from being convinced of their incapacity or willing to resigu their authority. They determined not to be bound by the decision of the seceders, and pro- ceeded to elect one of their number, named Moyer, as their speaker. Cromwell had but one way of dealing with this sort of contumacy, and he sent a party of guards; under the command of colonel White, to clear the parliament house. On this occa- sion a striking instance occurred nf the mingled cant and profanity which then so disgustingly abounded in common conversa- tion. CulonelWhite on entering the house and seeing Moyer in the chair, addressed him and asked what he and the other mem- bers were doing there. " Seeking the Lord," replied Moyer, in the cant of his tribe. " Then," replied the colonel, with a pro- fane levity still more disgusting than the other's cant," you had better go seek him elsewhere, for to my certain knowledge he has not been here these many years." Having now sufficiently ascertained the complete devotion of the military to his person, and sufficiently accustomed the people at large to his arbitrary and sudden caprices, Cromwell, whose clear and mas- culine sense must have loathed the imbeci- lity and fanaticism of the late parliament, boldly proceeded to dispense with parlia- ments altogether, and to establish a pure and open military government, of which lie was himself at once the head, heart, and hand. The formation of the new govern- ment was highly characteristic of Crom- wrll's peculiar policv. Through his usual agents lie induced the officers of tlie army to declare him protector of the common- wealth of England ; and that there might be no misunderstanding as to the substan- tial royalty of the office thus conferred on A. D. 1654. — TIIR rnOTBCTORSHIP DECLABED " BLKCTIVs" BY TRB PAHLIAMBNT. A.o. 1660.— arAiii sictiKBO wab acainit ■rolahd, w»». 19. lEnglanH.— tlT^c protectorate. 387 him, the appointment was proclaimed in London and otiier chief towni witit the for- pidily and publicity usual on proclaiming the accession of a king. The military officers having thus mada Cromwell king in all but the mere name, be gratefnlly proceeded to make them his minitters, choosing his council from among tlie general officers, and allowing each coun- cillor the then very liberal suary of one thouaand pounds per annum. Now that he was ostensibly, as for a long time before he had been virtually, at the head of affairs, the policy of Cromwell required that the army should be well taken care of. While there was yet any possibility of the people clamouring for h parliament and of a parliament making a: y show of resist- ance to his inordinate pretensions, the dis- content of the army waa a weapon of price to him. Now, the case was completely altered, and instead of allowing the pay of the army to fall into arrear, he bad every officer and man constantly paid one month in advance. Liberal in all that related to real public service, as the providing of arms, furnishing the maKazines, and keeping the Jeetin serviceable repair, he yet was the determined foe of all useless expence. But though the iron hand of Cromwell kept the people tranquil at home andmain- tained the high character of the nation abroad, he had not long obtaiued the pro- tectorate ere he began to auifer the penalty of ilia criminal ambition. To the royalists, as tlie murderer of their former king and as the chief obstacle to the restoration of their present one, he was of course hate- ful ; and the sincere republicans, including not only Fairfax and many other men of public importance and character, but also a multitude of persons in all ranks of pri- vate life, and some of his own nearest and dearest connections, saw in him only a worse than legitimate king. The consequence was, that numerous plots, of more or less im- portance and extent, were formed against nim. But he was himself active, vigilant, and penetrating ; and as he was profuse in bia rewards to those who afforded him valu- able information, no one was ever more ex- actly aerved by spies. He seemed to know men's very thoughts, so rapid and minute was the information wliich ne in fact owed to this, in his circumstances, wise libera- lity. No sooner was a plot formed than he knew who were concerned in it ; no sooner had the conspirators determined to {iroceed to action than they learned to their cost, that their own lives were at the disposal of him whose life they had aimed at. With regard to the war in which the na- tion was engaged, it may be remarked, that all the efforts of the Dutch failed to s^ive them from suffering severely under the vi- gorous and determined attacks of Blake. Defeated again and again, and finding their trade paralyzed in everjr direction, they at length became so dispirited that they sued for peace, and treated as a sovereign the man whom, hitherto, they had very justly treated as a usurper. In order to obtain peace, they agreed to reatore considerable territory wnich, during the reign of Charlea I., they had torn from the East India Com- pany ; to cease to advocate or advance the causa of the unfortunate Cliarles II. ; and to pay homage on every aea to the flag of the commonweath. VThile we give all due credit to Crom- well as the ruler under whom the Dutch were thus humbled, and make due allow- ance for the value of his prompt and liberal supplies to tbe admiral and fleet, we muat not, either, omit to remember that the real humbler of the Duch was the gallant ad- miral Blake. This fine English seaman was avowedly and notoriously a republican in principle, and, being so, he could not but be opposed to the usurpation by Crom- well of a more than kingly power. But at aea and with an enemy's fleet in sight the gallant Blake remembered only bis coun- try, and cared^ nothing about who ruled it. On such occasions, he would say to his sea- men, " No matter into whose hands the government may fall; our duty is still to ght for our country." With France in negotiation, as with Hol- land in open war, England under Cromwell was successful. The sagacious cardinal Mazarine, who was then in power in France, clearly saw that the protector was more easily to be managed by flattery and defer- ence than by_ any attempts at violence, and there were few crowned heads that were treated by Franrc, under Mazarine, with half the respect which it lavished upon "protector" Cromwell of England. 'Thia prudent conduct of the French minister probably saved much blood and treasure to both nations, for although Cromwell'a dis- cerning mind and steadfast temper would not allow of his sacrificing any of the sub- atantial advantages of England to the aoolbings and flatteries of the French mi- nister, tliey, unquestionably, disposed him to docility and complaisance upon many not vitally important points, upon which, had they been at all haughtilv pressed, he would have resisted even to the extremity of going to war. Spain, which in the reign of Elizabeth and even later had been so powerful as to threaten to unite all Europe in submis- sion, had now become considerably reduced. But Cromwell, wisely, as we think, still considered it too powerful, and as far more likely than France to espouse the cause of Charles II., and thus be injurious to the commonwealth— and the protector. Ac- cordingly, being solicited by Mazarine to join in depressing Spain, he readily furnish- ed six thousand men fur the invasion of the Netherlands, and a signal victory^ was with this aid obtained over the Spaniards at Dunes. In return for this important service the French put Dunkirk, lately taken from the Spaniards, into his hands. But the victorv of Dunes was the least of the evils that tne Spaniards experienced from the enmity of Cromwell. Blake, whose conduct in the Dutch war had not only en- deared him to England, but had also spread IE O M H a M M a as o u M H •• H m * f m M M m u K e a. V. 1657.— TBS ATX OF ALLIANCB BETWBBR BIiaLATID, VRANCB, AND SrAIN. A.B. 1«M.- 868 VL^t ^rcasucQ o( l^istotQ, Sec. hit p«nonal renown throufchout t)ie world, wai molt liberalljr and Mf supported hj the protector. Ilavina tailed up the Medi- terranean, where tlie Engliih flait had never floated ataHDva a fleet since the time of the erataden, Kit completely swept that sea of all that dared to dispute it with him, and then proceeded to Leghorn, where his mere appearance and reuuiation caused the duke of Tuscanr to maVe reparations for divers injuries which liad been indicted upon the BnglUh traders there. A.D. 16M.— The trading vessels of Eng- land, as, indeed, of all European countries, had long suffered from the Tunisinns and Algcrines, and Blake now proceeded to call those barbarians to account. Tlie dey of Algiers was soon brought to reason ; but the dcjr of Tunis, directing the atteu' on of Ulako to the strong castles of Goletta and Porte Farino, bade him look at Ihcni and then do his worst. The En!;lisli ad- miral instantly took him at liis word, sailed into the harbour, burned the whole of the shipping that lay in it, and sailed triumph- antly away in quest of the Spaniards. Ar- rivea at Cadis betook two galleons, or trea- aure ships, of the enormous value of two millions of pieces of eight ; and then sailed for the Canaries, where he burned and sunk an entire Spanish fleet of sixteen sail. Af- ter this latter action he sailed for England to reiit. and sank so rapidly beneath an ill- ness which had long afflicted him, that he perished just as he reached home. While Blake had been thus pUantly and successfully exerting himself in one quar- ter, another fleet under admirals Vcnables and Penn, carrying about four thousand land forces, left the British shores. The object of this expedition was to capture the island of Hispaniola, but the Spaniards were so well prepared and superior, that this object utterly failed. Resolved not to return home without having achieved some- thing, the admirals now directed their course to Jamaica, where they so complete- ly surprised the Spaniards, tliat that rich island was taken possession of by our troops without the necessity of striking a blow. So little was the value of the island from which so much wealth liaa since been drawn, at that time understood, that its capture waa not deemed a compensation fur the failure as to Hispaniola, and both the ad- mirals were sent to the Tower for that failure. A. D. 165S. — But the snlendid successes of Cromwell were now arawing to a close. His life, glorious as to the unthinking and uninformed it must have appeared, hnd from the moment of his accepting the pro- tectorate been one long series of secret a-nd most harassing vexations. As we have al- ready pointed out, both extremes, the re- publicans and the royalists, detested him, and were perpetually plotting against his authority and life. His own wile was thought to detest the guilty state in which they lived; and it is certain that both his eldest daughter, Mra. Fleetwood, and hi i fa> vourite child, Mrs. Claypole, took every opportunity of maintaining the respective principles of their husbands, even in the Sreseiice of their father. Mrs. Fleetwood in- eed, went beyond her husband in seal' for republicanism j while Mrs. Claypole, whom the protector loved with a tenderness little to have been expected from so stern a man was so ardent In the cause of monarchv' that even on her death-bed she upbraiai'd her sorrowing father with the death of one sovereign and the usurpation which kcut the living sovereign in exile and in misery The soldiery too with whom he had so ofu'ii fought, were for the most part sincere however errinv, in their religious protes' sions, and could not but be dcei/iy disgusted when they at length perceived that his re- ligious as well as his republican proles- sions had been mere baits to ciitch men's opinions and support withal. He was thus left almost without a familiar and confi- dential friend, while in the midst of a peo- ple to whom he had set the fearful example of achieving an end, although at the ter- rible price of shedding innocent blood. Frequent conspiracies and his knowledge of the general detestation in which his con- duct was held at length shook oven his re- solute mind and iron frame. He became nervous and melancholy ; in whichever direction he turned his eyes lie imagined that he saw an enemy. Fairfax, whose lady openly condemned the prociiedings against the king in Westminster-hall at the tune of the mock trial, hod so wrought upon her husband, that he allowed himself to league with sir William Waller and other eminent men at the head of the presbyterian party to destroy the protector. With all partie;^ in the state thus furious against him,( rem well now, too, for the first time found him- self fearfully straightened for money. His successes against the Spaniards had been splendid, indeed, but such splendours ircre usually expensive in the end. With an ex- hausted treasury and debts of no inconsi. dcruble amount, he begun to fear the con- sequence of what seemed inevitable, his falling in arrears with the soldiery to whom he owed bU his past success and upon whose pood will alone rested his slender hope ot future security. Just as he was tortured well nigh to insanity by these threatening circumstances of his situa- tion. Colonel Titus, a zealous republican, who had bravely, however erroneously, fought against the late king, and who was now thoroughly disgusted and indignant to see the plebeian king-killer practising more tyranny tlian the murdered monarch had ever been guilty of, sent forth his opinions in a most bitterly eloquent pamphlet, bear- ing the ominous title of "Kihino, no MuBOKB." Setting out with a brief refer- ence to what had been done in the case of (what he, as a republican, called) kingly tvranny, the colonel vehemently insisted that it was not merely a right but a posi- tive duty to slay the plebeian usurper. "Shall we," said the eloquent declaiuier, " shall we, who struck down the lion, cower before the woL^f" KSnoNAGK VNDBB TUK PBOTBCTOBSUIP WAS AT ITS OCXATaST HBIOIIT. OBOI lEnglantf— C^c l^rotcctnrBtc. 389 Cromwell read this eloquent and immoral rtaioniDK— iminoral, we Mjr, fur crime can MTf r ju(tify more crime and never wae again leen to imile. Tlie nenrouineea of hit body and the liorror of hi* mind were now re- doubled. He doubted not that thi* fear- leii and plauiible pamphlet would fall into the hand* of lome enthuiiatt who would be nerved to frenzy by it. He wore armour beoeatb hi« clothei, and conitantly car- ried niitoU with him, never travelled twice by the Bame road, and rarely tleut more than a second night in the same chamber. Though he was alwayi strongly guarded, sueb was the wretchedness of his situation that even this did not ensure his safety ; for where more probably than among the fanatical soldiery could an assassin be found. Alone he fell into melancholy ; in ccnipany he was uncheered ; and If Strang- eri) of however high character, approached ■omewhM close to his person, it was in a tone less indicative of anger than of actual and agouiziug terror that he bade them standoff. The strong constitution of Cromwell at length gave way beneath this accumulation ofliorrors. He daily became thinner and more feeble, and ere long was seized with ter- tian ague, which carried him off in a week, m the ninth year of his unprincipled usur- pation, and in the fifty-ninth of his age, on the third of September, 1669. A. J>. 1669. — Though Cromwell was deli- rons from the effects of his mortal illness, he had a sufBcieut lucid interval to allow of bis putting the crowning stroke to his unparalleled treason. This slayer of his lawful sovereign, this mere private citizen, who had only made his first step from extreme obscurity under pretence of a burning and inextinguishable hatred of monarchy, now, when on the very verge of death, had the cool audacity and impudence to name his son Richard as his successorj —forsooth I—- as though his usurped power v^ere held by hereditary right, or as though his son and the grandson of a small trader v^Te better qualified than any other living man for the office, on the supposition of its being elective t In the annals of the world we know of no instance of impu- dence beyond this. But though named by his father to the protectorate, Richard Cromwell had none of his father's energy and but little of his evil ambition. Accustomed to the stern rule and sagacious activity of the deceased usurper, the army very speedily showed its unwillingness to transfer its allegiance to Richard, and a committee of the leading officers was assembled at Fleetwood's resi- dence, and called, after it, the cabal of Wallingford. The first step of this asso- ciation was to present to tne young pro- tector a remonstrance requiring that 'he command of the army should be entrusted to some person who possessed the confi- dence of the officers. As Richard was thus plainly informed that he had not that con- fidence, he had no choice but to defend his title by force, or to make a virtue of neces- sity and give in his resignation of an aa- thoritv to the importance of which he waa ■ignaliy unequal. He chose the latter course ; and having signed a formal abdi- cation of an office which he ought never to have filled, he lived for some years in France and 8ubse()uentlv settled at Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire, wnere as a private gentle- man he lived to a very advanced age, in the enjoyment of competence and a aegree of happiness which was never for an instant the conipanion of his father's guilty great- ness. 'The cabal of Wallingford, having thus readily and quietly disposed of pro- tector Richard, now saw the necessity of establishing something like a formal go- vernment , and the rump parliament, which Oliver Cromwell had so unceremoniously turned out of doors, was invited to rein- state itself in authority. But upon these thorou^hlT incapable men the experience of past days was wholly thrown away. Forgetting that the source of their power was the brute force of the army, their very first measures were aimed at lessening the power of the cabal. The latter body per- ceiving that the parliament proceeded from less to greater proofs of extreme hostility, determined to send it back to the fitting obscurity of private life. Lambert with a large body of troops accordingly went to Westminster. Having completely sur- rounded the parliament house with hia men, the general patientiv awaited the arrival of the speaker, Lentlial, and when that personage made his appearance the general ordered the liorses of the state carriage to be turned round, and Lenthal was conducted home. The like civility was extended to the various membera aa they successsively made their appearance, and the army proceeded to keep a solemn fast by way of celebrating the annihilation of this disgraceful parliament. But the triumph of the army was short. If Fleetwood, Lambert, and the other lead- ing officers anticipated the possibility of placing one of themselves in the state of evil pre-eminence occupied by the late pro- tector, they had egregiously erred in over- looking the power and possible inclination of general Monk. Tins able and politic officer, it will be recollected, had been en- trusted by Cromwell with the task of keep- ing Scotland in subservience to the com- monwealth of England. He had an army ot'upwar Ja of eight thousand veteran troops, and the wisdom and moderation with which he had governed Scotland gave him great moral influence and a proportionate com- mand of pecuniary resources; and when the dismissal of the rump parliament by the army threw the inhabitants of London into alarm lest an absolute military tyranny should succeed, the eyes of all were turned upon Monk, and every one was anxious to know whether he would throw hia vast' power into this or into that scale. But " honest George Monk," as his sol- diers witli affectionate familiarity were wont to term him, was as cool and silent as he was dexterous and resolute. Aa soon aa XICUABD CROUWKLI/ DIBD Itt 1713, AND WAS BUBIBD AT BCBSLRT, HANTS. [2 £ S A.B. 1000.- 390 ^^c ^ttuurv o( l^istorv, $c(. he WM mada awara of tha proceadinytt that had takaa pUea in London ha put liii vete- ran anny in aaotlon. At he marched louth- ward upon London he waa met by mea- ■enger after meiaenaer, each party beinv anxToui to aicertHin fur which ho intended to declare; but he itrictlv, and with an admirable ttrmneie. replied to all, that he waa on hii way to enquire into the state of affaira and to aid in remedying whatever might be wrong. Btill mamtaining this pouiio reaerve, he reached St. Albau'i, and there flaed hia head qartera. The rump parliament in the mean time had re-aMemoled without opposition from the Wallingford cabal, the members of which probably feared to aet while in igno- rance of the intentions of Monk, who now aent a formal request to the parliament for the instant removal to country quarters of all troops atationed in London. This done, the parliament dissolved, after taking mea- sures fur the immediate election of new members. Sagacious public men now began to Judge that Monk, weary of the existing state of things, had resolved to restore the exiled king, but Monk still preserved the most profound silence until the assembling of a new parliament should enable him rapidly and effect uc'ly to accomplish his de> signs. The only person who seems to have been in the conndence of this able man was a Devonshire gentleman named Murrice, who was of as taciturn and prudent a disposition aa the general himself. All persons who aought the general's confldence were re- ferred to Morrice, and among the number was sir John Granville, who was the ser- vant and personal friend of the exiled king, who now sent him over to England to en- deavour to influence Monk. Sir John when referred to Morrice more than once replied that he held a commission from the king, and that he could open his business to no one but general Monk iu person. This per- tinaaity and caution were precisely what Monk required ; and though even now he would not commit himself by any written document, be personally gave uranville auoh information as induced the king to hasten from Breda, the governor of which would fain have made him a prisoner under the pretence of paying him honour, and settled himself in Holland, where he anx- iously awaited farther tidings from Monk. The parliament at length assembled, and it became very generally understuud tiiat the restoration of the monarchy was the real intention of Monk ; but so great and obvious were the perils of the time, that for a few days the parliament occupied it- self in merely routine business, no one daring to utter a word upon that verv sub- ject which every man had the most deeply at heart. Monk during all this time had lost no opportunity of oDserving the senti- ments of the new parliament, and he at last broke through his politic and well- sustained reserve, and directed Annesley, the president of the council, to inform the house that sir John Granville was at its door with a letter from his majesty, Tba effect of these few words was electrieal i the whole of the members rose ttota their seals and hailed the news with a burst of enthusiastlo cheering. Sir John Oraa. ville waa now called in, the kiug's letter waa read, and the proposals it made for the restoration of Charlt'S were agreed to with a new burst of cheering. The gracious letter, offering an indemnity far mure ej. tensive than could have be^n hoped for after all the evil that had been done, mu at once entered on the Journals, and ordered to be published, that the people at large might participate in the Joy ot the home. Nothing now remained to obstruct the re- turn ot Charles, who, after a short and prosperous passage, arrived in London on the twenty-ninth of Mav, being the dny on which he completed his thirtieth year. Every where he was received with the ac- clamations of assembled multitudes; and so numerous were the congratulatory ad- dresses that were presented to him, that he pleasantly remarked, that it must surely iiave been his own fault that he bad not returned sooner, as it was plain there was nut one of hia subjects who had not been long wishing fbr him I Alas! though good-bumouredly, these words but too truly, paint the terribly and disgracefully inconstant nature of the multitude, wlioir^ ever as ready to praise and flatter without^ ' measure, aa to blame and injure without just cause. CUAPTEB LIV. Tk» Reign (ff CnA»h*a II. A. D. 1660. — Handsomi, accomplislied, young, and of a singularly cheertul and affable temper, Charles II. ascended his throne with all the apparent elements of a just and universal popularity, especially as the ignorance of some and the tyranny of others had by this time taught the people of England to understand the full value of a wise, regular, and just government. But Charles had some faults which were none the less mischievous because they were the mere excesses of amiable qualities. His good-nature was attended by a levity and carelessness which caused him to leave the most faithful services and the most serious sacrifices unrewarded, and his gaiety de- generated into an indolence and self-in- dulgence more fitted to the effeminate self- worship of a Sybarite than to the public and responsible situation of the king of a free and active people. One of the first cares of the parliament was to pass an act of indemnity for all that had passed, but a special exception was made of those who had directly and per- sonally taken part in the murder of the late king. Three of the most prominent nf these, Cromwell, Bradsbaw, and Irctoii, were dead. But as it was thought that some signal and public obloquy uught to be thrown upon crime so enormous aa theirs, their bodies were diyiutcrred, sua- WBKN PARLIAMENT niSSOI.VBD, niCUABO CROMWELL WITHOBBW rnoM CUDRT. t.D. 1669.— on lEnglanTl.— I^utc of Stuart — Cf^arlcs SC. 39 1 i s a I 4 » * u t a » u Mndtd nromth* gallows, and •uhirqnRuily buiifd at iu foot. Other* of tlir reicicidet iMf* proended againit, and more or Icii w««relT puniilied i but Charlei shnweil no •of« eameitneit in vengeance than in frtiitude, and there never, probably, hat bwn M little of puniihmeiit iiiHicteii for crime m> exteniive and w frixhlful. Chtrlci. in fact, had but one paction, the love of pleaiure; and ao Iouk as he eonld command the meani of grnlifyinK tint, he, at the coniinencement of hit (cicn cipecially, leemed to care but little how hit minittera arranced the voblic iffairt. It wai, in lonie oeKfee, happy for the nation that Charlet waa thui carulfM* ; for M esceiiive waa the Rladncsi of the ntlion'i loyall) Jutt at tliii period, that htJ Cliarlei been of a atcrner and more ambilioui character he would have hnd little or no dilHtAilty in rendering hiinnclf tn abiolute monarch. 80 evident was the inclination of the comninu* to ro to ex- tremes in order to irratil'y the kinR, that one of the ministers, Southampton, seri- onily roiiieniplntod requirinit the enormous tniuuntof two millions as the kin^''* annual revenue, a revenue which would have made him wliolly independent alike of his peopl« «nd the law. Fortunately the wise and virtuous lord Clarendon, attached as he was to the royal master whose exile and priva- tions he had faithfully shared, opposed tliis outrageous wish of Southampton, nnd the revenue of the kinff was Axed more mode- rately, but with a liberality which rendered it impossible for him to leel necessity ex- cept as the consc(|uencc of the extremest im- prudence of profusion. llut Charles was one of those persons whom it it almost impotiible to preserve free firom pecuniary necessity ; and he ipon became to deeply involved in difltcultiea, while his love of expentive pleasures re- mained unabated, that he at once turned his thoughts to marriage as a means of pro- curing pecuniary aid. Catherine, the in- fanta o(^ Portugal, was at that time, pro- bably, the homeliest princess in Europe. But she was wealthy, lier portion amount- ing to three hundred thousand pounds in money, together with Bombay in the East Indies, and the fortress of Tangier in AfHca ; and such a portion had too many attractions for the needv and pleaaure- loving Charles to allow nim to lay much ttreas upon the infanta's want of personal ittrsctions. The dukes of Ormonit, South- ampton, and the able and clear hended chancellor Clarendon endeavoured to dis- tuade the king from this match, chiefly on the ground of the infanta beinx but little likeR to have children ; but Charles wns resolute, and the infanta bjcnme queen of England, an honour which it is to be feured that she dearly purchase i, for the nume- rouK mistresses of the kit g were permitted, if not actually encouragea, to insult her by their familiar presence, and vie with her in luxury obtained at lier cost. As a means of procuring large sums from his parliament, Charles declared war againot the Dutch. The hostilities were very Hprccly carried on by both parlies, but after the sacriHcr of blood and treaturt to an iutiiicnnc amount, the Dutch, by a treaty signed Hi llrt'da, procured peace by ceding to Unglaiid the American colony of New York. Tliiiugh this colony was justly con- sidcrnd i an important acquisition. Ilia whole I > nns of tlie peace were not con- sideretl sulHciently honourable to England, and the public mind became much exaspe- rated ai(ainst (.'larendon, who was said to have commenced war unnccensarily, and to have concluded peace disitriicefuliy. What- ever might be the private opinion of Charles, who, probably, had far more than Claren- don to do with the oommenceroent of the war, he showed no desire to shield hia minister, whose steadfast nnd highprinci- plcd character hnd long been so distasteful At court that he had been subjected to the insults of the courtiers and the slights of the king. Under such circumstances the fate of Strafford seemed by no meant un- likely to become that of Clarendon, Mr. Seymour bringing seventeen articles of im- peachment against him, Uut Clarendon perceiving the peril in which he was placed, and rightly judging that it was in vain to oppose the popular clamour when that wat aided by the ungrateful coldness of the court, went into voluntary exile in France, where he devoted himself to literature. Freed from the presence of Clarendon, whoHo rebuke he feared, and whose virtue be admired but could not imitate, Charlea now ^ave the chief direction of public af- I'Hirs into the bands of certain partakers of his pleasures. Sir Thonias ClifTord, lord Ashley, afterwards carl of Shaftesbury, the duke of lluckiiighani, lord Arlington, and the duke of IiHiulerdalo, were the persons to whom Charles now entrusted his affair*, and from their initials this ministry waa known by the title of the cabai.. A. o. ir>70.— The members of the cabal were undoubtedly men of ability ; learning, wit, and accomplishment being absolute re- quisites to the obtaining of Charles's fa- vour. But their's was the ability of cour- tiera rather than of ministers ; they were better fitted to season tho pleasures of the prince, than to provide for the security of the throne or the welfare of the peo- ple. The public discontent wat, conse- quentljr, very great ; it wat but too deeply and widely felt that such a ministry wat little likely to put any effectual check upon the profligate pleasures which made the English court at once the gayest and the luoHt vicious court in nil Europe. Nor was it merely from the nliaracter of the ministry and the dissipated course of the king that the people fult discontented. The duke of York, the presumptive heir to the throne, though n brave nnd r. high- minded man, was universally beli "v.a lobe a very bigoted papist; and enou)(:i of the puritan spirit ^till remained to make men dread the possible accession of a papist king. The alarm and uneasiness that were felt A.D. 1C69. — A PnOCT.AMATION FOH SIlrFnESNINO 8BDITIOU8 CON VBMTICI BS. A.S. 1670.— TBB CILiaBATKD SBOBSI MORE, DDKB OV ALBBMAHLI, oiu. a92 lE\)t ^reasurs o( llistorg, $cc. on thii point Bt length reached to such b height tnat, in Aaguit of this year, aa the liing waa wallung in St. Jamea'a parlt, dia- porting himaelf with aome of the oeautiful little doga of which he waa quite trouble- aomeW fond, a chemiat, named Kirby, ap. proBcned hia majesty, and warned him that B plot waa on foot against him. "Keep, aire," aaid thia peraon, " within your com- fiany; your enemiea design to talce your ife, and you may be ahot even in thia very WBllt." Newa ao atartling, and at the aame time 80 conaonant with the vague fears and vul> ?!ar rumours of the day, naturallv led to arther enquiriea; and Kirby stated that he had his information from a doctor Tonga, B clergyman, who had assured him that two men, named Grove and Pickering, were engaged to shoot the king, and that the queen's physician, sir George Wakeling, had agreed, if they failed, to put an end to his majesty by poison. The matter wa« now referred to Danby, the lord treasurer, who sent for doctor TonKe. That person not only showed all readiness to attend, but also produced a bundle of papera re- lative to the supposed plot. Questioned Bs to the manner in whicu he became pos- sessed of these papers, be at first stated that they were thrust under his door, and subsequently that he knew the writer of them, who required his name to be con- cealed lest he should incur the deadly anger of the Jesuits. The reader will do well to remark the gross inconsistency of these two accounts; itia chiefly by the careful no- ting of such inconsistencies that the wise see through the carefully-woven falsehoods which are so commonly believed by the credulous or the careless. Had the papers really been thrust beneath this man's door, as he at first pretended, how should he know the author 7 If the author was known to him, to what purpose the stealthy way of forwarding the papers? Charles him- aelf was far too acute a reasoner to overlook this gross inconsistency, and he flatly gave it as nis opinion that the whole affair was a clumsy fiction. But Tonge waa a tool in the hands of miscreants who would not so readily be disconcerted, and he waa now sent again to the lord treasurer Panby, to Inform him that a packet of treasonable letters was on its way to the Jesuit Bed- ingfield, the duke of York's confessor. By some chance Tonge eave this informa- tion some hours after the duke of fork had himself been put in possession of these let- ters, which he had shown to the king as B vulgar and ridiculous foraery of which he could not discover t'ue drift. Hitherto all attempts at producing any effect bjr means of these aUeeed treason- able designs had failed, •"id the chief ma- nufacturer of them, Titus Oates, now came forward with a well-feigned uuwillinKness. This man had from his youth upward been an abandoned character. He had been indicted for gross perjury, and had sub- sequently been dismissed from the chnp- klncjr of b man-of-war for a yet more dis- graceful crime, and he then professed to be a convert to papacy, and actually was for some time maintained in the Entliah seminary at St. Omer's. Reduced to actual destitution, he seems to have fastened upon Kirby and Tonge, as weak and credulous men, whose very weakness and credulity would make them intrepid in the assertion of such falsehoods as he might choose to instil into their minds. Of his own no. tives we may form b shrewd guess from the fact that he was supported by the actual charity of Kirby, at a moment when h«> af- fected to have the clue to mysteries closely touching the king's life and involving the lives of numerous persons of consequence. Though vulgar, illiterate, and ruffianly, this man Gates was cunning aod dariog. Finding that his pretended information was of no avail iu procuring himself court favour, he now resolved to see what effect it would have upon the already idarmed and anxious minds of the people. He ac- cordingly 'went before sir Edmondbury Godfrey, a gentleman in great celebritv for his activity as a magistrate, and desired to make a deposition to the effeot that the pope, judging the heresy of the king and people a sufficient ground, had assumed the sovereignty of Eiagland, Scotland, and Ireland, and had condemned the king to death as a heretic ; the death to be in- flicted by Grove and Pickering, who were to shoot him with silver bullets. The Jesuits and the pope having thus disposed of the king, whom, according to this veri- dical deposition, they styled the black bas- tard, the crown was to be offered to the duke of York on the condition that he should wholly extirpate the protestant re- ligion ; but if the duke refused to comply with that condition, then James, too, was to ifo to pot. Tlie mere vulgarity of this deposition might have led the people to imply its falsehood ; for whatever might be the other faults of the Jesuits, they were not, as edu- cated men, at all likely to use the style of speech which so coarse and illiterate a wretch as Odtes attributed to them. But popular terror not uncommonly produces, temporarily at least, a popular madness; and the at once atrocious and clumsy false- hoods of this man, whose very destitution was the consequence of revolting crimes, were accepted by the people as irrefragable evidence, and he was himself hailed and caressed as the friend and protector of protestantism and protestantst Before the council he repeatedly aod most grossly contradicted himself, but the effect his statements had upon the public mind vu such, that it was deemed necessary to order the apprehension of the principal persons named as being cognizant of tliis plot, among whom were several Jesuits, and Coleman, secretary to the duke of York. A singular circumstance now occurred which gives but ton much reason to fear that peijury was by no means the worst of the crimes to which Oates resorted to pro- cure the success of his vile scheme. Sir A. D. 1670.— TBI 8 YBAB died HBNRT JBNKINSpAOCD 170 TEARS. A.P. 1673. — TUB Kina BUIFBNDB VBK VBIIAL lAWI AaAINST OISiaHTBIll. lEnglantf.— llottse of S6tuart.-(!Pi)arIcs SS. 393 EdmondbDnr Godfrey, the maKistrate who inl S**' Gates importance by allowing him to redace his lying statements into a formal and regular deposition, was suddenly Biiued from his house, and, after a lapse of HTeral days, found barbarously murdered in a ditch at Primrose-hill, near London. No sooner was this known than the people rushed to the cdnclusion that sir Edniond- bury had been murdered by the Jesuits, in iCTcnge for the willingness he had shown to receive the information of Gates. But looking at the desperate character of the Utter, does it not seem far more probable that he caused the murder of the credulous msgistrate, trusting that it would hnve tlie Tciy effect which it did produce upon the credulous people ? Be that as it may, the diicoven of the deceased gentleman's body {Hgbtfmly uicreased the public ngitation ; the corpse was carried in procession by KTcnty clergymen, and no one who valued his personal safety ventured to hint that the murder might probably not have been the work of the detested Jesuits. From the mere vulgar, the alarm and tf«itation soon spread to the better in- formed, classes, and at length it was moved in parliament that a solemn fast should be sppoioted, that the house should have all papers that were calculated to throw a light upon the horrid plot, that all known papists should be ordered to quit London, snd all unknown or saspicious persons for- bidden to present themselves at court, and that the train bands of London and West- minster should be kept in instant readiness for action ! The miscreant whose false- hoods bad raised all this alarm and anxiety was thanked by parliament and recom- mended to the favour of the king, who eouferred upon him a pension of twelve hundred pounds per annum, and a resi- dence in Whitehall. 8uch reward bestowed upon such a cliaracter and for such " pub- lic servifes" naturally produced a rival for Sublic favour, and a fellow named William edloe now made his appearance in the character of informer, no was of even lover origin and more infamous note than Oates, having been repeatedly convicted of theft. Being at Bristol and in a state of destitution, he at his own request was ar- rested and sent to London. When ex- amiued before the council he stated that he had seen the body of the murdered sir Edmondbury Godfrey at the then residence of the queen, Somerset-house, and that a lerraitt of the lord Bellasis had oifercd him four thousand pounds to carry it oif and conceal it I Improbable as the ^.ale was it was greedily received, and the rufHaus, Oates and Bedloe, tinding that credit was given to whatever they chose to asiiert, now ventured a step farther, and accased the queen of being an accomplice in all the evil doings and designs of the Jesuits. The house ot commons, to its great disgrace, addressed the king in support of this scai)- dalous attack upon his already but too unhappy queen ; but the lords, with better judgment and more manly feeling, rejected the accusation with the utter contempt which it merited. The conjunction of two such intrepid per- jurers as Gates .and Bedloe was ominous indeed to the unfortunate persons whom they accused; and it is but little to the credit of the public men of that day that they did not interfere to prevent any pri- soner being tried upon their evidence as to the fabled plot, uniil the public mind should have been allowed a reasonable time in which to recover from its heat and exacer- bation. No such delay was even proposed, and while cunning was still triumphant and credulity still agape, Edward Coleman, the duke of York's secretary, was put upon liis trial. Here, as before the council, Gates and Bedloe, though inconsistent with each other, and each with himself, yet agreed in their main statements, that Coleman had not only agreed to the assassination of the king but bad even, as his reward for so doing, received a commission, signed by the superior of the Jesuits, appointing him papal secretary of state of these kingdoms. Couman, who behaved with equal modesty and hriuuess, utterly denied all the guilt that was laid to his charge. But he eouJd not prove a negative, and his mere denial availed nothing against the positive swear- ing of the informers. He was condemned to death ; and then several members of both houses of parliament offered to interpose to procure him the king's pardon on condi- tion that he would make a full confession. But the unfortunate gentleman was inno- cent, and was far too high-minded to save his life by falsely accusing himself and others. He still tirnily denied his guilt, and, to the eternal disgrace of Charles, was ex- ecuted. The blood of Coleman satiated neither the informers nor the public. Pickering, Grove, and Ireland were next put upon their trial, condemned, and executed. That they were innocent we have no doubt ; but they were Jesuits, and that was sufficient to blunt all sympathy with their fate. Hill, Green, and Uerry were now charged with being the actual murderers of sir Eraondbury Godfrey. In this case the in- formation, which was laid by Bedloe, was wholly irreconcileable with the evidence which was given by a fellow named Prance, and there was good evidence that was at variance witli them both. But the prisoner* were found guilty and executed, all three in their dying moments professing their in- nocence. As Berry was a protestant this made some impression upon the minds of the more reasonable, but the public mind was not even prepared to be disabused. Whitbread, provincial of the Jesuits, and Gavan, Fenwick, Turner, and Ilarcourt, brethren of the same order, were next tried. In addition to Gates and Bedloe, a wretch named Dugdale appeared against these pri- soners, and, in audition to and in support of the incredible and monstrous lies of Gates and Bedloe, he deliberately swore that there were two hundred thousand pa« pists at that very moment ready to take tarn COMMONS phbtaii. o« tub kimo to bbtbact uis dbclabation. A.D. 1674. — LORD CLARIRDON AND THB VOBT MILTON DIED TOIS VKAB. 394 JH'^t treasure of l^istor^, $cc. arma. And yet the alleged leaden and in ■tiKaton of thii huge army of armed and muiniant p^pUta were daily being brought to trial, condemened, and butchered, under the guard of a score or two conatablea t Bat reasoning could not poaaibly be of any avail in that veritable reign of terror, for even direct and sworn evidence in favour of accused persons was treated with contempt. For instance, on this very trial iixteen urit- neuta proved that tkef and Gates were toge- ther in the teminary qf St. Omer'i on the very day in which that ri{fian'$ teitimony had stated him to have been in London. But these witnesses were papists, their evidence received not the slightest attention, and the unfortunate prisoners were condemned and executed, protesting in their last mo- ments their entire innocence of the crimes laid to their charge. Sir George Wakeman, the queen's physi- cian, was now brought to trial, but was more fortunate than the persons previously accused. The vile informers, it is true, swore with their accustomed and dauntless fluency ; but to ha^e convicted sir George would, under idl the circumstances of the ease, have inferred the guilt of the queen. The judge and jury were probably appre- hensive that even the culpable and cruel indolence of Charles would not allow the prevalent villany to proceed to that extent, and sir George was honourably acquitted. A. D. 1672. — For upwards of two years the horrible falsehoods of Gates had de- luded the mind of the public, and shed the blood of the innocent. But he and his abominable associate were not yet weary of evil doing. Hitherto the victims had been chiefly priests and scholars, to whose title of Jesuits the vulgar attiibuted every thing that was most dangerous and terrible. But as if to show that rank the most eminent and age the most reverend were as worth- less in their eyes as the piety and learning of sincere, however erroneous, religionists, the informing miscreants now brought for- ward a ]hBi victim in the person of the earl of Stafford. The fiercest wild beast is not fiercer or more utterly unreasoning than a deluded and enraged multitude. The cry against the veneranle earl of Stafford was even louder than it had been against the former prisoners. Oates positively swore that he saw oneof the Jesuits who bad lately been condemned, Fenwick, deliver to the earl of Stafford a commission si^ued by the general of the Jesuits, constituting the carl paymaster-general of the Jesuit or papal umy. It was in vain that the venerable nobleman protested his innocence, and pointed ont the improbability of his feeble age being concerned in plots; he was condemned to be hanged and quartered. Charles changed the sentence to behead- ing, and the earl suffered accordingly upon Tower-hill. The parliament, which had now sat seven- teen years, was dissolved, but a new one was called, which will ever be memnrable on account of one law which it passed ; we allude to the invaluable habeas corpus act. By this act the gaoler who is sum. moned must have or produce the body of a prisoner in court ana certify the cause of his detention, within three days if within twenty miles of the judge, and so on for greater distances ; no prisoner to be sent to prison beyond sea; every prisoner to be indicted the first term after commitment and tried in the next term, and no man to be recommitted for the same offence after being enlarged by court; heavy penalties upon any judge refusing any prisoner hi« writ of habeak corpus. Human wisdom could scarcely devise a more effectual safeguard to the subject than this act. On the other hand, it can never be perilous to the throne, because in times of sedition or violence par- liauient can suspend the execution of this act for a short and definite time, at the end of which time this great safeguard of our liberties returns to its full force. The criminal and disgraceful complaisance with which the government had allowed the perjured informers to flourish un- checked, caused a new plot discoverer to present himself in the person of a wortliy, named Dangerfield, whose previous life bad been diversified by experience of the pillory, the scourge, the branding iron, and a residence, as a convict, in the plantations. This fellow, in conjunction with a midwife of bad character, named Collier, came for- ward to denounce a plot, of which he al- leged the existence, for removing the king and the royal family and setting up a new form of government. Tliis fellow took his information direct to the kingand the duke of York, who weakly, if we must not rather say wickedly, supplied him with money, and thus patronized and encouraged him in his evil course. Determined to make theinoit of his fortune, Dangerfield deposited some writings of a most seditious character in the house of a military officer named Man- scl. Having so placed the papers that they were certain to be discovered by any one searching the apartments, Dangerfield, without saying a word about the papers, went to the custom-house and sent officers to Mansel's to search for smuggled goods. There were no such goods there, as Dan- gerfield well knew, but, exactly as he had anticipated, the ofticers found the concealed papers, examined them, and felt it to be their duty to lay them before the council. Either Dangerfield was already supected, or something in the papers themselves in- dicated forgery ; for the council were so convinced that the documents were Dan- gei-field's own production, that they issued an order that a strict search should imme- diately be made in all places which he had been known to frequent. In the course of the search the house of the midwife Collier was visited, and there, concealed ia a meal- tub, the officers found a paper which con- tained the whole scheme of the conspiracy to the most minute particulars. Upon this discovery the wretch Dangerfield was sent to Newgate, where he made a "confession," which pi'obably was as false as the former statement that he had made, for he now A.O. 1673.— AN OBDBB OF COUNCIL FORBIDnlNa PAFISTB OOINO *0 CODBT. A.B- IVIS.—A OBAN* or 800,0001. roB BoiLoina twintt labsi ihifs. lEitglanTf.— 1|ous( of Stusrt. -Charles BE. 395 KprcMiKed that to the lyin^ tale he had fonnerly told he had been instigated by the countess of Powit, the earl of Castlemain, uid others. And though it was so much more probable that the mitcreant had all iloag lied from his own invention and in his own greediness of gain, the earl and countess were actually sent to the Tower. What has always made us attach deep blame and disgrace to Charles's conduct in (llowing so many innocent lives to be sacri- ficed to the venal cruelty of informers, is the fact, that while the informers attributed plots to the Jesuits, and stated the object of those plots to be tlie setting up of the pa- piit duke of York in the place of the V\ug, Charles knew, must necessarily have known, that the Jesuits were a mere handful as com- pared to the protestants, and that the very lut man whom either protestant or papist throughout England would have substituted for the easy, though profligate Charles, was James, duke of York. In Scotland James had made himself perfectly hated, and both the English parliament and the B'Jglish people every year gave new and stronger proof of the dread with which they contemplated even the possibility of the accession of James. In the war with the Dutch be had shown himself a brave and skilful officer, but his gloomy temper, his ■tern unsparing disposition, and the bigotry which he was universally known to possess, made courage and military conduct, how- ever admirable in other men, in him only two terrors the more. Charles well knew this; so well, that when James one day warned him against exposing himself too much while so many plots and rumours of plots disturbed the general mind, Charles, as gaily as truly replied " Tilly vally, James \ There be none so silly aa to shoot me in order to make you king I" This unpopula- rity of James led to more than one attempt on the part of the house of commons to procure the exclusion of him from the throne on the ground of his being a papist. The new parliament had scarcely sat a week ere it renewed a bill, termed the ex- clusion bill, which the former house had voted, but which had not passed the upper house at the time of the dissolution of par- liament. The party of the duke, though influential, was numerically weak out of doors ; for besides those who hated him as a papist, and dreaded him as a stern disci- phnarian, there were great numbers who noped that the exclusion of the dui.e would procure the throne for the duke of Mon- mouth, the handsome and highly popular son of the king by one of hisTiumerous mistresses, named Lucy Waters. But the in- fluence of the king was powerful in the house, and after a long debate, not too tem- perately conducted upon either side, the exclusion bill was thrown oat by a rather considerable majority. With informers and "plots," libellous pamphlets had increased in number to an extent that could scarcely be credited. Each party seemed to think that the hard- «it words and the most severe imputations were only too mild for its opponents, and the hired libeller now vied in industry and importaiice with the venal and peijurcd ia- former. An idle and profligate fellow, a sort of led captain in the pay of the king's profli- gate mistress, the duchess of Portsmouth, was employed to procure her the picjaant libels which were occasionally published upon the king and the duke of York. This man not finding the existent lifoela snffl- ciently abusive, determined to surpasa them, and he called to his aid a Scotchman named Everard. Between them they com- posed a most rancorous a'.id scurrilous libel, which FitEharris hastened to get printed. But the Scotchman, Everard, imagined that hia Irish fellow-libeller, as a hanger on of the king's mistress, could have had no pos- sible motive for employing him but the wish to betray him. Indignant at the sup- posed design, Everard went and laid in- formation before sir William Waller, a justice of the peace, and Fitzharris was ap- prehended with a copy of the libel actually in his possession. Finding himself placed in considerable peril of the pillory, Fitshar- ris, who, be it observed, waa an Iriih papist, turned round upon the court, and stated, not without some appearance of truth, that he had been employed by the court to write a libel so foul and violent, that the exclu- sion party, to whom it would be attribut- ed, would be injured in the estimation of all people of sober judgment. In order to render this tale still more palatable to the exclusionists, Fitzharris added to it that a new popish plot, more terrible than any former one, was in agitation under the aus- pices of the duke of York, whom he also ac- cused of being one of the contrivers of the murder of sir Edmondbury Godfrey. The king sent Fitcharris to prison ; the commons, instead of looking with contempt upon the whole aflTair, voted that this hired libeller and led captain to a court harlot should be impeached ! It was so obvious that the real intention of the commons was to screen Fitzharris from punishment altogether, that the lords very properly rejected the im- Eeachment. An angry feeling sprang up etwecn the two houses; and the king, to prevent the dispute from proceeding to any dangerous length, went down and dissolved parliament, with the fixed determination of never calling another. CLarles now, in fact, ruled with all the power and with not a little of the tyranny of an absolute monarch. He encouraged spies and informers, and imprisoned those who ventured to complain of his measures in a manner not only contrary to hia former temper but almost indicative, as was well remarked at the time, of reconciling the people to the prospect of his brothers ac- cession by making his own rule too grievous to be endured. To those who held high cliurch principles, and professed his doc- trine of passive obedience and non-resist- ance, all the royal favour was shovn; while the presbyterians and other sturdy opposcra of his arbitrary measures were in numerous THB BQUBSTniAN STATUS OP CHARLKS IRRCTBO AT CDARINa-CROBS. A.D. 1683. — rRIMCB RUFBRT DIBD, AND WAS BVRIRD IN WRITMINITIB ABBKY.' 396 Uf)t ^reasurQ of l^fstorg, ^c. caiei deprived of their places and employ- mentB, and in lome cases imprisoned into the bargain. The city of London, so pow- erful and so factious during the reign of Charles I., was now made to feel the king's resentment, being, for its leadership of the popular party, deprived of its charter, which was not restored until an abject submission had been made, and a most vexatious right conceded to the crown of interfering in the election of the city magistrates. Fitzharris, who had been so warmly sided with by the exclusionista, and who had been the clifcf cause of Charles's angry and final dissolution of parliament, was now by the king's ur'Jr.r brought to trial before a jury, and, being pronounced guilty, executed ! An abomi- nable stretch of power; for however worth- less and debauched a fellow he might be, his crime, venal as it was, amounted to but libellous writing, for even the publication was scarcely so mucli his own act as it was the act of the officers who arrested him. The popular party now found the poi- soned chalice commended to their own lips. Hitherto, while it seemed not improbable that tlie parliament and the " patriots " would obtain power over the king, the great and degraded host of spies and informers had aimed at the ruin of "papists" and "Jesuits." But now that the kin|: had as boldiv as arbitrarily dispensed with even the shadow of parliamentary aid, and ruled as independently and almost as arbitrarily as an eastern prince, the spies and inform- ers turbed upon those who had formerly encouraged if^not actually employed them, and "presbyterian" was now pretty nearly as dangerous a title as "papist" had been; "protestant preacher" scarcely more safe than "Jesuit '' had been heretofore. Charles and his ministry encouraged the informers, and the system of perjury lost none of its infamy and vileness ; it merely aimed at a different class of victims. A joiner of London, by name Stephen College, had made himself especially con- Bpicuous during the heats and alarms of the anti -popery crisis. Loud of tongue, and somewhat weak of brain, this man, with more zeal than knowledi^c, had taken upon himself to advocate protestantism, which needed none of his aid, and to oppose po- pery, which such apposition as his could not possibly affect. He had attended the city members to Oxford armed with pistols and sword, had been in the habit of railing against the king, the duke of York and papacy, and, rather, in derision than in distinction, had acquired the title of the protestant joiner. This weak man, whose flights were fitting matter for tlie minister- ing of the physician, rather than for the interference of the law, was selected by the ministry as a fit subject of whom to make an example. He was indicted and found gnilty ot sedition, and, to the dis- grace of both king and ministers, executed. A.n. 1C83.— The iircrcasin^ power and severity of Cliarles and his ministry struck a panic throughout the nation. The man- ner in which the citv of London had been deprived of its charter, and the humiliatinv terms upon which that once powerful cor. poration had got its charter restored, soon caused the other corporations to surrender their charters voluntarily; and not onlv were considerable sums extorted for their restoration, but the king took care to re- serve in his own hands the power of ao pointing to all offices of trust and prorft That patronage which was thus discredit^ ably obtained was so enormous, that the power of the crown became overwhelm- ingly vast, and, with but a few exceptioni men agreed that resistance, even if Tuitift! able, would now be useless and helplegi. But there was a party of malcontent' weak as to number, but vigorous, influc- - tial, and bold; and absolute a» Charles was, and unassailable as to most people his power must have seemed, his life, even was, at this timCj in a most imminent peril.' The soul of the malcontents was the earl of Shaftesbury. That highly gifted but turbulent and plot-loving person had eo- gaged with the duke of Monmouth, the earl of Macclesfield, lord 'William Russell and several other noblemen, to rite nomi- nally in favour of freedom, but really to dethrone Charles; exclude, if not tlar, James ; and place the crown upon the head of the duke of Monmouth, the king's na. tural son. The earl of Macclesfield, lord Brando-) and others, were to effect a rising in Cheshire and Lancashire; sir Francis Drake, sir Francis Rowles, and sir 'William Courtney were induced by lord William Russell to head the insurrection in Devon, and generally in the west ; and Shaftesbury aided by Ferguson, a preacher of the inde- pendents, undertook to effect a general ris- ing in the city of London, where the discon- tent and disloyalty, owing to the affair of the charter, were at the greatest height. Shaftesbury urged on the plot with all his energy, and it is most probable that the kingdom would have been plunged into ell the confusion and horror of a civil war if the extreme eagerness of Shaftesbury- had not been counteracted by the extreme cau- tion of lord William Russell, who, when every thing was nearly ready for an out- break, urged the duke of Monmouth to postpone the enterprize until a more fa- vourable opportunity. The usually enter- prising and turbulent Shaftesbury now be- came so prostrated by a sense of the dan- ger in which he was placed by this post- ponement, that he abandoned his house and endeavoured to induce the Londoners to rise without waiting for the tardy co-opera- tion of the provinces ; but all his endeavours were unavailing, and in his despair he fled to Holland, where he soon afterwards died broken-hearted and in poverty. The conspirators, being thus freed from the turbulent Shaftesbury, formed a com- mittee of six ; Hampden, KCandson to the Hampden who made so much opposition to the ship money, Algernon Sidney, How- ard, Essex, and lord William Russell; Mon- mouth being their grand leader and centre of correspondence, his chief adviser, hov- A.n. IC83.— A FRNNT-rOST VIB8T BBTABLI8HBO IN LONDON. A.D. 1683.— TBx inrAMoua JUfiaa jKvvBBf ■ m aob lobd CBiir jvitici. lEnglantl.— l|ousc of Stuart Circles M. 397 «T«r, being the duke of Argyle. There were nnmeroui subordinates in this conspiracy ; and it is afBrmed, by the friends of the me- mory of lord William Russell, that he and the leaders did not encourage and were not even perfectly cognisant of the more atrocious part of the ttlan of those conspirators who bad agreed to assassinate the king on his way to Newmarket. We confess that it ap- pears to us to be making a large demand in- deed upon our credulity to suppose any thing of the kind, bat we have not space to go into the arguments which mi^ht be adduced in favour of tlie supposition that, however willing the chief conspirators mlglit be to leave the horrible crime of auaitination to subordinates, tliey were at leut quite willing that such crime should be perpetrated to the profit of their main design. , . The plan of tlie conspirators against the life of the king was to secrete themselves on a farm belonging to one of them, the Rye-house, situated on the road to New- market, overturn a cart there to obstruct the royal carriage, and then deliberately Are upon the king. After much consultation it was determined to carry this dastardly plot into execution on the king's return from Newmarket. About a week before the time at which his majesty was to do so, the house in which he resided at Newmarket took fire, and he was obliged to remove to London. Tliis circumstance would merely have postponed the " fate" of tiis niigesty, but in the course of the time that was thus lost to the conspirators, one of their num- ber, named Keiling, found himself in danger of prosecution for having arrested the lord mayor of London, and to save himself from the consequences he waited upon the king's ministers and revealed all that he knew of the plot against the king, and colonel Ramsey and a law]rer named West joined him in becoming king's evidence. Mon- moutl and Grey escaped, lord William Rus- sell was apprehended and sent to the Tower, as, shortly afterwards, were Essex, Sidney, and Hampden, together with lord Howard, who was found in a chimney. That ignoble nobleman, though fully as gailtv as the rest, immediately agreed to save his own recreant life by becoming evi- dence against his former associates, who seemed .lore indignant and disgusted at that treachery than aGfected by the peril in which it placed them. Colonel Walcot, an old republican officer, together with Stone and Rouse, were first put upon trial, and condemned upon the evidence of their former associates, colonel Rumsel and the lawyer West. Lord William RuHsell and Algernon Sid- ney were condemned chiefly on the evi- dence of lord Howard. In the case of Sid- ney, however, the evidence of Howard was most unconstitutionally eked out bjr con- struing as treasonable certain writings, merely speculative, though of republican tendency, which were seized at his house. Both Russell and Sidney were condemned and executed. Hampden was more fortu- nate, and escaped with a fine of forty thou- sand pounds. Hollowny, a merchant of Bristol, who had been engaged in this das- tardly conspiracy, escaped to the West In- dies ; and sir Thomas Armstrong, who was similarly situated, escnped to Holland. But so eagerly vindictive had Charles and his ministry by this time been rendered by the numerous plots, real and oreiended, that both of those persons were brought over to England and executed. Lord Essex would also probably have been executed, but be- ing imprisoned in the Tower he there com- mitted suicide by cutting his throat. Judging from the severity with which Charles proceeeded on this occasion, it is but reasonable to presume he would either have carried his despotism to a frightful pitch, or have fallen a victim to the equally unjustifiable violence of some malcontent. But his naturally fine constitution was now completely broken up by his long and furi- ous course of dissipation, and a fit of apo- plexy seiawd him, from which he was but partially recovered by bleeding ; he expired in the fifty-fifth year of his age and the twenty-fifth of his reign. Much might be said in dispraise of Charles, both as man and monarch; hut impartial juatice demands that we should make a great allowance for the unfavour- able circumstances under which the best years of his youth and manhood were spent. Poverty for mouths, poverty so extreme that he and his followers were at times without a single coin and owed their very food to the kindness of their hosts, was oc- casionally followed by a temporary plenty ; and his companions were, for the most Eart, precisely the persons to encourage iin in every extravagance to which so wretchedly precarious a life was calculated to induce hira. Even the cruelty and des potism of his latter years visibly had their chief cause in the political villain? and vio- lence of considerable bodies of his people. No such excuse can be made for bis ex- travagant liberality to his numerous mis- tresses ; and for the wholly cruel and mean treatment he bestowed upon his wife we know of no decorous epithet that is suffi- ciently severe. Tliat Charles was not naturally of a cruel, or even of a sufficiently severe turn, a remarkable proof is afforded by the story of a ruffian named Blood ; a story so sin- fular, that we think it necessary to give it y way of appendix to this reign. Blood, who had served in Ireland, had, or fancied that he had, considerable claims upon the government, and being refused satisfac- tion by the duke of Ormond, he actually waylaid and seized that nobleman on his return from an evening party in Lon- don, and would have hanged him but for, the occurrence of a mere accident which enabled the duke to escape. A desperado of this sort could not fail to be in frequent trouble and distress ; and he at length was reduced to such extreme straits, that with some of his associates he formed a plan for purloining the regalia from the jewel-house e M e f m M M M * f *> •s K D ■ H f ■ M ■ s< « IS A.D. 1683.— PBINCBB8 ARNB MABBIBO TO FBtHCB OROROB OF DBHMABK. [2 If A.D. 1685.— COBOMATION OV TBI KING AND QUIBIf, AFBIb 23, 398 ^^e ^rcasut^ of 1^istotp> $cc. in the Tower. He contrived to ingratiate tiimielf with the old couple who had charge of the valuable jewel*, and took an oppor- tunity to bind both the pnan and woman and make off with all the most valuable articles. Though flred at by the sentry he got clear as far as Tower-hill, where he was apprehended after a desperate Strug- Ele. 8o enormous an outrage, it might ave been anticipated, would be expiated only by the severest punishment; but the king not only forgave Blood, but even gave him a considerable annual pension to ena- bl(i him to live without farther criminality. A rare proof of the native easiness of the king's temper I Though it must be added that the duke of Buckingham, who detested Ormond, was on that account supposed to have used hik vast influence in favour of Blood. CHAPTEa LV. The Reign qf Jambs II. A.D. 1685.— Thb somewhat ostentations manner in which the duke of York had been accustomed to go to mass, during the life of his brother, bad been one great cause of the general dislike in which Ik was held. Even Charles, giddy and careless es he in general was, saw the imprudence of James's conduct, and significantly told him on one occasion that he had no desire to go upon his travels again, whatever James might wish. On ascending the throne, the first, very first act of James was one of an honest but most imprudent bigotry. Incapable of reading the signs of the times, or fully pre- pared to dare the worst that those signs could portend, James immediately sent his agent, Caryl, to Rome, to apologize to the pope for the long and flagrant heresy of England, and to endeavour to procure the re-admission of the English people into the communion of the catholic church. The pope was either less blind or more politic than James, and returned him a very cool answer, implying that before he ventured upon so arduous an enterprize as that of changing the professed faith of nearly his entire people, he would do well to sit down and calculBte the cost. Even this grave and sensible rebuke did not deter James from exerting himself both by fear and favour to make proselytes of his subjecta. Hated as he already was, such conduct could not fail to encourage conspiracies against him, and, accordingly, he had not been long seated upon the throne, when he found a dangerous rival in the duke of Monmouth. 'Tbis illegitimate son of Charles II. had obtained, from the easy nature of his father, a pardon for his snare in the Kye-house plot, which was fatal to so many better men; but had received his j^ardcm only on condition of perpetual residence abroad. He remained in Holland during the whole remainder of his father's reign, but on the accession of James was dis- missed by the prince of Orange.^ This dis- niisgal was said to be at the direct solici- tation of James, who bore a great hatred to Monmouth ; if so, the act was as im. politic as it was mean. The duke now found refuge for a short time at Bruiiels but here arain the influence of James was brought to near upon him ; and Monmouth now, thoroughly exasperated, and relyioK upon the detestation in which James wu held, resolved to make an attempt to oust him from the English throne. At this dis- tance of time such a project m the part of Monmouth seems perfectly iusane ; but it will seem far less so if we make due allow- ance for the widely-spread and intense hatred which the peoule bore to James, and for the great popularity of Monmouth, whom many people believed to be the le- gitimate son of Charles, it being comuionly affirmed that Charles had privately married Lucy Waters, the duke's mother. The duke of Argyle, who, as well as Monmouth, had escaped the consequences of the Rye-house plot, now agreed to aid him ; it was intended that Argyle should raise Scotland, while Monmouth was to take the lead in the west of England, where he was peculiarly popular. Argyle promptly commenced his part of the affair by landing in Scotland, where he soon found himself at the head of an army of two thousand five hundred men. He is- sued manifestoes containing; the usual mix- ture of truth and falsehood, but before his eloquence could procure him any consider- able accession of force he was attacked by a powerful body of the king's troops. Ar- gyle himself fought gallantly, and was se- verely wounded ; but his troops soon gave way in every direction, and the duke was shortly afterwards seized, while standing up to his neck in a pool of water, and car- ried to Edinburgh. Here the authorities and populace, with the small spite of mean spirits, avenged themselves, by the inflic- tion of every description of indignity, for the fright their brave though turbulent and imprudent prisoner had caused tliem. On his way to the place of execution he was jeered and insulted by the rabble ; and the magistrates suspended to his neck a book containing an account of his former exploits. These insults, however, nothing affected the high spirit of Ar>;yle, who con- tented himself with sarcastically tellini; his persecutors that he deemed it well that they had nothing worse to allege against his character. He suffered with the same composure. Monmouth, in the mean time, with scarcely more than a hundred followers, landed on the coast of Dorsetshire; and we may judge of the greatness of his panu- larity from the fact, that though he landed with 80 slender a retinue, he assembled upwards of two thousand men in four days. As be proceeded to Taunton he increased his force to six thousand, and could have had double that number, only that lie was obliged after the first few days to refuse all but such as could bring their own arms with them. At Bridgewater, Wells, and Frome lie was joined by great numbers of young men, the A. O. 1685.— THB BTANDINa ABMT INCBBA8ED VBOU /,000 TO 15,000. A.D. 1685. — THB BOICT OF HARTMI RBTOKBB BT LOVIS BIT. OV FBAROB. lEnglanti.— l^ouat of Stuart.— 3lamc8 SS. 399 loni, chiefly, of the better lort of fannen; and such was the enthusiasm that waa DOW excited on his behalf, that James be- gan, and with good reason, to tremble for Bit throne. But Monmouth was esaenti. ally unequal to the vaat enterprize that he bad undertaken. Though he had much of bis father's personal courage, he had still more of his father's levity and love of show and gaiety. At every town in which he arrived he spent precious time in the idle ceremony of being proclaimed king, and (bus frittered away the enthusiaam and hopes of his own followers, while giving time to James to concentrate force enough to crush him at a blow. Nor did the error of Monmouth end here. Lord Gray was the especial favourite of the duke, and was thertfore deemed the fittest man to be en- trusted with the command of the insurgent cavalry ; though it was well known that he was deficient in judgment, and stronglv suspected that he was not overhurthened. with either courage or zeal. Fletcher of SallouD, a brave and direct, though pas- sionate and fice-spoken man, strongly re- monstrated with tne duke upon this glar- ingly impolitic appointment, and finding his remonstrances productive pf no effect, retired from the expedition in disgust. Even the loss of this zealous though stern friend did not move the duke, who con- tinued his confidence to Gray,— to repent when repentance could be of no avail. While Monmouth bad been wasting very precious time in these idle mockeries of royal pomp, James and his friends had been far otherwise and more usefully employed. Six British regiments were recalled from Holland, and three thousand regulars with a vast number of militia were sent, under Fevershani and Churchill, to attack the rebels. The royal force took up ita posi- tion at Sedgemoor, near Bridgwater. They were, or seemed to be, so carelessly posted, that Monmouth determined to give them the attack. The first onset of the rebels was so enthusiastic that the royal infantry gave way. Monmouth waa rather atrong in cavalry, and a single good charge of that force would now have decided the day [in his favour. But Gray fully confirmed all the suspicions of his cowardice, and, while all were loudly calling upon him to charge, he actually turned his horse's head and fled from the field, followed by the greater number of his men. Whatever were the previous errors of the royal commanders, they now amplv atoned for them by the prompt and able manner in which tl ey availed themselves of Monmouth's want of generalship and Gray's want of manhood. The rebels were charged in flank again and again, and being utterly unaided by their cavalry, were thrown into complete and irretrievable disorder, after a desperate fight of above three hours. It is due to the rebel troops to add, that the courage which they displayed was worthy of a better cause and better leaders. Bank after rank fell and died on the very spot on which they had fought ; but commanded as they were, valour waa thrown away and devotion merely another term for destruction. But the real horrors of this insurrection only began when the battle waa ended. Hundreds were slain in the pursuit i quar« ter, by the stern order of James, being in- variably refused. A special commission was also issued for the trial of all who were taken prisoners, and judge Jeffreys and colon^^ Xirk, the latter a soldier of fortune who y .jt served much among the Moors and ^iccome thoroughly brutalized, carried that commission into effect in a manner which has rendered their names eternally detestable. The terror which these brutallv severe men inspired so quickened the zeal of the authorities, and aflbrded so much en- couragement to informers, whether ac- tuated by hate or hire, that the prisons all over England, but especially in tne western counties, were speedily filled with unfortu- nate people of both sexes and of all ages. In some towns the prisoners were so nn- merous, that even the brutal ferocity of Jeffreys was wearied of trying in detail. Intimation was therefore given to great numbers of prisoners, that their only chance of mercy rested upon their pleading guilty; but all the unfortunate wretches who were thus beguiled into that plea were instantly and en maue sentenced to death by Jeffreys, who took care, too, that the sentence should speedily be executed. The fate of one venerable lady excited great remark and commiseration even in that terrible time of general dismay and widely spread suffering. The lady in ques- tion, Mrs. Gaunt, a person of some for- tune, known loyalty, and excellent cha- racter, was induced by sheer humanity to five shelter to one of the fugitives from edgemoor. It being understood that the sheltered would be pardoned on condition of giving evidence against those who had dared to shelter them, this base and un- grateful man informed against his bene- factress, who was inhumanly sentenced to death by Jeffreys, and actually executed. Kirk, too, was guilty of the most enormous and filthy cruelties, and it seemed doubtful whether Jeffreys and his stern master in- tended only to intimidate tht people of England into submission, or actually and fully to exterminate them. Monmouth, whose rash enterprise and unjustified ambition had caused so much confusion and bloodshed, rode from the fatal field of Sedgemoor at so rapid a pace, that at about twentjr miles distance his horse fell dead beneath him. The duke had now of all his numerous followers but one left with him, a German nobleman. Monmouth being in a desolate part of the country, and at 80 considerable a distance from the scene of battle and bloodshed, entertained some hope that he might escape by means of disguise, and meeting with a poor shep- herd, ne gave the man some gold to ex- change clothes with him. He and his Ger- man friend now filled their pockets with field peas, and, provided only with this BBVBKAL rnOTISTANT CUABITT SCHOOLS OPBNBD IN AKt ABOUT tOKnON. A.B. 1(I87>— ArTIB KiriATBD FBOBOOATIOR*, FABLIAMBUff WAI BIIIOLTBD. 400 ?!r^t ^reasttro of llistor?, $cc. wretched food, proceeded, toward* night- fall, to conceal themselves amonK the tall fern which grew rankly and abundantly on the •urrounding moora. But tlw pursuer* and avenger* of blood were not au far dii- tBut a* tlic misRuided duke luppoted. A Earty of horse, navin;; followed closely in is track, came up with the peasant with whom h« had exchanged clothe*, and from this man'* information the duke was speedily discovered and dragged from his hiding-place. His miserable plight and the horrors of the fate that he but too cor- rectly anticipated, had now so completely unmanned him, that he burst into an agony of tears, and in the most humble manner implored his captor* to allow him to escape. But the reward offered for his apprehen- sion wa* too tempting, and the dread of the king's aBg«r too great, to be overcome by the unhappy captive's solicitations, and he was hurried to prison. Even now his clinging to life prevailed over the manifest dictates of common-senie, and from hi* prison he sent letter after letter to th« king, filled with tli« most abject entireaties to be aUowed to live. The natural character of Jatnes and the stern severity with which he had punished the rebellion of the meaner offenders, might have warned Monmouth that these degrading submission* would avail him nothing. But, in fact, his own absurdly offensive manner during his brief period of anticipative triumph would have steeled the heart of a far more placable sovereign than James. Monmoath'* pro- clamation* had not stopped at calling upon the people of England to rebel agaiuat their undoubtedly rightfUl aovereign ; they had in a manner, wiiich would have been revolting if the very excei* of its virulence had not rendered it absurd, vilitied the per- sonal character of Jame* ; and while tiiu* offending him as a man, had at the same time offered him the still more unpardon- able offence of attacking hi* religion. James had none of the magnanimity which in these circumstances of personal affront would have found an argument for pardon- ing the treason, in order to avoid even the appearance of punishing the personality ; and from the moment that Monmouth was captured, his fate wa* irrevocably sealed. Bad a* Monmouth's conduct had been, it is not without contempt that we read that James, though determined not to spare him, allowed him to hope for mercy, and even granted him an interview. Admitted to the presence of the king, Monmouth was weak enough to renew in person the abject sub- missions and solicitations by which he had already degraded himself in writing. As he knelt and implored his life, James sternly handed him a paper. It contained an ad- mission of his illegitimacy, and of the utter falsehood of the report that Lucy Waters had ever been married to Charles II. Mon- mouth signed the paper, and James then coldly told him that his repeated treasons rendered pardon altogether out of the ques- tion. The duke now at length perceived that hope was at an end, rose from his sup. plicant posture, and left the apartment with an assumed lirmness in his step and an as. sumed scorn in his countenance. When led to the scaffold Monmouth be- haved with a degree of fortitude that could scarcely have been anticipated from his previous abjectness. Having learned that the executioner was the same who had be- headed lord William Russell, and who had put that nobleman to much agony, the duke gave the man some money, and good-bu- mouredly warned him to be more expert in his busines* on the present occasion. The warning; had an effect exactly opposite to what Monmouth intended. The man was so confbsed, that at the lirst blow he only wounded that sufferer's neck; and Mon- mouth, bleeding and ghastly with pain and terror, raised his head from the block. Hi* look of agony *till fartlier unnerved the man, wiio made two more ineffectual stroke*, then threw down the axe in despair and disgust. The reproaches and threats of the sheriff, however, caused him to re- sume his revolting task, which at two strokes more he completed, and Jamea, duke of Monmouth was a lifeless corpse. Monmouth was popular, and therefore his fate was deemed hard. But his treason was wholly unjustifiable, his pretended claim to the crown a* abinrdly groundless a* the claim of the *on of a known harlot could be ; and pity i* far le** due to bis memory than to that of the anfortunate people whom he deluded into treason by his rashness, and delivered to the gallows by his incapacity and obstinacy. Saving nothing of the vast numbers who feu in actual fight or in the subsequent pursuit, for their fate was at the least, compara- tively, enviable, upwards of twenty were hanged by the military; and Jefferies hang- ed eighty at Dorchester, and two hun- dred and fifty at Taunton, Wells, and Exe- ter. At other places still farther victims were made ; and whipping, imprisonment, or ruinous fines were inflicted upon hun- dreds in every part of the kingdom. And all this misery, let us not forget, arose out of the rebellion and the fraudulent as well as absurd pretensions of the duke of Mon- mouth. A* though the civil dissensions of the kingdom had not been sufficiently injurious, the most furious animosities existed on the score of reli^on. The more James dis- played his bigotry and his zeal for the re- establishment, or, at the least, the great encouragement and preference of popery, the more zealously was he opposed by the popular preachers, who lost no opportunity of impressing upon the people a deep sense of the evils which they might anticipate from a return to the papal system. The terrors and the blandishments which the king by turns employed caused many per- sons of lax conscience to affect to be con- verted to papacy. Dr. Sharpe, a protestant clergyman of London, distinguished him- self oy the just severity with which he de- nounced these time-servers. His majesty A. D. 1687.— THB QUAKEBS >r TBBIB HATS IN DBFBRBKCB TO TUB BINS. K 1 bef K hot s wei his a 1 4 the rit. bee for a I tim l.S. 1688.— BBITIIH lUBJKOTI rOBBIDDIN TO BBTaB INTO rOBKIBN IBBVIGB. a I M u r. p u H M It « a ■ e * t a lEnglanir — ^l^ousc of Stuart — 3)amc9 3ES. 401 WM 10 much annoved and enraged at the doctor** sermons, that he issued an order to the biaUop of London to suspend Bharpe from his clerical functions until farther notice. The bishop very properly Refused to comply with tliis arbitrary and unconsti> tntionRi order. The king then determined to include the bishop in his punishment, and issued an ecclesiastical commission, (riving to the seven persons to whom it was directed an unlimited power in matters cle- rical. Before the commissioners thus au- thorized both the bishop and Or. Sliarpe were summoned, and sentenced to be sus- pended during the king's pleasure. Tliouxh a bigot, James was undoubtedly a sincere one. He readily^ believed that all arffument would end in favour of popery, and that all sincere and teachable spirits would become papists if fall latitude were given to teaching. In this belief he now determined on a universal indulgence of conscience, and a formal declaration informed the people that all sectaries should have full indulgence, and that nonconformity was no longer a crime. He again, too, sent a message to Rome offering to reconcile his people to the papal power. But the carl of Castlemain, who was now employed, met with no more success than Ca/yll had met with at an earlier period rf the king's reign. The 5 ope understood governing better than ames, and better understood the actual temper of the English people. He knew that much might, with the aid of time, be done in the way of undermining the sup- ports of the protestant church ; while the rash and arbitrary measures of James were calculated only to awaken the people to watchfulness and inspire them with a spi- rit of resistance. Not even Rome could discourage James from prosecuting his rash measures. He encouraged the Jesuits to erect colleges in various parts of the country ; the catholic worship was celebrated not only openly but ostentatiously ; and four catholic bishops, after having publicly been consecrated in the kings' cliapel, were sent to exercise their functions of vicars apostolical throughout the kingdom. But the king was not unopposed. He recommended father Francis, a Benedic- tine monk, to the university of Cambridge, for the degree of master of arts. The university replied by a petition, in which they preyed the king to excuse them upon the ground of the father's religion. An en- deavour was then made to terrify the uni- versity bv summouing the vice-chancellor before the high commission court; bjit both that functionary and his university were firm, and father Francis was refused his degrees. The sister university of Oxford displayed the like conscientious and determined spi- rit. The presidency of Magdalen college becoming vacant, the king recommended for that lucrative and honourable situation a Dr. Farmer, who was a new and merely time serving convert to papacy, and who. in other respects, was by no means the sort of character who vtauld do honour to so high a preferment. The fellow* respeet- fully but firmly refUsed to obey the king*! mandate for the election of thik man, and James showed his sense of the refUsal by ejecting all but two of them flrom their fel- lowship*. A. D. 1688.— An Increasing disalTectlon to the king was the inevitable consequence of his perseverance in this arbitrary course^ instances of which we might extend over very many of even our capacious pages. But heedless alike of the murmurs of hi* own subjects and of the probable effect of those murmurs upon the minds of foreign princes, James issued a second declaration of libertv of conscience. A* if to add in- sult to this evident blow at the established church, James ordered that this second de- claration should be read by all clergymen at the conclusion of divine aervice. The dignitaries of the church of England now considered that farther endurance would argue rather lukewarmness for the church or gross personal timidity, than mere and due respect to the sovereign, and they de- termined firmly, though temperately, to re- sist at this point. Accordingly Bancroft, archbishop of Can- terbury, Lloyd, bishop of St. Asaph, Kenn, bishop of Bath«nd Wells, Turner, bishop of Ely, Lake, bishop of Chichester, White, bishop of Peterborough, and Trclawney, bishop of Bristol, drew up a respectful me- morial to the king, in which they stated that their conscientious respect to the pro- testant religion as by law established would not allow them and their clergy to yield obedience to his mandate. The king treated this petition as something approaching to a treasonable denial of his rights. The arch- bishops and bishops were summoned before him at the council, and he sternly asked them if they ventured to avow their peti- tion. The question remained for some time unanswered ; but at length the prelates replied in the affirmative, and were imme- diately, on their declining to give bail, com- mitted to the Tower on the charge of having uttered a seditious libel. On the twenty-ninth of June in this year the trial of the bishops took place ; and as it was evident that in defending the church the prelates were also, and at a most im- portant crisis, boldly standing forward a* the champions of the whole nation, the pro- ceedings were watched with a most intense interest by men of every rank, and, save a few bigoted or interested papists, by men of every shade of religious opinion. The law- yers on either side exerted themselves gn^eatly and ably; and two of the judges, Fowel and Holloway, plainly declared their opinion to be in favour of the bishops. The jury, however, even now had grave doubts, and remained in deliberation during the entire night. On the following morn- ing Westminster-hall was literally crowded with spectators anxious to know the result, and when the jury appeared and returned a verd.ct of "Not guilty," a mighty cheer UNLICENSED BOOKS AMD PAMrHLBTS SVPrRkBSBD BT FHOCIiAMATION. [iM3 A.B. 1088.— IMTRRA DllTkOTID Bt AN lAKTHaUAKa, JIILI 10. 2 B 4 s m ; 9 K M H 8 K M O *■ a «s a •• I e M u m 8 ■ aroM within the hall, wai taken up by the crowds outaide, and patted from ttreet to itreet, ttook town to country, and from viU lage to village. Janiet wat at the time dining with lord Favertharo in the camp at Ilountlow, ten milei from London. The eheert of the people reached even to tbit dittance, and were re- echoed by the loldiert with a heartinett and loudnett that ac- tually alarmed Jamet, who eagerly enquired what that noise could mean. " It it nothing, tire," replied one of the attendantt, " but the toldiera thouting at the acquittal of the bithopt." " And do you call that nothing t" replied Jamet i " but it thall be all the worse for them all." The thoutt of the soldiers at the failure of Jamet't arbitrary attempt against the bithopt wat, indeed, an ominout iiRn of the timet. Hia eftortt for Rome had been repudiated and discouraged by Rome ; and now even his verv soldiery, upon whom alone he could rely for strength, tcstitied their sympathy with the popular cause. But the infatuated monarcli did not even yet know the full extent of his peril. Many of the leading men of the kingdom were in close though cautions correspondence with a foreign potentate, and the most extensive and formidable preparations were being made to liurl James troni a throne which he had so signally proved himself unworthy to fill. Mary, eldest daughter of Jtmes, wat war- ried to William, prince of U^all;•^ who wat at once the subtle and profound politician and the accomplished and tried soldier. To this able and protestant prince the mal> contents of England, who now, through James's incurable infatuation, included all that was best and most honourable at well at mott intluential of the nation, turned their eyet for deliverance. lie had long been aware of the discontcntt that existed in England, but kept up an appearance of {icrfect amity with the king, and even in lit correspondence with the leading men of the opposition warily avoided committing himtelf too far, and affected to dissuade tncm from proceeding toextreuiities against their sovereign. But the ferment occa- sioned by the affair of the bithopt encou- raged him to throw off the mask ; he bad lonf been making preparations for such a crisis, and he now resolved to act. He had hit preparations so complete, indeed, that in a abort time after the acquittal of the bishops, he dropped down the canals and rivera firom Nimeugen with a well ttored fleet of five hundred vesselt and an army of upwards of fourteen thoututd men. As all William's preparations had been made on Eretext of an intended invasion of France, • actually landed in England, at Torbay, without having excited the tlightett alarm in the mind of James. William now marched hit army to Exe- ter and issued proclamations, in wh'ch he invited the people to aid him in delivering them from the tyranny under which they groaned; but such a deep and general terror had been ttrmck into that neighbourhood by the awftil tcenet that had lollowed the affair of Monmouth, that even the numer out and well appointed force of William en- couraged but few volunleert to join him Ten dayt elapted, and William, contrattini the apathy of the people with the cnthuii- attic invitationi he had received fVom many of the leading men^of the country, began to despair, and even to contult with hit of. ficers on the propriety of reimbarking, and leaving so faithless a gentry and to apt- thetic a populace to endure the niiieriei which they dared not rise againtt. But at this critical moment he was joined by some men of great infiuence and note t his arri- val and his force became generdiy known, and multitudes of all ranks now declared in his favour. The movement once commenced, the re- volution was virtually accomplished. Even the most favoured nnd confldential servants of James now abandoned him ; and what- ever might have been the faults of the un- fortunate king, it is impossible not to feel deep di'.gust at the unnatural and ungrate- ful conduct of some of those who now coldly abandoned him in the moment nf of his deepest perplexity and need. Lord Churchill, for instance, afterwards duke of Mnrlfaorough, end undoubtedly one of the greatest generals England hat ever poaset- ted, acted upon tfait occasion with a moat scandalous ingratitude. Originaliv only a page in the royal household, he had by the King's favour been raised to high command and lucrative honours. But now when his talents and his sword were moat needed by the king, he not only deserted him, but alio influenced several other leading characters to desert with him, including the duke of Grafton, an illegitimate ton of Charles II, But the most shameful desertion, and that which the most deeply pained end dis- gusted the unfortunate king, was that of the princess Anne, who had ever been his most favoured and, teemini(ly, his moat attached daughter. But this illustrious lady, and her husband the prince of Den- mark, now joined the rest in deserting the king, who in his too tardy sense of his help- less situation passionately exclaimed, " God help me 1 Even my own children desert me now." Unable to rely upon his troops, seeing only enraged enemies among alt ranks of his subjects, and so deserted by his court that he had scarcely the necessary personal attendance, he sefit the queen, who had recently been confined of a ton, over to Ca- lais ; and then, with only one attendant, sir Edward Hales, a new convert to popery,' whose fidelity to his unhappy master can- not be too highly applaudeid, he secretly left London, intending to follow the queen to France. He was recognised and stop- Sed by the mob, but being cotitined at Rochester he was to carelessly guarded that he was able — probably from secret orders given by William, whom his deten- tion would have embarrassed — to escape with his natural sou the duke of Berwick) i BT ADvicB or japvanrs, tbb old cbabtbb or i.ondon was BESTonitD. A.B. 1880.— TBI MABBAI OOarOI ACT IDIPinDBD FOS THI FIBIT TIMI. lEnglanti.— l^oust of Stuatt — 2!2ailUam Ml. 403 ■nd therarriTed Mfelr in France. He wa« well received by the French court, and en- foumgcd to.perievere in the intention he Miiietied of at least making an endeavour to reconquer hie kingdom. But that kingdom had finally rejected him, and wai even at that moment engaged in diieuiting the meaua of erecting a ■«• care and free government upon the rtiini of hi* most unwUe, gratuitoui, and abiurd deipotiim. CHAPTER LVI. The Reign (/William III. i.D. 1689.— Thi most influential mem- ben of both hoiiBea of parliament, the privy council, with the arcnbishop of Can- terbnry, the lord mayor and other leading men, now debated upon the course that ought to be taken. Kinif James was alive; he had not formally resigned hit throne ; no actual hottilltiei had taken place be- tween him and his people, nor bad he by arms or by law been formally deposed. But he had fled from his kingdom at the mere appearance of an invader, and on the he mere, however well-founded, assump- tion of the hostility of hia people and their c. ;ert with the invading power. A clearer cue of constructive abdication it would not be easy to conceive, and both houses of parliament at once proceeded to vote that the king had abdicated. But another and more difficult point nc-v remained for consideration. Taking t). ' king's abdlcatioii lo be undisputed — who was to succeed hlmT Could he, because weary of tlie throne or unable to maintain himself upon it, cut off the entail uf the throne t His queen was recently delivered of a son \ that son, by the well known En- glish law of succession, had right of inheri- tance prior to the princesses ; ought he not, then, to be made king, and a regency ap- pointed ? But, if so, would not the pater- nity of James enable him to continue his despotism through his son when the latter should attain his mfOorlty 7 The point was a most important one, and as difficult of solution ns it was important ; but we have ever been of opinion that the leading states- men of that day decided upon it very much in the spirit of the son of Philip, who cat the Gordian knot ik'hich he found himself unable to untie. The revolution was, un- doubtedly, a necessary one, for James's ty- ranny was great and insensate ; and it was a glorious one, inasmuch as it was accom- plished without bloodshed. But these con- siderations, important as the^ are, must not prevent ns from denouncing the in- justice with which the leading men of En- gland, finding themselves in g^'eat and grievous difficulty how to reconcile their own liberties and the rights of the infant son of the abdicated king, pronounced that son tujfipotititintu ! The most ridiculous tales weire told and credited; it was even avenged that the queen had never been pregiiRitt at all, but that the child who was now jtironounced supposititious had been conveyed to the apartments uf the queen from those of its real mother in a warming pan I But when men have determined upon injustice any pretext will serve their turn. The young prince, then, was pronounced illegitimate, and the throne being vacant it was then proposed to raise the princess of Orange, Jainrs's eldest daughter, to the throne as her hereditary right. But to this course there was an innupcrable and unex- pected obstacle. The high and stern ambi- tion of the prince of Orange forbade him. In his own coarKA but expressive phrase, " to accept of a kingdom which he was to hold only by his wife's apron strings." He would either have the crown conferred upon himself, or he would return to his own country and leave the English to settle their own dlflicultles as they best might; and accordingly the crown was settled upon Ayililam and Mary and their heirs, the ad- ministration of affairs being vested in Wil- liam alone. Though the declaration of toleration is- sued by James had given such drrp and pneral off'ence, it had done so only as it indicated the desire of James to deprive both the church of England and the dis- senter of security from the inroads of pa- pacy. Presuming from this ftict that tolera- tion would not in it^lf be disagreeable to the nation, William commenced his reign by an attempt to tepeal the laws that com- manded uniformity of worship. But the English, as has well been remarked, were "more ready to examine the commands of their superiors than to obey them; and William, although looked upon ns the de- liverer of the nation, could only so fnr suc- ceed in this design, as to procure toleration for such dlsscuters as should hold no pri- vate conventicles and should take the oaths of allegiance. The attention of William, however, was very speedily called from the regulation of his new kingdom to the meai^ures necessary for its preservation. James, as we have said, was received In France with great friendship; and Ireland, mainly catholic, still remained true to lim. Having assem- bled all the force he could, therefore, James determined to make Ireland his point d'ap- pui, and, embarking at Brest, he landed at the port of Kinsale on the 22nd of May, inS'J. Here every thing tended to flatter his hopes. Ills progress to Dublin was a sort of triumph. Tyrconnel, the lord lieute- nant, received hiin with loyal warmth and respect; the old army was not merely faith- ful but zealous, and was very eosily in- creased bv new levies to the imposing force of forty thousand men. Some few towns in Ireland, being chiefly inhabited by protestants, had declared for king William, and among these was Derry, or Londonderry, and to this town James at once proceeded to lay siege. The mili- tary authorities would probably have hern glad to have .delivered the platie up to their lawful sovereign ; but a clergyman, Mr, George Walker, placed himself at the head of the protestant Inlinhitants of the town. A.D. IC89'. — WILLIAM AW0 MAnr CUOWNKD AT WESTMIWSTKn, APRIL 11. A.D. lauO.— MARLauiiovaa, at tbi miad or 10,000 404 t!r^c lExtM\xx\ii oC l^istorp. %c(. and worked up their inindii to luch • pitch of enthuMBini, that they resolved to hold out the place, until it tbould be relieved by William, or perieh in the attempt. The enihuiiaem spread to the very lowest and weakest of . the population i and though famine and fever made fearful ravages, and iueh loathsome objects as cats and rats be- came coveted for food, the bcsicKed still held out. This devotion was at length re- warded. A store-ship, heavily laden with tirovision, broke the boom which hnd beeii aid across the rivur, and the rnmislied in- habitants of Dcrry received at once an abundant supply of provisions and a most welcome addition to their garrisnn of hale and fresh men. James during this obsti- nate siege had lost nine thousand of his troops, and as the aid now thrown into the town rendered his success mure unlikely than ever, he withdrew his army in the night, and prepared to meet William, who in person was about to attack him. A. D. 1690.— The hostile armies came in light of each other upon the opposite sides of the river Iloyne, which might easily have been forded but for ditches and old houses which rendered the banks defensible. To this facility of ambush, in fact, the life of William very nearly became a sacrilice. As he rode out along his lines to reconnoitre his opponents and determine upon his plan of battle, a cannon was secretly pointed at him, and fired with such good aim tlint he was wounded in the shoulder, several of his staff being killed by his side. On the following morning William com- menced operations by cannonading the masking houses from which he had suffered so much annoyance, and then he led over his army in three divisions. They crosiied the river without any considerable loss, formed in good order on the opposite side, and an obstinate battle ensued. The Irish, as well as their French and Swiss allies, fought well and sealously, but ihcy were inferior in cavalry ; and the furious cliarges of William's cavalry, led on by himself, at length caused the Irish to retreat, and the merely mercenary Swiss and French very speedily followed. Perhaps the victory thus gained by William was in no slight de- gree owing to the fact of his having per- sonally led on his troops, who thus were in- spired with a seal and courage which James ahould have lent to his troops by a similar Sersonal devotion and daring. But though ames's personal courage was beyond all Suestion, and bad been signally shown uring the Dutch war in the reign of his brother, he on this occasion allowed the prudence of the sovereign to outweigh the impulses of the soldier. Posted on the hill of Dunmore, which commanded the scene of action, he gazed upon the eventful battle without even detaching a squadron of the horse which surrounded him to aid in re- fiulsiug the terrible cavalry charges of Wil- iam. The defeat of the Irish army was as complete as might have been anticipated from this very opposite conduct of the op- posing leaders. Uf James's troops nearly flfteen hundred were killed and wounded while William lost barely • third of that number. But be sustained a heavy lots in- dued in the death of the brave and able duke of Schomberg, who was shot as h« crossed the river, cheering on his men. A. D. IflOl.— Disastrous as the battileof the Uoyne had proved to James, it did not altogether destroy his hopes. By great ex- ertions he i^ot an army again into condi- tion for service, and it was now committed to the leadership of general St. Ruth, • man of k nown gallantry and conduct. This army was met bv that nf the Enalish at Augh. rlin ; and the boggy nature or the grouuifin which St. Ruth had taken up an admirable fiosition enabled him to repulse the Eng- Ish with great loss in several charges. But the English, though galled and weakened, reiuriicd to the charge with Indexible reso- lution, and St. Ruth being killed by a can- non ball, his men fell into disorder, and re- treated to Limerick with the loss of up- wards of live thousand of their number. William now proceeded to besiege Lime- rick, the (garrison of which city, aided by the troops who had escaped from Auglirim, made a gallant and obstinate defence) but the English gained ground so rapidly that, to avoid the horrors which must have re- sulted from the place being taken by as- sault, the Irish leaders demanded a parley. William was neither bigoted nor cruel, and he nffcrcd no objection to the terras on which the garrison proposed to surren- der. These terms were, that the catholics of Ireland should have that freedom of religion which they had enjoyed under Charles II., and that all Irish persons should be at liberty to remove witn their families and property to any part of the world, excepting England and Scotland. Above fourteen thousand availed them- selves of tills latter stipulation, and were conveyed to France at tne expense of the English government. A. D. 1693.— William aspired to the distinc- tion of being head of the protestant interest in Europe : ticnce the country was almost perpetually engaged in continental wars; and if It were not absolutely necessary to throw the enerp;ies of the English nation into the scale, it suited the king's warlike disposition ; for though he was by no means uniformly successful at the head of bis troops, he possessed the necessary courage and fortitude, and was beyond all doubt a superior military commander. We shall not, however, enter the arena of his war- like achievements, as general of the allied armies, in the long and arduous struggle against the power and restless ambition of Louis XIV., but keep our attention fixed on those matters which more exclusively refer to England. Among these was the celebrated victorv off La Ilogue gained by the English '\na Dutch fleets, over the Freneii. Th« latter consisted of sixty- three ships, and the confederate fleet of ninety-nine ; but scarce one half could come to an engagement. The French fleet was entirely defeated, and driven to their A.D. 1693.— TUB BARL OF MAULBOnoUOa DBPRIVBD O* ALL H18 OFFICBS. A.O. 1(104.— THI "fflllBIINIAL ACl" KKCIIVIO tHB BOIAI. AISMT. 3 lEnglanti.— 1}ousc of Stuart.^astilltam lEHlE. 40A otra cout ; and •! L« Hoftua and othnr {iluci, no let* than twenty-one of their ufttl nirnof-war were de«i roved, within two or thrre dare after the battle. AmnnK the rest, the French admiral's ihip, the Riling Sun, wa« set on Hre, within ilKht of the *rmy that waa to have made a deicrnt upoD Englnnd. Not a lingle ihip wai loit on the part of the Envliih. At thii time William wai in llnllaud ; but aa soon aa the ieet arrived at Bpithead, the queen aant iOjoOOl. to be distributed anions the sail- ors, and rold medals for the oftlcers, in seknowledKment for this apleudid and timelf victory. With the celebrated treaty of Limerick periilied the last hope of James to regain tail Bnitlish dominion by the aid of Ireland. Tbe king of France allowed him a ronsi. drrsble pension, and his dauehter and Eng- liih friends occasionally aided him to a con- liderable amount. He passed his time in •tttdy, in charity, and in religious duties; snd even the poor monks of La Trappe, to whom he paid freauent visits, confessed tttemielves edifled by the mildness of his iMnners and the humilitv of hia senti- ment*. We especially dwell upon this be- haviour of James, not only because it shows in a strong point of view now bad a king a good man may he; in other words, how much of a peculiar ability must be added to the greatest and best virtues of a private man to prevent a king from failinir, to his own and bis people's vast injury, in the ful- Ulineot of the tremendous duties of the throne, but also because it goes to refUte a cruel calumny which but too many histo- riani have Joined in perpetuating upon the memory of James. Excited as roen'a minda were by the re- volution, what could be more probable than that^iffoted and ignorant admirers of the expelled James should resort to any means, however wicked, to assail William upon what they, as being still loyal to the absent king, must have viewed aa a guiltily usurped throne? The dastardly crime of assassi- nation was resorted to against William; and the vile crime of the foiled assassins haa, without the shadow of a proof, been attributed to the suggention of James. But, whether as man or monarch, every action of his life is opposed to the probability of this vile imputation. Tyrannous, arbi- trary, and bigoted he was; but he was •tern, direct, and sturdy. Even in his earlier days lie would have resorted to open force, not to dastardly treachery And after the treaty of Limerick had deprived him of all reasonable hope of recovering his kingdom, hia mind evidently became impressed with a deep sense of the worthlessness oC worldly prosperity and greatness. He became more a monk in spirit than many were who wore the monkish cowl; and so far. we think, was he from beinp; willing to remove his ■ucccssrul rival by the hand of the assassin, that it may be doubtful whether he did not deem the usurped greatness of that rival far more in the light of a curse than in that of a blessing. Jamea survived the extinction of his kinRly hopes rather mure than seven years. His ascetic way of life, acting upon a fVama much enfeebled bv previous struKglea and cliagrins, threw him into a painful and tedious disease, and he died on the aia- tcenth of September, 1700 1 his last mo. nicnts being spent in enjoining his son to e refer religion to all worldly advantaoca, owever alluring. At his own especialre- quest, made iust before his decent and manly death, Jamea waa interred, without any attempt at funereal pomp, in the church of the English Benedictines at Paris. A. o. 1097. — lu our desire to trace the royal exile James to the very close of hia eventful and unfortunate career, we have somewhat outstepped the olironological march of our history. Though an able politician, and though, at the commencement of his reign, sumci- ently well inclined to use and preserve so much prerogative as could belong to the elected monarch of a people who had re- cently beheaded one sovereign and driven another into exile, William very soon grew weary of disputing with hia cabinet. In truth, merely domestic politics were not William's forte. He had the mind and the expansive gaze of an emperor rather than the minute vicwa of a king, and waa calcu- lated rather to rule nationa than to watch over the comparatively small affaira of a single state. He saw how much the vast power of France required, for the welfare of Europe, to be kept in check ; and he gladly, therefore, allowed hia ministers to infringe upon hia prerogative aa to Eng- land, on condition of their affording him the means of regulating the disturbed ba- lance of power in Europe. The history of his reign may be aummed up iu two worda —war and funding. Aided by the real and original genius of Burnett,bishopof Sarum, William contrived that means of anticipat- ing the taxes, of mortgaging the means of the nation, which in creating the national debt has doubtless led to much evil, but which has also been the means of carrying England triumphantly through atrugglca under which it otherwise must have sunk, and to a pitch of wealth and greatness to which otherwise it could never have aa- pired, even in wiah. The treaty of Rys- wyck at length put an end to the aangni- nary and expensive war with France. It baa been observed that the only benefit ae- cured to England by that treaty was the formal recognition of William's sovereignty by the French king. But it should not be forgotten that England, in common with all the rest of Europe, was served and saved by the check given to the gigantic power and the overweening ambition of France. With war the king'a lite may almost be said to have terminated. From boyhood he had been of a feeble constitution, and long inquietude of mind and exposure of body had now completely exhausted him. Being thrown from his horse he fractured his collar-bone. It was set, but he insisted upon being carried to his favourite resi- A. n. 1698.— WHITaHALI. rALAOl BVRRT, BVCBFT TBI BAHQDBTIHa-HOVSB. A.O. 1702.— aUMN AHRI OlOWRIO AT WIITMIIISTM, AFBIl 23. 4U6 ^Ift treasure of l^istorn, (re. dence, Kensington palace. The motion of the carriage disunited tlie fractured bone, and the pain and irritation caused fever and diarrhoea, which, in spite of all that Bid- lofl and other skilful surgeons could devise, terminated the king's lite, in the thirteenth year of his reign and the fifty-second of his age. Even in his last moments the " rul- ing passion" was strong within hiin, and only two days before his death lie held a long and anxious conference on the state of Europe with the earl of Albemarle, who had brought some important intelligence from Holland. Cold and reserved in his manners, Wil- liam was far from being an amiable man. But he was moderate in his private ex- pcnces, and so devoted to war and states- manship that he had neither time nor in- clination for private vices. As a sovereign he obtained his power by an utter disre- Jtard to the feelings and interests of his ather-in-law, such as we cannot easily re- frain from taking to be the evidence of a bad heart. But he used his power well, defending the honour and the interests of his subjects abroad, and doing as much for toleration and liberty at home as they de- served—for he did all that their own pre- judices and jealousies would allow him. CHAPTER LVII. The Reign o/Annk. A. D. 1703.— William III. having surviv- ed his wife, by whom he left no issue, Anne, second daughter of James II., mar- ried to prince George of Denmark, ascend- ed the throne amidst a general satisfaction which one might reasonably have expected to be greatly checked by the remembrance of her extraordinary and unnatural treat- ment of her father in the darkest hour of his distress. Anne, at the time of her accession was in the thirty-eighth year of her age, pleas- ing in her person and manner, domestic in Iier habits, and, with the dark exception to which we have alluded, of amiable and excellent character. One of the first acts of the queen was to send a message to the house of commons announcing her intention of declaring war against France; and this intention was warmly applauded by the house I And yet the reign of this queen has been very truly called the Augustan period of literature ; so true it is tliat the ferocious instincts of mankind resist even the softening influence of letters. For war at that period Eng- land had none of that real necessity, that impulse of self-preservation as to either the present or the future, without which war is little, if at all, better than wholesale and legitimatized murder; but hatred of the French nation continued in full force, al- though the power of the French to be mis- chievous was already very greatly curtail- ed ; and the Dutch and Gnrinans not only joined England, but actually declared war against France on the very same day. Though such a combination of powers was strong enough to portend danger even to the wealthy and warlike France, the French king received the news without any appa- rent feeling, except that of mortiflcation that the Dutch should venture to be hostile to him : and this feeling he expressed by say- ing that "as for those pedlars, the Dutch they should be dearly taught to repent their impertinent presumption in declaring war against a king whose power they had formerly felt as well as dreaded." Of the campaigns that followed this de- claration of war we shall not even attempt to give the details. Even where the bu- torian's pu^es have no limit but his own will, there is, probably, no portion of his labour less useful to his readers than his minute account of battles, sieges, marches, and counter-marches, which must be un- intelligible to all except military readers, without the aid of maps so expensive that few readers can command them. But in the present case such details, besides being beyond the limits of our pages, are really unnecessary. Blenheim, Ramilics, Oude- narde, and Malplaquet, were victories as useless as they were costly and decisive ; they gratified the splendid ambition and the sordid avarice oi Marlborough, but to England they were utterly unproductive of solid benefit. It is a singular fact, and one not very cre- ditable to the nation, that while enormous treasure was wasted in sanguinary and useless victories, and the most unbounded applause was bestowed" upon the victors, one of the most important and splendid conquests ever made for England was re- warded not merely by neglect, but by abso- lute and cruel insult. We allude to the capture of Gibraltar by sir George Rooke. Sir Cloudesley Shovel and sir George Rooke had been sent out to watch a fleet which the French were known to be equip- ping at Brest, and sir George was farther ordered to convoy some transport ships to Barcelona, where the prince or Hesse made an unsuccessful attack. The troops hav- ing failed on this point, were reimoarked, and the English commanders, anxious to turn the expedition to some advantage, de- termined upon attacking Gibraltar, then in the possession of the Spaniards, who, deeming it impregnable by its own strength, kept it but inconsiderably garrisoned. In truth, the situation of Gibraltar is such that it might well lead the Spaniards into an overweening opinion of its strength ; the town standing upon a tongue of land which is defended on every side but that nearest to the Spanish territory by an in. 1 'cessible rock. Upon thut side the prince of Hesse landed eighteen hundred men, and proceeded to summon the garrison. The governor paid no attention to this summons, and on the following day the fleet commenced a warm cannonading, by which the defenders of the south mole head were driven from their post. Cap- tains Hicks and Jumper now led a nu- merous party, sword in hand, into the for- titisations, but they had scarcely landed u I * e k I I AN INCOMI or 100,000/. PKR ANNUM SRTTLRD ON FRINCI OROROa. i.s.1704.' ■ PbUNIlID riCTORT or BLBIfBICIM, aAIMID AU0V8T 13. lEnglantf— l^ouje of Stuart.— "anne. 407 when the SpuiUirdi iprune a m'ne, by which two lieutenant! and a hundred men w«re killed and wounded. The remau'der, nllantl; headed bv the ca|itain8 named ■bore, maintained their post in spite of the horrible explosion which had so fearfully thinned their numbers, and the rest of the icamen being now landed by captain Whitaker, the Mole and the town were taken by storm. When it is considered that Gibraltar has been of immense im> portance to England ever since, both in protecting our Mediterranean trade and lerving as an outfitting and sheltering port for our navies destined to aunoy an enemy, it leems incredible, but is, unfortunately, only too true, that parliament and the mi- niatry, so lavish of rewards and praise to the costly and useless services performed elsewhere, refused sir George Rooke even the formal honour of a vote of thanks, and be was shortly afterwards displaced from hii command. Philip IV., grandson of Louis XIV, of France, having been nominated king of Sonin by the will of the late king, was phKed upon the throne ; and as he was ap- parently agreeable to the mdority of his subjects, and, besides, was supported by the power of France, all opposition to him would to ordinary minds have appeared hopeless. But Charles, son of the emperor ol Germany, had formerly been nominated to the Spanish succession, and France her- self had been a party to that nomination. Charles, therefore, encourap^ed by the pro- mised support of the warlike inhabitants of the province of Catalonia, determined to Msert his right. In this determination he was strengthened by England and Portu- gal, who supplied him with two hunc>cd transports, thirty ships of war and a force of nearly ten thousand men. Considerable as this force was, it yet waa small when compared to the mighty resources of the Spanish king ({e/acto; but in the judgment or military men, as well as in the popular opinion, the comparative amallness of- Charles's force was amply compensated by the genius and romantic bravery of the commander of it, the earl of Peterborough, who gave Charles the aid of his vast fortune as well as his personal exertions. The earl of Peterborough was one cf the most extraordinary men of that age. Though very much deformed in person, he excelled in all military exercises. At fifteen he fou|;ht as a volunteer against the Moors in Alhca, and in every action he was dis- tinguished for darine and conduct. The ^eat experience he bad acquired and the influence of his character upon the sol- diery were much and justly relied on to forward the cause of Charles. His very first action justified that reliance, as he took the strong city of Barcelona with its well provided garrison of five thousand men. Had the earl of Peterborough now been left to the promptings of his own high and chivalrous spirit, there is but little room to doubt that he would have achieved still more brilliant succtr-ies. But fjme petty intrignes, by which both riiarles and the English government very weakly allowed themselves to be duped, lea to the recall of the earl, whose command was transferred to lord Galway. That no- bleman soon after came to a general action with the Spanish troons, commanded by the duke of Berwick, who had taken up • position on the plains near the town of Almanza. For a time Charles's troops, consisting chiefly of Dutch and English infantry, seemed greatly to have the ad- vantage. But in the very heat and crisis of the action, the Portuguese horse who protected either flank of Charles's line were seized with a sudden and disgraceful panic, and fled iu spite of all the efforts that were made to rally them. The duke of Berwick immediatcly'closcd in upon the exposed flanks, and Galway, losing men at every step, had barely time to throw his army into a square and retire to a neigh- bouring eminence. Here they were com- paratively free from the attacks of the enemy, but they were destitute of pro- visions and ignorant of the country ; and as it was evidently the design as it was in the power of the enemy to starve them into submission, the officers reluctantly agreed to capitulate. A fine army of ten thou- sand men thus became prisoners of war; and Philip was more firmly than ever seated upon his throne, not a voice now being raised against him excepting in the stiU malcontent province of Catalonia. Turn we now to the more important do- mestic events of this reign. Though the accession of James I. to the English throne had to a certain extent united England and Scotland, there was still an independent Scotch parliament. In practice this waa often inconvenient and always dangerous ; the votes of the Scotch parliament often ran counter to those of the English par- liament, and it required no remarkable amount of political wisdom to foresee, that, under certain circumstances, such, for in- stance, as actually occurred in the reigns of George I. and George II., this difference might be fatal by strengthening the hands of a pretender and plunging the country into a civil war. Theoretically, the separate parliament of Scotland was ridiculously indefensible. Scotland and England being already united under one crown, how ab- surd it was that the parliament at West- minster, held perfectly competent to enact laws for Cumberland and Nirthumberland, became legislatorially incapable a few feet over the border t But so much more pow- erful are custom and prejudice than reason, that the first proposal to do away with thia at once absurd and dangerous distinction was received as though it had been a pro- posal to abridge some dear and indefeasible liberty of the Scottish people. For once, reason prevailed over idle or interested clamour, and both parliaments simulta- neously passed' an act appointing and au- thuriziug commissioners, named by the quuen, to draw up articles for the parlia- mentary union of the two kingdoms— that s 0* A.D. I7O6. — TBI naCISIVB TICTORT OP RAMII.IR8, OAINKD MAT 13. #•- A. 9. I7O8.— Tai TICtOKT Of THB ALIIBI AT OUDVRABBB, iVJ.1 11. e 408 ^l^e ^reasurs of 1^{storc, $cc. term being in itself an abiurdity firom the Terr day of the death of queen Elizabeth. The commisiionen, quickened in their Jtroceedinga by the queen's expreued desire br dispatch, speedily presented for the con- sideration of tlte two parliaments a series of articles by which full provision was made for retuninrinforriall the existing laws of Scotland, except where alteration would manifestly benefit that countnr ; the courts of session and other courts of Scottish ju- dicature were also preserved, and, in fact, the main alteration was the abolition of the anomalous separate parliament of Scotland, and giving that country a representation in the parliament of Great Britain, of sixteen Eeers and forty - five commoners. There was, oth in Scotland and on the part of the tories in England, considerable opposition made to these really wise and necessary ar- ticles, but common sense and the influence of the crown at length prevailed, and the articles were passed into law by a great majority in both parliaments. Hitherto the whig n■'' newals of the riotous conduct ot :. ■' ^ e- rel's rabble friends, the sentence was ex- tremely light, merely prohibiting the doctor from preaching for three vears, and order- ing his alleged libels to be burned by the common hangman, in presence of the lord mayor and the two sheriffs. The warmth which the people in general had shown on behalf of the doctor showed n extensive a prevalence of tory princi- ples, that the queen's secret advisers of that party thought that they might now lafely recommend a dissolution of parlia- ment. The queen complied, and a vast majority of tories was returned to the new parliament. Thus convinced of the cor- rectness with which Harley had long as- sured her, that she might safely indulge her inclination to degrade the whig party, the queen proceeded accordingly. She began hy making the duke of Shrewsbury lora chamberlain, instead of the duke of Kent. Soon afterwards the earl of Sun- derland, soa-in-law to the duke of Marl- borough, was deprived of his office of secre- tary of state, which was conferred upon the earl of Dartmouth; the lord steward- ship was taken from the duke of Devon- shire and given to the duke of Bucking- ham, and Mr. Henry St. John was made secretary in 4ieu of Mr. Boyle. Still more sweeping alterations followed, until at last ■0 state office was filled by a whig, with the single exception of the duke of Marl- boruvgh. . The parliament soon afterwards passed a resolution warmly approving the course pursued by the queen, and exhorting her to discountenance and resist all such mea- sures as those by which her royal crown and dignity had recently been threatened. From all this it was clear that the power of Marlborough, so long supported by the court intrigues of his duchess, was bow completely destrojred by her imprudent hauteur. His avarice was well known, and it was very extensiveljr believed that the war with France would long since have been brought to a conclusion if the pacifio inclinations of the French king had not been constantly and systematically thwarted by the duke for the furtherance of his own ambitious schemes. And 'though the tory ministry continued the war, and the almost entirely tory parliament recommended that it should be prosecuted with all passible vigour, the mortification and degradation of the lately idolized duke were aimed at by every possible means. Thus the thanks of the house of commons were refused to him for his services in Flanders, while they were warmly given to those of the earl of Peterborough in Spain, and the lord keeper in delivering them took occasion to con- trast the generous nature of the earl with the gnreed and avarice of the duke. As the expences of the war increased, so the people grew more and more weary of their war mania. The ministry consequently now determined to take resolute steps for putting an end to it ; and as it was obvious that the duke would use all the influence of his command to traverse their peaceable policy, they came to the resolution of pro- ceeding against him in some one of the many cases in which he v^as known to have received bribes. Clear evidence was brought forward of his having received six thousand pounds per annum from a Jew for securing him the contract to supply the army with bread; and upon this charge the duke was dismissed from all his pubhc employments. The poet Prior was now sent on an em- bassy to France, and he soon returned with Menager, a French statesman, invested with full powers to arrange the prelimi- naries of peace ; the earl of Strafford was sent back to Holland, whence he had only lately been recalled, to communicate to the Dutch the preliminaries and the queen's approval of them, and to endeavour to in- duce the Dutch, also, to approve them. Holland at first objected to the inspection of the preliminaries, but after much exer- tion all parties were induced to consent to a conference at Utrecht. It was soon, how- ever, perceived that all the deputies, save those of England and France, were averse to peace, and it was then determined by the queen's government to set on foot a private negotiation with France with a view to a separate treaty. A. D. 1712. — Early in August, 1713, vis- count Boling)[)roke, formerly Mr. St. John, was sent to Versailles, accompanied by Prior and the'Abb^ Gaultier, to make ar- rangements for the separate treaty. He was well received by the French court, and very soon adjusted the terms of the treaty. M U m o *• ■ f m 3 X N H ,1 ■< la O < M M K m o n m o m o m M a M R A. D. 1713.— TRBATT Ot VTRBCUT SIONKB BBTWEBN FBAMCB, BNaiAND, &C. [2iV A. o. 1713.— rs4ca rmocLAiiiBO, amid •umaj «ii40iciiiaa, mat 5. > M M a 410 ^]^e ^reastttp of lltetori), $rc. The iDtere«ti of all the powers of Europe were well and impartially cared for; but the noblest article of the treaty was that by which England insisted upon the libera- tion of the numerous French protestants who were confined in prisons and galleys for their religious opinions. A.D. 1713.— But while the ministry was thus ably and triumphantly conducting the foreign affairs of the nation, serious dissen- ■ions were growing up between Harley and Bolingbroke. These able statesmen had for a long time been most cordial in their agree- ment on all points of policy. But the daily increasing illness of the queen, and the probability, not to say certainty, that she would not long survive, brought forward a Juestion upon which they widely differed, lolingbroke.who had always been suspected of being a strong jacobite, was for bringing in the pretender as the queen's successor ; while Harlev, now lord Oxford, was as strongly pledged to the Hanoverian suc- eession. The whigs watched with delight and ex- altation the growth of the ill-disguised en- mity between these two great supports of the tory party. The queen in vain endea- voured to compose their differences, and it is to be feared that the sufferings of the last months of her life were much mcrcased by her anxieties on this account. She daily grew weaker, and was not only despaired of by her physicians, but was herself consci- ous that her illness would have a fatal ter- mination. A. D. 1714.— The queen at length sunk into a state of extreme lethargy, but by powerful medicines was so far recovered that she was able to walk about her cham- ber. On the thirtieth of July she rose as early as eight o'clock. For some time she walked about, leaning upon the arm of one of her ladies, when she was seized with a fit of apoplexv,* from which no medicines could relieve her, and she expired on the following morning, in the forty-ninth year of her age and the thirteenth ol' her reign. 'Though Anne possessed no very brilliant talents, her reign was in the main prosper- ous and wise, and was wholly free from all approach to tyranny or cruelty. Literature and the arts flourished exceedingly under her; Pope, Swift, Addison, Bolingbroke, and a perfect galaxy of lesser stars, very justly obtain for tliis reign the proud title of th6 Augustan age of England. CHAPTER LVIII. The Reign of Gbobob I. A.D. 1 714.— An KB having left no issue, by the act of succession the English crown devolved upon George, son of the first elec- tor of Brunswick, and the princess Sophia, grand-daughter of James I. The new king was now in his fifty-fourth year, and he bore the character of being a man of solid ability, though utterly desti- tute of all shining talents, and of even the appearance of any attachment to literature or the arts. Direct, tenacious of his pur- pose, and accustomed all his life to applies, tion to business, great hopes were enter- tained that his accession would, at the least ■ecure order and re^larity in the conduct of public affairs. Hu own declaration was " My maxim is to do justice, to fear no man, and never to abandon my friends," As it was feared that the intriguing ge- nius of Bolingbroke might have made some arrangements for an attempt on the throne on the part of the pretender, the friends of George I. had procured from him, as soon as it was tolerably certain that Anna could not survive, an instrument by which the most zealous and intluential friends to his succession were added to certain great offi. cers, as lords justices, or a commigsion of regency to govern the kingdom until the king should arrive. As soon as the queen expired, the regency caused George I. to be proclaimed in all the usual places, the important garrison of Portsmouth was reinforced, and measures were taken at all the other ports and garri- sons to defeat any attempts at invasion." The vigour and vigilance thus displayed' prevented any outbreak or disturbauce, if any such had ever been actually contem- plated; and the regency felt confident enough to deprive Bolingbroke of bis ofllce of secretary of state, with every circum- stance of insult. His office was given to the celebrated poet and essayist Addison, of whom a carious anecdote is related, very char/tcteristic of the immense difference between the qualities of a scholar and those of a man of business. Mr. secretary Addison, renowned as a classical and facile writer, was very naturally called upon to write the despatch that was to announce the death of queen Anue to her successor; and so much was he embarrassed by his anxiety to find fitting terms, that his fel- low-councillors grew impatient, and called upon the clerk to draw out the despatch, which he did in a few dry business-like lines, and ever after boasted himself a rea- dier writer than the facile and elegant writer of the delightful papers iu the Upee- tutor/ On landing at Greenwich, George I. was received by the assembled members of the regency, attended by the life-guards under the duke of Northumberland. He imme- diately retired to his chamber, where he gave audience to those vho had been zeal- ous for his succession. From this moment the king showed a determined partiality to the wliigs, which gave great and general disgust ; a feeling that was still farther in- creased by the headlong haste with which the whig ministers and favourites co'^ier. red all ofiices of trust and emolument upon their own partizans, in utter contempt of the merits and claims of those whom they ousted. The greediness of the whigs, and the per- tinacious partiality shown tu that party by the king, threw a great part of the nation into a very dangerous state of discontent, and there arose a general cry, accompanisd by much tendency to actual rioting, of M M K I ^ j ■ S e e ! ■ H n I K M h H M ; ••! H B l< • ! B M a K M a ' H Si k I e ! Q ' « I A.D. 1714.— rBACK or BADSTADT BIONBD DBTWBBIf FBANCB AND OKRMANT. A. 9. 1714. — •■Oa«a I. OKOWHBO A* WBITMiniTBK, OCT. 20. lEnglantt.— l^ouse of IScunsfuicli.— Scorge E 411 " Steheverel for ever, and down with tUe whig* I" Vnileterred by the increuing numher and loudness of the malcontents, the whig party, eonfldent in their parliamentary urength and in the partiality of the king, commenced the business of the session bjr giving indications of their intention to pro- ceed to the utmost extremes against the late ministers. lu the house of lords they affected to believe that the reputation of England was much lowered on the conti- nent by the conduct of the late ministers, and professed hopes that the wisdom of the king would repair that evil ; and in the lower house thev stated their determina- tion to punish the alleged abettors of the pretender; a sure way of pleasing the king, and an artful mode of confounding together the supporters of the pretender, with the lojal subjects of George I. who yet were honest enough to oppose so much of bis lyiten) of government as appeared to be iiijarious or dangerous to the country and to himself. Following np the conrae thus indicated, tlM ministers appointed a parliamentary committee of twenty persons, to examine papers and find charges against the late ministry; and shortly' afterwards Mr.Wal- pole, as chairman of this committee, stated that a report was ready for the house, and moved for the committal of Mr. Matthew Prior and Mr. Thomas Harley ; and those members, being present in their places, were immediately taken into custody by the sergeant at arms. Mr. Walpole then again rose to impeach lord Bolingbroke of high treason. Before the house could re- cover from its astonishment, lord Con- ingsby rose and said, " The worthy chairtnan of the commit- tee has impeached the hand, I now im- peach the head; he has impeached the scholar, I impeach the master ; I impeach Sohert, earl of Oxford and Mortimer, of high treason "nd other crimes and misde- meanours." Lord Oxford was now completely aban- doned by nearly all those who had seemed to be so much attached to him ; a too com- mon fate of fallen greatness. Even among the whigs, however, there were some who disapproved of the extreme violence of the present proceedings. Sir Joseph JekyI, for instance, pointing out an overstrained article that was cb.arged sgainst Oxford, handsomely said that it was his way to mete out equal justice to all men, and that as a lawyer he felt bound to say that the article in question did not amount to treason. But the heads of the faction would not patiently listen to such moderate and honourable language; and Mr. Walpole, in a tone and with a manner very improper to be used by one gentleman towards another, replied, that many mem- bers quite as honest aa sir Joseph, and better lawyers than he, were perfectly satis- fied that the charge did aniouut to treason. The humane and honest opposition of sir Joseph Jekyll being thus sneered down, lord Coning^by snd the other managing whin Eroceedea to impeach lord Oxford at the ar of the house of lords, and to demand that he should immediately be committed to custody. Upon thia latter point a de- bate arose in the house of lords, which waa terminated bv the earl himself, who aaid that he bad all along acted npon the imme- diate orders of the late queen, and that, having never offended against any known law, he was wholly unconcerned about the life of an insignificant old man. He was consequently committed to the Tower, though the celebrated Dr. Mead positively certined that his committal would endanger his life. The duke of Ormond and lord Bolingbroke, against whom the proceedings were no less vindictively carried on, fled to the continent, upon which the earl marshal of England was ordered to erase their names and arms from the peerage list, and all their possessions in England were de- clared forfeit to the crown. A.D. 1715.— The pretender, who had nu- merous friends in England and Scotland, looked with great complacency upon these violent proceedings, judging that the dis- content^ they caused could not fail to for- ward his designs upon the crown ; and while the king was intent upon alienating the affections of a large portion of his people in order to support a greedy faction, an actual rebellion broke out. Two vessels, with arms, ammunition, and officers, were sent from France to the coast of Scotland, and the pretender promised that he would speedily follow with a greater force. The earl of Mar was consequently induced to assemble his friends and vassals to the num- ber of three hundred, and to proclaim the pretender. As the cause was popular, and no opportunity was lost of magniiying the force with which that prince was to arrive in Scotland, Mar soon found himself at the head of an army of ten thousand men. But while he was completing his preparations to march southward, the duke of Argyle at the head of only about six thousand men ^/t tacked him near Dumblain, and though at the close of the engagement both parties left the field, yet the loss in- flicted upon Mar was so great as virtually to amount to defeat, and the injury thus done to the cause of the pretender waa in- creased by the conduct of Simon, lord Lovat. That restless and thoroughly unprincipled man held the castle of Inverness for the pretender, to whose forces it would at all times have served as a most important point d'apimi ; but lord Lovat, changing with the changed fortune of his party, now basely surrendered the castle to the king. The English ambassador in France, the accomplished and energetic lord Stair, had so well performed his duty to the kicg, that he was able to send home the most timely and exact information of the designs of the pretender; apd just aa the rebellion waa about to break out in England, several of the leading malcontents were seized by the ministry and committed to close custody. For one of these, sir William Wyndham, RRMAICT. tOTAL AB80CIATI0NH WIRB BNTBRCD INTO TO DSFBIfO TBB UonAOCHT. A.lt. 1716.— TBI -AVBOBA BOBBALIB IIBtT ROTICBB IH BNOIiAUB, MAMCB 6. 412 ^l^e treasury of lltstotn, $cc. hit father-in-law, the duke of Somerset, offered to become security ; but even that wealthy and powerful nobleman was re- fused. The rebellion was thus contlned.in the west of England, to a few feeble and unconnected outbreaks: and at Oxford, where it was known that many younp; men of family were among the malcontents, all attempt was prevented by the spirited con- duct of major-general Pepper, who occupied the city with his troops, and positi»ely pro- mised to put to death any student, no matter what his rank or connections, who should dare to appear beyond the limits of his own college. In the north of England the spirits of the malcontents were kept up, in spite of all the ill success that had hitherto attended their cause, by their reliance upon aid from the pretender in person. The earl of Der- wentwater and Mr. Foster raised a consi- derable force, and, being joined by some vo- lunteers from tlie Scottish border, made an attempt to seize Newcastle, but the gates were shut against them, and having no bat- tering train they were fain to retire to Hexham, whence, by way of Kendal and Lancaster, they proceeded to Preston. Here they were surrounded by nearly eight thousand men, under -generals Carpenter and Wills. Some fighting ensued, but the cause of the rebels was now so evidently hopeless, that Mr. Foster sent colonel Ox- burgh, of the royal array, who had beep taken prisoner, with proposals for a capi- tulation. General Wills, however, declined to hear of them, except as armed rebels, to whom he could show no other favour than to leave them to the disposal of govern- ment, instead of giving them over to in- stant slaughter by his troops. The un- happy men were consequently obliged to surrender at discretion ; some of their of- ficers who had deserted from the royal army were immediately shot, the other of- ficers and gentleman were sent to London, and the common men thrown into the various prisons of Lancashire and Che- shire. Had the pretender promptly joined the earl of Mar, and, joined by him, marched to effect a junction with the earl of Derwent- water, the event would probably have been very different ; but having dMayed his ap- pearance in Scotland until his Iriends were thus overpowered in detail, common-sense should have dictated to him the folly of his carrying his attempt any farther for the present. But, alas I common-sense was precisely that quality which the Stuarts were least gifted with 1 At the very mo- ment when the prisons of England were filled with his ill-t'ated and sacrificed adhe- rents, he hurried through France in dis- guise, embarked at Dunkirk, and landed in Scotland with a train of six gentlemen 1 With this adequate force for the conquest of a great and powerful kingdom, he pro- ceeded through Aberdeen to Fetcresso, where he was joined by the earl of Mar and •omewhat less than two-score other nobles and gentry. He now proceeded to Dun- dee, caused a frothy and useless declara- tion of his rights and intentions to be cir- culated, and then went to Scone with the intention of adding the folly of being crowned there to the folly of being pro. claimed in all other places of note through which he bad passed. Even the vulgar and the ignorant were by this time con. vinced of the utter hopelessness of his cause; and as he found that "few cried Ood bless him," and still fewer joined his standard, he quite coolly told his friends— who had sacrificed every thing for him— that he had not the necessarr means for a campaign, and then embarked, with his personal attendants, at Montrose — leaving his dupes to their fate. Such baseness, such boyish levity, joined to such cold self- ishness, ought to have made even those who most firmly believed in the abstract rights of the pretender, rejoice that he was unable to obtain power in England ; since so heartless a man must needa have made a cruel monarch. The government had acted with vigour and ability in suppressing the rebellion; it now acted with stem unsparing severity in punisliing those who had been concern- ed in it. The mere herd of rebels, to the number of more than a thousand, were transported to the colonies. Two-and. twenty officers were executed at Preston, and five at Tyburn, with all the disgusting accompaniments of drawing and quarter* ing. The earls of Derwentwater, Nithis. dale, and Carnwarth, and the lords Ken. muir, Naime, and Widdrington were sen* tenced to death, as were Mr. Foster, Mr. Mackintosh, aud about twenty other lead* ing men. Nithisdale, Foster, and Mackintosh were fortunate enough to escape from prison and reach the continent; Derwentwater and Kenmuir were executed upon Tower* hill, and met their fate with a decent in- trepidity, which made the spectators for* get their crime. During all this time the earl of Oxford had remained in the Tower, unnoticed and almost forgotten. When the numerous ex- ecutions had literally disgusted men with the sad spectacle of bloodshed he petition- ed to be allowed to take his trial; rightly judging that, as compared to actual rebel- lion, the worst that was charged against him would seem comparatively venial, even to his enemies. He was accordingly ar- raigned before the peers in Westminster- hall, and some technical dispute arisinic between the lords and commons as to the mode of his trial, the lords voted that he should be set at liberty. A.D. 1721. — Passing over, as of no im- portance, the sailing from Spain of a fleet under the duke of Ormond, fur the purpose of making a new attempt on England; the Ereteudcr's hopes from that expedition eing disappointed by a storm which ut- terly disabled the fleet off cape Finisterre; we come to a domestic event which origin- ated in this year and reduced thousands of people from affluence to beggary. a a ^ I •• a R M M A.D. 1720.— VB^CB COifCLUOBD BBTWBBN BNQLAIID, PBAIfCB, ANB 8FAIX. A.D. 1722.— DBATH Or TUB OUKB 09 MABLBOHOUaH. JVRB 10. lEnglantr.— I^ouse of ISrundtoicI^.— ^eorne 3E. 413 The South Sea company, to which ([overa- ment was greatly indebted, was in the habit of contenting itielf with Ave per cent, interest, on account of the largeness of its claim, instead of six per cent., which the goTemment paid to all the other pub> He companies to which it was indebted. A scrivener, named Blount, of more ability than principle, availed himself of this state of things to commence a deep and destruc- tive part of the scheme. It was quite ob- Tioutly to the advantage of the nation to pA* live rather than six per cent, upon all tti debts, as well as upon the one consider- able debt that was due to the South Sea company ; and, on the other hand, it was well worth the while of that wealthy com. pany to add as much as possible to the al- ready large amount upon which Ave per cent, interest was punctually paid by the goternment. Blount put the case so plau- (ibly on the part of the company, and so ■kili'ully threw in the additional injuccinent to the government of a reduction of the int'irest from Ave to four per cent, at the ena of six years, that tlie scheme seemed to be an actual reduction of one sixth of the whole national burthen immediatel^r, iund a reduction of a third at the end of six years. Every encouragement and sanction were consequently given to the plan by which the South Sea company was to buy np the claims of all other creditors of the goremraent. Hitherto onljr the fair side of the scheme had been displayed ; now came the important question, where was the South Sea company, wealthy as it might be, to And the vast sum of money necessary for rendering it the sole government credi- tor! Blount was ready with his reply. By a second part of his scheme he pro- posed to enricli the nation enormously by opening up a new, vast, and safe trade to the South Seas ; and flaming prospectuses invited the public to exchange government itock far equal nominal amounts iu tlie South Sea stocks— said to be vastly more valuable. The cunning of Blount and his fellow-directors was so well aided by the cupidity of the public, that when the books were opened for this notable transfer there was a positive struggle for the precedence ; a consequent run took place for South Sea (hares, which in a few days were sold at more than double their original value, and ere the end of the delusion, which was kept up for several months, the shares met «nth a ready sale at ten times their original tottl When we reflect that a thousand pounds thus produced ten thousand to the speculator, and a hundred thousand a mil- lion, we may judge how much excitement and eagerness prevailed. Enormous for- tunes, of course, were made in the transfer and retranafer of shares, and to those who ■old out while the delusion was still at its height the scheme was a very El Dorado. But the great migority of the supposed for- tunate possessors of South Sea stock were far too well pleased with their prospects to part with them, as they imagined it ditti- cult to put a sufficient value upon their probabilities of vast and ever-iucreasins interest 1 Among this number was the poet Gay, who, though a scholar and a wit, was, nevertheless, in the actual business ol life, as simple as a child. He was stronghr advised by his friends to sell some stock which had been presented to him, and thna, while the stock was at its highest value, secure himself a competence for life. But no, like thousands more, be persisted in holding this precious stock; and all who did so found their scrip mere waste paper when the company was called upon to pay the very first vast and very genuine demand out of proflts which were represented as being equally vast, but which had the slight defect of being wholly imaginary. Thou- sands upon thousands of families were by this artful and most vile scheme reduced to utter ruin, and nothing that has occurred in our own time— replete as it is with bub- bles and swindling directors — is calculated to give us any adequate idea of the suffer- ing, the rage, and the dismay that were felt in all parts of the kingdom. The govern- ment did all that it consistently could to remedy the disastrous effects produced by individual knavery acting upon general cu- pidity and credulity. The cbiet managers of the scheme were deprived of the immense property they had unfairly acquired by it, and redresses as far as possible afforded to the sufferers; but in the almost infinite va- riety of transfers which had taken place, it inevitably followed that millions of property passed from the hands of those who specu- lated foolishly into the hands of those who were more sagacious and more wary, though not positively involved in the guilt of the deception ; and for many years thousands had to toil for bread who but for this scheme would have been affluent, while thousands more enjoyed wealth not a jot more ho- nestly or usefully earned than the gains of the veriest gambler. So extensive were the suffering and con- fusion created by this event, that the friends of the pretender deemed the crisis a fit one at which to bring forward his pre- tensions again. But, as was usual with that party, there was so much dissension among the leading malcontents, and their affairs were so clumsily conducted on the part of some of them, that the ministry got intelligence of the designs which were on foot, and suddenly ordered the apprehen- sion of the duke of Norfolk, the earl of Orrery, the lords North and Grey, Atter- bury, bishop of Rochester, Mr. Layer, and several other persons of less note. In the investigation that followed, sufficient legal evidence could be found only against the bishop of Rochester and Mr. Layer, though there could be no moral doubt of the guilt of the others. All, therefore, were dis-, charged out of custody except the bishop,' who was banished the kingdom, and Mr. Layer, who was hanged at Tyburn. Scarcely less sensation was caused by an accusation which was brought against the earl of Macclesfield, of having sold certain places in chancery. The house of commons A. D. 1723. — DKATR Of BIB CHRISTOFHBB WBKIV, IN UlS OlST TEAB. [2JV3 A.D. 1738.— DIATB or SOPHIA DOKOTHBA, QUIBN OP BHaLARD, ROT. 3. g a 4 414 JS,f)t ^ttasnrQ of l^istort;, $cc. impeached him at the bar of the houie of lords, and a most interesting and well con- tested trial ensuedi wjiich lasted for twenty days. The earl was convicted, and sen- tenced to be imprisoned until he should fhj a fine of thirty thousand pounds. He paid the money in less than two months ; and bis friends deemed him very hardly done by, inasmuch as it was proved on the trial that he had only sold luch places as had been sold by former chancellors. To us, however, this seems but a very slender excuse for the offence ; as a judge in equity be ought to have put a stop to so dangerous a practice and not have proftied by it, espe- cially as the honourable precedent of chan- cellor Bacon was in existence to remind him that in chancery as elsewhere, "two blacks do not make a White." As to the fine, large as the sum seems, it was not at all too heavy; no small portion of it having been the produce of the offence for which it was imposed. A. D. I7'27. — From the verv commence- ment of his reign George I. had shown at least as much anxiety for Hanover as for England, and having now been above two years prevented by various causes from visiting the electorate, he appointed a re- Eency and set out for Hanover in a state of ealtii that gave no reason to fear any ill result. The voyage to Holland and the subsequent journey to within a few leagues of Oanaburg, were performed by the king in his usual health and spirits, but as he approached Osnaburg he suddenly called for the postilion to stop. It was found that one of his hands was paralysed, his tongue began to swell, and no efforts of the surgeon who travelled with him could afford him any relief; and on the following morn- ing he expired, in the thirtieth year of his reiga and in the sixty-eighth of bis age. CHAPTER. LIX. The Reign qf Geobox II. A. D. 1737' — Gborob the Second, like his deceased father, was a German by birth, language, and sentiments. In their per- sonal qualities, also, they bore a striking re- semblance : both were honest, just, plain- dealing men ; both were alike parsimonious and obstinate ; and as both were beset by Eolitical factions whose rancour knew no ounds, so each of those monarchs had to contend with the caprice or venality of rival statesmen, as by turns they directed the councils of the nation. The king was in the forty-fourth year of his age on coming to the throne ; and he took the first opportunity of declaring to his parliament that he was determined to adhere to the policy of his predecessor. Owing to the previous continental wars in which England had taken a part, the king- dom was involved in a labyrinth of treaties and conventions. Much discontent was also felt and einressed on many points of domestic policy.'Dangeroiis encroachments had been made in the constitution by the repeal of the triennial act ; by frequent suspensions of the habeas corpus set ; bv keeping up a standing army; and by'the notorious venal practices employed in es- tablishing a system of parliamentary cor- ruption. At first some change in the min- istry appeared in contemplation ; but after a little time it was settled that sir Robert Walpole should continue the head of the administration; with lord Townsbend as director of the foreign affairs and Mr. Pel- ham, brother of the duke of Newcastle as secretary-at-war. There was, however, a great and concentrated mass of opposition gradually ibrming a^^ainst Walpole, which required all bis vigilance and ability to overcome. Peace was established at home and abroad; and the new parliament, which assembled in January, 1728, afforded no topic of interest; but in the succeeding year the commons complained of the occa- sional publication of their proceedings, and it was unanimously resolved, "That it it an indignity to, and a breach of the privi- lege of the house, for any person to presume to give, in written or printed newspapers, any account or minutes of the debates or other proceedings of the house or of any committee thereof; and that, upon the dis- covery of the author, &C., this house will proceed against the offenders with the ut- most severity." An address to his majesty was also presented by the commons, com- plaining of serious depredations having been committed by the Spaniards on Bri- tish ships, in manifest violation of the trea- ties subsisting between the two crowns; and requesting that active measures might be taken to procure reasonable satisfHctiun for the losses sustained, and secure his miijesty's subjects the free exercise of com- merce and navii^ation to and from the Bri- tish plantations in America. This was foi- lowpd by a defensive treaty between Grcst Britain, France, Spain, and Holland : the question between this country and Spain as to naval captures being left to future ad- judication by commissioners. A. D. 1730. — Some changes now took place in the ministry. Lord Harrington was uiade secretary of state, in the room of lord Townshend, who appears to have interfered more with the affairs of the nation than Dental alliances he had entered into. This WH naturally followed by congratulatory addresses from both houses ; and the mi' niater saw himself surrounded by a phalanx of inppnrters, too numerous for the oppoii> tion to disturb his equanimity. But amid the general prosperity, there were some public delinquencies which seemed to re- quire the strong arm of justice to unmask and punish. The most glaring of these, perhaps, was an enormous fraud committed by certain parties who had the management of the funds belonging to the " charitable rorporation." This society had been formed uiifer the plausible pretext of lending mo- ney at legal interest to the poor and to others, upon security of goods, in order to ■creen them from the rapacity of pawn- brokers. Their capital was at first limited to 30,000{., but by licenses from the crown I they increased it to 6U0,000{. George Robin- I son, M.P. for Marlow, the cashier, and John i Thompson, the warehouse keeper, had sud- I denly disappeared, and it was now dis- I covered that for a capital of 500,000f. ef- fects to the amount of 30,000{. only could be found, the remainder having been em- beziled. A petition to the house of com- mons having been referred to a committee, it clearly appeared that a most iniquitous icheme of fraud had been systematically carried on by the cashier and warehouse- man, in concert with some of the directors, for embezzeling the capital and cheating the proprietors ; op which it was resolved, that sir Robert Sutton, with nine others, who had been proved guilty of many fraudu- lent practices in the management of the charitable corporation, should make satis- faction to the poor sufferers out of their estates, and be prevented from leaving the kingdom. In the following year the excise teheme was first introduced into the house of com- mons ; and although it was simply a plan for converting the duties on wine and to- bacco, which had been hitherto duties of customs, into duties of excise, the ferment which this proposition excited was almost unprecedented. The sheriffs of London, accompanied by many of the most eminent merchants, in two hundred carriages, came down to the house to present their petition agninst the bill ; other petitions were also K reseated; and the minister finding that is majority was small and the opposition to the measure so universal, determined on withdrawing it. The most riotous rejoic- ings followed ; and if a correct judgment might be formed from outward appear- auces, the inhabitants of London and West- minster must have thought they had ob- tained a deliverance from lome great im- pending danger. Very little occnmd during the snceeed> ing vear worthy of remark. The princcaa roval was married to the prince of Orange ; a bill passed for the naturalitation of hit royal highness ■, and the " happv pair" left St. James's for Rotterdam t . 22nd of April. Parliament was noi .solved hj proclamation. The king had. evioualy pro- rogued it, after thanking the members for the many signal proofs they had given him for seven ^cars, of their duty and attach- ment to his person and government; and concluded with a prayei that providence would direct his people in the choice of their representatives. A. n. 1735. — Whea the new parliament met in January, it was seen that the elec- tions had made no perceptible change in the composition of the house ; the leaders of parties were the same ; and nearly the same motions, amendments, debates, and arguments were reproduced. Indeed, if we except some angrjr disputes which occurred between the mmisters and the prince of Wales, relative to the income allowed out of the civil list to the latter, scarcely any event worthy of remark took place for a long time. The affair to which we allude thus originated. Motions having been made in each house of parliament to ad- dress his n.ajesty to settle lOO.OOOJ. per an- num on the prince, it was opposed by the ministers as an encroachment on the pre- rogative, an oiHcious intermeddling with the king's family affairs, and as an effort to set his majesty and the prince at variance. But the truth was, there had long been a serious misunderstanding between these ropi personages, arising chiefly from the prince being at the head of the opposition party ; and now that there seemed no chance of his obtaining the income he re- quired, it was highly resented by him, and caused an entire alienation between the too courts of St. James's and Leicester- house. Nor can it be wondered at that the prince should feel ' I743'— Tn the new p«rliament,wnich WM opened by the king in perion, It wai trident that the opponents of Walpole had treatlr strenr thened themwWea ( and be- fnc shortW after able to obtain a trilling nujoritT of votei on the Wettminater elec- tion petition, air Robert expreaaed hia in- leotion of retiring from ofliee. He conie- qaontly reiigned ali lila emplovmenti, and «M created earl of Orford, with a pension of 40001. a year, hia ini\)esty testifying for hit faithful servant the moat aifectionate England, accuitomed to consider the Mailibrium of the continental statea as the guarantee of her own grandeur, wovH. BaturalW espouse the cause of Maria T Kia; wutle it was quite as natural mat the king of England, aa electorof Hanover, would be ready to enforce ita propriety. Bat there was another motive at this time itill more powerful, namely, the war which had recently broken out between England and Spain; for it could not be expected bat, in a continental war in which the Utter country was one of the belligerents, Eogland would omit any opportunity that offered of weakening that power. Yet aa long as Walpole was the directing minister, the king restricted himself to negotiations and subsidies. But when Walpole was superseded by lord Carteret, the cause of Hsria Theresa was austained by the erma of England, and by larger subsidies; while the king of Naples was forced by an Eng- lish fleet to the declaration of neutrality. England had at length become a principal in tne war ; or, as Smollet observes, " from being an umpire had' now become a party in all continental quarrels, and instead of trimming the balance of Europe, lavished away her blood and treasure in supporting the interest and allies of a puny electorate in the north of Germany." A. 9. 1743.— George II. was now at the head of the Anglo-electoral army, which on its march to Hanau met and engaged the French under the command of marslial the duke of Noailles and some of the princes of the blood. Thejr began the oattle with their accustomed impetuosity, but were received by the English infantry with the cliarncteristic coolness and steady intrepidity for which they are so eminently distinguished. In this battle the king showed much passive courage, and his son, the duke of Cumberland, waa wounded ; but it proved a decisive victory, 6000 of the enemy having fallen, while the loss on the tide of the British did not amount to more than one third of that number. About this time a treaty was concluded between this country and Russia for iiftcen years, in which it was stipulated that the empress should furnish his Britannic ma- jesty, as soon as required, with a body of 12,000 troops, to be employed according to the exigency of affairs; and that Great Britain should furnish Russia with twelve men of war, on the first notice, in case either of them were attacked by an enemy and demanded such succour. A. D. 1744. — To remove the Hanoverian dynastT firom the throne of throe realms, seemed to be the darling object of the courts of France and Spain, who were se- cretly planning to restore the Stuart race in the person of the son of the late pre- tender. Declarations nf war between Franca and England accordingly took place: and in May the king of France arrived at Lisle, to open the campaign in Flanders, with au armV of 1£U,000 men, commanded by the celcoratcd marshal Saxe. The allied armiea consisting of English, Hanoverians, Aus- trians, and Dutch, amounting in the whole to about 75,000, advanced with the apuar- ent intention of attacking the enemy ; but, after performing numerous inconsistent and inexplicable movements, without risk- ing either a siege or a battle, the summer passed away, and they retired into winter quarters. Meantime some indecisive en- gagements had taken place between the English and combined deets in the Medi- terranean. Towards the close of the year lord Car- teret, now earl of Granville, resigned office, and a coalition of parties was formed.which, from including torics, whigs, and patriota, obtained the name of the "broad -bottom" administration. Mr. Pelham was chancel* lor of the exchequer and first lord of the treasury ; lord Hardwicke, chancellor ; the duke of Dorsot, president of the council; the duke of Newcastle and lord Harring- ton, secretaries of state ; and the duke of Bedford, first lord of the admiralty. Mr. Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, gave them his support, having bren pruniised a Elace aa soou as the king's aversion could e overcome. A. B. 1745.— Robert Walpole, earl of Or- ford, after a life of political activity, during which he had occupied the most prominent station for twenty years, died Marcli 18, aged 71. His general policy was princi- pally characterized by zeal in favour of the protestant succession ; bv the desire of pre- servir^g peace abroad, ana avoiding subjecta of contention at home. Under his auspi- ces the nnval superiority of England waa maintained ; commerce encouraged ; justice impartially administered ; and the righta of the people preserved inviolate. In Italy the united armies of France and Spain, owing to their vast superiority in numbers, were enabled to vanquish the Austrians ; and the Anglo electoral troops in the Netherlands also met with serious reverses. The French army under mar- shal Saxe was stronglv posted at Fontenoy; to which place the dulce of Cumberland advanced on the 3Uth of April, and by nine o'clock in the morning the troops were en- gaged. The valour of the British infantry was never more signally displayed; for a time they bore down every thing before them ; but- the Dutch failing in their at- tempt on the village of Fontenoy, and the allies coming within the destructive fire of the Bemicircle of batteries erected by Saxe, g r Si m M u m m t> •o »• M m K e M <» A.D. 1744.— AlBXAKOBB FOH, THB CRIBBRATBO rOBT, DIBD MAY 30. A.P,\74i.—»l TOLVHTABT OORTBISVtlONI 80,000 Ml H WIBI ■■■OI.IBD. 418 JR})t ^reasutQ of l^istorQ, Ut. w«rt outflanked and compelled to retreat. Tha lost on eacli lide amounted to about 10,000 men i but though the victory wat not abaoluteljr dccliive, it enabled the French martlial to take lome of the mont contldor- able towni of the Ncthcrlandi, and the allies retired for lafety behind the canal at Antwerp. Thirty Tean had elapied lince the che- valier de Bt.Georice had itirred up that re- bellion which had ended lo fatalljr for hit own hopci, niid ao diiaitrouiljr for hit ad< hereutii. Since that time he had lived in Italy, had married a grand-daughter of John Sobieaki, king of Poland, and had one ■on, Charlct Edward, who wai al'terMnrdi known in England a« the " young preten- der." While George II. and hi* miniitcri were fully occupied in endeavouring to bring the war in Germany to a succciiful itiue, Charlea Edward received every en- couragement from Louii of France to take advantage of that opportunity, and try hit ■treugth in Britain. And now that the national discontent wai gaining ground in consequence of the loss at Fontenoy, and other events not much less disastrous, he determined to attempt the restoration of his family; and accompanied only by a small party of his most aevoted friends, he landed in the Hebrides. Here he was soon 'joined by the Highland chieftains, and speedily found himself at the head of seve- ral thousand hard;^ mountaineers, who were highly pleased with bis affable manners, and with genuine enthusiasm expressed themselves ready lo die in his service. Their first movement was towards Edinburgh, which city surrendered without resistance, but the castle still held out. The vouug pretender now took possession of Ilolyrood palace, where he proclaimed his father king of Great Britain, and himself regent, with all the idle pageantries of state. Mean- while a proclamation was issued, offering a reward of 30,0U0I. for his apprehension. Sir John Cope, the commander of the king's troops in Scotland, having collected some re-infurcements in the north, pro- ceeded from Aberdeen to Dunbar by sea, and hearing that the insurgents were re- solved to haxard a battle, he encamped at Preston Pans. Here he was unexpectedly attacked, and with such vigorous onMlaught, by the fierce and undisciplined Highland- ers, that a sudden panic seized the royal troops, and in their ilight they abandoned all tiieir bagi^age, cannon, and camp equi- page, to their enemies. Elated with suc- cess, the rebels entered England, and pro- ceeded as far as Derby, without encounter- ing anv opposition. Here, however, they learned that the duke of Cumberland had arrived from the continent, and was making preparations to oppose them with an over- whelming force ; and it was therefore finally determined, that as they could neither raise recruits in England, nor force their way into Wales, they should hasten their return to Scotland. The pretender had good reason to believe that important succours would be sent to liim from France, or it Is not likely h« would have crosied the border. But the vigilance of admiral Vernon prevented ths French fleet from venturing out ; and thus all hope of foreign assistance was cut off The forces of the pretender were grestlv augmented on his return to Srotlnnd ; b«t finding that Edinburgh was in poaaeiiioo of the king's troops, he bent his course to. wards Stirling, which town he captured, and besieged the castle. Matters had now assumed a very serious aspect, and pub. lie credit was most seriously affected ; bat there was no lack of energy in the govern- ment, nor any want of patriotism amon* the nobility, merchants or traders of Knx' land : all ranks, in fact, united wltli ready zeal in meeting the exigency of the occs. sion. Many new regiments were raised by wealthy and patriotic individuals; and it was found that by the voluntary exer. tions of the people 00,000 troops could bt added to the King's forces. A. ». 174B.— In January general llawley had suffered a complete defeat in endea- vouring to raise the siege of Stirling. But a day of terrible retribution was at liand. On the 16th of April the royal army, under the command of the duke of Cuiiilierland, encountered the troops of the pretender on Culloden-nioor. The Highlanders be- gan the attack in their wild, furious way, rushing on the royal troops with their broad swords and Lochabar axes ; but the English being now prepared for this mods of attack, received them with fixed bayo- nets, keeping up a steady and well-aui. tained fire of musketry, while the destruc- tion of their ranks was completed by dii- charges of artillery. In thirty minutes the battle was converted into a route ; and orders having been issued to give no quar- ter, vast numbers were sluin in the purauit. The loss of the rebels was estimated at about 4UflO, while the number of killed in the royal army is said to have scarce!; exceeded €fty men I Intoxicated, as it were, with their unexampled victory, the conquerors seemed only hcnt on mcrciieii vengeance, and the whole country around became a scene of cruelty and deaolatinn, As to the unfortunate prince Charles Ed- ward, he escaped with difficulty from tlie battle, and after wandering alone in the mountains for several months, in varluua disguises, he found means to make his es- cape to France. " One great cause of the pretender's pre- servation, was the belief that he had been alain ; which arose from the following cir- cumstance. Among his friends, who iul- lowed as much as possible in his track, a party was surprised in a but on the side of the Benalder mountain, by the soldiers who were in search of him. Having seised them, one named Mackenzie effected bin escape, upon which his companions told the soldiers that it was the prince; the soldiers thereupon fled in pursuit and over- took the youth, who, when he found their error, resolved to sacrifice his life, in the hope it might save his master's. He bravely 4 a f s I A. 9. 174S.-—DB. JONATHAN SWIFT, DXAN OF ST. rATRICK'a, DIBD OCT. 21. *.». l7^7.-» lEnglantl.— l^ousc of IdrnnstDick.-illicorgc ££. 410 lonttndeil with them, refuied quarter, and lUeii wiib hit iword in hi* linnd ; excuim- iuf M he fell, " You have killed your ■rinee." And tliit deelaration was be- Btied by manjr. "We cannot, however," MM the biographer of the events of Cul- loden, " without priile, mention the aito- niibiag fact, that though the sum of tliirty thouuad pound* atcrling wni hinK puhlicjjr tfercd for hi* apprchuntiun, and thouKli he puwd through very many hand*, and both the reward and hi* perion were per- fectly well known to an intelligent and fery inquiiitive people, yet no man or wo- man wai to be found capable of degrading tbemielve* by earning *o vast a reward by betraying a fugitive, whom miifurtune had thrown upon tueir generoiitv." At length, on the 19th of September, the voung pre- tender embarked with twenty-live gentle- men and one hundred and seven common men, in a French veiiel, *ent for that pur- poie to the coait ; and after a paiiage of ten diyi be arrived at Roeeau, near Mor- laii, and immediately proceeded to Paris, vkerc he wa* kindly received by Loui* XV. Bit his liope* were for ever fled. The cou- rage and fortitude he dia^layed in Scotland •eein to have foreaken him with a reverse of fortune, and during tlie remainder uf hi* days no trace of noble ambition marked hi* teiioni. The duke of Cumberland had now be- conic the idol of the nation ; and for hi* bnivcry at Culloden the parliament voted 25,(MJU<. per annum in addition to his for- mer income. Several acts were passed for protecting the government of Scotland, and securing it* loyalty ; and many exe- cution* of the rebels took place in different parti ol' the kingdom. Bills of indictment rur liij;li treason were found against the carls of Kilmarnock and Croinartie, and lord Balmerino, who were tried in West- minBter-liall. All three pleaded guilty; Kilmarnock and Balmerino were executed on Tower-hill, but Cromartie's life wa* •pared. Foremoet amon^ tho*e who had engaged to venture their lives and fortune* in restoring the Stuart family to the throne of England was lord Lovat, a man whose character was branded with many vices, and whose great age (for he was in his 9Utb year) had not deterred him from tak- ing an active part in fomenting and encou- raging the late rebellion. Being found guilty by hi* peers, he wa* remanded to the Tower, where in a few months after- wards he wa* beheaded. At thi* last scene of his life he behaved with ereat propriety : his behaviour was digniiied and composed; he surveyed the assembled multitude with a cheerful countenance, and taking up the axe to examine it, he repeated from Horace, "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori I" then laying his head on the block, it was levered from his body at a single stroke. i.D. 1747.— We must now briefly allude to the state of affairs on the continent. Early in the spring the duke of Cumber- land led bin troop* thither, to Join our An*- Irian and Dutch allie*. The French had a decided advantage in point of number*, and inarilial Saxe, their commander, com- menced the campaign with the invasion of lluicli Brabant. Hut, with the exception of the siege of Bergen-op/ooin, by the French, the wnr was lunguiilly carried on. This celebrated sirge, however, lasted from the null uf July to the ISth of September, and presented a continued scene of horror and destruction ; but though the town wa* burnt, the garrison had suffered little, while heaps of slain were fornivd of the besiegers. The governor, calculating from these cirouiiistanci's on the inipregiiubility of thn fortress, wns lulled into false se- curity ; wliilst till! French troops threw themselves into the fosse, mounted the breaches, and entered the garrison; and thus became masters uf the navigation of the Scheldt. In Italy, the allies, though forced to raise the siege of Ocnoa, were generally successful. At sea the English well maintained their superiority. In an cngngcmcnt with the French on Cape Finisti'rre, the English were victorious ; and several richly laden ships, both outward and homeward bound, fell into their hands. Admiral llawke, also, defeated the French fleet, off Belleisle, and took six sail of the line. In November a new parliament assem- bled, and the ministers aerived much popu- larity on account of the suppression of the late rebellion, as well as for tlie naval suc- cesses. All parties, however, were tired of the war, and preparations were made for opening a congress at Aix-la-Chapclle pre- liminary to a general peace; but as the issue ot it was uncertain, the usual grant* and *ub8idies were readily voted without inquiry. Though so long since began, it wa* not till October in the following year thftt thi* treaty of peace was concluded. The chief parties to it were Britain, Hol- land, and Austria on one side, and France and Spain on the other. By it all the great treaties from that of Westphalia in 1648, to that of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. France surrendered her con- quests in Flanders, and the English in the East and West India. But the right of British subjects to navigate the American seas without bein); subject to tearek by the Spaniards was suffered to pass unnoticed, although that was the original bone of con- tention and the basis of the attacks made on Walpole's ministry. The only advantage indeed, that England gained, was th re- cognition of tlie Hanoverian succebsion, and the general abaudunnient of the pre- tender, whose cause was from henceforth regarded as hopeless. A. D. 1749.— The war being at an end, the disbanding of the army naturally followed ; and, as must ever in some degree be the case at such a time, the idle and unem- ployed committed many depredations on the public. To remedy this, a colony was established in Nova Scotia, where lord Hali- fax went out a* governor, and laid the AD. 1719. — BMOLAND, AND OTBRR PARTS OP ■IIROPm, IlfPESTED WITH LOCUSTS. A. D. irSO.— MBDOCTlOlf Of TBI 4 PRB CINT. STOCB TO 3| PIR CBifT. e4 420 ^i^e treasure of listor^, $cc. foundation of a town, which, in compliment to it! projector the earl of Halifax, was named after him. It was soon found that the toil of Nova Scotia was incapable of re- paying the labourer for his toil, and many who bad been transported there obtained leave to go to more southern latitudes. They who remained excited the jealousy of the native Indians, who still resided on the borders of this barren spot ; and the French, who were the first European settlers there, encouraged this jealous feeling. Meantime the animosity between the English and French grew stronger, till at length the latter claimed the whole territory between the Mississippi and New Mexico on the east, and to the Apalachian mountains, on the west. From the fact of their having been the first to discover that river, they took from the English, who had settled beyond those mountains, their possessions, and erected forts to protect all the adjacent country. A. D. 1761.— The first event of any im- portance this year was the death of Frede- rick, prince of Wales, which happened on the 10th of March, in the 45th year of his age. His death was caused by an abscess in his side, that formed from the blow of a cricket ball which he received while playing at that game on the lawn of Cliefden- house, Bucks, a collection of matter liaving been produced that burst in his throat and sufi'o- cated him. The prince had long been on bad terms with his father, whose measures he uniformly opposed ; and though the anti-ministerial party, end a considerable portion of the people spoke highlv of his beuevolence and munificence, and loudly applauded his conduct at the time, it is clear that much of his patriotism originated in a vain desire for popularity, lie left five sons and three daughters ; his eldest son, George, being only eleven years old : a regency was consequently appointed ; but the king surviving till the prince attained his mtOority, there was never any occasion for it to act. The most memorable act passed in the course of this session was that for regu- lating the commcncpment of the year, and correcting the calendar according to the Gregorian computation. The New Style, as it was termed, was introduced by pope Gregory Xir . in the 16th century, and had long been adopted by most spates on the continent. By this act, therefore, it was ?rovided that the year shculd begin on the St day of January, instead of, as hereto- fore, on the 25th day of March, and that eleven intermediate nominal days between the 2nd and 14th of September, 1752, should be omitted ; the Julian computation, sup- posing a solar revolution to be effected in the precise period of 3G5 days and six hours, having made no provision for the deficiency of eleven minutes, which, however, in the lapse of eighteen centuries amounted to a difference of eleven days. Bills were also passed for the better prevention of rob- beries, for the regulation of places of amuse- ment, and for punishing the keepers of disorderly houses; the necessity of this arising from the spjrit of extravagance which prevailed throughout the kiiij^dom aa dissipation and amusement occupied every class of society. Among the domestic events of this year no one created more sensation thnn the death of Henry St. John, viscount Bolinp:. broke ; a nobleman who had for half a cen- tury occupied a high station in the country whether we regard him in the character of a statesman, an orator, an author, or a polished courtier. He possessed great en- ergy and decision of character, but he was deficient in that high principle and single- ness of purpose that inspires confidence , and leads to unquestioned excellence. { The new parliament was opened on the ' 10th of May, 1753; and the first busineis of the house was to take into consideration the state of Ireland, which, in proportion as it advanced in civilization, showed a dis- position to shake off its dependence un Ung. land. The kingdom was in a state of tran- quility at the session which terminated the labours of the last parliament ; but previ- ous to the new election, the death of Mr. Pelham caused several changes in the go. vernment oflices ; the late minister was suc- ceeded in the treasury by his brother, the duke of Newcastle ; and unanimity now prevailed in the cabinet. { A. n. 1756.— We have before alluded to ' the animosity which existed between tlie English and French relative to their North American possessions. Hostilities were now commenced by the colonial autliorities, ' without the formality of a declaration of war; the Virginian port of Log's Town was surprised by a French detaclmiont, and all its inhabitants but too inhumanly murder- I ed; the North American Indians were tti I mulated to attack the British colonists, and large supplies of arms and ammunition were imported from France. The Uriiiali niinig. ters immediately prepared for hostilities; all the French forts within the limits of Nova Scotia were reduced by colonel Monck. ton ; but an expedition against the Frencli forts on the Ohio, commanded by general Braddock, met with a severe defeat; tlie general falling into an ambuscade of French and Indians, was slain, and the regular soldiers fled with disgraceful precipitation. The provincial militia, however, led l)y colo- nel Washington, displayed good courage, nobly maintaining their ground, and cover. ing the retreat ot the main army. Tlie lost of the English on this occasion was verf severe: upwards of 700 men, with several officers, were slain ; the artillery, stores, and provisions became the property of the victors, as well as the general's cabinet, ! containing his private instructions &c. of i which the enemy availed himself to great ' advantage. Two other expeditions, destined | for the attack of Crown Point and fort Nia- , gara, also failed. But the reprisals at sea I \ more than compensated for these misfor- j ' tunes, as upwards of three hundred iner- 1 chant ships and eight thousand senmcn | were captured that year by Britisli cruisers. I A.D. 1753. — AN ACT FOR TUB mBVENTION OF CLANDBSTINB MARRIAOF.S. ^• 1 bad war the enci and 1 thre l.n,1 A.O. 17S7> — VATAL BIOT AT MAIlOBBITBB, OCCASIONKD BT TUB PBICB Of COBN. rcneral's cabinet, ■ « i lEnglant}.— llouse of ISrunsiniiii.— (!!]lcorQe M. 42\ 1. s. 1756.— Notwithstanding hostilities bad been carried on nearly a twelvemonth, war was not formallv declared till May IS: the chief subject or complaint beinx the encroachments of the Frencli on the Ohio and Nova Scotia. This was followed by threats of invasion upon England or Ire- land ; in consequence of .which a body of Heasian and Hanoverian troops was intro- duced to defend the interior of the king- dom; a measure which gave rise to consi- derable discontent, as most people thought that the ordinary force of either country was sufficient to repel invasion. But whilst the government was providing for its inter- nal security, the enemy was making serious attempts to wrest from us our possessions both in the East and West Indies. The reduction of Minorca was a favourite object of the French government; a formidable force was landed op the island, and close siege laid to Fort Bt. Philip, which com- mands the principal town and harbour. The governor, general Blakeney, made a long and able defence : but admiral Byng, who had been entrusted with the charge of he English fleet in the Mediterranean, and was ordered to attempt the relief of the Slace, seems to have been destitute of any ecisive plan ; and, after avoiding an action with a French squadron, he returned to Gibraltar, abandoning Minorca to its fate, witich, to the iuttuite chagrin of the nation, fell into the hands of the enemy. The surrender of Minorca was an unex- pected blow, and the rage of the people at Its loss was directed against the unfortu- nate Byng, who being tried by a court- martial at Portsmouth, was condemned to death, for not doing his utmost to engege the enemy, but recommended to the mercy of the erown, as it did not appear to the court that it was through cowardice or dis- affection. Great exertions were made to save tlie admiral's life, but in vain ; he was ordered to be shot on board the Monarque, and he met his fate with coolness and in- trepidity. In America a second series of expeditions ai^ainst the French forts signally failed; while the marquis de Montcalm, the go- vernor of Canada, captured Oswego, where the British had deposited the greater part of their artillery and military stores.— But it is time that we call the reader's attention to the progress of affairs in our Eastern possessions. A. n. 1757.— The jealousy which had been createdamongthe petty independent princes of India, by the privileges which the em- peror of Delhi had granted to the English settlers at Calcutta, had risen to an alarm- ing height ; but successful means had been used to allajr their fury until the accession of the ferocious Suraja Dowla, souhbadar of Bengal, who was enraged at the shelter which the English afforded to some of his destined victims. He advanced towards Calcutta, when the governor and most of the local authorities, panic-stricken, made their escape in boats, leaving about a hun- dred and ninety men, under the control of Mr. Holwell, to make the best of their for- lorn situation. This mere handful of Eng- lishmen, composing the garrison, for a short time bravely defenocd themselves, but when they fell into the power of the infuriated Suraja, he ordered the unhappy prisoners, then amounting to one-hundred a;id forty- six, to be thrust into the prison of Calcutta, called the Black hole ; a room less than twenty feet square. Here the heat and foulness of the air reduced them to the most pitiable state imaginable; and when on the following morning an order came for their release, only twenty-three were found alive. The news of this horrid ca- tastrophe reached Madras just when colo- nel Clive and admiral Watson, flushed by their recent victory over the celebrated pirate Angria, had arrived at Madras to aid in the destruction of the French influ- ence in the Deccan. Calcutta was there- fore the scene of their next operations ; and no sooner did the fleet make its appear- ance before that city than it surrendered. The French fort of Chanderaagore was re- duced ; sevei-.M of the Suraja Dowla's own places were taken, conspiracies were formed against him, and the haughty chieftain felt that the sovereignty of Bengal must be de- cided by a battle. Contrary to the opinion of all his ofiicers, Clive resolved to engage him, although the disparity of their forces was prodigious. He accordingly took up a position in the grove of Plassy : his troops in the whole not exceeding three thousand two hundred men, of whom only nine hun- dred were Europeans ; while Suraja Dowla had with him fifty thousand foot, eighteen thousand horse, and fifty pieces of cannon. So great were the errors committed by the enemy, and so skilfully did the British com- mander use his means, that a complete victory was won, at the astonishingly small loss of seventy men in killed and wounded. This event laid the foundation of the Bri- tish dominion in India; and in one cam- paign we became possessed of a territory which, in its wsalth and extent, exceeded any kingdom in Europe. A. D. 175s. — Whilst victory followed vic- tory in the eisteru world, a change in the English ministry led to similar successes in the west. It was at this period that the celebrated William Pitt (afterwards earl of Chatham) was brought into office, with Mr. Legge ; but both of them bciii^ opposed to the expensive support of continental con- nexions, they would have been dismissed by the king, but for the popularity their principles had acquired. In North America the British arms had been tarnished by de- lays and disasters that might have been avoided ; and it was therefore resolved on to recall the earl of Loudon, and entrust the military operations to seneraU Aber- crorabie, Amherst, and Forbes, the first- named being the comtnander-in-chief, Am- herst laid siege to Louisbourg, and aided by the talents of brigadier Wolfe, who was fast rising into eminence, forced that im- portant garrison to surrender. This was followed by the entire reduction of Cape lARRIAOF.S. 200,000{. ADVANCBD TO TUB KINO AS RLECTOB OV HANOVBR. [2 A.D. 1759.— BAHOXL, TBI CKLBBmiTID MOIICIAN, DIBO, ArBIL 12. •a 1^ 422 E^t ^rcasniQ of l^istore, $cc. Breton, and the inferior stations which the French occupied in the Gulf of St. Law- rence. Brigadier-general Forbes was sent against Fort du Quesne. which the French at his approach abandoned. But the expe<- dition against Ticonderaeo, which Aber- crombie himself undertook, failed of suc- cess ; the number and valour of his troops being unequal to the capture of a place so strongly fortified. An expedition was now planned agiunst Quebec ; and as the inhabitants of Canada had good reason to believe that their laws and religion would be respected, they were prepared to submit to a change of masters. Thus when general Wolfe proceeded up the St. Lawrence, he encountered no very seri- ous opposition from the Canadians, who seemed to regard the-approaching struggle with indifference. While Wolfe advanced towards Quebec, general Amherst con- quered Ticonderago and Crown Point, and sir W. Johnson gained the important for- tress of Niagara. Amherst expected to be able to form a junction with Wolfe, but in this he was disappointed ; and though the inadequacy of his force made him almost despair of success, the ardent young general resolved to persevere in this hazardous enterprize. Having effected a landing in the night, under the heights of Abraham, he led his men up this apparently inacces- sible steep, thereby securing a position which commanded the town. The marquis de Montcalm was utterly astonished wfien he heard that so daring and desperate an effort had been achieved by the English troops. A battle was now inevitable, and both geiicr&ls prepared for the contest with equal courage. It was brief but tierce ; the scale of victory was just beginning to turn in favour of the British, when a ball pierced the breast of Wolfe, and he fell mortally wounded. The unhappy tidings flew from rank to rank; every man seemed deter- mined to avenge the loss of his general ; and with such impetuosity did they charge the enemy, that the words " They run I " resounded in the ears of Wolfe as, expiring, he leaned on a soldier's breast. "Who run 7 " he eagerly inquired ; and on being told it was the French, he calmly replied, " I die happy." The marquis de Montcalm fell in the same field, and met his fate with similar intrepiditjr. In skill and valour he was no way inferior to his more youthful rival. When told, after the battle, that his wounds were mortal, he exclaimp<) "So much the better : I shall not live to w iiness the surrender of Quebec." In a few days after this battle, the city opened its gates to the British, and the complete subjuga- tion of the Cauadas speedily followed. A.D. 1760.— In the East Indies the suc- cess of the Euglish was scarcely less de- cisive than in America. By land and by sea several victories had been gained in that quarter ; and at length colonel Coote and tlie French general Lally fought a deter- mined battle at Wandewash (Jan. 21), in which theFrench were signally defeated, and their influence in the Carnatic destroyed. The war on the continent, in which the English had taken a very active part, had now raged for four years, without gaininii any other advantage than the gratification of defending the possessions of their sove- reign in Germany. England, indeed, was now in a state of unparalleled glory. At sea, the conduct of her admirals had des- troyed the naval power of the French ; in the Indies her empire was extended, and the English rendered masters of the com- merce of the vast peninsula of Hindostan- while in Canr.da a most important con- quest had been achieved. These important acquisitions made the English very impa- tient of the German war; and they asserted that the French islands in the West Indies more valuable to a commercial people than half the states of Germany, might have been gained with less expense and risk than had been spent in defending one paltry electorate. In the midst of these disputes, George II. died suddenly, on the 25th of October, in the 77th year of his age, and the 34th of his reign. The immediate cause of his decease was a rupture of the Tight ventricle of the heart. If we impartially regard the character of this king, we shall find both in his private and public conduct room for just panegyric. That during hit whole reign he evinced a remarkable affec- tion for his Hanoverian subjects is cer- tainly true ; yet his exposing that country to the attacks of the enemy, rather than neglect the rights of England in Nortli America, clears him of the imputation of partiality. In his temper he was hast; and violent, yet his general conduct was so little influenced by this, that it was gene- rally mild and humane. He was impartial in the administration of justice, sincere and open in his intentions, and temperate and regular in his manner of living. Under his reign the agriculture, commerce, and industry of Great Britain daily increased; and his subjects, even when at war with the most powerful nations of Europe, enjoyed peace at home, and acquired glory ahroad. Great progress had been made during this reign in disseminating a taste for general literature and the arts; and though it was not the fashion for the magnates of the land to be very liberal of their patron- age to such as devoted their minds to the advancement of science, still much was done towards pioneering the way for a future age, when a solution of many of the phenomena of nature might seem to de- mand more serious attention. Among the great historians were Hume, Gibbon, and Robertson. In philology and criticism were Warburton, Bentley, and Boyle. Mathema- tics and astronomy could boast of Halley, Bradley, and Maclaurin. Theology was distinguished by the eminent names of Pot- ter, Iloadley, Sherlock, Doddridge, Watts, Chandler, and many others. Painting had its Reynolds, Ramsay, and Hogarth ; music, its Handel, Boyce, Greene, and Arne ; and among the votnries of the muses were I'upe, Akcnsidc, Thompson, Young, Gray, Glover, and others scarcely less distinguished. o «s H »• I M I a I i< N b 9 0. — Gbobob II. was succeeded bv his grandson, George III., eldest son of Frederic, prince of Wales, whose death has been mentioned as occurring in 1751. On bis accession to the throne he was twenty- two years of age; affable, good-tempered, upright, and religious. His education had been under the direction of lord Bute, and be liad a great advantage over his prede- cessors, in being acquainted with the lan- guage, habits, and institutions of his coun- trymen : his tirst entrance into public life consequently made a favourable impression oa his subjects; and addresses, contain- ing professions of the most loyal attach- ment, poured in from all parts of the king- *'""• . . . . . . On his majesty's accession, the nominal head of the administration was the duke of Newcastle ; but Mr. Pitt, principal secre- tary of state, was the presiding genius of the cabinet. The chief remaining members neve lord Northington, afterwards lord chaicellor ; lord Carteret, president of the council; the duke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain; Mr. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer; lord Anson, first lord of the ad- miralty; and lord Holdernesse, secretary of state. On the 18th of November the kini; met his parliament, and in a popular speech, which he commenced with, " Born tni educated in this country, I glory in the name of Briton,"— the flourishing state of* the kingdom, the brilliant successes of the war, and the extinction of internal divisions were acknowledged ; while the support of the "protestant interest," and a " safe and honourable peace," were declared to be the objects of the war. An act was then passed for granting to bis majesty an annual in- come of 8UU,000{. A. D. 1761.— One of the first important acts of the new monarch was a declaration of his intention to marry the princess Charlotte, daughter of the duke of Mcck- lenburgh-Strelitz : the necessary prepara- tions were accordingly made; she arrived in London on the 8th of September, the nuptials took place that evening in the rofal chapel, and on the 23nd their majes- ties were crowned in Westminster-abbey. Soon after the king's accession, negotia- tions for ppnre were commenced by the courts of France and Great Britain, but there was little honesty of intention on either side ; Mr. Pitt being firmly resolved to humble the house of Bourbon, while the duke of Choiseul, on the part of France, vat relying on the promises of Spanish aid, to enable liim to carry on hostilities with increased vigour. The war languished in Germany; but at sea the honour of the British tlag was still nobly sustained. Peace appeared to be desirable for all parties, and negotiations were resumed ; but neither power was willing to make concessions; snd Mr. Pitt having discovered that an in- timate connexion netwecn the courts of Versailles and Madrid had been formed. he pro[~'Scd .a council to anticipate the hostile intentions of the latter, by seizing the plate fleer, laden with the treasures of Spanish America. To this the king and the rest of the ministers were adverse; the conserjuence of which was, that Mr. Pitt and hi? brother-in-law, lord Temple, sent in their seals of office. His migesty, anxi- ous to introduce his favourite, the earl of Bute, into the cabinet, accepted the pre- mier's resignation; and in return fur his great services, a pension of 3000{. per an- num was settled upon him, which was to continue to his wife, (on whom the title of baroness Chatham was conferred) and their eldest son, for their lives. A. B. 1763. — A very few months after the late changes in the cabinet had occurred, it became fully evident that the "family compact" of the houses of Bourbon had been completed. On this occasion the new ministry showed uo want of alacrity in maintaining their country's honour; and on the 4tli of January war was declared against Spain. The first blow was struck by admiral Rodney, who captured Marti- nico ; which was followed by the surrender of the dependent isles, Grenada, St. Lucie, and St. Vincent. "The next expedition undertaken by the English was equally suc- cessful ; a ^oet under admiral Pocockc, as- sisted by an army under the earl of Albe- marle, was sent against Uavannah, the capital of the island of Cuba, which sur- rendered after a vigorous resistance of two months. The ricl^es acquired by the Eng- lish on this occasion amounted to twelve ships of the line, besides money and mer- chandize to the amount of four millions sterling. While these successes attended the Bri- tish arras in the West Indies, an armament from Madras, under general Draper and general Cornish, reduced the island of Ma- nilla, and its fall involved the fate of the whole range of the Philippine islands. The capture of the Hermione, a large Spanish register ship, took place soon lifter, and the cargo, which was estimated at a million Stirling, passed in triumph to the bank at the same hour in which the birth of the prince of Wales was announced to the pub- lic (April 12, 1762). An attempt made by Spain to subdue Portugal having proved unsuccessful, and both France and Spain being heartily tired of a. war which threatened ruin to the co- lonies of both, they became desirous of peace ; this being agreeable to the British ministry, of whom the earl of Bute was then at the head, preliminaries were speedily set on foot. Indeed, so anxious was his lord- ship to avoid a continuance of hostilities, that he not only stopped the career of co- lonial conquest, but consented to sacrifice several acquisitions that Britain had al- ready made. The definitive treaty was con- cluded at Paris bu the Uth of February, 176H. Florida was received in exchange for Ilavannah ; Cape Breton, Tobago, Domi- nica, St. Vincent, Grenada, and Senegal were retained ; the conquest of Canada re- A.l>. 1763.— TBI VOYAGES or BTBOIf, CABTKBKT, AMD WALLI8 UN DEBTAKBH. A. D. 1704.— WIUIAM BOaAKTB, TBI OaiiMKATBO OAHIOaTDHIST, SIIS. a 424 ^^e ^rtasuTy «{ l^istocQ, $cc. niained intact, and the British nation had alio gained lar^e possessiona and a decided •uperiority in India. A. D. 1763.— In Oermanv the marquis of' Granby signalized himseu at the liead of the allied army ; and. in union with the king of Prussia, would in all probabilitv have succeeded in expelling the French troops, had not a general treaty of peace put an end to the contest. Britain by the colonial war obtained complete maritime supremacy ; she commanded the entire commerce of North America and Hindos- tan. and had a decided superiority in the West Indian trade. But during the " se- ven years' war" a question arose which led to Tcry imporUnt discussions : France, un- able to maintain a commercial intercourse with her colonies, opened the trade to neu- tral powers: England declared this traffic illegal, and relying on her naval superi- ority, seized neutral vessels and neutral property bound to hostile ports. The re- turn of peace put an end to the dispute for a season, but the subject has since been the fruitful source of ang^y discussion in every subsequent war. The earl of Bute, under whose auspices the late peace had been made, had always been beheld with jealousy by the popular party, who accused him of having formed that " influence behind the throne greater than the throne itself, —though it really seems to have been a mere delusion, fos- tered and encouraged for factious purposes —now suddenly resigned his office of first lord of the treasury, and was succeeded by Mr. George Grenville. The puDlie attention was now almost whollyjient on the result of the trial of John Wilkes, member for Aylesbury, a man of good talents and classical taste, but who bore a very profligate character. Disap- pointed in his expectations from the minis- try, he assumed the part of a violent patriot, and inveighed vehemently against the mea- sures pursued by government. The press teemed with political pamphlets, to which the ministerial party seemed indifferent, until the appearance of No. 49 of the North Briton, in which very strong and scurrilous abuse was published against the king's speech delivered at the close of parliament. A general warrant was thereupon issued for apprehending the author, printer, and publisher of it; and Mr. Wilkes being taken into custody, he was sent to the Tower, and all his papers were seized. He was afterwards tried in the court of com- mon pleas, and acquitted, lord chief-Justice Pratt declaring against the legality of general warrants ; that is, warrants not specifying the names of the accused. But Wilkes, after his release, having re- published the offensive paper, an informa- tion was filed against him at his majesty's suit, for a gross libel, and the North Bi-iton was burned by the hands of the common hangman: nor did the matter end here; the Teitality of general warrants gave rise to several stormy debates in the house of commons ; ana at length Mr. Wilkes was expelled fur having printed in his own house an infamous poem, called "An Estay on Woman," with notes, to which the name of bishop Warburton was affixed. As he did not appear to the indictment prefered against htm, he was declared an outlaw. He then retired to France: and we may here as well observe, though in doing sow« overstep our chronological boundary, that in 1/68 he returned to England, and by submitting to the fine and imprisonment pronounced against him, procured a rever. sion of the sentence of outlawry. He then offered himself to represent the county of Middlesex, and was unanimously chosen, in opposition to the ministerial candidates. He afterwards commenced a prosecation against the earl of IlaUfax, and recovered 4UUU1. damages for his imprisonment in the Tower upon an illegal warrant. A. n. 1765.— This year is rendered impor- tant in the annals of England by the pass- ing of an American stamp-act, which gave rise to those disputes which alienated the colonies from the mother country, arid ended in a total separation. As the late war had been entered into by Great Bri- tain, in order to protect her American set- tlements from the encroachments of the French, it was thought reasonable that they should contribute towards the ex- pences which had been incurred. A bill was accordingly brought into parliament, and received tne royal assent, for imposing a stamp and other duties on fifty-three articles of their commerce. However, eventually, the resistance made by the Americans to these imposta, and the gene- ral discontent which prevailed in Englanji, occasioned the repeal of the act. A cTiange in the ministry, by the introduction of the marquis of Rockingham, was the immedi- ate consequence ; but his rule was of very limited duration, and the duke of Grafton was appointed first lord of the trcatnry. The privy seal was bestowed on Mr. Pitt, who was now created earl of Chatham; lord Camden succeeded lord Northington as lord chancellor, and Mr.Townsheudwu made chancellor of the exchequer. The affairs of the East India Company now claimed the attention of the house. Mr. Vansittart had acted as governor-gene- ral from the time of colonel Clive's return to England in 1760. But the viceroy of Bengal had opposed the company, and a war ensued which ended by the English making an entire conquest of the kingdom of Bengal. The preceding year the com- pany sent over lord Clive, who found that their agents had acquired the custom of exacting large sums as presents from the native princes : by which means they had accumulated great riches, and the name of an Englishman had become odious. Lord Clive resolved to restrain the rapacity of these persons, and he concluded a treaty for the company, by which they would en- joy a revenue ol 1,700,000/. The wealth of this powerful body ren- dered it too formidable in the eyes of go- vernment, and' a question arose whether A. D. 1765. — DR. TOONO, AUTHOR OP TUB " HIOHT TBOUOHTS," DIBU. A. O. I773--~A ■OrBIIIB OOUBt or JUDIOATUBB IITAabllBBS AT CAICUTTA. lEnglantf.— I^ottst of ISrunsfnicfi.— Storge XS3E. 425 the B»«t India Company had any right to territorial jurisdiction. On examining into their charter, it appeared that they were prohibited from making conqueata ; and it being proved that they had subdued some of the native princea, and annexed their dominions to the company's settlements, it was agreed that this commercial associa- tion should be brought in some degree nnder the control of parliament. The metropolis was for a long time agi- tated with the affair of Wilkes ; of which a set of restless demagogues took advantage to disturb the public mind, already over- excited by the opposition to the mea- of government as regarded the Nort. American colonies. But no national event worthy of historical record occurred for some considerable time. One or two matters of domestic interest which happened during this period must, however, be noticed. The first relates to an address firom the corporation of London to the king, which was presented on the 33rd of May, 1770, in which they lamented the royal displeasure they had incurred in irtinseqaence of their former remonstrance ; lAit they still adhered to it, and again prated fbr a dissolution of parliament. To which his iniuesty replied that "he should have been wanting to the public, as well as to himself, had he made such an use of the prerogative as was inconsistent with the in* terest, and dangerous to the constitution of the kingdom." Upon this, the lord mayor Beckford, a high-spirited and fearless demo- crat, begged leave to answer the king. Such a request was as indecorous as it was un- asual; but in the confusion of the moment, leave was given ; and, with great fluency of language, he delivered an extempore address to his majesty, concluding in the following words :— " Permit me, sire, to ob- serve, that whoever has already dared, or shall hereafter endeavour, by false insinua- tions and Buxgestions, to alienate your ma- jesty's affections from your loyal subjects in general, and from the city of London in particular, and to withdraw your confidence from, and regard for, your people, is an enemy to your majesty's person and family, a violator of the public peace, and the be- trayer of our happy constitution as it was established at the glorious a'ld necessary revolution." No reply was gi joice that the grave has not closed upon me, that I am still alive to lift up my voice against the dismemberment of this ancient and most noble monarchy." He was re- £lied to with great respect by the duke of Richmond, when on attempting to rise again he fell back before uttering a word, in a convulsive fit, from which he never re- covered, and died a few days after, in the 70th year of his age. May 11, 1778. His merits were transcendent, and his death was lamented as a national loss. Apart from the aberrations originating in an ar- dent love of power, his course was splendid and magnanimous ; and it was truly said of I hmi by lord Chesterlield, that his private I life was stained by no vices, nor sullied by i any meanness. Contemporary praise and i posthumous honours were showered down ' upon tlie man of whom the nation was t jus'.ly proud. His remains were interred, with great solemnity, in Westminster ab- bey ; and the city of London erected a flat- tering tribute to his memory in Guildhall. A French squadron was sent from Toulon to the assistance of America, under the command of count d'Estaing, who reduced the island of Grenada, while a body of his forces made themselves masters of St. Vin- cent. In other parts Of the West Indian seas the British arms were ably supported by tlie bravery and vigilance of the admirals Hyde Parker and Rowley. On the 27th of July au indecisive action was fought off Brest, between the French fleet, under M. d'Orvilliers, and a British squadron, under admiral Keppel. Sir Hugh Palliser, the second in command, accused the admiral of not having done bis duty t he was sc- cordingly tried by a court martial, and ho- nourably acquitted; in fact, it appeared that he had been so badly supported by Palliser. that he was unable to make any use of the slight advantage he obtained. Sir Charles Hardy, a brave and experi- enced officer, whose services had been re- warded with the govemorahip of Greenwich hospital, was appointed to succeed Keppel in the command of the channel fleet. In the meantime, the Spanish court was pre- vailed on by the French to lake up arms in defence of America, and to accede to the general confederacy against Great Britain. As the danger to whicn the nation was now exposed was become truly alarming, it was thought advisable to raise volunteer com- panies in additiin to the militia; and m this the spirit and magnanimity of the peo- ple reflected great credit on the national character. Strengthened by the alliance of Spain, the French began to extend tlieir ideas of conquest ; and thinking that a blow near at hand was more likely than opera- tions carried on at a distance to alarm the fears of the English, they made attempts on ihe islands of Guernsey and Jersey, bat in each they were completely frustrated. But the old enemies of Britain had ftrown arrogant during the unnatural contest that was waged witli the unruly scions of her own stock; and preparations were now made for Britain itself. A junction was ef- fected between the French and Spanish fleets, which made their appearance in the channel, to the number of^ sixty sail of the line besides frigates. This formidable ar- mament was opposed by a force much in- ferior, under admiral Hardy, who leisurely retired up the channel, enticing them to follow him, but, with all their immente su- periority, they chose rather to decline an en- counter; it is true they for some time con- tinued to menace and insult the Britiih coasts with impunity, but without accom- plishing any thing further than the cap- ture of the Ardent man of-Wdr, which by ac- cident had fallen in with the combined fleets. In calling the reader's attention to the state of the continent at this period, we have to notice that the peace which fol- lowed the memorable "seven years' war" was temporarily menaced by the efforts of the emperor Joseph to obtain possession of Bavaria; but the prompt interference of the king of Prussia, who brought into the field an immense army, together with the remonstrances of Russia, and the unwil- lingness of France to second the ambitious designs of Austria, induced the emperor to abandon his aggressive intentions. A. D. 1780.— The first business of impor- tance that came before the parliament this year was the state of Ireland, which hroug ht from lord North a plan of amelioration that met with the approbation of the house, and, as it opened her ports for the import and export of her manufactures, the chanj(e was hailed as a happy omen for the sister kingdom. The next subject for legislative A. D. 1779. — DAVID OABRICK, THB ENOLISH BOSCIUS, DIRD JAN. 20. ».0. 1770— OIlDi AOID 83, /OBH, OUEI or BVTLAMB, IIABaUIS Ot SBiBBT. lEnglantf.— I^ouse of 13runstot(l.— George SSI. 429 diacuision wat the wasteful and extrava- cant expenditure in the d. Vrent official Separtmcnti of the tfttte} and the elo- quence and Anancial knowledge of Mr. Burke were amply displayed in a plan for veneral reform, which wai seconded by petltioni from various parts of the king- Sora, praying for a change of men as well u measures. But at this crisis the atten- tion of all parties was attracted by a lud- den alarm. Sir George Suvillc had in the preceding session proposed a hill to repeal the act of William lll._, which imposed certain penalties and disabilities on the Roman catholics, and which passed both houses without opposition. The loyal con- duct of this body of his majesty's subjects, ind their readiness to risk their lives and fortunes in defence of their king and coun- try, were generally acknowledged; but in consequence of the population of Scotland npretsing a dread of granting toleration to papists, the bill did not extend to that kingm. n. This encouraged a set of fana- tics in l:)P2!ve of their country's glory. At the lame time popular clamour and ,. tion, and an amendment suggested by Mr Fox, the bill passed. On the 2nd of August, as the king wss alighting from his carriage, a wounin sp. proached him under pretence of olTeriiig a pe'ition, and attempted to stab him with a knife she had coiicenled. His nisji'»i« avoided the blow by drawing hack, uikh she made another thrust at hiiu, but Haa prevented from effecting her purpose l>y t yeoman of Uie guards who seized her at the inataut. On being examined before the firivy council, it appeared that slie was a unatlc; her name Margaret Nicliulron, Nothing at this period excited cquitl In- terest to the trial of Mr. llustinga, tjie fovernor of Bengal, who had returned to Ingland, poaaei (in party. Tlie prince of OranM ncing U leagih eompell«d lo leave tlie IIhkui'i lie (mUm to England and I'rutiia fur pruteO' lion, who lent their aid, and the itadtltulder vu rtioitated. It wai during this leiilon that the alien- tioB of parliament wai first enKHged in at- Itmpiing the abulition of the lUve trade. Tbit innuman traffic, to abhorrent in ita ulure to all principlea of humanity, teemi 10 have been carried out by Great Britain and oiber nationa for a length of time with- I out baring attracted the notice of the nub- ' lie. It waa ttrat pointed out by the quakera ; in ib« independent provinces of 8outli Ame> { riea, who in many instances liHd eninnci. I pated their slaves. A number of pniii|ihlels I were published on the subicct ; several emi- nent divinea of the calablishrd church re- eonmend«d it in their discourses and writ- iagi! the two universities, and after them, the whole' ition, presented petitions pray- inc for iRe interference of parliament to forward the humane design of African emancipation. Mr. Wilberforre brouKht Iho subject before parliament : but as many ciicumstancra arose lo retard the conside- ration of it, a resolution was carried to de- fer it till a future opportunity. Towards the close of the year the nation vae thrown into great dismay by the fact that the king was suffering under a severe menial malaur; to much so, that on the 4lh of November it waa necessary to con- ittlt the most eminent phTsiciaiis, and to aitemlile the principal odtcera of atate. His majesty's disorder not abating, but the contrary appearing from the examinatiuu of the physicians before the privy-council, the house twice adjourned ; but bearing on their re assembling the second time that there was a great prospect of his msjestv's recovery, though the time was uncertain, both houses turned their thoughts to the eitablishment of a reKciit during his ma- Jeity'i incapacity. The right of tlie prince of Wales to this office was asserted by Mr. Fox, and denied by Mr. I'itt, who affirmed, that for any man to assert such a right in the prince of Wales was little less than treason to the constitution. After violent altercations, a modifted regency was carried in favour of the prince; the queen to have the custody of the royal person, and the tppointinent to places in the household. For the present, however, these orrange- ments were not needed, for the health of the king was rapidly improving; and on the loth of March iiis mtgesty sent a message to parliament, to acquaint them of liis re- covery, and of his ability to attend to the public business o*^ the kingdom. The etfect of this pleasing intelligence was instanta- neous ; every town and village in the king- dom testitted their loyalty and attachment to the sovereign ; and sorrow was aucceedcd by rapturous exultation. A.D. 1789. — According to a promise given by the king, that the British constitutioa tliould he extended to Canada, that pro- vince now applied tor a form of legislature. For the better accommodation of ila in- habitants, Mr. fitt proposed to divide the province intu Upper and Lower Canada; and to provide separate laws which might suit the French Canadian noblesse on the one hand, and the British and American colonists on the other. In the course of the discussion, Mr. Foi observed that it would be wrong to abolish hereditary dis- linciions where Ihey had been long esla- blished, and equally wrong lo create those distinctions in a country which waa not suited for their estabhshment. This drew from Mr. Burke the observation that "it became a duly of parliament to watch the conduct ol individuals, and societies, which were evidently disposed to encourage inno- vations." Mr. Fux thinking these senti- ments contained a censure on him, defended his opinions by a full explanation of hia sentiments on the French revolution. Mr. Burke had ureviously written an excellent work, intended to operate as an antidote to the growing evils of republicanism and in- fidelity. In parliament, he denounced the insidious cry of liberty and equality, and a breach was thus made in the long-cemented friendship of these two distinguished alaCM- men, winch ever after remained unclosed. A. D. 1790.— At this period France had bei^un lo exhibit scenes of anarchy and con- fusion, which, for monstrous wickedness and wide-spread misery, never before had their parallel in the world's history. A con- densed narrative of those revolutionary hor- rors will be found under the proper head. Wt shall here simply observe, en paiiant, that the progress of free- thinking, miscalled philosophy, which had been much encou- raged in that country during the last cen- tury, had diffused a spirit of innovation and licentiousness that was highly unfavourable to the existence of an abaolute monarchy. Moreover, the participation of France in the American struggle fur independence, had instilled into the minds of Cfallo American chaiupious of liberty a perfect detestation of regal authority; and on their return from that vaunted land of freedom, they imparted to their countrymen the spirit of liberty which had been kindled in the western hemisphere. But, perhaps, tlie more im- mediate cause of tnis wild ebullition of popular fury, arose from the embarrassed stale of the finances, which induced Louis XVI. to assemble the states-gene <^uencc of this measure, the French conven- tion, on the 1st of February, declared war. No' sooner was Great Britain involved in this eventful war, than a treaty of com- merce was concluded with Russia, a large body of troops was taken into the service of government, and an engagement was en- tered into by the king of Sardinia, who agreed, for an annual subsidy of 200,000{., to join the Austrians in Italy with a very considerable military force. Alliances were likewise formed with Austria, Prussia, Spain, Holland, Portugal, and Russia, all of whom agreed to shut their ports against the vessels of France. Denmark, Sweden, and Switzerland, however, refused to join the confederacy. The king of the Sicilies Bgreedno furnish 6000 troops and four ships of the line; the empire also furnished its contingents to the Austrian and Prussian armies ; and British troops were sent to the protection of Holland, under the command of the duke of York. The French array, commanded by general Dumouriez, invaded Holland, and having taken Breda, Gertruydcnburg, and some other places, advanced to Williamstndt, which was defended by n detachment from the brigade of the English guards, just ar- rived in Holland. Here the French met with a repulse, and were compelled (o raise the siej^e with great loss. Dumouriez then quitted Holland to defend Louvuin; but being afterwards defeated in several en- gagements with the allied armies, parlicu- larly at Neer-winden, his soldiers were so discouraged, that they deserted in great numbers. At length, weary of the dis- organized state of the French government, and finding himself suspected by the two great factions which divided the republic, Dumouriez entered into negotiations with the allied generals, and a^rreed to return to Paris, dissolve the national convention, end free his country from the gross tyranny which was there exercised under the spe- cious name of equality. But the conven- tionalists withheld his supplies, and sent commissioners to tinvavt his designs and summon him to th'ir bar. He instantly arrested the officetb tlia - brought the sum- mons, and sent them to the Austrian head- quarters. But the army did not share the anti-revolutionnry feelings of the general, aud he was hiaif("lf obliged to scak safety in the Austrian raiup, accompanied by young Egalit^, (as he was then stjled) son of the execrable duke of Orleans, and now Ltuis Philippe, king of the French I The duke of YorR, who wns at the head of the allied armies, had laid siege to and takeu Valcncieuiics; aud he was now anxi- ous to extend their conquests along tlio frontier : he accordingly marched towards Dunkirk, and commenced the siege on the S7th of August. He expected a naval ar- mament from Great Britain to act in con- junction with the land forces; but, frnni some unaccountable cause, the heavy artii. lery was so long delayed, that the ene-.ny had time to provide for the defence of th' town. The French troops, commanded by Uouchard, poured upon them in such num- bers, that the duke was compelled to make a precipitate retreat, to avoid losing the whole of his men. He then came to Eng- land, aud having held a conference with the ministers, returned to the continent. At > alenciennes it was decided in a cuuncij of war, that the emperor of Germany should take the field, and be invested with the supreme command. The principal persons of the town and harbour of Toulon entered into an agree- ment with the Britirjh admiral, lord llood, by which they delivered up the town and' shipping to his protection, on condition of Its being restored to France when the Bourbon restoration should be effected. The town, however, was not for any long time defensible against the superior force of the enemy which had come to its rescue ; it was therefore evacuated, fourteen thou- sand of the inhabitants taking refuge oii board the British ships. Sir Sidney Smith set fire to the arsenals, which, to;i;«tlier with an immense quantity of naval stores, and fifteen ships of the line, were con- sumed. On this ' occasion the artillery wns commanded by Napoleon Buonnparie, whose skill and courage was conspicuous ; and from that day his promotion rapidly took place. The efforts made by the French at this time were truly astonishing. Having pro- digiously increased their forces, they were resolved to conquer, whatever might be tlie cost of human life. Every day whs a dHy of battle ; and as they were continually re- inforced, the veteran armies of the allies were obliged to give wny. On the iiiid of December they were driven with imiiieniie slaughter from Hagcnnu ; this was followed up by successive defeats till the I7ih,wlicn the French army arrived at V.'eisscniburg in triumph. During this last month the loss j' men on both sides was iumiense, being estimated at between "0,000 knd 80,000 men. The French concluded the cam- paign in triumph, and the allied powers were seriously alarmed at the difficulties which were necessary to be surmounted, in order to regain the ground tlmt had been lost. In tiic East and West Indies the Englibh wt,-e succcf iful. Toba[;o, St. Domingo, I'ondieherry, and the French settlements on the coast of Malabar and CoromanUcI, all burrcndered to them. A. D. 1794. — From the great and im- portant events which were transacting on the continent, we turn to the inteniHl af- fairs of Great Britain. The French repnl). lie having menaced England with an in- vasion, it was proposed by ministers that A.O. 179C— JOHN SMKATON, TUB EMIXENT CIVII, ENOINKKIt, niKO OCT. 2S. SB 59. sta along the relied towardi le «iege on the ed a naval ar- to act in con- ges j but, from lie heavy artil. kat the ene'.ny tlefence of thi> :otnmanded by n in tur'ii num- pelted to make oid losing the I came to Eng- inference with the continent, led in a cuuncil lermany iliould !sted with the 'the town and into an agrce- ral, lord Ilond, the town and , on condition ance when the Id be effected. at for any long ! superior force ne to its rescue; fourteen thon- king refuge on ir Sidney Smith iliich, tojiiether of naval stores, line, were con- I the artillery on Buonaparte, M conspicuous; >motion rapidly French at this Having pro- )rces, they were er might be the day was a day continually re- es of the allies On the 2Jnd of . with immense hiswnsrulldwed the 17iii,wlicn t V/?is8cmburg last month the was iiiiniunse, cen "(1,000 and icludedthecam- iecl powers wfrc tncultics wliicli )unted, in order lad been lost. lies the Eiiglltih , St. Domingo, ^ icli settleiiirnts ,j id Coromanilcl, ^ great and im- \ ' transacting on the inteniHl af- 1 B French repnb- | aid with an in- f ministers that n OCT. 2S. A.D. 170s. — ran BASK or ■iimi.anii ■isah to latDB 61, ifOTia. lEnglan'D.— l^ouM of 18runsfcitfe.— George EEK. 437 tisociations of volunteen, both of cavalry md infantry, might be formed in every county, for the purpose of defending the couatry from the hostile attempta of ita enemies, and for anpporting the govern- ment against the effort* of the disaffected. Ou the 12th of May a message from the king announced to parliament the exist- ence of seditioua societies in London, and that the papers of certain persons belong- ing to them had been sriied, and were sub- mitted to the consideration of the house. Several members of the Society for Cuusti- tulioual Information, and of the London Corresponding Society, were apprehended on a charge of high treason, and committed to the Tower. Among them were Thomaa Hardy, a sitoemaker in Piccadilly, and Da- niel Adams, secretaries to the before named societies; the celebrated John IIornTooke; the rev. Jeremiali Joyce, private secretary to earl Stanhope ; John Augustus Donney, an attorney; and Messrs. Tlielwall, Richter, Lovatt, and Stors. They were brought to trial in the following October, and Lad the good fortune to be acquitted. Every appearance on the grand theatre of war indicated a continuance of success to the French in the ensiting campaign. The diligence .ind activity of their govern- ment, the viirour and bravery of their troops, the abilities and firmness ot their commanders, the unwearied exertions of all men employed in the public service, asto- nished the whole world. Filled with an en- thusiastic devotion to the cause iti which they had embarked, their minds were intent only on the military glory and aggrandize- ment of the republic. While the whole strength which could be collected by the allies amounted to less than four hundred thousand men, the armies of France were estimated at upwards of a million. Though the superiority by land was at present evidently in favour of .he French, yet onthe ocean " Old England" maintained Its predominance. During the course of tlie summer the island of Corsica was sub- dued; and the whole of the AVcst India islands, except part of GuaJaloupe, surren- dered to the troops under the command of sir Cimrles Grey and sir John Jcrvis. The channel fleet, under its veteran commander^ lord Howe, railed from port, in order to in- tercept the Brest fleet, which had ventured out to f :a to protect a large convoy that was expected from America. The hostile fleets descried each other on the 2olia was illuminated three successive niglita. Tim oaval losa of the French, though it consiUerably diminished the ardour of their seamen, was greatly overbalanced by the general nicccss of their military operations. The principal theatre of the contest was the Netherlands, where grnorals Jourdnn and Pichegru had not leas than 200,000 good troops, headed by many expert and valiant ollircrs, and abundantly supplied with all the requisites of war. To opuose this formidable force, the allies assembled an army of 14(),000, commanded by the em- peror in person, assisted by generals Clair- fait, Kauniti, prince Coburg, the duke of York, &c. Numerous were tVie battlea, and enormous the loss of* lite on each side dur- ing this campaign: in one of these bloody conflicts alone, the battle of Charlcroi, the loss of the Austrians was estimated at 15,000 men. Tiie armies of France wore, iv. fact, become irresistible, and the allies retreated in all directions: Nieuport, Os- tend, and Bruges; Tourn^jr, Mons, Oude- narde, and Brussels; Landrecies, Valen- ciennes, Cond4, and Quesnoi — all fell into their hands. During this victorious career of the French in the Netherlands, their ar- mies on the Rhine were equally successful | and though both Austrians and Prussians well maintained their reputation for skill and bravery, yet the overwhelming mussea of till' French, and the fierce enthusiasm with which these republicans fought, were more than a match for the veteran bands by whom they wet'e opposed. But the military operations of the French were not confined to the Netherlands and the frontiers of Germany ; they hiul other armies both in Spain and Italy. The king- dom of Spain, which was formerly so pow- erful as to disturb, by its ambition, the peace of Europe, was at this time o much reduced by superstition, luxury, and )t):^o- ' lence, that it was with difficulty thi- t our.': I of Madrid maintained ito rank among the : countries of Europe. It was therefore nri wonder that the Impetuosity and ui-p'.g \ energy which proVed so destructive ;•) ti'? I warlike Germans, should overwhel'ii t^e i inert armies of Spain, or that their e'r-mg- . holds should prove unavailing against such ' resolute foes. In Italy, too, the t tench were not less fortunate. Though they had ! to combot the Austrian and Sardinian ar- mies, a series of vir.torics made them mas- tor, nf Piedmont, and the campaiicn endcl there, as elsewhere, greatly in favour cf ' revolutionized France. I Having in some mcasnre overitepiied I our historical boundary line, by giving even this very hasty snd imperfect view of ; transactions with which Great Britain was only indirectly concerned, though at the ^ time of their occurrence they were of the deepest interest to the nation — we shall now return to the operations of the com- , nion enemy in the Netherlands, which, not- :. I A. D. 1794 — SI..iVBBT AnOI.ISIIED IN TUB PABNCU WEST I.VDI.k ISLANDS. [2r3 A. D. 1794.— BABIi rmWILLlAM ArrOIHTKD TICBBOT OF IBSLATIB, BBC. 438 C^e ^rcasurfi of l^istory, tut. withttandiiiK the approach of winter, were conducted with great perseverance. The duke of York was posted between Boii-le- Due and Breda, but being attacked with great impetuosity by the superiiir numbers of Pichegru, he was overpowered, and ob- liged to retreat across the Maese, with the loss of about 1,500 men. On the 30th of September Crevecoeur was taken by the enemy, and Bois-le-Duc surrendered imme- diately after. They then followed the duke across the Maese, when his royal highness found it necessary to cross the Rhine, and take post at Arnheim. Nimeguen fell into the hands of the French on the 7th of November ; and as the winter set in with uucoinmon severity, the whole of the rivers and lakes of UuUand were bound up by the frost. At the beginning of January, 1795, the river Waal was frozen over ; the Bri- tish troops were at the time in a most de- plorable state of ill health ; and the ene- my, seizing the favourable opportunity, crossed the river with an army of 70.000 men, and having repulsed the force which was opposed to them, on the 1 6th of Janu- ary took possession of Amsterdam. The fortresses of 'Williamstadt, Breda, Bcrgrn- op-Zoom, admitted the French ; the shat- tered remnant of the British army was obliged to retreat, under the most severe privations, and in a season unusually in- clement ; and the prince of Orange escaped in a little boat, and landed in England, where he and his family became the objects of royal hberality. The United Provinces were now revolutionized after the model of France ; the rights of man were proclaimed, representatives of the people chosen, and the country received the name of the Bata- vian republic. If there were any in Holland who seriously expected that this new order of things was likely to pn>ve beneficial to the country, they soon had experience to tlie contrary ; for, ou the one hand, the English seized their cojoniesand destroyed their commerce, while on ilie other, the French despised their new confederates, and treated them with all the hauteur of insolent conquerors. A. D. 1795. — At the conclusion of the past year the aspect of affairs ou the continent was most gloomv and unpromising. The French republic had suddenly become more extensive by its conquests than France had been since the days of Charlemagne; they had acquired an increased population, esti- mated at thirteen millions which, added to twenty-four millions contained in France, constituted an empire of ,^7,000,000 people. As this immense population inhabited the centre of Europe, tliey were capable by their Eosition to defy the eumity of all their ncigh- ottrs, and to exercise an intluence almost amounting to an universal sovereignty. The consternation of Great Britain and the allied powers was greatly increased by the conduct of the king of Prussia, who withdrew from the coalition, and concluded a treaty of peace with the French conven- tion. This act, in addition to the dismem- berment of Poland, was commented on in the British parliament in terms of severe and merited censure. He had received lanre subsidies from England, and was pledced as a member of the coalition, to do his ut- most towards the overthrow of regicidal France and the restoration of the Hour- bons ; and his defection at such a time was as unprincipled, nstbe effect of it wasUkely to be disastrous. But the English and Aus. trians, encouraged by tlie distracted state of France, more especially by the royaliai war in La Vendee, continued their efforts ; not- withstanding Spain followed the example of Prussia, and the duke of Tuscany, olio deserted the allies. ' Though unfortunate in her alliances, and unsuccessful in the attempts made by her military force on the continent. Great Bri- tain had still the satisfaction of bcholdioK her fleets ri" t*"'' occaiion, Oct. 29. An im- meine throng surrojnded his Majesty's car- riaBe, clainouroufily vociferating, "Bread I Peace I No Pitt !" some voices also shout- ine out, "No King!" while stones were thrown at the coach from all directions, and on passing through Palacc-vard, one of the windows was broken by a bullet from an air-gun. On entering the house, the kiiiir much agitated, said to the lord chan- cellor, " ray lord, I have been shot at." On hia return these scandalous outrages were repeated ; and a proclamation was issued oKring a thousand pounds reward for the apprehension of the persons concerned in theae seditious proceedings. A.B. 179fi.— The late unjustiflable insults to the sovereign were the subject of deep regret to all who wished well to the insti- tutions of the country and the maintenance of true freedom; while even those who »-ere inimical to the government were greatly displeased, inasmuch as they felt asiured that ministers would apply for addi- tional legislative powers. And so it proved; for the business of parliament was no sooner resumed than two new penal statutes were brought forward. The tirst was entitled ■' an act for the preservation of his majesty's person and government against treasonable and seditious practices and attempts." By the other bill it was enacte-!, that no meet- ing of any description of persons exceeding the number of fifty, except such as might be called by sheriffs or other magistrates, should be holden for political purposes, un- less public notice should have been given by seven housekeepers ; that if such a body should assemble without notice, and twelve or more individuals should remain together, (even quietly ) for an hour after a legal order for their departure, they should be punished as felons without benefit of clergy; and that the same rigour might be exercised, if any person after due notice of the meeting should use seditious language, or propose the irregular alteration of any thing by law est'' 'slied. The discussions which took pla. -^ on these bills in both bouses were very animated, and tl>ey passed with great mnjorities. The unremitting struggle which liuiing this campaign took place on the continent, between the allied armies and those of France, was far too important as regarded the interests of Great Britain for us to pass it lightly over, however little it may at first sight appear to belong strictly *.o British history. The French armies on thefrontiers of Germany were commanded by their ge- nerals Moreau and Jourdan ; the army of Italy was conducted by Napoleon Buona- parte. This extraordiaary man, whose name will hereafter so frequently occur, had, hke Pichegru, Jourdan, Moreau, &c. attained rapid promotions in the republican armies. Li 17'Jl he was a captain of artil- lery ; and it was only at the siege of Toulon, in 1793, that his soldierly abilities begnn to be developed. He had now an army of 50,000 veterans under hia command, op- posed to whom were 80,000 Austrians and Piedmontese, commanded by general Beau- lieu, an ofHcer uf great ability, who opened the campaign on the 9th of April. Having, after several engagements, suffered r '^'■feat at Millesimo, he selected 70UO of his best troops, and attacked and took the village uf Dcgo, where the French were indulging themselves in securitv. Massena, having rallied his troops, made several fruitless at- tempts during the day to retake it; but Buonaparte arriving in the evening with some reinforcements, renewed the attack, drove the allies from Dego, and made 14,000 prisoners. Count Colli, the general of the Sardinian forces, having been defeated by Buonaparte at Motidovi, requested a sus- pension of arms, which was followed by the king of Sardinia's withdrawal from the con- federacy, the surrender of his most impor- tant fortresses, and the cession,of the duchy of Savoy, &c. to the French. This ignomi- nious peace was followed by similar con- duct on the part of the duke of Parma, who, like the king of Sardinia, appeared to have no alternative but that of utter extinc- tion. The Austrian general Beaulieti being now no longer able to maintain his situation on the Po, retreated across the Adda at Lodi, Pizzighetlone, and Cremona, leaving a de- tachment at Lodi to stop the progress of the enemy. These forces were attacked, on the lOtli of May, by the advanced guard of the republican army, who compelled them to retreat with so much precipitation, as to leave no time for breaking down the brid (6 of Lodi. A battery was planted on t ne French side, and a tremendous cannoi- ading kept up ; but so well was the bridggna and Ferrara, with the citadel of Ancont.^ and to deliver up a great number of paintings and statues, and to enrich the conqueror v,irh some hundreds O a«3 A. n. 1795. — AM AHUNOANT HAnVKSIl AND GRKAT BFD;.( riOM OF PRICE!>. A.O. 1*96.— tHB III.I or BLIA lUHaBtluailBD TO COMMODOKa RkLIUR. 440 ^i)c treasure of llistore, $rc. of tlie most curioiu manuscripU tnm the Vatican lihrar*. The coi' 't of Vienna now recalled Beau- lieu, and gave the command to maribal Wurmier ; but the tide of aucccis ran more •trong against him if posaible, than it had done against his predecessor. As Buona* parte was at this time employed in form, ing a republic of the states of Reggio, Mo> deiia, Bologna, and Ferrara, t'.ie Austrians had leisure to make new niilitary arrange, ments. They reinforced iiiRrsbal VVurmser, and formed a new army, itic command of which was given to general Alviuzi. At the beginning of November, several partial en- g.'^gemcnts took place between Alvinsi and Bukiaparte, till the ISth, when a most dcs* pera e engagement at the village of Areola eniT.'t ill ')\p , '< 'i I loHt about I3,UUU men. Mantua, l>ow(:V. . , was still obstinately defended, but (ill: t^u-rition ceased to entertain hopes of ult'Vv -te Eiuccess. WKii thd French army under Buona- pnn i it as overrunning Italy, the armies on t\.c Riiinr, under Jourdun and Moreau, i tveiY \\iiHble to make any impression on I till: A.istrians. The armistice which had ' ''Cfii roncluded at the termi.'.atiun of the Ih.' (vMiinnigg, expired on the Slat of May, \rl- . 'juiii armies took the fiold; and the .irt'iVike Charles, who conimandcd the AurttiAns, gained several advantages over both Jourdan and Moreau, til), at the end of the year, the hostile armies having been harassed by the incessant fatigues they had undergone, discontinued their military operations during the winter. Tlie successes of Buonaparte in Italy, and the general aversion with which the people beheld the war, induced the British ministry to make overtures for peace viith the French republic. Lord Malmesbury was accordingly dispatched to Paris on tliis important mission, and proposed as the basis, the mutual restitution of conquests; but there was no disposition for peace on the part of the French dirtctory, and the attempt at pacification e.ded by a sudden order for his lordship in ^nit Paris in forty- eight hours. 'While these negotiations were on the tapis, an ar'-.timent was prepared at Brest for the '^.losion of Ireland, which had long beer> meditated by the French rulers. The i'.'.et, consisting of twenty-five ships of the line and fifteen frigates, was entrusted t J admiral Bouvet; thcland forcet, antbuntin;^ to 2d,00U men, were comii.i om ( lie fleet, they returned to harbour, after losing one ship of the line and two frigates. A few incidental notices wiji serve to wina up the domestic events of 'the year:— Sir Sidney Smith was taken prisoner on the Frencii coast, and sent, under a strong es- cort, to Paris. — The princess of Wales gave birth to a daughter — the princess Cnar- lutte; immediately after which, at tlie in- stance of the prince on the ground of " in- congeniality," a aeparation took place be- tween the royal parents.— A gnverinuent loan of I8,000,U0U/. was subscribed in fif. teen hours, between the 1st and Stii instant One million was aubscribed by the bank u! England in their corporate capacity, and 4U0,000I. by the directors individually. A. B. 1797.— The garrison of Mantus which had held out with astonishing bn! very, surrendered on the 3nd of Februcry but obtained very honourable terms. After this, Buonaparte received very considerable reinforcements, and having cut to pieces the array under Alviuzi, he resolved on penetrating into the centre of the AuBtrisn dominions. When the court of Vienna re- ceived information of thisdesign, tlicy raised a new army, the command of which was fiven to the archduke Charles. The French efeated the Austrians in almost every en- gagement ; and Buonaparte, after making 20,U00 prisoners, effected a passai;-' acroii the Alps, and drove theemperor t:> vhe necei. sity of requerting an armistice. In '.pril a preliminary treaty was entered into, hj which it was stipulated that France should retain the Austrian Netherlands, and tbat a new republic should be formed from the states of Milan, Mantua, Modena, Fer- rara, and Bologna,^ which should receive the name of the Cisalpine Repiililic. He then reiv. led to Italy, leaving minor de- tails of tl.;, treaty to be adjusted afterwardu, and wlr.eh was accordingly done at Campo Formid, in the following (Ictuber. England was now the only power at war with France; and great as haa been theex- eriiuiis of the ucople, still greater were of course required of them. The large snmt of money which had been sent abroad, as subsidies to foreign princes, had dimi- nished the quantity of gold and silver in Gteat Britain : this cause, added to the dread of an invasion, occasioned a run upon the country banks, and a demand for specie soon communicated itself to the metro- polis. An order was issued to prohibit the directors of '.U? ba,:k from payments in cash. On the meeting of parliament, a committee was ap|K)inted to enquire into the state of the cnrrenry ; and thoUKh the affairs of the bank w 're deemed to be in « prosperous state, an act was passed for con- firming the restriction, and notes for one and two pounds were circulated. The eon. sternation occasioned by these measures was at first very general, but the alarm .;r;idually subsided, and public coulidence returned. One of tl .! first acts of Sprtin after de- claring war c, ..;"?t England, was the equip- ment of a large number of ships, to act in concert with the Freiach. The Spanitli fleet, of twenty-seven jail of the line, wan descried oti the 14th of January by admiral sir John Jervis, who was cruising nif Cape St. '^incent, with a fleet of tirtecu sail. He immediately formed his line iti order d battle, and having forced his way throngli the enemy's fleet, and separated one third of it from the main body, lie attacked with vigour, and in a short time captured four 2! a a a I •• t a a » e s 3 i :■ r, • > i A.D. 170".— XniHlnAD SUnRR:«OBRBD TO SIR BALr-". AnBllCUOMBT. A.n.WT-—*^^"'"' BUIIKB, A DItTl:««tllaHBD tTATKlMAN, DIKB JULY S. lEnglantf — l^ousc of ISrunstnicfi.— (Sicorge HE. 441 Irtt rate Spanish men-of war, and block- aded the remainder in Cadiz. Tlte Spaniards I had 800 killed and wounded ; the Britiih, too For tbii brilliant exploit lir John was railed to the peerage by the title of earl of 8t. Vincent ; and commodore NeUon, who vai now commencing his brilliant career, wta knighted. Eejolcings for the late glorious victory were scarcely over, when a serious mutiny broke out in the channel fleet. The prin- cipal cause of this untoward event was the inadequacy of the sailors' pay, which, not- withstanding the advance that had taken place in the price of provisions, had re- ceived no augmentation for a very const derable period. This discontent was first made known to lord Howe, who in Feb- ruary and March received anonymous let- ters, la which were enclosed petitions from different ships' companies, requesting an increate of pay, a more equal distribution of prise money, Sc. The novelty of this cir. cumaiance induced his lordship to make some inquiries; but as there was no ap- pearance of disaffection in the fleet, he con- cluded that the letters must have been forgeries, and took no farther notice of it. On the I5th of April, when orders were given fbr preparing to sail, the crews of the ships lying at Spithead ran up the shrouds, nave three cheers, and refused to comply. They then chose two delegates from each ship, who drew up petitions to the admi- ralty and the house of commons, and each ■eainan was bound by an oath to be faithful to tlie cause. At length lord Briduort went on board, and told them he was the bearer of redress fur all their grievances, and the king's pardon; and on the 8th of May an act was passed for augmenting the pay of sailors and mariners. The facility with which these claims had been granted insti- gated the seamen at the Nure to rise in mutinv and make further demands. A council of dele^'ates was elected, at the head of whom was a bold and insolent man named Richard Parker, who undertook to coin- mand the fleet, and prevailed on his com- panions to reject repeated offers of pardon. In this instance, however, government wa» determined to employ force, if necessary, to reduce the mutineers to obedience, and to yield nothing more than had been eranted to the seamen at Portsmouth. Prepara- tions for hostilities were commenced on both sides, when dissensions among the disaffected themselves he-fem to appear, and, after some bloodshed, all the ships submitted, giving up Parker and his fellow- delegates; some of whom, with their leader, expinted their offences by an ignominious death, but the great body of the revoltcrs were conciliated by an act of amnesty. Notwithstanding the late dangerous mu- tiny, the idea was very prevalent in the country, that if a hostile fleet were to make its appearance, the men would show them- selves as eager as ever to fight Tor the honour of Uld England. In a few months afterwards an opportunity occurred of test- ing their devotion to the service. The Ua- tavian repnblic having fitted out a fleet of fifteen aliips, under the command of their admiral De AVinter, with an intention of joining the French, admiral Duncan, who commanded the British fleet, watched them so narrowly, that they found it impractica- ble to venture out of the Texcl without risking an engagement. The British ad- miral beiiigobliged by tempestuous weather to leave his station, the Dutch availed them- selves of the opportunity, and put to aea ; but were descried by the English fleet, which immediately set sail in pursuit of them. On the 1 Ith of October the English came upcrith, and attacked them off Camper- down ; and after a gallant fight of four hours, eight ships of the line, including those of the admiral and vice-admiral, be- sides four frigates, struck their colours. The loss of the English in this memorable action amounted to 700 men; the loss of the Dutch was estimated at twice that number. The gallant admiral Duncan was raised to the peerage, and received the title of viscoun* CamperdowDj with an heredi- tary pension. About three months previous to this action admiral Nelson, acting on fallacious intelli- gccce,niade an unsuccessful attack on Santa Cruz, in the island of Teneriffe ; on which occasion the assailants sustained great loss, and Nelson himself had his arm shot off. A. D. 1798.— As the French republic had at this time subdued all its enemies except England, the conquest of this country was the principal object of their hopes and ex- pectations. The vast extent of territory wliich the French now possessed, together with the influence they had obtained over the councils of Holland, rendered them much more formidable than they had been at any former period. The circumstances of the British nation were, however, such as would discourai^e every idea of an inva- sion. Its navy was move powerful than it had ever been ; the victories which had latelv tii en ginned over the Dutch and Span- ish ^«ls, had confirmed the general oni- n.oa of the loyalty as well as bravery of Its seamen ; and all parties burying, for a time, all past disputes in oblivion, unanimously resolved to support (he government. On the meetmg of parliament, in January, a message from the kiag intimated that an invasion of the kingdom was iu conten- plation sy the French. This communica- tion gas* rise to very active measures, which piiainly manifested the spirit of una- nimity which reigned iu Great Britain. Be- sides a large addition made to the militia, every county was directed to raise bi/dies of cavalry from the yeomanry; and a'.most every town and considerable village had its corps of volunteers, trained and armed. The island was never before in such a for- midable state of internal defence, and a warlike spirit was diffused throughout the entire population. A voluntary subscription for the support of the war also took place, by which a million and half of money was raised towards defraying the extraordinary demands on thb public purse. K e T ICKOMBT. A. D. 1797-— I<<>BKRT DUKN8, TUB CBLKDUATRD 800TT1SU FOET, DIBn, A.D. irSS.— IMIOCUOVI BUIt BITWBBH MR. riTT AMD MB. TIBBNRT. •I o « s m m o <• M a *• s « ^ ^ 442 V^lft ^reastttQ of l^iston}, Sec. While thU unWerial harmonv teemed to direct the councile of Great Briioin, tlie Iriih were greatly divided in their eenti. mentt, and at length commenced an open rehellion. In the year 1791 a lociety had been instituted by the catliolics and pro- teitant diseenten, for the purpose a# ob> taining a reform in parliament, and an en- tire deliverance of the Roman catholici from all the restrictions under which they laboured on account of religion. This in- stitution was- projected by a person named Wolfe Tone ; and the members, who were termed the United Iritkmtn, were so nume- rous, that their divisions and subdivisfc)ns were, in a sliort time, extended over the whole kingdom. Though a reform of par- liament was the ostensible object of this sociuty, yet it soon proved that their secret but xealous endeavours were directed to the bringing about a revolution, and by effect- ing ft ({Injunction of Ireland from Great Britain, to eslabllwh a republicitn form of government similar to that of France. So rapidly did the numbers of these republican enthusiasts increase, and so confident were they of the ultimate success of their under- takmgs, that in 1707 they nominated an executive directory, consisting of lord Ed- ward Fitigerald, Arthur O'Connor, Oliver Bond, Dr. Mac Niven, and eounsellur Em- met. Their conspiracy was planned with such consummate art, and conducted with such profound secresy, that it would, doubt- less, have been carried into effect, but for its timelv discovery in March, by a person employed by the government, when tlie pVin- cipal ringleaders were apprehended, and Fitzgerald was mortally wounded while re- sisting the officers of justice. A second conspiracy shortlv afterwards was in like manner detected, but not until a general in- surrection had been determined upon, in which the castle of Dublin, the camp near it, and tlie artillery barracks, were to be sur- prised in one night, and other places were to be seized at the same moment. But the flame of rebellion was not easily extin- guished. In May, a body of rebels, armed with swords and pikes, made attempts on the towns of Naas and Wexford ; but they experienced a signal defeat from lord Gos- ford, at the head of the Armagh militia, and four hundred of them were left dead on the field. They afterwards marched, 15,U00 strong, against Wexford, and upon defeat- ing tlie garrison, M'hich sallied forth to meet them, obtained possession of the town. Subsequently thJy became masters of En- niscorthy j but being driven back, with great slaughter, from New Ross, they wreaked their vengeance upon their captives at Wex- ford in the most barbarous manner. On the 12th of June, general Nugent attacked the rebels, 50(10 in number, commanded by Munro, near nallynahinch, and routed them with |;reat slaugliter. But their greatest discuiiilit\ire »bs that which they sustain- ed in their encampment on Vinegar-hill, where gen'.-ral Lake attacked and complete- ly routed them. Various other minor en- gagements ensued about this time, in all which the rebels were defeated with con ■iderable loss. In the present divided and dangerous' state of Ireland, it was Judged prudent bv the legislature to appoint to the lieutenancv of that country, a military man of acknow. lodged prudence and bravery. The periou chosen for the station was lord Cornwallii who arrived at Dublin on the 20th of June' His first act was to publish a proclamation offering his miOesty^s pardon to all such inl surgents as would desert their leaders, snd surrender themselves and their arm*. Tliii proclamation, and the resolute conduct of government, had a great effect on the re. bels, and the insurrection was in a short time suppressed. On the 23rd of Auguit about 8UU Prcnclimen, under the command of general Humbert, who had come to the assistance of the rebellious Irish, landed at Killala, and made themstlves masters of that town But instead of being joined bv a considerable body of rebels, as tliey ex- pected, they were met by general Lake, to whom they surrendered as priaonersofwur. An end was thus temporarily put to the Irish rebellion,— a rebellion which, though never completely organized, was fraugni with excesses on eacn side at which hu- manity shudders. It was computed at the time that not less than 30,000 persons, in one way or other, were its victims. The preparations which had been makint for the invasion of England were appareniU continued, but at the same time an arms' mcnt was fitting out at Toulon, the desti- nation of wliicli wns kept a profound te- crct. It consisted of tliirteen ships of the line, with other vessels, amounting in all to forty-five sail, besides 200 transports, on board of which were 30,000 choice troops, with horses, artillery, and an immense quantity of provisions and military storei. All Europe beheld with astonishment and apprehension these mighty preparations, and seemed to wait in awful expectation for the storm of war that was about to burst on some devoted land. This arma- ment, which was under the command of general Buonaparte, set sail May the 20th, and having taken possession of the island of Malta on the 1st of June, proceeded to- wards Egypt, where it arrived at the be- ginning of July ; its ultimate destination eing said to be the East Indies, via the Red Sea. Sir Horatio Nelson, who was sent in pursuit of the French fleet, being wholly ignorant of its destination, ssiled for Naples, where he obtained information of the surrender of Malta, and accordingly directed his course towards that island. On his arrival he had the mortltieaiion to find tliat Buonaparte was ifone, and con- jecturing that he had sailed to Alexandria, he immediately prepared to follow. He was, however, again disappointed, for on reaching Alexandria he learned tlint the enemy had not been there. After tliis, the British squadron proceeded to Rhodes, and thence to Sicily, where they had the satis. faction of lienring that the eneniv had been seen off Candia about a month before, and A. n, 1798. — SIB SinNBY SMITH BSCAPED PROM A FRBNCU PRISON. M ence Dor his not hist men ring ' s the ! a rate 1 it, t od the IH k. ^ con! a the * yeai j'rei Sua P0B( t A.o. 17M.— NArLm iuhbbubbbid to ma rmBMcn, jkn, 24. ^nglanU.— I^ousc of 13runstnU6.— (imcorge 3ESS. 443 ! a I*' lud gone, to Alexaudria. Thitherward they nreiMil all Mil) •■>■> *''" 1"^ o' Auguit Sncried the French fleet hing in Aboukir b«*. Ouonaparte had Unded hi* army on the 5ih of July, and having nade himaelf muter of Alexandria, he drew up his tram- port* within the inner harbour of that city, ud proceeded with hie arm* along the banki of the Nile. The French fleet, com- minded by admiral Brueye, was drawn up gear the shore, in a compact line of battle, flanked by four frigates, and protected in the front by a batterv planted on a small iiisnd. Nelson decided on an immediate tlisck thst evening, and reicardless of the poiition of the French, led his fleet be- tween them and the shore, so as to place hii enemies between two flres. The victory WM eomplete. Nine ships of the line were tsken, one was burnt by her captain, and the admirttl's ship, L'Orient, was blown up in the action, with her commander and the Stater part of tlie crew. The loss of the nglish was 900 sailors killed ; that of the French fur greater. The glorious conduct of the brave men who achieved this signal riumph was the theme of every tongue, ind tlie intrepid Nelson was rewarded with a peerage and a pension. The victory of the Nile produced a power- ful effect tliroughout Europe. The formi- dable prfporations which had menaced Alia and Africa with immediate ruin were overthrown, and seemed to leave behind them an everlasting monument of the ex- treme folly and uncertainty of human under- takings. The deep despondency which had darkened the horizon of F.urnpe was sud- denly dispelled, the dread of Gallic venge- ance seemed to vanish in a moment, and the minds of men were awakened into aetion by the ardent desire of restoring tranquillity to Europe. A second coalition was immediately formed against France, under the auspices of Gnat Britain, and was entered into by Austria, Russia, the Ottoman Porte, and Naples.— Towards tlie close of the year the island of Minorca sur- rendered, with scarcely a show of resist- ance, to general Stuart and commodore Duckworth. We must now take a glance of the state of British affairs in India. Tippoo Saib having entered into a secret correspond- ence with the French republic, the gover- nor-general demanded an explanation of his intentions; and as this demand was not complied with, general Harris invaded his territories. After some slight engage- ments, the British army advanced to 8e- ringapatam, the capital of Tippoo, and on the 4th of May, after a gallant and despe- rate resistance, tliey succeeded in taking it, the sultan being killed while defending the fortress. A. D. 1799.— In consequence of the new confederacy which had been formed against the French republic, the campaign of tbia year became particularly interesting. A French army which had advanced into Suabia, under general Jourdan, was op- posed by the Austrians under the archduke Charlea, and being disconiflted, was com- pelled to retreat into Switserland. The Austriana puraued them at far as Zurich, where they were enabled to make a stand until they received relnforcementa. In the mean time, an army of Austriana and Bus- aians, under general Suwarrow, having ob- liged the French to relinquish their con- queata in Italy, they determined to hasten to the assistance of the archduke; but being anticipated by the French general Maasena, the Austrians were obliged to retreat in great haste, and the Russiana were surrounded so completely, that only SOOO, with their general, escaped. In fact, so aevere were tlie several contests, that in the apace of ftfteen days 30,000 men on both aides fell victims to the unsparing aword. While these events were transacting in Italy and 8witaerland, an attempt waa made by Great Britain to drive the French from Holland, and to reinstate the prince of Orange in hia authority aa atadtholder. A landing aaa accordingly effected at the mouth of the Texel, under air Ralph Aber- cromby ; and immediately afterwards the British fleet, commanded by admiral Mit- chell, entered the Zuider Zee, and captured eight ships of the line, besides some smaller vessels of war and four Indiamen. On the 1.3th of September the duke of York as- sumed the chief command of the army, which amounted to 35,000 men, including 17,0Cfl Russians. This army was at first successful, and drove the French from their positions; but their reinforcements arriv- ing, and the British commanders finding no support from the Dutch, a suspension of arma was agreed upon, and the duke resolved to relinquish the enterprise, Hol- land was consequcntiv evacuated ; and, as the price of being allowed to re-embark without molestation, 8000 seamen, Dutch' or French, prisoners in England, were to be liberated. After the battle of the Nile, Buonaparte led his army into Palestine, with the avowed intention of taking possession of Jernaa- lem, rebuilding the temple, and restoring the Jews. El-Arisch and Gazn surrendered to him, Jaffa was carried by storm, and he rapidly advanced as far as the city of Acre, which he invested with an army of 10,000 select tro«ps; but here he met with an op- Eonent wi»o not only arrested his progress, ut who ultimately put his veteran legions to shame. The paclia had the assistance of that gallant Englishman, sir Sidney Smith, whose former dashing exploits on the coasts of France had rendered liis name far more familiar than agreeable to Gallic ears. On the ?Uth of March Buonaparte opened hia trendies : but a flotilla convey- ing part of his besifging train had been captured by sir Siduey Smith, who was on board the Tigre of 84 guns, then lying off Acre, and the enemy's guns were employed in its defence. However, the French made a breach, and attempted to carrv the place by assault, but were again and again re- pulsed, with great loss. An alternation of « M K O n as h m u IS ki at at e H m n B R M a f M 9 OS A. n. 1799. — A LDGISLATIVB UNION WITH I&BLAND RBCOMMElf DBD. A.O. \JW.—DiaD, ASKS 07> THC CKIKBBATIO OKMIIIIAL WAtlllll«TOII. 444 ^^t ^rcajsuru a( l^iistori), $cc. i m ■ n m t i a *■ e • e M « I* M « l< •9 a u o B H K M u < T i 4 attack! and sorties followed fur the space of sixty days, during which Uuonaparte uaelesMy sacrificed an immense number of hiH bravest soliliers, and at last was com- fielled to raise the siege. Having received ntelliKence of the arrival of a Turkish army in Egypt, Napuleon returned from Paivstiue across the deserts of Arabia, and on the 25lli of July obtained a grout vie- lury over tlie Turks near the l>yraniids. But he was now about to enter on a new tlieatre of action. I'urty dissensions in Frniue, her danger of extrrnal foes, and the opportunity which was thereby afforded to (bu ambition of this extraordinary leader, aeema to have suddenly determined him to quit Egypt. He accordingly left the ui'iiiy to geueral Kleber, and sailed with all imaginable recrecy from Aboukir: his ?;ood fortune enabling him, and the few riends he took with him, to reach Frejus on the 7ili of October, unobserved and un- molested. Finding that the people gene- rally approved of the step he had taken, and that while the corruption and mis- mamigemcnt of the directory had rendered them very unuopulnr, he was regarded as the good genius of France, he, in the true CromweUian fashion, with the assistance of a strong party, dissolved the assembly of representatives, and usurped the govern- ment with the title of chiet consul, which was at first conferred on him for ten years, but was afterwards confirmed for life. In order to render his usurpation popu- lar, Buonaparte began to make professions of i: pacific character, and entered into a correspondence for a negotiation with the frincipal powers at war witli th". republic, n his r.'ommunications wit)< the allied sovereigns he dejiarted from the forms sanctioned by the custom of natious, and peraonally addressed Lis letters to the monarrhs. 'I'he substance of the note ad- dressed to his Britannic miuesty was con- veyed in two questions, " Whether the war wltich had for eight years ravaged the four quarters of the globe, was to be eternal ;" nnd " Whether there were no means by wliich France and England might cume to a good understanding 7 " In answer to this letter, an official note was returned by Mr. Grenville, who dwelt much on the bad faith of revolutionary nilcrs, and the insta- bility of France since the subversion of the ancient monarchy. The overture which was transmitted to the court of Vienna was of a similar nature, and experienced similar treatment ; but the emperor of Uus- sia, being disgusted with the conduct of Austria in the late campaign, withdrew from the confederacy. A. D. 1800.— Tlie often discussed question of a legislative union between Great Bri- tain and Ireland en|r«ged the attention of politicians at this time, and gave rise to much angry feeling. Some serious difH- culties had arisen from the existence of independent legislatures in England and IwLand, and there was reason to fear that wliile separate interests were made para- mount to the general good, old grievances might again lead lo disafreclinn, and the result be a dismanihrrnient of the empire. To prevent such an evil the miniitrrs of I the day considered it their hounden duiys and though the measure at riritt met «itK great opposition, it was eventunlly cnrried by considerable majorities, and took pUok on the 1st of January, IHUI. By (hii g,. { rangement the Irii house. The former laws and eourii of )u >tice iu Ireland to be retained, with its court of chancery, and the sovereign to be still represented by a lord lieutenant, i During the past winter and the early part of spring the greatest distress w&i felt by the poorer classes on account of tlie scarcity and extraordinary high price of bread ; in order to mitigate which, nn act was passed prohibiting the sale of that great necessary of life until it had liecu baked twenty-four hours, from a well. founded notion that the consumption of stale bread would be much less than new. On the 15th of May, as the king was re- viewing a battalion of the guards in Ilrde Park, a ball was fired in one of the voilici by a soldier, which wounded a gentlemnn who was standing not many yards from liii majesty; but whether it was from accident or design could not be discovered. And on the evening of the same day a much more alarming circumstance occurred at Drury. lane theatre. At the moment his majesty entered the royal box, a man stood up in the pit and discharged a pistol at the kin)(; the ball providentially missed him, and tlie offender was immediately seized ; when it appeared that his name was Jumes Ilat- field, formerly a private soldier, and that he was occasionally afllicted with menial derangement, from a wound he had re- ceived in the head. lis was accordingly " provided t'or " as a lunatic. The conster- nation occasioned by these occurreDcei was succeeded by many signal proofs of affectionate loyalty, especially on the 4th of June, his majesty's birth-day. The campaign of 1800 was opened with great resolution on both sides. Independ- ently of the other troops of France, nn ad- ditional army of CO.UOO men was assembled at Dijon, and it was publicly announced in the French papers, that it was intended si a reinforcement to the armies on the Itliinc and iu Italy, as circumstances nii^ht re- quire. No one suspected that any import- ant plan of military operations was enn. cealed by the affected publicity of this nr- ? A. II. 1799' — DINI>, AQKD 80, KIKN-I.ONO, KSIPKlIOR OV CHINA. A. D. 1801.— Vina* MEkTIlia or *■■ IMrSklAL rtBMAMBNT, JVNB 33. soldier, and that | lEnglantf.— l^ouBc of ISrunstoick — (It^corgc 1EIE1E. 445 nncement, to no precaution wm taken to obviate the conacquencei which tuiKht ariie from ill movement*. The Aoittrian* in Italy, under general Mela*, attacked Ma*- una in the territory of the Gcnoeie; and being iuece««ful in leveral obitinate con- fljeti, the surrender of Genoa with iia gar- riioo fullowed. Ju«t at tliii time Buona- parte luddenly joined the army of re*erve at Dijon, crut*ed the AId* over Mount 8t. Bernard, which before nad been deemed impracticable, and descended into i lie Mi- ianeie without oppoaition. Having received lome powerful reinforcement* from the army in Switzerland, he placed himaelf in the rear of the Auttrian nruiy, and reaolved on huarding a battle. Their 0r«t encounter wu the battle of Montobello, in which the French had the advantM)j;e ; and it served at a prelude to the deciaive battle of Ma- rengo. The Anctrian* numbered 60,000 ; the French, 60,000 ; the former commenc- ing the tight with unusual apirit and *uc- ceil. For a lon^t time the defeat of the French seemed inevitable. But general Desaix having arrived with a reinforcement toward* evening, a terrible carnage ensued, and the Austrian* were totally routed. Tlie loss on each side wa* territic ; the French stating their* at 13,000, and the Austrian* at 15,000. On the following day a cessation of hoitilitie* wa* proposed by the allies, which was grantea on condition of their abandoning I'iedinont. Immediately after, Baonaparie re-established the Cisalpine re- public. On the 3rd of December the Austrian army, nnder the archduke John, wa* aiir nally defeated at Uiilienlinden, by general Moreau; their los* being 10,009 men and eighty piece* of cannon ; the effect of wliicli was, that the emperor wa* driven to the necessity of soliciting an armistice. This was followed by a treaty of pence, which was signed at Luneville on the 9th of Fe- bruary, 1801. A. u. laui.— On the 1st of January a royal proclamation announced the royal style and title as " George the Third, by the grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Bri- tain and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith;" the absurd titular assumption of king of France being now laid aside. On the 3rd his Majesty's council took the oaths as privy councillors for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland : aud the king preacntcd the lord chancellor with a new great seal made for the union. Bjf the treaty of Luneville, Great Britain t.gain became the only opponent of the French republic, and was placed in a situa- tion that required more than common en- ergy and prudence. Influenced by the ca- pricious emperor Paul of Russia, the prin- cipal northern powers resolved on reviving the armed neutrality, and claimed a right of tradiug to the ports of France, without submitting to their vessels being searched. At this critical juncture the British minis- try, on the 11th of February, resigned their ofiices. Various conjecture* a* to their motives for this sudden act were afloat, but the ostensible causa wa* a miiunderatand- ing that had taken place relative to catho- lic emancipation. It wai, in fact, under- •tood, that Mr. Pitt bad pledged himself, in ease the union was not truktrated by the Irish leKislatiire, to obtain emHncipatinn to the catholic*, by a repeal of the ditabililie* legally pending over that body ; but the king'* objection* to the meaaurc were too deeply rooted, and too conscientiously formed, (it being, as lie believed, contrary to the ohlifjfation of his coronation ouih,) for the minister to remove them ; added to which, there was the «cll-kno«n dislike entertained by the protcHinntsnf Ireland to encounter a catholic mngiKtracy, and the fears of the clerKyof theeklablishcd church. Owing to the iiidisponition of his majesty, a new ministry was not formed till the mid- dle of March, when Mr. Addiiigton ' ■> chosen tirst lord of the treasury and c< ccllor of the cxclieqacr; lord Eldoii high chancellor ; the earl of St. Vii> flrst lord of the admiralty; the lords Hawkesbury and I'elliam, secretaries of state; and the hon. col. Ynrke, secretary at war. There is little doubt that the new ministers were brought forward to do what their predecessor* were unable or unwilling to accomplish, namelv, the putting an end to the war, and evaaing tue axitation of the catholic question. &Ir. ^ddington, it is true, had given general' satisfaction a* apeaker of the house of commons, and he had acquired the king's personal favours by his decorous manner and respectable cha- racter; but neither he nor hi* colleague* had any political reputation to entitle tliem to be trueted with the pilotage of the vessel of the atate, especially when it wa* nece*- *ary to ateer her amid the rocks and break- ers of a tempestuous sea. In order to counteract the designs of the northerto con- federates, an armament was litted out in the British ports, consisting of 17 aail of the line, with frigates, bomb-vessela, &c. and entrusted to the command of admiral sir Hyde Parker and vice admiral lord Nel- son. The fleet embarked at Yarmouth on the 13th of March, and, having passed the 8ound with very trifling opposition, ap- £ eared before Copenhagen ou the 30th. iatterie* of cannon and mortar* were placed on every part of the shore where they might be used in annoying the English fleet; the mouth of the harbour being pro- tected by a chain, and by a fort constructed on piles. An attack on this formidable crescent was entrusted, at his own request, to Nelson, with twelve ships of the line and all the smaller craft. It began at ten o'clock in the morning, and was kept up ou both sides with great courage and prodi- gious slaughter tor four hours ; by which time 17 aail of the enemy had been burnt, sunk, or taken ; while three of the lar^eat of the English ships, owing to the intricacies of the navigation, had grounded within reach of the enemy's land batteries. At this juncture Nelson proposed a truce, to which the prince of Denmark promptly ac- ceded. The los* of the English in killed A. n. 1801. — FIBST STOKB Or TRB KRW STOCK-EXCnANOR I.Ain, MAT 18. [2Q ,.«^.. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I U 1 2.5 2.2 1^ ■10 11.25 i 1.4 11^ 1.6 m /a ^\ m Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y 14S80 (716) 872-4&03 ^*- A.0. 180S^— TBB OOH or KKBT ArrOINTBB aOfSBHOB or BIBBALTAB. 446 ^|)tCrcaiIur9 3f l^tstorn, $ct. and wounded wat 942 ; that of the Danes 1800. The iudden death of Paul, eir.peror of Buida, who, it hai been autbenticuU; ■aid, was ttrangled in hit palace, caused a ehange in foreign affair*. His eldest son, Alexander, ascended the throne, and, re- nonncing the pohtics of his fsther, entered into a treaty of amitjr with England : the northern confederacy was consequently dis- solred. At the time the expedition to Copenha- Sen was on the eve of departure, a consi- erable British force had been sent to Egypt, in order to effect the expulsion of the French from that country. This was under the eommand of sir Ralph Aber- eromby, who on the 8th of March effected B disembarkation, with great spirit, in the face of the enemy, at Auoukir, the fort of which surrendered on the 19th. General Kleber, who commanded the French troops in Egypt after the departure of Buonaparte, had been aosassinated, and Menou was now the general-in-chief. On the 13th a severe action took place, in which the English had the advantage: but it was on the 21st that the celebrated battle of Alexandria was fought. The force on each side was about 13,000; and before daylight the French commenced the attack. A long, desperate, and often dubious engagement succeeded ; but at length the assailants were completely defeated, and the famous corps of " Invin- cibles" almost annihilated. The loss of the French in killed, wounded, and prison- ers, was upwards of 3500 ; that of the British 1400 ; among whom was the gallant sir Ralph Abercromby, who nobiy terminated a long career of military glory. He was wounded in the thigh, about the middle of the day ; but that he might not damp the ardour of his troops, he concealed his anguish un- til the battle was won. The command of the British troops de- Tolved on general Hutchinson, an able ofB- eer, and tne intimate fHend of sir Ralph, who having made himself master of the ports of ^setta, Cairo, and Alexandria, completed the conquest of Egypt about the middle of September; when the French capitulated, upon condition of being con- veyed, with their arms, artillery, &c. to their own country. A large detachment of troops firom the Indian army arrived, bythe way of the Red Sea, under sir David Baird, just after the conclusion of the treaty. The news of this important event reached England on the same day as the prelimina- ries of a peace with France were signed by M. Otto, on the part of the French repub- lic, and lord Hawkesbury, on the part of his Britannic majesty. This negotiation had been carried on for some months with so much secresy, that those persons alone who were engaged in it were acquainted with its progress. The deAnitive treaty was concluded at Amiens on the 27th of March, 1803 ; by which Great Britain consented to restore all her conquests, except the island of Trinidad, and the Dutch possessions in Ceylon. The Cape of Good Hope was to remain a free port to all the contracting powers. Malta, with its dependencies, ass to be evacuated by tlfe British, and restored to the order of St. John of Jerusdem; while the island was to be placed under the protection and sovereignty of the king of Naples. Egypt was to be restored to the Sublime Porte, whose territories and pos- sessions were to be preserved entire, ss they existed previously to the war. The territories of tne queen of Portugal were to remain entire; and the French agreed to evacuate Rome and Naples. Tlie republic of the Seven Islands was recognized by France ; and the fishery of Newfoundland was established on its former fooling. The restoration of peace was universally received with transports of joy, and wu in itself a measure so necessary and desir- able, that the terms on which it had been concluded were passed over in silence by the inhabitants of both countries. When the subject was alluded to in the house of commons, Mr. Sheridan observed, " It ii a peace of which every man is glad, but of which no man is proud." Notwithstandinr the brilliant exploits of their armies, and the superiority which they maintained over their enemies, the French nation felt in their victories all the distresses attendini; defeat, and sighed for the conclusion of hostilities. In Great Britain, too, the enor- mous weight of taxes, and high price of provisions, the total defeat of our conii. nental allies, and the improbability of weakening the power of France, equally disposed the miuds of the people to peace. Both nations seemed eager to unite in re- ciprocal habits of intimacy and friendship, and the interchange of visitors from the opposite sides of the Channel was a novel and cheering sight. But though this ap. parent tendency of the two nations to for- get their mutual animosities seemed to prognosticate a long continuance of the blessings of peace, the happy prospect was soon interrupted by sjrmptoms of jealousy which appeared between the respective go- vernments. Having in various ways guned the popu- lar voice in his favour, Buonaparte was ap- pointed consul for life, with the power nf naming a successor. On this occasion, he instituted a republican order of nobility,— the legion of honour, — to be conferred on military men as a reward for skill and bra- very, and on citizent who distinguiahed themselves by their talents or their strict administration of justice. Before we enter npon- a new chapter, we are bound to notice a treasonable contpi. racy by certain obscure individuals, which, at the time, caused considerable alarm. Colonel Despard, an Irish gentleman of respectable tamily and connections, who had formerly given distinguished proofs of valour and good conduct, but had sobie. quently been confined in Cold-bath-telds Krison for seditions practices, was sppre. ended at the Oakley-Arms, Oakley-sirect, Lambeth, with thirty-six of his confede- rates, principially consisting of the labou^ ing classes, and among them three soldiers A.D. 1803.— riBIT BTOBB OB TBB LOHDOB DOCBB I^AID, JVBB SC TAB. idenciet, wm •nd reitored r Jerutaleni) ;cd under the ' the king of itOTcd to the riei and poi- ed entire, u U war. The 'tugal were to ich agreed to Tlie republic rccognited by >(ewfoundlana ' footing. M univerully Joy, and wu lar^ and deiir- :b it had been in silence by ntriea. Yihtn in the houie of irved, " It ii a m glad, but of atwithstanding eir armies, and aaintained over nation felt in !*sea attending ! conclusion of 1, too.theenor- t high price of t of our conli- nprobability of France, equally people to peace. ' to unite in re- and friendship, sitors from the incl was a novel though this ap. 9 nations to for- ties seemed to tinuance of the py prospect was oms of jealousy le respective go- ^incd the popii' maparte was ip' th the power of this occasion, he er of nobilitjr,— be conferred on or skill and bra. distinguished ts or their strict new chapter, we ! asonable conipi- dividuals, which, I liderable alarm. ! h gentleman of| onnections, who uished proofs of ', but bad snbie. Cold-bath-Ields ices, was appre- It, Oakley street, of his confede- ig of the labou^ em three soldien III36. A.B. 1803.— TBI BllCTOBATI OP BAXOTKB IDBaiilOBBBD TO TBI rBBHCH. lEnglantr.— l^ottsc of ISrunstDicii.— (Sicorgc 3ES3E. 447 of the guards. It appeared that on his liberation from prison, Despard induced a , nnniber of fellows, as mean and ignorant as they were violent, to believe that they I were capable of subverting the present go- vernment, and establishing a democracy. I In order to effect this measure, it was pro- C>d to assassinate the king and royal ily, to seise the Bank and Tower, and t9 imprison the members of parliament. Vut as these plans were, yet it appeared that the time, mode, and place for their execution, were arranged ; though only «fty or sixty persons were concerned in it. In- formation having been conveyed to minis- ters of this bold conspiracy, it* progress wu nsrrowly watched, and at the moment when the desi;n>* <>' *!>' tnutorr were ripe for execution, they were suddenly drafcged fram their rendetvons, and fUIly committed on a charge of treason. After a trial which Usted eighteen honra the colonel was found guilty; and on the *21st of February, 1803, this misguided man, with six fellow-con- spirators, was executed on the top of the new gsol in Southwark. Despard declined spiritual assistance, and met his fate with- out contrition, sorrow, or concern : the otheib suffered death with decency. CHAPTER LXII. The Reign q^GaoBOi III. (continued.) A. B. 1803,— Toa treaty of Amiens proved delusive, and both combatants. Jealous and watebfu, stood ready to renew the conflict. The unbounded ambition of the French consul, and his implacable hatred to Great Britain, induced him to take every opportu- nity of insulting our ambassadors, in order to occasion a renewal of hostilities. Peace had hardly been concluded, when the whole fortresses of Piedmont were dismantled, and that country was annexed to France. The same measures were pursued with re- gard to Parma and Placcntia; and a nu- merous army was sent against Switxerland, and that government was placed in the hands of the dependents of Buonaparte. Notwithstanding these and several other acts of tyranny, which were highly injuri- ous to Great Britain, and shameful viola- tions of the treaty of peace, his Britannic mi^esty earnestly endeavoured to avoid a recurrence to arms, and seemed willing to suffer the most unwarrantable aggressions, rather than again involve Europe in the horrors of war. This was construed by the Corsican usurper into a dread of his ill-icot- ten power. Some official papers were after- waras presented to the British ministry, in which he required that the French emi- grants who had found shelter in England should be banished ; that the liberty of the press in Britain should be abridged, be- cause some of the newspapers had drawn his character with a truthful pen ; and it appeared, indeed, that r r/thing short of a species of dictation in the domestic affalra of Great Britain was likely to satisfy him. Such insolent pretensions could not be brooked; all ranks of men seemed to rouse from their lethargy, and the general wish was to uphold the country's uonour by a renewed appeal to arms. The extensive warlike prrparatioBs going forward about this time in the ports of France and Holland, excited the jealousy of the British ministry ; though it was pre- tended that they were designed to reduce their revolted colonies to obedience. An explanation of the views of the French go- vernment was requested b* lord Wbitworth, tl- ' English ambassador ; but he was oncnly insulted by the first consul, who haa the indecency to intimate, in a tone of gasco- nade, that Great Britain was unable to con- tend single-handed with France. On the I2th of May lord Whit worth piesented the ultimatum of the British government, which being rejected, war was announced on the 16th, by a message from his mi\jesty to par- liament. Almost immediately upon this, Buonaparte issued a decree for the deten- tion of all the English in France ; in con- sequence of which infrinirement of inter- national law, about I3,()00 English subjects, of all ages, were committed to custody aa prisoners of war. This event was followed by the inrasion of Hanover, by a republican army under general Mortier, thus openly violating the neutrality of the German empire, and break- ing the peace which had been separately concluded with his majesty, as elector of Uanover. His royal highness the duke of Cambridge, who was at that time in Hano- ver, and had the command of a small body of troops, was resolved to oppose the pro- gress of the invaders ; but being urgea by the regency to retire from the command, he returned to England. In a short time the French made themselves masters of the electorate, and committed the most flagrant acts of cruelty on the unfortunate inhabi- tants. The Elbe and the Weser being now under the control of the French, these rivers were closed against English com- merce, and Buonaparte also insisted that the ports of Denmark should be shut against the vessels of Great Britun. In retaliation the British government gave orders for blockading the French ports. And now it appeared that all minor schemes of aggrandisement were to give place to the invasion and subjugation of (ireat Britain; for which purpose an im- mense number of transports were ordered to be built with the greatest expedition; and a flotilla was assembled at Boulogne, sufficient to carry any army which France uiiKht wish to enij)loy. This flotilla was fre- quently attacked by the English, and uben- ever any of their number ventured beyond the range of the batteries erected for their protection, they were generally captured by cruisers stationed off the coast to watch their motions. These mighty preparations, and the menacing attitude which was not allowed to relax on the opposite side of the channel, gave a new and vigorous impetus to British patriotism, and proportionably strengthened the hands of the government. Exclusive o^ the regular and supplementary i.n. 1803. — anoi.isn rRooDcn Attn MKncDArvDisR raoniatTRn in raAncB. l.D. 1804.— GOBOMATIOR OV BDORArAKTI ARD JOIBrilNR, DKO. 9. 448 l^ift ^rcasurs of l^istocfi, ice. militia, an additional army of 50,000 men waa levied, under tlie title of Ike army of reieTTe; and in a few montha, volunteer corps, amounting to 300,000 men, were armed in their country's defence. VTbile measure! were bein^ taken for de> fending the country against invasion, a new insurrection broke out in Ireland, which bad for its object to form an independent Irish republic. It originated with Mr. Robert Emmet,' brother to him who bad been so deeply implicated in the rebellioua tiansactions of 1798, and who had been ex- patriated. This rash attempt to disturb the public tranquillity waa made on the 33rd of July, when Emmet, with a crowd of desperadoes armed with pikes and fire- arms, marched through the principal streets of Dublin, and meeting the carriage of lord Kilwarden, chief-justice of Ireland, who was accompanied by his nephew and dauglitcr, the ruffians dragged them from the carriage, and butchered the venerable judge and Mr. Wolfe on the spot, but the young lady was allowed to escape. Being attacked in their turn by a small party of soldiers, some of the rioters were Killed, and others seised. 'Emmet and several of the most active ring- leaders, afterwards suffered the extreme penalty of the law for their diaiiolii-al of- fence. — In the session of November, acts were passed to continue the suspension of the habeas corpus, and enforce martial law in Ireland. In the West Indies the English captured St. Lucie, Demerara, and other islands. A British fleet also assisted the insurgent blacks of St. Domingo to wrest that island firom the French; but it was not effected without a most sanguinary contest. It was then erected into an independent slate, under its ancient Indian name of Hayti. In the East Indies much greater triumphs were achieved ; among these was the famous battle of Assaye, (Sept. 23), where major- general Arthur Wellesley, with a compara- tively few troops, completely defealea the combined Maliratta forces commanded by Scindiah Holkar and the rajah of Berar. A. D. 1804. — It was the opinion of men of all parties, that in the present crisis a atronger ministry than that which had been formed under the leadership of Mr. Ad- dington, was absolutely necessary to direct the councils of Great Britain; and the friends of Mr. Pitt became most anxious that he should return to the administra- tion on the renewal of war. The minister accordingly sought the aid of that great statesman as an auxiliary; but, adhering to his well-known maxim "to accept of no subaltern situation," Mr. Pitt plainly sig- nified that the premiership must be his. " Aut Cesar, aut nullus." Though many were disappointed to find that a powerful coalition, in which Mr. Fox and nis most eminent colleagues were expected to be in- cluded, was not formed, yet the manifest necessity of a vigorous prosecution of the war excited a spirit of unanimity in the uatiun, and induced the parliament to se- cond every motion of the ministry. Great as was the power to which Dnona- {larte had by artful gradations advanced limself, it was not sufficient to satiate his ambition ; and be resolved to secure to himself the title of emperor. In order to sound the inclinations of the people, a book had been published some time before, point- ing oat the propriety and expediency of creating him emperor of the Gauls; after which, an overture, equally insolent and absurd, was made to Louia XVIII. offering him indemnities and a splendid establiah- ment, if he would renounce his pretensions to the crown of France. This proposal being treated with the contempt it merited. Buonaparte resolved on taking away the life of the duke D'Eiighein, eldest son of the duke of Bourbon, on a surreptitious charge of having engaged in a conspiracy against the first consul, and of serving in the armies of the emigrants against France. But the fact was, that this young prince, whose courage and talents were equalled onlv bv his generosity and huma- nity, had excited the enmity and apprehen- sions of the Corsican. He had fixed his residence at Ettenheim. in the neutral ter- ritory of the elector of Baden, where his chiei occupation was study, and his princi- Sal recreation the culture of a small gar- en. From thia rural retreat he was drag- ged on the ISth of March, by a body of French cavalry, under the command of ge- neral Caulincourt, and carried the same day to the citadel of Straaburgh, where he remained till the 18th. On the 20th the duke arrived at Paris under a guard of gen- darmerie, and. after waiting some hours at the barrier, was driven to Vincennes. A military commission appointed to try him met the same evening in the castle, and the foul atrocity was completed by his being sentenced to immediate execution ; which having taken place, his body was placed in a cotAn partly filled with lime, and buried in the castle garden. Buonaparte having now nothing to ap- prehend either flrom his declared or coa- cealed enemies, prevailed on the people to ennfer on himself and hii heirs the impe- rial dignity. The ceremony of bis corona- tion accordingly took place, with remark- able solemnity, ou the 19th of November; and in the following February he addretied the king of Great Britain a letter, solicitiug the establishment of peace. The answer of his Britannic majesty acknowledged that no object would be dearer to him than such a peace as would be consistent with the secu- rity and interesta of his dominions ; but it added, that he declined entering into a psi- ticular discussion without consulting bit allies. A. D. 1805.— Enraged at the perseverance of Great Britain, and elated by the unparal- leled success which had attended all bii measures, the French emperor seemed now to consider himself as the disposer of king- doms ; and not only disregarded the righti of mankind, but set at defiance all prin- ciples of justice and moderation. In order to secure his own personal aggrandixemeot, A.D. ISOI— ROriRRT ASTT.RTT, TBI BARK-CASItlRR, KXRCCTBO FOB rOROKRT. R ronoKRT. «. ». 19U0. — MAKQUIS COBNWALIIS, aOVlKHOH-ttBRKMAI. Or INDIA, DIlB OCT> A. lEnglantf.— "^ousc of ISrunstolcii— C&corsc 3ESS. 449 he made an exennion to Ital^, converted the Ciulpine republic into a kingdom, and Miomed the title of king of Italy. He then united the Lignrian repnblic to France, and erected the republic of Lucca into a princi- etj, in faronr of hieaieter Elita.wlio had married the lenator Bacchiachi. After theie vnprecedented act* of aggreieion, he returned to France, and being once more reeoWed to effect the eubjnntion of the Britieh ielei, he repaired to Boulogne and feiriewed hie troopa there, which were oeten- tatiously named " the army of England," end amounted to coneiderably more than a hundred thoueand men. Spain having been eompellecl, in eonie- qnence of its dej^endence on France, to become a party in the war with Great Britain, Buonaparte determined, by nnitinir the naval streuKth of both nations, to strike a blow in several parts of the world at the tame time. The greatest activity accord- ingly prevailed in the French ports, where the fleets had hitherto remained Insctive ; and several squadrons having eluded the vigilance of the British cruisers, put to sea. A squadron of tive ships arrived in the Weal Indies, and surprised the town of Booseau in Dominica ; but being gallantly opposed by treneral Provost, the governor of the island, they levied a contribution of Are thousand pounds, and precipitately re- embarked their troops. They next proceed- ed to St. Christophers, where, having made great pecuniary exactions, they seized all the ships in the Basseterre road. These prixes were sent to Ouadaloupe ; and the Freuch squadron, fearful of encountering the British fleet, returned to Europe. In the mean time a formidable fleet of ten sail of the line, with 10,000 men on board, set sail from Toulon, under the com- mand of admiral Villeneuve ; who_, having Kroceeded to Cadic, waa there reinforced ythe Spanish admiral, Gravina, and aix large ships, and immediately embarked for the West Indies. When lord Nelson re- ceived information that tlie French and Spaniards had put to sea, he supposed that they were destined for an attempt on Alex- andria, and accordingly act sail in tliat direction. He traversed the Mediterranean with the utmost celerity, having a squadron of ten ships with him ; but finaing that he WM mistaken in his conjectures, he con- eluded that the enemy had sailed for the West Indies. He immediately directed hia course towards that quarter, and by driving the combined squadrons from island to island, he prevented them from making an attack on any of the British possessions ; nay, so universal was the dread of Nelson's name, that they had' no sooner arrived, than they consulted their safety in a precipitate and disgraceful flight, and hastily returned to Europe. When the brave Nelson was as- sured of the course of his adversaries, he dispatched a messenger to England, and immediately set sail in hones of overtaking the fugitives. He arrivea at Gibraltar on the 20th of July, and having refitted his ships, he resumed his position off Cape St. Vincent, sixty-three days after hia departure from it for the West Indies. On the arrival in London of the informa- tion of the enemy's retreat, a sqiudron, consisting of flfteen sail of the line, was dispatched under sir Eobert Calder, in the hope of intercepting them. On the 23nd of /uly sir Robert descried the object of his mission, off Ferrol ; and, notwithatand* ing their great superiority, he did not hesi- tate a moment in bringing them to action. After an obstinate engagement, the unequal conflict terminated in the defeat of the enemy, who, having lost two large ships, proceeded in haste to Ferrol. Being rein- forced by the admirals Grandallana and Gourdon, they weighed anchor, and retired to tlie harbonr of Cadis ; where they were blockaded by sir Robert Calder. Some dissatisfaction having been expressed in the public papers, relative to the conduct of the British admiral in the engagement off Ferrol, he, in order to meet the charges with manly boldness, and to obviate the effecta o' malicious reports, applied for a cou.' t-martial tu enquire into the subject ; when, to his great astonishment, and to the regret of tiie whole navy, he was foun4 (guilty of an error of judgment, and sen- tenced to be reprimanded — a reproach which he, who had passed fortv-six yean with honour in the service, felt deeply. Subsequently to his arrival at Cape St. Vincent, admiral Nelsci traversed the bay of Biscay in search of tlie enemy; but being oppressed with fatigues and disappoint- ment, lie resolved on returning to England. He arrived at Portsmouth on the 18th of August, and having reached London on the 2Utli, experienced a most cardial and affectionate reception from his grate- ful countrymen. He would not, howver, allow himself to remain in inactivity, and being offered the command of an arma- ment that was then preparing, he without hesitation embraced the opportunity of serving his country. Having hoisted bis flag on board the Victory, on the following day he put to sea, and on his arrival at Cadis he received from admiral Colling- wood the command of the British fleet, which now consisted of twenty-seven sail of the line. On the 19th of October Nel- son learned that the combined French and Spanish fleets, consisting of thirty-three sail of the line, had put to sea from Cadix, under admirals Villeneuve and Graviua; and on the 2Ist he discovered them oif Cape Trafalg ir. He immediately ordered the fleet to bear np, in two columns, aa directed by his previous plan of attack; and issued this admonitory signal — which has since become a national proverb — "England expects every man to do hia duty." The windward column of the Eng- lish ships was led by lord Nelson, in the Victory ; the leeward by rear-admiral Col- lingwnod, in the Royal Sovereign. About noon the awful contest commenced, by the A.D. 1805.— PIRSr BTOHB OF TBI BAST IHBIA SOCKS LAID, HARCB 4. [2Q3 «.D. ItiUo.— BVuaAF^BTB GBOWRKB Kin« Of ITAbI, *T UILAN, MAI 38. 450 ^l^c Creasttto of l^istocy, (re. at the muule of their n^nne. The enemy fought with intrepid apirit; but the tu* penor ikill which oppoicd tliem was retitt* leu. The fury of the battle waa luntained for three houn, when manjr (hip* of the combined fleet having itruek, their line nve way : nineteen tail of the line, wiih Villeneuve and two other flay officers, were taken ; the other ehipi, with admiral Gra> vina, escaped. This •plendid victory, so pre eminent in the annals of Britain, was purchased with the life of her greatest naval commander. In the middle of the contest lord Nelson received in his left breast a musket- ball, aimed at him from the ship with which he was envaged ; and in about au hour after- wards he expired, displaying in his death the heroic firmness wliich had distinKuixh- ed every action of his life. The loss of this gallant man damped the enthusiastic joy which the news of so im|>ortant a victory would have excited ; and it is difficult to aay whether the general grief that was felt for the hero's death, or the exultation for ■o signal a triumph, preponderated. Many there were, most assuredly, who would have relinquished the victory to have saved the victim. His remains were deposited in St. Paul's cathedral, and were accompanied by a procession more extensive and viagniii- cent than England had, on any similar occasion, beheld. Of that part of the Cadiz fleet which had escaped, four ships were afterwards captured by sir Richard Stracban, off Fer- rol, and wen conducted to a British port. — Thus the enemy's marine was virtually annihilated, and the navy of England hi'lil, andisputed, the mastery of the seas. It was far otherwise, however, with her continental prcjects and alliances. An alli- ance offensive and defensive had long been ineffectually negotiating with Biissia, Aus- tria, and Sweden ; but it was not till the French emperor had arbitrarily annexed Genoa and Parma to bis dominions, that a treaty was concluded. The objects of this formidable coalition were the liberation of Holland, Sardinia, Switzerland, and Hano- ver, from French tyranny ; the restoration of tranquillity to the Italian states, and the re-establishment of safety and peace in all Europe. It was stipulated, that the three continental powers sliould furnish 5(10,000 men, exclusive of the British troops. The military force at the disposal of France was 650,000, besides a considerable number of auxiliaries. By one article of the con- federacy it was agreed, that the continental powers should not withdraw their forces, nor Great Britain her subsidies, till a general pacification took place with the common consent of the contracting parties. The dissatislactiun evinced aicaiust the French emperor in all the territories which he had seised, seemed only to raise his un- principled ambition. To ensure the subju- gation of Germany, he, under the perfidious plea of. moderation, endeavoured to sepa- rate Austria from the other imperial states. He issued a manifesto, reprobating the full* and injustice of the confederate powerit and, declaring that if hostilities were com- menced against any of his allies, particu- larly against Bavaria, he would instantly march his whole army to revenge the af- front. He said that the war was created and maintained bv the gold and hatred of Great Britain, ana boasted that he would fight till he had secured the independence ot the Germanic body, and would not make peace without a sufficient security fur its continuance. Tbe Austrians, disregarding these threats, entered Bavaria with 55,000 men, and were vigorously supported by the hereditary states. These forces, with those furnished by Russia and the Tyrol, seemed to promise success ; but through the preci- pitancy of the Austrians, the tardiness of the Russians, and the vieorou* measures of Buonoparte, the great objects of the coali- tion failed, and the most disastrous reverses were experienced. The French reached the banks of the Rhine in September, and effected a passage over the river ; engaged the Austrians before the Russians could join them,and defeated them with great loss at MTertingen and Guns- burgh. In the mean time general Berna- dotte, by the order of Buonaparte, entered the neutral territories of Francouia, and was there joined by the Bavarian army of 20,000 cavalrv and infantry, the Batavian division, and by the army of Holland, under Marmont. The losses sustained by the Aus- trians had hitherto been very inconsider- able; but on the 13th of October, Meningen, with its large earrison, surrendered to mar- shal Soult. On the 19th, the Austrians making a sortie from the city of Ulm, and attacking Dupont's division, were defeated, and 15,000 of their men taken. A few days afterwards the Austrian general Mack, who had shut himself up in Ulm, with 30,000 men, surrendered to the French, under very suspicious circumstances, and his whole army were made prisoners of war. The first Russian division, under generals Kutusoff and Merveldt, having at length effected a junction with the Austrians, the French army, 110,000 strong, hastily ad- vanced to attack them. The allied troops were unwilling to engage a force so much more numerous than their own, and awaited the arrival of the second Russian army. That arrival was, however, delayed for a very considerable time, by the menacing and impolitic opposition of the Prussian ar- maments. Had the kingof Prussia, by join- ing the confederates, avenged the insult offered to his Francouian territories', the French would soon have been compelled to return home; but the ill-fated policy he now adopted was the cause of all tlie dis- aster* which Europe afterwards suffered. The first Russian army, unable to maintain its position against the superior power of tbe enemy, were under the necessity of fall- inK back upon Moravia, and in their rout bad no alternative but that of crossing tbe Danube, above Vienna. The imminent dan- ger with which his capital was now threat- ened, induced the emperor of Austria to A.n. I80S. — Tna cincus, now tub subbrt tbkatbe, burnt, ai;o. 12. A.O. ISOC— riBIT ITOIIB or ■4ILTaVBV-C01.I.Ba>, ■BBTrOBB. I.AIB, MAT 13. 1En0lanTr.-1|ousc of ISrunstnlcii— iScoigc MS.. 451 pfopoM BB BrmUtice, in hopes of (nining time for the BrriTai of reinforcements. Count Guilay was accordingly dispatched to the bead-quarter* of Napoleon, with propoiala for coDcluding a suipcniion of hoBtilitiea for a few weeaa, as a prelintinary step to- wudt a negotiation for a general peace. Buonaparte expreiaed hii readineia to ac- cede to the armitiice,on condition that the Attitrian monarch would cause the allied trmy to return home, the Huugarian levy to be abandoned, and the duchy of Venice and the Tyrol to be occupied by the French. The Russian armies having at length effected a junction with those of Austria, they marched towards Austerlitr, where the French were posted; but as the al- lied sovereigns were desirous of preventing the dreadful sacrifice of life, which waa inevitable from the conflict of two such Srodigious armies, the counts Stadion and Ivilay were sent ti Napoleon to propose an srmistice. The French emperor suppos- initbat they merely wished to lull him into a falae security, beguiled them with artful compliments, and solicited an interview witli the emperor Alexander. He had pre- v perted to result ; yet, at the same lime, the nilitary system of the nation declined, and ill reputation had greatly decreased. After Uie battle of Austerliii, so fatal to the liber* lici of Europe, the king of Prussia became tolirely subservient to the arbitrary will of Baoaaparte ; and, being instigated by tlial powerful tyrant, he took possession of the Sectorate of Hanover, by which means he isTolved himself in a temporary war with Great Britain. A peace, however, was in a short time concluded; and as his Prussian msieity was unable any longer to submit to tlie indignities imposed upon him, he en- tered into a confederacy with Great Britain, Rosiia, and Sweden. Au instantaneous cktnge took place in the conduct of the Pmuiau cabinet, the precipitancy of whose present measures could only be equalled by thrir former tardiness. The armies of the contending parties took the Held early in Oc- tober, and after two engagements, in which the success was doubtful, a general battle took place at Jena on the 14th of that Bonth. The French were posted along the 8sale, their centre being at Jena. The Prussians, under prince Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, were ranged between Jena, Aaerstadt, and Weimar. The armies 4rere drawn up within musket-shot of each other; snd at nine in the morning about 260,000 men, with 700 cannon, were employed in matual destruction. Courage and discipline on each side were nearly e^ual, but the French evinced superior military science. When the day was far gone, Augereau ar- rived with seasonable reinforcements, which being supiwrted by a brilliant charf;e of Marat's cuirassiers, victory declared in fa- vonr of the French. Napoleon, from the height where he stood, saw the Prussians llv in all directions. More than 20,000 were killed or wounded, and 30,000 taken prison- ers, with 300 nieces of cannon. Prince Ferdi- saad died of nis wounds. A panic seised the gsmson ; all the principal towns of Prussia, wnt of the Oder, surrendered sooti after the battle ; and the remains of thtir army were driven as far as the Vistula. Blucher was. compelled to capitulate at Lubec. Buo- nsparte now entered Berlin ; and while there, received a deputation from the French lenale, complimenting him on his wonder- ful successes, but recommending peace. On the approach of the French to the Vistula, the Russian armies advanced with great rapidity to check their course : a for- midable body of Swedes was assembled in Pomerania ; and the king of Prussia having ssiembled his scattered troops, and rein< forced them with new levies, prepared to face the enemy. General Benigsen, who commanded the Russian forces, and was iu daily exnectation of a reinforcement, waa attacked at Pultusk, on the 36ib of Decem- ber; the engaf^ment waa very severe, but he succeeded in driving the enemy from the Held of battle. This concluded tha campaign. a.o. I807.— Ithas been well remarked by the author of the Chronological History of England, that at this period a prominent feature in the domestic state of the country, was a growing distrust of the political fac- tions w'aich had heretofore divided the na- tional suffrages. " Both parties, the Dura and the Ins, as they now began to be fami- liarly called, had ao uniformly embarasaed Eavernment when it was not in their own ands, and yet so uniformly taken the op- portuuitv of^ deserting the cause they had firofessea to maintain, that the people at arge lost all confidence in public men. The effect of this change of public sentiment was strikingly evinced in the general elec- tion of the current vear. The representa- tion of the city of Westminster had alwaya been considered the appropriate function of one or the other faction; but the inde- pendent electors united and determined to lid themselves of the domination of both. Sir F. Burdett and lord Cochrane became popular by disclaiming all attachment to all parties, and declaring their wishes to overturu abuses and nothing but abuses ; to look only to the measures of men, not to their persons and connexions. Their election for 'Westminster was a complete triumph over the aristocratic dictation and all factions whatever. It was the rise of a third party in the state, whose struggles continued for thirty years after, and have not yet terminated." At the beginning of the year the bill for the emancipation of the Roman catholics passed both houses of parliament, and waa presented to the king to receive the roval assent. His majesty, conscientiously be- lieving that he could not sign it without violating his coronation oath, and being desirous of testifying his attachment to the established religion, not only refused to sign the bill, but desired that his ministera would for erer abandon the measuro. This they refused ; and on the dismissal of lord Erskine and several of his colleagues, lord Eldon was chosen lord chancellor ; the duke of Portland, first lord of the treasury ; and the right lion. Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer. After the surrender of the Cape of Good Hope to the British arms, an expedition was undertaken against the Spanish settle- ments in South America. They proceeded up the Rio de Plata, and having surmount- ed innumerable difficulties, landed their troops near Buenos Ayres, and on the 28th of June, 1806, took possession of that town by capitulation. A general insurrection having been excited soon afterwards, the Britisn troops were compelled to abandon it ; and it was found expedient to send to the Cape for reinforcements. Buenos Ayres m B II A. 0. I8O7.— SIR P. BUUUKTT AMD LOHO COCURAKR KI.RCTRD TOIt A'KSTMINSTRR. A. 0. 1SU7.— LOKB MLIOn'l MOIIUMBIIt BBIflTIB Oil rOBTIOOWll RUL. 4 ■ m m k o M ■ 454 ZIT^c tlTrcasurv of l^istorg, Set. wu aBHin ntUcVrd on the 7th of Jul* I807i bjr rear admiral Murray and nneral white- lock. The aoldiera being ordeied to enter the town with unloaded inuaketa, mttt re- ceived bj a mott deitmclive Are from the honiea, and after having lost 3,S0U brave men, were forced to retire. A convention waa then entered into with the Spaniih commander, by which it wai stipulated that a mutual restitution of prisonera ahould take place, and that the Britiih troopa should evscaate the countrr. For his un- soldierlike conduct in this ratal expedition, general Whiteluck was tried by a court- martial on his return to England, and ren- dered incapable of serving bis mi^}esty in future. We BOW return to the military operations on the continent. The battle of F.ultusk had left the contending parties in circum- stances nearly equal. Buonaparte had re- tired into winter quarters, where he intend- ed to have remained till the return of spring; but as the Russians were conscious of the advantages resulting to them from the rigorous climate, they were resolved to allow him no repose. The Russian general Markow accordingly attacked the French under Bemadotte, at Morungen, in East Prussia, when a very severe action ensued, which terminated in favour of tlie allies. Another very sanguinary encounter took place on the 8th of February, near the town of Brian, when, the fortunes of France and Russia seemed to be equally balanced, and each party claimed the victory. Immedi- ately after this engagement Buonaparte dis- patched a messenger to the Rutsian com- mander-in-chief, with overtures of a pacitie nature ; but general Benigsen rejected his offers with disdain, and replied that " he had been sent by his master not to nego- tiate, but to light." Notwithstanding this repulse, similar overtures were made by Buonaparte to the king of Prussia, and met with no better success. The weak state of the French army at this time seemed to promise the allies a speedy and fortunate termination of the contest; but the sur- render of Danttie totally changed the face of alfoirs, and by supplying the French with arms and ammunition, enabled them to maintain a superiority. On the Hth of June a general engagement ensued at Fried- land, and the concentrated forces of the allies were repulsed with prodigious slaugh- ter. On the 33rd of the same month an armistice was concluded; and on the 8th of July a treaty of peace was signed at Tilsit, between the emperors of France and Rus- sia, to which his Prussian majesty acceded on the following day. The first interview between Buonaparte and the emperor Alexander took place on the 26th of June, on a raft constructed for tiiat purpose on the river Niemen, where two tents had been prepared for their re- ception. Tiie two emperors landed frdm their boats at the saine time, and embraced each other. A magnilicent dinner was after- vrards given by Napoleon's guard to those of Alexander and the king of Prussia ; when they exchanged uniforms, and were to be seen in motley dresses, partly French, psrtlv Russian, and partly Prussian. The articles by which peace was granted to liusslawen under all circumstances, remarkably favour- able. Alexander agreed to acknowledR* ths kings of Uuimaparie's creation, and the eua- fedoration of the Rhine. Napoleon under- took to mediate a peace between the Ports and Russia ; Alexander having andcrtaksn to be the mediator between France and England, or, in the event of his mediation being relUsed, to shut his ports agslnit British commerce. The terms imposed on the king of Prussia were marked by eharae. teristic severity. The city of Dantsie wis decSred independent; and all the Poliih Provinces, with Westphalia, were ceded by russia to the conqueror, by which mesni the king of Prussia waa stripped of nearly half of his territories, and one third of his revenues. All his ports were likewlie to be closed against England till a general peace. The unexampled influence which Napo- leon had now acquired over the nations of Europe, to say nothing of that spirit of domination which he every where exercis- ed, rendered it extremely improbable that Denmark would long preserve her neutra- lity ; nay, the English ministers had good reasons to believe that a ready acquiescence to the dictates of the French emperor would be found in the court of Copea- hagen. As it was therefore feared that the Danish fleet would fail into the hands of the enemy, it was thouglit expedient to dispatch a formidable armament to the Baltic, and to negotiate wilii the Daniih government. The basis of the negotiation was a proposal to protect the neutrality of Denmark, on condition that its fleet should be deposited in the British ports till the termination of the war with France. As this proposal was rejected, the as the general conduct of the Danes betrayed their partiality for the French the arms. ment, which consisted of twenty-seven nil of the line and 20,000 land forces, under the command of admiral Gambler and lord Cathcart, made preparations for inveating the city. A tremenaous cannonading thea commenced. The cathedral, many publie edificea and private houses were destroyed, with the sacrifice of 2000 lives. From the 2nd of September till the evening of the fith, the conflagration vraa kept up in dif- ferent placea, when a considerable part of the city being consumed, and the remain- der threatened with apeedy destructinn, the general commanding the garrison tent out a flag of truce, desiring an armistice, to aiford time to treat for a capitulation. This being arranged, a mutual restitution of prisoners took place, and the Dauiih fleet, consiating of 18 aail of the line and 16 frigates, together with all the naval stores, surrendered to his Britannic m^jea- ty's forces. The Danish government, how- ever, refused to ratify the capitulation, and issued a declaration of war against Eng- land. Thia unexpected enterprize against A.O. ISO/.-^na. MABKHAM, ABCHBISHOr Or YOBK, DIBD ROT. 3, AGBB 80. A.D. laoa.— CI 11. Icnglantf.— 1^ou»c o( ISrunsinicfc.— George Ml. 455 t neutral powpr lerved m an oiteniible (•uM for Ituiiia to commence hoatilltie* Mtinti G'Mt Britain i and • inaDifcato waa Mbliihcd on the 8UI of October, ordering ibe dtunlion of all Dritiih ablpa and pro- pertr. Tlie two nnnd ohjeota to which the at- tention of Huauaparu waa principalljr di> Kcted, were the anniltilation of the trade efCreatBritain, and the exteiuioa of hia dominione. In order to attain the former of tbewobJecti, he in November, 1806, it- Ncd at Berlin a decree, bjr which the Bri- titli itlanda were declared to be in a atate oir bloeliade, and all neutral veiaela that traded to them without hia conient were lulljwt to capture and eonflaeation. Thia new mode of warfare excited, at lint, the aaprelieniiona of the Britiih merohanta { bat the cabinet were rcaoWed to retaliate, and accordingly iuued the celebrated of- i*n in raaacil, by which France and all the poFcn under her influence were de- clared to be in a atate of blockade, and all nentral veiMli that ahould trade between the hoitile power*, without touching at iome port or Great Britain, were liable to be Ki»d. Theae unprecedented meaaurea were extremely detrimental to all neutral pnwen, eipecially to the Americana, who were the general carriera of colonial pro- duce. They, hj way of retaliation, laid an embargo in all the porta of the United gtalet, and notwithatanding the extinction of their commerce, long peraiated in the meaiure. In the conduct puraned by Buonaparte with respect to Portugal, lie reanlved to act in inch a mauner at ahould either involve that nntion in a war with Enicland, or would furnish him with a pretence for in- vadin; it. He accordingly reauired the court of Lisbon, Itt, to abut tueir porta against Great Britain ^ Sdly, to detain all Englishmen residing in Portugal; andadly, to confiscate all English property. In case these demands were refused, he declared that war would be drnounced against them, and, without waiting for an answer, he gave ordera for detaining all merchant ships that were in the porta of France. As the prince regent could not comply with these imperious demands, without violating the treaties that exiated between the two nations, he endeavoured to avoid the danger which threatened him, by agreeing to the first condition. Tlie porta of Port ngal were accordingly shut up, but this concession served only to inflame the resentment of Buonaparte, who immedi- ately declared "that the house of Braganza had ceased to reifni;" and sent an im- mense army into Portugal, under general Junot. In this critical situation the prince regent removed his troops to the seaports, and when Junot enterea hia dominions he retired, with his family, to the Brazila. The subversion of the government of Spain and the expulsion of the reigning family was the next step on the ladder of Napoleon's ambition ; and this he thought might be accomplished by uniting treachery with force. In order to accomplish tbia perHdloua act, it waa hi* flrat care to foment discord in the royal family, which, by a complication of diaaimulation, intrigue, and audacious villany, he waa too auceeaaful in effecting. By encouraging the ambition of the heirappareni, he excited the reacntment of the reigning moiurcb. Charlr* IV., ren- dered them mutual obiecta of mistrust. Jealousy, and hatred, and plunged the na- tion into anarchy and confiiaion. In thia perplexed stale of affair*, he invented au excuse for introducing nia armiea into Spain, and compelled Charlea to resign the crown to his son, who was invested with the sovereignty, with the title of Ferdinand VII. The new made king, with hia father and the whole royal family, were ahortly afterwarda prevailed on to take a joume* to Bayonne, in France, where an interview took place with the French emperor. On I he fitli of May the two king* were compelled by Buonaparte to sign a formal abdication, and the infant* Don Antonio and Don Car- lo* renounced all claim to the aucceaaion. Thia meaiure waa followed by an imperial decree, declaring the throne of Spain to be vacant, and conferring it on Joaeph Bnona- parte, who had abdicated the throne of Naplea in favour of Joachim Murat. Aa the French force*, amounting to about 10U,00O men, occupied all the atrongeet and most commanding positions of Spain, and as another army of 20,000 men, under Junot. had arrived in Portugal, it waa imagined that the new aovereign would take poasea- sion of the kingdom without opposition. But the wanton ambition and foul perfidy by which these events had been produced, inspired the Spaniarda with becoming in- dignation and resentment. No sooner had ' the newa of the treatment of the royal family reached Spain, than a general insur- rection broke out ; juntas were formed in the different provincca; patriotic armiea were levied ; and the assistance of England waa implored. The aupreme junta ■, oct. tS| Mt Vnglanti.— l^ottit of Vrnnstoid.— Cncorgc WSl. 467 Mfi her Independenet t and Buonitparta l«i Uft tbt peninittla loon after the bMtle of Coruane, in order to eonduet in perwn Ike war whieb waa tbua reaawed in Oar- ■aaf. Uoatilitiaa had been declared on Ibt «hof April, when the archduke Cbarlea iMued « epirited addreae to the army prt- unlory to bit opening the campaign. The whole Anitrian armr eoaaiatea of nine (orpe. in each of which wero from M>,000 to 4UI00 men. Buonaparte, in addition to Ike French corpa, now congregated under kii (tandard Ravariana, Saxoua and Polea { ud aueh wu bia eelerit* of movement, ■ad the impetuoaitjr of hie troopa, that la ihe thort apace of one month he crip- pled the forcca of Auatria. and look poi- Mftion of Vienna on the 18th of Majr. On tka tut and 33nd of the larae month, the archduke Charlee, who bad taken bia po- ■iiioB on the left bank of the Danube, en- nged Buoiinpnrte between the villagea of ' liprme and Eaaling, and eompleteljr de- I fnied him, compelling him to retire to Lo- ku, an idand on the Danube. The Ana< I Iriaoa were, however, ao much weakened I , figeuicnt commenced near Wagram, under every diiadvantage, when the French were i vietorioue, and the Auttriana retreated to- , ward) Bohemia. A auipenaion of hoatili- ; ties was toon afterwarda agreed on, which j WH followed by a treaty of peace, con- ' einded at Bclionurun, Oct IS ; bv which the , nniwror of Auttria was compelled to cede : M«tral of his moat valuable pruvincea, to dia- (ontinue his intercourse with the court of London, and to close his porta against Bri- liih vessels. In the course of the sumiper waa fitted out with great secrecy one of the most for- midable ariuamenta ever sent from the •bores of England. It consisted of an ar- my of 40,000 men, and a Heet of .39 sail of the line, 36 frigates, and nunieroua gun- boats, &c. The command of tlie first waa given to the earl of Chatham, of the laat to sir R. Btrachan. The chief objects of the enterprise were to get possession of Flush- ing and the island of Walcheren, with the mneh ships of war in the Scheldt; to de- stroy their arsenala and dock-yards, and to effect the reduction of the city of Antwerp. Tlie preparations which bad been made for this expedition, the numeroua aoldiera and lailora engaged in it, and the immense sums of money which had bean expended on it, raised the expectations of the nation to the highest pitcn ; but it waa planned without indgment, and conducted without ikill, and therefore necessarily terminated hi loss and disgrace. On the arrival of the armament in the Rcbeldt, tha eontest be- tween Austria and France had been de- cided t the military ataie of the country was widely different (Vom what bad been represented ■, and Antwerp, instead of being defenceless, was completely fortified. The attack on the Island of Walcheren aue- ceeded, and Flushing surrendered after an obstinate resistance of twelve dayai but aa the country assumed a posture of defence that waa totally unexpected, all idea of proceeding up the Scheldt waa abandoned, and the troopa remained at Walcheren, where an epidemic fever raged. Of the fine army that left Portsmouth a few months before, one half perished on the pestilen- tial shores of Walcheren ; and oi the re- mainder, who returned in December, many were aflieted with incurable chronic dia< cases The other events of the year may be briefly told. The French acttlemcnt at Cayenne aurrendered to an English and Portugueae force, and the island of Martiniaue waa aoon afterrords raptured bv British arma. A French fleet, consisting often sail of the line, which lay in the Basque road*, under the protection of the forts of the island of Aix, waa attacked by a aquadron of gnn- boata, fire-ships, and frigates, under lord Cochrane, who csptured four ships, disabled aeveral others, and drove the rest on shore. A gallant action waa likewise performed by lord Collingwood, who on the 1st of Octo- ber destroyed, in the bay of Bosaa, three aail of the line, two frigatea, and twenty transports. To these suecesaea may be added, the reduction of some small iaianda in the West Indies, and the capture of ■ Russian flotilla and convoy iu'the Baltic, by air Jamea Sauroares. In the early part of the year, public atten- tion waa engrossed with a parliamentary inquiry into the conduct of hia royal high- ness the duke of York, commander-in-chief; against whom colonel Wardle, an officer of militia, had brought forward a aeriea of charsea, to the effect that Mrs. Mary Ann Clarke, a once favoured courtesan of the duke, had carried on a traffic in military commissions, with his knowledge and con- currence. During the progrosa of thia investiKation the house waa in general (Ully attended, many of ita membera appearing highly edified by the equivocal replica ana suriKhtly sallies of the fair frail one. But tne duke, though culpable of great indiscra- tion, was acquitted of personal corruption by a vote of the house. He, however, thought proper to resign his employment. Various circumstancea which afterwarda transpired tended to throw considerable auspicion on the motirca and charactera of the partiea who instituted the inquiry. A. B. 1810. — The parliamentary aeasion commenced with an inquiry into the late calamitous expedition to Walcheren; and alter a long aebate in tla house of com- mons, the conduct of m>niste7s, instead of being censured as waa expected, waa de- clarod to be worthy of commendation. In the course of the discussion, Mr. Yorke, A.n. 1809.— KMD or THi "o. r." mora at coTaiiT-aABDiii TuiATaa, dbo. IS. [2JI A.D. ISIO.— LOUia BCOIIArARTB ABDICATBI tBB TBKONB 09 BObLASB. e 00 i 4 453 tTfic treasury o( l^istorg, $cc. member for Cambridge, dully enforced the •tunding order of the home for the excla- ■iun of stranger* — a measure which, though sanctioned by a parliamentary regulation, was very unpopular, and became the subject of very severe animedversions in the Lon- don debating societies. John Gale Jones, the director of one of these societies called the " British Forum," having issued a pla- card, notifying that the following question had been discussed there :— " Which was a greater outrage on the public feeling, Mr. lorke's enforcement of the standing order to exclude strangers from the house of commons, or Mr. Windliam's attack on the press 7" and that it had been unanimoasly carried againut the former. — Mr. Torke complained of it as a breach of privilege, and Jones was committed to Newgate. On the 12th of Marcli, sir Francis Burdett, who had been absent when Mr. Jones was committed, brought forward a motion for his liberation, on the ground that his im- pri«onment by the house of commons was an infringement of the law of the land, and a subversion of the principles of the con- stitution This motion being negatived, sir Francis published a letter to his con- ■tituents, the electors of Westminster, in which he stated his reasons for objecting to the imprisonment of Mr. Jones, and adverted in very pointed terms to the iKegality of the measure. This letter was brought forward in the house by Mr. Lethbridge, who moved that it WHS a scandalous publication, and that, sir Francis Burdett, iiaving acknow- ledged himself the author of it, was guilty of a flagrant breach of privilege. After an adjournment of a week, these resolutions were carried ; and a motion that sir Francis Burdett should be committed to the Tower, was likewise carried by a majority of thirty- seven members. A warrant was accordingly signed by the speaker of the house of com- mons, for the apprehension and commitment of the right honourable baronet, and was delivered to the serjeant-at-arms, to be carried into effect. Sir Francis urged the illegality of the speaker's warrant, and restated the execution of it till the 9th of April, when the serjeant-at-arms, accom- Snnied by messengers, police officers, and etacbments of the military, forced open the baronet's house, arrested him, and con veyed him, by a circuitous route, to the Tower. The greatest indignation prevailed among the populace when they heard of the apprehensiun of their favourite ; and, having asseuibled on Tower hill, they at- tacked the military with stones and other missiles. For a considerable time the soldiers patiently submitted to the insults of the multitude; but finding that their audacity increased, they lired, and three of the rioters were killed. At the prorogation of parliam^'nt, on the 2Ist of June, s undertook, successively, the sieges of Cuidad Rodrigo and Almeids, both of which places, after a most spirited resistance, were compelled to surrender. All these stratagems of Massena could not induce the British general to haxiird a bst- tie under disadvantageous circumstanceii and the cautious conduct of hia lordship on this occasion, waa as laudable as his cou- rage and resolution had formerir been. Massena at length began to suspect thst his opponent was actuated by fear: and therefore determined to attack him m hit entrenchments, on the Bumniit of the moun- tain of Busaco. An engagement accord- ingly took place on the sftb of Scptembsr, when the combined armies of England and Portugal completely defeated the Frtnch, who lost on the occasion upwards of 30(M) men. _A few days after this engagement, the British genera], by an unexpected move- ^.D. 1310.— LUCIBN BUOaArABTB A:<0 rAMILT ABBIVB IN BNSLAlfO. i. ». 1810.— IT. PAVL'S CATHBDEAI. BOBBID OV all ITB PLATB, BBC. 24. lEnglantl.^l^otusc of 19rttnsb)icii.- MiuL who encamped directly in hia front. While theaa etenta were takinac place in Ipain and Portugal, the luceetiTul temii- ■ation of aome diatant naval expeditiona lerred to coniirm the gallantry of that braacb of the aervice. The Dutch aettle- ncBt of Amboyne, with ita dependent t»lrailt|tarrendned to a British force Feb. 17. On the 8th of Auguit, a partr of 180 Britiih leamen, under the command of cap- t^ Cole, attacked Banda, the principal of Ibe Dutch apice ialanda, and oblignd the larriion, contiating of 1000 men, to surren- ler. The important ialanda of Bourbon and the Uanritina were likewise reduced, at the (loM of the year, by a British armament, andrr the command of admiral Bertie and Bujor-feneral Abercrombie. Several eventa took place at thla time on the continent of Europe, not lesa remark- ible fur their novelty than for their im- portance. Buonaparte, having divorced the impreia Josephine, espoused on the Uth oif Maich the archduchesa Maria Louisa, laughter of the emperor of Austria. On the li^ of July, Louia Buonaparte, king of Holland, after having made a fruitleas at- tempt to improve the condition of his un- fortunate auDJecta, abdicated the throne in fmrar of his eldest son. That exhausted eonntry waa immediately aeiaed by Napo- ItoB, and annexed to the French empire. C'uarlts XIII. of Sweden, being advanced in age and having no children, chose fur bis successor Charlea Augustus, prince of Angustinbergi but as this prince died sud- denly, it became necessary to nominate liia inceeisor. The eandidatea for thia high offlee were the prince of Holstein, the king of Denmark, and the French marshal Ber- Bsdotte, prince of Fonte Corvo. The latter being favoured by Napoleon and by the king of Sweden, he waa unanimously cho- len crown prince, and his installation took place on the 1st of November, in the pre- MDce of the assembled diet. A few days Afterwards war was declared against Great Britain t all intercourse was proliibited, and tlie importation of colonial produce inler- dicted. CHAPTER LXIII. Tll« Reign tf Obobbb III. [M« Rbobiict]. A.D. Jflll.— One of the firat legislative acts ofthis year waa the appointment of the prince of Walea, under certain restric- tions, as regent, in consequence of a return of that mental malady with which the king had formerly been temporarily aiUicted. The restrictions were to continue till after February 1, 1819. It was expected that a change of ministers would immediately lake place, but the prince drdined making say change in the administration, or to aeecpt any grant for an establishment in firtue of bis new functions. The progress of events in the peninsula agsin claims onr attention. Massena, who at the cloae of the preceding year, had posted himself at Santarem, met with auch difflcultiea in procuring the neceasary anp- ply of proviaions, that he waa induced to abandon hia position on the Sth of March, leaving behind him a considerable quantity of heavy artillery and ammunition. He continued his retreat through Portugal, closely pursued by lord Wt>lling[ton and general Beresford. Numerous skirmishea took place between the outposts of the hostile armies; but on the 16th of May a more important action ensued at the river Albuera, Between marshal Soult and general Beresford. The contest continued witli great impetuosity for several hours, till at length victory declared in favour of the Anglo- Portuguese troops, and the enemy waa compelled to retreat. The loss of the French was estimated at 9,000, among whom were Ave generala -, the loss of the allies amounted to about half that number. After this victory general Beresford invest- ed the important city of Badajoa, but waa obliged to raise the siege, in conaequence of the junction of the French armiea under Soult and Marmont. The war was at the same time conducted with great spirit in different parts of Spain. In Catalonia the operationa of the enemy were crowned with success ; but in Anda. lusia the French were compelled to retire before the determined bravery of the allied forces. This army had landed at Al^e- airas, under general Graham, with the in- tention of attacking the French troops cn- gsgod in the siege of Cadis. On the fith of March they took a strong position on the heighta of Barossa, where they were attacked on the 25th by a superior force of the enemy. After a remarkably severe engagement, the French retired in disor- der, with the loss of 3,000 men ; but the numerical inferiority of the allies precluded the hope of pursuing them with success. The suDsrquent events of the war in the peninsula, during thia year, were neither nuraeruua nor important. The French army, who had threatened to " plant their eagles on the walls of Lisbon, and to drive the English into the aea," were not only unable to carry their threat into execution, but were frequently defeated by troopa which they were taught to despise. While tn« military prowess of England was thus nobly displayed in combating the oppressors of mankind, the superiority of her navy was suflBciently manifested by the success which attended all ita ope- rations. A combined French and Italian squadron, consisting of five frigatea and six smaller armed vessels, was encountered off the island of Lissa, in the gulf of Ve nice, by an English squadron composed of four flrigfttes only ; the contest was fierce atid for a time doubtful, but at length Bri- tish valour prevailed, and three of the ene- my'a frigates were taken. On the 21st of July, a French flotilla, consisting of twenty- six vessels, was attacked off the coast of Calabria, by an English frigate and a sloop, and the whole of them were cap- s' s K « M ■ S< »• II n I g ■ M u M D Si u A s A.n, litll.— aiB PBTBB rABRBB, ABMIBAL OF TBB PLEBT, DI8D, AOBD 96. A.O. 1313.— JOnil BOHR TUOKB, OF roMTICAb HOTOBIBTr, OIBO MABCH 19. 460 ^^e ^reasunj of l^totory, $rc. tared without the lots of a man. These and other gallant encoiinten, though on a ■mall scale, redounded much to our natal credit. From the year 1807> when the celebrated " orders in council" were issued, a secret discontent, indicative of hostilities, bad evinced itself in the United States of Ame- rica. This misunderstanding was greatly increased in the present year, by an unfor> tunate encounter between the American frigate President, commanded by commo- dore Rodgers, and the British sloop of war Little Belt, captain Bingliam. The parti- culars of this occurrence were expUcitly and interestingly related by the captain of the Little Belt, wlio attributes the blame entirely to the American. At any rate, whether the encounter was through a mis- take, or designed for tlie purpose of incen- sing the English government, the result was, that the American States prepared for war, and notwithstanding remonstrances and concessions were made by the British ministry, war was soon afterwards declared. During the months of November and December the internal tranquillity of the country was disturbed by f^quent riots in the manufacturing districts of Nottingham- shire, Derbyshire, and Leicestershire. The Srincipal cause of discontent was the intro- uction of a new description of frame for stocking-weaving. The rioters assumed the name of Luddites, and they became so dan- gerous, that the legislature deemed it ne- cessary to use severe measures for their suppression. A. s. 1812.— The restrictions which had been imposed upon the prince of Wales by the regency bill, were now writhdrawn, it being the unanimous opinion of the medical autliorities that there was not the slightest prospect of his mtyesty's return to a state of perfect sanity. The prince therefore as- sumed the full pow<- s belonging to the sovereignty of Britu.a; and, contrary to general expectation, very little change was made in the cabinet. On the 13th of Fe- bruary, the regent, in a letter to the duke of York, declared that he " had no predi- lections to indulge, nor resentments to gra- tify;" intimating, however, a desire tiiat bis government might be strengthened by the co-operating of those with whom his early habits had been formed, and autho- rising the duke to communicate his senti- ments to lords Grey and Grenville. To this overture these noblemen replied, bv unre- servedly expressing the impossibility of their uniting with the present government, owing to their differences of opinion being too many and too important to admit of such union. The measures proposed for repealing the penal laws againot the papists were agitated in both houses of parliament this session, but were negatived by a great mnjority. The disturbances among the manufac- turing classes, wh>qh began last year in Nottinghamshire, had extended into Lan- cashire, Cheshire, and the west riding of Yorkshire. The property of individuals as well a« the machinery was destroyed b* nightly mannders; a system of militarv training was adopted, and secret oaths ad- ministered ; in short, the number and dar- ing apirit of the rioters, and the steadiness with which their plana were conducted rendered them so formidable as to require the express interposition of the legislature. A large miliUry force was accordinriy sta^ tinned in the disturbed counties, and were, on several occasions, found necessary for the maintenance of pnblio peace. By a rigid enforcement of the law, and by the adoption of remedial measures for the dis- tresses of the labouring poor, tranquillity was at length restored. While the public mind was agitated by these occurrences, an event occurred which was at once truly lamentable and import- ant. On the nth of May, as Mr. Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer, was entering the lobby of the house of commons, about dve o'clock, a person named Bellingham E resented a pistol to his breast, and shot im through the heart. The act was w sudden and astounding, that (in the words of a gentleman, well known in the literary world, who happened to be close to Mr. Perceval at the time) " no one of the many individuals present precisely knew what bad really happened •, and it was the fall of the martyr of assassination only, that developed the nature of the atrocious deed. On re- ceiving the wound, the unfortunate gentle, man fell almost back towards his left, against the angle formed by the duor and the wall, exclaiming very faintly, 'O God !' the last words he ever uttered ; for imme- diately, as if moved by an innate impulse to seek for safety in the house, he made as effort to rush forward, but merely staggered a few paces, and dropped down on the spot." Bellingham was taken without re. sistance, a few minutes afterwards. It ap- peared that he wax a Liverpool ship-broker, who having sustained some commercial losses in Russia, for which he thougtit the government was bound to procure redresi, and his memorials on the subject being dii. regarded, he had worked up his gluomy mind to the monstrous conviction Uiat he was justiAed in taking away the life of the prime minister. The gentleman whose words we have before quoted, thus graplii- cally describes the appearance of the assai- sin : " Bellingham, with his breast ex- posed, and now extremely perturbed, wsi m a state of great excitation when general Gascoyne appeared, and recognised him ai a man whom he knew, from having leen him at Liverpool. No words, indeed, can picture his frightful agitation s large dropt of agonizing sweat ran down liis pallid face ; and from the bottom of bis cheit to his ^orge, rose and fell a spasmodic action, as it a body as large as the hand wereehok ing hiin with every breath. Never on earth, I believe, was seen a more terrible example of over-wrought suffering ; yet, in InnguaKe he was perfectly cool and collected," On his trial at the Old Bailey sessions, the plea of insanity was suggested by his counsel, A. n. IS13.— BAnTuqiiAKB. AT CABACCAs; 8000 ransom ranisuRn, hahcu 20. A.S lalS.-- TUB BAIt or MOIBA ArrolRTBB OOTBBROB BBilXBAL Ot I.^nlA. a I » k iS Ik lEnglanll.-l^onse oC ISrunstoicb.— <>!icorge 3E3E3E. 461 bat otemiled. In Uis defence he expAtiated on the iil-treatment he hitd experienced, and attempted to iuatify hit conduct. At hit execution, his demeanour was remark- abW Arm and composed, and he peniated in refuting to expreaa any contrition for hit crime. The untimely death of Mr. Perce- tbI drew forth a strong expression of sym- pathy; and his widow and family were liberally provided for by parliament. In the change of administration which took place in consequence of this melancholy circum- ttanee, lord Sidmouth was appointed tccre- taryof state; the earl of Harrowby, lord preiident of the council ; and Mr. Vansit- tart, clianeellor of the exchequer. At the commencement of the campnign in the Spanish peninsula, fortune aeenied at first to favour the enemy, who, on the 9th of January, made themselves masters of the city of Valencia, wliich general Blake, after a feeble resistance, surren- dered, with 16,000 men. The strong town of Peniscola, which, on account of its com- manding situation, was of great importacie to its possessors, was soon after surren- dered to the French by the treachery of the governor. Serious as these misfortunes were to the allies, they were in a short time counterbalanced by the success which attended tlie exertions of the British com- mnnder. After • fortnight's siege, lord Wellington carried Cuidad Rodrigo by as- sault, on the 19th of January; end on the 16th of April the atrong city of Bad^jos surrendered to him, after a long and most obstinate retiitance. After the capture of thla city the allied armies proceeded, with- out opposition, to Salamanca, where they were received by the inhabitants with be- nedictions and acclamations. As the hos- tile armies were now so situated as to ren- der a battle almost inevitable, lord Wel- liDKton made his necessary dispositions; and as a favourable opportunity occurred on the 33d of July for attacking the ene- my, be immediately took advantage of it. An action accordingly ensued, in wnich the French, after a determined and obstinate resistance, wcv obliged to give way to the superior bravery of the assailants, and to retreat in the utmost confusion. The dark- nets of the night was very favourable to the fugitives, yet upwards of 7,000 prison- ers were taken, with eagles, colours, can- non, and ammunition. After taking possession of the Spanish eapiul, lord Wellington advanced to Bur- Es; but being detained a long time in lieging it, the enemy had an opportunity of concentrating their force, and of re-oc- cnpying Madrid. This was one of the last military transactions which took place on the peninsula during the year. For his eminent services, which though generally appreciated were not over-rated, the Cortea beitowed on the British commander the title of duke of Cuidad Rodrigo, and con- stituted him generalittimo of the Spaniah armiet. The prince regent of Great Britain, nl />, who had previously conferred on him the tide of earl, now raited him to the dignity of a marquis of the United King- dom. The foregoing outline of the military transactions in Spain will put the reader in possession of the principal features of th« war in that quarter. We must now direct his attention to the events which were transacting in the north of Bnrope. The fondly-cherished scheme of Buonaparte for ruining the finances of Great Britain, b* cutting off her commercial intercourse witn the countries of Europe, was, through in- trigue or intimidation, adopted by all the neutral powers. The consequent stagnation of trade on the continent, though it was submitted to by their respective sovereigns, was very distressing to their subjects, especi- ally the Russians, who had been accustomed to consider England as their natural ally. At length, the emperor of Russia resolved to subinii no longer to the arbitraiy restric- tions which the will of Napoleon had dicta- ted to him ; and a war between those great powers was the immediate and inevitable result. In this contest the most consider- able states in Europe were involved. The allies of France were the German states, Italy, Prussia, Austria, and Poland; to whom were opposed the combined powers of Great Britain, Russia, Sweden, and Spain. Napoleon placed himself at the head of an immense army, and now commenced the ever-memorable struggle. After passing through Dresden, and visiting in rapid suc- cession Dantzic and Konigsberg, he reach- ed the Niemen, the frontier river of Russia, on the 33rd of June. On the line of roareh were lialf a million of soldiers, in the high- est state of eouipraent and discipline; to whom he issued a proclamation in nis usual conttdent and laconic style : " Russia," aaid he, " is driven onwards by fatality ; let her destinies be fulfilled, and an end put to the fatal influence which for the last fifty years she has had on the affairs of Europe. Let ns cross the Niemen, and carry the war into her territoriet." On the other side vast preparations had also been made; and the army, consisting of about 300,000 men, was under the immediate direction of the emperor Alexander, and bis sagacious mi- nister, Barclay de Tolly. The plan of the Russians was to draw the invaders firom their resources; to make a stand only in favourable situations; and to weary the enemy by endless marches over the dreary plains, till the inclemency of a Russian winter should lend its aid to stop their am- bitious career. Various partial engagements took place as the French advanced, the circumstances of which were so differently related in the bulletins of the opposite par- ties, that nothing is certain but the general result. Considering the immense masses of men that were in motion, the French proceeded with great rapidity, notwith- standing the checks they occasionally ex- perienced, till the 7th of September, when the Russians determined to make a vigor- ous effort agninst their farther advance. The two armies met between the villages of A.n. I8IS.— THB MRNniriTT BOCIBTT, l05D0!r, WAS THIS TKAB BSTABI.ISnRD. [S R ■? A. p. 1813.— CUAm OABLB* ItBaT IMTIOOOCBD INTO TBI BAVT. M n Ik e a h K M <• M B O s K e B i o o * o s D N M M H * * o « s X k> O 462 ^^e tlTnasurQ of l^istocB, ire. MoakwB Bnd Borodino, when a most san- guinarj battle took place. On this occasion each of the hostile armies numbered 125,000 men; and when "night's sable curtain" closed the horrid scene, the bodies of 40,000, either dead or mortally wounded, were stretched on the Aeld of battle I Both par> ties claimed the victory, though the ad- vantage was evidently on the side of the French, as they proceeded without farther opposition to Moscow, where they expected to rest from their toils in peace and good winter quarters. About mid-day on the 14th the turrets of Moscow, glittenng in the sun, were descried. The troops entered; but the citv was deserted, and all was still. The capital of ancient Russia was not des- tined to be the abiding-place of its present occupants. A dense smoke began to issue from numerous buildings at the same in- stant. By order of the governor, count Ros- topehin, bands of incendiaries had been employed to do the work of destruction. Public edifices and private houses suddenly burst into flames ; and every moment ex- plosions of gunpowder mingled with the sound of the cracUiug timbers ; while fran- tic men and women were seen running to and fro, with flambeaus in their hands, spreading the work of destruction. Paralvsed, as it were, by the awful scene, and by the extreme danger which he could no longer fail to apprehend, Napuleon lingered five weeks an>on^ the reeking ruins of Mos- cow. Around him the Russians were daily increasing in strength, especiallv in cavalry ; and it was not till Murat had been defeat- ed, and the first snow had fallen, that he determined on his retreat. At length, after making several ineffectual attempts at ne- gotiation, he quitted the city of the czars ' on the ]9th of October, taking with him all the plunder that could be saved from the fire ;liaving at the time 100,000 effective men, 60,000 horses, 550 field-pieces, and 2,000 artillery waggons, exclusive of a mot- ley host of followers, amounting to 40,000. He had no choice left. To subdue the whole Russian army, and by that means to secure to himself an honourable peace, appeared to be beyond the verge of possibility ; to return with all possible expedition was therefore the only course he could pursue ; and he accordingly directed the march of his army towards Sraolensko, where he arrived with his imperial guard on the 9th of November. Alternate frost, sleet, and snow made the weather insupportable. Overcome by cold, hunger, and fatigue, the soldiers and their horses perished by thou- sands ; while he, whose mad ambition had led them to their pitiable fate, was travel- ling in his carriage, and wrapped up in furs. At length, after taking leave of his marshals at 8morgony, Dec. 5, Napoleon privately withdrew from the array, and reached Paris on the 19(h. The Ruesians never relaxed in the pursuit till they reach- ed the Vistula, and not a day passed in which some of the fugitives did not fall into their bands. By Christmas-day they estimated their captures ut 41 generals, 1298 officers, 167,510 privates, and lui pieces of cannon : the grand an jy was, io fact, annihilated. During the absence of Buonaparte in this disastrous expedition, an attempt was made to subvert his power at home, which, had it not been speedily suppressed, would probably have occasioned another revuln- tion. The conductors of the conspiracy were the ex-generals Mallet, Lahorie, aod Ouidal, who having framed a fictitious ima- iui contulttim, went to the barrack of the first division of the national guards, and read a proclamation, stating that the em- peror had been killed, and commanding the troops to follow them. The soldiers, Tittle suspecting any forgery, obeyed, and suffered themselves to be led to different posts, where they relieved the guards. The con- spirators then arrested the ministers of police, and having assassinated general Hullin, who had marched into the city with some troops, they attempted to seize the chief of the etat-mivjor of Paris; but being arrested, they were committed to prison, and tried before a military commission; when the three generals and eleven others received sentence of death ; which bciug put into execution, tranquillity was re- stored to Paris. A.n. 1813.— The attempts which had been made by ministers to arrange the differen- ces between Great Britian and the United States were unsuccessful, the influence of Mr. Madison, the president, being exerted in the rejection of all pacificatory propo- sals. The conquest of Canada was resolved on, and troops were dispatched into that country; but the vigilance of the British commanders baiiled all their schemes, and obliged them to desist from the enterprise. The Americans, however, were successful at sea, and captured several British frigates and other vessels. After the retreat of Buonaparte from Russia, the emperor Alexander pursued the remaining French forces as far as Posen, a city in Poland. He was here joini'd by the kingof Prussia, who, considering the present an advantageous opportunity fur restoring the equilibrium of Europe, renouncrd his alliance with France, and concluded a treaty with Great Britain aud her allies. In the mean time Buonaparte was using all his efforts to revive the spirit, and call forth the resources of his empire ; and imnnfi appointed the empress regent during his absence, he joined his army, now consisting of 350.000 new troops. On the 7th of May the hostile armies engaged at Lutsen, in Upper Saxony, where the French were commanded by Buonaparte, and the allies by general Wiusingerode. The conflict wss long and bloody, and both parties claimed I the victory. On the Utli, aoth, 21st, and j i 22nd of the same month, severe actiuni ; \ took place, and not less than 40,000 were S killed or wounded. On the 1st of June, at S the sugfgestion of the emperor of Au^tris, i Napoleon made proposals to the cmpeior ^ Alexander fur a suspension of hosiiliiics: ! in consequence of which an armistit:e was A-U. 1813.— FODBTEB.N "LtfnOITKs" BXKCDTKO AT TORR, JAN. 10. A.D. 1813.— !•*• riTT** MORDHBnT IH «0ILDBAIL OrBRBD, MAaCn 37* lEnglantf ^IT^ousc of ISrunstoicfi.— (ISeorge lESH. 46S concluded, which wu to terminate on the aithofJuiy. It DOW became necenurjr for Buonaparte to withdraw about 20,000 of hi* beat Iroup* ftom Spain, to reinforce thia rrand army in the north of Euro|>e. Thia diminution of the enemy't force in the peninaula could not fail to gratify the Anglo Spaaiah army ; yet a concurrence of unavoidable circum- lUncea prevented the marquia of Welling- ton from opening the campaign till about the middle of May. Having obliged the enemy to evacuate Salamanca, he puraued them with as much haste as possible, and haviug passed the Ebro, he came up with them at Vittoria, a town in the province of Biscay, where, on the 21st of June, a battle was fought between the allied troops under lord Wellington, and the French, com- manded by Joseph Buonaparte and marshal Jourdan. Admirable braverv and persever- ance were displayed by the aliies, who com- pletely vanouished the enemy, and to )k 150 caonon and 41a waggona of ammunition. On the side of the allies there were 700 killed and 4000 wounded ; and it was well known that the loss of the French waa much greater. Being hotly puraued, the enemy retreated across the Bidassoa into France. The baton of marshal Jourdan Ming taken, was sent to the prince regent, who, in return, created the maniuis of Wel- lington field-marshal of the allied armies of Great Britain, Spain, and Portugal. The Spanish government ecknuwledged their obligations to the British hero, by con- ferring on him the dignity of prince of Vittoria. While the cause of rational freedom was so nobly sustained by lord Wellington in this part of Spain, sir John Murray had landed his troops at Tarragano, in order to invest that place. After he had made liimsclf master of fort St. Philippe, on be- ing informed of the approach of marshal Sachet, he, without waiting for information of the enemy's strength, disembarked his troops, leaving behind him his artillery. For this precipitation sir John waa se- verely censured by some political writer*; and bring tried at Winchester, in Febru- ary, 1815, he WHS found guilty of " having unnecessarily abandoued a quantity of ar- tillery and stores, which he might have embarked in safety ; and waa adjudged to be admonished in such a manner aa his ruyal highness the commander in chief may thina proper" His royal highness approved and confirmed the sentence of the court, but as the conduct of sir John Murray was attributed merely to an error of judgment, thfe case did not appear to him to cell for any further observation. After the battle of Vittoria the French army retreated with great precipitation into France, pursued by the light troops of the allies; and the marquis of Welling- ton caused the fort* of Pampeluua and St. Sebastian to be immediatelv invested. When Buonaparte received intelligence of these successes of the British army, he ilitpntched marshal Soult with some force* to check their progreaa. On the I3th of July the French marahal joined the army, and on the 24th he made m vigoroua at- tack on the right wing of the ailiea, at Ronceavallea, commanded by general Byug. From that day till the 2nd or August the hostile armiea were continually engaged ; the paases of the mountains were hravciv diaputed by the enemy, but the British were irresistible, and the French again re* treated beyond the Pyreucea. The for- tresses of St. Sebastian and Panipeluna surrendered to the Britiali arm* after- warda; and on the 7lh of October lord Wellington entered the French territory at the bead of hie army. While in the aouth of Europe theae tranaactiona were taking place, a gn^at crisis was at hand in the north. During the armistice, which had extended to the llthof August, several attempts were made by the allies to obtain such a peace aa would effect and conttrm the safety and tranquillity of the continental statea. Theae endeavour* were, however, rendered abor- tive by the insolent pretension* of the French ruler, which Induced the emperor of Austria to relinquish his cause, and to join in the alliance against him. Hoatili- tiea were resumed on the 1 7th of August, when Buonaparte immediately prepared to attack the city of Prngne; but being in- formed that hia Silesiaii army wa* exposed to iminiuent danger from the threatening posture of the allies, he waa obliged to change his plan of operations. He accord- ingly quilted Bohemia, and made an at- tack on the allied army under the Prussian general Blucher, who wa* compelled to make a retrograde movement. The further progress of the French in this quarter waa arrested by the advance of the grand army of the allies towards Dresden, which made the immediate return of Napoleon necea- sary. He accordingly advanced by forced marches to the protection of that city ; and having thrown into it an army of 130,000 men, be awaited the attack of his enemies. The grand assault was made on the 26th of August, but as there was no prospect of taking Dresden by escalade, the ailiea abandoned the attempt, and took a very extended position on the heights surround- ing the city, where they were attacked by the French on the following day, and ob- liged to retire with considerable loss. It was in this engagement that general Mo- reau, who had lett his retreat in America to assist in restoring liberty to Europe, was mortally wounded, while conversing with the emperor Alexander. A cannon- hall, which passed through his horse, car- ried off one of hia legs and shattered the other. He had both Ir^s amputated, but survived his disaster only a few days, dy- ing from exhaustion. In the following month Reveral well-con- tested battles took place, in which victory was uniformly in favour of those who con- tended against tyranny and usnrpntioii. But aa Lcipsic was the point to winch the efforts of the confederate* vgere principally A. D. 1813.— TUB "CHAarA DB FOasSTA" or 14 HBNRT II. nUCOVBBCD. A.m. lftll.--TaB A»lttie*!ia DKVBATSD or *■■ III*«A«A mOHtlBB, BKC. U, - 464 ®^t ^rtaAttq} of l^istorc, $rc. / directed, Buonaparte left Dresden, and cuneentrated hit forces at Bochlitc. At thia period an important aceeasion waa made to the allied cauie, by a treaty Willi Bavaria, who agreed to ramiih an army of 65,000 men. The bottile armiea were now both in the vicinity of Leipstc i the French eatimated at about 3es of his family ; who. aa well as Napoleon were to be suffered to retain their usurped titles I The principa- lity of Parma was also settled on Maria Louisa, his wife, in which she waa to be succeeded by her son. Louis, who had for several years resided at Hartwell in Buckinghamshire, having ac- cepted the basis of the constitution, made a public entry into London, and waa accom- panied to Dover by the prince regent, from whence his majesty embarked ror Calais, being convoyed to that port by the duke of Clarence. He entered F -.ris on the 3rd of May, where he was favourably received by the inhabitants, but the soldiery were far from appearing satisfied with the change which had been so suddenly wrought. On the same day, Buonaparte, after a variety of adventures, in which he had several narrow escapes from the violence of an in- furiated populace, arrived at his abode in Elba. Owing to aome unacconntable delay in the transmission of the treaty concluded at Paris, or (as was thought at the time) to the envious malignity of marshal Soult, who hoped to defeat his opponent and retrieve his lost honour, a sanguinary battle was fought near Toulouse, on the 10th of April, between his army and that of the marquis of Wellington. But this useless and deplo- rable effusion of blood only added fresh trophies to those already gained by the Britiiih commander. The last action of the peninsular war was fought at Bayonne, in wliich general sir John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner, and general Andrew Uay was killed. Among the minor transactions of this period, we must not omit, that at the close of the preceding year Hanover was recover- ed by the crown prince of Sweden ; who also reduced Holstein and 'Weatnhalia. — The king of Denmark joined the grand alliance; and Dantzic surrendered after a long siege. The British, however, were repulsed, with considerable loss, in the at- tempt to take the strong fortress of Bcrgen- op-Zoom. A treaty of peace and amity was, on the 30th of May, concluded at Paris, between his Britannic majesty and his most Chris- tian majesty, by wliich it was stipulated that the kingdom of France should retain its limits entire, as it existed previously to the revolution ; that Malta should be ceded to Great Britain ; and that, with the exception of Tobago, St Lucie, and the Mauritius, all other possessions held by the French in January, 1792, should be restored. These and a few minor conditions being arranged at the time, it was agreed that all other subjects should be settled at a congress, to be held at Vienna by the high contracting parties, at some future period. The return at H IS M a I •5 09 a A O. 1814.— BVOXAPABTa BMBAHKaO AT fBBfVS FOB BLOA, ArBII. 89. A.S.M14.— ■ r 466 S|< Qrcaratv of llistarv, 9rc. of peM* mm aMbntti bf iUvminathmi, fcartingt. aai vntf iujM iemonitrmtioB tlMt M happy ID ovrat could iupirc. TIm Ant act of the heroic aad fortuat* vieton, BOW that the treaty had been rati- fied by the TMpeetivc lovenuiienta. wae to pay a coBKratuiatory mit t* the prince re- gcntoT Bngiaad. AeeordiBgly, the emperor of Rueaia, accompanied by hie lister the dnehees oi Oklenburf ; the king of Pnuaia, with his two SOBS; toRCther with prince Metternieh, Mnenus Blucher, Barclay da Tolly, Bulow. hetman of the Cossacks, Ac., landed at Dorer on the 6th of Jane, and arrived in London the nest day. The metropolis was lllaminated, and became a general scene of gaiety diurinp the three weeks' stay of the royal visitors. The illttstrions strangers lost no opportunitv of seeing whatever was most worthy of their notice I and they were not merely enter* tdlned by royal oanqneting^ bat received the attention due to their rank and valuable services in the general cause of Barope, by splendid and costly entertainments from tne eorporatioB and public companies of London. The bank, the dock-yards, the arsenal at Woolwich, Oreenwich and CheU sea-hospitals, the n^nt, St. Paul's on the day «^ the charity-children's aBniversary, aad Westminster-abbey, wen by turns vis- ited, and throngs of well-dressed people even when accompanied them ; while the frank and urbane conduct of the noble guests— the emperor Alexander and the gUlant old Blucher mora especially wera tne adrairatioB of the multilnde. Nor wera their visits confined to the places above mentioned. They witnessed Ascot-heath races s wera preeent at a grand review in Uydepark ; and took ah>nrney to Oxford, When Ihcy wera splendidly entertained by the masten and students of the univenity, and received certain honorary distinctions. After having inspected nearly all the public oflces of the metropolis, their majesties and suites made praparations for their return to the eootincnt. They left London on the 32nd of June, arrived at Portsmouth in the evening, and the nest day wera entertained with the novel and truly grand spectacle of a naval review. The fleet formed a line of seven or eight miles in extent, and received the royal nsiton with a royal salute, after which the? slipped their cables, and wera immediately under sail with a brisk mie. The Soyal Sovereign yacht, on boara of which wera the illnstrious visitors, led the van, and was followed by the barges of the admiralty and private vessels of all descrip- tions, to the number of two hundred. The effect was beantiAiL The royal party quitted the men of war at about seven o'clock, and landed amidst a discharge of all the artil- lery round the work* of Portsmouth and Portsea. On the arrival of the prince regent at the government-house, he was met by the marquis of Wellington, who had been writing nis approach. As soon as the populace were informed of the arrival of the British hero, the air echoed with their shouts, and having taken the horses from Sy^'att.'^"-"**^""^*- The ngent and hie anynst visitors left Portsmouth on the 35th of June < and after reviewing about yiNNi troopaon Pontdowa. ''i"4!'l*l' P«W!eeded to the seat of the daks of Richmond, at Goodwood, to breakfcstt arrhred at Dover on the following day ; sad on the 87th the emperor of Russia and the kinaof Prussia, with their respective soiteiL took a farewell of the prince regent, aad embarked for the continent. It is diflcall to describe the eager cariosity and the on- bounded demoiutralions of )oy with which they wera received wheraver they appealed t nor is it less so to do justice to that sffsU. lity and condescension with which th«y uniformSy endeavoured to gratify all whs approached them. The homage of sAe- tkmate respect which the emperor Alnsa- der, in particular, received in England, wis not the flattery of sycophants ; it wis a teitimony of the attachment of a tree pw. pie, who honoured him ai a man ralhw than aa a monarah; and his disceniag mind doubtless felt the tribute as oneif the most grateful rewards to which Ui eminent services entitled him. It is necessary that we now revert to the war that was still being carried on, though with BO great vigour on either side, between Great Britain and the United States of America. Many indeciaive conflicts took {>lace between the rival flotillas on the akes ; and as the Americans had frequently succeeded in capturing such British vesiels as wera inferior to those with which lh«y hsd come in contact, the honour of tbi British flag- seemed for awhile to drone; but it rose again triumphant under captain Broke, of the Shannon, who in the short space of fifteen minutes captured the Ches* apeake, olf the port of Boston, and in sight of the people who lined its shores to wiu BOSS the action. During the mouths of June, July, and August, the squadron ua. der raar-admiral Coekburn, was consuntly engaged in harassing the enemy in cnry assailable position, till the arrival of sir Alesander Cochrane, the commander-in- chief of the British troops in that quarter. Being joined by rear-admiral Malcolm, with some reinforcemcnte from Bcnna- Belgiaa army the right. The former waa 115,000 strong, commanded by the veteran Bluchcri the latter about Ml,00O, com- manded ay the duke of Wellington, whose head-quartera were at Brusseb; those of Blucher were at Namur, about aixteea leaguea distant. - On tba I6th of June tha memorable campaign of 1816 waa begao, bv Napoleon drivrag la the advanced posts of the Prus- sians on the river Bambre; whilst marshal Ney crossed the river at Marehiennes, re- pulsed the Prussiaas. and drove back a Bel- gian brigade to Quatre-Bras. In the evening, at eleven o'clock, the duke of Wellington, (who, together with the duke of Brunswick, and the principal officers than ia Bmasel^ were participating in the feativitiea of a ball, given oy the duchess of EicbmoBd,) received a diapateh from Biarshal Blucher, iaforming him that BuoiMparte was on bis march lo Brussela, at the head of 160,000 maa« The A. B. 1816.— VIBST aTORB OF 80UTBWABE aaiBBB lAin, MAT 23. ISO riBCi* or oahiion at wambloo. 468 tS^t ^rcasurQ of l^istortj, $cr. dance wu tnipended, and ordera iiaued for aawmbliitK lh« troops. On the 16lh wat foufht the battle of I.ignjr, in which Blucher wat defeated, and forced to retreat to Wavre, having narrowljr etcaped being talien jprteoDer. On tlie tame day the duke of WeUington had directed bia whole army to advance on QuatreBrae, with the inten- tion of iuccouring Blucber, but waa himaelf attaclted by a larpe body of earalrr and infantry, before bit own cavalrr liaa Join- ed. In the mean time the EugUah, under •IrThonuu Picton. with the BeFgiana, under the dulce of Brunewicit, had to auitain theimpetuoua attaclis of ilie French, com manded bv marshal Ney ; who waa eventu- ally repulsed, though with considerable loss. Id this action fell the gallant duke of Brunawick, who waa universally and de- aervedly lameuted.— The whole of the 17th was employed in prrparatioca for the event- ful battle that ensued. The retreat of Blucher'a army to Wavre rendered it necessary for WellinKton to make a corresponding retrograde move- ment, in order to keep up a communica- tion with the Prussians, and to occupy a position in front of the village of Water- loo. Confronting the position of the allies wat a chain of heights, separated by a ravine, half a mile in breadth. Here Na- poleon arrayed hia forces ; and having rode through the lines and given his lust or- ders, ne placed himself on the heights of Boatorae, whence he had a complete view of the two armies. About ■ quarter before eleven o'clock the battle began by a fierce attack on the British division posted at Hougomont : it waa taken and retaken several times, the English guards bravely defending and eventually remaining in possession of it. At the same time the French kept an inces- aant cannonade against the whole line, and made repeated charges with heavy masses of cuirassiers, supported b^ close columns of infantry ; whicn, except in one instunce, when the farm of La Have Sainte wat foreed, were uniformly repulied. Charget and connterchargct of cavalry and infantry followed with itstonisliing pertinacity. The brave sir Thomas Picton wat thot, at the bead of hit division: a grand charge of British cavalry then ensued, which for a moment swept every thing before it ; but, attailed in its turn by luassct of cuirassiers and Polish lancers, it was forced back, and in the desperate encounter sir Williikm Ponsonby and other gallant officers were slain. Boon after this, it is said, the duke felt himself so hard pressed, that he wat heard to tay, "Would to God night or Blucher would come." As the shades of evening approached, it appeared almost . doubtful whether the troops could niucii longer sustain the unequal coutlict; but at this critical moment the Prussian can- non wat heard on the left. Buonaparte immediately diapatched a force to hold them in check ; while he brout;ht (orward the imperial guards, sustained by the best tegimentt of horse and foot, amid shouts of Vitt r«mper*ur, and flourishes of mar- tial music. At this moment the duke nf Wellington brought forward his whole line of iiirautry supported by the cavalry and artillery, and promptly ordered his men to " charge I " This wat to unexpected bv the enemy, and to admirably performed bv the Britisn troops, that the French lied at though the whole army were panic-stricken Napoleon, perceiving the recoil of bis co- lumns on all tidet, exclaimed, « it » a|i over," and retreated with all possible spwa The French left the field in the ntmoit confusion and dismay, abandoning abo«« one hundred and fifty pieces of cannon They were pursued by the victors till Ion* after dark, wheu the British, exhausted bv fatigue, halted; the Prussians thereroie continued the pursuit, and nothing could be more complete than tlie discomltureof the routed armyi not more than 40,00(1 men, partly without arms, tnd carrying with tlieni only twenty-seven pieces out of their numerous artillery, made their rt. treat through Cliarleroi. The loss of the allies was great ; that of the British and Hanoverians alone amounted to 13,0U). Two fcenerult and four colonels were among the killed ; nine generals and five coloneli were wounded t among them was lord Ux- bridge, who had fought gallantly, and vu wounded by almost the last shot tnat «u fired by the enemy. Such i* the general, though necessnrily meagre, outline of the ever-memorable battle of Waterloo : evinc- ing one of the noblest proofs upon record of British valour, and of the talents oft great national commander. Buonaparte returned to Paris, in the gloominess of despair, and admitted thit his army was no more. The partiaani of Louis looked forward to the restoration of the Bourbons; another parly desired a republic ; while the Buonaoartists ahowed their anxiety to receive Napoleon's abdi- cation, and to make Maria Louisa einpreii. regent during her son's minority. Mean- while the representativct of the nation declared their aittinga permanent; and tome of the membert having boldly ai- terted, that the uneonditional abdication of Buonaparte could alone terve the state, the dcclaratiou wat received with applause, and the fallen emperor was persuaded once more to descend trom his usurped tbrone. A commission was appointed to repair to tlie allied armies with propoaals of fteace, but the victora had formed a reio- ution not to treat but under the walla of Paris. The duke of Wellington then ad- dressed a proclamation to the French peo- ple, stating that he had entered the coun- try not at an enemy, except to the usurper, with whom there could he neither peace nor truct ; but to enable them to throw olfthe yoke by which they were oppretud. Wellington and Blucher c )ntinued their march fo Paris with little opposition, aad on the 3Ulh it was investeii. The heighit about the city were strongly furtitifd, and it was defended by 60,000 troops of the line, besides national guards and roluu- 3 I u s s » k e ■ ■) k d < a I s •• li i a < s » vnn rmRNcn uau £96 riiRKt or camion at watfki.oo. A.P. 1811.— riBI AT TMI MIKT, OCT. SI ( 8010001. lEnglanT) — %usc of ISrunsinidi.— (I&corgc SHS. 469 tttn. On the Srd of JuW, manhal D*- foott, the French commander, concluded • ennTeniinn with the generals in-chief of the allied armiei, who itipulated that Pari* should be evacuated in liiree daya bf the French troops ; all the fortifled posts tnd barriers given up; and no indiTidaal proiecuted for his political opinion or con- duct. The provisional government now mired; and on the 6th Louis made his public entry into Paris, where he was hailed bt hill rickle sulijecta with cries of Fivi U tin The military, howevrr, though beaten iaio lubmisiioD, were still stubborn ; and it required some time and address to malce them acknowledge the sovereignty of the Bourbons. . , , Buonaparte in the meantime had reached the port of Rochefoit in safet y, from whence be aniiously liopcd to escape to America; but finding it impossible to elude the Bri- tish cruisers, he wrnt on bnard the Belle- rophoD, oneof the vessels blockading the coast, and surrendered himself to captain Maitland. Prior to this, he had sought to stipulate for a free passage, or to surrender on condition of being allowed to reside in England, in honourable exile ; but neither proposal could be listened to : the allied powers, aware of his restless and intrigu- iug disposition, had determined upon the island of St. Helena as his future resi- dence, and that there he should be kept under the strictest guard. The Bellero- phun proceeded to I'orhay : Napoleon was transferred to the Northumberland, com- nunded by admiral sir G. Cockburn, and, attended by some of his most attached friends and domestics, he in due coume reached his ultimate destination ; but not without violently protesting against tlie injustice of his banishment, after having thrown himself upon the hospitality of the British nation. Murat, the brother-in-law of Napoleon, having joined the allies wlien he found the career of his friend and patron growing to a close, rejoined him again on his return from Elba ; but having been driven from the throne of Naples, he joined a band of desperadoes, and landed in Calabria ; where, being speedily overcome and taken, he was instantly shot. Marshal Ney (who had promised Louis to bring Napoleon, " like a wild beast in a caKe, to Paris ") and colonel Labedoyere, suffered for their treachery; but Lavalette, who was sen- tenced to the same fate, escaped from pri- son, disguised in his wife's clothes; and by the assistance of sir Robert Wilson, Mr. Hutchinson, and Mr. Uruce, got out of the country undiscovered. A congress was held at Vienna, and seve- ral treaties between the allied powers and France were Anally adjusted, (Nov. 20). The additions made to the French terri- tory by the treaty of 1814 were now res- cinded; seventeen of the frontier fortifled towns and cities of France were to be gar- risoned by the allies for live years ; 150,000 troops, as an army of occupation, under the duice of Wellington, were to be main- tained for the same space of lime ; and a aun nf 900.000,000 Aranca WM to be paid aa an indemnity to the alliea. It was further agreed, that all the works of art which bad been plundered by the French from other countries, ahould be restored. Thna the master-pieces of art deposited in the mllery of the Louvre, (the Venus de Medicis, the Apollo Belvidere, fte. Ac.) were raolaimed by their respective owners— an act of stem justice, but one which excited the utmost indignation among the Parisiana. In order to secure the peace of Germany, an act of confederation was concluded be- tween its respective rulers ; every member of which waa free to form what allianeea he pleased, provided they were such aa could not prove injurious to the i^eneral safety ; and in case of one prince being at- tacked, all the rest were bound to arm in his defence. Thus ended thia long and sanguinary warfare; the eventa of which were so rapid and appalling, and their consequences so mighty and unlooked for, that future ages will be tempted to doubt the evidence of facts, and to believe that the history of the nineteenth century is interwoven with and embellished by the splendour of Action. A. D. 1816. — It has been justly observed, that " it was only after the storm had sub- sided that England became sensible of the wounds received in her late tremendous struggle. While hostilities lasted, she felt neither weakness nor disorder. Though a principal in the war, she had been exempt from Its worst calamitiea. Battles were fought, countries were overrnn and deso- lated, but her own border remained unas- sailable. Like a spectator viewing se- curely the tempest at a distance, she was only sensible of its fury by the wreck of neighbouring nations, wafted at intervals to her shores. The cessation of liostilities, in 1813, wus like the cessation of motion in a gigantic machine, which has been urged to its maximum velocity. One of the first results of pence was an enormous diminu- tion in the war expenditure of the govern- ment. During the last five years of the war, the public expenditure averaged 108,720,00O{. During the first five years of peace it averaged 64,660,0001.^ Peace thns caused an immediate reduction of nearly fifty millions in the amount of money ex- S ended by government in the support of omestic industry. Transitions, whether from peace to war or war to peace, invari- ably produce derangements, if not agcgre- gate loss, in tlie economical relations of the community. In the first, there is the abandonment of various projects of im- Erovement, aa roads, canals, bridges, and uildings; and of undertakings in com- merce, agriculture, and manufactures, that depend on a low rate of interest, and mode- rate price of labour: in the last, are the derangements just alluded to, of soldiers and seamen discharged, foreign coloniel relinquished, manufactures, suited to a state of war, suspended, workmen and cani* tal put out of employment, and the public A.n. 1815. — BUOIfAPARTK ABRIVF.n ANO I.ANOKD AT ST. RKT-WIVA, OCT. l-l. [3* A.B. I81«.-l 470 JR^t ^nanirv of l^istorv, (cc. i loaded with mormoui d«bti, and ib«iiiaiii< tciuuiea of rtduemi placemen, and naval and milltarr auiierouinerariet. In timoa of induitrial proiperitjr the maaaca take lUtlo Inlereat in public affaire t their dlf- ferencea are with their empIoVcn. En- eonraged bf the demand fur labour, the| aeak bjr eombinaliou to extort lilghcr wagee. The Btru|gle continuea till high prices and overatocked markett produce a mercantile revulsion I then workmen are diicharged, Wages lowered, and mastera recover their asoendanejr. It ia in this state of depres- sion that workmen begin to listen to repre- aantations of public gricvancos. Kepubli- ean writings increase in circulation ; ah- atraet theories of government are pro- pounded; and the equal right of all to ahare in political franchises is boldi^r as- serted and readily believed. While the popular excitemenrlnsts the propertyclas- aes keep aloof, having no wish to cuunte- aaoee opinions incompatible with their pitasent immunities t and the aristocratic politicians of all parties either combine against the common enemy, or lURpciid the agitation of their mutual differences. This was the state of the country in IHIO: in the metropolis aud in the northern coun- ties there were va»t aaaemblagei of people in the open air, but they were unattended by the rich aud influential. Working men called the meetings, drew up resolutions, and made speeches, setting torth the evils of non-representation, of liherticide wars, of the pressure of taxes levii^d on the in- dustrious, to be squandered in extravagant aalaries, sinecures, and unmerited pensions — for all which the remedy prescribed was a BADiCAL REroaM of the iioiiRe of com- mons, on the basis of universal suffrage, annual parliaments, and vote by ballot." Though we can ill afford room for more than a brief recital of actual occurrences, it aeemed absolutely necessary at this period of our history to take some notice of the fiosition which, after a warfare of such ong continuance and of so expensive a character. Great Britain assumed, in her domestic as well as in her foreign rela- tions. The preceding observations, there- fore, which we have taken the liberty to ex- tract from Mr. Wade's Chronological His- tory, will furnish the reader with a synop- tical review of this period, in language at once clear and coniienscd, and will tend to elucidate much that mny afterwards be summarily mentioned or incidentally al- luded to. At the commencement of the session ministers were defeated in attempting to continue the property tax for one yenr longer; and, cfiagrined at this result, they abandoned the war duty on malt, thereby relinouishing a tax that would have pro- duced 2,000,0001. The Bank restriction bill was extended for two years longer: and another ineffectual attempt was made in favour of the Roman catholic claims. The house wos now informed, by a mes- aage from the prinoe regent, that a matri- monial alliance was about to take place batwten his daughter ana prince lipoid of Baxo Cobourgi upon wbleh parliament voted an annual provision of ({o,Ouu( for supporting a suitable establishment ; sod in the event of the decease of the princess tO.OOOI. per annum was secured to bis rovai highness for life. The nuptials were solem- niicd with becoming splendour, on the 2od of May, at Carlton house. In the July fol- lowing the princess Mary gave her hand to her cousin the duke of Oloueester. The event that next demands notice wsi one which placed the glory of the Britiih arms, and the humanity of the Dritiih nation, in a conspicuous light. The Alee- rlnes and their neighbours, the Tnnisisns had long been in the habit of eoromittint the vilest atrocities on the subjects of every Christian power that happened to fall into their hands. Repeated remonstrances had been made, without procuring any redress i and it was now determined on, that this horde of piratea should eillier accede to certain proposals, or suffer for so long sad so barbarously defying the laws of eiviliced nations. Accordingly, in the spring, lord Bxmouth was sent with a fleet to the itatti of Barbarr, to conclude a treaty of peace between tnem and the kings of Naples snd Sardinia ; to abolish Christian slavery : snd to obtain firom them a promise to reapect the flag of the Ionian islands, which hsd lately become an independent country. Ttie beya of Tunis and Tripoli acceded to all these demands ; but the bey of Altciera de- murred, as far as regarded the abolition of slavery. Shortly after, uotwithstsnding this treaty, a considerable number of unarmed Christians, who had landed at Bona, havinc been massacred by the Mahometans, lord Exmouth returned, and commenced a At- rious bombarflment of the city of Algiers, which lasted six hours; the contest wsa severe ; eight hundred of the assailants fell in the action, and the British ships suffered considerably ; but the valiant admiral hsd the satisfaction of demolishing tlieAlgerine batteries, and destroying their shipping, arsenal, and magasine : while the dey waa forced to agren to the abolition of Chriatisn slavery, and tu the release of all Christian slaves within his dominions. The distresses of both the labouring and manufacturing classes, from the causi's be- fore advocated, and the high price of provi- sions, at length produced serious disturb- ances in various parts of England. The malcontents in the eastern counties broke out into open violence, and were not aap- pressed without the assistance of the mili- tary. In London similar attempts were made. Mr. Hunt, a popular demagogue, had on tlie IStli of November convened a public meeting in Spa-fields, to draw np a petition to the regent. On the ?nd of December another meeting was called to receive the answer to their petition. Wliii" this meeting was awaiting the arrival ot Mr Hunt, a band of desperndoes appeored on the ground with a iri-colourcd nag and other banners, headed by a young_ man named Watson, who, after using violent f a. D. 1806.— BRI.VOin CASTba almost DBSinOTRD BT riBR, OCTOnBR Sf). A.S.1SI7.-I lEngUntf.— l^oiuM of Vrun»toicl.— Acorgc US. 471 iMfUM from • wknmi, pro<)M4«4 towmria lb* eity, •coomp«mcd by • vMt crowd of of lh« MMmblad populacs. On arrivini at lM«-hill they plunured the thop of air. BMkwith, • guDimUhi and a ptrion of tha ■ama of Flalt. who ramonatratad againal Iha outraiaona proeaadiBg, wai ahol at and Mvaraly wouadad by young Walton. They than harried an towarda I ha Boyalai- (haaie, whara thay were mat by a large body of the pollea, hea'^t^i! by the lord- ■eyor Wood, who orderr.' me K«le« to be (kal, and aeiied aareral who had arma. Tk« mob plundered tome more gun-amitha' •hoBi ia the Minorieat but the military eomkiig to the aid of the eWU power, aave- nl ot the riolera were apprehended, and ibarenuinderditperied. One, named Caah- BU, tulfered capital paniahmeni, but tha ringleader (Watson) eon) rived to effnct hie «Mape to America, although a large reward wu ofered for hia appreliention. A. D. 1817.— Publle meetingi, convened, attended, and conducte^lmoat eacluaively by the working claaaee,niMrked the cloae of the preWoui year and uihered in the pre- Mat. Men who appeared in the garb of povtrty addresied large aaaembliea of the people on political tubjecta, which were ■roDably ill underitood oy them ; but the want of trade had unfortunately given them ample opporiuuitiet of reading the cheap and danieroua publicationa which over- flowed the land ; while their own privationa made fluent apeakera of aomr, and willing liateneri of the great minority. In conae- qoence of theie appearancea of diaaffeeiioa, billtwere paiaed tor auapending the habeaa eorpua act, and for preventing aeditioua meetingi i apiea were encouraged, the po- paUr dlieontent aggravated, and the igno- rant Nmetimea aeduced into the coramia- aian of crimes, the nature of which they scarcely undcratood, though the penalty was banishment or death. In the regent's apeech at the opening of Cirliameni, alluaion waa made to the popu- r discontents, which he ascribed to the efforts of designing persons to mislead the people. On his return through St. James's- park an immense mob had assembled, who saluted him with groans and hisses ; and aa he passed the back of Carlton-house, tha glass of the royal carriage was perforated either by a stone or the ball from an air- gun. To meet the publie exigencies, his royal high- ness soon after surrendered 6U,O00I. per annum of his income. This example was followed by the marquis Camden, who pa- triotically gave up the fees of the teller- ship of the exchequer, valued at 13,0UU{. per annum, reserving only the aalarv of 3,70O<. Alas I the noble marquis haa no imiators ; but though his geuerous exam- ple was not followed, the deed shall not be wholly obliterated from hia country'a annals. A melancholy event now occurred which diffused a gloom over the whole nation. The princess Charlotte, daughter of the re- Kent and consort of prince Leopold, ex- pired ou the Sth of November, after having Kven birth to a dead child. The mtimaly ta of thia amiable and wall-beloved prln. eesa caused a regret as intensely fell aa il was anivoraaUyaipresaed. Her unoatenla. tioua and frank demeanour, her domaaiie vir- tues, and her banavolenl disposition, had ia- apired tha people with a high idea of her worth ; and they fondly auticTpatad that un- der her auspleoa the glory andproaparity of Biigland would again becoaaa reaplandant. There is illtla elae of a domostM nalort lo record this jrear. If wa except the Ihraa daya' trials of William Hone, the parodist, who waa arraigned upon a crlmlul iafor* matlon, aa a proftine libeller of paria of tha liturgy. Hi waa tried by lord EUeaboroagb and Mr. Justice Abbott) and having con* dueled his defence with unusual ingenuity and perseverance, he not only eana ot victor, but actually poekeled the aum of SOOOf. the amount of a public subscription, raised to remunerate him for having under- gone the perila of a government proaecu- llon, or as a reward for the lavdatiit inten- tion of bringing into contempt both church andalaUl A. D. 1818.— The parliamentary acsiion was opened by coramiaaion. The habeaa eorpua act waa restored, and a bill of indemnity passed to screen ministers and othera from the legal pcnallies they might have incurred through Ihe abuse of their power during the time of its suspension. At the same tiuie meetings were held in nearly every populous town thruughout the country, for the purpose of petitioning for parliamentary reform. When the seasloiia closed ou the 10th of June, the parliament was dissolved, and writs issued for new elections. All the miuisterial candidates in the city of London were thrown out ; and air Samuel Romilly and sir Francis Burdett were returned for Westminster ; but in tho country the elections passed off ouietly, and little change was produced in tne par- liamentary majority ot ministers. Queen Charlottc,who had been some time indisposed, expired at Kew, in the 7tth year of her agp, and the 581 h of her ranrringe with the king. She possessed no exterior graces, neither was sue noted for liberality of sentiment ; but it is no small thing to say, that owing to her exemplary conduct, the court of England was pre-eminent for ita atrict deourum. The year 1818 was fertile in royal mar* riages ; the princess Elisabeth was uiarried to the prince of Hesse Ilombergi the duke of Clarence to the princess of Meinengen t the duke of Kent to the princess dowager Leinengen, sister to prince Leopold; and the duke of Cambridge to the princess of Uesse Cassel. The British army returned from France, which they had lately occupied, according to the atipulutions of the treaty at the res- toration of Louis XVIII. Towards the close* of the year, the expedition which had been sent out to explore the arctic regions, also returned to Eugland, but without accom- plishing their object; the progress of the vessels liaviiig been so impeded by the ice. A.D. 1818. — TRI-CRIITBifAaT OF Tnn rnOTKSTANT BKFORMATIOn, JAN. I. A. D. IS19.— DBKADriTL KARTHQUAKB AT POOHAB: 3000 LITSt LOST. 472 ^l^e ^reasurs oC l^istorg, $c(. A. D. 1819.— The country was stiU preg- naut with disaffection; and the doctrine of annual pRrliuinents and universal suli'rage was advocated by tlie deniago)fues of the day, as tlie only remedy fur all the evils arising from what they termed the venality of government, and a corrupt state of the representation. At length, the numerous meetings of the populace, in the open air, assumed a very serious aspect ; one of which, from its being attended with fatal consequences, and having given rise to much subsecfuent discussion, it is neces- sary to describe. This vi'as the " Ma.iohes- ter reform meeting." It was originally con- Tened for the choice of a parliamentary re- presentative, and had trees iised to take place on the 9th of August ; but, in conse- quence of a spirited notice put forth by the magistrates, declaring that the intended metting was illegal, it was postponed, and hopes were entertained that it would ulti- mately have been abandoned. However, new placards were issued for the )6th, and " parliamentary reform" was substituted for the original object. A piece of ground called St. Peter's titild was the spot chosen for this memorable exhibition ; and hither large bodies of men, arrayed in regular or- der, continued to march during the whole of the morning, the neighbouring towns and villages pouring out their multitudes for the purpose of centering in this foeus of radical aiscontent. Each party had its banner, with some mot>o thereon inscribed, characteristic of the grand object they had in view, mottoes which have since become familiar even to ears polite — such as " No Corn I.i'VR, " " Annual Parliaments," "Vote h. Ballot," " Liberty or Death," &c. Nay, such was the enthusiasm of the hour, that among them were seen two clubs of " female reformers," their white flags floating in the breeze. At the time Mr. Hunt took the chair, not less than 5O,U00 persons — men, women, and childTen — had assembieii ; and while he was addressing the crowd, a body of the Manchester yeo- manry-cavalry came in sight, and directly galloped up to the hustings, seimng the orator, together with his companions and their banners. A dreadful scene of terror and confusion ensued, numbers being tram- Eled under the horses- feet, or cut down, ix persons were killed, and about a hun- dred were said to be wounded ; hut the ac- counts which were published of this unfor- tunate transaction differed so materially, that we are unable to state the exact num- ber with any degree of certainty. Coroners' inquests were held on the dead bodies ; but the verdicts of the juries led to no judicial proceeding ; true bills, however, were found against llunt, Moorhouse, Johnson, and seven others, for a cons])iracy to overturn the government, but at the same time they were admitted to bail. Public meetings were now held in all the principal towns in the kingdom, and ad- dresses were presented to the regent and the parliament, condemnatory of the civil and military authorities at Manchester; which were met bjr counter-addresaes, calling for the repression of sedition, &c. At the ' opening of parliament, in November, the '• subject underwent a thorough diseutaion • ' and amendments to the address were moved in both houses, characterising tlie Man- 1 Chester proceedings as illegal and uncon- stitutional : they were, however, negatived ' by overwhelming majorities. At the same I time strong measures wore resorted to for preventing the occurrence of similar disor. ' ders, by passing certain preventive and pro. ' hibitory acts of parliament, aftcrwaida la. ! miliarly known as the " six acts." Tliciie ' though decidedly coercive, seemed callod for by the state of the country, and received the ready sanction of the Icgislatnre. On the 23rd of January, 1820, died at Sidmouth, in his 53rd year, prince Edward duke of Kent ; kaving a widow, and one child, the princess Victoria, then only eight months old. The duke had never mixed much in the turmoil of politics, his lii'e having been diietly spent in the arniv where he obtained a hign character for brs- very, but. was regarded as a too strict disci- plinarian. Scarcely had the news of the duke's de- cease veached the more distant parts of Great Britain, before tlie dcath-knejl ul'hii venerable father, George III. was heard. The bodily health of his majesty had of late been fast declining, and on the sgth of Ja- nuary he expired. Some lucid intervali, though they were few and evanescent, had occasionally been noticed during the time he laboured under his distressing nialaily; but he had long been totally blind, and Int- terly deafness was added to his other afflic- tions. The king was in the 82nd year of his age, and the COth of his reign ; (caving six sons and four daughters living at the same time of his decease. His remaini were interred in the royal vault at Windnur ; but he had long been, as it were, dead lo the world. It was a truly nd'ectiiig sight to witness the " august old man," as he strolled through bis suite of rooms at the \ castle, deprived of sight, and weatiiii^ a long patriarchal beard ; yet frequeiitly KtopiiiiigJ at some of the pianos which were there pur- , posely placed, and playinga few notes from his favourite Handel. He generally wore a ! blue robe-de-chambre, fastened wiilia belt, in the morning; and a silk plaid dress in the afternoon. He seemed cheerful, nnd would sometimes talk aloud, as if adress his regret that his visit to Ireland lad failed to produce tranquillity. He also admitted that agriculture had to contend with unexpected difHciilties, but congra- tulated the house on the prosperity which attended the manufactures and commerce of the country. The state of Ireland did indeed demnnd the most serious attention of the legisla- ture. On one hand, coercive measures were necessary to repress the wild disorder that reigned throughout the island ; for owing to the daring nocturnal bands of Whitft- boys, &c., neither life nor property was safe. On the other hand, so universal was the failure of the potato crop, that the price m m a R B B M o BOTAt ACADEMT. A.n. 1822.— TBR PIRST IRON STBAM-BOAT KXHIBITBD Oy THB THAMRS. 476 A.». 183S.— CMBA* BBornoii o» Hoviiff ▼■■VTics, octoasm M. W'^t ^rcastttn of l^istocs, ^c. WM qaadrapled, and the peaiantry of the Muth were in a state of actual itarvation. To meet the former evil, it waa found neceaiary to iuepend the habeas corpus aet, and to renew the insurrection act. To alleviate the latter, a committee was formed in London, and corresponding committees in different parts of the country; British sympathy was no sooner appealed to than it was answered with sealous alacritjr • and such was the bencTolence of individuals, that large funds were speedily at their dis- posal ; so that before tne dose of the year the subscriptions raised in Great Britain for the relief of the distressed Irish amounted to 350,000{.; parliament made a grant of 800,0001. more ; and in Ireland the local sub- scriptions amounted to ISO.OOOI.; making altogether a grand total of 800.000{. From the beginning of the year to the end of the session in August, the bouses of parliament were almost incessantly occu- pied on questions of the highest import- ance ! agricultural distress, for which vari- ous remedial measures were proposed; lord John Russell's plan for a parliamentary re- form; Mr. Vansittart's scheme for relieving the immediate pressure of what was called the "deadweight;" the currency question, which referred to the increased value of money caused by Mr. Peel's act of 1819, for the resumption of cash-payments; the im- provement of the navigation laws, &c. Parliament was prorogued on the 6th of August; and on the 10th the king em- barked at Greenwich for Scotland. On the 16th he landed at Leith, and on the 19th held a levee in the ancient palace of Holy- rood, where he appeared in the Highland costame. Having enjoyed the festivities which his loyal subjects of Bdiuburgh pro- vided for the occasion, he re-embarked on the 37th, and in three days was again with his lieges in London. Dniing his majesty's absence the unwel- come intelligence was brought to him of the death of the marquis of Londonderry, secretary of state for the foreign depart- ment. This nobleman, who for some years had been the leading member of govern- ment, was in his 54tn year ; and in a tem- porary fit of insanity committed suicide, by cutting the carotid artery. In consequence of his tory principles and the share he took in effecting the union with Ireland, he was the most unpopular member of the admi- nistration; but he was highly respected in private life, and enjoyed the personal esteem of his sovereign. Little else of domestic interest occurred this year; but a few words relative to foreign affairs are perhaps requisite. The congress at Verona terminated in Decem- ber: the allied sovereigns were disposed to re-establish the despotism of Ferdinand in Spain, in opposition to the cortes ; but to this policy England objected, denying the right of foreign powers to interfere in the affairs of the Peninsula. The " sanitary cordon," established on the frontiers of France for the avowed purpose of prevent- ing the fever which raged at Barcelona from spreading to that country, changed its name to an " army of observation," while the design of tbe French government to check the progress of revolutionary princi pies in Spain were developed, and, indeed soon afterwards openly expressed. ' A. D. 182.3.— On the death of lord Lon. donderry, Mr Canning, who was about to set out to India as governor-general, relin- quished that employment, and accepted the vacant secretaryship, as one more congenial to his taste, and for the duties of which he was supposed to be perfectly efflcieut. The new year presented more cheerins prospects than any which had for a 1od| time preceded it ; the foreign demand for goods of Boglisli manufacture kept the cot- ton, silk, and woollen factories at work, and greatly benefitted others, particularlr the hard -ware and cutlery busiiieseei. Those engaged in the shipping intereit also, participated in the general improve- ment. But it was not so with regard to the agriculturists; and during the month of January no less than siiiteen county meetings were called to take into conii- deration the causes of their distreuei. The usual topics— parliamentary reform, remission of taxes, a commutation of tithe, a depreciation of the currency, &c.— were generally suggested ; and in some instan- ces, where Mr. Cobbett and his support- ers had sufficient influence, resolutions of a more ultra-radical kind were carried. These were pretty much of the same staple commodity as are still hawked about on similar occasions; namely, an appropria- tion of part of the church property ; the extinction of tithes ; the sale of the crown lands ; the abolition of sinecures and pen- sions; a reduction of the standing army; the repeal of a variety of taxes ; and an equitable adjustment of contracts. Some popular changes now took place in the ministry. Mr. Vansittart, chancellor of the exchequer, resigned in favour of Mr. Robinson, and accepted the chancellorship of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the upper house and the title of lord Bex- ley; and Mr. Huskisson was made presi- dent of the board of trade, in the room of. Mr. Arbuthnot. Parliament was prorogued by commission on the 19th of July ; a great mass of business having occupied the at- tention of the members; and much alter- cation having taken place between Mr. Canning and nis political opponents, who plainly convinced him that he was not " reposing on a bed of roses." But he had the satisfaction at the close of the seaaiou, of dwelling on the flourishing condition of all branches of commerce and manufac- tures, and a considerable abatement of the difSculties felt by the agriculturists at in commencement. In April, the French army of observation crossed tlie Pyrenees : and the duke of Ang^ul6me, its commander, published an address to the Spaniards, declaratory of the objects of this interposition ia their affairs ; defining it to be, the suppresainn of the revolutionary faction which held A.D. 1833.— DR. BUTTON, All ■MIII>NT MATBaMATICIAN, DIID JANUARY 37. A. D. 18M*— *■>■ AKOBBtTBIIf aAlLIBt O* riCTUBKS lOLD FOB 67,0001. lEnglanK.— l^ousc of IScunstnUii.^iSjcorgc lEF. 477 the kinir captire, that excited troubles in Prance and produced an iniurrection in Waolei and Piedmont. They then inarched onward, and, without meeting any resist- ance of consequence, occupied the pnn. cipal towns and fortresses. In October the city of Cadiz surrendered ; and French in- terference terminated with the liberation of Ferdinand from the cortes, who iu all their movements had carried the unwilling kiDK with them. The French t hen retraced their steps, leaving, however, 40,0UO in pos- seuion of the fortresses, to maintain the authority of the Spanish king in case of a «,D. 1824.— Favourable as the political aspect of Or;at Britain appeared at the com- mencement of 1823, there was now an evi- dent improvement in almost every branch of commercial industry; while the cultivators of the soil found their condition materially assisted by natural causes, without the aid of legislatorial interference. It was there- fore a pleasing task for Mr. Robinson, when he brought forward his budget, to describe in glowing terms the general i^rosperity of the country, and declare his intention of effecting an annual saving of 37.5,U00{. by reducing the interest of the four per cent, stock to three and a half. In short, it was evideat that there were too many symptoms of a return to a healthful state, for the most sceptical cavillers to contradict. But a course of prosperity in England, like true love's coarse, "never did run smooth" for any length of time. There was now au abundance of capital, and money was ac- cordingly to be had at low rates of in- terest. Safe investments were difficult to be found at home ; hence foreign loans were encouraged, till there was scarcely a state in the Old or New World which had not the benefit of English capital. It was a rare era too for the gambling specula- tions of a host of needy adventurers ; and under pretext of having discovered advan- tageous modes of employing money, the most absurd schemes were daily set afloat to entrap the avaricious and unwary. Many of these devices, however, were so obvi- ously dishonest, that the legislature at length interfered to guard the public sgamst a species of robbery in which the dupes were almost as much to blame as their plunderers. A resolution passed the house of lords declaring that no bill for the purpose of incorporating any joint- stock company would be read a second time till two-thirds of the proposed capi- tal of the company had been subscribed. This bill certainly checked the operations we have alluded to ; but the evil had been allowed to proceed too far, as further expe- rience proved. A convention between Great Britain and Austria was laid on the table of the house of commons, by which the former agreed to accept 2,500,000f. as a final compensa- tion for claims on the latter power, amount- ing to 30,000,000f.— a composition of one shilling and eig'ntpence in the pound I Among matters of domestic interest, al- though not of R nature, perhaiis, to de- mand notice in a condensed national his- tor^, we may mention two occurrences which supplied the public with fertile to- pics of discourse. We allude to the trial of John Thurtell, who was executed for the murder of William Weare, as they were proceeding in a gig towards the cottage of their mutual friend Frobert, near Elstree, where they had been invited to take the diversion of shooting: and also to the exe- cution of Mr. Fauntleroy, the banker, who was tried and found guilty of forging a power of attorney for the transfer of stock. The first mentioned offender against the laws of God and man was the son of a re- spectable alderman at Norwich ; but by associating with gamblers, and indulging in brutal sports, he had contracted habits of ruffianism to which such a course of life almost invariably leads. The latter violator of a sacred trust had committed forgeries to the enormous extent, as was asserted at the time, of about a quarter of a million. A. D. 1825. — One of the first steps in legis< lation this year was an act to suppress the catholic association of Ireland. Daniel O'Connell assumed to be the representa- tive and protector of the catholic popula- tion in that country, and continued to levy large sums from the people, under the ab- surd and hypocritical pretence of obtaining " justice for Ireland." Subsequentljr a committee of the lords sat to inquire into the general state of that country ; and in the evidence that came before them, it clearly appeared that the wretched state of existence to which the peasantry were reduced by landlords and sub-letters, was greatly aggravated by their abject bondage to their own priests, and by the vicious mode in which tithes were collected ; but that while the arch agitator and his satel- lites were allowed to inflame the passions of the people, and delude them into a be- lief that they were oppressed by their con- nexion with Great Britain, no remedy within the power of the legislature pre- sented itself. We may here observe, by the way, that in the petitions which were presented to parliament last year, the catho- lics no longer placed emancipation in the front of their grievances, but demanded b reform in the temporalities of the protes- tant church, a better regulation of juries, and the disfranchisement of municipal cor- porations. The catholic relief bill passed in the house of commons, hut was rejected in the lords by a majority of 178 against 130. The debate was carried on with great anima- tion ; and, in the course of it, the duke of York strenuously declared against further concession to the catholics. " Twenty- eixht years," he said, " have elapsed since the subject was first agitated ; its agitation was the source of the Alness which clouded the lust ten years of my father's life ; and| to the last moment of my existence, I will adhere to my protestant principles — so help me God ! " We have seen what astonishing impulse m H K ■ u M h e M a IS « M H f •■ O K m M a A IB •s A. B. 1884.— DBATH OV LOBD BTBOIf, AT MI8SOI.OM0UI, APRIL 19. A. B. 1835.— VIBtV aVONB OV *HI TIAX^a TORIIBIi tAID, MASOB 3. 478 ^^e treasure of l^istoto, ^c. had been giTen to tpeeulationa of all kinda laat year by the abundanea of unemployed capital and the reduction of intereit in ftinded property. The mania for joint-stock companiea was now become almost uni- versal. During the space of little more than a twelvemonth, 276 companies had been projected, of which the pretended capital was 174,1 14,050{. Though many of these were of an absurd character, and nearly all held out prospects that no sane man could expect to see realised, yet the shares of several rose to enormous pre- miums, especially the mining adventures in South America. But a fearful re-action was at hand. Several country banks stopped payment in December, and among them the greeA Yorkshire bank of 'Wentworth and com- pany. A. panic in the mouey market fol- lowed ; and in a few days several London bankers were unable to meet the calls upon them. On the 12th of December the bank- ing-house of sir Peter Pole and Co. stopped payment. This caused great dismay in the city, it being understood that forty-seven country banlcs were connected with it. During the three following days five other London banking firms were compelled to close ; and in a very short space of time, in addition to the London houses, sixty- seven country banks failed or suspended their payments. The abstraction of capital in mining and other speculations, was now felt more severely than had been expected, even by those who had endeavoured to op- pose their progress. It was impossible to calculate when or where the evil would stop ; but that thousands of families must in the end be ruined was inevitable. The principal merchants of the city of London, at the need of whom was Mr. Baring, feel- ing that something was necessary to be done to support credit and restore confi- dence, assembled at the mansion-house, and published a resolution to the effect that " the unprecedented embarrassments were to be mainly attributed to an unfound- ed panic; that they had the fullest reli- ance on the banking establishments of the capital and countrv, and therefore deter- mined to support them, and public credit, to the utmost of their power." In two days after this declaration, the Bank of England began to re-issue one and two pound notes for the convenience of the country circulation. For one week, 150,000 sovereigns per day were coined at the Mint ; and post-chaises were hourly dispatched into the country to support the credit, and prevent the failure, of the provincial firms which still maintained their ground. A. D. 1826. — The effects of tne panic were long and most severely felt ; but it must be admitted that the Bank of England made strenuous efforts to mitigate pecuniary dis- tress, and the course pursued by govern- ment was steady and judicious. Tlie main ing^redient in producing the mischief had been the great facility of creating fictitious mone^ ; the ministers, therefore, prohibited the circulation of one pound notes ; while incorporated eompaniea were allowed to carry on the business of banking. Bev ond this they could scarcely n>t it was neu to impossible that they coiad afford an effec- tive guarantee against ftiture panics, over- trading, or the insolvency of bankers. On the 3nd of February parliament was opened by commission. The royal speech adverted to the existing pecuniary distress, and showed that it was totally unconnected with political causes. It also alluded to measures in contemplation for the int. provement of Ireland. After sitting tm the end of May, the parliament was dii. solved, and active preparations were made for a general election. Certain leadin|( questions, which bad been frequently discussed in parliament of late years, had now got auch possession of the public mind, that, at most of the elec- tions, tests were offered and pledges requir- ed from the several candidates. The most important of these were catholic emsnci. patiun, the corn laws, and the slave trade; and out of the members returned for Engl land and Wales, 133 had never before tat in parliament. It was observed thst now, for the first time, the catholic priests of Ireland openly began not only to take an active part in elections^ but to inculcate the doctrine, that opposition to an anti-cstho- lio candidate was a christian duty. The English radicals were also extremely uoiiy and active in their endeavours to return Cobbett, Hunt, and others of that clique; but for the present they were unsuccessful. The new parliament met on the 14th of November, and the session was opened by the king in person. No business of any great importance was brought before the ouse; but an exfrasi of the numeroni joint-stock companies that had been esta- blished was made by alderman Waithman. He observed that 600 bad been formed, most of them for dishonest purposes; the directors forcing up or depressing the mar- ket as they pleased, and pocketing the dif- ference between the selling and buying prices. As certain members of the houae, whom he named, were known to be direc- tors of some of these bubble companies, he moved for a committee of inquiry with refer- ence to the part taken by members of par- liament iu the joint-stock mania of 1834'S-6. The inquiry, on the suggestion of Mr. Can- ning, was restricted to the Arigna mining company, of which Mr. Brogden had been a director. A few foreign occurrences claim our no- tice. _ The death of Alexander, emperor of Russia, a powerful ally of England, and a noble and benevolent prince, who sincerely desired the good of his people. It was hit wish that his brother Nicholas should suc- ceed him ; and, in compliance with that wish, the grand duke Constantine, who wsi next heir to the throne, publicly renosnced his right to the succession in favour of iiia younger brother. — Also, the death of John VI., King of Portugal and titular emperor of Brazil ; whither lie had retired, with hii court, on the invasion of Fortrgalby Buona- A.n. 1826. — THK FIBST TIMI A BTKAM'TESSBL MADI A TOTAGB TO INDIA. wen •llowed to Making. Beyond >s it WM next to d affbrd an eSee- tare pKnici, over- of banker*. r parliament vai rhe royal speech ecuniary diitreu, i oil* unconnected : auo alluded to ion for the im. ^fter litting im liament waa dii> utiona were made iona, which had I in parliament of uch poisestion of moat of the elec- td pledge* rcquii. date*. The most catholic emanci. d the ilave trade: returned for Eng> never before ut bserved that now, atholic priest* of t only to take an nt to inculcate the to an anti-catho- iatian dutT. The 10 extremely uoiay :avour« to return !rs of that clique; vere unBucceatful. net on the I'lth of on was opened by > business of any rought before the of the numerous lat had been esta- irman Waithman, lad been formed, est purposes; the ipressing the mar- tocketing the dif- ling and buying ters of the house, lown to be direc- ble companies, he inquiry with refer- I memoers of par- mania of 1824 S-6. istion of Mr. Can- he Arigna mining trogden had been cea claim ourno- nder, emperor of f England, and a ice, who sincerely lople. It was his holai should suc- iliance with that 8tbntine,whowai ubiicly renounced m in favour of liii he death of John d titular emperor retired, with bit orti'galbyBuonft- TO INDIA. a.B. 1M7*-F" MRBOR OIIITBBtITT IiAlB, ArBIIi W. lEnglantr.— l^onsc of ISrunstDicfi.— ^rtorge SIT. 479 C.—U isaolongU, the laat aaylum of the ks, taken by atorm. by the combined «c*ptian and Turkiah force*, who, rendered aHHou* by the bravery of the beiieged, put lU the BialM to the aword, and carried the women and children into alavery.— The de- siraotion of the Janiaaariea by Sultan Mah- moad, followed by an entire re-modelling of the Turkich army, and the introduction of European military discipline.— Remark- able coincidence in the death* of two ex- president* of the United State* of America : Mr. Adam* and Mr. Jefferson not onW ex- piring on the *ame day, but that day (July 4) being the fiftieth anniveriary of the de- claration of American independence. i. D. 1837.— We cloaed our last brief an- nual record with ■ notice of the deaths of two distinguiahed men on transatlantic ground: we are compelled to commence Ike present year with an account of the de- cease of an illttstrioua individual at home. Hit royal highnea* Auguatus Frederick, duke of York, preHumptive heir to the throne, and commander - in - chief of the tnny, (at the head of which he had been thirty-two year*, and under whose admi- nittration it ^ad won imperiahable laurels, died on the 5th of January, in the 64th year of hi* age. In peraon he wn* noble and soldierlike ; in disposition, frank, amia- ble, and sincere ; in the discharge of his official duties, impartial and exact ; and in attention to the comfort* of the soldier, he was equalled by few, *ttrpas*ed by none. The first topic of domestic interest waa the change of ministrv, which took place in consequence of lora Liverpool, the pre- mier, being suddenly disabled by a stroke of apoplexy, which, though he anrvived the attack nearly two years, terminated bia public life. His lordship was free from in- trigue and partisanship, and bis official ex- perience enabled him to take the lead in conducting the ordinary affaira of the go- vernment; hut his oratory was common- ulace, and he was incapable of vigorously handling the great queation* which during hit premiership agitated the country. Nearly two months elapsed before the vacancy occasioned by lord Liverpool's ill- nets was filled. The king then empowered Mr. Canning to form a new ministry, of which he was to be the head ; and he ac- cordingly began to make his arrangement*. But he met with almost insuperable diffi- culties; for within forty- eight hours after he had received hi* majesty's commands, leven leading members of the cabinet— his former colleagues— refused to serve under him, and sent in their resignations. In this perplexity he waited on the king, who suspected thut there was not only a confe- deracy against Mr. Canning, but also a dis- position to coerce the royal will. The king was not, however, lik?ly to withdraw hi* support from th<> -.iiniis er of his choice; and ultimately a ...i :<;i'. administration (but ch'efly tory,) entered on the duties of office. Mr. Canning, premier; earl of Harrowbjr, president; duke of Portland, privy seal; viscount Dudley, foreign secretary; Mr. Stnrgea Bourne, home aeeretary ; Mr. Hot- ki*aon, board of trade ; Mr. C. Wynn, board of control; vlecount Palineraton, *ecretary at war ; lord Bexley, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaater; lord Lyndhurat, lord chan- cellor. The foregoing formed the cabinet. The other miui*terial appointment* were, — *ir John Leach, master of the roll*; air A. Hart, vice-chancellor ; air Jamei Scar- lett, attornejr-general ; sir N. Tindal, aoli- citor-general ; duke of Clarence, lord-high- admiral ; marquia of Angleaea, maater-ge- neral of the ordnance ; duke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain ; duke of Leed*, maater of the horse ; and Hon. W.Lamb, aeeretary for Ireland. Subaequently, the marquia of Lansdowue accepted the seals of the home department, and Mr. Tierney was made matter of the mint. Parliament met after the Easter reces? ; and on the 1st of June Mr. Canning brought forward the budget. The *e*Bion was of ahort duration, and the greater part of the time was occupied by charges of political tergiversation wliich were bandied about, and the explanations which such charge* necessarily elicited. The corn law* came in for a ahare of discussion; as did also the law between debtor and creditor, the state of the court of chancery, and the game law* ; while Mr. Peel continued hi* exer- tions towards a consolidation of the crimi- nal statutes. On the 2nd of July parlia- ment was prorogued. A treaty which had for its object the pa- cification of Greece, by putting an end to the sanguinary contest between the Porte and its Grecian subjects, was aigned at London, on the 6ih of July, by the mini*- ter* of Great Britain, France, and Russia. From the hour that Mr. Canning under- took the office of premier he had been suf- fering under a degree of nervoua excitement which made visible inroads on bia consti- tution ; but it waa expected that a little repose during the parliamentary recess would reinvigorate him. Not so, however ; for on the 8th of August he expired, the immediate cause of hi* death being an in- flammation of the kidney*. This highly gifted statesman, who was in the 57th year of his age, was not less remarkable for scholastic acquirements, than for brilliant oratory and punstent wit; weapons which he often used with success in aeuiolishing the more solid arguments of his opponent*. In politics he was a tory, possessing the good sense to avow and act upon liberal principles, upon such points as were mani- festly for the good of the country, and in accordance with true progressive enlight- enment. He was long the efficient repre- sentative of Liverpool ; and his constitu- ents were justly proud of one who, while he shone in the senate, combined the graces of scholarship with elegant manner* and amiability of temper. On the death of Mr. Canning there were but few changes in the ministry. Lord Goderich became the niw premier, as first lord of the treasury, Mr. Huskissun suc- ceeded to the office of colonial secretary. at A.o. 1837*— aociBTT ron tub "diffusion of usbpul knowlbdob" bbtablishbd. A.S. 1838.— LOkD w. aanriROK mabb «o*bb»ok>«ihbrai, ot indu. 4- 480 ^^e tlTreasurs of 1|{storn, $rc. •nd Mr. Ilerrin wai made clianeellor of the excheauer. A few other changes took place; ana the duke of Wellington re- tamed the oommand of the army, but with- out a seat in the cabinet. The treatv mentioned a* having been iigned on the 6th of July for attempt- ing the pacification of Greece, not being palatable to the lultan, he declined the mediation of the allied powers, and re- commenced the war furiously against the Greeks. To put a stop to this course of desolation, the combined fleets of Eng- land, France, and Russia, proceeded to the bay of Navarino, with a determina- tion to capture or destroy the Turkish fleet which lay there, if Ibrahim Pacha refused to listen to pacitic overtures. No s«tisfaction being obtained, admiral Cod- rington, followed by the French ships, un- der De Rigny, and the Rusaiou squadron, entered the bay ; and after four hours from the commencement of the conflict, which had been carried on with great furv, llie enemy's fleet was wholly destroyed, and the bay strewed with the fragments of his ships. A. D. 1823.— It was seen from the first formation of the Goderich ministry that it did not possess the necessary ingredients for a lasting union. Differences between some of the leading members of the cabi- net rendered his lordship's position un- tenable, and he resigned his seals of oflice. Upon this the king sent for the duke of Wellington, and commissioned him to form a new cabinet, with himself at the head : the result was, that his grace immediately entered into communicication with Mr. Peel, and other members of lord Liver- pool's ministry, who had seceded on the elevation of Mr. Canning; and, with very few exceptions, the same parties once more came into power. The duke, on becoming tne first lord of the treasury, resigned the office of commander-in-chief. The royal speech, delivered at the open- ing of parliament, chiefly referred to the late "untoward event" at Navarino, but defended it on the ground that the rights of neutral nations were violated by the re- volting excesses of the Greeks and Turks. Mr. Brougham having made one of the most elaborate expositions of the abuses and imperfections of the law ever delivered in the house of commons, two commis- sions were appointed, one to inquire into tlie state of the common law, the other into the laws of real property. On the 8th of May the catholic claims were again brnuKlit forward, when sir Francis Burdett moved for a committee of the whole house on thi^ subject, with a view to a conciliatory adjustment. After a three nights' debate, this was carried by a majority of six. A conference with the lords was then requested, and held; after which there was a two nights' debate in the lords, when the duke of Wellington opposed the resolu- tion, chiefly on the ground that the church government of Ireland was unconnected with the civil government of the empire. But it was remarked, that although the re- solution was lost by a majority of fift.. four, the moderate tone of his grare au- gured favourably for it on a further trial In Ireland during the Canning and Gnde- rich ministries all was comparatively itill ■ but this year the excilement of the people' led on by the popular demagoKues, liai greatly increased hv the formation of « Wellinjcton and Peel administration. Tiit Catholic Association was again in fjill activity ; Mr. U'Connell was returned for Clare, in defiance o< almost all the landed gentry of the county ; the priests seconded the efforts of the itinerant politiciana' and, in the inflated rhetoric of Mr. 8hiel' " every altar became a tribune at which the wrongs of Ireland were proclaimed." Meanwhile, ministers looked supinely on till the smouldering embers burst into s flame, which nothing within their power could extinguish. Ilow could it, indeed, be otherwise, when the marquis of AuKle* sea, the king's representative, wrote a letter to Dr. Curtis, the titular catholic primate of Ireland, to ihe_ effect that the settle- ment of the catholic question was unavoid able, and recommending the catholics to " agitate," but refrain from violence, and trust to the legislature. What more could the great agitator himself require than such an ally I It is true that the marquii was forthwith recalled from the govern. ment of Ireland for writing the said letter — but he toat not impeached. The repairs and improvements of Wind- sor castle, which had been for a long time in hand, under the direction of Mr. Jeffrey Wyatville, ( subsequently knighted ) were this year completed; and the king took possession of his apartments, Dec. 9. A parliamentary grant of 45(i,OU0{. had been devoted to this truly national edilice, and great ability was shewn in retaining the principal features of the original buildinic, while studying the convenieucies of modem civilization. At the latter end of the year, owing to the discovery of a systematic plan of mnr- dcr having been pursued by some nretcliei at Edinburgh, an indescrihahle fcehnjcof horror and disgust pervaded the whole country. The most fearful talcs were circulated as to the extensiveness of the crime, which, it was added, certain mem- bers of the medical profession connived at, rather than lack subjects for the disnect- ing room. It appeared on the trial of William Burke and Helen M'Doujral, vho | lodged in a house kept by a man immpd Hare, that Burke and Hare had hpen in the habit of decoying persons into the house, where they first made them intox- icated, and then suffocated tlicni. The bodies were then sold to Dr. Knox t'nrnna- tomical purposes, and, no marks of violrnce appearing upon the hudir-s, no qiiestjins were asked nor suspieinn created respect- ing the horrid mode in wliieh they had been procured. The niimhcr of their vic- tims it was difflcult to nseertaiii, thoiigli Burke confessed to upwards of a dozen. A.n. 1838. — TUB PHRi«cn BVAniATit aPAii«, aptbh pivk tkars (lC(:lJ^A^cr. INDIA. although the re- inMJority of fifty- of Ills grare ku- a fiirthKr trial. anninKRiidGnde- lupnrativf Ijr (till ; ent of the people, demagOKues, wti s formation of a inni»tration. Tlie as BKain in full was returned for ost all the landed e prieitt seconded erant politicians; toric ot Mr. Shiel, tribune at which were proclaimed." raked supinel; on, ibera burst into a athin their power t could it, indeed, marquis of Anitle- ative, wrote a letter ir catholic primate it that the settle- estioii was unavoid 1); the cathnlio to from violence, and What more could nself require than ue that the marquis i from the govern- ■itin:; the said letter thed. iroveraents of Wind- een for a long time iction of Mr. Jeffrey itly knighted ) were and the king took ■tments, Dec. 9. A 43(),0UU(. had been national edifice, and in in retaining the he original building, reniencies of modem . the year, owing to emntic plan of mur- ed by some wretcliei escrihahle feeling of )ervaded the whole fearful tales were extensiveness of the idded, certain mem- ofession connived at, ects for the dissect- red on the trial of [elen M'Dougal, who 'pt by a Mian nnmed _i Hare had been in ig persons into the it made them intox- focntcd tlicni. Ti\e to Dr. Knox for ana- no m»rk8 ot violence ^ fiodies, no qiieslims , | •ion nrontpd respect- > 4 in which tboy hail J number of their vie- 1 - to nsMTtiiiu, thoiish | b upwards of a dozen. ; i ins (icciiPAXcr. «.». 1810.— BIIB A* BOMB, ABBB 68» roVB LIO ZII. fBIBVABY 10. I lEnglantf.— I^ottsc of firun«b)icii.— €icorgc lEF. 481 Thii wretch, who wm an Irish catholic, «M executed, amidtt the exaltations and neeration* of an immense coneourse of spectators i and the system of strangula- tioD which he had practised was afterward* known by the expressive term of bMrkiai/. Tlie foreign events of this year, though important in themselves, bear too little on English history to render necessary more than a bare mention of them.— In April Bttssia declared war against Turkey. The destruction of the Turkish fleet at Nava- rino left the former power masters of the Black-sea; and on land llS.tHM) Russians were assembled to open the campaign on the Danube. Several threat battles were fought, the Turks offering a much more effectual resistance to their invaders than was anticipated; at length the Russians retired from the contest, but did not return to St. Petersburgh till October.— The affairs of Greece had gone on more favourably, in consequence of the war between Tur- key and Russia; and, assisted by France and England, that country which had so long groaned under the oppressor's yoke, was emancipated from foreign control, and restored to the rank of an independent nation. i.D. 1S29. — Soon after the opening of parliament, ministers declared tlieir in- tention to bring forward and support the long-agitated question of catholic eman- cipation, in order to put an end for ever, if possible, to a grievance which, among the Irish in particular, had "grown with their gi-owth, and strengthened with their strength." In Ireland the catholic popu- lation was at that time estimated at five millions and a half, whereas not more than one million and three quarters were pro- testants; but in England, Scotland, and Wales, the number of catholics fell short of a million. It was well known that the duke of Wellington's rcnugnance to the measure had been gradually abating; that bethought the secniity of the empire de- pended on its l-eiug carried ; and that he had laboured hard to overcome the king** scruples. Tl'ese being at length removed, Mr. Peel, ir a long, cautious, and elaborate speech, ii^troduced the "catholic relief bill" irto the house of commons on the 5th of March. Its general objects were to render catholics eligible to seats in both houses of parliament, to vote at the elec- tion of members, and generally to enjoy all civil franchises and ottices, upon their taking an oath not to use their privileges to "weaken or disturb the protcstant estab- lishment." As it was a course of policy which the whigs advocated, it had their support; the chief opposition coming from that section of the tory party who felt it to be a measure replete with clanger to the prntestant institutions of the country. Tlie majority in favour of the bill, however, at the third reading, was 320 to 142. In the upper house a more resolute stand was made against it ; the lords Eldon, Winchel- scR, Tcnterden, and others, backed by the arclibishujis of Canterbury and York, and the biihopi of London, Durham, and Salia* bur]r» in the most solemn manner denoune- ing it as a measure pregnant with th* moat imminent peril to church and state oa by law established ; and powerfully appealing to t heir fellow peiera to uphold the protestant faith at all hasards, and not sacrillce their principles at the shrine of expediency. It was, however, carried on (he luth of April, and received the royal assent on the 13th. A few official changes followed. Sir Charles Wetherell, attornev-general, waa dismissed for his anti catholic opposition to the ministers, and sir James Scarlett appointed. Chief-justice Best was elevated to the peerage by the title of lord Wyuford ; and was succeeded in the common-pleas by sir Nicholas Tindal, the aolicitor-gcne- ral ; whose office was given to Mr. Sugden. If we except the "metropolis police bill," which owes its origin to Mr. Peel, and from which saeh great advantages have arisen, there was nothing of moment sub- mitted to the legislature after the passing of the catholic relief bill. The creation of this new police force was one of the wisest measures that had ever been resorted to for the protection of property and the peace of the metropolitan districts: the old paro- chial watch, as corrupt as they were feeble, had become an absolute street nuisance: and, so far from being "a terror to evil doers," their well-known inefficiency en- abled the midnight burglar and the daring footpad to pursue their criminal vocation! with impunity. During the summer months an nnnsnal depression in every branch of trade was felt, and the wages of the artisan had greatly fallen. This gave rise to combinations ana the destruction of property, particularly among the silk-weavers of Spitalfields. It was also the case in the manufacturing districts of the northern and inland coun- ties ; where, owing to the introduction of power-looms, the workmen where almost aestitute of employment, and their familiea in a state of abject penury. The year 1830 commenced without any circumstance occurring in or out of pai> liament worth relating. The position of ministers was a difficult one, but it waa what they had a right to expect. By con- ceding catholic emancipation they had lost the support of their most influential old friends, and they were now compelled to accept us auxiliaries those hybrid whigs, whose co-operation, to be permanent, must be rewarded by a share in the government. But the stern unbending character of "the duke " would not allow him to share even the glury of a conquest with mercenaries whom he could not depend on ; and there- fore, as the tories were divided, it was clear that their rule was fast drawing to a close. An event, bv no means unexpected, now took place. !^or a considerable time past the king had been indisposed, and he wAs rarely seen beyond the limits of his royal domain, at Windsor ; where, when he waa well enough to take exercise, he would en- joy a forest-drive in his pony-phaeton, or A. D. 1S29.— NBW roST-OFFICR, ST. MABTIH-I.B-ORANn, orRNCn, BErT. 23. [ST A.>. iSS9^c •0,0001. 482 ®^c ^nunrv oC 1|i«ioni, $cc. •miiM hlmielf by flihing aid Miling oo hi* fevoorita VirgiiiU-water. But gout and dropif had made lad havoe on the roval in- valid t and in April bnlletina of hia health bcfan to be publlahed. Hi* illneaa gradually inereaied from that time to the 36th of June, the day on which he died. After a tefere paroxysm hii mi^etty appeared to be fainting, and having (^aculated "Thii ia death," in a few minutes he ceased to breathe. The eharaeter of this monarch is not to be summed up in a brief sentence or two; to form a Just opinion of it, his conduct under many varying aspects must be impar- tially considered. This we endeavoured to do in our biographical memoir of George IV., and to that we beg to refer. CHAPTER LXV. The Reign r the religion of ted. No tooner oecome known, ur, Ghent, Ant- iwed an invete> their Dutch ro- cb toon amount- it, were general I kingdam of the sreated by Great t, Russia, and amed a right of elligerents; and a protocol was ing that hostili' at the troops of luld retire within y separated Bel- ccessful popular ot lost upon the " parliamentary 1-word of all who y ministry. The charged, though ;iven his support, lie arbitrary mea. listry ; and a cla- him and his col- id their power to , indeed, was the that the elections ] had gone deci- engtb.on the 2nd net, and his ma- long other topics, svents.concluaing ce on the wisdom iment. Earl Grey e necessity of an ne representative rom the duke of n of his determi- isure which might that purpose, he legislature could useless avowal of eform excited a B duke, which was e ingenious com- *p law.- 1*. lEnglanV.— 1|ouj» of Idrunsbicfc — SSKilUam SU. 483 iMntariei and violent denunciationa of the whit press. Another lesa honourable mode bad also been resorted to for the purpose of inflaming the public mind— the posting of placards in the streets of London, se- verely commenting on the royal speech, the anti-refonn declaration of the duke, and the new metropolitan police. The great civic festival of lord-mayor's day was nigh, at which the king and hia ministers intended to be present { but ow- big to several letter* having been received b* the duke of Wellington, stating that a riot wa* to be apprehended if he made his appearance in the city,— one of which wa* rrom Mr. John Key, the lord-mayor elect, luggesting that he should come "strongly and sufticiently guarded,"— his grace ad- vised that the kins'* visit ihouldbe pott- poned. Considerable discussion took place in both houses on the abcndonment of hi* majesty's visit to the civic banquet; earl Grey and other peer* arguing that it had excited needle** alarm, and produced an extraordinary depression of the funds. But the duke had been fo'cwarned that a riot, and perhaps bloodshrtu would have ensued; and no better argu-nrnt i* needed to eliow the loundness of his {{olicy than his own words, as they are recorded in the me- moirs of the late sir W. Knighton. " If tiring had begun." said the duke to sir Wil- liam, " who could tell where it would end 7 I know what street-flring is; one guilty perion would fall, and ten innocent be de- strayed. Would this have been wise or humane, for a little bravado, or that the country might not have beeu alarmed fur a day or two ?" Bui, admitting the eorrectnc** and liu- > '« ' 1 m m M o o » M B la O M M S fl M H 484 ^|)c ^rcMurv o( I^totorc, kc. Columhia, who eipircd, a foluntary exile. •t Hmi Pedro, Dec. I7i iu tho 48tb year of hit age. A. D. IflSI.— On the 8rd of February par. liamcnt re-aaaembled, and it waa announced tliat a plan of reform would epeedtly be in- troduced by lord John Ruieell. In the tnean time lord Althorp brought forward the budget; by which it appeared that the taxei on tobacco, newspaper!, and adver- tiiement* were to be reduced; and Ihoieon coaU, cnndlei, printed cottona, and aome other article!, aboliihed. The subject of parliamentary reform con- tinued to absorb all other political conside- rationn, and was looked forward to with in- tense interest. In announcing his scheme, lord John Russell proposed the total dis- franchisement of 60 boroughs, in which the pnpulnlion did not amount to ZUUU; and the partial disfranchisement of 47, whci-e the population was only 4()U0. Ily this means tho number of members would be reduced 16H; but which would be supplied by increasing the number of county mem- bers, and by giving rcpresentAiives to cer- tain large towns heretofore unrepresented. He then went into a variety of other de- tail*, not necessary to be here enumerated ; when the bill, after a spirited discussion of seven days, was read a iirst time. The se- cond rending was carried on the 23..d of March, by a majority of one; the numbers being 3U3 to 301. And on gencrni Grs- coyne's motion for the commitment of the bill, there was a maturity against ministers of 8. Three days atterwnras, on a question of adjouriiineut, by which the voting of supplies was postponed, this minority had increased to 22; whereupon the ministers tendered their resignations to the king. These he declined to accept, but adopted the advice of earl Grey, who recommended a dissolution of parliament, which took place on the 23d of April. And now arose the cry of "the bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill." Uut of the 82 county members for England, nearly all were pledged to the bill ; as were all the four members for the city of Lon- don. On the 14th of June the new parlia- ment met, and was opened by the king in person. On the 24th lord John Russell made his second attempt. The debate lanted three nights, and on a division there was a majority of 136 in favour of the bill. It then underwent a long, patient, nnJ severe scrutiny in committee ; every clause was carefully discussod as it arose ; many of its crudities were corrected, and many imperfections remedied. These occupied the house almost uninterruptedly till the 19th of September, when, after anotlier eloquent debate of three nights, the bill, as amended, was carried by a majority of 109 in the commons, and taken up to the lords by upwards of 100 members. Early in October, earl Grey, in an ela- borate speech, ngHin brought before the consideration of the lords the important measure of parliamentary reform, to bring about which, he said, had been the great nfatjeot of his political life; but if It rould be proved to have the revolutionary ten- dency some impnied to it, he would he tlie last man to defend It i and he concluded by declaring that by this measure minis- ters were prepared to stand or fall. Lord Wbarneliffe moved as an amendment, "that it be read thia dn« six months:" which having been seconded and put from the woolsack, one of the most memorable dis- cussions in parliamentary history followed. For one entire week the debat« was con- tinued; during which time all that histori- cal, constitutional, and scholastic Illustra- tion could furnish; all that skill, force, and variety of argument could supply ; t|| that conscious rectitude of intention, pure patriotism, and noble independence were capable of commanding, were brought to bear upon this itrtM Question; and when the house divided, a majority of 41 appeared against the bill. On tlie 30th of October parliament was prorogued, and was not again railed to- gether till the fith of December. The year, however, did not close till the great measure was again before the legislature On the 12th the third reform bill was in. troduced into the commons by lord John Russell, who pointed out various altera- tions that had oeen made in it; the effect of which was to lessen the number of the boroughs to be disfraiiuhiied, and to main, tain the full complement of OSS mcmbcrfi. These concessions were regarded as im- provements by the opposition, and on the second reading the majority in its favour was two to one ; the uumhcrs being 324 for, and 162 against it. Tlie house then adjourned till after Christmas. That we may not interrupt the thread of our narrative by taking the other events of the year in their chronological order, we pass on to April 14, 1833; when, after a four nights' debate in tho house of lordit, this popular bill wau carried by a mEOnrity of nine. After this, parliament adjournei to May 7> for the Easter holidays. On that day lord Lyndhurst moved that tiie dia- ' franchising clause should be pontpnncd, and the enfranchising clause tirst consider ed; which was carried against ministers, by a majority of 151 to 116. As tliis nai considered the flrst of a scries of obsitruc- tions, dexterously contrived to delay and mutilate the reform bill, the ministers an- nounced their intention to resign, unlcst his majesty would consent to a new crea- tion of peers. To that expedient the king declined to resort, and the ministers sent in their resignations accordinglv. A week of terrific agitation followed; all the hate and rancour of party feeling were centred in one object; and while men of moderate views and principles trembled for the lately of the monarchy, crafty and designingdcina. gogues stirred up the passions of the peo- ple in the hope of profiting by a popular convulsion. His majesty was desirous of having ministers who would carry an "ex- tensive measure of reform;" and on send- ing for lord Lyndhurst, whom he desired S I (I 21 J! »| K i K : fi '■ ii 5 A. D. IS31.— PAGAlf IKl'a FIRST CONCBBT AT TRB OPSBA-BOVSB, JUNE 3. *.». ini.-aiTi«nioii or *■■ om HmsKmait wnm»Mm ir vbauci lEnglanH.— lloQM of 1dtttnttoicl.--8StlU{am ITT. 4M S I 10 eommuniMt* with tht duka of Wdllng • ton Md lir Bobert PmI, h« espreticd him- Mif dtitinotly to that affact. Tlia tluka. In loral obedienea to tha commanda of hla ■ofaraiRn, wai dlipoaad to lend biinaalf to iba royal emcrKeney, notwithitanding hia former anti relurn daclaraiion. Not ao, howaoer, air ilobarti ha aaw no hope of modifrinK tlia raform bill to hia a«tlaf«o> tioo; and b« declined, though tempted with tha premierahipi to eo-oper»ta iu the de> lien. The idea of a new aoniiniitration waa thrrefore abandoned ; and tlie duke of Wei- llDgton rccuiumended the king to recall hia fornier lervantt. Thii waa dune ; and aa it wai efideiit that tha wialiet of the king ware more iu accordance with the deter- mintlion of the people aa a body, than with the ariitocracjr, the peora, in obedi- ence tn the royal wiah, abaente^ them- lelfM from the house, and the reform bill wai •ilentljr carried tlirouxh ita remaining •tagea; the maiuritjr on ita third reading btiuK 100 to 33. We ahall now briefly refer to a few oc- carrcncea, foreign and domeatic, which we have hitherto neceiaarily omitted. — The Ruiiiani auitained a aevere defeat at Wawi, after a battle of two daya, their lot* being 14,000 men ; their opnonenta, the Polei, suffered comparatively little. But on the aoth, a Poliah corps, under Dwor- nicki, being hard pressed bv the Ruaaians, retreated into Austrian Gallicia, and, aur- rendering to the Austrian authoritiea, were treated as prisoners and sent into Hun- gary. In short, after bravely encountering their foes, and atruggling against superior numbers, Waraaw capitulated, and the idea of Polish independence waa farther re- moved than ever.— In Jane, prince Leopold was elected king of Belgium by the con- gress at Brussels; his territory to conaist of the kingdom of the Netherlanda, aa aet- tied in 1815. On the 7th of September the coronation of their raajestiea took place ; but, aa com- pared with the gorgeoua display and ex- pensive banqueting when George IV- waa crowned, it roust be considered a ttugH and unostentatioua ceremony. There was, however, a royal procession from Ht.James'a palace to Westminster abbey ; and in the evening splendid illnminations, free ad- missions to the theatres, and a variety of other entertainmenta gratided the aight- seeing populace. Ou the 21st of October, the London Ga- lette contained precoutiona to be adopt- ed by his majesty's subjects against the spread of the Asiatic cholera, that dread- ful pestilence having lately extended from Moscow to Hamburgh. It was ordered that a board of health ahould be esta- blished in every town, to correspond with the board in London, and to consist of magistrates, clergy, and membera of the meuicHl profession ; while the most effec- tual modes of insuring cleanliness, free ventilation, &c. were pointed out. These precautionary measures were doubtless of great use, and worthy of the paternal at- tanlkm of • hnmant govefnment i but ow- ing, aa was auppoaed, to the qunrantina lawa having been evaded by soma uaraoaa who came over from Hamburgh and landed at Sunderland, the much-dreaded infection visited many parts of Urrat Dritoln, and in the following «ear produced iiidescribabia alarm among all ranks uf proiila. One other event, but of no disgraecfbl a character that we would fai emphatically and somewhat naively add- inji;, "Th? words which you hear from nie are spoken from my mouth, but they pro- ceed from my heart." The rupture with the ministers above- inMT, nKC. 24. A. O. 1833.— OBATH 0» rKRniNAND VII. KllfO OF BPAltf, SKFTEMBBR 29. A. D. 1894.— DUXB or WKLblNSTOR BLKOTND GHANCIbbOB OV OXVOaO. AU». 39, h O K O m N IS M * M K M H \ i •-4 d 4 488 ^^e ^rea«nis of mistorg, ^c. named was speedily followed hj another, and which ended in the resiKnation of earl Grey, the premier. In the communications which had from time to time been made by ministers to Mr. O'Conuell on Irish affairs, it had been conlidentially stated to him that when the Irish coercion bill was re- newed, the clauses prohibitory of meetings would not be pressed: nevertheless, the obnoxious clauses appeared in the bill; and Mr. O'Connell declared that he con- sidered it dissolved the obligation of ser crecy, under which the communication had been made. Lord Althorp tindinK liimself unable to carry the coercion bill through the commons, with the clauses against public meetings, sent in his resig- nation ; and as earl Grey considered him- self unable, without the assistance of lord Althorp us ministerial leader in the house of commons, to carry on the government, he also resigned. Parliamentary reform, the great object of his public exertions, had neen accomplished ; and as he was now upwards of seventy, and in an infirm state of health, he seemed glad to seize the first opportunity of closing his otticial la- bours. An arrangement was, however, soon ef- fected to form another reform ministry, lord Althorp consenting to resume the chancellorship of the exchequtr. under the premiership of viscount Melbourne. The new cabinet then stood thus :— viscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury; lord Brougham, lord chancellor; viscount Al- thorp, chancellor of the exchequer ; mar- quis of Lansdowne, president of the council ; earl of Mulgrave, privy seal; viscount Dun- cimnon, home secretary; viscount Falmcr- ston, foreign secretary; Spring Rice, colo- nial secretary ; lord Auckland, first lord of the admiralty; Charles Grant, president of the India board ; marquis of Conyngham, postmaster-general; lord Holland, chan- cellor of the duchy of Lancaster; lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces; and E. J. Littleton, secretary for Ireland. The king in person prorogued parliament on the 15th of August. Notwithstanding the time lost in ministerial disagreements and changes, a great mnss of bueiness had been dispatched. The two principal mea- sures were the "central crimmal court act," and the " poor law amendment act." The former extends the jurisdiction of the Old Bailey court over a population of about 1,700,000: net only in Middlesox, but in parts of Surrey, Kent, and Essex; leaving to the Middlesex sessions, at Clerkenwell, the trial of ofifences punishable with not more than seven years' transportation. The Old Bailey sessions to be held at least twelve times a year. But by far the most important of these measures was the poor-law amendment act ; a measure, we regret to add, which appears to have brought with it much more misery than it has relieved. In saying this, we by no means would infer that a continu- ance of the former poor-law system, with its incompetent officers, private jobbing. expensive litigation, and all the numerous errors and inconsistencies that had been engrafted on the original act of Elizabeth would have been desirable : far from it' But the present " amended " system, which was chiefly intended to reduce the burden- some amount of the poor-rates, might have been easily carried out without those ob- noxious clauses which enforce the separa- tion of married men from their wives, and mothers from their pauper children; with- holding out -door relief, &c. Moreover however desirable the centrahzation of poor-law power may he, and however able the commissioners who form the board at Somerset-house, local interests must often be left to local management ; or a mode of generalizing will become so habitual to those who superintend the administratioo of the poor-laws, as to frustrate all endea- vours to obtain individual justice. Several popular measures were carried during the sesnion ; namely, the repeal of the house-tax ; the abolition of the duty on almanacks; the abolition of sinecure offices in the house of commons ; facilities at the post-office for the transmission of foreign newspapers ; grants for building schools in England and Scotland, &c. This year was remarkable for the sys- tematic organization of "trades' unions" in London and other large towns of Eng- land, and for repeated "strikes" among tailors, shoemakers, carpenters, bricklayers, weavers, spinners, and other "operatives." But the different crafts all returned to their employments, without any very seri- ous injury to trade or to themselves. At Paris, Lyons, and Brussels similar combi- nations of workmen took place, and were attended with serious consequences, par- ticularly at Lyons, where no less than o.UOO persons (of whom 1,700 were troops) were Killed before the insurrection, which had been caused by the trades' unionists inter- ference with the trials of some of their members, was quelled. An event now took place which caused much temporary consternation, and was regarded as a great national calamity, not merely on account of the loss sustained, but also from the historical and personal associations connected with it. On the evening of the I6th of October a fire broke out in one of the offices at the lower end of the house of lords, which continued to rage throughout the night, and was not completely extinguished for several daya, Great anxiety was felt for the safety of that ancient edifice, Westminster-hall ; and even the venernbl ; and magnificent Gothic pile opposite, Westminster-abbey, was at one period thought to be in great danger; but nothing that skill or intrepidity could achieve wa? neglected in arresting the pro- pess of the flames; and though the two tiou»c8 of parliament were destroyed, nei- ther the hall nor the abbey sustained ma- terial damage ; and the libraries aud state papers in the lords and comnionn were preserved. The fire, as it appeared ou strict inquiry, was caused by negligence, « a i< a I K I A. D. 1884.— DIED, AQED 76, OKNERAI, TUS MARQUIS DB I.AFAYRTTB. J A.D. 1836. — LORD MUtOaAVE APrOINTBD I.omD liIIUTENAnT OF 1RBI.ABD. .lEnglantJ — l^ousc of lUtunstoicfe.— ffiaUUam KF. 489 in burning the exchequer-tallie* in a build- inir aJjoining tlic liouse of lords. Tempo- rvT chanihera for the accommodation of Ibe leKialHture were afterwards erected on the «ite of the old buildings. Just one month after the destruction of the houses of parliament the Melbourne ministry was summarily and unexpectedly dismissed. On the Hth of Novemoer lord Melbourne waited on his majesty at Brigh- ton to take his commands on the appuint- Pient of a cliancellor of the exchequer, in tlie room of lord Allhorp, removed, by the death of his father, earl Spencer, to the house of peers. The king, it is said, ob- jected to the proposed re-construction of the cabinet, and made his lordship the bearer of a letter to the duke of Welling- ton, who waited upon his majesty on the 1 nth, and advised uim to place sir Robert Peel at the head of the government. Sir Robert was at the time in Italy, whither a courier was dispatched, and the baronet arrived in London Dec. 9, saw the king, and accepted the situation of premier ; the duke of Wellington having in the interim provisionally filled the chief oflices of the government. Thus again, though for a brief space, the tory party, or conserva- tives, as they were now called, were in the ascendant. A.D. 1835.— The Melbourne cabinet had been for some time looked upon as the mere dregs of the Grey ministry; and the losses it had suKtained by the withdrawal of the earl of Durham, the Stanley section, and the noble premier himself, had not been supplied by men of suitable talents. The public there*'ore had no great reason for re- gret, how ver much they may have been surprised, when the king so suddenly dis- pensed with their services. Yet when the tame men were entrusted with the reins of gnvernment who had been the strenuous opposcrs of veform, an instantaneous out- cry burst forth, and the advent of toryism was regarded by the populace with feelings of distrust and dread. Sir Robert Peel, however, txplicitly declared, that he con- sidered the reform bill as a tinal and irre- vocable settlement; and he appealed to several important measures that had for- merly emanated from himself, as proofs that he was not opposed to the redress of real grievances, and the removal of all re- cognised abuses. Upon these grounds sir Robert solicited the confidence of the coun- try; and he brought forward his leading measures with great dispatch nnd ability. The ministerial plans for affordini; relief to dissenters relative to the marriage cere- mony, and also the settlement of tithes, met with general favour and concurrence. But when, on the 30th of March, lord John Russell brought forward his resolution — " that the house should resolve itself into a committee of the whole house, to consi- der of the temporalities of the church of j Ireland," the motion was met by sir E. I Knatchbull with a direct negative, and after j a long and stormy debute, ministers found 1 themselves in a minority of 33. The Irish j church bill was then discussed in commit- tee; and after three nights' debate on tlie question of appropriating the surplus funds of the church to the "general education of all classes of Christians," which was ap- posed by the ministers and their friends, there was still a m^ority against them of 27. Finding that neither concessions nor professions of liberality were of any avail, the duke of Wellington in the upper house, and sir Robert Peel in the lower, announced their resignations; the latter at the same time declaring, that though thwarted by the commons, he parted with them on friendly terms. These frequent changes in the 'ministry sadly impede us in the progress of this suc- cinct history; but in like manner as they engrossed universal attention at the time and were considered all-important, so must they now be related, as affording the readiest clue to the principal transactions which took place in the arena of politics. Once more, then, we see lord Melbourne as the premier; with lord John Russell, home secretary ; lord Palmerston, foreign secretary ; right hon. Spring Rice, chancel- lor of the exhequcr ; the marquis of Lana- downe, president of the council ; and the other otiicial appointments filled nearly as they were when the "liberals'' were lately in power, except that the great seal was for the present put in commission. The first great question that engaged the attention of the commons, and one which had been looked forward to by the commu- nity with much impatience, was that of " municipal reform." For more than two centuries the abuses existing in corporate bodies, particularly the misapplication of municipal funds, had been a matter of con- stant complaint. It was naturally expected that a reform in the representative system in boroughs having been effected, a reform in the election of their own local authori- ties would follow. A commission to inquire into the state of municipal corporations, their modes of administering justice, their revenues and funds, and the privileges of freemen, &C., had already been instituted, and the result of the inquiry induced the commissioners to report to his majesty, that "the perver^sion of municipal institutions to political ends has occasioned the sacrifice of local interest to parly purposes, which have been frequently pursued through the corruption and demoralization of electoral bodies." Then, after pointing out the va- rious inefficient and corrupt modes in which municipal interests were attended to, and the great and general dissatisfaction which prevailed on the subject, the commissioners declared it to be their duty " to represent to his majesty that the existing municipal corporations of England and Wales nei- ther possess nor deserve the confidence or respect of his majesty's subjects, and thtrt a thorough reform must be effected before they can become useful and etticicnt instru- ments of local government." Upon this report, which was supported by a volumi- nous mass of details, lord John Russell A.». 1835. — DIRO, AORO 77, ■ABI, NEI.SON, BROTHKR OK THB NAVAL HERO. A.D. 1836. — THB lABL OF OUBHAM 8BNT AS AMBASSADOK TO BUSIIA. H H H ki O M K O f O 490 ^^e ^reasttti) of llbtorg, $cc. bronght in his bill, which, having been se- verely Bcrutiaixed in the lords, passed into a law. The grand feature of tliis bill is, that it vests the local government of a town in the rated and permanently resident in- habitants. In the council is vested the en- tire deliberative functions of the corpora- tion. They appoint the town-clerk and treasurer, and from them the mayor and aldermen are chosen. They have the con- trol of the police, watching, and lighting. If there be a surplus in the burgess fund, they may apply it to local improvements or any object beneficial to the inhabitants; or if insufficient, they may order a rate to be levied. All the existing rights of freedom, or citizenship, or burgess-ship, in the old corporations, are preserved to the present possessors; but all exclusive privileges of trading, or of exercising any calling or han- dicraft, in corporate towns, are abolished. Many other measures of practical utility were discussed and passed this session. Among them were several acts framed by sir James Graham for improving the naval code and thereby increasing the naval power of Great Britain ; first, by an act for amend- ing and consolidating the laws relative to merchant-seamen ; and secondly by an act, the object of which is to encourage the vo- luntarv enlistment of seamen into the royal navy, by limiting the period of service to five years. Lord Brougham also brought forward a very useful hill for removing some of the more obvious and glaring defects in the old patent law ; not the least of which was that the patent often expired just about the time the difficulties attending its first introduction had been surmounted, and, consequently, before the patentee had be- nefited by his invention. By the new law a power is vested in the crown of extend- ing, on the recommendation of the privy council, the term of a patent from fourteen to twenty-one years. Let us for a moment pause in our domes- tic narrative, to mention a diabolical contri- vance in France, which might have involved Europe in another scene of blood and tu- mult but for its providential failure. On the 28th of July, during the festivities of the annual commemoration of the revolu- tion of 1830, as Louis Philippe, attended by his sons and a splendid suite, was riding along the line of the national guard, on the boulevard of the Temple, an explosion like a discharge of musquetry took place from the window of an adjoining house, which killed marshal Mortier and another general officer, besides killing or wounding nearly forty other persons. But the king, who was the object of this indiscriminate slaugh- ter, with bis three sons, escaped unhurt. The assassin, who was a Corsican named Fieschi, was seized by the police, in the act of descending from the window by a rope, and wounded by the bursting of some of the barrels of his "infernal machine." The deadly instrument consisted of a iVame upon which were arranged 35 barrels, each loaded with bullets, Xlc, and the touch- holes communicating by means of a train of gunpowder. On his trial he made no at tempt to deny his guilt, but nothing could be elicited to prove that any formidable conspiracy existed, or that he was iuHu enced by any political party to undertake the horrid act. The atrocious attcmnt however, served for a convenient pretext to introduce a series of severe laws for the prevention and punishment of state crimes and revolutionary attempts. We shall close one sketch of this year's occurrences by briefly noticing the deaths of two persons, who, in their career for po- pular applause, attained a more than ordi nary share of notoriety. The one waa Henry Hunt, late M.P. for Preston, who had long figured as a leader among the ra. dicals, and whose zeal for " the people" at the too memorable meeting at Manchester had been rewarded by a long imprisonment in Ilchester gaol. He was originally a re spectable and wealthy Wiltshire farmer- but having renounced the charms of couni try Hie for the euphonious greetings of " unwashed artisans," he for many years continued to hold undivided empire over their aflfections. In personal appearance Mr. Hunt was a fine specimen of the Eng. lish yeoman; he was naturally shrewd uniting caution with boldness, but, above all, greedy of political popularity. Durine the latter part of his life his name, which used to grace the walls in juxtaposition with " universal suffrage," was allied with " matchless blacking;" and it was while he was on a journey of business throuRh the south-western counties that he met with his death, owing to a violent fit of paralysis with which he was seized as he was alight- inff from his pheeton at Alresford, Hants.— His more distinguished cotemporary and coadjutor, though sometimes powerful rival was William Cobbett, M.P. for Oldham; a man remarkable for persevering industry, and of unquestionable talents, who, from following his father's plough, and after- wards serving with credit as a British sol- dier in America, passed the greater part of his life in the unceasing strife of politics, and was able, by the force of his extraordi- nary and versatile powers as a writer, to keep a strong hold on public opinion for nearly half a century. He died in June, not three months after his quondam friend, Mr. Henry Hunt. [A memoir of Mr. Cob- bett is given, at considerable length, in the "Biographical Treasury," affording a rare example of the effects of application.] A.B. 1836.— The year opened auspiciously, both with regard to its commercial pros- pects and its political aspect. The whole manufacturing districts were in a state of activity; money was abundant wherever tolerable security was offered ; and though an immense absorption of capital was tak- ing place in extensive public undertakings, such as railways, some of which were al- ready highly successful, there was very lit- tle of that wild spirit of adventure which ten years before had nearly brought the country to the brink of ruin. Mercantile confidence rested upon a better basis than I A. D. 1835,— CKI«TEN:«IAL AnNIVBnSAKT OP IHB PROTHSTANT reformation, OCT. 4, . • it had bore ( BritisI Hill i tress, 1 Whi Febru latory gestioi certaii legiala justice aneqi manic The occupi brougl exche( goterr ttam ) posed, amotti Tvithoi tion for Jd. ment 1 unstai that 1 I; Londo protitl Not of leg sessio: felt at abaud been some tacces andm charit etectia raunic chanc ." of the on the cause ral ac railwa "com Wales extir.c right comm payab churc of epi come to be ofYor in.ooo Wind andB the ot from 1 Bristo ^ St. A 'a Man bisho Q ter, th ^ nomic the s( acts VI A L— — ._ A. D. 1836.— TBI BBITISU LKOION IN arAIII BBIIBOI IT. ■■BAStlAN. lEnglantJ.— 1|ou8« of ISrunatotck—ajRlUiam EF. 491 it had done for a long time ps»t; the ports bore ample evidence of the prosperity of British commerce ; and though there were iiiil just complaints of agricultural dis- tress, they were partial rather than general. ^The^ the king opened parliament in February these facts furnished congratu- latory topics for the royal speech, and sug- geations were also thrown out relative to certain improvements, contemplated b^ the legislature, and in the administration of iattice, especially in the court of chancery; «n equitable settlement of tithesinlreland; municipal reform in that country, &c. The first question of importance that occupied the attention of the house was brought forward by the chancellor of the excbeqi T,who announced the intention of goTernuent to reduce moat materially the itamp duty on newspapers. It was pro- poiea, he said, to reduce it from its present amount of 4d. with the discount, to Id, without discount, which would be a reduc- tion of nearly 2jrf. on all newspapers sold for 7d. or less. To this remission parlia- ment assented, by which the circulation of unstamped newspapers — an illicit trade that bad long been followed by certain London newsvenders — was abandoned as profitless. Notwithstanding several useful measures of legislation had been carried during the session, considerable disappointment was felt at its close in consequence of the loss or abandonment, of certain bills which had been brought forward by ministers with some parade and apparent contidencd of success: as, for example, the Irish tithe and municipal bills ; the bill for governing charitable trusts in England by popular election; bills for amending the English municipal act, for improvinjj the court of chancery, for removing the civil disabilities of the Jews, &c. But if the value depended on the amount of legislation, there was no cause of complaint ; the number of gene- ral acts passed in 1836 being M7; and of railway bills alone, 33. By the act for the " commutation of tithes in England and Wales," provision was made fur the tinal extiv.ction within two years of the vexatious" right of exacting tithes in kind, and for commuting them into a corn rent charge, payable in money. By the " established church act" for effecting a new distribution of episcopal dioceses and income -, the in- come of the archbishop of Canterbury was to be reduced to 15,0001. ; the archbishop of York to 10,000.; the bishop of Loudon to in.UOO;.; the bishop of Durham, 8,000/.; Winchester, 9,000. ; Ely, 5,5UU{. ; St. Asaph and Bangor, 5,200i. ; Worcester, 5,000/. ; and the other bishops to have incomes varying from 4,000/. to 5,000/. The bishoprics of Bristol and Gloucester to be united ; also St. Asaph with Bangor, and Sodor and Man with that of Chester; and two new bishoprics to be erected, one at Manches- ter, the other at Ripon. Several other eco- nomical rei;ulations in the church were at the same time effected by this bill. Two acts were also passed which were in some degree connected with church reform, namely, the " marriage act," and the act for " registering births, deaths, and mar- riages." Formerly, in order to be legally married, it was necessary to comply with the ritual of tl,e established church; but by the ne~v act a marriage may be simply a civil contract or a religious ceremony, ac- cording to the wish of the parties ; it will be equally legal whether contracted in any registered place of religious worship, or in the office of the registrar. The new mode of rei^istering births, deaths, and marri- ages, is valuable also as a statistical docu- ment and an authentic record of facts. In the obituary for this year are several distinguished names; Lord Stowell, aged 90, an eminent civilian ; many years judge of the high court of admiralty, and brother of lord chancellor Eldon. — Nathan Meyer Rothschild, the greatest millionaire of the age ; a man who in conjunction with other members of his family on the continent may be said to have governed the European money market. — James Wood, the rich, eccentric, and penurious banker of Glou- cester. — James Mill, the historian of British India.— Charles X. ex-king of France, who died an exile in lUyria, in the 80th year of his age. — And the abb£ Sieyes, who under all the phases of the French revolution maintained an elevated station, and on the fall of the republic became a count and peer of the empire. A. D. 1837. — It was remarked at the com- mencement of the previous year that symp- toms of prosperity appeared in all the lead- ing branches of commercial industry, and that no lack of capital was known for any undertakings, however vast, provided they held out a prospect for safe investments. But over-trading, led on and encouraged by over-banking, produced evils, whicti if not equal, were very similar in their effects, to those disasters which overwhelmed the country during the memorable commercial fianic of 1825. During the year 1836 no ess than forty-tivc joint-stock banks bad been established. It was therefore natural that one of the subjects recommended to the attention of parliament in the opening speech, should be "a renewal of the in- quiry into the operation of joint-stock banks." But the more important mea- sures which had formed the leading sub- jects of debate, and which were regarded by ministers as atcccsary to the stability of their tenure in office, underwent certain alterations, and were again brought for- ward for discussion. Little progress, how- ever, was made, when an event occurred which for a time absorbed all matters of minor interests The public had been apprised by the publication of bulletins, that his majesty was seriously ill, and on the 20th of June his death was announced as having taken place early that morning. He was per- fectly conscious of his approaching fate, and bad expressed a wish to survive the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo on the 18th. The good old king was so far •s p ITION, OCT. 4. A.S. 1837. — *HB CBI.BBBATEU MUS. FITZnEnBBRT CIKO, AQBD 80, H.ARCn 28. ..jjiiK'jj-Ji— mill Jijiin I.I -iMi.UJ»Bqg»»»;w« NaARLT ALL TBI BANKS IN TBB UNITED STATN* ITOF rATMBNT. 492 ^flt treasure of I^istoro, $cc. ^ratified; hut the symptoms of. 1S37- — ITPWARHS or 8,000 LOOMS UNBMPLOYBD IN BFITALPIIIT.nS. TUB lOTAL ■XCUANOB, BUII,T AtTM* TBI Fl«l OF LONDOB, COST 58,9621 lEnelantJ.— Ijouse of 13run»tolcft — ^Fittoria. 493 I and courtly compliments, passed for their full value, and gave ndditional zest to the "mantling bowl;" his lordship was ho- noured with a baronetcy, the two sheriffs I were knighted ; and the youthful queen drank to "the lord mayor, and prosperity to the city of London" with such conde- ' icending affability, that her faithful sub- jects fcave utterance to their delighted feel- ings iu picans of joyful acclamations, I No great progress was made during the ! first session of Victoria's parliament in I settling the various important subjects un- I der discussion. At its close, however, the ' civil list bill was passed: it provided a I total sum of 385,000{., which was thus class- ed :— 1. privy purse, fiO.OOO/. ; 2. salaries of ' household and retired allowances, i:U,260I.; i 3. expenses of household, 172,500/.; 4. royal ; bounty, &c., 13,200/.; ft. pensions, »,200/.; I unappropriated monies, 8,040{.— On the 23rd her m^esty went in person to give it her royal assent ; and then adjourned the par- liament to the 16th of January. A. D. 1838. — For some time past there had been symptoms of discontent in Lower Canada, fomented by the old French parly, which at length broke out into the appear- ance of a civil war. To check an evil so < pregnant with mischief, it was deemed ad- visable that no ordinary person should be tent out to that important colony. Ac- cordingly, it was notitied in the London Gazette, Jan. 16, that the earl of Durham, G.C.B. was appointed governor-general of "all her majesty's jirovinccs within and adjacent to the continent of North Ame- rica, and her majesty's high commissioner for the adjustment' of certain important affairs affecting the provinces of Lower and Upper Canada." His lordship did not ar- rive in Canada till nearly the cud of May. Actual contests had taken place between considerable parties of the insurgents and the troops under lieutenant-col. Wethorall, who had succeeded in driving them from all the villages on the line of the river Riche- lieu. At length, on the 13th of December, sir John Colborne himself marched from Montreal to attack the chief post of the rebels at the Grand Brul£. On the follow- ing day an engagement took place in the church yard of St. Eustache, when the loyalist army proved once more victorious, 80 of the enemy having been killed, and 120 taken prisoners. Dr. J. O. Chenier, their leader, was slain ; and the town was more than half burnt down. On the ISth, on sir J. Colborne's approach to the town of St. Benoit, a great portion of the inha- bitants came out bearing a white flag and begging for mercy ; but in consequence of the great disloyalty of the place, and the fact of the principal lenders having been permitted to escape, some of their houses were fired as an example. Dr. Wolfred Nelson, one of the rebel leaders, having been nine days concealed in the woods, was brought in prisoner to Montreal. In the Upper Province, a body of rebels, which occupied a position about three miles from Toronto, threatening that city, were suc- cessfully attacked and dispersed on the 7th of December by sir Francis Bund Head, at the head of the armed citizens, with such reinforcements as had spontaneously join- ed them from the country. The rebels had, however, established a camp on Navy island, on the Niagara river; and many citizens of the United States were impli- cated in the insurrectionary movements there and elsewhere on the frontier. On the 3rd of March a s) .rp engage- ment took place between ..-r majesty's troops and the insurgents, in which the latter were totally defeated at Point Pele island, near the western boundary of the British possessions. This island had been occupied by about 500 men, well armed and equipped; when col. Maitland, in order to dispossess them, marched from Amherst- burgh with a few companies of the 32nd and 83rd regiments, two six-pnundert, and some volunteer cavalry. The action that followed assumed the character of busb- tighting— the island, which is about seven miles long, being covered with thicket, and the pirates outnumbering the troops in the proportion of nearly two to one. Ulti- mately, however, they were driven to flight; leaving among th.e dead, colonel Bradley, the commander-in-chief; mi^or Howdley; and captains Van Rensellacr and M'Keon; besides a great many wounded and other prisoners. In this instance nearly all the killed and wounded were citizens of the United States ; and the arms that were found were all new, and marked as the property of the United States. The insur- gents being thus foiled in their daring attempts, it is not necessary, for the pre- sent, for us to allude further to Cana- dian affairs, than to observe that some of the most active ringleaders were execut- ed, and others transported to the island of Bermuda. In narrating the national domestic occur- rences of this year, we have to commence with one which, like the late conflagration of the houses of parliament, filled the in- habitants of the metropolis with great and well-founded alarm. Soon after ten o'clock on the evening of the 10th of January a fire broke out in the Royal Exchange, 'f he firemen with the engines were promptly on the spot, but owing to an intense frost, great delay was occasioned before their services became effective. Every effort was made to arrest the progress of the flames that practised skill and intrepidity could suggest ; but the work of destruction went rapidly on, from room to room and from one story to anoticr, till, with the excep- tion of the outer walls, that, fine building, with its various othces and its royal statues, was utterly demolished. It was reumrked hy those present, that at twelve o'clock, when the flames had just reached the north- west angle of the building, the chimes< struck up, as usual, the old tunc "There's nae luck about the house," and continued for about'five minutes. The effect was ex- traordinary; for althou)tli the fire was vio- lently raging, and discordan. sounds arose TAlFIRT.nS. --rz:r:: THI ARCniTBCT OF THE OT.D BOYAL EXCHANGB WAS SIR C. WRGIV. itu A.D. 1838.— AN ACT FAISIB FOR RIDUILDINO THB MOTAL ■XCUANOI. 9 m t M M « >» l« M H a K lace of London and its vicinity might parti- cipate in the general rejoicinus, a fair was permitted to oe holden in Hyde-park for four dnys ; where an area comprising about one-third of the park, well arranged, was occupied by theatres, taverns, exhibitions of alfkinds, and stalls for the sale of fancy articles, toys, and sweetmeats. The thea- tres were also thrown open for gratuitous idmissioD, a bnlloon ascent took place, fireworks were discharged, and the illu- minations were of the most magniticent description. The coronation festivities gave a great impetus to trade in the metropolis; there being, in addition to the numerous visitors from all parts of the united kingdom, a very considerable number of distinguished foreigners, independent of the gentlemen attached to the didurent embassies. No one, however, attracted so much notice or received such marked attention as marshal Sonit, ambassador extraordinary from the French court; cheers as hearty as those which greeted " the conquering duke " be- ing invariably given wherever he appeared. While on this subject we will not omit to mention a smgular incident which soon afterwards occurred. On the 9th of July a grand review took place in Hyde-park, in presence of her majesty, at which it was thought there were not less than ISO.OUO persons present. Just as marshal Soult arrived on the ground his stirrup broke ; and on his attendant being dispatched to the saddlers to the ordnance, Messrs. Laurie and Co. of Oxford-street, they sent the vete- ran general the identical stirrups used by Napoleon Buonaparte 1 Whether the co.-n- pbment received a suitable acknowledg- ment from the French marshal, or whether the reflections it suggested were of an agreeable kind, we have no means of ascer- taining: but it certainly was one of those circumstances which may be truly called "remarkable." On the 13th the corporation of London gave a grand dinner in Guildhall to all the ambassadors extraordinary and other illustrious foreign visitors: on which occasion, the duke of Wellington and mar- shal Soult were toasted together, and they both acknowledged the compliment with the greatest cordiality. A new coinage in gold, silver, and copper, was now issued. The gold consisted of flve- pouud pieces, double sovereigns, sovereigns, and half-sovereigns; the silver and copper comprised all tlie usual current coin of those metals ; but in none of them was there c ther the originality or taste dis- played vbat was expected. A. A. 1839.'-Cannda again demands our notice. Lord Durham had been sent out with extraordinary powers to meet the exi- gency of affairs in that colony. It was now admitted that he had exceeded the scope of those powers, by deciding on the guilt of accused men, without trial, and by ba- nishing and imprisoning them; but the ministers thought it their duty to acquiesce in passing a bill, which, while it recited the illegality of the ordinance issued by bis lordship, should indemnify those who had advised or acted under it, on the score of their presumed good intentions. The or- dinance set forth that " Woolfred Nelson, R. 8. M. Uouchette, and others, now in Montreal goal, having acknowledged their treasons and submitted themselves to the will and pleasure of her majesty, shall be transported to the island of Bermuda, not to return on pain of death; and the same penalty is to be incurred by Papineau, and others who have absconded, if found at large in the province. Government had intended merely to substitute a tempo- rary legislative power during the suspen- sion of, and in substitution for, the ordi- nary legislature; and as the ordinary legis- lature would not have had power to pass such an ordinance, it was argued that neither could this power belong to the sub- stituted authority. The passing ot the indemnity act made a great sensation as soon as it was known in Canada ; and lord Durham, acutely feeling that his implied condemnation was con- tained in it, declared his intention to re- sign and return immediately to England ; inasmuch as he was now deprived of the ability to do the good which he had hoped to accomnlisb. Meanwhile, the Canadas again became the scene of rebellious war and piratical invasion. The rebels occupied Beauhar- nois and Acadie, near the confluence of the Richelieu and the St. Lawrence, establish- ing their head-quarters at Napierville; and their forces mustered, at one time, to the number of 8,(100 men, generally well armed. Several actions took place; and sir John Colbome, who had proclaimed martial law, concentrated his troops at Napierville and Chateauquay, and executed a severe ven- geance upon the rebels whom he found theVe, burning the houses of the disaffected through the whole district of Acadie. But it was a part of the plan of the traitors and their republican confederates to distract the attention of the British commander and to divide the military force, by invad- ing Upper Canada; and at the moment air John Colbome was putting the last hand to the suppression of the rebellion in Beauharnois and Acadie, 800 republican pirates embarked in two schooners at Og- denburgh, fully armed, and provided with six or eight pieces of artillery, to attack the town of Frescott, on the opposite side of the river. By the aid of two United States steamers, they effected a landing a mile or two below the town, where they established themselves in a windmill and some stone buildings, and repelled the first, attempt made to dislodge them, killing and wounding forty-five of their assailants, among whom were five officers ; but on colonel Dundas arriving with n reinforce- ment of regular troops, with three pieces e H ■ M m m s p H M a IN!. 1840.— «&■••'■ ATHOirHSBIO BinWAT riBBT rVBLICLT BXBlBtTBB, «DBB 18. 600 XS'iit ^reasttrQ of l^istorn, ^c. ■till farther inemie, such as wonld beiit the father of a large family of royal chil' dren. Those events would justify the aug- mentations, by giTing a guarantee for the prince's permanent residence in, and at- tachment to, this country. He showed the inapplicability of the precedents in the cases of queens-consort, and animadverted upon the instance of prince Leopold's fiU,000{.; as tlie whole country had cried out that that allowance was excessive : and on the house again dividing, the numbers were, for the amendment 263, for the mo- tion 1S8; majority against ministers 104. On the 6th of the ensuing month (Fe- bruary), the bridegroom elect, conducted by viscount Torriugton, and accompanied by the duke his father, and his elder brother, arrived at Dover; and on the 10th, " the marriage of the queen's most excel- lent majesty with flem-marshal his royal highness Francis Albert Augustus Charles Emanuel, duke of Saxe, prince of Saxe Co- bourg and Gotha, K.G. was solerauized at the chapel royal, St. James's." The pro- cessions of the royal bride and bridegroom were conducted on a style of splendour suitable to the occasion. The duke of Sus- sex gave away his royal niece : and at that part of the service where the archbishop of Canterbury read the words, " I pronounce that ther be man and wife together," the park and Tower guns iired. In the after- noon her majesty and the prince proceeded to Windsor Castle, a banquet was given at St. James's palace to the members of the household, wliich was honoured by the pre- sence of the duchess of Kent, and the reign- ing duke and hereditary prince of Saxe Coburg; and the day was universally kept as a holiday throughout the country ; grand dinners were given by the cabmet minis- ters ; and in the evening the splendid illu- minations of the metropolis gave additional eclat to the hymeneal rejoicings. For many months past there had been an interruption to those relations of amity and commerce which for a long period had been maintained between this country aud China. It originated in the determination on the part of the Chinese government to put an end to the importation of opium into the " celestial empire," and to the op- position made to that decree by the British merchants engaged in that traffic. Early in the preceding year a large quantity of opium, belonging to Britisn merchants, was given up, on the requisition of Mr. Elliott, the queen's representative at Can- ton, to be destroyed by the Ciiinese autho- rities. The quantitv seized was upwurds of twenty thousand chests, which was Riip- posed to be worth two millions ; and Mr. Elliot pledged the faith of the government he represented that the merchants should receive compensation. The English government was naturally desirous to keep on good terms with a country from which so many commercial advantages had been derived; but tlie Chi- nene authorities daily grew more arrof^ant aud unreasonable, and several outrages against the English were committed. At length, in an affray between some seamen of the Volage aud the Chinese, one of the latter was killed; and on captain Elliot having refused to deliver up the homicidt to commissioner Lin, the most severe and arbitrary measures were immediately taken to expel all the British inhabitants from Macao. This hostile conduct was quiekir followed by an outrage of a still more te- rious character. The Black Joke, havinc on board one passenger, a Mr. Moss, and six Lascars, was obliged to anchor in the Lantaod passage, to wait for the tide Here she was surrounded by three mands^ rin boats, by whose crews she was boarded: five of the Lascars butchered,— and Mr Moss shockingly mutilated. These pro^ ceedings gave rise to further measurei of hostility. On the 4th Sept. captain Elliot came from Hong Kong to Macao in hiscu^ ter, in company with the schooner Pearl, to obtain provisions for the fleet. The man- darins, however, on board the war.junki ojpposed their embarkation, when captain Xflliot intimated that if in half an hour the provisions were not allowed to pass, he would open a Are upon them. The half hour passed, and the gun was flred. Three war junks then endeavoured to put to tea but were compelled by a well-directed fire of the cutter and the Pearl to seek shelter under the walls of Coloon fort. About lix o'clock the Volage frigate hove in sight, and the boat ot captain Douglas, with twenty-four British seamen, attempted to board the junk, but without success. The boat's crew then opened a (ire of musketry, by which a mandarin and four Chinese lol. diers were killed, and seven wounded. The result, however, was, that the proviiioni were not obtained, and that the Chineie i junks escaped; while, instead of any ap. I proach to a better understanding between the two countries, it was regarded rat her ai the commencement of a war; wliich, indeed, the next news from China conflrined. On the appearance, of another Britiih ship, the Thomas Cuutts, at Whampoa, commissioner Lin renewed his demand for the surrender of the murderer of the Chi- nese, and issued an edict comuianding dl the British ships to enter the port of Can- ton and sign the opium bond, or to depart from the coast immediately. In can of non-compliance with either of these con. ditions, within three davs, the commit. sioner declared he would destroy the entire British fleet. On the publieatioil of thii edict capatiu Elliot demanded an explaui- tion from the Chinese admiral Kawn, who nt first pretended to enter into a neKulia- tion, but immedia I'ly afterwards ordered out twenty-nine wur junks, evidently in- tending to surround the British sliini, The attempt, however, ended in five of the Jiinki being sunk, and another blown up, each with from 160 to 200 men on board ; ana on the rest making off, captain Kliiot or- dered the firing to cease. A decree was now issued by the emperor prohibiting the importation of all Uritiib A-D. 1840.— LOKDOIV ANB BLACK WALL RAILWAY OFBRBn TO TBI rUSUC, JOLT (. ns, foil 18. i,B. 1840.~*B>AV WBIf ■BH lAILWAT OriHBO bktwsbh bbibtol ahd batb, Aoa. 81. lEnglantf.— 1|ouse of IStunsinCcfi.— FUtorta. 50 1 nodit tnd the trade with China was con- iMMntljr at an end; but the American iblpi arrived and departed as usual. In the meantime preparations on a large scale were mskioK m India to collect and send off a large force to China, so as to brini; this most important quarrel to an issue. t)e«eral men of war and corvettes, from England and various foreixn stations, were alio got ready, and the command ^iven to admiral Elliot, to give the expedition all Ike auistanee and co-operatiou possible. The object of these preparations, as was stated bjr lord John KiwRell in the house of commons, wa«, in the first place, to ob- tain reparation for the insults and iqjuries offered to her majestjr's subjects by the CUneie government ; in the second place, to obtain for the merchants trading with China an idcmnification for the loss of their property incurred by threats of vio- lence offered by persona under the direc- tion of the Chinese government ; and, in the last place, to obtain a certain security that person* and property, m future trad- iig with China, shall be protected from Inittlt or injury, and that tneir trade and commerce be maintained on a proper foot- ing. We shall hereafter have occasion to ibow the progress of the armament des- tined for China, and its results. The ac- count we have here given was deemed necessary in order to show the origin of the dispute. Return we now to matters of domestic interest. On the 1st of June his royal highness prince Albert presided at the first anniver- sary meeting of the " society for the ex- tinction of tbe slave trade," held at Exeter- hall. The priuce, in his opening address, " deeply regretted that the henevolent and persevering exertions of England to abolish that atrocious traffic in human beings, at once the desolation of Africa and the black- est stain upon civilised Europe, had not hitherto led to any satisfactory conclusion ; but lip^ trusted that this great country would not relax in its efforts until it had flually and for ever put an end to a state of tilings so repugnant to the spirit of Chris- tianity, and to the best feelings of our nature." Many excellent speeches follow- ed, and a liberal subscription was entered into. A grent sensation was caused in the pub- lic mind by an attempt to assassinate the queen. On the 10th of June, as her ma- jesty was starting for an evening drive, up Conititntion-hill, in a low open carriage, accompanied by prince Albert, a youug man deliberately nred two pistols at her, but happily without effect. His name proved to he Edward Oxford, the son of a widow who formerly kept a coffee-shop in South- wark. lie was about eighteen ynars of a|;e, and had been lately employed as a potboy in Oxford street, but was out of place. He was instantly seised, and sent to Newgate on a eharite of higli treason ; but it appear- ing on his trial (which lasted two davs) that then were grounds for attributing the act to insanity, and as there was no positive proof that the pistols were loaded, the jury returned a verdict of " guilty, but that at the time he committed the act he was insane." The consequence was, that he became an inmate of Bethlem for life, as was the case with Hatfield, who forty ^ears before fired off a pistol at George III. in Drury-lane theatre. The murder of lord William Russell by Courvoisier, his Swiss valet, had just before excited considerable interest. The crime was committed at his lordship's residence in Norfolk-street, Park-lane, early in the night, and the murderer had employed the remainder of the night in carefully destroy- ing all marks which could cast suspicion upon himself, and in throwing the liouse into a state of confusion, in order that it might bear the appearance of having been broken into by burglars. Nor would it have been an easy matter to have convicted him on circumstantial evidence, had not a missing parcel of plate been discovered on the very day the trial commenced, which it appeared he had left some days before the murder with jNIadame Piolane, the keeper of an hotel in Leicester-square. It 's some time since we have had occa- sion to notice any thing relative to French affairs ; but an event transpired in August which we cannot well omit. On the 6th of that month Louis Napoleon, (sou of the late king of Holland, and heir icale of the Buonaparte family,) made an absurd at- tempt to effect a hostile descent upon the coast of Frnnre. He embarked from London in the Edinbur;;h Castle steamer, which he had hired from the Commercial Steam Navigation Company, as fur a voyage of pleasure, accompanied by about fifty men, including general Montholon, colonels Voi- sin, Laborde, Montauban, and Parquin, and several other officers of inferior rank. They landed at a small port about two leagues from Boulogne, to which town they imme- diately marched, and arrived at the bar- racks about five o'clock, just as the soldiers of the 42nd regiment of the line were ris- ing from their beds. At the first moment the soldiers were a little staggered, as they understood a revolution had taken plane in Paris, and they were sumuioned to join the iiiiperinl eagle. One of their officers, how- ever, having burred to the barracks, soon relieved the men from their perplexity, and they acknowledged his authority. Louis Na- poleon drew a pistol, and attempted to shoot the inopportune intruder; but the shot took effect upon a soldier, wlio died the same day. Finding themselves thus foiled, the Buonapartists took tbe Calais road to the colonne de Napoleon, upon the top of wliicn they placed their flag. The town authori- ties and national guard then went in pur- suit of the prince, who, being intercepted on the side of the column, made for the beach, with the view to embark and re- gain the packet in which he had arrived. He took possession of the life-boat; but scarcely had his followers got into it when the national guard also arrived on the beach and dis'cl'.arged a volley on the boat. ■a O M H m n »• a u M m Q H M U o A H X B O B H <» *< A.D. 1840.— TBB raiiiCBis auousta, aunt to tub qubkn, niiii, srft. 22. A. B. 1840.— BIAVa or TBI TlHBBABta HABaOIS Of CAM BBN, ABAB S3, OC*. 8. 602 ®]^e ^reasuig of IDIistory, $cc. whieb immediately upset, and the whole company were leen itruggling in the aea. In the meantime the steam packet was al- ready taken possession of by the lieutenant of the port. The prince was then made pri- soner, and about three hours after bis at- tempt on Boulogne, he and his followers were aafeW lodged in the castle. From Boulogne ne was removed to the castle rf Ham, and placed in the rooms once occu- pied by pnnce Polignac. On being tried and found isuilty, Louis Napoleon was sen- tenced to perpetual imprisonment in a for- tress; count Montholon, twenty years' de- tention; Parquin and Lombard, the same I>eriod ; others were sentenced to shorter pe- riods; Aldenise was transported for lite; and some wore acquitted. The insane attempt to excite a revolu- tionary movement in France, above de- scribed, probably owed its origin to the very "liberal" permission granted by Louis FbUlippe, and the no less liberal acqui- escence of the English ministers, to allow the ashes of the emperor Napoleon to be removed from St. Helena, in order that they might find their last resting-place in France. This had undoubtedly raised the hopes of many a sealous Buonapartist, who thought that th'i fervour of the populace was likely to display itself in a violent emeute, which the troops would be more rendj to favour than to quell. A grant of a million of francs had been made to de- fray the expenses of the expedition to St. Helena, (wliich was to be under the com- mand of prince de Jotnville), the funeral ceremony, and the erection of a tomb in the church of the Invalides; so that, in the language of the French minister of the in- terior, "bis tomb, like bis glory, should belong to his country I " The prince arrived at Cherbourg, with his "precious charge," on the 30th of November ; and on the 16th of December Napoleon's remains were ho- noured by a splendid funeral procession, the king and royal family beini; present at the ceremony, with 60,000 national guards in attendance, and an assemblage of 600,000 persons. It was observed at the time of Buo- naparte's exhumation, that his features were so little changed that his face was recog- nised by those who had known him when dive ; and the uniform, the orders, and the bat which had been buried with him, were very little changed. It was little contem- plated when the bpdy was deposited in "Napoleon's Vnliey," at St. Helena, that it would ever be removed ; nay, it seems that especial care was taken to prevent such an occurrence : for we read, that after having taken away the iron railins which sur- rounded the tomb, "they then removed three ranges of masonry, and came to a vault eleven feet deep, nearly filled with clay; a bed of Roman cement then pre- sented itself, and underneath was ano- ther bed, ten feet deep, bound together with bands of iron. A covering of ma- sonry was then discovered five teet deep, fanning the covering of the sarcopha- gna." We conclude this year's occurrences with the accouchement of ber majesty queen Victoria, who on the 21st of November gave birth at Buckingham palace to a prin- cess, her firstborn child ; and on the 10th of February the infant princess royal was christened Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa. A. n. 1841.— During the past year the at- tention of the great European powers bad been drawn to the condition of Syria and Turkey ; and an alliance was entered into between England, Russia, Austria, and Prussia to put an end to the dispute which existed between the sultan and Mehemet All, the warlike pacba of Egypt. For this purpose it was deemed expedient to dis- patch a fleet to the Mediterranean; and on the 141 h of August commodore Nspier summoned the Egyptian authorities to evacuate Syria. In reply to this summons Mehemet Ali declared that on the firat appearance of hostility in the powers of Europe, the pacha Ibrahim would be com- manded to march on Constantinople. Soon afterwards hostilities commenced, and the town of Beyrout was bombarded on the llth of September, and completely des- troyed by the allies in two hours. The war in Syria was now carried on with great activity. The troops of Ibrahim sustained a signal defeat early in October, wiih tlie loss of seven thousand in killed, wounded, and prisoners ; in additioi, to which, com- modore Napier, vMi a comparatively tri- fling number of marines andTurkish troopa, succeeded in expelling the Egyptians from nearly the whole of Lebanon, captured about 6,000 prisoners, with artillery and stores, and enccted the disorganization of an army of 20,U00 men. In short, more brilliant results with such limited means have rarely, if ever, been known, particu- larly when it is considered under what novel circumstances they were accoiupUth- ed. But the great exploit remains to be related. St. Jean d'Acre was taken by the allies on the 3rd of November. Colonel Sniitli, who commanded the forces in Syria, directed Omar Bey, with 2,U00 Turks, to advance on Tyre, and occupy the passes to the north- ward of Acre ; in the mean time admiral Stopford sailed from Beyruut roads, bavioj; on board 3,000 Turks, and detachments of EnKlisb artillery and sappers. The forces and fleet arrived off Acre at the same hour. At two o'clock p. m. a tremendous cannon- ade took place, which was maintained without intermission for some hours; the steamers lying outside throwing, with as- tonishing rapidity, their shells over the •hips into the fortification. During the bombardment the arsenal and magazine blew up, annihilating upwards of 1,20U of the enemy, forming two entire regimenti, who were drawn up on the ramparts, t sensation was felt on board the snips simi- lar to that of an earthquake. Every living creature within the area of 60,0U0 square yards ceased to exist. At two o'clock on the following morning a boat arrived from Acre, to announce that the remainder of A.B. 1840.— AN ATTBMrT MAOB TO FIKB 8HRBBNB8S DOCK-TARO, OCT. S. 83, oo*. 8. Bcurrencei with miueatr queen t of November ;)alace to a ptin- »nd on the lOth nce«i royal wai e Mary Louisa, last year the at- ean poweri bad ion of Syria and 'as entered into B, Austria, and le dispute which I n and Mehemet Egypt. For this xpedicnt to dis- literranean; and ininodore Napier I authorities to to this summons hat on the first n the powers of m would be com- stantinople. Soon ameneed, and the )mbaTded on the I completely dea- > hours. The war ;d on with great [braliim sustained October, wiih tlie D killed, wounded, 0)1 to which, corn- comparatively tri- .ndTurkishtroopa, lie Egyptians from ebanon, captured sitb artillery and disorganization of In short, more ch limited laeans n known, particu- lered under what were accorapliah- oit remains to be ten by the allies on Colonel Smith, who in Syria, directed irks, to advance on issea to the north- nean time admiral If rout roads, havinpi id detachments of ppers. The forces B at the same hour, emendous cannon- I WRS maintained t some hours j the throwing, with aa- shells over the tlon. During the nal and magazini! ipwards of 1,20« of entire regimenta, the ramparts. A lard the ships aimi- jake. Every living I of 60,000 square At two o'clocli on boat arrived from the remainder of ABD, oci. 2. a.S. 1841.— TBBSB CBUMCHIS AT DDHDBB SBITBOTBD BT riBB, JAB. 8. ^nglantr ^l^ousc of ISrunsioitft — ^Fictotia. 603 the rarrison were leaving the place ; and as soon as the sun rose, the British, Aua- trian. and Turkish flags were seen waving on the citadel. The town was found to be one moss of ruins,— the batteries and houses riddled all over — the killed and wounded lying about in all directions. The slain were estimated at 2,600 men, and the prisoners amounted to upwards of 3.000. The turkish troops were landed to garrison Acre, where a vast quantity of military stores were found; besides an excellent park of artillery of 200 guns, and a lorge sum in specie. • . . .i. As the foregoing successes led to the Urmination of the war in Syria, and its evacuation by Ibrahim Pacha, it is unne- cessary to enter into operations of a minor character. Mehemet All eventuallv sub- mitted to all the conditions oiFered by the sultan, and which were sanctioned by the representatives of Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia :—l. The he- reditary possession of Egypt is confirmed to Mehemet Ali, and his descendants in a direct line.— 2. Mehemet Ali will be allow- ed to nominate his own officers up to the rank of a colonel. The vicero^i can only confer the title of pacha with the consent ofthe sultan.— 3. The annual contribution ia fixed at 80,000 purses, or 40,000,000 of piastres, or 400,0001 —4. The viceroy will not be allowed to build a ship of war with- oat the permission of the sultan. — S. The laws and regulations of the empire are to be observed in Egypt, with such changes as the peculiarity of the Egyptian people may reiider necessary, but which changes mast receive the sanction of the Porte. At the commencement of the year news was brought from China that the differ- ences which had existed were in a fair train of settlement, and that the war might be considered as at an end. Hostilities had, however, recommenced, in consequence of Keshen, the imperial commissioner, having delayed to bring to a conclusion the nego- tiations entered into with captain Elliot. Preparations were accordingly made for at- tacking the outports of the Bogue forts, on the Bocca Tigris. Having obtained pos- session, the steamers were sent to destroy the war junks in Anson's bay ; but the shal- lowness of the water admitted only of the approach of the Nemesis, towing ten or twelve boats. The junks endeavoured to escape, but a rocket blew up a powder ma- gatine of one of them, and eighteen more which were set on fire bv the English boats' crews also successively blew up. At length a flag of truce was dispatched by the Chi- nese commander, and hostilities ceased. On the 20th of January captain Elliot an- nounced to her majesty's subjects in China that the following arrangements had been made:— 1. The cession of the island and harbour of Hong Kong to the British crown. 3. An indemnity to the British Sovernment of 6,000,000 dollars, 1,000,000 oUars payable at once, and the remainder in equal annual instalments, ending in 1846. 8. Direct official intercoarse between the two countries upon an equal footing. 4. The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten daya after the Chineaa new year. Thus far all appeared as it should be; but great doubts of the sincerity of Keshen, the Chinese commissioner, were felt both here and at Canton. Accordingly the Nemesis steamer was sent up the riverto reconnoitre, and on nearing the Bogue forts (30 in num- ber) it was discovered that preparations for defence had been made ; batteries and field-works had been thrown up along the shore, and npon the islands in the middle of the river; a barrier was in course of being constructed across the channel, and there were large bodies of troops assembled from the interior. Keshen finding his du- plicity discovered, communicated that fur- ther negotiations would be declined. The emperor, it appeared, had issued edict* re- pudiating the treaty, and denouncing the Enijlisli barbarian^ " who were like dogs and sheep in their dispositions." That in sleeping or eating he found no quiet, and he t uerefore ordered 8000 of his best troops to defend Canton, and to recover the places on the coast; for it was absolutely neces- sary (said the emperor) "that the rebel- lious foreigners must give up their heads, which, ^ U.. : ee prisoners, were to be sent to Pek'' iu :?•. to undergo the last pe- nalty of i! ft ." He also offered 60,000 dollars for < it) ehension of Elliot, Mu- risoii, orl'i .^ve, or 30,000 dollars for either of tueir lieads. In addition, 6,000 dollars for an officer's head, 600 for an Eng- lishman alive, 300 for a head, and 100 for a Sepoy alive. The emperor also delivered Keshen in irons over to the board of pu- nishment at Pekin, and divested the admi- ral Kwan Teenpei of his button. Before the hostile edicts had appeared, captain Elliot, confiding in the good faith ot Ke- shen, had sent orders to general Burrel to restore the island of Cbusan (which we had taken many months before) to the Chinese, and to return with the Bengal volunteers to Calcutta. This order had been promptly obeyed ; Chusan having been evocuated Feb. 29. . Capt. Elliot set sau on Feb. 20, up the Canton river. On the 24th he destroyed a masked field-work, disabling eighty can- non there mounted. On the 26th and '.^6th he took three adjoining Bogue forts, with- out losing a man, killing about 250 Chinese, and taking 1,300 prisoners. The subsequent operations of the squadron presented one unbroken succession of brilliant achieve- ments; until, on the 28th of March, Can- ton, the second city in the Chinese empire, containing a million of souls, was placed at the mercy of the British troops. Every possible means of defence had been used by the Chinese commanders; but nothing could withstand the intrepidity of the Bri- tish. In consetjuence of tbe Chinese firing on a flag of truce, the forts and defences of Canton were speedily taken, tbe flotilla burnt or sunk, and the union jack hoisted on the walls of the British factory. But H N O t! e •0 » M n u u m B m u a ■J o >3 •4 H » (3 M M B < U I. s WTMTABD, TBB 8BAT OF TBB MABQUIS Ot LOBDOBDBItBT, BVBNT, VEB. 19. A-B. 1841.— AITLBY's TBKAtBB BOBNT OOWIf t TUB TOTAL lOII, SOiOOOt. " 604 ^i^e treasure of I^iatorg, $cc. Capt. Elliot seemed doomed to be made the ■port of Chinese duplicity. He no sooner issued a circular to the English and foreign merchants,— announcing that a suspension of hostilities had been agreed on between the Chinese commissioner Tang and him- self, and that the trade was open at Can- ton, and would be duljr respected,— than the emperor issued another proclamation, ordering all communication with "the de- testable brood of English " to be cut off. Several other imperid proclaniatious in a more furious style followed; the last of which thus concludes—" If the whole num- ber of them (the English) be not effectu- ally destroyed, how shall I, the emperor, be able to answer to the gods of the hea- ven and the earth, and cherish the hopes of our people." Capt. Elliot, however, whose great oDject hitherto appears to have been to secure the annual export of tea, had succeeded in haviq^ 11,OOU,OOU lbs. shipped before the fulminating edicts of the empe- ror took effect. In October, dispatches of great import- ance were received from general sir Ilugh Gough, commanding the land forces, and captain sir H. F. Senhouse, the senior na- val ofllcer of the fleet, detailing a series of brilliant operations against Canton, whi- ther they had proceeded by the direction of Capt. Elliot. On the 20th of May the con- test began by the Chinese firing on the British ships and letting loose some fire- ships among them, whicli, however, did no damage. Next morning the fort of Sham- ing was silenced, and a fleet of about forty iunks burnt. On the 34th, a favourable landing-place having been discovered, the right column of the 26th regiment, under major Pratt, was convoyed by the Atalanta to act on the south of the city ; while the Nemesis towed the left column up to Tsin- ghae. After some sharp fiichting, the Can- ton governor yielded, and the troops and ships were witndrawn, on condition of the three commissioners and all the troops under them leaving Canton and its vicinity, and 6,000,(KIO of dollars to be paid within a week, the first million before evening that day : if the whole was not paid before the end of the wcL-k, the ransom was to be raised to 7,000,000 ; if not before the end of four- teen days, to 8,000,000; and if not before twenty days, to 9,000,000 dollars. After three days, the conditions having been ful- filled, the troops left for Hong Kong, having had 13 men killed and 97 wotiuded. Sir H. F. Senhouse died ou board the Blenheim from a fever brought on by excessive fa- tigue. Notwithstanding this defeat, the CTiinese were still determined to resist, and Yeh Shan had reported to the emperor, his uncle, that when lie had induced the bar- barians tn withdraw, he would repair all the forts again. The emperor, on his pnrt, declared that, as a last report, he would put himself at the head of his army, and march to India and England, and tear up the Eng- lish root and bra,ncli I Sir Henry I'ottinger, the new plenipo- tentiary, anil rear-admiral Parker, the new naval commander-in-chief, arrived at Macao on the 9th of August. A notification of sir Henry's presence and powers was sent to Canton immediately on his arrival «• companied by a letter forwarded to the' em' peror at Pekin, the answer to which was required to be sent to a northern station. The fleet, consisting of nine ships of war four armed steamers, and twenty-two trans! ports, sailed for the island and fortified citv of Amoy on the 31st of August. This island is situated in a fine gnlf in the province of Fokein, the great tea dis. trict of China, opposite the island of For. mosa, and about 350 miles north-estt of the gulf of Canton, 600 miles south of Cho. san, and 1,300 miles from Pekin. It was fortified by very strong defences, of granite rocks faced with mud, and mounted with no less than 600 pieces of cannon. On the 26th, after a brief parley with a man. darin, the city was bombarded for two hours. Sir Hugh Gough, with the 18th regiment then landed, and seized one end of the long battery ; whilst the seth regi- ment, with the sailors and marines, car- ried the strong batteries on the island of Koolangsee, just in front of Amoy. The Chinese made an animated defence for four hours, and then fled from all their for. tilications, and also from the city, earryiat with them their treasures. The Cbineae junks and war-boats were all captnred; and the cannun, with immense munitioni of war, of course fell into the hands of the English. Not a single man of the Britiih was killed, and only nine were wounded, The next day sir Hugh Gough entered the city at the head of his troops wiihoat op- position. The next dispatches from China ststed that Chusan had been recaptured on the 1st of October. A more resolute stand than usual was made by the Chinese; bat the troops, supported by the lire of the ships, ascended a hill, and cscaladed Tin;- hae, the capital city, from whence the Bri- tish colours were soon seen flying in even direction. On the 7th the troops attacked the city of Cinhae, on the mainland oppo- site Chusan, which is inclosed by a wall thirty-seven feet thick, and twenty two feet high, with an embrasured parapet of four I * feet high. The ships shelled the citadel and enfiladed the batteries; the seamen and marines then landed, and admiral lir W. Parker, with the true spirit of a Britiih sailor, was among the first to scale the walls. Here was found a great arsenal, a cannon foundry and gun-carriage manufac- tory, and a great var'ety of warlike storet. Several otlier enc;agcinents took place, in all of which the liriti^h continued to have a must decided advHntage, although it wai admitted that the ChinnHe and Tartar sol- diers shewed more resolution and a better acquaintance with the art of war than on former occasions. However, ns a lar^re te- inforcement of troops, with a battering train which had been sent from Calcutta, was shortly expected, sir Henry Pottinier put off the execution of some intended A.n. 1841. — THR QUBKN VISITS THB DDBB Or BKUFOBD, AT WOBUB!*, AUO. 2. J 1 de >4 3 th wl a th • Bl li tu ho be k. O. 1841.— TBI TOWII-aAI.L AT DIBIT DltTBOTXO BT FIBB, OCT. 31. lEnglant}.— I^ouse of ISiunsDoicli.— Xr(ctor(a. 605 VOBURK, AVS. i. opentioBt oa a aiore extended scale until ilome affun again require our attention. The ttnanee* of the couatrjr had latterly uMiBcd a moit disconraginK aspect ; and on the chancellor of the exchequer bring, iif forward his anaaal budget, he proposed to make up the defleiencjr of the present •car. which be stated to be 3.421,OUO/.. be- sides tlie aggregate deAeicncy of 6,000.0007., maialy b* a modification of the duties on sugar and timber, and an alteration of the duties on com. The apposition, generally, censored the proceedings of ministers ; and lir Bobert Peel commented severely on the enormous deficiency of 7>&00,000(. incurred during the past five years, with a revenue too which had been throughout improving. It appeared that the Melboame adminis- tration was on the wane ; and its perma- nency was put to the test when lord John Russell, in moving that the house ahouU go into a committee of ways and inenna in order to consider the sugar duties, entered into a defence of the present policy of ko- vemment. Lord Sandon then moved the amendment of which he had given notice, "that considering the efforts and sacrifices which parliament and the country have made for the abolition of the slave trade and slaverr, with the earnest hope that their exertions and example mi^ht lead to the mitigation and final extinction of those evUs in other countries, this house is not prepared (especially with the present pro- •pecti of the supply of sugar from British Eouesiious) to adopt the measure proposed y her majesty's government for the reduc- tion of the duties on foreign sugara." The debate which hereupon ensued was ad- jonmed from day to day, and lasted for the unprecedented extent of eight nights. When the house divided, on the 18th of May, there sppeared for lord Sandon's amendment, S17; against it, 281; m^ority against mi- nisters, 36. On the 27th of May air R. Peel took an opportunity of minutely reviewing the va* rious measures that had been submitted to parliament by ministers, and afterwards sbandoned, and the prejudicial effects on the finances of the country which had ac- crued from the passing of others. Sir Robert added, that in every former case where the house had indicated that its confidence was withdrawn from the minis- try, the ministers had retired. The whole of their conduct betrayed weakness and a servile truckling for popular favour; and the prerogatives of the crown w-ere not safe in their hands. He then moved the follow- ip^ resolution " That her mtuesty's minis- ters do not sufBcieiitly possess the confi- dence of the bouse of commons to enable them to carry through the house measures which tliey deem of essential importance to the public welfare, and that tlu'ir conti- nuance iu ofiice, under such circumstances, is at •ariance with the spirit of the consti- tttiion." Tliis motion was carried in a full home, (the number of members present being 62.1,) by • majority of one. On the 22nd of June her ro^jesty prorogued parlia* meat, " with a view to ita immediate disso- lution;'" and it was accordingly dissolved by proclamation on the fullowiiig dajr. On the meeting of the new parliament ( August the 24th ) the strength of the conservative party was striking. The min- isters had no measutes to propose bejrond those on which they had before sustained a defeat ; and when an amendment to the address was put to the vote, declaratory of a want of confidence in her majesty's pre- sent advisers, it elicited a spirited debate of four nighta' continuance, terminating in a majority of 91 against ministers, 'f his result produced, as a matter of course, an immediate change in the miniatry. The new cabinet was thus constituted :— Sir R. Peel, first lord of the treasury; duke of Wellington, ( without office ) ; lord L«nd- hurst, lord chancellor; lord Wamcliffe, Sreaident of the council ; duke of Bucking- am, privy aeal ; right hon. H. Gouibum, chancellor of the exchequer; sir James Graham, home secretarr; earl of Aberdeen, foreign secretary; lord Stanley, colonial secretary ; earl of Haddington, first lord of the admiralty; lord ElleiiboroMgU. presi- dent of the board of control ; earl of Ripon, president of the board of trade ; sir Henry Hardinge, secretary at war; air Edward Knatchbull, treasurer of the navy and pay- maater of the forces. Earl de Grey was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland ; and sir Edward Sugden, Irish lord chancellor. Some ordinary business being disposed of, sir R. Peel proposed to defer till after Christmas the nieasurea he thought neces- sary to equalize the expenditure and the revenue, and the plans of ministers for meeting the commercial difficulties of the country : and the first session closed on the 7th of October. On the 30th of October the inhabitants of London were alarmed by a destructive fire in the Tower, which broke out about half-past ten o'clock at night, and con- tinued to rage with the utmost fury for several hours. It was first discovered in the round or bowyer tower, and (;uickly npread to the grand armoury, where the flames gained a fearful ascendancy, and presented an appearance at once grand and awful. Notwithstanding the exertions of the firemen and the military, the con- flagration continued to spread, and appre- hensions were entertained that the jewel tower, with ita crowns, sceptres, hnd other emblems of royalty deposited there, would fall a prey to the devouring element. Hap- pily, by prompt exertion, they were all taken to tne governor'a residence; and the gunpowder and other warlike atores in the ordnance office, from which the greatest danger was to be apprehended, were also removed. In addition to the armoury and bowyer tower, three other large buildings* were entirely consumiid. The grand ar- moury was 3t5 feet long, and 60 feet broad. In the tower floor were kept about forty- three pieces of cannon, made bjr founders of different periods, besides various other A. D. 18-tl.— rBARQVS o'cOnilOB RKCBIVRO A VRRB rARDOIf, AVO. 30. [ix A. B. IS41.~IHB rorDLATlON OF SRVf.AHO ARB WALII, 15,1)01,981. 3 a 506 C^e ^reasurs of l^istory, $cc. interestiDK ohjecti, and a larfte nnmber of cbetta containing arms in readineia for use. A f(i'nnd Rtaircase led to the upper floor, wiiicli was all on'! room, and called the imnll armoury, in which were above ISO.OOO stand of small arms, new flinted, and ready for immediate service. As that part of the building where the lire originated was heated bjr dues from stoves, it was the general opinion that the accident was thereby occasioned. The loss sustained, indudinic the expense of rebuilding, was estimated at about 2sn,()U0{. Tlie closing parngraph in the occurrences of last year recorded the birth of the prin- cess royal. We have now to state, that on the 9tti of November the queen gave birth to a prince at Buckingham-pnlace ; nearly a twelveniontii having elapsed since her majesty's former accouchement ! The happy event having taken pince on lord mayor's da^, it was most loyally celebrated by the citizens so opportunely assembled. On the 25th of the tollowing January the infant prince of Wales received the name of Albert Edward, the king of Prussia being one of the sponsors. A. D. 1842. — The year commenced with most disastrous intelligence from India. In consequence of reductions having been made in the tribute paid to the eastern Ghiitie tribes, for keeping open the passes between Caboul and Jell8!dbad,in Affjglian- islan, the people rose r \A took possession of those passes. Gen. sir R. Sale's brigade was therefore directed to re-open the com- municatiot:. The brigade fought its way to Gundamuck, greatly harassed by the enemy from the iiigh ground, and, after eighteen days* incessant fighting, reached that place, much exhausted ; they then moved upon Jellalabad. Meantime an in- surrection broke out at Caboul. Sir A. Bumes, his brother lieut. C. Burnes, lieut. Broadfoot, and lieut. Sturt were massacred. The whole city then rose in arms, and universal plunder ensued — whilst another large party attacked the British canton- ments, about two miles from the town. I These outrages, unfortunately, were but the prelude to others far more frightful. Akh- bar Khan, the son of Dost Mahommed, on pretence of making arrangements with sir W. H'Naghten, the British envo^ at the court of Shah Soojah, invited him to a conference; he went, accompanied by four officers and a small escort ; when the trea- cherous AiTghan, after abusing the British ambassador, drew a pistol and shot him I dead on the spot. Capt. Trevor, of the 3rd I Bengal cavalry, on rushing to his assist- ance, was cut down, three other o^icers were made prisoners, and the mutilated body of the ambassador was then barba- rously paraded 'hroiigh the town. It was also stated that some severe lighting had taken p ace, but under the greatest disad- vantage to the British and native troops, and tliat the army in Caboul had been almost literally annihilated. A capitula- tion was then entered into, by which the remainder of the Anglo Indian army re- tired from the town, leaving all the sick wounded, and sixteen ladies, wives of oM- cers, behind. They had not, however, pro- ceeded far before they were assailed from the mountains by an immense force, when the native troops, having fought three davs. and wading through deep snow, gave war and nearly the whole were massacred. So terrible a disaster had never viuitcd the British arms since India first acknow- ledged the supremacy of England. A fatal mistake bad been committed by the for- mer government, and it was feared that all the energy of the new ministry would be insufticient to maintain that degree of in- fluence over the vast and thickly peopled provinces of India, which was necessary to ensure the safetv of our possessions. The governor-general, lord Auckland, was recalled; and his place supplied by lord Ellenborough, whose reputation for a cor- rect knowledge of Indian aHairs was un- disputed. His lordship arrived at Calcutta on Veb. 28 ; at which time sir llobert Sale was safe at Jellalabad; but he was most critically situated. The garrison, however, maintained their post with gnreat gallantryl and were able to defy the utmost efforts of the AffghauR, having in one instance sal- lied forth and attacked their camp, of 6,000 men, and gained a signal victory. At length general I'ollock effected a junction with the troo()H of sir R. Sale, and released them from a siege of 154 days' duration ; having previously forced, with very little loss, th* dreaded pass of the Khyber, twenty-eight miles in length. Gen. Nott also, who ad- vanced from Candahar to meet general England, who had sustained considerable loss at the pass of Kojnck, encountered a large force of Affghana, and completely defeated them. But, on the other hand, colonel Palmer surrendered the celebrated fortress of Ghuznee, on condition that the garrison should be saiely coudusted to Caboul. Tlie day of retribution was now at hand. General Nott, at the head of 7,000 men, having left Candahar on the lOth of Au- . gust, proceeded towards Ghuznee and Ca- boul; while general England, with the re- mainder of the troops lately stationed at Candahar, marched back in safety toQuetta. On the 30th of August Shah Shoodecn, the governor of Ghuznee, with nearly the whole of his army, amounting to not less tlisn 12,1)111) men, arrived in the neighbourhood of the British camp ; and general ' At pre- pared to meet him with one ba.f of hit | force. The enemy came boldly forward, j each diviiiion cheering as they came into position, and occupying their ground in • excellent style ; but after a short and spi- j riled contest, they were completely de- { (CHted, and dispersed in every direction;! their guns, tents, ammunition, &c. falling j into the hands of the English. On the >5lll | of September general Nott invested the city ot Ghuznee, which was stronj{ly hap risoned, while the hills to the north eait ward swanued with soldiery; hut tliey toon abandoned the place, and the British llai;i TnR POPULATION CRNsrS IS KXCI IISIVK Of TII8 ARMT ANO NAVT. I a J f « I a I « s i I « t ■ a a a ■ ■ * ■¥ K •: a M « ■ e K S h a fl wb An del Tlii bui ,S81. ig all the tick, s, wives of ofll- , howeTer, pro- e Buailed from me force, when ight tliree deye, mow, g«»e w»jr, maisaercd. kd never vinitcd lia tint acknow- nsland. A fatal ted by the for- a feared that all niitry would be at degree of in- thickly peopled I was necestary Dur pOMCMlOIIS. 1 Auckland, wa« mpplied by lord itation for a cor- I alTaira was un- rived at Calcutta i air Robert Sale lUt he was moit arrison, however, t great gallantry, utmost effort* of me initance sal- eir camp, of 6,000 ictory. At length a junction with ind releaaed them duration; having ry little loia, the ber, twenty-eight ott also, who ad- to meet general lUed coneiderable encountered a and completely the other hand, ed the celebrated Dndition that the !ly coudttsted to as now at band, ad of 7,0U0 men. the 10th of Aa- Ghuznee and Ca- and, with the re- itely stationed at n safety to Quetta. ah Slioodecn, the nearly the whole to not less thsn le nei|;hboarhood general " jtt pre- one hsif of bii | e boldly forward, ! they came into their ground in ' a short and lui- completely de- every direction; nition, &c. fulling rlish. On the ill) iott invested the was stronnly por- to the north eail ry ; but they soon d the ISritiiih A»i* I) NAVT. « «.0. 1943.— *UB Kma or fmoisia ouiTt mhulaho ro* oariiiD, ma. 4. were hoisted in triumph on the Bala Uit- ur. The citadel of Gbucnue, and other formidable works and defences were rated to the ground. , „ „ . Barly in September general Pullork marched from Oundainuck on his way to Caboul. On reaching the hilla which com- mand the road through the pass «f Jusf- dolluck, the enemy wna found strougly ported and in considerable numbers. In this action most of the influential Affghan chiefs were engaged, and their troops manfully maintained their position; but at length the heights were stormed, and, tflcr much arduous exertion, they were dis- lodged and dispersed. General Pollock pro- ceeded onwards, and does not appear to have encountered any further op{iosition aniil bis arrival, Sept. 13, in the Tehzear valley, where an armv of 16,000 men, com- manded by Akhbar Khan in persou, was utembled to meet him. A desperate light ensued ; the enemy was completely defeat- ed and driven from the field. On the day following this engagement the general ad- vanced to Boodkhaks and on the Kith he made his triumphal entrv into the citadel, and planted the British colours on its walls. "Thus," said lord Ellenborough, in his general orders, " have all piist dis- Mters been retrieved and avenged on every scene on which they were sustained, and repeated victories in the iield, and the cap- tore of the cities and citadels of Ghuznee and Caboul have advanced the glory nnd estahliahed the accustomed supei'iority of the Briiith anna." At length the long and anxiously desired liberation of the whole of the British pri- soners in the hands of the AffKhans was eifected. Their number was 31 oftlccrs, {ladies, and 12 children, with SI European soldiers, 2 clerks, and 4 women, making in all 10!) persons, who had suffered captivity firom Jan. 10 to Sept. 27. It appeared that, by direction of Akitbar Khan, the prisoners bad been taken to Bameean, 90 miles to the weitward, and that they were destined to be distributed amongst the Toorkistan chiefs. General Pollock and some other officers proposed to the Affghan chief, that if he would send them back t o Caboul, they would give him 2,0001. at once, and 1,2UU/. a year for life. The chief complied, and on the second day they were met by sir Rich- mond Shakspear, with 610 Kuzzilbashes, and shortly afterwards by general Sale, with 3,000 cavalry and infantry, when thef returned to Caboul. Besides the Europeans, there were 327 sepoys found at Ghuznee, and 1,200 sick and wounded who were bcg- giag about Caboul. On the arrival of gene- ral Nott's division, the resolution adopted by the Britisli government to destroy all the Aflglian strongholds was carried into exeeutioni though not without resistance, particularly at the town and fort of Istaliff, where a strong body of Affglmns, led on by Aiaeer Oula, and sixteen of their most determined chiefs, had posted themselves. Tliia town consisted of masses of houses built on the slope of a mountain, in the lEnglantf.— I^ousc of ^runsbotcli.— Ficioria. &07 rear of which were lol'ty eminences, shut- ting in a dciile to Toorkistan. The number of its inhabitants exceeded 1&,0(I0, whiv from their defences and dil^culiies of up- proHcli, considered their possession unaa- aailable. Tlie greater part of the plunder seized last Jiiuuary from the British waa placed there; the chieft kept their wivea and families in it ; and manv of those who hud escaped from Caboul had sought refuge there. Its capture, however, was a work of no great difticulty; the British troops driving the enemy before them with consi- derable slaughter. The Anglo Indian troops soon afterwards cnminenced their home- ward march in tliree divisions; the tirst under general Pollock, the second under I general M'Caskill, and the third under gc- ; neral Nott. The tirst division effected their I march through the passes without loss; but the second was less successful, the niountoineers attacking it about Ali-AIus- I jid, and plundering it of part of the bag- gage. General Nott, with his division, ar- rived in safety; bearing with them the celebrated gates of Simmatith, which, it is aaid, a Mahcmetivn conqueror had taken away from an Indian temple, and which, during nearly eight centuries, formed the chief ornament of his tomb at Ghuznee. The Niger expedition, as it was termed, which was undertaken last year by bene- volent individuals, supported bv a govern- ment grant of 60,UOUf., was totally defeated by the pestilential eilects of the climate. The intention was, to plant in the centre of Africa an Eiiglixli colony, in the hope, by the proofs afforded of the advantages of agriculture and trade, to reclaim the na- tives from the custom of selling their cap- tives into slavery. Among the various domestic incidents which diversify a nation's annals, none excite such lively interest or give birth to such a spontaneous burst of loyal feeling, as outrages directed against the life or welfare of a beloved sovereign. On the 3Uth of May, as her majesty, accompanied by prince Albert, was returning down CoU' stitution-hill to fiuckinghum-palace, from her oficruoun's ride, a young man, named John Francis, iircd a pistol at the carriage, but without effecting any injury. He was immediately taken into custody, when it appeared that he was by traile a carpenter, but being out of employ, had attempted to establish a snuff-shop, in which he was unsuccessful. It was supposed that he was incited to this crimiuul net partly by desperation, and partly by the ecl&t and permanent provision (though in an apart- ment at Bedlam) awarded to Edward Ox- ford, who, it will be remembered, per- formed a similar exploit at nearly the same spot in June, 1840. The news reached the house of commons while the debate on the third reading of the property tax was in < progress; wliich was suddenly slopped, and the house broke up. The next day, however, the bill was again proposed, and carried by a majority ot lOG. A joint address congratulating her ma- «.D. 1813.— TBnaini.T nKSTRircTivK una at bambuho, MAt 4: i.osn, 7,000,000?. i.B. ISM.— THB RBW TIBAt POCK AT aoVTaAUrTOIl OriHBD, AVB. 19^ ' 608 ^{;c ^rcaisunj of l^istori?, $cc. JRity ou her happy eicape, waa presented from both house* of parliament on the 1st of June, and a foriu of thauks^vinR was aanetioned by the privy council. It ap- peared that some danger had been appre- bended in consequence of tlie same per- aon having been ooservrd in the park with a pistol on the preceding day; and lord Portman stated in the house of lords that her majesty in eonitpnucnce would not per- mit, on the 30tb of Miiy, the attendance of those ladies whose duty it is to wait upon her on such occasions. Francis was ex- amined before the privy council, and then committed to Newgate; he was tried, found gnilty of high treason, and sentejced to be bung, beheaded, and quartered ; but it was deemed proper to remit the extreme penal- ties of treason, and commute bis sentence to transportation for life. Scarcely more than a month had elapsed, when a third attempt, or pretended at- tempt, on the life of the queen was made in St. James's park, her majesty being at the time on her way from Buckinj^am palace to the chapel royal, accompanied by prince Albert and the king of the Belgi- ans. A lad, about eighteen years of age, named John 'William Bean, was observed to present a pistol at her msjebty's car- riage, by a youth named Danset, wiio seized him, and related the circumstance to two policemen. They treated it as a joke, and Bean was allowed to depart ; but he was subsequently apprehended at his father's house, and committed to prison. On his examination he persisted in asserting that there was nothing but powder and paper in the pistol, and that he did not intend to hurt the queen ; in fact, he appeared to be one of those weak and thoughtless beings, who, regardless of the consequences, seem alwaya actuated by a morbid aesire of noto- riety. It waa evident that the false and repre- hensible syninathy shewn to Oxford had encouraged others in their base attempts ; and sir Robert Peel, acting on that con- viction, introduced a bill into parliament for the better security of her majesty's per- son: his object being to consign the of- fenders to that contempt and to that sort of punishment which oeAtted their dis- graceful practices. The bill was so framed as to inflict for the offences of presenting fire-arms at her majesty, or striking or at- tempting to strike her person with missiles, and for various other acts of violence in- tended to alarm her majesty, or disturb the public peace, the penalty of seven years' transportation, with previous imprisonment and a good flogging, or other bodily chas- tisement. HermiOesty having signified her inten- tion of visiting Scotland this summer, she and prince Albert embarked at VToolwich Aug. 29, in the Royal George yacht, com- manded by lord Adolphus Fitznlarence. During their progress every tower and bea- con along the coast vied in demonstrations of loyalty. Her majesty arrived Sept. 1 ; and on landing, proceeded direct to Dal- keith palace, the authoritiea of Bdinbarsh Dot being prepared for her reception at so early an liour as nine in the morning. On the 3rd her majesty made her public entrv Into Edinburgh, and waa received atHolv- rood palace by the royal body-guard of archers, commanded by the earl of Dal- housie. On the 6th the queen held a levee in Dalkeith palace, which was attended bv an extraordinary concourse of the nobilitv of Scotland, (in the 6tb the royal partv Sroceeded by sea towards the north ; and ined and slept at Scone palace, tlie seat of the earl of Mansfield. On the 7ih the queen departed from Scone for Tavmouth castle, the seat of the marquis of Breadal- bane. At Dunkeld ahe was r( jeived by a gallant array of lord Glenlyon's clansmen 1,0U0 in number ; and on her majesty's spl proach to Taymouth castle, a striking dit. plav was made of " bonnie laddies" in their national costume. A splendid diicliarn of fire-works greeted her arrival ; and tbe evening was passed in the exhibition of Highland dancing on a platform formed under the windows of the castle. The next day a deer-stalking, in which ISO men were employed, was undertaken for the entertain- ment of prince Albert, who, doubtless, felt himself more agreeably employed in kill, ing a score of roe deer, than he would have been if engaged in feats of arms with hardy Scotchmen. The royal visitors having ho- noured several other noblemen with their presence, and partaken of the amuscmenta peculiar to the country, departed highly gratified ; and re embarking on the litb, in two days reached Windsor castle. We must once more recur to the warlike oi>erations in China. After the arrival of reinforcements, the British expedition on the 13th of June entered the Inrite river enlled Yang-lze-Kiang, on the banks of which were immense fortifications. The fleet at daylight having taken their stationi, the batteries opened a fire, which lasted two hours. The seamen and marines then landed, and drove the enemy out of the bat- teries before the troops could be diaem- barkcd. 253 guns were here taken, of lies*; calibre, and 1 1 feet long. On the 19th two other batteries were tMen, iu which were ' 48 guns. The troops then took posssition of the city of Shanghai, destroved the pub- > lie buildings, and distributed the grauariei | among the people. Two other field-worka were also taken, and the total of the gunt captured amounted to the astonishing num- ber of 364. The squadron set sail from Woosnngon the 6th of July; on the 20th the vessels anchored abreast of the city of Ching-Keang-foo, which commands the en- trance of the grand canal, and the out morning the troops were disembarked, ana mnrched to the attack of the Chinese forcn. One brigade waa directed to move againit the enemy's camp, situated about tbne milea distant; another was ordered to co- operate with thia division in cutting off the expected retreat of the Chinese from the camp; while the third received instructioni to escalade the northern wall of the town. i i h A D. 1:142— TUB NEW DOCK AT NRWrORT, MOIf MOtJTnsninR, OFKNBn, OCT. 10. BD, *V*. St. oritira of Edinburgh r her reception at to in tlie morning. On lade her public entry WM received at Hulj- royal body-suard of by the eMrl of Di^> he queen held a leree liich was attended by »>nrae of the nobility e 6th the royal party varda the north; and one palace, tlie teat of Id. On the 7th the I Scone for Taymouth iC marquia of fireadal- ahe waa r. ;eived by a Glenljron'a clanimen, d on her m^Jesty'i ap. I caiile, a atriking di*. unnie laddiei" in their A aplendid diicharn d her arrival ; and tb« I in the exhibition of on a platform formed >f the castle. The next in which ISO men were rtaken for the entertain- ert, who, doubtleu, felt ■ably employed in kill- ser, than ne would hate reals of arms with hardy oyal visitors having ho> er noblemen with their kken of the amusements luntry, departed highly ibarking on the l&ih, in Ifindsor castle. ore recur to the warlike , After the arrival of British expedition on entered the lar^e river ang, on the banks of nse fortifica.ions. The ving taken their stations, led a fire, which lasted >amen and marines then ;he enemy out of the bst- ^ troops could be disem. ,-ere uere taken, of heavy f long. On the 19th two ^ s re tAen, in which were ; » >p8 tlien took posststion ghai, deatroyed the pub- istributed the grausriei ^ Two other field-works nd the total of the guns 1 to the astonishing num- squadron set sail from pth of July JOB the 20th,, ed abreast of the city of » which commands the en- ■nd canal, and the next 18 were disembarked, sna ack of the Chinese forces. lirected to mova againit p, aituated about thrte other waa ordered toco- „ division in cutting off the J of the Chinese from the - bird received instructions « irtbern wall of the town^ i RR, or»«»n, OCT. 10. a.u. IHM.— TUB raxRCB fsKs rosaiaaioii o* tun MABQiriaaa laLASDS. lEitglantl. —I^ousc o( ISrunstDicfi.— "FUtoiia. 609 The Chinese, after flrinn a few distant vol- leys, flpd from the camp with precipitation, and dispfrscd over the country. The city itself, however, waa manfully defended by the Tartur soldiers, who prolonged the con - test for several hours, resisting with despe- rate valour the combined cfforta of the three brigades, aided by a reinforcement of ma- rinef. »nd seamen. At length opposition ceased, and ere niithtfall the British were complete mastera of the place. Cliing- KeniiK-foo, like Amoy, waa most strongly fortilicd, and the works in excellent repair. It is supposed that the garrison consisted of not less than 3,000 men, and of these about 1,000 and 40 mandarins were killed and wounded. The Tartar general retired to his house when he saw that nil was lost, msde his servants set it on life, and sat in his chair till he was burned to death. On the side of the British, 15 officers and 154 men, of both aerviccs, were killed and wounded. A strong garrison being left behind for the retention of Cliingkeang-foo, the fleet Sroceeded towards Nankin, about 40 miles Istant, and arrived on the 0th of August, when preparations were immediately made for an attack on the city. A strong force, under the command of major-general lord Saltoun, was landed, and took up their po- sition to the west of the town ; and opera- tions were about to be commenced, when a letter was sent off to the plenipotentiary, requesting a truce, as certain liigh com- missioners, specially delegHted by ihe em- peror, and possessed of full powers to negotiate, were on their way to treat with the Enxlish. After several visits and long discussions between the contracting pow- ers, the treaty was publicly signed on board the Cornwallis, by sir H. Pottinger and the three commissioners. Of this convention the following are the most important arti- cles:—!. Lasting peace and friendship be- tween the two empires. 3. China to pay 21 millions of dollars in the course of that and three succeeding years. 3. The ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai, to be thrown open to British merchants, consular officera to be appoint- ed to reside at them, and regular and just tariffs of import and export (as well as in- land transit) duties to be established ami published. 4. The island of Hong-Kong to he ceded in perpetuity to her Britannic majesty, her heirs, and successors. S-. All subjects of her Britannic majesty (whether natives of' Europe or India,} who may be conlined in any part of the Chinese empire, to be unconditionally released. 6. An act of full and entire aninest)r to be published by the emperor under his imperial sign manual and seal to all Chinese subjects, on account of their having held service or intercourse wi A, or resided under, the British government or its officers. 7. Cor- respondence to be conducted on terms of perfect equality amongst the officers of both governments. 8. On the emperor's as- sent being received to this trcaiv, and the payment of the first instalment,' 6,000,000 dollars, her Britaunie majesty'a forcea to retire from Nankin and the fnni canal, •nd the military posts at Chinghai to be also withdrawn t but the ialanda of Chnian and Kolangaoo are to be held until the money paymenta and the arransementa for opening the porta be completea. A. D. 1843. — On the Snd of February the parliamentary sesaion commenced ; the royal apeecfa, which waa read by the lord chancellor, referring in terms of^ Juat con- gratulation to— 1. Tlie succeasful termina- tion of hnstilitiea with China, and the proa- pect it afforded of assisting the commer- cial enterprize of her people. 3. The com- plete success of the recent military opera- tions in Affghanistan, where the aupenoritv of her majesty's arms had been established by decisive victoriea on the acenea of fbr- mer disasters ; and the complete liberation of her majesty's subjects, for whom she felt the deepest interest, had been effected. 3. The adjustment of those differencea with the United States of America, which from their long continuance had endangered the preservation of peace. 4. The obtaining, in concert with her allies, for the Christian population of Syria an establishment of a system of administration which they were entitled to expect from the cngngeincnta of the Sultan, and from the good faith of this country. And, 6. A treaty of commerce and navigation with Russia, which her ma- jesty regarded aa the foundation for in- creased intercourse between her subjccta and those of the emperor. At the beginning of the year the perpe- tration of a crime, which was in some measure regarded as of a political charac- ter, excited the indignant feelings of tlie public. As Edward Drummond, esq., pri- vate secretary to sir Robert Peel, was walk- ing from Downing-street tovi'ards Cbaring- cross, he was shot through the back by a man, who was seized by a policeman jnst as he was about to discharge a second pis- tol. It was at first hoped that the wound was not mortal, but after lingering fire days Mr. Drummond expired. The assas- sin was Daniel M'Naughten, aged 38, late a wood-turner at Glasgow; and it appeared that, although he hod never received the slightest provocation, either real or i magi- tiary, Le had long harboured the design Of taking the life of the premier, for whom he had mistaken Mr. Drummond. On hia trial before lord chief justice Tindal, the absence of all motive for committing the detestable art being admitted, it was at- tempted to be shewn that he was of un- sound mind ; and the idea of his being a monomaniac being supported by the opi- nions of Dr.Munro and other medical men, the judge stopped the trial, and the jury consequently returned a verdict of " Not guilty, on the ground of insanity." AtlKory more dangerous than that of atttibutingf the commission of heinoua Crimea to mono- mania can scarcely be conceived ; and the scn!>ation of alarm produced by this cul- prit's acquittal waa both just ana natural. To return, however, to Indian affairs. A SCUISM TARES PLACE IN TUB BSTABI.1SHED CHVBCU OV SCOTLARD. {ixa «.o. 1843.— A 610 ^^c ifTttaflurQ of l^tstorn, Sec. Wlien thfl eipeditioB to Affghanittan waa flni iinilertaken, it waa intended to open the Indua fur the transit of British nier- chaadiie, and render it one of the great highwaya to Atia. The ohieet was not lost eight of, though Affglianlstan had been abandoned ; and endeavoura were made to obtain ftrom tlie Ameera of Scinde auch a treaty as would secure tlie safe narigatioa of that river. In Drccmher, major Outram waa dispatched to lljrdcr- abad to conclude the best terms in hia power with the native chiefs. Not being la a condition immediately to refuse to give up for the use of the navigation certain airipa of land Iving along tne river, they temporised until at length their trooua were collected, when on the 14th of Fie- bruarjr they sent word to major Outram to retire from their city. The major, not supposing lliey would proceed to extremi- ties, delaved. Twe next day the residence of the British political agent was attacked ; it was gallantlv defended by 100 men for aeveral hours ; out at length their ammu« nition having been expended, the British soldiers retired with a small loss to the ateamera, and proceeded to Join sir C. J. Napier, then at the head of about 2,r00 men, at a distance of about 20 miles from the capital of the Amecri. The latter has- tened at the head of 33,000 men to attack the British force. On the 17th a battle took place, in which, after a aevere strug- gle of^three hours, the Ameera were totally routed, although they outnumbered the Britiah force by seven to one. The Ameera on the following day surrendered them- ■elvei priaonera of war, and Hyderabad was occupied by the coiyquerora. Trvaaure and jewels were found to an amount consi- derably exceeding one million sterling. In consequence of this success, the territories of Scinde, with the exception of that por- tion belonging to Meer Ali, the niorad of Khvrpore, have been declared by the gover- nor-general to be a British proviuce,and sir Charles J. Napier was appointed governor. The new governor, however, waa not to remain hi undisturbed possession for any length of time. An army of Beloocbees, twenty thouaand strong, under the com- mand of Meer Sbere Mahomed, had taken np a atrong position on the river FuUalie, near the spot where the Ameers of Scinde were ao aignally defeated, and air C. J. Na- pier, on ascertaining the fnct, resolved to atuck them forthwith. On the 24th of March he moved from Hyderabad at the head of 5,000 men. The battle lasted for three hours, when victory declared for the British t eleven guns and nineteen stand- ards were taken ; about 1,000 of the enemy were killed, and 4,000 wounded : the loss of the British amounting to only 30 killed and 231 wounded. By this victory the fate of Scinde and Beloochistan was sealed, and the whole territory finally annexed to the Anglo-Indian empire. In an age of experimcntaL science like the present, where the wonders of nature seem scarcely to rival those of art, it ap- pears almost invidious in a work of this kind to allude to oay. In truth, our limits have compelled us to omit tlie mention of many works of national importance, of which the country has reason to be proud i and we trust to be exGUMd for such omis- sions, while we insert the following. In order to save the vast amount of manual labour necessary to form a aea wall on the course of the south-eastern railway, near Dover, the great experiment of explodina 18,500 Iba. or fli tons of gunpowder, under Bound ' down cli If, was on the 36i h of Jaanarv attempted by the engineers, with perfect aucccas. On the siKnal being given, the miners communicattd, by connecting wires the electric spark tu the gunpowder depo! sited in chambers formed in the cliff; the enrih trembled for half a mile each way a stilled reiiort, not loud, but deep, waa heard and the cliff, extending on either linnd to upwards of 6U0 feet, grodually subsided seaward : in a few aeconds, not less thsa I.UUO,000 tons of chalk were dislodged by the shock, settling into the sea below frothing and boiling as it displaced the liquid clement, till it occupied the expanw of many acres, and extended outward on its ocean bed to a distance of two or three thousand feet. Tiiia operation was man. aged with auch admirable skill and preci- sion, that it would appear just so much of tlie cliff waa removed aa was necessary to make way for the sea-wall, while an imrocan saving in time and labour was also effected. Now that we have trespassed on the province of art and alluded to its wooden, ! we cannot forbear to notice that wonder- i ful and gigantic undertaking, the Tbamet Tunnel. For twenty years that stupendous labour had been going on, when on the 2%(h of May it was opened for foot pasaen- p;ers, at one penny each. At a recent meet- ing of the proprietors, a vote of thanks was offered to the engineer in the follow- ing terms i—" That the cordial thanks and congratulation of the aaaembly are hereby tendered to sir laambert Brunei, F. R. 8- fur the distinguished talent, energy, ana perseverance evinced by him in the de< sign, construction, and completion of the Tliamca Tunnel, a work unprecedented ia the annala of science and ingenuity, and exhibiting a triumph of genius over phy- sical difficulties, declared by some of tlit most enlightened men of the age to be insurmountable." This great work wti commenced in 1325, but stopped in 18>8 by an irrmption of the Thames, and no further progress was made until 183S. Loans were then gronted by govrrninent, and the works were uninterruptedly con- tinued! the total expense bi-iiiR 44fi,li(i0{. On the 2Ist of April, his royal higlinvii the duke of Sussex died. On (be 23th the queen was safely delivered of a prin- cess, who was christened Alice Maud Mary And on the same afteruoon that the queen gave birth to a princess, the king of Han- nover arrived in London, in a steamer from Calais, it being his majesty's first visit to England sincehia accession. A«D- Isli^S. -LOSS or ini pscaaus btkambb (uitli. to lkith) rirTT naonxsp. lEnglantl.— l^ouitc of IStunalsicl.— "Fictoria. All On tht Sflth of Jane the princeai Aa< ntU, eldeit dAughter of the duke of Cam- IMk*, «•■ mamed to hit royal liighneu rrederick William, hereditary frand dubo of Mecklenbarg Btreliti. A sraDt ol' 3,0001. prr annum wai lettled on her by the go- Hrninent, and in a few daya after the mar* ri«M they embarked for the eonlinent. In Carmarthcnihire and aome of the ■eiiihbottring Welsh countiea, a novel ape* eiei of insurrection had for a long time put kept that part of the country in a line of alarm, and rendered military assis> unee nccessarr. Certain amall farmera, snd the agricultural population generally, united (under the singular appellation of "Rebecca and her daughtera^') for the Slowed object of resisting the payment of turnpike tolls, which are notoriously ex- orbitant there, and for the abatement of certain other grievances— the present ad- ministration of the poor laws beinc among the number — of which they loudW, and with no little shew of justice, complained. Scarcely a night was suffered to pass with- out the removal of a gate or the demolition of a tollhouse ; ana it usually happened that as soon as the work of destruction wss completed. Rebecca's band quietly snd stealtliily dispersed to their respective homes. It will be sufficient to give merely one instance of these riots; but we should remark that the account of the riot we here subjoin was on a much larger scale, snd attended with more serious results than any that occurred either before or since :— They were expected to attack the town of Carmarthen on Sunday the I8th of June, but did not come. On the following morn- ing, however, at 12 o'clock, several thou- sand of the riotc.a were seen approaching, about 900 being on horseback, with one in front disguised with a woman's curls, to represent Rebecca, and firom 7,000 to 8,000 on foot, walking about fourteen or fifteen abreast. Every man was armed with a bindgeon, and some of them had pistols. At their head were carried two bunnera, bearing inscriptiona in Welsh, of " Free- dom, Liberty, and Better Feed;" and" Free Toll and Liberty." On reaching the work- house, they broke onen the gates of the court in front, and naving gained an en- trance into the house, they immediately demolished the furniture, and threw the beds and bedding out of the windows. Wbile they were tnus pursuing the work of destruction, a troop of the 4th li^ht dragoons arrived fVom Kenlh, and having entered the court, succeeded in taking aU tlioae witliin prisoners, about 2S0 in num- ber, during which time they were pelted with stones and other missiles. The riot set being read, and a cry being raised that tiie soldiers were going to charge, the mob fled in every direction, leaving more than •ixtv horses, besides the above prisoners, In the hands of the captors. With respect to the proceedings in par- liament, it may be stated, that a great por- tion of the session was occupied in discuss- ing the merits, or rather in opposing the re-enactment of the " Irish arma bill." On the second reading. Mar the 30th, the at- torney-general for Ireland declared that the objects of the present repeal agiiatora were, first, the total abolition of the tithea com- mutation rent-charge ; next, the eatenaion of the parliamentary auffrage to all aaae male adulta not convicted of a erime ; neat, fixity of tenure— a phrase meaning the transfer of the whole landed property of Ireland from the landlord to the tenant | and some other extreme propositions of the same class. The measures provided b^ tbia bill had been in existence with little inter- mission for almost a century, and the ex- treme avidity shewn by the Irish peasantry for the possession of arms proved its ne- cessity to be most cogent. For about ■ month, almost e<">ry alternate evening was occupied with r* ussions in committee on the said bill. Afterwards a motion was brought forward by Mr. O'Drien for " the redress of grievances in Ireland," the debate on which was again and again adjourned, till at length the motion wa* negatived. On that occasion, sir R. Peel discussed the alleged grievances teiiatim; and in reply to an observation of lord Howick's, he aaid that the Roman catholics now enjoyed equal civil rights as the other subjects of the crown, and that the oatha were so altered that the offensive portions relating to transubstantiation were abolished. " I am asked/' said the right honourable ba- ronet, " what course I intend to pursue ? 'Declare your course,' is the demand. I am prepared to pursue that course which I consider I have pursued, namely, to ad- minister the governmerrt of Ireland upon the principles of jurtice and impartialitr. I am prepared to recogni se tlie principle established bjr law, that there shall be equality of civil privileges. I am prepared in respect of the franchise to give a sub- stantial and not a fictitious right of suf- frage. In respect to the social condition of Ireland we are prepared also — but that ia a matter for legislation, and we all feel that no partial legislation will be proper or effective — we are prepared to consider the relations of landlord and tenant deliberately and all the important questions involved therein. With respect to the established church, we are not prepared to make one alteration in the law by which that church and its revenues shall be impaired. He was not ashamed to act with care and moder- ation; and if the necessity should arise, he knew that past forbearance was the strongest claim to being entrusted with fuller powers when they thought proper to ask for them." On the 9th ot August, the third reading of the Irish arms Dill wbb carried by a ninjorily of 66. During the remainder of the aession many other acts were passed, among them the following:— The church of Scotland benefices' bill. The poor relief bill for Ire- land. The Irish municipal corporationa' bill. The Chelsea pensioners' bill, empow- ering government to call out and arm the ottt-pensionera of Chelsea hospital if i S irTT BBoniisB- IT WAS RBrORTKD THAT HABTlAb I.AW WOULn BR BTCSOBTKn TO III WALBB. .eONJIICTIIHIIII, 612 Vifft IKnAUwtv o( 1I)istonj, tec llioaxht neceitnry. The cpUcopnl ftine- lion* bill. Tlie defamation and libel hill. farliament waa prorogued on the 341 h of Anntitt by the queen in person i on wliirh o«e*tion her maJeatT expreiied liertelf highly grntiAed with the advantageous po. aiilon in which tlie country was placed by the ■ueeetsfkil termination of the war in China and India, and witli the asuuraneea of perfect amity which she continued to receive f^om foreiipi powera. At the same time she viewed with tlie deepest concern the pcrseverinK elbrta that were mnde to atir up discontent and disafTeeiion in Ire> land, and to excite her Irish suliiecis to demand a repeal of the union. The Inws were administered with strict Justice and impartiality, and it was the duty of all her Bttbjects to discountenance tlie present sys- tem of pprntcious ngitHtion. It was her nm> jesty's sincere conviction that the legisla- tive union was nut less easential to the comfort and prosperity of the people, than it waa to the strenfrth and stability of the empire I and it was her tirm determination to maintain inviolate that great bond of connexion between the two countries. When her majesty and prince Albert re* turned from their visit to Scotland last year, it was generally understood that their next marine excursion would be to Ireland; and it is believed that the royal intention waa abandoned with considerable regret, owing to the rife and rapid progress of the repeat agitation, io insidiously instilled into the minda and hearts of the Irish by the wily demagogue and hia Jesuitical artel- lltea. There was, however, no reason that the queen of England and her illustrinua consort should, on that account, be debar- red fVom enjoying the healthful recreation of a short summer voyage— now so com- monly indulged in by thousands of her sub> jeets ; and t ne necessary preparations had accordinKly been made for an excursion round the western coast. At that precise moment the prince de Joinville and the duke d'Anmale, sons of Louis Philippe, ar- rived in England, and with all speed posted off to Windsor; but as they returned to France with even more hoste than they came, coiijecture was busy in attem|itiiig to discover the cause ; and, as a matter of course, it was attributed to something poli- tically wrong in their estimation at the English court. Now it happened that Es- partero, the ex-regent of Spain, had just reached this country, and had been intro- duced to and graciously received by her majesty; and as it was believed that France bad been aecretly engaged in promoting the dissensions in Spain which led to Eiipar- tero's downfall, no other hypothesis was sought for. But just as this solution of the enigma became current, it was ascertained that the Frencli princes had merely crossed the channel as the bearers of a pressing in- vitation (h>m their royal father, that the queen of England and her illustrious con- sort would embrace the opportunity which so aeasonably offered of spending a few days, (m /amille, at his favourite chateau or palace of Bn, on the coisl of Norr No iiilervjew between the rilKiiliig sore, reigns of Knulaiid ami France hnUiVk?™ place since llie (Ihvii of old, when oii, '• bluff lluir," and f.l. .allam'kiTigi:. Z\ Francis aiul his chivalry on " the Held nJ the cloth of gold." Tull wii. a r,rgeC' dlspl.y of c..*ily graiiUour, In «»Cicl" tw" gay and youililiil moiiurclis strove i„ f],..«i each other. The present meeting was mi ' attended with iiomp or cereniony^ii niciH julerchiinge of friendly cIvlliUc*. dictai«-d by iMirc good feeling on the pun „r L„u„ PlilHppe, ami reniioiided lo liy her jkli Jesly with reclpiocal fi-aiikiicas and cor- diulity. Soon after her Mi^|«s(y*s return from France, sliv made a trip to BelKtiim, ac- companied by her r<.y»l coiis. pe^ired to appieclale and fully enjoy ih„ varioiiii entertaiiimunta prv|>ai't:d for tliem "The iiroifres* of the Uiiecii tlirniiirli Delgliiin," said a conlfnipoiary writer, 'Mi an event totally unexani|iled in himury wlifii vonsld<;rvd with the Iriendly nntiire of her visit, Mild the mainier of her rwcn. lion every where and by nit clasnen of tlie |io|Hiliitioii. It has exceetled as far ascnr- tlialily, good feeling, the honours prepiired spontuneoiiMly by the penple of the itreni cities and villages through wliUh she \n% piiMHed, any thing that the records of for- iiif r duys deUII. Not Queen Elizabeth, in her progress through Biiglinid, was re- ceived in so welcome, so uuble, and m national a manner as Queen Victoria hw been, In a land to wliicli till now she wai a stringer." Scotland preoented (his year the melan- choly s|iectuclc of a disruption In her national church. Since the reign of Queen Anne, the rlglil of presentalioii to pariiliei had lain wltli the heritors or landed pro- firietors, or other so-called patrons; but n 1634 the General AsHembly had psMcd an act, giving a vtto on Hie appohilmeiii to the majority of head* of families in the parishes. This act, however, having been pronounced lo be illegal by the courts nf law, the leaders of the dominant party in the Awiembly determined to secede frnni the church. Accordingly on the lirsl day of Hie meeting of tlie General AsseiDlily in Miiy, the ministry and eUters, meiiiben of that bodyt oppoKud to the light of pi- tronage and In favour of the i;e(9, haviiij; given in a prolestf retired to a sei'Hraie place of meeting, and constituted thrm- aulvrs, and such a* inlglit afterwardt ad- here to them, Into a hotly to be deiinmi- nated the Free Church of Scotland. Wliliin a few wcekt, 470 clergymen seceded from the establiiihnieiit and Joined the Free Church, together with nearly a third e licr own tiHlriienilcnl partlaro«nt IfgliUllnff In Dublin by ihr a|i|>roacliliig Chruimaa, now ilricriulnod on aclWa mea»um for tha ac- roni|ili«bn>eni of bla datisna. For a Ion* llnic uretiout, bla daluttfa promlaea bad bi-tnirrboed llirouflioMt Iba land ; and Iha exiiiuilon ot hto iupporUin and followcra ..priMlly u »rll M aecitiar— at ibe pma- PKi of ao aoi>n obtaining " Iraland for tha Irlih," waa w exirafagant, u hU baran> : ftuct and proclamaUona wera artful, tnaull- . iif, and fulwma. 1i wa* loo apparani, al Ilia Mm* tima, to CM-iut obfervillon, that wblle be boasted of pretervlng the peace, and charged the RoTerunant with altenipiinf to overawe i« iiaopla by the prewnce or the milllary, \ ihamlKlit* " gaihcrlnga" of repealer* were coiiductea to the ground, In companlcaand ddaclimault, with all thepreciaiun and re* falirllf of dlwiullned bodies. At Tira, Mullagnnast, and many other places, lhe)>e moasirr mevllnga had thus displayed their » niitrsl" strength. At length, irreat pre- nsrallon* having been made for liDldIng a repeal neellng at Clontarf, near Dublin, on SiiiHlsy the tMh of October, 1843, wliU-h «u expected to be one of immense niagnl> (imIc, tiie lordlleulenani, with the lord- chancellor, and other menibcraof the Irish gnveriime nl,sNddf nly held a coancll at the csslle on Saturday, and published a procla- nislion, deuounrlng rrreal aglutlon, and mullonlng all persons num siiiMidlng Hie Clonlarf meeting, on pain of biding pro- reeded against accordlug to law. Mean- time fresh troopa, in considerable nunibera, arrived from England ; and at Mr. O'Con- nrll's bidding the meeting was abandoned ! But, notwithstanding this, govarnnieni iMiied a warrant for the arrest of nine of the leading agilatnra : viz. Daniel O'Con- nell, John O'Connell, Tliomas M. Ray, Thomas Steele, Dr. Grsiy. Richard Uur- lu-lt, Charli's 0. Duffy, Kev. Mr. Tyrrell. P.P., and Bev. James Tierney, P. P., all or wimni had taken a conxjiiouous part in recent repeal nieellng^. Tlie offence with which all these persons were charged was a eonspiraei/ to excite disaffcclinn and con- tempt among Her Majesty's subjects, and amoMgut ulliers, those serving in the army and navy ; to excite unlawful opposition to the government by the demoniilrailon of pliysical forre ; and to bring into contempt llie legal tribunals of the country by usurp- ing the queen's prerogative in tlie exlabilsli- ment of courts for Uie adniinistratinn of tlie law. They were also charged with en- ileavouring tn forward those obiects by se- ditious spfeches and libels, ana with soli- cliitig and obtaining from different parts of the United Kingdom, aa well aa from foreign countries, divera large auma of monev. Tiie whole of the parties were then held to bail, to take their trials in the Queen's Bench, Dublin. We have no space to enter into a detail of tlie Judicial proceedings which followed ; but we muMt say that so numerous were the objections, and so technical the argu- ments, which were brought forward by the pntfesslnnal phalana employed In defend ibe " travcrscro," that it seemed for a long lime doubtful wiicther Ibe trial wanid rrrr be brought to a close. Tha argnmcnts were, however, combated inialim by Hie counsel for ifie crown, Ibe nbieciinn* overruled by lha Jmlgrs, and a verdlri of OviLTx was at length reconled against all of Ibrm, except trie Rev. Mr. Tierney, who had been previously dlachargrd. Daniel O'Conncli waa aenlenced to one year's imprisonment, to pav a line of ilOOOJ., and to And bondsmen tor his gond : behaviour for Ave years from Hie cxpira- . lion of Ibe term of liis ImprisonmeAl ; Hie I rest lo nine montbs each and a line of XL, and all to And sureties for keeping the peace after their terms of durance had ex- pired. Against Hils Judgment an appeal waa made to the House of Lords on a I " writ of error." Regarding Hie question aa one of law rather tnan /ac(, the Peers, InKiead of themselves adliidicatlng, referred the subject In the Aral instance lo the En- ' glisli Judges, wlio severally delivered their npinlona on the different counts of the In- dictments, Ace, the decision of the nitO^'lly ' being in aliirmalion of the proceedings of Hie Irish Court, it then (on the 3rd of Scptemb«T, 1844} came before the Peers, wlien IImi " lay lords," consented to leave the decision ol Ibis most Impnrtani natlnnal question to the " law lords," of whom there were onlyfivt. Of Hiese. two voted against, and three In favour of. Hie prisonem ; thus ' abrogating all that had Iteen done in vin- dicuiion or Hie offended laws, and leaving the question of " repeal " ujicn for future ' strife and contentious disputation t I A. D. 1844. — At the commencement of this year, the affairs of the kingdom gene- rally wore an improving aspect ; trade and manufacinres were reviving ; internal tran- quillity bad in a great nieaaiire been re- stored ; and the revenue was in a conipa- I rativelyAourishing slate: in short, no cloud apiieared to darken the polltieal liorlznn, save iliat portentoua one which sUII en- alirouded Ireland. On Hie 1st February Her Majesty opened the parliament In person. The royal speech referred wiHi pride to our late successes in India; to the efctablialimcnt of commercial ' relations wlHi China ; and to the good un- ' derstanding which subsisted between liie Rovernmenl and ail foreign powers; while le commercial and maiiufaelurlng proa- perity of Hie country formed a subject for equal congratulation. It also earnestly re- ; commended the adoption of such meaaures as migiit lend lo Improve the social con- dition of Ireland, and develope iia natural ' nisources ; but at the aanie lime empliaU- cally declared Her Majesiy'a Arm determi- I nation to maintain inviolate Hip legislative union lietween that country and Great Bri- ' tain. Tlip address was carried by a very large m^iority ; and Sir Robert Peel (who I ill his speech sidvocated corn- law protection, and dwelt on the advantagssof his *' aliding- I scale" over Lord Jolin Russell's proposition' for a "Axed duty") concluded by main- I taiiiing Uiat his past measures had TulAlled the expectations he bad held out, and that ' he now met Parliament under greatly im- 9 I I I A.D. 1843. — MINISTEIIIAL DEUISION 18 TUB PARIiNT OP HOSTILE ACTION. ( or rna law. IS i: ! » IS M A. !*« '>< '} i < pii'd 80 larjre a (thare of the ai loiitlon of both tionscii in former geMioim, did not ild« viar eiiKaKe HO iiiuvli of tlie time of Par'xaiiient Mr. ColKlcn, liowever, brouKJit it Uitnn tli« House, byniovinsf foraeoniiniltee loiiinnira into tlic t ff«cl» of prolei'tive «lutiif.< on iif h cultural tenants and labourcre. He arirucd that the jrainer* b; the present law wire iiol the fanners, but the sperulatur* : and hedrnied that corn could be grown abroad or conveyed from foreign countries liiitier' at rates rninons lo the Eiigl isli agriculturist' Mr.Viliiers, and oilier members favourable to free-trade principles, strongly dwelt Miion the effect of the repeal of the corn laws hi giving additional employment In ntanufac' turiiig districts : but the motion was lost bv a majority against it of 91. ' Wlien the chancellor of the ekcliequer exhibited his financial statement, it was seen tliat the revenue very considerablv vx> ceedud tlie expenditure ; and a iHel ao .0. 1814.— TOWER OF MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD, 8TRCCK BY LIOHTKIKO: JOLy |8~ i 614 Cte €veiiimyi of W^taxm, ict, proved circumstances both at home and aliroad. Indian affairs shortly afterwards formed the subject of parllainrntary discussion : and the thanks of botli Houses were vuleu to Sir Charles Napier and tlie army viii- pioyed in Sciiide, tor their unbounded zeal and gallantry — the Duke of ^^'eliington taking the opportunity of compiiroentiiig Sir Charles in tlie strongest terms, and declaring that he never knew an instince in wliich a general officer showed in a liiglier degree all the qualillcations which were necessary for tlie conduct of great operations. Tills iiist tribute lo the nieriu of an old and distinguished military officer was quickly followed by an event insepar- ably connected with the reputation and sta- bility of our Indian empire. From some cauxe, never thoroughly made public, the East India directors tliought proper to re- cull Lord Ellenborough, tliegovernor-pcne- rai. This nobleman liad only been appointed lo that inipt>rtanl post about two years: iiis acts had met witli the decided approbation of government, and it was generally sup- posed that his |iolicy had given satlstaction to the court of directors. But it appeared that tlie contrary was the fact: and as va- rious enactments had secured lo them the undoubted riglit to recr.ll the governor-ge- neral wheiisiver tliey might tliiuk fit, they exercised that right on the present occasion, not only witlioul the consent of Her Majes- ty's ininisters, but in opposition to thfir well-known seniinienls. Thisconduclgave rise to various conjectures, and became the subject of i;oiisider On a subject so extensive, and enibraciiit i '^ such abiiiidaiit details, wecaiinot pntfiid lo i give more than a faint outline; but it in' S incumbent on us to state, that ilie ablhi; ~ with wliich he introduced the subject, and the lucid arguments by which he supiiortrd I it, not (inly riveted the attention and ad. ! miration of Hie Houxc, but tended to con- j Arm an opinion which at that liiiie very generally prevailed. Hint Sir Roliert Peel was, of all public men, Hie one most capablg « ' of directing Hie tinaiicial operatioiii of %\yt I great commercial country. He prononcd : £ ' that there should be an aciiml separation of' . the two deiiartiiients of issue and liaiiklni;, in Hie Bank of Kn;;! ml ; and tliut there should be different officers to cncli, ami a different system of account : that the bunk- ing bnsinehsuftlic Bank hhould begnveriied A.D. 1844 — ABOUriON OP IMPRISONMnNT FOR I>^BT BELOW 20/.: AVO.IO. ITKIKO: JDLV 18. t.D. 1844.— LIBERATION OP O'CONMEIL AND UI8 FELLOW miSONERS: 8EPT. 5. ,Ue, lo revhe ilie '' .■■, <.ii:»<^ •!•. ii.iii..iiii •■■ uara oiue Mr. Pritchard would receive a sum of , and gold, was introduced by Prince Albert money from the French government as an and tlie Duke of Cambridge; the Queen and Indemnity or compensation for the outrage. < knights all standing. Tlie sovereign. In On the 6th of August Queen Victoria " ' -' ■'■- -• - •■" - was happily delivered of a prince, it is worthy of note, moreover, aa affording a ■triking instance of Her Majesty's ready at- tention to public affairs ; for it was observed that only three hours previous to her ac- couchement, she was engage. nil « am X toe a an » K" - »ei - 1845. — HUNGERPORII lUSPBNSION BRIDGE OPENED TO THE PUBLIC : HAY 31 . en^lmts.—^oxiit at 3SntnifiDtcit.— ^ictorui. 5i7 Incnnrenlenl one for landliilf under •uch "lrc«mrt«nce«, ai|d d»n(rer wm to be »p- Swt Loui» Plilllppe •honid (fo buck to 0.MI0I1, and proceed to Frmnce b» waj of borer and Calalt, or Bnolo(jne. Arrange- , meiim to that effect were Immediately made, and In the evening Uie n.yal •iranirera took leave of tlieOneen and Prince Albert, aiid Kt out by llie railway for London, the irealer part of their auHe liaving teen wilt on board the tteamem of the squadron. The train reached Nine Elms station at hair-paiit ten, where a royal carriage waain readiiieH lo convey the king and hia son to the New Cross station of the South-eastern railway. Here a new disaster appeared likely 10 iiilerrupl the royal progress. A fire had broken out In a large building at the sUtlon, and been raging for nearly two hoar* ; firemen and officera of the Company ; were running In every direction, and shouts , of welcome to the king mingled with cries of wtrniiig and tlie nmse of iire-engines. Amidst all this turmoil and destructToa of property, the presence of royalty was marked by the most aMlduoii* and respect- | fui ailenlion of the directors ; and his de- 1 parlitre by a special train was promptly elTeclrd. By half-past two oVUick the king arrived at Dover; at daybreak s royal salnte from the batteries announced to tlie inliabiUnU some unexpected event ; and the news of Louis Philippe's arrival soon A«w from mouth to mouth. The corpora- linn hullly prepared and presented an addieas; and the king replied to it In the following terms : " Mr. Mayor, aldermen, and burgesses of the ancient town of Dover, I leave this country with k heart deeulv imiiressed by the general greeting whicli I have received from, and the feelings which liave been evinced towanls me by all classes of Her Majenty'a subjects; above all, by (he many tokens of friendship and aflertion wliich I have received from Her Majesty. Thsy give me a favourable oppor- ' tiiiiity of manifesting towards your country ' those seniiiiieiits ot amity, so essential to tlie maintenance of peace, and of those good . uiidcriitandlngs between the two countriea wliich have ever bi en tde aim and object of my policy, I am most happy to And tlieiic sentiniens congenial to the wislirs of llie Britiiili nation ; and i have no doubt but that they will be appreciated in my eoimlrv. Two such nations, mutually cal- culaleJ lo be of so much advantage to each other, will, I trurl, equally estimate what I have so deeply at heart, and what I have ever so de. ply felt." After conversing for a short time with tlie deputation, the liing retired to lake a hasty breakfast, and tlieii, with hi* suite, crossed the channel in the French povt-office steamer Nord, as had been previously arranged. Tlie weather was still boisterous and squally; but he lauded safely at Calais, and proceeded that evening to the chateau of Eu. On tlie m\\ of October, a most interesting ceremony took place in l.oiidon, and one Uiat will be long memorable In the city annals,— the opening of the New Royal Exchange by Quern Victoria. Those per- sons who have witnessed great public pro- cessions In the metropoTis, will be at no loss to conceive how grand ''<.'■> v.f array, or how multitudinous tlie .tsEu-.ii.i >ige of eager gaxers, on this occaaik.') : >Mt those who have not, will hardly, we tear, be able to form a proper idea of^it from so meagre a description of it aa our limits compel us to give. Every care was takt.'ii to impart order and syiitem to the proceedings. Al- though from the gates at Buckingham Palace to Cornhlll, a dense living throng had been congregating from an early hour, — throughout the whole line all was quiet and orderly; the preservation of onler being intrusted to the metropolitan and city police, with life-guards, blues, and lancers, at intervals or a few yards each. The windows, balconies, and parapets of almost every house were filled wltli spec- tators,— among whom, particularly in the city, were tobeseen numerous ladles splen- dlilly attired; in many placet seats were erected out of doon, covered more or lea* substantially, and decorated with flags, Suf, About II o'clock, the royal procession left the palace. Her Majesty and Prince Albert (attended by tlie Duchess of Buccleugli and the Earl of Jersey) occupying the principal carriage of state. The royal pruceMion was met at Temple Bar by the city digni- taries, on horseback, the lord mayor ha- bited in a robe of crimson velvet, and a Spanish hat and feather, the aldermen in scarlet robes, and the deputies and common council dressed in mazarine cloaks and cocked hats. When the cereiiiony of pre- senting to Her Majesty the city sworu of slate had been performed b* the lord mayor, the civic body jolnea the royal cortege, and proceeded amid the vociferous cheers of the spectators, and the waving of hats and handkerchiefs, to the destined spcit. On Her Majesty's arrival, tlie bell* of the campanile tower, now heard for the firot lime, chimed " God save the Queen." The reading-room was fitted up aa a throne- room ; the wails were hung with crimson velvet, and the floor covered with crimson cloth ; at the eastern end, on a dais, was a throne of crimson velvet, backed bv a curtain of the same, bordered wltli gold lace. The Queen having taken her teat, and all the public functionaries being pro- perly arranged, the recorder read a loyal and congratulatory addresa from the lord mayor and corporation to Her MHJesly, hailing In suitable terms the presence of Her Matesty in the heart of Jier metro- polis, and recalling the occasion of her great predecea.L3 ^ A.D. 1849. — DURB AND DUCHESS OP NEMOURS VISIT TUB QDEBN: illNuS," [5I8 C^e Crentfuri? of W^tai'tif $i;t* K OS H 94 H K H S 3 U H •< O H M P. O H D o < M 4 B « O M n Ihe centre of which Her Mi^Jeoty (topped. The'iiieKibert of the curpomlion niicl the minister* lormed a circle round ilie Queen ; and the herald* havlnif made proclamation, and tilence havinif been commanded, she mid, In an audible voice, " It is mv royal will and pleasure thut this buildhij; be hereafter called the Royal E\chanf;e." This concluded the ceremonies of (lie dny. The royal cortege returned to tlie palace ; and the most exuberant festivity and liospi- tality that night prevailed throughout the citv. A.D. 1845.— We have leen that Great Britain began the year 1844 with favourable omens, and continued to advance In induo- triul and commercial prosperity to Itsclse ; and it was generally admitted that to Sir Robert Peel's Anancfal measures and fiscal regulations much of ilial prosperity was to be attributed : accordingly at the com- mencement of I84S, his position and that of his colleagues appeared to possess increased stability. But doubtless there were potent drawback* to it. Tlie successful exertion* of tlie anti-corn law league still occasioned great diiiquietude to the a^rriculturists; and a feeling of great uncertainty, as to the ultimate fate of the much-assailed pro- tective taws, was generally entertained by tliOMi of the landed classes who kept a watchful eye on the course of passiug events. When the Queen met her parliament on the Arst dav of the session (Feb. 4. 1845), •he was enabled to state tliat trade and com- j merce had been extended at home and j abroad ; — that she continued to receive^ from all foreign powers and states assur- ; ances of their mendly disposition (alluding more particularly totlievitiitsoftheeniperor of Russia and the king of the French) ;— ! and tiiat the political agitation and excite- | nient which she had heretofore had occaoion to lament existed in Ireland appeared to have gradually abated. But wiietlier tills apparent state of repose and security had been effected bv the prosecution of o'Con- nell and his fellow-repesilers, or by tlie re- versal of tlieir sentences, the royal speech did not hazard even (he most guarded liiiit. Ten days after the opening of the session the premier 8iibuii((ed his tiiianoial scheme lo the iinuse, and clearly sliowed tliat he had 10 deal with a prosperous revenue. He staled, that on Ihe 5th of January, 1845, he had a surplus aiiioiint over the expenditure of 3,357,0<)0/., and that by making the an- j count up to the approaching 3(li of Anril he j might fairly estimate the actual surplus re- ' venue at S,000,000{.; a sum, he said, which 1 would be either sufficient for the repeal of the income tax, or enable him to make : large remissions in general taxation. He decided on the latter course ; and proposed tSat the income tax shiiuld be continued for three years longer. Tiie details of his llnan- | ciiii propositions (all of which, after con- ' siderablc discussion, were ultimately car- ; ried ), niav be thus summed up : — Tiie duties on British plantntion sugar he proposed sliould be reduced from 3Sf. Sd. oercwt. to I4«. per cwt., dnd tlie foreign free-grown sugar from 35*. 9d. to 33s. *d. He proposed also the total repeal of the duty on cotton- wool, amounting to live sixteenths of a penny per lb., and yielding a revenue of 680,0 was intiodiiced by Sir J. Graham on the 9th! 2 of May. Its object was to establish three . colleges for sei-ular education in Ireland, ' ^ to be wholly independent of all religloiia' - instruction, though it slionld givee«rry h- rllily to the voluntary tndmomint or theo- logical professorships. Sir R. H. Inglisdn- dared It to be " a gigantic scheme uf godli'iK education ; " but tiie epithet, thougli stronz and characteristic, and one that wai wi'll calculated to dwell on the ea r, failed to make an Impression sufficiently piiwerfiil tndereat the measure; and it passed, carried by s great majority. The labours of a long and anxlouii spusion of parliament were now brought to a dote. The Queen appeared In person ; and the speaker. In auureMing Her Majesty on the various and important business which lial occupied the attention of tiie legislature, alluded to Ihe rapid development of (irivate enterprise, in extending the railway com- munication* of Ihe kingdom — the care with which they had consulted the interests, and A.D. 1845> — A PENSION OF 1500/. TOTED TO SIR H. POTTINGEn : JUNE 16. bn: JiiNt: 5. A.D 1845. _ GEN. JACK80N, LATE I'RESIDENT OF THE V. STATES, DIES: JUMB 8. etts!imts*—^a\tne of 33runjJtoic&.— ^trtoria. [499] and anxlou* Sfsslnn ' brought to a close. 2 n person ; and tlie > . Her MajfBly on the | I bu»lnes8 which hat . | of llvK legislature, S i wlopnientofiirivale « (he railway com- . „oni — the care Willi a ed the Interwt^ aiiJ < «:GEn : Jl'NB •<»• J ' U ' M iS a M rrffaidfd the religious reelingtof the people at Ireland, by the Mayiiootli grant, and the nit-ant liiey had provided for academical instruction in that country — the abolilioii of the dutiei on many articles of import— and the nieaaures which had been adopted for the furtheriecnrity and exlention of the trade and commerce of the country. Some bill* having received the royal aaseut, Her Majesty read avery appropriate t peech, con- cluding by imploring the bleaeinx of Divine Providence on their united effort* to encou* rare the industry and increaae the comforts of her people, and to inculcate those reli- gioiii and mural principles whlrli are the surest foundation of security and happiness. Railway legislation had occupied consi- derable attention duriiie this session. It was thought by many that a more cxperi- ence ttered by the conclusions of any former tribunal; and thus the labours of the board of trade became eventually to be entirely dlsre- gardeil. An inunense sum was expended ill feeing counsel, rewarding wiiiieiisus, jic; but in the end a great number of bills were passed, authorising the employment of 37,00U,0(H><. of capital. VVhen railways were first conimence'l in this country they were regarded with great suspicion ; but the weekly returns of traffic published during the three or four previous years held out iuch a prospect of large and certain returns, that s|)«culation in railway shares, which at first advanced with some discretion and steadiness, now took so wild and eccentric adirection,thallt was properly denominated the " railway mania." and such a one as seemed to promise the speedy ruin of thou- sands. Every project, however wild or visionanr, had crowds of applicants easer for its scrip ; and as there was no patent to secure to each promoter a right in his line from one place to another, a feasible scheme was no sooner advertised than it had several rival companies to oppose it. In one week alone there were projects ad- vertised whose luilted capitals amounted to I70,000,000i. In order to check this intem- perate species.of gambling, the legislature enacted, that, before petitions for bills could be presented to parliament, loL per cent, on the estimated capital should be lodged with tlie accountant-general ; and a sum of aliuiit I5,000,ouui., on account of deposits, was at one time actually vested in his hands. Althongh througl-out the session govern- ment commanded powerful majnriiies, it frequently had to rely for its existence on the votes of the opposition ; and It was evi- dent that the elements of union which had to long kept the tories together were fast givinff way. The premier was repeatedly attacked, and in no measured language, for his want of good faith In endeavouring to lull into a fancied security the agricultural party, whose interests he had iteclared he would support, and by whose means he bail attained the elevated port. Yet, during the seM>ion, neillker his declarations nor his act* were of a kind to impair the conndence they reiosed In him. But towards the latter end i-f the yrir a rumour prevniled ihroui(liout the country that the parliament would usseinble early iu January, and that Sir Robert Feel would certainly brin„ ' 'ard a motion for the total repeal of tl 'orn laws. Frequent cabinet councils q 'kly followed, which showed that some ^ >ject of the highest moment was in debai j. Sir Robert, it ap- peared, had strenuously urged their rvperplexpd by a di- vision ainong hisown; so that, althou;;h he had accepted the charge of coiislructiing a cabinet on the ISth, Tie flnally rutiifeo It two days after; and Her Majesty again sent | fur her former niinister. Sir Robert well knew tha( his chief difficulty lay in obtain- ing the sup|iort of the Duke of vVellinglon. He therefore acquainted his Grace that, Lord John Russell having failed to form a ministry, the Queen and the country were wlihou( a governmen(; adding (hat, for his own par(, lie was resolved (o saciilice hit desire of retirement to a sense of duty. He knew well that the man whom he thus ad- dressed had a chivalrous feeling of duly for his sovereign that waa su|)erior to everv po- litical consideration. The duke complied ; and, with the exception of Lord Stanley, who retired. Sir Robert once more saw him- self surrounded by his former friends in tlie cabinet. It ii time (hat we now advert to our pos- sessions ill India. From the arrival of Sir H. Hardint;e, until nearly the close of (he year, uninterrupted peace pervaded the vast |)(-iiinsula of India, and the governor genera vas actively employed in promoting the tiiie. sts of the natives, by giving his attention to the important question of edu- cation, when suspicions appearances on our western frontier summoned him to en- gage III warlike preiiarations. The slate of the Puiijaiib had for some time previous been so iinseitled as to render it necessary that the liritish should keep a watclifiil eye on the advanced posts under their protec- tion ; but it was not antlciualed that a bold invasion was on llie eve of being attempted. It was known that the Sikh troojts were. Insubordinate and restless ; ami it is aU* leged, tliHt in deliance of the wishes of the Lahore government, which was in a disor- ganized state, they deterniioed to cross the Sutlej, in hopes of tinding us unpre- pared, und currying oiT an immense booty. o , M a o R O m m •J S' m ' Si s' Si -.1 A. D. 1845. -.-GREAT BATTLB BETWEEN THE DDSSIANS AND CIRCASSIANS: AUG. 12. A.0. 184ft. — ANTI.OOBN LAW MBBTINGS VBBY PRITALBNT IN BNOLAMO. [600] Ct)f €teaiuvn of I^Utorj}, ^r. Still np to the ISIIi of Drcember no Sikh I mffirreHiun had been rorouiltled, and no •riillerj had moved dawn the river; bat on the followlnfr day certain Information i was received that the Sikh armjr had crossed I the SutleJ, and was cnucentiating in great I force on It* left bank. flavinif cromed the Sii|i«J, the SIklia in- rested Fcro/epore on one side, and took I np an intrenched |Mtsltlon at the villaire of , FiTozeshah, abinit ten miles In advance of Ferozeimre, and nearlv the same distance from the village of Moodkee. The head quarters of Sir I1n>rh Goiivh, commander- ' iU'Clilef, were at Umbslluh, which Is dis- ' tant ISO miles from Moodkee ; and Fero- I sepore was garrisoned by a body of rather , more than 5000 troops, nndur the command I of major-general Sir John Littler. In or- der, Ihereiore, to effect s Junction between the separated portions of tlie Anglo-Indian army, b about the same number of cavalry, and I forty guns. " To resist tlieir attack, and : to cover tlie formation of the infantry," •ays the despatch of Sir Hugh Gough, " I advance infantry and runs of the enemy ; but the rapid and well-directed fire of the British artillery, and the brilliant ; charges of the cavalry, appeared soon to | paralyse their opponents. The infantry, ' under Mi^or-generals Sir Harry Smitli, Gilbert, and Sir John M'Ca»kill, attacked in echellon of lines the enemy's infantry, I almost Invisible amongon their guns, and with matchless gallantry wrested them from the enemy; but when the batteries were par- tially within our grasp, our soldiery hay. Ulainayed bv ilii» <;on"'>«'«;'"-'<"''» «*iJ ti<»t venture to nr«M oil further. Diirlou tlie whole iiiKlit, howvver, lliey conliiiueU to liaruiii our iri)o|i» by fire of artillery, wherever nioou- liirlit iliwovi'red our nomtlou. •• Uiit with (layliKlit of the 33nd came ' relribulioii. Our Infantry foriiieJ Hue, 8iM)|Mirtetl on both flanks by horse artillery, wliilat a lire wait opened from our centre b¥ siicli of our ln;avy gun» as remained effecliv*, aided by a flight of rock«fts A luaokcd battery played with great effect i upon tills point, digiuouiiling our uieces, aiid blowing up our tumbrils. At this niouKMit Lieut. Gen. Sir Heiiiy lla.diii|fe (ilaeed hlnmelf at the heud of the U-tt, whilHt I rodu at the head of the right wing. I Our Hue advanced, airl, unchecked by the ' «iieiii«'« Are, drove tlieui rapidly out ol (he j village of Feruzenhah, and tiieir eiicain|i> I mint; then, changing front to it* Icfi, on I its centre, our force continui'd to sweep ! Uie camp, bearing down all oi'poiiiion, i and dislodged the enemy from their po»i- ' tlott. riie line then hailed, as if on a day I of manoeuvre, receiving its two leadern, as i iliey rode along its front, with a gratifying j clieer, and displaying the caiitured siand- ardi of the KliaUa army. We had taken npwardsof seventy three pieces of cannon, and were masters of the wliole field. "The force assumed a position on the Sound which it had won ; but even here its joiirs were not to cease, in the course of two hours. Sirdar Tej Singh, who had commanded in the last great buttle, brought up Ironi the vicinity of Ferozepore fresh battalions and a large field of artillery, supported by 30,000 Ghorepurras, hiilierto encamped near the river. He drove in our cavalry parties, and made strenuous efl'orts t'> retrain the position at Ferozcsliali : this attempt was defeated: but its failure had scarcely become manliest, when the Sirdar renitwed the contest with more troops and a large artillery. He commenced by a combination against our left Hank, and wlieii tills was frustrated, made such a demonstration against the capturerts, coinbined with the skill of ihe comiiiander, ended In the signal d«< feat of the enemy ; who was driven across the river with great loss, his caiup being captured, and 53 piecesof arilllcry remain- ing in the liaiids of the vlctorx. Sir Harry Smith's account of the battle was both spi- rited and liimiiious, butourlinills forbid us from quoting more than the concludliiK paragraph. " The determined bravery of all was as conspicuous as noble. I am un- wont to praise when praise Is not merited, and here I most avowedly express my flriu opinion and conviction that no troops In any battle on record ever behaved more nobly. British and Native (no distinction) cavalry ail vying with her Majesty's I6ih lancers, and striving to head In the re- pealed charges. Our guns and gunners, oflUcers and men, may be eqiialle''.! but cannot be er^'elledj by any artillery iu the world. Throughout the day, no lit'sitatlon, a bold and intrepid advance. And thus it is that our loss is comparatively small, tlioiigh I deeply regret to say, severe. The enemy fought with much resolution: they maintaineu frequent rencontres with our cavalry hand to hand. In one charge of infantry upon the I6tli lancers, they threw away their muskets, and came on with their swords and targets a^raiiist the lance." In killed, wounded, and missing, the British loss amounted to 389. Tlie quantity of am- munition captured with the artillery, and found in the camp of the enemy, was be- yond accurate calculation; consisting of shot, shell, grape, and small arm ammu- nition of every description and for every calibre. In about a fortnight after this, another desper."'e contest took place, when the Sikhs were swept from tlieir lastend strong- Cht hold on the British side of the Suti^. The stroiigiv forliiied camp at Sobraon, constructed by them to protect the bridge at Hurrakee, and so keep upcommunication with their own territories, was the scene of this ever memorable battle. Sir Hugh Goiigli, commander-in-chief of tlie army, was the leader on this occasion, and the army under his direction consisted in the main of the officers and men who had fought the battles of Moodkee, Feroceahmb, and Aliwal. Sir Henry Hardinge wa* pre- sent, aiding by liis advice, and inspiritink the soldiers by his example. He described tlie victory in his despatch as one of the most daring exploits ever achieved, by which, in open day, a triple line of breast- woi ks, flaiikt d by loruiidable redoubts, brlst- A.D. 184G.— ALL GRAIN ADMITTED INTO OUR POHTH, DUTY FREE*. FEB. 'HWi Ya A.O. IM6. — THB qVBIK 0IV8S BIRTH TO THB PBtNCBU UBLBKfA: MATMT Si [602] CrfaiKurv at Wiitatff, ^t. H a ! a o H X < M c o & 4 IIdk with artillery, manned by 33 regular rripnieiito of Infanlry, was atfaulled and carried ; a^id hv Mated that 990 rum had bren taken In the campaign. The lim of the enemy waa Ininiense ; nut leK«, according to all anounli, than 10,000 mt- n killed and wounded In action, and drowned In the paoxt s of gold of the value of I no guineas each. A. o. 1846.— On tiie 39iid of January, 1846, Her Majesty congratulated her re-ai>«eni- bled parliament on tlie iifoNuerous stale of the revenue, and the general improvement which had taken place in Ihe internal con- dition of the country ; and hoped tliat i further re>--tgtctona, [ffja] S-i, ,/ Clanrlekordt i BtvtA of Control , ITj/Ai C*"* Mobkmue / B.»»rd of Trade, Bfrl •/■ ClarenaoHi Clilef Secretary for Irahiid, Mr. LobvMhtrei Adnilrally, Lord iirifaiirf. The foreffoinir were in Ik* Cmhitul-H>« followliiB were MO*. Lord Ueylenaiuof Ireland, &rl «/ ilM/jyrowf A / Cmniiiander-ln chief, 1»m*«o/ WtUhfulont Ni«wr General of llie Ordnance, MurqnU Tlte'iMftfi'ir of Ihe corn-bill and llie new lariir excited much reJolcliiK In llie niaiiu- ractiirliic dlKtrlcU : belle were run|r ; flag* Mill baiinera bi-arlnjc anpro|»rlale liiKrl|i- Uom were dliplajred rroni fartoriee, or cirrted In uroreielon about the slneit: cunoM were flre«l, and all the uaual mudei of giving vent to popular feeling re- tnried to. # . . Tlie Ant meanure of any imnorlanre brourrlil forward bv the new adinlnbtraiinn, «u Lord John Rusnell't iclieine for a rediiflion of the •MK»r duties. He pro- pnicd tliat tlave-grown ingar and fon-lgn iree-frown tngar be a cUra.ion had been inaile by Sir R. Peel, In the House of Conimnns, that KuglaiM wait deicrmlned lo nialntiin her territorial right*, that the threata of taking foit-lbl« poraesaloii gave way to the more wise and equitable mode of settling the quculon by arbilralioii ; and It waa eventually agreed upon, " that from that point in the 49th Karallel of north lalltiiae. In which tlw niindary laid down by exirling Ireatiea between Great Britain and the United Slate* lerminales, Ihe line of boundary between the territories of the two countrlrs should be couliiiued westward along the 49lh parallel lo tlie middle of the said channel wlilch separate* tlie continent from Vancouver'* Island, and tlience, sonllierly. through the middle of tlie said eiiannel and the Fnca StralU to tlie PaclAc Ocean." AiO. lB47.-~Tlie commencement of thi* *car found the domeatlc affairs of the brilish Empire in a position calculated to call forth all Ihe flrnineas of those in- trusted with the government. The ca- lainlly that bad befallen unhappy Ireland III the previous year, still continued to harass Iter. The extent of her distress, and the remedial meusiires of the govern- nieiil, may be gathered from the following brief extracts from Her Majesty'* *|ieecn on opening parliament (Jan. I0. 1847). and llie observation* of Ihe Chancellor or the Exchequer on bringing forward hi* 6i«fgr(;— "My lorda and gentlemen, it is with the deepest concern Uial upon your again assembling, I have to call your at- tenlinn to the dearth of iirovlslohs which iirevails In Ireland, and In parts of Scot- land, in Ireland, especially, the loss of the usual food of the people has been the cauNe of severe snAferiiigs, of disease, and of Increased mortality among the |ioorer classes ; outrages have become iliore frc- qiieiit, chiefly directed against property, «■;. . . . Various measures will be laid be- fore you, wlilch, If adopted by parliament, may tend to raise Ihe great mass of the jienple in comfort, lo promote agriculture, and to lessen tlie pressure of that coinpe- lilioii for the occupation of land which liaa been the fruitful source of crime and misery*'* The Chancellor of the Exriieqner having congratulated the House that llie liiiances of Die country were never better able to bear llie demand tbat would be made upon iliem, said, " Ireland rVqiiireU an extraor- dinary provision, l)u t tions to presiTve the peace of llie iiielro- polis. Large bodies of troops were slaticnini unseen In different public bnildlMKs; and ISO.OOO citizens of London voluntarily eii. rolled Iheniselves as special constables for the maintenance of order. When tlie an- pointed day arrived, the courage of ihc Charllsts fell. Their leader, Feargns O'Con- nor, at the iiisligaiion of the poiire, In- duced the meeting quielly to disperse, and llie " Monster Petition," as it was ciillid, tvas conveyed to ihe House of Coinninus in a hackney vehicle. When analysed, it was found to contain not so many as 3,noo,ooo Instead of 6,00«,000 of signatures, and these of Ihe most helerogentous and ab- surd kind ; hence It was desencdly treated with dlst de- inonstratlon, which was to liave changed the institutions of tlie country, became t bvword of contempt. But althouKh all alarm was at an end, meetings continued to be liehi in the metroprdis for tlie pro- motioii of what was called the " i'eople't Charter," at which much scdilioiis Isn- giiage was held. The contagion spread In some of Ihe large .manufactuiiug towns boili In England and Scotland, and in lonie parts of tlie country llie Charti'tt deaion- stratioiiH created so great an apprehensinn, tliat tlie government Jiidiced it expedient to arrest and bring to trial a few nf ilie most violent leaders, who, on being fuuiid guilty, were transported or Imprisoned for different periods. These transactions out of doors be<^anie the subject of frequent discussion in parliament, and led lo the inlrodiictlon nf some new legal securiliri for Ktreiigthening tiie hands of gnrerii- ment, and enahilng them lo deal more efl'ecliially with plotter* against Ihe pub- lic peace. Scarcely had Ihe alarm cnnscqiii'iit nn the proceedings of the Chartist* stiiiiidt'ii in England, when the country wn IMItcheii, and Tlionias Meagher. Miiciicii had establisheil a newspaper, calli'U llie •' United Irishman," in wlildi rtbrllinn was proclaimed witliont disguise. Enrh iinmber contained what was called " Our J A. D. 1347. —DANIEL oVONNELL DIED AT OENOA. Iltlraldeiilpiiibf f(iroe, lh« grew iloii Kl oiwt rnm »n«l Inililiitloiii I • mnrnl vtt'ldrv eflVt'lt of wlili-li they were heiie- liaii bi-en nxi'U leiire niii'iiiiK to 'onininn, wlivnre a |)iirllaiiit'iit in t|)eill)oii viKiietl, },ii(iO,0(M) of iii«-n, KiiviM nriii'iit into iiidt. Mcniiwliile leci'iisary precau* ct! of lliL- metro- i|iR wrrc Rlalioned Ic biilldliiic*; ami g III volniitarilji <-n- u lal conAlublc'ii for p. When llic np- i couru^e «f Die r, Feart[iii' O'Coii- r the pollre, tn- y to (llsperir, and ' as It w»w to arm lhi*ni««lvc«, how lo destroy lriM>|n In the slri eu of tuwiit by pourlnK titrlol over llicni, how to form Inrricade* and all the other apparalmt of • civir Insuireetlon. At length, when to all aupearuiice c*erv preparation waa made forcitll war, the Iriahg *v«ninienl bcfan lo •*•• ..... •. ' O'Brien, with his two accomplicea. Meaciier and MItcliell, were arretleii and beld In ball ; the two foriner for their ha- rangues, the Utter for a series of libels In kls iiewsiMiier, and imong other*, fur a letter addressed to the vloeroy, a* Her Majesty's Executioner General of Ireland. Sui« pinaecutlons, Indeed, are always deiiraie affairs, and there were pecullarltUt In the law In Ireland at that time which made these prosecutions particularly ha- urdotts. In fact, it was already obvious that the law was too weak to grapple with the turbulence which existed. Far from being Intimidated by tli« impending trials, the riicendlarie* were no sooner aaroltteil lo bail, than they renewed their criminal proccealiiss with redoubled violence. In fact, the cxiatlntr law was rather an al- Iracllonto the seditious, than a discourage- Dieiit. Tlie crime was vague, the punish- ment slight, the chances of escape con- siderable; and between arrest and trials Ibe public was at the mercy of the agitator, •bo might ponlbly reckon upon an Inter- mediate acconipllshment of his revolution- ary objects. To apply the law of treason, would have beeu neither easy nor desir- ible; speeclies and articles alone would not come within iU deHnition ; and even if that difliciilty could have been got over, another would have Immediately occurred, arising from the magnitude of the penalties In an age to averse to extreme punishineni*. In short, the law of sedition wu below the mark, and the law of treason above It. It WIS, therefore, expedient to meet the cir« eunistinces of the period, and the pecu- liarltic* of the crime, by a new enactment. Tliese perilous forms of sedlthm were ac- ! cordingly made felonies : the precision of the new law materially reduced the chances of eluding it : tlie consequences of con- 1 vlction had much more of tlie pains than tlie charms of martyrdom : arrest was fol- lowed by committal and present inra- pacity for further mischief; while a pniitsh- nwni, at once infamous and merciful, ' •alisfled both the claiius of Justice and the ckiniency of the public feeling. The bill met with some opposition in the House of Commons on purely constitutional grounds; but the chief resistance to it was oirered by Mr. John O'Connell on tlie pait of the old ' atilatinn, Mr. O'Connor on the part of the chartlsu, and Mr. O'Brien liiiiiseli on tlie Krt of the rebellious r I nbs. The figure the ter gentleman made in rising to oppose a bill for securing the Crown and Government igaliist tlie machinations of liimself and his tccnmplices, was rendered donbly disgrace- ful by the tact that he had just returned from his treasonable mission lo Fianci*. • lie would be Catalliie was receivetl in scornful silence by an as!>embly of loyal gentlemen, and Sir George Grey, amidst the loudest acclamations, gave vent to the suppressed feeling of tlie House of Com- nitins. The new slaiuiv came no sooner Into force, than Mr. Mitchell was selacd under its |iii/«isions, brought lo trial wllli* out delay, convlclcii, »«Htenceerlor courts in Dublin ; and wiien, after \n\tg dehivs. these points were decided In favour of tlie crown, there slill lav nn n|ipcal to the House of Lords, which further poxtponed (he fate of the priitouers, whatever that fate was ultimately to be. In the month of June, linwever, the Lord« conllrmed the decishins of the tribunal In Ireland, and now all difflcultlen seemed removed, whe- ther in the path of Justice or of niercv, when a new and lotalTy unforeseen dllticnli* arose. The convicts olijected to any niltf- ICadon of penalties, and insisted u|>on their right to be executed pursuant to their sentence. It was formally contended that the Crown lind no right to be merciful to Irishmen cunvicted of treason, and that to lran»port them, instead of hanifinir them, would be a n.onslrous stretch of arbitrary power. No serious doubt was entertained in the present case as to the rlglit of the Queen to commute these leniences into (ransfiortadon: but, nevertheless, it was tliought ex|>edicnt (o pass a declaratory act to prevent future cavllliuK on (he point. This.slep iKiving been taken, nothing remained but to Inflict the minor penalty, which was carried out as much to the satisfaction of the public, as either the ex- treme penalty of the law, which nobody thought of, or complete iinptinily, which a few giddy people recommended, would have been displeasing to it. Tlie New World, ami we mny add the old also, was this year thrown Into a whirl of excitement by the abundant discovery of surface gold on the plains of Upper California. In the spring of the year tome settlers were excavating a niiilrace in the neighbourhood of the Sacramento, a river about thirty miles to the north of San Francisco, having its rise in tlie Call- fornlan mountains, and railing Into the sea in the Bay of San Pablo. In the course of their work, tliey met with several pieces of heavy yeiluw-coiuured metal, which being of a sufficiently peculiar nature to * sell* curlcMilly, were siMedllv discuvi-red to ba (fol.l ot grent purity. For souiu lime ihn iircntrved the seer* t, and are suiiikih,! to lute gathered a very coii.kiiriiMe niiau. Illy belore it trannplied. At h uKtli >,• liiilliin surprised them while ocrupleU in warchliig, and although they rn.lesvt.nred to divert hi« ntlenllou, niid ilctiiioiil hi,,, for some lime, lie acqualutcil IiIh tribe bv wlioae means It soon becamit kitowu hi'ihc country. Suili an unhenrd-of clrcuniManoe ciiuwed great surprise and some curiosity but a few having tried for Ihenisflvet, aiiil having become ni of three months, 4000 iteople colleritd ' digging and M'raping early and Iste. The gidd It found in three forms: iirauultieii i of tlHi size of medium gunfMiwihr, tiid J mixed with iron; in small scales or iHiniiije ' ^ of from one eighth to one twelfih of n* S Inch in dliimeler : and In «did liin-pt nf « from iiaif an ounce to four pounds In 9 weight. I '" In the Eist, tlie arms of Great Britain j were not allowed to remain inactive, being I < once more chiilleiiged to a contCHt by a fiie S who. It was ik^Mglit, had been clfei'tMally , r subdued. The Immediate cause of the « rupture wns as follows : — Soon after Hit I evacuation of the Punjaub by the Rrltiih ' b troops In IB46, Moolrai, the dewau or* governor of Mooltan, had become einbrallii] ? with the court of Lahore res|ic<'lliiK the X non-payment of his stlpiilattd tribute m < the treasury. Uy the medUlion of tliel 2 British authorities in India, tlicae dlfrcr- •■ encet were at lirtt (em|Hirarlly adtitmnl ; m and at length, under their guiiraiitcr, I > the dewan was induced to triitt liini«cir inj '' the rity of Lahore fur the purpose nf (mt- i sonnlly arranging a linal and amicable compromise. After this he retiiriird to ■ hit province ; but tome time subaeqiienili n it was agreed, or alleged to be so, that I he should retire from lilt office; and in ! pnnuance of thisnnderstanding, tliu Drilinh officers, Mr. Vans Agiiew and l.leiii. An-' < derson, deiiarled in the spring of I84B from < ,* Lahore to ftlooltaii, to receive his siirrcmirr, ' 7 and inttal his successor. Wlille in rila- 2 charge of this duly, they were ireacherninlji " and foully murdered. Moolnij tlic.n ihiit f- liimself up In his fort, ttrtiigtiiened lii« ^ defences, collected adherents from allparii u, of the country, and prepared to defy the ^ British power. Immediately on intelliiience : , of the murder reaching Lahore, a body of I 3000 Sikhs, horse and foot, wan ordrreij ^ to march to Mooltan, under the cnnmiaiid ^ of Rajah Shere Singh. It happened iliat - at this juncture Lieutenant Edwardea vii»\ .' engaged upon the Indus with aamnii fnrop, ' : ccdiectiiig the land-tax due to Mooiraj Ai soon as he heard of the asHaatiimiio'i it Mooltan, lie,iinraedialely took niea«ur«i to effect a Junction with the forces of Colonel Cortlannt, who had been conimtndiiif; in a contiguous district ; and this bcin; ic- coinplislied, on the soth May an enffige- iiient took place, in which Ihe enemy were A.D. 1848. — THE POPE ESCAPED IN DISGUISE TO GAETA : NOV. 34. A. 1>. IHi».— OOLD UliCOVMKu |N CALirORNIA. rAtf-V^axtie of Unmrftoirt ©(rtaifa. [507] j.(mIm * !i. !f»»» »l«»»h»<'r, iiid llie \tm of i" »£'•'•• •'"! •»*• •*»'"' ••'■■''•^' '■''•• Hrllhh "ronp* i^*" «»« ;t''e»' •h« fori* of ; ihe Deru tnd III" IIm« "' i>'e ••»««•••■ BiU ik«i lilil not rvmiiiii liititllve. On ili« ,l,f,„rjniie, Lleiii. Kilwindt », havJiiR, wlih mtl thill •"<» «"*'■«• /"'"Vl" I'l'/'llon nnie more iiH»((eil H'« »""» "^ MoolrnJ, whii'li, ttfier » MiiifHlMwy tonHicl of iilii« ,e h.Hir.' durulloii, wm coinp elely d.-fe»tea 2 I Willi ilKt loa of all It* •rllMery. M/'olraJ J I no« f«ll baik upon Moolitn, fii wlilch li« S na* ImmtilUH'ly followed b» III.- Hrlllitli *• iikI iheir tlllv*- tienvral WliUli toon * illfr arriving from Uliore with a Urire re- " iHlorieiiiBoi, wli'l • *'«* '» b«»lcg« lh« S rli?. lli« <*""l" Briiiih forrci MMinblei) Vrniiiiil llie will* "f Moollaii anioiiiited 8 In M,flOO iii«u. 'I'liu I3ili of September waa I liHNi fur maklnr aKtiiierul attack upon Ihe S ' town. A itarly of lliti «n*in» having •ironnly iiilffiiclit'd llwiiiiielvei hi -a garden and tlilaM iit-ar llie walli, MOO nt llie Brillih lroop», iiiHler llie command of Urlxadler Harrey, nian-hcd at diiy-breok agaiiiitt llila iKitt, ami carried It after a aevere atriiKtcle and Biit'li low on both aldet. Next day llie Mooltaneae Iroopt made t deiiperale •Hack on Lieut. KdwardiV camp, but were reiielM, and the UrIlUli Iroopa carried aimthfr ImporianI outwork. Uiit at thia critical Juiiclurr, Shere SiiiKli went over to the enemy with ihe whole of hl« Iroopa, coiitl»llh> of SOOO men ; and in ronaeqiienre of llili (Fcfecilon Oeniral Mhlidi deenud II exiH'dleiil to raLie Ihe liexe, and full back npon a po*ltlon a few mile* fnin the tunn. A« It hud now liecoine apparent lliat a Derce itrugKle with Ihe whole of (lie fierce ioldlery of the Siklia ivaa at hand, a large force waa ordered to a«« icnible at Feroxepoor, under Ihe ordera of Lord Oongli, and preparatlont on a larire wale were mode to cruah Ihit foriiildabia ri'belllnn. On Oct. 9. Shere Sinifh aeparaled him- H-lffriim Mi)oiraj,nnd hy attlliul nianceuvrei li-d llie whole of iiia furre acroM the Kavee, and Ihrongh the wlmle extent of D»ab i-Rechnn, lo the country iiorih-wcat of lalinre, and ioulh-eant of Vyiiei-rubud, where C'liutiiir Singh shortly afivr took up bi« |in«ltl(in. On Nov. SI. it uaa found that Sliere Singh wa* entreiiciicd on Ihe right bunk of tlie Chenab, behind Ram- iiiiggiir, with nearly 40,000 men and S8 KUiia well placed. A picket of two nt- f;inienu was poated advantageontiv on the el'l bank. Lord Uongh despalcheu Major- General Thackweli with thirteen infantry regiments, beoidea artillery and cavalry, to croM Ihe river gome niilea up the stream, and n|ierate on the enemy's flank. Lord Gattgh persoiiuliy led the attack on the aiivanreil position. A surprise was at- tempted, hut um^ttL'cetifuliy. Some of the British truo|)s fell into ambush, lulFered great slaugliter, and lost a gun. Among the losses sustained by llie Urilish in lliia engagement, were Col. Haveluck, Gen. Curetnn, and Capl. Highbury, wiio fell in a gallant but unsuccesHt'iil charge against the enemy. After a variety of manoeuvreK, ill whicli Shere Singh displayed great ability u a UcUcian, tlie whole Sikh army abandoned Ihrlr poslllon at Raninuggur, and marched upon the Jheluni. Meanwiiile, (Jenrral \^ hinh, having been Joined by Ihe Itombay trouiMi, renewed llie •lege or Mooitan. The besieging army now amounted lo IS,fluO Itrltlnh irmtpat that of llie Hilles to about I7,ouo ; or 33,000 in all, besides ISO pieces of artillery. Oil Uer. 37. Ihe troop* advanced in four column* lo the altack; and clearing Ihe •nbnrb*, and driving in Ihe enemy on all tides, Ftttnblislied iiieinM'lvea wltliin .too yard* of the wall*. A lerrlflc cunnniiade and bomhardnienl commenced next day. On Ucc. W, the besieger* had arrived oo close lo the Willis, that their lieavy gun* were breaching ilieiii at a distance of no more than eighty yard*. Treniendnus dam»g« was caiiHcd to llie town; and in liie fort n granary wa« set on Are, and several small niiigit/.lne« explodrd. On the morning of the 3()ih, the priiMipai magazine of the fori. In wliicli nearly Rno.uoo ponndi of powder were re|)ortfd to have been xtored, blew up with a lerrllic explosion. The dewan'* mosite xide of the town, ' where the entrance of the Bombay column had already been eH'ected. The Fusileers entered fiisl, and placed the stamhird on the city walls. The Bengal column fol- : lowed, and the city, which was taken ; about 3 p. m., was before sunset liiled with British troo|M. Tlie citadel, liowever, in which Moolraj had shut himself up, still continued to li.dd out; but practicable breaches having been effected, tlie llritiith troops were about -to storm the citadel, | when Moolraj hurrendered himself uiicoudi- tioiially, with liis whole garrison. Mooltan ' having tlius I'lillen, the troops eni^as^ed In ' the attack Ininiediately coiiinienoed tlieir march norlhwards, to join the grand army under Lord Goiigh, opposed to tlie two rebel cliieftains, Shcre Singh and Chutlur Singh. I On tlie lOth of January, Lord Gough receiviKi an cificial couiniunicaliun, that the fortress of Attock, which had so long been defended by Major Herbert, had fallen, and that Chutiur Singh was advancing to ; Join his fiirci s to those under his son Shere | Singh, which then aniounttd to nearly 40,000 men with G3 guns. He, therefore, . determined to lose no time in attempting the complete overthrow of the Sikh army { in his front; and at daylight on tlie morn- ing of the twelfth marched from Loah Zibbali to Dingee. The succeeditis move- | nients may be narrated in the words of his own denpatch : " Having learned from my ' spies, and from other sources of inrorm. atlon, that Shcre Singli still held wli" L right the villages o? LukhuetwHila a I Kulteh-Shah-keh-Chuck, having the »re» body of his force at the viilaire of UUimi. walfa, with his left at Kussocd m Z Jheium, strongly occupying the southern extremity of a low range of different hills intersected by ravines which exieud nearlv to thai village. I made my arranuciiieiitl accordi.igly this evening, and coniniunl. cated them to the commanders of ijw several divisions ; but to insure correct in. formation as to tlie nature of the coiiiilrv which I believed to be excessively dlffli'iili and ill-adapted to the advance of a regular army, I determined upon moving on thia village with a view to reconnoitre. "On the morning of the I3ili the force advanced : I made a considerable detour lo my right, partiv in order to distract tlie enemy's attention, but principally to iret ?.s clear as I could of the Jungle, on which It would appear tliat tlie enemy maiiilv relied. ' "We approached this village tbnul la o'clock, and I found on a mound cIdm* to it a strong picket of the enemy's cavajrv and infantry, wliich we at once dlnpt-rneil, obtaining from tlie mound a very extended view of C either during the night or that moriiiiiv moved out of his several positions and occupied the ground in our fnuit, ulilch though not a dense, was still a ilimiiilt Jungle, his right in advance of Puiieli. Sliah-kehChuck, and Ids left on the fur- rowed hills liefore described. "Tlie day being so far advanced, I de- cided upon taking up a position In rear uf the village, in orde: lo ruconiioilru i.ii front; linding that I could not turn tlie enemy's Hanks, which rested upon a (l(.>ii«« Jungle, extending nearly to llailuh, ulijcji I had previously occupied fur some tjiiiu; and the neighboiirhooil, of which i knew, and upon the raviny liills, near Ku'xirl, without detaching a force to a dittani'e; this I considered both incxpetiieiit ind dangerous. " Tiie engineer department had been or- dered to examine the country hefure u«, and the quartermaster-general was in lli« act of taking up ground for tlie encamp- inent, when the enemy advanced unnic horse artillery, and opened a Are on llii! skirmishers in front of the village. I im- mediately ordered them to he sfleiii'til b« a few roniids from our heavy gnus, wlilcli advanced to an o|ien space In fruiil of llie village. I'lie fire wat instaiiilv returned hy that of nearly the whole of the encniy't lield artillery, thus expohing the uoiililon of his guns, which the jungle had iilllicrlo concealed. " It was now evident that (he Fneniji In- tended to light, and would probulily ail- vance his guns so as lo reach the cni'aiii|i- nient during the night. " I , llierefore, - iinlnordtrof bm'li, Ivi.ioit Kit tlie riKlili • I'oiif'H brlifiule "I (irllieiud by llw Wh ware ihm Hif Hieiy - U|l(>ll III* li'H- '« enQlmts.—^auit at ^^ninmitl^—Wittaria* L609J lliii were tlUched tlirre Iroope of liorte arllllrry under LleuteiiantCnluiiel Grant. I'jie heavy gam were in the rentre. | " UriKailler-General Canipbcli'ii dIvUlon rornied the left, flanked by Brigadier Wlilte't brigade of cavalry, and three irooM of horse artillery nnder Lientcnant- Coionei Brind. The Held batteries were with the infantry divijion.." | "Such wu ilie order of attack ; but the qiieition now aiinea, waa it prudent under llie circuniiitauoea to make the attack at all! The troops were wearied with their march, the day was aInioM spent, and there was no time to make proper pre- 1 parations so as to avoid unnecessary loss of life. The trutli seems to be, tliat Lord Gough was irritated bv the lire from the horse artillery of the Siklm, and suddenly chanicing his plan of waiting until the ' next day before he attacked tiieni, he re- 1 •olved to chastise tlieir pre»uniptiou upon tlie spot. If such be the fact, the com- waiider-in-cldef was certainly, tu this in- stance, more brave than discreet, and his indiscretion cost us dear. No suHicient . reconnaissance was made of the ground tint lay between our troops and the enemy, ' and it was not known in wliat part of his j l|iie his chitif strength lay. | " After a cannonade which lasted between one and two liours, liie left division were , directed to make a flank movement, and , In obeying the order, exposed tlieir own flank to a dreadful cross Are from Sikli batteries on tlieir left which had not been ' obM'rved, and on tlie third and fourth liri- : gadcs ultlwalely reaching the gnii«, they | were met by such • tremenduus lire, that they were obliged to retire with severe [ liiss. As soon as it was known that tliese ' two brigades were engaged, the flfth was sent agr'iust the centre of what was sup- ; poied to lie the enemy's line, and advanci^d under Brigadier Mountain tliron^li the ! jungle in the face of a storm, Arst of round ' shot, then grape, and lastly musketry, ' wlilcli mowed down the officers and men i by dozens. Still they advanced, and on reselling the guns spiked every one in front and two otiiers on the left, which had lubseqnenlly opened a flank Are on them ; ! but the Sikhs no sooner saw I hey were deprived of the use of their guns, tlian | tliey renewed such a fire with musketry iKit only on the flank, but in tlie rear of the brigade, that it was compelled t) re- [ treat— a muvenient which was effected in good order, and with determined bravery. < ' In tlie meantime,' we quote from a con- 1 teiii|iorary account, * Urijadier Godby, witli Major General Sir W. Gilbert as a leader, who was on the extreme right of the infantry line, moved forward, and after marcliing through dense jungle for some minutes, came upon the enemy's in fantry; tlie bi'igade opened tlieir fl/e, but llie enemy were in such nuinlK.'rs, that they easily outflanked them. Two com- piinlcs of the second European regiment were wheeled up, showed front, and the wlinie charged, but had not gone far when lliey found they were surrouiideil. They iiunicdialt'ly faced right about, kept up •nine lilL--liring and charged rear-rank in flout. At this juncture Dawe's uuilery came to the rescue, and having beaten off the enemy, their guns were taken. While the infantry were tiiiis highly distinguisli- ing themselves, and earning lni|ierisliable laurels, tlie cavalry on the extreme left under Brigadier Mhite liad made ada«liiii|r charge and contributed much to the defeat of tlie enemy, while the cavalry on tlie extreme right, consisting of Brigadier Pope's force with the fourteenth liglit dra- \ goons temporarily attached, having been taken in advance of their horse artillery, I Lane's, Christie's, and Huisli's troops were ' directed to charge a body of the enemy's cavalry, variously estimated at from luuo , to SOOO. Instead of obeying the orders given them they faced about, and In spite ' of tile energetic endeavoura of their own I and other uHicers, left the flcid, (witli tlie \ exception of a body of the ninth lancer* who were rallied) and made dirett tor tlie artillery, on coming up to wliich, instead of i pulling up, they uashed through Huisii'a and Christie's troops, upsetting a waKgni a village in the immediate vicinity of which the Itritish army was encamped, and the news was received In England with a burst of sorrow, and we must add iisdigiia- tion. Want of due caution on the part of the general was patent on the face of the accounts of the engagement, and it was felt that itougiit not to have been hazarded, nor so great a waste of life wantonly in- curred. There was no need to lest the courage of the soldiers who had been en- gaged in tills campaign against tlie Sikhs, and the dutv of the coininaiider-in-chief was to eflect Ine overthrow of the enemy by superior strategic skill, rather than by dashing exploits of personal valour, ami hand tu hand conflicts witli llie sabre aim the bayonet. The consequence was ,an almost iiiianinions demaiiu for the recall of Lord Goiigli, and tlie appointment of a general who would carry on the war in u more «<:ieiitific and less desperate fashion. To till! emergency all eyes were Inrni'd to Sir Chi; ies Napier, tlie hero of Meeaiiee .4 •a o e < ». < •a % an i A. D. 1819. —GENERAL GORGEY SUKItENIIKKE)) TO TUB KITSSIANS : KVG. 13. [2 Z 4. D. 184U. — COUNT BATTHVANY SHOT AT PESTH : OCT. 6. [510] ^teainrn of W^taviit ^c* and conqueror of Scindc, whose name was dreaded oy the restless irihes of the Indus more than that of any otht-r living man, and both the Government and the East I ndla Company acknowlediced the correctness of the public choice. Sir Charles Napier \va» without delay appointed coniniander-in- chief of the forcefi, and member extraor- dinary of the council of India, and he sailed from England at the latter end of March, to assume his duties in the East. But in the mean time Providence had blesfied our arms with a decisive and final »ii!tory, and tlie grlory of Goojcrat effaced ail lindictive memory of the carnaf^e of Chil- lianwallah." CAnvnal Register for 1849.) On the ISlh of February, the Sikhs drew up their cavalry In masses outside their camp at ChllliHnw»llah, and under that cover the tents were struck, and the troops retreated in the direction 'of Goii|cr:il. Lord Goui^li, with 2o,00Umenand lOOginis, then resolved to attack tlie enentv, iiuni- berinff 60,000 men with 59 puns. 'I lie Sikli chief was stronirly |M>sted between two river courses, which protected his tlanks, and yet allowed hiui good maiia-uvring space to retire either on the east or west Bhie of the town of Goojerat, which af- forded shelter and protection to his rear. The light began at seven in the morning, and lasted throughout ilie day. The Drilish army displayed the greatest gallantry ; and the result was that, by four o'clock the enemy had been driven from every post, and was in general retreat, which tlie field artillery and cavalry converted into a total rout and fllglit. Tliey were pursued with great slaugliler for about 15 miles, and next uiorniug an adequate force took up the direct pursuit, and detachments were sent to the points where retreat could most effectually be cut off. The result was, that 3 of the enemy's guns, and the whole of (heir ammunition and camp equipage, fell into the hands of the British. This decisive engagement was followed by the most important results. Shere Singh and various other chiefs surrendered iin- coMdilionHlly. The tiiglit of Dnst Moham- med into Afglianistan, by dissolving tlie Sikh and Afgliau ccuifed'erncy, gave the finishing blow to the existence of tlie Siklis ; and the Punjaub was forthwith de- clared to be a p:r mor- tality it occasioned. In the metropolis it ragid with terrillc violence during the third quarter of the year, till it reached its climax in the week ending Sept. 8., during which period the deaths amounted to the enormous number of 12,847. Among the numerous fair fruits of re- stored tranquillity in Ireland, was the in- ducement it offered to the Queen to visit a part of her empire hitherto known to her only by name. Tlvat gracious visit was a well'tirned proof of the royal coiifldeiire in the unshaken allegiance of the great bulk of the Irish peoiile ; and it was likeuise a compliment to the energy, prudence, just huinaiiity, and moderation by wliicli the unfortunate tumults of the preceding year had been so liappilv composed. The ap- pearance, indeed, oi the Queen among tier Irish subjects was all that was wanting to complete the ascendancy of loyalty over treason, and of m'der over tumult. Nearly thirty years had elapsed since a Uritlsli sovereign had appeared in Ireland ; but there was little in common between ttie visit of George IV. and tliat of Queen Victoria, save the ordinary and formal in- cidents of a royal progress. The crown of: England (deriving its lustre from the laws ! and liberties, tlie rights, franchises, and I institutions, wliicli contribute to the peace and welfare of the realm'), possessed for the Ireland of 1821 little of tfic glory tliat now belongs to It. Those popular prlii- cii.li's and syninathies, which are ilsbriglit- esi jewels, and which are now lirinly set in it for ever, were wanting. It was not al. Ilial time, what it is at present, on tlie brows of Queen Victoria, — tlic diaileni of a 'iionarcli dear to and ideiitil'ied with all her subjects. In that character, at once august and affectionate, she nuuii. her suiiiiner voyage to Ireland. Her visit was to tlie nation; and the nation wlijcli wei- ' coined her was not only loyal but free, i Iter progress, coiiii'.relieiiiling tlif capital ; and priiii'iiial cities, afforded people of all orders and classes opportunities of tesli- iviiig their joy and presen'iiig her willi tiii'ir homage. In the chronicles of royi'l prf„'ressc«, there are few descriptions of a scene more sp'endid, more imposing, more joyous, or more memorable, than ihe entry of the Queen, accompanied by her Royal Consort the Priiiceof VVales, and the Princess Royal, into the Irish capital. Never did a city pour out lier inliiibilaiits in vaster masses, or en- joy a more triumphant lioliday. The houses were roofed and walled with spectators, throng above thiong, until '.licy clustered A. D. 1849. — PRINCE ALBERT OPENED THE NEW COAI. EXCHANGE: OCT. 30. A.D. 1850.— WRBOK OF THE ORION OFF POaTPATBICK : JDNE 19. < ac .>' •J lUl Itki! bi'M around the vane* and cliininey- tnaf The noble »treeU of Dublin Rcemed i, 1,'ave been removed, and built anew of \M M»iesiy'« deliifhied suhjeeU. I he squares ai..l large .pace, resembled the hileriors of crowded aniphllheatrei. The fjcailesof the public bulldingK were fornied fur th" day of radiant human face*. In- i wiiiiDii had exhausted Itself in diversifyiii)? of welcome. Ths chariSt of the gratified sovereign passed for miles aniouff gay itreaniiis, waving banners, festal garlands. ind under gigantic arclies, which seemed coiistrueleJ ol solid flowers, as if ihe hand of Summer herself had raised them. Jo- , ruiid music at every point sent forth ap- proprliile strains of graiulation ; but neither , fio«^rs, nor arches, nor music, could have , expressed the feelings of Ihe myriads who | rejoired upon that secular occasion ; tie . iubilaiit shouts alone which tore tht; con- cave, and were audible, loud and clear, not only above drum and trumpet, but above Hie saluting thunders of the fleet, adequately conveyed to the Queen's mind the gladness which her presence Inspired. The close of this year witnesstd (he death of the Queen Dowager, Af IMr. (jiaditloiie and other members of ti^ I'eel party to the motion, rendered tlae division very close, and gave tlie Miiiiniirv a mainrity of no more than 21, in a Hoiiwe of iniire ilian 620 members. Colonial aA'airs, and in an especial manner tlie West liidiu (piestion, also threatened the exislcnee of llie iMl- nlstry. The appnlntnient of the Cejion Coininittee, In inquire into Lord Torring- lon's conduct during the Ceylon riots, that had taken place in 1848, proved hi>w little conlidence was placed in llic Colonial Office, whilst the resolnti.iii of Sir Fowell Buxton, attirining tlie Injustice of exposing free-grown sugar to competition with slave-grown sugar, was rejected by the narrow majority of 275 to 334. But by far the most im|>ortant debate of this session arose out of the affairs of Greece. At the commencement of lliis year, intelligence had reached Kngland that, in consequence of the refusal of the govern- ment of Greece to accede to demands which the British Gover inicnt had made on ac- count of certain llritisli subjects. Admiral Sir \V. Parker had been directed to proceed to Athens, and not obtaining saiisl'action, had blockaded the Piruens, and had had recourse to other stringent measures. Dn the receipt of this intelligence, many per- sons otherwise friendly to the Government, manifested considerable dissatisfaclion, congiderlng such peremptory proceedings towards a feeble state like Greece nnworlliv of Ihe dignity and reputation of the Uritlsli nation. Soon alter the meeting of Parlia- ment, questions were addressed to the Go- vernment on the subject, and lenglhened discussions took place, the object of which wag to sliow that the nation did not sympa- thise with llie Government in the course which It liad Ihonght lit to adopt. Lord Palmerston having, however, accepted of the good oflices of the French Govern- ment, hostilities had ceased, and every ihing promised a peaceful terniination to tills untoward alVuir, when it became known that the French ambassador, Baroji Gros, who had been deputed to confer with Mr. Wyse, the British minisler at Alliens, had failed In his mission. Mean- while, a convention was agreed to in London between Lord Palinerston and M. Dronyii de Llinys, by which the whole matter was to be arranged. Before this convention was actually signed, the French Goveniiiient despatched a steam frigate to tlie PiruMis, to announce the basis of the proposed agreement to Baron Gros; but from some inexplicable cause. Lord Pal- merston sent no instructions to Mr. V*'yse on the subject; and !lie latter, in complete ignorance of the measures agreed to In London, gave notice to the Greek Govern- ment that he would immediately recom- mence coercive measures unless tlie d|;- inands of llie Britisli Government were uncoiiditlonally coni|ilied with. Tliese de- niandswere acceded to; bni the French Government, lo murk its sense of what it believed to be a want of good faith on the iiart of Lord Palmerston, recalled its ani- iiassador from Londmi, and only agreed to his return when the British Government Id I A.U. IS.'iO. — THl! QUEEN ASSAULTED IlY R. PATE AT CAMUUIDGE IlOt SE : JUNE 27. < u o on Z i K M O a. o X w a X u cs < I H X H >• n a u H « U Z < Si o 00 [512] A.D. ISoO. — SIR ROBERT PBBL DIED: JULY 2ND. conwiited to be bound by the otlpulations of lh« convention In wlik-h he had borne « part, lint the matter did not rest here. ' In the Hoiue of Lordit the blorkade of Greece was discussed at i^reat length, and Lord Sianle; brought forward a motion of censure aKainsl the Government, whom he ! reproachM with havlni; violated the prin- ciples of the law of nations, and havlnff comnrouilsed tlie good iindf rsianding of Eni^iand wUI> the continental |)Owers. Alter an animated discussion, Laird Stan- | ley's motion was carried against the Go- : veriiment lu a full house by a majority of , thirty -seven. It was at firot supposed that In consequence of this defeat the ministry would resign ; but Lord John RuMell showed by preceuents that an adverse vote | in (he House of Lords does not necessitate the resignation of a government, nor a ' cliange in Its policv* It was, however. I deemed expedient that something should : be done to counterbalance the moral eflect ' of the vote in the House of Lords ; and ! Mr. Roebuck gave notice of a comprehend ' sive resolution, approving of the whole ' foreign policy of tlie Government. The debate on tliU motion lasted four days; ill the most dUtingulshed members of the House took part in it. A powerful defence ! of his {Milicy was made by Lord Palmerston, ' who travelled over the whole ground of attack, and with varied and well put argu- | ments maintained that he had not failed of his duty in the proud position of the minister who wieldc«l the power of Eng- | laud, and fearlessly .challenged the verdict | of the House upon the principles of his policy. In a House, consisting of 574 mcni- { bers, the division gave a majority of 46 in favour of the Government. The victory thus gained would have created immense sensation, but for the melancholy event by which it was immediately fullowed. ' Sir Robert Peel had taken a prominent part in tiie debate just cloKed. His speech I was distinguished by a manly generosity of tone, weir suited to the loilv, though un- | oflielal posillon, which he liad occupied for four years; and tliough compelled to dissociate hiinself from the foreign (lollcy of the Government, few will forget the seiitia- ' tlon produced by his {generous language in reference t'> Lord Pitlmersion, — " We are all proud of him ! " The day after this memorable debate, while riding up Con- 1 stitution Hill, his horse started and threw ! him. He was conveyed home, and medical attendance was instantly with him : but the internal injurit'S he had siintalned proved t'lo much for his susceptible fr.-inie, and after intense sufTering ol three dayi<' dura- | tlon, he expired on July and. The in- ' t*'lligence or tlil« sad event was heard with dismay. The House of Commons imme- ', diately adjourned out of respect to the memory of the great statesman ; and next day in both Houses, members of all political parties gave utterance to their f*-cliM!;s of regret for his Ioks. Lord John Itussell on the part of the Governnient, propoKed that I the deceased should be lioixiured by a ' public funeral, — the highest tribute of re- ! spcct to an individual which the Hriuse of ( oninions could pay— but Mr. Gnnlburn, on the part of Sir Robert Peel's family, declined this offer, in consequence of the often expressed and written desire of the illuotrious dead, to be "interred without ostentation or parade of any kind." A national monument, however, was decreed to his memory in Westminster Abbey • and her Majesty would liave conferred nii hit family the honours of the peerage if tliev had not been respectfully declined. The last important business with which the House was occupied previous to its ris- ing, was the attempt of Daron Rothscliild to sit without taking ilie usual oaths. Wearied apparently of waiting for the prouijicd Governnient measure, on the 36th of Julv the baron presealed himself at the lable of the Hoiife, and demanded to be swHrn on the Old Testament. After a iliscussimi this was conceded, but when the oaths were tendered, on coming to the words nii the faith of a true Christian, the baruu said, " I pass them as not binding on my conscience," and concluded witli the re- maining words of adjuration. But this eva- sion of the law was not supported even by his ministerial friends 'nd the result wa*. that these words wer.. ..Airuied to be an essential pari of the oath, and the birnii was declared to be not entitled to his seat in the House. A mong the most Important arts bearing on the well-being of the community paii8e(l Ihii session, may be mentioned the "Act to make better Provision for the I interment of the Dead in and near tSie Metropolis," the Factories Amendment Act, a bill for tlir better Government of the Australian Colo- nies, a bill for the Alteration of the Stamp Dulies, and a bill for Altering the QuallA cation of Parliamentary Votes in Ireland. The 8th day of July witnessed the dealli of His Roval Highness the Duke of Caiii- bridge, wiio had endeared himself to all classes of the community by his afTabiliiy and lionhommie. In the autumn of this year Great Britain was thrown into a state of pnliiiral and religious excitement,aln.>ost unpreceileiiled in its history. It was occaslomd by lli« attempt of the Pope to re-establiiili tiie Roman Catholic hierarchy, which had been extinct since the Reformation. VVidKMit p(!rniission of the Crown, or any negotiaiinii with the Government whatever, Pope Piiii* IX. divided the whole of England iiitu twelve sees, and assigned these to as many Roman Catholic bisshops, with lerri- torlal jurlMiiction, The chief of them wai Dr. V\ iseman, who was created Cardinal and elevated to the rank oC Archbishop of Wstt- minster. Dr. Wiseman issued a pastoral letter, which was read on the 37tli day of October, 1850, In all the churchrs and chapeU of the Romanists, coiigratiilalinf catholic England on the re-esiabliithmr.iit of the Rl !>■■>■ i" ''■■' Uintriiiiie of a iiieiiiHl to riv rnmi Koiiiu, iinr was lie restured ex- ceut by (lie '•»'»■* "^ ">*' Fitiiicli, ulio be- gieffed and took Rome in 1849. 'I'liat (lie I'liur, wliile holding lii« own little du- iiiiiiiuiis on DO |il'ccariou8 a tenure, should vi'iiliire to oiiHiiiiie miicIi an exercise of iiiprt'iiiai'y over the luosl puwttit'ut niiioii ill lilt' u'oi'ld — ii lutloii so jealous ol' its imleiieiidfiire, which hud so long been, and wliii'h si'll was, most averse to his chiiiii:!, — si't'iiied aliiiosi incredible lo the peoplf of l'.iigiuiid, and llity weiv propor- lioiiiiblv iiKiisiiaat. , . . I I'lie excileii:<'iit prodnct'd by this iii- trlligi'iicf tliriiiij{hont England was pro- !(li);l<'us; and ttu- ditnie was funned by llie uublicHtiun ul' a letter whlcli Lord Jidiii i Kiniscll had a-d traiiquitlily, the great powers having been at peace with each other, and the warlike episodes that have occurred having been coniined to contests within nations tl.em- selvcs when they could nol agree as 'o the sovereignty ; as, for example, Spaii.< or Foriugal, or revolis by the subject from the dominant power, such as Poland from Russia, Hungary from Austria, and Schleswig llolsiein trom Deiiin.M'k. Bi'i the general peace of Europe has I'.en preserved, even while the revoluti lary tornado of ".i.^8 swept over the chief kingdoms, and Ihe balDe raged in ihe cnpitali". Whatever hostility dwell with- in individual iialions, and sought vent in civil rontenlioii, we have happily seen A. D. 1850 —COUNT UllANDENUtinG DIED AT DEIILIS : NOV. 6 [2 Z 3 A. D. 1851. -> TUB aUCAT BXIilBITION OPBNBIM MAY I. s [514] Cf)e CrentfutTj; of W^taxtif ^t. no desire to kindle a griieral war. Henre the latter half of tli« lutli century raay be Mii< tlie political progreas of tlie lant half re> tnry, that the slave trade was abullitiied V rouKiiout the Hrltlsh diiminlons. and tw iiV 'xiMcn yun later slavery itvelr was swciU ' >>. The latter part of the !< iH i •: .tiiry has also t"' record many km iij'iil political changes, in addition to iW: xtinetion of slavery, but all !'<-!t acc '>.' 1839. The miniatnrt •. 'ihi'.ior, • oi v^i- cities and burgiis of the I n'et- Oiiisi<-iisuf the Brnplrc, liave been sini «ri) .:i><«i';ret half ol tlie i9lh ceiitiiryt A.o. l8SI.--At the commencement of thin jcnr, two subjects, though diame- trically oppoftite, engrossed the minds of the community : tlie Papal aggression, with the. measures likely to be adopted lo counteract it, and the Oreat Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, It was gene- rally expected that, with the exception of some measures calculated to abate the pre- tensions of the i'apal See, tiie sci'sioii if I'arlianient would be barren of legislai.'.e results, and that ilie fervour of pohiics would give way to the amcjiltles which tlie great coniinerrial julillee would iiaiur^tlly liM|iire. How I'ar this expectatidii 'Aas re- aiise«l will be sien in the se<|uel. Tlie I'ar* iianieiil W ■■» "pem d by tliK Uueen ih person^ on Pub. 4. tier Majesty in the rnyai xpeucli dwelt with satisfacnnu on Ihe coiitiiuiaiice of peace and aini(y with f(/reigti italioiis : ou tlu; l«rniiiiatioii of liostlliiifs between Dunuiiirk and dchleswijr-lioistciii, ilirougli IIm* exertions of the Gvriiiaii conic'derallon \ ill carrying out (he sti|iuialions of the ' Ircaly of Berlin : on llie coiiriusion of an addilioiial treaty with the King of Sar- dinia : and on tlie now measures taken hy \ Iht Governimeiit of Bra/.il lor Ihe suppreH- ' 4ion of the sJtave trade. Her Majesty liaving ' alluded to the estimates of the year, wliieti " were framed with a due regard tii econoniv and to the necessities of ihe piiblK' service," proceeded lo remark on tlie sails- factory stale of the revenue, iintwitlistantt. , ing Ihe large reduction of taxation In lutu years, and upon the Aourishiiig slate of ihe commerce and manufactures of the kiiir. doin. The difficulties still felt b( the owners and occupiers of land her MKJesiy lamented, but hoped that the prosperity of other classes of her subjects would have a benellciai effect in diinniishing those diffi- culties, and in promoting the inieresis ul agri'^ulture. Her Majesty then foresha- dowed the principal Oovernment measures of the coming session; a bill to prevent the assumption of certain ecclesiastical titles conferred by the Pope : bills lor im- proving the adniiulstration of Justice In the several departments of law and euiiliy • and a bill for a registration of deeds ami instruments relating to the transfer of pro- perty. Following the order of the measures here adverted to, Lord John Russell, on tlie 7lh of Feb,, in a most able and Inlurefiliiir speech, moved for leave to bring in a bifi to coiinleract Ihe aggressive policy of |||« Church of Rome. The debate was prn- tracted d ;ring four nights by siiecessiie atljoiirnuients ; and at length the iiioilaii was carried on a division Ity' 39ii a^/ium j 63. Tiie extent of tills majority sufT .eiitiy ! demonstrated the feeling which p'lvaded the counlrv in regard to ihc P^pal ag- gression ; but a sudden stop ^'as put to the further progress of the iiieu'.t now more partienlarly advert. Before the session had laBte(^ a month, a ministerial crisis had arisen, i>iid the seals ot office liid been resigned, only to be taken back aKain alter an interval of a few days. The weakness of the niiiiisl<.!rial party had long been admitted, whilst >h:> strength of the: conservative opposition had been iiicreascil j hy the accession of several votes from llie I Peel section, after the death of their great i chief. Taking advantage of the fresli ail- 1 mission of agrlrultnrai distress coiiiaincb in the loyal speech, on the lith Feb., Mr. Dkr^oili renewed his motion on tlie hiir- derij on land and the ineqiiulily of taxation, ■II the form of a rtsolutioii of tlie Huiise riffirming the duly of the Goveriiineiit lo provide some liiimediate relief fur that dit- tress it publicly admitted, and pretended to deplore. To this pro|>ogltion, the Cabiiirl replied by ag^ln denying the existence of Ihe distress, oi' ridic-iting the pro- posed measures or its r tiei'. On a dl- vl^ion, their niajorky coulu muster nn'.f 2til uienihers, s"|..;Ni the minority li"t ri-en to 267 vol s. But close upon ll^ir defent in a imiill House by their n.vii friends; on the question of extendiii°' Ihe county fran- chise lo ten piiiiiid lioiiseliolderi. Coii- viiieed of their own d'^eline, but, u wa^ surniised, hoping.by an .iiiiniediiiieresii;na- tion, to aiitleipHte the taelii's ol Ihe Con- servatives, and perhaps prevent llieir future aecession lo omee, the Cabinet resilKiied, and Lord Stanley was sent Tor by the Uuecii. After a day's consultation uitli his I'rUiiils, 5 9; S I < A. D. 18ul — LOItn JOH.\ RTHSCLL RBSIGNED OPPICB : FEB. 22. "^J-^Sftl. — 0UB4T ENTBUTAINMF.Nr to THB QUBKN AT OHILD HALL : JULY ft (iPnalanV*- lt{atij{c at JJrunsUjicli.— ^Pictoria. [515] | Lnnl SUiilry dcclinetl (o lake office uutil .Ten otlMfi* iii«!»>» l>*riiiaiioii ol , a MW BiliiWry ; bul all llie ii»-K.>liaiion« f(.r ; (Ilia iMirpoM: proved abortive, (lie two latter fUlMiiiuii aiiMoiiHfiiin; llifir reiHiKiianre Id like office while liie bill lo counteract llie Papal awre^lo" w»a u.iiettletJ. TIkj Q»wu, Iheiefore, on the aJvlce of tw ; Dike of Wellhijrton, oitce more recalled tlie Wills* to olfue; but from that perise, But the atrial fabric lernied the Crystal Palace, designed by Mr. Joseiih Paxion, in Hyde Park, London, for the English celebration of the Exhibition of Imliistrv of all Nations, surpassed in ex- tent and niagniflcence, and wondroutadap- lallon of means to ends, all former display* of our continental neighbours, and all that the most sanguine and eiiterpriiiiiig of its firojeclors could have conceived. 'I lie Ex- lihition wa* oiiened with imposing solem- nity by Her Majesty Queen Viclorin, May , 1st, in the prekence of 35,000 persons. Never was a more imposing spectacle. East, West, North, and South hail (Ninred forth their treasures, tlie produce of U|i- earth, the mine, machinery, and art. It is impos- sible, within our limits, to enter into any details rehpectiiig this gigantic undertak- ing : but Hs this great emulative gathering of nations formed a new and remarkable incident in the history of England, some of the most important facts relailng to it ^ may Ih> suitably condensed for the purposes '• of reference. I'lip site of the Crystal i'alacs was on the vacant space on the S. side of ' Hyde Park, between the Kensington Koad i and the Seritentiiie, ;)V"- ^' by W. of G«> I iieral Post Alfice. Us llgui« Wu( a croa*, being obliiiig, with a ceiitriu transept rising lUSleel, Kxtreme length «4 building 1,8.11 feet, corresfwndiiig to the year of erection ; extreme breoiliki 4A6 feet; area nearly 19 ' acres, or seven times the area of St. Paul's Cathedral. It wm traversed froau W> to E. by a centiai avenue 73 feet wide, on each I sUle of wliich N. ami S. ran aisles, and : above them 4 galleries, exteii«aig the en- ] tire length of the structure aiac its width, ■ the avenue excepted. In tlies* spares the . articles exhilHled were classified and dis- played ; the DMire conspicuous objects oc- cupying the nain avenue and transept, ' with clioice sculpture, fniintains, and par- terres of Howers and rare plants Inier- i spcrfi'd. The ground Aoor and galleries I contained 4,000,000 fii|nare feet of n'^oring, and afi'orded frontage 10 in. in extent for I the e\poitliioii of goods. The roof was a furrowed one, with an awning of uii, bleached calico, and consisted, as well as the siiles lo wiihin a ftw feet of the ground, of glass- frames 49 inches by 10. About 4,000 tons of iron were used, and 60&,000 cubic feel of wood. The contract price of erection was I6u,ooof. if the materials werfe B U m» ft H Id (9 . te : o h : as \ u a a Id s a Id K K & : z o S o < z < a » H o < A.D. 1851. — KOSSUTH AHKIVEO AT SOirm\MPrON: OCT. 23. A.D. 1951. —LORD PALMEMTON'a DUMISSAL: DIC. !i4. m o [616] Crrm^tirj? of Wfitati^, ^(, reialnpd, or 19fi00l. If ralnrned. II wn* begun and cnropleled, excepl us to delalln, III MVfU nionlhf. It wan o|n:» Io the pub- lic 144 day*, and the duity average bdnilt- •ion was 4»^3d person*. I'lie uiiniber ad- iiilKed in the laul week was double the average of any precedin); wvek, and the greatest number adniltled In one day {Oi't< 7.) was I09,9I»> The total number or ex- hlbllors was t;v,0OO. Forelj^n exhibitors oc- cupied two-Hfths of tliesitatesortlin pakire, and carried off tUree-llftlis of the honours. Tliere were ittO " council invdnts," which were the hizlicst diflliiclinii ; of theM! 79 were awarded to Dritlsli, and 87 to foreign exhibitors; the "prize nii'diil»," 1,344 Brillsh, ami 1,633 forelacn ; tlie " honour- able nieulioiM," 7 IS BritMi, and 1,33a foreign. About one third of the exhibitors were deemed wortliv of gome kind of re- rognilioM. Tlie Exhibition wuh cioned to liie itubiif on Oct. 11.; and sliordy ufufrwiirds Iter MBjc^!y cni>fst°.'cd ihelionoi'irof kniiflit- liood and o'tlicr distiiictionsou tliose gentle- men, to wliose zunl, ability, and iHTllve cm- operation with I'rhice Albert, mui'li of llie Bticcess of tlie novfl scheme ninst be ailrl- bnted. h would far exceed our limits to enter upon any of tlie Kreat queiiiioiM, moral, social, and Imliistnai, whicii are naturally suggested by so gigantic an un- dertHkin^f, thus arKcesitfully concluded. But wlialever else tlie results of tliis Exlii- bition may prove, It will have servepular recreation ami limtrucli'in. The close of this year witnessed the death of the last and eldest surviving son of George III., Erncit, King of Hanover, belter known in this country as tire Duke of Cumberland i Unlike inoHt of his royal brothers, his Majesty never courted, and rcrtaiiily never enjoyed, niiicii popniiirity in Biiglaiid; and the despotic n easiires whicli were adopted iniinediatcly after his acct ssion to the tlirone of Hanover, were not calcn- lated to Inspire his subjects, either witli contKlence In the pretient or hope in tile future. But such was the coiiHlKlency of Ills conduct, and liis iinit'orni gond laith, llmt public feeling had of lute years iiiHler- gone a great change in his fav nir, and at llie time of his death, he w;is heyond all question the most popular of llie German sovereigns. A.D. 18.13. —TIm op4!nl»g of llie pjrlia- mcntnr* session of this year was ludknl forward to with considcrultle rurloNliy • tor an important change In the Cabinet— the dismissal of Lord Pkilniersinn from iite office of Foreign Secretary, wliicli to many seemed unaccountable— liad taken pUca dnrlM the recess ; and noihing but mi- iilslerfal explanations, II appeared, -onlil throw light upon the suti^sct. Un the 3rd of Feb. llie session was opened by her Majesty In person; and soon after tlie royal speech was delivered. Lord John Russell availed himself of an opportunitt ' presented to him by one of his supporters to enter Into the eagerly desired rxiila- I nalioiM. From these it appeared, that Lnni Fiilmerslon had on various occasions acieil I independently of his colleagues; aud as' more esprclally in oiipimliidn to a re- 1 solution paskcd in the Caliiuel, "to ab- i •tain from Die expression of opinioos in ' aiiuroval oi disapproval of the recent cuiipl d'etat in France,'' his Lordship hml, bniliiu public despatches and prlvule conversation, spoken favourably of the iiollcy adnpird by the Fi'em*li Fresldeiit, llie t'reniier re- solved to call upon him to resign tlie nesla of office. Tills took place on ilie 34ih Dec. 18^1 ; and Earl Granville was spitninted Sfxretary for Foreign Affairs In his room, Tliesu explunalioiis over, the alteulion of Pariiament was speedily occupied witli two (piestioiis of great importance : Hie Defeiicea of the Country, and the new Reform Bill, Uf the laller we need onlj nay. thai it waa received with few nianllesla'iiuiis of ap- proval even by the fiiemls of reform : while the niinkirerlni sclteme for organising the mililia, gave l.nrd Patmerslon an op- portunity of ousting tlie iiiiiiister bv wlinin lie had been disuiiht^ed. On the illlh of Feb. the i^lililin Bill came on for disciis- sion, wlien Lord r'almcrston moved looiiiii those words from tlie preamble which wcuikl convert tlic projected force into a geiierAl instead of local militia. Tliis iiioiioii was carried by I'M to 133, and on tlint hint tiie premier, who, it was said, was in dreail of a motion closely ini|iending on the policy of Lord Grey toward* the colonies, resigiinl office, and l.ord Stanley, who had cince lliu ministerial crisis of last year succeeiird his father as Earl of Derby, was nrn-e iiinre eniriutted with the task oi forniiii<; an administration. During; a short parliaiiif iit- ary adjiiiirnmeiit which took place, the following list was completed :— Lord llliau- cellor, Sir EUlward S4i|?depi( created ^oi-oii St. Leonards ; President of tlie Council, Hurl of Lonsdale i Lord Privy Seal, Miir- ants oj Salisbury ; Home SecreliirV, Right Hon. ^iptncer M^atpote ; Colonial Secretiiry, iSjc John Pahiii^ton ; Fi)rei;,'n Secre- tary, Etirl of Malmeshnry i First \mi\ of the TreasHi-y, Earl o/Ker6yy tlianeellnr le rurlmlly ; fof tie ('abiiiet— th« smkiit iiiim (lie r, wliii'li tf) many liHil liiken plmc nolhVng but ml' •p|iciir«(i, ;onlr ail opportunity ' > jf biK nuppni'leni, ' 9 iy dt'itml rx|i(a- • )|iciir*'(l,tliat Lonl • im ort'asiniM ai'ted { 1 Itcaiciutii ; and at a Mioition to a r*!- 1 2 CabiiHil, *' lo ab- 1 g in o( opinlwiit In < ti lb« ret'ent eiivp i rdnhip liwlibnililn i ivtileconvcmalion, '. lie liollcy adnplrd ; It, tlie I'reniier re- i lo re»i)(>i Ibe avals , e nil lliv 34ih l)«c. ; lie w Privy Seal, Mor- i\e SecifliuV, Right | Coimiial Secretary, Foivii?" Secre- mry i Vnsl t^rd ol Derby) Chaiicellnr Hou. U. Disiiidii icliy of Lancaster, Uiiiphen ^■ir^t Com- d Public IliiiidiiiK^ I'ostniaster Geiitral, ird of Control, /}»*•* liird of Trade, Rigl't Cliief Secretary M Admiralty, i>"« ?.' fore|{oiiig were i» TDTlSSi — DMTRUCTION OP THB AMAZON tTIAM^SHIP OV PIRI : JAN. S, eiiolan^* —f^ouit at iSninjtftDicii. - IBictorta. [5i 7] 9 H « !e IK H •AT : OEC. 2. IbeCabiiwI. Ui« M\omh\gmen not ; — Lord UfNteuiiil of Ireland I Burl 0/° KtliHlon ; C'oMniaudcr-ln-Cliief. liHktofWtUiugtoH ; Ma>ter-U«iienil of llie Ortliunc«, Vununt Hvding*. Oh tlw re-atwiiibllnir of P«r- jlanieol on (Im liUi of March, lite Earl uf Derby made a loiif and eluqueiii apeech in the House of Peer*, In which lie devllneil lo nledfC himself to % particular couriM! in r«- nnl lu any mtasiires, though li« did not desire to fo back to the law of 1846 with lesperl to corn. While he frankly ownv«l thalTln Ills opinion, tho inipotitloii of a mo- derate duty, producing a large revenue, and enabling oilier kinds of taxation to be taken ulS, Willi hardly an appreciable c-H'cct on tlie food of the people, would be Just, econo- iiiical, and advaiiiaireoiM to (Ihs country ; lie iliottght thai no niiiilalcr ought to bring , fiirward such a pro|Nwltloii, unless lie was { sare, not only of a bare majority, Jiut of a very general coiicurrence of opliilun throughout the country. The eniiiiciatioii of Uiese viewa waa favourably received, both hi and out of Parliament; and the i ministry having declared that, a* a siieedy ! diMKiiuiiou of Parliaineiit wasconteniplaied. ' none but llie moat pressing meaiurea should I be brought forward, all factious opiMwItlun was siis|ieiided. 1'lie measures that were sulMcqueiilly Introduced are so fresh in the I recollection of the reader, tliat we need ioiily glance at the leading points. The Militia Bill, after lengthened disi-uasloii, was carried by a Urge majority ; New Zealand received a constitution ; various social and sanitary Improvements were ef- fected ; and, above all, extensive changes, aniouiiling in maiiv respecia to a lliorougli refunii, were made in the proceedings of tlie tu|)erU)r courts of law and equity. These and oilier measures having been passed, Parliaiuent was prorogued by the Uueeii in person on the Ist July ; and on the tame day dissolved by royal priK:Uniaiioii. We must now advert brieliy to the stale of our colonial dependfiiicies. Since the aiiiiexatiou of Ihe Punjaub to tlie Uritisli lerrilorles in 1849, no ground for uneasiiiesa lus arisen in that quarter. The preiitiit Governor-General ol India, the Marquis of Dalhousie, has consolidated the victories of the Uriti>li arms, by adopting a |iolicy of conciliation ; and there can be Utile diiubt that the conquered [leople iiave already learned to prefer llie legal goveriinient of Great Brilain to the lurbaleiii sway of tlieir funner chiefs. It is to be feared, iMissever, that a second Burmese war liascoinmeiiced. Some insults having liecn olfered lo the Uriiiiih llag by the Viceroy of Kangsein, Rangoon, Pegu, and Pronie, recoiiiioitered the banks of the Irrawaddy, and reuiained four months in the enemy's country, without loss, save from (he climate, uf mure than luo men. it Is tube honied, tlierefore, that the king of Ava will see llie necessity of giving ample sallslaction for the conduct of ids viceroy ; and tliiis pulling an end to a war which, whatever may be its consequences to us, must in- evitably bring ruin upon hiniself. Bui If we have cause for sailsfacllon In looking at our dependencies In tlie East, l( U Willi very dlfl'eren( feelings that we turn to our culoiiie* at Ihe Cape, where a fierce war has been carried on for eighteen montlia with the Calfrca at a vast, and it it to be feared, uaelesa expeiKllture of blooferred from British Cafl'rarlato onrown (irovlnces ; tlie savages ensconced themselves in strong -positions, such as Ihe " VVaterkloof," in I. cry centre of Albany, and, after re- r ' attacks, remain there still. Sir ' . i-ould do no better than attempt to i.ii;(: lein by storm, but though the posi- '" '" .>ere more than once lost, they were ^illbly re-occupied, and very little pro- gress was made. Finally the British com- mander deleriiiined to advance to the Kei, and invade the Caffres in the remotest of lliclr aborii| wore wholly iiicrtecilve In pulling down Ijie enemy or bringing the war to a close. We have only space to advert here to the discovery of an extensive gold rfirimi in our Australian colonifs. The eifecli of the discovery on llie .alue of gold ruiiiain to be seen : hut in the meanwhile it lisi given an impulse to enilgrailou, wliiih fromises to be as lasting as It Is bencfli'lul, t was not until September, 18.51, tliat (he flret intelligence of the new El Unrudo was received in England, and oiiie liiilc time elapsed before the news hi 'ame sufflcleiiilr assured to tell n|Hin the p bile mind, hi effects, however, are nr'v sliowhig tliem- selves. The emlgranu to Australia, In the first four months of this year, were more than twice as many as In the corrts|>ou vessels, and 3O,00« seamen, are engaged in the nxlierie?, re- presenting property valued at 13,000,000 dollars ; and a very decided denioiistraiinn was made in all qnarterri that the advaii- tuges gradually assumed would not be yielded without a atriiggle. It !s statitl, however, though not omcially, lh;U a gond understanding lias been restored by the British governnuiit conceding it! perpetiiiiv that access of the American lisliermtn which had hitherto been perniltied or suAVraiice; and tlius all danger of a rupture is furiu- nately averted. A.D. I8.'J2. — FIELD MARSHAL THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON DIEI) : SEPT. M- ' .( I TNI lURrACB or iniiiiANii, THovaa wLkt, ii muoi DivBtairiiD. ULY I. »g lo lliv nfliflal I I'M CiillttI b« llll> erfiik trt«M-n)ie. Klituvturiil more r Harry ri'i^ixni'il iiidt of Ueiivral kCi'vrlukiitid lliat ! coliiDlul bordvr III, niid a« wvll ilUhv oiivralioiit ectly iiu'i't:i)>fiil, IMIIlillK (low II lli« r to a i'loi>«< I advert litre to| itlve ((old ri'Kliiii I I. Tlie effeil* of B of irold rfiimiii leaiiwliile It lian iilKrallniii wliii'li ttd It li> bencfli'lHl, er, iH'il) tliat the •w Gt Uiirado wu t iiiiie lldle time I 'aiiiesiinicleiill; p. bile iiiliid. Ill 'V kIkiwIii); llieni- > Aiittrulia, in the i j'var, were more llie corri'»|>omliiig « two prt'cedliiK , the cxi'ilenieiil _ ling, nor i» there J e Uial it lia« yei , >■ glimmer, consider- J 1 a iiOKHlblr. rHptiire i le United Stales, in g recently taken bv u im-es of niir Noriii * roHiCl the lUherle* * tgard of the tremj J [he American* from a > Briiigh c»aau, the - iiiears, lia»e never ; lagtii (if Newfoun.1. , rcgnined breacli of t 1 that If a bay or ; 10 admltofavewel i ,2 wllliin a leagHe ' bay giiould be con- i M llosioni » "'*• i Pregident Killmorc, veggelo, and 30,0(10 tilt; fiitbirii'?, re- filled at 18,000,000 iided denionsiraliciD jn. liiat the a(lv»M- ltd would not be rifle. U !« »taliil, .iclally, tUaliKO"^ n restored by the edlni? i» P«r|'ct;ii7 'an rmliermtn whioh (lied Oh sufferance; I a rupture i* f"""- THE HISTORY OF IRELAND. CIIArTEtt I. THaM it no other country in the world the hiitory of which h»i been written and commented upon in ao unwise and unjuat, not to aay unchri»iian, a temper and tone, M that of Ireland. And, atrongo to aay, the periona who have been tlie most fre- quently and the moat vioclnfly wronsp in tlieir itatementa of the cvila of Ireland, and on their propoaala for remedying them, have been precisely those peraona who ha»e mode the loudest professions of doaire to aerve her. It ia not worth while to say how much of this mis statement haa arisen from their want of correct information, and how much from a deliberately bad apirit ; certain it is, howewr, that Ireland haa few worse ene- mies than those who in ignorance or in evil- temper attribute motives and feelinj^a to England and English statesmen of which they are quite innocent, and who assign for Irish povertv and Irish suffering causes which have rrally had uo part in producing them, and thus assist in maintaining a most fatal ignorance of the real causes not only in tlie minds of the sufferers thcmielves, but even in those of too many public writers and legislators upon whom M much of the nation's weal or woe de- pendG. Unwise laws and harsh rule of centuries long passed are quite coolly cited as proof of a partial tyranny of Ireland by England ; yet a lingle glance at our atatutea, a single reflection upon the punishments which to a very recent date were still allowed to dis- ^ist the wise, thrill the merciful, and bru- talize the had, would show that Ireland was not a jot less mercifully governed than Kent or Yorkshire, and that the cruelties of English law, whether administered in London or in Dublin, at Bristol or Cape Clear, were no proofs of English dislike of Ireland; but the inevitable result of the ignorance of which the laws of every nation have required long centuries of the pr.iient toil of the good and the wise to rid them. The folly which ilHtters nations with fables of antique splendour and conse- quence which are sternly contradicted by every page of their authentic history ia, if ludicrous, at the least harmless; but they who aid a vast body of people to close their eyes upon the real causes of the worst evils to which a people can be subjected, incur s most fearful responsibility; for surelv he who aids in perpetuating the causes of fa- mine, disc(>mfort, anti-social feeling, vice, and crime, is to be looked upon in no other light than as the inflictor and creator of thou evils; and however painful the duty may be, it is one from which we must not shrink, to express briefly, but emphatically, our tirm opinion, that the deadliest enemies of Ireland have hern and are precisely those persons who arrogate to themselves all pa- triotic and all just feeling, and whose anti- English railings, however much they may fail to irritate the common-sense of Eng> land, have not failed and cannot fail to act most injurioiiHly upon the worst igno- rance and tiercest prejudices of Ireland. The delusions of self- flattery may be par- doned and dismissed with a pitying smile ; but a sterner sentence must wait the mis- representation which walks hand in bund with malignity, and which abuses and libels one gallant and high-hearted race, only to the effect of keeping another no leas gal- lant and high-hearted, though far less rea- sonable race, in a moral and physical de- gradation wluch is terrible even to wit- ness. Thus much we have deemed it necessary to «ay in reprobation of the shameful and absurdly unreasonable abuse that is heaped by Irish orators and writers upon the En- f;lish government as to its treatment of Ire- and. Were that abuse less injurious to the millions of Ireland it would be un- worthy of notice; but it unfortunately hap- pens that in attributing Irish distress to English oppression, Irish mismanagement is sanctioned and Irish suffering perpetu- ated; and it thus becomes a duty as im- perative as it is painful to destroy the illu- sion, as far aa we may be able, that has been so artfully and unfairly thrown around the subject. The early history of most countries is so uncertain, that but little more credit is due to it than to any other romance ; and when we read of the splendours of a country which during the whole period of its au- thentic history has been poor ; of the power of a country which during all the period of its authentic history has been divided, tur- bulent, and weak ; and of the learning and civilization of a countrjr which even now has less of diffused learning and civilization than any other country in Europe, it is quite consistent with the severest logic and with the utmost charity to look upon the rela- tions of the historian as being founded rather upon fancy than upon fact. The best authorities agree in stating Ire- land to have been peopled from the SpaniKli colonies of the partly trading and partly piratical Phoenicians; and this statement, credible from the unanimity of authori- ties otherwise conflicting, is still farther strengthened by the facts of the Phoeni- cians having been well known to have traded largely with the British isles, and of I the frequent finding, even ot the preseut u f H BTONB QUARaiBS ADOUNn IN ALMOST RVKKT PART OF THR ISLAND. ^5^^ o^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) I // ^o 1.0 I.I 11.25 IS. U 11.6 I /5 Riotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 IKBM^B BAI HIHU OF COrr«ll, UiP, UABMhn, AK» lOIII IlLTIB. 520 ^|ic ;!rtcasttr9 o( listots, $c(. dnv, ofoniamniti and utentiU wliicli arc in- dubitabl* of PbicnicMn manufaeture. That gold and »iWer iniuei existed in Wicklow and tome other part* of Ireland it asierted ver^ positively, but we think with far more poiilweneii than proof of their productive* neii ; certain it ii, that a recent attempt to find i^ld in a district in which it was once said to abound, proved to be a complete and lamentable failure. If, at seems to be cer- tain, Ireland wat onee colonixed by indi- viduals of a people to wealthy at the Pha- niciant, that fact would at once account for the valuable articlet so fluently recovered from the soil. But it by no means goes to prove that Ireland in the earlj a^es could boast of either learning or civiliiation of the high order claimed for it. It it not the most refined or most learned class that will venture into far and foreign lands to war with the wild animals, to reclaim the morass, and to level the primeval forett. The hardiest, the rudest, the least civilized; those who have the most to hope for and the least to lose or to fear are the men who nsually go forth to colonize strange lands; and the Phoenicians who seized upon Ire- land at their abiding place, were in all hu- man probability the hardy and retolute rovert of the sea for many a long and strife- ful year before thev became dwellers upon and cultivators of the land. That they came from Phoenicia, ttom a civilized, ingenioue, and wealthy land, provet literally nothing at to their own civilization or their own wealth, at any one may perceive who will take the trouble to obterve the majority of the colonists who leave the civilized and luiurious nations of our own day, to build citiea in the desert, and to place palaces and throngett mart* stored vnth cottly wares where, even within the memory of man, the dense forest sheltered only the wild animal or tlie scarcely lest savage man. Th« Phoenician colonists of Spain were at once eager speculators and bold seameu : visiting the British coast at tradert, etpeci- ally in order to procure tin, they could tcarcely fail to admire the toil and climate of Ireland, and could have but little diffi- culty in tubduing or destroying the mere handful of poor and all but act^ly savage aborigines; who m*$t have been a mere handful, destitute as they were of commerce or manufactures, and warrinjg, as we know that they did at a much later date, with the wolf and the hill fox who disputed the iwamp and the forest with them. TTben historians tell us that splendidly manufactured and extremely costly articles are frequently excavated from the Irish soil, we do not dispute the accuracy of the state- ment ; but we deny its cogency as proving I that the early colonists of Ireland were \ learned, or civilized, or even wealthjr. A : magnificent ornament or a costly and inge- nious machine taken from France or En- gland to the arid desert of Africa or the swnmpy flat of the Swan River would prove that the country had bi-en visited by peo| le from a wealthy and civilized land, but cer- tainly not that the individuals were them- lelvet either the one or the other; in skort at a general rule, the ver* fact «f emigra- tion would be deeitive on tne opposite state of the case. That the Phoenieiana were the domiaant people in Ireland— anciently called lerve, or Erin, which signifies the wttttru huid,- and that the Magi, or priests of the ire- worshippers of Persia, were the aetnal go- verning authorities, both lay and religioai, as the Druidt were in Britain, there is abundant proof. From the far East, indeed, Europe seems to have been supplied witk its early tuperstitions, as well as with tkc fierce swarms of nomade and dcsptraii barbarians, who, entering Europe on tbs north, at length found «vcn the vast steppes and forests of Scandinavia too narrow for them, and whose foriont attaulti level, led citiet and terminated the stem rale of ages, only, in th^ end, to found nations tt once mightier in conquest, wiser in law. giving, and posaessin|[, at it shonld teea, at great a tuperiority in permanenev, at ia extent, of empire. At the aborigmet, if such exitted when the Phoenicians celo- nized Ireland, had made way for a w>it civilized, wealthy, and luxnriont people, n thete in their tumt were soon obliged to make wav for or submit to a fiercer sad more hard^ people. The Scoli, one of thou Scandinavian hordes which under the vtri- ous names of Northmen, 8ea-kingi, than, and Saxons, defied unnavigated leu sa4 natural barriers to prevent themfro'notcr. running the fairest and richest portioai of Europe, (a. c. 200) sent forth from tk> north of Spain, where they had been colo- nized, a poweriVil and fierce horde led by Milesius : Hence Mete Scoti are laoit commonly called Milesians ; the tem Scoti being generally confined to another twsna of the same fierce race, which at a later date endeavoured to settle, alio, ia It^ land ; but, unable to elTeet their porpoM, departed northward, and founded tki fowerfui Scots, wh<>, now at war with th* '. icts and now in alliance with them tgsioii ; the comparatively civilized Britons, wcn so long famous for strength, eoarage, sa4 perseverance, before they were fsnoui foe : aught else; and who taught even the Bo- : man legions to respect them as foes, sges | before they had any of those arts of pcsre which the Boman eagles had heralded iaio many other lands. I That the vast immigrations which bin changed the face of all Europe origintttd in the east of the world, and that the north of Europe, by whatever tribes nombsllr peopled, was, in fact, but the resting plic* and nursery of such immigrants, very msif : circumstances go to prove; bm perliipii none more strongly than the ncnersl tt- semblance in both the politics! snil the re- ligious rule of tribes nominally and iintiij coming from distont parts and Ktil.nz is | distant parts. Thus we find that the riia- nicians din-ct from the ea»t of the Mmi- terranean strikingly resembled, in mi>i points, both civil and religious, the own , ur Milesians of the Spanish coait who tit- 1 ONC-SnVBRTU rAHT OF THB BlfTiai tUBFACB CORIItTt Of BOOI. MAKT ■OIL* rftlDOMIIIATB ; *■■■■ U HO CHALK. ABD UTTLI »AIS. ^^c l^istorQ of SnIanTl. ft2l Uinly hai lettled there from the north of iBfope, where, it ii newly h certain, they Ui originally halted on their march Dram Ibeeaitem quarter of the world ; and theee, inin, in like manner reiembled the Bri- ton. Between the Magi of the Phoenician Iriih, (those priesta of thefalie faith o' Zo- nuter who were perfectly undieturbed in their ritet, or rather t.ao were continued in their power a* priette, eaKci, eeere, and Mtetmen by the fierce Mileeiant,) and the Droids of Britain, there were so many and loeli ttritting reiemblancea, that the Mile- liani called their prieata Magi and Druida inditeriminately. The dark groTe and the onipariDK eacrifleial knife of the etem and uqaeitioned prieat marked both offshoota or eorruptioM of the fire-worihippert ; and the mytteriet, emeltiea and aacrillcei, from the first fruits of the earth to the first bom child of the idolator's family, of the Druids were, with but such difference as lone jour- niss and distant residence will easily and fully account for, the mvsteries, the cruel- ties, and the sacrificea or the Magi, too. The dreadful and fierce sacrifices of the Dmids were put an end to in Britain by the Bomans; but, strange to say, that mighty and enterprising people seem never to have riiited Ireland, where the Magi exercised their terrible rule iiuite undisturbed during dl the long lustres of the Roman sway in Britain. Yet, geographically speaking, Ire- land wu well known to'the ancier,t«. The Greeks called it leme, the Romuus Hiber- nia; and it was also called the Holy or Ssered Isle, not, as has been with much defiance of chronology and common-sense sllrmed.on account of its owing ita Chria- tisaity to one of the immediate disciples of the ptM founder of our faith, but to the rieeiiely opposite reason that it waa notori- ons u the residence of the Magi, and aa the scene of their terrible rites long after those rites had disappeared elsewhere be- fore the all-conquenng and all-reforming Boman. The Scoti, or Milesians, whether ihter- msrrjing with the Phoenician first colo- nists, or annihilating them, are the real ancestors of the Irish people ; and yet we sre uked to believe in an umoat unbound- ed wealth, learning, and civilisation, among this horde of semi-savages; these contem- poraries ani*. CO ecfuals of the other Scandi- nsTJan and Scythian hordes who, probably daring ages, had been wandering by slow degrees and in savage guise irom the steppes of Tartarv to the foreata of Ger- msnT, and from the bleak north, with ita lee-ehained rivers and piercing blaata, to the luiarious coasts of Spain and Portugal, and the voluptuous plains and rivers ot Italy I The glories and the magnificence, the learn- ing, pietv, and national fame of such peo- ple may be subjects equally convenient and anexceptionably for the romancer and the I»«t; but for the historian and the orator, the iiatesman who makes, or the student «ha suggests laws, to ask our belief in such miHiifMt absurdity, and to ground upon such shiurdities tierce declamations against a Snerooa, great, and wealthy people, aahav _ g_ ruined these antique aplendonra by It- their injnatice, and aa having planted barbariam when then waa refinement, ia not only too ridieulons for belief, but too much even for patient endnrance. That aoma wealthy Phoeniciana settled and traded on the coaatward conntiea of Ireland, aa they did on the coasts of every country from the extreme west of the Medi- terranean to their own antique Canaan in the extreme east of that sea, ia quite tme ; Just «a it ia that a Herschell, devoted to acience, haa ere now set up his observatory within eight of kraala of those Caffres who are but a atep above the very brutes which they hunt down for food ; and just as it haa bcfen true in all ages of the world, that mil- lionaires in their fierce and unslaked thirst after more gold, have gone forth to dare the desert and the storm, the savage beast and the scarcely less savage man. But these Phoeniciana gave place to or were amal- gamated with a fierce, brave, rapacioua and miserably poor horde, whose long resi- dence at first in the bleak north of Europe and subsequently in the north of Spain, without arta and but too often without aufficient aubsistence for their swarming population, had left them no trace of their common eastern origin with the Phoenici- ans, save general resemblances between the religious rites of the one and the religioua traditiona of the other. These were the real anceston of the Irish people; these wrere the " ancient Milesians'* and " Irish of the old time" in whose gold and gema, in whose piety, learning, and delicate breed- ing we are called upon to believe. Had Ireland been so civilised and learn- ed at this early day, we should surely not be even now ignorant whether the round towers were Phoenician temples or beacons for the Scoti, the Danes, and the other hos- tile settlers or piratical visitors of Ireland ; and had Ireland been so rich at that day, the Romans would never have left her in contempt and in nnvisited security, while ruling and reforming Britain for nearly four centuries. We conclude this chapter, then, with atating and with begging particular atten- tion to the statement, — that the early hia- tory of Ireland is as fabulous in all that re- lates to glory, learning, wealth, and heroea, as any other earlv history whatever ; that, in the case of Ireland this fabulous turn >f early writers has been made the foundation of great injustice committed by later wri- ters, and bv oraton and statesmen, too, as to England; that though, no doubt, En- glish kings and their advisers in past days may have unwisely decreed or unjustly, ac- ted in Ireland, as in any other country, yet Ireland never began to be civilized, popu- lous, learned, wealthy, or important, until connected with England; that English con- nection has done much, and is still doing much, to make Ireland both prosperous and happy, and would do far more but fur ilie fierce party spirit of some, and the equally I fierce but still more disgraceful personal THI BOOS IK OKRBaAIi RRST VFON A STRATUM OF RI.VR CI.AT. [3.4 *■> IBISB COA^t » »Biri.l mOBIITBB WIYK BAIS ABO •ObrBB. 522 ^^c tSrtasutB of llistor^, ^c. MlAthaeu and ambition of othen, which •re conitantly and throufhout that torn land at work to perpetuate the groueet Jircjudice* and the baeeit feelings. This, niteed, will ineideotally become eo evident in the courae of the liiatory of Ireland, that we onljr make thii emphatic general statC' ment, because we deem it an act of real and important Jaetice to both England and Ireland, and, •ubstantialljr, eren a more im- portant justice to the poor of tlie latter eountrr than to the wealthy and powerful of the former, thus to draw the special at- tention of all readers of history, and espe- cially of all young readers, to the utter in- correctness of the ill-natured declamations which charge England with an injustice never committed, by way of supporting the character of Ireland for an ancient prospe- rity which she never possessed. CHAPTER XL Tib v^y early power, wealth, and learn- ing of Irelap**. seem to be negatived in a variety of ways ; the nature of the govern- ment of the country would alone, we think, have been quite sufficient, in addition to the worst species of heathenism, to render its Bchievement of prosperity at home or influeuce abroad a thing quite impossible. A plurality of kings in different districts of a very limited territory, and those districts for the most part destitute of natural par- titions, must necessarily make a people oar- barouo or keep them so ; and what could be expected when five kings — each having a host of turbulent, ambitious, and to a very great extent independent chieftains and their clans, or septs to keep in order— di- vided the sway of the comparatively small portion that was fairly inhabited of so small an island as Ireland. In England, in Scot- land, in India, in America, in France, every where, in all climates, and under whatever civil or religious rule, numerous sovereign powers without natural partitions have pro- duced hostilities and jealousies, which have made each rival power in its turn the easy prey of an invader, or of some one of the rival powers themselves that chance, skill, superior virtue, or surpassiug wickeduess, inspires and enables to overwhelm the others. Had the Indian tribes of North America been united under one head, whe- ther that head had been a monnrcb, or the chief village of the most powerful of the whole federated tribes, the pilgrim fathers and the first bold pioneers who looked from the rock of Plymouth, with eager eye and covetous heart towards the mighty forests and rich prairies of the far west, would have left their landing place on that rock, only to return to it appalled and in despair of finding even in the new world a refuge from the evils which had driven them forth in disgust, weariness, and natural love of life from the old world ; or they would have fal- len beneath the tomahawk and the ticalping- knife, and their boues would have whitened in the wintry air, after furnishinE many a feast to the panther and the bud eagle. The enmity of tribe to tribe, it chiefly was, that kept the red man inferior in every way to his white foe, and enabled the latter to destroy whole tribes in succession, with less actual loss to himself than it woul!* cost him to put down an ordinary town riot in the streets he had reared where the forest lately waved, " And wild in woods the noble savage ran." The same thing is remarkably observsble even in India. Wealth, learning which it antique if limited, a subordination of ranks, and a simplicity of living utterly undreamed of in Europe ; all these uare not sufficed to rrevent a vast portion of Indian wealth, ndian territory, and Indian rule, (totu being grasped by a mere handful of Euro- pean merchants. Had the Indian priDcea been united, we should now have a mere factory, as at China; but the eternal rule prevailed here as elsewhere i each rival prince hated his fellow's power and proi- nerity even more than he loved or valued ■is own, and no one of them was powerful enough to compel union even where union alone could save. In South America the Spaniards owed their success to the lame cause ; and if ever the &st increasing itatet of North America, spreading as they do over so many degrees of latitude that Hme have the productions of a high northern climate and others the productions of th« tropics, shall allow commercial jealouiiei to prevail over political feeling, it is by no means improbable that two monarchiei may arise on the ruins of the one existing federation of republics. When the ancient kings of Ireland and the ancient glories of Ireland are spoken of, inexperienced readers of history are very apt to picture one king of Irehtnd swaying the whole Irish territory from the Giaut^ Causeway to Cape Clear, and from Galwt;- bay to the Hill of Howth. This, however, was so far from being the case, that within that island there were five separate king- doms, always jealous of each other, and fre- quently at open war, either against each other or against one or more ot the turbu- lent chieftains, whose power, recklessneii, and utter detestation of peace and quiet- ness, subdivided each of these live king- doms into several more, with rulers who were more likely to quarrel frequently, and to sanguinary result, tlisn the kings them- selves, from the very proximity and com- parative pettiness of each chieftain's pos- session, and the increased bitterness and personal sense of injury which entered into every dispute whether personal or terri- torial. The five provinces or kingdoms of Ire- land were Meath, Leinster, Munsier, Con- naught, and Ulster. The first named wsi considered the chief sovereignty; a' the hill of Tara, famed alike in true history and bard's romance, which was situated in that kingdom, vas the great assemblsget of princes and chiefs ; and the other four kings were nominally tributary to the king of Meath, just as the tanists, or chiets ot M I "i k ' e , s t H E N u . » I ti a B s s B h I t S ; s t TBI LAKBS, OB " hOVaUU" Of IBBLAHB ABB LABSB ABD NUMSaODi. I II SOHBtAIi ARD OALWAT SXCBI.I,BIIT ITATVABT MABBLB II lOVRB. ^^t l^totorp of lErcIanTJ. 628 Mptt, in their reipeetiTe kiBtdoim were to them. But in all theee cbm* alike the tub' jection of the inferion was merely nominal, •ad wa* thrown off or acknowledged jutt ■I the caprice, convenience, or intemte of the inferior dicuted. With a very tmall ittand thai divided among very many flerce, pioud, iealoui, and scarcely halfciviliaed rnlen, it would be strange indeed if the hiitory of Ireland, while such a state of thinit esiited, could afford matter of suf- leieat interest to occupy the reader's atten- tion. In truth, a ruder sUte of society short of that eitreme barbarism in which, litenlly, every man's hand is against bis fellow man, could not exist than that of Ireluid under her early Milesian kings. The tribute paid by the sept to the tanist, by the tanist to his immediate king, and by the kings and chief tanists to the king of Mesth, was, when paid at all, paid in thn solid shape in whicit all other claims w^re paid, even to the fee of priest or harper. Til. in cattle. That a country which is said it that very time to have exported gold ■nd silver in exchange for foreign luxuries should not have hit upon coined gold and silver, or even upon ingots, however rude, oif those metals, for a home currency, to avoid the great inconvenience and loss at* tendaat upon a system of barter, in many CSMS demanding the purchaser or debtor to drive his live legal currency firom Qne end of the island to the other, seems to say u plainly as one fact can testify for ano- ther, that the cold and silver mines of that day in Ireland were not more productive thsB thi.y have been more recently ; and that the ornaments which have at times been found, whatever they may say for Phtenician taste, yr wealth, or skill, bear strong testimony a|^nst both the Milesian people and their kings and princes having been perfectly destitute of all three. Kingdom against kingdom, sept against ■ept, neighbour against neighbour, and often brother against brother and son against fa- ther; such was the state of society which, however lamentable, was quite inevitable sad natural under such a system. To re- foM to pay a tribute was to declare war igsinit a superior; to insist upon the pay- nent of a tribute was* generally speaking, to call the inferior to arms, aidel by all the power, or, as they called it, all the '' back," they eoiild command. Sometimes, indeed, a superior who could not procure payment of so manv head of iheep or homed cattle, alive and in good order, would invite himself and his "back" or "following" to board and lodging with the defaulter for a period proportioned to the tribute, rent, or other debt in default; and when the self-invited guest chanced to bs • great tanitt or other personage with a naraeraus following, the unwilling tenant, as Id the case of many recorded " royal pro- gretaes" in England, felt the effects of en- tertaining his superior for many a long year afterwards in baron and byre, in field and boue. 80 ruinous, indeed, were these self- untations, these eo$k*ri»g$, in which wa may easily believe that a powerful creditor would sometfanes eat mora beef and mat- ton than could ever have been covered by the skins of aa many oxen and sheep aa were due to him, that it was no uncommon thing for the visited debtor, in sheer des- peration, to call together his " back," and very fairly refase to allow a morsel of bis food or a drop of his drink to pass the lips of his creditor. In this case a sanguinary fight, leading probably to a dosen or mora in explanation or support, in reprobation or in vindication of the conduct of one or other of the parties, waa usually the result. How could a people thus situated, a peo- ple, too, high of heart and hot of head, and ready of hand, beyond almost any other people on the face of the earth, be other- wise than a turbulent, a diridcd, an always uninfiuential and a frequently diseased and starving people? Barter and tribute in kind among people who carry arms and are prone to bloodshed, is only another name for perpetual war, arising out of the desire of the weak to cheat ana of the atrong to extort. The wealth and power of a prince or other great man in a country situated, aa to barter and tribute, as Ireland was, ne- cessarily depended upon tbe extent and fertility of bis land; and as though there were not in the ordinary course of thinga only too much temptation to bloodshed, tbe law for the division of landed property on the death of the owner waa aamirably adapted to awaken avarice into scheming, and' hate and jealousy into sanguinary violence. In a land in which bloodshed and dis- turbance were not the occasional and rare exception, but the frequent, almost the con- stant rule, cousins and more remote rela- tions, nay even brothers themselves, were but too apt to live upon terms which were little likely to make them desirous to be- nefit each other; but the law said that a man dying possessed of landed property should not bestow it solely upon his chil- dren—to whom he would naturally be more attached than to any one else, but that all male rtlationt even to the most dietaut, and without tbe slightest reference to friendli- ness or fend however deadly or long stand- ing, should equally share with the eldest or best beloved child. It thus often chanced that the eldest son, or onlv son, of a de- ceased tanist or chieftain called his friends and sept around him, and pursued his cousins or male relatives to the actual death, as the only means of keeping his position in society by keeping his property intact and unbroken. Nor did even the chieftianship itself of necessity descifnd to the eldest, or any, son of a deceased tanist ; he whom the family and the sept of the deeeaited chief elected as worthiest was to succeed ; and it is unnecessary to say that rivalry and partisanship not unfrequently proceeded to the full length of bloodahed and even of murder. The residence of the chief was nsnally a long low wooden hut, situated on a hill top, qvAiimtii or black and obbt mabblb abb rouBo ir kilbbrbt. 'conoAvaaT" irclvob«— salwat, lbitbiii, majo, boicommom, amo SLiao. 624 ^^c ^rtasuTQ of lltotorj?, $cc. ■anounded bjB lawn or yard, and defended by B rampart of mud : and cavei, natural or excavated, were the residence of the meaner penona of the aept, whose attire waa chieilljr composed of undressed sheep, skins. Cloaks and other garments of woollen cloth, of scarlet or some other mj colour, were not uncommon among the higher people; though ic is not improbable that even much later than the period at which romance and factious ferlioK have joined to paint this people as being learned, luxurious, and wealtny, even this coarse and almost primitive manufacture only reached them through the medium of foreign traders and native pirates, who had great skill in the management of the coracles or curraghs which they, like the Britons, constructed of wicker frames covered with skins of beasts. The bards, an idle, imaginative, and not remarkably moral set of men, were not merely the attendants upon and diverters of the chieftain's hours of recreation and wassail; the chieftain's bard was also his recorder, and we may cease to wonder at the exaggerations that have come tradi* tionally down to us when we consider that, besides gaining at every generation, these marvels were originally said, sung, and written— if written at all— by men whose comfort depended upon the complacent feelings of liim whose deeds and posses- sions they sang, and who, therefore, were certainly under no very great temptation to observe a too rigid adherence to squalid or paltry realities. Every chieftain had his oard, and the chronicles thus composed of the affiiirs of all the chief families in the kingdom are said to have been committed to the care of keepers in the royal castle of Tara, but to have been burned about the middle of the Afth century after Christ, in common with all the magian or droidical writings, bv order of 8t. Patrick; by no means the least service that that excellent first bishop of Armagh— so excellent a bi> shop that even the stupid exaggerations attached to him as a saint cannot diminish him in the eyes of those who admire use- fulness and i^iety — rendered to the be- nighted land in which he and his handful of coadjutors from Rome, were the first to preach the gospel. CHAPTER III. Wn have spoken of St. Patrick as of a benefactor to Ireland ; even the falsehoods of sedentary monks and of wandering and immoral bards and story- tellers cannot throw an air of ridicule over his truly Christian and venerable character ; aad higher praise, seeing their power of mak- ing truth doubtful and grave things ludi- crous, it would not be easy to bestow. The horrible superstitions which the Mi- lesian priests propagated and supported by steru and unsparing cruelty remained jp full force for above four centuries and a quarter after the light of the gospel had sued its rays of divine and glorious bright- ness upon nearly all the rest of Enrope Elsewhere the gospel no sooner was preached than it had its converts, con- vinced beyond the power of human sophis- try, and faithful even unto martyrdom ; but Ireland remained the prey of the biiiot heathen, the abode of the heathen who was deluded, or the heathen who was co- erced. In one of the fircquent piratical excur- sions that were made by the Irish, Mae Nial, a pettv king, landed on the coast of Brittany, slew, burned, and spoiled; and brought spoil living as well as dead, human as well as brute. Among the captives was a youth of some fifteen or sixteen years of age, who, on arriving in Ireland, was sold as a slave and employed in herding sheep. This youth was the afterwards so cele- brated St. Patrick. Naturally of a thought- ful turn, the mountain track and the fo- rest glade in which his vocation caused him to spend much of his time, deep- ened all his meditative habits, and gave aeal and fervour to his native religious im- pressions. " He looked upon the land and saw that it was very good;'* but he saw that it waa peopled b^ idolaters and polluted by idolatrous cruelties. Even amid the bitter- ness of the reflections caused by iiis own situation, a slave and a captive in a forpign land, he felt that it would be a great anas truly Christian deed to open the eyes of the blinded heathen among whom his lot wsi so unhappily cast, and save their mindi from the bondage of a false faith, and the lives of their firstborn from being u- crificed in torture at the flaming altar* of senseless and graven idols. Fortunately, Patrick had scarcely attained the age of manhood ere he escaped from his slavery and got safely back to France, and for up- wards of twenty years applied himself with constancy and diligence to learning, such as was then attainable. But neither the long lapse of years nor the pride of culti- vated and matured intellect, could banish from his mind the recollection of the un- happy state of the Irish, or his early deter- mination to make the attempt, at leaat, to enlighten their minds, and to raise their social condition. A. i>. 432.— Accordingly in the year 433, and when he was himself about forty-fl>e years of age, he applied to the pope for permission to preach the gospel in Ireland, Such a permission was willingly granted by the nope, and Patrick, accompanied by a few French monks whom he had inte- rested by his descriptions of the charscter and condition of the Irish, landed in Ulster, after an absence of neariy or quite a quarter of a century. The foreign garb and striking appearance of Patrick and his companions filled the peasantry whom they first encounteied with the notion that they were pirst?i, end preparations were made for driving them back to their vessels. But their quiet dcn\eanour, the benevolence of their coun- tenances, and the earnest and simple ai- surances gnen by Patrick, in the language " Mi;if stbh"— cbARB, coax, kxbbt, iimkrick, TiprBBAar, ano WATinroan. J til MOXKI ARD MUNI OF IKILAtfD WBKI IDBJICT TO TBI STSICTBIT IIVLBS. €\)t llistort} of 3Eitlantr. 62A of the pcaiantt, that he and hit compa- nioni had arrived on an errand of peace and good-will to all men, speedil^r con> nrlcd fear and hoetilitjr into admiration and coDlldence. The hoipitalit* of the priDcipal people \raa cheerfully and heartily bcttowcd upon the diiintereated strangera who had traversed land and aea in the hope of benefiting their rude but cordial enter- tainer* ; and Patrick and hit companioua preieuted themaelvea at Tara attended by a numerous and entbaiiastic cortege. The mild and venerable aspect of the preachers rate full weight to the sublime and benevo- lent doctrines which they propounded. King and people listened at first with inte- Kit, and then with full and deeply inte- reited credence; and in an incrediblv short time after their first landing, idols and idolwonliip becnme hateful to the people, the Christian doctrines were everywhere re- eelved, and churches and monasteries arose where the flames had but recently licked up the blood of the shrieking and expiring human victims of ferocious error or more hstefal fraud. The success with which Christianity was preached from the very first was such, that even the warmest and most inte- rested advocates of the idolatrous wor- ■hip teem to have made by no means such strenuous or fierce efforts in opposition to the new faith, as the general bigotry and ungttinary ruthlessness of their own pre- cepts and practice would have taught one to anticipate. Occasional violence, indeed, was displayed by both the magi, or druids, snd isolated groups of the more fanatical of their deluded followers; and upon more than one occasion St. Patrick was himself in considerable danger of being butchered. But there was none of that general and rspturous enthusiasm of opposition which could seriously or for any long time impede the progress of doctrines, which attracted by tneir novelty, and fixed and interested by their benevolence no less than by their suthority. On the other hand, the mission of St. Patrick, although it destroyed paganism in Ireland, not only produced none of that individual suffering vrhicli but too gene- rslly accompanies extensive changes, how- ever ^od and desirable in themselves, bat it immediately and to a vast extent im- proved the political and social state of the converted people. There was no massacre, no sweeping and sanguinary persecution of the priests or people of the old faith ; but both seem quietly and imperceptibly to have adhered to Christianity. The tem- poral distress to which the magi or druids might otherwise have been subjected, as a consequence of the change of faith of those who had previously supplied their revenue wss, doubtless, to a very great extent, pre- vented or shortened by the early and rapid founding of an immense number of churches snd monasteries, to the service of which the converted magi were not merely eligible, but, in fact, indispensable. Episcopal sees were established througliout the country. and Armagh was made the metropolitan see, of which the Irish apostle was himself the first prelate. Learned, active, and pious, St. Patrick's conduct so well warranted and seconded hia precepts, that the preachers of the Irish churches and the monks of Ireland's numerous monasteries soon be- came famous throughout Europe for such branches of learning as were then attain- able ; Irish monks traversed foreign coun- tries as secular and religious teachers, and the music of the Irish churches was per- formed in a stvle of such nnnsual excel- lence, that in tlie reign of Pepin teachers were sent for to Ireland at an eipcnce of great magnitude, considering the general poverty of the time, to instruct the nuna of Nivelle, in France, in psalmody. The reforms effected by St. Patrick were doubtless of a most extensive and valuable kind ; and, as lias already been pointed out, the early establishment of numerous monas- teries must have had a vtrj potent effect, both in aiding the peaceful propagation of Christianity, and in averting the tempo- ral evils which so extensive and sudden a change might otherwise have produced. But the monasteries, which at first were so valuable, soon became both mischievous and onerous; to found them came to be considered a set-off against the most enor- mous crimes and the most unchristian life; and to inhabit them was too often considered preferable to the exercise of the Christian usefulness which benefits so- ciety, and the Christian virtue, in the true and original sense of that word, which en- dures the evils of life instead of flying them, and lives to resist and overcome the temptations of the world instead of vege- tating in ignorance of them. For the most part, indeed, the religious recluses of both sexes were subjected to very strict rule. Their dietwaa scantyand simple, their fasts frequent and severe, and their pilgrimages long and painful. But the seclusion of such a multitude of persons from the ordi- nary avocations of society, and the em- ployment of vast sums in founding and en- dowing their abiding places, could not but be a great evil in a country which was still poor in spite of its natural fertility, and still very imperfectly civilized, in spite of the fame which a portion of its population acquired for solitary piety and unproduc- tive learning. But though, whether politically, morally, or religiously, the undue number of religi- ous establishments and their inmates was an evil which could not but become more and more enormous with every suoceeding generation. Though the Christianity of both the doctrine and practice of Ireland at this portion of her history was far beneatR the genuine practical and apostolic Chrictianity, it is impossible not to perceive that St. Patrick, — pious, benevolent, and, consider- ing the age in which he lived, learned, — laid a broad and a solid foundation fur the im- provement that island has made since its connection with England. From the information which we deriie wATsaroRv. tlHKN AND OTHBR* CLOTH WAS ALL IMPORTBn PROM POnVIGN CODBTRIBI [_3 A 3 !>■ aAXOMS in BRWLAMD tlVBD !■ LVXUBIOUI BAII AND fLBllTX. 516 ^^c ^rcasun; of l^istoig, $cc. from St. Patrick himMlf, we gather Mme eurioue particulars of the condition of the Iriah people during hit time. Thui we And that the number* of colours to be uied in dreia were particularised for each rank ; and we may from the relative number of these, allotted to the three principal ranks, form a shrewd judgment of the devree to which the magi, fronTwhose ranks the bards, law- yers, and historians, as well . s priests, were always taken, Aad usurped and used autho- rity. To kings and queens seven colours were allowed, to tanists or nobles only five ; but to bards six colours were allowed. Both policy and the etiquette which so laruely influences even the rudest courts compelleil the magi to allow an outward social supe- riority to their kings and queens, through whom they, in fact, governed ; but however warlike or wealthy the noble, he was re- minded even by his very dress that he was held inferior to the magi. CHAPTER IV. It was net to Ireland alone that St. Pa- trick did the inestimable service of substi- tuting the mild truths of (Christianity for the furious errors of paganisms indirectly, indeedk but substantially, he was the Chris- tian apostle also of Scotland, into which country Christianity was introduced in the sixth century by St. Columb, an Irish monk of great seal and learning, who founded the long famous monastery in the island of lona. For three centuries after the arrival of St. Patrick the influence of Christianity in humanizing the people and elevating their condition was weakened, greatly weakened, ai once by the plurality of kings and by the enormous number of the monastic esta- blishments ; and during those three centu- ries the wars of petty princes and of Ave kings retarded civilization and produced a sickening and pitiable amount of human misery. The fiercer apd prouder spirits among the chief families scourged tne country as warriors; the quieter spirits scourged it scarcely less bv their learned and pious seclusion { and wnile even Eng- land was sending her best sons to the monks of Ireland, that they might enjoy the very bett attainable education, those monks studied and prayed and taught foreign youth in cloistered ease, and in coiled and selfish indifference to the world's sufferings and the world's crimes, without seeking to make their learning available to lessening the one, or their rank and in- fluence useful in restraining the other. Though England at this time was divided into seven kingdoms, and though each of these, like each of the five Irish kingdoms, was again divided into petty but indepen- dent lordships; though, in fact, England fully sliared with Ireland the evils of di- vided sovereignties where no natural divi- sion of territory exists, the Saxon popu- lation of England enjoyed a plentifulness of the most nourishing food, and a coi^- fOrt both of habitation and apparel far su- perior to those of the Irish, with all the superiority allowed lo the clerical and mo. uastio population of Ireland as to Irsrn. ing. A clearer proof needs not be adduced of the mischief, serious, widely-spresdiiiv and of the utmost practical importitnce' that was done by the preposterous extent to which monasteries were founded by mis- taken piety and inhabited by indolent idle- ness. Corn and cattle of every description were abundantly produced ; vet the great mass of the people were poorly fed, wretch- edly lodged, and coarsely clad; for the simple reason that they were injured indi- vidually by their fierce petty princes whea at war, and neglected by their priests and scholars at all times. The confusion and petty warfare inevit- able upon a plurality ot sovereigns and petty princes, we have already alluded lo as an obvious cause of a low social con- dition. A no less inevitable evil attendant upon that pluralitv is, that it bares the bosom of the people who are unfortunate enough to be aubjected to it, to the attacks of foreign fnea. The imminent danger of the whole country from some vast invading force may for a time cause all the petty Srinces and their turbulent and almost in- ependent inferior chieftains to unite; for a time each may learn to forget his envy, his hatred, the insult that has stung, or the iiuurjr that has robbed him, and in the mere instinct of self- preservation each may do good service towards the preservatiou of all. This, we say, may happen in the caie of the whole of such a country being threatened by a terrible and numerous in- vader; but so it may happen, too, that ha- tred of the native and neighbouring enemy may not merely overpower that sentiment towards the foreign foenian, but may even idnvcH it into a feeling of sympathy and a desire for his alliance or protection. Bat even where domestic differences do not, in the case of a great invasion, produce trea- son in some cases and ruin in the rest ; the mere weakness which internal warfare ever produces must render the temporarily united foes comparatively inefficient juit at the moment when they more thim ever need strength, and more than ever deaire to use that strength to good and wise pur- poses. If in actual warfare of king agaiuat king, chiefs against the king, or, the ttill more common case, of chief againbt chief, each of the five kingdoms of Ireland lost from the year 1^00 to the year 717 one hun- dred men per annum, here would be a vast army — for that time and country— of 8,500 men. We have rieckoned the lots of the five Irish kingdomk in the seventeen yean specified at a velry low probable average; and we have only reckoned with re/erence to those actually slain in battle, or in the occasional sanguinary skirinishes; of thoie who Subsequently perished by the famme caused by war, oir of the pestilential dis- eases invariably attendant upon faniine, we take no account. No period could be bet- ter suited fur the fair illustration of the evil to which we have adverted than seTen- A I p1 :! THB IRISH KXCKLLKO IN LNABNINO; BOT WBRB IHrKRIOB IN CIVILIZATION. tec OR ANV •OMIR Afff AOI, BIAOOII riBII BbAIIB Oil AI.I> tUI H1I.LI. CT^c llistorv o( iErdanTi. 637 tam vuni for whllt that ptriod would miki tht nun Inlknt eapabie of bearing inni— parilcttlarlir Bmoni a hardy, warlike, and baU barbaroui people— It would itill Imvi In Mldlarly vigour and activity the man of twenty-live, or even of thirty year* of tf e. wbo OMaped unwounded from bat- lie on the very day of that Infant'i birth, litre, then, In levenieen yeara of mlMrable MUabbllnR we have an army of 8,600 men uiierly deilroyedi and at the end of that lime we And that Ireland wae Iniulted, in- »d«d, and plundered for the flrit time by any eonildurable piratloal force of North- mrn, or Uanea, aa the piratical northmen and Ma-kln|i were f cnerally called. Here, Ibtn, we have evidence aa Irrcflragable a« tvidtnoa can be, that lo the plurality of ao- vtreignty In Ireland, and to the at once ptliry and ferooloua internal warfare to wbloh that plurality gave riie, Ireland, when the fleree norlhmen aailed up her livtn burned and aacked her inonaeteries, lUw tbc monk In hia cell, the peasant in the Arid, the penitent at the altar, and the Bunllng olillu at hia mother'a brcait, owed the loM of an army thriee aa numerous as would have lufltcea to crush, ere lie could bare well landed, (ha alaylng and spoiling bi who wrought ao much havoc and ao mueb woe. The evil effect of divided and petty au- tborily requires, surely, no farther proof; ind bow extensively that divided and petty suthorilv obtained In Ireland may be pretty acoarately Judged flrom the single fact, that Ib one battle against the invading north- man, two hundred nominal kings or chiefs of Irish icpts fell upon the fletd. The kingdom of Mealh, being nearly in Ibt oenlral part of Ireland, was. thoujth ori|inally Ihe smallest of the live chief kinKdoms, the titular chief) and the suc- ecMhil altempta of Iha kings of Meath to wmt territory firom the other kings, and of those latter, individually to obtain the envied titular royally in chief, were a fruit- flil luuree, both of general national distur- bance, and of partial and at the same time implacable fbuds among the septs tiding with the various kings. For nearly forty years the northmen con- lued their attaclis upon Ireland to mere predatory descents, in which they were uiually, fIrom the disunlnn we have de- ■eribed, tueoessful In carrying off comi- dtnble spoil and numerous captives. But the very succeit of thete descents, and the txptrltnce the maraudera acquired alike of the fertility of the soil and of the dis- union of the Inhabitants, Invited larger ex- ptditloni and more extended views of con- qant. Aboui the dose of the eighth cen- tary they began to send u many as a hun- dm veiiels laden with fierce warriors into the Doyne and Lllfey. Yhe monasteries, both at being the wealthiest places in the liltnd, and at being the abode of the teach- in of the faith of that hated Charlemagne, than prowets and whose sternness had mtdg bit faith odious to the nortliern ma- nadert, were the etpecial objects of their cupidity and vengeance. Built chiefly of wood, the monasteries when plundered were firequently committed to the flamea; and crowds of terrifled monka and nuna escaped from the aworda of the enemy, only to perish of hunger, or the inclemency of the weather, amid the wooda and aio- rasses. From conducting larger and larger expe- ditions flrom the bauka of the chief rivera, fartlier and farther into the bosom of the island, the northmen at length proceeded to attempt a permanent settlement. And here again the divisions among the Irish favoured the desigus of their enemies ; for it waa no uncommon thing for the weaker or more bitter of two rival aepts to join their force to that of the invaders, losing sight of their general interest, aa Irishmen, to their particular desire for safety or re- venKC, as members of this or that sept or kingdom. When the beacon fire aent forth its lurid light from the summit of some coastward mountain^ to announce the northraen's approach, it but too often happened that it was to many a signal to aia and not to repel them ; and to positive treachery of this kind the northmen cliicfly owed it, that early in the ninth century (a. D. 815), they succeeded in planting a atrong colony in the fertile district of Ar- magh. Between this colony and the neigh- bouring Irish there were frequent and des- perate struggles; hut about thirty yeara after it was planted, Turgesius, a Norwe- gian of great fame and power among the northern pirates, brought a powerful fleet to its aid, carried death and dismay into all the accessible parts of the country, and assumed the title of king of Ireland (a. d. 845.) Having erected strong forts on well chosen parts of the coast, he wielded hia usurped authority most sternly. Tlie na- tive born kings were made to consider themselves as his mere tributary tanists ; and upon each he levied a tribute, in the nature of a poll-tax ui>on their respective subjects, which tax, either from its very nature or from the punishment, as some writers think, of its non-payment being the amputation of the offender'a nose, waa called nose monejf. Turbulent even towards their own native titular chief kings of Meath, it might have been expected that the singularly haughty and iicry kings of Ireland would be stung to desperation by the sweeping and con- temptuous as well as cruel tyranny of a foreign pirate chief. Many attempts at throwing off his oppressive and insulting yoke were unsuccessful; but at length the art and Intrepidity of O'Malachlin, an Irish king, put an end to both the reign and the ufe of the usurper. As tlipugh the whole power and skill of the nortli« men had been supposed to centre in this one man, his death waa the signal of a general rising of the Irish. The lukewarm grew zealous and the timid grew brave ; every where the Irish heart beat aud the Iristi sword gleamed for Ireland alone ; and the massacre of the northmen was so ex- A OBNKRAIi MAItAOnl or TUB D1IIIB8 POLLOWBn THB DRATH OV TUBOKSIDS. 628 iS^c tlTrcaeurv of l^iBiorc, ^c. taniift, that tha country miifht once moN Im Mid to b« almott tne from all enemies ■ave the tnrbuleot and the divided of her own sona. But this freedom from tlie iniulting yoke of the foreigner wae toon interrupted. In larger numben than ever, and with Tcn< geanee now animating them as well aa eupiditjr, the pirate hordes of the north again poured in under three famoua ara* kinp, Hitrie, OlaiT, and Irar. Waterford, Limerick, and Dublin were aeiied upon, aa being convenient equally aa atrongholda from which to rule and oppreas the native, and aa commercial ciiiea. And, aa ia ge- nerally obaervable, the energy of unprinci> pled conquerors gave a commercial and trading consequence to those cities such aa they had never before possessed, and moat likely would never have derived from their original possessors. Merchants from va- rioua foreign countriea repaired thitiier, with articlea of both use and mere luxury ; and an obaervable impulse was eiven to the civilisation and refinement of the country, through the medium of the very invadera to whom thousandaof the inhabitants owed misery and death. In truth, the situation of the native Irish during this occupation by the Danes may, without exaggeration, he compared to that of the unhappy Bri- tons, whose miseries under the early rule of the Saxona are ao icraphically and so thrillingly depicted by Bede. But a warfare which kept alike the na- tive and the invader in constant peril, could not fail to abate in virulence as years passed over. Intermarriage, and gradual couimu- niou for the purposes of trade, caused some- thing like an armed incorporation of the two people. The natives were still go- verned respectively by their own kings ; and the Danea, under their kings, in their fer- tile agricultural possessions and prosper- ous commercial towns, looked compla- cently down upon the frequent disputes and sanguinary engagements between the native provincea, precisely as Europeana looked forth firom their factories upon those Jealousies and combats of the Indian princes, which have given ao much terri- tory, wealth, and influence to a race who firat went among them with the timidity of atrangera and the cupidity of mere tradera. As we have already said, we believe that the accounts that have been given of the plentifulness of native Irish gold and silver have been most ridiculously exaggerated. It waa to the commerce carried on and encouraged by Ireland's invaders, that wealth, whether of the precious metals or of foreign conveniences and luxury, waa chiefly, if not entirely, owing. The Italian goldsmiths, so famoua for the richness and cunning of their workmanship, undoubt- edly supplied those ornaments and services of gold and silver plate whieli, to<\'ards the middle of the tenth century, abounded in the Irish monasteries and cliurches. We say that this is indubitable, because we have dear evidence of it in the will of Cormac, bishop of Cashel and king of Monster. In that will he bequeathed to various churelits and monaatcries not merely rich articles of gold and ailver, but also nch garments of silk, which not even the wildeat dreamers about the early native wealth and mairniA. cence of Ireland will pretend to attribute to any other aource than that commercisl intercourse with foreigners which Irdaiid owed to her eonquerora. But neither the influence of thecommsr. cial spirit nor the foreign luxury introduced by the Danes, had the effect of subduing the Irish turbulence or weakening the Irish courage. Even when, laying aside for a brief time their petty quarrela for local su- premacy, they turned their arms sgsinit the northmen, their endeavoura were far more creditable than auecessful. But a king of Monster at length arose, to show the northmen that the power of an invs- der is precarious, and may be shaken long afrer the most timid of his followers havs ceased to fear, and all save the very best and braveat among the oppressed hsv* ceased to hope. A. D. 99U.— Brian Borohme, (or, at it it aometimea written, Brian Boru), whose ta- lents and courage even the romances found- ed upon hia actual deeds can acarcely rate too hi^lily, washing of Munster, contenipo. rary with Malachi, king of Meath. The Ut- ter, though in title the chief kingdom, wu at thia time scarcely the superior of Mun- Bter, the kings of which occasionally assert- ed their equality by a flat refusal to pay the tribute. Tliough rivala, Malachi ana Brian Borohme had one common feeling ot ha- tred to the foreign rule of Ireland ; and the former, a brave and able general, was in s mere military point of view more com- pletely the liberator of their common conn- try than the latter. Disputes having ariien between the king of Meath and the Danes, who had now rendered Dublin very popu- lous and wealthy, a battle took place be- tween them in the vicinity of the hill of Tara, in which the Danes were so com- pletely routed, and with so much loss, that they were glad to accept Malachi's terms for peace. The Danes had so ofteii been victors in former and less ably conducted at- tempts to restrain their power, tliRt nmonr their alavea — by whom that warlike and trading people had all domestic duties per- formed, deeming them degrading to war- riors and merchants — were upwards of two thousand native Irish. These Malachi com- pelled the Danes to liberate, and he bad the satisfaction to believe that this bsttle had atruck a terror into his foes which would not merely restrain them from any future excuraiona beyond their own bounds with warlike or predatory objects, but ent cause them in the course of time to sban- don the country altogether. Brian Bo- rohme, as king of Munster, had obtained scarcely less decisive triumphs over tlie Danes, from whom he had, in the case of i ^ tiioae wiio dwelt in Dublin, exacted an I s annual tribute of an ounce of k'>'<1 P*' hou»e. Probably the triumph of Malachi over the MOST or THa OBBAT DANISH CHIEP8 WSRB KILLED AT THE BATTI.S or TABA. aalachioverthe CEffc l^istorp of Srclanlf. A29 Dtuim would ha*t end«4 with the day of their dtfeat befon Tan, but that hiiown (ubwonent defeat by Brian Borohme threw power iaio the hanat of a man aa wise in eoaaeil as he wai brave in the Held. After what bae been laid Df the general pro- Mfltitr of all the Iriah princea, from the Ullhaet of the ive kinga to the very pet- tietl taniit who eould boaet hie territory of t few acraa. and hie aept of a few acorea of kairuarred peatante, it will be a matter ef BO marvel that two powerful and war. likt princea, ao nearly malebfd in point of power and ambition aa Malachi and Brian Borohme, ihould Had lubjeet matter for war againit each other. Brian Borohme, noKioua not only of warlike ability but ■Im of capacity fur civil rule, and perhaiia hoDourably anxioua to make the latter ta- lent lervieeable to the whole of vexed and inferinR Ireland, iluahed with hie triumph over the Danea and over many of the amaller native kince and chiefa, from whoae terri- torie* he had added very largely to bia kingdom of Muniter, aimed at the aole ao- vereigDty of Ireland. Malaehi, eaually aa aa independent prince and aa titular chief king, reiiited hi* ambitioui and certainly nnfounded pretentioni. A aevere and paa- lionate conteit enaued, in which Malachi WM (ubdued, and compelled, in that ball of Tare which for centuriea had witneaaed the lupremacy of hie ancestora, to do homage to the rival whom he had ao bravely though Inckleuly reiiited. Several of the minor king! and ehiefi propoied to Malachi to renew the itruggle, and offered to aupport him alike with arma and influence. But true to hii compact, and, perhapa, with the eharacteriitio nobleneaa of true bravery, conKioui that Brian Borohme waa the bet- ter capacitated to serve their common country by quelling her doraeitic aa well ai fDreign foei, Malachi loyally and gene- ronily refuted to do ao. He went atill far- ther ; to hii example of lubmission to the ■nperior geniua of Borohme he added the itrongett entreaty to hia frienda to aupport and obey, initead of opposing, a man ao well calculated to preierve the peace their bleeding country lo much required. Re- taining hia kingdom of Meath, he paid tribute to Borohme and faithfully aecond- ed bii meaiarei. Brian Borobme'i first acta showed that, however blameable the course bv which be had obtained the chief regal place, his genitti was admirably adapted to it. With- ont losing time in idle ahow and ceremo- nious enjoyment of his good fortune, he at once set out on a military tour of pacifica- cstion, receiving the formal submission of the chiefs, and demanding good lecuritiea and hostages for the loyalty of those who hadj[iTen any cause for suspicion, or whose position was such as to make their future revolt practicable on alight temptation. Nor did he confine his cares to protecting bimielf against the provinces; he also made strict laws for preventing the people from being scourged by the unjust cosbenngs and other oppressions of their rulers. His well known talents, and the atemneaa with which he even imprisoned those ehiefa who ven- tured to Iniringe hie lawa, had a most salu- tary effect t and in hia reign Ireland waa a better ordered and more happy and peaecAil conntrv than it bad aver before been. The atrongholda and religious houses, whieh bad suffered ao much at first by the vio- lence of the Borthmen, and then by their neglect, were repaired, and many new onea founded. The Danea themselves, probably finding the advantage of peaea to their eommercial affaira, aa well aa dreading to provoke him aa king of Ireland who bad so signallv chastised them when he waa only king of Munsler, busied themselves solely with trade, and did not for many yeara at- tempt to commit any violence. Men who have long Buffered nnder a great and grievous evil are ever apt to ex- aggerate the opposite good. It is possible that, even in the comparative tranquillity to which the iron rule and really bene- volent justice of Brian Borohme redueed Ireland, the native of a country blessed with the excellent regulationa of modem Bnssia, France, or England, would have found it but an unpleaaant residence, and considered it but an unsafe one. But, not content with iciving Borohme the really high praise of having redueed the ez- tremest anarchy and the utmost licence, to comparative peace and propriety, the chroniclers, as usual, must describe the wonders that he did under the similitude of wonders that no earthly power could do. In order to let us know that he very mueh Erevented armed handa from traversing the ighways in open warfare, and petty ty- rants from plundering their unhappv pea- sants without restriction and murdering each other without question, they gravely assure us that a young ladv traversed the rude roads of a country still the least or- derly in Europe, her beauty heightened by gems rich and rare, and a ring of price suspended by her white wand; and that none were tempted by her beautv to rude- ness, or by the rich booty she bore with her to robbery. Such idle talea are not merely beneath the dignity of history; they are offensive to the character at once of those who write and of thoae who be- lieve them. Moreover, in the present case, the tale, idle as it is, haa not even the aoli- tary merit of originality ; the same story, witn the most trifling variations, is told of several other countries, England under a Saxon monarch among them. Time, the great soother of painful me- mories, is also a great disturber of the good conduct which haa its rcr/ ':n selfish policy and aelfish fear, rather than jn a genuine appreciation of goodness for its own sake. And thus it proved in the case of the Danes. The prowess of Brian Bo- rohme and Malachi nad awed them, and the singular fitness and energy displayed by the former aa a civil ruler, hrd given them practical proof and participation of the benefits of peace in the land. For nearly a quarter of a century these feelings i m 8 8 ■aania ricriona Havn a tbhoihot to riBviBT histobical tAota. } MO tlTfii tICnMttrv o( l^iitorv, Ire. iMfl them ytf/Mtlf In or4«r i hut m • new (on iiminv Inio ■Mlif, (My Mtin bflNM to iliow lymp. IMM of • 4t«ra to Ntura to thtlr old irvIng tho lift of tho tnder th« arMfd Md Insolmt rob- MMrMton iiminv Into Milvt Itft, and long MMI bnd mUa Mrtal rait muob leu tm- I. 'W MwrM of vnri Willi thai of Ftrlltpti loot Ihay wtrt tneonraged NMOtlng IhnI Iko kmir lapM of ycitra . Mi^rlvai tho onto tarrlbU Brian Bo< rvwiM of hit aonniM and eonduot, at it WM wtll known that It had of hit phjriloal Mmglk mi aotWIIy. Tha kloi of Dublin MMldtnlr an4 wlihonl nrovoeatlon ltd hit Bonbmm Into Ibo kinRdom of Mtaib, plnndanni wlthonl limit, and, whtrottr NaiMtd, mnnltrlnK without mtrey. Ai if 10 ihow that Irlthmtn wero ntvtr lo Mi Iha mlifnflnnat of thair country wtlhoal dolnt ikclr own thamtfiil part to< warda Inllltting ihtm, tho king of Ltiniter jolnad bit for«M lo Ihote of tha northrotn, an4 farlooM lb Iha Aillatt In thtir out- ragootil vloltnaa. • At tha tama moment— Moal probably by lonr vrtconetrttd ar- rMfOtnant-Mi aaw hordo or nortbmtn, tacb man Ibllowad by woman and ehlldron, an- laroA Muntlar avidtnlly with the intention Ml Baroly lo plnndtr tba aountry, but alae lo anal a parmanent itttlemant. MalaoM ani Brian Borohme put them- aalraa al iha kaai of tha other kingt an< laadart, lo oppo«# Iht hoitt of foreirn Mi dofflaitio foaa that had thut tuddenly aprani up amidat tha profonndett peace and Iha moal promlilna proipeett of equal proiparity, Sightly baflavlnK that the na- lira roM wara al oneo mora guilty than the Ibrotgn OHM, Morohmo dlapatched a large pan of hli foraa nndar hit ton Donough, to ovarmn Iha kingdom of Lelmter, and drive of or dntroy all (ha eatile on which the onamy would graatly depend for proviiiont. Thil atrvlaa tna old warrior Judged that bla young and aatlva aon could effect in Ihraa dayi. to which period he limited hit abianaa. Under all ordinary circumttancet Ibit aonna would have been both politic and lafli i for iha poiltlon of the northmen Waa luah, Inal it waa to the latt dcRree un* likaly thai any general engagement would aniita nntlt after iha return of Donough firom an aiiB«dilion tha aueeeit of which would ba of anak material luture value to Iha lilih, Bui oneo again a ton of Ire- land—probably fimm tome dattardly fear or ravante, or Afom patty peraonal hope— waa Iraland'a enemy i treaion wat in the eamp of iha brave and good Borohme. wkoaa gallani aon wat no tooner beyond reaalli fban aoma deterter from the camp made Iha northmen aware how much the Irlih warn waaheuad bt thia detachment of ao larga a number of their beat troopi^ and they al onoa forced on a general en> gagemant. rliiflit, tim had It been in hla power, Borohma would not have for a moment tboHghl oft he formed hit troops in battle array, atid tliouKh more thtn four score yaara bad blaHebrd hla hair and abated hia natural klrength, ha rode along the ranks and ahonted his eahoriatlona In the ge- nuine and passionate eloquence of which. In former times, be had so often witnessed the thrilling and Inspiring cffict upon the troops who had followed him to victory. Pointing to the norlKmen. whose tumul. tuous ranks were awelled by Norwegians, Danes, and Britona flrom the Orkneya, the Hebrides, and the mountaina of Wales, he called upon Irishmen to strike no blow bat in remembranca of prietit and nana mnr- dered, ehurchet burned, and the taered things polluted or plundered i age eaat forth to perish in the forest, and the young child amitten dead with the mother whose milk atill hung upon its lip ; " bearing a erueilx In his left hand aa he brandished his (ami. liar sword in hit right, ha called upoa them to follow where he thonld lead, and to ttrtke for the religion of the ttints with the Arm hearts and vigorous arms of men who knew how to die aa Christians, but never so submit to beathent in htart, name, or alliance." A. n. low.— It waa shortly after day break on the 38rd of April in the year 1014, that the venerable kmg and veteran warrior thus addressed his army, who, greatly u tbey knew their numerical Ibrce to be wet. kened by the detachment of the troops under Donongh on the Leinsterexpedition, responded to the address by coromeneio| the flght with cries of rapturous cieile- ment, which proved that their king and freneral had only done them Justice in sty. ng that they knew how to die for their cause. The battle lasted— euccess now in- dining to the Irish, and now to the north- men-curing the whole of the day; and wherever the onward charge of the Irish wat the ilercett and fartheat upon the foe, and wherever the foe in hia turn repuliea them the moit murderously and e ffeetively, there gleamed the sword and pesled lbs still sonorous tones of Brian Borohme. Though age had dimmed the old man's eyes and abated his natural strength, he continued thus actively performing the daty of both skilful chieftcun and stout soldier, quite literally, " From mom to noon, firom noon to dewy eve.* But aa the shadows of the mountains fell denser and deeper, he became too week to remain longer in the field, and wu obliged to aeek rest in his tent, though even here his mental vigour mocked hit physical debility, and he continued to direct the flght by brief and Judicious mesuges to the chiefs. At length the glad shontiof the Irish proclaimed that the foe was brokeo beyond hope; the king fell upon his knees in the thrilling gladneas of the patri» king and the loyal soldier, and his tent, in the general Joy, waa left unguarded save by a single stripling page. The traitor who rad warned the Danes of the detachment being sent under Donough into Leiniter, eoaid scarcely have wished a heavier calamity lo Ireland than that which was caused by the eetget rush of the king's personal guard to AFff a VMta rintoo no fursb aRinvoncBMnnTt or dahrs Aaaivan. Ml la tiM ilaag ktw m<1 ■unait of Ihair MitM, who wart vow to d« Men flijring to tftrrilNCiioD, whtthtrtbat rath wa* mada Mitlf ia ob«4ieMa to thair owa datlra or la (baaltanaa with tha kinn'i eommand. R( «u rteoffnisaA by a «yliig party of tha fanar oalr afaw niautaa afler ha waa thua < ltd aamardMl, aad nalthar hia thin whkta hairt, hto rcaerabia aspaet. nor hia pioua Mttart, eonld aara him. In an inntant hia tamiM wara npon him ; tha loud ahriak aad feabia though laaloua blow of the ■aaag paga dalajcd tha aaoriAea not a mo- ■Mall Bnaa Borohme. tha terrible in bat- lit, Ihi wiM in council, and the infleaiblr hMt ia mie, waa tiaia, with many and riiMtly wounda.eren aa ha knelt in thank*, ■iviag for the victory he had done ao mucli lewarda obtaining for hia eountry. CHAPTER y. Taa defeat of tha northnen waa eom> ■leic at Clontarf ; and thouah the death of Briui Borohme waa felt by hia troopa aa a ftiT icrioBi drawback upon their victory, lucn inilant and neellent meaiurea were taken for following it ap, that the fierce tea kiagt did not feel inclined to risk auch ■Botlier. The armed invaden fled to their ikipiaod tought aafety in fiighti and the ■orthmen who werenatnraliaed in Ireland, dnptiriDg of any farther aid flrom beyond Hi, had no recourie but to lire in peace wilb their aaighboura, with whom the in> ttimarriagee of a few generationi ao incor> ■onted tEem, that all diatinetion, aave in a law male namea of familiea, waa loat be> tween the two people lately lo hoitile. Malaehi, who had ably and bravely dia< tingttiihed himielf on thia oceaaion at the nn lift ontbreak of the northmen and Ikcir tieaoherona alliea of Leinater, and who in many a former perilous time had aaaly eamea the fame which won him the CM of the bardi of hia own time, and nearly a thousand yeara later obtained ftom the greateat bard of hia country the praiie of having worn « hia collar of gold That he won from the fierce invader," Wu DOW by common content and acclaim called again to the chirf sovereignty, which he enjoved in all peace and honour until his death. «.B. 1033.— Full of yeara and infirmities, bat no less full of honours, Malaehi expired ptaeefttlly in the year 1022; and the death of that venerable monarch waa the signal kt a renewal of those shameful civil wars, tad their consequent miseries and degra- dations (irom which the strong hand and vigorous mind of Brian Borohme had ao hmg kept the country free. The high re- aown of Malaehi had caused all the kinga and chiefs to hail him aa the most worthy neeetsor of Brian Borohme, but the rela- tive* of those two truly great princea and warrior* could not so easily agree as to the rightful *acce*sor of the former. If the pnncipleiof equity and plain reasoning had bean appealed to^ tha elaima of Malaehi'a belr wonid uaqneaiionably have at o««a been admitted i and that upon two broaA and inlalligible gronnda. In tha Aral plaaa, alorloua and uaefUl aa tha rain of Briaa Borohme bad been, ha had oiiiainad tha throne by violence i aad it ia more tbaa poaaibla that even hia aaloar and eonduet would have failed to aaeura him upon It, had not tha palrlotle Malaehi waived hia own personal inMreela in favour of thoaa of hia country. In the next place, the unanl> moua content of tha kinia and ekiafs to Malaehi'a aueceeding Brian very elearly pointed out the latter aa the merely per* aonal possesaor of tha throne, who nad obtained it wrongfhilly, who, probably, at least, waa allowed to retain it only on con- aideration* of expediency, and whose heira, eonsequently, even had ha died after Mala- ehi, could not, upon any aane view of the hereditary principle, for an instant be put into eompetition with those of Malaehi. Bat equity and reason were allowed no voice in the matter. Many competitora appeared, loud dispute* and aanguinary atruggieaen- aued, and at length the field was cleared of all aspirants but two. These were Donongb, king of Mnnster, heir of Brian Borohme, ana Turtough, creat nephew of the latter and nephew of the former ; both, it will bo pareeived, claiming in hereditary succeaaion to him who had tieen to all intenta.an usurping king, however good and able one. The atruggle between these two princea waa long and aanguinary; but Donough, though already in possession of the king- dom of Munster, was vanquiahed. Baflled in his hiah ambition, and detesting the acene in which his rival had exhibiteiTso marked a superioritv in both talent and popularity, DonouRh alrooat immediately resigned hia proper kingdom of Muuater, and *et out on a pilgrimage to Rome. Arrived at " the eternal city," he entered into a monaatery, and there obacnrely flniehed hi* life. Turlough on mounting the throne epee- dily proved that he inherited with it much of the ability and warlike courage of hia great uncle, together with a double portion of hi* duHpotic and resolved self- will. Much as he owed lo the inferior kings and chiefs, he imposed upon them unusually heavy tri- bates; a tyranny the full weight of which was chi<^fly felt by the unfortunate kerne, or peasantry, flrom whom, in addition to all their heavy local burthena, it waa of course wrung by their lyranls. From the Irish natives, Turlough turned his strong hand upon the northern settlers and traders. Even under the firm and ateady rule of Brian Borohme, these people, though strictly prevented from indulging their seemingly inherent and inextingiysh- able love or violence and plunder, were allowed to follow their peaceable purenita, and the customs of their own countriea; and tlieir towns had invariably been go- verned by their own peculiar laws, admi- nistered by princes or governors of their own race. One of these, Godfred, king or governor of Dublin, waa banished almoat IIAI.ACBI 18 aacRONan tub fortt brcono OHnitriAR kino or irblard. «Ha cAams m laaLAHo wbmb vastlt inrcBioB to thoib id maLiiiD. 532 Efft ^rcasuro of IlistorQ, $ce. immediately after the acceuion of Turlongh, who filled the vacancv with Murkertach, hit own aon. A aimiwr course waa »ub- aequentljr followed aa to all the Danish towns; and when we consider how little formidable the northmen had for some time shown themselves, and how very much they had even lost of thefr distinct nationality by freauent intermarriaces with the Irish, it is difficult to resist the belief that this sweeping change originated far less in ne- cessity or patriotism than in self-wiU and A desire to aggrandize the royal family or its favourites. At this period Ireland seems to have ob- tained a very considerable improvement as to wealth, if not as to refinement. We find mention more frequently made of gold in payment of tribcte where formerly it was paid in cattle or other kine ; and to its for- mer exports of wheat, wool, hides, and cattle, we now find timber added. Indeed, so fine was the Irish timber at that period, and Irish bog oak especially, that William Rufus, whose reign in England was con- temporary with that of furlough in Ire- land, actually imported Irish oak for the splendid roof of Westmi:ister-hall. A. D. 1086.— After an active and generally prosperous and valuable reign, Turlough died in 1086. His kingdom was partitioned among his three sons; the hereditary prin- ciple Dcini; thus again set aside, but on this occasion with at least the colour of justice, inasmuch as the principle Of equal division — though including the most dis- tant male relatives — was that of the Brehon laws in the palmy days of the Magi. One of the sons dying, a contest arose netween the two survivors, Murkentach— already mentioned as succeeding Godfired the north- man in the government of Dublin— and Dermot. The Tatter was defeated and driven into exile, and Murkentach now claimed and was about to assume the whole king- dom. But a rival was set no against him in the person of a chieftain of the old blood- royal, named Donalu MacLoughlin, who was extremely popular among the princes both on account of his personal qualities and his descent; and again thb vnhappy country was visited with a civil war upon a question the justice of which was so ob- vious, that anv twelve honest men, how- ever unlettered and unskilled in chicane, misht have set it at rest in an hour. For eight yeara the old scenes of rapine, blood- shed, and misery bade fair to undo all that invaders— far less cruel and mischievous than the turbulent and justice-despising sons of the soil— had done towards improv- ing and enriching it; and after all this strife and misery the rivals at length agreed to divide the regal spoil between them. The southern moiety of the kingdom was E'ven to Murkentach, and bore the title of iathmogh, or Mogh's share; and the northern moiety to MacLoughlin, and bore the title of Leath Cunmn, or Conn's ahare. Even this seemingly equitable arranie- ment did not restore a solid and Isitinc peace. We call the arrangement seeminclT equitable, because it seems to have met the full consent of both competitors and their respective friends, and so far we are oblired to call it so ; though, ab initio, one or rhe other party must have been entitled to all if either was entitled to any. Clearly, how. ever, this ground of debate wu fully ahsn- doned by thA dtUberate agreement we have referred to. Itut with the characteristic pugnacity of the time and country, the two kings, though they possessed, by treaty and each within his own limits, the utmost kingly independence, a peaceful enjoymtnt of limited and defined authority, howenr, seems to have been by no means to the taste of either king. Perpetual encroach- ments -"ere made by one or the other, ami a long series of sanguinary and very mii- chievous battles terminated in the utter defeat of Murkentach, who, beaten at all points and utterlv despairing of any better success, retired from the contest in lira, and sought refuge in a monastery, where he terminated his days. During the long and obstinate struggle between the native Irish kings, the cout. ward parts of the country were repeatedly annoyed by :he northmen, especially by the Norwegian Magnus. His prowess and an. dacity had possessed him of the Hebridei and the Isle of Man, and under the title of the Lord of the Isles he strtcic ierror sad dismay far and near. Emboldened by the unnatural and senseless dissensions of the Irish, he sailed up the Liffey, ravaging and destroving, and at length possessed himulf of Dublin, where, having fallen into sn ambush, he lost his life. From all that has been said it will, we trust, be very evident, that the fiaraing sc- eounts given of the very early wealth, grandeur, and learning of Ireland, are sheer exaggerations for the most part, and un- founded dSRumptions for the rest. The earliest inhabitants of it, of whom my thing is certainly known, were divided into numerous septs, individually too rude, end as a whole too much divided among them- selves, to have been either prosperouior influential. The towns upon the coast were either founded or raised into importance by subsequent invaders of a more advanced knowledge and refinement; and st the period to which we have brought down this history, the condition of Ireland had nothing desirable which was not owing to those 'uvaders, and was, even then, aucnu to make it morally certain, that the im- provement of the country, or even ita eacape from retro^ading into its oriKinal miien and barbarism, could only resolt (tnm aucb an event as that to which we no v past, namely, the appearance of England on the Irish stage ; from which period the history of Ireland begins to possess that clearneai of which all its earlier portion is so strik- ingly deficient. TBB CnUBOHBS AND MORABTBBIBS OF IBBI.AII0 WICBB ALL BUILT Or WOOD. IBBBSOM WAI VIIITBklAIv Al THIBl WAI HO tBUBAIi aTBTBM » IBBLAIIO. ^^t lltotorQ Of SErclanti. 633 CHAPTEB VI. Thb TBrioaa wan and arranMinenta in Ireland did not prevent the whole ialand from beina atill divided into the Ave chief kinadomi of which mention haa already becD made. The titular chief royalty, aa well aa the real chief power and influence which to the time of Slalaclii had apper- tained aa by pretcription to Meath, aubae- quenilf pasted now to one and now to Mother Kingdom. Muntter, ander Brian Borohme, had both the chief title and the chief tway, which afterwards appertained to Connaught. Roderic O'Connor. kin(r of Connanght and titular king of Ireland, however, had but little of the power which Brian Bo- rohme had 10 sternly and steadily wielded. All his energies were required to enable him to govern Connauglit, and he was incapable of either composing the differences of the other kings, or of uniting them all under his own authority in the common defence of their common interest*. In a word, Ire- iaad was in the twelfth century as divided M ever it had been ; and only so far im- proved in wealth aa to tempt aggression by exciting cupidity. That Ireland had so long remained free tnm the agicressioDS of other than mere ravaging northmen would be wonderful, indeed, l>ut for the poverty which we have shown to have caused that forbearance or contempt. Heathen Borne and Christian Home alike had, for long ages, allowed the semi-barbarous people of the " sacred island" to fight and deatro^ at their own good pleasure. But the time at length came when Christian Roime, already en- throned as the mistress of empires and ar- bitress of the temporal and apiritual princes Of the earth, lookied with a longing eye npon the fertile island on which prosperity, thanks to her invaders, had begun to dawn. The attention of Rome would probably have been drawn to Ireland as early as it WM, under any circumstances; but Ire- land's near and ambitioua neighbour, Henry II. of England, it waa who immediately drew the attention of the pontiff to her value and capabilities; overlooking, aa it would seem, the extreme probability that the ])Bpal power would some day prove as formidable in enmity aa it could possibly be useful in friendship. Attracted by the fertilitjT of Ireland and its contiguity to his own kmgdom, and being well informed of the internal dissensions of the kings and chieftains, which bade ao fair to render the island an easy prey, he applied to the papal court for its sanctioD to his aubdu- wg Ireland. i.D. 1116.— Pope Adrian III., who then tiled the papal chair, waa doubly glad to receive this request. An Englishman by birth, he was naturally anxious for the ag- grandiiement of his native country ; and, u pope, he could not but be rejoiced at bavmg from the king of England tbia em- phatic acknowledgment of the temporal as well as spiritual supremacy of Sk>me. Neither of these motivea waa allowed to appear; Adrian professed to be actuated in according hia permission to Henry by the anxioas care aiiown by that prince to eB« large the Christian church. The pretext was sounding and specious; but we can scarceW allow much weight to it when we remember that Ireland had for Ave cen- turies been acquainted with Chriatianity. But, then, it had owned no submission to Rome— and to Rome it had produced no revenue t Had Henry invaded Ireland simply as being an island extremely convenient to him, it would savour rather of cant than of sincere and wholesome feeling to lament or even to blame hi* course ; for it was as necessary that Ireland should be conquered in order to its being rescu<'(l from its bar- barism and perpetual strife, as it was, in an earlier day, that the Roman and the Saxon should prepare the way for that Bngl'uh nation which owes nine-tenths of its marvellous greatness to that other for* tunate injustice, the Norman conquest. But the pretences upon which, as set forth in the papal bull, he proceeded to his task of pleasure are grossly hypocritical. The bull in question, says Hume, "after pre- mising that this prince had ever ahown an anxious care to enlarge the church of God on earth, and to increase the number of his saints and elect in heaven, represents his design of subduing Ireland aa being derived from the same pious motive ; con- siders his care of previously applying for the apostolic sanction as a sure earnest of success and victory; and, having esta- blished it as a point incontestable, that all Christian kingdoms belonK to the patri- mony of St. Peter, acknowudgea it to be the pope's own duty to sow among them the seeds of the gospel which might in the last day fructify to their eternid salva- tion." The pope having thus shown that Ireland ought to be conquered, and that Henry is its appointed conqueror, " ex- horts him to invade Ireland, in order to extirpate the vice and wickedness of the natives, and oblige them to pay yearly, from every house, a penny to the see of Rome ; gives him entire right and authority over the island, commands all the inhabitants to obey him as their sovereign, and invests with full power all such godly instruments as he should think proper to employ, in an enterprise thus calculated for the jflory of God and the salvation of the souls of men." This bull, encouroging as it waa, did not alone occur to inflame the ambition of Henry. The state of Ireland soon after thia bull was issued was precisely^ such aa itt foreign foeman might have desired it to be: one of the intestine brawls which formed so large a portion of Irish existence break- ing out just then with even more than the usual virulence and fury. Dermot Mac- mo'rrogh, the then king of Leinster, who was remarkable even among his licentious eountrymen for his gross immorality, had Sreatly provoked the chief men of his king- om by his tyrannical conduct. Unaware THB IIABMINO OV THB MOHHS WAR CONriNBD TO THBIB OTTH CLASS. [3B «r TO «■!■ «■■ *■■ Biiauia rbtbb *hou«b* or ooiiaoaBiiio iBn,Aii>. 634 ^^c ^reasttifi of llistors, ^c. or eontemptnous of the general feeling that exUted againit him, he wantonly ad- ded to it by abducting the wife of Ororie, prince of Breffney, during her hatband's absence. Prince Ororie, on his return to the bog island in which he had, as he ima- gined, secured the safety of his wife, was roused to the utmost rage by the informa- tion that Haemorrogh had made a descent upon it and forcibly carried away the prin- cess. Irish morality at that time was at so low an ebb, that nearly any man bat the king of Leinster might have abducted his neighbour's wife, without running serious risk of incurring any enmity or censure be- yond that lin; and that he was hastening to Car- rick for the express purpose of affording that aid which Fitcstephen's own precipi- tancy had now rendered useless. The people of Waterford, well knowing what fate they might expect should they fall into the hands of the terrible Strongbow, gathered up every portable part of their property, set fire to the town in several places, and then, carrying their prisoners with them, took shelter in a little island near Waterford harbour. Thither Strongbow pursued them with threats of taking the most signal and terrible vengeance; out jnst as he was about to attack the island, he was induced to depart by the most solemn assurances which the enemy caused to be given to him, that the landing of his first man should be the signal for striking off the head of every English prisoner. While speaking of the siege of Dublin by the Irish, or, more correctly, of their rout before that place, we mentioned that Strongbow and his followers had been much straitened for provisions. What Strongbow had from the very first foreseen, had by this time taken place ; Henry II. had become jealous of his barons. Doubtful how far feelings of allegiance would weigh with ■uch turbulent and self-willed men against the promptings of young ambition, kmdied and Increaaed by splendid victories, he saw in each new enterprise a new instance of contempt of his authority, and in each new success a new temptation to actual inde- pendence of his crown. Hoping, probably. that want of munitions and provisions would cause them to suffer such reverie as wuld make them glad to sue to their liege sovereign for sanction and aid, in an enterprise which they had carried on with as much apparent independence as thoagh no sovereign existed to claim the fealty or resent their disrespect, he had, for some time, forbidden all aid to be sent to them from England. As soon as the state of af- fairs in Ireland would admit of his doint so, and urged, in addition to other conside- rations, by certain intelligence he had re- ceived, that the king was on his way to Ireland at the head of a numerous force Strongbow hastened to England and met the king in Gloucester, where he had aa- sembled a very powerful force. Henry at first refused to admit Strongbow to his pre- sence; but on the earl nrging that he could clearly show that, in all that he had done he had-acted solely for the king's service) and that he would not even stir a step in the Irish expedition until he had received both a general and particular permission from the king, he was admitted. It matt be very clear to all who have read thus far, that Strongbow, from the first, had deter- mined to make his military and matrimo- nial connection with Dermot Macmorrogh the stepping stone to the sole and complete sovereingty of Ireland. Bnt when his wgiy measures had proved the justicj of his sua- picions of the kind's true feelings upon that subject, he shrewdly determined tiiat to hold mnch under the king was far better than to have his conquests wrested from him by a powerftil monarch; and be boldly affirmed, on being admitted to the royal pre- sence, that he aimed at Irish conquest only for the king's service, and that for himself, he should be content with whatever reward his royal master might deign to bestow upon him. Pacified by a submission so complete, and seemingly so disinterested, the king ac- cepted the surrender of Dublin and all other ports and fortresses conquered or to be conquered in Ireland ; and granted to the earl and his heirs for ever, all fait other Irish acquisitions to be helds as fiefs of the English crown. A. n. 1171.— The conciliatory policy of the shrewd earl having thus averted the stomi of royal wrath in which he and his fortunes would otherwise- have probably suffered shipwreck, Henry hastened his prepara- tions, and, accompanied by Strongbow, landed at Waterford about the middle of October, II7I. The large force by which the king was accompanied, and the gallant appearance of his knights, armed cap It fiie, procured him a degree of respect from the natives which they probably would have withheld from the name of king, whieh waa too common among them to have mtioh of that prestige which attached to it else- where. Not the slightest onposition was made to his landing, and as ne processed through the country, kin^s and chiefa flocked to him to tender their homage. To each who thus came in to surrender his possessions and authority, Henry instantly THB TBNUBB Off LAHOB DBTBBMINSD WITH TBB LirB OP THB POSSISSOB. ■■NBT •BARTKB KITATBI TO UII OtVICBBI FOB MIMTABI SBBTICBI. ^^c l^iBtorc of 3F.reIaniy. 637 rtitored both on tbe easy condition of hom- IM being done and vaitalage confeited. Eren Roderick O'Connor, the original op- ponent of Dermot, peaceably aubinitted, and without a single battle Henrv II. of England became alao king of Ireland. BtTins held a council at Cashel, in which special proviiiona were made for the sup- port and protection of the clergy, upon whose exertions the king well knew that the peaceable maintenance of his authority would depend, and in which a variety of other laws for the regulation of marriage, wills, and succession of property were pro- pounded, the king proceeded to celebrate the feast of Christmas at Dublin. The city poKessed no apartment lar^e enough to serve for the royal banqueting room on this occasion, but a temporary pavilion was erected, in which Henrv feasted O'Connor and tbe other principal Irish princes in a style of profuse and costly hospitality such IS they had never before witnessed. fhe king appointed a lord high consta- ble, an earl marshal, and a high steward ; and distributed vast tracts of Irish ter- ritory among English nobles, but on the strictest feudal principle. Thus, for in- stance, byway of preventing the great poa- sessions and equally great talentsof Strong- bow from being so predominant in Ireland as to tempt him to endeavour to throw off the royal authority, the king gave the whole of Meath, so long the eeat of the chief Irish royalty, to Hugh de Lacy and his heirs for ever, on the tenure of fifty knights' ser- vice. Nav, so particular was the king that the feudal tenure and forms should in no- wise be neglected, that though Strongbow had acquired his Leinster possessions by marriage and not by the sword, Henry, before he left Ireland, compelled him to resign them in form, and then conferred them upon him on the usual military tenure. Having thus far provided for the future Rovernment and security of Ireland as an integral part of his dominion, and made such minor arrangements as chanced to occur to his mind or to the minds of his advisers, Henry departed from the scene of hit easy conquest— if conauest indeed that could be called in which he never bad oc- casion to strike a blow,-^in April, 1173, having been in Ireland barely six months ; and on landing in Wales, proceeded imme- diateljr to St. David's church to return thanks for a success of which he aeemt to bave felt all the importance. CHAPTER VII. A.D, 1172.— Tub reputation of Ireland for rudeness and poverty was suoli, that, with the exception of a few of the leaders, tbe first English invaders and settlers were chiefly men of desperate fortunes and of a oharscter rather tittin|^ them to battle with the natives tlian'to civilise them. Even had they, however, been well fitted for that task, and ever so zealous in its perform- ance, the very relations of conqueror and conauered, possessor and disposs: scd, would probanly have made their exertions of but little avail, at leaat in the earlier years of their residence. The profuseness with which Henry had parcelled out Irish lands among English soldiers, and the stem and jealouk riRonr with which each English pale or acttle- ment repressed the slightest Irish diatnrb- ance in its neighbourhood, soon caused the deepest and fiercest hatred. While the king and his formidable army remained, the Irish affected the most cordial and peaceful feelings ; nav, perhaps, while the king's presence acted as a strong check upon the haughty and insolent tyranny of the conquerors, the cont^uered actually did entertain the hope of beinp allowed to live in pence and good fellowsl-'p. But the king had no sooner departed than the fiercest animosities began to display themselves. The natives, especially those who were in the immediate neighbourhood of the pa- latinates, and who, therefore, were especi- ally subjected to the insolence and opprea- sion of the English, looked with detestation upon these possessors of countlesa acrea which they had forcibly wrested from the rightful uossessors. From murmurs they proceeden to actions ; rebellions on the one hand and unsparing^ severity on the other ensued; and again this luckless land seemed doomed to long centuriea of petty but ruin- ous wars. Strongbow was the principal man among the new comers, and was known to be the very soul of their councils, ao against him the animosity of the natives waa especially directed. To render his situation stfll more perilous, his own followers, who, justly or not, had acquired so much through his daring and skill, began to show atrong symptoms of insubordination. His ap- Eearance was hailed with less cordiality; is orders obeyed with less promptitude. A chief cause of this want of cordiality among the English soldiers was the strict- ness of Fitxmaurice, who had the immediate command. He was a good soldier and a rigid disciplinarian, ana being, as it would appear, sincerely desirous that the natives and the Englisli should, for the aake of both parties, live in peace and in the mutual performances of good ofiices, he strictly forbade all plundering and brawling, to which the English showed themaelves only too prone. This strictness, which the li- centious soldiery considered all the more unreasonable, inasmuch as they were most irregularly paid, at length led to an openly expressed determination of the aoldiers to abandon Ireland altogether, unless the command were taken from Fitamaurice, and given to Raymond Le Gros, an officer Who was altogether as popular among them. Raymond Le Gros, perceiving how import- ant his support was to Strongbow, ventured to ask the Land of that nobleman's sister Baailia, a very beautiful woman, of whom Raymond bad long been enamoured, but whom his comparatively humble fortune would probably never have allowed him to THB laiSH, WITH FBW BXCBrTIOMB, WBRB aTBAMQRRB TO CIVILIBATIOIf. CSB3 tai rirAL boll, ■KAiiTKia ibblano to bbrbt, bbabi oa*b II74. 538 ^^c ZfTrtasun; of llifttorp, (cc. ■eek in marriage, bnt for the adventitioai importance into wliicli he waa lifted by the mutinooa ipirit of the aoidiery. Strong- bow waa far too acute not to be well aware of tlte delicacy and even peril of his litua- tion, but he waa as prona as he was brave, and without hesitation refused Raymond both the hand of the lady and constable- ahip of liCinster, which he also demanded. Baymond immediately embarked, taking a considerable portion of the armr with him. Their departure was the signal for an im- mediate outbreak of the natives ; while the English were so much weakened by the sud- den loss of so large a body, that Strongbow found it necessarv to dispatch a messenger to Le Gros, who nad landed in Wales, pro- mising that his double demand should be immediately complied with if he would re- turn with the soloiers. He did so at a most critical moment ; arriving Just in time to save the garrison of Waterford, of whom the Irish had vowed not to spare a man. Le Gros received both his bride and .his appointment, and then hurried to meet a vast force of Irish whom O'Connor was leading against Dublin. As usual, the superior arms and discipline of the Eng- lish overcame the tumultuous though brave multitudes of the Irish. Roderick sought safety in flight, and Raymond Le Gros in- dulged his victorious followers to the ut- most estent of their wishes in all the dis- orders of semi-barbarous warfare. Though defeated on this particular occasion, O'Con- nor was not aubdued. Often routed, he as often gathered his wild followers to a head again, and his persevering and desultory attacks defied even the skill of the brilliaut Le Gros. At length O'Connor entered into a new treaty, by which he engaged to hold his rightful dominions as the liege vassal of the king of England ; and in consider- ation of his having the chief sovereignty of Ireland, exclusive of the English pale,— be undertook to secure the peaceable conduct of the other native princes, to whom Henry assured the possession and peaceful en- joyment of their respective territories on condition of their regular payment of tri- bute, consisting of a bide for everv ten head of cattle slaughtered. Roderick U'Con- nor, therefore, was king, in vassalage to England, of all Ireland except the English pale, which included DubUn, Waterford, Leinster, Meath, and the whole extent of country from Dungarvon to Waterford. A. D. 1 175. — Strongbow died in 1175, leav- ing his daughter Isabel de Clare heiress to his immense wealth, with the exception of certain lands with which he endowed the Sriory which, in compliance with the quasi evout spirit of the age, he had founded at Kilmainham. At the death of Strongbow a new gover- nor, Fits-Adelm, went to Ireland. In his train was a knight, of no great previous notoriety, named De Couroy, who, in pur- suance of a singular fancy, lighted up the flames of war in a part of the country which amid all the recent bloodshed had remained at peace. Lying towards Scotland, and being inhabited chiefly by Scotsmen and shepherds, the province of Ulster might have long remained undisturbed, bnt that a headstrong English knight conceived the humane andworshipful p^ of fulfilling an Irish prophecy, at no matter what expence of blood, Scotch, English, or Irish. The prophecy ran that Ulster should be con- quered bv a knight from over sea, riding on a white horse and bearing birds upon his shield. De Courcy had come trom over sea, be speedily provided himself with a white horse, and though his shield bore not birds but bees, yet as the latter as well as the former have wings, he was decidedly of opinion that he was tout A /ait the very knight alluded to in the prophecy ! And to this mere whim of a foreiKner, who in i more sober times would have been laughed '• at as a coxcomb, or shut up as a dangeroui lunatic, the unhapjiy people of Ulster were I to see homes and lives sacrificed I In despite of the express prohibition of ' the governor, Fitz-Adelm, De Courcy mus- tered a numerous band of followers, and with pennant flying and trumpets sound- ing, galloped at day-break into the streets of Downpatrick, the capital of Ulster. The pope's legate, cardinal Viviani, who was in that province, endeavoured to dissuade De Courcy from violence; but the cardiual's eloquence was powerless against the pro- Shecy. The cardinal, then, becoming in- ignant at the senseless and unprincipled conduct of De Courcy, advised the king of Ulster, O'Neil, to oppose him in arms. In the first engagement O'Neil was defeated, but subsequently De Courcy, though gene- rally successful in pitched battles, was fre- quently reduced to great straits ; and ou one occasion he only escaped capture— which in his case would have been inevi- table death— by fifing before his enemies . for two days and nights, without other sus- tenance than water and wild berries. I The petty and mischievous warfare whirh De Courcy had commenced in Ulster natu- > rally led to similar disturbances in other parts. FitZ'Adelm, the governor, was de- 1 tested ; and Henry imagining that a more popular governor would perhaps succeed in restoring and preserving the peace of the country— a peace which was indispensable , towards making the possession of the counti7 a source of revenue to England- . removed Fitz-Adelm, and gave his pott to Hugh de Lacy, the lord of Meath, whom he instructed to take all possible means to conciliate the natives, but at the tame time to exert himself in the erection of cattlei Bufiiciently strong and advantageously situ- i atcd for the defence of the F.ngliih pale. Nor did the king's anxious efforts to secure ' the peace of Ireland stop even here. He : applied to Rome for permission to ciiwn ' his son prince John as king of Ireland, though of course in vassalage to England. The court of Rome, which, even only with reference to the Peter-pence, and still more with reference to future contingencies, lind a deep stake in the trnnquillity and proi- i pcrity of Ireland, readily gave the permit- WBILB HBBBV was IN laEtARn THB IfATlVK CHIEFS REMAINED CONTEMCD. tU CHUMH OF BV, IM MOKMARDT, II DBSIOATIO TO H. I.AWBBIICB o'toOLB. Ji^'^t l^istors of XrcIanV. 639 lion nqnired. But, whether from already pereciviDB lomethiDK of John'* real na- ture, or from Mme other unexplained feel- ioic, the king did not avail himself of it, bat merely wnt him over aa lord of Ire- land, where the priuce arriTed in the year 1181. CHAFTBB VIII. A, B. 118S.— PaiHci John waa at thia ■eriod about nineteen years of age. Arro> ngt, heartleii, and destitute even of the pradenee which would have taught him to imitate the affability and kindlineis of man- ner by which hia father, during the whole of hit stay in Ireland, had contrived to con- ciliate and even attach the tetchy but warm- hearted ehieftaina, John by hia very flra act diigusted those who approached him for the purpose of renewing their oath of slleRianee to the English crown. The llow- inr yellow garments and the preposterously loag hair and beards of the Irish, presented a very odd appearance, no doubt; though, u the Irish were a singularly well and pawerfully made race, one would imagine that their peculiaritiea of costume tended to mikt their appearance imposing rather than ludicrous. But when they were in- trodneed to prince John, who seema to have been surrounded chiefly bjr persona as young and as ignorant as himself, they were received with pealaof insulting laugh- ter, and some of the boy-courtiers are said to have even gone so far aa to pull the beards of these fiery and veteran warriora with every manirestation of contempt. The Iriih nature was precisely such as it would be far s<^er to injure than to insult. Burn- ing with rage, the chieftains departed from the prince's presence with the deepest de- termination to leave no effort untried to- wards shaking off the English yoke. They who had been the most cordially and sin- cerely desirous to show themselves faithful to the absent king of England, now unhesi- tatingly joined those of their fellow-coun- trymen who were already in arms against him, and an insurrection of the most ex- tensive and terrific description forthwith broke out. The English army, beaten at various points, waa in a great measure de- stroyed, and the Irish even made them- selves a passage into the English pale, glundering and then burning many of the oases and butchering many of the inhabi- tants, So extensive was this revolt, and so deadly the animosity that was felt towards prince John, that it is most likely Ireland would have been wholly lost to England, for a time at least, had he longer continued in that island. Fortunately, however, gen- uine information, not always procurable by even the most powerful kings, reached the ears of Henry; and he instantly recalled his petulant and incapable son, and gave the government to I)e Oourcy, carl of Ulster. He, probably, combining as he did both civil and military talents, and pos- sessing enormous property and proportion- ate influence in Ulster, was the fittest man then in Ireland to overcome the formidabla difficulties and danger consequent upon prince John's absurd and most uqiustifl- able conduct. Hugh de Lacy, who baul formerly replaced Fits-Adelm, would, in- deed, have been a still more efficient go- vernor than Oe Courcv, but he had recently been murdered in cold blood, by an Iriah labourer, while superintending the building of a castle in hia lordship of Meath. De Courcy, well knowing the propensit* of the Irish princes to make war upon each other, upon even the slightest provocation, so skilfully exerted himself to foment quar- rels among them, that he easilv broke up their league; and, once separatea from their common object, they weakened each other so far that he had but little difficulty in quelling their desultory and individual at- tacks upon the English. A. D. 1189.— Henry the Second, after a reign of thirty- five years, the latter portion of which had been tormented by the un- natural misconduct of his sons, die ' on the 6th of July, 1189, and was succeedei. by the renowned king Richard the First. Attached, even to the verge of actual insanity, to warfare, Richard waa more anxious to hum- ble France or to lead an army against the far distant hosts of Heathenesse, than to improve a conquest that was already made in his o«-n immediate neighbourhood. He left Ireland wholly unnoticed : yet it was in his reign that the final annexation of Ire- land to the English crown may in some sort be said to have taken place: aain the year 1198 Roderick O'Connor, the laat na- tive king of Ireland, expired in the monas- tery in which for thirteen years be had lived in peace while so much of strife and misery pervaded his country. But in his retirement be was far more useful to his country than its kings usually were. As he waa the last Irish king, so was he the first of them who had the sagacity to perceive that the great source of Irish weakness and Irish misery was igiioranee. Though mo- nasteries and their inliabitants existed in very evil abundance, the great mass of the people were in the most deplorable state of ignorance. Roderick O'Connor exerted himself to establish schools, especiallv in Armagh ; and by that wise act deserved an admiration which, unfortunately, the world is far more willing to bestow upon the brilliant but destructive career of the king who leads in war, than upon that of him who points the road to civilixation and con- sequent happiness. De Courcy, bv nature bold, restless, and ambitious, availed himself of the neglect shown to Ireland by Richard, and made war and took spoil at his own pleasure; and when, in 1199, John succeeded, to Richard, De Courcy had the boldness to refuse to acknowledge him as his sovereign. As the matter really stood between John and his nephew, Arthur of Brittany, his claim certainly was open to reasonable question. But powerful as De Courcy was in Ireland and against Irish chieftains, he soon discovered that he had overshot hia o'toolb was occasioi(*li.t ambassador to tub coubt of bnoland. *■■ FBODAL ADTBOKItT WAI ROW BZIKOIHB ST BABOIIt rBOM IWaiiAHa. 640 ^^c ^rcasttrt; o( llistore, $cc. mark in TenturioK to bewd the king of Bngland, even in the penon of to every way flonteniptible a man as Jolin wa«. De Courcy, in llie life time of Rioliard had (iven great offence to prince John by the utter contempt with wnich he had treated all the prince's orders hafinc relation to Ireland ; and John, now that lie had come to the throne, resolved to curb the prqud vassal. De Courcy was accordingly arrest- ed and sent to England. How or when he died is not accurately known, but it is cer- tain that he was never allowed to return to his Irish possessions ; and even his lordship of Ulster was takcu from him and bestowed upon Hugh, the son of Hugh de Lacy, the murdered governor. Though anything but warlike in disposi- tion, John made au expedition to Ireland; less, it would seem, for the sake of putting an end to the disorders which existed there, than as an excuse for leaving England while the mind* of his subjects were alarmed and irritated by the tremendous effects of the papal interdict. Attended by a powerful arm*, hu was speedily waited upon at Dub- lin oy twentv of the most powerful chief- tains, who did homage ana took an oath of allegiance. Anxious now to conciliate, as formerly he had been hasty to offend, he made many presents among them ; and we may take it as a sure proof that these brave chieftains were even yet not far removed Arom barbarism, when we learn that of all the presents he made them, they were by far the most delighted with a quantity of scarlet cloth. The reader of English history is aware of the important law regulations which were made in England during the reign of John ; all these regulations were equally extended to Ireland, as were the provisions of that S-eat political blessing — magna charta. ut, unfortunately, these benetits, though they were actually conferred upon all, were ei^oyed only by the English, in Ireland; the turbulence, the ignorance, and the in- domitable prejudices of the dwellers beyond the Englisn pale, making them look with mingled detestation and contempt upon all libert* and enjoyment procured otherwise than oy force of arms. ' Where the barons from England subdued tracts of country and sulijected the iubabitants to the feudu law, those inhabitauts undoubtedly enjoyed the same imperfect and restricted liberty as Englishmen of the same rank; and no- thing can be more grossly unjust and un- true than to represent as a consequence of English partiality, that difference between the people which really arose from the wild and Ignorant, though not altogether unge- nerous, fierceness and turbulence of the Irish themselves. A.D. 1216.— John, whose attention to Ire- land was but temporary, was now succeeded by Henry III. The long reign of this prince extended to fifty-six years ; and the weak- ness of his character, especiallv, unfitting him to contend with the bold, able, and rest- less barons of his time, made the struggles of England more than enough to employ him ; and Ireland Was consaqntntiv left to be scourged by the constant wars between the Irish people and their English rulers, the latter of whom still farther increased the confusion of that unhappy country by fierce and frequent contests among them- selves. How desperate the condition of the country had at length become, may be in- ferred from a petition of the Irish people to Edward I., in which they implored him to compel the barons to administer the laws equally whether to English or Irish vassals or his majesty, and to compel the extension of all English laws and customs to the whole Irish people. Utteriy heedless, it would seem, of the fact that, as far as decree could avail, all this had been done in the reign of John, and that it was the Irish people- themselves who had prevented prac- tice from being assimilated to thaory ; yet at the same time painfully sensible of the existing evils, though blind to their real causes, they offered to pay the sum of eight thousand marks to the king as the price of his rendering them this great and neces- sary service. He made an order accord- ingly ; but the order of the great Edward was as ineffectual as that of the mean John, when opposed to the habits and prfjudices of a peoj^le at once brave, restless, and igno- rant, living in a state of society so provoca- tive of injustice and tyranny as that of the feudal system. The lone war in which Edward I. was en- gaged with Scotland compelled him to sum- mon his barons from Ireland, and during their absence the natives made fVequent and very destructive attacka upon the Eng- lish pale. The death of Edward enabled the celebrated Robert Bruce to seat himself firmly upon the throne of Scotland. Know- ing how ardently the Irish desired to throw off the English yoke, and judging how im- Sortantly useful he could make them in iverting the attacks of the English from Scotland, king Robert Bruce in the year after his accession to the Scottish throne, (1315) sent his brother Edward Bruce into Ireland with a well equipped army of 6000 men. He was receivecl with open arms as deliverer, and took upon himself the title of king. His brother soon afterwards landed in Ireland with a still more powerful army. But just at this time there was an absolute famine in both England and Ireland ; and the latter country, suffering under the ef- fects of long civil war as well as of the bad season, was st ill more terribly destitute than the former. The most splendid successes of war could avail nothing against famine. Reduced to feed upon the horses as they died of actual hunger, the aoldiersof Bruce perished in awful numbers, and he at length returned to Scotland, leaving his brother to contest his usurped crown with the Eng^i lish or abandon it, as he might see fit. Ed- ward Bruce, who was to the full as oru?l a* he was brave, bore up with a mostoonstapt spirit against all dimeifltiea. But though he had much success in the field, aud made terrible examples of tb^ vanquished, he found it utterly impossible to drive tb« ran ibibh clbbot STtiL raBSBaTED much or thbib roBMBB ?awBi(. TltLBt. Z%t 1|totofs of iEnlanV. 541 Bnfllih from Ihtlr ttrong hold!. Tha Irish w«rt. lB4Md( for tha mml part vary favour- •bla to htn i but U thajr hated tha BntlUh mueh, thay hatad aaeh othar atill more, and, at Hiual, tnalr mutual itrife rendered it im- pMilbIa that thay eould constantly and cordially co-oparata even for a pnrpoie and a eauM which they all baditrongly at heart. A. >. ISIS.— Under lueh eironmetancce, it la moit ll&aty that Edward Bruco would at tonfth have icf n that tha eonoueat of Ire- Una from cueh a people aa the Bnglieh wa« a projMt too vast for Scotland, even with the mighty Bobcrt Bruce for her hing. Rut era ha had yet made up hie mind to abandon hia usurped royalty and return to •eotlaad, ho waa encountered at Dundalk by the Biiglish army, under the lord Ber- miniham. Bdward Bruce on this import- ant dar parformad tha part of a cood gene- ral and a atout soldier i but all nis eSbrts were In vain, and ht fall upon the field of baitia wblla making eflbrts to ralli a por- tion of hIa routed and dispirited force. Conspieuona by his arma and ornaments, he was marked out by an English knight, lir John llaupas. Holding Bdward Bruce in atpeeial detestation, anafirmly believing bis death to ba In every way deserved and desirable, ha vowed himself, after the cus- tom of the age, to destroying him. Accord- ingly, though Bdward was tealously de- fraoed by nIs friends and attendants, sir ilohn tuooeaded In reaching him ; and after the battle their dead bodies were found tllll grasping each other in the death gripe. Barely, If aver, la modem warfare wtU an intitnoa bo found, where personal feelings •re so linked with patriotic teal ! Knowing what we do of the turbulence of the barona wherever the feudal law pre- vailed, how dlffleult tha firmest and ableit kings found it to curb them, and bow much they encroached upon the kinglr authority even in tha king's immediate vicinage, we have no room to doubt that the English barons In Ireland made their vassals, whe- ther Irish or English bv birth, feel the full weight of their feudal cnains. Removed as they were firom the check of the king's per- sonal presence, and living in a country in which civil strife was not the mere excep- tion but tha general, almost the universal rule, it would have been strange indeed if those barona had been leas tyrannous than the men of their order who lived under cir- eumstaneea less provocative of the evil im- pulses of our nature. But though the his- lorian would sadly mistake his vocation who should represent the conduct of the English nobles In Ireland as being free from all spot and exception ; though the very nature of tha feudal tenure was pro- vocative of wrong doing ; yet, it behoves us, on the other hand, not to attribute to one esuM, however open to censure in ite own nature, evils whieh did not spring from it. And it Is abundantly evident, that after making tha Aillest allowance for the evils whieh Ireland, In common with other eoun> tries, must or necessity have owed to the abttsee of the feudal system, the chief and the abiding eanae of Irish misery waa the inherent dlsorderlinesa of tha Iriaa eharao* ter. The clergy, for instance, both Bag- lish and Irish, maintained their place and privilegee against even the boldest and most ' led of the nobles; but did tho inprincipl( deny of Ireland act aa a united bodyf 80 for from doing ao, the Irish elergy and the clergy of tho English pale were at deadly fend. No English monk waa al- lowed to enter an Irish monastery ; and tha monasteries of the English pale were hope- lessly inaccessible to the native Irish monk. When we see that even the common bond of spiritual and temporal interest could not induce the deiwy to lay aside their animo- sitiee, we need not marvel that the best attempts at causing a general union of the people failed, and that perpetual revolts, sometimes instilled by tyrannous practices, and aometimea the mere fiush and out- break of flerv and turbulent spirits, at length tired the conquerors of their vain attemps to live in peace and unity with the conquered. Bdward III., who did ao much lowarde improving the laws and raising the trade of England, waa equally desirous to render the same service to Ireland. Clearly per- ceiving that it was next to impossible to obtain the exact obedience of the barons whose lands lay in Ireland; and, at the same time, very desirous to prevent the Irish people from being oppressed; he threw, as far as possible, the government of Ireland into the hands of nobles whose property lay in England, and for whoso obedience and good conduct they conse- quently had some security. But this really excellent stroke of policy and humanity was made too late to have the effect it would havtf had at an earlier date. A.o. 1361.— Lionel, dukeof Clarence, waa appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the year 1361 ; and he evidently went there with the most sincere desire to give effect to his royal father's benevolent wishes for the people's welfare. But the animosities which had been so many yean increasing were now beyond the possibility of a speedy re- medy. Such was the hostility between the two races, that under the governorship of Lionel, it was found absolutely requisite to {tass the stringent regulations known to awyers as the statute of Kilkenny. Hi- therto, even under the arbitrary Jolin, at- tempts had been mode to govern Ireland rather by affection than by severity, and the law left it quite open to the two racea to become, in the course of time, amalga- mated by marriage and friendship. But by this statute, which seems really to have been called for by the danger of the Eng- lish, and by the exceeding ranconr of the Irish, the latter were at length treated formally, and by the express sanction of the law, as a conquered, inferior, and dan- gerous people. Marriage with the Irish was forbidden under the heaviest penal- ties; the nursing of English infante by Irish women was discountenanced, and severe punishments were allotted to the ■OMi MANt/rACTOHiaji or wooLLBR STorrs isTABLisnan in ibklard. CLARimr AKD AITAL INTBKBaTI AMOna TBB IBIID IXISTID IR fUI.I< VOKOI. A42 mffK ^reasuri? of l^istorv, hct. offiraeet. on the part of men of English de- scent, or ipeaklDft the Irish languMKe, using the Irish customs, or wearing the Irish dress. These and some other enactments were doubtless verjr severe ; but it must be remembered that enactments in an oppo- site spirit had, for two hundred jenn, been tried in vain ; and that between this stem severity and the actual abandonment of the island — the possession of which hy France would have been so pr^iudicial, per- haps so fatal to the English throne— the eondition and temper of the Irish people left room for no middle course. However reasonable the demands of the English go- vernment, they never failed to provoke an armed resistance ; the country w«^ conti- nually in a state of revolt ; famine waa fre- quent and suffering constant ; and however much the historian, living in a free and happier age, may feel inclined to dislike se- verity, he must wholly part with candour, o^ defy common-sense, ere he deny that in the case of Ireland the duty of severity was, under all the circumstances, by this time quite inseparable firom the task of saving tne English from the fury of the Irish, and the Irish flrom the folly, the violence, and the licentiousness of their own chief men, clerical as well as lay. Soon after the accession of Richard II. to the throne of England, that prince went to Ireland with a considerable force, the character of the country for turbulence very naturally leading him to expect that he should And the chiefs disinclined to vield him peaceable homage. Whether, However, from some vague predilection in his favour, or from the very fact of his being accompanied by a large and well-appointed force, ne was even joyfully received. No fewer than seventy-four of the most power- ful men hastened to make a formal surren- der of their possessions, and to agree to receive them m ^ant from him on condi- tion of maintaining bis royal authority in Ireland against all who should gainsay or resist it. Delighted with a loyalty so exu- berant where he had anticipated reluctant homage, if not actual resistance, Bichard proposed to honour with knighthood the four principal chiefs, or petty kings as they still affected to be styled. But the Irish were not learned in the high lore of chi- vidry, and an honour which would have been eagerly coveted by the high-bom and wealthy elsewhere, and which was often eladly earned by long and perilous services in the field, was actually declined by these rude and untutored men, who gravely as- sured Dim that it was the custom of the Irish kings to confer knighthood on their sons even as early as the age of seven years. And it was not until raucTi pains had been taken to explain to them the theory and ordinances of genuine knighthood, that they could be induced to pass the prepara- tory vigil and receive the honour with its strict and solemn formalities. Bichard on this occasion made a considerable stay in Ireland, and he and his Irish subjects parted in apparently cordial good feeling. But as soon as the king was absent the Irish chiefs became as turbulent as ever. The English pale was perpetually attacked, and so much territory recovered (Vom it by the Irish, that it became reduced within dangerously narrow limits j and at lenitth Roger, earl of March, cousin and heir pre- sumptive of the king, was barbarously mur- dered. Richard was, at thia time, greatly harassed and endangered by the enmity of Henry Bolingbroke, the exiled duke of Lancaster. But though he well knew that that noble meditated tlie invasion of Eng- land, Richard unhesitatingly led an army to Ireland to avenge the death of his cousin I (a.d. 1399). As was usual with them, the Irish chieftains endeavoured to avoid oeing brought to a general action, and retired to the least accessible spots among the bogs and mountains. But Richard was too intent upon avenging tlie murder of his cousin to listen to those who represented the difficulty of following the, reoels into their retreats. Burning the towns and villages as he marched along, and disregarding the sufferings and com- Slaints of his soldiers, who often floun- ercd in the treacherous soil of the boKS, (tarnishing easy and helpless marks for the unerring weapons of their enemies, he fol- lov/ed the latter up so eloselv, that the greater part of them gladly submitted on condition of bein^ received into the king's Seace with full indemnitv for the past, lut Alacmorrogh, a lineal descendant of that chief whose raiscoiiduct had first called the English into IrelandjPheld out and loudly protested that neither fear nor love should ever induce him to submit. The chivalry of England was not, however, to be long resisted by a chieftain so com- paratively powerless, and Maemorrogh at length agreed to treat with the earl of Gloucester. But when the meeting took place, the iiery chieftain was so enraged at what he thought the insulting terms pro- posed to him, that he angrily broke up the conference and betook himself to his savage haunts, less inclined than ever to submii- sion, though less than ever in a conditinn to carry on any permanent or effective war. Richard offered a very large reward for the person of Maemorrogh, living or dead ; but events had, by this time, taken place in England, which compelled him to forego his desire to punish the haughty and half barbarous enemy ; for the earl of Lancaa- ter, who subseqHcntly dethroned Richard, and succeeded him under the title of Hen- ry IV., had landed in England, and been joined bv some of the most powerful of the nobility, and an army of qnarly sixty thousand men. Richard was consequently obliged to abandon whatever projects he had formed for Ireland. Henry IV. could find no leisure to attend to the affairs of Ireland, though many and Sressing petitions were sent to hiin; and uring the whole of his reign the turbu- lence of the Irish chieftains, and the cupi- dity and despotism of the English autho- rities, made that country a rcene of wild TBI KN0I.1SB PALI WAS HOW RXDUCBD TO A TBRT SUALL COMrASS. C|c l^istory of Srdant!. 643 diiorder and wratehednMi i in which con- dition it remained from the cIom of the fourteenth eenturv to the arceMlon of Henrr VII. of England. During thi* long perioa of foar>icore years, the whole hie- lory of Ireland may be written in two worde, etr^ and wUitry ; and to enter into tay detail would be merely to wear* the reader with a monotonous recital of all the wrong that disgraces abused might, and ill the misery that degrades while it tor- tores trampled weakness. CHAPTER IX. i. D. 1488.— As though Ireland had not already suffered sufficiently from wars, re- volts, and their inetitable results, the ac- ceiiion to the throne of England of one of its most solidly wise and peace loving kings, Henry VII., was the signal for more Irish disturbance. Hitherto the unhappy people had at least fought about their own affairs ; but now tber were involved in the cause of a low-bom boy, a silly impostor, and the 3 mere tool of a more knavish one. The his- a tory of the equally impudent and unsuc- ^ esttftil attempt of the priest Simon to palm S a mean youtli, named Lambert Simnel, B upon (he peoule as the earl of Warwick, tlie nephew of Edward IV., and heir to the tlirone of England, we gave in detail under the history of that country. But it is ne- cessary that we speak of it here, inasmuch u that gross imposture became a cause of Ten considerable suffering to the Irish, Bichard Simon, a priest living in Oxford, wu undoubtedly the chief and direct in- structor of the jronng impostor, Lambert Simnel ; but considering the mode in which the king had arrived at his royal dignity, and considering the number, rank ana tem- per ol his enemies, and especially consider- ing the character of the dowager queen, there is but little reason to doubt that Simon was himself a mere tool in the hands of persons far higher in rank. Though, by whatever means procured, young Simnel was well furnished with information of the eirenmstances connected with the royal fa- milv; and though, consequently, it might fairly be expected that all examination of his own storv by those who also had means of knowing tnose circumstances, would but tend to strengthen his (ause, his tutor Jndged it best to let him make his flrst euay at imposture at a distance from the court. Both for the sake of its ignorance and its propensity to fighting for any or for no cause, Ireland was judged to be the fit- test scene for the flrst attempt ; especially u many of the Irish were fondly attached to the cause of the house of York, of which it was pretended that the young impostor was a scion, and were still more especially attached to his alleged parent, the duke of Clarence, who, as lord-lieutenant of Ireland, had been a very general favourite. All t heie circumstances induced the friends and ad- viiers of Simnel to take him to Ireland, and his reception there fully answered their most sanguine expectations. The lord- deputy ( of Kildi t* of Ireland, Thomu Filsgerald, ear of Kildare, received the impostor's story without suspicion or hesitation, the peopU followed tho example of the court, and tht impudent son of a poor baker waa actually crowned,— tht crown being taken for that fiurpose from an imane of the virgin— odged in Dublin castle with all regal ho- nours, and received throughout Ireland, under the title of king Edward VI. without a word said, or a blow stricken in defence ofking Henry VII. Much as we know of the ignorance that pervaded the great mass of the people pre- vious to the general diffusion of informa- tion by means of the press, the success, however temporary, of this most impudent impostor, is marvellous even as regards th« common people ; and as regarda the higher order of bis adherents, it requires no small exertion of charitable iudgment to acquit them of having feigned credulity, in order to plar off a low-born impostor against their king, in hatred of that king's tsdents, firm- ness, economy, and love of peace. For, in the first place, had the person to whose tale such extraordinary credence was yielded been the actual earl of Warwick, he would, even setting all the claims of Henry, the d* facto king, aside, have had no title until after the daughters of Edward IV. And, in the next place, Henry VII., with the prudence which characterised his whole life, no sooner heard of the pretensions of Simnel, than ho put all doubt out of the question, and renaered all disputation upon tue subject utterly ridiculous, by causing the real earl of Warwick to be taken from his confinement in the Tower of London, and exhibited to the populace in the most public manner at Paul's cross. Uargaret of Burgundy, however, affecting to believe the absurd tale, got together two thousand German troops, under the command of an able and enterprising officer named Bwarts, and sent them to Ireland. The arrival of such a force, sent, too, by a person of such influence as the duchess dowager of Bur- gundy, raised the Irish enthusiasm to the highest pitch. Too poor to be able much longer to support the pretender and his numerous followers, the Irish now be- came eager to be led to the support of bis claims in England, where, moreover, it may fairly be presumed that they hoped to profit largely in the way of plnnaer, even should they not succeed in dethron- ing Henrr. That shrewd and sensible mo- narch had, however, wisely contented him- self with convincing his English subjects of Simnel's imposture, and thus preparing them to give him a cold or hostile recep- tion shomd he attempt to leave IreRind for England. It is singular to reflect what might have been the consequence tu both Simnel and Ireland bad the impostor thoroughly under- stood the views of the wary Henry, and availed himself of them. Henry, content with exposing the imposture in England, would scarcely, so cautious was he and so little was Ireland directly profitable to the MOBI ATTBMPla WBBB MADB TO COBBCK THAN TO CONCILIATB THB IBIBB. 544 Q^i Qrcafttirv of l^iiton?, 9cc. iRflUli atom*, hun takn ih« IroubU or SM tkt rlih (rf lolni thithtr, in which cut tmMl mlfhl kwfl uturped Iraland. and in Ikf iMtMiU •!•(• of Iniland at the drath M MwaMi VI. Ik« oNduloui BnfUih mifht ll««t lakflil tha ion or jirandMnortha Irith MMriMr Air Iha tnia Kttr to tha UnKlUh tkrona, In prafaranoa alika to tha lady Jana Orat Mi tua lady Mary— aipaeially aa tha teUlfflMy of Iha lattar eould ba to pUuai- •ilM In qMitloii. Bat in politieal ad- vantura ■• In Undicapai, « 'tia diitanea landi anekantmant to tha *iaw i" and Sim- ■•l( Intoilaatad wllh tha honoura which Srt In aoma and eradulity in otbera cauacd tm (0 raaaiva In Iraland, waa eailly In- naad lo ballava that hit eaata and name war* aaually popular in England \ and, in tha Alii partUBilon that he had only to •kow hlfflNlf in order to aecure Engliah •upjKtft to hia eaaae, he actually diMni- kwHad hli Ocrmana and a hoit of the wild- •It of tha kame, aa the native Irieh war- riora of that day were called, at Foudrey, !■ Laneathlra. Thia waa precisely what tha king datlrad. He had completely dea- troyad Ika pretander'a character in Eng- land by tha aimpla but irrefraRable evi- danoo of tha real and living earl of War- wl«k, and having tbua rendered it next to Impoailbla for the pretender to nciie Eng- lUn aympathy, he marched against him. Tka hoatila (breaa met in Nottinghamihire, Md naw Itoka in that eonnty a moet aan- gulaary afllioti waa fought. The impoator WM Mfflptataly defeated, and both he and hIa tutor were taken priionera. The Irish, who fltttHht with aveu more than their ae- flUitomad bravery, suffered dreadi^lly in thil anfagamaflt. ill provided with offensive WMpona, they ware altogether destitute of dtflinalva Annottri and consequently re- oalvad tha moat ghastly and fatal wounds. Ilaihing, half naked, upon the cool and welt'pfoiMted aoldlery of UnglailV, they MW their ranks awfully thinned at every «harg«i and when the battle was over but eomparatWely few of them remained alive. Wllh tha eaplure of Bimnel the king'a antff ended. He immediately dispatched •If niehard Edgecombe with a full and free pardon to all in Ireland who had abetted or aided the Impoator, and with authority and oommandment to take their renewea oatha of allegiance. To Thomas, earl of Xildara, ha lent, with the letter contain- ing hIa pardon, a splendid gold chain ; and ahortly afterwards the principal lords of Iraland ware aummoned to wait upon the king at his palace at Greenwich, ostensibly for Iha purpose of doing homage and tak- ing oatna of allegiance to him iu person, ai thay already had done to his confidential raprasantatlve, But the ever-politic king had a deeper design ; that of making the Irlah lords so ashamed of the impostor to whoia designs they had so foolishly lent thaniMlvei, that they should be for ever after little disposed to countenance similar advanturera. And, accordingly, at a grand banquet to which they were invited, they had tha aurprlse and mortification to find among the liveried menials who waited upon them, that identical Bimnel whom a abort time previous thev had crowned as their king— and crowned, too, with a dla* dem socnlegionsly taken flrom the head of an image of the virgin I While a portion of tha Irish were as fbollshly OS hardily throwing away their lives in England in support or Bimnel, tha Irish at noma were fighting furiouily among themselves. Bad as the situation of Ireland generally was, it was lust now even worse than usual. The continual wars which were carried on by the Irish chief. tains aaainst each other and against the lords of the English pale, had tlirown all the country beyond the then very narrow limits of that pale completely back into its primeval barbarism. Their huts, where they had them, were dreadfully mear, squa- lid, and unwholesome ) thousands of them bad no shelter but the woods and Hie mountain eaves, and for the most part thejr lived like the nomade tribes of the cn>^ shifting from place to place with tlitir flocks and herds for the sake of pasturage, and neither practising nor profiting by the cultivation of their singularly fertile country. Partly, perhaps, because he deemed that the mere existence of such a state of things proved the negligence or the incomueteney of the earl of Kildare, and partly from in. formation that another conspiraey was od foot, and that the earl was concerned in it, the king dismissed that nobleman from his office of lord-deputy of Ireland. Ineenaed at this disgrace and deprivation, Kildsre leagued witli (yOonnell, O'Neill, and other Irish chieftains, and all the horrors of war were again inflicted with increased se- verity. The English pale waa invaded and ravaged; and the sufferers, in revenge, made incursions upon the neighbouring country ( each party vied with the other in ferocity and injustice ; and, such wss the strange and fearful lot of Ireland, the pru- dent and just precaution of the most peace- loving of English kings caused all the wont horrors of civil war to rage with tenfold violence throughout Ireland. It seems to be a law as invariable as mv physical law of nature, that evil deed aball oe an evil seed; iu other words, that in addition to the present evil which multi from crime or folly, some future crime or folly shall result immediately from the one and mediately fh>m the other. Ireland, poor, half barbarous, and distant, would nave been but little likely to have been dragged into the aeditions of the enemiei of Henry VII. if that same copatry had not also been desperate and turbulent. But its known propensity to turbulence and blood- shed, the ready credulity with which it had listened to Simnel, and the at once igno- rant and faithful ferocity with which its thousands had perilled life and limb in that impostor's cause, could not fail to point it out to any new adventurer of the same stamp, as a sure refuge and nursery of bii embryo conspiracy. Accordingly, that Per- llti.0Amn aoTiRNKD laaiANn uoai likb a kino than a TicimoT. Cr^c l^isionj of lErcIanti. 545 kia Warbtch, of whom wt hav« had ocea> ■ion to ipoak at length under tlia head of EnBlaad, ehoM Ireland ae the abldinK- place or ble deelane upon the Kiiiflitn erowa. He iandea at Cork, and wai re- ceived thee with a warmth and credulity even inperior to lliuie which had been be- (lowed uuou Bininel. PreiendhiK to be Biehard PlantaKenet, one of tlioiie younr firlneea who were murdered bv Uiclinrd III. a the Tower of I.ondon, he had no loouer landed in Ireland than he .:ent out lilt lalie miuivee in every direction ; cipecially di- recting hie attention to Deemond and Kil- dare, aa knowing them to be beforehand IneliDcd to treaeonable practices againit their iovereigo. Fortunately for the usu- ally unfortunate Iriih people, the infatu> atiun in favour of tliit pretender reached Fraooe, and was etill itronger there than in Ireland, and Warbeck accepted an iuvi' tation to the former country. But Henry VII., who, though he loved peace and preferred the aniaMing of money to the ehowy but empty gltiriee o? the mere coii(|ueror, wae, nevertUeleie, very capable of exerting real vigour upon real and solid occMion, now came to the concluiion that the exiiting state of things in Ireland was far too favourable to the enemies of his throne ; and he at once determined to make such alterations ae would prevent that island Aram beiug so convenient a re- fuge and recruiting place for pretvnders and their traitorous friends. It is a sin- gular fact that Ireland, overrun and terri- Ely injured by her own native factions, was at this time an avowed and permitted sanc- tuary to evil doers. He who had committed In England an oflence by which he had for- feited his life or liberty, had only to escape from England into Ireland, and no man ^uld touch him. This rii^ht of sanctuary ^as first formally recoKnised by Richard, duke of York— father of Edward IV.— dur- ing his governorship of Ireland, but for its actual origin we must look to the numerous monastic houses there. Henr^ VII. per- ceiving the immense and pernicious advan- tages which the wont enemies of England derived from this Irish right of sanctuary, very wisely determined to abolish it ; and he entrusted this and some otherimportant reforms to a man of considerable talent and still more energy, sir Edward Poyn- inijfs, whose able and firm conduct caused his name to be given to the important regu- lations known to lawyers under the name of" Poy 0109*8 law," which struck at the very root of Irish sedition and turbulence, by taking away from the lords, parliament, and all other authorities in Ireland, the power of giving force and validity to any law until it should have been considered and sanctioned by the king of Enitland. Sir Edward Foyning at the same time re- vived, as far as practicable, the celebrated statute of Kilkenny, and did much towards rendering the lords of the English pale less powerful, both as to wantonly oppressing the Irish, and as to carrying on with im- punity their rebellious and traitorous prac- tices against the king of England. Per- haps the nile aa he could make himself in wild Iriah warfare, waa ao poor, that in order to be able to go to London to receive hia new honour from the handa of tiie king, waa ac- tually obliged to borrow a hundred pounda of St. Leger, the Eugliah governor, and had ao little proapect of returning even that petty aum in hard caab, that he atipulated to be allowed to repay it in cattle. The moat politic and juat uae that Henry made of any of the lands of the suppressed monastic houses in Ireland, waa that of giving estatea to many of the nobles ui>on whom he conferred titles ; a step by which he at once reconciled them to the suppres- sion and the separation from Rome, and gave them a stronger interest in resisting any attempts that might be made to dis- turb the country or to throw off his autho- rity. And though neither that nor any other measure, unaccompanied by a more extensive civilization of the people, and in- crease of trade and commerce than were immediately practicable, could have wholly restored peace to a people who had been so long accustomed to live in the midst of the disturbances and miseries of civil war, it is clear that Henry's politic attention and liberality to the Irish had considerable ef- fect; for the suppression of the monas- teries and all the consequent sufferings of the people caused scarcely any increase of the usual turbulence of that most turbu- lent country. The comparatively short reign of Mary in England, however, served to show that the facility with which the Irish had acquiesced in Henry's sweeping reform of religion was chiefly owing to self-interest and to the skill of the king in accommoda- ting his favour to the temper and desires of the person to be conciliated. For a very general inclination was shown in Ireland during the reign of Mary, to return to th« papal faith, and one of the earliest diffi- culties expefienced by Elisabeth waa that of re-eatablisbing protestantism among her Irish subiects. The Desmonds and the (yNeilla were m- pecially troubleaome in their resistance to England. The earl of Desmond broke ont into an open war with the earl of Ormond, who, besides being a very powerful and able noblemen, waa a cousm of the queen. Desmond professing to be confident that he could show that he was in the right, and was the injured party in the dispute between him and Ormond, which ori^nated tn a question of boundary of their adjoining possessions, petitioned to be allowed to re- present the matter to the queen in person. He arrived in London under the impres- sion that he was to have the required inter- view, but instead of being so favoured, he was, harshly enough, thrown in the Tower, where he was kept a close prisoner for some yeara. When he at lenjpth got hia liberty he naturally enough conaidered him- aelf a deeply injured man, and extended hia enmity from the earl of Ormond to the English power altogether. A. D. 1679.— Philip of Spain, hating Eliza- bMh, both aa the protestant ruler of that kingdom which he would fain have aub- jected to the j;loomy and desolating despo- tism of the inquisition, and because she had, most prudently, refused the offer he made of his baud almost ere her sister and his wife was laid in her tomb, gladly en- couraged Desmond in hia desire to work evil to the English power, and actually sent the rebel earl a very considerable force of Spaniards and Italians. But the wild Iriah warfare, with ita accompanying famine and other sufferings, was too much for the en- durance of these troops, who had been ac- customed to make war with considerably less bloodshed and more personal indul- gence. Defeated wherever they appeared, and at length abandoned in despair by Des- mond himself, they laid down their arms, and sir Walter Raleigh and other English officers decided that they could not be looked upon so much in the light of pri- soners ot war, as in that of felonious abet- tors of a foul domestic rebellion ; and, aa a conse<^uence of this decision, they were summarily executed. Desmond himself being found in a wretched hut, was put to death by some sol||^rs for the sake of the reward they an- ticipated receiving for his head from his enemy the earl of Ormond. The large ter- ritories of Desmond, and the vast posses- sions of the numerous wealthy men who had abetted his rebellion were confiscated, either on the death of the owners in battle, or by their departure on the failure of the rebellion to tiie Low Countries, where ser- vice was offered to them by Philip. If the miseries of civil war fell exclu- sively upon those who excite it, the evil would be great and sad enough to cause our sorrow ; but, unhappily, the worst share of wretcbcdnesa usually falla upon people tRKbAHn. MAKT BBSTOBBD TBB CATHOLIC RBLIOIOIt III IHEI.AHD Aa IN SRSLAND. IRILAHO WAI ONB CONTINUIO ■»!«■ OV WAa DVRIHO KLIBABBia's BBiaif. 548 ^f)t treasure of ^istore, $cc. » B M I g ■ It H » B 01 M •■ i\ m I H « 19 a 9 s : i< M R % m u K who neither taVe part in the crime, nor have any power to prevent its corainisiion. In the present case, the horror* of famine and disease raged to such an extent as almost to depopulate Munster. Raleigh and other Englishmen got grants of the land that was thus left untenanted; ui;- wards of forty new lordships bring distri- buted, at almost nominal rents, upon the condition of settling English families. This, however, could only be partially done, for we have not a greater horror of the most ■avage desarts of Africa at the present day than the generality of Englishmen then had of that poor and turbulent Ireland, of whose misery and barbarous cruelty they heard so much. Irish tenants, therefore, were, in many cases, accepted by the new owners of the soil. We have mentioned among these new owners the celebrated sir Walter Raleigh ; and to the accident of his obtaining a grant Ireland owes the introduction of her staple food, potatoes, which he first brought into that country from Spanish America. He also introduced the cultivation of tobacco, bat the climate of Ireland — more moist even than England — prevented the quality from being good, or the crop from being even moderately safe, and, excepting as a matter of curiosity, it is now but little grown there. But, by introducing the potato, Raleigh conferred a real and permanent benefit upon that countrjr. Hugh O'Neill, who had received much kindness from queen Elizabeth, by whom he had been created earl of Tyrone, and to whom he was indebted for the restoration of a very considerable part of the earldom, which had been forfeited to tne crown by the treason of his uncle Shane O'Neill, was for some time one of the most loyal of the queen's nobles in Ireland. It chanced, however, that when the great and providen- tial tempest dispersed tliat armada which Philip ot Spain and the pope had presump- tuously named the "invincible," some of the vessels composing it were wrecked upon the coast of Ireland. Tyrone, whose art had not so completely concealed his real feelings as to cause his loyalty to be wholly unsuspected, behaved with so much cordiality to the shipwrecked Spaniards, as to give an oppoi'tunity to his cousin, a son of Shane O'Neill, to accuse him of treason- able correspondence with Spain. All the long suppressed violence of the earl's na- ture now burst fiercely forth, and wi0i a violence which give ample occasion to be- lieve that the real sting of the charge lay in its truth. Having, for many years, been favoured and distinguished by the queen, in whose service he had in his youth borne arms against the earl of Desmond, had he really been innocent, and indignant at the impeachment of his loyalty, it is quite ob- vious that he could have had no difficulty in obtaining an opportunity to clear him- self in the eves of tier majesty. But instead of taking this safe and straight forward course, he caused his cousin to be seized and put to death ; and having thus, by an inhuman and gratuitous crime put himself out of the queen's peace, he impudently set himself up as the patriotic enemy of that queen, to whose favour he owed all that he possessed. Levying war under the pretence of patriotism ; but, in reality, to save him- self from the deserved penalty of murder, he also excited the M'Ouires, M'Mahons, and other septs to join in his rebellion ; and while the English government and its au- thorised ofiicers and agents were endea- vouring to civilise and enrich the country, these patriots were doing their utmost to throw it deeper and deeper into barbarism and poverty, for the mere sake of serving their own most disgracefully selfish pur- poses. A. D. 1594. — ^The experience of ages had not as yet taught the Irish that peace is the true nursing mother of prosperity and hap- piness. Tyrone and his rebellious associ- ates, with abundant support, had commit- ted proportionate crime, and inflicted pro. portionate misery. And yet, when in 1594, sir William Russell went to Ireland as lord deputy, Tyrone had the consummate assurance to go to Dublin to take the oath of allegiance and give assurances of his de- sire to support her majestv's government. Sir Henry Bagnal, a shrewd man and stem soldier, who then filled the office of mar- shal of the army in Ireland, was for putting it out of the practised traitor's power to commit further crime by at once sending him over to England. But sir William Russell, desirous above all thing* of car- rying conciliation to it* utmost prudent length, determined to trust the earl's pro- mise of faith and loyalty; and the earl showed his sense of this too trusting and chivalrous conduct, by immediately going to hi* own territory and opening a cor- respondence with her majesty's bitterest enemy, the Spaniard, firom whom he ob- tained a large supply of arms and ammuni- tion, and then openly placed himself at the head of a confederacy of Irish chiefs, the avowed object being the ruin of the Eng- lish power in Ireland. The very poverty of the Irish, added to the nature of their country, abounding in wood, bog, and mountain, rendered the putting down of an armed rebellion in that country a mat- ter of extreme difficulty under any circum- stances: and this ditliculty was increased by queen Elizabeth's well known parsi- mony, which, in this case, was as censur- able as it usually was praiseworthy. Ill pro- vided with means of paying any thing like a considerable force, her commanders in Ireland had their best laid plans defeated; and the rebels retiring for a time to their wild fastnesses, made their appearance in as full force as ever the instant that the English troops were disbanded or reduced. It was chiefiy, beyond all dnubt, to this cir- cumstance, that the treacherous Tyrone owed his long impunity. Knowing the dif- ficulty of finally and eflicientiv crushing such an enemy, without a far larger sum than the queen was ever likely to devote to that purpose, the queen's ofiicers were na- I(BWB-TBLl.BBa WRBB OF A TERT ANCIBNT DATS IN IRBLANn. ■OMB or TBI ■FAHISB AMMADA Wimi WkBCIBD OH TBB IBIIB COAST. ^^t llfstorQ of Srelantf. 549 « E M M a D k « H B 4 « M a 4 a 8 H M a H H t * M a tarally better inclined than they otherwise would have been, to listen to Tyrone's spe- cious proposals for accommodation ; which ftroposals he regularly made, and as regu- arly broke, according as the fortune of war made the one course necessary or the other seductive. Shrewd and well advised as Elisabeth was beyond almost all English sovereigns, it was, probably, only her ruling passion that would thus have been allowed to injure her interest, without check from hcrown strong sense, or censure from her ministers' faith- ful zeal. But magnum vtetigal parsimonia tit was the ruling maxim of her life; to parsimony she owed not a little of that re- spect which the profusion of her successor caused to be withheld from him ; to parsi- mony she owed not a little of her impunity in despotism ten times sterner and a thou- sand times more gratuitous and wilful than the most despotic act that ever was charged against her successor's martyred son ; and there was too much of the fierce spirit of the fiercest of the Tudors in the nature of Elizabeth of England to render it possible for any minister, however able, successfully to combat, even in a particular case, a maxim to which the whole experience of her life taught her that she owed so much. And, accordingly, to the six thousand pounds which was the ordinary revenue of Ireland, the queen added only twenty thousand, when emergency required the doubling or trebling of the ordinary En- glish force of a thousand men ; and it is easy to perceive that however fortunate on particular occasions her most skilful com- manders might be, they were far too poorly supplied to allow of their following up the enemy with the requisite vigour and per- tinacitv. AVhile sir John Norris was in command of the English force in Ireland, Tyrone, who was extremely artful, availed himself of his knowledge, of the limited extent to which the queen supplied her officers, to play upon that commander's feelings, to make and break treaties to such an extent, that the unfortunate gentleman actually died of a complaint which the doctors at- tributed solely to his mental sufferings. He was succeeded by sir Henry Bagnal, of whom mention has already been made as an able and shrewd officer. Being well aware of the real disposition and intentions of Tyrone, this gallant officer resolved to press him to the utmost ; but an unfortu- nate circumstance caused the first of his operations to terminate in his death. The rebels at that time were besieging the fort of Blackwater, the garrison of which they had already reduced to great distress. Sir Henry led his troops to the relief of the fort, and was suddenly attacked on veiry disadvuntageous ground ; and one of the ammunition waggons accidentally blowing up, so increasud the panic into which the men had been thrown by the suddenness of the attack, tliat a complete rout took place. The loss on the Enjrlish side was fully fif- teen hundred, and unhappily included the gallant sir Henry; and but for the able and daring conduct of Montacute,therom- mander of the cavalry, who fortunately held the enemv in check, the loss would have been much greater. The rebels were natu- rally very much elated by this victory, which was more decisive than they were accus- tomed to achieve { and it also put them in possession of a very considerable supply of arms and ammunition, of both of which they stood in great need. As for Tyrone, he was so elated, that he assumed to him- self the title of deliverer of the Irish people and patron of Irish liberty. This event caused no little anxiety at the English coXirt ; and Elizabeth and her councillors at length came to the dcternii- nation to give no future room to the rebels to avail themselves of truces and treaties. The queen, in truth, deemed it high time, as it assuredly was, to put her Irisn affairs in the hands of some commander posses- sing such rank as well as ability as would impose upon the Irish. Her own opinion inclined towards Charles Blount, the young and high-spirited Lord Mountjoy. But Es- sex, who was now high in his sovereign's favour, was himself ambitious of acquiring fame and influence by pacifying Ireland, and he urged that Mountjoy was not pos- sessed eitner of the requisite standing or the requisite talent; plainly giving the queen to understand that he was himself by far the fittest person she could send. Those courtiers who were his sincere friends — and few men evtc had friends more sin- cere in that order of society — endeavoured to persuade him that no office, however high, was worth his acceptance, if it would require his permanent absence from the court. Deaf to the wise counsel of his friends, Essex so perseveriiigly pushed his suit, that Elizabeth at length consented to en- trust him with the much coveted office ; and in the patent by which she constituted him her lord lieutenant of Ireland, she gave him powers which had never before been entrusted to that officer ; the power, namely, of peace and war, of pardoning rebels, and of appointing all the principal officers in his lieutenancy. As in power and distinc- tion, so in military force he was favoured beyond any of his predecessors ; having an army provided for him of twenty thousand infantry and two thousand cavalry. Averse as Elizabeth was well known to be to all expensive armaments, the more reflecting among the friends of Essex trem- bled for him, and the more reflecting among his enemies rejoiced in anticipation of the utter ruin in which failure would involve him, should he be otherwise than splen- didly successful when so abundantly pro- vided with the means of achieving success. And, in order to render ill success the more ruinous to him, should it occur, lord Cob- ham, Raleigh, Cecil, and the earl of Not- tingham took every opportunity to impress upon the quaen the impossibility of her favourite being otherwise than successful, after she bad so liirecly and liberally pro- vided for all his need. >a »s e a I " I M o u o MAMT BBSBL CntEFTAINS LEFT THKIU UOMRS AAD VI.BD TO OTHER COUNTRIBS. [3 C 3 IBB BAIlIi or BSIBX CBBATBD BT BLIBABBTU LOBD-LIBUTBHAB* Or IBBLAHB. 650 Vihz tlTreasurQ of 1|tetore> Sec. m M o f M * O *i H H K » e K 9 a" ■ ■ Eiiex, wholly loiing tight of prudence in the exultation of present honour and in the enthusiastic but empty acclamations of the populace, went to Ireland in the high- est possible spirits; little dreaming how many courtiers rejoiced in his success only because they saw in it the sure precursor of his fall, and utterly unsuspicious tliat he was carrying even in bis personal train not a few whose sole purpose in accom- Eanying was to espy his actions and report is words. The situation in which Essex was placed by the eagerness and pertinacity with wliicli he had sought his mission, by the immense importance and the inevitable publicity of every false step he could take, and by the singular liberality with which the queen had supplied him with every thing that could aid him in being successful, seems so obvioas and simple, that it is diilicult to understand how a man of unquestionable genius could possibly fail to see the pecu- liar necessity in which he was placed, firstly, to abide with the most inflexible strictness to all positive and particular commands that he had received from the queen, how trifling soever they might be, and secondly, to allow no consideration to tempt him out of the course of action he had pledged him- self to as being the best calculated to en- sure success. And yet, in these two capital particulars, Essex was false to his own safety and the interest of his royal mistress from the very outset t So much can youth, vanity, and too much prosperity intoxicate even those minds to which nature has been the most liberal. The earl of Southampton had incurred the anger of Elisabeth by marrying without her permission, — an offence which never failed very deeply to incense her against those of her courtiers who committed it; and ere Essex left England the queen gave him express and positive orders not to give any command to Southampton. But Essex was bis personal and particular friend; moreover the queen had just delighted to honour Essex far above all her other cour- tiers ; and he, generously desirous to serve his friend, could not see that even the most trivial disobedience would tell with fenrful consequence against himself, should any ill success in his important mission make the queen's future anger proportionate to her present favoxr, her future disappointment proportionate to her present trust and con- fidence. One of the very first acts of Essex on his arrival in Ireland was to give his friend Southampton the command of the horse. This error, gross enough singly, was still farther aggravated. The queen no sooner heard of this signal disobedience than she sent her special command to Essex to re- voke Southampton's commission, and Es- sex, instead of obeying this commnnd, con- tenii.'d himself with remonstrating upon its impolicy; nor did he obey it until a new and more positive order convinced him that his own command would be tuken from him if he longer hesitated to obey. Considering the impetuoua and self- willed character of the sovereign whom he served, Essex placed himself in sufficient Eeril and disaavaiitage by this one error; ut as if he were utterly infatuated and determined upon ruin, he immediately af- terwards committed an error still more grave, because striking still more directly and fatally against the success of the enter- prise that had been entrusted to him. At the English council board he had con- stantly, and in no measured terms, cen- sured the folly of wasting time, strength, and opportunity in petty operations of de- tail against the Irish rebels; and he had positivoly pledged himself to proceed at once against the main budy under Tyrone hiinself. The queen and her able advisers having perfectly agreed with him upon this point, his instructions were drawn up in exact conformity with the opinions he had so often and so strongly expressed. He was now, therefore, doubly pledged; at once by his own judgment and by his duty. Yet he'had scarcely landed in Dublin when he allowed himself to be persuaded that the season was too early tor passing the bogs which sheltered Tyrone, and that his better plan would be to devote some time to an expedition into Munster, where par- ties of the rebels were doing much mischief and exercising much tyranny. Now, mak- ing every allowance for the climate of Ire- land, it is difficult to understand bow it could be too early for soldiers, men whose duty and boast it is to overcome difficulties, to make their way through the bogs, when we remember that Essex did not leave Lon- don until the month of March. A man of prudence would have enquired how far such a strange excuse originated in the selfish interest rather than in the sincere convic- tion of the advisers. But gallant as Essei had proved himself, and especially at Cadiz, he had none of that deep reflection and eagle-eyed glance at details which are so necessary to a commander-in-chief; and in- stead of discovering, as with more solidity and less brilliancy, he must have dis- covered, that the person who thus advised hlin had possessions in Munster, about which they were far more anxious than about the national honour, he at once fell into the snare, and employed himself in the very task of mere detail which he had so emphatically censured in other command- ers. He was very successful in Munster — while he remained there ; but when in July the English troops, thinned and sickly, re- turned to Dublin, the dispersed rebels re- turned to Munster as strong as ever, and far more confident ; for they now perceived that Essex was bv no means the consum- mate commander lie had hern called. The course he had so unwisely pursued had yet farther ill consequence. For the sake of what must of necessity have been merely temporary success in Munster, he had not only thinned and weakened his men, but, in mere partial actions, had given them the opportunity to form a very respectful opi- nion of the Irish prowess. Oa one occa- A 4 R e R I » i * i S I I k H U t N > » N S H k n M ■J B k k a R H k k K * k tl H < M » M a K THBBll WAS MUCH FBUITLGSS EXFKNDITURB IN ATTBMPTS TO RBDDCB TTRONB. MA«T OU> IBIIH FAIIILIU BBOAMI BXTIMCY III BLiaABBTa'a BBISB. ■ion his men behaved ao timidly, that he caihiered the oiBcera of the detachment, and actualljr decimated the common men. Nothing worse than this could have occur- red in a decisive affair with Tyrone himself; nothing of the sort was likely to have hap- pened while the English troops were fresn, strong, and full of contempt for the kerne of Ireland: but after being so disheartened in detail, how could men be expected to show any great leal for more decisive and extensive operations ? Moreover, so much time had been wasted, that, as formerly, it was said to be too early for passing the morasses, so now it was said to be too late. Eases now wrote home for reinforcements, and the queen, seeminKly resolute to leave him no reasonable excuse for ultimate and signal failure, at once reinforced him. But real and counterfeited sickness, and vei^ numerous desertions, rendered it impossi- ble for him, out of the imposing force which he had frittered away in idle detail skir- mishing, to lead more than four thousand men against the main enemy. With this force he found it impossible to bring Tyrone to action ; for that wily chieftain was far more desirous of wearing out his enemy, than of giving him an opportunity of pro- fiting by superior discipline and equipment. And with bis usual and often successful impudence, he demanded a personal con- ference with the English commander. Here ■gain Essex displayed great unfitness for his command. He was fully authorised, it ia true, to pardon rebels, but he betrayed at once his own dignity, and that of his roval mistress, in consenting to give the rebel chief au interview without first insisting upon his submission. Tyrone, who was as deeply politic as Essex was open and thoughtless, seems to have understood at a glance the character of the man with whom be bail to deal. While making stipulations which, as coming from a rebel, could be looked upon only as insult to the queen, he behaved to the queen's lieutenant with the most profound personal respect ; persuaded him into a truce until tl>e foUowmg May, and even, it would seem, caused him to listen, at least, to insinuations which it was treason even to hear without resent- ment. This "most lame and important conclu- sion" could not fail to be deeply annoying to Elizabeth, after she had departed so far from her usual economical policy in order to ensure a complete conquest of the Irish rebels. And Essex was so far from even now seeing his error, and taking the only mode by which Elizabeth could have been soothed, that he excited ber temper still farther by peevish and petulant letters in which he sought to throw the blame rather upon an alleged want of means and oppor- tunity, than upon his own want of firm- ness and sagacity. Though the queen's answers plainly showed that she really was - deeply offended, she was even yet disin- clined to wound his proud spirit by so pub- Uc a disgrace as immediate recall would by both his friends and his foes have been con- sidered ; and she expressly ordered him to remain in Ireland. Judicious action, or even judicious refraining from such action as could probably add to the queen's auger, might even now have enabled him to re- cover his ground in Ireland ; but instead of availing himself of the opening the queen afforded him by refraining from recalling him, the spoiled favourite, napnening while in his worst humour with the English court and with himself, to hear that the queen had promoted his rival, sir Robert Cecil, to an office which he had long coveted for him- self, took no farther notice of the queen's express command, but hastened over to England. His reception there belongs to the history of England ; we must here confine ourselves to Ireland, and its af- fairs, as he, on this petulant departure, left them. Lord Mountjoy, whom Elizabeth, as we have said, originally intended for the Irish expedition, waa now sent over, in the hope that he would repair the evils cauMid aihilbt the dieorden that con- raised the kingdom, the king of Navarre HMdehlt csbape frompriaon, and presented a dangeroua leader to the malcontent*. Thoee of the French people who wished to restore peace to their country, turned their eyes towards the dauphin. Marcel, the icdhious provost of Paris, was slain in at- tempting to deliver that citr to the king of Navarra. The capital immediately ratumed to its duty I considerable bodlea of the mn< tinotts peasants were dispersed or put to the swoedt some bands of military robbcn underwent the same Ibte, and France be« gan once more to assume the appearaBeo of civil government. In the thirteenth century, during the reign of Ferdinand and laabella, the eiiira in the kingdoms of Arragon and CaaiUe had formed themselves into an associatioD, distinguished by the name of the Holy Bro- therhood. They esaeted a eertain contri- bution flrom each of the associated towns; they levied a considerable body of troops, in order to protect travellen and pursue criminals ; and they appointed Judgea, who opened courta in various parts of the king- dom. The nobles often murmured against this salutary institution ( they compiained of it as an encroachment of their most valuable privileaes, and endeavoured to have it abolished. But their catholic ma- iesties (for such was the title they now bore), sensible of the beneficial effecia of the Brotherhood, not only in ragard to tim peace of their kingdom, but in ita tendency to abridge, and by degreea annihilate the territorial jurisdiction of the nobility, eoun- tenanced the institution upon every occa- sion, and supported it with the whole force of royal authority; by which means the {trompt and impartial administration of ustice was restored, and with it tranquil- ity and order. But at the same time that they were giving vigour and justice to their civil government, and securing their sub- jects from violence and oppression, an in- temperate aeal led them to establish an ecclesiastical tribunal, equally contrary to the natural rights of humanity and the mild spirit of the gospel ; and thus origi- nated the moat bamiu of all iottitutions, the Inqaitition. Wherever the footsteps of the "noLT ovrica'" may be traced, the path is marked with blooa ; but in no part of the world has it run auch a sanguinary career as in Spain. Of all the Mohammedan possessions in Spain the kingdom of Granada nom- alone remaiacd. Princea eoually aealous and am- bitious naturally wisned to add that fertile territory to their hereditary dominions, by expelling the enemies of Christianity and extending ita doctrinea. Everything eon- spired to favour their project; the Moor- ish kingdom was a prey to civil wara; when Ferdinand, having obtained the bull of Sixtus IV., authorising a crusade, put himself at the head of hia troops, and eu- tered Granada. Its subjugation quickly followed. When the capital sumndered, it was stipulated that their king should enjoy the revenue of certain plsvcs m Am fertile mountains of Alpujarras; tkatlSia inhabitanU should ratain mdisttnnieA oos. session of their honses, goodfe, ah8 tube- ritancea, their laws and relinou. Thiia ended the empire of the Anna in Spain, which had flourished forinore (ban cigHt hundred yean. BOOS ABB UBBB III OBBAV RUMBVIIS, ANO ABI ROWHBBB BXCBLIXB. 6ia C^c VriMUfv of l^bitorv, Ice. DMrinf (hi ptrio4 of Arablsn pawn, afrf* nllMrt, w mmt in , Ik* «rit» aiMl mImmml lourisM » Bpala. Tkt uBivtrtilln ui Ubrarin •! Cora««a •■4 oilier plten wtra mortcdl t« br tb« ChriillMS, u lh« Mat 9lth» GriM-ArablcUlminrt ni tboArlt> l«ttll*B pbilowphy. From lb*M ImiHs- tions Inrap* rtetivflA tb« fcBowMn of lb* wltbaMllnl ckarMttrt, of gmnpowdar, anl of papw naAo Aem ran,i wbUo, oo tkt otkoff bra4, wnoag tbt Ootkie •puiardt, th« blandiag of tbe cbWalioui and rail* ykma apMl gate ocaaatoa to tba foaada- tk» of Mfaral nilitarjr order*. We May hero renarb, that Doa Bedrigo Diai da Viral el Carapcador, tbe ben withuat aa eqaai. baa beea eelebraled eiace the end of tbe elereaib eenlary aa tbe baro of liU age. Tbe romaatie eletatioa of aalioBal Meliag, wbicb fbuad ita eapport in the roligioaa lUtb aad natioaal cbureh, pre- aerred tbe Cbrtetian Golbio atatea of Na- varre, ArragoB, aad Atluria, from amny la- teraal aad eateraal dangers. It waa la tbe reigaorrerdiaand and Im< bella. aad tbroogb tbe patronage of the latter, tbat Columbai, a Geaocie uaviga- tor« diaeovered America. Tbe coaatry waa afterwards aubdaed by Cortea and Piiarro \ aad ita valaabia minea of gold aad ailver eontinaed, aatil of late, to lUl the coffers of Spaia > bat riebet so easily acquired ia Hm aew world withdrew muea of tbe ac- tivity of tbe aation from the imDrovemcat of tba mother eonatry ; aad avance, naited with fimatieism, established an impolitic eoloaial svstem. Still, tbe extensive con- quests wbicb were made by the Spaniards in the aew world, thoagh obtained by the dereest eraelty and tba aiost Hagrant in- Juatiee, teaded, fbr a tioM at least, to raise tlie Bpaaisb monarchy above aay other ia Burope. Oa tbe death of laabella, which took place in 1606, Philip, archdake of Austria, came to CastUc, ia order to take possession of that kingdom aa heir lo bis mother-in- law ; bat be dying in a abort time after, his son Charles vi, afterwards emperor of Ger- many, became heir to the crown of Spaia. Hia father, at bis death, left the king of France governor to the young princec and Ferdinand at bis death left cardinal Xinie- aes aole regent of Castile, till the arrival of bis graudson. This man, whose cha- racter IS ao Icaa singular than illastrious, who Baited tbe abilities of a great states- man with the devtftioB of a si4ierstitious monk, aad tbe augniflcence of a prime minister with tbe aeverity of a meadwant, maintaiaed order and tranqaillity in Spain, Botwitbetandiag the diacontents of a turbu- lent and bigb-spirited nobility { and whea^ in ISlTt be resigaed iato the banda of the Towag kiag tbe power be bad so woMhilv add for him, be waa able to do so Wita boaoar aad integrity. " Never yet," observes Dr. Voa Bmeck, "the old Bomaa emperors, and perhaps Charles Martel excepted, had PrOTidenee sMnmulated such great power in Europe upon one bead, as Charles V. inhdriied. Tba two awBiealoaa marrlaaaa — tbat ef Maaimillaa I. with tbe horedllary prtamt •f Bargaady, aad that of bia eon Philip I. whk Joaaaa of SmIb (apoa whom, how- ever, tba great iaaeritaaea of bet parenla did aol devolve aatil tba death of thne aeartr heirs) aiada Cbarlee, ioaaaa's Irst. bora, tbe maater of immeaaa eo«airWsi they gav« by tbat meaaa tba pollilcal rs- latloaa and elbrta of Baroae their prlndMl Sgura and delermiaatioa ror ceaturiea.'^ Charles bad acarcely takea posseseioa of Ms tbroacwbea the emaoror Maahailiaa aasembled a diet at Aagabarg, aad eadrs- voured to prevail oa the eleetors to choose tbat yoaag priaeo aa bia saecessor. Bat thoagh bo eoaid aot prevail apoa tbe G*r. maa aleelors to coafer oa bim that dignity, other cireumstaneea eoaspired to bis siu- tatioo. Tbe imperial erowa bad ao Ion| coatiaued la tba Ausiriaa Hae, that it be- SIB 10 be considered aa borednarv in tbst mily i and Germaay, tora by religtous dis- putes, stood in need t»f a powerful emperor, aot oaly to preeerve ita owb ialemal iras- qaillily, bat also to protect it againsl tbt vietorioBS arma of tbe Turba, wno, dadiir Selim I., tbreateaed the liberties of Is- rope. This fteroe and rapid conqueror hs4 alreadv sabdaed tbe Mamelakes, aad msdt Himself master of Bgypt aad Syria. Tbt power of Charlea appeared necessary Is appose tbat of Selim. Tbe eitcaeive it. miaioBs of the boas* of Austria, mhick gave bIm aa laierest ia tbe preservatioB of uenaany { the rich ■overagaty of tke Netherlands aad Fraacfae Compte; the «. tire aostcssioa of the great and warlikt king«iom of Spain, together with tbat sf Naplea and Sicily, all auiied to hold hia up to the drat dignity aawag Christias Krinces; and tbe aew world aeeawd onlif is e called into eaistCBce that its Ireatam might enable him to defend Cbristcndsa agaiaat the infldels. Such, at least, wsi the langaage of his partisans. Francis f. kiag of France, was also a eaa- didata for the emuire, and be put forth bta claims with e^aal conidence, aad scarcely less plausibility. The electors, wboie de- liberatioBs were direeted by Frederic Ihc Wiee, of Saxony, who bimaelf refused iIm offered throne from purely political motivM, united dually in faioar of Charles, u s Germaa prince, ana whose position pro- miaed the empire the moat eeriain proiM. tiors especially against the menacing power «f tbe Tnrka. xet he waa required, by n- Icma acceptatioB of a eoaveatioa with ih« eiecton, to gwaranlee the most preeiouof •ncicBl rights, aad to promise such innoi t. tioas aa appeared usefal. Altlmuah tin two eaadidatee bad hitherto conducted their rivalabip without eomity, tbe prefei- cnca was no soooer (rtvca to Charles, thts Francis discovered all thk passioas nstani to disappointed ambitioa, and could not auppress his chagrin aad indication at bemg rejected. We aball And in Ihe m- quel, thalt the Jealousy between tboie po- tentates cost Europe four sauRuiiiary wsn. The first act of Charles's administrstiot TUB VIRUS GROW AS BSrALfSB'S OB AS THICK BOBBBS, WITHOUT POLKS. - ■ " ...„.,, 1 QTIb* ^Utorv of fpain. 6I1> VM 10 avfaiat a 4i«l of ibo ompiM, lo b« ImM at woraiii la or4m lo eoaetrt with TT. fc«W - 1 ikt ariaoM proptr aiMiBna for ehackiag Iht aragriM of ** thoM atw and daanroaa •pioMBiwIikh tkNaina4 lo dltiara iha MM of Oonaaay. and lo ovtrtura Iha rt* nJlioa of thtlr aBetiton." ThU wl^fcl, howrrtr, 4o«a aoi oroptriy btlonv to Iha bitiory of Bpaia, ana aa our notieo of Iha itlbnutioB appoan aliowhara^ wa hara ■tnly allude to It. Not loag aftar Charlts'a eoroaalloB at Aii-la-ClMMllai aa iaturroetlon brako out ii Ipaia, waitli waa higklv daagaroua for Un powar of Iha kiag, aa« axtromaly ra- Birkablo in lla origin, apiril, and objeel. Tkt eoaawaeaaMnl of Ihc relga of Cliarlea, aboM panialltr for kla Duiek favourilaa weundt'd Iha Bpaniah pride, wai already tlltaded with diiorden ; and all the eourage ■•d all the witdom of eardinal Ximanea, •horn Ferdiaand the Catholie hadappoinird !■ bit laat nomenta admlniitralor of the kiHidom, had been neeeauiry to allay the itona, which the. sobiliiy had maiuly niwd. The arriral of Charlea Id Buain would lutT« leatored complete tranquillity, had he MM wantonly wounded the heerta of hit fWfit, who were becoming favourablt dii- Mted towarda him, br bla eeornhtl and inpoiie mannere, and narahly violated the mnttitational righia of the country by hia iaperiona tone, by diaregard of cuitomary Ibiina, aad by eitraordinar* demandi. Aa Hoa, therefore, aa ha had gone to Ger> ■■ny.to take jposacnionof the new throne, tki eitica of Caatile arose for the defence of their ancient righia. Theee cities, Jea- lots of their independenee, refused 10 sekaowledge eardinal Adrian, bishop of Dtrseht, whom Charlea, hia former pupil, kad appointed regent. Ther eoncluded imoag themseWea • "holy league," got possession of the person of the qneen-mo- tbtr, lo administer, in the name of her, as the legitimate aorereign, the government of the kingdom, and aent to the king a dtttil of their well-founded grievances, of wUek they demanded redress. Charles re- Aued to receive the deputiea of the league, sad thaa augmented the exasperation of Ike people. The league then raised its kead stiU more boldly, and formed plans fir liberating the common people from the sneient feudal oppression of the nobility. The demoeratie spirit spread rapidly ; but it was by thia very means the cause waa lost I for the noblea in all the provincea, deling that spirit Car mora than the abnte of the royal power, rallied around the throne, which they had previously risen sttinsl, and around the regent Adrian, wnom they had hitherto bated, in order to fraitrate the projeets of the rebels. The eiiiien warriora of the league, notwith- itsnding the high courage and devotedness of indivldnals, were unable to withstand the shock of the forces brought aninst them i and though the noble city of Toledo deded their power for nearly a year after all tkc others had submitted, it was at length taken by stratagem, and royally Iriumphed. The Bioet predoiu of ancient privilegea wrra abolished or forgotten i tbe eortee, onea ao venerated and inlluenilal, degene* rated into lama assembliea, the prinripal busineea of which waa lo grant laias, hut Iha voiea of whieh waa uuabla lo pHiduea aalutary raferm. Thia revolt aeeaiad to Fraaeia a fkvonr. able juBctnra for reiaaiatiag ibo fomkly af John d' Albert la the kiagdom of Navarre. Charlea waa at a dislanee frona that part of the dominione, aad tbe troopa aaiiially atalioned there had been Mllad away to quell the eommollona in Bpaia. A French army, under Aadrew do Foil, epaedih ecn- quered Navarre « but that yonagaadinex* perieneed aobleman, puahed oa by mili- tary ardour, ventured to enter Caatile. The Bpaniarda. though divided among Ihem. aelvea, united against a foreign enemy, rout> ed his foreee, took him prisoner, and re- covered Navarre in a ahorter tiiaa thaa ha had spent in its reductioa. Hostilitiea thua begun in one quarter between the rival monarchs, soon spread lo another. The king of France encouraged the duka of Bouillon to make war against tbe emperor, aud to invade Lusenibourg. Ciiarles, after humbling the duke, attempt- ed lo enter France; but waa repelird and worsted before Meaierea, by the famoua chevalier Bavard, distinguished among his contemporaries by the appellation of "The knight without fear and without reproach," and who united the talents of a great gene- ral to the punetilions honour and romaniic gallantry of the heroes of chivalry. During these operations in the Held, an unsuccessful congress was held at Calais, under the mediation of Henry VIII. of England. It served only to exasperate the partiea which it was intended to reconcile. A league was soon after concluded, by the intrigues of Wolsey, between the pnpe. Henry, and Charlea, against France ; ana after a severe contest, in which Francis continued to lose ground in Italy, the au- thority of the emperor and his confede- rates waa every where established there. Following up the advantages he had gained in the neld by political manoeuvre, Charles paid a visit to the court of Eng- lai^ in nia way to Spain, where his pre- sence was become necessary, in this he was more fortunate than he had anv right to expect; for he not only gained the cor dial friendship of Henry, but disarmed tbe resentment of Wolsey, (who had been grossly deceived and oifended by the share which Charles took in conferring the pa- pacy, vacant at Leo's death, on Adrian), by assuring him of it on the decease of the present pontiff, whose age and inftr- roities seemed to render it not far distant. But the negotiation' between Charies and Henry proved of little value to either ; for the army under the earl of Surrey, that was aent to invade France, was obliged to retire at the end of the campaign, without being able to take one place within the French frontier. BOOT rOLXS. vna RDMBtn or BBLiaiooa raaTirj«i,a is a eaxAT cnacx to inuiisTnT. TUK CUHTIIS AMU TUB lUOb AN0 ANCUOII OV TBI RATlun. 620 VLf^t ^nasiuQ oC IQistorp, $cc. Francis had prepared not onW for the moat energetic defence of hia Kingdom, but was resolved also upon reconquering Milan. This, perhaps, would have succeed* ed, had he not at the instigation of his intriKuing mother, Louise of Savo^, incur- ed the enmity of jtrinee Charles of Hour* bon, constable of France. Impelled b/ pas> sion, this prince fled to the emperor, in order to flght under his banners, and there* bv revenge the wrong which had been in* flicted on him. Thus France lost its best general, and secured the triumph of its eneiuy, by the hand of its natural da* fender. In the meantime the imperial army, un* der the command of Pescara and Bourbon, arrogant generals to retreat, and entered once more as conqueror the plains of Mi- lan and their brilliant capital. The strong city of Pavia, on the preservation of which almost the last hope of the emperor hung, he now besieged with all the impetuosity of passion, and with all the resources of the art of war. Great destinies seemed to depend on the issue of this siege. Already the Mends of Charles began to waver; already threatening clouds seemed to por* tend some dire political calamity. Pope Clement VII. (Medicis), previously the ene- my of the French, having signed a treatv of neutrality, abandoned the cause of Charles s and England, ministering to the passions of Wolscy,its prime minister, had grown co!d in the emperor's interest. The French armjr no sooner appeared in Piedmont than the whole Milanese was thrown into consternation. The capital opened its gates. The forces of the empe- ror and Sforsa retired to Lodi; and had Francis pursued them, they must have abandoned that pest, and been totally die* persed. But Fortune suddenly rescued her favourite son from such a disaster, by tlie most decisive blow. The evil genius of Francis led him to besiege Pavia, which almost miraculously withstood, during the winter, the immense fonse that was brought against it, until the generals of Charles, strengthened by reinforcements hastened to its relief. The soldien of the empwor, eager for plunder, longed to engage tlind the chivalrous pride of Francis would not permit him to decline a battle, although in this he acted contrary to the advice of his most experienced generals. Under the walls of ravia, Feb. 33, 1625, the emperor's army gained the most brilliant victory, Francis himself, after the most valiant re* aistance, being taken prisoner. The news of this victory, and of the cap* tivity of Francis more especially, filled all Euvope with consternation. The French arm^ was nearly destroyed ( Milan was im- mediately abandoned ; and in a few weeks not a French soldier was left iu Italy. The power of the emperor, and still more his ambition, became an object of universal terror, and resolutions were evcrywhen taken to set bounds to it; while France governed at such a calamitous juncture bv the queen-mother, a princess of a maicu' line and a courageous character, prepared •a for a desperate contest. The emperor saw a prospect of unbounded glory, and im- mediately meditated plans for realising it. It was not, however, by punning his vie. tory with energy, but by recurring to artful negotiation, that Charles sought to gain bis object. He designed to humble Fran- cis, H'h;; rejected with indignation the igno. miniotts terms of deliverance which were offered to him, and apent one long sad jear iu Madrid under t1ie strictest custody. Finally his desire for liberty overcame him, and he signed, on the 14th of January, 1630, the treaty called the peace of Madrid; in which he ceded Burgundy, and rennon. eed his claims to Milan and all other Italian countries. He also relinquished his feudal aovereiguty over Flanden and Artoia ; pro- mised to restoK to the duke of Bourbon and his adherents all their possesaiona, to abandon the cause of the king of Navarri!, and, by surrendering his two elder sona ai hostages, and Uking his oath thatj if all this was not fulfilled he would return into captivity, guaranteed the inviolability of the whole treaty. But we must not forget to state, that a few hours before he signed this instrument, king Francis had j>rofM/rd before some of his futhful friends, aecretljr, although by writing, against this treaty, wliich he said he was compelled by unjnit force to conclude, and by which he thought he was nowise bound. And let us not for- get, also, that pope Clement II. soon after- wards formally released him from the obli< gallon of thia oath I After Francia had returned to his king, dom, the imperial ambassadora in vain d^ manded the fulfilment of this treaty. The deputies of the states of Burgundy, having been called into their presence at the lame time, declared that the king had passed the limits of his power by ceding their country, and that, if he abandoned them, they would •vert from themselves foreign dominion with their own power. At the same time the news was spread of the alliance con- cluded betwecTt the king of France and the pope, in which the Venetians, the duke of Milan, and the king of England alto participated. It was designed by force of arms to make Charles subscribe to more moderate terras ; and the alliance was called the holy league. But Francis, having be- come dfisheartened by his previous misfor- tune, negotiated instead of fighting, whilit hia Italian allies succumbed to the supe- rior forces of the emperor. In the meantime Cliarlea had strength- ened his armies by new levies; and they were now under Bourbon'a command. But his troops were a mixtura of Spaniard*, Ita- lians, and Germans, who, devoid of nstionil feeling, and without love for the cauie, served only for pay and booty. So badly ninnaged were the finances of the emperor, that he, before whose power Europe trem- bled, could not, at that time, furnish money . h \ : s' :! TUK ANCIRNT UISTOHV OV SfAIN TMaMS WITH ACTS Or nSBOISH. i>N. tt; while France, itou juncture by leest of a niaicu- laraeier, prepared lit. The emperor ded RlofT; *iid im- It for realiiing it. f parauing hit vie- recarring to artful et aought to gain i to bumble Fran- lignation the igno* >raiice which were t one long lad ;ear atricteat cnitody. erty overcame him, I4th of Janum, te peace of Madria; ^ndv, and renonn' . ind all other Italian ! nquiahed his feudal i in and Artoii ; pro- e duke of Buurbon heir poaae«»iont, to be king of Navarre, ta two elder nam ai bia oath that^if all e would return iato the inviolability of we mutt not forget ira before he signed , t \ 'rancia had prottitii hful friends, secretly, Bgainit this treaty, compelled by unintt by which he thought And let us not for' lement II. soon after- him from the obli- .^turned to his kiDg> baasadora in vain d^ [ of thia treaty. The [of Burgundy, having Ipreaence at the same k king bad passed the feeding their country, |ned them, they vvould !a foreign dominion , At the same time , of the alliance con- ng of France and the Venetians, the duke ing of England aim deaigned by force of es euDscribe to wore [he alliance was called Francis, having be- , bis previous misfor- ad of lighting, v»hiUt cumbed to the aupe- ieror. . ^, harlea had strength- lew levies ; and tbey jon'a command. But ture of Spaniards, lia^ rho, devoid of nationri love for the cauw, and booty. So badly [ancea of the emperor, power Europe trem- it time, furnish money Iv nKBOIBM. Ri*ioNAi. ruina la Kvaa iNJuniuoa, wukii CAaaiaii to aicasa. lS%t l^ifttery of Srpain. 621 sufficient to pay 3S,0C0 men. In that di> ; ' lemma the general led the army againat ! I Rome, and promised to enrich them with 'the spoils of the eternal city. Nor did he Biake an idle boaat: for though Bourbon himself was ahot while plauiing a scaling- ladder against the walla, the soldiers, infu- riated rather than discouraged by the death of their beloved commander, mounted to the tMault, took the city, and pillaged it with ill the atrocities of rapacity and brutality. Never did Rome in any age anffer so nany calamities, not even from the bar- barians, by whom she was often subdued, the Huns, Vandala, or Gotba, aa now from I the subjects of a christian and catholic ' monarch. During this storm the pope had ' taken refuge in the caatle [of St. Angelo, I and, not making hia escape in time, was I taken prisoner. He waa confined till he I should pay an enormoiu ransom imposed { by the victorioua army, and surrender to I the emperor all the plaeea of strength be> ' ionginat to the papal dominions. I WeU knowing the horror which hia I Spanish aubjects would feel at the indig- I Bity thus offered to the sovereign pontiK I Charles not onW repressed all outward ' demonstration of Joy at thia new triumph, I but literally put himself and hia court into ' Bouming, and, with unexampled hypo- eriiy, had prayers offered up in all the thnrehes of Spain for the recovery of the pope's liberty; when an imperial order would have instantiv procured hia freedom! i. s. 1S39«— Charles had, however, more to apprehend from the resentment of other lowers than flrom his ovim Rufajects ; and ; It was not long before his old competitor, , Francis, with the aid of English money, ' was able to send a formidable army into ; Italy, under the command of marshal Lau- ; tree. Clement then regained hia freedom ; ; but the death of the French marshal, and ; the revolt of Andrew Doria, a Genoese ad- miral in the service of France, were serious I diwiters, which inclined Francis to try the ' effect of negotiation in lieu of the force of I arms. The prDgress of the reformation in ! Germany— to which Charles was ever most I itreLuously opposed— at this time threat- I ened the tranquillity of the empire; while the ; victorious sultan Solyman, who had overrun . Hungary, was ready to break in upon the I Austrian tenitoriea with an overwhelming ; force. In this state of things, a pacitic I leeommodatiou waa too desirable to be re- fused by Charles, notwithstanding be had lately gained such advantages ; aud it was agreed that Margaret of Austria, (Charles's aunt,) and Louisa, (the mother of Francis,) ihould meet at Camhray, with a view of adjuitiug the terma of a treaty between the two monarchs. The result was, that Francis agreed to pay two millions of crowns as the ransom of his two sons, to retign the sovereignty of Flanders and Ar- toii, and to forego all his claims on Italy ; and Charles ceased to demand the res- titution of Burgundy. On this occasion, Henry VIII. was so generous to his friend and ally Francis, that he sent him an ac- quittal of near 600,000 crowns, in order to enable him to fuUU his agreement with the emperor. The terrora of the Turkish arms were at this time greatly increased by the cruel- ties exercised on the subjects of Christian states who were so unfortunate as to fall into the power of the Algerine pirate, Bar- baroasa. This man was the son of a potter at Lesbos, and by deeds of violence had raised himself to the throne. He regu- lated with much prudence the interior po- lice of his kingdom, carried on his piraciea with great vigour, and extended his con- quests on the continent of Africa; but perceiving that the natives submitted to Lis government with impatience, he put his dominions under tliu protection of the grand seignior. Solyman, flattered by such an act of submission, and considering him the only adversary worthy of being opposed to the renowned Doria, appointed uim to the command of the Turkish fleet. Thus assisted, he not only strengthened hia former kingdom, but nsuraed that of Tu- nis; and now carried on his depredations against the Christian atates with more de- structive violence than ever. Willing to support the exiled king of Tunis, Muly Hassan, but far more desirous of deliverini; his dominions from so dan- gerous a neighbour as Barbarossa, the em- peror readily concluded a treaty with the former, and set sail for Tunia with a for- midable armament. This waa the moat brilliant exploit of hia life. He sailed from Cagliari to the African coast, took the strong sea^port town Goletta by storm, with 300 pieces of cannon and all Bar- barossa's fleet; defeated the tyrant in a E itched battle; and 10,000 Christian slavea aving overpowered the guards and got possession of the citadel, he made bis triumphant entry into Tunis. Muly Has- san, on being reinstated, agreed to ac- knowledge himself a vassal of the crown of Spain, to put the emperor in possession of all the fortified aea-ports in the king- dom of Tunis, and to pay aunnally 12,000 crowns for the subsistence of the Spanish garrison in Goletta. These points being settled, and 20,000 Christian slaves freed fh>m bondage, either by arms or by treaty, Charles, covered with glory, returned to Europe, and was received aa the deliverer of Christendom; while Barbarossa, who had retired to Bona, lost no time in ga- thering around him the necessary means of becoming again the tyrant of the ocean. MThilst Charles waa fighting in so glo- rious a manner against the hereditary ene- my of the Christian name, the king of France took advantage of his absence to revive hia pretensions in Italy. Glorioua as the result had been, the temesity of the Algerine expedition at first portended no- thing but misfortune ; and Francis thought ' such an opportunity of turning the poli- tical scale might not again occur, tlow quickly did the prospect change I Barba- rossa defeated and obliged to fly ; the bnr- barian prince for whom Charles had in- • p e M w s *i o A K e •k t< M P e A M m n o u M H * tna FHina or amckstbx is nowhbki aiona coKsrici;ous than in sfain. tITLBt AEI BBirftCTABIiB ONLt Willi lCCO«rAIIIBB BT VBOBin. 022 ?!r^c ^rrasnri) of T^tetors, 8cc. temted himielf replaced upon the throne of Tunis, and that kinKdom made tribu- tary to Spain ; while utart were erected tkere to tite Ckrittian religion, and tlie Iriamph of the conqueror adorned with the broken chains of slavery. A.D. U3ff.— Francis now inraded Italy, occupied 8a*oy and Piedmont, and threat- ened Milan. Charles, again roused by ex- ertion, arrived with a superior force, and drove the French from the greatest part of Savoy, inraded Provence, and besieged Marseilles. But the great talents of the marshal de Montmorency, who commanded the French arm*, and still more the deter- mined energy of the people, who now arose to defend their homes and property, com- pelled Charles to raise the siege and to make a most deplorable retreat across the Alps. After variona other feats of arms, at- tended with changing success, a truce was concluded, through the mediation of the pope, for ten years, (June 18, 1638), ac- cording to which each of the belligerents retained what he possessed. Savoy was therefore divided, but Milan remained in the hands of the emperor, although under equivocal promises in favour of France. These conditions were not fulfilled. For Charles, having invested his son Philip with Milan, had given hia adversary a new cause for animosity ; and the second expedi- tion of the emperor to Africa, which was this time very unfortunate, furnished Fran- cis with a favourable occasion for a new rupture. The audacious piracies of Bar- barossa, which were renewed with all their horrors, appeared finally to reouire an avenging sword ; and Charles, ftill of the Sroudest hopes, undertook this crusade in tetober, 1541, at the head of a powerful army, well eress the liberty of Germany. But be killed in his obiect, and waa obliged, in 1553 to conclude a peace with the pio- testants on their own terms. By this peace the emperor lost Mets, Toul, and Verdna, which had formed the barrier of the em- pire in that quarter; he therefore, soos after, put himself at the head of an armj, in order to recover these three bishopric*. In this he was unsuccesaAil. The defencs of Metx waa committed to Francis of Lor- raine, duke of Guise, who pMsessed in sn eminent degree all the qualities that rea- der men great in military command ; and although the emperir marched into Lor- raine at the head oi 80,000 men, and Itid siege to Mets, attevnpting all that wu thought possible for art or valour to effect, he was obliged to abandon the enterpriM, with the loss of one half of bis troops. Breathing vengeance against France, snl impatient to eflisee the stain bis reputstios had received, Charles retired to ibe Low Countries, and took Terouanne and Hndia. In Italy and in Hungary, however, the impe- rial arms were less successful i still,hy efforti of wisdom, celerity, and prudence, he again snatched the laurel from hta enemy's biow. At length, after having rei^ped over Spaia for thirty-nine vcars.tbis mighty monsitii. whose life had been one continued scene of ardent pursuits, — either disgusted with the pomp of power and the projects of ambi- tion, or sickened by repMted disappoiat- ments,— resigned the empire to his brother Ferdinand, and his hereditary doininiosi (Spain. Italy, Flanders, and the Americti possessions), to his soil Philip. He then sought happiness in quiet obscurity, *■>' retired to the monastery of St. Juite, is the provence of Estremadura, where, sfiet two years' traoqui'lity, he closed one of the most tumultuous w.:s that 't to be lud with in history i A.D. 1568. Ektraordinary penetration, astoni«liin{ skill, unwearied application to huiiaew, • rvtt srA!visn pnovaaa rats, 'a riiKKitpuL raosm* 1 ed «t l««t to the !, and fortune of lit. On the other newcd hie old alii- 1 ( [ of Bngland. had * I Champagne, and « nknee,whUtt Henry' - li Picardy, te order t Pari*. At length, liag each ether, the led a treat; of peace ih, ta the nuin, re- A the earlier one kt ed aleo the project lexion between the died in W7. ;he enperor"! retoltt- rotestant princes, he rable peace with the t bii Drotber Ferdi ale for that put of till poiieited; while idUturbcd poiMMioB lame time be mered spe Paul III- Ml the ,l»at in reality to 00- f Germany. But he and wae obliged, m peac* with the pio- ttermt. BytbupeMC Fti, Tool, and Verdw, he barrier of the em- j 't he therefore, ioob tba bead of an umy, thete tbrce bithopnct. pceiefiil. Theaefenee ted to Franeie of mi- I. who potMiicd in la the qualitic* that rea- UUtary command; tnil It marched into Lor- I 00,000 men, and lu* ivnpting all thut »m art or valour to cBcct, tandon the enterpiiM, half of hit troopi. nce againtt France, tnl fbe ttain bit renuUiioB et retired to the U>« rerouanneandHMda. tary.boweter.theimp*' ccettrulsttill,byenorti id prudence, hetgwi;] from bit enemy'i brow. ■ ing reigned oter SpHt ,»bit mighty inonwt"; 'one continued MeMM tberditguttedwithtW I the prcgectt of tmw- y repeated ditanpolnt- Ve empire to hit bioihet L hereditary dominiot* [ert.andtheAn.encM ^ toA PbUip. He the. in quiet obtcurity, »«« attery of 8t. Jn.te. » tremadnra. where. jf<« W.becloiedoneofthe ;L. ~t that tt to be u..i fi,. 1568. , , . , Uetration, aeton»lii«8 Plication to bu«iitf»«i» Lt aaiar awii* AMABOai BAt MOaa raBaDBNTLT DOMIBtTBD IN trAlM «HAN DBtrOTItM. ^l)t l^tstorfi of Spain. 62S profound knowledge of men, and of the art of placing them properly ; a mind calm in proipcrity, and unthaken in adveniiy ; an tctivity which continually hurried him from one CBtremity of hit empire to the other — were the talentt that dittinguithed Charlet, and raited him'^o the firtt rank among those who governed the world. He wat inferior to hit rival, Francit, in the quali- tiei of the heart, but far exceeded him in tbilitiet, and, independent of tuperiority of power, wat fonned to triumph over him. Ambitious, arttul, prudent; little tcrupu- Ions in point of religion, and alwayt affect- ing to appear thereverte; prodigal of hit promises lu danger, and preferring the ad- nntsges of breaking to the lionour of keep- ing tbem ; affable and open with lubjectt who, in a manner, adored him ; a distemblcr with his enemiea, whom he flattered only to destroy ; this prince possessed all the vir- tues and vices necessary for the conquest of Europe, and would iu all probability have subjected it, but for the courage of Francit ud the capacity of Solyman. Wlien Charles V. retigned hit dominiont to his son Philip II., anxious that he should pursue the same plans of conduct and prin- ciples of policy, he put into his hands all the political observations which he had written dowc during his long reign, and which formed a system of the art of go- vernment both in peace and war. Although Pbilip treated hit father with great disre- spect after he had abdicated the crown, yet he highly valued and carefully ttudied tliii hit political testament, which being the re- sult of long experience, and dictated by great abilities, might be thought an inesti- mable gift ; but the event has proved that the maxims adopted and principlet laid down were in their tendency deatructive of the true interestt of Spain, whose power bu been gradually weakened, and wealth exhausted, oy the system of aggrandizement therein recommended, and pursued during the two succeeding reigns. The Spaniards, even to this time, retain the memory of this (set, on which they have founded a prover- bial expression, that " in all great emergen- cies, their ministers are wont to consult the spirit of Charles V." At the period to which we are now ar- rived, how powerful was the throne of Spain I Besiaes that fine and warlike coun- try, it governed dso iu Europe the two Si- cilies, the Milanese, the seventeen provinces of the Low Countries and Franche Compti : in Africa, Tunii;' and Oran, with their terri- tories, the Canaries and some of the Cape Verd islands : in Asia, the Philippines, the iilands of Sundi and a part of the Moluc- cas; ir America, the empires of Mexico and Peru, New Spain, Chili, and almost all the ulands situate between those two conti- nents. The troopt of Spain were the first in Europe; their armies, reckoned invincible, were composed of veterans trained in actual service, inured to fatigue, and animated by the remembrance of various triumphs. They were commanded by the dukes of Alva and Savoy, both pupils of Charlet T., who bad been brought up in hit camp, and were already diitlnguished by their victo- ries. Her immense fleets, which in a man- ner covered the seas, had been tauyht to contend with Carbarossa, and to triumph under Doria : the mines of Potosi, and Chili, lately opened, were in full vigour, and en- riched Cedix with an annual tribute of twenty millions sterling. Philip II. was master of all those pot- tessions. He had recently married the queen of England ; and the passionate fond- ness of Mary for a husband who made no return to her affection, gave him the com- mand of all the forces of her kingdom. This monarch had neither the valour or activity of his father, nor that affability which made the emperor the idol of liit tubjectt : but he had all his ambition, and supported it with those talents and vices which make tyrants so formidable. Hit penetration and capacity were extensive; but he was callous to every generous feel- ing, full of duplicity and suspicion, cruel, revengeful, and superstitious. A truce of five years, settled by the man- agement of Charles V., had given some re- poss to Europe, and seemed to promise a lasting peace. An aged pontiff revived the animosity of nations, and kindled the flames of a general war. Paul IV., impa- tient to be revenged on Phillip, sent nit nephew to Henry II., in order to persuade him to take up arms. Montmorency in vain urged him to reject the solicitations of an ambitious old man : Guise, who ar- dently wished to display his talents, pre- vailed upon the monarch to assist the pone, and hostilities were renewed. Henry, wlio always found a faithful ally in Solyman, was joined by the sultan and the pontiff against Philip. The latter, who, notwith- standing the indifference he thowed for his consort, still preserved an absolute em- pire over her, and found no great difficulty in obtaining the assistance of English forces. Thus Italy, Hungary, and the frontiers of France, were at the same time in a flame. Tranquillity, however, soon re- vived in Italy, where the misfortunes of Henry, the defeats of Guise, and the abili- ties of the duke of Alva, obliged the pontiff to abandon the monarch whose assistance be had implored. In Flanders Philip appeared in person, at the head of a numrruus armv; the ope- rations being directed by Philibert of Sa- voy, a prince of great abilities, which he wat particularly desirous of exerting on this occasion, from motives of resentment against the oppressors of his country. The flower of the French troops advanced to meet the Spaniards, and a splendid train of nobles followed their warlike leader : the king was prepared to join them, and the city of St. Quentin became the general ren- dezvous of those numerous forces. Phili- bert laid siege to it ; and it was defended by the gallant Coligny, nephew of the co.i- stable. The prodigious efforts of the in- habitants, animated by that young hero, TBR lOVB or rnBEPOM IS A BBNTIMBNT NATIIBAL TO THK HUMAN SFCCIKS. [i K TUB MAflONAb ■■OHIIiaAflOlf OF irAIII TAHBS »■ BATS VBOM 1830. 624 ^^c ^rcBiitirQ of l^iitore, ice. M M M Ik H R u M '4 IB M confounded Philip i And h« alrcRdf bagan to dread that he inould b« uiid«r Iha ne- eeatity of raiiinK tbt lieRa in • iliamefktl manner, when the impetuoua Montmo* rency appeared under the whIU< and of* fered battle. The Frensb fought valiantly, but their oouran wai UHleii) the capa- city of the HpanUh general triumphed over the ru«h viiluur of hi* opponent i a bloody defeat (lircw Montmorency Into ehalni, and dettroynd tiie vreater part of the noblea undvr lii« command. The capture of the city immediately followed. France, unproteetcd on all ildea, thought herielf undone, and Parla trembled with appreheniiona of loon leelng the enemy at her gatea, Charia*, who wae Informed in hi« retreat of the eueeeii of hi* «on, no longer doubted of the dentraetion of his ancient rivals, and the French monarch was preparing to fly for shelter to some re- mote province, The duke of Guise, who had been recalled from Italjr, was the only person that did not despair of preserving the stnto. With incredible diligence he collected the scat- tered remains of th« vanquished army; and wlien. bv Judicious marehea and con- tinued skirmishes, he had given a check to the ardour of the enamy, and revived the courage of the French, he suddenly turned towards Calais, and. after a vigorous and well-concerted attncK, deprived Oie English of a place that, for three centuries, had given them a ready eatranee to the conti- nent. Philip flsed his residence at Madrid, and governed bis vast dominions, without the aid of any osteniibia ministers. In perfect despotism. Bv his intrigues the popedom was conferred on cardinal Medfols, who was attached to the house of Austria, and became tlie minister of his designs. The new pontitr loaded him with favours, and declared him the protector of the church, which title the monarch )ustifled by extra- ordinary condescension. Ha submiited to bulls and papal ediota that affected the majesty of the throne, and paid a blind deference to the clergy. He raised im- mense and magnlAoent monasteries, rigor- ously persecuted the enemies of ttome, and presided at those horrid rites which bigotry and enthusiasm dignilled with the name of aett i^ faith. He gave orders for establishing that court in an tha provinces under his autiiority, and published decrees to inrtame the seal of tha tyrants who pre- sided over it. Can it ba wondarad at that the oppressive severity of this axecrabla court should cause disaffeotiim f The Moors, who remained In Spain on the faith of treaties, were enragaa to sea their privileges violated, their liberty con- tinually menaced, and the blood or their dearest friends flowing beneath the hands of public executioners. Despair tupplled the place of strungtli ( tb«y considered no- thing but the excess of ttiflir misery, and endeavoured to break Ihclr olmins, the weight of which was become Insupport- able. The exeeution of one ol tlieir coun- trymen, whom they had crovmed, did not terrify them; they supplied his place by another, and implored the assistance of strangers who professed the religion of their ancestors. A general rebellion rent the southern parts of the kingdom, which now became once more the theatre of an- cient animosity. All Spain was alarmed; Philip alone secretly exulted at the revolt be had produced. The valour of his troops and the abilities of his generals triumphed over the desperate resolution of the Moon, and these unfortunate people were obliged to submit to the mercy of the king : they lost their rights and possessions, and were transplanted to the provinces that lay moat remote from their former settlements. The people of Arragon, at the same time, demanded a restoration of their violated privileges ; Naples threatened to shake off the yoke ; and Milan, so long remarkable for fldelity, was endeavourinK likewise to break her fetters. The establishment of the Inquisition terrified the inhabiianta, and prompted them to take up arms.j lut the same crafty measures also appeased those disturbances, and the efforts exerted by so many nations for the recovery of tlieir liberty, served only to rivet their chains tht faster. The tumults and confusion in Flanders were still more violent. The people were extremely jealous of theur privileges, which they had preserved under their counts and the dukes of Burgundy ; they compelled Charles V. to respect them, and that prince, after despairing to subject them by terror, adopted the more generous method of con- ciliating their affection. Philip, who nerer had a heart to relish such an expedient, «u Kassionately desirous of bending the stub* om necks of this people to the moat op- pressive and humiliating yoke ; their privi- leges were obnoxious to his pride, and thtir Immense riches inflamed his cupidity. MTheu he quitted that country, with s resolution never to return, he seemed in- clined to continue the mildness of bis fa- therms rule : he appointed Margaret, the daughter of Charles V. and widow of Oc- \ tavius, duke of Parma, its ruler. The wit, cliarms, and clemency of this princess, were well calculated to gain the hearts of a gene- rous people ; but, at the same time, the un- feeling cardinal Granville, who made no distinction between policy and perfidy, or seal and persecution, was placed at the j head of the council. This ecclesiastic wai i the depository of the secrets of the cabinet, | and while he appeared to perform but s i secondary part, was actuallv employed in ! the first. He treated the nobles with cos- 1 tempt, issued extravagant edicts that were i firejudicial to industry and commerce, nnl- Ipfied taxes, trampled on the laws, and punished the most numble remonstrancei and timid representations as crimes. The Flemings, thus oppressed under the yoke of a stranger, contented themselves with lamenting their distress in private^ but the sigiit of tlie tribunal of the inquiaition, erected in their principal cities, raised i wnwN A ifANuaB i.ovita, nia aiAnt la iixi a volcamo. 1830. owned, did not 1 hit place by B aMUtance of the religion of] I rebellion rent , kingdom, which i e tneatre of an- in WM alanned ; ted at the revolt our of his troopi ; lerala triumphed , ion of the Moon, | pie were obliged \ the king: they BMions, and were ■ icet that lay mo»» <, ■ettlementt. j at the same time, J of their violated f tened to ihake off ^ r long remarkable | « uring likewise toi * eatablishment of | ^ the lnhabi|ant^ n tke up arm8.\ lut \ j res also appeakea c the efforts exerted ; J le recovery of their k let their chains the J fiision in Flanders \ ' , The people were \ sir privileges, which , er their counts and i y } they compelled , em, and that prince, ect them by terror, ttus method of con- , Philip, who never sh an expedient, was ^bending the stub-, pie to the most o^- , iyoke; their privi- : >hia pride, and their d his cupidity, lat country, vnth a urn, he seemed in- , mildness of his fi- tted Margaret, the and widow of Oc- its ruler. The wit, »f this princess, were the hearts of a gene- e same time, the un- ^ ville, who made no , )licy and pwfa^y-'' . was placed at the • Phis ecclesiastic WM | , screts of the cabinet,!; i to perform but » j ictually employed m , „ the nobles with con- 1 J ant edicts that were |5 aad commerce, nw- i d on the laws, mi. , mble remonstrance. ■ ons as crimes. W i ,sed under the yoke ited themselves with j ress in P^^te, bjit kal of the inquiBition. [cipal cities, raised » A BAD IIATITB •OTimillllHT II rBBVlKABLB TO A tOSHIOII 10KI. ^^e l^istors of Spain. 625 ceneral indignation ; the people forgot their weakness, and thought not of their duty; protestants, impelled bv rage and fary, pulled down churches, subverted al- tars, and obliged the clergy to fly. Margaret trembled at those increasiog tumults, and endeavoured to appease them by a prudent compliance with the desires of the people : the cardinal overturned all her measures, and published a decree of council, equally ridiculous and cruel, against those sediti- ous proceedings, which condemned all the citisens indiscriminately — the heretics for having destroyed the temples, and the eatholici because they did not prevent them. The nobles, foreseeing the consequencei of the ill-advised acts of the minister, en- deavoured to persuade him from such in- considerate conduct ; but being dismissed with haughtiness, and tinding themselves disappointed in their hopes of meeting with justice from the throne, they deter- mined, if possible, to save tbeir country, by a resolute opposition to the council, that should re-establish the vigour of the Uws. At the head of those nobles was William, {irinee of Orange, descended from the il- ustrious house of Nassau, that three cen- turies before had swayed the imperial scep- tre. With every necessary qualification for effecting a revolution, William had am- bition, capacity, and courage to undertake any thin^, and saw, with secret pleasure, that the imprudent haughtiness of the Spa- nish ministers was opening a road to give him independence. In order to conceal his ambitious designs, he assumed an air of submission and respect, and talked of no- thing but carrying the complaints of his countrymen to Madrid ; but he secretly concerted a more extensive plan. With this view he conciliated the friend- ship of the great, and ingratiated himself in a particular manner with the counts Egmont and Horn. These two noblemen were descended firom very ancient families, and were both excellent citisens and faith- fill subjects: Egmont was distinguished for victories be had gained for the house of Austria; Horn was respected fur his vir- tues bv all parties. The cries of the nation carried to the throne by such venerable ad- vocates seemed to affect Philip ; Granville was recalled, and the people flattered them- selves with the hope of seeing their griev- ances redressed by a new minister. In some men the most valuable powers of the mind are united with the basest passions. Thus it was with Alva, whom Philip had appointed to succeed Granville. As soon as he arrived in Flanders, by an affected show of lenity and moderation that sileuced all diffidence and apprehen- sions, he appeased and united the Flem- ings, disarmed them, and decoyed the prin^ cIpal nobility to Brussels. The governor, thus master of their fate, threw off the mask that till then concealed his despotic and sanguinary sentiments, confined the most distinguished persons in a dungeon, and appointed a special commission for their trial. Judges, devoted to his mandates, condemned eighteen noblemen to death, and a few days after pronounced the like sentence against Egmont and Horn. These executions, conducted with the most awful solemnity, were a prelude to many others. Executioners were dispatched from one city to another, and in the space of one month thousands perished under thuir hands. Terror, which at first chilled the courage of the people, at length gave place to despair, by which it was relieved. Nu- merous armies appeared on every side, all animated by the desire of avenging the blood of their fr'Vhile Philip was pursuing the war •gainst these obstinate revolters, an un- expected revolution procured him a new kingdom. John III., who during a long reign saw Portugal enjoy the most splendid prosperity, left only a grandson for his suc- cessor, who was still an infant, and pro- mised to be the model of happy monarchs. A peaceful and wise regency augmented those expectations, which were coutirmed by the great qualities that appeared in Se- bastian. This prince, in peace with all Europe, master of the most extensive commerce till then carried on, idolized bv his people, who fancied the great kings his predecessors were revived in liim, appeared to have no- thing that could prevent him from enjoy ing an enviable felicity. But a vain pas- sion for glory having suddenly captivated the mind of Sebastian, hurried him to the tomb, and with him the glory and pros- perity of the nation vanished for ever. One of those scenes of ambition so fre- quent among barbarians, had lately been exhibited at Morocco. The ruler of that country was both weak and odious, and his uncle taking advantage of his unpopu- larity, obtained the crown. The unfortu- nate monarch having no hopes of assistance from subjects that had suffered by bis op- pression, applied to the Christian princes, and endeavoured to interest them in his cause by the most specious promises. Phi- lip was too prudent to engage in a war from which he could derive but little ad- vantage, and therefore rejected the solici- tations and offers of the African. Sebas- tian eagerly embraced them, and resolved to employ all his forces in restoring the tyrant. Deaf to all advice, and blind to every other consequence, he could see no- thing in the prosecution of this design but the honour of being the protector of kings, the glory of having an emperor for his vas- sal, and of planting the standard of Chris- tianity in the capital of one of the most powerful enemies of the cross. He led the army in person to Africa, and having landed with such success as seemed to presage still greater advantages, he exulted in the general consternation that appeared around him. But his fond hopes were speedily dissipated ; for when on the plains of Al- cassar the armies of Europe and Alrica contested the prize of valour, the van- auished Christians suffered a memorable efeat: half the Portuguese nobiUiy fell beneath the Moorish scimitar, and three kings were slain. The cardinal Henry immediately ascend- ed the throne of Portugal, but he survived bis accession only two years; and Philip, being in the same degree of affinity with Catherine, duchess of Braganza, who then claimed the sceptre, supported his preten- sions by force of arms, and proved victori- ous in many a sanguinary encounter. Lis- bon was taken, plundered, and delu|i;ed with blood. Executioners succeeded to the soldiery ; the whole kingdom was sub- i jeeted to Philip, and his good fortune at ! | the same time gave him possession of all i i the appendages of the crown— the Porta- 1 ' gese colonics on the coasts of Africa, Bra. I J zil, and the richest islands of the Indict. ' i Yet, rich and extensive as were his poises- i j sions, valiant as were his troops, and in- ! , flexible as he was in all that he un^rtook, { : the brave Flemings, assisted by Elizauelb < ' of England, carried on the war in support ' • of their independence with unconquerable a fortitude. Impatient of this long pro* jj tracted struggle, so disgraceful to bim ; •; who could boast the best troops and moit S able generals in the world, Philip reaolvtd, I by one stupendous effort, to subdue the ' j spirit of revolt, and chastise the powen I o which had abetted it. He fitted out, in the i ' vear 1588, the most formidable fleet that I ^ had ever sailed, and, that religious teal i ;< might give greater force to the weaponi of • war, the pope (Sixtus V.) bestowed on it ! his benediction, and styled it " the intin- 1 ' cible armada." Three years had been spent i in preparing this armament, which wai ! J destined for the conquest of England. It i <■ consisted of 130 ships, most of wnicli,frDm 1 1 their large size, were unwieldy ; nor wu ! J the skill of the Spaniards in maritime affain ; u ; equal to the management of such a fleet. . t , No sooner had the armada entered the nar- 1 ■ ! row seas, than it was beset with violent > " > tempests ; whilst the whole naval force of England, then composed of light quick- sailing ships, was drawn together to oppow the attack. Lord Effingham had the chief command, and sir Francis Drake, the cir- cumnavigator, who was vice-admiral, per- formed signal services. The superior lea- manship of the English was very success- fully displayed in this important contest, in which great advantages were obtained j| from the use of fire-ships, which were first ' brought into use upon this memorable oc- casion. Such were the consequences, both | from the elementary war and the attacks j of their enemies, that -in the course oft i month from the time they left Corunna, no t more than fifty-three ships had escaped de- 1 * struction, and about 20,0U0 persons perislicd : * in the expedition. [For a more detailed account, see " England," p. 315, &c.} | Philip died in the year 1598, liavmn reigned forty-three years. He has been TIIOVOH FORMAT., THB RPANIABDB ABB COURTBOUS IN THEIB BBBAVIODR. iBSUiri. le pl»in» of Al- ope and Alrica ilour, the van- d a memorable eae nobility tell iiitar, and three tediately a»cend- , but he »nr»iv«d ara ; and Philip, J of amnity with iganza, who then Btted his prcten- id proved victori. encounter. Lii^ ed, and deluged :r* lucceeded to Lingdom wai »ub. , - I good fortune at 1 ; i poaseiBion of all I ■ | irown-tbe Porta- ata of Africa, Br». ' Ida of the Indici. '; > HUB u» —~ , H ta were hia poiaet- 1 ^ lia troopa, and in- i that he un^-rtook, listed by Eluaoeth the war in aupport ^ ifith unconquerable « of this long pro- J iagracefttl to him 5 at troops and moit g rid, Philip resolved, 1. ott, to aubdue the j haatise the ppwew [ J He fitted out, in the ! k ■rmidable fleet that . » that religious leal 1 J; •e to the weapont of • V.) bestowed on it . tyled it " the invin- » rearabadbeenspenti; panient, which viu 1 j beat of England. It , ► 'mostotwtich.froml;;, unwieldy; nor wM ,, iainmaritimeaffain"! lent of such a Beet. « lada entered thenar; beset with violent , whole naval force c( i aed of light quick- , I 'n together to oppow , igham had the chief \ ,„ci. Drake, the cir.,, A vice-admiral, per- n^ The superior »e»- > ihwas very BuccesB- k important conteit, ftages were obtamcd j lips, which were br.t { ' this memorable M- ^ consequenfcs, bom ,1 ,arand the ail ad' ^I I -in the course of» they left CoruniiM" thips had escaped d«- I K.OOOpersonsperisW <• >For k more detailed e yea^r 1698. U^n\ lea?s. He has been i llB BKHAVIOUB. taOD«H VBIIIIDLT, A IFAHIABO II BAIILT OrriRDlD, AHO TIROICTIVI. ^^e IlistotQ of Spatn. 627 compared, and in aome Ktpeeta with jai- tiee, toTiberiua. Both these tyranta at- tempted and accomuUahed the abaaemeut of the character of their people ; both were equally dreaded by their own familiea and by their aubjecta ; both were full of the deepeat diaaimulation ; both were aevere towards others, and lieentiona in their own habita. But Philip poaseaaed great perse- Tcrance, admirable nrmnesa under adverse circumstances, and an appearance of de- votion calculated to make a strong im- pression on the people, together with that stately reserve which the multitude mia- '; takes for dignity. Notwithstanding thia i severity of deportment, hia maruers were ■■ affable and gracious when he cuose to aa- iume that character. He auffered nothing I to stand in the way of his undertakinga ; he regarded religion and crime aa two in- i struments, of which he equally availed himself without hesitation, according aa either was suitable to hia purposes ; for he leemed to think that the performance of certain exterior rites of devotion, and a strict adherence in religions opinions to the dogmas of Rome, gave him unbounded license in all other respects. He was suc- ceeded by Philip III., his aon by his fourth wife, Anna of Austria ; Don Carlos, his eldest son, who wa« accused of a conspi- racy against the life of his father, having ended his days in 1568. ; Philip III. was not less bigoted or super- ititioua than his predecessors, but he was leas stained with crime and without the dangerous ambition of his father. A peace ! with England was concluded in 1604, and •n armistice for twelve years with the Ne- therlands in 1609 ; but Spain suffered an irreparable loss in population and wealth by the expulsion of the Moriscoes or des- cendants of the Moors. They were allowed thirty days to banish themselves, and death was the punishment appointed for such as icmained behind after the spcciiied time. By this impolitic act, and the subsequent expulsion of the Jews, Spain lost 600,000 of her most industrious inhabitants, besides those who were successively butchered, a lots which transferred five-sixths of her commerce and manufactures to other coun- tries, and reduced the public revenue from thirty to fourteen millions of ducats. After a reign of twenty-two years, he died, and wu succeeded by his son ; a. u. 1621. Under the reign of Philip IV. Portugal •hook off its bonds by a happily conducted revolution, which placed the house of Bra- gtniaon the throne in 1640. The war in the Netherlands was renewed, but to no other purpose than to bring about a peace, in 1648, by which the king of Spain, ac- knowledged the independence of the Seven United Provinces. During the thirty veara' war France acted against Spain, which wn,s alUed to Austria; and this struggle was not even terminated by the peace of West- phalia, but continued till the peace of the Pyrenees, in 1659, by which Bousillon and Perpignan were ceded to France, and a marriage was concerted between the in- fanta Maria Theresa, Philip's daughter, and Louis XIV. In 1665 Philip IV. died, leaving for hia sitccessor an infant aon (Charles II.) only four years of age, during whose minority the queen dowager, Mary Anne of Austria, governed the kingdom, whilat she resigned erself to the government of her confessor, a Jesuit, and ny birth a German, named Nitard, whom she caused to be appointed inquisitor- general. The king, when eishteen years of age, married a daughter of Philip, duke of Orleans, who bv her mother was grand-daughter to Charles I. of England ; but this marriage producing no issue, on the death of the king, which happened in 1700, the succcasion to the crown of Spain was contested between Philip duke of An- Jou, second son of the dauphin, and grand- son to Louis XIV. by Maria Theresa, whom the deceased king had in his will named for his immediate successor, and the arch- duke Charles of Austria, brother to the emperor Joseph. On this occosion, the jealousy which pre- vailed of the increasing power of the French monarchy, occasioned a grand alliance to be formed between the maritime powera and the house of Austria, to prevent the duke of Anjou from obtaining the crown of Spain, and to place that diadem on the head of the archduke Charles. This occa- sioned a long and destructive war; but the unexpected death of the emperor Joseph, in 1711, when he was in the 33rd ^ear of his age, entirely changed the political as- pect oif Europe; and Charles, who bad as- lumed the title of king of Spain, and en- tered Madrid in triumph, in consequence of the wonderful successes of the earl of Peterborough succeeding his brother in the empire, that idea of maintaining the balance of power in Europe, which had procured the archduke such powerful sup- port against the pretenaiona of Philip, now pointed out the bad policy of suffering the empire and the kingdom of Spain to be again held by the aame aovereign. This, together with the reverse of fortune which had happened to Charles, by the defeat at Almanza, brought about the peace of Utrecht, which confirmed the crown of Spain to Philip, but stripped it of all those valuable European appendages which had for many years been annexed to that mo- narchy : Belgium, Naples, Sicily, and Mi- lan being resigned to Austria ; Sardinia to Savoy ; and Minorca and Gibraltar to Eng- land. To prevent, as much as possible, the dan- ger apprehended from two kingdoms being Sosscssed by one prince of the house of iourbon, Philip V. solemnly renounced his right to the crown of France, in case the succession should happen to devolve on him ; nnd his brothers, the dukes of Berri and Orleans, on their parts renounced all claim to the crown of Spain; but as there has not been wanting lineal dccendants to succeed to the sovereignty of each king- dom, thu collateral branches have not had occasion to make known to the world hovr MOI* or TBI SPAniARDS ARS HARDT, AND PATIBNT UlfDBB BUrrBBIIte. {i K 3 rmisa and AamosANCB a«i a trAMiiiD'! ouTiKoviiRiiia thaiti. 628 ^l^c ^rcasuro of l^istorn, Sec. far they eontider themieWei bound by these ■olemn acti to deprive themielves of their natural riithti, which act* might other- wiie have been found weak reitraint* upon their ambition. Many important cooqueiti were made by the navy of Great Britain in the Medi- terranean, during the war for the luccei- ■ion i and tlie strength and reiourcee of Spain were in every respect greatly ex- hausted by it. The provinces of Valencia, Catalonia, and Arragon, which had adhered to the interests of Cnarles, severely felt the resentment of Philip, when he became es- tablished on the throne ; ail the remains of liberty which those people had been allow- ed A retain since tiie days of the Gothic kings, were abolished, and the sovereign assumed an absolute power over the lives and fortunes of his subjects. Cardinal Alberoni, an Italian, who be- came minister to Philip IV. soon after he married his second wife, the princess Bliaa- beth, daughter of the duke of Parma (1714), was formed for enterprise and intrigue ; he laboured indefatigably to restore the king- dom to something of its former conse- quence ; and by his attention and superior talents the Spanish navy was greatly aug- mented. His designs were so bold and ex- tensive, that for a short time they seemed likely to effect mighty changes in the poli- tical system of Europe: and in 1717 Spain refused to ratify the peace of Utrecht. All these ideal nrojects were, however, at once disconcerted by the British court, in send- ing a fleet into the Mediterranean, which, without any previous declaration of war, attacked the naval force of Spain, at Cape Passaro, near Sicily (Aug. 1718)i and took or destroyed the greatest part of their ships. This decided step on the part of England soon procured the dismissal of Alberoni, and at the same time gave birth to the quadruple alliance between Great Britain, France, Holland, and Germany. In 1730 great misunderstandinn arose between the courts of Madrid and London, in respect to the right which the subjects of the latter claimed to cut logwood on the Spanish main, and from the conduct of the fuarda-eoita$ of the former in the West ndies, in seizing upon and confiscating British merchant -ships there. These dis- putes gave rise to a war, the principal event of which was the taking of Porto Bello by the English. Philip V. died in 1746, and was succeeded by Ferdinand VI., his son by his first queen, who reigned thirteen years, and dying without issue, was suc- ceeded by his naif-brother Charles III., then king of the two Sicilies. Under the reign of Charles III. the Bourbon family compact of 1761 involved Spain, to its injury, in the war between England and France. The expeditions a!;ain8t Algiers likewise miscarried ; as did the siege of Gibraltar, in the war of 1797-83. Yet the internal administration improved, as was seen in the advancement of agriculture, commerce, and the useful arts, while the population was consider- ably on the increase. The powtr of the In- quisition also was restricted, and the secret opposition of the Jesuits annihilated at ■ blow, by the " pragmatic sanction" of 1767, which banished them from all the Spanish dominions, and confiscated their property. The grossest superstition, however, still abounded, and a strict observa dered to the Spaniards. Six days later an insurrection broke out in Purtugal, aud the alliance of Great Britain with the Spanish nation was proclaimed. The (treat struggle now commenced. Marshal Bessieres was suceessftil in the battle at Medina del Rio Secco over general Cuesta ; but the previ- ous defeat of Dupont at Baylen, decided the retreat of the French from Madrid, and Castanos entered the city. General Bomana had secretly embarked his troops at Fanen, and landed in Spain ; and VTel- lesley was victorious over the French under Junot, at Vimeira. on which the French general capitulated the day after at Cintra, and soon after evacuated Portugal. Napo- leon advanced with a new army as far as the Ebro, and on the 10th of September Soult defeated the centre of the great Spa- nish army. Victor and Lefebvre's victory on the llth, at Espiuosa, opened the way to Asturia and the northern coast ; and, in consequence of the success of Lannes at Todela, great numbers of fugitives took refUge in Saragossa. The mountain pasa of Somo Sierra was taken by assault, by the French and Poles, under Napoleon and Bessieres ; and the French army appeared before Madrid, which surrendered Dec. 4. The French gained many victories and took many ftortresses; but the conquerors re- mained masters only of the places which they occupied, as the guerillas everywhere surrounded and harassed them. Austria now declared war, and Napoleon was obliged, in January, 1809, to leave the conduct of the war to nis marshals. Two objects chiefly occupied the French gene- rals in that and the following year— the re-conquest of Portugal, and the march over the Sierra Morena to Cadiz. The Bri- tish had become masters of Portugal. Sir Arthur V^ellesley advanced from Lisbon, by the way of Alcantara, up the Tagus, and Cuesta joined him near Truxtllo; whilst cenertd sir Bobert 'Wilson advanced over Placensia, and Venegas, the Spanish gene- ral, from the Sierra Morena, towards Ma- drid. This bold plan of attack was frus- trated by the battle of Talavera. The Bri- tish, indeed, were victorious over Joseph, Victor, and Jourdan ; but not being sulH- ciently supported by the Spaniards, and being threatened by Soult and Ney advanc- ing on their ilank, they were obliged to re- tire to the frontiers of Portugal ; after which Venegas also began to retreat, and was defeated by Joseph at Alnionacid, as was Wilson by Ney in the paasea of Baios. Madrid thus escaped a siege. The central junta at Seville now resolved to yield to the universal Wish, to asssmbla the Cortes and to nominate a regency. New armies were created, and Aresaga ad- vanced with 66,000 men as far as Ocana, where, however, he was entirely defeated by Mortier. Madrid, therefore,was again save^ but in Catalonia, Arragon, and Biscay, the most desperate struggle was carried on with the bands of the patriots. The Empeci- nado's troops advanced even to the vi. cinity of Madrid. In Old Castile several guerilla parties hovered on the French; and in Navarre the troops of Mina were an absolute terror to them. The largest com- pany of them, under the dreaded Marque- sito, formerly a colonel In the army, en- countered several generals in the open fleld. In vain did the French establish fortresses on their lines of communication, and endeavour to protect their rear by moveable columns. Tet their plan againat Andalusia succeeded. With 33,00(1 n dan of the eonauiraiora. Mina bad been obliged to aa«e himielf by flight i the otberi had been axecuted, and their frienda had Buffered on the rack, or been thrown iuto priaon. The army waa indiapoaed to the Ameri- can aenrice, for which it waa di>«tiiied, and the offlcera favourable to the coimtitutlon of the cortca took advantage of ihla atale of feeling to effect their own purpoieai whole regimrnta had determined not to embark, and the commander hii4aelf, (yDonnel, oonde del Abiabal. waa in the aecret. But, llnding hia ambitioua project of becoming dictator of the monarchy f^ua- trated by the civil authority, he cauaed a divialon of troops which had given the lig- ual of insurrection to be diiarmed (July 8, 1819), and the olHcera, 133 in number, to be arrested. The embarkation of the troopa waa fixed for January; but on the 1st of the month, four battalions under Riego, proclaimed the constitution of 1813. surrounded the headquarters of general Callejo, who had tucceeded U'Donnel in the command, look poaaession of the town of Isia de Leon, and delivered the officera arreated in July, among whom waa Qui- roga. The insurgents were unsuccessful in their attack on C'adii, but occupied La Caracca, where the naval arsenal, a ship of the line, and other vessels of war, with aome tranaporta, fell into their hands. Quiroga declared, in the name of the army of the nation— the title assumed by the insurgents— that it waa their purpose to obtain from the king the acceptance of the constitution. ^ego, at the head of a troop of 9,600 men, now occupied Algesiraa, entered Ma- laga, and after some fighting with O'Dun- nel, advanced through Ecija and Cordova to Antequera; while the national army, under Quiroga, in addresses to the king and to the nation, declared their only ob- ject was to save their country bv the re- storation of the constitution, which had al- ready been accepted by the nation. Risings now took place in all quarters in favour of the constitution of the cortes; the royal forces Joined the insurgents ; Freyre him- self was obliged to proclaim the constitu- tion in Seville; and Ferdinand, abandoned by his own troops, was compelled to yield to the general cry, and, by proclamation, declared himaelf ready to aummon the cartes of 1813, and accept the constitution of that year. On the same day a general amnesty waa proclaimed. On the 9th a provisory Junta of eleven members was named, to conduct affairs till the meeting of the cortes ; and Ferdinand swore to ob- aenre the constitutiontin presence of thia body, and of the municipal authoritiea of Madrid. The Inqulaitlon waa abolished, aa inroQslstant with th» eonstltntiou, and obnoxious ministera, tie., were succeeded bv others fsvnurable to eonstiiutlonal prin- ciples. In place of the council of Castile and that of the Indies, a supreme Judi- cial tribunal, with appropriate iubordinst* eourti, was establishrd, national guards wrru organised in the proviiifes, the nm- uii'iual authorities were made to confurin to the constitution, and the cortes finally assembled. Much waa dona to heal the wounds of the country ; but an apostolical Junta established itself on the fironllers of Portugal, and bands of peasants, monks, and guerilla soldiers were formed, for the purpose of restoring the privileges of .ht crown and the clergy. The second session of the eortea bitgsn in March, 1831, who declared the wliols country in danger, and iii a state of sient, The command of the armed force vias now given to Morillo, and ouiet was i i inm« measure restored. But the ullrtiibfersli, or exaliados, as they were called, ware n it a little excited by the events in Naplks arid Piedmont, in 1N31, and the kingdoii «si in so disturbed a state that an extiaordi- nary eortea waa summoned In September. At the same time Mexico declared itself independent! Lima waa occupied by tlw Chilians, under San Martin ; and the Spa- nish part of the island of St. Domingo waa lost by ita union with Hayti. Upon which the cortes urged the king to ap. point an abler ministry, and. after some contention, his majesty yielded to their wishrs. In January, 1839, the cortes de- clared themselves ready to acknowledge America as a kingdom independent of Spain, but united with her under Ferdi- nand VII. their common sovereign. The deputies sent to America, however, could effect nothiuK on these conditions; and the session or the cortes was concluded oa the 14th of Februarr. At the outset of the third session the moderate liberal party prevailed, and tran- quillity waa gradudly restored to the in- ternal affaire of the country, when it began to be threatened from without. The strong sanitary cordon of French troops along the Pyrenees, and tlie intrigues of the exilei, led the government to suspect that the disturbances excited among the praaanti in Navarre and Catalonia, and the bands ; of " soldiers of the faith," ao called, were ' instigated by the Rrench government. The ' cortes therefore armed tlie volunteer na- tional guards ; but the pecuniary reaourcci i were chiefly in the handa of the supporters | of despotism. The royal guards, in spite of the opposition of Murillo, their com- mander, entered Madrid July 7, but Bal- lasteros, at the head of the national guardi. defeated them, and they fled into the royal palace; bnt the king, who favoured them originally, now showed himself irresolute. They were unable to resist the popular force, but would have been allowed to re- tire, if they had not again fired on the national guards, who then fell upon them, aPAIflABOa ABB TOlfO Ot OIL THAT HAS A BAMB 8MBLL AND TASTB. • *«blO. rk* abuUihid, iitltntkou, and rtrt ■ueeccdtd lUttliaiml prill- inell of CmiIU ■uprcmi ludt- 1 kta lubordtnfttt Mlonal Buwdt incei, the mu- kd« to confurm t cortei Itntlly ne to hval the 1 kn •poilolickl :k* frontiers of kiantt. monki, formad, for th« rlvUeges of .ht le eortei bitgn ired the whole k itkte of nii-Ki. 1 force « ai now ;t wai i y inme le ultri libtrali, culled, ware n it tt In Nitulki aiid le ktOBaoai -Jiu mt an extiaordi- d In September. > declared itulf occupied by the io ( and the Spa- of St. Domingo ih Hayti. Upon the king to ap- and. after lome vielded to their i, the cortes de- to acknowledge independent of ler under Ferdi- •overeign. The I, however, could conditioni; «nd ru concluded OB Ihird aeation the Wailed, and trun- Itored to the in- /, when it began jout. The strong troops along the iei of the exilei, [aspect that the Ing the peasants ; V, and the bands , I r' so called, were i t ,jvernnient. The ' lie toluntecr ns- ^uniary resourcei if the suj^porters guards, in spite Inllo, their com- IJuly 7, but Bsl- \ national guards, led into the royal la favoured them imtelf irretolute. Mat the popular ^n allowed to re- kin fired on the fell upon them, TASTB. ^^c ^Uiorv of Spain. 633 aad kilM or wonndad tha grralcr part. The auilUioa, or modarata part*, who had been in favour of a chamber of paara and Ika aitanalon of tha royal power, now joined tha eommancroa, or popular party, aad all tha ministers resigned. The new ministers acted in conformity with the views of the conimuneros s and ihe king, whose authority had sunk en- tirely, eonaented to all the* pniposad. Many persona of rank, including bishops, were banished. General Elio waa cia- eutedt but tha guards were treated with mat leniency. Fhe king again declared bis adberenca to tha constitution ; but tha apostolical troops in Biscay, Navarre, and Catalonia, continued their revolting cruel- lies. Under the marquis Mataflorida a regency of the friends of absolute govern- ment was established at Beo d'Urgel, near the French firontier, in August, 1833. It issued orders, in tha name of the "impri- soned king," fur tha reatoraiion of every thing to tha atata in which it had been before the 7th of March, IH'iO, The troops of the apostolical party, after much blood- shed, were beaten by Mina and Milans, Generals Bspinosa, Torrijos, and Kl Pastor distinguished themselves against Quesada, a Trappist, and othera. The regency fied to France in November, 18:13, and it was obvious th%t its cause waa not that of the nation. No troops of the line or national guards, no important cities nor individuals, \ went over to them. Some " soldiers of the fsith," however, still continued in Spain, Murticularly those of Bassidres, Ullmann, Ac. At no period waa Spain in a more un- settled state than now, and nothing less than a desperate strugjcle between despo- tism and revolution could be calculated on. The French had acceded to the principle of an armed intervention pronounced by Austria, Russia, and Prussia, in relation to Spain; and Ihe French ambassador at Ma- drid received orders to advise a change in the constitution, as the condition on which the continuance of peace between the two countries must depend ; and, in order to en- sble Ferdinand VII. to make such changes freeW, he must first of all be restored to the lull enjoyment of sovereign power. The same demand, and even in bolder terms, was made by the ministers of Prussia, Aus- tria, and Russia, while Great Britain ad- vised the cortea to yield, and offered her mediation. The Spanish government re- pelled with indignation the interference of the foreign powers, and the threatened dis- continuance of diplomatic intercourse took place. The foreign ambassadors were re- called from Madrid. One hundred thou- sand French soldiers were assembled with the soldiers of the faith at Perpignan and Bajronne, and the cortea summoned the national Kuards to serve with the troops of the line ; but the attempts to raise an army were uusnccessful, because the bands of the absolutists gave fiill employment to the troops of the Hue and the national guards in the various provinces. The duke of Angouiemfe, at' the bead of tha French arri>y Issued a prorlamnlii. : to the SpaniariU, derlarinR that the objitri of the FciTch was only In ui them, and that France di ired nothinR but (li<< deliverance of Spain I'riiiii )hr evils of rcvoluliuD. Ilis army then uaasi'd the llidassoas a junta waa aalablisbed, who rornicd a provisional Jnvemnient, declaring Ihe kiiiK the sola epository of sovereign power, and that no change in Ihe government should be re- cognised bui sucli as the king should make of his own free choice ; and all the decrees of the corli-s were declared void. Great Britain remained neutral, or rather affected neutrality ; for the government allowed tha exportation of arms and ammunition to Spain; and, in return, the pprts of iha New World were opened tu her ships. A Ionic, tedious, and cruel warfare was now kept up by the Spanish troops under tha control of Ballasteros, Mina, L'Abisbal, and Morillo, against the French, and tba aupporters of the "absolute king." On the 34lh of May the duke of AugoulAiiia entered Madrid amid the acclaniaiiona of the populace. He nominated a reKcnry, consisting of the duke of Infantado, tlia duke of Monicmar, the bishop of Osma, the baron d'Eroles, and Don Gomes Calde- ron ; but they had no pecuniary resources, and no power, if they had the will, to pre- vent the furious eruptions of parly haired. The Gortes had in vain triod to excite a general guerilla war. On account of the want of money, they decreed the seiiure of all the properly of persons of the opposite party, a forced loan of 2UU,uoo,(Miu of reals, and the coining of the superfluous church plate, by which measures the hatred of tha people was still more Increased. Yet the ministers did not dare to propose to the cortes the mediation offered by England, through Sir Vf. A'Court, the British minis- ter. The king refused to so to Cadis ; and a regency of three members, with royal powers, was appointed, because the case of moral incapacity on the part of the king, provided for by the constitution, had oc- curred. On the \^h of June, the cortea and the king, with the regency, departed for Cadiz; but the people were so furious against Ihe constitutionalists, that Ihe au- thorities called in the aid of Ihe French. Meanwhile the regency in Madrid declared all the membera of the cortes who had participated in the session of the 11th, when tlie king was declared morally inca- pable, to be traitors; but more it could not dot it waa so destitute of resources that it was even supported by French mo- ney. The duke of Angoulime took posses- sion of Cadii on the 4th of October. An act of the cortes had already reinvested the king with absolute power, and request- ed him to retire to the French camp, where he bad been received in form b^ the duke, with cries of " Viva el rey ! Viva la reli- gion I Mueralanacion I"&c. Fcrdinand'a first measure was to declare all the acts of the constitutional government, from March 7, 1820, to October 1, 1823, void, on the ground that during that time the king waa SrAniABOS AHB 0>NaBAI,I.T Tnill ANO SALlOVr, WITB SABS HAIB AWD KTB8. MOST BPANISH WOHBN rOIICSI OBBAT riBIOMAL ATTBACTIONI. G34 Vl\)i ^rcasuro of IQlstore, $rc. acting under compulsion. The partiian warfare still continued to rage with great flerceneiB, particularly in Catalonia; but the defection of some of the leaders soon after took place ; it appeared fast drawing to a termination ; and on the 22nd of Octo- ber, 1823, the duke of Augoul£me took his leave of the armv of the Pyrenees, which bad so successfully accompliihcd the mili- tary objects of its mission. The political objects of the expedition, to secure a system of mildness and mode- ration, were frustrated by the bad faith of the Spanish government. In direct viola- tion of the terms of the military capitula- tions, a persecuting and vindictive policy was adopted towards the former partisims of the constitution. Among the crowds of fugitives were Mina, the count del Abisbal, Morillo, &c. Riego was executed at Ma- drid, and the king made his entry into the capital on a triumphal car twcnty-ttve feet high, drawn by a hundred men, and amidst the rejoicings of the people. It was nut, however, tol)e expected that the excesses of political and religious bigotry would sud- denly Rubsidf; or that the people would quietly submit to the heavy taxation which the bad state of the finances rendered ne- cessary. A treaty was therefore concluded with France, stipulating for the mainte- nance of a French force of 46,0U0 men in the country, until the Spanish army could be organised ; and the debt due to France for the expenses of the French expedition was fixed at 34,0U0,000 francs. The year 1825 was disturbed by several insurrections of the Carlists, who were anxious to effect the abdication of Ferdi- nand, and place his brother Don Carlos on the throne. Numerous executions and fre- quent changes of ministry took place, all plainly indicative of the weaknesH of the government; while the independence of the colonies was acknowledged by foreign powers, and a general interruption of com- merce and industry throughout Spain was manifest. In this state the country conti- nued for several subsequent years. In 1827, Spanish subjects were permitted to trade with the Spanish American republics, but under foreign flags; and in the following year Spain was evacuated by the French troops. The sword, the scaffold, exile, and the dungeon bad done so much to subdue the national spirit, and to reduce the numbers of tlie constitutionalists, that when, in 1830, the French revolution produced such effects in Belgium, and excited so much alarm in Germany and other neiglibouring countries, it scarcely awakened the popular feeling on this side the Pyrenees ; the troubles of Spain were now mostly confined to the struggle for power between the more cr less absolute of the absolutists, the for- mer having been favoured by the views of Don Carlos, then heir presumptive to the throne, and the latter by the king. Hut on the birth of a royal princess, in 1830, by Maria Christina, his fourth wife, a royal decree rendered the crown hereditary in the female line, in default of male hpirs, and entirely changed the relation of the prince to the throne. During a severe attack of illness, Ferdi- nand, at the instigation of the friends of Don Carlos, in 1832, renewed the Salic law, which rendered the throne of Spain heredi- taria only in the male line ; but, with that vacillating conduct which is one of the surest marks of a weak mind, his majesty, on his recovery, formally protested against the decree, which he stated to have been extorted from him ; and he then again de. dared his daughter to be his only legi- timate successor to the throne of Spam. Shortly after this, Don Carlos was banish- ed from the kingdom; and Ferdinand, who was in his fiftieth year, died suddenly of apoiilexy, on the 2gth of September, iH'i'i. The death of Ferdinand VII. became the signal for the breaking out of fresh dissensions. In order still further to for- tify the right of his daughter to the throne, he had exercised the prerogative of naming her his successor in his will; and by the same instrument he appointed the^i.een regent till the infanta Isabella attained the age of eighteen years. Don Carlos, however, claimed the throne in virtue of the Salic law, although it had been re- pealed, and was never, in fact, practically in force. The rights of Isabella II. were supported by the liberals ; the pretensions of Don Carlos by the absolutists. Guided by the councils of M. Zea, the chief mini- ster, the queen depended upon the suppnrt of the constitutionalists for securing the succession to her infant daughter. The strength of the Carlists lay chiefiy in Na- varre, Catalonia, the Biscayau provinces, Old Castile, and Estremadura. The chief strength of the constitutionalists was in Madrid, and in the provinces of Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, and other districts bor- dering on the Mediterranean. The queen regent was not slow in adopting vigorous and popular measures to counteract the Carlists. With the aid of the provincial militia and the volunteers, she disbanded the royalist volunteers of the capital, and in Toledo; she also remodelled the post- office laws, the censorship of the press, and public education; while at the same time care was taken not to disturb existing : interests and prejudices. Meantime seve- ' ral contests took place between the rival parties, accompanied with the exercise of great cruelties on both sides ; but the queen's party was generally successful, and at the close of the year the civil war ap- peared nearly at an end. The reciprocal massacre of prisoners Lad several times occurred, and the deadliett j hatred and revenge was manifestly encnu- 1 raged by both parties ; in short, so savagely ' was the Spanish contest carried on, that the duke of Wellington, from motives of humanity, sent lord Elliot and colonel Gar- wood on a mission to Spain, to endeavour to put a stop to the cruelties practised hy the belligerents, and render the war lees bloody and revengeful. The Christinos he- 2 AN AIB OP BOUANCa IR TUBOWN OTRB ALL TBHIR WORDS AND ACTIONS. TlOillt ult o( male hpirii le relation of the k of illneH, Ferdi- I of the friends of >wed the 8aUc law, ne of Spain hevedi- ue ; but, with that ich i» one of the mind, his majesty, ^ protested against tated to have been i he then again de. I be his only le^i. e throne of Spam. Carlos was banish- ind Ferdinand, who r, died suddenly of f September, 1S33. nand VII. became aking out of fresh still further to tot- ighter to the throne, rerogative of naming his will; and by the ippointed thelflieen a Isabella attained years. Don Carlos, throne in virtue of gh it had been re- ■, in fact, practically of Isabella II. were •als ; the pretensions absolutists. Guided Zea, the chief mini- ied upon the support ists for securing the fant daughter. The its lay chiefty in Na- Biscayau provinces, emadura. The chief ititutionalists was in ovinces of Andalusia, other districts bor- rranean. The queen in adopting vigorous !S to counteract the aid of the provincial iteers, she disbanded s of the capital, and remodelled the post- orship of the press, i; while at the same lOt to disturb existing ces. Meantime seve- e ; ice between the rival 2 1 with the exercise of S , Btoth sides; but tlieNj lerally successful, and | i, fear the civil war ap- \ « l,d. , , I ; sacre of prisoners bad 5 ed, and the deKdlie«t ; » was manifestly encou- , ; in short, so savagely itest carried on, that ton, from motives of illiot and colonel Gur- o Spain, to endeavour cruelties practised by render the war less The Christinos ne- miBBT BAI MAD< tHB riOrLI ttLOOlIT, BU* THMT ABB RATUBAMT SAT. V^f^^ IlistorQ o( Spain. 636 sitated at Brat to enter into any terma with the Carlists, whom they deemed rebels; and although, at length, it was mutually agreed upon to treat the prisoners taken on either aide according to the ordinary rules of war, a few months only elapsed before similar barbaritiea were practised with all their former remorselessness. In tlie sprinK of 1834 a treaty was con- cluded in London, by the courts of Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, hav- ing for ita object the pacification of the peninsula. By this quadruple treaty it was agreed,— that Spain and Portugal should assist each other in the expulsion from their respective territories of Don Carlos and Don Miguel ; that Britain should co- operate by employing a naval force ; and that France should assist the contracting parties in any way that the^ in common accord might determine upo; . . The war thus continued to rage with nnabated fury ; but the queen's party ob- tained an auxiliary force, which was raised in England, and the command given to general Evans. The British government was pledged to assist with a naval force only; the troops therefore, which were denominated the " British legion," were raised without the sanction, though cer- tainly with the connivance of ministers. They were ill equipped and ill clad, nor could any thing be managed much worse than their commisariat. ?«otwith8tanding these disadvantages, and the motley cha- racter of the recruits, they fought bravely, and thereby contributed in no slight degree to the success of the queen's cause. On the 5th of May, 1836, some fortified works, which had cost the Carlists three or four months to erect, and through' the centre of which ran the high road to Hernani, were gallantly carried by the auxiliary legion ; ; while two armed steamers, commanded by ; lord John Hay, lent very opportune aid to I the victors. On this occasion the loss of I the British in killed and wounded amounted to 300, among whom were upwards of se- I venty officers. About this time Mendizabel, the Spanish prime minister, from whose I abilities much had been anticipated, but I who had not been zealously supported by ' the cortes, resigned, and was succeeded I by M. Isturitz. Another violent change was, however, near at hand. At Malaga, Cadiz, Seville, and Cordova, the Cadiz constitution of 1812 had been groclaimed, and provincial juntas esta- lished, wholly independent of the queen's authority. On the 3rd of August a move- ment commenced in IVIadrid ; but it was put down, and the capital declared in a state of siege: but on the 12th the insur- rection became more serious, and a regi ment of provincial militia forced their way into the apartments of the queen-regent, and obtained from her a promise of the ao- ceptnnce of the constitution. This pro- duced a revolution in the metropolis. Istu- riti, the prime minister, made his escape to Lisbon, and thence to England. Gene- ral Quesada, the military governor of Ma- drid, was seised by the populace, and in- humanly put to death. Ultimately, the con- stitution was proclaimed by the queen-re- gent, subject to the revision of the cortes, and a new ministry of decided liberals formed, of which Mendizabel was minister of finance. The new government com- menced with vigour. The sum of 2,0C0,000(. was sought to be raised by a forced loan ; a conscription of 60,000 men was called for, to send against the Carlists ; the property of emigrant Carlists was confiscated ; and the example of France and Portugal was proposed to be followed, by the extinction of the remaining moiety of tithe, leaving the clergy stipendiaries of the state, or de- pendent on voluntary contributions. On the 16th of June, 1837, the revised constitution of the Spanish monarchy was proclaimed. Its articles appear to be of a popular and liberal character. From among them we select the following:—!. All Spa- niards may print and publish freely their opinions, without submitting them to any previous censorship, by merely conforming to the laws. 3. All Spaniards are admissi- ble to all offices and public functions ac- cording to their merit and canacity. 3. The power of making laws resides in the eortet and the king. The cortes to eon- sist of two legislative assemblies equal in rights and power — a senate and a congress of deputies: the senators must he forty years old, possessed of an independent for- tune, and are chosen for life. To the con- gress of deputies each province to return one deputy, at least, for every 50,000 souls of its population : the deputies are elected for three years. 4. The person of the king sacred and inviolate, and not responsible : the ministers to be held responsible. The powers of the crown are analogous to those of the British sovereign. 5. 'The civil list of the king and royal family to be fixed at the commencement of each reign. 6. The succession to the crown to be in the order of primogeniture, preferring the male to the female branch. 7- The cortes may ex- clude from the succession persons they deem incapable to govern, or who have been guilty of any act for which they ought to lose their right to the crown. 7. Inde- pendence of the judges and judicial admi- nistration are secured. In order to complete this epitome of Spanish history, it is necessary that some account of the Carlist and Christino war- fare should be here introduced ; the more especially as the " British legion," which, as we before said, was raised without the sanction of the British government, played in it so conspicuous a part. In June, 1835, colonel De Lacy Evans, one of the members for Westminster, was appointed by the Spanish authSrities to the command of the said British auxiliary legion which was to co-operate with the queen's troops against Don Carlos. On the 1st of October, 1838, a vigorous assault was made on the lines of the British legion at Sebastian bv the Carlists, who made an unsuccessful attempt to carry K O m •a K o m m K m e tn m ti a a m e H * M (i IE e u M la (a o H M H « M CI K M O ts H ». H a K e N a X TUB FUIBSTR AND INNRBBrBllS ARB TDB ONLT FORTLT FBRSONS IN SFAIlf. [.It \ • MtTLBat IIII>OI.BII0B I> nOWUBB MOBS IHOVLaBD THAU IN IPAIIf. 636 ^^t ^ITrcasurB of l|istorei See. them. Both parties fought bravely. The Carlitta charging down-hill, frequently (al- lied flrom their works in force, but each time were driven back at the point of the bayonet. The Westminster grenadiers dis- tinguished themselves ; and a small corps of lancers, under colonel Wakefield, made several brilliant charges; but a much mora effective arm was the well-appointed artil- lery under the direction of colonel Colqu- houn. The conflict lasted twelve hours. General Bvans lost 376 men and 37 offi- cers killed and wounded, and was slightly wounded himself. The loss of the Carlists in killed and wounded was estimated at lOOO men. In December, 1836, the siege of Bilboa was raised, by the operations of the com- bined British and Christinos forces. Ge- neral Espartero, assisted by a small band of British engineers, artillerymen, and sail- ors, entered the city of Bilboa on Christmas- day, at the head of his army, after a series of contests with the enemy. The works raised by the Carlists were of great strength, and notliintr but the enthusiasm of the troops could have enabled them to over- come the difficulties with which they had to contend. A vote of thanks to the libe- rators of Bilboa, and to the Spanish and British forces, was moved in the cortes ; and the official gasette of Jan. 4, 1837, con- tained a royal decree, in which the queen- regent expressed, in the name of her daugh- ter, her gratitude to general Espartero aud his army, the national and auxiliary British force, and to all those, whether Spaniards or English, who took a part in the memor- able engagements of the 34th and 25th of December. A month had scarcely elapsed, however, before the affairs of Don Carlos appeared to revive; general Evans having sustain- ed a defeat before St. Sebastian, and the queen's armies under generals Saarsfield and Espartero having found it necessary to make simultaneous retreats. These rever- ses made such an impression, that at a secret sitting of the cortes on the SOtli of March, the acting war-minister described Spain to be "without credit at home or abroad— with a depreciated and ill-con- cocted revenue— with an army in the worst state as to subordiuation or military disci- pline — whilst the chiefs were at variance with each other." It was originally arranged that Espartero, Saarsfleld, and Evans, should move simul- taneously to the points of attack ; but owing to mismanagement or treachery, this plan was not carried into operation. On the 10th of March, general Evans broke ground from St. Sebastian, and commencing his operations by an attack upon the heights of Ametsagana, at the eastern extremity of the chain of hills, carried that position. On the 16th he prepared to make liis deci- sive attack upon the town of Hernani, and succeeded in gaining possession of the wooded heights which rise above it on the north. All was prepared for a forward movement, when he discovered, most un- expectedly, that the Carlists had been so powerfully reinforced as to render an ad- vance desperately hazardous; and almost at the same moment the whole of his left wing was thrown into confUsion, by the appearance in its rear of three battalions of Carlists, who, under the cover of the night, had been brought, bv a circuitous march, to the right bank of the Urumea, and having passed that river at Axterra- gaga, again moved in the direction of the north-west. The regiment on the extreme left of the Anglo -Christinos' line, thus finding itself attacked in front, and on the left flank and in the rear, made a rapid lateral movement to the right, which was soon accelerated to a panic flight. A regi. ment of Castile, which stood next in the line, was at once infected by its terror, and the alarm ran through the line, until it approached the battalion of royal British marines, on the extreme right. This noble corps maintained gloriously the character of the royal troops of Great Britain ; it re- Sulsed every attack upon its position, and id not make a retrograde step, Wtil it had covered the retreat of the whole uUied army, and seen the artillery, wounded, and baggage of the allies placed in security. The Anglo- Christinos are said to have loat between 1500 and 2000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners — and immeasurably more in moral influence. The next accounts from Spain showed that the cause of the queen was somewhat improving. After an obstinate defence by the Carlist troops, general Evans succeeded in carrying Irun, where a dreadful scene of pillage and massacre ensued. Fontarabia soon afterwards capitulated. Ou the 13lh of May, Espartero entered Hernani, after having beaten the Carlists, and taken 600 of them prisoners. In several other en- gagements he was also successful. Tet such was the uncertainty of this contest, that in the following month the forces of Don Carlos were almost everywhere suc- cessful. On one occasion — the battle of Barbastro — the Carlists gained a great vic- tory, upwards of 2,500 Christinos being put hors de combat. This was the most san- guinarv engagement that had been fought since the commencement of the civil war. Whilst Don Carlos was advancing to- wards Upper Catalonia, and preparing to place himself in the centre of the moun- tains of that province, the revolutionary hydra had raised its head with more hardi- hood than ever. And, to add to the calami- ties of the Christinos, general Evans, with the greatesv part of the officers belonging to the legion, had abandoned the cause ai hopeless, and returned to England : only 1500 remaining behind, who formed a bri- gade under the command of colonel O'Cob- nell. J The cause of the queen now wore a most uiipromising aspect. Her troops had sus- tained several severe defeats; aud, in Sep- tember, the forces of Carlos were actually investing the capital. On the Z-tth of Au- gust, general Buereus was defeated, with THR " HOBBSCOKB, OH DRSCKNOAIfTS OF THB H0OB8, DWRLIi IN OBANAnA, I »■ "BASQOSt" (TBI AllCIin* CAHTABRIARS) LIVB IN TBI BA8<|UB rBOTlHCBt. I from Spain ihowed queen was somewhat obstinate defence by aeral Evans succeeded re a dreadful scene of ensued. Fontarabia tulated. On the 13th , itered Hernani, after ! o irlists, and taken 600 ' * In several other en- J ilso successful. Yet - I ainty of tliis contest, month the forces of nost everywhere sue- :asion — the battle of sts gained a great vie- Christinos being put .1 was the most san- that had been fought lent of the civil war. was advancing to- lia, and preparing to centre of the moun- ce, the revolutionary lead with more hardi- to add to the calami- J, general Evans, with the officers belonging andoned the cause a« led to England : only i id, who formed a bti- land of colonel O'Con- ueen now wore a moit Her troops had «ui- defeats ; and, in Sep- Carlos were actually ,. On the 2-lth of Au- is was defeated, with KLt IW OBANAtlA, tiTf^c 1|istoti9 of Si}ain. 637 the loss of 1,600 men, while in endeavour- ing to repel one of the armies of Don Car- los, 12,000 strong, which was attempting to pass between Daroca and Saragossa. On the 14th of Sept. the remains of the Bri- tish legion, under general O'DonncU, after their advance to Pampeluua, were attacked by a superior body of Carlists, who carried Andoain, where O'Donnrll had fortified himself, and drove the queen's troops back to Hernani. The British auxiliaries bore the whole brunt of the attack, and twenty- five English officers were killed. On the 11th of Sept. the Spanish govern- ment received intelligence that Cabrera was preparing to march against the capital, and that his movement was to be supported by the bulk of Don Carlos's army. Martial law was immediately proclaimed. The troops and national guard mustered ; a "sacred battalion" was formed to ^uard the two queens ; and cannon was stationed in the most exposed and dangerous quar- ters of the city. Again, the fortune of war inclined to the Chnstinos side. Don Carlos, who had in- vested Madrid, was compelled to make a precipitate retreat, with great loss, and was eloaefy pursued by Espartero. In Navarre and Valladolid, also, the queen's troops gained some considerable advantages ; and Carlos was driven to his old quarters in the north; and Espartero, having taken pos- seuion of many strong places, appeared confident of successful results from the next winter campaign. In November, the dissolution of the cortes took place, and a new cabinet was formed, in which Espartero was appointed minister of war, and at the same time con- tinued as commander-in-chief of the army of the north. The English legion had been wholly disbanded, after a correspondence between its commander, O'Connell, and the Spanish general, O'Donnell, which had reached the height of asperity. The men composing the legion had given up their arms, and were in the most deplorable state of destitution. At the commencement of 183S (Jan, 23), the town of Morella was captured by the Carlists. This was of the greatest import- ance to them, as it constituted the point of junction between the kingdoms of Valencia and Arragon, and was admirably fortified. Twelve hundred prisoners, twelve pieces of cannon, and provisions for three months, were the fruits of this capture. On the other band, the Carlists had been defeated in an attempt to obtain possession of Sara- gossa, and in some minor engagements elsewhere. To which we may add, that on the 26th of April, Espartero attacked and entirely defeated, near Burgos, the force of count Negri; making 2UU0 prisoners, of whom 21S were chiefs and officers. Thus for many succeeding months did victory continue to alternate between the contending parties, though inclining gene- rally to the constitutional side. We shall therefore pass on till we come to an affair of considerable moment, namely, the sur- render of Morella— the last stronghold of Cabrera— to the queen's troops on the 3Ut of May, 1830 ; the garrison remaining pri- soners of war. Espartero had no less than 60,000 men, including 2000 cavalry, and 7i pieces of artillery, to reduce this fortress. Balinaseda, the worthy rival of Cabrera in ferocity and rapacity, fell into the snare laid for him by the queen's generals. Be- lieving that he was not pursued, he passed the Douro, and conceived the bold project of surprising the two queens on their way to Madrid and Saragossa, where he was at- tacked, on the 25th of June, by the consti- tutional general. Concha, and driven to the Pyrenees. He then retreated into France, but made his appearance again on the 30th, at the head of about 600U men. He had retired before the queen's troops, fighting to the last ; and although, like almost every other chieftain in this sanguinary and long • protracted struggle, he was a monster of cruelty, his firm adherence to his master's cause until there was no longer any hope of success, merits admiration. He appeared in nearly the last stage of exhaustion, from fatigue and from his wounds, of which he had received no less than fourteen. At this time it was said that but little more than the name of royalty existed in Spain ; a military despotism, headed by Espartero, dictating the whole affairs of the nation. The queen-regent Christina, being stripped of nearly every particle of power, made up her mind to quit Spain be- fore Espartero and the new ministers ar- rived. She saw them, however, at Valencia, and expressed her determination to abdi- cate the regency, in consequence of the difficulties which environed her. She was then told, that if she insisted on abdicat- ing, and on retiring to Naples, she must leave the young queen Isabella to the guardianship of the nation, and must also give up the public property vested in her as queen and regenf. To this she con- sented, and the ministers accordingly an- nounced the event to the nation. Shortly afterwards, the young queen Isabella II. made her public entry into Madrid, at- tended by Espartero, &c. amid the accla- mations of the inhabitants. In May, 1841, the duke of Victory (Es- partero) was elected by a majority of 76 votes as sole regent of Spain during the minority of Isabella; the queen mother, Christina, having previously sought refuge in France. For a considerable time after this event, the new regent possessed the confidence of the people, and effected many useful reforms in the state; but owing to his having given great offence to the clergy, in consequence of his having sanctioned the appropriation of part of the ecclesias- tical revenues to secular purposes, a power- ful party continued to harass and distract his government ; till, at length, the insur- rectionary movements in various parts of the country denoted that another crisis was aproacliing. That crisis at length arrived, and the poli- TUB " eiTANOS," Oa GTFSIKS, rVBSVB FIXED OCCUPATIONS IK THE TOWNS. MOKAUrf III irAIN II At A ItlLli LOWB* IBB THAN III IVALI. 638 ^i^( ^rcasuYt} of llistots, $cc. tieat caraar of B»p»rt«ro wai brouirlit to • eloM, In Juna, IMS, Oorunna, iavflla, and manf oiher towna dnelarvd In favour of bit opponent* I and Madrid aurrandcrad to them on tlia S'ttb of Juljr, On raoeWlnK thi* information, Bipartaro immediateljr railed the ifeia of iavilte, and atartad for Cadia, with 400 eavalrjr. lie waa puraued to Port 8t, Mary'a bf general Concha, at the head of SUU noree, who arrived on the atrand onlr Ave minute* after the remnt had embarliad in a boat for the BuKiith •hip Malabar, of 7i gun*. Noguara*, Oo* mes, and a few otiier olHeer* ateaned with him. A manly and patriotlo manifeato waa addre**ed by K*partero to the nation prior to hi* departure for Bngtand ( wliloh thua conclude* i-^''^ mtlitarflnturreetlon, with* out the alifhteit priteiit, coneluded the work oommenoed bjr a mere few i and, aban* doned by tliot* wliom I le often had led to victory, I am compelled to neeU refuse In a foreign land, fervently desiring the felicity of my beloved country. Tu It* juntloe 1 re- commend tho*e who never abandoned the cau«e of legltimaoy, loyal to tha la«t, even in the mo*t oritieai momenta. In theie the etate will ever ind Itl luoit decided a*ii*tanta." Hi* enemie* alao addreiud a mantfeato to the people of Spain, with the alleged view of explaining and JuilKying the revo- lution, ana alto of vlndloatlng themielve* and tboae who eo operated with them In procuring the defection of tha army, and the consequent overthrow of Uipartero, by mean* of foreign gold. On the 30th of Inly, tha dulia of Baylen aa*umed the function! of guardian of the queen and the prince** her *i«ter. The new minittry adopted (he decided course of de- claring queen laabella of aga after the meetiug of the eorte*,wbleb waa appointed to take plaee on the 16th of October) to which propoial the queen gave her eon-> aent. Eipartero left Spain, on hi* voyage to England, on board the Prometheua steam- veasiel; and on hi* arrival at Woolwich he wa* received with marked reipeot by lord Blomtl«ld, eommanilant of the royal arienal, 8ir F, Oollver, &Ci On arriving in London he took up ill* reRldence at Mlvart'e hotel, which wa* lit«rally beileged by visi- tor* of rank, anioti^si. whom were the duke of Wellingron, lord Aberdeen, and 8ir Kobert Peel. The regent siihiteuuently paid a visit 10 her mnjeety at Wiudsori and the cor- poration or London made lam welcome by inviting him to » festive entertalnmant In true civic aiyle, Christina, the qiieen^mntlieri who for a long llnie Imil bt!i«ii living in a hIaUi of exile in France, wa* now |wriitllK!d iu re- turn to tier iiitiive land | and, «aossession, to the American Union. It Is true that the go- verninciit of the United States gave no official coniitenance to these proceedings; on tlie contrary, it took active measures to suppress tliem. Yet In the teeth of the Government, newspapers were established, and meetings were held, with the view of making popular an enterprise, from which, it was said, some higli American function- aries did not keep aloof. In consequence of these measures an expedition was or- ganised ; and on the 19lh of May, 1850, a buccaneering party of 600 men, under a Spanish adventurer, named Lopez, landed ill Cuha. After a short but obstinate strug- gle, they took possession of tlie town of Cardenas; but a day or two afterwards, they were compelled to an ignominious and precipitate Hight in presence of the prompt measures adopted by the governor, and the spontaneous tidelily of the popu- lation. Several of the pirates were cap- tured, but their leader escaped. But instead of bring discouraged by tills striking failure, in little more than twelve months afterwards, another expedition for the same piratical purpose was organised by the same adventurer. On the 3rd of August, 1651, a steamer called the " Pam- pero" left New Orleans for Cuba, stealthily and witliont a clearance, having on board upwards of 400 armed men. After touching at Key West, she proceeded to tlie coast of Cuba, and on the nighl of the 11th and I3th of August, landed her piratical crew at Playtas, within about twenty leagues of Havaiinah. Tlie main body of them proceeded to, and took possession of, an inlantl village, six leagues distant, leaving otiiers to follow in charge of the baggage, as soon as the means of transportation could be obtained. Tlie latter having taken up their line of march, to connect themselves with the main body, and having proceeded about four leagues into the country, were attacked ' on the morning of the I3ih by a body of : Spanish troops, and a bloody conflict en- sued, after wlilch they retreated to the ! place of disembarkation, where about fifty of tliein obtained boats, and re-embarked therein. They were, however, intercepted among the keys near the shore by a Spanish steamer cruising, and after being examined by a military court, were sentenced to be publicly executed, and the sentence was carried into execution on the 16th of Au- gust. Meanwhile the main body of the Invaders, alter some desuerate struggles with the military, dispersed over the island. Louez, their leader, was captured on the 39tli, and publicly garolted at Havaiinah on Sept. i. Many of his followers were killed or died of hunger a;ul fatigue, and about 160 were niade prisoners, and sen- tenced to ten years' hard labour in Spain. Tlie news of the execution of so many American citizens caused great excitement at New Orleans. The Spanish consul tliere was assailed by a mob, his property de- stroyed, the Sp'anish flag that adorned Ids oltice torn in pieces, and he himself ob- liged to flee for his personal safety. But a I 31 M a B O n . H ; THB ItRITISH MINISTER WAS DISMISSED FROM MADRID IN 1848. CSE3 THE DDK! OP BAYLBC DIED : 8BPT. 1859. [638] Ct^ €veHiuxii at ^mavn, ^(. the goTernment of the United Sutei at once look meaiures to atone for thit in- dignity, and thui proved to the Spanish government im lacli of aympathy with the lawlew expedition. Before closing our account of Spain, we must record an incident which nearly proved fatal to tlie Queen of Spain. On the 3nd Feb., 1853, when her Majesty was traversing a long gallery in her palace, on her way to attend a puolic service in the church of Atocha, In tnanlugiving after the birth of her daughter, she was suddenly struck with a knife by an ag^d man, wlio pretended to present her a petition. The assassin was Inimediately seized, and it wvi soon discovered that he was an assistant curate in one of the churches of Madrid. The only motive which he assigned for the perpetration nf this unmanly, not to say Inhuman, deed, was his haired of kinKs. As he had no accomplices, the Queen eX' pre«i8ed a wish that Ills life should be spared ; but, as a warning to oiherH, it was thought advisable to inflict some Kignal punishment on the perpetrator of sucli & crime, and he was couuemued to die by the garotte. is s a <: c z ,i 2 U It LOPEC OAROTTED AT THE HAVANHAH J SElT.l. X861. tia •■NBkAL Asrsot ov ro»TU«AK asaATbi BaiiMaL^a that ot irAiii. THE HISTORY OF PORTUGAL. FoRTtaAii, anciently called Luttfania, ia luppoted to have been originally colonized by tne Phoeniciana and Cartliaginian* ; but was taken poMeition of by the Romans about 2S0 years before Christ, and became t Roman province under the emperor Au- gustus. Towards the beginnini; of the fifth century the Alans, and afterward the Sua- bians and the Visigoths, successively made themselves masters of this country. In the eighth century it'was overrun by the Moors and Saracens, but was gradually wrested from them by the Christiami. Henrr, duke of Burgundy, distinguishing himself by his eminent services against the Moors, Al- phonso VI., king of Castile, gave him his daughter Theresa in marriage, created him earl of Portugal, and in 1110 left him that kingdom. Alphonso Henriques, his son and tuccesaor, obtained a signal victory, in 1 136, over the Moors, was created king by the people; and in 1181, at an assembly of the itates, the succession of the crown was ■ettled. Alphonso III. added Algarve to tlie crown of Portugal. In 1383 the legiti- mate male line of this family becoming ex- tinct in the person of Ferdinand, John I. his natural son, was, two years after, ad- mitted to the crown, and in his reign the Portuguese made settlements in Africa, and discovered the islands of the Azores. In 1482 his great grandson John II. received the Jews who hadbeen expelled from Spain, and gave great encouragement to naviga- tion and discoveries. Afterwards, in the reign of king Emanuel, Vasco de Gama dis- covered a passage to the East Indies by doubling the Cape of Good Hope. In 1600, Brazil was discovered by Don Pedro Alvarez, and the Portuguese made most valuable discoveries in the East In- dies, where they soon erected forts, sub- dued the neighbouring inhabitants, and at the same time carried on a sanguinary war in Africa. The power of Portugal was then at its height ; but in 1580, on the decease of Henry the Cardinal, the male line of the royal family became extinct, and in the succeeding year the kingdom was subdued by Spain. The Portuguese now lost most of the advantages they had obtained under their ownmouarchs; their possessions in the East Indies, in Brazil, and on the coast of Africa, were neglected, and many of them created from them by the new republic of Holland, and by the other maritime powers, : while at home the Portuguese were much' 1 oppressed i but in 1640, they shook off the Spanish yoke, by electing John, duke of Brg^auza, a descendant of the old royal family, for their king. This prince, who atsamed the title of John IV., drove the i Dutch out of Brazil; and from him all the ■ncceeding kinga of Portugal have been de- scended. Alphonso VI. the son of John IV., was dethroned by his brother Peter, who in 1668 concluded a treaty with Spain, by which Portugal was declared an indepen- dent kingdom. This was brought about by the mediation of Charles II. of Great Bri- tain, who had married the infanta Cathe- rine, sister to Alphonso and Peter. In 1706, John V. succeeded to the throne on the death of his father. In 1729 a double mar- riage took place between the courts of Spain and Portugal, a prince of each court marrying a princess of the other court. Although Brazil again belonged to Por- tugal, its former Kreatness could not now have been restored, even had the princes of the house of Braganza displayed as much vigour and wisdom at some of them show- ed good intentions. A commercial treaty had been concluded under the first prince of this line, and in 1703 a new treaty was concluded by the English ambassador, which secured to England the advantagea of the newly discovered gold mines in Brazil. From this time the relations with England continued to become more inti- mate, until Portugal was no longer in a condition to maintain an independent atti- tude in European politics. During the long reign of John V., from 1707 to 1760. some vieour was exerted in regard to the foreign relations, and something was attempted for the promotion of the national welfare at home (the restrictions on the power of the inquisition, and the formation of an academy of Portuguese history, for exam- ple) ; but, in the former case, without deci- sive consequences, and, in the latter, with- out a completion of the plans proposed. On the death of John, in 1750, his son, Joseph I., prince of the Brazils, succeeded him, and the marquis of Pombal, a vigorous reformer, administered the government, to the universal satisfaction of the people. He attacked the Jesuits and the nooility, who during the preceding reigna had exercised a secret influence in the government. The ex- posure of the power of the Jesuits in Para- guay, their conduct at the time of the earth- quake in Lisbon (1755), and the conspiracy against the life of the king ( 1759), led to the suppression of the order: in 1757 they had been deprived of the post of confessors to the royal family, and forbidden the court. Two years after, all the Jesuits were ban- ished the kingdom, and their estates were confiscated. The brave count of Schauen- burg Lippe, to whose services against Spain, in 1760, Portugal was so much indebted, likewise reformed the Portuguese army; but soon after his departure, the effects of his improvements disappeared. TBB BXTKHT OV COAST ANU HIOR MOVNTAINS BBNDRK TBB CMHATK MILUBB. TBI CHIIV >KVITI Of FOBTVSAI. Akl OLIVBI, OUANOII, AND LKMONI. 640 tH^t ^rcaisuri} of l^ifttorp, $cc. On the acceiiion of Maria Franciica laa- bella, eldeit daughter of Joseph (in 1777). the marquis of Poinbal lost the influence which he had posseBsed for tweuty-ttve yean. To him rortuKal owed her revival from her previous lethargy; and altiiough many of his useful regulations did not sur- vive his fall, yet the enlightened views he introduced, and the national feeling which he awakened, were not without permanent effects. In 1793, on account of the sick- ness of the queen, Juan Maria Joseph, prince of Brazil (the title of the prince- royal until 1810), was declared regent: and, in 1799, her malady having terminated in a conflrmed mental aberration, the prince was declared rei;ent with full regal powers, but made no change in the policy of the government. His connexions with England involved him in the wars of thnt country a|;ainst France; and the Portuguese troops distinguished themselves by their valour in the peninsular campaigns. Commercial distress, the accumulating debt, and the threatening language which Spain was com- pelled by France to adopt, led to a peace with France in 1797: but the disasters of the French arms in 1799 encouraged the regent to renew hostilities, in alliance with England and Russia. As soon, however, as Buonaparte had es- tablished his authority, Spain was obliged to declare war against Portugal ; but it was terminated the same year (1801) by the treaty of Badajos, by which Portugal was obliged to cede Olivenza, with the payment of a large sum of money to Spain. Portu- gal, meanwhile, preserved a mere shadow of independence by the greatest sacriticcs, until at last Junot entered the country, and the bouse of Braganza was declared, by Napoleon, to have forfeited the throne ; this most impudent and arbitrary declara- tion arising from the refusal of the prince to seize the English merchandise in his do- minions. The regent now threw liimself entirely into the arms of the Eni;1ish, and on the 9th of November, 1807, embarked for Brazil. Junot entered the capital the next day, and Portugal was treated as a comiuered coun- try. An English force was landed, and, in the northern provinces, numerous bodies of native troops determined to maintain the struggle fur freedom ; a junta was also established in Oporto to conduct the go- vernment. After some hard fighting, the decisive battle of Vimeira took place (Aug. 21, 1808), which was followed by the con- vention of Cintra, and the evacuation of the country by the French forces. During 180C, 1809, and 1810, Portugal was the chief scene of the military contest be- tween Great Britain and France ; and the Portuguese subsequently also took an ac- tive part in the war for Spanish indepen- dence. On the death of Maria, John VI. as- cended the throne of Portugal and Brazil. This transference of the court of Lisbon into an American colony was followed by important consequences ; iirstly, that Brazil attempted to withdraw itself from depen- dence on England; and, secondly, that the colony gradually became a separate state. In Portugal, on the contrary, the influence of England continued, and the condition of the kingdom was not essentially changed. In 1816 John VI. refused to return to Lisbon, whither a squadron under Sir John Beresl'ord had been sent to convey him ; partly, it is said, because he was displeased at the disregard to his rights shown by the congress of Vienna ; partly because the un- popularity of the commercial treaty had alienated him from England; but, proba- bly, still more because he was influenced by the visible growth of a Brazihan party which now aimed at independence. Hence- forward, indeed, the separation of Portugal from Brazil manifestly approached. The Portuguese of Europe began to despair of seeing the seat of the monarchy at Liiilion: the regency there were without strength, all appointments were obtained faom the distant court of Rio Janiero; ni^n and money were drawn away for the Urak,ilian war on the Rio de la Plata; the army left behind was unpaid; in fine, all the mate- rials of formidable discontent were heaped up in Portugal, when the Spanish revolu- tion broke out in the beginning of 1820. Six months elapsed without its communi- cating to Portugal; but in August tlie gar- rison of Oporto declared for a revolution; and, being joined on their march to the capital by all the troops on their line, were received with open arms by the garrison of Lisbon ; and it was determined to bestow on Portugal a still more popular cousiitu- tion than that of Spain. This revolution was unattended by vio- lence or bloodshed. A provisional govern- ment was estabhshed, which, on the Ut of October, formed a union with the junta of Oporto. Count Palmella, the head of the royal regency, was dispatched to Rio Jane- iro with an account of what had happened, aud a petition that the king or the pVince royal would return to Lisbon. The mode of electing the cortes was settled chiefly in imitation of the Spanish constitution; and the liberal party, which was desirous of the immediate adoption of that constitution, obliged the supreme junta (Nov. 11) toad, minister the oath of obedience to it to the troops. Tlie regency of Lisbon, by tlic ad- vice of a Portuguese minister, at once faith- ful to his sovereign and friendly to the li- berty of his country, made an attempt to stem the torrent by summonmg an assem- bly of the cortes. The attempt was too late ; but it pointed to the only means of saving the monarchy. The same minister, on his arrival in Brazil, at the end of ISilO, advised the king to send his eldest son to Portugal as viceroy, with a constitutional charter, in which the legislature was lobe divided into two chambers. He also recom- mended an assembly of the most respect- able Brazilians at Rio Janiero to orjfaiiise their affnirs. But a revolution in that capi- tal speedily brought matters to a crisis; and the popular party, headed by Don Pc- in BOMB OF THB PnOVINCBS TUB TINBTAnnS ABB HIOnr^T PBOnUCTIVK. LBMONI. t«clf from depen- lecondly, that the a tupnrate state, rary, the influence ind the condition Bentiallychaniscd. used to return to ■on under Sir John t to convey hira ; he wan ditpleuBcd vlita shown by the tly because the un- nercial treaty had jiand i but, proba- he wai influenced (f a Braiilian party ^ ependence. Hence- ■ aration of Portugal < approached. The bcgau to despair of lonarrhy at Lisbon! e without strength, I obtained fwm the Janiero; ni^n and ay for the llrai.ilian Plata i the army left (I fine, all the mate- sontent were heaped the Spanish revolu- B beginning of 1820. without its commuDi- iit in August the gnr- red for a revolution i J their march to the pa on their line, were ma by the garrison of leterniincd to bestow ore popular constitu- 8 unattended byvio- A provisional govern- .which, on the Istof ■ion with the junta of lella, the head of the ipatched to Rio Jane- f what had happened, he king or the phnce Lisbon. The mode was settled chiefly m ish constitution ; and ch was desirous ot the of that constitution, junta (Nov. 11) to «4- ■^obedience to It to the of Lisbon, by the ad- ninister.atoncefaitli- ind friendly to the U- ninde an attempt to ■ummoning an assem- The attempt was too to the only means 01 The same miniMer, | IW, at the end of 1320, ,c„d his eldest son to with a constitutional Icicislature was to he tbfc. Healsoreeom- „ of the most respect- io Janievo to ovgawse evolution in that cav • matters to acrid- ly, headed byDonJc- tl PBODUCTIVB. HOI tir^i l^iitortf of Portugal. 641 dro, the kiiiK*! aldcit wn, dcoUrad for the eonitituiion of l'orlUKfti« and th« lopara* lion of Druil At lb* «Niit« timi. On tba Otb of Miireb, IMi, ths urtlclei of the n«w eonitltutlan, leourlttK freednm of person iind pmpurly, tba Uherly of the press, lef»l oquNlitv, utid ibH itbulliioii of privileges, tbti Rdiiiisiiiin of nil cltlsDns tu all ottlces, and tbs Riivtiritltfitty of (be na- tion, were adopted alinuel unHttlmously. There wai more dUerilty of oplnlun con- eerniug tbe orKanUalbiH of tb« cbHinbcrs, ind tbe rovttl veto i but lartfe tiinjorliies fl* nslly deoiued in favour of one elmtnber and • eonditional veto. After eonie disturb- •nees in Braeil, the kln|t tiRlInd for I'ortu- mI, but was not permitted to lend until be bio given bii eoneent to leveral «eti of tbe eortes, inipoiinf restrielioiii oH bl« power. On lending, be inim«d)Ht«lr re- volts against the kins or the eortes, were easily induced to overthrow tlieir own slight work. After a short intt^vval. the posstsnors of authority relapied into tiie ancient imd fatal error of their klnd|»=that of tilacina their security in maintaining unlimited power. A resistanee to the eonitiiittlon, which grew up In the interior of tlia court, was fostered by foreign influence ( and, after a struggle of some niontiii, prevented the nromulgatlon of a eliarler well eoosl- dered and digested. In April, 183^, part of the garrison of Lisbon surroundeu the king's pftlaec, nnd hindered tbe aceegg of his servants to btui i some of bis ministers were inittrlsoned i and tbe diploroatio body, inelutilng tbe papal nuncio, tbe French ambassadors, and tlie Russian as well a* the iiiglisli minister, were the onW means at last of restoring him to some degree of libertf ; wblob was, however, so imperfect, that, by the advice of the French ambassador, the king, ac- companied by his two daughters, (May 9), took refuge on board of an English ship of war in the Tagua, where, with the assist- ance of the whole diplomatic corps, he waa at length able to re-establish his authority. In all the transactions which rendered this step necessary, Don Miguel had acted a most conspicuous part, lie, however, de- clared that his object was to frustrate a con* spiracy, which was on the point of break- ing out, against tbe life of the king and tbe queen; and so well inclined was the king to pardon his son, that he accepted bis explanation, and forgave these youthful faults as involuutary errors. The king, at length, issued a proclama- tion (June 4), for restoring the ancient constitution of the Portuguese monarcliy, with assurances that an assembly of the corles, or three estates of the realm, should be speedily held with all their legal rights, and especially with the privilege of laying before the king, for his consideration, the heads of such measures as they might deem necessary for the public good, for the admi- nistration of justice, and for tbe redress of grievances, whether public or private. To that assembly was referred the considera- tion of the periodical meetings of succeed- ing eortes, and the means of progressively ameliorating the administration of the state. On the 14th of May the king re- turned ashore; and on the 4th of the fol- lowing month he proclaimed an act of am- nesty for the adherents of the eortes of 182U, from which only a few exceptiona were made : on the same dav appeared the decree of June 4, reviving the old consti- tution of the estatee, and summoning the eortes of Lamego. At the same time, the junta for the preparation of a constitu- tion was superseded by another, which was directed to make preparations for the election of the deputies of the old eortes. But Spain opposea the convocation of the old eortes, and the influence of the queen was thus revived. New conspiracies were formed against the king; and the minia- try was divided in its views, princioally In regard to the policy to be pursued to- wards Brazil. In January, 1825, a new ministry was formed ; and a negotiation was opened in London, under the mediation of Austria and England, to adjust the differences be- tween Portugal and Brazil. The Brazilians had tasted independence; and it was soon evident that no amicable issue of such ne- gotiation was possible which, did not in- volve acquiescence in the separation of the two countries. Accordingly, a treaty was concluded, and finally ratified at Lisbon (Nov. 5), recognizing the independence and separation of Brazil; acknowledging the sovereignty of that country to be vested in Don Pedro; allowing the king of Portugal also to assume the imperial title ; and bind- ing the emperor of Brazil to reject the offer » AKOiaHf TiMag *8M fA«t>8 WAS VAMOVS POR ITS OOLDKIf SANDB. • UH. a a K M ■ M a H G> e 642 Vlln EttMuxxi o( I^Utoro, $cc. of any Portugucie colony to be incorporated with bit doraiuioni. The death of John VI. took place March 10, 1836, after having named the infanta Itabella regent; who governed iu the name of the emperor of Brazil, aa king of Portu- gal. In the following month, Don Pedro granted a conititulion, eatabliahing two chamber*, and in otlier respects reiembling the French charter. May 2. he abdicated the Portugutte throne, in favour of hia daughter Donna Maria (he remaining king during her minority), on condition of her marrying her uncle Miguel. But a party was formed, whicfi aiinrd at the overthrow of this constitution, and proclaimed the prince absolr e king of PortuKal. The marquis of Chaves and the marquis of Abrantes appeared at the head of the in- surgents; KDd Spain, which alone had not acknowledged the new order of things, as- sembled an army on the Portuguetie fron- tiers. In this emergency Portugal appealed to England, and 15,UU0 British troops were landed in Lisbon. Thus assisted, the in- surrection was completely put down ; Spain waa forced to yield; and the cortes, which had been convened in October, 1826, closed its session in Marcli, 1837- In July, Don Pedro named his brother Miguel lieutenant and regent of the king- dom, with all the rights established by the charter, according to which the government was to be administered. The prince ac- cordingly left Viennx, and arrived at Lisbon in February, 1828. The cortes was then in session, and, on the 26th, Miguel took the oath to observe the charter, in the presence of the two chambers. But the apostolicala or absolutiatR, to whom the disposition of the regent was well known, already began to speak openly of his right to the throne, and to hail him as absolute king. His mi- nisters were all appointed from that party, encept the count villa Real ; and the popu- lace were permitted to add to their cry, " Long live the absolute king," that of " Down with the constitution. It was now determined that Miguel should go to Villa Viposa, a town near the Spanish frontier, where he could be sup- ported by the troops of the marquis of Chaves, and be proclaimed absolute king; but this project was Irustratcd by the deci- sion of Mr. Lamb, tlie British minister, who counteracted the order for thn departure of the British troops, and prevented the pay- ment of the loan made to Don Miguel un- der the guarantee of the British govern- ment. The cortes, being opposed to the designs of the prince, was dissolved March 14, and the recall of the British troops in April removed another obstacle from his path. He accordingly, on the 3rd of May, issued a decree in his own name, convoking the ancient cortes of Lamego, which had not met since 1697. The military in gene- ral was not favourable to the projects of the prince, and the garrison of Oporto pro- claimed Don Pedro and the charter'. May 18. Other garrisons joined them, and the constitutional army, 6000 strong, advanced towards Lisbon. But they were unable to cnpe with the absolutists, and after sus- taining a severe defeat towards the end of June, the troops either forced their way to the Spanish frontiers, or embarked for England. Thus terminated the Urst ef- forts of the constitutionalists in Portugal, and, with the extinction of that party, the influence of England with the Purtugueae government ceased. Don Miguel now turned hia attention to the consolidation of his power; severity and cruelty were his expedients; the pri'song were crrvded with the suspected, and fo- reign countries were tilled with fugitives. Many noblemen who were known to be at- tached to the cause of the young queen, fortunately made their escape, and «um« of them came to England, where tliey were supported by money sent from Brazil by the emperor, for that purpose, to his am- bassador in London. The cortes met Ji^ne 2.3, and declared Don Miguel lawful king of Portugal and Algarve; chiefly on t'\e grounds that Don Pedro had forfeited liii right by becoming a Brazilian citi^ci/, m.-i was not a resident in the country, am that therefore he could neither succeed to the throne himself, nor name the person who should reign in his stead. On the 4th of July, 1823, Don Miguel confirmed the judg- ment of the cortes, and assumed the royal title. He immediately cstahlialied a tuevial commission to punish all who had taken a Eart in the Oporto insurrection, the mem- ers of the commission being to be paid from the confiscations they should make ; and in the colonics the same course of condemnation was .i.rsued that had been practised at home. Portugal now becamu the prey of politi- cal and religious bigots. In March, 1830, the regencv appointed by Don Pedro, as Kuardian of his daughter, was installed iii Terceira, consisting of Palmella, Villa Flor, and Guerreiro. The other islands were afterwards reduced by the forcea of the regency; and subsequently to the return of Don Pedro to Europe, it was well known that he was making preparations fur dii- placing Miguel from his usurped seat. Meanwhile insurrections repeatedly bruke out at home, but were suppreased by the vigour of the government and the want of concert in the insurgents. In 1830, it waa estimated that the number of priaoneri confined for political causes was above 40,(100, and that the number of persons concealed in different parts of the country was about 5000. In consequence of some acts of violence, and a refusal of redress on the part of the government, a British fleet was sent to the Tagus (May 4, 1831) ; but on its appearance the required con- cessions were made. In July, Miguel was obliged to suffer a second humiliation of this nature ; a French fleet havit'g forced the passage of the Tagus, and taken pos- session of the Portuguese fleet, iu conse- quence of the demands of the French go- vernment, for satisfaction for injuries to French subjects committed by the Portu- AISABSIIfATIOlf IS A CRIUK OF rBiaVKNT OCCUBREIfCX III PODTUGAl,. nil. re unable to d after lui- It the end of ed their wajr imbarkcd for the llrit ef- I in Purtugiil, liat party, the le PortuKueie I attention to ■{ severity and ; the prison! ccted, and fo- \ith fugitivei. nown to be at- young queen, kpe, and Kome hero they were rom Brawl bj >se, to his am- ort c« met Jrne lel lawful kin;; chietly on I'le ad forfeited \m ian citiic!,, fi-" luntry, am l^at succeed to *,lie the person who On the 4th of firmed the judg- Bumed the royal [)1ished a sucuial fho had taken a iction, the mem- leinv to be pnil ey snouldniake; same course of d that had been le prey of politi- In March, 1830, i Don Pedro, a» .was installed ia raella. Villa I'lor, ler islands were iC forces of the iy to the return was well known _ laratious for di«- 1 J i usurped seat. I 5 [repeatedly broke I ". ipprcased by the i • and the want of In 1830, it wai ler of prisoners luses was above iber of persons fS of the country [equence of some ' » ifusal of redresi iment, a DritisU ; « .8 (May 4, 1831); lie required con- j i July, Miguel wai ; Id humiliation of ^ ■et havirg forced , and taken po«- j J fleet, in conse- ! e the French go- 1 , for injuries to ! id by the Porta- 1 1. loBTUGAIi. TBI ITAMAH OriBA II TBB CBIIV THIATHIOAI. ATTKAeTIOR IN lltlOR. Cl^e II^istorQ of Portugal. 643 nuese authorities, not having been com- plied with. In August, an insurrection of the troopa broke out against Miguel. At that time Don Pedro had arriTed in Europe, having embarked on board an English ship of war in the spring of 1H31, and reached Krnnca in June. From thence he proceeded to Uporto, and iinmediutely commenced ope- rations for displacing Don Miguel from the throne, and establishing Donna Maria as queen, under a regency. Previous to this, lar^e bodies of volunteers had em- barked trom llritaiu and Ireland in the cause of Don Pedro, the greater number uf whom were garrisoned in Oporto. Don Miguel, meanwhile, was not inactive, but advanced with IiIk adherents towards that city, which he attitckiid several times with- out success ; on one occasion (Sept. 21, 1H.12) his loss was ISOO men, while that of Don Pedro was not more than a third of the number. In July of the same year, a naval battle took place between the fleet of Don Pedro, under the command of ad- miral Napier, and that of Don Mi|(uel, in which the latter was defeated, with the loss of two ships of 74 guns, a frigate of 66, a store-ship of 48, and two smaller ves- sels. This event, with other successes of the Pedroite party, led to Miguel's aban- donment of the throne, consenting at the ■ame time to leave the kingdom, on con- dition of receiving an income for life suited to his rank. Donna Maria da Gloria was proclaimed queen of Portugal, and in 1835 was married to the duke of Leuchtenberg, ion of Eugene Beauharnois. This prince died in March of the same year, after hav- ing been married about a month. Don Pedro died a few months after his daughter had assumed the regal power : but his short reign was distinguished by two remarkable acts, one of which is likely to have a bcneticial effect on the commerce of the country, the other not less likely to liave ai: influence over the religion and so- cial habits of the people. By the former, the abolition of the Oporto wine company, which was a most injurious monopoly, was effected ; thereby giving the grower a fair recompense for encouraging the cultiva- tion ot the grape, and thus producing wine of a better quality; while, owing to the competition of the merchants wlio export the wine, it could be bought at a lower price. The English being great buyers of port wine, the decree of Don Pedro was therefore advantageous to them, as well as to the Portuguese. We must not, how- ever, forget to state, that the young queen was prevailed upon, in 1838, to grant a new charter of monopoly to the Oporto wine company for twenty years, thereby frus- trating the benelits which wt.re to be ex- pected from its previous abolition. The otlier memorable act of the regent was llie suppresulon of all (h« monasteries ana riinventi In the kingdom, and ||i« Bclzuru of all lands belonging to lliein ; a measure whii'li was cunsldereU as relalla- t(iry for the ssulHtaiice given to Don Miguel by the mmiks, iu'. during Hie ciintrti be- tween tli» rival bi'otliert. This was, not- williiilHiidiiig, an act of iiniiicrllvd sevi^lly ; for altlinugh small iienslont— none exceed- ing llfty pouiiil* a year— were granli'd to tlioM* who had not opi-iily avowed lliein- selves in favour of Don Miguel, It was so cany to accuno tlieni of having done so, that very few actually received the pit- tance. The lands thus coiiiiscaled were ordered to be sold for the benefit of the stale; and after the death of Don Pedro, the cortes divided ihein Info very small lots, allowing labouring people to become the purcliaKei'K on easy terms. Among the buyers were many foreigners, who have settled In Portugal on these small estates, and who, as well as the Portiigneiie pea- santry thus converted Into landed proprie- tors, will oe the nicaiis of promoting in- dtMtry, and thereby Increasing the comforts of a large class of the inliabltants. To imritiie this sketch of the history of Portugal farther Is needless; fur tliough several a(t>fm|its have been made to over- turn ihe existing government, and although the political horizon still wears an unset- tled aspect, the events which Ifave subse- quently occurred present few features of interest to itlie English reader. Tlie last and most striking occurrence in Portu- guese hli-tory, took plaee in April, I8SI, when the Duke de Sahlanha, at Ihe head of a military liisurreciion, overthrew the minlitry of the Count de Thomar, and after a short resistance on the |>art of the Queen, obtained his place, which he sllll Hlh. The Queen's second marriage with a prince of the family of Saxe Coburg must iipt be forgotten ; neither should we omit that i'ortugal. once so conspicuous among the slave-dealing nations of Europe, has followed the exainule of Great Britain, and decreed its total abolition. The government of Portugt.1 is an here- ditary monarchy, with an upper and a lower representative clianiber, botii of which are elective. The cortes meet and dissolve at specified periods, without the intervenllon of the sovereign, and the latter has no veto on a law passed twice by both houses. Each province has a governor, to whom the details of its government are entrusted, but great abuses exist in almost every de- partment, the inadequacy of the salaries leading to the acceptance of bribes. And with regard to the prevalence of crime, it may be truly said, that so common ii as- sassination, and so numerous are thefts, that the law and the police are impotent alike to secure either property or life. Though Portugal has lo^t Brazil, she still retains tlie Azoren, Madeira, Cape de Verd, and Guinea Islands; the settlemenU of .Angola and Mozambique, in Africa; and ^Jiose of Goa Dilli, Macao, &c. in Asia. ■ u M ■ < f 1 e »• M a » o m m H M B M M M H » f ■0 m » r H u a f B H K f TUB MOST ANCIENT FORTtTOUItSB POETS ABK OF THR TWKLPTH CEKTITBT. THE HISTORY OF GERMANY. [AUSTRIAN EMPIRE, GERMAN STATES, Ac] From all that on be collected of the ewljr hietorr of Germany, it appears to have been divided into many petijr natlone and prineipalitiei, some Bovcrned by kinifa whose power was limited, others by such as were absolute; some of their princes were elective, and others hereditary ; and some aristocratical and democraticat go- vernments were also found among them. Many of these states and kingdoms fre- quently united under one head or gene- ral, both in their offensive and defensive wars. This was the state of the Germans be- fore they were conquered by the Romans. At that time the children went naked, and the men hunK the skin of some wild beast upon their shoulders, fastening it with a thong t and persons of the best quality wore only a little woollen mantle, or a coat without sleeves. Their usual bed was the ground, a little straw, with the skins of wolves or bears. Their food was bread, meat, butter, and fruit, as at present, and their drink, water, milk, and beer ; for in those early ages they were strangers to the use of wine. They were accustomed to convivial entertainments, sitting in a semi- circle, with the master of the family in the middle, and the rest on the right and left, according to their quality; but to these feasts no women 'were admitted, nor a son under twenty years of age. They expressed an extraordinary regard for morality, and were very strict in divine worship, choosing their priests out of the nobility, who were not entirely ignorant of moral philosophy and physics, and were usually called to councils of state. Wo- men, we are told, were likewise admitted to the priestly ofHce, and both the one and the other were treated with the most pro- found respect by the laity. The doctrine of transmigration then prevailed in Ger- many ; they believed that departed souls, when they had left these bodies, animated other creatures; and, according as they behaved in this life, were happy or miser- able. Cluverius observes, that they wor- shipped the sun with such devotion, that they seemed to acknowledi^e that planet as the supreme God, and to it dedicated the first day of the week. They also worshipped WodtH, or Godan, after wiiom the fourth day of the week was called Wednesday. It is said that this word Oodan becoming afterwards contracted into God, the Ger- mans and English gave that name to the Deity. They hUo worshipped the god Fa- ranet, the same witii the Danish Thor, the Thunderer, from whom our Thursday has its name. The goddess Friia, or Venui, gave her name to Friday i and Tviim, the same with Afar*, gave name to Tuesday. Like the ancient liritons, they pcrl'urnipd their sacriHccs in groves, the oak hcinfr usually chosen for an altar i and, iuittad of a temple, they erected an arbour iniide of the boughs of the oak and beech. The priests, as well as the sacritlce, were nlwnyi crowned witli wreaths of oak, or of lunie other sacred tree. They sacrificed not only beasts, but men ; and these human SHcri- fices were taken from among their slaves or malefactors. Their belief that tlirir souls should animate other bodies alter death, it is said, made them fear^rai of danger, and upon extraordinary ncda. Inni they made no scruple of sacrinclnJ tlieir own lives. They burnt their dead Dodiei, and, having gathered up the hones and ashes of the tuneral pile, buried tliein to- f [ether ; at the funerals of the great, war ike exercises were exhibited with all the rude pageantry of barbaric splendour, and songs were sung in memory of the heroic actions of the deceased. These were the manners of the Germani before they were subdued by the Rouinni, who met with such resistance, that they were contented with making the Rhine and the Danube the boundaries of their conquests; they accordingly built fortrei- scs, and stationed garrisons on the t)anki of both those rivers, to prevent the incur- sions of what they termed the barbaroui nations : but within about a hundred yean after Constantine the Great, the Fraiilii, Burgundians, Alemanni, and other Ger- man nations, broke through thnae bound- aries, passed the Rhine, and dispoKseiised the Romans of all Gaul, Rhtetia, ond Nori- cura, which they shared among theinBclvea ; hut the Franks prevailing over the rest, at length established their empire over all modern Germany, France, and Italy, under the conduct of Charlemagne, or Charlvi the Great. This celebrated man was crowned at Rome by Pope Leo III. in the church of St. Peter, on Christmas-day, 8U0, aniidit the acclamations of the clergy and the people. Nicephorus, at that time emperor of the East, attended at the coronution ; and these princes agreed that the ataie of Venice should serve as the limit to each empire. Charlemagne now exercised all the autlority of the Ceeiars; the whole country from Benevento to Bayonne, and from Bayonne to Bavaria, acknowledging his power. The Germans had previously been con- verted to Christianity by one Winfred, an Englishman, who also collected them in OVRMaNY COMPniSBS ALL THK C0VNTRIR8 OF CRNTRAL BimOPR. riOHLAII*.' NY. t and Tu<«M, tbt me to TueitUy. )•, they performed 11, the oak beinc tar ) and, iuttead 1 Bn arbour innde k and be^rh. The erlflce.werf nlwuyi if oak, or of tunie •aerittced not only tioc human inert' iniong their ilovei belief that tlicir other bodiei alttr e them fear^cBi of kordinarv ocia. iom of lacrinciiiii tlieii their dead bodiet. up the h(inc( and le, buried thcin to- I of the great, w«r tibited with all tlie laric splendour, and emory of the heroic lieri of the Germani ued by the Rniunni, siiatance, that tliey making the Rhine boundaries of tlieir iiugly built fortrei- isons on the baiikt prevent the incur- .jncd the bartiaroui out a hundred yean Great, the Frunlti, ni, and other Gft- ^rough those bound- [e, and dispoBiemed U, Ehtetia, and Nnri- 1 among themselves; [ing over the rest, at ^eir empire over all ce, and Italy, under imagne, or Cliatlej kn was crowned at in the church of las-day, 800, amidst ■the clergy and the \t that time emperor fat the coronation; Led tliat the stale of Is the limit to each now exercised all ICasars; the whole Ito to Bayonne, and laria, acknowledging Previously been con- [by one Winfied, an collected them in KITBOPR. Cific l^ifttoro oC (StnnanQ. 645 towUi Md that Introduetd tht elemanlt of eiviliMlioB amonnt Ihain. The Basons «(r« mad* Christiana by Charlemagne, after a long and blood* warfare. After tha death of Charlemagne, aud of Louis U Debonnaire, his son and ai.uces- lor, the empire was divided between the four suns of Louis; Lolhaire was emperor i Pepin, king of Aqultaine i Louis, king of Germany i and Charles the Hald, king of Prance. This partition was a continual •ouree of discontent amonft the parties. The French enloyed the empire under eight emperors, until the year 013, when Louis Iir, the last prince of the race of Charle- magne, dying without male issue, Conrad, count of Franconia, son-in-law to Louis, was elected emperor ; but was not ackuow- Icdged in Italy, nor in France. Tne reign of Conrad produced no chfv,i|{e whatever in Germany; but it was about this period that the German bishops flxed tbeinielves in the possession of their flefs ; and many cities began to enjoy the right of natural liberty; following the example of the cities of Italy, some bought these rights of their lords, and others procured them with arms in their bands. Questions affecting the general interests of the Qermanio body were determined in a Diet, consisting of the emperor, the elec- tors, and the representatives of the princes, and of the free cities. There were also mi- nor diets in the different cities or divisions of the empire. It may, however, be proper to mention in this place, that the constitu- tion of the empire has undergone a total ehange. There is no emperor of Germany t the title is sunk in that of emperor of Aus- tria, which that sovereign holds hj inhe- ritance, not election. The ecclesiastical electorates have been taken possession of by lecttlar princes. Bohemia is united to .Initria; the palatinate has disappeared; Saxony is given to the kingdom of Prussia, formerly the electorate of Drandenburf^ ; and the electorates of Hanover and Bavaria are also converted into kingdoms. Most of these changea are the work of the late wars. Conrad was succeeded by Henry, duke of Saxony, whom on his death-bed he re- commended to the states. And in Henry II. the male race of the Saxon kinga and emperors ended, in 1024. The states then elected Conrad II., who, by means of his •on, afterwards Henry III., annexed the kingdom of Burgundy to the empire, ren- dered Poland subject to his dominion, and, in a treaty with Denmark, appointed the river Eider as the boundary of the German empire. Henry III. is regarded as the most powerful an i absolute of the German em- perors. Henry III. deposed three popes who had let up against each other, and supported a fourth against them ; from which time tlito vacancy of the papal chair was always inti- mated to the emjperor, and it became an established form for the emperor to send a deputation to Rome, requesting that a new pope might be elected. Hanrr IV. hla son, was, however, put ander tne ban by the pope, Gregory VII,. and his subjects and son excited to rebel against him \ on which he was deposed by the states. Henry V. succeeded his father, but was obliged to renounce all pretensions to the investiture of bishoprics, which had been claimed by his ancestors ; and in him be- eaine extinct the wale line of the Frank •mnerors. Upon this tha pope caused Lotharius, duke of Saxony, to be elected ; but he was not acknowledged by all Germany for their aovereign till after a ten years' war. Fre- deric I,, who became emperor in 1163, ef- fectually exercised his sovereignty over the see of Rome, by virtue of his coronation at Aries, reserving also hi* dominion over that kingdom, and obliging Poland to pay him tribute and take an oath of allegiance. To him succeeded Henry VI., Philip III., and Otho; the latter of whom, being deposed by tha nope, was succeeded by Frederic II., whom historians extol for his learning, wis- dom, and resolution i he was Ave times ex- communicated b^ three popes; but pre- vailed so far a|[ainst pope Gregory IX. as to depose him trom the papal chair. These continual contests between him and the popes gave rise to the two famous factions of the Ouelphs and Ghihelines; the former adhering to the papal see, and the latter to the emperors. About the middle of the thirteenth cen- tury the empire was rent asunder b^ fac- tions^ each of which supported a particular candidate for the imperial dignity i these were William, earl of Holland ; Henry of Thuringia ; Richard, earl of Cornwall, bro- ther to Henry III. of England; and Al< phonso, king of Castile. At this time the great ofilcera of the household laid claim, to a right of electing the emperor, to the exclusion of the princes and great towns, or without consulting any other members of the empire : the distracted state of the empire served to confirm to them this claim; and Gregory X., who then filled the ponti- fical chair at Rome, either considering such claim as valid, or desirous of rendering it so, directed a bull to those great officers, the purport of which was to exhort them to cnoose an emperor, and by that means to end the troubles in Germany. From that time they have been considered as the sole electors; and their right to this privi- lege was established beyond all controversy in the reign of Charles IV., by the glorious constitution known by the title of the golden bull, published in the year 1307, which decreed that the territories by virtue of which the great officn were held, should descend to the heir.- ni»;le for "ever, in per- petual entail, entire mxd indivisible. Germany began to recover from i*B dis- tracted state in the year 1273, when count Rodolph of Hapsburg, the founder of the house of Austria, was advanced to ihe im- perial dignity. Charles IV. of the Austrian family, lived to see his son Wenzel, or Weiiceilaua, TBI SAKUBB, aniivK, KT.na, oobr, fo, mosellk, bravb, inn, wsaaa, ftc. [-> Ht DBVOBI TOR VHSNCU BVVOLVTIOtf, OKRUAni WAS SITISKD INTO TBN GIBCLSS, 646 ^I)e ^reasuru of 'distort), $cc. elected king of the RomRni. This pririne, who was the fourth son of Charlps, nt liis father's desire succeeded to tlie empire; but, being dissolute and cruel, was deposed, after lie had reigned twenty-two years. Cliarles was succeeded by three other princes, whose reigns were short ; at length, in HI I, Sigismund was unanimously chosen emperor, and in 1414, he proclniniud a ge- neral council to be held at Constance, in which three popes were deposed and a new one was set up. At this council the re- formers, Jolin Huss and Jerome of I'rngtie, were condemned and burnt, although the emperor had j^ranted them a passport, and was engaged m honour and conscience for their safe return to their country; which so exasperated the Hussites of UoheniiH, that they raised a formidable army, and under the'conductof /isca, their general, defeated his forces in fourteen battles. Frederic, duke of Austria, son-in-law to the emperor Sigismund, was chosen empe- ror upon the death of his father, and reigned fifty-three years. His son Maximilian was chosen king of the Romans during the life of his father, and afterwards obtained from the pope the imperial crown. During his reign the empire was divided into leu cir- cles. Charles V., sumamcd the Great, son of Philip, king of Snain, and grandson to Maximilian, was elected emperor in 1610. He procured Luther's doctrine to be con- demned, and in his reign the disciples of that great reformer obtained the nume of Srotestants, from their proteiting against a ecrce of the imperial diet in favour of the catholics. He is said to have been victo- rious in seventy battles: he had the pope and French king prisoners at the same time, and carried his arms into Africa, where he conquered the kingdom of Tunis ; but was disgraced in the war with the pira- tical states. Pie compelled the Turks to raise the siege of Vienna, made war on the protestant princes, aud took the elector of Saxony and the prince of Hesse prisoners; but, after a reign of thirtv-night years, he resigned the empire to his brother Ferdi- nand, and the kingdom of Spain to his son Philip II., himself retiring to the convent of St. Juste, in Spain. The abdication of this prince left the power of the princes of Germany more iirm. The house of Austria was divided into two branches ; one of which reigned in Spain, and which, by the conquests in the New World, had become much superior, in power and riches, to the Austrian branch. Ferdi- nand I., successor to Charles V., had great possessions in Germany: Upper Hungary, which he also possessed, could afford liim little more than the support of the troops necessary to make head against the Turks; Bohc.iiia seemed to bear the yoke with re- f;ret ; and Livonia, which had hitherto be- onged to the empire, was now detached, and joined to Poland. Ferdinand I. distinguished himself by es- tablishing the aiUie council of the empire: he was a peaceful prince, and used to us- sign a part of each day to hear the com- ftlaints of his people. Maximilian II. and lis son Rodolph II. were each elected king of the Romans, but the latter could not be prevailed upon to allow a successor to be chosen in hts life time. Under Maximilian II., as under Ferdi- nand I., Lombardy was not, in effect, in the power of Germany ; it was in the hands of Philip, appertaining rather to an ally than a vassal. During this time, the legislative authority resided always in the emperor, notwithstanding the weakness of the impe- rial power; and this authority was in itg greatest vigour, when the chief of the em- pire had not diminished his power by in. creasing that of the princes. Rodolph II. found these obstacles to his authority, and tlie empire became more weak in bis hands, The philosophy, or rather the elTemi- nacy, of this prince, who possessed pRtti- cular virtues, but not those of a sovereign, occasioned many fermentations. Luther- anism had already spread itself in German; for the space of a century : princes, kings, cities, and nations, had embracedltlis doc- trine. In vain Charles V. and his succei- 1 lors had endeavoured to stop its progress; it manifested itself more and mor" ever; day, till at length it broke all bounds, j and menaced Germany with a general var, I Henry IV. having nullified the measures | of the party formed against the house of Austria, the protcstants and catholics ap- peared reciprocally to fear each other; and nostilities ceased after the taking of ju- liers. Germany, however, continued to be di- vided into two parties. The first, wliich was named the angelic union, had for its chief the elector palatine, united to whom were all the protestant princes, and the greater part of the imperial cities. The se- cond was called the catholic league, at the head of which was the duke of Bavaria. The pope, and king of Spain, joined them- 1 selves to this party ; and it was futtiier strengthened by the elector of Saxony, and the landgrave of Hesse Darmstadt: the first, because he was jealous of the electnr palatine; and the latter, because he had his particular reasons for keeping fair nith the emperor. Rodolph died in 1612- The electoa, after an interregnum of some months, bestowed the empire on the archduke Matthias, bro- ther to the late emperor. This prince had already mounted the thrones of Hungary and Bohemia, as a friend to the protest- ant cause But he had no sooner ascended the imperial throne, than he laid aside the mask, and renounced the reformed religion. It was not long before he received the pro- per reward of his dissimulation. An ir- ruption being made into Hungary bv the Turks, he applied to the protestants for succour, who refused him every assistance. In 1019 Matthias died, leaving no issue. The protestant party used its utmost en- deavours to prevent the empire from falling into the hands of a cathoiic prince, espe- cially one of the house of Austria ; notwith- MOST OP TRI OURAT OVPICRI IR TUB BMFIRB WRRB RBRKDITABT. 1T0 TBM CIRCLKB, day to hear the com- . Maximilian II. and rere each elected kinK ihe latter could not be low a Buccettor to be le. I II., as under Ferdi- ras not, in effect, in tlie it was in the hands of rather to an nlly than ! lis time, the legislative ! Iways in the emperor, i ! weakness of the impe- g authority was in its ^n the chief of tlie em- lished his power by iii- B princes. Rodolph II. es to his authority, and more weak in his hands, or rather the efTenii. e, who possessed parti- ot those of a sovereign, 'crmentations. Luther- ipread itself in Germany century ; princes, kings, had emhracedUlis doc- arles V. and his succes- ! •ed to stop its progress; If more and mor^ every I) it broke all bounds, { nany with a general war. • nullified the meusures | ed against the house of stants and catholics ap- f to fear each other; and after the taking of Ju- ver, continued to be di- irties. The first, which \ngflie «n«on, had for its lalatine, united to whom ;estant princes, and the imperial cities. The se- fie catholic league, at Ihe has the duke of Bavaria. g of Spain, joined ihera- Irty; and it was furtlier [he elector of Saxony, and Hesse Darmstadt: the ■as jealoua of tlie elector ; latter, because he had ions for keeping fair with ■ 1612- The elcctow, after If some months, bestowed archduke Matthias, bro- imperor. This prince had [the thrones of Hungary a friend to the protest e had no sooner ascended kie, than he laid aside the iced the reformed religion. lefore he received the pro. lis dissimulation. An it- Vde into Hungary by the , , jfA to the protestantsforl; Ised him every assistance, i < las died, leaving no issue, i . farty used its utmost en- Int the empire from falling Tf a catholic prince, espc- liouse of Austria ;notwitli- is HKBKnITABT. TBI RATUBAL FIATUBB8 UV AUBTAIA ABK TKRY MAaMIFICRMT. VLf)t l^istorn of ^ermanij. 647 standing which, Ferdinand II., cousin to the late emperor, was elected, and for a time he was the most happy as well as the most powerful monarch in Europe ; not so much from bis personal efforts or abilities, as from the great success of his generals, Walstein and Tilly. The power of Austria menaced equally the catholics and the pro- testants, and the alarm spread itself even to Rome. The pope thought it advisable to nnite with France, iu order to check the growing power of Austria. French gold, and the entreaties of the protestants, brought into this confederacy Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, the o'-ily monarch of his day who had the smallest pretension to the name of a hero. The arrival of Gustavus in Germany, changed the face of affairs in Europe. In 1631 he gained the battle of Leipsic, de- feating general Tilly. Many of the new manoeuvres introduced at that time by the Swedish monarch into the art of war, are even now practised by most of the Euro- pean powers, and are esteemed, by military men, chef-d'oeuvres in military art. Ferdinand, in 1()32, had nearly lost Hun- gary, Bohemia, and the empire ; but his good fortune saved him : his enemy, Gus- tavus Adolphus, was killed in the battle of Latien, in the midst of victory. The house of Austria, which had sunk under the arms of Adolphus, now felt new spirits, and succeeded in detaching the most powerful princes of the empire from the alliance of Sweden. These victorious troops, abandoned by their allies and de- firived of their king, were beaten at Nord- ingen ; and although more fortunate after- wards, they were lest feared than when under Gustavus. Ferdinand II. died at this conjuncture : he left all his dominions to his son Ferdi- nand III. In the reign of this prince the celebrated treaty of Westphalia was so- lemnly signed at Munster, October 2'lth, 1648. It was the basis of all subsequent treaties, and is esteemed as the fundamen- tal law of the empire. It was by this treaty that the quarrels of the emperors, and the princes of the empire, which had subsisted seven hundred years, and the dis- putes about religion, (although of less duration, not less dangerous), were ter- minated. Germany appeared to recover insensibly its losses; the fields were cul- tivated, and the cities rebuilt. Leopold, the son of Ferdinand, succeeded. His first war was very unfortunate, and he received the law by the peace of Nimeguen. The interior of Germany was not materi- ally injured ; but thb frontiers, on the side of the Rhine, suffered considerably. For- tune was less unequal in the second war, produced by the league of Augsburg ; Ger- many, England, Spain, Savoy, and Sweden, against France. This war ended with the peace of Ryswick, which deprived Louis XIV. of Strasburg. The third war was the most fortunate for Leopold, and for Germany : when Louis XIV. had considerably increased his power; when he governed Spain under the name of bis grandson; when his armies not only Eossesscd the Netherlands, and Bavaria, ut were in the heart of Italy and Ger- many. The battle of Ilochstadt, iu 17(14, changed the scene, and every place he had acquired was lost, Leopold died the fol- lowing year, with the reputation of being the most powerful emperor since Charles the Fifth. The reign of Joseph I., his son, was yet more successful than that of Leopold. The gold of England and Ilollniul, the victories of prince Eugene and Die duke of Marl- borough, and his good fortune, rendered hiin almost absolute. He put t6 the ban of the empire the electors of Bavaria and Cologne, partisans of France, and took pus- session of their dominions. Joseph died in 1711, and was succeeded by his brother, Charles VI. Although pow- erful as he was, by the possession of all Hungary, of the Milanese, of Mtintua, of t Naples, and of Sicily, the nine provinces | of the Low Countries, and the fiuurishing | state of his hereditary German dominions, he was obliged to sign, on receiving the imperial crown, an obligation to conserve and augment the rights of the Germanic body. The empire was tranquil and flourishing under the last emperor of the house of Austria. The war of 1716, against the Turks, was principally on the frontiers of the Ottoman territory, and terminated glo- riously. Germany bad clian;>ed its face during the times of Leopold una Joseph ; but, in the reign of Charles VI. it may be said to have arrived almost at perfection. Previous to this epoch, the arts were un- cultivated ; scarcely a house was well built; and manufactures of fine articles unknowu : the thirty years' war had ruined all. The affairs of Charles were uniformly successful until 1/34. The celebrated vic- tories of prince Eugene over the Turks at Temeswar, and at Belgrade, secured the frontiers of Hungary from molestation ; and Italy became safe in consequence of Don Carlos, son of Philip V., having con- sented to become his vassal. But these prosperities had their termi- nation. Charles, by bis credit in Europe, and in conjunction with Russia, endea- voured to procure the crown of Poland for Augustus III., elector of Saxony. The French, who supported Stanislaus, had the advantage, and Stanislaus was elected king. Don Carlos being declared king of Naples, after the battle of Bitonto, took possession also in 1735. Charles, to obtain Seace, renounced the two kingdoms, and ismembered the Milanese in favour of the king of Sardinia. New misfortunes afflicted him in his lat- ter years. Having declared war against the Turks in 1737, his armies were defeated, and a disadvantageous peace was the con- sequence, Belgrade, Temeswar, Orsova, and all the country between the Danube TUB TYROL STANDS PRB-BMINRNT FOR ITS FICTUBKSQCB SCBMERT. TUB MIMKBAL BICHRI Or AUBTBIA AMI BOTH VABIBD AMD IMPOBTANT. 648 ^l^e ^reasum of l^istor^, $cc. and the SaaTe. were ceded to the Turks. He died broken-hearted, in IX'IO. The death of Charles plunged Europe in one general and ruinous war. By the "pragmatic sanction," which he had sign- ed, and which was guaranteed by France, the archduchess Maria Theresa, his eldest daughter, had been named as heiress to all his possessions. This princess married, in 1736, Francis Stephen, last duke of Lor- raine. She solicited the imperial tlirone for her husband, and sued for the iuheri- tance of her father. They were both dis- puted by the elector of Bavaria, who, sup- ported by the arms of France, was elected emperor, in 1742. Charles VII. died in 1745, and was suc- ceeded by Francis I., the husband of Maria Theresa. He died in 1765, and was suc- ceeded by his eldest son, Joseph II., who had been elected king of the Romans the preceding year. When this prince attained to the imperial dignity, he was considered as distinguished by a steady and active at- tention to every department of government ; and he actually introduced a variety of bold and salutary reforms in the state. A noble liberality of mind, and enlarged views of politics, were imputed to him when he rendered the condition of the lower orders of men in his hereditary dominions less wretched and servile, by alleviating that cruel vassalage in which they were held by the feudal lords of the soil; whilst a free and unreserved toleration was granted to all sects and denominations of Christians: but these hopes were frustrated by a more full development of his character, in which, activity without efficiency, enacting laws and abrogating them, forming great de- signs and terminating them in mean con- cessions, appeared conspicuous. On the death of the elector of Bavaria in 1777, the emperor laid claim to a consider- able part of that electorate, founded on a vague right which had been set up, but not contended for, so long ago as the year 1425, by the emperor Sigismund. The king of Prussia, as elector of Brandenburgb, op* posed these pretensions, on the ground of firotecting the empire in its rights, privi- eges, and territorial possessions, against all encroachments upon, or diminutions of them ; but the emperor not being induced by negotiation to relinquish his designs, in 1778 the two most powerful monarchs in Europe led their formidable armies in per- son, to decide the dispute by arms ; nearly half a million of men appearing in the field, to fight for a territory which would have been dearly purchased at the sum ex- pended on one year's support of those vast armies — so little is the ambition of princes regulated by the intrinsic worth of the ob- ject at which they aim ! The kingdom of Bohemia was the scene of action, and the greatest generals of the age commanded; as, marshal count Lau- dohn, on the side of Austria; prin<;e Henry of Prussia, and the hereditary prince (after- wards duke) of Brunswick, on the side of Prussia. The horrors and the ecl&t of war were then expected to be revived, in all their tremendous pomp, but the campaimi was closed without any general action, or any brilliant event whatever; and during the following winter the courts of Peters- burgh and Versailles interposing their good offices to make up the breach, terms of peace were soon adjusted at Teschen, in Austrian Silesia. The territory acquired to the house of Austria by virtue of this treaty extends about seventy English miles, and in breadth is about half that space. The court of Vienna, being thus put into possession of this territory, renounced, in the fullest and most explicit terms, all other claims whatever on the electorate, by which every latent spark that might kindle future contentions and wars wm supposed to be extinguished. In the year 1781, the court of Vienna endeavoured to procure for the archduke Maximilian, bro- ther to the emperor, the election to a par- ticipation of the secular bishoprics of Co- logne and Munster, together with the re- version of the former: this measttrt was strenuously opposed bv the king of ?nii. sia, who remonstrated against it to the reigning elector, and to the chapters, in whom tlie right of election is lodged; but notwithstanding the power of the prince who thus interposed, the house of Austria carried its point. After this the views of the emperor were directed to the restora- tion of the commerce formerly carried on by the ancient city of Antwerp ; and also to invite foreign ships to the port of Os- tend, by which he hoped to render the Aua- trian Netherlands flourishing and opulent; nor was he less attentive to abridge the power of the clergy, and the authority of the church of Rome, ic every part of his hereditary dominions. Joseph II. died February 20, 1790, in tie forty-ninth year of his age, and was suc- ceeded by his brother Leopold II., then gnrand duke of Tuscany, who became em- peror of Germany, and king of Hungary and Bohemia. This prince severely felt the thorns which encompassed a diadem ; although a lover of peace, ne was compelled to wage war with the i'^rench republic ; whilst he saw hit sit- ter, the queen of France, degraded from her rank, kept a close prisoner, and in conti- nual danger of an untimely end ; but death closed his eyes upon these afflictive acenea in March 1791, five months after his ad- vancement, in the forty-foiuth year of hia age. Francis had no sooner been declared emperor, than he joined in the hostilitiea carrying on against France, on account of his hereditary states, as well as the einpire. He soon lost the Netherlands ; and the em- pire all its territory west of the Rhine : the Austrian possessions in Italy followed in 1797. The progress of the French arma was arrested only by the treaty of Campo Formio. A congress was afterwards held at Rastadt, which continued sitting for many months, and at length broke up without procuring peace. During the year \7^i9, the MABBLK, QI7ARTB, PORCRLAIIf, AHD MIIflRAI, DYBS ABB PLBNTIPVIi. [MrOATAMT. I be revived, in all I, but the campai^ y general action, or latever; and during le court* of Peters, [terposing their good le breach, terms of sted at Teschen, in territory acquired to y virtue of this treaty 1 English mile*, and If that snace. I, being thus put into ritory, renounced, in t explicit terms, all ;r on the electorate, tt epark that might itiona and wars was guished. In the yew ienna endeavoured to iuke Maximilian, bro> the election to a par- jlar bishoprics of Co- together with i the re- >r: this measArt was by the king of int- ed against it to the d to the chapters, in lection ia lodged; but I power of the prince the house of Austria ifter thia the views of irected to the restore. ce formerly carried on of Antwerp ; and also ips to the port of Os- jpedtorenderthe Au«. ourishing and opulent; tentive to abridge the , and the authority of it every part of hii (sbruary 20, 1790, in the [his age, and was luc Iher Leopold II., then isany, who became em- [and king of Hungary By felt the thorns which tm: although a lover 01 EUed to wage war with [• whilst he saw his «i«- Ince, degraded from her \)risoner, and in conti. htimely end ; but death 1 these afflictive scenes I months after his ad- brty.fourth year of hH Isooner been declared lined in the hostilities iFrance, on account of T, as well as the empire. kherlands; and the em- west of the Ehine: the I in Italy followed in . of the French arms ■y the treaty of Cainpo I was afterwards held at inued sitting for many Igth broke up without yringtheyearl7!»9.">e| Pt,«I«TlFUl. MOaiO la OULTITATBD WITU RUCCSIt BT ALL CLA8IEB IK aKBMANT. ^{jc ¥]istocQ of ^crmant?. 649 Austrians, joined by the Russians under Suwarrow, penetrated into Italy, and «le- prived the French of the greater pnr. of their conquests acquired by the military skill of Buonaparte. In 18UU, Uuonaparte, havini; returned from Kgypt, raised an army, and crossed the Alps, with a view to recover Italy, lost in his absence. Fortune favoured his arms, and all the possessious of Francis fell into his hands by tlie famous battle of Marengo. Piedmont also submitted to the conqueror, and was, with Fanna, Placentia, and some imperial fiefs, incorporated with France. The peace of Luneville, in 1801, made the Rhine the boundary between France and Germany; the latter thus lost more than 2G,000 square miles of territory, and nearly 4,000,QUU inhabitants. The Austrian monarch founded the hereditary empire gf Austria in 1804; and the first consul of France was declared emperor of the French, under the title of Napoleon I. Austria and Russia soon after united against Napo- leon; and the peace of Fresburg, which took place on the 26th of December, 18U5, terminated the war, iu which three states of the German empire, Bavaria, Wirt em- berg, and Baden, had taken part as allies of France. In the following year, sixteen German princes renounced their connexion with the German empire, and entered into a union under the name of the confedera- tion of the Rhine, which acknowledged the emperor of France as its protector. Thia decisive step was followed by a second. The German empire was dissolved; the empe- ror Francis resigned the German crowu, re- nounced the title of emperor of Germany, and declared his hereditary dominions se- parated from the German empire. The first year of the existence of this "confederation" had not elapsed, when its armies, united with those of France, were marched to the Saale, the Elbe, and the Oder, against the Prussians, and afterwards to the Vistula, against the Rus|ians. Alter the peace of Tilsit the confederation was strengthened by the accession of eleven princely houses of northern Germany. The kingdom of Westphalia was established, and Jerome, the brother of Napoleon, put upon the throne. Four kings, five grand dukes, and twenty-five dukes and other princes, were united in the new confede- ration. The peace of Vienna increased its extent and power. The nor.h-weslcrn parts, how- ever, and the Ilanseatic cities, Bremen, Hamburg, and Lubeck, were united with France in 1810. When Napoleon, in 1812, undertook his fatal expedition to Russia, the contingents of the Rhenish confedera- tion joined his army ; and not less than about 100,000 Germans found their graves in the snows of Russia. The Russians pur- sued their advantages to the frontiers of Germany. Prussia, wearied with her long sufferings, joined them with enthusiasm, ami, at the same time, some of the states of the north of Germany united with them. Lubeck and Hamburg rose against the French, and nil Germany was animated with the cheering hope of liberation, Aus- tria next joined the grand alliance; and the war, owing to the enthusiasm of the peo- ple, soon assumed a most favourable ap- pearance for the allies. On the 8th of Oc- tober, 1813, Bavaria joined the allied arms; and, ten days afterwards, the battle of Leipsic destroyed the French dominion in Germanv, and dissolved the confederation of the Rhine. The king of Wirtemberg, and the other princes of the south, soon alter followed the example of Bavaria ; and after the battle of Hanau, Oct. 30, the French army had re- treated over the Rhine. Everywhere iu Germany the French power was now anni- hilated: neither the kingdom of Westpha- lia nor the grand-duchy of Berg any longer existed. Throughout Germany immense preparations were made for the preserva- tion of the recovered independence. The victorious armies passed the Rhine on the first days of the following year, and all the territory which the French had conquered from Germany since 1703, was regained and secured by the events of the campaign in France and the peace of Paris. It was sti- pulated, by the articles of the pca^e, that the German states should be independent, but connected together by a federative sys- tem. This provision of the treaty was car- ried into effect by the congress of Vienna, Nov. I, 1814, and by the statutes of the Germanic confederation in 1815. In the new system of Europe, established at the congress, in 1813, and by the treaty concluded with Bavaria, at Muni-cli, in April, 1816, the Austrian monarchy not only gained more than 4238 square miles of territory, but was also essentially im- proved in compactness; and its commer- cial importance was increased by the ac- cession of Dalinatia and Venice. The in- fluence of this power among the states of Europe, in consequence of the coiigrrsa of Vienna, ns the first member of the . reat quadruple alliance (changed, by the eon- gress of Aix-la-Chapclle, to a quintuple alliance), and as the head of the German confederation, has since been gradually increasing. Of the foreign affairs of the government, the most important is the con- nexion of Auiitriii with the Oernian con- federation. The termination of the war with Russia, or, as it in called in Germany, " the war of liberation," ri'storcd Geniiiiiiy to its geo- graphical and polilical position in Kurope, ut not as an empire ackiiovvleilgiiig one sii- fireme head, A conftderali >n ol' tliiny-five ndependcnt sovereiiriis and f»ur iVee cllles has replaced tlie elective niiniarcliy, that fell under its own decrepitiule. In the choice of the smaller princes, Vh» were to become rulers, as well as of tliose who were obliged to ilesiciul to the rank of siibiecls, more alleiilloii was paid to t'umlly and political i-oniiei-li'.n tlian to llie old lerrltorial dlvislonh under the empire. The clerical fiels, ami tlie greater part of llie free imperial cities, were liieorpcirati'd into the estates of the more powerful princes. < B » a LITBRATUBK AND TUB FIISB AHTB OS.NEUALLY AHS MUCU MSOI;RCTED. [:l .1/ 3 INiUIIHBCTION AT BERLIN: MARCH 18. 1848. 650 Cbe CrfaKurp at W^tavti, ^u upon the dtiwn.uiioii ot llie ompire, nnd were not re-i!)iUlill»li«ed to abrogate, suipend, and act In opposition to tlie " conNiitutionii" enjoyed by the minor states on every emergency, wlikh ajtpeared lo , tliem to call for an exercise ol^ repressive I antiiority. The natural fruits of tills brcHch of faith lioon showed Ihumselves. Tlie Ftu- denls of tliu universities, and In many instance* the profeiisors, became tlie deter- mined enemie* of the ruling powers. The men of llterafnre anditclence winced under the galling cen*or*lilp to which they were subjected i and the niasi of the people, having been rendered by ilieir schools capable of feeling, rea^llng, ami iliinking, ihorougiily ayinpathi*ed with the classes before named, and all demanded freedom. In tills manner the Intelligence and physi- cal force of Oermnny were nearly unani- mous in the ojtinion lliat Iheir Sovereigns had broken failli witli lliem, abused llieir coiiDdcnce. and, in return for all their sacrillccs, hud trenleii tliem with liaishiieHS,, Indignity, and iiijuiitice. Even «o late as iN44, a conference look glace at Vienna, ol* olenipoicntlaiiis of tiie { rurman iit.tle*, for llie avowed siippressinn of a powerful bmly of malcontents, whom Prince Metternlch described as hostile to all authority ; tending to disturb ail social relations, either public or private: and which would, if left unchecked, Anally de- prive certain princes of all roonarchical authority. This congress was, therefore, convened by tlie sovereign princes and free towns of Germany, to provide against the slightest change in the existing order of things. In these clrcumstancea. the French Re- volution of February 1848 burst forth like a volcano. It operated throughout Ger- many like an electric (park applied to combustible materials. The people, the students, and, in many .islances, tiie Pro- fessors, rose, and, wi'th tiie tacit sanction of the middle ranks in general, rebelled againot Ihe Sovereigns and demanded liieir political rigiits. The soldiers, in almost all Ihe German states, partook of tlie common sentiments, and offered either no, or only a brief and feeble, resistance. The Sovereigns saw llieir power vanish like a sliadow. In Vienna, on the I3th of March I84B, the cry was uttered. " Down with Metter- nlch," and, on the 14th, Prince jjlciter- nich was a fugitive, and tiie city in the hands of the students and the burgher- guard. The Emperor hesitated, and on isth May there was a second rising, In which the people triumphed. Tiie court then promised reformed Institutions, and subsequently appointed a so-^'ailed liberal roinlsler lo carry tiiem into effect. On Ihe I8lh and 19th March the people of Berlin rose in arms. In the konig'g Sirasse, where the chief contest ensued, tiie words " Respect private property," were posted on every shop, and on the city clianibers were inscribed, " Pnblic properly." The Government was beaten, few excesses were committed, the King promised free institutions, and tranquillity was restored. Political movenientH took filace at the same lime in Bavaria, Saxony, lanover, and liie other minor German States, and everywhere Ihe Sovereigns prostrate before Ihe popular power, acceded to the demands of their subjects. Theie demands were limited to representative constitutions, freedom of the press, gua- ranlees) against personal arrest except nn the warrant of a court of justice, trial by jury, publicity of judicial proceedings, and other constitutional privileges, which in England are reckoned Ihe birtliright of Mie humblest individual. These having been conceded, Ihe Sovereigns were lett In undisturbed possession of Iheir thrones. Simultaneously with these occurrences, a self-constituted assembly of political Reformers met at Heidelberg, to devise neans for obtaining a new Constitution for confederated Germany, in place of the obnoxious diet, which the princes cjn- seiited to abolish. They had two grand ob- jects In view. To secure a due represen- tation of Ihe people in the Confederated Government, and by means of lliisgotern- ment to render Germany a great and united political power. Their laboursemlcd in the election, by nearly Universal Suf- frage, and with tlie consent of tiie Sove- reigns, of a certain numlier of depnlles from each of the confederated States, wlioj nAMDURO, I'llANKVOttT, LtJDBCK, AND BREMEN AKB FREE TOWNS. =1 rlbed as hoatile to disturb all social > or private: and becked, finally de- tf all monarvliical gs was, therefore, gn princes and free jrovide against the ! existing order of e«, the French Re- ts burst forth like a throughout Ger- j spark applied to The people, the .■stances, the Pro- h the tacit sanction n (fcneral, rebelled and demanded their uldiers, in almost all took of the common 1 either no, or only a nee. The Sovereigns I like a shadow. In of March 1848, the Oown with Metier- Uh, Prince V''"ef- and the city in the g and the bHri?her-| r hesitated, and onj a second rising, in uniphed. The court ned Institutions, and :d a so-called liberal ii into effect, ith March the people ms. In the konig's hief contest ensued. I private properly," rv shop, and on the 'inscrVbed, "Public ernnient was beaten, conimitied, the King tions, and tramiuilliiv [cal movements tooli 6 in Bavaria, Saxony, ither minor German lere the Sovereigns, ^ .pularpower,accuded a .heir siibjecls. Tliese led to representative m of the press, gua- ,nal arrest except on rt of justice, trial by Icial proceedinp, and privileges, which In ,ed the birthright of Lai. These having i ISoverelgns were letil (sion of their thrones, h these occurrences, issembly of poliiical leldelberg, to devise a new Constitution [many, in place of llie ch the princes con- ley had two grand ob- cure a due represeii- i in the Confedi'raleil means of this goNcrn- rmany a great and ■•. Their labours ended [nearly Universal Suf- consent of the Sove- I number of deputies Ifedera ted Slates, who [free towns. TRB ARCHDUKE JOHN OF AUSTRIA BLBCTBD "REGENT:" JUNE 29. 1848. €\)e W^tar^ at (tsrvmanji. 6.51 met in Frankfort a* a German Parliament, with power to frame a Constitution for liie Confedefat-'on, and to constitute Ger- many, In her forelen relations, a single, powerful, and united State. On the 29th of June IB48, the Parliament chose the Archduke John of Austria as the head of United Germany, under the title of the " Reichsverweser," or " Lieulenant>Ad> mlnlsirator of-the Empire." " The Elec- tion was received with universal acclama- tion. Fires-of-Joy blazed on every hill, cannon thundered, the public greeting of the Constitution, and thousands of voices iliouted forth in jubilee, ' Hail our German Fatherland ! ' " Immediately after the installation of the Reichsverweser, the German pariiaineiit commenced its labours of framing a consti- tution. Bv this scheme, the couiiiries com- nlng, till that period, the Germanic con- eratlon, together with SchlcMvlg, and the provinces of the Eastern and Western i'russla, were all io be fused into one grand, free, fraternal empire of Germany ; the so- vereignties at present existing witiiin these territories being limited and subordinated up to the point which the perfection of im- perial unity might be found to require. Thii» empire was to be hereditary, and its capital was to be Frankfort on the Maine. The em- peror of Germany was to be maintained In his dignity by a civil list, voted by the Ger- man parliament ; he was to have tlie execu- tive in allaffainof the empire, and to nomi- nate and appoint all officers of the slate, of llie army and navy, and of the staff of the national guard. In the imperial power, as constituted by this emperor and parliament, would be vested all the international re- preseiiiation of Germany with resiiect to foreign states, the diS))osal of the army, the riglil of conducting negotiations and con- cluding treaties, and of declaring peace or war. The parliament was to consist of two houses; the upper constituted by the thirty- three reigning sovereigns (or their de- ptties), by a deputy from each of the four free towns, and by a complement of as many imperial councillors, with certain qnaliAcations. as should raise the whole chamber to the number of 600 members: the lower by representatives to be elected by the people in llxed proportions, but by methods to be determined by the respective states. Provision was also made for the es- tablishment of supreme and imperial courts of judicature with ample powers, vast fields of operation, and most effective machinery. But long before this gigantic scheme could be matured, the proceedings of the German parliament were thrown into a different channel by events to which we must now briefly advert. Sclileswig and Holstein are two duchies, which, by hereditary descent, have come to be connected with the crown of Den- mark, as Hanover was with that of Eng- land. But the king of Denmark is Avke only of Schieswig and of Holstein, and their German laws and constitution have remained unchanged during all the period of their connection with Denmark. In Holstein the succession has always been limited to heirs male ; and as in some an- cient charters there was a clause declaring the union between Holstein and Schleswig indissoluble, the Germans, in the near pros- pect of the crown of Denmark falling into the female line, had, for a long period, been eager timt measures should be adopted to the effect that the duchy of Schleswig should follow the succession of the duchy of Hol- stein, and that all political connection be- tween Denmark and the duchies sliould cease. To this arrangement the Danes were naturally hostile. This question had at- tracted great attention in lS46and 1847, and some opposition was offered to the central- ising tendencies of Christian VIII., because it was thought that the measures of the court were directed against the natioiiality of the dnchles. The accession of the present sovereign, followed by an attempt to em- brace Ills different possessions under one constilution, increased the discontent of the Gerp.ian party in Schleswig-HoUtein. To alter the connection existing between the duchies, and to propose to treat either of them as integral parts of the monarchy, was resented as an attack upon the rights of the country, and as an attempt to extin- guish the nationality uf the duchies. During this exasperated state of feeling the French revolution of February, 1848, opportunely broke out. The momentary success which attended it, stimulated the German parly in tlie Duchies to throw oft' the Danish yoke; and a provisional government was at once proclaimed. Though it appears singular that the governments and the people of Ger- many should have seriously set to work to invade an ancient monarchy for the benefit of an empire which never existed, yet so it was— the Kingdoms and the principalities of Germany took up thequarrel. The Assembly at Frankfort aided the insurgents both by word and deed. Troops from every c|uarter were hurried to the assistance of^a "kin- dred race;" and General Wrangel, at the head of a considerable army, occupied Jut- land, and raised enormous contributions from the unfortunate inhabitants. It Nvas in vain that lite king of Denmark, who, as duke of Holstein, was a member of the Germanic Confederation, protested against the invasion of his rights. Tlie Germans, from the Rhine to the Oder, had set their hearts upon making Germany a naval power, and were determined to acquire the harbour of Kiel, together with a large por- tion of the Danish coast. Tlie Danes, how- ever, manfully resisted : though compelled to retire from their continental dominions by the superior numbers of the invading army, they intlicled no small loss on the enemy by blockading the German ports. Denmark then applied to Russia, Fnince, and England, her allies, for fnlfllment of treaties guarantceinir to her the integrity of her dominions. *Tlic danger of a general European war became imminent; and the Prussian government, which, up to that moment, had been the chief instigator and support of the insurgents, found it neces- sary to consent to an armistice. This ar- mistice was concluded at Malnio, Aug. 26, and was to last for seven months. It virtu- ally put an end to the war; for though it again broke forth, and raged with great violence during the spring and summer of the following year, the combatants were con- THB GERMAN UNIVERSITIES ARE THb CHIEF SEAT OF " I,!BERAL1SM. ' THE " REGENT " UESIONED HIS FUNCTIONS : OCT. 184!). H H H < 6.52 €^t ^xtaiuvxi of W^tar^t ^r. filled almost excliistvely to tlie Holatelflera and the Dane* ; the German KuveriiMieiit« having nieanwhilo abandoned a cause to wliicli tliey had lent themselves at lirst with unexampled eagerness. The Assembly at Frankfort, aftera stormy debate, approved of this armistice, but by a small niajurity. The liberal meniburs, with Dalilmann at iheir head, loudly expressed their indignation, which found a powerful echo out of diiors. Meetings were held out- side the town, at which it was resolved that those who had ratified " the infamous ar- mistice of Malino were traitors against the majesty, liberty, and honour of the German people;" and a deputation was appointed to inform them of this resolution. The arch- duke John was now officially informed that the senate could not preserve the |ieace of the town. His minister of tlie interior. Von Schiueriing, forthwith summoned Austrian, Prussian, and Bavarian troops to Frankfort; and when the populace began to erect bar- ricades, and throw stones at them, the town was declared in a stHte of siege. At length the coiiHict began by an attack on one of the barricades, at which the ominous red flag was displayed. One barricade after another was carried under a galling Are from behind them and the houses. Artillery had to be called for, and employed against some; but br midnight all resistance was at an end. Martial law was proclaimed. This insurrection was marked by some in- i cidentt more than usually atrocious. As Prince Lichnowsky and Major Auerswald i were attempting to reason with the insur- { gents, they were fired upon, mortally i wounded, and then barbarously cut and hacked. The decline of the Assembly may . date from this day. In the midst of these complicated trans- | actions, the important question as to the : Prince on whose head the imperial crown i should be placed, could no longer be de- ferred. A large majority of the National Assembly voted for the kin^ of Prussia; and a deputation was appointed to fo to Berlin to apprise his Majesty of the vote. But the king, who had so often appeared anxious to seize the imperial crown, now declined it until the princes of Germany should have made known their views. This answer pleased no party. Austria did not rind the refusal sufficiently distinct; and the Frankfort Assembly saw in it a proof that a rupture was at hand. Then followed a series of complicated events, in which the German parliament disap- peared. Austria, througli her minister, Nl. de Schmerling, declared that the As- sembly had exceeded its powers; that it had not been nominated to dispose of the empire, but to frame a constitution for the approval of the different governments; filially, that the Assembly no longer existed, and that (he Austrian deputies might con- sider their mission at an end. Tlius abandoned by Prussia, and attacked by Auiitria, the German parliament was at a Inss where to turn to for support. Many uf the most distinguished inembcrs, who had had faitli in the mission of the parliament, lost courage, and one by one resigned their fuiictiniis, and thus left the llelil open to the wild and revolutionary spirits whom they had hltlierlo kept In check. Lift to the freedom of their own will, they at uiiee proceeded to depose the archduke Jolni, who, however, took no heed of their depo' sition ; and at lengtti, on the 30th of May 1849, they resolved to milt Frankfort, aiia removed to Stuttgart. There they CoriiitU iiotliiiig but a t'lub, and the first German parliament received its death blow from the j)olice agents of the king of Wuitemberg. riie rev lutionary deputies then dispeised over Germany : and we And iheni taking part in all the insurrections of which Dres- den, Leipsic, and Uaden, were shortly alter- wards the bloody stage. The king of Prussia, now acting under the counsel of General Radowitz, at- tempied to obtain by diplomatic means what he had rejected when presented by the popular will. But It would far exreed our limits to detail the policy to whicli he j had recoui'he to e 7ect his object. SiiAii'e I it here to state, that the various scliemcs which he adopted had no delinite result, I save to revive, in all Us force, the fierce struggle for supremacy that had long ex- isted between Austria and Prussia. t'"ussia, by convoking at Erfurt certain \e ectej deputies as a central parliament, in lieu of the Frankfort parliament already hastening to an end, had recognised the political existence of the people, and their riglit to participate in framing a federal constitntioii, Austria, on the other hand, refused to allow her subjects to elect deputies to that as- sembly, and protested against the character of a federal parliament given to it by Prus- sia. Austria argued that as the Frankfort parliament, to which she had consented, w,ts dissolved, the old diet revived as a matter of right. Prussia resisted this view, and maintained (hat the diet was for ever ex- tinguished, and that, on the dissolution of the Frankfurt parliament, the field was once more open to the reconstruction ol' a new federal constitution. But, in defiance of the protest of Prussia, the diet at Frank- fort was once more convoked, the plenu% announced to be complete, and (he iisiiaT recognition by foreign powers furmally de- manded. The German people were in de- f.pair. The king of Prussia was regarded as their only, although a forlorn hope; and they longed for some event wliicli, by uniting them, might once more enable them to vindicate their own political ex- istence and their rights. Such an event most unexpectedly oc- curred. The electorate of Hesse Cassei was one of the minor German states which enjoyed a constitutional goverinneni. For eighteen years it had been in full opera- tion ; and through its instrumentality many beneficial measures hud been iiilioduced. But the chambers having, in I8j0, de- clined to vote certain taxes, the elector dis- solved them, and in flagrant viohilinn of the constitution, proceeded to levy (he taxes by his own sovereign authority. But llie individuals, from whom tuxes were illegally demanded, apftlied to the supreme civil court, and received from it an injnnclion to restrain the collector. 'I'liis broujflit the sovereign and tlie supreme court, as representing the law and llie constitution, into collision, and the people niiiveisally THB PEOPLE OP HESSE CASSEL SUBJECTED TO GALLING TYRANNY IN 1850. 1849. r. in check. Lift lo iiwHI,lli«y lit once le ari'liduKe Juliii, lieea of llieir ilepo- III the 301I1 of May, iiilt Frankfort, uiid Tliere tliey foriiifa d the first German death blow from the ng of WuttenibLrg. iitie* then dlspeisud ,e find them taking tlon» of which Dies- n, were shortly alter- 1' now acting under •ral Radowllj;, at- » diplomatic meant ■ when presented by U would far exceed ! _ e policy to whicli lie 1 J t his object. Siiftire g the various schemes q id no deliuite result, ' 5. lU force, »he fierce 1 z icy thai had long ex- 1 •« and Prussia. iP-iissia, - rfurt certain \e ecleJ - parliament, in lieu of » lent already hasteiiins!- •omilsed the polilKal , i pie, and their right to j, r a federal constitution. 5 hand, refused to allow t deputies to that as- d against the cliaracter ■nt given »»'"'y ''.'"• that as the Franklort she had consented, WIS let revived as a mailer lesisted this view, and diet was for ever ex- . on llic dissolution ot ament, the field vvai the rtcoiisiniction ot a ition. But, in dehaiice i88ia,thcdietat tiauk- convoked, the plenuim Lniplele, and the usual tn powers formallj ue- Pan people were in dc- ■• Pi-ussia was regarded 'h a forlorn hope; and inie event wliicli, liy | hit once more enable Ihclr own political cx- lost uneNPcctcdly oc- orate of Hesse Cassel ,r German states wlncli inal government, l'"r id been in full opera- 18 Instrumeiilaliiy niMJ had been iiilriiduoedr 1 having, ill ISf'.'^f. n taxes, the c ector d « Iflaerant violation ol tue ■ded to levy the taxes g„ authority. B[«t > e ,om taxes were illegallJ to the siipreme enn from it an iujmuiion [Hector. ■Ibis broui;!. the supreme court, .« V and the coi.sliiutio", |lhe people universally ItyRANNYIN 1850^ DEFEAT or TUB H0LSTBINBH8 AT ID8TB0T : JULY 25. 18,50. Clie W^toxn at Hermann. 653 rallied round the constitution. Tliey re- nialned perfectly quiet, but offered a deter- niiiied passive resistance. The elector Hed to Fulda.and there proclaimed martial law, appointed a comniander-ln-chler. and or- dered him to colieci the Imposts oy military execution. The officers of the elector's army resigned their commissions, a>' 1 he was forced to disband his soldiers He then applied to the confederate scvK-reigns to reduce his subjects to obedience. Austria and Bavaria at once responded to the call, and induced Wttrtemberg to aidlliem. The German people, with one voice, appealed to tlie king of Prussia, who ivarclied his troops to the confines of Hesse-Cassel to support the constitution. The soldiers of Austria and Bavaria approached by another line to enforce the dictates of the elector's irresponsible will. 'I'o give effect to his de- monstration, the king of Prussia sum- moned hit chambers, and called out his landwehr, or the whole military force of his kingdom. The chambers, his army, and people, responded to the call to war with | acclamations of joy ; and a conflict seemed inevitable. The whole German people gave indications of participating in the same ■piril. The agilatlon was universal ; and the sovereign speedily discovered that, if the sword were once drawn, it would be a war not of Austria against Prussia, but of the people of all the German states, and of Bohemia, Hungary, and Lombardy, against their kings I Ttie rulers stopped short on the brink of the precipice. I'be king of Prussia suddenly prorogued his chambers, and on the 39lh of November, iSjO, Prince Schwarzenberg, representing Austria, and Baron Manteuifel, the minister of Prussia, met at Olmiitz, and adopted propositions for " solving," as they termed it, " the pend- ing difierences " regarding both Holstein and Hesse-Cassel. 1 he solution was very simple. These sovereigns agreed that all the German princes should name two com- missaries, whose office shall be to force Denmark and Holstein to make an arrange- ment, and also to force the elector and his subjects to come to terms; and in the meantime, in order to establish, "in the electorate of Hesse as well as in Holstein, a legal state of things responding to the principles of the diet," and which should "render the fulfilment of the federal duties posi'ible," Prussia agreed to Join Austria in occupying Hesse, and in sending commis- saries to Holstein. to call on "the Stadt- liolderate (the Holstein people), in the name of the diet, to cease notlilitles." These resolutions were soon afterwards carried into effect ; and from that moment the revolutionary flame which burst forth In 1B48, and bail continued to burn with more or less Intensity for two years, may be said to have been extinguished. The subsequent history of Germany possesses little interest for the English reader. Suf- fice it to state that the old diet at Frank- fort has been reinstated with its former authority ; and during the last two years repeated conferences have been held at Dresden, Berlin, Vienna, and elsewhere, for the purpose of regulating the internal com- merce of the different German states, and arranging other weighty matters. But so far from these conferences having tended to cement the Interests of the different gnvernments, the contest for supremacy be- tween Austria and Prusiiia still rages so vio- lently, that even tlie Zollvereiii, w liose grand uii^/yiiig infiuence has for many years ope- rated so beneficially on the material in- terests of Germany, is now threatened with dissolution. Thus have all the expectations that were formed from the events of 1848, been doomed to disapnolntnicnt ; but we have reason to believe that the fundamental ideas — the right of the people to be repre- sented in tlie Federal Governnienl, and the advantages of a union of all the States— re- main as strongly Impressed on the national conviction, and as deeply imbedded in the national affections, as at any period of the Revolution. The following territories, with the popu- lation of eacli, according to the statistics of \Boif are comprised lu tii« present German conlederatloii : -• I. 3. 3. 4. S. 8. 7. 8. 9. 10. II. 13. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 30. 31. 33. 33. 34. 35. 36. 87. 38. 39. 30. 31. 33. 33. 34. 35. 36. SMes, Population. Austria ..... 11,800,000 Kingdom ot Prussia . . 13,330,000 . , Bavaria . . 4,500,000 . . . Saxony . . 1,836,000 . . . Hanover . . i,7S8,0uo . . . WQrtemberg . 1,743,000 Grand duchy of Baden . . l,36-,2,floo Electorate of Hesse . . 733,000 Hesse Darmstadt ... aS3,000 Duchy of Holetein . . 536,800 Grand duchy of Luxemburg 389,oi)0 Duchy of Brunswick . . 368,000 Granu duchy of Mecklen- burgh Schwerln . . . 534,000 Duchy of Nassau . . . 418,600 Grand duchy of Saxe-Welroar 36i,ooo Duchy of Saxe-Coburg Gotha i47,ooo . . Saxe-Meiningcn . 163,000 . Saxe-Altenbui'g . 139,000 Grand duchy of Mecklenburg Strelitz .... 96,300 .... Oldenburg and Kniphausen . . . 378,000 Duchy of Anhalt Dessau . 63,700 . . Bernburg . . 48,800 Kothen . . . 43,100 Principality of Schwarzburg- Sonderhausen . . . 60,000 . . . . Rudolstadt . 69,000 . . . Liclitenslein . 6,350 . . . . Waldeck . 58,700 . , . . Reuss (elder branch) . 33,000 . • . . Reuss (younger branch) . 77,000 , . . Schanmb'urg- Lippe . 38,000 . . • . LIppe Det- mold . . 108,000 Landgravate of Hesse-Honi- burg . . . . '. 34,000 Free city of Lubeck . . 47,000 . Frankfort . . 68,000 . . Bremen . . 73,800 . . Hamburg . . 188,000 Total 41,000,000 I ^ GREAT CONVERBNCES OF THE GERMAN SOVEREIGNS IN 1851 AND 1852. IN TYROL THE GERMAN COSTUME IB EXTREMELY I'ICTURBSQUB. i 654 €i)c €rsn^\irii at W^taviit ^c. HUNGARY. Thb Iliiiig are described by (be old hl«- toriniiH ax a natinii a( fvrocloiis savnireS) enianaliii); from Scytliin, or Westerii 'lar- tury. They lived upon roots, and litsli, half raw; ihey had neither honst's nor cities; and their wives and children dwelt under tents. They louji^lit witiiout order, and without discipline ; and trusted nuu-h to the Hwirtni'Ks of their horses. Thev do not appear to have been known to the Koinans, until about the year 209 of the Christian era, at wliicli time the Romans called them Paiinouians. Tiie people of llunj^ary consist of seven distinct races, viz, Mnj^yars, Slowacks, Cro- asians, Germans, Wallachiaiis, Kusniacks, and Jews ; of wlioni tlie Magyars are by far the most considerable. In their own country their oriental denomination of Magyars Is usually g;iven to them, the name of tfungarians being used only by other nations. Under Attila, they penetrated into Gaul, and became masters of the finest cities; and were approaching towards Faris, when Actlus, the Roman general, defeated them near Troyes, in Champagne. After this battle, Attila retired into Fannonla; but as soon as he had repaired his losses, he ravaged Italy: and was preparing' anew to enter Gaul, uhen death put an end to his victories. In the year 454. Attila was really what he had named himself, "the terror of men, and the scourge of God." After his death, great divisions took place amongst the Huns, who no longer kept that name, but as- sumed the appellation of liungarians ; but of their history during tlie time of the West- ern and Eastern empires, and the various wars and invasions which are said to have taken place between tlie third and tenth centuries, there Is no In formation upon which reliance can be placed. Tliey began to embrace Christianity un- der the guidance of German missionaries : Stephen, clilef of the Hungarians, who had married the sister of llie emperor Henry, was baptized at the beginning of the eleventli century. The pope bestowed u|)on him tlie title of "the apostolic king;'* and idolatry soon after disappeared in Hun- gary. Stephen, thus honoured by the pope for his services in converting the heathens, en- deavoured to strengthen his kingdom by the power of tlie hierarchy and tlic aristo- cracy. He estiblislied ten richly endowed bishoprics, and divided the whole empire into seventy counties. These officers and the bishops formed the senate of the king- dom, with whose concurrence king Ste|>hen granted a constitution, the principal fea- tures of which are still preserved. The un- settled statu of the succession to the orouii, and tlie consequent inteiference of neiith- bouring princes, and of the Roman court, in tile domestic concerns of Hungary ; iliu Inveterate hatred of the Magyars agaiibt the Germans, who were favoured by Peter, tlie successor of Stephen ; the secret slnig- gle of Paganism with Christianity, and par- ticiiliirly the arrogance of the clergy and nobility, long retarded the prosperity of tli« country. The religions zeal and bravery of St. La- dislaiis, and the energy and prudti.ce of Colomann, shine amidst the darMitss nf this period. These two raonarclis extended the boundaries of the empire; llie former by the conquest of Croatia and Sclavoiija, the latter by the conquest of Daliiiatia, They asserted with firmness the dignity of tlie Hungarian crown, and the indepen- dence of tlie nation, against all foreign at- tacks: and restored order and tranquillity at lioine by wise laws and prudent regula- tions. Tlie introduction of German colo- nists, from Flanders and Alsace, Into Zips and Transylvania, by Geysa II., in 1148, had an important influence on those (lit- tricts; and the connexion of Hungary vviili Constantinople during the reign ot Beta III., who had been educated in that cl(y, had a favourable effect on the country in general. The Magyars, who had previ- ously passed the greater part of the year in tents, became more accustomed to living In towns, and to civil institutions. On tlie other hand, Hungary became coiinccteil with France, by the second marriage of Uela with Margaret, sister to Henry, king of France, ami widow of Henry, king of England. She Introduced French eleganre at tlie Hungarian court, and at this lime we Hnd tli« first mention of Hnngariaiis studying at Faris ; but these Iniproveoientt were soon checked, and the kingdom was reduced to a most deplorable condition by the invasion of tlie Mongols in llie middle of the 13th century. After tlie retreat of these wild hordes, bela IV. endeavoured to heal the wounds of his country. He induced Germans to settle In the depopnlaled pro-j viiices, and elevated the conuition of the! citizens by increasing the number of royal free cities. The king, Ladislaus, having been killed in 1290, by tlie Tartars, the emperor Ko- dolph of Hapsbiirg, pretending that Hun- gary was a flef of the empire, gave the crown to one of his sons; but, In 1309, pope Boniface VIII., supposing it to be his right to dispose of the kingdom, invested Cfiai'iliert, who supported his appointment with his sword. Under him Hungary be- THE Ar«TRIAN WOMEN WEAR CAPS OR BONNETS MADE OF GOLD LACE. IBSQUB. •/, u f, < K U 0. 7. w z b 3 rcReruiiU Tlic un- z ssioii to Ihe crown, « .|liT«iice of luiwli- g the RoiHuii oourl, g g of limitary ". "'« < le Magyar* apiuH favoured by I'tltr, J ; the secrtl sinig- tirisliaiiily.and imr- : of the clergy .and Ihe progperiiy ol the d bravery of St. La- V and prudti oe of ist the darMitss nf , nioiiarchs extended empire; ilie former oatla and Selavoms, iniiesl of Dalinalia. luiiess the dignity of I, and llie tiidepen- (jaiiiBl all foreign at- )rder and tranqiullily and prudent vegii a- ion of German co o- ind Alsace, into Zips r Geysa II., i" >l''8. fluence on those (ll«- Kion of Hungary wiili , g the rclgn ot Bela 'ducat«d in tlial ciiy, ct on the country iii ars, who had prevl- ler part of Hie year in faccustomed to iving institutions. On llie y became connccled second marriage o( sister to Henry, ItniB w of Henry, Wnigof, uced French elegance j jrt, and at this I me 5 ■ntion of Hnngariai|8l„ It these Iniprovemente ■ind the kingdom was •ulorable condition by loneois in the nnddle After the retreat of >la IV. endeavoured to coutUry. He ir.duced j > Ihe deiM.pulated pro- « the con Jill"" of "yt the number of royal j< "Ts, having been killed 1 iLn, the emperor Ko- 1 |,Ve'lending that Hn- ithe empire, gave A' h sons; bnt, 'n."™! f supposing it to be Hs Ihe kingdom, invested lorted bis appointment |der him HungaryJ)e^l OF GOLD I.4CE. THR MUlAQUa IN MUNOAtlY, TIIOUOH WIDELY SCATTKRBD, ARB POPULOUS. C()( W^tovvi at etvmanyi. 655 came powerful l li*< ii■ the irrii|itioii« of (liM 'I'Mrkp, Nlinii^t dtnopii- lalrd llie I'DiMilry, 'I'Im* t'lvil Mnr between iliu peopitt uitd llitt imltltmi In Ihe relKii of |.>idl>li(u» Vi ttttd Hit* ('iicvMiii, weiikencd It in niiicll, lIlHl It WHtt (I'll III H fHAlR In renlat the Uitoninil \mvnlriiviiil llitil of Hiingnry In IS3S; wliKM lliti kliit(, l^iHlK III, wnK killed. Two hiindrtiil lli'MHtitiitl t'ltptlvug Mere taken away by lltx Tlll'lo, Purdinitnd l„ oiii|itirf*r of flurmany, was eleciud kliitr of lliiiiKnry by llie slules In mi' lit* f'Hiiiil llitit'iMHitry wiiHk III pnpii- lallnii, very poor, tIKIili'd liv tliu Catholic and I'rolentiiiil fiii'liiiiiit, himI occupied by the TiirkUli Riid Ui-riiiHii HriiilfK. It was in a deplorublti Nlfttti iiiiil«, htid heeii elective, was declared hert'dlliiry i mid Joseph, son of Leopold, wan prowiicil kiiiK at Hie close of the year Wl, It I'oiilltitied In the pos- session of Hie ()hl Auslrlmi limiae until the death of Charlen VI,, ITIO. After his dKnth, Mmiit TherpiM, Ids daughter, who hud iimrrU'd Into Ihe House of Liirraine, and WAi| hy rl^lit heiress to his hereditary siftles, wun in itfent danger of being dethroiifd, fntncf and Uataria overran her domiiiioni i but Ht length she overcame »ll hei dllfleulllei i her hiishand, after the death of Uliftrlei VII, of Uavnria, was also invested with the Joiiil sovereignly. She dying in 1780, her nou, Joseph li., emperor of Oermiiiiy, sut't'eeded. He dy- ing in 1790, his neKt hiollier, I'eter Leo- pold, grand duke of Tiiiii.elng made from eitlier side of the House, by general acclamation." The influence of the Paris Revniutlon was exceeded by that of Vienna, March 14th. Wlien the news arrived, that prince Met- ternich had been compelled to resign office- II became self-evident that the Hungarians must have a honAflde rcsiionslble inlniiitry, liberty of the press, and annual diets at Pesih. To these demands the sovereign ac- ceded, and a Hungarian ministry, com- posed of tlie most distinguished members of tlie diet, was Insialied In office. That ministry embraced the names of Louis Uaitlitani and Szecheuyl, of Paul Esterhazy and Kossuth. For Hie Arst time for three centuries, the Magyars beheld at Pesth a truly national government : and, forgetting ancient grudges, the whole kingdom waa Ailed with loyalty and devotion to their hereditary sovereign. But scarcely had the Just claims of Hun- gary been recognised, when the cabinet of Vienna began to consider how the newly- granted privileges of the Magyars could be wrested from them. Onemodeof eAecting tills object speedily suggested Itself. The Sclaves had been for aome time dreaming of an united empire, and to flatter their hopes, and then employ them to crush the new-born liberties of Hungary, readily oc- curred to the successors of Prince Metter- nich. The Sclavonic people of the empire were envious of the success of the Hun- garian movement, and thus became more readily the dupes of their Imperial masters. The Baron Joseph Jeilachlch, at this period colonel of a Croat regiment of horse, with a handsome person and a ready wit, was suddenly elevated to tlie dignity of Ban of Croatia. He employed all his eloquence, which was undoubtedly great, to incite the Serb and Croat population against the Magyars. He collected troops along the frontier, whom, in his boastful procFama- tions, he promised to enrich with the spoils of Hungary ; he even threatened to mrrch to Pestii with his "Red-mantles," the wildest of those robber hordes by whom he was surrounded, and to dissolve tlie diet by force. Suspicions began to be entertained that llie Ban of Croatia was secretly backed by the Imperial court, and a formal com- plaint was brought against him at Inns- pruck, where the court was residing. In consequence of these representations, the Ban of Croatia was, by proclamation, de- prived of all his titles, and publicly declared a traitor ! Tlie fears of the Hungarian diet were, for a short time, lulled by this decisive act. The agitation on the Croatian frontit r, Imw- ever, still continued, and the maraudlnr bands whom Jellaulilcn had drawn togcilivr, committed the grossest outrages on tlie in. habitants of the Lower Daiiuoe. The few Austrian regiments which were quarti^rcil III that district offered so feeble a reHlstanre lo tlie Insurgents, as to revive all the siia- fdclons of the Magyars. Before a month lad elapsed, the true Intentions of the court became apparent. The Serbs and Croad were no longer denounced as rebels and traitors; and an Impeiial proclamation wu even Issued, approving generally of tiieir proceedings. Roused to a sense of the imminent dangfcr which threatened them, the diet at length took eflective measures to resist any at- tempt which sliould be made against its liberties. Towards the middle of Jiilv, Kossuth, as minister of Anance, In an elaborate address, proposed that fiiiidii should be Immediately provided fur raininv an army of itOO,000 men ; these were graiittd with enthusiasm. Both parties were now in earnest. Au>- tria had resolved at all hazards t* retrace her steps, and Hrngary was no \v\* deter- mined to maintain Iter long-lost nalinnalii;, From this time it was evident that ail furiliei negotiation was fruitless, and the 'iiiperlal cabinet prepared to carry out its st heme of invading Hungary from tlie south, For thii purpose the " traitor Jeilachlch ' of the Iflth of June was, on the 4lh of September, reinstated In all his dignities and tliie*, and on tlie 9th of the same month he crossed the southern frontier witli an army of up- wards of 60,000 men, composed partly of Austrian troops, but chiefly of IrrfKuiar bands of Serbs and Croats, with wliorn the heroic Ban declared he would march dlrert to Pesth, and disperse the diet. Before he could make good his boast, however, he suA'ered a signal defeat from the army of Hungarian volunteers wlilch awaited his approach In the vicinity of the capitaL After this discomfliure, he made the iiett of his way with a remnant of his force to Vienna. Serious events had meanwhile occurred, At Presbiirg, Count Lamberg,wlio hat! been sent to take the military command in Hun- gary, but whose appolntiient, without the sanction of the diet, was illegal, had fallen a victim to the popular fury. This occur- rence materially widened the breach be- tween the diet and llie imperial antlioritien, and both parties actively urepared for the deadly struggle whicli wat now inevitable. A proclamation was immediilely issued b; the emperor (October 3i-d) i'.issolving the diet, declaring all it* resolutions whicfi had not his sanction null and void, appnlnting Jellacliich military commander and royal plenipotentiary in Hunirary, and layliigihe Kingdom under martial law. The Vicniii revolution of October 6lh, with the subse- quent bombardment and capture of the city, left the military forces of Austria free to act against Hungary, in that direction they were iininediiitely sent ; and no doubt was entertained of a certain and speedy tri- umph. But before the army hail lime to enter Hungary, Ferdinand V., who felt A REVOLUTION BROKE OUT IN VIENNA : OCT. 6. 1848. 8. OORORI lURHBNDBRBD TO THR AUSTRIAN ARMY : AUO. 13. IM9. t)iit decUlve act. ill»nfrontltr,lmw. nd tite marauilliig kd drawn tugeilivr, outraget on tlie In- Danube. The few cti wttre qiiart(-ri'(l t feeble a rfxUianre D revive all tlie tu«- 1, Before t monih lentiontof the court e Serbi and Croata need at rebel* and al proclamation wu ; generally of llieir the Imminent danjfr I, the diet al length ei to reHUl any at- be niaile agaUntt III he middle of July, of Anaiice, In an ropoaed that fundt , provided for raining »• iheaevrere granted low In earneai. Am- ill hazard* l4 felrace ry ^was no lei« atWt- 1 • long-logt nalionaliiy. I •vldent that all furdiM lean, and the tniperial w Willi Kowiitli, ai AratI ; and ithortly afterward* a (in'illc proclniimlloii wai JMiied hy Koniiuili and lilt coll«aKM«ti rnlKnlnir llio whole of Ihfir pnwori Into the liaiidi of General Arthur Ooritel, wliuin they nniniimled dictator of Hungary. What wat (ill ninllve In acccplliiK IliU nominal diKiilly— whether to avenge the illxlit he had received diirinir llie iirevioiiii nioiiih, or In irlve more et)°ei-t lo tlie itep he medl- laled — we ulinli not venture tn decide. Certuin it li, that two dii)* tiihiieaucnt t» hlH elevation, he ninde an unconditional mirrender of lili forcei, coniiUtlnK of up- ward* of 30,000 men, and U4 pVccet of cannon, to tiie Kiii«mkii commander, at Vlilniro*. Ill a proclamittiDn liitned linme- dliiiely nfterwardii, he recommciiitcd the rent nl liiti llniiKiiriaii cliiefi to fidiow hit example, and trnnlto the Kencroiity of the RuMian czar. With the lurrender of Gor- rel, tlie cnnteit wai virtually at an end. Tiie greater iiiimber of the Hungarian chiefi followed iila example, iriiiting to the vague aiauraiicei of ■ulely whicli were held out to them by tlieir favourite general, and which were to completely beli«d by the tubiequent conduct of ilie Austrian government. KohuiIi, Bern, aince de- ceaned, DembliiHlii, Onyon, and tome othen, tought refuge in Turliey. Uut AuDtria and KuRtia immediately demanded from the Forte the Kurrvnder of tlic re- fugee*, and the t'ubiiiet of the tiiltan ap- i'lealed to England and France for inpport. 'ailing In the immediate acconipliitliment of their purpote, the aiiibiui>a praying II* Interference on belinir nf iIk u refuKeex; and the United Slates uni t '' *teaiii-frlgat« to convey KoMiitli and hli ( companion* to the Wettern World. Aunlrii ', Ihrealeiied vengeance In cai>e iliry were { permilled to depart ; but llie Tiirkiili Cab!- Z not reaoived to litten lo the reiiri'iiviiiaildn t [ of other power*, and on the ■±ii\ii nf Au- i u gu*l, IBSI, llie welcome tidingtV fieeilom'S were conveyed to Kowiutli. On the Hni of I September, he left Kutayah, landed ii S Southampton on tlie 33rd or October, tnild ; * the acclamation* of congregated tliounaiidii I and after a triumphal progrcM ihroiiKJi |^ different part* of England, tailed fur ilie o United State*. Since hit tnrreiider General Oorgel liaa retlded in great ■cchiHlun at KIngenfnrth, where he iiat cheered liii tolitude with the composition of a work In which he detail* hit '* Life and Am in Hungary," and wlilch if it rnnclu- *ively reoul* Ihe charge of treatoii ilial hu been preferred again«t iilni, fully eitab- 8 lialies the fact tiiat he had no deiire for jj Hungarian Independence, and exerted liim- ' < self but languidly in Its support. J : \^ COUNT LOUIS BATTHYANY EXECUTGD : OCT. 6. 1849. A. • and EiikIiuuI, wIiIi ' hftr o|ih>i(iiiiiiiii (he I nf IttarMliitf Mlu'llirr iM'titK ilei'lurnl, lilt ii|iiiii tint tlt'ertltt I v» (xtwerii." KrRiice ' itli!(l on ttilii t>ulii|, •cit wef« onU'rcil i) ar thi! Uariluiii'lli'i, III |irnin|)tly frwWt ii'nl. '•"liU iHCt'milj, tl liy llie vlKourof ili« bi'vii ail()|iUMl. Till! n Koveriiiiii'iit* Kat« LnMiith and tlie more Lirlot* were rciiiixtd I a vl«w of |)revemlii| ' > tlie»e |»ower». i w% nieniorlalt were t'.nglhh Oovernmcni, •lice (in biliair of (lie Dulled Slalca unt « vry KnoKiilli and hit ealern World. Auitrit fc In cane lliey w«r« bill llio Tiirklali Cabl- I) to tlie reor«»«;iiialinn 4 on tli« Wild at Au-j|.| intc tldliiB»V> fr«'<'<> iliroiii[li k niclaiiiii ■■>"'''' ^"' ''"i ° I e 111* tiirreiider Ocn«nl ; a In Ki"*^*^ •fcliialon It J I ) lie liaii clievreil lili il coniiioallloii «>f & wofk "1 i|« hit " Ufa and Aoii tl il whU-h If it coiiclu- s| uge of ireiwoii llial «u. I itiikt lilni, fully MUb- 31 it lie had no deilrefor u| ilencc, and exerted iiim- extinction of the nomage beretiifore paid to that kingdom; and he was acknowledged . by the powers of Europe, a scvereign inde- { Sendent duke. He made firm his right in uliers ; obtained CIcvcs ; recovered part of Pomerania ; and increased the population of his country by affording an asylum to the refugees of France, after the impolitic revo- cation of the edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. Frederic, his son, raised the duchy of Prussia to a kingdom ; and on the 18th of January, 1701, in a solemn assembly of the states of the empire, placed the crown, with his own hands, on his own head and that of his consort; soon after which he was acknowledged king of Prussia by all the other Christian powers. His son, Frederic William I., who as- cended the throne in 1713, greatly in- creased the population of hts country by the favourable reception he gave to the dis- tressed and persecuted Saltzburgcrs, as his grandfather had dor.e by making it an asy- lum to the Huguenots, when driven out of France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in the year 1684. lie was wise, bold, and economical ; his principal study the aggrandizement of his kingdom. This monarch was succeeded in 17'10 by KACU KBOENCV'trAKRa ITS MAMS FlIOM ITS PHIKCIPAI, CITT. turn BiVKBi or rsuiiiA Arroao tui hiars ov oood ihlako NAviaATion. Jg [650] ^i^e ^rcasurg oC l^istor?, $:c. bii son Frederic II., then in the twenty- ninth year of his age, wlio rendered hit kingdom formidable oy his valour and pru- dence, and promoted tlio happineot ot hia •ubjecta by Kn amendment and timpliflca- tion of the lawi, the increate of commerce, and many wise regulations. His depreda- tions on Poland, and liis arbitrary and un- just violation of the guaranteed privileges of Dantzic, as well as the oppressions which the city of Thorn endured, though they might serve to aggrandize hit king- dom, sullied his name in the eyei of an impartial posterity. On the death ot the emperor Charles VI. in the same year, Frederic led a large armv into Silesia, to a considerable part of whicu duchy he laid claim. He for some time maintained a war against Maria Theresa, daughter of the late emperor, who was married to the grand duKo of Tuscany; but on the 1st of June, 1742, a treaty be- tween the queen of Hungary and the king of Pr\^ssiawaa signed atUreslau; by which the former ceded to the latter Uppcr and Lower Silesia, with the county oi Ulatz in Bohemia, and the king of Prussia engaged to pay to certain merchants of London, the sums which they had advanced to the late emperor, commonly called " the Siletiian loan ;" and at the peace of Aix-la Chapelle, the contracting powers guaranteed to him whatever had been thus coded. His father had ever paid peculiar atten- tion to his army, but the attention of the son was more judiciously and elfuctually directed: for, in the year 1756, he had 150,000 of the best troops in Europe. At that time a league was formed ngninst him by the empress queen, and the court of Versailles: Augustus, king of Poland and elector of Saxony, had secretly become a party to this confederacy, the object of which was to subdue the Prussian domi- nions, and partition them amonp; the con- tracting powers. Frederic obtained early and authentic information of his danger from Saxony, and proceeded with no less spirit than etfect to avert it. Ho marched a powerful army into that electorate ; com- pelled the troops of the elector to lay down their arms; became master of Dresden; entered the palace, got possession of the correspondence which had been carrying on against him, and published to all Eu- rope the authentic documents he had thus obtained; which fully justiried him in the hostilities he had thus commenced. The war soon after raged with great fury, and the empress of Ilussia j med the confede- racy against this devoted monarch ; but his unparalleled exertions, judicious mea- sures, and personal bravery, which were powerfully supported by the wealth and arms of Great Britain, finally batHed all the attempts of his enemies, and the ge- neral peace which was ratitied in 1703, ter- minated his labours in the field. The Great ^''rederic, long regarded as the hern of the Prussian monarchy, and par excellence the hero of the age, brought to perfection what his father had so success- fully begun. He resisted the power uf half Kurope, and, by his conquests and the wis- dom of his administration, he doubled the number of his subjects, and almost the extent of his territories. He was as great in his projects as he was fortunate in their execution : he was a legislator, a genetal, a statesman, a scholar, and a philosopher. Indeed, it may be said, he was one of those men whom nature only produces at long intervals ; but, at the same time, it muit not be forgotten that, instead of exercising a paternal care for his people, he regarded the Prussian nation as a foreign general regards the army under his command ; his ■oVc thoughts, in fact, appearing to be constantly centred in the love of fame and i of nower. We collect from the writings of Dr. Moore, the following description of thii extraordinary personage, as he appeared at the time the sketch was written: "The king of Prussia is below the middle size, well made, and remarkably actiVt for his time of life. He has become hardy by ex- ercise and a laborious life, for his consti- tution seems originally to have been none of the strongest. His look announces spirit and penetration; he has fine blue eyes, and his countenance, upon the vhole, may be said to be agreeable. His features acquire a wonderful degree of animation while he converses. He stoops consider- ably, and inclines his head almost con- : stantly on one side : his tone of voice is the clearest and most agnreeable imagin- J able. He talks a great deal, yet those who ! hear him, regret that he does not lajr a great deal more. His observations ire i always lively, very often just, and few men possess the talent of repartee in grcnter | perfection. He hardly ever varies his dress, j which consists of a blue coat lined and I faced with red, and a yellow waistcoat and breeches : he always wears boots with hus- sar tops, which fall in wrinkles about his ankles. From four or five o'tlock in the morning till ten at night, this king dedi- cates ail his hours, methodically, to par- ticular occupations, either of business or an>uscment. He seldom appears at the queen's court, or any place where women form part of the assembly; consequently he it. seldom seen at festivals. All his hours not employed in business, he spends in reading, music, or the society of a few people whom he esteems. The only re- pose which the king allows to himself, is between the hours of ten at night and four in the morning ; the rest of his lime, in every season of the year, is devoted to ac- tion, either of the body or mind, or both. While few objects are too great for this monarch's genius, none seem too small for his attention. Although a man of witijiet he con continue methodically the routine of business with the patience and periere- ranee of the greatest dunce. The meanest of his subjects may apply to him in writing, and arc sure of an answer. His first busi- ness every morning is the perusing of papers addressed to him. A single word, IN nVCAL raUBSIA and rOMKRAHIA ARI NDSIRROnS LABOS I.AK8S. KO HATI»ATIOM. itcd the power of half )nque8t8 and the wia> itiou, he doubled tke cts, and almost the ea. He was as great vaa fortunate in their legislator, a general, ir, and a philoaopher. d, be was one of those inly produces at long 3 same time, it mutt ;, instead of exercisiDg is people, he regarded as a foreign general ler his command ; hit act, appearing to be 1 the love of fame and the writings of Dr. ig description of thii iiage, as he appeared ch was written: "The below the middle size, larkably actiVt for hit s become haViiy by ex- )ua life, for his consti- ally to have been none His look aunouncei | ■ ion ; he has rine blue * ;nance, upon the whole, ; ^ greeable. His featurei ■> 111 degree of animation ' I, He stoops consider- ] § his head almost con- [ o e : his tone of voice ii ^ nost agreeable imagin- i ; reat deal, yet those who , >• that he does not say i His observation! are , J iften just, and few men i> I of repartee in greater dly ever varies his dress, a blue coat lined and , a yellow waistcoat and ^s wears boots with hus- |l in wrinkles about his or five o'clock in the , night, this king dedi- ), methodically, to par- I, either of business or seldom appears at the iny place where women issembly; consequently at festivals. All hu 11 in business, he spends \ot the society of a few ■steems. The only re- ag allows to himself, i» lof ten at night and four be rest of liis time, m I year, is devoted to ac- body or mind, or both. are too great for tins ■iione seem too small for [bough a man of wit, yet Methodically the routine le patience and persere- St dunce. Themesneit apply to him in wr«, lanswer. His first bust- ig is the perusing of ■obim. A single word, I lABOK lAKKS. IBON, corrim, smo, liad, and iin, abb roi;i«D iti tolbhabu abokoancb. €^t i^uftars ot ®«nnauy* [651] written with hii pencil in the margin indi- cates the answer to be giren, which Ib afterwards made out in form by his secre- taries. He sits down to dinner precisely at noon : of late he has allowed more time to this repast than formerly: it is gene- rally after three before he leaves the com- pany. Eight or nine of his officers are commonly invited to dine with him. At table, the king likes that every person should appear to be on a footing, and that the conversation should be carried on with perfect freedom. It is absolutely impos- sible for any man to enjoy an ofilce in the king of Prussia's service, without perform- ing the duty of it ; but to those who know tiieir business, and perform it exactly, he is an easy and equitaole master. The king understands what ought to be done, and his servants are never exposed to the ridi- culous or contradictory orders of ignorance, or the mortitications of caprice. His fa- vourites, of whatever kind, were never able to acquire inUuence over him in any thing regarding business. Nobody ever knew better than this prince how to discrimi- nate between the merits of those who serve him in the important departments of the state, and of those who contribute to his amusement. A man who performs the duty of his office with alertness and fidelity, has nothing to apprehend from the king being fond of the company and conversation of his enemy; let the one be regaled at the king's table every day, while the other never receives a single invitation, yet the real merit of both is known ; and if his adversary should ever try to turn the king's favour to the purpose of private hatred or malice, the attempt would be repelled with disduin, and the evil he in- tended for another would fall upon him- self. The steady and unwearied attention which this monarch has bestowed, for more than forty years, to the discipline of the army, is unparalleled either in the ancient or modern historv of mankind. This per- severance of the king, as it is without ex- ample, so is it perhaps the most remark- able part of his extraordinary character. That degree of exertion which a vigorous mind is capable of making: on some very important occasion, Frederic II. has made during hib whole reign at a stretch, with- out permitting pleasure, indolence, disgust, or disappointment to interrupt his plan for a single day ; and he has obliged every per- son, throughout the various departments of his government, to make the like exer- tions as far as their characters a,r>A strength could go. In what manner iT it such a king be served I and what is V.c not capa- ole of performing ! Twice every year he makes the circuit of his dominions. This great prince is so perfectly exempt from suspicion and personal fear, that he resides at San Souci, in 'ais electoral dominions, without any guaru whatever; an orderly Serjeant or corporal only attends in the day-time, to carry occasional orders to the garrison at Potsdnm, whither he always returns in the evening." Frederic died in 1786, and left to hiB nei)he\^ Frederic William II. (by some called Frederic III.) an extensive and pro«- perous kingdom, a large and well-diici- pUned army, and a well-filled treasury ; but he possessed none of those commanding talents, that energy, or that patient perse- verance, which so eminently distinguished his predecessor. The finances of Prussia were soon exhausted ; and in consequence of the high rank among the European states to which Frederic the Great liad elevated her, she was obliged to take a prominent part in the most important affairs of the continent, which, without his genius, could not be maintained. Frederic William II. died in 1797, and was succeeded by bis son, Frederic WiUiam III. By the partition of Poland in 1792, and its final dismemberment in 1795, Prussia acquired a great extension of territory, in- cluding the important city of Dantsic, and upwards of two millions of inhabitants. In 1796 the Prussian cabinet made a secret treaty with France ; and after many sinis- ter and vacillating movements, Prussia re- solved upon the maintenance of a strict neutrality, which, in the state of Europe at that time, was impossible. In 1803 France occupied Hanover; and, in 1805, when a third roalition was forming against France, Prussia wavered more than ever. Alexander of Russia appeared at Berlin, and brought about the convention of Pots- dam, Nov. 3, 18U5 ; but after the battle of Austerlitz, Prussia sought for and obtained peace with France, and was consequently compelled to submit to the harsh terms of the conqueror. A^ain, when Napoleon had concluded the confederacy of the Rhine, Prussia stepped forward to arrest his gigantic power ; but the battle of Jena disclosed to the world how incapable it was for her to contend against the emperor and his confederated allies. The peace of Tilsit reduced Prussia to half its former dimensions, which half had to support 150,000 French soldiers until the end of 1808, and to pay 120 millions of francs, while French troops were to retain possession of the fortresses of Stettin, Kits- trein, and Glogau. The minister Von Stein, who was long at the head of affairs, was a most uncompromising enemy of France, and being in consequence compelled by them to quit Germany, baron Uardcnberg was placed at the head of the gsvcinment as state-chancellor. The continuance of French oppression, and the insulting hu- miliation tlie Prussians had to endure, at length roused, rather than subdued, the dormant spirit of the people. After Napo- leon's Russian campaign' the population rose en masse, and to their zealous etforta in the cause of ojipresscd Europe, the com- pleteness of his discomtiture may be mainly attributed. The part which Prussia played in this Kreat game of war we have else- where reliited, and it is not consistent with the limits of our work to make needless repetitions: it is sufficient to state, that at the general peace of 1315, Prussia became H U E> A O M »< Q > M n M e H DUCAL FRUSSIA PnOnUCKS AMBER, AND THE SAXON PnOVIWCES COPPEB. [3 !V3 >■* THE WOOL OF SAXONT M 8UPEBIOR BYBN TO THAT OF IPAIN. u i « H og •i« O (U M n (• a o t» H m § o ■ [652] Q^^ QTreatfurs flf f^ii^ttfrSt ^(* more powerful than ever : for although a portion of her Polish dominion* passed Into the hands of Russia, It was more than compensated by valuable acqalsitiont in Saxony, Pomerania, kc. From tills period, the PruBsian states, in spite of great political restrictions, continued to advance steadily in prosperity. A great impulse to the extension of German com- merce was given l>y the eslablishnient of tlieZollverein,or "Customs Union," under the auspices of Prussia, by which internal trade was freed from all restrictions, and a uniform system of duties agreed on for those slates tliat Joined it. The present lung of Prussia, Frederick William IV., asrended the throne in IMO, and became remarkably popular. Ills af- fability and his varied acquirements ren- dered him personally attractive, and gained him the hearts of all wiih whom he con- versed. Soon after his accession to the throne, he declared that he would develop the system of representative government, as eatabllshed in the provincial estates; but l:e made no promise to grant a repre- sentative conxtltution for the whole king- dom. On the contrary, he declared at KOnigsberg that lie would never do homage to the idea of a genera, popular represen- tation. But various piibltc changes, chiefly In the provincial administration, were soon after, and at dilTerent times, introduced. In the autumn of 1843 (he king convoked, at Berlin, a meeting of deputies, delegated by the provincial stales, to deliberate on questions of taxation, railroads, and other public improvements. Discontents arose afterwards on account of the censorship of the press ; and it became evident in the following year that the bold sentiments of the provincial diet of the Rhenish provinces were not confined to the speakers. In 1844 or 1B4S, manifestations were made in dif- ferent provinces, signiflcant of a general determination to obtain a constitutional go- vernment. In 1846 disturbances broke out at Posen and Cologne, followed by arrests, trials, and convictions. In 1847 the states were convoked at Berlin ; and a new era of freedom, it was supposed, was then about to dawn on the country. But this assembly was not a representative parliament. It was composed of delegates from the pro- vincial stales, summoned to deliberate and report on questions not initiated by themselves, but those only which were submitted to them by the government ; it consequently save little satisfaction. On the I7lh or January, 1848, a committee of the delegates of the provincial states commenced its sittings, in order to examine the new penal code submitted to it by the king for its deliberations. In the midst of these deliberations was heard the contrt- couv of the French revolution. On the 6th of March the committee of the assembled Diet of the States at Berlin, having com- pleted its deliberations, was dissolved in person by the king, who was prepared to make some concessions, among which was the liberty of the press, with certain gua- rantees and conditions. A royal patent was issued convoking a Diet to meet on the Slid of April. But before this could be effected, grave events had taken place. On the evening' of tlie I4th of Maroli crowds were in tlie streets of Berlin ; with patrols, both of horse and foot, paradiiiir there also. On the isth, in theSchlossplaiz, the people assembled before the king'a palace, growing in numbers and courage, assaulting the sentinels, and managrng to protect themselves from the cavalry by barrels and barricades. The I6th was a com' parative lull, the 17th was pronounced quiet out on the I8th the tempest recorameiiceil. On that morning the king made great con- cessions to his people; but the latter, while acknowledging the royal condescen- sion with shouts and huzzahs, demanded the withdrawal of the troops from the palace. A staff-officer, who thought that the crowd was approaching too near, essayed to keep them at a distance, and provoked violence, which a detachment of cavalry advanced to repress. Two chance eliotj wereflred; the popular wrath was awaken- ed ; and the troops in all the streets were attacked. Ere long arms were obtained by the multitude; the troops were fired on from the houses, and many Superior officers, distinguished by their dressiunil af- fording the better mark, were killed. Tlie populace themselves had to li};lit again!.! 3U,000 armed men; but reint'urced by tlie armed students, active and entliusiustic, were led forward to victory. The p;'i6oiia were forced open, the prisoners were set free, and soon afterwards the troops re- fused to Are unless attacked. At niglit the city was illuminated: until morn the alarm bells were rung. On the morning of ihe I9lh, the city of Berlin looked like a town of war. The streets were torn up, and Ailed with heaps of stones, which the people had thrown from the windows and roofs on the soldiers. Early appeared a royal procla. matlon, ascribing tlie shots on the Sclilo8S- platz to a mistake: and, by eleven, the troops were all withdrawn. The people, again, in the Schlosspiatx were addressed by the king from the balcony. But some atonement to the slaughtered was yet needed. The bodies of those who had fallen I in the Friedrichstadt were laid in a waggon, attended by a large procession of citizens, '■ and taken to ihe palace, the populace i calling on the king to appear and do ho- 1 mage to the corpses. With reluctance he '< appeared, and then granted their desired; armament to the people, who forthwith' rushed to Ihe Arsenal, and claimed the distii- biitlon of arms. On the 24th the obsequies of the slain were celebrated ; all the muni- cipal and comniunal authorities, all the magistracy, guilds, clergymen of all con- fessions, and students, headed by the illnt- Irious Humboldt, forming Ihe funeral pro- cession. On the Snd of April, the Diet convoked by the King of Prussia met at Berlin, under the presldeiice of a royal commissioner, the new Mlnisxr of State, Camphausen, But in the midst of the agitalinns tint firevailed, the constituent assembly made lltle progress in its deliberations ; and cut of doors the democratic party assumed so fornildiible an aspect that the days of the monarchy seemed numbered. Ministry after ministry was appointed in the hope that the revolutionary torrent might be stemmed: SI < i a h' ■ ' Q 0, V. O: THE CONSUMPTION OF BEER AND SPIRITS IN PRUSSIA IS VERY GREAT. SPAIN. H ! 14th of March I I of Berlin ; with d foot, parading i the Schlosiplatz, ;rore the king'ii in and courage, and iDanaKriig in the cavalry by le 16th was acorn- ironounced quiet, 8t recommenced, made great con- but the latter, royal condescen- iha, demanded tlie from the palace, hi that the crowd lear, essayed to 'e, and provoked iraent of cavalry wo chance eliob rath was awaken- I (lie streets were IS were obtaitietl troops were fired id many superior their dressAaiidar- were killea. The id to light agaiibt reinforced by the and enthusiastic, tory. The p;i»oin prisoners were set :ds the troops re- ked. At niglit the til morn the alarm lie morning; of the oked like a town of Lorn up, and tilled Ich the people had m and roofs on the id a royal procla- its on the Sclilou- id, by eleven, the ,wn. The people, [X were addressed Jcony. But some .jghtered was vet lose who had fallen > laid in a waggon, :es8lon of citizens, e, the populace )pear and do ho- ith reluctance he _ lied their desired i g j le, who forthwith;; claimed the ilUtri- 5 a4lh the obsequies < led ; all the niuiit- , itfiorilles, all the|5 ■ymen of all con' laded by the illiit the funeral pro he Diet convoked' ^t atBerlln.uiKleti tal commissioner, tte, Camphausen. he agitalinns that ht assembly made berations; and cut I party assumed so It the days of the fed. Ministry after U 1 in the hope that s nighibe8temmed:|a 1 ' *■ ERY GREAT. THI ITBTBM OF lOROOL BDOCATION IN PRUSSIA IS HOST BXCBLLKNT. <^t^ I^Uttory at <5crman]). [653] but in vain : and it was not till November that a more resolute minister, the Count of Brandenburg (since deceased), seconded by General WraiiKel (who had returned from his campaign iii Denmark), determined to remove the assembly from Berlin to Bran- denburg, and even ventured In the following month to dissolve it. The king now pro- posed to concede Coclroyer') a constitu- tion, and convoked an assembly to examine It. But this attempt at constitution-making faroi no better than its predecessor. The king's refusal to accept the imperial crown of Germany offered to him by the Frank- fort parliament ; the long continuance of the slate of siege at Berlin; and finally the ministerial efforts to preserve as much as they could of the royal authority and the ancient aristocracy ; all this irritated the opposition into acts which were supposed to be incompatible with kingly power; and the assembly was dissolved in April, 1849. The third and last attempt to frame a con- stitution was soon afterwards liegun, and this lime with more success. In November of the same year, the conslltulion of the second chamber of the Prusitlan parliament was promulgated, it conferred the elec- tive franchise on all Prussians of not less than twenty-pvp v-ars of age, resident three years v :hUi he electoral district, II' taxes — military and having pa. i "; ' garrisons oeing ' dences, and inclr k, Geriuans of thirt> ' ' ing in Prussia, ilie c.'ildered as resi- ai ) as electors all oi age, and resid- Chamber of Peers consists of the hereditary nobility, limited to primogeniture, to a certain number named bv the king for life, and to a simi- lar number elected by electors who have paid the maximum of taxations. In each of the provinces there are elective assem- blies; beshles, tlie municipalities have each their local administrations. The constitu- tion defining the powers of the king and the Parliament, the duties of the minislers of tlie crown, was published on the 3nd of February, 1850. It neither establishes the liberty of the press, nor include* any Habeas Corpus enactment ; but it has hltherio so far worked practically that if honestly carried out, II will enable the Prussians Anally to secure for thenmelves a fair share of civil, political, and religious liberty. The principal part of the Prussian do- minions lies continuously along the south shore of the Baltic, between Russia and Mecklenburg. The inland frontier of this fiart of the monarchy on the east and south B sufficiently connected ; but on the west side its outline is very irregular, some small independent slates bring almost en- tirely surrounded by the Prussian domi- nions. But exclusive of this principal por- tion, there is an extensive Prussian terri- tory on both sidfs the Rhine; which is separated from the eastern part of the kingdom by Hesse Cassel, part of Hanover, Brunswick, &c. Some detached territories in Saxony, also belong to Prussia. s THE ATTENDANCB OF CHILDREN AT SCHOOL IS ENPORCBD BY LAW. fM eblMAfll OV BAVAHU M IN AINKKAI. TSMFJtllATB AMD UIALTOT. [654] ^f)( ^rcasurj} of l^istors, $cc. BAVARIA. Batakia, new nne of the principal »e. eoniMf •(«{«■ (tf Uiiruinny, whi derived from Aoirole of tliti U«riiiHn vmplre, of the ««ina niiin«i bounded by FrNiiconia and Bobenii* on the north, Aimlria on the •Mt, Tyrol on lli« »outh, and Huabiaon the wKAt. The enrUeit inhabltantii of Bavaria wore A tribe of Celtle orlBln called the Boii, from whom it reenivvtl Its old Latin name of Poiftris i but, About the time of Au- guetu*, the Bomiiue Nubdued it, and it after- w«rd» formed « part of wliat they termed Kb«tl«,VlndelUi«,Rnd Norlctim. After the downfall of the lloitiNn emplro. the Uava- riiina fell under the dominion of the Ontro- gotha And Frank*, by wliom it was govern- ed till CbArleuiHKne took pniNenftion of the eounlry, and committed the ttovcmment to ■ome of hie eounti. end on the partition of hie imperlAl dominioni amongst liis grand- ■ons, ilAVArlA WAI H«iiKned to LouTa the OerniAn. Ite ruleri bora the title of mar- grAve till 090, when Arnold, its reigning prince, was rAlied to the title of duke, whiob hii Ruei^eitors eontimied to bear till 1639. when MAximilinn 1., having assisted FerainMnd II. Avninit his Uohemlan in- surgents, WAI elevated to the electorial dignity, In lOJO BAvarlA paised into the posses- lion of the Ouelpbii and in 1180 it was trnniferred , by iniperiHl ^rant to Otho, fount of Wlttelibaeh, whose descendants branohvd out Into two families, tlic Pala- tine and the llnvArlitn, thn former inherit- ing the palatine of the ttliinc, tlie latter the duehy of UavAria. Pew events of any importanee oeourred till the war of the Bpanlih ruocaknioii, when Itavaria suffered severely tVom I'lillowini; the fottunes of France. It, bowever, received a great ac- cession in 1777) whrn, tiimii the extinciiun of the younger line of WIttclshiich, the pa- latinate, After A sliort contest with Austrin, WAS added to the llnvnrlnn territory. After the odjustnifut of tlic Aostriiin pretensions the eleiitorate (•ojoyeil tlic blcsfitngs of peace till the Frfnib revolution, wliich involved All Germany in the flames of civil discord. The elector rt'tnalimd on the side of the IroporlHlisti till 17U0, when the French mArehed a powerful Army into his domi- nions. And coneliided a treaty for the ces- sAtion of hoitilitiei. In the following year WAI signed the trcAty of Campo-Formio, and in INOl thAt of Lunevillc, by which all the Uernmn dominions left of the Hhine were annexed to France, and the elector lost the pilnllnate of the Rhine, his pos- session* In the Ncthflrlands and AIrhcc, and , the diiclile* of Jiillcrs and Dt-ux Fonts ; re- recelvinK a* tndmitniticH four hisiioprirs, with till Abbeys, lll'iettn impcrinl towns, ana (wo Imperiiil vlllnitt'S, nml some other minor pilviicui'S wliivli it would be super- « to Aoou4 iiieodoM, In the conflict! betweev France and the continental powers, Bavaria continued to maintain a neutrality till 1805, when tlis elector entered into an alliance with Napo- leon, who shortly afterwards raised him to the dignity of king, and enlarged his do- minions at the same time, by the annexa- tion of several iniportant provinces. Of all the allies of the French emperor, no coun- try has retained more solid advantages than Bavaria. Shortly after the campaign of 18U6, when Austria, to purchase peace, la- criticed part of her possessions, Bavaria received a further enlargement, by the ad- dition of Tyrol, Eichstadt, the eastern part of Passau, and other territories ; when she began to assume a more important station amongst the surrounding states. : At the dissolution of the Germauic con- stitution, and the formation of *tke Rlie- nish confederation, another alteration took place, the duchy of Berg being resigned for the margraviate of Anspach, together with the imperial towns of Augsburg and Nu- rembui'g. In 1809, Bavaria again took part with France against Austria, and atain shared in the spoils of war; but suose- quently ceded some. of her territories to Wirtemburg and Wurtzburg ; and by ano- ther alteration, which shortly followed, ex- changed a great part of Tyrol for Bayreuth and Ratiabon. But the friendship of the Bavarian mo- narch for his ally and patron was soon to be put to the test. When the tliirst for military conquest induced Napoleon to nmrch the French armies to Moscow, the Bavarian troops were amongst the number. Apprehending the ruin that awaited the French, but while the fortunes of Napoleou were si ill doubtful, the king of Bavaria seized the critical moment, and entered into a treaty with the emperor of Au.stria, and joined the allies in crushing tiiat power which had long held so many natinni in thraldom. These important services were not forgotten. Bavaria was confirmed in he extensive acquisitions by the treatiei of 1814 and 1815; for though Austria re- covered her ancient possessions in the Tyrol, &c., Bavaria received equivalents in Franconia and the vicinity of the Itliine. Though'the inferior kingdoms and statei of Germany are o*^ too little importance to become principals in any Europon war, they are trequeutly found very effective al- lies, as was the ease with Bavaria. Its army during the war amounted to 60,00(1 men. in ihi8 Havurla received a coii«li- tntion, which continued to work Willi Inle- ral>le refrnlariiy liil I846, when Kiiiir Lniiis, wlinse poetic and artistic tastes hiid seriircJ for him consiilcrabie fame beyond the lliiiiii of Ills own dominions, begun to adopt iiii's- snres which roused llie IndignaiioM nf hi* subjects. Into this course lie was betrayed THR RAVAHIAN •'ONKStS AHK VsnT nXTKNSlVR, AND PnonUCK GOOD TIMRER. LOUIS, KINO or BATARIA, ABDIOATBO IN MARCH, 1848. €f^t %iitars of dnmani;. [655] bf the Infatuation which had aeizvd liini for the well known Lola Monte*, whom he had created Counceia of Lanafeldt : and, in March 1848, luimedialely after the French revolution of that meniorabte year, tlie at- titude of the Bavarian people became to nienaclnif, that the Klnr taw himielf com- pelled to abdicate the throne In favour of lilt eldest ion, Maximilian ; who both dur- ing, and lubaequenlly to, the atorroy period that eniued, diaplayed great flrnneM, vIgU lance, and prudence, not only in regard to his own Itingdoiu, but on the wider field of European diplomacy. In the hktory of Greece U will be aecn that Otho, a Bavarian prince, was In 1833 elected king of that country ; and that, In 1843, he consented to give nil aubjecta a more liberal governmeut. THB BX-KINQ OF BAVARIA BNJOVS OONSIDBRABLB RBPUTATION AS A POST. Ill bahotik abb mamx bxcbllbni lbao, ibor, and corrBB minbb. [656] Cije €xtnauxti at ^iitava, Ut, 4 r* 5 a '4 R M n s 9 m m M « M H H K H B M H M K B a K m « 4 O K ■4 H M O H U R M *■ M R M M »< H M »■ « R R n HANOVER. Thb kingdom of Hanover, which, until the year 1815, was an electorate, wa« form- ed out of the duchies formerly Dosseated by several families belonging to the junior branches of the house of Krunswicic. The house of Hanover may, indeed, vie witii any in Germany for antiquity and nobleness. It sprung from the ancient family of the Guelplis, dukes and electors of Bavaria, one of whom, Henry the Lion, in iUO, mar- ried Maude, eldest dauglitcr of Henry II. king of England. Their son ^VilliHnl, called Longsword, was created flrst duke thereof. The dominions descended in a direct line to Ernest, whu divided them, upon his death in 154(), into two branches ; that of Brunswick Wolfenbuttel, and Brunswick LUneburg. The possessor of the latter, Ernest Augustus, was, in 1692, raised to the dignity of an elector; before which he was head of the college of German princes. Ernest married Sophia, daugh- ter of Frederic, elector palatine, and king of Bohemia, by Elizabeth, daughter of James I., king of Great Britain. Sophia being the next protestant heir to the crown of England, through the medium of the house of Stuart, the parliament fixed the succession upon her, on the demise of the then reigning queen Anne. Sophia died a short time before the ^ueen; and her eldest son, George Louis, m consequence, b^ame king of Great Britain. This was in 1714, from which time till 1837, at the death of William IV., both England and Hanover have had the same sovereign. The families set aside from the succes- sion by the parliament on that occasion, independent of the family of king James II. by Mary of Estp, were as follows ; the royal houses of Savoy, France, and Spain, de- scendants of Charles I., through his daugh- ter Henrietta: Orleans and Lorraine, de- scendants of James I. through Charles liOuis, elector palatine, eldest son of Eliza- beth, daughter of the said king : Salm, Ursel, Cond£, Conti, Maine, Modena, and Austria, descendants of James I., through Edward, elector palatine, youngest son of the said Elizabeth. The history of Hanover for the two cen- turies preceding the Lutheran reformation presents little interest, except in the con- nection of its princes with the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibclines, in the latter end of the 14th century. Amongst the most Bealous supporters of the reformation, how- ever, were the princes of Brunswick, and their subjects during the thirty ycnrs' war very effectively supported their anti papal efforts. Ernest of Zell, the reigning duke at that period, was one of the ninst elo- quent defenders of Luther at the diet of Worms ; and his endenvouvs to improve the people by establishing clcricRl and general schools, when learning was appreciated by only a few, shew him to have beim a man of enlightened and liberal views. On tlie accession of her present Majesty to the throne of Great Britain, the Hano- verian crown, by virtue of the salic law, devolved on her uncle Ernest, duke of Cumberland, fifth, but eldest surviving son of George HI. It had previously been for many years under the viceroyship of the duke of Cambridge. Hanover suffered in the French war of 1757; but it experienced still greater suffer- ings during the French revolutionary war, after the enemy got possession of it. At the peace of Amiens, it was given up to the king of Great Britain ; but that peace being of very short duration, it again fell into the hands of the French, without re- sistance, or without an effort to saie it, on the part of the inhabitants or the gcvern.. ment. In 1804 Prussia took possession of Han- over, but ceded it in the same year to the French, who constituted it a part of the kingdom of Westphalia, established in 1808. At the peace of 1813, the king of Great Britain reclaimed his rightful doniiniona, which were then formed into a kingdom, and much enlarged by the stipulations of the treaty of Vienna. The countries which compose what ii called Hanover, consist of Ltkneburg, ac- quired by inheritance in 1292; Danne. burg, by purchase, 1303 ; Grubenhngen, by inheritance, 1679; Hanover, (Culenbnrg), by inheritance, 1679 ; Diepholtz, by ex- change, 1685; Hoya, by inheritance, iii part, 1582 ; the remaining part by a grant from the emperor, in 1705 ; Lauenburi;, by inheritance, 1706 ; Bremen and Verden, by purchase, 1715 aud 1719; Wildeshauscn, by purchase, 1720; and the Hadeln-land, 1731. The district of Lauenburg has since been ceded for the bighnpric of Hildeshiem, the principality of East Friesland, the districts of Lingen, Hartingen, &c. Hanover so long formed an appendage to the British crown that we are induced to extend this slight history by quoting from Mr. M'Culloch an account of its go- vernment ! — " Before Prussia ceded Hanover to France, in 1804, the form of government was mo- narchical, and tlie various territories were subject to feudal lords. The peasants of the marsh lands had more freedom, and in East Friesland the constitution of the country was almost republican. In the territories of the princes of the empire, the representation of the people by es- tates, composed of the nobles, prelates, and deputies from the towns, served to check the power of the sovereign, as iu other parts of Germany. In 1808, when Napoleon created the kingdom of Wett- plialia, tlie territories of Hanover, with ibe THB CHIEF IMPORTS OP THR KINftOOM ARB ENOMSH MANUPACTVRKS. KH MIIIBI. to hare hem a man iral views, her present Majesty Britain, the HaDO' lie of the salic law, le Ernest, duke of eldest surviving son . previously been for viceroyship of the the French war of d still greater suffer- :h revolutionary war, lossession of it. At it was given up to ain; but that peace iration, it again fell French, without re. n effort to sate it, on itants or the gcvern.. k possession of Han. the same year lo the ted it a part of the !t, established in 180S. I, the king of Great ) rightful doniiniont, naed into a kingdom, }y the stipulations of ;h compose what it ist of Lttneburg, ae- e in 1292; Danne- >3 ; Grabenhngen, by mover, (Culenburg), ; Diepholtz, by ex- by inheritance, iii ning part by a grant 1705 ; Lauenburg, by imcn and Verden, by 9; Wildeshausen, by le Hadeln-land, 1731. purg has since been |c of Hildeshiem, the iesland, the districts l&c. jrmed an apjpendage that we are induced history by quoting in account of its go- 1 Hanover to France, tovernment was mo- Kous territories were Is. The peasants of more freedom, and constitution of the [republican. In the ices of the empire, the people by es- lie nobles, prelates, te towns, served to Ihe sovereign, as iu Inv. In 1808, when kingdom of West- |)f Hanover, with the MANUPACTVaKS. *■■ roBLio riBia m bamovbb la undbb a cBiiioBaHir. Z\tt ^iitavui of ^(rman£f. [657] districta of Hildeshiem and Osnabrttck. formed a part of it, and the code Napoleon took the place of the ancient laws, and a sham representative government was cstab- lished. On the return of the rightful so- vereign to Hanover, in 1813, the French Institutions were summarily nbolisbed, and the old forms re-establiahed ; and in 1818 the estates, summoned upon the ancient footing, drew up the form of a new consti- tution, modelled on that of England and France, and substituting a uniform system of representation for the various represen- tative forms which prevailed under the em- pire. The chief change that excited disap- probation arose from the arbitrary decision of the sovereign (George IV.), advised by count Muuster, that there should be two chambers instead of one, contrary to the proposal of the estates, and the universal custom of Germany. The respective rights of the sovereign and the country to the crown land reveniu^s were not clearly de- fined by this fumUmental law ; but the interests of the people were supposed to be suiUciently consulted by the institution of a national treasury, the commissionera of which, named for life, were ex officio mem- bers either of the upper or of the lower chamber. "This constitution, however, contained no properly defined statements respectmg either the rights of the people, or the pre- rogatives of the crown ; and as the new system of representation was not suffici- ently consolidated to resist the encroach- ments of a monarch supported by power- ful foreign influence, the necessity of a more definite fundamental law, in which the rights of the citizens should at least be declared, was felt on all sides. This feeling led to the drawing up of the consti- tution of 1833, which differed in but few, though most essential, points from that of 1819. The principal points of difference were a AiUer acknowledgment of the right of the chambers to control the budget, and to call the ministers to account for their conduct; the restriction of the king's ex- penditure, by a regulated civil list; and tlie reservation, for the use of the nation, of the surplus revenue of the crown de- mesnes. These modifications rendered the treasury, whose functions thus devolved upon the chambers, wholly unnecessary ; and it was dissolved. The new fundamental law, after being discussed by both cham- bers, received the assent of William IV. in 1833, who, however, by the same act, modi- fled fourteen articles of the bill. New elec- tions followed, and the new chamber* were exhibiting their activity in reforming abusea, and introducing economy into the state dis- bursements, when the death of William IV. interrupted the proceedings. Aa the salio law, excluding females from the auccfssion to the throne, prevails in Hanover, William IV. was succeeded by his eldest surviving brother, Ernest, duke of Cumberland, in England. Immediately on taking the go- vernment, the new king declared tlie cham- bers dissolved ; and previously to their re- asaeiiihling, he abolished, by proclamation, the fundamental law which had bceq adopt- ed under the reivn of his predecessor, and, in the most arbitrary manner, 1:11 f alike his brother's memory and t^ < ,iule country, declared the fundamental law of 1819 to be alone valid. Under the last named law he summoned a fresh parlia- ment: but he fouud the spirit of the nation aroused and indignant; for not only the courts of law, but the highest legal autho- rity in Germany, and several faculties of universities, declared his proceedinga ille- gal ; many towns refused to send represen- tatives to parliament, and those which met signed a memorable protest, declaring their opinion that the fundamental law of 1833 waa still the law of the land. As the cham- bers could not be convened, for decency'i sake they were declared dissolved. In this state ot things the >: tian era, mere drean wanhet and dismal foreita of vast extent,'wliich were frequently overflowed by the tea. This inhospftable low tract was thinW inhabited by people of German origin, called Batavians and Fri- sians, many of whom lived in miserable huts, raised on wooden piles, or built upon mounds of sand, to secure them above the reach of the tides. But it is not to be un- derstood that the entire region was of this description ; although it has been graphi- cally said, that whole forests were occa- sionally thrown down by a tempest, or swept away by an inundation— that the sea had no limits, and the earth no solidity. The higher grounds, extending firom the Rhine to the Scheldt, including that vast extent of woody countrv, the ancient forest of Ardennes, were inhabited by various tribes of the German race, who subsisted by agriculture and the chase. They had towns and villages in the heart of the fo- rest; their country produced abundant sup- plies of com and cattle ; they were coura- geous and unciviliied ; the rites of Druidism were observed, as in Britain; and the people consisted of two classes, chiefs and slaves. yfhen the Romans under Julius Ciesar subdued the Gauls, that warlike nation turned their arms also against the people we have just spoken of, whose country they denominated Gallia Belgica, or Belgium; but they did not pursue their conquests farther towards the north, thinking proba- bly that the desert plains and patches of land, rising, as it were, from their watery bed, were scarcelv worth the trouble of exploring, much less of contending for. They accordinjp;ly offered peace and alliance to that part of the Netherlands now called Holland; while the Frisians were left to struggle with the Roman legions for their liberty. From the writings of Ctesarwe learn that Flanders was occupied by the Menapii and Morini, Brabant by the Atuatici, Hainault and Namur by the Nervii (so remarkable for desperate courage as to excite the won- der of the veterans of Rome), Luxemburg and Limburg by the Eburoues, &c. Ctesar emphatically describes the Belgians as the most warlike of the Gallic tribes, and ob- serves that in stature and bulk they sur- passed the Romani. But though they fought with an energy and a determination which nothing could exceed, the discipline and military slcill of the Romans eventually obtained the mastery. In subduing this brave pttople the Ro. mans had recourse to the most barbarout practices of ancient warfare ; and for a time either extermination or expulsion seemed to be necessary to conquer their tierce and valiant spirits: thus we read, that^ in Ce- sar's celebrated battle with the Nerrit, near Namur, the army of the confederatea tribei, amounting to 60,000 men, was reduced to 600, and that on taking the town of Ton. gres he sold 63,0U0 of the Atuatici for slaves. By decrees, however, they became incorporated with their con(fuerori, adopted their manners, and served in their ariniei, proving themselves, in many memorable instances, the ablest auxiliaries that ever fought by the side of the Roman legioni. In this state they remained for about four centuries, during which time the Belgic po- pulation underwent considerable clianget from the successive invasions of the Frauk) from the north, whose progress westward terminated in their establishing the Frank- ish empire in Gaul. yfe have already had occasion more than once in this volume to notice, that when the Romans subjugated any country, the inhabitants, however barbarous, graduallf became acquainted with the arts and ad- vantages of civilised life, and that the sub- sequent prosperity and rank to which thejr attained in the scale of nations may juati; be attributed to the connexion which sub- sisted between the conquerors and the con- quered. Thus it was with the Belgic pro- vinces. From the Romans they learned how to redeem their inundated lands from the briny flood, by constructing dykes, em- bankments, and canals; and as they were naturally an active and intelligent people, they drained their marshes, and prepared the land not merely as pasture for cattle and the growth of corn, but for the culti- vation of choice fruits and vegetables; while towns and villages were built on the higher ground, and the country, instead of being a reary waste of bog-land and water, pre- sented to the eye a varied prospect of ferti- lity and an industrious population. Towards the declension of the Roman empire, when its rulers were compelled to withdraw their troops from tl.e provincei, Gallia Belgica shared the fate of the reit ; BBLOIUH, THOUGH COLD ANO HUMID, 18 MILDBB THAN UOlt.AItD. ■ALVH1. LNDS, t tliough they t determination 1, the discipline uana eTentualijr peopio the Ro. roost barbaroai i; and for a time pulsion seemed their tierce and >ad, thati in Ca- the NerVii, near federatea tribei, was reduced to he town of Ton- he Atuatici for rer, they became (luerors, adopted in their armiei, lany memorable iliaries that ever Roman legioni. :d for about four .le the Belgic po- Iderable changes in a of the Frauka ogrets westward •hing the Frank- ;asion more than jtice, that when Iny couutry, the Urous, gradually ihe arts and ad- Ind that the tub- \k to which the; Uions may juatly [xion which sub- an and the con- the Belgic pro js they learned lated lands from Feting dykes, em- lud as they were Itelligent people, ^8, and prepared ksture for cattle lilt for the culti- Jegetables; while lit on the higlier kstead of beini; a [and water, pre- Iprospect of ferti- fulatiou. 1 of the Roman Lre compelled to V the provincei, Fate of the real ; II.AIfD. MANf 'AHTI Ot flit COirnTBT ADOUNO IN MATUKAL Ci;RIoaiTIBa. ^|)t 1I)Utoro o{ t^c :Nfct^erIantls. 659 and it w*« luaniRilvety nv errun bv the tr. rinui (rlbAH from th« north of Oormnny. Hut notwlttnttmitllnf IhoM lerlnus disad- raniaf««i lll« *Mir)t of tmprovcment kept pica with tbd AK«| morn Und was reclaimed rruin tbii ofliRn. And rendered both pro< dueilve and hHhiultlei The maritime low- land dttionndHnu of the Miture«. Iiroiiglit from other couiitrla*) were imrrletl on hIiIi credit and •ueflMi. nruK0*ttiliHHl, Aniuerp.andolliGr towns rose inUt iiitttortNiioc, and the com- marelal itnportAnee of the Fleminga was unlversAllir AoknowledKed. At what nreolie time the Christian reli> (ion waa fntroduAed it la tmpoesible to •peak with eertainln but we know that prevlou* to the reign of tJharlemagne the eon««rsion of the people had become gene- ral, and that ehureliea and munnsterles ex- isted in varioua parte of the eountry. But DO trace of' the tierce and valiant warriors of former daya remained i their swords had indeqd been turned Into plnttghshares, and tbeir speara into pruning liouke, but feudal insiituiioua bad eenverled the free aons of the loit into abjeet ««««at«, who now toiled only to esrieli tba barotilaJ lords and bauKhty prieati, whoie power and posses- slops were immenie. Ylila stale of vassal- sM did not, Itowever, enttend (o the towrs, tba Inliabllanta of wliieb were mostly mer- tiiants and mAnttfaettirei, enjoying nil the advantage* of free «ltlsena< Their Industry and ingenuity not only made them wealthy, but obtained for tbem attention end re- spect I and in Ibe eouree of time they elect- ed their own mAgiairatei« made their own laws, fortified their eiliee, and organited a reiular nillltU from amonif themeeltres i ao that they were able to maiiitaln their privi- leges and defend tbeir tibertlee against the eocroachmsnts of foreign prineei or their own powerful nobles, At the period to wliieb we are now refer- ring, the maritime eommeree of the Flem- ings bad made a great progreea with Spain and England, from witenue they obtained large imporlationa of wool. 1'helr skill in the manufaeture of woollen etulTs and cloths had established for tbem a market In every foreign port) tbe herring tishery was also a treat source of wealth ( and to these thejr added a ' lery. i btrge trade in eorn« ettli« and jewel* In the eleventh eentury tbe eountr* waa divided into dueliiMf eountiea, and Impe- rial cities I Brabant, or Lower Lorraine, and afterwards Luxemburg, Liitiburg, and Gueldres, were governed By dukes t Flan- ders, Holland, KeAlAnd, llainaulti Artois, Namur, and Zutpben, by eouttte, Friea- land Proper remained a free lordship} Uiredit beeame a bisboprie, tbe secular authority of tbe bishop eatend)ng over Groningen and Overysiet. 0( all these realms, the counts of Flandere were the most powerful, and, after tbeir possesslous had passed, in mii, to tbe more powerful house of Burgundy, the latter, partly by mar- riages, partly by force or cession, obtained possession of the largest part of tbe Low Countries. During the crusade* the Flemish burghera obtained great advantagea, owing to the mania with which many of the noble* were aeized to join the holv leagnera. In order to raise mi ' >r equipping armies to com- bat again :e Sarncens, they were in- duced to (1 ^ with tiieir lands and to grant great privileges and political powers to their wealthy tenants, who thus were enabled to purchase independence and a jurisdiction of their own, as we have before mentioned. " The people, conscious of their power, gra- dually extorted from their rulers so many conceaaions, that the provincea formed, in reality, a democracy, and were only nomi- nally subject to the monarch of France and hia nobles. When the rest of Europe was subject to despotism, and involved in com- parative ignorance and barbarism, the court of the counts of Flanders was the chosen residence of liberty, civilization, and useful knowledge; and when the ships of other nations scarcely ventured beyond the sight of land, those of the Flemish merchant* traversed the ocean, and Bruges and Ant- werp possessed the commerce and wealth of tlie north of Europe. In this sta,.e the provinces long continued, until they came under the dominion of the duke of Bur- gundy, about the middle of the 15th cen- tury. Previous to this event, we And only unconnected duchies, counties, lordships, and towns, with innumerable riglits, claims, and privileges, advanced and enforced now by subjects and vassals against each other or against their lords; and now by lord* and vassals against the monarch, without the expression of any collective idea of Bel- fium as a nation. Under the Burgundian ynasty the commercial and manufactrring towns of the Low Countries enjoyed a re- markable prosperity. The famous order of the Golden Fleece was instituted in 1430; and before the end of the 15th century the city of Tpres had 4,000 looms, and the city of Ghent 60,000 weavers. Bruges and Antwerp were the great marts of the com- mercial world, and contained each about 200,000 inhabitants. In the Flemish court of the duke of Burgundjr, named Philip the Good, about 1455, luxurious living was car- ried to a vicious and foolish excess. The wealthy were clad in gorgeous velvets, sa- tins, and jewellery, and their banquets were given with almost incredible splendour. " This luxury produced depravity and crime to such an extent, that in one year 1,400 murders were committed in Ghent, in the gambling-houses and other resorts of debauchery. The arts wire cultivated witli great success. Van Eyck invented the beautiful oil colours for which the Fle- mish school is renowned. Painting ou glass, polishing diamonds, lace, tapestry, and chimes were also invented in Belgium at this period. Most of the magnificent cathedrals and town halls in the country were built in the 13th and 14th centuries. K M e »• « H a 5 « H t* M h O ■ m m a * B K M m » H ft M IH AMeiDM AHI lliail »ttll IIOIRB or MANY OLD TBUOAL CA8TLB8. [3 BSI.AIUM II HlOV IK MIRlMAIi AUD CmOLOaiOAIi rkOBUOTIOHI. 660 ^^( ^rcasurQ ot IQifttori), (cc. Hiitory, poetry, and learning were much caltiTatea i and the univenity of Louvain waa the moat celebrated in Europe. In 1477 Bel^um passed under the dynasty of the empire of Austria; and after many year* of contest between the despotic Maxi- milian and the democratic Flemings, the government, in 1610, descended to his grandson, Charles V., king of Spain and emperor of Germany. In his reign tlie affluence of the Flemish burgliers attained its highest point. The city of Ghent con- tained 17&,0UU inhabitants, of whom lUO.UUO were engaged in weaving and otlier indus- trial arts. Bruges annually exported stuffs of English and Spanish wool to the value of 8,000,000 florins. Tiie Scheldt at Ant- werp often contained 3,600 vessels, wailing their turn to come to the wharfs ; her gates were daily entered by 60O loaded waggons ; and her exchange was attended, twice a day, by 5,000 merchants, who expended 130,000 golden crowns in a single banquet given to Philip II., sou of Charles V. Tlie value of the wool annually imported firom England and Spain exceeded 4,000,000 pieces of gold. This amazing prosperity experienced a rapid and fatal decline under the malignant tyranny and bigotry of Phi- lip. The doctrines of the protestant re- formation had found very numerous ad- herents in Belgium; Luiheranism was preaclied with plirenzied leal by several popular fanatics, who drew around them crowds amounting sometimes to 10,000 or 16,000. Partijs of iconoclasts also ap' peared, and demolished the ornamental property of 400 churches. Protestant per- secution by the Inquisition had been com- raenced by Charles V.; but by Philip II. it was established in its most diaboliciil extravagance. He filled the country with Spanish soldiers, and commissioned the duke of Alva to extirpate, without mercy, every protestant heretic in Belgium. Vo- lumes have been written to describe the proceedings of this able soldier, but san- f quinary persecutor, who boasted that in esa than six years he had put to death 18,000 men and women by the sword, the Sibbet, the rack, and the dames. Ruin and read of death in its most hideous forms drove thousands of artizans to England, where they introduced the manufacturing skill of Bruges and Ghent. Commerce and trade in Flanders dwindled away, many of the rich merchants were reduced to beg for bread, the great cities were half de- serted, and forest wolves often devoured the scattered inhabitants of desolated vil- lages."— Fbr the foregoing spirited sketch of , the rise, progress, and decline of com- merce and the arts in Belgium, we are in- debted to Mr. M'Ciilloch^a Geographical Dictionary. These oppressions being exercised with the most tvrannical fury by Ferdinand of Toledo, duke of Alva, whom Philip had created governor, the Netherlands made a strong effort for their freedom, a::d Wil- liam, prince of Orange, in conjunction «ith his brother, count Louis of Nassau, undertook the defence of fhe inhabitants, in their noble struggles fur religious and civil liberty. Accordingly, the states of Holland, in their own names, conferred the ttudlkoldtrthip, a title equivalent to lieutenant, on the former, and several other towns and provinces declHred for him. lie flrst united them, in 1570, in one general association, under the title of " The Pa. cittcation of Ghent." But this union being soon dissolved, the prince laboured to the utmost of his power to form a more dur- able alliance, which he happily accum- nlished in 1570. In that year the celo- orated league of Utrecht was concluded, which gave name to the United Provinces, and becanin tlie basis and plan of their constitution. Tlie prince of Orange was afterwardi ou the point of being nominated the aovereign of these countries, but wai treacherouslv shot in 1684, by an asanaain named Belthazar Gerhard, who had aa- siiined the name of Francis Guyon. Tliia man was supposed to have been li.red to perpetrate the murder by the Spanlth mi- nistry, Lut no tortures could force a con- fession from him. The United Nether. lands, however, continued to maintain, aword in hand, that liberty to which tliej had raised themselves: and Elizabeth of England took them under her protection, and rendered them essential assistance. When the earl of Leicester, the favourite of that queen, was sent over by her to the Netherlands, in the year ISH5, the sta'ci appointed him governor and captain-gene- ral of the United Provinces, or Ir. oilier words their stadtholder ; but his hau^lity carriage, and unskilful manner of conduct- ing the war, soon rendered him unpopular, and the next year he returned to England. The Dutch, being afterwards better sup- ported by the English, baffled all the at- tempts of the Spaniards ; and their com- merce arrived ataueh a height, that inlGU2 their celebrated East India company waa established. Spain, being both weakened and discouraged by the ill succesa of a tedious war, in lfi09 agreed to an armistice for twelve years, and in the very Hrat article of the treaty acknowledged the United Netherlands to be a free and independent state. During this truce tlie republic at- tained to a degree of power which it has never since exceeded. Compelled by necessity to make war against the Spanish fleets, the republicans soon became excellent sailors, and enter- prising, indefatigable merchants, who vi- sited every sea, and to whom no port was too distant, no obstacle too discouraging. The commerce of Cadiz, Antwerp, and Lis- bon, fell into their bands; and in this way the United Netherlands were, in the mid- dle of the 17th century, the first commer- cial state and the first maritime power in the world; for, with about 100 vessels of war, they bade defiance to every rival, while England and France rejoiced in the humiliation of the dreaded monarchy of Spain. The Dutch East India Company, MVMSROUa BBO^OF FIAT PROVK TBI ANCIBNT SXISTBHCB OP MABSBR8. TIONI. if . OF MARSHKS. Elft l^lstorQ of tl^c l^ttf^trlantfs. 661 established in 1(103, conauered islandi and kingdoms in Asia; ana with about 200 abips, they carried on a trade with China, ana even with Japan. They alone sup- plied Europe with the productions, of the spice Islands. The gold, the pearls, the pre- cious jewels of the East, all passed through their hands. The West India company was not so successful, on account of the Jealousy of England and France. Holland, nevertheless, tor a long time maintained the dominion of the sea. Van Tromp and De Ruyter were victorious, and Louis XIV., who had laid a deep plan for humbling the daring republic, was finally exhausted, and obliged to sue for p' ce. These signal succei were principally obtained by the able conduct of prince Maurice of Nassau, the second son of the first stadtholder ; and to the same dignity this prince was chosen when only twenty- one years of age. He conducted the af- fairs of the states, during twenty years, witli great ability and success. The latter fiart of tliis prince's government was sui- ted by cruelty and ingratitude; for he procured the condemnation and death of the pensionary Barnevelt, to whose influ- ence he owed his elevation. This man, who was an Armenian in religion and a re- publican in politics, was sacrificed to his opinions; but his death caused the po- litical principles for which he suffered to spread more widely. Those who opposed tlie stadtholder were afterward called " the Louvestein party," from De Wiit, burgo- master of Dort, and five other neniburs of the states general, being imprisoned in that castle for maintaining such senti- ments. In 1621 the war was again renewed, during which the stadtholder, prince Fre- deric Henry, youngest son ot the first William (who succeeded, on the death of his half brother, prince Maurice, in 1G25) greatly distinguished himself. This war was brought to a period in 1648, by the fieace of Munster, oy which treaty Plii- ip lY., king of Spain, renounced all claim to the United Netherlands. Frederic was succeeded by his only son William, who was fourth stadtholder, being then twenty-one years of age. He appears to have been ambitious, as was his fatlier. In 1052 a war broke out between the United Provinces and England, the latter country tlien being under a republican form of government; this war was ter- minated two years after, by a treaty, in which the states of Holland engaged for ever to exclude the house of Orange from the atadtholdership of their province. In 1665 another war was kindled with England, at which time that country had regained its regal constitution : this war continued until the treaty of Breda. The atates of Holland and West Friesland then passed an edict, by which they abolished the atadtholdership in their province. This was effected by tlie influence of the grand pensionary De Witt. When France formed a design to seize on the Spanish Nether- lands, the United Provinces entered into an alliance with the crowns of England and Sweden for the defence of those countrlei 1 by which France was, in 1668, compelled to agree to the peace of Aix-U-Chapelle ; but soon took a severe revenge by breaking that alliance, and inducing England, witn some other powers, to enter into a league against the United Provinces; on which a war ensued. In this critical Juncture, the republic, in 1672, nominated William, the young prince of Orange, captain and admi- ral general I and the populace compelled the states of Holland to invest him with the stadthnldership, which two years after was declared hereditary in his family. He was the fifth stadtholder and the third of that name ; he married the princess Mary, eldest daughter of James II. of England, and became king of England. In the year 1678 a peace wai conclnded with France, at Nimeguen ; but it was of no long continuance, for, in 1688, the states supporting their stadtholder in his expedi- tion to England, with a fleet and a large body of troops, France declared war against them, which was terminated by the peace of Ryswick in 1697- .'^t length, on the death of Charles II. king of Spain, in the year I700, the Spanish provinces fell to the share of the house of Austria, and the republic be- came involved in a war respecting that suc- cession, wliich continued till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. William died king of England and stadt- holder of the United Provinces, in 17U2. He appointed John William Frizo, prince of Nassau Dietz, his sole heir, who was born 1687, and was drowned in crossing an arm of the sea at Mardyke, I4th July, I7II. Tliree months after his death his widow was delivered of a son, who was christened William, and afterwards became stadthol- der; but on the death of William III. that ofHce was laid aside, until, in 1722, the pro- vince of Guelders elected him their stadt- holder, notwithstanding the remonstrances of the other provinces. Ou the decease of the emperor Charles VI. the Dutch assisted the queen of Hun- gary against France, which drew on thCin the resentment of that power; and in 1747, the French making an irruption into Dutch Flanders, the republic unanimously de- clared the above mentioned William, prince of Orange, stadtholder, captain-general, and admiral-in-chief, making those dignities he- reditary in his family, even in the female and collateral branches. In the general war which broke out in Europe in 1/56, the Dutch, taking no part in the quarrel, were perhaps the greatest gainers, by supplying the belligerent pow- ers with naval and military stores; and when the dispute between Great Britain and the American colonies rekindled the flames of war, the most essential assistance was procured both to America and France, by means of the Dutch settlement at St, Enstatius, and of the freights brought by their ships. At length it was discovered by the capture of an American packet, that a LRAD AND IRON ARB FOUND IN MEOV, NAMUR, AND Li;ZKHBURS. 662 (H^c ^rcasurv of l^istorv, $cc. treatjr between the Anirncan Stntei and the province of llolUnd wae actunlljr ad- JuMed, and that Mr. Luurens.the prciulent of the congrein, wat appointed to renide at Amiterdaui in a public capacity. Tliiit oc- eaaionfd the court of London tint to cancel all treatiea of commerce and alliance which then iubtiited between that kingdom and the United States, and loon after, in De- cember, 1780, to ittue a declaration of hoa- tiUtiet againit the republic. The reient- ment of Great Britain proved extremelj fatal to the poiiostioi.i and wealth of the Dutch I the island of St. Eustatiui, with a large fleet of valuable merchant ahipa, fell an eaijr prey to a naval and military force under the command of admiral Rodney and general Vaughan ; aevcral bomeward-hound East India ships, richly laden, were either taken by the English or destroyed ; Nega- patnam, on tlie Coromandcl coast, and their chief settlement on the island of Cey- lon, were wrested from them ; a fleet of merchant ships bound to the Baltic, con- voyed by a squadron of Dutch men of war, under tne command of admiral Zoutman, were obliged to return to the Texcl, and one of the 74 gun ships was sunk in a very sharp action which happened with a Bri- tish squadron under the command of admi- ral Hyde Parker, (afterwards created a ba- ronet). Had the admiral been supplied with only one more ship of the line, he would probably have captured most of the enemy's fleet. In the mean time the emperor of Ger« man^, attentive to the improvement of his dommions in the Low Countries, and desi- rous of procuring for his subiects the od- vantages to be derived from the extension of their commerce, determined to oblige the Dutch to allow a free navigation on the Scheldt, which river, by the treaty of Munster, in the year 1648, they possessed exclusively. To procure this, a ship, bear- ing the imperial flag, proceeded down the Sclieldt from Antwerp; the captain being ordered not to submit to any detention or examination whatever from the ships belonging to the republic of the Seven United Provinces, or to make anjr declara- tion at the custom-houses belonging to the republic on that river, or to acKnowledge them in any manner whatever. At the same time another vessel was ordered to sail from Ostend up the Scheldt to Ant- werp. They' were both stopped by the Dutch on their passage, whicii the emperor construed into a declaration of war on the part of the republic, although by the I'lth article of the treaty of Munster, entered into with Philip IV. of Spain, it was stipu- lated that the Scheldt should remain shut: in consequence of which that river hod remained guarded bv two forts, Lillo and Lietkenthoek, assisted by guard-ships. An army of 80,000 men was now assembling; and some imperial troops, with a train of artillery, advancing towards Lillo, the go- vernor ordered the sluices to be opened in November, 1784, which laid a large extent •f circumjacent country under water. A war between the emperor and the republie si'enicd to be inevitable ; but the interpo. sitlon of the courts of Versailles and Derlin prevented that evil: and the emperor at length agreed to give up his claims, on receiving a very large sum of money from the Dutch, to indemnify him for the ex- pences which had been Incurred by bli preparations for war. William v., ibe seventh stadthnlder, on the death of his father in 17li), succeeded to that dignity when only three years of age; the princess dowager, his mother, who was princess royal of England, (being the eldest daughter of George It.), was appointed governess and guardian to the young prince; the prince of Brunswick Wolfenbuttel acted as captain-general and lord -high -admiral during the ininnriiy, which continued until the yeor 1700, when the prince having attained to eieliteca years of age, tooK upon himself the ad* ministration of public affairs. The year followinir, he married the princess Fretle- ricn Sophia Wilhclmina of I'russiat The amiable innnners and beni^ dispo- sition of this prince procured him itcne- j ral esteem, whilst the absolute ascendancv i which the duke of Brunswick had acquired, ' during so long a minority, over the mind of a prince in whom gentleness and ac- quiescence were such prevailing qualiiiet, ' caused him still to retain all his pleniitude of power. It was not long, however, befure the people began to complain thut themoit undisguised partiality was shown to fo- reigners in the appointments to offices, { One of the chief favourites about the person of the prince of Orange was Capd- fan Vandcr Marsh, who had been advanced . from a low origin to the station of cimm- berlain, and ennobled. Thia man, having continual opportunities of conversing witn the prince m private, represented to him the necessity there was for him to inter- fere, by exerting that authority wliich tlie states had vested in him, and no lonj^cr to delegate it in so unqualifled a manner. Tlie i prince acknowledged the Justice of the ' suggestion, and promised to act upon it; | but when instances were pointed out in ' which he might render himself highly po. | pular by appointing certain persons to i vacant oiflces, he found the restraints in which lie had ever been accustomed to be ; held too strong to be broken. This led Cauellan to desert the cause of his master, and to join the republican party. Soon j after, the duke of Brunswick resigned kii i employment and quitted the country. j The republican, or anti-stadtholderian '\ party, which, as we have already seen, had ; subsisted in the provinces ever since the year 1647, or from the death of Maurice, the ! second stadtholder, foun 1, in the ministry of France, the most effectual support which in- trigue and a lavish distribution of money could render. More than a million of money had been issued from the treasury of the court of Versailles to furtherthe interests of this party. However secretly these practices might be carried on, they were not conceal- ' MART DISBASBS ARB SAID TO BB CUSBD BT TBI BFA WATKRi. iKAtlD. ind the republic III! the interpo- Rilli-t •nil Derlin the cm|trror «t hit claim*, on t of money from hlni for the cx> Incurred by hit itadtholdcr, on 1761, lueceeded 7 three yean of fer, hit mnilier, England, (being leorge it.), wai Kuardian to the e of Brunswicic tain-Reneral and g the inindriiy, ! yenr 17015. when ■ led to eiKtiteea i himself the ad- ' (Tnira. The year princeia Frede* I fPrusiiak nd bcni^ ditpo' i .cured liim vene* I lolute nicenuancT I I'ick had acquired, ty, over tlie mind tnllcneas and tc- evailing qualities, all his plvntitude t, however, before lain that the moit 'B« shown to fo- ?ntB to officei. uritei about the Irange was Capel- ad been advonccd ■tation of clmm- rbia man, haviui r conversing with presented to him [for him lo inter- ;hority which the and no longer to id B manner. The justice of the to act upon it; pointed out in Smself highly pe- rtain persons to Ithe restraints in piccustoraed to be 9ken. This led ^se of bis master, ban party. Soon rick resigned hi) Ihe country. Iti-stadtholderian \lready seen, had Is ever since the ^j of Maurice, the In the ministry of Tiupport which in- fbution of money IroiJlion of money _ treasury of the frtbeinierestsof |y these practices vete not conceal- IKRI. rioN. ?!r^( K^Utoro of tl)c 'Ntt^ctlanDs. 6U3 «d from tht courts of London and Berlin, who were no less strenuous to support the Grange party. Internal dissensions, thus fomentea by foreign Interference, rose to » destructive height; and each party Im- bibed the most raneorous spirit against the other, insomuch that It was thought to be no longer safe for the prince and princess, with their family, lo reside at the liague; they ihcreforv, iu September, 178A, retired to Nimeguen. In this posture of affairs, the princess of Orange, who possessed an elevated mind, Sreat abilities, and an eutrrpriring spirit, eterniiued on a very bold and droisive measure ; which was, to proceed, without the prince, and with only two or three at- tendants, to the Hague, to make the expe- riment how far her presence and address enuld be rendered serviceable to the cause of the prince her husband. As she was Srnceeding on her journey on the 281 h of une, 17H7, she was stopped near Sclinnn- hoven, by a commandiint acting under the republican party, detained there during the succeeding night, and absolutely re- stricted from proceeding any further. This indignity determined her to return to JiU meguen,' and a representation of tlie treat- ment she had received was immediately transmitted to the king of Prussia, her brother, who had succeeded " the great Frederic" on tliat throne. The king sup- ported the cause ^f his sister with great wsrmth ; but the states of HoUana not being disposed to make any concessions, the reigning duke of Brunswick, nephew to the duke who had filled the high offices in Holland, was placed at the head of an army of Prussians, amounting to about 18,U(X) effective men, whom he led on the 13th of September into the province of Guelderlana, for Ihe express purpose of restoring the prince of Urange to hia rights. The judicious distribution of the trnnps, and the vigour of the operations, reflected the highest credit on the commander. A general panic aeized the republican party : only the town of Goream, which was com- manded by Capellan, sustained a bunibard- ment of about an hour ; the other places of strength opened their gates at the first pum- mens. Even the stron)^ city of Utrecht, in which were lO.UOO men in arms, and whose furtitications had been greatly strength- ened, instead nf meeting with firmnesi the approach of the enemy, was deserted by the whole republican party, with all the precipitancy of desperation. These rapid successes of tiie duke caused tlu' Orange Karty to gain the ascendancy at the Hague; ut the city of Amsterdam remained de- termined to resist to the utmost ; relying upon the prodigious strength of the place, which both nature and art, it had ever been supposed, had contributed to render, im- pregnable. The duke, however, made his arrangements fur attacking the city in va- rious airections; lending on his choicest troops to the most perilous assault in per- son. After a very obstinate conflict, some of the most Important of Ihe ontworki were taken, which gave the besiegers « secure lodgment, and threatened the city with a dfsirurtive bninbardmenl: the mk- gistrarv of Amsterdam Hniling tbeniselve* thus placed, thought it high time to sub* mit lo terms. After this event, nothing material oc- curred till the invasinn nf the French re- volutionists, which changed the whole as- pect of nffairs btitli in Ilollnnd and Bel- gium. In 1792 the national assembly sent r;piicrnl Duiiiouricz, at the head of • | arge army, to invade Belgium, it being an object of flrst-rnte importance to de- | deprive Austria of that country; and, in | November, the French general gained ■ great victory at Jemnppe, in Ilninnul*. In I a few days afterwards Duiiiourii's nade hia triumphant entry into HrusseU. Tha | party who favoured the French was much too strong, conjointly with the invaders, for the friends of the house of Orange to resist the invaders with any chance of success i accordingly, in a very short tuie, •II the principal towns of the Netherlands submitted to the French; and it was pom- pously asserted by the latter, that it was the wish of the Belgians themselves to throw off the governiurnt of Austria, and be incorporated with the French republic. That many really wished this there can be no doubt, but though the turbulent and disaffected were numerous, such an union was not desired by the majority of those who had any thing to lose. Although by a very eas^r cont^nest the French had gained possession ot the Ne- therlands, the emperor of Austria took im- mediate measures with a view lo its reeo- v?>ry. A large army, under the archduke Charles, joined by the duke of York and the prince of Orange, at the head of their English nnd Dutch troops, contended for a time with the armies of France; but after two years of warfare, in which the allied trnnps, but more particularly the British, suffered very severely, the cause of the stadtholder grew hopeless. When, there- fore, in 1794, the victorious banners of re- ?ublican France waved on the .rt'ers of lolland, the nialeuntents again ''im . Pi- ch<':.'ru, aided by the severity oi /.v winter of 1795, and by the favour of the popular party towards the French, made an ensy conqiest of Holland. The her-ditary stndt- holdjr fled with his family ' > England, and the Batavian republic was iormed, May 16, 1795. The old province I v t-re now merged into on« republic ; the legislative power, in imi- tation of the French, was given lo a re- presento'ive assembly; and the executive to a direct ry of five. The tvBw republic was obliged to cede to France some southern districts, particularly Maestricbt, Venloo, Limburg, and Dutch Flanders ; to form a perpetual alliance with that state ; pay a sum of 100,000,000 guilders; and allow the French troops to occupy its territories. Six years after, it was found necessary to alter this constitution. The republic was M K m A O o » n ■J *• H M ■I M H as o u a e ■ TSB 6REATBST TVORKB OV THK DUTCH ARB TOEIR BTUrENDOVS DTKBS. [3 3 turn luHFAOB or aoLiiANu rnxiaRTi ah iMMiNai rbtwoiik or oanali. 664 Vlfft ^reasutu of l^istory, $cc. aitain divided into tho old nrovincei ; in addition to whicli the " lana of tlie gene- ralty" waa formed into an oiKtith. Tlie administration of the government wai aim- piiflcd ; the legialative aascmblydimininhnd to thirty-five dcputica; and the executive power waa extended to a council of atate of twelve men. Notwithatan(liii||[ these nl- terationa, the Batavian republic, incapable of effecting ita enda with the feeble re- maina of its strength, aaw ita fleets over- flowered by those of England ; ita coloniea aid waate ; ita commerce limited to a coast- ing-trade, and to the domestic consump- tion; and the bank of Amsterdam ruined. Bjr the peace of Amiens, in 1802, it was de- prived of Ceylon, one of its richeat colo- nies. When peace had been concluded between Great Britain and France, and tho hopes of better timca were just awakened, tho hal- cyon dream was suddenly dispelled, and the thunder of war again resounded on the shores of Holland. Its porta wore block- aded, ita fleets were annihilated, and its dis- tant coloniea fell into the power of tho Bri tish; its prosperity, indeed, seemed forever gone ; it was treated as a conquered coun- try, and all the advantagea promised by ita republican alliea proved a mere chimera. Id I8U5, the Dutch constitution wna changed for the third time ; but, ao far from any improvement taking place in the condition of the country, it continued to grow worae, and the only remedy that now aeemed to preaenb itself was the incor- poration of Holland with the French em- pire. This accordingly took place in IHOfl, the mode in which it was accomplished beine by erecting it into a kingdom,' of whien Louis Buonaparte, one of Napoleon's brothers, was invested with the sovereignty. But Holland waa eq^ually unfortunate aa a kingdom, a« when it was designated tho Batavian republic. Though, by a treaty with France, kingp Louis possessed the rights of a constitutional monarch, and waa disposed to exercise hia authority with mildness and impartiality, he waa made the mere instrument of Napoleon. It is true that he hesitated in enfurcing, if he did not resist, the arbitrary decrees of the emperor, and that ho incured no small share of his disapprobation in consciiuence ; but his efforts to promote the weal of hia subjects proved v/holly inetfectuali so tho- roughly controlled was he by the power to whom he owed his regal elevation. Hol- laud was excluded from the commercial privileges of France, though it had to fol- low all the wars of Napoli-on. The national debt was augmented to 1,20UU,0(I(I,(I(IU guil- ders. The only means by which the mer- chant could obtain a support was the smug- gling trade with England. Almost all tho tormer sources of prosperity were obstruct- ed ; and when Napoleon's Milan decree (of Nov. n, 18U7) waa promulgated, and the Dutch ports were shut against British com- merce, the trade of Holland was totally ruined. The wcll-dispoRcd king, lamenting evils which he heJ. no power to ri'medy, and finding that if he retained (he sovereignty he inust become a tyrant against his own will, voluntarily and unexpectedly abdicated the crown, in favour of his eldest son, a minor, July 1, 1810, and withdrew into the Austrian territory, as a private individual. Napoleon did not, however, sanction hia brother's measures. The French troops at once occupied Amsterdam, and a decree waa passed for annexing Holland to the French empire; six senators, six deputies in the council of state, two judges in the court of cassation, and twenty-five deputies in the legislative body, being assigned to it. The continental system was then more strictly enforced, the taxes were augmented, and the conscription laws were introduced, whereby husbands, sons, and brothers were torn from their families, and compelled to tight for a cause they detested, and a ty- rant they abhorred. The Dutch depart- ments, which had already been formed in the time of the kingdom, now constituted two military divisions ; and all the seven- teen provinces of the Netherlands were united under the dominion of Franbt. At length the fortunes of Buoh,\parte began to decline, and the' people looked forward with hope that their worst diiys of suifering had passed. The prince of Orunge hud died in England, in 18U6 ; but his son was living, and on him the hopes of the nation were fixed. The Russian cRm- paign of 1812, so fatal to the ambition of the French emperor, was regarded by the Dutch patriots as the advent of their de- liverance. But Buonaparte was still in power, and most of the fortresses in tke Netherlands were garrisoned with French soldiers. Ardent, therefore, aa their feel- ings were, and anxious as were their hopei, they patiently watched that portentous cloud which appeared in the political hori- zon, and which at last burst with deso- lating fury on the hosts of Napoleon a. Lcipsic. That important battle may be said to have decided the fate of Belgium and Hol- land : the armies of the allies advanced against France ; a combined Prussian and lluBsian I'orce, under Bulow, was rent ngninst tlic Netherlands, and was joined by a detachment from Eugland, under ge- neral Graham. All the great towns now declared for William, prince of Orange, who on the 13th of November, 1813, arrived at the Hague, and was welcomed with the sincerest tokins of joy and affection. He immediately repaired to Amsterdam, where h« was proclaimed king, the people being unanimously desirous that the stadthol- derate should be changed into an heredi- tary moimrrhy. It was not long before the whole country was entirely freed from the presence of the French, and th». new sovereign, (the sixth in descent from the illustrious founder of the republic) wns so- lemnly inauKuruted on the 30th of MHrch, IHH, and proclaimed by the title ot ^Yil- liaiii I. By a vote of the congress of Vientia, the Bclgic provinces were united wiih TUK nOADS ARB OOOn, AND nRNKKAM.V ■'■NCRD DT CANALS OR DITCnRS. K Of CAHALI. ined the Bovereifpity ant against l>i« own expectedly abdicated of his eldest son, a d withdrew into tlie t private individual, owever, sanction hit ["he French troops at rdam, and a decree ;ing Holland to the inators, six deputies ;, two judges in the twenty-five deputies f, being assigned to rstem was then more kxes were augmented, Eiws were introduced, IS, and brothers were es, and compelled to 1 detested, and a ty- The Dutch depart- eady been formed in oin, now constituted I ; and all the seven- le Netherlands were inion of Frnnbt. ,ttne8 of Buonaparte d the' people looked lat their worst days Bed. The prince of England, in 18UC ; but nd on liim the hopes ;d. The Russian carn- al to the ambition of was regarded by the e advent of their de- inparte was still in the fortresses in the ■risoned with French jrefore, as their feel- 8 as were their hopes, led that portentous in the political hori- tst burst with deso- osts of Napoleon a. ttle maj be said to of Belgium and Hoi- the allies advanced nbined Prussian and r Bulow, was tent ids, and was joined England, under ge- he great towns now irince of Orange, who iber, 1813, arrived at welcomed with the ly and affection. lie to Amsterdam, where g, the people being that the stadthol- iged into an hcredi- ;us not long before a entirely freed from rench, and th«. new in descent from the he republic) wns so- 1 the 30tli of March, by the title ol Wil- ongress of Vienna, were united wiih bollaud wai vobmiblt thb uoit comurbcial courtbt in BDBOPB. Ci^e '?§(storB of t]^c 'Nctl^erlanUa. 665 oil BlTCnBS. I A the United Netherlands, to form one king- dom, and William was recognized by all the flowers as sovereign king of the Nether> ands. At the time of this arrangement a treaty was made with Great Britain, which power agreed to restore all the colonies it had taken froia the Dutch, except the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, Essequibo, Berbice, and Denierara. This union by no means gave entire satisfaction; indeed, there had never been any cordiality be- tween the two people, owing to the reli- gious prejudices of the Belgians, who are catholics, and not only dislike being go- verned by a protestant king, but have a kind of national animosity to the Dutch. The people, however, were obliged to ac- quiesce in the decision of the ruling powers. Scarcely was the union of Holland and Belgium accomplished, when the unexpect- ed re-appearance of Buonaparte on the soil of France disturbed the peace of Europe; and the Netherlands became once more a scene of warfare. Louis XVIII. had taken refuge in Ghent, and there remained till the fate of the enemy was decided on the field of Waterloo. As the principal fea- tures of this important battle have been already given in this volume, it would be a needless repetition to introduce it in this place : we shall therefore merely notice a few incidents connected with the subject, or arising out of it. In the month of June, 1815, Brussels presented a gay and animated appearance. It being the head-quarters of the British army. Officers in their bright uniforms, ■accompanied by elegantly dressed ladies, thronged the park; and on the 15th the duke of Wellington, with the chief of the officers was present at a ball given by the duchess of Richmond. The duke had been that day dining at his hotel with some of his aides-de-camp, and before they left the table, a dispatch was received from mar- shal Blucher, (who had taken up his posi- tion at some few leagues distance, to guard the outposts of the allied armies), inlorin- ing the British commander that he had been suddenly and unexpectedly attacked hy the French, and might probably require assistance, in which case he niip;lit soon expect to hear from him again. Orders were accordingly given by the duke for all the troops in Brussels to be ready to march at tt moment's notice ; and then, having made his arrangements with apparent com- posure, in order not to create unnecessary alarm in the city, he and his officers at- tended the ball; and up to a late hour all continued tranquil. Soon after midnight, however, the rolling of drums and the sound of bugles alarmed the inhabitants, but all the information that could be obtained was, that the duke of Wellington had received a dispatch in the ball-room, of so ur!;ent a kind, - that some of the cavalry oflicers, whose regi- ments were quartered in the adjacent vil- lages, had not time to change their attire, but actually galloped off in their ball-room dresses. It was at length ascertained that the French had obtained some advantages over the Prussians, who had been obliged to retreat and take up a new position, about seven miles from the village of Quatre Braa. The rolling drum, the clang of arms, the trampling of horses, and all the fearful diti of warlike p];eparation, resounded in the streets of Brussels during the whole of that eventful night ; and at break of day were to be seen, among the brave fellows who were waiting for orders to march, many an anxious weeping wife and child taking their fond farewell of those who, haply, ere the sun went down vt'ould leave them wretched and forlorn. Silent and deserted were the streets as soon as the soldiers had left them for the battle-field; but wherever human counte- nances appeared during the dreadful mo- ments of suspense, it was evident that fear and dismay usurped all other feelings. Pre- sently the hollow sound of distant cannon was distintly heard; and in the absence of authehtic information, busy rumour mag- nified the real danger, and circulated ac- counts of disasters the most appalling. On this day (the IGth) two battles were fought ; one at Ligny, by the Prussians under Blu- cher, against Buonaparte in person; the other at Quatre Bras, between a part of the British army under the duke of Welling- ton, against the tVench troops commanded by marshal Ney, who had intercepted the duke on his march to aid the Prussians. At night authentic intelligence was re- ceived at Brussels that a most sanguinary battle had been fought, which was to be renewed on the following day, but that the French were no nearer than they were in the morning. This latter assurance in some measure allayed the worst fears of the inhabitants ; but the night was very generally occupied in packing up their valuables, so that their departure might not be impeded should the French be ulti- mately victorious and become masters of the city. Every thing that occurred, in fact, strengthened this impression ; and in the midst of the confusion attendant on the hasty harnessing of horses to the bag- gage-waggons and the rattling of trains of artillery, a troop of Belgic cavalry, who had fled from the field before the fight was over, spread a report that the British army was totally defeated, and that the French were within an hour's march of Brussels, Despair now seized the panic-stricken citizens, but none had more cause to dread an unfavourable result than the numerous English visitors at that time in the Belgic capital, who were consequently among tlie foremost of the fif|;itivcs. At length it was ascertained that a most terrible con- flict ha \ taken place, in which the heroic duke of Brunswick, and i^ost of the gal- lant Highlanders, who had marched from Brussels in the morning, were lying dead upon the field ; and that the duke of Wel- lington had withdrawn to Woterloo, in or- der to be nearer the Prussians, who had retreated after their defeat at Ligny. Early next morning a number of lung tilted wag- Al.THUUeH MOST BNTKnrUISINO, TUB DUTCH ABB HRUABKABLT CAUTIOUS. BDVCATIOR IK UOLLANO IS VNDXB THB BUrSBlNTBNDEHCI OF THB BTATB. 666 ^^e ^reasuri) of l^istors, ^c. fnns arrived, conveying the wounded sol- icrs slowly through the town to the hos- pitals. Saturday was a day of breathless anxiety and intense grief. Some were mourning the loss of friends and relatives, others were anticipating the rnthless violence of the French soldiers when Brussels should be given up to plunder ; while all who had the means of conveyance, and many who bad not, set out for Antwerp. But that day passed with very little tfjchting, both armies being engaged in miikiug prepn- rations for a decisive coutest on the fol- lowing (Sunday, June 18). At ten o'clock the battle of Waterloo commenced, aud was not concluded till nine at night, when the complete overthrow of the French ai'my was effected. The iirst accounts which reached Brus- sels ascribed the victory to the enemy, adding that the duke of Wellington was severely wounded, and that most of the English officers were either killed or made prisoners: nor was it until the following morning that the mournful lamentations of despair were changed into soun&s of joy and gratulation. But the terrible na- ture of the conflict was fully understood, for every one who arrived from the battle- fieid agreed that the carnage of that dread- ful day was only surpassed by the match- less valour of the combatants. Lord Byron has so admirably described the state of the Belgic capital during this memorable period, that our readers, we have no doubt, will applaud rather than condemn us for transterring to our pagps stanzas so graphic aud picturesque :— "There was a sound of revelry by night, And Belgium's capital had gather'd then Her beauty and her chivalry, and bright The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men ; A thousand hearts beat happily; and when Music arose with its voluptuous swell, Soft eyes look'd love to eyes which spake again. And all went merry as a marriage-bell ; But hush I hark I a tleep sound strikes like a rising knell 1 " Did ye not hear it ? — No ; 'twas but the wind. Or the car rattling o'er the stony street; Onwith thedanci' ' let joybeunconfined; No sleep till morn, whenYouth and Plea- sure meet To chase the glowing Hours with flying feet— But hark I that heavy sound breaks in once more, As if the clouds its echo would rppent ; Andnenrer, clearer, deadlier than before ! Arm! Arm 1 it is— it is — the cannon's opening roar I "Within awindow'd nicheof that hip;h hall Sate Brunswick's fated chieftain ; he did hear That sound the first amidst the festival, And caught its tone with Death's pro- phetic ear; And when they smiled bccaase he deem'd it near, His heart more truly knew that peal too well Which stretch'd his father on a bloody bier. And roused the vengeance blood alone could quell : He rush'd into the field, and, foremost fighting fell. " Ah I then and there was hurrying to and fro. And gathering tears and tremblings of distress. And cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago Blush'd at the praise of their own loveli- ness; And there were sudden partings, such as press The life from out young hearts, and choking sighs \ Which ne'er might be repeated; who could guess If ever mure should meet those mutual eyes. Since upon night so sweet such awful morn could rise ? "And there was mounting in hot haste: the steed. The mustering squadron, and the clat- tering car. Went pouring forward with impetuous speed. And swiftly forming in the ranks of war; And the deep thunder peal on peal afar; And near, the bent of the alurniini; driira Roused up the soldier ere the morniDg star; While throng'd the citizens with terror dumb. Or whispering, with white lips — ' The foe! They come t they come 1 " And wild and high the ' Catneron's ga- thering' rose ! The war-note of Lochiel, which Albyn's hills Have heard, and heard, too, have her Saxon foes : — How in the noon of night that pibroch thrills, Savage and shrill 1 But with the breath which tills Their mountain-pipe, so fill the moun- taineers With the fierce native daring which instils The stirring memory of a thousand years, And Evan's, Donald's fame rings in each clansman's ears t ^ " And Ardennes waves above them Ler green leaves. Dewy with nature's tear-drops as they pass. Grieving, if aught inanimate e'er grieves, Over the unreturning brave,— alas 1 DKI.OIIIM IS RKMAHKAnl.K FOR ITS NIIMKnOHH SmoOI.S OP MUSIC. TUB rmBOH or tm king la inrtOLABLit; uis mihistbbs BRRroiisiBi.B. izcns with terror lips— 'The foe 1 ime t ' Cameron's ga- \\, which Albyn's Id, too, have her |ght that pibroch with the breath lo fill the moun- ^fft msi\r.r{! of i[)t "Nttl^ctlantJS. 607 E'er evening to be trodden like tw ^rass Which now beneath them, bat above shall Ktov In its next verdure, when this flery mass Of living valour, rolling on the fee And burning with high hope, 8h»,U moulder cold and low. " Last noon beheld them full of lusty life, Last eve in Beauty's circle proudly gay. The midnight brought the signal-sound of strife. The morn the marshalling in arms, — the day Battle's magniflcently-stem array I The thunder-clouds close o'er it, which when rent The earth is cover'd thick with other clay, TVhicU her own clay shall cover, heap'd and pent, Bider and horse,— friend, foe,— in one red burial blent 1" So numerous were the wounded on the field of battle, that althougii the most ac- tive exertions were used to remove them, it was the work of three days ; but it is satis- factory to knov/, that nothing could exceed the humanity of the peasantry in the > "iigh- bonring villages, who were incessantly oc- cupied in conveying food, water, and such other necessaries to the fatal field as were calculated to alleviate the sufferings of those brave men who there lay steeped ic gore, the dying mingled with the dead. Nor did their humane attentions end there: they received the perishing sufferers into their humble homes, so that every cottage, an it were, was converted into a hospital, and every inhabitant became a nurse. The public infirmaries of Brussels and Antwerp not being sufficiently extensive for the re- ception of all who were conveyed thither, the citizens made the wounded men their guests, and kindly administered to their necessities. In all the towns of the Ne- therlands subscriptions were set on foot for their relief, and every comfort that could be provided for them was liberally aupplied. Among the distinguished commanders who were wounded at the battle of Water- loo was the young prince of Orange, whose conduct in the field earned the warm com- mendations of the duke of Wellington. It also obtained for him among his country- men no small share of popularity ; and as a mark of gratitude for his services, the na- tion presented him with an elegant palace near Brussels. The union of Belgium and Holland heing finally settled, the king of the Netherlands was inaugurated at Brussels, in the pre- tence of the states-general, on the '2l8t of September, 1316. His first care was to deserve the good opinion of his subjects by giving them equal h'.u, and in endeavours to put the youthful population of Belgium on an equal footing with those of Holland ; for which purpose he established national schools in every village, and appointed tea- chers properly qualified to impart instruc- tion on the system which he had found to successful in his old dominions. By de- pees, these schools were augmented and improved; and, in the sequel, others of a very superior kind were founded, in whii h the fine arts were studied, and every incea- tive to emulation promoted by the distri- bution of prizes, &c. Nor was the atten- tion of the king entirely confined to the mental improvement of his subjects. In order to cope with the manufactured goods of other countries, advantage was taken of the discoveries and inventions of scien- tific men wherever they were to be obtain- ed ; steam-engines and new machinery were introduced into the cotton factories; roads, canals, and railways were undertaken; coal and iron-mines were opened; every facility was given to commerce ; and nothing but the inveterate prejudice of old habits pre- vented the agriculturists from benefiting by the wise suggestions of king William : such, however, was the obstinacy of tlie Belgian farmers, that they were determined to retain tiie rude and avkwai'd imple- ments which the husbandmen of bygone centuries had used, rather than adopt the improvements of modern times. In many respects the laws of the new kingdom of the Netherlands were assimi- lated to those of Great Britain, and the country increased i., prosperity with every succeeding year. Still it was evident there was a want of a common feeling between the Bcltfic and Dutch subjects of the new monarchy ; and the circumstance of the taxes in Belgium being increased since the union, was a constant aad a not unreason- able theme for discontent to feed upon, in- asmuch as they had been united without their own consent. On the 17th of May, 1S16, a Netherland- ish fleet, under admiral Van der Capcllan, joined the English under lord Exmouth, and compelled the dey of Algiers to recog- nize the European law of nations. On the 25th, a compact was concluded between the kings of Prussia and of the Nether* lands respecting the cession of a tract of country to the latter: and, about the tame time, the king of the Netherlands acceded to the holy alliance. The political rela- tions of France with its new neighbour were pacific. With Sweden and Denmark, as with 8pain and Portugal, the relations were purely commercial. But the amalga- mation of the Dutch and Belgians into one nation was not successful: in short, a reci- procal aversion of the northern and the southern people was several times exhi- bited, with great animosity, in the church, in the army, and even in the chambers of the states-general. As tiie diiference of languages rendered the union of the southern and northern Netherlands into one nation difficult, the government, while it allowed the use of the French language as well as the Dutch in the proceedings of the states general, abo- lished the use of French in judicial proceed- ings, and by the public authorities, only al- THB FIBSI IB VBBR, AND NO CSMSORSHIP CAN BK RRTABI.ISnED. IN »»h*niH Tim axaouTivB rowiH i* kxkbcisbu bx tbb kimo. 608 ^I)f ^rcasurfi of l^istors, $cc. lowing Advoontei tn ttinkit use of it for a cer- t«in period. The nttittiipt in tuppreas the French Uni(untf« Ihiii* itinita two opposite partiei ihti utrnm frlttttdit of Trance ; the CAthulio U«il|{inriR, npprnhoniilve for their church, b(«!nu»e ihoy bolloved the object wai to propitKHtn lh« p'''''*''*''"'^ I^Bith by mean* of I Uo prohlliitlott of I'ninch i nnd the Brahnniitm itml I'lt'iiiliiK^ lulhered to France from old prtiililldlloii*. Tliim, notwith- ■tandlnif tli** proltlliltlon of the French and Germnii lanKUHKi'i* (*• ptibllc life, the bonds of natiunni uwty wvte by no means tight- ened. On the eunirnry. besides the diver- ■ity of lantfUAKH and ruilKlon, other causes sepnrattid (lie voulht'rn provinces from the northern) but the itri^ntost obstacle to a cordial union lay In the unltorin levying of taxes. Iltjigluni, n tniinitfncinrihK and agri- cultural ouuniry, wlshi'd tt* place the bur- dens on artioUtt of export and import; while Holland, to Npnre Its own commerce, wished tn tnipoMS thoin on real estate. The budget, therdfoi'fl, always employed a great part of the lima of lh« slnlos-Kenerul, who were oonvonnd in Uctobor of each year, alternately at the IIitKue and at Urussels. The new linani'0 law created such dissatis- faction amon)( the people, especially what related la lite ineni lax, that in the grand duehv of l4ixembur)( dinturbanccs arose, which it was found necessary to quell by force, Ff )m this period party-violence may be said tn have proeeeded with tenfold viKour, and the dUeordant elements of which the new klnudom of the Nether- lands was eoinpiiked, speedily led to its destruction, liut It li more than proba- ble that if the revolution in France, which drove one britneh of tlio Itoiirbons from the throne nnd Invested the other with sovereign power, had not occurred so early, the revolt of the llelulans would have been delayed a few years htniter. As is the ease In the capitals of most European couiitrIeK, «u It was customary in Brussels lo eeleltrnte the king's birth- day with illnniinntlons nnd other public rejoicings) hilt while the usual prepara- tions were innkliig, jtlacnrds were posted on the walls, Iniliiialliig tliat the example of the I'ariiJnnii wintid on that occasion be followed. Thus warned, nnd being also assured, from tlie prognostics, of tli!; in- creasing diaiiireetlon of the ucople, the ma- gistrates iininedialely Issued orders to sus- pend the fAie ) and tne performance of the opera of MiiNtanielli), which had been ad- vertised, was nUo prohibited, on the ground of its coniaiiiinif nmtiy political aliusinns, which were caleulnlud to excite the people at such a Juncture, and so accelerate the threatened revolt. There Is no doubt that the very act of forbidding the opera has- tened the dreaded eaiastropho) tot a mob assembled in front of the theatre, demand- ing tlie reprcst'iitalhrn of Matsaniello; and so great was the tuiniilt, that the govern- ment thought it prudent to comply. The opera was accordingly performed, and with Just sueh reKiilta as might na- turally be expected. The audience that evening was composed chiefly of the lower classes, who being predisposed to mischief as well as excited by the revolutionary in- cidents of the drama, a scene of riot and brutal excess commenced as soon as they left the theatre. The gunsmiths' shops were broken open for the purpose of obtaining flre-arms, tlie wine cellars were plundered, the house of the chief minister was set on Are, and the residences of several other persons connected with the government were broken into and despoiled. The riot- ers were, however, held in check by the more respectable inhabitants, who, imi- tating the Parisians, on the following day formed a national guard of citizen soldier;, for the protection of their property against the mob, as well as for effecting a revolu- tion, though by a more orderly and syate- inatic plan of operations. A council of some of the most influen- tial citizens undertook the management of affairs, and sent a deputation to the king at the Hague, with a statement of their griev- ances, at tlie same time demandinj^iedress, The king saw that it was now to* !ate to temporise ; he had either to accede to the revolutionists, ia Mo, or to put down by force of arms the incipient rebellion ; and he evidently preferred the peril which niugt attend the latter attempt, to the abandon- ment of his rights as sovereign of the Ne- therlands. At this critical moment, his sons, the prince of Orange and prince Frederic, at the head of a strong detachment of Dutch troops, were marching towards Brus- sels. When they reached Vilvorde, about five miles from the city, the citizens, in firm but respectful terms, informed the princes of tlieir determination not to ad- mit the soldiers ; and not a moment was lost in unpaving the streets, cutting down trees to form barricades, and otherwise placing Brussels in the best state of de- fence in their power. Sincerely desirous that no blood should be spilt, and anxious to bring tliis emeutt to a favourable issue, the prince of Oraii{;e, unattended by a military escort, rude into the city; but no cordial greeting welcomed him, and it was with some difficulty that he reached the palace, where he remained till the deputation returned from the liaj^ue with the king's answer. As his majestv merely replied to tlie effect that he would assemble the states-general, and take the subject into consideration, the public dis- content was increased, and tlie council re- solved on demanding a separation from the provinces of Holland, and if they could not obtain it by amicable means, to effect it by force. They accordingly had a confer- ence with the prince, and having stated that they were willing, to acknowledge the king as tiieir sovereign, but wished to have a separate parliament and a separate code of laws, he promised to use all his influence with bis father, and the states-general, to procure an amicable arrangement. But althougli the states-general atsem- bled, they spent their time in fruitless de- bates instead of pursuing measures likely M « I, « ** ! It ' II K U I k I :i Si » TRH jvniniAHy rowan is kxibcisbd by thb courts ano tbibunals. ■■LalDM 18 MOST VATOUBABLT alTDATBO POB BAILWATS. ^t)c ^(atorp of ti)c TSTctljcrlantis. 669 to lead to an accommodation. Meantime, the revolt had spread throughout the Bel- gic provinces, and the acts of ihe insur- gents at Liege, Namur, and other towns, showed that the spirit of discontent was not to be easily repressed. From amonff the citizens of Brussels was formed an executive government, under the title of the committee of public safety ; but their councils were thought •oo moderate by the turbulent multitude, who refused to sub- mit to their authority, and displayed all the violent passions common to an infuri- ated and lawless popu'._ On this being comrauuioated to the king, ince Frederic, gs commander-in-chief of ti Dutch army, received his majesty's order, to take im< mediate steps for enforcing oucdience ; on which he issued a proclamation, prepara- tory to his entering Brussels, stating that if the people laid down their arms and re> turned peaceably to their allegiance, a general pardon would be granted, but not otherwise. This brought matters to an iMue. A determined resistance on the part of the insurgents was resolved on, and a scene resembling that of the revolution in Paris followed ; the fighting, like that, con- tinuiDK for three days. On the 27th of September the Dutch troops quitted Brussels, and the provisional government immediately issued a pronla- matiou declaring the independence of Bel- gium. Up to this period the citizens of Antwerp had taken no part in the revo- lution ; but they now admitted a body of Belgic soldiers into the town, and, uniting with them, compelled the Dutch troops to take shelter within the citadel, which, after tome smart cannonading that did consider- able damage to the houses, they were al- lowed to keep possession of; the Belgian auxiliaries being prevailed upon to leave the citisens to defend themselves in the best manner they could. It was now fully evident that the king of Holland Lad not the power to retain, or rather to regain, the sovereignty of the southern provinces ; and as the four great powers, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Eng- land, had been the means of effecting the union, envoys from the three foreign courts were sent to L idon to settle the terms upon which the ..ingdom of the Nether- lands should bo separated. The council of Brussels appeared to be in favour of a con- stitutional monarchy ; and they offered the crown to the duke of Nemours, second son of Louis Philippe of France. The prince, however, declined the offer, and they then fixed on prince Leo|iold of Saxe Coburg, who, after some hesitation, consented to become king of the Belgians, and was pro- claimed, on the 4th of July, by the title of Leopold the First. The ambassadors who had met in Lon- don to settle the terms of the separation, agreed that, while the negotiations were pending, all hostilities should cease be- tween the Belgians and Dutch, and that the troops of both parties should retire within the limits of their respective coun- tries, according to their former boundaries. But this arrangement was opposed by tlte king of Holland, because it would compel him to surrender the citadel of Antwerp and also some forts on the Scheldt. Aus- tria, Russia, and Prussia declined to inter- fere in the matter; but Great Britain and France foreseeing that no final settlement could be effected while the Dutch held these important places, took a decided part in insisting on their immediate evacuation. The citadel of Antwerp was one of the strongest in Europe, and its garrison of 60U0 :'-.en was commanded by general Chasse, an intrepid and skilful veteran. An English fleet was sent to blockade the mouth of the Scheldt, while a French army of 60,000 men, under marshal Ge- rard, laid siege to the citadel of Antwerp; but before the siege commenced, the two generals came to an understanding that the town should not be injured by either party, and that the inhabitants should take no part in the contest. As far as possible this arrangement was observed, but during ten days of almost incessant cannonading, the loss of life on each side was great, and the citadel was literally battered to pieces. At length, the gallant old general offered to capitulate, on condition that he'and his men might be allowed to retire to Holland ; this, however, marshal Gerard refused, un- less two of the forts on the Scheldt were given up; but as they were not under the command of general Chasse, and the king refused to sanction their surrender, the brave defender of the citadel, and the surviv- ing remnant of the garrison, were marched into France as prisoners of war. There were still some minor points of dispute left untouched, particularly the ap- propriation of the provinces of Limburg and Luxemburg; but the siege of Antwerp was the last event of a hostile nature that occurred. The direct interference of Eng- land and France had terminated as must have been expected ; and though there was much contention respecting the possession of the two provinces just mentioned, it was eventually arranged, through the mediation of the British government, that they should be divided between the two kingdoms, the king of Holland retaining Luxemburg, with the title of grand duke. King Willliam I. being nearly seventy years of age, and wishing to retire from the cares of public life, in 1840 abdicated in favour of his son, the hereditary prince of Orange, who was proclaimed king on the 8th of October. No man can be more generally esteemed by his subjects than the new sovereign, or more entitled to their esteem ; and, indeed, it may with great truth be said, that .William IL of Holland, and Leopold I., king of the Bel- flans, were both well calculated to pro- mote the prosperity of their respective coun- tries. William M. died on the 17th of March, 1849, and was succeeded by his son William III., who hiis since been active!" er~-<);etl in organising extensive reforms, at ijuev polllicii.'_.'Mianriiil, and rnliiiliiiRtiativc. THB CITT OV MKCULIIf WAS MADE TUB CBNTBB O* THB BAILWAT 8TSTRM. ■ WIDIII IS SIVIBIIVIKD WITtt yOIlKITI, ThJLltfB, MOUHTAIIfl, ANB DKBV OLBNS. 3 n 8 THE HISTORY OP SWEDEN, DENMARK, AND NORWAY. SWEDEN. Tbi early historr of Sweden ii no leii involved in fables than ttiat of most other nations: but as it is famous for being the native country of the fierce and warlike Ooths, whose emigrations effected the most lingular and rapid revolutions on the Eu- ropean continent that histurv records, we shall in the first place consiaer who were the earliest inhabitants of those rugircd coasts and mountainous regions, whence issued the bold and barbarous Northmen, whose devastations and cruelties rendered them terrible as the invaders of more peaceful and sunnier lands. The ancient name of the region now comprehending the three northern king- doms, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, was Scandinavia; but the inhabitants were at that time known to the nations of the south of Europe only by vague rumour. About A. n. 250 commence the fabulous accounts of Odin, or Woden. Till the mid- dle of the ninth century Scandinavia was little known ; but the bold expeditions of the natives into the southern and western parts of Europe, and the diffusion of Chris- tianity amongst them, about the year 1U00, shed light on this region. The kingdom of the Swedes was separated from thai of the Goths till the twelfth century; but in 1132 both nations, with their several de- pendencies, were united under Suercher, king of the Ostrogoths, who was proclaim- ed king of the Swedes and Goths. It was afterwards at^reed by both nations, that the Swedish and Gothic princes should hold the sovereignty alternately: but this occa- sioned many bloody intestine wars. Magnus Smeck added Schonen and the adjacent territories to the kingdom ; but at length, by his mal-administration, he deprived both himself and his family of the throne; for after Albert, duke of Meck- lenburg, his sister's son, had been elected king, Margaret, who was heiress to the crowns of Denmark and Norway, com- Selled him to give up the kingdom of Swe- en to her; and by the union of Calmar, in the year 1397, the same princess united the three northern kingdoms under one head. This union excited iu the Swedes the greatest indignation : and in 1-143, the Swedes and Norwegians elected f Sweden, the royal d that the king could peace, levy money nor onseut of the states; a fortress, introduce tut any atrong place tbreigner. Tlie reve- !n solely arose from omains about Upsal, peasants, and from ich fell to the crown The government mors, which were at •own only for a terra life, were insensibly ry possessions, which )rce, without paying een reserved out at done by the bishops ised such estateii, on nds of the church from all duties; iments the royal re- that the king could than five hundred lered only as a kind iring a war, and as te in time of peace. bility fortified their hem the seats of so es; and arming their ,e war on each other, ir sovereign. They pected redress from i they thought tliem- oceedcd by force of wn cause. The kiiig- )cnniark were under rnment; both were respective stnates, ence or that of the [N SWEDEN. ■WBDIN CONTAINS ALMOIT KTEBT EI?ID Of HINBBAL FBODVCTION. ^^e l^iatori? of StottJcn. 671 •tatei assembled in their diet, the king could transact nothing of importance. But to return to Gustavus Vasa, who found the kingdom in this situation. The states, to express their ardent gratitude to their deliverer, passed a solemn decree, by which they obliged themselves to approve whatsoever that patriot should think tit to enact for the preservation of his dignity, against a pretender who was set up in op> position to him. They, in particular, im- powered him to make peace and war, and resolved that hit enemies should be ac- counted the enemies of the nation. Tliis happend at the time that the doc- trines of the reformation began to prevail in Sweden : and the Romish clergy, Gua- tavus's greatest enemies, being in posses- sion of one half of the lands and revenues of the kingdom, also holding many royal castles and domains, the new king, in or- der to resume these possessions, embraced the doctrines of Luther, procured an act to be passed, by which it was ordained, that the bishops should immediately sur- render their castles to the king, and dis- band their troops; that their pretended rights to fines and forfeited estates, which originally belonged to the crown, should be abrogated; that all the superfluous plate and bells belonging to the cliurches should be sold to pay the public debts i that all the grants of estate .i to the clergy, since the year 1445, should be revoked, and the lands re-united to the crown; that two- thirds of the tithes, generally possessed by the bi«hops and abbots, should be sequest- ered, for maintaining the army in the time of war, and for erecting and endowing public schools and hospitals in time of peace; and that all the privileges of the clergy should be entirely at the king's dis- posal. Vasa having thus obtained a constitu- tional title to the revenues of the church, inarched through great part of his domi- nions, at the head of a body of horse, to tee the act put into execntion, attended by Olaus Petri, and other Lutheran doctors, whom he ordered to preach before him in the principal churches. Wherever he caiiie, he commanded the titles and grants by which the clergy held their lands to be brought before him, and either re-united them to the crown, or restored them to the heirs of the ancient proprietors ; by which means he recovered from the se- cular and regular clergy above two-thirds of their revenues, and seized upon near thirteen thousand considerable farms. He also caused the superfluous church plate to be melted down and carried into the public treasury. This, indeed, occasioned some conspiracies and insurrections; but they were easilv quelled. Having now sueceeded so happily in sup- pressing his greatest enemies, he obliged the nobility and gentry who held the crown lands, which they had kept as their ov.n, to resign their fiefs or to pay the rents that were originally due to the crown. Upon this they were obliged to compound with the king, and agree to par him annually a certain sum for all their flefs and manors. The crown was next rendered hereditary to the issue of the reigning prince by the free consent of the states, and it has ac- cordinely been enjoyed by bis descendants until the present century. Gustavus Vasa died in 1560; but the division of the king- dom among his children, the mal adminis- tration of his son John, together with the Sropensity of Erick, John's brother, and of igismund, king of Poland, the son of John, to popery, threw the kingdom into great dis- order, which it required all the energy and prudence of Charles IX. and his son Gusta- vus Adolphus to supuress. Under the latter prince, who began liis reign in 1611, the importance of Sweden rose to its greatest height: his armies supported the protest- ant interest in Europe, whilst his domestic policy established gpod order in his king- dom. He reduced the greatest part of Livonia, and penetrated so far into Ger- many as to become formidable to the em- peror ; but in the year 1632 he lost his life at the battle of Lutzen, dying in the arms of victory. This prince was one of those rare mortals that join to the abilities of a great warrior and statesman the virtues that refine and exalt humanity. In his life and death he i Hincd the noblest reward that worth like his could crave. His daughter Christina succeeded to the throne in 1633, when only six years of age. She wrested from Norway and Denmark the territories of Jemptland and Uaneda- len, with the islands of Gothland and Oe- land, and in 1648 added Upper Pomerania, Bremen, Verden, and Wismar, to the Swe- dish dominions. She was no less remark- able for her learning and capacity, than for her singularities of conduct. In the year 1654 that princess solemnly resigned the crown of Sweden, and was very instrumen- tal in advancing to the throne her cousin Charles Gustavus, prince ptlatine of Deux- Ponts, son of John Casimir, prince palatine of the Rliine, by Catherine, daugliter of Charles IX. and sister to Gustavus Adol- phus, whom her subjects had wished her to have made her husband. Charles, who coveted a crown rather than a marriage with his cousin, in 1653 added Schonen, Halland, and other places to the Swedish dominions. His son Charles XI. re-as- sumed all the alienated crown-lands, and rendered himself an absolute monarch. Charles XI. dying in 1697. in the forty- second year of his age, and the thirty- seventh of his reign, was succeeded by his only son Charles XII., who being under fifteen years of age, a regency was appoint- ed ; but the uncommon atalents of this young prince soon procured for him the government ; and through his mediation the peace of Ryswick was concluded, be- fore he had completed his 16th year. In the year 1/00, the Poles, Danes, and Rus- sians, taking advantage of the king's youth, endeavoured to recover the dominions of which their ancestors had been deprived. f *• u H a i ij o ■ M u o BOMS OF THE lAKES IN SWRRRN ABB FROM 30 TO 40 MILKS lONO. [ar •^mm '■ a . i^ .iinmi i *■■ aOTIBNHBRT II A MONABOHT, ■■BSDITABT IR THB MALI UHM. 672 ^^e ^reasur^ of l^istor^* ^c. ■ S b a o M e M H w ■ '4 H a M M M a M « K O U H M The EnKliih and Dutch Mnt a fleet into the Baltlo to hii a«aUtance, and compelled the Danei to conclude a peace with him. Thie young prince then marched againit the Ruisians and Polei, whom at the be< ginning of the war he defeated in almoit every engagement, with numbers far infe- rior to those of his enemies, though he had well-disciplined veteran truous of Saxons to contend with, aa well as Russians and Poles. In the year 1708, the glory of Sweden rose to an unparalleled height. Its king then held the balance of Europe, and might have dictated to all its nowers ; but the superior address of the auke of Marlbo- rough, whose abilities as a statesman and negotiator were equal to those which he possessed as a general, caused the force of Sweden to be directed against the Rus- sians, which mi<(ht otherwise have turned the fortune of t.. i war then waging against France. The czt.r Peter the Great, im- {iroving by his former , miscarriages, at ength formed his troops to conquest : Charles was defeated at Pultowa, in June, 1709; his whole army, consisting of 30,000 men, entirely cut off, or made prisoners, except three or four hundred horse, with whom the king escaped to Bender, in Tur- key. He there gave signal proofs of a des- perate intrepidity, as incapable of fear as void of discretion, having with a handful of men performed prodigies of personal valour against the whole force of the Turks t but he was at length made prisoner. The numerous entmies of Sweden availed themselves of this reverse of fortune. Fre- deric IV., then king of Denmark, declared war, but could not obtain tite object for which he contended. Augustus, the de- posed kin^ of Poland, was more successful. The Russians overran the most valuable territories held by the Swedes on the eas- tern shores of the Baltic, whilst those in Germany were divided among the confede- rates ; Swedish Pomerania was annexed to Prussia, and Bremen and Verden fell into the hands of the Danes, whose king dis- posed of them to the elector of Hanover, afterwards king George the First of Eng- land. Thus were ths accessions of terri- tory, which had been made by the princes of the house of Vasa, severed from timt kingdom. A peace being ratified in 1714, Charles regained his liberty : but his pas- sion for war hurrying him into fresh broils, he met his death bv a cannon-ball at the siege of Fredericshall, when he had invaded Norway, in 1718. Two more extraordinary characters never appeared on the stage of human life at one time, than Peter the Great of Russia, and Charles the Twelfth of Sweden. Of the former we shall speak more at large anon : of the latter it may be safely assert- ed, that no dangers, however sudden or im- minent, ever occasioned in him the least dismay, even when they have shaken the constancy of the firmest among his follow- ers : he seems, in short, to have been a man diveated of the smallest particle of fear; and the manner in which he is relat- ed to have endured cold and hunger shew him to have been a prodigy of strength as well as of courage. His rapid successes against the combined force of Denmark, Poland, and Russia, prove him to have bi-en an able general ; but although his successes astonished all Europe, yet in their conse- quences they were fatal to the kingdom which he governed. A strong resentment against the unprovoked attacks made up- on him, led him to meditate enterprises against his enemies, extravagant and im- practicable in their nature; and the cool and undismayed perseverance of his great adversary, the czar Peter, at length pre- vailed over his ill-directed ardour. The following justly-drawn portrait of the adventurous Swede is from the pen of Dr. Johnson :— " On what foundation standi the warrior's pride. How just hii hopei, let Swedish Charles decide ; , A frame of adamant ; a sonl of flrel No dangers fright him and no labours tire; O'er love, o'er fear, extendi his wide do- main, Unconquer'd lord of pleasure and of pain; No joys to him pacific sceptres yield. War sounds the trump, ne rushes to the field; Behold surrounding kings their power combine. And one capitulate, and one resign ; Peace courts his hand, but spreads her charms in vain : 'Think nothing gain'd,' he cries, 'till nought remain : On Moscow's walls till Gothic standards fly, And all be mine beneath the polar sky.' The march begins in military state. And nations on his eye suspended wait; Stern famine guards the solitary coast, And winter barricades the realms of froit; He comes — nor want, nor cold, his course delay ; Hide, blushing glory, hide Pultowa's day ; The vanquish'd hero leaves his broken bands. And shows his miseries in distant lands ; Condemn'd a needy suppliant to wait. While ladies interpose, and slaves debate. But did not chance at length her error mend? Did no subverted empire mark his end ? Did rival monarchs give the fatal wound 7 Or hostile millioni press Inm to the ground ? His name was destined to a barren strand, A petty fortress and a dubious hand ; He left a name, at which the world grew pale. To point a moral, or adorn a tale." Upon the death of Charles, his sister Ulrica Eleanor ascended tiie throne, by the free election of the states ; but first gave up all pretensions to arbitrary power; and in 172U, by consent of the diet, transferred the government to her husband Frederic, TBI BWBDISn WOMRN ABB BHFI.OTBD IN THB MOST LABORIOUS DUDDORaT. ffim AMft AHS tOIIINOai AMI IVCOBiarULLT CULTIVATMO III IwaDllf. !i fR^t IQistoiQ of StoetJcn. 673 litrsdlUnr pnnR« of f f «Mf CrhpI. Fredrrie hitvinv nulimuK, tlitt kIhIii, in 17-til, nomi- iiatdd Adiil|»ltti« Kmlerlt', duke tif llolRtein gild b)iilMi(l iif l/lllH'f, III* lucneitiinr, bjr a ni*)ur>ly iif uiily two votes. Adolphui, nn tliit d«iii(iM«» ufVfvdetU', In 1761, aiigiimed the rtitii* of iiovHrtiiiittiit. Ho iiiarried Lou- iialllriuHiKliili'riolltd kliiK uf Prussia, who lined to tlttiyxar \f»'J. Tlia UMW ruriii of K)iv(irttm«tit ntablished at till* iuii«turi>, n«n«liiied of Hftf -one arti- cle*, all Miidiiiii to abrlilKS tlic tiowcrs of the crown, and to rfiidi'f ilieHwntlish kovc- r«ign (It** MioNt llinlt«d tnonnrcli in Europe. It aai aMtllfid, llml (lie iupreme lef(>>la- tivs HUlUurily (tliotild iimUiv abaolutely and •oleljr in Itifl Ntaloit ttt tli« r«aiin aaiieinblud in diet, whioli, wlitillter min«ened bjr tlie kinir or not, miint tv^tt\nr\w'eml)t'r, 17(i8, he aiped a declaration, by which he formally abdicBied the erown of Sweden) and, by giving public notice throughout hia domi- nions of this step, at once auauendcd all the functions of government. The aenate felt their authority insuflicicnt to counter- act such a measure, for their ordera were disputed by all the colleges of state, who had ceased to transact tlie business of their several departments. The magistrates of Stockholm, agreeably with the form of go- vernment, were proceeding to convoke tlie order of "burghers," wliicn cumpclied the scnute to consent to the deaired assembly of the diet ; and the king's concurrence was requested to condrm tlie proclamation for that uurpoae, which being given, be re- aumea the reina of government. At the ineetiuK of the diet, wiiich took place on the 19th of April, 17(>9, though it coincided in some pnrticulara with the king's viewa, yet it wua far from effecting every thing which he aimed at. Adolphua Frederic died February 12th, 1771, and was succeeded by Guatavus III., hia eldest eon, then twenty-tive years of age. The accession of this young prince to the throne, with the preposaesaiona of the people strongly in his favour, was a favourable period for extending the power of the crown by the reduction of that of the senate. An aristocracy naturally and rapidly degenerates into despotism ; the yoke of whicii is rendered more intolera- ble to a people in proportion as the op- pressions of a number of tyrants are more grievous than tliose of a single one. The new king found his people divided into two great political pai.'ties, distinguished by the names of "hats" and "caps;" the former espoused the interest of the court, the latter the country or patriotic party. The most masterly strokes of po- licy, as well as the most profound dissimu- lation, were used by this monarch to cir- cumvent and destroy the influence of the senate. The people were grievously op- pressed; for besides the rigorous exactions made on the common people by tlieir rulera, they suffered every calamity which a year of great scarcity necessarily occasions. The army was devoted to his interest ; and his two brothers, prince Charles and prince Frederic Augustus, each commanded a body of troops. The next year, whilst the king was amusing the aenate at Stock- holm with the warmest professions of dia- intercstednesa, and of nis wishea to be thought only the first citizen of a free country, an insurrection of the military happenedat Christian8tadt,in the province of Scano; which was set on foot by one He'.'ichius, who commanded there. The plea made use of to justify it was, the tyranny and oppression of the governing powers. Prince Charles,, who was pur- posely in tliose parts, made this a pretence to assemble the troops under his com- mand, whilst the king, his brother, who was at Ostrogothia, put himself at the same time at the head of the troops there. Tlie senate was much ala~'^ed at tliese proceedings, whilst the ki.ig, with the most consummate dissimulation, expressed flit mmeifAfi litON Mtncs abr in the provincb or upland. ■ ■AK-BUNTINB II A VATOUHITI irOBT IN tWaOMN ADO NOMWAT. 674 JSfit ^rrasuri) of l^UtorQ, ^c. hit reientment against the insurgent!, and his ual to suppress tlieraj at tlie same time, bv stationing the military force in Stockholm so as to surround tlie senate- house, he eSectually controlled the deli- berations carried on there. In this exi- gency the senate found themselves totslly abandoned by the soldiery, whilst the king, being thus supported, was enabled to ac- complish a great and almoit unparalleled revolution, and to deprive an extensive na- tion of itj liberties in a sintrle rooming, without bloodshed, without noiic, without tumult, and without opposition ; while the Seople flocked together with as much in- ifferonce and tranquillity as if it had been merely some holiday sport. It is said, only five persons in the king* dom were intrusted with the design. Very few were imprisoned, and that only for a short time ; nor did any one experience, in the smallest degree, a diminution of the royal favour on account of their opposi- tion. The senate took a new oath of alle- giance to the prince, and tranquillity was restored throughout the kingdom. Six years after this revolution took place, the king convened the senate; but finding the bouse of nobles very much disposed to oppose the views of royalty, he suddenly dissolved that assembly. On the 16th of March, 1792, the king being at a masked ball, an assassin, named Ankerstroem, dischariced a pistol beiiiud him, the contents of which lodged between the hip and tlie back-bone, with which wound the king languished until the 29th, and then expired. The day after he re- ceived it, he sanctioned an edict, by which his brother the duke of Sudermania was appointed regent of the kingdom, and guardian of his only son, then a minor, being fourteen years of age. Tlils prince, upon the death of bis father, succeeded to the crown, under the title of Gustavus IV. Gustavus IV. accordingly assumed the Sovernment under the guardianship of the uke of Sudermania. No sooner, however, had he attained his majority than he em- broiled liimself in hostilities with France. He next engaged in an unequal contest with Russia; the consequence of which was thai: the latter overran Finland, and threatened an attack on Stockholm. As Sweden was at the time in alliance with England, a British army, under sir John Moore, was sent over to the assistance of Gustavus; but that general refusini^ t.^ submit to the dictates of the eccentric, if not insane, king, soon returned home. Though the Swedes fought with great cour- age, they were unable to resist the over- whelming force of the Russians, especially as the limited resources of Sweden were wasted by Gustavus in senseless and im- practicable enterprises. At length the Swedes grew weary of a sovereign whose conduct threatened the ruin of their coun- try; be was arrested by some of his offi- cers, deposed, and the crown transferred to the duke of Sudermania, who took the title of Charles XIII. (a. d. 1809); prince Christian of Holsteln-Augustenbarg (who adopted the name of Charles Augustus) being at the same time declared crown- prince and successor. The new monarch was forced to purchase peace f^om Russia by the cession of Finland, and the exclu- sion of British vessels from the ports of Sweden. The crown -prince, however, dying suddenly, marshal Beruadotte, prince of I'onte Corvo, was elected successor to the crown by a diet held at Orcbro in 1810; and having accepted the honour, and been adopted bv the king under the name of Charles John, he soon after arrived in Swe- den, of which he became king on the death of Charles XIII. in 1818. Swedeu now declared war against Great Britain ; but the pressure of tlie war, and the increasing encroachments of France, produced a change of policy in 1812, and she joined the allies against Napoleon. By the peace with Denmark, concluded st Kiel, Jan. 1-1, )814, Sweden received Nor- wav as an independent, free, indivisible, and inalienable kingdom, in retuiii fur her Sossessions in fomerania and theitlandof Lugcu. Siinic liilrlgnes and conspiracies for the rc8lor»llon of the family of Vasa occurred in Sweden ; but the estates took the op- portunity to give the king tlio stroDKeit assurances of Hdelity. The king and Swe- dish estates, In order to interrupt all com- municaiion with the exiled fb'iiily, ( only the free i>ea8ants of the crown, by de- puties. The diet or represeiilittive assemlily of Sweden is composea of four sepiinite chanibers, consisting re8pectlvelynfde|iiititt from the nobilitv, clergy, burghers, aii.d peasaula. The four cliambers deliberate and vote separately : but all qnentlniifi must, previously lo their dec,<*ion in the chamber, lie referrtd to standing committees chosen at the conimencement of the diet, consist- ing of an equal number of niembei's from each oriler. In inost cases, the decrees of the diet must be submitted to the king, who has an absolute viio; but the king has frequently refused his sanction to the reio- OF THI WILD animals, BKARS ANO WOLVES ARF TnB SIOST FORMIDABLI. BBHMAMK HAS RO MOVNTAIHI, Roa ANT OONtlOHBAtLa BlViai. tr^e l^lstorp of Dcnmatli. 675 lullona ol the diet, •iid the diet litt nega- tived the propoiaU of ili« kinir, wUhoui oc- CMl<>iiiiiiro('i>»i>K» "f iiitiiliiirj, or exeiting any revlIiiK of aiitmoiUy uii tillher tide. Till! aiiiiiiiiily U Incrt'ised by tliu abtoliite IrffM.illve power wlilcli ihr ronmltiitlon cuiilerii on 'he k\i\g in all iiiatlerK of lii- teriml admlnl^tralinii ami police, In reKurd (0 which the diet merely |iri'(eiiti adilren^ii •lid pellllont exprentlve ot^ their views and wlnhfi. , , , Tlie KoverelKn dlRpoxos or the higher rlvli and niilltiiry nlliceii, from which fo- tKifuer* are excluiled by law. Without (he coiiient of the utateii, the khiff canmit enact new laws or abolish old ones ; and (lie coiiirthlii)f," which meets every three yearn luo jure, and not by any writ from the klnif or tlws executive. This '* stortli- Init'' enjoys a rliflit pusxessed by no other IrKJslatlve HHseinhly In the world. If :t bill pass ihriiuffli three successive " storihiii)(s " It liccoines the law of the land wlthiml the royal assent ; and tills right was exerted when the Norwe|rians abolished their liereililuiv nobility in 1631. A viceroy, or (rovernor-ffenerul, resides at ChriHtiana. The revenue and troops of the kinj^doms are kept distinct : and the fortifications of Norway arc only in pari occupied «| Sweden. For the ievyliiR of taxes, the consent of the states is necessary ; and all the troops and officers arti required to take the nalh of allrKlance to ilieni, as well as to the klny. I'he sovereign has the rl^ht to make war and peace, to regulate the iudiciary, and to conduct the general administration without re- straint. The succession to the thmno is hereditary in the male line, according to the law of prinioKenilure : on the extinc- tion of the male line the slates have full power to elect a king. Deiore his corona- lion, ilie king is re(|nireil to take the inau- gural outlis, and to subscribe an engage- ment to niHlntiiin inviolate the evangelical Luiluriin religion. Ill .Marshal Deruttdotlc Sweden and Nor- way found a king in every respect worthy of their allegiance. Louklng steadily to the future, hu met (iresent dlincullles with lirmness and wisdom ; and his pergonal character and hit constitutional principle* secured him the love and fidelity of Ids people. In 1844, Charles XIV. died in his eightieth year, and was succeeded by his son Oscar, who appears adnilrubly lltied, both by na- ture aiui education, to consolidate the power which fortune bestowed on Ids illu»> trious lire. DENMARK. Tbk aborigines of Denmark are sup- poaed to have come from Germany, and to nave gained their support from the sea. The Cimbri, wlio derived their origin from them, dwelt in the peninsula of Jutland, the Chersoncsus Cimhrica of the Romans. They lirst struck terror into the Romans by their incursion, with the Teutones, into the rich provinces of Gaul. After this, led by the mysterious Odin, the Goths broke into Scandinavia, and appointed chiefs from tlieir own nation over Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. But the early history of this country is involved in fable, and presents nothing that is interesting to a stranger. All that is known with certainty is, that at the period of which we are speaking, Den- mark was divided into many small states, that the inhabitants gained their subsist- ence by piracy, and spread terror through every sea, and along every coAst, wherever tbey came. Id tlie eighth century the Danes became formidable to their neighbours by their piratical depredations on the coasts of England, Flanders, Normandy, and Ger- many ; wiiich desultory warfare was main- tained for more than two centuries, till at length their rude and savage manners being somewhat meliorated, they became cultivators of their native soil instead of advcntHrers at sea. Other causes likewise concurred to put an end to these outrages : that redundant population, which hud been the means of pouring forth such swarms of plunderers, no longer continued i many had fallen by the sword in those invasions; conquests had been made, and emigrants had settled on the acquired territories in vast numbers ; the introduction of Christi- anity, in the tentli century, served likewise to abate their ferocity, while the increased strength of the neighbouring states, and tlie force they had acquired at sea, became too formidable to be contended with. Canui", or Knute, coinmooly called the Great, who died in England, in the year 10:i(>, advanced the dignity of this kingdom to its highest pitch ; but the sovereigns who succeeded him were little distinguished until towards the close of the fourteenth century; when Margaret obtained the re- gal power on the death of her son Glaus, or Orluf III., who had united the king- dom of Norway to that of Denmark. In the year 1388 (three years after her acces- sion), having defeated and taken prisoner Albert, king of Sweden, she was enabled to urge her pretensions to that crown ; of which she ootained possession by the con- sent of the states, at the assembly of the representatives of the three kingdoms held at Calmar, in tlie year 1397. at which time a confederated constitution was formed of the greatest consequence to the northern states, and called " the union of Calmar." This wise and heroic princess, to wliom historians have given the distinguishing appellation of " the Semirarais of the north," reigned over Deuniurk and Nor- way twenty six, and over Sv»'eden sixteen years. After this, a century elapsed with- it o « o M f t. o M H m M O M Si Q ■ a r. H h H A SKNMABK IS MISAIII.T EVERYWIIKItl! SIJUnuUNDRn BY TniS SKA. [3 pi TUB DAHBI A*a A tUhCtlfVt, rAIHITAKINO, AMD INOUIT«IUUI Wli:.1t,-J. 676 ^^e lITrcasuiy of l$ii8torv> ^c. out any thing hiRhljr iinportant occurring io the hiitory of this counlrv. C'liristian I., count of Uldenburfc, who came to the ttirono in U IH, wai thn I'ounder of the Danlih ruyal family, which iiai ever lince kept poiiriiiun of the throne, and from wliicli, iii uiudi'rn tiuici, Kubsia, 8wcden, andOldenburu liave received iliuir ruler*. He connected^ Norway, Sleiwick, and IloUtein with the crown of Denmark, but wat 10 fettered by hii capitulntiont, that he teemed to be rather tlie head of a royal council than a lovereign king. In the year 1S23, Frederic, duke of Hoi- ktein, wat raited to the throne by the voice of the people, who had depoied their king Chrittian 11. for hit cruelty and tyranny, in whose rci|rn the crown of Sweden had been diimemljered from that of Uenrnark, and pinced on the patriotic brow of dut' tavnt Vata. Frederic I. having embraced the doctrinei of Luther, the tcneti of tliat reformer tprcad wtlli great rapidity through the kingdom. The event which chiefly dittinguiahei the hittoryof thit kingdom lince the reign of Frederic I. it the unprecedented revolution which took place in the l/lh century, and which meritt particular notice here. Denmark wat then governed by a king chotcn by a delpgntion from people of all ranks, atiemblcd in a diet, who in tlicir choice paid a due regard to the family of thc^reeeding prince ; and if they found one of hit line properly quulifled to dii- charge the dutiea of that high ttatiou, they thought it iuit to prefer him before any other, and the eldeit ton before a younger, if hit raeriti warranted the adoption ; but if those of the royal family were cither de- ficient in abilities, or had rendered them. lelvet unworthy by their vices, they chose tome other person, and sometimes raised a private man to that high dignity. To the king thus elected, and a senate consist- ing of the principal nobility, the executive powers of government were entrusted. One of the most fundamental parts of the eonttitutioD wat the frequent meetings of the ttates, in order to regulate every thing relating to the government. In those meetings new laws were enacted, and all affairs relating to peace and war, the dis- posal of great ofHccs, and contracts of mar- riage for the royal family, were debated. The imposing of taxes wat merely acci- dental, no money being levied on the people, except to maintain what was esteemed a necessary war, with the advice and consent of the nation, or now and then by way of free gift, to add to a daugliter't portion. The king's ordinary revenue consisted only in the rents of latids and demesnes, in hit I herds of cattle, bis forests, servicet of te- : nanta in cultivating his ground, &c., for customt on merchandize were not then known in that part of the world: to that he lived like a modern nobleman, upon the revenues of his estate. But in the year 1660, the three states, consisting of the nobility, clergy, and com- monalty, being assembled in a diet, for the purpose of flnding meant for discharging the debts Inrurreil by a war with Climict X., king of Hweden, the nobility eu'lua. vourcd to lay the whole burden un the loiii. mont; while the latter, who had defeud. ed their country, and particularly their ci. pilal, with the utmost bravery, iiiaiiied lliat the noblei, who enjoyed all the landi, ihould at least pay their share of the taxpt, since they had tuSercd lets in theconiinoa calamity, and done lest to prevent itt pro- greta. At thIt the nobility were enraged, and many bitter rcpliet patted on both sides. At length a principal senator standing up, told the pretident of the city, that the com. mont neither underttood the privileges of the nobility, nor considered that they them- selves were not better than slaves. Tli« word slaves wat followed by a loud mur- mur from the clergy and burghers: wheu Nonson, the president of tlie city of Copfn- hagun and speaker of the house of com- nuins, obBcrviiig tlie general indigp aiioii it occasioned, instantly arose, and iHuaring tliat the common* were no slaves, whicli the nobility ihould (ind to their coit, walked out, and wat follow ed by the clergy and burghcrt, who proceeding to the brew- en-hall, in the city, debated there on the mott effectual meant of humbling the arro- gance of the nobility. Tlien it was that the flrtt idea of rendering the crown of Denmark hereditary wat ttarted by the bitliop of Zealand, but nothing like invest- ing the king with abtolute power wat at that time thought of, although it was aeon after adopted. The aaaembly afterward! adjourned to the bishop's palace, where the plan of an hereditary tuccetsion received the unanimoui concurrence of the whole atseinbly. Frederic III., who then possessed the crown of Denmark, hat been represented as a prince naturally supine and uiiambi. tiout, of engaging manners and a benevo- lent heart, yet hit habits of life were u little likely to render him highly popular at generally odioua; but what the common course of events would not have brought about, the exigencies of the times effected, Charles X. of Sweden, having broken the treaty he had entered into at Roskild, in the year 1658, and invaded Denmark, for the avowed purpose of%ubduing both that kingdom and Norway, to annex them to the crown of Sweden, Frederic beheld' the impending storm with the firmness of a king; he renounced hia beloved ease, led on tiis troops in person, and, by his acti- vity, conduct, and bravery, delivered hit capital, repelled the invaders, and forced them disgracefully to evacuate his territo- ries. These achievements deservedly en- deared him to the people, and before the fervour of their gratitude had subsided, the dissensions between the nobles and com- mons broke forth. Had the smallest spark of ambition existed in the king's breast, such an event would have kindled it into a flame ; but this prince is represented, br tome historians who have related this me- TBK MAMNIBS OP TBB PKOFLB RBBBMBLB ml BBLOIAKB AND DUTCH. ua ri;.. 1 tni for diicUrginK a war with CIihiici he noljiUty cnlut- bunUn u» thf loin- r, wild liail ilefeud- larticularly (heir ci- it bravery, Imiited iijoyed all the lanJa, ir tliare of the taxei, i le*a In the comnioa ■ to prevent iti pro r were enraged, and iMcd on both tidei. ■enator tianding up, he city, that the com- lood the privilege* of dcred that they them- er than elaven. The >wcd by a l»ud iiiur- and burpheri! wheu I of theciiyof Copen- )f the houna of com- general indigi atioii it aroae, and iwearinj , rere no tlavei, wliico And to their coit, followed by the clerKj roccediiig to the brtw- debati-d there on the I of humbling the arro- ty. Tlicn it was tint ■ndering the crown o( u waa started by the ut nothing like invest- {kbiolute power wai »t \!, although It wai loon i aiserobly afterwatdi fhop'a palace, where the Wy aucccanion received [currence of the whole 10 then poiaeascd the L baa been repreaented |ly aupine and unarabi- nannera andabenevo- babita of life were u t him highly popular ai mt what the coniuioD >uld not have biouglil U of the times effected. [en, having broken the •cd into at Roskild, iii invaded Denmark, for of*ubduing both that ay, to annex them to ■n, Frederic beheld the rith the firmness of a 1 hia beloved ease, led irson, and, by his acti- bravery, delivered his le invaders, and forced io evacuate his tcrrilo- Tements deservedly en- people, and before he jftude had subsided, the ti the nobles and com- Had the smallest spark '- in the king's breast, 1 have kindled it into a ince is represented, by [o have related this nie- OF LATI VBAM THI OOMMBIIOI OF DENMARK HAS MUCH IMPROVKD. C5( Witarn of lOcitmiirii. 677 Ins AMD POICH. morabic rrvolullon. as having rnlnpNed Into hit former habits of Inacdvily, anil thai Ihv intrigue* of two prlm'l|>al men In hit court bniughl about an event which h« liliu»«lf ihnwed no tolkiiuda to procure. The revolullon being thus accomplished, a newt conalllittlon was ftlubllaheii, by an edict consUtliig of forty ariiclcs, un^i t-n- (llled " ilie myal law of Uiiimaik," by which the succession was teltlvtl on Ihe kliig'» I'lilest ton, and, on failure of male iMue, in Ihe female line. The kliigo of Denmark and Norway we i v tliereln ilecUred to be above all huiuan laws, acknowlt-ilg- Ing In all eccletlasllcal and civil Hlfalrn no bUher power than Uod alone. Tliuy may nuke, inlerprel, abrogate, and dlsp«?ns« with law*, except the royal law, which mutt remain Irrevocable, and be coimldercd ti Urn fundiiineiitui law of the slate. The kings of Ueiiiuark have likewise (he power of declaring war. making pence, Imposiiiir iKXt's, and levying coiuributlons of all kinds. The king* who htive relKued since llili revolullon have been ClirlKllan V. (I67U); Frtderlc IV. (I6U9); Chrlatlun Vi. (1730); Frederic V. (I7M}; Chrlsliun VII. (I76d); Frederic VI. (lUUH): Christian VIII. (1840) : and Frederic Vli. (IB4H). In I7!)'i, when Ihe allied power* wished Denmark to lake ion which Denmark acceded to Ihe treaty of Russia with EiiKland, evacuated Hamburg and Lu- beck, of which she tlien had possession, and received back her own colonies. At lenglh, in 1807, Ihi* litate was included In Napoleon's conlinenlal policy. A French sniiy stood on Ihe border* of Denmark ; Ruwia had adopted Ihe continental system at the iieiiceof Tllklt; and England Ihoiighl il her duty to prevent the accession of Denmark to Ihi* alliance. To carry that object, an Englitli fleet, conveying a large army, was sent up tlie Sound ; and as Ihe Danish government refuHcd to join in a defensive alliance witii Great Britain, as demanded, or In surrender llie fleet as a pledge of its nculrulity, (he capital was bombarded for three days, ami (lie wliulu Heel, consisting of eigiiteen Hiiips of the iiue. flfteen frigates, &c. was delivered up to ilie British, and carried ofl^ in triumph. Great Britain now ofl°ered (he crown-prince neutrality or an alliance. If he accepted the flrsi, the Danish fleet was to Ite re- stored in three years after the general ueace, and the Island of Heligoland was to be ceded to Ihe British crown. The crown- prince, however, rejected nil proposals, de- clared war against Great Britain In Octo- ber, 1807, and enteied into a treaty with Napoleon. Tills alliance with France was no sooner concluded than Bernndoite occupied the Danish islands with 30,ouo men, in order In land in Sweden, against wliicli power Denmark declared war in April, 1808; but this plan was defeated by the war witli Austria, In isou. Tite demand made by the court of Sloclkliolin, In IhI3, ofalrans- iVr of Norway to Sweden, was lollowtd by a new war with till* cmwii, and a new alliance with Franre. Un Oils accuunl, alter Ihe battle uf Leipnic, Ilie nnrilieru powers who were united aK^inst Fraia'e, occupied lliil«leln and Sionre. Uluck- sliidt and oilier foriillcnii'in* were cip- lured, and the Danish iruops driven be- yuiiil Flen»hurg. riie court of Denmark seeing Ihe un- favourable |>osilion In which the country was placed by Ihu dtrlliiing fortune* of Napoleon, not onlv concluded a peace with England and SweJeii, but entered Into an niliance against France, and vonirlbuied a body of lroo|M to Ihe allied forces. Den- mark wat also obliged to cede Heilgoiand to Great Britain (receiving In excliange several V\e>t India inlands), and Norway to Sweden (for wlilcli siie wut compen- sated liy Swedish I'onieraiila and llugen, but whii'li were aflerwurds exchangeii lor Lnueiiburg with I'russia). A peace wa* concluded with Kussia In February, I8H. Since that period, the Danish govern- ment has steadily exerted Itself to draw foith liie resouices of tlie country, and to Improve Ihe condition of (he people. In IHU4, provincial slates were establlslied ; and great Improvenienis were oiherwii>e made In tiie government and adiiiinis- tralion of llio country. But usel'iil and valuable at are (he reforms of late Intro- duced into tlie organisation of Denmark, Hie most hrilliani leulure in her conlenipo- rary history, and that wlilcli gives Hie best proof of her activity and iier slreiiglh. Is Ihe struggle slie maintained againnt Ger- many since the month of April, 1848, fur the retention of her rights over Schleswig and llulsieln. (In the Hhtory o/OenuauyviM be I'ouihI an account of ihe origin and con- sequences of liiis liercc struggle : and we shall here conlenl ourselves wltli subjoining for purposes of reference a summary of (he leading events by wlilch it wat luarked.) The present king, Frederic VII., who*uc- ceeded to the throne, Jan. 30. (848, com- nienced hit reign with tlie grant of a con- tiltution lo his subject*. Ininu-diately after- wards his ministry Introduced measures wlilcli, it was supposed, had a tendency to Incorporate Sclilesvvlg witii the crown of Denniaik, In violation of ancient stipula- tions, wliich declared that the German (lucliy of Holsteinand Schleswii; should be insepa- rable. To this severance the German inhabll- anls of Ihe duciiits were adverse. Availing tiiemselves of the cuntre coup which (he Frencli ivvoliUion of I84d produced (hrough- out Europe, they at once formed a pro- visional government, and appealed to the German people for assistance, which was iH'omptly granted, botii in word and deed. Volunteers hastened to the tcene of action from all sides ; and tiie Prussian govern- ment marched its troops Into tlie country. Meanwiiile Copenhagen was put in a state of defence, the navy was relitted. tlie soldiers were gathered under their colours, and sent towards Ihe heart of the insur- rection. On Ilie 9th of April, the Danish army defeated liie insurgents, at Bau, ; near Flunsburg in Sclilcswig. But the * I w I a. » o 91 n o u M ■ ALL TRAVBLLEK8 0S8CRIBB THB DANES AS IMMODERATB BATEItS. riH TlUOaH, DIALS, AND VIIU AHI TUB rRINCIFAIi BZFOSTS OV NOBWAT. 678 Vtlfz ^I'casuru of Tiistorn, $cc. M O U H H H a as a o A < o IS •4 Pruulant having, by (hit time, come to tlieir anittance, on tlie 'JSril of April, the Dauet were obliKed to leave their po- sition at Denvirli. On the 1st of May, the German army occupied Jutland, under llie command ol General WranKel. On tlie 38th of May ard tliesth of June, the Danes foui^ht most kkltnntly at Puppvl and at Nybei, while vVrauKel ahnnduned Jutland on tlie demand of Bngliuid, Uunsla, and France. The armlalku of Malino wan con- cluded the 36(h of AiiKUHl ; but on llie 3rd of April, Ib49, the war recominenct'd willi a catastrophe for the Uiinlith licet at Etkirn- forde. The man-of-war, iheClirlHllan VI II., which had sailed Into (he bay (o destroy the balteries of the enemy, was detained there with the tielion by contrary wind. After an lieroiu rehistance, (he Christian Vlil. was blown up, and (lie Uellon sur- rendered (o avoid the dcs(ruclluu of iter whole crew. On (he 6th of April a battle was fnuKht at Ulderup ; on the sard of April ami the 7(h of May, a( Koldliig, when (he Uanltih General Itye ufi'ected a retreat In Jutland, remarkable for (he skill and eneri^y with wliich it was etiected. On the lOlli ol May, a HolMtein army of I0,(H)U men jonmienced tlie bombardment of Frederlcia ; on the titli of July tlie Danish army made a victorious attack, took tiie redoubts of tlio enemy, and threw hint Into complete disorder. Tlie I'russlan army tlien retired from Judaiid. On (lie lOthofJune new armistices and pre- liminaries of iieace were made, and 8i|;iicd on (he 3nd of July, 18SU. Bu( Holstein recniiimenced llie war on Ks own ac- coun(, under (lie command of (he Pnisaian Kenenil, Wiillsen. On tlie 25(h of July, (lie Mols(eliU'rasus(alned a severe defea( at IdstedC but Nkirmjiilies continued on land and sea. till (he SIh of October, wlien (je- iieral WillUen wasaKain driven back al Fre- deri('ks(adl. I( was no( (ill the begiiininf; nf 1 85 1 that tliu Danisli army could return (o (heir lioines. after (hree caiiipal;;n8uliicli will be remembered in Iii8(nry,and in uliicli members of all classes of Hociety, anliiiated by a common spirit, took par(, eitlier as coiiKcripis or as vuluiiteers. In 1852 u -ie- fiiii(l"c treaty was ratlAed in London, be- tween Kn);iand, Uusbia,Svieden,and France, and I'ruitsia on tlie one hand, and Den- mark on (lie odier, recii);iiising the traiis- niUHion of (lie Danish crown (In default of male issue in (lie direct line of Kiii£^ Frederic III. of Denmark) (o (Ik issue of Prince CliriH(ian of Sciileswig Hpi>i(ein, and Ills consor( Louisa, Princess of hesse, in order of prlmngrniture from male to male, and providing for the continued union of all the states now united under tlie sceptre of llie king of Dectuark. i^ NORWAY. Tbb observations that have been made respecting the curly iilstory of 8wed(!n and Denmark apply also to Norway. Up to the nintli century it was governed by a number of petty princes; until one, more bold and powerful than tlio rc«t, named Harold Harfaagre, v.'ho had renounced tho idols of Scandinavian worship for the doc- trines of Christianity, conquered thcin, and became sole und absolute monarch of the country. Like the other Christian princes of Eu- rope, Harold Harfan|{re was anxious to introduce the feudal system ; and having wrested the various petty principalities from those who before possessed tlicni, he reduced the people to a state of vassal- ap^e, and placed a governor over each pro- vince, to collect the revenues and hold courts of justice. Hut omong so brave and stubborn a race os these Northmen, many there were who, rather than submit to Harold's despotism, emigrated to other countries, Ireland being among the num- ber. They, however, chiefly settled in Ice- land, an uninhabited and uninviting spot, vet in time it became not only very popu- lous, but W04 the favourite resort of their scalds, or poets, and their historians, wliom they treated with every mark of honour able regard. Norwoy having become a regular and independent kingdom under Harold liar- faagrc, during a rei^n which lasted more than half a century, many customs were introduced which tended to ror^e the cha- racter of the Norwegians as a nation de- sirous of cultivating tlie arts of civilized life, but which still would not abate one iota of its warlike pretensions. He liad bestowed iiefs on many of the nobles, omongst whom was Rognvald, father of the famous Kollo, duke of Normandy; so that, in fact, it may be said that the usur- pation of Harold in Norway led to the set- tlement of the Normans in France. Ha- rold died in !)34, and was succeeded by his son Eric, who proving a tyrant, some of the principal chiefs made propositions to his brother Haco, who had oeen educated in England, and was then residing at the court of king Athelstan. He accordingly went over to Norway, and having pledged himself to abolish the feudal laws, and re- store the allodial tenure, he was proclaim- ed king. Eric seeing that there was no chance of recovering the throne, collected a fleet, and sailed to the Orkney islands, from which point he could readily assail the coasts of Scotland and Northunibria. In 1U28, Canute the Great, king of Den- mark, conquered Norway, but did not long retain possession of it, and the country had its own moiiarchs again from lOli-l to 13H(). On the death of Olaf IV., his mo' ther, Margaret, daughter of Waldcuiar HI., king of Denmark, inherited both tlironesj from whicli time Denmark nnf Koclety, animated ook part, either a* :en. In 1853 a 'le- ied in London, be- Sweden, and France, le hand, and Uen- L;iif(nUin(f the tran«- crown (in default Jirecl line of King niarlf) to llie issue Schleswig H^xnein, , Princemi of hesse, itnre from male to ' the continued union ' united under the Deuiuark. ed to rtihe the cha- ians M a nation de- le arts of civilized ■ould not abate one •ctensions. He had any of the nobles, Rognvald, father of of Normandy; «o said that the tisur- Dnvny led to tlie set- ns in France. Ha- iras Bucceeded by his a tyrant, some of lade propositions to had oecn educated ;hen residini? at the »n. He accordingly and having pledged feudal laws, and re- _■, he was proclaim- tliat there was no lie throne, collected the Orkney islands, could readily assail and Northunibria, Great, king of Den- *y, but did not long , and the country again from 1034 to ,f Olaf IV., his mo ,. of Waldcniar III., ritcd hotli tlirones; ark and Norway rc- 4, when its cession Z\ tUMIA inCLUDKI NBARLT 1-7tH OV TUB TKRRKaTBIAL FAR* OF TUR ttLOBB. N PBBSON. THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA. Tub origi'jal inhabitants of this gip^antic empire, (which embraces nearly iialf of Europe, and the whole of Northern Asia — reaching from the frontiers of China to the confines of Poland, Sweden, and Turkey — besides having vast possessions on the north-western coast of North America), were doubtless a multitude of nomadic tribes, classed under the common appel- lation of Sarmatians and Scythians. These northern hordes, at a very early period, be- gan to mei4 nee founded the cele. i ; e Kremlin in that city, ^ vas succeeded by his ' ' uccessfully resisted the j J le town of Orshek, now succeeding reigns the jontend, iirst, with the juently with the Live- e miseries of a foreign ravated by all the cala- iscord. The Livonians the Poles made them- ck Russia, the Ukraine, of Kiof, Casiinir the jkings, carried his cou- He claimed a part of 8 relation to Boleslaus, took the duchies of and Luckow, and the Lubackzow, and Tre- luntries he made a pro- bred Russians were ill |he government of the id customs were more Ivn than those of the ll'hey joined the latter the yoke, and assem- Irous enough to over- Jut destitute of valour Iniir, undaunteit by this V presented himself at ^ops on the borders of jed his enemies to re- in commanded in Mos- lifortstorid himself of le defeated in several In of the Tartars; and, Tised to pay them any ■LBOSI-VBAVBLMHO OTBB 9HB SNOW IS BOTH BAFB AND AOBBBABLB- ^I)e H^stotQ of K^ussta. 681 tribute, and assumed the title of grand dake of Muscovy. But the oppressors of t he north appeared in greater numbers taan before; and Demetrius, at length o^r- powered, after a struggle of three ye»rs, perished with his whole army, amounting to 240,000 men. Basilius, (or Basilowitz) the son of De- metrius, revenged his father's death. He sttacked his enemies, drove them nut of his dominions, and conquered Bulgaria. He made an alliance with the Poles, whom he could not subdue ; and even ceded to them a part of his country, on condition that they should help him to defend the rest against any new incursions of the Tar- tars. But this treaty was a weak barrier RUiinst ambition. The Russians found new enemies iu their allies, and the Tartars soon returned. Basilius had a son of the same nani'!, to whom the crown ought to have descended; but the father, suspecting his legitimacy, left it to his own brother, Gre- gory, a man of a severe and tvranuical dis- position, and therefore hated by the people, who asserted the son's right, and pro- f imed him their sovereign. The Tartars took cognizance of the dispute, and deter- mined it in favour of Basilius ; upon which Gregory had recourse to arms, drove his nephew from Moscow to the principality of Uglitz, and usurped his throne. Upon the death of Gregory, Basilius returned to Moscow; but Andrevv and Demetrius, sons of the late usurper, laid siege to that city, and obliged him to retire to the monastery of Troiti, where they took him prisoner, vith his wife and son, and put out his eyes. The subjects of the unfortunate princn, in- censed at the cruel treatment he received, forced the perpetrators of it to fly to Novo- gorod, and reinstated their lawful sovereign 8t Moscow, where he died. In the midst of this general confusion, John I., the son of Basilius (or as he is called in the Rus- sian tongue, Ivan Basilowitz), by his invin- cible spirit and refined policy, became both the conqueror and deliverer of his country, and laid the first foundation of its future grandeur. In this period the Cossacks arose. The Poles and Lithuanians had conquered the whole of the Western Russia to Kiof, and subjected the vanquished people to reli- gious persecution, as well as political op- pression; and on the east, the Tartars of the Crimea endeavoured to subdue the Russians. The discontented, therefore, re- tired into the fertile but uninhabited Ukraine, and adopted a military organiza- tion, under the control of a superior officer styled a heiman. In the promotion of civilization, Ivan II. sarpassed all his nredecessors- (i erman artists and learnea men were welcomed and liberally rewarded by the czar j printing offices were established ; and commerce was promoted by a treaty with Elizabeth of Eng- land in 1553. He established a standing array; conquered Kasan in 1532, the king, dom of Astracau in 1554, and endeavoured to drive the Teutonic Knights from Livo- nia ; but Denmark, Poland, and Sweden attacked him, and a conspiracy in the in- terior broke out. In this embarrassment he implored the emperor Rodolph II. and pope Gregory XIII. to interfere; and the nuncio ot the latter brought about the peane of Zapolia between Ivan II. and Ste- phen Uatliory, king of Poland, in 1582, by which Livonia was ceded to Poland. Ivan died in 1584. Towards the end of Ivan's reign, Yer- mack, a Cossack, discovered Siberia. Feo- dor, his successor, conquered Siberia en- tirely in 15S7, and surrendered Etiionia to Sweden in ISU5. Feodor, the last of Ru- ric's decendants, died in 1398; and Russia was shaken by internal convulsions and external wars, which greatly retarded her progress in civilization. The war of the Polish party with the party of the pseudo- Demetrius was not ended until Michael Fedorowitz (of the family of Romanoff) ascended the throne in 1613; after which a treaty of peace was concluded with Swe- den and Poland. The young Michael was proclaimed, and signed a compact with his new subjects, by which he promised to protect the es- tablished religion ; to make no new laws, nor change the old ; not to raise imposts ; and to make neither war nor peace, with- out the consent of the senate. The Rus- sians, or rather the senators, seized this opportunity to have a part of the govern- ment. Michael remained faithful to his promise ; and died in 1634, leaving his throne to his son Alexis. So long as the Swedes maintained the ascendancy over the Rus- sians, their principal view was directed to exclude that power from the possession of any port on the Baltic; being vdl i.ware that the natural advantages whiob .'heir rival possessed, would, whenever th :\l pr>w- erful empire should avi.il itself ot tiiMi, raise the commercial conse ju. ice ?l Rus- sia on the ruin of that of .i-.eden. Alexis, the father of his country, v av only sixteen years of age at his r-TPs linn to the throne. The despotism anu ■•..U-jf, of his ministers drew upon him 1)1; h.itred of the people during his rainoriiy i: 't when he took upon himself the gov ■ im.i'i:^, !jt vas both loved and respected, lie enc vii'^'ed an intercourse with foreign nations, and induced instructive and laborious sttaiigers to people hit desert provinces; and Rus^^ia, under him, began to be known to the prin- cipal powers of Europe and Asit . Ambas- sadors from China and Persia v.xUed IMos- cow; "'.d Alexis sent, for the lirs.t time, his ambassadors to France and Spain. More grnei'ous, or less politic, thnn the other mc-iarchs, he refused to receive the ambas- sador of Cromwell, declaring lliat he never would acknowledge the pretended protec- tor of England. He died in 1G76. Manufactures, arts, and military, disci- pline were introduced in this active reign ; and although an unsuccessful war was waged with Gustnvus Adolphus, king of Sweden, yet the boundaries of the empire were extended. Theodore, or Feodor, his rs Q K at H Si RBVERITT. ALL KINDS OP GRAIN AND FRUIT SUCCKBD IN THB SOUTHERN PROVINCKS. Ill IIUIIIA TDBAIOn Ik THK OIII.T xAIMB TIBITSD WITB DBATB. 689 ^f;c ^rensure of l^idtorp, $rc. •on, nweetiAtii, on tlie dcnth of his father, in 1(177 1 Hntl aftnr a beni-Hcial reisn which eontinued ritven yptn, on his death-bed be noiiiiimlttil Ills hnif brother Peter, to the ex- otunlon of lili older brother Ivan or John, wlioitt iiiibmillfl tnhid disqimlihed him for tht) urduous Iniik of government. Not«ith> itNndiuK thin, the Intrigues of their sister Hopliln, H rPitlosK Mtid nmbitious woman, itirrvd np qIvII cnminotlons, which only siibsldad on tho death of Jolin, in 16U6, when I'fltor beoitme sole lovereign of all th9 nilSiiiM. Tlie |)rl«nte elinrnntcr of the cznr was by no meauR itt IrreprnuchAble as to lead his sutijxct* to form nny exalted notions of his future courtd ; but. In spite of all disad- vaiilnKPs, bo applied himself to the moral and piilltlritl rpuemraiion of his country. UuriiiK tb« ndinVnlstratlon of the princess Hopliin he bnd formed a design of esta- bllnhingr A ntHritime power in Russia; and at tlio vpry commencement of bis reign htt ditf^'Hlod tbu Turlc< from whom he wrttntiMl the port of Axt Inch opened to bis suhjticls tbu fominercc of the Black Sea. The Mmt objt^ct of bis ambition being thus attained, be resolved to carry out bis duniitn of iniiklng llussin the centre of trade bitlwet'n Kurope and Asia— to con- nect lint Volga, the Dwino. and the Don, by canals, tliu» oiicning n wK»er communi- cation belwovii tbe northern seas and the Ulack and the Caspian seas. To complete this magnllleent plt'ti I'b d^-temiined to build A city on the Itnltic sea, wbieh should be the cniporltim of northern commerce and tbe capital of ills dominions. He did not, however, rely simply on this stupen- dous uiiderlaKltig for carrying outbisnari- tiine and comtnerclal plans. He felt that it was necessary for some of the young nobility to travel Into foreign countries for iniprovenieni, not according to our notions of foreiun travel, but for the express pur- pose of learning wlialever was likely to be most useful to liie country of their birth, either in cultivating llie arts of peace, or in maintaining tbe discipline of v/ar. He accordingly sent sixty youns; Russians into Italy t niost of tlicm to Venice, and the rest to Leghorn, in order to learn the art of construct Ingf their gnlleys. Forty more were sent out by lils direction into Hol- land, witli the Intentbm of instructing themselves in tbe art of building and work- ing large ablps) tome were sent to Ger- many, to serve in the laiidfornes, and to learn the military discipline of that nation; while others were elsewhere dispatched in pursuit of whatever knowledge was likely to be rendered advantageous nt home. Nor did the patriotic emperor stop even tliere. Having established a regency to direct tlie government during his absence, liu himselfleft bis dominions, and travelled inenffiifit through varloua European states. Having arrived at AmwtcrdHm, lie inscribed Ills name as I'cter Micbacloff in tbe list of carpenters of tho India Company. Here be performed all (he duties of bis situa- tion i and At the Intervals from labour, stu- died mathematics, fortification, navigation and drawing plans. From Holland lie came to England, where he completed liisstudiei in ship-building, and examined the princi- pal naval arsenals. King William permit. ted him to engage several ingenious Uag. lisii artiticers, and he returned, by way of Holland and Germany, to Moscow, after an absence of nearly two years ; having «(.. quired a fund of knowledge which after- wards so much contributed to hh country'i glory. He had no sooner arrived, than he vm followed by crowds of every species of arii. sans, to whom he held out the greatcnten- eouragement ; and for the tirst time wai seen large Russian vessels on the Baliic OB the Black Sea, and ou the ocean. Ar' cbitect'tral building began to rise amos? the Russian huts; colleges, aeademiei, printing-houses, and libraries, sprung up under liis fostering liand. The liabits and customs changed by degrees, although wjiji difficulty, and the Muscovites began to know something of civil society. At the same time commerce htd ita birth in Russia. Laws, military and marine dis- cipline, and manufactures, the sciences and fine arts, and all that appeared ro liim de- sirable in natuie, was introduced- [Tlie leading events of his war with Charles XII, being related in the history of Sweden, are here omitted .] Peter died, regretted by his subjects, in 1725; and was succeeded by bis wife, the empress Catherine I., wlio supported the splendour of the empire, and held the sovereignty of Russia with a tirm rule till lier death, which happened two years after her elevation. Peter II., grandson of Peter the Great, being only twelve years of age, then be- came czar. The reins of government, dur- ing this minority, were held by prince Menzikoff, whom the first Peter had ad- vanced to the highest oftices in the state, and who was no less the favourite of tlie czarina, Catherine. Tbe youn<; czar dyitp [ J in 1730, Anne, duchess of Ccurlnnd, niece | : to Peter the Great, and daughter of Ivan, - o fiscendcd the throne, which she filled ten j •' years. This empress rendered herself me. | morable by the decisive turn she gave to | J the contests which arose in Europe; she | ' assisted the emperor Charles VI., frus- i tratcd the t>i:bemes of tbe French ministry for placing Stanislaus on the throne of Po- land, and actually procured the crown for his competitor Augustus, at tlie same time that she triumphed over the Turks and Tar- tars, the natural competitors with Russia. Ivan, or John III., great nephew to Anne, became her successor, when only two years of ai;e. He was son of the princess Anne of Mecklenburg, the daughter of her eldest sister, who bad married prince Anthony Ul- ric of Brunswick Beveren. This infant was deposed by tbe general concurrence of all ranks in the empire ; and the princess Eli- zabeth Petrowna, dauKiiter to Peter the Great by the empress Catherine, was rniscd to the imperial dignity in December, 17^1. Her reign which continued twenty years. run NOkrHiti* or rsiioiis vbbd to bb si.it, ano theii* ka<;eb nnANiiKP. rB DIATH. rtification, navigation, 'roin Holland he came ! completed hii studies examined the princi- King William permit, everal ingenioui Eng- >e returned, by way of iny, to Moacow, after two years; having ac- lowledge which after- ibuted to hi^ couDtry'i PKBCHKBNC* 18 UMTBBMIMKU IN BUSSIA BY MII.ITABV RANK. r arrived, than he wai if every species of arii. Id out the greatest en- 'or the first time was vessels on the Baltic, nd ou the ocean. Ar- began to rise among colleges, academiei, 1 libraries, sprung up land. The habits and degrees, although wjtji Muscovites began to iivil society, lonimerce htd its birth lilitnry and marine dis- :ture8, the sciences and It appeared to him de< vas introduced. [The I war with Charles XII, history of Sweden, are Br died, regretted bv hia ind was succeeded by ess Catherine I., who lour of the empire, and r of Russia with a tirm which happened two tion. in of Peter the Great, . 'ears of age, then be- ° of government, dur- were held by prince le first Peter had ad- St oftlcea in the stale, the favourite of the I " The younn czar dyinjt j J ss of Ccurlnnd, niece . : ind daughter of Ivan, ' o which she tilled ten | j rendered herself me- 1 sive turn she gave to ; j arose in Europe; she i = Charles VI., I'rus- ' , the Fr-nch ministrj i , on the throue of Po- i ^ rocured the crown for stus, at the same time er the Turks aud Tar. petitors with Russia. great nephew to Anne, •, when only two years j of the princess Anne | daughter of her eldest i ed prince Anthony l)|. i eren. This infant was ral concurrence of all and the iirincess Eli- uKliter to Peter the Catherine, was raised ty in December, 17^1. tinned twenty years, CI;c l^istorw of llussia. G83 U^ER nnANIlESa was prosperous. In the war which broke out on the continent in 1736, ahe took a decided part in favour of the house of Aus- tria; and was on the point of rruhhing the Prussian monarch, and possessing herself of his most valuable territories, when death suddenly closed her career, in IT'iS. Her nephew, Charles Peter tilric, duke of HoUtein, grand duke of Russifi now became czar, by the title of Peter III. The friendship which this prince bore to the king of Prussia saved tliat hero from bis impending fate, and converted a for- midable enemy into a beneficial auxiliary. An intemperate zeal, which led Peter to attempt cutting off the venerable beards of his clergy, and to abolish some estbblished and fHVOurite military fashions, joined to an unbounded fondness for a mistress, and a strong antipathy to his wife and son, terminated his reign in a few months. The general odium which Peter III, had drawn upon himself, united all orders of his subjects against him; he was seized and deposed, and his wife raised to the imperial dignity, by the title of Cathe- rine II , in July, 1762. The captive prince was soon after cruelly deprived of life. Some letters written by the king of Prus- sia to this weak prince, found after his de- cease, which strongly recommended to him a change of conduct, and particularly pleaded in behalf of bis repudiated consort, fixed thai: princess in the interests of Frederic. Catherine II. was notoriously licentious, yet her reign may be regarded as one of the most prosperous in the annals of Rus- sia. As soon as she had relieved the coun- try from an exhausting war, she invited artisans and workmen of all kinds to settle in her empire, and collected around her dis- tinguished foreigners to assist her plans in the improvement of the laws, and to in- fuse a healthy vigour intp the commerce of Russia. She was victorious by land and sea against the Porte, with whom she concluded a peace in 1774, whereby Rus- sia gained a con8idri&!>le accession of territory. In 1776, Catherine divided her empire into separate governments. In 17S0, she instituted the armed neutrality between Russia, the emperor of Germany, Prussia, and Portugal, ngain'^i the naval pov»er of ihe English; anil, three years afterwards, she planned the expulsion of the Tr>rks from Europe, and the re-establishment of I the Byzantine empire; but some political I considerations caused the execution of this project to be abandoned at the time, and when it was resumed, ten years later, it by no means succeeded to the extent that bad been anticipated. At the conclusion of the Turkish war in 1792, the Dniester bocnme the frontier of I Russia towards Moldavia and Bessarabia; I end as the war with Swed<-n was now con- I verted into an alliance with that power, the ambitious empress again turned her I eyes upon Poland, whither liei' army march- \ ed with the certainty of conquest ; and on I tbc occasion of the second partition, in 1793, a territory of 80,000 square miles was added to the Russian empire. On the remaining part of Poland she iinpo:cd the most oppressive restrictions, which pro- duced a formidable rebellion in I7!H. The gallant Kosciusko strove hard to effect the independence of his country, but he was overwhelmed by numbers and taken pri- soner, while Suwarrof stormed and devas- tated with more than barbarian fury the suburbs of Warsaw. The dissolution of the kingdom was now at hand; and in tlie third partition of Poland, in 17US, Russia extended her power towards the west as far as the Vistula. It now extended it- self from the shores of the Baltic to the western end of North America and the Ja- pan islands. Yei, in the midst of her mili- tary operations, she protected and encou- raged the arts and sciences, and gave a new code of laws to the subjects of her vast empire. She died November 1", 1796, aud was succeeded by her son Paul I., who, capricious as he was, began his reign by a noble act of justice, namely, the liberation of the brave Kosciusko. The late empress had engaged early in the confederacy against France ; but, from some unexplained cause, did not come into action against that power. The emperor Paul likewise remained almost in a neutral state, until the beginning of the year I7i)9, when he sent a powerful army to the as- sistance of the allies i ito Italy, under the command of Suwarri f, a general we'l known before by his conq.artinent of the Kovernment; and separating himself from the northern league, he concluded a treaty with Great Britain (June 7, 1801), and at the same time renounced the grand-maitership of Malta, which had been conferred on his father. In June, 1802, he appeared, for the first time, perionalW among the potentates of Europe, and had an interview with the kiny of Prussia at Me.i>J France, under the guidance of Napoleon, was at this period making rapid conquests in the south of Europe; Buonaparte having been, in the preceding month, crowned king of Italy At Milan ; shortly after which he annexed Genoa to France. But the cabinet of St, Petersburgh seems wisely to have thought that its distance from the scene of action might well excuse the emperor from any active interference with bellip^erent states. He, however, conflrnied the incorporation of the government of Georgia with the Rus- { sian empire; concluded treaties of peace ! with France and Spain; and offered, in 180.3, to interpot>e his good offices in re- : storing the newly ruptured peace between i England and France and Spain. Butaftc i the execution of the duke D'Enghein ah '■ intercourse between Russia and Frarce ! ceased; and in April, 1805, Alexander join- ed the third coalition against France : but the loss of the battle ot Austerlitz clouded the prospects of the allies, and the Russian einperor returned to Peiersburg- The battle of Eylau was fought on the 8tli of February, 1807; that of Friedland, nn the 4th of June following;; the Russinns then retired, and after ati interview be- tween the two emperors, which took place on the river Niemen, in a handsome pavi- lion erected on a raft for the occasion, peace was cnnoludod on the 8th of July, 1807. At this .iiemoruble interview the outward forms ni friendship were display- ed between t!.ese rival monarrhs, and an abundance of courtly dissimulation used to testify the sincerity of their profes- sions. Al. xanfler, by this compact, acknow- ledw ■.( the brothers of Buoiiapavte as kings retpcclivoly, of NaplcB, Holliiud, and West- phalia ; he formally ri'copnizcd aUo the confederation of the Rh. i , and p'Oi-iised to acknowledge all tlit hii'Piciitiis who migl'.t hereafter become -nif iiiiiiTs of that confederation. He engnf •(.', timt hostili- ties on the part of RusxiH -lnuld iustintly cease with the Ottoman lone. He under- took, also, to mediate for a pcKrc between England and France ; and if he should prove unsuccessful, he was to close the ports of Russia against all Hriiish sliip" ; which, in fact, was soon after done. In 1808, Alexander had an interview witli Na- poleon at Erfurth, and afterwards took part, as the ally of France, in the war with Austria; hut his want of zeal in the cause was too evident tc escape the penetration of the French enipeior, and a growing coldness between the imperial allies be< gau to appear. Great injury had been done to Russinn commerce, and heavy complaints made l>; merchants, in consequence of their porta having been shut against the English ; they were therefore again opened to them, pro- vided they hoisted American colours, while French goods were very strietly prohibited. This induced Napoleon to make himself master of the principal northern ports of Germany, and to incorporate the posses. sions of the duke of Oldenburg, a near re- lation of Alexander, with France. Against this proceeding Russia made a very ener- getic protest; and, as early as 1811, five Russian divisions assumed h pobition oppo- site Warsaw. On the other hand, Napo. leon caused the fortresses on the Vistula and Oder to be decltred in a state of sieite, sent thither larr;; masses of troops, and occupied Swedish Pjmerania, because Charles XIII. uf Sweden declined a closer connexion with France. The contest in Spain was at fi^is time daily growing more obstinate, and tHe Ini'u'e amount of men and money it consumed might will have appeared to Napoleun a !!utHcient obstacle to a struggle with Russia ; but he calculated that his army, amounting to nearly a million of effective men, would be sufiicient for the conflict in both quarters ; and he also relied uiion a great mass of auxiliary forces, chiefly pro- mised by the confederation of the Rhine; besides his alliance with Prussia and Aus- tria, which covered him on both ftanka, and secured his retreat. He, however, made peaceable offers, through the coiiiit de Narbonne, liis ambassador ; but tlie object of his mission being unattained, half a million of soldiers, consisting of French, Germans, Italians, Poles, Swiss, Spaniards, and Portuguese, with more than 1200 cannon, were put in motion, about the end of July, to attack the Rus- sians o.'i the other side of the Nicmen and the Vislula, The Russians, in three di- visions, oeeupied a line including Kiof and SrnoleiisKo to Riga. The first western army of 127,OUU men, in Lithuania and Courland, was coiiinianded by Karvlay de Telly, who had till then been minister of war; the other western army, of 48,000 men, was commanded by prince Bngratinn. A third body of forces, led by general Doetorolf, served to keep up the coiniuunicatiun be- tv een the other two. ■ 2 It the disposable property and records had hmg before been generally conveyed into the interior. Tlie first; western Rus- sian army w.ns stationed along the Kienien as far as (irodno, and eonipii>ed six corj^'i of iiifnntry and two of cavalry. The si'. cond western army was in the vicinity of Hoiiim, consisting of fc)ur battalions ot' infantry and one of cavalry. The commu- nication was kept between them by the hetman Platoff, with 10,000 Cossaeks, nt Bialystoek. The army of Vclhyiiia, inider Tormasoff, at Lutzk, was ctmiposi'd of two divisio; ( of inlaiitry and one of cavalry, THF OONSIIMPTIOfi OF SPiniTI'Ot'S IIQfonS IN RUS.1IA IS IMMENSP. !l*. nperial allies be> done to Hiisninn niplitiiiti made hy Dce of their pnrii the English ; they ned to them, pro- icnn colour!, while itrictly prohibited. to make himself northern ports of i>orate the possra- enburg, a near re- > France. Against made a very encr- early an 181 1, five ed H pofcitioD oppo- ither hand, Nspo- see on the Vistula ' in a state of sie^e, * ses of troops, atid i iiiierania, beraiise n d«cV.ned a closer I was at i'i'h time tinate, and tlie lar;je loney it consuiiied ired to Napoleun a n strugt^Ie with tted that his army, I million of effeclive it for the contlict in also relied upon a r forces, chietly pro- ittion of the Rhine ; h Prussia and Aus- im on both Hank*, eat. He, however, , through the eouut bassador ; but the being unattained, iliers, consisting of lians, Poles, Swiss, guese, vith more re put in motion, to attack the Rus- of the Nienien and nians, in three di- including Kiof and e first western army luanift and Courland, relay de Tolly, who nister of war; the f 4S,000 men, was iigrntinn. A third general Doetorotf, communication be- Iropcrty and records generally conveyed lirat western Hus- along the Nienien |'oiiii)vi>ed fix cort>s If cavalry. Tlie si- |s ill the vicinity of four liattalious ot lalry. The commu- Iwecn them by the 10,(101) Cossacks, lit of Vclhyiiia, under is cdniposc'd of two Ind one of cavalry. IMMENSF. UJIUKU OATUKUINK II. TUB COBIACEI WKIIK VOKMKU INTO A LIUilT CAVAI.RT. ^^e IKstory o< l^vdsia. 685 containing together about 20,000 men ; and there were other corps stationed elsewhere, auiouiiting to about 40,000 men more. The Russian plan of the campaign was —by retreating, to avoid a decisive battle, until the enemy sliould be remote from all his resources, and weakened by marches through a desolate region, and the Russian army should be so considerably strength- ened bv the accession of all the forcm that might be, meanwhile, raised, as to have a decided superiority. Napoleon's scheme, on the contrary, was— to use every effort to compel the Russians to battle, to destroy theia after the defeat, and, pressing for- ward with haste to the capital, to proffer peace. But he not only entirely mistook the character of his enemy, but he over- looked the important fact, that though the Russians mi|{ht retreat, they would atill be in possession of their resources. On the 6ih of June, Napoleon passed the Vistula, and shortly after, the Nicmen. " Russia," said he, in one of his favourite harangues, " is dragged along by a fatalityl Her destinies must be accomplished. — Are we no longer to be regarded as the soldiers of Austerlitz 7 Let us carry the war into her territory ; a second war in Poland will be as glorious to the French arms as the first." After several severe battles, and the loss of many men on each aide, the victory generally inclining in . favour of the French, the main bodfy of the Russian army retired to Smolensko. Fatigue, and want of all kinds, had mean- while operated so detrimentally on the French army, that it was obliged to halt at tins point for ten days, during which the two Russian armies finally formed a junction under the walls of Smolensko. They then immediately began to act on the offensive. With 12,000 cavalry they attacked general Sebastiani, aud drone him back with considerable loss. On tU« 17th of August the main body put itself in motion to encounter the French army, which had advanced, in order, if possible, to compel a general battle. When Napo- leon saw his attempts to surround the ri^ht wing of the Kussiuns defeated, tie ordered his right wiag, under Poniat6»»- aki, to hasten, by way of Ortia, by raoud marches, to cut off the Russians itimx Moscow. On the other hand, Uagra'ion hastened to defend tkis ro.id, aud IJar- clay de To'.ly sought to retard the enemy as much as possible. Smolensko, an old place, formerly sti'ongly fortified, and the whole position on the Dnieper, greatly fa- voured his plan ; and not till the midnight of the l/tli, tfter a loss of many thousands, did the French succeed in taking this bulwark, reduced, for the most part, to a ruin. The Russian army retired in haste, burn- ing all the towns through which it passed, while Napoleon followed, his tro ips suffer- ing mo-'J and more from want and climate. Meanwhile, Uarcliiy de Tolly had to resign the chief command to Kutusoff, who had reaped new laurels in the Turkish war just ended. Reinforced by militia and reserves, he resolved to await the enemy seventy miles from Moscow, in a strung entrench- ed position. The French came up, aud a terrible battle ensued, in which the Rus- sians lost 25,000 men. The French esti- mated their own lost at 10,000; it was, however, supposed to be nearer double that number. The Russians remained masters of the field of battle; and, without any great loss of artillery, and still less of pri- soners, they were able to retire to Moscow. Napoleon, after two days reuose, followed them; and Kutusoff, instead of awaiting his enemy at the gates of Moscow, march- ed through. The news of Kutusoff's defeat had spread the i^reatest consternation at Moscow. Hastily collecting their money and valu ables, the nobles fled, abandoning their pa- laces and furniture to the mercy of the in- vaders. Merchants and tradesmen closed their warehouses and shops, seeking refuge from the enemv wherever they could find shelter; the sick and wounded were con- veyed away from the hospitals in waggons; and the prisons were cleared of their in- mates, who were sent under an escort to Novogorod. And now the flames burst forth from the house of count Rostopchin — sure and awful evidence that the patrio- tic governor, by setting fire to his own re- sidence, intended that the venerable city should not harbour the enemies of his country. The conflagration of the gover- nor's house was the signal for the rest; and suddenly were seen, issuing fron va- rious quarters of Moscow, vivid columns of fire and dense masses uf smoke. Doomed, as it were, to pass their winter amid the unhospitalile snows of Russia unless they could extinguish the flames, the French soldirry exerted themselves to the utmost to stay the devouring element ; but though they partially succeeded, so Utile remained of Moscow, that it was incapable of afford- ing them protection. It must be remem- bered, also, that the French troops having had penxission to plunder the city, such a scene oi confusion and drunkenness fol- lowed, tiiiat numbers of them perished in the burning ruins. All the hopes which Napoleon had built on the possession of Moscow were now disappointed; famine and desolation stared him ID the face ; and as the Russians ga- thered round on all .'des, it was evident that nothing could save his army but a speedy retreat or peace. Every day height- ened their sufferings, the provisions having been wasted, and foraging becoming con- tinually more dangerous, from the conflux of Russian peasants and Cossacks. At length, on the l&th of October the French evacuated Moscow, and commenced. their retrograde inarch. The country was a de- sert; and the privations felt by the utmy had dissolved all bonds of obedience, while the severity of the winter now covered the roads with ice and snow, destroying men and liorses by thousands. By the 12lh of November they reached Smolensko. But o ■ * o •1 m m m ki H m M ► M m o o m H 4 THU llt!SSIA» SOI.DIKH IS KHSOI.UTK, OBKUIK.NT, AND ENBUUING. tBB BVailAR AKMT It •UrrOUTCD AT TBHT LITTLI t.XPKN*B. s It m m m 4 ■ m M ■ O •« N e K a M n a K J M a m u M f< a m f n o •• ■ e K a 686 ^^( treasury of l^iator;), $r(. a n t? '4 H M » M H te M N 14 h O •> I 3 I in vain liad the rcmnBiitsof the army hoped to find tliere repoie and nourithnient. But the increaiini; nuniburi of the Ruiiiana who hovered round and haraatcd the re- treating enemy prevented them from re- pairing any of their vast loaaea, or of re> invigorating themaelvea by reit. At tite paiiage of the Bereiina they lost 20,000 men, and a great part of tlieir baggage and artillery; and the cold, which increased every day, together with the most horrible want, carried disorder, misery, and despair to the highest pitch. At length Napoleon entrusted the command of nis shattered army to Murat, and hastened himself, un- der the strictest incoenito, by way of War- law and Dresden, to Paris. Marshals, otH- cers of high and low rank— all who could— followed the example of their emperor. No company kept long to|(ether. The sole object of all was to save life. The emperor Alexander, who had hitherto onlv fought for independence, now resolved in his turn to become the aggressor; and, joining his army in Poland, published in February, 181.3, the celebrated manifesto, which served nst a ba«is for the coalition of the other powers of Europe against the ra- pacity of the French. The king of Prussia at the same time summoned all capable of bearing arms to battle for their country; and though he did not then designate his object, his people, who for tive years had been humbled and degraded, understood him, and, with unparalleled enthusiasm, thousands poured forth from the places of rendezvous from every section of the coun- try. In vain had the French, with the aid of their last reserves and of troops drawn together in haste, made eSbrts to remain on the Pregel, on the Vistula, and on the Oder. Tlie Russians advanced slowly in- deed, but every where with overwlichning power; and all that the French could do was to retire behind the Elbe with the least possible loss. Prussia now declared war against France, and concluded an alliance with Russia; the confederation of the Rhine was dissolved; and, though Austria re- mained neutral, the popular insurrection was almost universal in northern Germany. Happily for Napoleon, the Prussians and Russians were not in a state to derive the full advantage from this situation of things. The forces of the Russians were almost ex- hausted, those of the Prussians had first to be formed ; much time was lost in ne^totia- tions with the king of Saxony, and Kutu- soff fell sick aiid died at Buntzlaw. These circumstances were promptly taken advan- tage of by Napoleon ; but though this pro- longed the contest, it proved but of little ovnil in the sequel. In August the war was resumed with great vigour, Austria particii)ating in it as an ally of Russia and Prussia. Napoleon hail been joined by a corps of chosen men, chieHy cavalry, which had come from Spain ; and the chances of victory, for a time, once ra >re app"ared to be in his favour. But after the battle of Dresden, where Morenu was mo'tally wounded, he was sta-d in his progress by the defeat of Vandauimr, at Culm ; by the simultaneous overthrow ofhis army in 8ileMia, under Macdoimid; by the hard-fought battle* at Gross- Beercs', at Belzig; and by the defeat which Ney suffered ait Deunewiti. In addition to theie misfortunes, want of all kinds prevailed in exhausted Saxony, and lamentations in the hospitals, where thousanda died of dyaea- teries and fevers. At last, by some ranid, wellVovered marches, Blucher formed a junction on the Elbe with the crown-prince of Sweden, while he surprised a Frcncb corps under count Bertrand, and took up a position between the Muldan and the Elbe. As soon as he was advised of this. Napoleon started from Dresden, in the hope of over- powering them both separately ; but they had already crossed the Muldan to the Saale. The great Bohemian arniy had also advflnced on his right flank. These and Blucher's flying corps met in his rear ; and general Thielemann, who had exchanged the Saxon service fur the Russian, touk whole troops of French fugitives, and fought several battle* between the Elater and the Suale, almost all of which'r 'suited to the disadvantage of the French. Napoleon now proceeded with his main army to the plains of Leipsic, where he ar- rived October 13. Here Schwartzenberg had already commenced a recnnnoisance against the king of Naples; meanwhile Augerau'a division had been greatly rein- forced ; and, as he had probably thought he h^d deceived the crown-prince and Bla- clier by movement* made on the other side of Wittenberg, and that he had gained lo much time that he could meet the great Boheiiiiun army alone in a decisive engage- ment, he did not delay to encounter it in the spacious plain near Leipsic. The en- gagement commenced about nine o'clock in the morning of October 16. After severely destructive attacks on both sides. Napo- leon had gained some ground in the centre and on the left wing. But the duke of Ragusa, who occupied a wide line to the north of Leipsic, was unexpectedly attacked by Blucher with the greatest impetuosity, totally defeated, after an obstinate resist- ance, and driven back in disorder. On the 17th Napoleon negotiated through count Meerveldt, who had been taken pri- soner, for liberty to retire undisturbed, and for an armistice ; both of which prnposnli were the less listened to, because the allies could now conduct their operations uiih a mutual understanding, the crown-prince of Sweden having joined Blucher with up- wards of GO,uaU men, and general BenniK- sen, with almost as many, being hourly ex- pected from Grimma. On the 18(h of Oc- tober, therefore, a fearful conflict took place at Leipsic. The French fought with despe- ration, to save their honour and secure tlieir retreat, which had been commenced at day- break; but on the following day their re- treat was converted into a flight, and a general overthrow- This battle emanci- pated Germany. Bavaria had already re- nounced the confederation of the Rhine, riiii.nRKN OF soi.niKus Ann F.nt;CATi n at ri'ni.ic mimtaky schools. KI>«C4TI«)N, fHnilOH •.lONWAMD, tl HAKINtt RAriO PUOOBRRS 10 BVIIIA. taift It^istort? oC Russia. 687 ind uni(«4 with AhMcU. All the Oorman prJuM* K>II«wm4 llii» cxNtnplf!, with the ex. eiMitton of tli« kItiK of Bnmmi, Jerome of Wt>ilphillU» Hlid ibe prhice'prinmte. After tb« lu»* of many tlmutiindii, In prisoner* and wuun(l«di N*liiit4lon, aiiiNlleil or hKrassed in t»«rf mnn»t, waa «ihtiKi!iienr«d ih«i of May, 1823, tlie Russian forces pa'ssed the Pruth, to the number of 15,000 men, in- cluding persons of all descriptions attach- ed to the camp. Count Wittgenstein was commander-in-chief. In a fortnight the Russians had possession of several towns and fortresses, and the Turks retired into laa cos/iACK rkrimests aue ali, cavalby, and furmsred with lamcks. TIIFIIt CnSTOIB. c. nrdini^ to i)i': ilevrrfi of i>« iin|>li".T> d ( ^inie l>e- lie Li ni»lie hey extend nearly seven nd are rendered alnioit Rhing torrents, steep pre- :ful avalanches. The sura- untsins are covered with and are mostly barren, ts are clothed with tliiik loins aboand in orchards, elds, and pastures. It ovinccs of Georgia, Cir- Grent and Little Kabnr- lich is the mountain lund Caspian sea, and Schir- aradisc of Roses, from beautiful flowers which ncously. The tribes who ler regions of the Caii- le Lesghians, who inhabit parts, live by plunderinj and are held in such il tribes purchase iminu- depredations by paying ersia wai scarcely ended Iged the attention of the \\\t, and the Russiau mi- , declared to France and his sovereign must have le violation of the treaty for the hatti sheriff of Ihich the Porte had ad- pachas, and which con- live charges against Rui- 1 of war was accordingly leror, and on the 7th of Issian forces paiscd the |[)ber of 15,000 men, in- all descriptions attach- Count Wittgenstein »a» [f. In a fortnight the Session of several towns the Turks retired into InEO WITH 1.ANCK8. IH Rt;i*l*, TKB oaiRK CBUKCI It TUB KSTtaLIIIIID BILiaiUll. trij« Ijiston.) o( 1ilu«!5ia. 6(i9 the fnrlillBd mountain position of Chnumla, I which WAS the ccnirc of their oiierutioiis. Tlie liuasians at length to'ik I'rHwodi, | the key of the Balkan; and their next aim Whs to gain possession of Varna. To carry on a sivgt! in a vast and almost uninhabit- able country like Biiliciiria, under the fatal induence of the clinmte, tlie dilHculty was great, but in proportion as the dilHoiiltius were great, so were the exertions of the be- ■iegera, and after it had been invented both on the land and tea sides, brenebes were made, and a body of troops forced their way into the citv. Territied by this, the enemy gave up all further resistance. The campaign in Asia proved success- ful, The preiliitory population on (lie Caucasian mountains submitted to Russia. The Russian army under count i'liske witch forced its way from Caucasus and Ararat into Asiatic Turkey, and took by storm the strong fortress of Khars, the central point of Turkish Armenia, together with the enemy's camp. After this, severivl other fortresses fell into their hands, so that besides obtaining possession of Min- grelia and Imiretia, the whole pachalic of BftJAsid, at far as the banks of the Eu- phrates, was con'iuered. In Europe the sunccat of the Russians was more equi- vocal: the results of the whole, however, were important. In Europe and in Asia, Russia had gained two Turkish principa- hties and three pachitlics, fourteen fort- resses, and three castles, I The Russian emperor had repeated, dur- ing and after the campaign, as well as be- fore it, to the British ambassador extra- ordin.iry, lord Heytosbury, his inelination for pence with the Porte, on the terms of indeinnifleation for the expences of the war, and security against future injuries and violations or treaties ; but the Porte had rejected alt mediation on the basis of the London treat;, and refused to send en- voya to negotiate with the ambassadors of the three powers, and the commissioners of the Greeks. On the contrary, Miihmoud had announced a new campaign, with the words, " Honour and indeucndcnee are , worth more than life." Hitherto the ne- gotiations had been carried on in Constan- tinople, with the rcis effendi, by the mi- ' niater of the Netherlands. He had de- livered to the rcis eff'endi the manifesto of ' France, Great Britain, and Russia, (of Au- gust U, 182S), which made known to the Porte the motive and object of the French , expedition against the Morea. The Prus- ' aian ambassador likewise advised the Porte { to yield ; but no representations would in duce the tultan to yield ; and preparations for another campaign were made with un- ueual vigour. In the beginning of 1" 'lie llank and rear, and the tire of inuski m the in- habitants of the Tartir er of the place. After thirty-two i i' incessant n;;hting, the Turks retreated. I'he career of Piiskewiteh in this campaign had becu one of continual success ; and such had been his preceding campaign in Persia. The rampaigii in the European provinces wot still more successful. Several battles were fought in the spring, in which the Russians, under Diebitach, generally had the advantage, European tactics giving him a decided superiority. At lengtli Silistria surrendered, and the garrison of 10,000 men became prisoners of war; 220 pieces of cannon, eighty standards, and the whole of the Turkish flotilla, falling into the hands of the Russians. Uiebitsch now has- tened to cross the Balkan, and continued his march without any serious obstacles, except such as the excessive heat of the weather, &C- presented, till he reached Ad- rianople, which he took on the 20th of Julv. Foiled at every point, the Porte was now ready to commence negotiations; and ac- cordingly a treaty of peace was signed, the principal points of which were tlie cessa- tion of hoatiliiies; the restoration h^ Rus- sia of the priucip.'-.litips of Wallachia and Moldavia, and of all the towns occupied by the Russians in Bulgaria and Ronielia ; the settlement of the boundaries between the two powers in Europe a^d Asia; the pro- visions for the religious liberty, indepen- dent administration, and free trade of the people of Moldavia and Wallachia ; freedom of commerce to Russian subjects through- out the Ottoman empire, as secured by former treaties ; free commerce and navi- gation of the Black Sea to all nations at peace with the Porte; the stipulation of the Porte to pay 1,5(Hi,000 ducats of Hol- land to Russia within eighteen months, as an indemuillcation for Tosses of Russian subjects, and a further snm, such as should be agreed on, as an indemnity for the ex- penses of the war; with the accession of the Porte to the arrangements of Russia, Great Britain, and France, respecting Greece. Thus the emperor Nicholas, ac- cording lo the pledge which he had given to his allies at the commencement of the war, stopped short in the career of con- quest, when he had obtained the objects for A'hich the war was professedly under- taken. Alt. Tns nrssiA.!! KoniriTT rold bomr rank in tub armt. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // {./ .^ ^ ,» .«- A ^ Z ^ '/] e /a /, '' .'S^V /^ '^4>V^ ';' 1.0 I.I ■ii m 12.2 2.0 Photographic Sciences Corporation ifl. 11.25 il.4 11.6 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M580 (716) 872-4503 FOLAMO DimiTBH ITS tIAMm WtiOM k WOBD •laNirillfO A V«IT rbAIH. o o « K |7 M H as b 9 u M a THE HISTORY OF POLAND. Most eonntriea bave lome positive ori- gin attributed to them, and handed down to present times bjr tradition, although no trace of a written historr may be found ; it is not so, however, wiin Poland. In the time of the Romans it is likely to have been an unexplored part of the great Uercynian forest; and such inhabitants as it con- tained probably belonged to the 8arma- tians, a nation of barbarians more fierce and savage than any of the other hordes with whom the civiliied conquerors of Eu- rope had to contend in their work of uni- versal subjugation. But be that as it may, it seems clear that Poland either afforded no materials for the historian, or the coun- try produced no writer to record its history, for a considerable time after the other na- tions of Europe emerged from obscurity. It appears, indeed, that an army of Sclavo- nians, under the command of Lesko, took possession of the country, a.d. 650, and that this leader became the first of a race of kings, who held the sovereign power for a century. The next dynastty of kings is distinguish- ed by the name of its first sovereign, and called the dynasty of Pinst: but nothing worthy of notice is preserved, until Jagef- Ion, grand duke of Lithuania, obtained the sovereignty of Poland in the year 1385. On his being elected king, he renounced the doctrines of Paganism, to which he had before adhered, and embraced Chris- tianity ; from which time it spread rapidly among the Poles. This prince united the whole of his hereditary dominions to those of Poland ; in return for which the Poles rendered the crown hereditary in his family ; but his male line terminated in the person of Sigismund Aagustus, in 1572. Two com- petitors then started for the vacant crown ; Henry, duke of Anjou, brother to Charles IX. of France, and Maximilian of Austria. After a long conflict, the former of these obtained the prise ; but on the death of his brother, he succeeded to the crown of France, and abandoned that of Poland. From this reign we may date the cor- respondence between the French and the Poles, which subsisted until the increasing power of its northern neighbours entirely counteracted the politics of the court of Versailles. On this second vacancy, Max- imilian was still rejected; and Stephen Batori, prince of Transylvania, chosen, on account of the high renown which he had acquired. He married Anne, the sister of Sigismund Augustus, of the royal house of Jagellon, which rendered him highly po- pular. H« waged war vtith the Musco- vites, and recovered from them all that they had formerly taken from the Poles; after which he settled the Ukraine, whirh, in the Polish language, signifies the fron- tier, and which was at that time a wild and unprofitable desert. He it was that introduced military tenure iuto Poland, by which be formed the best cavalry in the world. He likewise established a militis, composed of Cossacks, which soon became a respectable body of Infantry. These Cos- sacks he settled m the Ukraine. Having performed these essential services to the kingdom which he governed, be died in 1686. Theodore, csar of Russia; Makimilian, archduke of Austria; and Sigismund, prince of Sweden, now severally put forth claims and contended for the crown. The year after, Sigismund, having defeated and taken prisoner his rival Maximilian, became too formidable for Theodore ; and established himself on the throne by the name of Sigis. I mund III. He was a lealous papist, and ' waged a long and unsuccessful war with ' his native country, Sweden ; but in his , wars with the Turks he was more fortu- ! nate. He reigned forty-four years, and ; was succeeded by his eldest son Uladidaui VII,, who was chosen the 13th of Novem- 1 her, 1632. He was successful against the \ Turks, the Russians, and the Swedes, and | died in 1648. In his reign the intercttsof : the Polish nobility clashing with the grants '■ which had been made to the Cossacks in | the Ukraine, a fierce contention arose. Hit | brother, John Caaimir, succeeded him, al- ; though a cardinal. The elector of Braden- ; burgh, in this reign, found means to oh- i tain from the Poles a renuuciation of their : sovereignty over Ducal Prussia, which he held as a vassal of the crown of Poland. This renunciation was ratified by the treaty ! of Oliva in 1660. Casimir then attempting to gain an uncontrolable and absolute sove- reignty in Poland, excited a civil war ; and in the issue his army was defeated by prince Lubomirski. He afterwards found meant, however, to drain the country of its current specie, which he remitted to France ; and being no longer able to maintain his foot- , ing in Poland, he precipitately quitted the kingdom, and followed his wealth. In this state of voluntary exile he made a formal renunciation of the orown, and died two years after. _ On the resignation of Casimir, 'our can- didates appeared : namely, the great prince of Russia ; the duke of Newbourg, who was suuported by the interests of France ; the duVe of Lorraine, who was backed by tiie German power ; and the son of the prince of Condi : but it was soon found that ilie «■! •RBAT QITANTITiaa OF GOOD COSIt ARI OROWK IN FOtAHD. r PLAin. from the Polei; Ukraine, whirh, Knitiea the fron- hat time a wild He it was that ! iuto Poland, by It cavalry in the ilished a militia, lich soon became ntry. These Cot- fkraine. Having I cervices to the rned, he died in lia; Maximilian, iigitmunl, prince put forth claimi rown. The year efeated and taken ilian, became too I and established I ;he name of Sigii> lalouB papist, and | «e8sful war with den ; but in his waa more fortu- l-four years, and St son Uladislaui 13th of Novem- ssful against the the Swedes, and the interests of igwith the grants the Cossacks in ention arose. His ucceeded him, al- lector of Braden- nd means to ob- uuciation of their russia, which he srown of Poland. lied by the treat; then attempting ind absolute sove- a civil war ; and lefeated by prince rds found means, iitry of its current to France ; and naintain his foot- ately quitted the wealth. Id this I made a formed rn, and died two asimir, 'our can- , the great prince wbourg, who was ■ of France; the at backed by the ■on of the prince )n found that the AHD. ORuBft !■■ karuaLic, tub roLisa riASAHra waas mbbb abaTaa. ^!)t llistoiQ of ^olanXi. 091 contest lay between the dukes of New- bourg and Lorraine. The palatine Opalen- iki, however, by popular harangues, had the address to set them both aside, and procure the election ot prince Michael Wiesnowiski, in 1670, who reckoned his de- leent from a brother of Jagellon. He was chosen to the royal dignity as being a Piast, a till': highly respected in Poland, and sig- nifying a nobleman who can trace bis de- leent through a long line of Polish ances- tors ; but being a weak prince, the Turks took advantage of his incapacity, invaded Poland, and took Kaminieck, the dpital of Podolia. Michael did not long enjoy his dignity ; he died three years after his de- lation, at the very time when Sobieski, the Polish general, bad gained a great and de- cisive victory over the Turks. Another con- tention then arose about a successor; but St length the diet unanimously chose John Sobieski fur their king, who maintained a war against the Turks, although ill second- ed by the nobility ; and in 1676, at the head of no more than 5,U0O men, he defeated 60,000 Turks and Tartars : after which, re- ceiving a reinforcement of 10,000 troops, he drove 100,000 of the enemy out of Pudolia, and wbs crowned at Cracow, in February, 1676. The Turks by these defeats were brought to acquiesce in terms of peace, which were observed during seven yeara: hut in 1683 the Ottomans invaded Hungary, and laid liege to Vienna. The neighbouring princes being roused to action by the impending danger, put their forces under the com- msnd of Sobieski, whose armv mustered 40,000 strong; with which force lie at tacked and defeated the infidels, whose numbers were little short of 200,000. This decisive stroke restored peace : but the great mili- tary talents of the king, joined to his ex- I treme parsimonj, created jealousies among I Ibe Polish nobility, of his having formed ! designs of changine the constitution of (he i kingdom, and rendering himself an abso- I lute monarch. These apprehensions, which , were never supported by any direct proofs, embittered his latter days. He died in 169S, in the sixty-sixth }'ear of his age, and \ the twenty. second of his reign. He left a , son, priuce James Sobieski, whom, however, ' the I'oles did not nominate for their king. j An interregnum of a twelvemonth iol- ! lowed : at length Frederic Augustus, elec- , tor of Saxony, was chosen, in preference to I the prinreof Conti, whose pretensions were I bscked by the interests of France : but in 1 1/05, the Poles being tampered with by i Charles XII. of Sweden, declared the crown j vacant, and chose Stanislaus Leesenski, palatine of Posnania ; to establish whom on the throne, Charles of Sweden entered Saxony with a powerful army, and compel- led Augustus to save his electorate by Rhandoning his pretensions to the crown of Poland. Tlie reverse of fortune which Charles experiencfd in 1708, gave Augus- tus the ascendancy ; and his competitor found it neeescary, in his turn, to quit the ; kingdom. Disputes and ill-will, however. firevailed between Augustus and the nobi- ity, from this time until his death, which bappenei*. in January, 1733-3. >Vhetlier the house of Austria, or that of Bourbon, should fix the succession to the throne of Poland, then plunged Europe into war. The former supported the pre- tensions of Augustus, the sun of the de- ceased king; in which nomination the court of St. Petersburg also concurred: the latter aimed at restoring the abdicated Stanis- laus, whose daughter, the princess Marr, was married to Louis XV. Notwithstand- ing this alliance, his interest was not vigor- ously supporteif uy the court of VeraailTes ; and he was finally driven out of Poland, possessed of nothing more than the empty title of king ; he, however, gained the duchy ot liOrraine and Bar, which he enjoyed the remainder of his life. Stanislaus died in January, 1766, having attained to the great age of eighty- nine years. He was distin- guished for his talents and virtues; hia humanity was active, and displayed itself in man|^ noble instances of kindness and generosity. Though deprived of the crown of Poland, he expressed his strong attach- ment to the prosperity of that country, and his thorough knowledge of itS interests, in a work which he wrote and published in the year 1759, entitled. La VoUt Libre du Citoytn ! OH Obiervatioiu tur I* Gouteme- ment du Pologne. Frederic Augustus, electorof Saxony, waa chosen king of Poland in September, 1733, in the forty-sixth year ot his age. He was the third king of that name. He married Maria Josepha, daughter of the emperor Joseph I. In the winter of i7-<5, the king of Prussia attacked him in his hereditary doroininns, made himself master of Dres- den, and forced the elector to accept such conditions of peace as were proffered. In 1756, the king of Poland having secretly become a party in a confederacy formed by the empress ^ueen and the king of France, to strip the king of Prussia of the province of Silesia, the unfortunate Augustus sud- denly fell a victim to the resentments of that monarch, who took possession of Dres- den, his capital, and compelled his whole army, consisting of 13,000 men, to surren- der prisoners of war ; after which he expe- rienced the most bitter calamities. His queen, whose every motion was narrowly watched by the emissaries of the Prussian monarch, died of a broken heart ; whilst the designs which the king had formed for the advancement of his family, by procur- ing for one of his sons the dukedom of Courland, and for another the bishopric of Lieee, were entirely frustrated. Worn down with years as well as with sorrows, he re- signed his breath on the 6th of October, 1763, in the seventy-sixth year of his age, and the thirtieth year from his election to the crown of Poland. Tlie son of Augustus declared himself a candidate for the vacant crown ; but he died of the small-pox in less than tv.-o months after. Count Poniatowski, on ac- count of his eminent merit, was unani- *HB BOASTSn PREEBOM OF rOL«!(n BXTRNUEn ONI.T TO THB BICII. MOlI or THI roUIH COBH IS XZrOkTBO FBOM OANTIiC. &9i Vl^t treasure of l^istors, $cc. mouilf elected king, on the 7ih of Sep- tember, 1764, without any commotion or ditturbance. The power* of Russia, Prus- sia, and Turkey, supported his pretensions. The ambassadors of Trance, Spain, and the empire, who opposed his election, retired from Warsaw, when the diet assembled. He took the name of Stanislaus Augustus. The new king had not long sat upon the throne, before some Russian troops enter- ed his kingdom on the plea of procuring a toleration and other privileges for the op- pressed and persecuted " dissidents," who were of the Greek church, and also for the Lutheran and other reformed Cliristians. The bitter enmity which subsisted between the Roman catholics and the dissidents, kindled the flame of a tierce, bloody, and desolating civil war, which raged during the years 1769, 1770, and 1771 ; in the midst of which, tlie miserable Poles were visit- ed with the pestilence, which swept off 350,000 of the population. The part which the king of Poland took against the dis- sidents, caused a conspiracy to be formed to assassinate him, in November, 1771; from which attempt upon his life he es- caped almost by a miracle. Many of the conspirators lost their lives by the hands of the executioner. Amongst the Poles the love of freedom had long prevailed, without the spirit of union. A kingdom fertile and extensive as that of Poland, torn by intestine com- motions, and unprovided with the means of self-defence, presented a most alluring prospect to its powerful neighbours. The censures which have been passed on the great southern kingdoms of Europe, for the tameness and unconcern with whicli they looked on and saw a noble king- dom mutilated, are in reality unmeaning charges. Had the states of the empire, France, and the maritime powers, joined in a heterogenous league with the courts of Stockholm and Copenhagen; had they even engaged the Ottomans in the alliance, what could their fullest exertions have availed, toward securing Poland i'rom the depredations of three powers capable of bringing Hve or six hundred thousand men into the tield 7 Flt-ets would have been in- effectual in a contcet carried on in the cen- tre of Europe. These confederating pow- ers could have brought no force equal to that possessed by the partitioning princes. In fact, the latter, by their union, had ef- fectually prevented all attempts to form an opposition capable of thwarting their designs. It is needless to mention the frivolous and obscure claims which were set up by the three partitioning powers, to the terri- tories which they designed to appropriate : it is sufficient to describe the countries which were thus forcibly wrested. The claims of Austria comprehended the south- ern parts of Little Poland, and the whole of Red Russia, with Proeutia. The royal salt mines at Wieluska, Bochnia, and other places in Little Poland were coinpreheoc'ed in the territory thus seized. The produce of these mines supplied the king with a part of his private revenue. The whole of liie territory wrested by Austria contains about three hundred miles from east to wesr, and two hundred from north to lomh! The district seized upon by the emnreii of Russia, was the whole of Polish Livo- nia, and that part of Lithuania which borders on the Russian empire, and ex- tending over that duchy even beyond the river Beresina ; the whole lying under more than four degrees of latitude, but much less considerable iu widtli. The king of Prussia took possession of all the western parts of Pomerania, bounded on the south- ward by the river Nets, together with the whole of Polish Prussia ; the cities of Danr- sic and Thorn only excepted. To this terri- tory he gave t'.ie name of New Prussia. Ai these countries form the southern shorci of the Baltic, and give the command of the Vistula, they were highly important lo a monarch, whose dominions, before thii acquisition, could not furnish a deep, con- venient, and capacious harbour for ship- ping. The political views of the king of Prussia thereby became muck enlarged, being directed to commercial and mBritiine objects. The inhabitants of the countries thui dismembered were required, by the mani- festos, to take oaths of allegiance and fldelitv lo their new sovereigns, within a very short space of time, on pain of for- feiting their estates. The independent spirit of the Polish nobility could ill brook such mandates ; many chose rather to abandon their country and estates, and submit to voluntarv exile ; carrying with them such parts of their propertv as the short time allotted them would enable them to collect. The confiscation of thcie estates was an object of great consequence to each sovereign ; it being a cruel policj constantly practised by invaders and usurp- ers, to oppress and ruin the native nobility, in order to provide for their own adherents. The empress of Russia, however, conducted these proscriptions with less severity than her two confederates. This memorable event took place in September, 1773. The king of Poland, unable to make any effectual opposition to these violent acta uf power, was at length induced to give his sanction to the partition, by being put into possession of a rich territory, which «ai rendered hereditary in his family ; and which was guaranteed by the three courts; besides which, a large sum of money, to enable him to pay off his heavy debts, vai presented to him, as the farther price for this his sacrifice of duty to tyranny. Still, however, to add insult to injury, a diet w» called ; the members of which, by the most undisguised violence, were compelled to give their votes to ratify the alienation of so great a part of the kingdom. It wai thought, however, that this change of go- vernment, though brought about without any colour of justice, or plausible claim of right, might, after the convulsions caused j by its first establishment had subsided, IM SOMK or THB POnRSTS THB BIS0!f, OB WILD BUM., IS FOUNn. vNDiR TBB Bsruauo Tua iioRUiTi or ceiMNS Miun* raNVMot oairoTi. Ei)t T!)(iiiorQ o( ^olAnti. 693 lend to f niarge the iuin of liuman bApni> ncM in those districts, as well as to fenwt the country more wealthy and llourlihinffi u the oppressiona of the nobility w«r* liktly to be ((reatiy restrained, and the eoii' dition of the peasantry to be coDsider»bl|f intended. That the three great northern power* •hould concur in the design of dismemhef' ing Poland, by mutaallv acknowledging •nd supporting each otliers' claims, ap' pcsred »o essentially necessary to the ao> complishment of the purpose, that eaoh became disposed to lay aside those JealoUt lies and bickerings which subsisted against ibe others ; and for the sake of further- ing its own particular interest, to assist in iiKiiKtheninK its rivals. To the empress of Russia, indeed, the claims of Austria sod Prussia must have been partinularly unwelcome ; for she gave up that un< bounded influence and authority wliieb •he had acquired in the distracted king' dom, for a territory little adequate to the loM of such power ; but this con( fectual, a new constitution waa settled for Poland on the 3d of May, 17»1, by which the Catholic faith was declared to be the eitablished religion of the country, but a toleration was extended to all religious persuasions. The peasants and villngera were relieved from that slavish dependence on their lords which caused them to be considered as no other than appendage* to the toil, and a perfect and entire Uborty I declared to all people. I For a few years Poland appeared to : flourish: and that part of it which was ! left to Stanislaus was greatly beiieUted I b; his judicious introduction of artisan* I from France and other countries, under I vhose superintendence the manufacture* I of the country were carried on to oonsi-' ; derable advantage. But though the Poles : were attached to their king, they saw, with indignation and distrust, the propect of being still farther humbled and reduced by the three self-elected arbiters of a nation'* fate. Nor was it long before their appre> hensions were sadly vcritied. Tiie French revolution had just broken out; and the Russian empress fearing, per> liapa, the effect of such an example upon a warhke people, agreed with the king of Primia to make such new division of the L Polish territories as should render all Al> iRRtpli rrutllM* wlilffh (ttfiy night make to rMovar lltfir tn(1itu«iidir powprrul aid to a few discon. lanlad ntililii* who hud enlcred intoacon< federapy In oppvtt the new constitution at Targoviiiii HflyinH upnn Itte prn(e(Mli'4 in, tlttUH'A lo espiose their eanaai and llifr were left to engage ain- glahandfd wlllt the whole force* of the HuRslan fHiplre. t'athcriu* immediately ntarvhed an army Into Poland i and RtanI*. Iai4» raised a minslderahle force, which was plaaad Hiidfr lltt< fiitntnand of hi* nephew, priiiea imp\iU I'onlalowikli but the Po. lish monartth, dfulroti* of averting the niisariP* of war, HI'IiciIimI (o the term* of UuNNla, annttllfil ihe new constitution, and allowed lh# UhnsImh* lo lake pnssesdon of lii* A*>|)ltal. Till* B « U e M a, H THE POLISH NOALRS tK* WOW PQOUflrV AI'gJHPf t« tMB UW«. turn rOLIIB AKMT 11 ROir AMALOAMATBO WIVB THAT OF BDIIIA. 694 t!rtc tTrcasurv of I^Cston.), ^c. tone, who had been educated in the mili- tary ichool at Wanaw, and had served as idd-de camp to fteneral Washington, in the American war of independence. Madalin- ska, a Polish general, raised the standard of revolt, and, in conjunction with Kosci- usko, took Cracow, iVom which city they issued an address to the nation, and sifcned an act declaratory of their motives and in- tentions. Kosciusko was then placed at the head of the army and of the repuolic, with unlimited power. Tiie first operation of the severe contest that immediately ensued proved favourable to the patriots, who routed a Russian army of superior force near Cracow, and ex- pelled them from Wilna. Meanwhile, the Russian ambassador compelled Stanislaus to declare the insurgents rebels, and de- manded the surrender of the arsenals. Tliis demand drove the inhabitants to des- peration ; they flew to arms, and after a sanguinary contest of forty-eight hours, the Russians were driven out of Warsaw with immense slaughter ; and preparations were immediately made, under the direc- tions ot Kosciusko, who repaired to the capital, to repel any future attack. If the contest had hitherto been unequal, it was now rendered much more so. Aus- tria had entered into the views of Russia and Prussia: and powerful armies advanced on every side. After an obstinate battle the king of Prussia defeated Kosciusko, took possession of Cracow, and marched towarda Warsaw, where the enraged popu- lace bad committed (preat excesses. Ilis offers of accommodation having been re- jected, he laid siege to the capital, but be- ing repulsed in a fierce attack upon the entrenched camp of the confederates, he was eventually compelled to abandon this enterprise, after a fraitlesa siege of two montns. During the time these events took place at Warsaw, the Russians under Suwarrof had defeated the Poles, at Brcsesk, and ge- neral Fersen was endeavouring to unite his forces with the grand Russian army. Kos- ciusko hastenea to prevent this junction ; but in an obstinate oattle against the su- perior forces of general Feracu, the Poles were routed, ana their gallant chief hav- ing been wounded and taken prisoner, was hurried as an exile to the draary regions of Siberia. As far, however, as loss of liberty and expatriation could be rendered endu rable, it was, under all circumstances, so rendered in the present instance, more than ordinarr attention having been paid in pro- viding him not only with suitable apart- ments, but with books, drawing inaterials, &c. for his recreation and amusement: an indulgence rarely granted to Russian cap- tives. Deeply was the loss of their beloved Thad- dens deplored by the Poles; and though it did not utterly break the spirit of the pa- triots, it nevertheless proved fatal to their cause. Suwarrof advanced without oppo- sition under the very walls of Warsaw; and the Polish generals took post in the suburbs of Praga, situate on the oppotjte bank of the Vistula. Ou the 4th of Novem- ber, 1795, they were vigorously assaulted by Suwarrof, at the head of 50,000 luen. The contest raged more than eight houri- but it terminated in the utter destruction of the Polish army, whose shattered re- mains retired into the city of Warsaw. The citiiens of the capital surrendered to the conquerors, who pillaged the city, and put to the sword nearly 30,000 individual!, sparing neither age nor sex. The iroopi endeavoured to force their way tlimugh the enemy's lines ; but nearly the wbule of them were cut to pieces. Poland, now laid prostrate, witnessed the departure of its last king, who, sninmonrd to St. Petersburg, was compelled to ab- dicate his throne. The final partition of the kingdom, by the sovereigns of Aus- tria, Russia, and Prussia, was not lung de layed. A pension was settled on the ex- king, who retired first to Grodno, but on the death of Catherine, in 1796, he went to St. Petersburg, where he was treated with much respect and attention ir the em. peror Paul, at whose court her<-«icled till his death. Fortunately for Kosciusko, sod the Polish patriots in general, the new em- peror looked on them with more tlian a pitying eve: he not only restored the for- mer to Uberty, but made him the most li- beral offers to remain in his service; ibt; were, however, respectfully declined ; and the heroic chief, after spending some little time in England, went to America, where he remained a few years, and on his return to Europe, chose France as his reisidence, and settled near Fontainebleau. All the polish patriots in the Russian prisons were released by the emperor Paul, and those who had been sent to Siberia, of whom there were not less than 12,000, were recalled. But many of the bravest Poles, who had fought with Kosciusko, made their escspr, entered the French service, and were form- ed into separate battalions, distinguished by Buonaparte as his Polish legions. When tiie emperor Alexander succeeded to the throne, in 1801, his conduct towards the Poles was not less liberal than that of Paul, tft father, had been. Contrary to the plaii pursued by the other two powers, he scrupled not to bestow high offices on natives of the country, and preserved to them their ancient laws and privileges. Lithuania (the Russian portiou) was di- vided into eight districts, with a governor over each, but all these governors were Li- thuanian nobles ; and the members of the diet were elected bv the people. Tiie pea- sants were still held in feudal bondage, bat encouragement was |;iven to many plans which tended to their improvement, botli morally and intellectually. Not long after Buonaparte reached theim. perial dignity, one of his favourite schemes was that of freeing the Poles frnm the sub- jection of the three great nortliern powers, and availing himself of the services of that hardy and warlike race, of whose valuur and physical capabilities he had had ample Tn* atrssiAN iiANanAoa is eaADVAi.LT DnDKRMimira tuk fousr. tUB rOL«l ABB BBRBBALLT WBU. ruBMBD, STBONa, AND ACTITB. te reached iheim- favourite schemej >1ei from the sub- northern powers, B service* of that of whose valour le had had ample Vlil)t l^istori} of ^olanTJ. 695 proofa in )>i« late caropaigna. Ha accord- iDclr viaited Koaciuiko, who waa atill ra< •iainf near Ponlainebleau ; and endea- Tonred to pcraoade bim to take up anna, once mort , for the land of hia birth ; but the SJIant hero doubted the aincerity of the ailic emperor'a profeaaiona, auspecting that be only deaired to reacue Poland from iti preaent maatera, in order to add it to hia own empire; he, therefore, declined hia overtureai but though Koiciusko refuted, there were thouaanda of othera who flocked lo hia atandard, and Buonaparte punued hit plan of conqueat. The event of the battle of Jena, fought with the Prutsiana in 1806, put him in poasetaion of Wxraaw, and all that part of Poland which had been annexed to Pruaaia: thia territory he formed into a aeparate atate, which he called the grand duchy of Waraaw; and, uniting it to Saxony, he gave to the king of that country the aaditional title of graud dttke of Warsaw. The diamembered country, which now flrat received internal order from foreign bandt, continued in thia condition till No- vember, 1806, when Napoleon'a victoriea led the emigrant Poles, under Dombrowaki, to Posen and Warsaw. By the terma of the peace of Tilait, July 9, 1807, the greater part of the Pruaaian Polish provinces waa formed into the duchy of Warsaw, which received a German ruler in the king of Saionr, and, at the aame time with the Frencn code, a constitution similar to the French, by which bondage waa abolished. Dantiic waa to have been a republic un< der the protection «f Prusaia and Saxony, bat remained a French place of arms. The grants bestowed ou the French officers, and still more the continental system which destroyed all trade, exhaatted the public revenues, so that Poland, amid all Its natural wealth, experienced the fate of Tantidua. The neceasity of furnishing troops for the French service, was also a check on the proaperity of the new state, and annihilated all that Prussia had ef- fected at great aacrilicea. Tet the woollen and cotton manufacturea, that had grown ap in Poaen and Broomberg, .sustained themselves. The government of the duchy did every thing practicable under auch un- fafourable circumstances. The war hetivcen France and Austria, in 18U9, augmented, indeed, the sufferings of the country, but developed, to an extra- ordiaary degree, the military energies of the people. Under the command of Poni- ttowski and French officers, the Polish troops rivalled the best troops of France in vuour. They advanced to Cracow, and the peace of Vienna (Oct. 14, 1809) an- nexed Western Galicia to the duchf of Warsaw, which had hitherto contained 89,000 square miles, with 2,200,000 inha- bitants; so that it now comprised 60,000 square miles, with 3,7tM),UOO inhabitanta and furnished a well equipped ariny of (0,000 men, which fought in Spain with great bravery. Under these circumstances, the old na- tional pride revived; their former boaai* dariea, a native king, and the restoration of the name of Poland, were the unani- moua wiah of the nation. On thia wish, which he artfully encouraged. Napoleon founded his plan of attack upon Russia, in 1812, which he atvled the aceond Poliah war. He contrived that a general Poliah confederation, in Warsaw (June 38, ISIS), should solemnly proclaim the restoration of Poland; but the ardour was not uni> versal. The exertions of the duchy, which raised upwards of 80,000 men, were for the most part rendered useless by Napoleon'a method of waging war. Tormaatoff kept the Lithuaniana iu check, and, instead of the myriada of whom Napoleon boasted that he should find on horseback at hia command, only a few battaliona of volun- teers assembled. Meanwhile Russia assumed the adminla- tration of the whole duchy. Dantsic, with its territory, reverted to Russia, and the congress at Vienna (in May, 1816) decided the fate of the country.— 1. The city of Cracow, with ita territory, waa to be go- verned by its own laws, as a free and inde- pendent republic ;— 2. The country on the right bank of the Vistula, with the circle of Tamapola, which had been ceded to Russia by the peace of Vienna, was re- stored to Austria ;— 3. The circles of Culm and Michelan, the city of Thorn and ita territory, the department of Posen, with the exception of the circles of Powitt and Peyseru, and part of the department of Kalisch, aa far as the Proxna, excluding the city and circle of that name, were ceded to the king of Prussia, who united Dantxic, Thorn, Culm, and Michelan with West Russia, and from the remainder (11,400 aquare milea, with 847.000 inhabi- tants) formed the grand duchy of Posen, and appointed prince Rfldziwill governor. All the rest was united with the Russian empire, under the name of the " kingdom of Poland," but with a aeparate adminia- tratiun, and such a territorial extent as the Russian emperor should see fit. The em- peror Alexander, therefore, assumed the title of csar and king of Poland, and re- ceived homage in Warsaw. Poland, though thus divided, preserved its name and language, aa the treaties of Vienna aecured to all Poles who were sub- jects of either of the three powers, such an organiiation as tended to maintain their national exiatence. A Polish charter was accordingly promulgated (Nov. S7, 1815). The government of the country was to be veated in a native Pole, as lieutenant of the kingdom, unless one of the imperial princea ahould be appointed viceroy. Thia was rendered nugatory by the presence of the tyrannical Constantine, as commander- in-chief. Equality of reNginua sects, per- sonal security, libertv of the press, the en- tire possession of all employment!i, civil and military, in the country, by Poles, were among the promises of the charter; and these riglits were to be secured by a na- tional diet, composed of two chambers. IM POLAND, THR TBBM8 OSTITI.KMAN AND NOBtKMAR ABB STNOHTSfnua. {3R COKHl'moa ANU IMTIMIOATIOII USEU TO tSAVAII. in TUB rOLIIH DIBTI. 69G tlT^c ^reaisury of llistory, $rt. But these |)miniies were kept only to the cart teitriciion* on the proa, arbitrary impriaonment, and punishnteuta; iniulta added to injuriea ; a solemn niuckery of a diet, which was not allowed to exercise any real authority; the violation of every article of the charier by a Russian barba- rian ; peculation and extortion practised by the inferior officers ;— these were some of the features of the Eussian government of Poland. On tin death of Alexander (December, 1826) ana the accession of Nicholas, a con- spiracy broke out iu Russia, and, on pre- tence that it extended to Warsaw, several hundred persons were arrested in Poland, and a commission constituted, contrary to the provisions of the charter, to inquire into the affair. The only discovery of this inquisitorial tribunal was, that secret so- cieties had existed in Poland since 1821. In May, 1429, Nicholas was crowned at Warsaw. In 1828, however, a secret so- ciety had been instituted, fur the purpose of gaining over the oiticers of the army to the cause of independence; and to their agency ia the insurrection of 183(1 to be at- tributed. It appears, nevertheless, that it was immediately occasioned by a sham conspiracy got up by the Russian police, who had thus induced a number of young men to betray themselves, and crowded the prisons with their victims. Not only the Polish officers, the youth of the military school, and the students, had been gained over to the cause of the patriots ; but the greater part of the citizens, and the chief nobles, were ready to encourage an effort to save themselves from what they now foresaw — the occupation of Poland by a Russian array, and the marching of the Polish troops to the south of Europe. Such was the state of things when the insurrection of Warsaw broke out, Nov. 19, 1830. A young officer entered the niili- tarv school, on the evening of that day, and called the youth to arras. They immedi- ately proceeded to Belvidere, the residence of Constautine, about tvro miles from the city; for the purpose of seizing his person. They were joined, on the way, by tlie stu- dents of the university, and forced their way into the palace; but the prince was concealed in a clothes-press, by a servant, until he could make his escape by a secret door. Another party of cadets and students paraded the streets, calling the citizens to arms, and they weve joined by tho Polish troops. The arsenal was seized, with 40,0U0 stand of arms, and the insurrection now became general. On the next morning 40,000 troops and citizens were in arms, and the Russians were expelled from War- saw. The administrative council was summon- ed to preserve order; and, to give more in- fluence to its measures, several of the most distinguished Poles were invitrd to sit with it. Measures were taken for the organiza- tion of a nntional ^uard, and of a new police and municipal government. On the 3rd of December, the prince was allowed to leave the neighbourhood of Warsaw, with thret regiments of Russian cavalry, and two re- 8 intents of infantry, without opposition. )n the Sth, general Clnpicki was proclaim- ed dictator till the meeting of the diet, which was convoked for the I8th. Mean- while Nicholas issued a proclamation, in which he declared that no concessions could be made to the rebels, and, on the 24111, another, addressed to the Russians, tell, ing them that the Poles had dared to pro- pose conditions to their legitimate mailer; "God," he adds, "is with us, and, in a single battle we shall be able to reduce to submission these disturbers of *hp peace." January 24 the Polish diet, which had been opened on the 18th of December, declared the absolute independence of Poland, and the termination of the Rnssinu dominion, ' and on the 2ath, that the Polish throne ; was vacant. All hough the immediate cause of this revolution was the severe punishment in. dinted on the pupils of the military aca. demy, as before slated, there is no douht that the Poles were encouraged iio nmke the attempt b'^ the success that Aad at- tended the Parisians in the preceding July, to secure to them a constitutional govern- ment. The oUJect of the Polish revolu- tionists, however, was not to withdraw Ihemselves entirely from the authority of the Russian emperor, but only to main- tain the privileget that were |;uaranieed to them at the congress of Vienna, and to get rid of the tyrannous vicerovship of the grand-duke Constantine. Theyliad now however, drawn the svrord; and although two comissioners were sent to St. Peters- burg, to endeavour to effect an arrange- ment, the emperor refused to listen to them, and denounced the revolted Poles as traitors to whom no lenity would be shown. Marshal Diebitsch, who had so succeis- fully conducted the war with the Turks, entered Poland at the head of a large army/ He advanced as far as Warsaw, and , was victorious over the Poles near the walls of their capital, February 25, 1831 (the \ot% of the Poles is stated to have been 5,5(10, 1 that of their enemies 4,500) ; but when prince Radzivil resigned the command on i the 28th, and Skrzynecki, then only a colo- 1 nel, was appointed in his place, the Polish ! cause gained strength. This brave officer, ] though tinally unsuccessful, like the he- • roic Kosciusko, proved that he deserved a > better fate. March 31, he was victorious over the Russians in a night attack. lie advanced cautiously, and, favoured by the darkness of the night, reached their can- ' tonments without being perceived. The advanced guard of general Geisniar, con- sisting of 8,000 or 10,000 men, was first hi- tacked, and almost wholly destroyed: (he Poles took 4,000 prisoners and 1,6(10 pieces of cannon. Immedintely afterwards, lie at- tacked general Rosen, who was posted with 20,000 men at Denibe Wielski, and obliged him to retreat, with the loss of 2,0U0 pri- soners and nine pieces of cannon. JEWS ABB HUPB NUMKIIOUS IN rOI.ANO THAN IN AVt OTHKR COrNTKT. cowi, tiiiar, AMD ooATi ooHSTiTUTM Tiia CHiKV Bioaii or !■■ swina. C|)e IQuftary of i^UjtUcrlanlr. 697 Another important victory wm after- wnrds Kained near Zeleehow, when 12,000 Ruiiinna were killed, wounded, or taken, with twelve pieces of cannon. Durinic thi* tetion, the Lithuaniani and Volhynians, who served in the Russian amiy, turned their arms ag^nst the Russians, and ma- terially contributed to the success of the Poles. The peasants in various quarters of Poland now took an active part in the war, and hastened, witli whatever weapons they eoald obtain, to the army. Insurrections broke out in Lithuania, Volhynia, Kowno, Ukraine, Wilna, and even in ancient Po- land, as far as Smolensk. On the other hand, general Dwemicki, who had been sent to make a demonstration in tlie rear of the Russians, and who had been victo- rious over them, was at last compelled to Eus into the Austrian dominions, where e surrendered to the authorities of that country, April 37, with fiOOO Poles. The ardour of the people, however, still con- tinued, and hopes were entertained in every country that the manly resistance of the Poles would induce the powerful cabinets to interfere; but, unfortunately, Prussia and Austria, being themselves in posses- sion of a part of the spoils of Poland, did all in their power to prevent interfercnee, whilst Britain and France were loo much occupied at home to render essential aid. The military operations were now prose- cuted with new vigour, aud the emperor, who, in a manifesto addressed to the Rus- sians, had called them the legitimate mas- ters of the Poles, was ready to make every saerilice to regain the Polish throne. Their fate was soon afterwards decided. After two days llgbting, Warsaw was taken by the Russians, (September, 1H31); the conflscation of their properly and exile to Siberia followed as a matter of course; and though many found an asylum in England and other countries, they were mostly in extreme poverty, and were de- pendent on the benevolence of those who pitied their hard fate while they admired their patriotism. Poland was soon after- wards incorporated with Russia; and al- though it has its separate diet and code of laws, Russian troops are stationed in all the principal towns, and it bears every semblance in other respects to a conquer- ed country. THE HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND. FaoM the earliest times this country has been no less celebrated for the spirit of freedom which animated its brave inhabi- tants, than for the beautiful and interest- ing (character of its scenery. Snow-capped mountains, with fertile vuleys and peace- ful lakes at their base, are here seen in contrast with noble forests, luxuriant vine- ysrds, and glaciers of almost bouadless ex- tent, whose crystal pinnacles tower above each other and flash their light with all the brilliancy of a noon-day sun. But in allttding to the geographical features of Switzerland, we must not forget that our present business is more particularly de- voted to its history. The northern and southern nations of Europe have been singularly intermingled in the history of Helvetia, whose Alpine walls seem like a barrier, separating them from each other. The Roman legions, in- deed, conquered the Gauls, Rlitetians and Alemanni, in the forests and marshes ; but tliey could not destroy the northern spirit of freedom. The traces of its ancient sub- juj^aiion to Rome are still visible in the Ro- manic language of a part of Switzerland. Helvetia, under the Romans, had a flourishing trade, which covered the land with cities and villages; and Switzerland ■till forms the connecting link between Northern Germany, the Nethrrlands aud France on the one side, and Italy on the other. Before the fall of the Roman empire in the we»t, the northern and largest part of Switzerland, occupied by the Alemanni, had been conquered by the Franks. On the Jura dwelt the Burgundians, and Rhctia was under the Ostrogoths. Three German nations, therefore, freed the country, about A. D. 460, from the dominion of Rome. Christianity had already been introduced into Helvetia from Italy, and as early as the fourth century there were Christirti churches at Geneva, Coire, and other placi '■■ The Alemanni aud Burgtindians gave their laws and their habits to the Helvetians; and the Alemanni occupied the greater part of the country. Each soldier received a farm ; a jodge, or centgrave, was set over one hundred of these farms (forming a cent, or hundred) : and the place ofjudg- ment where he settled all questions be- tween the free citizens, was called Malluo. Several cents formed a Gan (hence Thur- gan, Aargan, &c.), the judge of which was styled count (graf) ; and tlie counts -were under a duke. The great irruption of barbarians swept throuR;h the peaceful valleys of the Alps, and Roman civilization disoppeared. Os- trogoths, Lombards, and even Huns, set- tled in different parts of the country. At last, the French, who had taken possession of the lands of the conquered Alemanni, drove the Ostrogoths over the RbKiian mountains. THX CnOFS OF COBif AHB GlnBRAI.LT SCANTY AND PBXCABIOUS. 698 Vl\)t t^rcBtutQ of l^istort;, Sec. In S34, they likewiie tubJected the Bur- fundUnei and all Bwiiurland became a portion or the Frankith empire. The coun- try, however, retained its ancltiit conitltu- tion I the Romans and the old inhabitants were governed by Roman, the Alemanni by Alemannic laws; and each of the other nations by its peculiar code. The Chris- tian rellnou was restored anew, and the detolatvd ftclds were again brought under eultivation. On the partition of the empire of the Franks among the Merovingians, Switser- land was divided between two sovereigns; one reigned over Alemannian,and the other overBurgundian Switierland, or Little Bur guiidy. Pepin reunited the whole coun- try, and Charlemagne encouraged the arts and sciences in Helvetia. Under his feeble successors, the counts became more and more independent of the royal authoritjr, and flnally made the possession of their gan$ hereditary. One of tliem (Rodoluh) established, in 883, the new kingdom of Bur- gundy, between the Reuas and the Jura. Nine years previously, Boso had established the kingdom of Aries, in the territory be- tween tne Jura and the Rhone. Thirty Sears afterwards, the two Burgundian king- oms were united. The counts in the other part of Switterland were still nomi- nally subject to the German king^ ; but they conducted themselves as princes, as- sumed the name of their castles, and com- pelled the free inhabitants of their gam to acknowledge them as their lords. Hence arose a multitude of independent and com- plicated governments, whose chiefs were engaged in continual feuds with earh other. War was the business of the nobles, and misery the fate of the people in the dis- tracted land. The emperor Conrad, there- fore, set a duke over the counts in Aleman- nia in 911. But the emperors of the Saxon house were the 4rst who compelled the dukes, counts and bishops, in Switzerland, to respect their authority. After the death of Rodolph III., the 5th and last king of Burgundy (1032), the em- peror Conrad II. re>united Burgundian Switserland with Alemannia, which be- longed to the German empire. But under Henry IV., grandson of Conrad II., the royal authority in Switzerland was again overthrown. The country people became more secure ; the feuds among the nobility flourished; Geneva and Lausanne, among the Romanic, and Zurich and Basle among the German cities, became thriving towns. The families of Savoy, Kyburr, and Haps- burg were the most powerful among the noble families. Many nobles went, about 1 1 this time, to Palestine ; and thus the coun- try was delivered from their oppression. After the death of Berthold V., last duke of Z&hringen, in 1218, Alemannia again came into the possession of the emperor. His hereditary estates in the Ucbtland and in Little Burgundy, passed by his sister Agnes, to the house of Kyburg. From this time, the Hapsburgs in north- ern Helvetia, and the counts of Savoy in 3. the south-west, grew more and roorepow(^ ful. The emperor appointed some noble. man aa governor or each city, or com. munity, which waa not under a count, to collect the publlo revenue, and to punish violations or the public peace. The oier. man kings were no longer able to afford pro. tection ; might gave right, and the bold, est became tlie mightiest. Several inrerinr lords, and several places, therefore, souKhl the protection of Uansburg or Savoy. Zu. rich, Berne, Basle and Soleure, the districts of Uri, Schweiti and Underwalden, gradu- ally acquired the seigneurial rights from the emperors, by purchase or by grant, snd assumed the name of imperial cities or im- perial districts. They were more proiip«r. ous and powerful than the nobility, who lived in their solitary castles, at enmity with each other. Even the crusades, by promoting com- merce, improved the already flouriahing condition of the cities, as a part of the troops, arms, provisions, &c.were tranamlt. ted to Italy, through the passes of the Alpi, The crusaders brought back new i|iventinni in the arts, new kinds of fruits, (Ic. The f;old and ailk manufacturers of the Its- ians and eastern nations were imitated in Switzerland; refinement took the place of rudeness, and poetry became the favourite amusement of the nobles. The cities now formed alliances for their mutual protec- tion against the rapacity of the nobles, snd demolished many castles, from which they exercised their oppression upon the peace- fill merchants. 'At the end of the thirteenth century, Rodolph of Hapsburg, who, in 1264, had in- herited the estates of hia uncle Hartmsnn, count of Kvburg, became more poweiful than the old lords of the soil. As king and emperor of Germany, he held a court at Helvetia; but he did not abuse hit power to reduce the freemen to vassalage. His ambitious sons, however, Rodolph and Albert, encroached upon the rights of the Swiss. Albert, in particular, who succeed- ed to the imperial dignity in 1298, by hit tyranny and obstinacy, gave rise to the first confederacy of the Swiss cantons. On the night of November 7> 1307, thirty-three brave countrymen met at Grutlin, a soli- tary spot on the lake of Lucerne. Farat of Uri, Stauffacher of Schweitz, and Melch- thai of Underwalden, were the leaders on this occasion. All swore to maintain llieir ancient independence. The three Walda- t&dte, or forest-towns (as these cantona were called), accordingly rose, deposed the Austrian governors, and destroyed the csa- ties built to overawe the country. Henry VII., the successor of Albert on the German throne, confirmed to the fo- rest-towns the rights of which Albert had endeavoured to rnb them. Tlie house of Austria still contended obstinately for ita lost privileges. But the warlike spirit of the people fostered a love of conquest and plunder ; mutual hatred kindled civil nara between neighbouring cantons; foreign powers sought the aid of the cunlcileratea TUK WOMBIf, AS WBI.I- AS URN, PBRFailM ALL KINnS OF AOniCVLTURAL LABOUR. rA«aiiff. ind more pover- ted wme nohle. I ciijr, or com> ider a count, to I, and to punish «aee. The Oer- ble to afford pro- r, and the buld> Several inferior iherefore, •ouvht K or Savoy. Zu* !ure, the diitricti erwalden, gradu- trial riKbtt from or by Krant, und trial citiei or ini' re more pro*prr> lie nobility, who Atlea, at enmity promoting com- 'eady flourithing w a part of the «.were tran»niit' aaiet of the Alpi. ik new ipventinni frulta, ftc. The ren of the It*. were imitated in took the place of me the faTourite . The citiet now r mutual protee- >f the noble*, »nJ from wh'.ch they I upon the peace- irteenth century, o, in 1264, had in- uncle Hartmann, e more powerful le toil. As king he held a court 1 not abuse his nen to vassalage, ver, Rodolph and the rigbta of the lar, who succeed- y in 1298, by bis gave rise to the t'isi cantons. On 1307, thirty-three Grutlin, a soli- Lucerne. Farst veits, and Melch- t the leaders on to maintain llieir 'he three ^'alds- \» thrse cantons rose, deposed the lestroycd the cas- jountry. sor of Albert on Irmed to the fo- vhich Albert had The house of bstinately for its warlike spirit of of conquest and indled civil wars lantons ; foreign the conlcileratcs rUBAl I.ABOUK. turn CLiiiATB in ina ai.rina Riaioni ii KcaaiivaLv coi.o. ff|)c l|(fttoru of Sisit^trlantl. 699 In their contests. In 1424, the people of (he Grey League established their inde^ pendenee, and were soon after joined by those of the other two leagues. The emperor Frederic III. then called a Prcnib army into Switaerland to protect bis family estates. The Swisa made a se- cond Thermopyla of the church-yard of St. Jacob at Baale, where 1(100 of them with- stood 30,000 French under the dauphin Louis, (Attguat 36, 1444.) They next pro- voked Charles the Dold of Burgundy, who narched into their country, but was de- feated at GransoB, Murten, or Morat, and Nancy, in 1477< The confederates them- selves aspired to conquest, the people being trcd by the desire or plunder, and the no- ble* by warlike ambition. In 14(10, they wrested Thurga from Austria; and from 1436 to 1460, Zurich, Sehweitc, and Olarua contended for Toggenburg, till Berne de- cided the dispute in favour of Schweitt. The confeaerated canton* from this time hore the name of the Swiss confederacy in foreign countries. In 1481, Friburg and Soleure entered the confederacy. The em- peror Maximilian I. now determined to force the Swi*B to join the Suabian league, *nd to *ubmit to the court of the imperial chamber. But they *unpected Germany on *cconnt of Austria, and joined the Grisons. Hence arose the Sual)ian wan which was concluded, after the Swiss had gained six victories over the Germans, by the peace of Dasle, in 1499. Basle, SchafTliausen, and Appeniell, were afterward* admitted into the confederacy. But the country and peo- ple were disturbed by domestic and foreign war*. In the Milaneae war of 1512, the Swi** conquered the Valteline and Chiavenna, and obtained from Milan the Italian bail- liagea, which form at preeent the canton of Tessin. They fought on a foreign noil, now for, now against, Milan ; at one time for France, and at another time against her, till after the great battle of Marig- nano, gained by Francis I., in 1516, they concluded a perpetual peace with France, at Friburg, in 1516, which was followed, in IS21, by tue firat formal alliance with that kingdom. About this time the work of reformation began in Switzerland. Zuinglius, in 1518, preached against indulgencie*, a* Luther had done in 16 17- Even a* early a* 1516, he had attacked pilgrimages, and the invo- cation of the Virgin Mary; and in 151 7« I with the knowledge of hi* patron, the ab- I bot of Einsiedein, several nan* abandoned the mona*tic life. Hi* removal from Ein- I siedeln to Zurich, in 1518, gave him cour- I age to *peak more openly, as Luther had, meanwhile, appeared in the cause of re- I form. But when the principles of the re- formation were diffused through Zurich, Berne, Schaffhausen, Ba*le (by the labour* of (Ecolampadiua), St. Gall, MUlilhausen, and Bienne, religiou* jealousy separated tlie reformed and the catholic cantons. In G'arus, Appenzell, and the Grisons, the people were divided between the two con- fe**ion*. Lucerne, Uri, Srhweils, Under- walden, Zug, Friburg, Solfiire, adliercd to the ancient faith ; as did likewise the Va- lais and the Italian bailiwick*. Fanaticism kindled a civil war. The Schweitxers burnt a protestint preacher of Zurich. Two Swiss armies, ncnrlir 30,000 strong, awaited the signal for civil war, a better spirit suddenly prevailed, and the ftrst religious peace was concluded in 1620. It WB* agreed that the majority of vote* in the coinmunitie* *hould decide all que*- tiona relating to change* of faith. Hut the rapid progre** of the reformation again provoked the catholic cantons to war ; and the troop* of Zurich were routed at Cap- pel (1631), where Zuingliu* fell, and at the mountain of Zug. After the second public Seace, the catholic religion was restored in oleure and the common provinces. In the mean time, Savov, which had long po*- *e**ed episcopal and seigneurial rights in Geneva, reduced the city to entire submis- sion. But the oppressive manner in which the ducal authority was exercised, led Ge- neva, in 1525, to join Heme and Friburg. The duke was forced to yield. Berne and Geneva concluded the perpetual league of 1531, and Berne gained possession of the Pays deVaud. At the same time, the re- formed doctrine* were propagated from Geneva by Calvin. By the peace of Lau- *anne, in 1504, Savoy ilrst renounced her claims upon the Pars de Vaud, and was thu* driven from Helvetia, as Ncuburg had been before. About this time (1536), Berne and Friburg divided between them- selves the territories of the counts of Gru- yere, so that, in all Helvetia, no great fa- mily of the ancient nobles retained it* pa- trimonial estate*, except that of Henburg. The Swi*i, however, were distracted by religious and political controversies. Aris- tocracy and acmocracy struggled for the superiority, and the intrigues of Spnin Ailed the people of the Valteline (1617 21) with a spirit of fanatici*m. In foreign, and ea- pecially in the French lervice, the Swi** adopted foreign manner* i he *old hi* blood to foreign masters; and the ancient Swiss purity and simplicity retired to the remote valley* of the higher Alps. At the same time, the connection of the confederacy with the German empire became less and less close, while the cantons obtained the conflrmation of their right* from the em- peror Maximilian II. Bat the influence of France soon became predominant, and flome *wayed the mind* of its adherent* by mean* of Jesuit col- lege* at Lucerne and Friburg; and parti- cularly through the papal nuncio at Lu- cerne. In the thirty years' war, the con- federates maintained a prudent neutrality ; and, by the peace of Westphalia (1648), the complete separation of Switserland from the German empire was at length aclemnly acknowledged. In 166:), France renewed her alliance with the Swi**, and asserted that they had no right to form alliances with other pow- ers. The conquest of the Franclie Coiiit^, SWITCEaLANO DOR* NOT raOOUCB ANT KIKU OP MINKIIALS IN ABl'lf DAKCB. [in 3 TMI tUB MAUVrAetOBI II MOITLI CORIIUOTIO IM IVMIOI ANB ■*•!>. 700 Vtlft JSttMMx^ of l^istort^, Sec. In 1074, and th« tlcg* of Rhcinfcld, in 18711, bi th« French, toiether witli iht ereo- tion of the fortreu or IianinKen, tn 1(179, •lotted the apprehrneion* or the Swim. They, however, happiljf maintained their neutrality, even In the war of tlie Bpanlah •ucceaiion. During the perieoution of the Sroteitante in France, to whom thejr rea- II* gave an aijlum and pecuniary aid, they paid ae little regard to the remoustrancei of Louie, who viewed the reforniere as re- bels, as he did to the intercession of the Erotestant Swiss cantons in favour of their rethren in the faith. The Rwiis had liitle Influence in foreign politics during the eighteenth century t and, until towards its close, they suififred little from foreign interference. Tliis tran- quillity, which, however, was often inter- rupted by internal diHsensions, was alike favourable to the progress of commerce, agriculture, and manufactures, aud to the arts and sciences. In almost every de- partment of human knowledge, the Swiss of the eighteenth century, both at home and abroad, acquired distinguished repu tatlon, as the names of Haller, Bonnet, Bernoulli, J. J. Rousucau, Lavater, Bodmer, Breitipger, Oessner, Sulxer, Hirsel, Fuseli, Hotttnger, John von Milller, Festaloui, and many others, bear witness. The people of the democratic cantons enjoyed an almost unlimited freedom, and took a large share in the alTairs of govern- ment. Those places which were under the general protection of the whole confede- racy, were not burthened by excessive taxes ; they enjoyed a high degree of civil fireedom, and numerous municipal rights. The larger cantons, as Berne and Zurich, in which the atovernment was administered by the capitds, or by a body of the citi- cens, who enjoyed many peculiar privi- leges, were also in a flourishing condition. There were no oppressive taxes; but al- most every where the government was conscientiously couductei; the adminis- tration of Justice was cheap and simple, and benevolent institutions were nume- rous. Notwithstanding all these favour- able circumstances, internal dissensions still continued, and new troubles arose in 1790, which shook the political fabric; blood wai often spilt, and punishment rendered necessary. Although the Swiss had at first firmly maintained their neutrality in the wars of the French revolution, French power and intrigue gradually deprived them of their former constitution ; and, after incorporat- ing several portions of Switserland with the French and Cisalpine republics, the French converted the Swiss confederacy into the Helvetic republic, one and indi- visible, under an executive directory oi five persons. The legislative power wav di- vided between a senate and a great coun- cil, to which each of the fourteen cantims elected twelve members. It was in vain that some of the democratic cantons at- tempted to prevent this revolution. They were speedily overpowered. But the oppression of the French, the arbitrary manner in which they diS|ioied of ihe highest ofllees, and the great nuinbtr of weak and corrupt men who were raised to power— soon made the new officers eon. temptible. Aloys Beding, a man of en. terprising spirit, whose family was cele. brated in the annals of his country, form. •d the plan of overthrowlu| the central government. Uuderwalden, Bchweits, Zu. rich, Olarus, Appensell, and the Urisoni wished to restore Ihe federal ennstituiiun ; and Reding Imagined that Buonaparte him- self, who had Just withdrawn the French troops from Swilierland, would favour his plan. Tlie smaller cantons. In their diet at Sohweiti (August 6, I8(hi), declared that they would not accept the constitution which had been forced upon them, and Ihat they prcfered a federal govemmrni. The consequence was a civil war. Zurich was besieged to no purpose by the troopi of the Helvetic republle, against whom its gates where shut. Rodoiph von Erlscb and general Auf der Maur, at the head of the insurgents, occupied Berne pnd Fri- burg. The Helvetic government retired to Lausanne. Alo) s Redinv now summoned a general assembly, which was held at Schweits, Sep. ti-mber ij. Three days after, the first con- sul of France offered to the cantons hii mediation ; but the small cantons, guided by Aloys Reding and Hinel of Zurich, per- severed in their opposition. Twelve thou- sand French troops entered Switserlaud, under Ney, ana the diet separated. Rt-ding and Uirxel were imprinoned. In December, both parties sent deputies of the eighteen cantons to Paris, to whom Buonaparte transmitted by Barthrnprisi«d to ri-ligloiis snU «'lmrit«ble jiuriioics. In the diet, Lm-vriie, the leading Catholic can- Inn, vlgoriiiiKly |iroli'*Ud sgaliiil this at't, and tlio Argovluns offered to restore llie rniivent*. But the Cailhiillc |iartv was iml sallKllcU. Ill the canton of Valal*, the clcricy went k fsr as to re/ii*« the *arraiiieiit» to tlie nieiiibers of Young Switierlaiid, us the libi-ml parly was nanieil, a'j(1 even In their relulivi's, or llie readfrs ul' their JoiiriiHls. The Jonlt*, eluiid with tliclr triumph In llie Vslsii, now bi-c«nie exlremi'ly active In the oihi-r Cailiollr csii- liin*, and In IS44 they were formally Invited to enter the csnioii of Lucerne, rnmi which lliey had hitherto been excliideil, to Uke chiirge of the canloiial education. This kd to civil dltst-naloii in tlic canton; the ex|iul- shn of the leaders of the anll-Jenull party, and the liivstloii of it by free corp* from the adjacent canton*. Matters soon tM-gan tu asKunie a more serious a*|ii>ct. In Ihe diet of 1844 the Argoviaii de|inly had proposed the expulsion of the Jesuits from llie cnn- federacv. He then met with no support ; bul In Ihe diet of I84i a majority voieJ for that lurasure. In 1846 Lucerne, and six other Catliollc cantons, feriiied what was termed the Soiiderbuiid, or Seiiarate Lesgiie, an armed confeilerucy, In hcl, In support of Ihe caUKC of llie Jeknltn, TIiIk wm voted to be illegal by a majority of tlie diet ; and changes of government which look place Immediately after in Bern, Geneva, and other place*, having given more strength to the anti-Jesuit party, Ihe expulsion of that soolelv, and llie disnoli.llon of Ihe SonderbuiiJ, was lesohed on by Ihe diet. But as the Catholic eiinlons, relying on Auttrla and on France fur snpiiori, reriiNcd compliance, It was resolved lo have recourse to aims. The iroopsofiheillet.commaiid- ed by General Dufour, api eare-l before Fri- burg, which opened Us gates after a feeble resUlance. The federal army then resumed Its march, and soon reached the vicinity of Lucerne, where a surrender was made after one vigorous action at the adjacent vllUge of Roth. The leaders of the Soiider- buiid took to flight, and Ihe Jesuits were ordered to quit Ihe canton wllhhi forty- eight hour*. The remaining cantons sent in their siibniltisinn, and thus, through the vigour and rapidity of General Uufour's measures, the civil war was terminaleil without giving AuHlrIa or any other power a pretext for Interference. In 1848, while great part of Europe was convulsed by re- volution, Switzerland eiijoyed comparative tranquillity ; save that the canton of Neu- clialel, which had hll\)erto belonged to Prussia, then shook off the foreign yoke, and WM annexed to Switzerland. ■ e s ■ s it e 'CnATBI. soMB olr TiRR CANTons Ana rnoTitsrANT, and otubrs arb CATnotic. TUX LUMOARDS, SOMBTIMBS CALLRD LO^IOOBAnDS, INVAOBD ITALY, A. O. 068. T^E HISTORY OF ITALY. Thib deliglitfiil region of Europe, aa vole- bratcd for its genial climate, as for being the teat of that miglity empire which of old gave laws to the world; this classic land, where all that is noble in art and science have flourished ; though shorn of its former glories, still claims the traveller's homage and the attention of the historian. Before Rome had absorbed all the vital power of Italy, this country war thickly inhabited, and for the most part, by civi. lized nations. In the north of Italy alone, which offered the longest resistance to the Romans, dwelt the GauL. Farther south, on the Aruo and the Tiber, a number of small tribes, such as the Etrusci, the Sam- nites, and Latins, endeavoured to Hnd safety by funning confederacies. Less closely united, and often hostile to each other, were the Greek colonies of Lower Italy, called Magna Grteia. Italy, in the middle ages, was divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Italy. The first division comprehended all the states situated in the vicinity of the Po ; the se- cond extended between the former and the kingdom of Naples; which formed the third. At present, it is divided into the following independent states, which are not connected with each other by any po- litical tie: — l.The kingdom of Sardinia; 3. Lombardy, or Austrian Italy ( including Milan and Venice ) ; 3. the duchy of Par- ma; 4. the duchy of Modena (including Massa) ; 6. the grand-duchy of Tuscany ; 6. the duchy of Lucca ; 7- the republic of Sau Marino; 8. the Papal dominions; 9. the kingdom of Naples, or the Two Si- cilies. Italia did not become the general name of this country urtil the age of Augustus. It had been early imperfectly known to the Greeks under the name of Hesperia. Juionia, Saturnia, and (Enotria, were also names applied by them to the southern part, with which alone they were at first acqitainted. The name Italia was at first merely a partial name for the southern ex- tremity, until it was gradually extended to tlie whole country. The modern history of Italy begins with the fall of the western empire. Romulus Augustus, its last feeble emperor, was de- throned by his German guards. Odoacer, their leader, assumed tlie title of king of Italy, and thus this country was separated from the Roman empire. But this valiant barbarian could not communicate a spirit of independence and energy to the degene- rate Italians ; uotliing but an amalgama- tion with a people in a state of nature r.uuld effiect their regeneration. Such a people already stood on the frontiers of Italy. i Theoduric, king of the Ostrogoths, in- stigated by Zcno, emperor of the £a«t, overthrew the kingdom of Odoacer, in 493, and reduced all Italy. His Goths sprrad from the Alps to Sicily. In the lagoons of the Adriatic alone, some fugitives, who had fled from the devitstations of Attila, maintained their freedom. | Theodoric, who combined the vigour of the north with the cultivation of the south, : is justly termed the Great. But the energy of his people soon yielded to Roman corrup- tion. Totiia, for ten years, contestoc in vain the almost completed conquest with the mi- litary skill of Uclisarius. He fell in battle ' in 562 ; after which Italy was annexed to ; the eastern empire, under an exarch, who resided at Ravenna. But the first exarch, ' Narses, sunk under the intrigues of the i Byzantine court, and liia successor ne- glected the defence of the passes of the Alps. The country was then invaded by the Lombards, who, under Alboin, their chief or king, conquered the territory which afterwards received its name from them. The kingdom of the Lombards included Upper Italy, Tuscany, and Umbria. Aibuin also created the duchv of Beneveuio, in Lower Italy, with which he invested Zotto, The whole of Lomhardian Italy was di- vided into thirty great fiefs, under dukes, counts, &c., which soon became hereditary, Together with the new kingdom, the con- federation of the fugitives in the lagoans still subsisted in undisturbed freedom. The islanders, by the election of their first doge, Anafesto, in 697, established a central go- vernment, and the republic of Venice was founded. Ravenna, the seat of the exarch, with Romagna, the Pentapolis, or the five mari- time cities ( Rimini, Pisaro, Fano, Saniga- glia,and Ancona),and almost all the coasts of Lower Italy, where Amalfi and Gaeta had dukes of their own, of the Greek na- tion, remained unconquered, together with Sicily and the capital, Rome, which was governed by a patrician in the name of the emperor. The slight dependence on the court of Byzantium disappeared almost eu- tirely in the beginning of the eighth cen- tury, when Leo, the Isaurian, exasperated the orthodox Italians by his attRck of ima- ges. The cities expelled his oflicers, and chose consuls and a senate, as in ancient times. Rome acknowledged, not indeed the power, but a certain paterniil aiitliu- rity of its bishops, even in secular nllnirs, in consequence of the respect which tlirir nAVRNNA WAS OOVKHNRO DY AN EXARCH; KOMI!, BT A RISIUIP. THB L0MB*R»I4a BIHODOM CBA8ED WITH TUB CArTUBB Or PAVU. ^\)t TSii%ot^ of 3EtaIt}. 703 holiness procured them. The popes, in their efforts to defend the freedom of Rome against the Lombards, forsaken by the fourt of Rytantiuro, generally had recourse I to the Frankish kings. In consideration of the aid expected ' against king Astolphus, pope Stephen III., I in 'i^t not only anointed Pepin, who in the I preceding year had been made king of the ' Franks, with the approbation of pope Za- ' charias, but with the assent of the munici- j pality of Rome, appointed him patrician, as the iiaperial governor had hitherto been I denominated. Charlemagne made war upon ' Desideritts, the king of the Lombards, in defence of the Roman church, took him ' prisoner in his capital, Pavia, united his empire with the Frankish monarchy, and ' eventually g[ave Italy a king in his son Pe- i pin. But his attempts against the duuhy of Bcnevento, the independence of which I was maintained by duke Arichis, against the ' republics in Lower Italy, where Naples, ; Amalfi, and Gaeta, in particular, had be- I come rich by navigation and commerce, were unsuccessful. The exarchate, with ! the five cities, had already been nresented I to the pope by Pepin, in 156, ana Charle- magne confirmed the gift ; but the secular lupremacy of the popes was not completed until the pontificate of Innocent III., about ' the year 1200. Their rank, however, among ! the ecclesiastics of the west, and the tem- i poral power now acquired, gave them an i ascendancy over the clergy and laity in Europe, which they failed not to improve I until they were acknowledged aa the in- ' fallible heads of the church { Leo III. bestowed on the king of the Franks, on Christmas day, a. n. 800, the imperial crown of the west, which needed ! a Charlemagne to raise it from nothing. I But dislike to the Franks, whose conquest was looked upon as a new invasion of bar- I barians, united the free cities, Rome ex- ; eepted, more closely to the eastern empire. ! Even du(^ng the lifetime of Charlemagne, Frankish Italy was given to his grandson I Bernard ; who, hcwever, having attempted to become independent of his uncle, Louis * the Debonnaire, was deprived of the crown, and had his eyes torn out. I Italy now remained a constituent part of the Frankish monarchy, till the partition of Verdun, which took place in 843 ; when it was allotted, with the imperial dignity, and what was afterwards called Lorraine, to Lothaire I., eldest son of Louis. Lo- : thaire left the government to his son Louis II., the most estimable of the Italian ' princes of the Carlovingian line. Afti-r his death, in 875, Italy became the apple of discord to the whole family. Charles the Bald, of France, first took possession of it ; and after his death Carloman, king of Bavaria ; who was succeeded, in 880, by his brother Charles the Fat, king of Suabia, who united the whole monarchy of the Franks for the lust time. His dethronement, in 887, v«s the epoch of anarchy and civil wwr in Italy. Beren- garius, duke of Friuli, and Guido, duke of Spoleto (besides the narqnli of IvrcB, the only ones remaining of the lhiri|P great vassals), diaputed the crown Ixtwiwn them. Uuido was crowned klny nnd«m> peror, and after hi* death (Hl>l), hti ton Lambert. Arnold, the CartuvlnKinn kini of the Germans, enforced hli elalmt lo tht royal and imperial crown of Italy (NDA), but, like most of hi* successors, wat able to maintain them only during his reildcnca in the country. After the death of Lambert and Arnold, Louis, king of Lower Durgiindy, became the competitor of Hercngnrms 1.) and this bold and noble prince, although crowned king in 894, and eniiteror in NIIA, did nut enjoy quiet till he had expelled the emperor Louis III. and vanquished auotlier 0(impe< titor, Rodolph of Upper Burgundy i he wa* even then unable, on aeoiint of the freble condition of the state, to defend the king. dom effectively against the invasloni of the Saracena and the Huni^arlaHs. After the assassination of Derengarlus, in 924, Rodolph II. relinquished hie olalme to Hugh, count of Provence, In exchange for that country. Hugh sought to strengthen the insecure throne of Italy by a bloudy tyranny. His nephew, ncrengarlus, mar* quis of Ivrea, fled from his snaree lo Ulho the Great, of Germany, asseniblitd an arm/ of fugitives, returned and overthrew Hugn in 945, who was succeeded by Itii ton Lothaire. Bcrengarius became hit first counsellor. But, after the death of Lo- thaire, in 950, (poisoned, it wae faid, by Berenjtarius), the latter wished to compel his widow— the beautiful Adclatde— con- trary to her inclination, lo marry bli son. Escaping from the prison to which lie had consigned her, she took refuge in the rastle of Canossa, where she was beiirged by Be- rcngarius II. She now applied for aid to Otho I., king of Germany, who pntied the Alps, liberated her, coni|uered I'avia, be- came king of the Franki and Lombard!, and married Adelaide. To a prompt submission and I lie eeisinn of Friuli, (the kev of Italy,) which Ulho gave to his brother Henry, Ui-rcngariut was indebted for perniissiun to reign ■■ the vassal of Otho. But the nolilet of Italy preferring new complainla against him, ten years after, Otho returned in 961, deposed him, and led him prisoner to Bamberg; and, after having been hlmtitlf crowned king of Italy with the iron crown, in 961, united this kingdom with the Ger- man. Otho gave the great imperial fiefi to Germans, and granted to the Ilalinn cities privileges that were the foundation of a free constitution, for which they loon became ripe. The growing wealth of the papal court, owing to the munificence of the French kings, which had promoted I heir iiifiuence on the government, so beneficial under Leo IV. and pones of a liniiliir charncter, became, through the corruption of the Roman court, in the tenth century, tho first cause of its decline. The clergy end the people elected the popes according to SEVKUAL OBEAT VASSAtS OF TUB BMFIRB NOW THROW 0F» THBIB nRPKNnKNOI. ■■■' ' I I.. I I, , i , | i||i^... TUB THMPOUAL roWKB 09 TttU rorll ttHMAtbt AIDED TUBIH •riltlTUAL. 704 ^Ije ^rtasunj of 1|i»tori), Sec. ■ •a e K tm f K & ! e U I* K m § < o M B> K tl e *) » o K H a IB M *< the will of the coniuli and a few patri- cians. Alberic of Camerino, and his son Octavian.were absolute masters uf Rome, and the last was pope, under tlie name of John XII., when twenty years of age. Otho the Great, whom he had crowned emperor in Rome, in way no lets manly than disin- terested The Venetians, irritated with Carrara, on account of the assistance he had given the Genoese in the war at Chiozza (1379), looked quietly on while John GaleazzoVii- conti deprived the Delia Snala and Carrara of all their possessions ; aad Florence alone assisted the ur.fortunate princes. Fran- cis Carrara made himself again matter of Padua, in 1390, and maintained his advan- tages, till he sunk under the enmity uf the Venetians (1-106), who changing their po- licy, became henceforth, iustead of the op- ponents, the rivals of the ambitious views of the Visconti. In 1395, John Galeazzo obtained from THB LAKBS OT COMO, MAOOIORR, GAROA, LUOANO, ATBRDO, &C. lity ; he wu ap. >eople, but «ii 1, to yield to the after leven ;ean legate cardinal I short time, md an insurrection, irpetttol disputei and Durias »ith iescbi, baniihed and made Siioon >y a terrible fa. ' rrible pestilence iich awept ana; au. No less ter- the bande (ban- of soldiers, who lied the war on kging the whole >rd. j cceeded in eon- 1 IB states of tlie cardinal legate, SO) ; but, reduced pres8(( ns of the by Florence, the i in 1»7S. The rt of Geneva (af. and of his band , produced only a the great scliiim, es, or rather tlie itt, was fully con le, persisting in est, arrapd the in opposition to artions of Guelfi forgotten in the >a submitted to rchased Bologna ut his enterprise ough the resiit- 'uscan republici. was concluded petty tyrants of of the Floren- (ainst the papal short time. lu divided into the heAlbizii. The which this gave el di Lnndo, who iniere by them- lanly than diiin- 1 with Carrara, ice he had given Chiozza (1379), lin GaleazzoVii- !a1a and Carrara d Florence alone princes. Fran- a^ain matter of ained his advtn- le enmity of the inging their po- stead of the op- ambitious views obtained from , &c. HO Goi;iiTai II 10 moH IN f I.*|«I0 NUNVMlNfi at itali. ti()C H^lltOlO 0( Uitkl^, ro7 the emperor Wenceslaus the invrstilurii of Milan as a duchy, purchased Ftsa (wltlflh his natural son Gabriel bargained iiWNf lu Florence, 1406), from the tyrant Qerard of Appianu (who reserved only the prinnipili lily of Piombino), and subjugntea lltDiltlli Perugia, and Bologna ( so that Flur«ne«>, fearfully menaced, alone sinod •gainst Itim in the cause of liberty. On bis daath, In 1402, the prospect brightened, and durinv the minority of his sons, a great portluii of bis states were lost. M'hcu {.adislaui of Naples, taking advantage of th« soliisni) made himself master of all the KOflttsiA' tical States, and threatened to conquer all Italy, Florence again alone dftred lu resist him. But this danger was transitory) III* Visconti soon rose up again in opno«ilinn> Duke Philip Maria reconquered all III* states of Lombardy, by means ot the grcfit I Carmagnola (1416-30). Genoa also, wlticlt i was sometimes given up, in nominal (r»»' dom to stormy factions (of the Fregosi, { Adomi, Montalto, Guarco), and at otlixr i times was aubject to France, or to tlm I marquis of Montferral, subniitled to liim (1421). Florence subsequently entered into an alliance against him with the Veneliltn* i (1425) ; and by means of Carmagnola, who J had now came over to them, they «oiiqiier> ' ed the whole country as far as the Addd, I and retained it in the peace of FerrHrM (1428). After Milan had been enfeebled by thtl Tcnetiana and Florentines, and while Al' ' phonso of Arragon was constantly disturb' ' ed in Naples, by the Anjou parly, no dun- ferous predominance of power exintud in taly, though mutual Jealousy still exeiled ; frequent wars, in which two parties among I the Italian mercenary soldiers, the Ura* cheschi and the Sfoneschi, contiiined al' ways hostile to each other, contrary to (b« custom of those mercenary band*. After ; the extinction of the Visconti, in }4i1, \ Francis Sforsa succeeded in gaining pOK> ' session of the Milanese state. The Venfl' j tians, who aimed at territorial agKrAndlRA' ment, having formed a connection with ' some prince* against him, be found AH ' ally in Florence, which, with a cbangfl of circumstances, wisely altered her poliry, About this time, the family of the Mf^tliPi attained to power in that city by llieir wealth and talent. Milan, where the RforM had established themselves i Venice, wllieli possessed half of Lombardy i fiarencp, wisely managed by Lorenco Medici | (hfl states of the church, for the molt pArt restored to the holv lee t and NnpleSi which was incapable of employing it! forces in direct attacks on other itatHS, constituted, in the flfteentk eentury, lit* political balance of Italv, which, aurlnff the manifold feuds of these stales, per> mitted no one to become dangeroui to the independence of the rest, till 14114. when Charles VIII. of France enlereil Italy to conquer Naplei, and Louis Moro 8fona played the part first of his Ally, then of his enemy, while the pope, Ale*' auder VI., eagerly sought the frif ndsliip of liiA Vi'(»tiitnoiin»A llioio on Milan, whicn remain- ed lo iforiA, «nd after his death, was HrAOlltd liy (JIlAflei V. tu his son Philip. tIii> Mioti«ll«d with the pope, he raised tliii M< tria having conquered Milan, Mantua, and Montferrat, retained the two first, (for Mantua was forfeited by the felony of the duke), and gave the latter to Savoy. In the Seace of Utrecht, Austria obtained Sar- inia and Naples; Savoy obtained Sicily, which it exchanged with Austria for Sar- dinia, from which it assumed the royal ^itle. Mont Genievre was made the boun- dary between France and Italy. The house of Famese becoming extinct in 1731, the Spanish infant Char'es obtained Parma and Piacenca. In the war for the Polish throne, of 1773, Charles Emmanuel of 8a- ''oy, in alliance with France and Spain, conquered the Milanese territory, and re- ceived therefrom, in the peace of Vienna (1738), Novara and Tortoua. Charles, in- fant of Spain, became king of the Two Sicilies, and ceded Parma aud Piacenca to Austria. The Medici of Florence, entitled, sinee 1676, grand-dukes of Tuscany, became ex- tinct in 1737- Francis Stepfaan, duke of Lorraine, now received Tuscany by the pre- liminaries of Vienna, and, becoming empe- ror in 1746, made it the appanage of the Iounger line of the Austro-Lorraine house, n 1746, the Spaniards conquered Milan, but were expelled thence by Charles Em- manuel, to whom Maria Theresa ceded, in reward, some Milanese districts. Maisa and Carrara fell to Modena, in 1743. by right of inheritance. The Spanish Infsnt, don Philip, conquered Parma and Piacenu in his own name, lost them, and obtained them again as a herediury duchy, by the peace or Aix-la-Chanelle, in 1748. At the era of the French revolution, Italy was divided between the principality of Sa- voy, the Ecclesiastical Slates, the republici of Venice and Genoa, the grand ducby of Tuscany, and the small principalitiet of Parma and Modena. Naples and Sicily were governed by a king belonging to the house of Bourbon; and Mantua, Milan, and some other places were in the posses- sion of Austria. \ In September, 1793, the Frendk troops first penetrated into Savoy, and planted the tree of liberty. Though expelled for some time, in 1793, by the Piedmonteie and Austrians, they held it at the end of the year. The National Convention had already declared war against Naples, sud the French advanced into the Piedmon- tese and Genoese territories, but were ex- pelled from Italy in July, 1796, by the Aus- trians, Sardinians, and Neapolitans. In 1796, Napoleon Buonaparte received the chief command of the French army in Italy. He forced the king of Sardinia to conclude a treaty of peace, by which the latter was obliged to cede Nice and Savoy to France; conquered Austrian Lombardy, with the exception of Mantua ; put the duke of Parma and the pope under contribution ; and struck such consternation into the king of Naples, that he begged for peace. After Mantua had also fallen, in 1797, Buonaparte formed of Milan, Mantua, the Sortion of Parma north of the Po, and Mo- ena, the Cisalpine republic. France like- wise made war on the pope, and annexed Bologna, Ferrara, and B£omazna to the Cisalpine republic (1797), by the peace of Tolentino. The French then advanced to- wards Rome, overthrew the ecclesiastical government, and erected a Roman republic (179S). In Genoa, Buonaparte occasioned a revolution, by which a democratic re- public was formed after the model of tke French under the name of the Ligurian re- public. The French had, meanwhile, pene- trated into Austria, through the Venetian territory. The Venetians now made com- mon cause with the brave Tyrolese, who gained advantages over the French in the Alps. Buonaparte, therefore, occupied Ve- nice without striking a blow, and gave the republic a democratic constitution ; but, by the peace of Campo-Formio (17th Oct. 1797), the Venetian territory, as far as the BTBBT THINO CONTRIBCTKO TO PRBPAHB TBB WAT FOB THB BkFORUATION. PAiaTINS, SCUbrTVIIB, rOBTKT, AMD MUtlC, WKHk ALL r ATHU.VKkn. dE^c l^fstore of StalQ. 709 AdigCi was relinquiihed to Anttria, and the rest incoruorated with the Ciialpine re- public. The King of Banlinw concluded a treaty of alliance and aubtidy with France, October 35; but, in 1798, the director*, av ■ailed in Rome from Naplei, deemed it ex- pedient to compel him to reiign liii terri- tories on the main land. Notwithstanding iti treaty of amity with France, Naples concluded an alliance, in 17yR, with Britain and Russia. The French, therefore, occupied Naples, and erected there the Fartlienopean republic. The xrand-duke of Tuscany had likewise formed an alliance with Naples and Britain, and bis country was, in return, compelled by the Frencli to receiTO, like Piedmont, a military adminislration. After the con- gress of Radstadt wan broken off, Austria aud the German empii .-, under Russian sup- port, renewed the war against the Freneu, who again left Naples and Rome to the British, Russians, and Turks. The king and the pope returned to their capitals in Lombaray; the French were defeated by the Attstrians, under Kray and Melas, and by the Russians, under Suwarrof, and lost all their fortresses, eicept Oenqa, where Massena siutained a vigorous siege, while bis countrymen had to evacuate all Italy. But, in the mean while, Buonaparte was made first consul after his return from Egypt. He marched with a new army to Italy, defeated the Austrians at the me- morable battle of Marengo (1800), and com- pelled them to capitulation, by which all the Italian fortresses were again evacuated. By the peace of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801, the possession of Venice was confirmed to Austria, which was to indemnify the duke of Modena, by the cession of Brisgau. The duke of Parma received Tuscan?, and after- wards, from Buonaparte, the title of king of Etruria. Parma was united with France. The Cisalpine and Ligurian republics were guaranteed by Austria and France, and with the Liguiian territories were united the imperial fiefs included within their limits. The king of Naples, who had occu- pied the states of the church, was obliged to conclude peace at Florence. By Rus- ■ian mediation, ho escaped with the cession of Piombino, the Stato dpgli Presidj, and hill half of the island of Elba, together with the promise of closing his harbours against the British. The other half of Elba Tus- cany had already relinquished to France. But the whole island was obstinately de- fended by the British and Corsicans, with the armed inhabitants, and not evacuated till autumn. The Stato degli Presidj France ceded to Etruria, September 19; but strong detachments of French troops remained both in Naples and Tuscany, and their aup- port cost immense sums. To the republics of Genoa and Lucca the first consul gave new constitutions in 1801. But, in January, 1802, the Cisalpine republic was trans- formed into the Italian republic, in imita- tion of the new French constitution, and Buonaparte became president. Genoa also received a new constitution, and Girolamo Durasio for doge. Piedmont , how over, waa united with France. After Buonapvrte had become emperor, in 1804, he attached (Mar.'h 17. 18US) the royal crown of Italy to the new imperial crown ; he promised, however, never to unite the new monarehv with France, and even to give it a kin|( of its own. The new •oustitution was similar to that of the French empire. Napoleon founded the or- der of the iron crown, and havina placed the crown on his own head, at Milan, he appointed his step-son, Eugene Beaubar- nais, viceroy of Italy, who laboured with great leal for the improvement of all bran- ohea of the government, of industry, and the arts. Circumstances, however, render- ed this new government oppressive, as the public espences, during peace, amounted to 100,000,000 francs, which were all to bfl contributed by less than 4,000,000 people. No European power recognited, expressly, the Italian kingdom of Napoleon. The em- peror continued to strengthen his power against the active enemies of the new order of things, and gave to his sister Eliia the Erincipality of Piombino, and to her hue- I and, Pasquale Bacciocchi, the republic of Lucca, as a principality, both aa French fiefs. Parma. Piacenxa, and Guastalla were incorporated with the French empire, July Slst. The pope was obliged to sanction the imperial coronation by his presence. Austria now acceded to the alliance of Rus- sia and Britain against France. Naples, also, again suffcr«i the British and Rus- sians to land. But the success of the Aus- trian arms was frustrated by the defeats at Vim and Austerliti ; after which the peace of Freiburg completed the French supre- macy in Italy. Austrian Venice, with la- tria and Dalmatia, were united to the king- dom of Italy i and this, with all the French institutions, Italy recognized. The kingdom had now an extent of 35,450 square miles, with 6,667,000 inhabi- tants. Naples was evacuated by its auxili- aries, and occupied by the French, not- withstanding the attempts of the queen to excite an universal insurrection. Napo- leon then gave the crown of Naples to bia brother Joseph. In 1808, the widow of the king of Etruria, who conducted the regency in behalf of her minor son, was deprived of her king- dom, which was united with France. Na- poleon, moreover, appointed his brother- in-law, the prince Borghese, governor- general of the departments beyond the Alps, who took up Ills residence at Turin. Aa Napoleon had, meanwhile, given hia brother Joseph the crown of Spain, he filled the throne of Naples with his brother- in-law, Joachim Murat, until that period grand'duke of Berg, who entered Naplea Sept. 6, 1808. In 1809, the emperor gave Tuscany to bis sister Elixa, of Piombino, with the title of grand ■ duchess. In the same year, Austria made new exertions to break the excessive power of France ; but Napoleon again drove her troops from the field, and roRUATion. THB ITALIANS STILL KXCBL IN WORKS OF IMAOINATION. la 1790 turn AVSTklAM IAD BaCUVBBBS SBBAr rABT OP ITALT. 710 ^f)c ilTreasttiQ of l^fstorv, $:c. appeared once more Tictoriout in Vienna, where he proclaimed (May 17) the end of the aecnlar authority of the popei, and the union of the atatea of the cnurch with France. Some became the aeeond city of the empire, and a penilon of 3,000,000 of franca waa auigned to the pope. After the pe»«e of Vienna, oy which Na- Joleon acottircd the Illyrian provinces, ■tria and Dalmatia were separated ftrom the liingdom of Italy, and attached to them. On the other hand, Bavaria ceded to Italy the circle of the Adige, a part of Eisach, and the jurisdiction of Clausen. The power of the French emperor was now, to all appearance, flrmly established in luly. While the Italian people were snpporltng French armies, saerfflcinr their own troops in the ambitious wars of Napoleon in re* mote regions, and were obliged to pay heavy taxes in the midst of the total ruin of their commerce, all the periodicals were full ol praises of the institutions for the encou- ragement of science, arts, and industry, in Italy. After the fatal retreat from Russia, Murat, m-hom Napoleon had personally of- fended, deserted the cause of France, and Joined Austria, (Januan 11, 1814,) whose arm* penetrated into Italy, under Belle- garoie. The viceroy, Eugene, continued true to Napoleon and his own character, and offered to tlie enemies of his dynasty the boldest resistance, which was frus- trated by the fall of Napoleon in France. After the truce of April 21, 1814, the French troops evacuated all Italy, and moat of the provinces were restored to their legi- timate sovereigns. The wife of Napoleon, however, the empress Maria Louisa, ob- tained the duchies of Parma, Fiacenza, and Guastalla, with reversion to her son ; and Napoleon himself became sovereign of El- ba, of which he took possession, May 4. But before the congress of Vienna had orga- nised the political relations of Europe, be effected his return to France, March 1, 1816. At the same time, Murat, king of Naplea, abandoned his former ambiguous attitude, and took up arms, as he pretended, for the independence of Italy. But his appeal to the Italians was answered by a declaration of war by Austria. Driven from Bologna by the Austrian forces, and totally defeated by Bianchi Tolentino, he lost the kingdom of Naples, into which the Austrian general Nugent had penetrated from Rome, and Bianchi from Aquila, seven weeks after the opening of the campaicpn. He embarked from Naples, with a view of escaping to France. Ferdinand returned from Pa'ermo, and Murat's family found an asylum in Austria. Murat himself, accompanied by » band of adventurers as daring as liir.iself, made a descent in Calabria, trom Corsica, in order to recover his lost kingdom. He was taken prisoner at Pizza, brought be- fore a court-martial, and shot (Oct. 13. 1815.) Meanwhile the conirress of Vienna, by (lie act of June 9. ISIS, had arranged the affairs of Italy in tlie lullowing manner ;-« I. Tlie king of Sanllnia Wiin reinntaled in his territories, acconltng lo the bouiid«rir» of 1793, with ioiue alleralloiis on the liiie of Oeueva ; for the portion of S4voy, lefi In possession of France by the pence oi Paris, of May 90. 1814, wu restored by tiie treaty of Paris, of Nov. 90. IBIS. To lii« states wu united Genoa, as a duchy, sc- corUing to (he boundaries of (hat republlt-, In 1703, and contrary (o the proiniiie* niadt to Oeiioa.— 3. The emperor of Aiisuiii united with his hereditary states the new Loiubardo- Venetian pruvliices formerly be- longing to Austria the Valteline, Burniio- and Chiavenna, separated from the tin- sons, besides Mantua and Milan, imrla, however, was united with (he Germanic- Aue CMily found from the actors in the French revo- lution, and that Lombard* would Join a confederacy labouring for the eniancipation of Italy at large. But thew expeclationt were ill foundeon as the rendesvons of tlie Nea- politan forces, previous to the commence- ment of active operations. But in tlie midst of all these preparations, tlie Neapolitan cabinet liad deterniiiied that tlie expedition should never reach its protended destina- tion. On Joining the Arst division of his army at Ancona, Pepe was naturally eager to lake part in the great struggle In Lom- bardy. which was then at the holiest. He quickly discovered, however, that the su- Kerior officers by whom he was surrounded ad no inienlion to croM bayonets with llie Austrians. Still he was In expectation of the second and larger division of his army, which might be more patriotically disposed. This second division, however, never a|>- peared, and was never intended to appear. After some delay. Instead of the expected lihi, there came a peremptory order from Naples, recalling the whole of the troops under Pepe's command to protect the ca- pital against the disaffected within its walls. Meanwhile, fortune had hitherto smiled u|)on llie arms of the king of Sardinia. After the *'Ave days" of Milan, tlie Austrian commander had prudently fallen back upon the great fortresses of Mantua and Verona, with the double object of providing for the safety of liis troops, and of wailing the arrival of reinforcements. In his front he had the main army of the king of Sardinia, Aushed with its past successes, and far ouinuinher- Ing the imperial force. In his rear, the papal army, under Durando, lay at Vi- cenza ; while on every side a hostile popu- lation was ready to intercept his supplies and impede his operations. Such was the position of affairs in the end of May. But all these advantages were very shortly afterwards more than counter- balanced by the masterly operations of Ra- detsky to the eastward of the Adiite. Hav- ing received reinforcements under Welden to the amount of 35,000 men, he inimedi- alely commenced active operations; and the papal army, which occupied Vicensa, was the flrst object of attack. This enter- prise, which was conducted with the ut- most secresy and expedition, was crowned with complete success. After a faint show of resistance, the Roman general sur- rendered, with nearly 30,000 men, on con- dition of their being allowed to recrosa the Po, with all the lionours of war. The terms were granted by Radetsky; and after the departure of the Roman troops, he was again sole muter of the Venetian provinces, with the means of ready and uninterrupted communfcation with Austria Proper. The tide of victory had now fairly turned against the king of Sardinia, and his adversary, no less enterprising than prudent, lost no time In following up his tardy triumphs. Cliarles Albert had still under liis command about 80,000 men. L RBrCRN OF TUB AUSTRIANS TO MILAN : AUGiniT 6. 1S48. [3.V3 TUB PIIBNCH TROOPS- INTBK HOME: JULY 3. 1-49. crt s ■ u M [710] Cl)e Crentfurs of ^Mtari;, ^c. ri Tli« niinibert under RadeUkjr, who now began lo act on the offvnalve, were nt-trly M xraat, and much bettur tup|ilied with all th« maliiM at war. Under such clrcum- Uancet, the chancea uf (ucccm In the open couHir| were In favour of (he Auittrlani^ The Picdnioiiteie, betraved by the Nea- ! |>olltanit, and ahandoneii by (he Roman*, ■till fiMi|{ht bravttly, but without any deli- ' nice plan ; and after Ruilalnlng at leant two ' ■eriouii defeat*, Charlti Albert rt-tlred pre- I cipltately upon hit own di>nilnionii, with the loaf of fully one-half of hU army. He did not even, durlne hl« hasty retreat, ' attempt to defend Milan, which, after the lapie of four eventful month*, aKaIn fell ' Into the undl*puted posieiilon of the Aut- ! Irian*. A formal armiatlve wn* at (he *ame ' time cnhcluded ; and the mediadoii of the | great power* was offered for (he purpote of ' effecting a Anal arrangement, which might { be b«>nellcl>il both to Auvtria and l(aly. I Ar(er the retreat of Cliarira Albirt, the Venetian* who had embarked with enthu- tluam In the war, were left almost entirely to their own resources ; but in their isola- tion they displayed a constancy and a spirit worthy the brightest days of ttie rppubiic. The garrison, which was composed chiefly , of volunteers, many of wliom were membirtf of the Ariit families in Italy, not only de- 1 fended the city througliout the autumn . and winter of 1848, but tliey ventured to^ leave the Khelter of the lagoons, and to at- tack the Austrian Intrenchments on the main land. On the 37th of October, a ' descent wa* made upon Mestre, which proved eminently succeRsfnl. Of 3000 Aua- triana who were posted there, 6uO were taken prisoners; and an equal numbitr were killed or wounded, while the losa of tlie Venetian* was comparatively small. Throughout the winter and the ensuing spring, tlie struggle still continued with equal obstinacy upon both sides, and with ! varying success. But a conirst more im- portant than that in which Venice was so nobly engaged, was toon to attract the eves of Europe. In the beginning of Marcli, 1849, It became apparent that a renewal of hostilities be(ween Austria and Sanlinia was Inevltiible. Charles Albert ' was still the matter of 100,000 troops; and with these he had resolved to strike another blow for the independence of Italy. It was a rash, but by no means a hopeless enterprise; for Venice yet held out, and the wliole populntion of Northern Italy wa* xtili burning to shake off the Austrian yoke, which galled the more severely alter its (enipnr»ry removal, and its unlooked for return. Radetsky, indeed, was now at Milan, at (he head of a nu- merous and well-appointed army; and, with the undisturbed nnsscsalon of (he German paste*, he could obtain from the heart of the empire whatever supplies he might require. Regardless, however, of the now comparatively secure position of his adversary, (he king of Sardinia once more puslicd forward (o (he fronders of Lorn- bardy wi(h (he wliole of his available force. At Novara the contending parties were nearly ma(chrd, numbering upon eidier side about 50,000 men. Tlie combat wa* long and obstinate, but Auslrl.in di'«cl|illiie at Fength prevailed. Throughout the day Chiirles Albert, with hi* two tons, tluireil ail tlie dangers of the field. The Duke of Oenoa had three horses killed under him ; and several of the royal staff fell close lo the person of the king. It was not until the battle was Irretrievably lott that lie retired with reluctance, and still within range of the enemv's guns, upon Novara. In the evening he called around hlni his chief attendants and hi* sons ; and having brierty explained hi* sentiments, he forinaily abdicated Ills crown In favour of the dulie of Savoy. He then took an affectionate fiirewell of every one present, and departed alone in his (ravelling carriage, wiihonl a single a((eiidan(. No( one or his officers was pernil((ed (o share (he tolKude of hit journey, nor was an* one aware of hit in- tended dettlnation. In a few short mnnlht he found, In hit voluntary exile at Oporto, (liat death which he had sought in vain on the banks of the TIcino. With (he second defeat of the flordlnltn army, the cause of Italy was virtually lott. But the spirit of the people wis still un- subdued. Even after this event, the citi- zens of Brescia, although threatened by victorious Austrian armies upon every side, rose and expelled the garrison which oc- cupied their citadel. But General Hayniu soon afterwards with a large force reduced (he city amid revolting barbarities. Tlie fall of Brescia was tpcediiy followed by that of Rome (whose stirring history during (hi* even(fui nerhid Los been told else- where) ; and tlie Sicilians, after a long but ineffectual ttruggle, were once more re- duced to subjection. On the south of the Alps, tlironghout the summer of 1849, the cause of luliau nationality was maintained alone by Venice, and nobly did she uphold her anch-iit famp. Fraud and force proved equally un- availing (o subdue her. But hunger and pestilence at length accomplished that which Austrian bayonets had failed lo effect. Towardt the middle of Augntt, the tupply of bread In the city became ex- hausted ; while, at the same lime, the cholera was dally sweeping off 900 viclinm In a population of little more than 80U,U00. The amiunnltion, too, was nearly all ex- pended ; but even under thcte detpcrate circumstances, without tiope, and without an ally in the world, the Venetians never seemed to have entertained the notion of an unconditional surrender. Aware, liou- ever, (hat the resistance of the Ocean city had awakened the sympathies of Europe, the Imperial authorities probably felt thai some consideration was due to the opiiiloiii of the age. After a brief corrc^'pondence with the provisional government, term of a capitulation, higlily honourable to tlie besieged, were offered and accepted. The last act of the revclutlonary drama had now closed, and the cause or Italian Inde- pendence was once more laid low through- out the entire Peninsula. RETURN OF THE POPE TO ROME IL 12. 1850. taa mtx ur vmnicb tT*i«i< on * imai-l cluithk or iilahu*. THE HISTORY OF VENICE. Or all the republic* of Italy, Venice ia thatwlioie liiitorjr it the moil IniereitinK nad lingular; it laai all the startling bril- liancjr of romance, and fully Justiliea the lemark of a great modem poet,—" Truth ii •trange, atraager than Action." Even the termiDation of her independent esiatcnce differed from that of other tlatei ; it waa only in the expiring throe* of her once VMt power that the ipring* of the policy which were created, and *o long maintained, by that power were laid bare to the world"* gtte. The jftoliey of other ataie* wa* ob- riout in their act* ; but until the last ve*- tige of Venetian power and independence wu annihilated by the iron l>and of Napo- leon, the reaulta, only, of Venetian policf were to be seen, the prooei* never. In look- i*g with *tedfa*t eye upon that proce** it will be impo*iible t« avoid a feeling of diiguit and indignation at many of the individual acta of the government; but equally impoaaible will it be to withhold praise from ita general wiidom. The ty- rtoBT to which *ome of the noble«t and belt blood in Venice waa aacriflced we mu*t detest ; but the *tem eeverity with which the domestic traitor was nut down, and the exquisite policy by wliicn the foreign foe was hoodwinked or misled, we cannot but admire and approve. The history of Venice ia now, more than ever, interealing to u* ; for it i* in our day that a blow, aa awift and a* cruahing as the thunderbolt, has atmck out of the list of independent statea tbia ancient republic, •0 remarkable in site and in institution*. At the north eastern extremity of Italy, between the Alp* and the north-western coast of the Adriatic, tliere waa settled from a very early age a people called the Ileneti or Veneti, from whom tlie fertile district in question waa called Venetia. From their position at the extremity of Italy it might be reasonably inferred that they were ori- ginally some nomade tribe of Northmen, and among the latest, if not the very latest of the early colonixers of Italy from that quarter. But a very great difference of opi- nion exist* a* to their actual origin. Both poetically and popularly they nave been (apposed to be the Heneto-rapblagones, mentioned by Homer, who, having lost their leader in the Trajan war, were led into Europe by Antener, and, having arrived at the head of the Adriatic gulf^ expelled the Euganei, and settled there. Strabo thinks differently, and believea them to have been orieinoll^ from Gaul— there having been a Gulic tribe of that name. But Polybius states, that though the Veneti undoubtedly resembled the Gauls in some of their man- ner* and euitomi, they differed from them in language, Moreovt-r, it is well observrd by a modern hiatorian, that whatever might be the reiininhlaiices between the Veneti and a Gallic tribe of the aarae name, a* to iitanners, customs, and even dresa, there i* one (triking part in the history of the former which may be looked upon a* al- most IrrrfraKahle evidence that it i* not in Gaul that we must look for their origin. It is this ; that, having a Gallic colony in their immediate neighbourhood, the Veneti constnntly took the part of Rome axMinit that colony in all occasiuna of dispute. Now if we suppose the Veneti to be of ■Gallic origin it m impossible to account ior this course ; it i* contrary to all that we know of tlie principle* of human nature and of the history^ of human action, that men eliould side with the Htrangcr against their fellow-countrymen. Tliat the account which make* them the Hcneto Paphlago- nes of Homer ia correct aeem* by no mean* improbable. We may easily *uppo*e that, having croased the Bosuhoru*, they pas* sed over the plaina of Tnr«ce, skirted the Danube and the Save into Croatia, and at length halted in the north-western shore of the Adriatic, and either expelled or sub- jected the people whom they found there. Whatever trie orisin of the Venetians, it is ouite certain that at a very early pe- riod they were cxtreiiuly prosperous and powerful. The very nature of tiie country would indicate this, aa well a* accoiuit for the long independence of Venice; an inde- pendence which lasted during some of the mightiest dcsolationa of the world ; which witnessed the expiring agony and downfall of the mighty empire of Rome ; the rise of the French empire in the West, when Clo- vi* conquered the Gaul*; the riie and fall of the Ostrogoths in Italy and of the Visi- goths in 8pain ; of the Lombarda who suc- ceeded the former, and of the Saracen* who supplanted the latter! The Comte Fig- lio*i, a learned modern historian of Venice, very clearly shows that in the most distant times the people which occupied the coun- try since called the Venetian states, of the Terra Firma, also occupied' Rialto and its sixty neighbouring islets; and that from that circumstance aruie the title* of Fe- netia Primm and Vtnttia Secunda, the firat being applied to the coi^inental territory, the second to the Venetian isles. The fer- tility of the former naturally inclined the inhabitants to agriculture ; the situation of the latter in the midst of canals, at the embouchure of river*, and near the Grecian islands, as naturally di*po*ed to navigation and commerce, and led to maritime akill. 8 ■ e b M ■J ■ e B o ■ M M B K f m a M u M IB IB O U H ■ CAItALB AWn MARROW 8TRBBT8 INTRRSRCT BVVRT TART OF TaiUCB. 712 Z^t tStta%vn\i o( l^iitorv, Src. •nd lh« wMiili and powir of wbUh tlut U Invariably the creator. It it not Mniil the (iiiirth cnMnry after the buildinf of llonte that we Mnil anjr mention made of the Venellana a« a people i but the manner in which they are then men- tioned by Poljrbiue, ihewa that their prot> perity and alrengin mnit even then nave been of very Iob( atandlng, and arrived at a verjr hiih pitch. We have it on the au- thority or that biitorian, that the verv ei- iatenen of Roma may be Mid to liave been preaarved by tha Veneti, on an occaiion when tbe Oaula had made Ihemielvei mat- tera of every foot of the eternal city, with the eaecptioB of the capitol. Tlie Oauli, a reatlettk bold, and ireoay people, were ttill, even in the fourth ceninry of Rome, an almost Bomade people. Polybtua telle ua that they were acattered about in village* unencloaed by walla. Of furniture they knew not the aaa. Their way of life waa ainiple aa that of the moat nnreelaimed aavagei ; they knew no other bed than the graat. nor any other nutriment than the wild animala which they hunted down or en- anared. The arte and tciencea were wholly unknown toHhem, Their wealth coniiited of gold and cattle i the aole tliinga which cottid with facility be reaioved fhim place to place a* vagrant fancv or preating con- juneture might demana. Such waa the people who in the year 364 from the build- iBf of Rome, defeated the Romana in the IHtehed battle of Allia, marched upon the city itself, beating the Romans in every akirmish during three succeisive days, and obtained poaaession of all but the capitol itself. At this most critical juBcture the Yeoeli poured into Gaul with a fury which apecdily relieved Rome of her foes, who hastened to defend their families and pos- aessiona. Much difference of opinion haa existed aa to whether the Venetl were at this time the allies or the subjeeta of Rome ; but we are disposed to think that they were the former, or Rome would not have sent a for- mal embaasy to acknowledge and thank them for thia timely and important service. It was not thus that haughty Rome treat- ed those who were already subjected to her. But powerful and wealthy at the Ye- BCti alreadv were, not even their power and wealth could permanently keep them inde- pendent of the daily increasing power and profound policy of Rome. Friendly allies probably in the first instance, the Veneti, whether from force, fear, or in the well- founded hope of protection, at length be- came dependent upon Rome. They niruish- ed a contingent force to Rome in the se- cond Punic war, and Rome, on the other hand, defended Venetia aa one of its proper provinces. In truth, it is of little conse- quence how 'Venetia passed from alliance to aubjection; flrom voluntarily serving a neighbour, to marching under the orders of B protector and matter. Such fate inevita- bly awaited the smaller and weaker of the neighbouring states ; and the subtle policy of Rome was little likely to overlook the importance of adding to its provlnrr* « di|. trict which contained Mfiy cities, and a |K). pulalion of from a million to a iiiillion «ii4 a half( a district, too, which, in aililiiina to ita fertility aa a grain growing country, could boast a breed of horses which frt. i auently carried away the Olympic victory [ nrom the swil'test tteeds that Orccce her. | aeir could produce. However aubjected, it It eerlalu that in the yeara of Rome (U3-8, Just after the it. > feat of the Cinibri and Tcutones by Ma. riut, Veuetia became a part of the ni)nitn ' province called TrausalLiae Claul, and wm \ governed by a prntor. From this time forth we Biust, for some centuries, speak of ii ju connection with Rom* i of whose ditaittn we shall sea that fertile Vtmlin Prima »ti the desolated victim— and the niaritinie ». nttia Sieunda the glorious and mighty eoi». I sequence. Continental Venice, if subjrcied to the power of Rome, was at the lam* time admitted to its privileges and mad* participator of its advantages. Govemrd Sy a RomaB pr«tor, they also voted in the RiomaB assemblies of the people ;' and fur. ' nishisg a contingent of men ami money when the affairs of Rome demanded it, they also had the aid of Roman taatc aad Roman wealth in improving and beaatiryinK \ their cities, as numerous remains, cipe- 1 eially in Verona, show at this day. From the annexation of Venice to Rom«, ' until the end of the fourth century of the ' Chriitian era, it is iv Roman history that the reader must look for such slight men< tion as is made at all of the affairs of Ve- 1 Bctia ; and we pass, therefore, in the pre- acnt sketch to the commencement of ib« ; fourth century of the Christian era. I Tlie fierce northern people known by the ' name of Goths, being expelled by tite no . lesa fierce and still more nowerfnl Hum, i about the year 376, were allowed to settle ' themselves in the vast plains of Tlirace, ' Actuated partly, perhnpa, bv gratitude to ! Rome, but still more by natred of the ! Hunt, the Guths were of signal lerviee to . the wettern empire, to which the Huns were a dreaded and perpetually trouble- tome enemy. Alaric, the Gothic leader, who the moat dittinguiihed himself in thii auxiliary warfare, waa far too acute not to perceive the weakness of the once miichty i people of which he was the teuipurury Hily and the seemingly grateful guest ; and he : waa far loo ambitiout and reatleta in kit | nature, to tee that weakness without de. | sign to take advantase Of it. From merely ! aiding Theodosius tne Great to repel the ; Huns, Alaric easily got leave to asRist in putting down the rebellions of Ar^obattei and Engenius, who aimed at the mipcrial , purple. Thia interference in the internal affura of Rome at once increased Alnric'i i insight into her actual condition, and hii , desire to become the master of that em- j pire, of which hitherto he had only been the sheltered guest or the paid servant, j A considerable territory in Tlirace and . high honorary rank in the Romiiii army should have been deemed by Alaric himself | aOMB Of TUB FINBST FALACBS ARB BUILT WHOLLY OF UABDLE. tllU* «MAKIT*U« miTITtlllONt M» ^l)e tHntoru fl{ F«ni(e. 718 I luflripmt raward for kll llic wrvlM* ha ktd rendered to Ram* t itpceiiilljr •■ Rum* b»d tlielUrrd tht Oothi m dlilrrHcd fuKi- tircfl lunc btfore ah* atlivd tlidr nid m tvllk* •lllci. But ■ flea was ntMciary to Juitifir tlia •uiiliary In brconiinf tli« focmnB I and McordinjHjr ■» aixm Rt Al*rt« u« iliat the etate of publie affuiri waa Mch ai (a prAKilie hhn auceeai, kc brgna U r*ll mm and angeli t» witiicM how rtitlifitlly and boliHjr he had aervcd Ronie, tad liow acAnillir Mid uaKralcfulljr the bad rf««rd«d hit good aervkcei. Both ciMirtu, iIm! eattem and the wra- Itm, aboiiiida« not to say injuri- ously uii«>-idy, force In li# iv*?rior. waa ill the liiglicst (IriTTce favourabln to Alaric, wli • thus penetriii tor's friends antt advisers, was probably tlif most likely to have proved the svecessfUl defender of the empire, who had alrtadr given such signal proofs of both ability ana teal, was saeritlced partly to that vague, but no less bitter, hatred which the multi- tude of all times and all agea bear to tower- ing and highly successful talent, and partly to the niinglid timidity and treai-hery of Honorius hinmelf, who had learned to fear the abilKy of Btiliclioby mere dint of pmdt- Ing by it. Forgetful of the talent tnd bra* very which BtiTicho had onen shown, or, as we might almost say. imputing hit most important services to nim aa crimes, Ho- Boriua showed little concern when hi* general and minister was massacred ; and actually, after the perpetration of thai crime, praised the perpetrators, and con- demned the memory of Stiliebo aud hia fellow victims, at for at their memory could be condemned by any words ot to poor spirited and elTcminate a person. Tlie trcuclicrv of Ilonoriut and the ma- lignity of hit favourite, Ulyropius, having put 8tilicho to death by a virtual violation of sniictunr^, and some of the ablest men of the empire merely for being the friends of Stilicho having been sacrinced just be- fore or just after the murder of the minister himselt, we miKbt expect to find Honorius, at least, malting tlie negative and noor atonement of protecting tlie widow of hia tutor, friend, and minister. But though Serena, the lady in question, was aunt to Theodosius and adoptive mother of Hono- rius himself, he meanly suffered her to be strangled, in 408, on the approach of Alaric with bis (^ths to besiege the imperial city. AInric, shrewd in policy as fierce in fight, sought to enlist on his side the feel- ings of the numcrout pariixans of the mur- dered Stilicho; and a cheap aud safe way of doing so presented itself in praising the virtue and the talents of Stilicho, now that the former could no longer be serviceable to Rome, nor the latter formidable to Alaric himself. The praise* thus bestowed upon the deceased minister, by the living and threatening foe, were interpreted by the Roman multitude into proof irrefragable that the widow of Stilicho carried on a trea- sonable correspondence with Alaric, and that his reliance upon her aid and interest it was that emboldened him to threaten the imperial city with destruction. The Eopular cry of the ignorant multitude waa asely complied with hj the emperor and the nenate, and the uufortimate Serena waa strangled. With such an emperor Just such a people was joined as w as least likely to be perma- nently successful in resisting a bold, greedy. H »• n M K « rOBKIONRnS ARI WKLI, RKCSITEO AMD COUHTKOUSI.T TRBATPD IN TENICR. TUB CHUnCB or >T. MASK IS A 8rLBMIIIIl.T KLABOBAtS ITBUCTUnK, 714 JEh^ Vtxtamx}^ of l^istore, $(c. fnd hardy nee of barbariani led on by an Alaric or an Attiia. The individual hardi- hood and pride of manhood that liad cha- racterized tlic Roman of the republic, and the aerried discipline and national pride that had so often Kiven prey to the Roman ea^le, under the RAman emperors who were worthy of that name, had passed away be- fore a luxury and effeminacy which would be incredible were they not related to us by the pens of indi^naut Romans who des- cribe the scenes which, loathini^, they lived amidst and witnessed. Amroianus Mar- cellinus, more especially, describes the lux- urv, pride, and effeminacy of the rich as being more than eastern. "If," says he, " on a hot day they muster courage to sail in their painted gallies from the Lucrine lake to their elegant villas on the sea-coast of Puteoli and Cayeta, tliry compare the exploit lo the expeditions of Alexander and CKsar. Tet should a fly settle on the silken folds of their umbrellas, or a sunbeam penetrate some UDg>uardcd chink, they de- Jilore their hard fnte, and protest, in affected anguage, that 'twere better to have been bom in the land of the Cimmerians, the regions of perpetual clouds and darkness." Innumerable mtitances might be given of this effeminacy as to the upper orders of Roiiians in the commencement of the fifth century; and abundaut proofs might be adduced of the state of want, dcpciidrnce upon public alms, or still more enthralling dependence on individual patronage, of the lower orders. But enough has been said to show that the state of Rome, alike in government and people, was precisely such as to invite, nay, to require, the rude puri- fication of successive and successful inva- sions of hardier races ; and it now only re- mains to enter upon the particular history of Venice, as one which claims our atten- tion more than the other Italian republics. Alaric again and a^ain ravaged the Ro- man territories, and insulted the Roman people; Honorius and his ministers lite- rally seeming to invite him to do so bv their pusillanimity on some occasions, and their absurd and empty threats on others. Ho- norius kept his court at Ravenna, whence his ministers alternately provoked Alaric by their useless and empty boastings, and bribed him to forbearance by tlie sacrifice not only of public treasure, hut of the nati- onal honour; until at length the barbarian colours floated above the walls of Rome. Adolphns, brother-in-law of Alaric, and sub- sequcn'. ly the terrible Attila, who awfully realized his truculent boast that where his horse once trod the grass never grew, rava- ged Italy in every direction ; and perhaps no part of the empire, if we except Aqui- lea, which was so utterly destroyed as to be even without traceable ruins, suffered more than Venetia Prima, or Continental Veniee, Concordia, Odcrso, Altino, and Padua. For three years the inhabitants of these places were never for an instant free from tlie presence of the stranger and the oppressor, on occasion of the second inroad of the Gothic Alaric ; and many of them, even during the tyranny of that compfira. tivel;^ mild tyrant, took refuge in the vari- ous isU'ts which were grouped around Ri- alto. This island, which was already the port and entrep&t of the commerce of Pa. dua, was naturally that which was esrliett and most resorted to; and we find thut u early as tlie year 431 the inhabitants of thii little islet were numerous enough to allow of the building of a considerable church, which was in that year dedicated to St! James in pursuance of a vow made during the progress of a great fire which con- sumed twenty-four houses. It is possible that the retreat of the great majority of the fugitives from the main land tu the isles was merely temporary, and that wheu their proper country was abandoned by the barbarians, they would be led, either by t pining after their fertile and beautiful land, ' which would be remembered with the great- er regret by being contrasted with the flat and dreary shores of the isles, or by a vague hope of finding some remnants of plunder left behind by the barbarians, to return to the continent. But that the number of permanent emigrants to the isl^ even at this time was very considerable, is evident from a document which we believe is not quoted, if even referred to, by any modem historian of Venice, except Daru.' The document in question is an old and j only partially perfect manuscript in the con. vent of St. Michael — and is a collection of " various notices relative to the origin of | Venice," which was formed by Fulgentiui Tomasellus, an abbot of the house, and since translated by one of its librarians, Father Mitarelli. It bears date in the year of Christ 421, and the last year of the pa- pacy of Innocent I. ; and the chief passage of it that was sufficiently legible to be translated into Latin by the learned libra- rian, is a decree of the consuls and senate of Padua for erecting Rialto into a chief city, in which the scattered population of the whole of the adjacent islands mi)tht congregate, not merely for their own greater comfort, and the convenience and prospe- rity of their own port, and the patron city of Padua, but likewise, and especially, that they being thus concentrated might keep an armed fleet, and thus defend alike them- selves and the neighbouring continent against the recurrence of the destruction by fire and sword, which this region hnd already, and to so fearful an extent, expe- rienced at the hands of " Gothorum cum rege illorum Alarico." " Reliquum legtre nan potui," says the translator," the rest is not legible; but enough appears to show, that the earliest inhabitants of the isles were comparatively few in number, scattered hither and thither without judgment and without common po- lity, save such as necessarily resulted from their common dependence upon Padua, m fishermen, carriers, and traders in general; and that the invasion of Italy by Alaric, uml the subsequent and ruinous occupation of the cities and plains of Lumbardy by his fierce people, so much increased the popu- Sr. FBTRn's, TUB CAVnEOnAI., IS BVItT op ISTRIAN MAHBI.B. ITauCTUMK. THB OBIOIRAL DUCAL FALACB WAI FOUmtBD ID TUB MIHTII CKIITUHV. ^^t l^tstore of IFcntce. 7J6 louaneis of the inly, as to lead the Padu- tn> to order the coucentration of the inha- bitant! and the constitution of a central •ut of population — in short, of a chief city of the islets, to which it was inevitable the Kit should become morally, as in the end ihey also were physically, united and sub- iected. Imitating upon a small scale the Imme- morial policy of Rome herself, the Padu- ins, while they assuredly took the course which was best calculated to promote the interests of the settlers on the islands, and to make them importantly useful to north- eaitern Italy, should its fate ever depend upon maritime warfare, did not allow the iilanderi to forget that they were depend- ints as traders, and, in some defcree, as co- loniits; and, accordingly, the new town or •tale was governed by officers appoiiited by the Paduans, with the title of consuls. Rialto, or Rivo alta, the deep river, which was thus made the ch'-.f town of the isles, was lubsequently cor iected with the op- polite bank by a bridge which bore the lame name, and this island subsequently had built upon it, too, the exchange, also called Rialto ; this last being at once the homage paid to the chief island, and the surest guarantee, in a purely commercial and maritime state, for preserving thecliief retort and influence to it. The peculiar situation of the Venetian iales being considered, the obstacles which their difficult navigation must have pre- ■ented to foreigners and barbarians in the then rude state of the maritime art, their connection with so fertile and populous a portion of continental Italy, would prog- nosticate immense prosperity iramedintely, ind great, if not preponderating power ultimately, to the new state, in the event of that ruin falling upon the Roman em- pire, which every circumstance, within and without, indicated to the least careful and attentive observer; even should no other external circumstances favour the iilanders. Such other circumstances, how- ever, were not to be wanting in the causa- tion of Venetian greatness. A new scourge for Italy appeared in the shape of a multitude of Iluns, who were led from the depths of Scythia by Attila ; a leader fierce and able as Alaric in the field, and far more cruel and unsparing when the field was won. Having carried fire and sword throughout Macedonia, Ger- many, and Gallia, from which last he found it prudent to retreat, the alarm was sud- denly given that he was leading the Huns and their swarming barbarous allies to- nards the Julian Alps, threatening new destruction to the beautiful lands of Vene- tia, and new miseries to the Venetians of the main land. In the year 452 Attila ap- peared before Aquilea; and that city still preserving some of the spirit of old Rome, of which it was a colony and oflfHet, made a defence so brave — though insufficient to save it from the fierce host that a8!>;>iled it, —that when it was, at IcuKth, in slieer ne- cessity yielded, the enraged barbarian lite- rally left not one brick or Hone ■t>ndln|t upon another. The fate of Aquilaa, and the terrific character of its dastroyer, na* turally struck terror into tba Inliahliania of the netghbouring eitiet of Padua, Al- tino, Concordia, ana Oderso ( who hastily gathered together all of their proparty tliut was moveable, and hastened to taka refuga in the isles; the diflieult navljiailon of which, and the maritime habits of the long settled and proper inhAbltants of wbiob. gave a promise of safety from pursuit ana destruction, which the examuU* of Aqullfa but too plainly showed to be liopalaii upon the main land. The cause of this new irruption of Alllla and his Huns, as buing oUo a prlni'iiinl cause of the wealth and powioahbd vb>ski,s. ^I^c ¥)(alorp of Fcnice. 717 The Slavi, a barbarous and warlike peo- ple, had established themselves in Dalina- tia. That country, however, had already been so often overrun and plundered, that it afforded by no means a sufficient amount of booty to satisfy so numerous and so greedy a people. They consequently availed themselves of the numerous ports and creeks their new country afforded them, and imitated the piratical example of the Illyrians, by whom the country had for- merly been occupied, and speedily became s name of terror to all who had occasion to be upon the sea in that direction. The Venetians, oerpetually pursuing their com- mercial and carrying avocations in their light vessels, were especially subjected to the attacks of these during marauders, to whom the portable but valuable freights brought by the Venetians from the ports of the eastern empire, with which they carried on great commerce, were an irresistible temptation. The hardy habits and active life of the fishers and merchants of the Venetian isles had given new vigour and courage to the people, who, while living in comparative luxury upon the main land, had abandoned all their possessions to the barbarians, rather than struggle to possess them at the risk of losing life also. Mus- tering their vessels, they boldly encountered the pirates, beat them, and compelled them to respect the liberty i( the seas as far as Venetians were concerned therein. This, in addition to many other circumstances, ■earns to have been a link in a long and unbroken chain of causation of the pros- perity and power of Venice in her subse- quent palmy days; for while the success with which the traders encountered the terrible and notorious pirates was especi- ally well calculated to obtain a high and chivalrous name for the Venetians, even at the outset of their career, the very struggle and warfare in which they were from lime to time engaged with so tierce a people, and with every thing at stake upon the issue, must have had a mighty share in in- creasing the energy of the Venetians, and in forming their national character to that j striking commixture of cominerciul indus- I try and warlike spirit and skill to which ! their subsequent and long-continued great- j neas may so greatly be ascribed. In the year 568 the Lombards invaded ! Italy, and so successfully, as completely to ', cut off all connexion between it and the j eastern empire. The Lombards, who came I from Pannoiiia, like all the other barbarian •courges of Italy, commenced their destroy- ing and plundering career in Venice on the main land. And now again, the misfortune of the main land brought benetit to the isles. Not only were the people of the newly rebuilt habitations on the main land glad to abandon their incomplete cities, and take refuge in the isles ; nut only did the islanders see the inhabitants of even Padua, their former patron city, imploring shelter, but even the clergy settled amongst them, and permanently, too; for the Lom- bards established Ariaii preachers in the towns of continental Venire ; and the con- sequence was, so fierce and sanguinary a war and such ceaseless schisms, that the clergy who had found a refuge in the isles did not think of quitting it. Though the Lombards persecuted the Ca- tholic laith professed by the Venetians, the former, who were at that time neither a commercial nor a maritime people, were to a very great extent depenileiit upon the islanders for their supply of all such neces- saries or luxuries as came from foreign countries; and in this particular superiority of the Venetians to the Lombards, and sub- sequently to Chai'leinague and his Franks, the attentive and thoughtful reader will scarcely fail to see yet another great ele- ment of the permanency and power of the insular state of Venice. Eginard, the contemporary and historian of Charlemagne, makes emphatic iiicntiun of the coarseness of the apparel of that monarch and his court, as coiii|inred to the fine stuffs and rich silks brought by the Venetian traders from the ports of Syria, the Archipelago, and the Uluck Sea. It was in the inevitable nature of things, that the very increase of population which tended so greatly to the increase of the prosperity and consideration of the compa- ratively new state, should briug in its train surh a diversity of interests, sucii a diffe- rence of proportion in the numbers, wealth, and power of the numerous Insulated mem- bers of tht3 federative republic as should call aloud for a change in the political sys- tem Most imiiortunt changes Hlternai'ds took plac'; and it is to Venice as an acting and not merely growing state, that we have henceforth to direct our attention. Hut we perceive that we have already greatly trespayed on our limits, and must en- deavour to finish this sketch with a rapid pen The original form of Venetian govern- ment was purely democratical : magistrates were chosen by a general assembly of ihe people, who gave them the name of tri- bunes ; one of whom was appointed to pre side on each island, but to hold his office only for a year. This form subsisted for about one hundred and fifty years; it then appeared expedient to make choice of a chief magistrate, and on him the title of duke was conferred, which has since been corrupted to doge: this dignity was elec- tive, and held Kir life; he was even en- trusted with the power of nominating to | all offices, and of making peace and de- claring war. Paul Luke Anafesto, the first duke, was elected in the year 697 i and such was the confidence which the people reposed in their duke, that he was at li- berty to use his own discretion how far he would avail himself of the advice of the citi- zens. In the councils which he called on any matter of iiiiportaiKe, he sent mes- sages to those citizens for whose judgment he had the greatest esteem, praving that they would come and assist liim with ilieir advice. This form was retained by suc- ceeding doges, and the citixens so sent for, DESTROTED. eONDOLIBRS CUT THEIR WAT TBaOUOH THE WATEB WITH ORBAT TBLOCITT. tar riTIAM AIIP CAKOTA AEB BUBIID III THB CBUKCH " IL alDBHriOta." 718 ^i^e treasure of l^i^torp, $cc. were eti\ei preffadi (from the Italian word prepare, to pray). The third doge, whose talents for war had proved successful in extending the power of the republic, at length meditated the assumption of a more absolute sway, wishinij; to render the su- preme authority hereditary in bis family : but such conduct excited a general alarm in the people ; he was assaulted in his pa- lace, and there put to death. This event caused the government of Venice to be new modelled, and a chief maftistrate, who was now called "master of the militia," was elected annually ; but his power whilst in office was the same as before. Such form of government continued only ttve years, when the title of doge was revived (a. d. 7-l(),) in the person of the son of Itim who had been assassinated. About the latter end of the twelfth cen- tury, when every other part of the Chris- tian world was seized with a frantic rage for recovering the lioly land, the Venetians were so far from contributing any forces for the crusades, thut they did not scruple to supply the Saracens with arms, ammu- nition, and every other necessary. As the power of the state became augmented by the acquisition of Istria and many parts of Ualmatia, the jealousy of the people to- wards their doge became stronger. At that time the only tribunal at Venice consisted of forty judges; these were called "the council of forty ;" but in the year 1173, an- other doge, named Michieli, being assassi- nated in a popular insurrection, the coun- cil of forty found means to new model the government, by gaining the consent of the people to delegate the right of voting for magistrates, which each citizen possessed, to four liundred and seventy persons, called councillors, who received the appellation of " the grand council ;" and, acting as dele- gates of the people, became what the- gene- ral assembly of the people until that time had been. By this artful innovation (which the people were cajoled into an acquies- cence with, by retaining the right of elect- ing these counsellors annually), the demo- cracy became presently subverted; and an aristocracy, in its fullest and most rigid form, was introduced, by restricting the power of the doge, and instituting a variety of officers (all of whom were, in a short time, chosen from among the nobility) wliich efTrctually controlled both the prince and the people. Ziani was the first doge elected after the government had received, what the event proves to have been, its permanent modifi- cation ; and during his administration the singular ceremony of espousing the sea, which has been annually observed ever since, was first adopted, and took its rise from the assistance which the Venetians guve to pope Alexander III. when hard pressed by the emperor Frederic Barba- roHsa, and the signal victory they obtained over a formidable fleet under the command of Otho, son of Frederic, in which the ad- miral and thirty of his ships were taken. Alexander, with the whole city of Venice, went out to meet Ziani, the conqueror, on his return ; to whom his holiness presented a ring, saying, " Use this ring as a chain to retain the sea, henceforth, in subjection to the Venetian state; espouse her with this ring, and let the marriage he solem- nized annually, by you and your successors, to the end of time, that the latest posterity may know that Venice has acquired the empire of the waves, and holds the sea in subjection, in the same manner as a wife is held by her husband." During the continuance of the republic this ceremony was performed by the doge dropping a ring into :he sea, pronouncing at the same time the words, Detpontamui te, Mare, in signum veri perpetiiique domi. nii. This emblem of its former power and independence is now for ever gone ; and, in the language of the poet, " The spouseless Adriatic mourns her lord." The Venetians having extended their ter- ritories into Lombardy, Istria, and Dalma- tia, became masters of many of the islands in the Archipelago, particularly; the lari^e and important one of Candia ; -thev were masters of the Morea ; and, in the negin- ning of the thirteenth century, Dandolo, their doge, when more than eighty years of age, in conjunction with the French, took Constantinople from the Turks. It was about this time that they engrossed the lucrative trade in the manufactures and productions of the East Indies, which the; procured at the port of Alexandria, and conveved to every market of Europe. Under Marino Morosini was introduced the latest form of electing the doge; snd at this juncture jealousy and envy occa- sioned the war with Genoa, which, after continuing a hundred and thirty years, was at last concluded by a treaty in 1381. Du- ring this war, Peter Gradonigo, the doge, procured a law to be passed, that none but the nobility should be capable of having a seat in the grand council; and thus the government became altogether aristocra- tical. _ In the fourteenth and fifteenth centu- ries the Venetians extended their posses- sions in Lombardy, and, in 1473, the last king of Cyprus appointed the state of Ve- nice his heir. Towards the end of the fif- teenth century the commerce and power of the Venetians began to decline; for the Portuguese having doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and found the way to the East Indies by sea, that valuable trade was ac- quired, first by the discoverers, and after- wards by the Dutch and English. In the beginning of the sixteenth cen- tury (a.d. 1S09) the pope, the emperor, France, and Spain, joined in the famous league of Carabray, which threatened the subversion of the Venetian state ; but tlie republic made a brave stand against its numerous and powerful enemies, and the Venetians retained their independence, al- though with the loss of all their posses- sions in the ecclesiastical state and the Milanese. They also suffered much from FAITI. TRRONBSIC 18 BURIRD IN TBB CHURCH OF 8T. BRBASTIAIf. MAkbT ALI. «■■ HOUIM IN TUNIfik «HH VUHIIilMlit WltO BALtOKIBS. kouriiB her lord." ^^f lliiitorv o( ITiniu. 719 theTurks.who drove them out of Cypruti In the seventeenth century ft ih«rp euil' teat aro«e between the governin«nt| tlifl clergy, and the pope, in which, hnwavnr, the former bad the advantaKe. Venioe Wit* also loDK engaged in fierce wan willi I hit Turks, during which they loil Candift, hut gained part of Dalmatia and all tlie Miir»H | ilie latter, with other placet and diatritila, the Turks recovered in the wan which vturo waged during the early part of tb« iHiit century. The Venetian government, in tho yenr 1737, having shewn particular marks of respect to the prince, who was genxritlly called in England, the pretender, when liA visited that citv, under the olmritoter of tlia count of Albany, the British court took grent offence, and the Venetian resident at J(nn< don was ordered to depart) but proper tioit' cessions being made by the state, a friendly intercourse was re-established, and In ihd year 1745 the earl of Holdernesse was stint ambassador extraordinary to Venice, In the year 17G3 the Venetians found it neeaS' ury to pay a subsidy to the dey of Algiers, to preserve their commerce from tlm d0' predations of those corsairs 1 hut they sub' •equently carried on a war with some other of the piratical states, nearer to thenii on that coast. Thus did the republic of Venlan eonti' nued upwards of thirteen hundrvd yean, amidst many foreign wars and intestine wommotions. Its grandeur, as we hitvfl seen, was chiefly owing to its trade | and, after the decline of that, its strength And power suffered considerable dintrnulion. No republic in the history uf the world Ims subsisted for so long a space of time ( and, u its independence was not foundsd OH usurpation, nor cemented with blood, SO its descent from that splendour and power which it had once attained, instead of d«< grading, reflects the highest honour on them. None of the causes which suhvert* ed the famous republics of antii|uily ef' fected the decline of Venice. No tyrant! enslaved, no demagogues deluded, no lu«»' ries enervated them. Tliey owed theif greatness to their industry, bravery, and maritime skill ; and their decline, to tlia revolutions which successful pursuits of science had produced in the nations of Europe. For many years they withstood tliH wliole force of the Ottoman empire by nnn and land; and, although their ireasurita were eventually exhausted, and their power weakened, their enemies have experisueed consequences scarcely less fatal. No government has been more attacked by deep-laid and formidable couspiriieies than that of Venice ; many of whiuU hav0 been brought to the very eve of eseeulitin without discovery or suspicion. But though the entire subversion of the state lias been, at times, impending from some of tliess plots, yet until the era of the French t»' lution, they have been constantN ren> dered abortive, either by the vigilance or good fortune of the senate. One of tllO most remarkable of these conspiracies WAS fornifd hy m dnge namitd Marino Falicro, III lli« yfHi' li'lAA, who at tliat time was fight y fvnn lit age > bui, conceiving a vio- mn rfsiinitiicnt against the senate, he foriiifd M blnn In order to assassinate the wImiIx hiitly, The ilcnlgn was timely dis- PilVlirfd, Mild the dignlHed hnnry traitor WHS hrililjtlit III trial, fuund guilty upon his own (tiitiffssliiii, and publicly beheaded. In llll* KffNt (•hainhprnf tho palace, where (hit porifHlls of the tinges are placed, there « M VHi'Htil »p»ee between the predecessor And SlliM'i'ssor of this nmn, where appears Mils MlKirlllllnn, " /iOCM« MurM Valieri tlmililhiH," " The place intended for the Ji'irifHlt of Marinus Fallierus, who was be- ifHdnil," 'fhe year 10 1 M is also distiii' KUislidd hy a no less remarkable conspi- rHii!ting the most atrocious deed, llfinil no ifsk IHrtn the total destruction of thtl rufiilhile, Otway has formed a very BHlhfth) lrHM(>tly umm this story, in which lIlA chHrneier of llelvidera, and the love RRfMiis lie) Wfeii her and Ja(Her, are the only (tiitlOHH of the poet 1 and Friuli was really lite i»tf«, wliuiti the poet ranks as a sena- tor. Willi A few observations illustrative of tlie setireey Mttd item character of the laws of Veniee, mm Hdtnlnlstered during its ex- islAMtllt HS A reuublic, we shall concluile:— Mr, AdillsUH observes, that among all the iimtHni'M Ul Venetian politics, there is HOim niorti Hilmirable thfn the great se- Al'eey wblell reigns In their councils. "The AeOHte/' HMys he, " Is generally us nume- rous All our bouse of commons, if we only reekon the sitting members, and yet carries its resoluiloil* so privately, that they are neldiim known (ill the* discover themselves in tint eneiMltlon." He gives an instance of llieir lioliling n great tubate concerning the •lunisllitieot uf one of their admirals, whiim tUIHlltiUed a month, and conclud- ed in his eutidemnation ; yet none of bis frifllds, nor uf those who had engaged wnrnily In bis defence, gave him the least intililHlion of what was pnssing against biin, (ill he wms actually sciced, and in the tiHmisoriusilee. The Ijolleire, called " the seigniory," or unpreine enhlnet council of the state, was oriiiiilHlly I'oniuosed of the doge and six eouniiellore oiilV. but to those at difl'erent llfriilils were Hiliied, six of the grand coun- ell eliosen by the senate, who were called Miitiii (sngps), then live suvii of the Terra l^'irniH, wTiiisc mxre Immediate department it WHS lo SMperliitend the business of the tOWUH Anil lirnvlnces belonging to the re- nubliii OH the continent of Europe, par- tieulHrly wbnt regsrded their troops; at one time lliere were also Ave savli for niHrilitne AlTmrs, but after the state had lost iU UOiUHiet'Ciat importance, five young o n M H •K TBIVSTI HAS OttRATBR OOMMRNOIAIt AnVANVAflKH VHilN TSNlcn. THI fHBIKHT TRAOa OV TBIIIOa IS VAB FRUM INCOMIIDBBABI.B. 720 ^I)e ^rcadurt) of l^istori?, $ct. noblemen were chosen by the senate every six months, who attended the meetings of the sei)rniory without having a vote, though they gave their opinions when aslc- ed ; this wan designed as an initiation into public business. To these were added the cliiefs of the criminal court of "forty." This eollege was at once the cabinet coun- cil and the representative of the republic. The eonsiglio di died, or " council of ten," was a high penal court, which con- sisted of ten counsellors ; the doge, as president, and his six eonglieri, or counsel- lors. It was supreme in all state crimes, and possessed the power of seizing any one wlio was accused before them, of commit- ting him to close confinement, and pro- hibiting all communication with his rela- tions and friends, of examining and trying him in a summary manner, and, if a majo- rity of the council pronounced him guilty, of condemning him to death ; they also might order the execution to be either pub- lic or private, as they thought proper. This formidable tribunal was established in the year 1310. About two centuries after, a still more despotic power was entrusted to three in- dividuals, always chosen from the above conncil of ten, and forming the court called the state ivquisition. These inquisitors likewise kept the keys of chests which are placed in several parts of the ducal palace, enclosed within the open jaws of lions' heads carved in the walls; through which notes were conveyed by any one who was disposed to drop them; and thus notice was secretly given to the government of whatever might concern it to know. The histor^ of Venice furnished a dread- ful instance, in the beginning of the seven- teenth century, of a number of confede- rated villains, who concerted their measures so artfully as to frame false accusations against some of the Venetian nobles, which, in the opinion of their judges, convicted them of treasonable practices against the state, and one at least was publicly exe- cuted. At length the frequency of accusa- tions created suspicions, which led to a full detection of the infernal scheme ; upon which every possible reparation was made to the manes of the innocent victim, the honour of whose family was fully restored; but the tribunal, which decreed the sen- tence, was suffered to possess the same un- limited power; the only alteration being that anonymous information was somewhat more cautiously received ; for it was a poli- tical maxim in Venice, that " it is of more importance to the state to intimidate every one even from the appearance of a crime, than to allow a person, against whom a f)resumption of guilt appears, to escape, mwever innocent he may be." How diffe- rent this from the merciful spirit of the English laws, which hold it to be better that ten guilty persons escape than tLat one innocent person should suffer I The history of Venice furnishes two in. stances which bear a strong similarity to the conduct of the Roman Brutus, which we shall give on the authority of Dr. Moore, In the year 1-tUU, Antonio Venier brin^ doge, his son having committed an offence of no great enormity, was condemned in 1 1 fine of one hundred ducats, and to be im- prisoned for a certain time. During bit confinement, he fell sick, and petitioaed to be removed to a purer air. The dnge rejected the petition, declaring, that the sentence must be executed literally, and that his son must take the fortune of the rest in the same situation. The youth was much beloved, and many applicatiuni were made that the sentence might be softened, on account of the danger which threatened him, but the father was inex. orable, and the son died in prison. Fifty years after this, a sou of another do|;e, named Foscari, bein^ suspected of having been the instigator ot the murder of a sens tor, who was one of the " council of ten," was tortured, banished, and on his ap. plication to the duke of Milan,'g}liciting him to exert his interest for his recall, wat brought back to Venice, for the purpote of again undergoing the torture, and being closely confi'.ied in the state- prison ; tlie only mercy shown him being that of granting permission for the doge, the father of the unfortunate youth, to pay him a visit in hit confinement. The father, who had held his office for thirty years, and was very old, exhorted his son to support his hard late with firmness ; whilst the son protested not onljr his innocence, but that he wat utterly incapable of supporting the con- finement to which he was doomed. In an agony of grief he threw himself at his fa- tner's feet, imploring him to take conipai- sion on a son whom he had ever loved with the fondest affection, and conjuring him to use his influence with the council to miti- gate their sentence, that he might be saved from the most cruel of all deaths, that of expirivig under the consuming torture of a brck»n ueart, secluded from every creature whom he loved. This melting intercession had no other effect upon the uither than to draw from him the following reply :— " My son, submit to the laws of yuur country, and do not ask of me what it is not in my power to obtain." After this interview, the miserable youth languished for a while, and then expired in prison ; but the vio- lence which his father, as a magistrate, did to his paternal feelings, terminated hii life somewhat sooner. A short time after this catastrophe, a Venetian of noble rank, being on his death-bed, confessed, that, urged by private resentment, he was the murderer of the cenator v''..>&. assuasina- tion had given rise to th'^ tratrlu scene.* * We have treated at some length the history of Venice, because its political and coininercial eminence rendered it for many centuries by fur the most Inipnrtanl of (lie Italian states. In order not to break the thread of the narrative, the part tvliich Venice played in the Italian inoveineiils of 1848 and IMU is disiribed at pai'Ci'[709-710]. TDBT MANVrACTURB JEW' .IBRT, SOLD AND BILVBR BTt/FFS, TBLVKTB, SILKS, &C. *■■ lOOIAI. WAB, I.e. 91.— TBI SBIlTltB WAB, B.C. 7S. THE HISTORY OF ROME. Ir (M]r« Dr. Arnold, in hU admirable hia- tory) it ii hard to carry back our ideas of Rome from it* actual itate to the period of its highest splendour, it is yet harder to go back in fancy to a time still more distant, a time earlier than the beginning of its authentic history, before man's art had completely rescued the very soil of the future citjr from the dominion of nature. Here also it is vain to attempt accuracy in the details, or to be certain that the seve- ral features in our description all existed at the same period. It is enough if we can imaite to ourselves some likeness of the original state of Rome, before the under- taking of those grert works which are as- crihed to the late kin ga. The Pomcerium of the original city on the Palatine, as described by Tacitus, included not only the hill itself, but some portion of the ground immediately below it ; it did not, however, reach as far as any of the other hills. The valley between the Pala- tine and the Aventine, afterwards the site of the Circus Maximus, was in the earliest times covered with water; so also was the {greater part of the valley between the Pa- atine and the Capitoline, the ground after- wards occupied by the Roman forum. But the city of the Palatine hill grew in process of time, so as to become a city of seven hills. Not the seven famous bills of imperial or republican Rome, but seven spots more or less elevated, and all belong- ing to three only of the later seven hills, that is, to the Palatine, the Caslian, and the Esquiline. At this time Rome, already a city on seven hills, was distinct from the Sabine city on the Capitoline, Quirinnl, and Virainal liills. The two cities, altliough united under one government, had still a separate existence; they were not com- pletely blended into one till the reigna of the later kings. The territory of the ori- ginal Rome during its first period, the true Ager Romanus, could be gone round in a lingle day. It did not extend beyond the Tiber at all, nor probably beyond the Anio ; and on the east and south, where it had most room to spread, its limit was between ttve and sis miles from the city. This Ager Romanus was the exclusive property of the Roman people, that is, of the houses; it did not include the lands conquered from the Latins, and given back to them again when the Latins became the plebt, ~or commons of Rome. Well indeed may the enquiring historian exclaim— And now what was Rome, and what was the country around it, which have both acquired an interest such as can cease only when earth itself shall perish ? The hills of Rome (he nontinnea) are tach as we rarely see in England; low in hciKbt, but with steep and rocky sides. In early limes the wood remained in natural patches amidst the buildings, as at this day it grows here and there on the green sides of the Monte Testaceo. Across the Tiber the ground rises to a greater height than that of the Roman hills, but its summit is a level unbroken line, while the heights, which opposite to Rome rise immediately from the river, under the names of Jani- culus and Vatiranus, then sweep away to some distance from it, and return in their highest and boldest form at the Mons Ma- rios, just above the Milvian bridge and the Flaminian road. Thus to the west the view is immediately bounded; but to the north and north-east the eye ranges over the low ground of the Campagna to the nearest line of the Apennines, which closes up, aa with a gigantic wall, all the 8ablne, Latin, and VoTscian lowlands, while over it are still distinctly to be seen the high summits of the central Apennines, covered with snow, even at this day, for more than six months in the year. South and south-west lies the wide plain of the Caiiipagna; its level line succeeded by the equally level line of the sea, which can only be dis- tinguished from it by the brighter light reflected from its waters. Eastward, at^ter ten miles of plain, the view is bounded by the Alban hills, a cluster of high bold points rising out of the Caropngna, on the liighest of which (about 3(IUU feet) stood the temple of Jupiter Latiarius, the scene of the common worship of all the people ! of the Latin name. Immrdiately under this highest point lies the cntter-like basin of the Alban lake; and on its nearer rim ' might be seen the trees of the grove of ; Ferentia, where the Latins held tlie great civil assemblies of their nation. Further to the north, on the edge of the Alban hills, looking towards Rome, was the town and citadel of Tusculum; and beyond this, a lower summit crowned with the walls and towers of Labicum seems to connect the Alban hills with the line of the Apen- nines, just at the spot where the citadel of Praineste, high up on the mountain side marks the opening into the country of the Hernicans, and into the valleys of the streams that feed the Lyris. Returning nearer to Rpnie, the lowland country of the Campagna is broken by long green swelling ridges. The streams are dull and sluggish, but the hill sides above them constantly break away into little rock cliffs, where on every ledge the wild tig now strikes out its branches, and tufts of broom 1^ catimkk's co?tspiuACT; ATio wonrny coNofcT of ciCKno, n. c. fiS. r.i ''' 3 JDUUI CJIIAK INTADBD INatAMD, AHD MADB «■■ IN HABIT ANTS PA* TailUTI. 722 JS,\)t ^rtasury of l^iistory Set. are clnitering, but wliich in old timet form- ed the natural strength of the citadeU of the numerous cities of Latium. Except in these narrow dells, the present aspect of tin country is all bare and desolate, with no trees nor any human habitntinn. Uut anciently, in the early tinips of Rome, it waa full of independent cities, and in its population and the careful cultivation of Its little Karden-like farms, must have re- sembled tlie most flourishing parts of Lom- bardy. Such was Borne, and such its neigh- bourhood. The foregoing topographical observations appear to oe necessary, before the reader enters upon even a brief recital ot any of those circumstances which — whether legendary or strictly true, whether fabulous or merely exaggerated — have been handed down from age to age as the veritable his- tory of Rome. We are told, in the first place, that ^neas, after ihe destruction of Troy, hav- ing arrived in Italy, married Lavinia, 'he daughter of Latinus, til'th kinit of the La- tins, and succeeded his father-in-law, after having deprived Turnus, king of the Rutuli, tirst of his sceptre and then of his life. Ascauias, after the death of iEneas, his father, united with it the kingdom of Alba, of which he was the founder. We cannot, however, proceed without remarking, that whatever relates to the origin of B)ome is attended with the greatest uncertainty ; and that the records of some of the ancient writers are more worthy of a place in the iflneid of Virgil, than the page of history. In illustration of this remark, (although It will trespass on the space which, it may be thought, would be better occupied with the authentic events of history), we shall take the liberty of quoting from the learned author beforenamed the " Legend of Ro- mulus." " Numitor was the eldest son of Procras, king of Alba Longa, and he had a younger brother called Amulius. When Procras died, Amulius seized by force on the kingdom, and left to Numitor only his share of his father's private inheritance. After this he caused Nuuiiior's only son to be slain, and made his daughter Silvia become one of the virttins who watched the ever-bnruing fire of the goddess Vesta. But the god Mamers, who is called also Mars, beheld the virgin and loved her, and it was found that she was going to become the mother of chil- dren. Then Amulius ordered that the chil- dren, when bom, should be thrown into the river. It happened that the river at that time liad flooded the country ; when, there- fore, the two children in their basket were thrown into the river, the waters carried them as far as the foot of the Palatine hill, and there the basket was upset, near the roots of a wild-fig tree, and the children thrown out upon land. At this moment there came a she-wolf down to the water to drink, and when she saw the children, she carried them to her cave hard by, and gave them suck ; and whilst they were there, a woodpecker came backwards and forwards to the cave, and bronght them food. At last one Faustulus, the kinn'i herdsman, saw the wolf suckling the rliil. dren; and when he went up, the wolf Itft them and fled ; so he took them home to his wife Laurentia, and they were bred up along with her own sons on the Palatine hill ; and thejr were called Romulus sod Remus. " When Romulus and Remus grew np, the herdsmen of the Palatine hill chanced to have a auarrel with the herdsmen of Nu. niitor, who stalled their cattle on tiie hill Aventinus. Nuniitor's herdsmen laid an ambush, and Remns fell into it, and wai taken and carried off to Alba. But when the young man was brought before Numi. tor, he was struck with (lis noble air and bearing, and asked him who he waa. And when Remus told him of his birth, and how he had been saved from death, to. f^ether with his brother, Numitor marvel- ed, and thought whether this might not be his own daughter's child. In the mean. while, Faustulus and Romulus hastened to Alba, to xleliver Remus ; and' l^ the help of the young men of the Palatine hill, who had been used to follow liim and his bro- ther, Romulus took the city, and Aniuliui was killed; and Numitor was made king, and owned Hamulus and Remus to be burn of his own blood. " The two brothers did not wish to live at Alba, but loved rather the hill on the banks of the Tiber, where they had been brought up. So they said, that they would build a city there; and they inquired of the gods by augury, to know which of theni should give his name to the city. They watched the heavens from mornini; till evening, and from evening till morning; and as the sun was rising, Remus saw six vultures. This was told to Romulus: but as they were telling him, behold there ap- S eared to hiin twelve vultures. Then itwai isputrd again, which had seen the truett sign of the gods' favour; but the ninst part gave their viiines for Romulus. So he be- gan to build his city on the Palatine hill. This made Remus very augry; and when he saw the ditch and the rampart which were drawn round the space where the city was to be, he scornfully leapt over them, saying, 'Shall such defences as these keep your city ? ' As he did this, Celer, who had the charge of the building, struck BcniU! with the spade which he held in his hand, and slew him ; and they buried him on the hiil Remuria, by the banks of the Tiber, on the spot where he had wished to build his city. " But Romulus found that his people were too few in numbers; so he set apart a place of refuge, to which any innn might flee, and be safe from his pursuers. So many fled thither frohi the countries round about : those who had shed blood, and fled from the vengeance of the avenger of blood; those who were driven out from their own homes by their enemies, and even men of low degree who hud run away from their lords. 'I'lius the city became ALL CfiSAIt's CONQUKSTS WEItK MAPK IN TI113 8PACB OP SIOUT TKAKS. =:i| COMMKNCIMMt or THI DIVIIIUN 0» TU« IIMriBB, A.II. SOS. Vlfft l^istorQ of laome. 723 full of people; but yet they wanted wivei, and the nation* round about would not (jTe them their dnuglitert in marriage, 80 Romulus gave out, that he wai going to keep • great feitival, and there wrre to be iporta and games to draw a multitude to- gether. The neighbours came to ice the show, with their wives and their daugh- ters: there came the people of Ceenina, and of Crustumerium, and of Antemna, and a great multitude of the Sahincs. Dut while they were looking at the games, the people of Romulus rushed out upon them, and carried off the women, to be their wives. " Upon this the people of Ctenina first made war upon the people of Romulus: but they were beaten, and Romulus with his own hand slew their king Acron. Next the people of Crustumerium, and of An- temna, tried their fortune, but Romulus conquered both of them. Last of all cnme the Sabines with a great army, under Titus Tatius, their king. There is a hill near to the Tiber, which was divided from the Pa- latine hill by a low and swampy valley ; and on this hill Romulus made a fortress, to keep off the enemy from his city. Hut when the fair Tarpeia, the daughter of the chief who had charge of the fortress, saw the Sabines draw near, and marked their brace- lets and their collars of gold, she longed after these ornaments, and promised to be- tray the hill into their hands if they would give her those bright things which they I wore upon their arms. So alie opened a ! gate, and let in the Sabines ; and they, a* I they came in, threw upon her their bright ' sliieUU which they bore on their arms, and I crushed her to death. Thus the Sabines ' got tlie fortress which was on the hill Sa- turnius; and they and the Romans joined battle in the valley between the hill and i the city of Romulus. The Sabines begun ;' to ycet the better, and came up close to one of the gates of the city. The people of Ro- ; mulus shut the gate, but it opened of its own accord ; once and again they shut it, ' and oilce and again it opened. But as the ' Sahincs were rushing in, bchuld there burst furth from tlie temple of Janus, which was near the gate, a mi|;hty stream of water, and it swept away tlie Sal^ines, and isaved the city. For this it was ordered that the i temple of Janus should stand ever open in I time of war, that the god might be ever ' ready, as on this day, to go out and give I aid to tlie people of Romulus. "After this they fought again in the I valley ; and the people ol' Romulus were beginning to Ace, when Romulus prayed to Jove, the stayer of Wight, that he might stay the people; and so their flight was stayed, and they turned again to the battle. And now tlie «(?ht was fiercer than ever: whin, on a sudden, the Sabine women, who had been curried off, ran down from J the hill I'alatiiius, and ran in between their ' husbands and their fathers, and prayed i tlipiii to lay aside their quarrel. So they made peace with one another, and the two pi'oplc bocaine as one: the Sabines with their king dwelt on the hill Ba'.nmiui, { which is called Capitolium, and on the ; hill Quirinalis ; and the people of Romulus ' with their king dwelt on the hill Palalinua. Uut the king* with their counsellors met in the valley between Saturniua and Pala> tinuB, to consult i.bout their common mat- ' ters; and the place were they met was call- i ed Comitium, which mean* ' the place of meeting.' ' " Soon after this, Tatiua was slain by the people of Laurentum, because some of his ; kinsmen had wronged them, and be would i not do them justice. So Romulus reignrd by himself over botli nations; and his own | people were called the Romans, for Roma was the name of the city on the hill Pala- | tinus; and the Sabines were called Qui- rites, for the name of their city on the hills Saturuius and Quirinalis was Qui- rium. _" The people were divided into three tribes; the Ramnenses, and the Titienses, and the Luceres: the Ramnenses were called from Romulus, and the Titienccs from Tatius ; and the Luceres were called from Lucumo, an Etruscan chief, who had come to help Romulus in his war witli the Sabines, and dwelt on the hill called Cie- lius. In each tribe there were ten curiae, each of one hundred men ; so all the men of the three tribes were three thousand, and these fought on foot, and were called a legion. There were also three hundred horsemen, and these were called celerians, because their chief was that Celer who had slain Remus. There was besides a council of two hundred men, which was called a senate, that is, a council of elders. " Romulus was a just king, and gentle to his people: if any were guilty of crimes, he did not put them to death, bi;t made them pay a tine of sheep or of oxen. In his wars he was very successful, and en- riched his people with the spoils of their en- emies. At last, after lie had reigned nearly forty years, it chanced that one day he call- ed his people together in the tield of Mars, near the Gouts' I'uoi , when, all on a sud- den, there arose a di-eadlul storm, and all was dark as night; and the rain, and thun- der nnd lightning, were so terrible, that all the people tied from the field, and ran to their several homes. At last the storm was over, and they came back to the field of Mars, but Romulus was nowhere to be found; for Mars, his father, had carried him up to heaven in his chariot. Tlie peo- fiie knew not at first what was become of lim ; but when it was ni^ht, as one Procu- lus Julius was coming trom Alba to the city, Romulus appeared to hiin in more than mortal beauty, and ^own to more than mortal stature, and said to him, ' Go, tell my people that they weep not for me any more ; but bid them to be brave and warlike, and so Bhall'lhcy make my city the greatest in the earth/ Then the peo- ple knew that Romulus was become a god; so they built a temple to him, and ofl'ered sacrilice to him, and worshipped him ever- more by the name of the gud Quirinus." p4' H ■i i m » n TIIR FAM OV THK IIOMAN KMPIRK 0\TVg FIXOM TUI8 TIMK. AI.«aiG tOOK BUM!, AND DILIViaiD IT Vr TO riLLASB, A. B. 409. 724 E\)t ^ITreasurp of l^istort), Sec. £ie8 tlie very flrtt founders of the citr at the shep- herds and herdsmen of the banks of the Tiber, and tellt how their numbers were presently swelled by ttrangcrt and out- catti from all the countriea round about. It speaks of a threefold division of the Roman people, in the very earliest age of its history; the tribes of the Ramneniei, Titientet, and Luccret. It distinctly uc- knowled:^es the Titientet to have been Sa- binet ; and in some of its guesses at the origin of thit Luceres, it cf meets their name with t\.v. of the Etruscan Lucumo- ncs, and thus supposes them to have been composed of Etruscans. " We know that for all the pointa of detail, and for keeping a correct account of time, tradition is worthiest. It it very poasible that all the Etrutcan ritea and utagcs came in with the Tarquinii, and were falsely car- ried back to an earlier period. But the mix- ture of the Sabinet with the original peo- ple of the Palatine hill, cannot be doubted; and the stories of the asylum, and of the violence done to the Sabine women, seem to show that the first settlers of the Pala- tine were a mixed race, in which othrr blood was largely mingled with that of the Latins. We may conceive of this earlier people of Mamers, at of the Maraertini of a more historical period : that they were a band of resolute adventurers from various parts, practised in arms, and little scnipu- lout how they used them. Thus the origin of the highest Roman nobilitv may have greatly resembled that larger band of ad- I venturers who followed the standard of William the Norman, and were the foun- ders of the nobility of England. " The people or citizens of Rome, were divided into the three tribes of the Ram- nenses, Titienccs, and Luceres, to what- ever time and under whatever circumsian- cps they may have united. Each of these tribes was divided into ten smallt-r bodies Till! FHANKS TOOK POSSESSION or OAHI,, AND THE COTHS H*n STMK. TASioui ■ruoBS ABi Aiitaiico roa «ua rovnsiTioN or buhi. €lft piston.) o( Borne. 7:25 called curin ; to lliitt the whoie people coimitted of thirty curieci ihrite innic divi- ■ioD( were in war rpprriented u* the thirty centurie* which iimde up the IrKion, jiiat «■ the three tribei were rcpreipnted by the three centurie* of horsemen ; hut that the toldiertdreHch century were rxRClly a hun- dred, i» appnrcnlly an unfounded a conclu- •inn, a* it would be if we were to aricue in tliH lanie way a* to tlie military force of one of our English liundredi." yie ler, then, that this city, which after- ward* became the miitreii of the world, wai at thit time but a large village. Ita principal inhabitant* laboured with the plough in an ungrateful *uil. Every one made clioioe of tlie *pot he meant lo culii- nle; and, until the talcing of Rome by the tiiuls, 364 yean after the foundation, it was rather to be called a raass of separated dwellings, than a regular well-built city. Whereas, the cirrumlerence of the wall* in the time of Augustus was thirty thou- sand paces, without reckoning the part that approached the Tiber, whicii was twenty thousand ; indeiiendunt, also, of the sub- urbs. Its embellishment* were *uperb and prodJKiuus. But to return to the first foundation of Rome. There were very few women at this time among the Romans; and their neighbours being unwilling to marry their dnuithter* to these heroic robbers, Romu- lus caused public games to be exhibited, at which many of the Sabine women were present, who were seized by the Romans. This conduct produced a war between the two nations, whicli terminated in their union. Romulu* being acknowledged king, en- deavoured to civilize hi* new subjects ; and having ascertained their number, which was 3000 men, he divided them into three tribes of lOdO each, and each tribe into ten curiae of lUO each. He employed by turns, force and address to complete the work he hud begun : he formed a body of cavalry, consisting of 300 men ; and chose fur his council lUO old men, or at least such as bad experience to recommend them. To these he gave the name of senator*. Romulu* governed happily during five years with Tatius, whom he had associated in the government : but Tatius being killed at Lavinium. Romulus was left sole pos- sessor o( the sovereign power. He con- quered the Fidenn and the Veientes ; and cemenied, by salutary laws, the strength and tranquillity of Rome; but afterwards aiming to become a despot, he wa* assassi- nated in the senate. After an interregnum, Numa Pompiliu* was elected king. The amiable and hu- maae disposition of this prince softened the warlike and ferocious temper of the Romans. To rest: tin them from outrage and barbarity, he pretended to have re- ceived his instruction from the .nymph EKeria; an artifice which had the desired effect. His reign was pacific throughout: he inspired the people with a love of re- ligion and peace; he encouraged agricul- ture I amended the calendar ; moderate the law* relative to paternal authority created the pontitr*, the vestals, &e.; and died justly > regretted by the people, who lamented bim a* a father and a king. I It wa* Ntima who e*tablished tlia dif- ferent religious cfrenioniv* and order* of priests; namely, thirty rurioMM, or priest* of the curiw, one for each; three jfament, . or priests of Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus; three hundred ctlrrei, or sacriticers ; a body j of augnrt, who interpreted signs, dreams, &c. ; four teital riryiHn, priestesses of Vesta, leading a life of continence, and preserving a perpetual fire in the temple of the god- I dess; the > m e (• TUB TRAniTIOSARY HtSTOnT OF ROMK IS INVOIVBP ll« ORKAT OBSCUBITT. 726 ^f)c ^rcasuiQ of l^istorv, $c(. meiitvd tlie uninn bi'twern Rome mid the neiglihiiuriiiK itniei. lie wa» the lirit Uu- man kliijt who itainpcd coin. Tarqinn the Huperh, a proud and fcroci- out tyrant, mounted the throne alter hav. inn murdered Berviua Tulliui, hi* wife'i fa- ther. He formed projecit ditKrncrful to hli country. He delighted In Iuxui7 and debaucherr; pajring little regard to the eitabliihea lawi, he oppreiscd the peoples endeavoured to deitroy the avnatc, a hm\j initituted with lo much wiidoni. and who already began to be the Immoyablo ram* part of the liberty of the people. The Ro> mantln this reign triumphed over the Sn- binei and the Voliciani, and tiniahed the eapitol. The esceiiet and deapotiam of Tarquin and hit tons, inpreased ao much the public hatred againat him, t hnt he waa preci- pitated from a throne which he diagraced. It it obaervable, in thii tketch of the Roman hiitory, that the Grreka were iu every retpcct tuperior to the Ilomani when their itate waa in itt iiifnncy; the Romant never quitting their hut« upon the leven hilli, but to make captivei of the women, and pillage the neighbouring villagea. The Greeks, on the coiitrarv, were occupied in defending their libertici : they rcpulaed large arniiea and lleett of the Peraiana; and they cultivated, and brought to perfec- tion, the tine arts, of which the Romnni were almost totally ignorant until the time of Scipio Africanut. The ferocity and spirit of rapine, which prevailed among the tirat Romans, one mi^^ht suppose would have induced the aur> rounding nations to exterminate them i but the necessities which urged them to com- mit depredations, animated their courage, and rendered their acts of injustice irre- listible. They were succesiful in war, from being inured to it ; and at the end of four centuries, they had conquered all the na- tions from the Adriatic Gulf, to the river Euphrates. TA« Roman Republie. Thit republic, hereafter to celebrated, commenced with the expulsion of Tarquin, the last king of Rome ; and it having been declared by the senate, that he had for- feited the royal dignitv, they elected two chief magistrates, called coniula, whoao power was to last only one year. The con- suls had several other magistrates subor- dinate to them, such as pratori, magii- traies whose otHce it was to render justice : (riiunet, the magistrates of the people; they might oppose all the resolutions of the other magistrates, and their persona were held sacred and inviolable i queatori, ofiicert who took charge of the public money : adilei, officers who superintended the buildings, and the exhibition of public games : renaort, officers whose business it was to rate the people, and inspect and correct their manners : proconiuh, mngia- trates commissioned to govern provinces with consular authority : and, on particu- lar occasions, a dictator was appointed, who possessed sovereign authority. This revolution was the epoch nf |||« glory of Rome. Each consul exerted him- self for the benelit of his country during his short adminiatratlnn, in order to nirrit a future election i but the jealousy of tht people demonstrated itaelf from the (Irit conaulates. Valerius, famous for hit tirto. rie>, became suspected ; and, to satial'y tin plehciani, a law was made, which prrinit. ted an anpeal to the people, alter rondem. nation, rrom the senate and conauU, in all cases where the punishment of a llomtn citizen was intended. In the meantime the Tarquins were buiy in soliciting the neighbouring nationi to avenge thrir quarrel, Poraenna, king of Etruria, marched against Rome, and re- duced it tu the greatest extremities; but the apirit ahowu by the repuhllcana silo- niahed their enemies, who could no longer resist their impetuosity ; and from tliii time the Tarquins lost all hope. The Jealousy which had nitherto tub. aiated between the patriciant and the pie- beiant had augmented rather than abatedi the latter thouitht the power >n>>.^ittid in the contult too great, althouKh it hid been contiderably U-aaened by the Valrriin law. They accordingly retired to the aacred mountain, and violent meaturet were uaed in vain to reduce them; but the mild and limple eloquence of Meneniui Agrippa in- duced them to listen to termt of acco- modation. They demanded a mngittrate, whoae buainett it should be to keep t watchful eye over their intereata, and de- fend them against the intri)(uea of the con- tult and the senate i accordingly, tribunes were created, and established by a law, de- nominated sacred, and which in some met. sure relieved them from the yoke of ariito. cracy, now become nearly at heavy at the desiiotiam of their kings. The Roman people continued to be every- where successful in battle s but their iulei. tine divisions brought them frequently into the moat imminent danger. Coriolanai, one of their moat illustrious gcnerHls, wu banished by a popular faction, and his aer- vicet wholly forgotten. Enraged at their ingratitude, he put hiraielf at the head of the Volacians, marched against his country, and would probablv have become its con- queror, had it not oeen that the entreatiei of his mother prevailed on him to desist from his enterprise. Spurius Cassius, aspiring at tyranny, proposed the agrarian law, and thereby opened a new source of discord ; he wai thrown from the Tarpeian rock, the death destined for the punishment of traitora. Soon after this, Cincinnatus quitted hit plough for the good of the republic; he left his field for the city ; and his peaceful rustic employment, for the rude clamour of '^ar. This celebrated character suppressed, during the consulate, the factions of the tribunes ; and while dictator, defeated the enemies of the republic. After having per- formed several other actions, which added glory to his character, he augmented it by another superior to them all ; that of re. MEW COMSnS AND FOHBION BBTTtKllS WRRK CAILBD PLBBIIA!!!. ^()c Ifiifttorv of lilome. 727 J lurninR to hit plough without •mbilinn. but Willi the hoiieil pride of heviiiK lerviia bit rouniry. I Thr iiiipprfeelion of the law* in a nntton ' londdlcted to war ai tin- Rniuiinii, nbliKi'il thr people of Rome to hiirro^v, frnni tli(»r orAllicni. the lawi ol H visions often succeeded. Tiberius Grac- chus, and afterwards Caius Gracchus, ' caused the plebeians to revolt against the aristocracy. Jugurtha, king of Numidia, being dis- satisfied with the manner in which Mi- eipsa, his father, had disposed (it* his king- dom,— having divided it between himself and his two brothers, — caused them to he put to deatli ; and found means, for tome time, by presents, to render the Romans favourable to his schemes: but being at- tacked by them, Metellus took several places from him. At length, Marius, a man of obscure birth, but of great mili- tarv talents, being elected consul, put an end to this war; and Jugurtha was led iu captivity to Rome, where he died of hun- ger. Marius defeated the Teutoni, the Cimbri, and other northern nations, who had made ik':uptions into Gaul, Spain, and Italy ; and during the war, which was car- ried on twelve vears, signalized himself by bis ability and his courage. The people of ItaJy took up arms against Rome, for having refused them the riglitt of citizenship. This insurrection was the more ditiicult to overcome, as the insur- ] gents were perfectly acquainted with the ! military discipline of the Romans. Tlie , senate disarmed a part of them, by an ac- 1 quiesceuce with part of their demands; and this mistaken policy was the occasion of a civil war. It was followed by that of Mithridates of Pontus, the civil war of Marius and Sylla, and that of the gladi- ators. Mithridates, king of Pontus, powerful and proud, yet brave and active, and as im- Elacable in his hatred to Rome as Hanni- al, determined, if possible, to humble that haughty republic. He began by a {general massacre of the Romans within his terri- tory : he next reduced several Roman pro- vinces in Asia, and caused a Roman gene- ral to be murdered. Sylla, the consul, was charged with the j conduct of this war; but Marius, by hisj intrigues, not only caused him to be re- 1 moved, but obtained the appointment for himself. This proceeding brouKlit on the civil war so destructive in its consequencei both to Italy and Spain: to the latter Ser- TUB FRINCirAL RUINS OP TUR ANCIENT CITT ARR ON TBR SOUTH SIDE. IN ANCIBRT BOMB THB BILLS ArrB4BBD MUCH HI Pontus, powerful active, and as iin- Rome 88 Hanni- ble, to humble thai )egan by a general 8 within his tern- everal Roman pro- ed a Roman gene- VL'i)t l^istorfi of Borne. 729 torius, the partizan of Marius, had retired. Sylla joined to courage and activity, im- mense wealth and a suavity of manners, which gave him considerablv the advantage over nfarius, who died in the second year of the civil war. Mithridates having been defeated both by aea and land, solicited peace, which was f granted to him : but Murena, one of the leutenants of Sylla, having infringed the treaty, the war recommeuced. Mithridates prevailed upon Tigranes, king of Armenia Major, to engage in the quarrel: by his assistance, he defeated the Romans, and invaded Bithynia. The consul Lucullus (hen marched against Mithridates, entirely disconcerted his measures, and obliged him to retire into Armenia. Two successive victories, wliich he gained over the Arme- nians, would have furnished him with the means of dictating the terms of peace, if Glabrion had not been appointed in his place. Under this consul, Mithridates re- covered bis losses, and ravaged Cappado- cia: but Pompey, already rendered famous for his bravery in the war against the pi- rates of Cilicia, which he terminated in forty days, being appointed to the com- mand, drove Mithridates out of Pontus, pursued him to Armenia, and defeated him on the hanks of the Euphrates, where, in a paroxysm of despair, he put an end to bis existence. Thus terminated a war which had lasted, with nnabating fury, twenty years. Pompey returned to Rome crowned with laurel, and possessed of im- mense riches. During this time of Rome's victories a- broad, great dissensions prevailed at home. The slaves, contrary to their inclinations, had been compelled to become gladiators. Spartacus, one of them, found means to escape from the school at Capua, and as- sembled a considerable army, whose stan- dards bore the word, " liberty," as a motto. He defeated the Romans in several engage- ments ; but was at length totally routed by Liciuius Crassus. Spartacus, perceiv- ing that the alternative was no other than to be made a prisoner, or to die, was killed in battle, fighting heroically. A new conspiracy exposed Rome to the greatest danger. Lucius Sergius Catiline, a man of hif^h birth, but plunged in de- bauchery and debt, had formed a design of becoming master of Rome. Cicero, the orator, discovered the plot. The army raised for tliis nefarious purpose, was rout- ed, Catiline killed, and the greater part of his accomplices taken and beheaded. Sylla having set a bad example, seve- ral Romans Uiere were, who, possessing equally his ambition, but wanting his abi- lities, aspired at sovereign authority. But Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar, more bold and more active than their competitors, divided the government between them. This coalition was termed the first trium- virate. Ccesar, however, would bave no equal; Pumpey disdained to have a supe- rior; and the rivalry of these two powerful men soon occasioned the ruin of the state. Caesar obtained the ronsnlatn, and with it the government of (iaul for live vflara. Pompey and Crassus romainod kt Rome, while Cesar was busied In Kxtendlni his conquests, and laying the foundation of his future greatness. lie attHclicd Pompey to his interests, by gmuif him his dauRh* ter in marriage ; and, Joining valour with policy, he signalized hlmsi'lf dv the great* est military enterprises, lit! defeated tha Swiss, who had nndvnvouri-'d to establish themselves in Prnnche-ConiKt ; subdued Ariovtstus, king of the (Icrinanii, who had invaded that province ; conquered the liel- §ians, or Flemings; and reducttd, with won- erful facility, the whole of (iaul. Ho In- vaded Britain, and imposed a Irlhuto upon the inhabitants. All thesn nclilcvemcnts were performed in the space of eight vcars. Crassus having been killed In a battle with the Parthians, and the daughter of Caesar, the wife of Pompey, bt-lng dead, Pompey beheld with a jealous eye the bril- liant actions of his father -in 'law, and sought, by every means in his power, to render him obnoxious to the nttoplei he even endeavoured to deprive lilm of hli government. Cvsar, assured of the fidelity of his troops, marched directly to Rome, when Pompey and hit partiznns imme- diately abandoned it. Cssar had now become nernctunl dicta- tor; he gained the people by iiii bounties, by his valour, and his wisdom, and intimi- dated his enemies, lie pursued Pompey to Greece. After several events, those great rivals met on the plains of Phar- salia; and victory declanid in favour of Caesar, who was as ri'markrihltt for his cle- mency after the battle, as hu had been for his bravery during the engngcmcnt. The vanquished Pompey retired Into E| Ptolemy, king of that country, thinking thereby to make his court to C'Ksar, had him assassinated, and srnt his head to that conqueror, who could not refrain shedding tears to the memory of so great a man. It was at this period that ttt'sar became acquainted with Cleopatra, whom he caus- ed to be proclaimed queeti of Kgypt ; her brother, Ptolemy, having been drowned in the Nile. He now marched against Phar- naces, the son of Mithridates whom he conquered with so much case, that he thought three words were sufllelcnt to an- nounce his victory, -—" y»ni, vlill, vM," The two sons of Pompey endeavoured to revenge the death of their fallicri but for- tune was unpropiiious to thi'ir deslgtisi after an obstinate battle, thvir army was defeated. Caius Pompey, the eldest son, was killed ; and it was with extreme dlfll< culty that the youngest escaped the hands of the conqueror. It was in this war that Cato, disdaining to survive the liberty of his country, put an end>to hli existence at Utica. Caesar returned to Italy; but, inflated with his extraordinary success, disploved more ostentation and pride than he dad hitherto done. Rome groaned under the intolerable yoke he had imposed i and • ALL THE OTHRR HILLS, BXCRFT THB CAFITOLINB, ABB MBHB BMINIIHOII. SOUTH SIDE. [iv IT. VKTKK ■ CUURCH IS VNIIIVALLBD IN IISB ANO MAaNIMCSnClt. 730 ^i)e ^reasurt) o{ l|Utorp, $cc. conspiracy having been formed aitainst him, he was assassinated by Brutus in the senate. Lepidus and Antony, lieutenants of Cee- sar, breatlied extreme vengeance. Antony examined the will of the dictator ; and by it he had adopted Octavius, the son of his sister Julia. He bequeatlied his gardens to the people, and a sum of money to each particular citizen. There were likewise leRacies to several of the congpirators, par- ticularly to Brutus, with reversion to Oc- tavius. The funeral oration delivered on this oc- casion, the appearance of the veteran sol- diers in tears, who threw their arms and crowns upon the funeral pile of their illus- trious general, and the cries of the Roman ladies, transported the people with rage against the conspirators, whose houses and property they burnt. It was thus that the people laid the foundation of their future misery and slavery. Octavius, wlio was in Greece at the time of his uncle's murder, did not, on his re- turn to Rome, And Antony disposed to relinquish the power he had assumed in his absence. Brutus possessed the govern- ment of Gaul, which Antony now obtained of the people, contrary to the will of the senate, and he marched, aided by Octavius against Brutus, in order to dispossess him thereof by force. This conduct offended the senators. Antony being defeated, went to Lepidus, then in Gaul; and the senate confirmed Brutus in his office. Octavius, highly offended at this action of the senate, formed an alliance with Antony aud Lepi- dus; and this union formed the second triumvirate. It was agreed between them, that Italy, and the coast, should be in com- mon; that Antony should command in Gaul, Lepidus in Spain, and Octavius in Africa and Sicily. Lepidus remained at Rome to defend Italy ; while Antony and Octavius were employed in combating Cas- sius and Brutus. Thus all their common enemies were immolated in the cause of the triumvirate, and their particular friends were sacridced to the resentment of each triumvir. Octavius destroyed Cicero. His head and hands being severed from his body, were fastened to the tribune, where that great orator had so often astonished Rome by his eloquence. Aiitonv aban- doned his uncle, Lepidus his brother. Three hundred senators, and -tiiOO knights, were proscribed. Thus Rome became the theatre of horror and infamy ; and the cruelties were renewed that had been here- tofore practised in the contest between Marius and Sylla. In the meantime, Cassius and Brutus were defeated at Philippi. and each of them put an end to his existence, in order to avoid falling into the hands of the con- queror. Octavius relumed to Rome; An- tony went into Asia. He there cited Cleo- patra to appear hefore his tribunal, for having taken part with the assassins of Ciesar; but becoming enamoured of her beauty, he sacriticed thereto his glory and his interest. He did not return to Italy for upwards of a year, when he married Oetavia, sister of Octavius, and widow of Marcellus. A new division of the empire now took place ; all the eastern parts were ceded to Antony, thb western to Octavius, and Africa to Lepidus, who contested Sicil; with Octavius. Lepidus, deserted by liit friends, was exiled to a small town io La- tium. Antony, fascinated by the charms of Cleopatra, employed his time in giving superb entertainments, instead of attend- ing to the concerns of his army. He en- deavoured to justify his conduct to tire senate ; but they were incensed at his ne- glect, and declared war against hiin. The armies met at Actium, where Octavius {gained that celebrated victory, which made lim sole master of the Roman republic. Cleopatra, alarmed, set sail for the Pelo- ponnesus ; and Antony abandoned his fleet, and the empire of half the world, to ac- company his mistress to Egypt. Bcin^ pursued by his conqueror, he fell upon his sword, and thereby put an end ^to his life, Cleopatra shut herself within t\\e temple of Antony, where she applied an asp to her bosom, and expired at the base of the statue of her infatuated admirer. Octavius now returned to Rome, and had a public triumph during three days. Hav- ing become sole master, he feigned a desire to resign his authority, and demanded the advice of Agrippa and Meccenas. The former advised him to re-establish tlie re- public ; but the opinion of the latter being contrary, and Octavius abiding by it, the slavery of Rome was decided. He left some appearance of authority yet in the hands of the senate, in dividing with them the provinces of the empire; but reserved to himself all those in which the troops were stationed, that he might at all times be master of the army. Tiius commenced the mightiest monarchy that any age has produced. It will, perhaps, be interesting to inves- tigate the cause of the astonishing and rapid elevation of the Roman empire. 1st. The indignity with which they treated all those whom the fortune of war had placed within their power ; being as ambi- tious of becoming masters of their persons as of their dominions, in order that the; might load them with chains, dra^ them in triumph after their chariots, and put them to ijcnominious deaths; and as these Srinces were, almost witiiout exception, evoted to luxury and effeminacy, they be- held Rome with terror and humility; and the presence of an army of veterans was enough to reduce them to servitude, 2nd. Experience having taught the Ro- man senate how much the people of Ku- ropewere better adapted to war than those of Asia, it prohibited entirely the people of Asia from coming into Europe, and the Europeans from going into iVsia. IWd. The extent of I heir jurisdiction being all the then known world, the senate de- cided, before their own tribunals, all ili<^ ROMS HAS MANY PI.IK FAI.ACBS, BUT NOT A StNOI.K SQUARB, kOMB XXCKL8 ALL OTUBR CITIXS ID NOBLI PUBLIC FOUHTAIIII. ^I^e l^tstorg of Home. 731 quarrels which took place between the de- pendent kiit)(s and their Bubjecti, and be- tween different nations. These they ter- minated according to their pleasure, always enfeebling those from whom they had any thing to tear ; iind, on the contrary, sup- porting those from whom they had any thing to hope. 4M. When any two nations, over whose quarrels the senate had no immediate right of decision, commenced war agninst each other, the Romans always declared them- selves in favour of the weaker party, whe- ther their assistance had been implored or not. The stronger being reduced, the one through fear, and the other through grati- tude, submitted to chains imposed by the conqueror. They then assumed to them- telves the titles of protectors of the dis- tressed, supporters of the weak, and the avengers of wrongs; and these brilliant titles contributed ai much to extend and confirm their authority, as it made them beloved by those whom they bad it in their power to serve, and feared by those who dreaded their punishment. 6th. The senate always accustomed itself to speak in the haughtiest manner to the ambassadors of the different nations to whom they gave audience; and if, in re- turn, the Romans were treated with con- tempt, they complained loudly of the viola- tion of their rights, and of the insult of- fered to the majesty of the Roman people. Thus they declared war against those who would not submit to their insolence or f ai ter their pride. 6th. When they were determined to make war upon any nation, they allied them- selves with some of their neighbours, at whose charge it was carried on. The; al- ways had, in the neighbourhood, a second «rmy, before they risked a battl<*with the first; and a third in Rome, ready upon all occasions ; these important precautions rendered their legions inexhaustible. 7th. When they foresaw a probability of having to encounter two nations at the same time, they negotiated with the weak- est, who generally accepted, with avidity, the offer of peace. It was therefore very difficult to form a powerful league against the Romans, because, as they were impla- cable in their resentments against their enemies, they intimidated, by their ap- proach, all those who had formed plans mimical to the interest of the republic. The senate, although proud, and addicted to vengeance, were, nevertheless, pertect masters of the art of dissimulation, when it was not in their power to revenge an in- jury: they sometimes even refused suffi- cient satisfaction when offered it, at a time they were otherwise employed, that the right of reprisal might still remain, and which they intended to exercise, when a more favourable opportunity presented it- self. Thus they never made war but when it was convenient to their interests. Slh. If any general, after having received t check, made an inglorious peace, the senate always refused to ratify it. Thus the prisoners of war, which the conquerors had spared, and released upon their pa role, appeared again in arms under a new chief. These were the more terrible, a» they had to efface, by their valour, the dis- grace which they bad formerly sustained. The general who was the author nf the treaty, was delivered up to the enemy; and this was termed, by the senate, a respect to the rights of the people. 9'A. If, on the contrary, the enemy, en- feebled by defeat, demanded peace, the senate appeared satisfied with the condi- tions they offered, and accepted their terms: in the meantime, having recruited their le- gions, they would express a dislike to some of the articles of the negotiation, and offer others with which they knew the enemy would not comply. The war then recom- menced ; and the enemy, in hopes of peace, having neglected their army, were pre- sently subdued. Wfh. When the Romans were at war with a prince, if his children betrayed him, his subjects revolted, or bis allies deserted him, the senate afforded them an asylum, and declared them their allies: this title ren* dered sacred all those that received it, and it protected them in the commission of all crimes that might be useful to the stale. Uth. Kvery treaty of peace was conclude ed with an alliance; that is to say, an ho- nourable servitude; because the allies of Rome were obliged to assist her in all her wars, and could not undertake any without her participation, and against her enemies. Thus one nation conquered another, weak- I'ning thereby themselves, and strengthen- ing UoMie. This species of alliance was, ne- 'rertheless, courted ; as the Romans would not suffer any other nation to oppress those whom they protected. 12th. The first condition of every treaty, was a stipulation for a tribute to Rome; with which, however exorbitant, the other contracting party was obliged to comply, or deliver up, as a security for so doing, their frontiers. 13(A. That the repetition of conquest should not diminish the thirst of glory among the troops, the greatest part of the plunder taken was divided amongst them : in therefore appeared as if the senate made war not to enrich themselves, but for the benefit of those who voluntarily enlisted into their service. The Roman dominion was thereby extended with the greater cer- tainty, and, as it were, insensibly; being hid under the exterior and seducing names of friendship, of protection, and of libe- rality. \4th. The nations submitted to the Ro- man arms with less reluctance, because there seemed nothing terrible in the yoke they impose') ; they were left in possession of their laws, their nmnncrs, and their language: thus they appeared liberal as friends ; but the entire subjection of their tributaries although progressive, was posi- tively certain. Thus war, and a strict adherence to poli- tical maxims, by degrees raised Rome to MICHABL ANOSLO AND BRAMARTB WBKB TBB CHIBF ABCHITBCTS 01 ST. rBTBB'S. CABACALLA'S VATnS COVKBBD AH ABBA OV TWENtr-BISHT KNOLISU ACBUB, 732 ^f)e ^tcasurn of l^istorn, $cc. alrooit universal monarchy. Their siicce!> commence- ment of his career. Dariui; his reign, Biscay, Dalmatia, Egypt, Pannonia, Aqui- taine, lUyricum, Rhsetia, the country of the Vindelicians, and all the maritime toxivns in Pontus, became subject to the Roman state. He defeated the Germans, the Parthians, and the Dacians, and died with the reputation of a happy monarch. The reign of Augustus was remarkable for literary characters, amongst whom were Virgil, the author of the MneiA ; Horace, of Odes, Satires, and Epistles ; and Ovid, of the Metamorphoses, and other poems. It has since become a proverbial expression to call any period, when the literature of a nation is particularly cultivated, its Au- gustan age. The reign of Augustus was also distinguished by the birth of Jesus Christ, which took place in the seven hun- dred and fifty-fourth year from the founda- tion of Rome, and in the thirtieth year of the reign of Augustus. Tiberius, who had married the daughter of Augustas, and by whom he had been adopted, abandoned himself to voluptuous- ness, and governed by liis ministers. His cruelty and avarice rendered him an object of general detestation. Incapable of dis- tinguishing himself in the field, he left the conduct of his wars to his generals. Gcr- manicus defeated the Germans, and Tibe- rius rewarded his services by ordering him to be poisoned. This monster of perfidy, ingratitude, and cruelty, died at Campania, in the seventy-eighth year of his age. In the eighteenth year of his reign Jesus Christ was put to death at Jerusalem. The Pratorian guards were a body of 10,000 men, under the especial orders of ' the praetor of Rome, who was usually alto one of the consuls, or subsequently the em- peror. They were quartered by Au);u8tui, in small detachments, in different parts of Italy; but Tiberius brought them all to Rome, and fixed them in its^eiglibourhood in a fortified camp. They soon found the i unarmed and timid populace of Rome too I feeble to oppose them, and took upon them- selves the nomination or disposal of the em- perors. Cains Ceesac, called also Caligula, was the son of Germanicus, grandson of Uru- BUS, and great nephew of Tiberius; and succeeded to the imperial dignity in the twenty-fifth yee of hit age. His life wag a continued scene of debauchery, much worse even than that of his predecessor. He made war against the Suabian Ger- mans, without displaying the least promise ' of military talents. He was killed in his palace, in the twenty-ninth year of his H^e. Claudius, uncle and successor to Cali- gula, gave, by turns, symptoms of good sense and moderation, folly and 'irui'lty. He made war upon Britain, whiqh he re- duced: at his return, he had a triumph, and took the name of Britannicus. He died at the age of seventy-four. He was the husband of Messalina, so dishonoured by her licentious life. Nero, the son of Domitian ^nobarbus and Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus, and sister to Caligula, began his reign by aspiring to virtues which he did not pos- sess. This seeming goodness was, how- ever, of short duration ; he threw off the mask, and appeared to the people in his true character. He tarnished the reputa- tion, and diminished the power of the Ro- man empire. He never undertook any mi- litary expedition; but suffered the Par- thians to make themselves masters of Ar- menia, and obliged the Roman legions to pass under the yoke. He had Rome set <,„ fire ; and put his own mother, his preceptor, and several other persons, to death in the most wanton and cruel manner. At length the senate declared him an enemy to his country ; and he was condemned to be con- ducted, quite naked, with his head between the prongs of a pitchfork, through the streets of Rome; then to be whipped to death, and afterwards to be thrown from a high rock into the Tiber. Nero saved him- self from this sentence by self-murder, at the house of one of his freedraen in the country, at the age of thirty-two years, and the fourteenth of his reign. In his person the family of Augustus became extinct. Sergius Galba, a senator, of an ancient and noble family, was, at the age of sixty- three, proclaimed emperor by the Spaniards and the Gauls; and his election was ap- proved by the whole army. He possessed some virtue, but it was eclipsed by his cruelty and his avarice. He fell into the snare which he had laid for Otho, and was killed at Rome in the seventh month from his elevation. Otho succeeded as emperor. He united fi I II I *l H S ; THB BOHAIf AQUEDUCTS ARB ASTONISIIINO BrFORTS OF HUMAN INDUSTRY. TBI COLOaSKUM II THM MU«f HthimUItt Mill.lt) OV IMriaiAI. «UMB. al orders of ' usually alio ntlytheern. ly Augustuj, ent parts of Uiera all to Khbourliood n found the if Rome too upon them- alof theeiU' ^1)t l^ifttoru of lAomi. 733 in bis person the extremes o( valnur Iin4 eft'eminacy. Having' been uvorcniiii! lit Iml' tie by Vitellius, his comnetilur, he slHhh«>4 himself, in the thirty-eighth jrHariif lli»liK#« and ti"« iiinety-tifth day of his reitfti, Vitellius mounted the imperial Ihrnrtfi after the death of Otho. lie reiKiied with- out honour, and was cruel in his Kovorii' ment. He killed Babiiius, the brother nt Vespasian, and burnt hiin with the OHpUiilr He was an extreme glutton, and was Jiillfd by an officer in the service of VespttsiAn^ it) the fifty-seventh year of his UKU, httvlittf reigned eight months and one dnv. Ill* body, after having been dragged titrnUKit Some, was thrown into the Tiber. Vespasian succeeded to the purplo. II« brought under the Roman yoke iiittil)r pnW' erful nations: he took Jerui^Blem, una ci)' tered it in triumph with his son TllHH. His death was much regretted by tho Sfl' nate and the people. He was gOQit tern* pered, moderate, humane, witty, eitpHbM »f friendship, and, on the whole, the KroHtSlK emperor since Augustus, Titus succeeded his father i b« WAS per* fectly a master of his passions, Knd {(»• verned the empire so adinirnbly us to gutn the name of the " Love and MiKht ef Iht Human Race.." His eloquence, Ills VAloitr, and his moderation, were the ohArms ll|l which he gained the hearts of his ^uhjuetR. He died in the forty-first year of his ttufi, having reigned two years, eiKht uiUHtlli, and twenty days. Domitian, the younger brother of TitllS, ascended the throne. He abandoned hiiil> self to every vice, and was capable of evury crime. He raised many considerahlii edt' fices in Rome ; and was killed in his paltttif), by his domestics, in the filteentli y«Mr of his reign. Nerva, already advanced In sge, WAR nPKt elected emperor. He governed with )u»> tice, and chose Trajan for bis siippessof. He died at Rome, at the age of sev^iily, having reigned four months and eight dHys« regretted by a people whom he liitd reii' dered happy. Trajan, by birth a Spaniard, tMoeeim Nerva. He was a successful soldier, aiMi extended the bounds of the Roman eiiipirit, He was just, and an enemy to Hattery All4 envy; he was friendly, and lovea his sub' jects; and it has been said that his only defects were a love of war and wine. Hn died in Asia in the sUty.third yanr of hiii age. Adrian was raised to the tliroHA by (h« means of Plotina, the wife of Trajan, tl« had a happy disposition ( was a prntanlor of the arts, and of artists i and his graAtASt ambition was to have the reputAllon of being learned. He was a perfect iiiRstar of the Greek language, and jeahms of ihosa who spoke or wrote better than hinisclf, He abandoned many provinces oniK(tier*<4 by Trajan, and built a temple in boiitmr of Venus on mount Calvary. He dieii in l\m Campania of Rome, at the age of sikty two yenrs. Antoninus Pius, of Nismes, aiicoDe4iid A4rlatt, Hi; treated hit subjects a* hit allthlrt^iii lilbt lilllty, fiirtned only • part of the good qua> lit Iks of (his prince t his wit was polished, ills NHhllitiPnts noble. Ho defeated the HrlMiiis liy Ills generals. He repulsed the MiiorSf Nltd louK part of Egypt. His death liiok tiln( UuriDKthe ' ilebrated at { !e, the year >tion of the I lilled at Ve. tfter having ] Victorinni succeeded Mariua, and wai killed at Cologne, by a writer, whose wife he had aeduced. Tetricut sucreeded Vic- torinua, and took the purple at Bourdeaux. Gallus aucceeded, and was killed with Va- lerian, his brother, at Milan, in the ninth year of his reign. Claudius II. succeeded Oallus. He to- tally defeated the Goths, who had com- mitted great ravages in Greer Hia mo- desty, moderation, equity, r ■ j other good qualities, gained him general esteem. He died of a contagious fever, in the second year of his reign. Quintillus, the brother of Claudius, was saluted emperor bv the ■oldiers, but killed on the seventeenth day of his reign. Aurelian succeeded Quintillus, and was esteemed for his valour and his prudence. He defeated, near Chalons, in Champagne, the army of Tetricus. He fought a bloody battle with Zenobia, a celebrated princess. Tliis astonishing woman, after the death of her husband, Odenatua, who, under the emperor Gallus, was proclaimed emperor in the east, commanded the army in per- son with much success. Aurelian took her prisoner, and entered Rome in triumph, making Zenabia walk before his chariot. 8lie possessed extraordinary beauty, and a great mind. Aurelian was assassinated by tlie means of his sccrctarv, in the road be- tween Constantinople and Heracleura. The army having refused at this time to bestow the imperial throne, the senate re- assumed its ancient right. Their choice fell on an old man, named Tacitus. He died in the aixth month of his reign. He was just and enlightened, perfectly disinte- rested, and a man well suited to close the wounds of the state. Florian succeeded Tacitus, his brother ; but reigned only two months and twenty days. This prince demanded the empire as the right of his family. Probus, saluted emperor after Florian, was of obscure birth ; but he possessed heroic valour : he drove from Gaul the many barbarians which had ncarljr over- run it. He defeated Saturninus in the east, and'Proculus and Konosus, near Co- logne, usurpers of the empire. Probus was killed by his own soldiers, after having reigned with glory about six years. Aurelius Carus succeeded Probus; and soon after he had been named Augustus, he created his sons, Carinus and Numerian, Caesars, with whom he reigned about two years. He defeated the Salmatians, and afterwards the F.irsians, and was killed by lightning on the banks of the Tigris. Nu- merian, who was with his father in the east, was assassinated in his litter. Cari- nus, whom hia father had left in the west, to govern Illyria, Gaul, and Italy, had, by his crimes, become the scourge of the hu- man race. The victorious army of Persia refused to acknowledge him, and saluted Diocletian as emperor. Diocletian was no sooner Elected empe- ror than he marched against Carinus, and defeated him in a general battle in Moesia. He bestowed the name of Cesar on Maxi. min, surnnnicd Hercules, and Hent him into Gnul, to quell an insurrection of the pea> sants, which duty he soon eflfectively per- formed. Carausius, general of a part of the troons of the empire, and whom Maxi- min had ordered to be killed, took the pur|)le, and possessed himself of Britain. Achilleus took possession of all Egypt ; and Narses used every effort to render him- self master of the east. Diocletian now took for his colleague in office, Maximin Hercules, and named him Augustus: he gave, at the aame time, the title uf Caesar to Constance and Galcrus. The two empe- rors accommodated matters with Carau- sius. They defeated the Persians undt ■ Narses, and on their return to Rome, re- ceived the honour of a superb triumph. But they presently grew weary of their grandeur, and both emperors relinquishing the purple on the same day, appeared in the habit of common citizens : Diocletian at Nicumede, and Maximin at Milan. The former retired to Salona, in Dalmatia; the latter to Lucania. Diocletian was a phi- losopher, possessing a commanding genius. Maximin was tierce and cruel, possessing more of the courage of ,the soldier, than the genius of h generiJ. Constantius Clorus and Galenas were declared emperors by the senate. These two princes divided the empire between them. Constantius had Gaul, Italy, and Africa ; Galcrus, Illyria, Asia, and the east. Constantius died after a reijcn of about two years, with the character ot a just prince. Constantine the Great, son of Constan- tius, was elected emperor at York. But the soldiers of the prcetorian guard, who had revolted at Rome, gave the title of Augustus to Maxentius, son of Maximin Hercules. Maximin, who now felt regret at having resigned the pnrple, left Lucania, and came to Rome, from whence he wrote in vain to Diocletian to re-assume the im- Serial throne. Galcrus sent Severus to :ome, to Appose Maxentiua. Severua be- sieged Rome, but was oetrayed, and de- feated ; and soon after Maxentius caused him to be strangled between Rome and Capua. Maximin, having in vain endea- voured to dispossess his son, Maxentius, retired into Gaul, in search of Constantine, his son-in-law, with a design to kill him. Fausta, daughter of Maximin, and wife of Constantine, being acquainted with the dcbign of her father, informed her husband. Maximiiit in order to save himself from the fury of Constantine, endeavoured to em- bark at Marseilles for Italy, but was killed in that city by the order of Constantine. Galerus honoured Licinius with the purple, and died soon after. The Romans at this time obeyed three emperors; Constantine, Maxentius, and Liciniils. Constantine pos- sessed talents both for war and politics ; he defeated the army of Maxentius, and afterwards attacked Licinius, who had mar- ried his sister; and having defeated him in several actions both by sea and land, the vonqiiislied Licinius surrendered at die* TUR BIOIIBR CLASSES IN ROMB ARE SI.AVRS TO VAMTY AND IHDOI.ENCR. TUB MOOIkll HOMAIII ARM lOCIAL III THBIK HABITI, AMD OBMOINa. 736 ^^c ^rrasurp of l^istorg, $cc. cretion to the conqueror. Liciniut retired to ThesRalonia, where hn lived in privacy and tranquillity, until Constantine, hear- ing that he was alive, ordered him to be put to death. Constantine, now sole master of the em- pire, transferred the seat of government to Hycantium, which he named Constan- tinople. Under him Christianity began to flourish I he received baptism ; but, al- though he was a nomini 1 Christian, many of his qualities were repugnant to the principles of Christianity. He died near Kicomrde. Constantine II., Constance, and Con- ■tantius, divided the empire between tliem, agreeable to the will of Constantine their father. Constantine had Spain, Gaul, and the Alps: Constance, Asia, Egypt, and the East: Constantius, Italy, Sicily, and Africa. This division was the ruin of the empire. Constantine was killed by the sol- diers of his brother Constantius, who pe- rished by treason a little time after. Con- stance, sole master of the empire, reigned twenty-fonr years. Destitute of glory, weak, and inconsistent, he was neither loved nor feared. Julian, called by the Christians the Apos- tate, by others the Philosopher, was pro- claimed emperor by the troops in the life- time of Constance. This prince was just, frugal, an enemy to vain-glory and flattery, and affected to hate the name of Chris- tian. He died a hero lighting against the Persians. Jovian, elected by the principal officers of the army, governed with wisdom, and encouraged Christianity. He reigned about eight months. Valentinian succeeded Jovian ; he join- ed in the government his brother Valens. They divided the empire of the East and the empire of the West. Valentinian had the West, and Valens the East. Gratian ascended the imperial throne after the death of his father Valentinian. Valens, defeated bv the Goths, and other bar- barians, who established themselves in Thrace and menaced Constantinople, died leaving few subjects to regret his loss. Gratian appointed Theodosius governor of the East, where, by his zeal for the Christian religion, his abhorrence of its opponents, and by his courage, he render- ed himself popular. Gratian being dead, and Valentinian, emperor of the West, being assassinated in the year 39.3, and Theodosius having vanquished Maximus and Eugenius, who had declared them- selves emperors, re-united the whole em- pire, which he divided between his sons. After the death of Theodosius, all dege- nerated ; and from this epoch may be dated the fall of the Roman empire. The decline of the Roman empire, in fact, followed the age of the Antonines. The effeminate and luxurious manners of the nobles and people of Rome ; the vices of the emperors ; the means by which they rose to power : the disposal of sovereignty by the niilitary ; the recruiting of the army by natives of Ger- many and other barbarons countries; and the increasing numbers and audacity of the " barbarians," precipitated Rome from that emineuse which she had attained dur- ing the consulate and the flrst years of tht empire. Ill order to connect the present with the past, and thereby render our sketch of Ro. man history the more complete, we thgll now make some abridged extracts from the observations of a moderu tourist, M. Galiffe of Geneva, in his work entitled " Italy and its Inhabitants ;"and conclude with a slight historical notice of Papal Rome, or States of the Church. " If we were to jndge of the state of lo. ciety in Rome under the kingly power, from the tales which so many writers have dignified with the title of Roman history, we should find it very difficult indeed to account for the astonishing maeniHcence of its earliest monuments. The Cloaeo Maxima, built by the elder Terquin, ia I believe the most stupendous work known in Europe— a work which even Egyptian kings might have admired, fhe Curia Hoitilia offers remains of similat architec. tecture ; walls and vaults, built with stones of such enormous size, and ao closely join- ed, that they are likelv enough to endure to the end of the world. From these re- mains alone it would be easy to show how ridiculous is the supposition that the com- mon people were of any consideration in the state under the kings of Rome : they were slaves, and could be nothin;; else. It is clear that they had no votes to give ; that they were never consulted; that the public resolutions were not even communicated to them, except in so far as it was necetaary that they should know what duties were prescribed for their performance ; in short, that they were very nearly on the same footing as the Russian peasants in our days, — perhaps rather worse than better. On the other hand, I have no doubt that the aristocracy had a much higher degree of power and dignity than they are gene- rally representea and supposed to have possessed. All those lords who were called patriciant, were very nearlv on a level with their chief, whom they called king. Their more immediate, armed followers, very pro- bably formed that part of the nation called populu* in the general assemblies. The plebt was considered as far below the popu- lui, which Its name indeed implied,— a name more expressive than polite-, but po- litenesb to that portion of the inhabitants of Rome was then quite out of the ques- tion. " Under such a government, the private houses even of the wealthiest individuals must have been > jilt on a very moderate scale, because earn great man had only a portion of the general riches and a certain number of servile hands at bis disposal: but the public buildings were likely to be exceedingly grand, because in them every individual was equally interested, and yet they cost to no one any distinct personal sacritice. THB COUHON FEOFLB ARB IHTBLLIOBNT AND CITII., BUT PASSIONATE. RRLlalOUS VISTIVAL* ABB TBRI yHKOUIKT, AND ATTIIACT OHIIAT CHOWDI. Vi^ ^(stori) of llomc. 737 •' Tliere ii no doubt that thcie chiefs liad freat, nod what we gcneralljr call heroic, qualitiei: military akill, courage, and an indepcudent spirit. But nothing can be Diore absurd than to imagine that the eommnn people liad republican principles, and feelings of patriotic love. Every ple- beian family was appended to their patri- cian chief or patron, whose house or es- tate was their real country : for him they worked, for him they prayed, for him they fought, him they obeyed; and it would have been impossible to separate their in- terests from his by any appeal to their loy- alty to their king and country. King and country were words— patriotic attachment a feeling — exclusively engrossed by the higher classes, and which the lower ones never thought or heard of, except when their lords spoke of them in their presence. The plays nf Corneille and Voltaire on Ro- man subjects in those early ages are the most ridiculous productions that fancy could dictate, at least as far as historical truth is involved in them ; and all those declamations scattered through so many books of various descriptions, on the high- spirited republican sentiments of the first Romans, are no better than arrant non- sense I " It was not till very long after the ex- pulsion of the kings, that the plebeians began to feel that they were human beings, and that the distance at which they were kept by their lords began to wouna their feelings. And it is probable, that they would never have dared to make the least attempt to raise themselves above the con- dition of their masters' cattle, if their ser- vices in war had not, by slow degrees, opened their eyes to their disgraceful si- tuation. In time of peace they had either no leisure to make, or no means to circu- late, observations of this nature; but in camps, where the clients of different pa- trons were necessarily often lodged to- gether, and were led to compare their re- spective leaders, to talk of their deeds, and to discuss their private as well as public conduct, they could not fail, sooner or later, to make serious reflections on the extreme difference which existed between themselves in J their nasters : a diO'erence not to be sufficiently accounted for by any disparity of natural means; notwithstand- ing that the habit of command on the one side, and that of blind obedience and low obsequiousness on the other, might have established a perceptible, and even a strik- ing diversity of features as well as of tem- per between them. That diversity, besides, must have gradually diminished, as every succeeding war augmented the conse- quence, and at the same time enlarged the feelings and the understandings, of the lower classes. " It is probable, however, that the captives in war contributed more than any other cause, to awaken sentiments — lirst of sur- prise, and at length of indignation, — in those classes with which they mingled; for there is every reason to believe that the Italian nations which the Romans subdued around them, had governments of a much more liberal nature than the latter, and were strangers to their degrading division of society into dcmi-gods, and drmi-brutea. Every new conquest augmented the popu- lation of a lower rank, and was a real blow to the nobles; who still went on priding themselves in their victories, and indulging in that food which was poison to their pre- rogatives; till at length the disorder broke out, and produced a series of forced con- cessions. These concessions are the pro- per authorities to be consulted, as to the social state which preceded them : we may safely judge of what was wanted, by what was extorted : and the great moderation of the people in the earliest dissensions, is no indifferent proof of the awe with which they had been taught to look up to the pa- tricians. "This account of the progress of the Ro- man people in the unfolding of their moral faculties, may seem tedious by its length ; but the progress itself was extremely slow ; since it was only about 150 years after the expulsion of the kings, that they could ac- complish the election of a plebeian to the consular chair. The end of the fourth century from the foundation of Rome waa then fast approaching. "From that time, indeed, the form of her government was deinocratical enough; yet there were still strong traces of its former exclusive nature ; for the patricians retain- ed for 65 years longer the very important office of pontiffs, or high priests; which, however, they were eventually compelled also to share with the plebeians; and after that all their rights were equal. But this did not happen till the 453d year of Rome, more than 2U0 years after the establish- ment of the consulate. "When the plebeians had achieved a complete equality of rights with the patri- cians, the progress of the Roman republic towards universal dominion became, from the mere nature of things, excessively rapid. Though we may not be able to ascertain that t lie iirst plebeian wiio was made con- sul did any thing in paiticular to prove himself deserving of that distinction, we may be pretty sure that none were raised to the dignity but men capable of illustrat- ing their name by their deeds, — at least in the earlier .imes; — afterwards, indeed, it was grown into a custom, and the election of a plebeian consul had ceased to be a party-stroke. On the other hand, the pa- tricians were deeply interested in rivaUing and excelling their plebeian colleagues; so that this double motive of action gave pro- digiouu strength to the government, and such an impetus to the whole nation, that none of the radical defects of its constitu- tion could impede its progress through a long series of conquests. But those de- fects stuck closely to it, though concealed by the very triumphs which seemed to dis- prove their existence; and they penetrated into its core, and gnawed its vital parts, while its outward appearance inspired ter- THR MASS AND OTHER RKLIGIOUS SOI.EMKITIES AHR FAaTICUI.ARIiT GRAHn, THa roLicm consiats or about 4000 oamabini»i ob •■»• d'abmii. 738 ^lb< ^rtasurQ o( l^istonj, $cc. ror even in the natinnt amongit whom it had not yet earned deitniction. " The religion ul' tlie Arst Ilomani tecmi to have been more simple and mure serious than that of other heathen nations. Thejr were strangers to that Immense multitude of gods, which the over-luxuriant imagina- tion of the Greeks and Asiatics had created. Their gods were few in number; and as they were believed to be virtuous and se- vere, tliev were accordingly re^'pected and feared. Religious fear too frequently pro- duces superstition; and the Romans were extremely superstitious. But if the excess of tlieir credulity made them attach a high degree uf importance to ceremonies, which certainly were inflnitely more absurd than even the most extravagant practices of the most superstitious sects of Christians, the perfect sincerity of belief which animated every clans, gave them a moral strength which has never been suflicientiv appre- ciated. Let it be remembered, that in those early times their priests were not a stipendiary class : they were the chiefs who led the people to war, and who maintained them in peace; without whose permission and interference nothing material could be done, and who introduced some particular religious rites into every action of lite. This mixture of civil and ecclesiastical power in the chief of every noble family, over his children and clients, formed such a bond of union between them, that no ex- ternal influence could have broken it ; and even long after the plebeians had acquired a rank in society, and a considerable de- gree of influence in the state, they hardly dared to think that those religious rites could be perlbrnied by any but an heredi- tary patrician. As soon as they began to discover that they could perform them with equal efficacy themselves, their deep re- spect for religion received a wound from which it never rccoved. All the divinities of the conquered countries, however im- moral and impure, were freely admitted and adopted ; and they completely changed the nature as well as the form of public and private worship. The great men be- gan to be as free in their speeches on the subject, as the same class in France affect- ed to be during the last two reigns of the Bourbons. Indiff'erence and incredulity glided down from the higher to the lower rlasses ; and that Rome which conquered Carthage, had long ceased to exist, when Cnsar made himself master of its corpse. The winding-sheet was indeed more bril- liant than any imperial robe, and seemed an object well worthy of his ambition. " The conquests oif the Romans unques- tionably increased all their faculties at first; but, after a certain period, they agi- tated and exhausted, and at length de- stroyed them. It was a wise policy in the citizens of Rome to communicate their own rights to so many nations. Since they chose to invade the whole world, it was ne- cessary that they should associate many partners in such an enterprise. But any privilege which we share With numbers. loses pronortionably of its estimated value; and the love of Rome, which had been t passion, ceased at length to be even a feel- ing. " During this period, the luxury of the Romans was gradualiy rarrled to so extra- vagant a pitch, that the wise and the think- ing even of their own nation were shocked at, and condemned it ; but idle declami- lions can do no good in such cases. Many of those who were accounted the most vir- tuous and the best citisens, were infected with this disorder, and delighted in it hardly less than the worst. But it does not appear that it was a part of their luxury to employ their riches in raising splendid ediflces, for the astonishment of posterity. Posterity was nothing to them; present enjovment was their only cnre. They levelled mountains, they digged or filled up lakes, they sent to the extremities of the earth for every delicacy of the table for which each country was renowned ; they filled a great number of elegant villas with the most costly furniture, they kept an immense number of seivsnts and slaves, and thus they squandered liliousands of millions, of which hardly anv trace re- mains except the names of the places from whence thev dated elegant, pkiU.,upkical epistles to their friends I " Having thus treated ')f the state of Rome under her kings, an't as a republic, we come next to the consic eration ot Rome under the emperors. _ " We are now arrived on the real clas- sical ground of Roman antiquities : for ninety-nine hundredths at least of the floe ruins still extant, belong to that glorious epoch which Tacitus, the greatest writer and the best historian that ever lived, has made so familiar to us, and on wliiuh so much light has been thrown by Suetonius. " Time has not respected the most ca- rious and interesting monuments of that memorable era; but enough is left to feed the admiration of our modern philosophers with a splendid banquet of grandt tome- niri. The whole space on the farther side of the Capitol is full of ruins ; and those ruins are the more interesting, as the names of but very few of them are known ; so that a man of imagination may choose that which he likes best, amongst all the conjectured ones with which each fragment of Roman antiquities had been so liberally furnished by the nicxi of learning who have written on the subjett. " The form as well >.« the height of the hills, has been completelv chanKed by the immense heaps of ruins which were thrown down into the lower parts of the town, and which in many places rose up to the level of those buildings which towered above them before. Houses have been built in places where none existed in an- cient times ; just because those places hap- pened to be less encumbered with ruins, and because the ground was more solid. Trees have been planted on the top of the rubbish which filled up some streets, and more particularly in the Forum Roma- e s I * BD0OATION AMD I.ITBBATDBB ABB SBBATLT NBOLECTBD IB BOMB. MAOBinlItT II IIAIIII.T, IP XTB*, ■MrLOIBD IM TBI tAtkh ITATBI. ition ot Rome E\)t l^istorp of Borne. 739 Mill. But line* wr cannot obtain • clear idea of the street* and public building! of ancient Rome, let ui at leait turn to the belt account thoie which are within our reach ; and which Rome, a« it if, offpri in lufficient abundance to occupy the lei- inre hours of a ninii of tnxte fur yean. " The Coloiai-um alone ii lo vast, lo no- ble, 10 grand (notwithitandinK some lerioui del'erti in its architecture) and especially 10 uncommonly picturesque in lo many pointi of view, that it well deiervei to be «iiited, at leait twice or thrice n-wcek. Hot ii it neceiiary to admire the Romans of former times, and to hate their present pivernors, in order to laku a lively intcreit in thii inagnilicent fragmnnt of antiquity. Th<* Coloiseum is now, howevCV, the only piece of antiquity that can be seen so often with the same pleasure i the other ruins have no such picturesque merit, and are only remarkable for partial considerations, men as painted ceilings, the distribution, lite, and form of rooms, &c. "There are twelve obelisks in Rome; ind five grand pillars, the two tinest of which are those called the columns of Tra- jin and Antonine. The first gives its name to a square, the middle of which has been excavated as low down as the level of the ancient place, which is, if I remember well, about eiiclit or ten feet lower than that of the buildings around. The other stands in the middle of the Piazzo Colonna; there is a staircase within it, as in the London monument. Th general appearance of these columns is !;ry agreeaDle as well as grand, and they are noble decorations to a square. " The Capitol is so very different from what it was m ancient times, that it affords but little satisfaction at first sight; it is, however, far from being so insignificant as ■ome would have it, and it grows more in- teresting on a nearer examination. What people call the Capitol at present, was only the lutermontium of ancient Rome, a sort of midway hill, which joined the Tarpeian rock to the real Capitoliiie Mount. The latter is extremely high, as one may easily perceive from the church of Ara Coeii on It! top. The Tarpeian rock is lower, but yet quite lofty enough for its known desti- nsiion. " It must be observed, that the Romans were exceedingly far from possessing any well-founded pretensions to elegance ; they imitated the Greeks r« closelyas thi-y could, without ever attaining to their pilch of ex- cellence- They thought there could never be too much of a good or a fine thing; and they crowded temples, houses, statues, obe- liaks, and every sort of ornament, in a manner that must have seemed absurd to a person of taste. Rome must have had the appoarauoe of those very rich, but vul- gar ladies of fortune, who cover themselves with every description of jewels and gaudy fiuery that money can purchase: and when Roman writers speak of the admiration with which strangers were struck at the sight, I am much disposed to think that they mistook mere Bating for admiration. It is utterly impossible that a Greek artist could have felt any thing like pleasure, at seeing a doien temples squeeccd together in a space which he would have thought too small for one. Another proof of tha want of taite in the ancient Romans, is tha ridiculous practice of placing in their tem- ples pillars which they brought from Greece, ligypt, or other countries, and which of course could hardly ever perfectly agree with the architecture with which they were associated. This was done in so many in- stances, that we may take it for granted they never lost a single opportunity of ad- ding to their supposed riches in that way. " In general, the Romans were not formed for the fine arts. They had strong and coarse ideas of things, which com- pletely disqualified them from ever ima- gining those delicate touches which they sometimes perceived and felt in Grecian works, and which they strove to imitate, but never could express with the same ele- gance and correctness as their models, be- cause they were not of their own growth. The Roman arms had conauered ine ter- ritory of Greece, but the Grecian accom- plishments subdued the Romans them- selves ; and the tatter victory was certainly more glorious than the former; which was only the inevitable consequence of au enor- mous disproportion of mere physical force between the combatants." PAPAL ROME, OR STATES OF THE CHURCH. The name of Pope, or Father, was for- merly given to all bishops. But since the time of Gregory VII. it has been solely ap- plied to the bishop of Rome. Tlie temporal grandeur of the Roman pontiff commenced in times very remote. Constantine gave to the church of Lateran upwards of lOUO marks in gold, and about 3U,(I0U marks in silver, besides the assign- ment of rents. The Popes, charged with sending missionaries to the east and west, and with providing for the poor, obtained for these pious purposes, from the richer Chris- tians, without much trouble, considerable sums. The emperors, and the kings of the Lombards, gave to the Holy Father, lands in various parts ; and many others, by gift, and by will, increased his patrimony. In the seventh century we find the pontiff pos- sessed of great riches in various countries, snd exempted from tax or tribute. The Popes formed the design to render them- selves independent. Under the reign of Pepin, father of Charlemagne, this revolu- tion commenced ; and it was completed un- der that of hia son. Adrian I. caused mo- ney to be coined with his name : and the custom of kissing the feet of the Pope began about the close vf the eighth cen- tury, when they assumed regal rights, and their power and riches increased rapidly in the following ages. Gregory IV. rebuilt the port of Ostia ; and Leo Iv. fortified Rome at his own expence. •4 M n O * m h e SmiNOS FOB MUSICAL INSTllVHKNTS ARK OP ROMAN HAMDFACTDRI. WUaiNS tan* INITKUMtNTAt MUIIO I* roliaillDRH IN TUB tTH««TI. 740 ^f)t JSttMHx\) of 1!)i»toru, Sec. The election of Pope h«« been different in tlie diffvrenl ikftt of llie churrli. The people, and the clergy, were the lint eleo- Ion i and the emperor hnd the power of conflrminK the election, after the drath of Pope Himpliclui, in 4H3. Udoncer, kinj^ of the Ileruli, and of Italjr, mnde a law which atruck at the right of eU'Ctinn, un- der pretence of reincdying the diviilona which aoinetimei took place on the elec- tion of a Pope. Thii law waa abuliihed about twenty yean al^er, in the fourteenth council of Rome, held, in fi02, under Pope Simmarua, with the conaent of the king Tbeodoric. Hut this prince, who wai an Arian, becoming cruel towards the latter end of hit life, caused Pope John to be laid in prison, where he died miserably in 536. lie then usur>>&d to himself tlie right of creating a Popj, and named to the pon- tiflcal clmir Felix IV. The Gothic kings who succeeded him followed his example ; yet not entirely, for they contented themselves with conlirniing the election wliich the clergy had made. Justinian, who destroyed the empire of the Ootha in Italy, and after him the other emperors, preserved this right; and they obhged the new elected Pope to pay a sum of money for the contirmation of his elec- tion. Constantine Pogonat delivered the chnrch from this servitude and unworthy exaction, in 681. Notwithstanding this apparent relin- quishment on tlie part of the emperors, tliey always preserved some authority in the election of Popes, until the time of Louis le Dehounaire, in 824, and his sue- ces»ors, Lothaire I. and Louis II., wlio or- dained that the election of Popes should henceforward be free, and canonical, ac- cording to ancient usage. Parties in favour of the different candi- dates for the Popedom, liad now arisen to a great height, and were the cause of the scnisins which followed in the cliurch The emperors were obliged to take on them- selves the right of election ; but after the schism of Peter and Victor IV. had been extinguished, all the cardinals re-united under the obedience of Innocent II. After his death, the cardinals were the only elec- tors of Celeatine II. in 1148; since which time they have been in full possession of this privilege. Hunorius III. in 1216, or, according to others, Gregory X. in 1274, or- dained, tliat the election should be made in the conclave. Tlie conclave is a part of the palace of the Vatican, composed of many cells, where the cardinals are shut up for the election, which takes place on tlie morning of the tenth day after the death of the Pope. The Pope may be coimidered under four different titles: flrst, as chief of the church ; second, as patriarch; third, as bishop of Rome; and fourth, as a temporal prince. As primate, he is the superior of all the catiiolic churches. As patriarch, his riglits extend over the kin;.'d(iin8 and proviiicia within the pale of the Romisli ciiurch. As bishop of Rome, he exercises in the diocese of Rome the ordinary fiinctinn* uhi, i i,^ has not a right to exerclw in oilier iilu, ex'». As a tvniponti |iriii«'e, lie I* tuvereiKu i,f Uiiiiie. and the •tiile* which have lieea n- quired hy diMiiill> govern. iitviit are conducted each by cungregailuiit, with a cardliiiil at Us iiead. Citi'dliial Urasi'lil (Pin* VI.) was cleried in the early part of tlie veur 177S, on the ing tills period the cliurcli domains were alienated; but lhecoin))eiisation since made to tlieir former owners, and the restorailnii of suppressed churches and coiiventH, have cost the government prodigious suing, and are the principal causes of Hie wretched state of the lliiaiicet. Wiiliin the liinii!i of i llie Papal States there are no fewer than I eight archbishops', and llfty-nliie blshiipt' \ sees; and it is eHtlmaled tlial in Rome (here i Is a clergyman for every (en families, ItU I needless to add thai this superabundance ' of prieKts, iiis(ead of promoting reilj^ion and morality, is, in fact, a principal e:in«e of their low state in Hie city. The oiitwurd deportment ol the papal court is, however, at present liiglily decorous. Thoiie tiniea, so dlsas'roiis and disgraceful, when the Popes liad so many iiepiiews. and (hose nephews bulK so many splendid piilaieaand villas, called by tlie Roiiiaiis, in derJAhin, miracles of St. Peter, are now ulnioii( a) inucli foi'goden in Rome, as (he (iiiie when horses were made consuls, and eunuiht emperors. In 1800 a successor to the popedom was elected at Venice, who look the name of Pius VII. A( his dea(h In 1823. Leo XII. was eler(ed, and was mic- reeded in 1829 by Pius VIII., who flllid tile papal chair only two years. He was succeeded in 1831 by Gregory XVI., whuse reign embraced a iieriod of no ordinary I interest and difficulty in tlie history of i the clinreli, and in tlie relation oi' (l>e i Vatican with (he temporal powers of Chris- teiidom. On the Is! of July, 1843, Gregory \VI. breathed his last. His death produced a TBHMiaaiON TO KAT MSAT IN tBNT IS KASILT OBTAIIilKII. ricii IX. iLBCTin pope: junb 10. 1846 C^e ViUtortf of JUomr* 741 profniinii linprewion In llaljr, became It w*» Ml lli«l It mutt lead In coiiildt' ruble chKiiK*''*' i'ri'paritlloiii were liiiiiii'cii;iti'ly nude for holUiiiic • coiicUve, with a view to iioiiilimte a tuccrnor. AleaiiMlille the Koiii.ili people coiiKri-Kaicd In tin- •trct'tii. driiiaiidliiK rvrornii. The uiilhorilleacuiiti'J lli« |it:oplu to be dNperteil by fort'i', but ordrr wun mil ««iabllitli('ij till a liniiriiliiKry cullisl'»> liatl taken pliu-t! belMifvii tlie clll- Mill and the iiilliiary forcr. The rernieni- alioii In Koiiiauiia and the IMiiri'heii in- creu'i'd from uiiy to day, and tronblen binke out at IliU juiiclnre at Anrnna. It WM In the roidkt uf tlit'te lliut the ni'w pope waa elected on the Itilli of Jnne, and priicliilnivd on the I7tli. The IndirUlnnl on wliuni the choice of the colvKe ftll win (lie cardinal Maatnl, a native of SiniiKa- villi, then only Hl'iy-roiir yvara of a^v. The Drtit actn of Plut IX. kavu indh'stlont of proinlne. In the middle of July an ain- nevty wan publUhed greutly to the general iallnlai'llcn. But with all thin, the retrograde party iliowed a bold front, and Intrigued on every itide ; and frniii the lint nionihit of 1847, the hopes which the Uomamt hud al- lowed to grow In their bonomi In lH4e, begun 10 wither and die within Ihein. The Auitrliiii liilluence waa very nearly hh jircponderaiit a» In the time of Gregory XVI.; the con- vocation of any reprenenlallve aMcnibly wa« eluded ; patriotic meetliigi and demoii- itratloni were iieeii with nn evil eye : the cen- lomhip exUted In full force ; and the ai-crct action of the Jeauilit wua ntlll everywhere traceable. These clrcumatunct'i convinced tlie most favourably dUpoHed that the cliangei «o ardently dealred would never be made by llie pope nor by the church. it was not till the crlei of " Ucutli to the Auntrlaiis!" " L)eath to LanibruMclilnl !" " lieath toBernettI!" had been repeatedly heard on the Piazza dl Spagna, and on the Piazza dl Veiiezia, where llie Ausirliin ani- bamador lived ; It wa* not till LainbruM'hInI and other reactionary cardinals hud left Rome, with a view to escape perannul vio- lence, that the pope proclaimed an edict for a civic guard. On the 8th of July, Cardinal Olzzi, the Secretary of Stale, suit hi his resignation, which was acceptid ; and Cardinal Ferrettl. legate of Pesaro and Urbliio, was Immediately appointed his successor. Disquietude. nevertliclesH. con- tinued, nor was tranquillity lextored by the activity of the city guard, which probably overacted lis part. The pope, however, was now prepared to go farther than he had hitherto done. He dlsinlti»ed the car- dinal governor of the police, GrasselinI, and ordered him to quit Rome. Con- leiuporaneoiiKly with these eventP, the Austrlana entered Ferrara, an occupation against which Ferrettl In vain protested. In the month of August, the pontin' dismissed some high functionaries suspected of con- iiivance with the retrograde agitators. A more slgnlAcant circumstance than any of these was the refusal of the pope to appear at the church del Gesu, to cele- brate the feast of St. Ignatius. Tliis uir- cuiuslance was generally regarded as an open rupture witli the Jesuits. Tile latter, nevertheless, turned away public wruth from their order by Ilia offering of money for the rhithing of the national guard. Austria, mcunMJiile, was liecoiuliig d.i) by day more aggnsnltH as to Fcrrura. Hut the lUimans ciiiinuli'd llienisehes with be- lieving til It an ICngllnh squadron wouhl mhiii be anchored In the waters of Ancoiu, and force the Austrlani to retreat. Un the 1st of Uclxber, tlie tiwlu /tioprlo of the pope was published on the niuiiii Ipal or- ganisation of Rome. It pronii>ed, nn- donbledly, « great reform, lor the paper was drawn up In a liberal siilrll, and was generally approved of. No diotlnctiun wa't made betucen noble and citizen, as had always lutlierto existed. Rome wus hence- forth to have a council coinpused of luo niembers, of which M were to be proiirie- tors, 33 savants, advocates, art sis, bankers, luercliuiiis, and 4 rijiresentatives of the eccle»iahiiciil body, 'llie mnnlclpul niauw- trates, to be called tlie Senate of Rome, was to conalst of a senator and eight con- icrvutiirs. It was now deterininid that each religious order sliouhl pay ten per cent, of its revenues for covering the expenses of tlie stale. Uut notwithstanding all these measures, the principal eniplnyinenls were occupied by reiroitradisis, and In the ab- sence of FerrettJ lliey conimenced attacks on the press. There ami other circuin- itances induced Morandl, governor of Rome, to resign. He was replwced by a prelate, Savelli ; and the charge of Preside di Roma el Coniarca was confi'rred on a cardinal. Prince Altierl — two s.p|M>intiiieiits which created dlssatlsracllon. On the lath of INIarch, IHIS, little more llun a lorlnight alter the fall of Louis i'hili| constructed upon the Parisian scale; the French code superseded the cumbrous and vicious jurisprudence of aniiiciit Naples} and the nation, notwithsiiitidiiiK Its subor- dination to the iiii|ierlMl politics, and its participation in Napoleon's wars, appeared to be destined to take a higher rank than before in the scale uf nations. In July, 182(1, a revolt, headed bjr general Fepe, broke out amongst (he troops; and the universal ery was for a constitution, though no person seemed to Know exactly what constitution to adopt, or liow to frame a new one, At Icnitth it was dtlcrinlncd to imitate that of the Hpniiisli corics, and the parliament was expressly siiiiimoned to mo- dify and correct it, Au epixode lo this revu- lutionarv movement was about the same time exhibited in Sicily. No sooner had the citizens of Palermo heard what had been transacted at Naples, and that a par liament had been convoked there, than they determined to have a pnrliatnent and constitution of their own. Of their taste for liberty, as well as of their Hiiiess for It, they gave an immediate specimen, by let- ting loose from prison nearly a thousand atrocious malefactors, Tliey assailed the houses of the NeHiiulitan onicers,and threw the soldiers into dungeons. It was neces- sary, theretorc, to Send r targe force from Naples to put down the rebellion t but when that force approached Palermo, a dr. adful scene of sUuKbter and cruelly en< sued in that unliappy city. All who refused to join this militia of criminals were shanifl- fully murdered, then cut Into pieces, and their quivering limbs expooed on pikes and bayonets. In the incunwhile those who led the Neapolitan troops in'riiiltied Palermo to surrender on terms of eai the firing ceased : murilat law w:is proclaimed : the nalinnni guard suppressed, and the Cliamber of Deputies dissolved. The King, being thus triumphant in Naples, soon afterwards equipped a larj;e expedition for the reduction of Sicily, The first object of attack was Messina, which refused to surrender. On the 3iid of September a simultaneous atliick was made upon it from the fire of (lie dai-rison, the Neapolitan fleet in the liarbour, and a large force which had previously landed. The inhabitants fought with desperation; but the contest was too unequal ; and after a bombardment of four days, during which a large portion of the city tvas laid Id ruins, they were compelled to surrender. Here as at Naples, great atrocities marked (he conduct both of the victors and the vanquislied. Under the mediation of tlie F.nglisli and French naval commanders an arnilstice was agreed to; but tlie war was virtnally at an end. it would serve no purpose to detail the events that followed. They wlio wish to See liow far uiiniitia;»t('d tyriviiny can go in avenging its iuiatcinaiy wrongs, will (ind ample satisfaction iu pe- rusing Mr. Gladstone's unanswerable ex> posure of the Neapolitan governiueau SICILY. Sicily, the largest, most fertile, and best peopled island in the Mediterranean sea, now forming part of the kingdom of Na- ples, or the Two Sicilies, was inhabited by a people originally from Higpania, and call- ed Sicauians. The SiculeH, inhabitants of Latium, penetrated afterwards into this island, and drove the Sicaniaus from the south and west parts. Several colonies of Grcclcs next trans- ported themselves into Sicily, and the an- cient inliabitants were obliged to retire into the interior of the country. Tlie Greeks built several handsome cities, which are re- maining to this day ; but tlie most consi- derable was Syracuse, founded by tlic ^to- liana. Archius of Corinth, a bold and en- terprising man, entered Sicily with a co- lony of Dorians, aiid made himself master of Syracuse about 765 B.C. The fertility of the country, and the convenience of the port, induced him to enlarge the city con- siderablv, and it soon became one of the first in Europe. Agrigentum, the next city of Sicily after Syracuse, was equally exposed to revolu- tion. Phalaris made himself master of it in the year 572 befor-- Christ, and exercised there, during sixteen years, every species of cruelty. He was killed by Teleniachus, the grandson of Theron, tlie liberator of his country, and afterwards its monarch. Tlie fugitives of Syracuse wishing once more to get possession of their city, in tlie Tear 491 implored succour from Gelon, king of Gela, a city of Sicily. Gelon con- ducted himself with so much prudence, that the Syracusians unanimously elected him to be their king. His first care was to reinstate agriculture; and he worked f.i s , Ol •I s! f' p ' NO FI.ACR ABOUNDS WITH MORI IMFDDKNT BROaARS THAN NAFLIS. THB vai.CA:iIC BTHA II ONS OV THS HISHBtT MOUNTAINS OV KCEOFB. Cljc l^ti^tars oC ^tcils. 745 in the fields at the head of the labourer!. He augmented Pyracuse, fortified it, and became afterwards so powerful as to be master of all Sicily. The Carthaginians made several attempts upon this island, but were always repulsed by Gelon. Gelon died in the year 476 B.C., leaving behind him the character of a great prince, and regretted by all raiil ranny ; and Sicily was a short time free. Dionysius rendered himself master of Sicily in 405 b. c, and reigned thirtjr-seven years. He was aucceded by Dionysius the tyrant, who reigned twenty. five years; being driven out by Timoleon, he took re- fuge in Corinth, where he set up a school. Agathocles brought the Sicilians under his yoke 317 a. c, and reigned twenty-six years. From his death, Sicily was a thea- tre of continual war between the Cartha- ginians and the Romans. Not the forti- fications of Syracuse, nor the machines inven»eci b" Archimedes for its defence, were -iithi. at to prevent Marcellus from becouiPv; ■ -'ti of it in the year 208 b. c. Sicily ' ir-'- under the Romans; but in the de ik O) rather towards the fall, of that ei'. ■'■■ , .. came under the Vandals, and afterw'ards the kings' of Italy. The Saracens were continual in their attacks upon it ; and in the year 823 after Christ, the emperors of the East ceded it to Louis le Debonuaire, emperor of the West ; from which time the Saracens occupied a part of it (a. d. 827)< until driven oat by the Normans in 1004. Soon after the expulsion of the Saraeena the feudal system was introduced ; and in 1072, earl Roger, the Norman, also esta- blished a representative assembly, or par- liament, in which the nobles and clergy nad an overwhelming msjoritv, and whicTi sub* sisted, notwithstanding the many changes the island has undergone, down to our own times. The Normans kent possession of the island till the establishment of the Suabian dynasty, in 1194. In 1265 Charles of Aujou became master of Sicily ; but the massacre planned by John of Procida, known by the name of the " Sicilian Ves- pers," (March 29, 1282), put an end to the sway of the Augcvines. It soon after be- came a dependency of Spain, and was go> verned by Spanish viceroys. At the death of Charles 11. of Spain, his spoils became an object of furious conteution ; and at the peace of Utrecht, in 1711, it was ceded to Victor Amadeus of Savoy, who not many years after was forced b^ the emperor Charles VI. to relinquish it for Sardinia. The Spaniards, however, not having been instrumental in efiiecting this disadvanta- geous exchange, made a sudden attempt to recover Sicily, in which they failed, through the vigilance of the English ad- miral Byng, who destroyed their fieet, and compelled them for that time to abandon the enterprise. In 1734 the Spanish court resumed their design with success. The infant Don Carlos drove the Germans out, and was crowned king of the Two Sicilies at Palermo. When he passed into Spain, to take possession of that crown, he trans- ferred the Sicilian diadem to his son Fer- dinand III. of Sicily and IV. of Naples. In order that the thread of the narrative may not be broken, we have incorporated the subsequent history of Sicily with tbai of Naples, lo which the reader is reterreU. BlCII.t HAS, AT VAHIOtJS ItMKS, BKEN SOB.tKCT tO BBSTK tlCTlV U R AHtllQI'AKKS [3 -Y 3 A CONSTITUTION GRANTED TO SARDINIA : MARCH 4. 1848. on M at < n et M ■J < H « < n u 746 (!rf)e CrcaSuru of I^Cstart), &-c. THE HISTORY OF SARDINIA. Sardinta U an ingtilar and continental kingdom In the soiitli of Europe. The con- tincntnl part occupies the norlh-went por- tion of Italy, and U bounded by Switzer- land on the north, tl^e duchies of Milan and Parma on the ea«, the Mediterranean on the south, and France on the west. It stretches about 200 miles from north to south, and 1,10 from east to west. It con- sists at present of Piedmont, with the county of^ Nice; the duchy of Montfcrral ; part of the duchy of Milan, the territory of Ihe late republic of Genoa ; Savoy (not pro- perly included in Italy); and the island of Sardinia, wKli the adjacent isles. The nucleus of the monarchy was Savoy, which was governed as early as the tenlh century by its own Counts, whose descend- ants acquired Nice in 1399, and Piedmont In 1418. The Novereieiis of Savoy and Pied- mont were long celebrated for their ability and the skill with which they preserved and extended their liuiited dominions, not- withstanding tlie difficulty of ilieir position in tlie immediate vicinity of the ^reat Euro- pean powers. The territory was recognised as a separata kingdom by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, when Sicily was added to the Piedmontese dominions, though, in 1720, it was exchanged for the island ol aardinia, which it still retains. During the wars that sprang out of ilie first French revo- lution, the Piedmont territory was ab- sorbed into the French republic. At the peace of 1815 the kingdom of Sardinia was restored ; and OMioa and Monaco were annexed to the Sardinian crown. On their restoration to the throne of their ancestors, the princes of Savoy, It was found, had taken no hint from misfortune, and ex- hibited no consciousness of the altered state of affairs. They brought back with them from exile all the old system in its eHTete meclianism. The people were anxious I for a trial of their strength and speed in the race of nations. But it was sometiiing more than the new social life common to all Europe that was dev>;loping Itself in Piedmont. The fever of Italian nationality, which ran throughout the veins of unhappy Italy, throbbed especially here, at the heart and temples. The comparaiive youth and fi'esliiiess, the wealth and prosperity of the country, gave Piedmont an earnestness and steadiness of endeavour which iniglit be looked lor in vain amidst the more weary and worn-out communities of the eastern and southern part of the Peninsula. Unable to stem this mighty tide of ad- vancenienl, the princes of Savoy strove, but unsuccessfully, to turn it into din'urent channels. So far as their priests would let them, they were not averse to reform ; and something like important inlernal pro- f^ress was indeed observable in the old ustitutlons of the country ; but there was that in its relations to foreign potentates which too plainly pointed In revolution. All other dilficultlcs might be smoothed down, all other differences adjourned: but the national question enlisted tlie Pied- montese in the ranks of Italian conspiracy, and, as a necessary consequence, threw llie princes of Savoy into llie arms of Austria. Tlie Piedmontese attempted a partial con- stitutional outbreak in 1820. The event ua< such as they had anticipated ; and the result immeasurably greater than the mere event portended. It was clearly proved that Sardinia had ceased to be a free agent. Tlie princes gave way before the siorni, only to come back in the wake of Auslrluii bayonets. It was felt that they could not have rendered a more efficient service lo llie country. All local or partial idisafTec- lion subsided in one nalionui y^Mrning. Piedmont was identified with Italy; it would no longer stand or even iriuniph alone. The contest was now between Pied- mont and Austria, and the people bade their rulers choose between tlieiu and their foe. The choice was matter of long liesitalinn and pei piexity ; for on the one hand Aus- tria ofTcred, unquestionably, the most im- mediate chances of safety ; and it was imt to be expected of the Court of Turin that it should at once rid Itself of its priests, who unceasingly represented the cause oh the foreigner as that of heaven and its own : and on the other hand those piinci's could not free themselves from some coiii- puiiclious qualms; for snmethlnj; of tlie old generous sjiirit, and of the far-reaching' ambition of tlie founders of the House, still lingered at the heart of tlieir successors, and the foreign yoke was perhaps as galling in themselves as to the best of their subjects: tliey felt that — would they only run a gnat risk — a great prize was possibly within Ilieir reach. But the kings of Sardinia liesitated and temporised, until in 1848 the sudden insurrection in Milan against tlie Austrian govurnment gave a final blow to the ua- 1 verlng system, and Charles Albert was ' forced, by the clamours of his subjects, not only to send an army to the assistance uf the Insurgents, but himself to take tlie field, with what melancholy results both to his country and himself has been recorded ill the History of Italy, p. [709-10.] The sentiments of the Piedmontese had long been in advance of ilieir insiitiilioiis. Hence, when the revolutionary storm burst over Europe in 1848, a constitution modilli'd oil that of Belgium was inaugurated amid the acclamations of the people, and has since ofierated with a regularity and vigour which augur well for the cause of cnnsii- tiitlonal government beyond the Alps, itiil it would be vain to deny that Sardinia lias three powerful enemies to contend vvitli in =1 THE SARDINIANS IlETIiEAT FHOM MILAN: AtlO. fi. 1818, THB OLIVB II OHIKPLV aUI,TIVATS0 N9t/tH Of TMB APENNINES. C()c VlMtorp of #Artimia. 747 France, Austria, and Roma | et^li nf |lt« j roriner with larmi force* eonumtnUiii OH her defenrelet* frontier*; witilii tilt tMl I liu advanced po»U in tliu very heurt nf tliti country. But lo lung oa KoveriMHHUt »tl«l iwoplfl remain true to llieir vm>*«, M«rfliMl)i wili liold up againil all the miu'lihmlioii* whicli France, Austria, or Romv niiy tl«' vise against her riifhu and liberllett THE ISLAND OF SAUDINIA is divided from Corsica by (lie Hiriill of Boiiiracio. The Greeks calleil it l('lilltt«« Sandaiiolis, and Sardo. Wlillu It WHS ill the possession of the Roiiiaiis, II HIW A place of baiiishnieiit; and allurMfard* |l>« Saracens possessed it nenrly four I'tfiilii' ries. Their expulsion could iiul bu ulU'i'ii'il by the Fisanese, on wlmin l'<>|tu liiiMH^iiiit 111. had aKSumed thn preroKalivv of Iw itowiug it in 1133. Tim uinptiroi' frcdt'i'it' paid so little regard to this vritni, tll>il llM igiiUi reunited it with tiiu uiii|iii'«j | Iml lllH pjsauese talting advantaice ul llitt loliu Mf terreKiinni, got possession of it in i'iilt A (inference afleiward* arisiii|( bctwffii lliem and the see of Koinu, the popf UKuIn bestowed the island, in \3'J», on Jiiiii** H, uf Arragon, whose son. Alplioiiso IV., IIIiIiIh hiiiiseir master of it in IU34. from llim lime it continued under the crowil of ftpAJii, governed by a viceroy until Hau, mIikii the l^iigllHh malting a cont|ues( of U fir klllK Charles 111., afterwards eiiipuror, by lli« title of Charles Vi., it wits coiiliriiiiW have gone one step nearer to purfectiiniliy, ! and actually do wear tanned leiither VimU), made somewliat in tite fashion of ilm itr* nioiir worn in Europe In the lAtl) eeiitiirv, With such durable Imblliinuiils it U eusy (o coiiieive that tliey do not reipilre llllO'll assistance from the mannlactnres iif foreiHil coinitries." Another writer, whom we Imve rreqiieiiiiy quoted in this work, says, " Nol' witlistanding her extent, the rieltiies* of her soil, her position in tlie centre of lli« Mediterranean, and lier convenient tmr* bour, Sardinia has been strangely iiefflei't' ed, not only by her own goveromenls, bilt by the Euroiiean powers geiiemlly | Hinl has remained, down to uur own tinie«| III a seini-barbarnus state. A long series of wars and revolutions followed by the eslK' blishmenl of tlie feudal system III Us ni'ist vexatious and oppressive I'orin | the fitt'l of her having been for a ienicllieiied fieilod it dependency of Spain, and, if llial were pos. sible, worse governed than even the iloiiii' mint country ; the division of the IsUnil Into lnittl«>l(M males, most of which were lt«'i|lllrc«l by Spunish grandees ; the want of l«Hseii, Nnd (he reitrictinnt on iiidn«iry, Ituve piiriilysfd Ihe industry of Ihe Inhablt- jHltl, Htlil Slink Ihem to the lowest point III llltl Mn\tl of rivllisallon. Since 1750, jiowever, Imiirovementt of various kinds IIIII'M llMII slowly, but gradually gniiiiiig ground ) mid, witliln the last few years, iievin general. In ili« I'oiirse of Ihls war, attacked, took, and dfstroyvil II, The senate Ihertupon sent Hie (irO'l'misul )9|inrlns, who In less than iMo ytui-* rHl^ed It lo its former splendour. t( rioioillicd under the Romans nntil it miloiilllcd lo the Ooths. Tlic Lombanl* liPm IHiMesspd and almost mined it. Cliar- IfllifigiiH Mlilieiied it to the French empire. IVjilii, his son, gave the clly of Genoa, Mild Ms (Ifpeiideiiclcs, to a French lord of (IlK limiie ol Adliesnar, under the title of lioiliili |||« descendants reigned until Ihe ^lld of Ihe elevenlli cenlury, when the (iMIlOfitH rrvoilcd against tlieir count, set lll(ro- : (iWlloilorChailes Vl.,klngoi France, wiioin I lllt'y HckliowledKeil as llieir sovereign. In I MIKJ, llii'y liiinsitcred the French, and g:ive . flii'irgiiverniiieiitloihe iMar<)iiisof Moiiirer- TIIB OENOEIK TEllKITdHV IN (iHNI'.HALLY IIILI.Y. KIMO 0HARLB8 ALBERT ABDIOATU : MARCH 23. 1849. 748 QTlie €KttiiMvti at I^Utarff. ret. In I4S8, FrancU Sfont, duke of MiUn, WMacknowledgctltoverelcnproiertorofthe republic of Genoa ; but nlii adminitlration teiulingr to deitpoticin, they t«t themtelvet •t liberty. It waa at till* time that the* offered tlie tovereiffnty of tlieir rity tu Louit XI. Louis, well acquainted with (he dis- poaitlnii of the Genoeie, unAt either to command or obey, made tliU answer to their •ollcitatloni : " If the Oenoeae irlve themselves to me, I will give them all to the devil." Ill IS38, Andrew Dorla had the happliieu and address to unite and conciliate thlt refractory people, and establiilied an arii. tocrallc government. This form conilnued until the French republicans made tiirir npid conquests In Italy. Genoa was the scene of many hard-foufrht battles. At lenvth. In 1797, a new re|)ubllc was rained, under tlie name of the LIgurian reimblic ■ but which, like the rest of the moderii French creations, waa dissolved at the downfall of Napoleon, In 1815, and trans- formed to R dependent province of Sar> dinltu O a •< o IP . D ig l§ M s lag i!; t M O SC < \ CHARLES ALBERT DIED AT OPORTO : JULY 18. 1849. TBI tOUTH or •■IKCI WAS CALLBD TUB rKI.OrONHKSUS, KOIT TUB NOHBA. THE HISTORY OF GREECE. CHAPTER I. Tbii deiervedly celebrated country of totiquitT— the seat of science, literature, and the flue arts, at a period when the greater part of the European continent was iDVolTcd in the obscurity of barbarjc igno- rance— in its most palmy state comprised the southern portion of the great eastern peninsula of Europe, and extended to about 42* of north latitude, including Thessaly and a part of modern Albania, with the Ionian islands, Crete, and the islands of the Arcbipelhgo. Modern Greece, although not so considerable in extent as the far- famed Greece of ancient date, comprises the territories of all the most celebrated and interesting of the Grecian states. By all the accounts which have been handed down, the earliest iuhabiiants of Greece were barbarous in the extreme. They lived on those fruits of the earth which erew spontaneously; their shelter was in dens or caves, and the country was one wild uncultivated desert. By slow de- pn» they advanced towards civilization, forming themselves into regijlar societies to cultivate the lands, and build towns and cities. But their original barbarity and mutual violence prevented them from unit- ing as one nation, or even into any consi- derable communitjr: and hence the great nnmber of states into which Greece was originally divided. Tlie history of Greece is divided into three principal periods— the periods of its rise, its power, and its fall. The first ex- tends from the- origin of the people, about 1800 years B.C., to Lycurgus, 876 years B.C.; the second extends from that time to the conquest of Greece by the Romans, 146 B.C.; the third shows us the Greeks as a conquered people, constantly on the de- cline, until at length, about a. n. 300, the old Grecian states were swallowed up in the Byzantine empire. According to tra- dition, the Pelasgi, under Inacbus, were the first people who wandered into Greece. They dwelt in caves in the earth, sup- porting themselves on wild fruits, and eating the tlesh of their conquered ene- mies, until Phoroneus, who is called king of Argos, began to introduce civilization among them. Some barbarous tribes received names from the three brothers, Achsens, Pelasgus, and Pytliius, who led colonies from Arcadia into Thessaly, and also from Thessalns and Greecus (the sons of Pelasgus) and others. Peucalion's flood, 1514 b.c, and the enii- gration of a new people from Asia, the Hellenes, produced great changes. The Hellenes spread themseWei orer Greece, and drove out the Pelasgi, or mingled with them. Their name became the general name of the Greeks. Greece now raised itself from its savage state, , lome Phoenician and Egyptian col«. ' , About sixty years after the flood ot Deucalion, Cadmus the Phoenician settled in Thebes, and introduced a knowledge of the alpha- bet. Ceres from Sicily, and Triptolemus, from Eleusis taught the nation agriculture, and Bacchus planted the vine. Now began the heroic age, to which Hercules, Jason, Firitbous, and Theseus belong, and that of the old bards and sages, as Tamyris, Amphion, Orpheus, Linus, Mu- steus, Chiron, and many others. A war- like spirit filled the whole nation, so that every quarrel called all the heroes of Greece to arms ; as, for instance, the war against Thebes, and the Trojan war, 1200 b. c, which latter forms one of the principal epochs in the history of Greece. This war deprived many kingdoms of their princes, and produced a general confusion, of which the Heraclidte took advantage, eighty years after the destruction of Troy, to possess themselves of the Peloponnesus. They drove out the lonians and AchniRns, who took refuge in Attica. But, not finding here sufllcicnt room, Ncleus (1044) led an Ionian colony to Asia Minor, where a co- lony of iEolians, from the Peloponnesus, had already settled, and was followed, eighty years after, by a colony of Dorians. In other states republics were founded, viz., in Phocis, in Thebes, and in the Asiatic colonies, and at length also in Athens and many other places ; so that, for the next 400 years, all the southern part of Greece was, for the most part, occupied by repub- lics. Their prosperity and the fineness of the climate, in the meantime, made the Asiatic colonies the mother of the arts and of learning. They gave birth to the songs of Homer and Hesiod. There commerce, navigation, and law, flourished. Greece, however, still retained its ancient simpli- city of manners, and was unacquainted with luxury. If the population of any state became too numerous, colonies were sent out ; for example,in the seventh and eighth centuries, the powerful colonies of Rhe- gium, Syracuse, Sybaris, Crotona, Taren- turn, Gela, Locris, and Messena were planted in Sicily and the southern parts of Italy. The small independent states of Greece needed a common bond of union. This bond was found in the temple of Del- phi, the Amphictyonic council, and the solemn gauges, among which the Olympic ON THB nOBTH Or OnSECB lay MACKOORIA Ann TflBACK. ATUBHS WAS OOVIRNID BT KINOS UNTIL TUB !■*■ 1104 B.C. 7fiO ^l^c ^reasunj of l^tstorn, $cc. were the most dislinKuiaheil, the institu- tion, or rBther revival of wliich, 776 b. c. furniihei the Greeks with a chronological era. From this time, Athens and 8parta began to surpass the other states of Greece iu power and importance. At the time of the Persian war, Greece bad already made important advances in civilization. Besides the art of poetry, we find that philosophy began to be cultivated' 600 B. c, and even earlier in Ionia and Lower Italy than in Greeca Proper. Sta- tuary and painting were in a flourishing condition. The important colonies of Mas- silia (Marseilles) in Gaul, and Agrigcntum, in Sicily, were founded. At'icns was con- tinually extending her commerce, and es- tablished important commercial posts in Thrace. In Asia Minor, the Grecian colo- nies were brought under the dominion of the Lydian Croesus, and soon after under that of Cyrus. Greece itself was threat- ened with a similar fate by the Persian kings, Darius and Xerxes. Then the heroic spirit of the free Greeks showed itself in its greatest brilliancy. Athens and Sparta almost alone withstood the vast armies of the Persian ; and the battles of Marathon, Thermopylee, and Platna, as well as the sea fights at Artemisium, Salamis, and Mycale, taught the Persians that the Greeks were not to be subdued by them. Athens now exceeded all the other states in splendour and in power. The supremacy wliicii Sparta had hitherto maintained, devolved on this city, whose commander, Ciraon, compelled the Persians to acknowledge the independ- ence of Asia Minor. Athens was also the centre of the arts and sciences. The Pelo- ponnesian war now broke out, Sparta being no longer able to endare the overbear- ing pride of Athens. This war devastated Greece, and enslaved Athens, until Thra- sybulus again restored its freedom ; and, for a short time, Sparta was compelled, in her turn, to bend before the Theban he- roes, Epaminondas and Felopidas. In spite of these disturbances, poets, philosophers, artists, and statesmen, continued to arise, commerce flourished, and manners and cus- toms were carried to the highest degree of refinement. But that unhappy period had now arrived, when the Greeks, ceasing to be free, ceased to advance in civilization. A kingdom, formed by conquest, had grown up on the north of Greece, the ruler of which, Philip, united courage with cun- ning. The dissensions which prevailed among the different otates, afforded him an opportunity to execute his ambitious plans, and the battle of Cliieronea, S.'iS b.c, fave Macedonia the command of all Greece, u vain did the subjugated states hope to become free after his death. The destruc- tion of Thebes was sufficient to subject all Greece to tlie young Alexander. This prince, as generalissimo of the Greeks, gained the most splendid victories over the Persians. An attempt to lil>erate Greece, occasioned by a false report of his death, was frustrated by Antipater. The Laiu!>«n war, after the death of A^exainder, was equally unsuccessful. Greece was now little better than a Macedonian province. Luxury had enervated the ancient courage and energy of the nation. At length, ninit of the states of southern Greece, Sparta and iEtolla excepted, concluded the AcIikhh league, for the maintenance of their free. dom against th<^ Macedonians. A diapute having arisen uetween this league and Sparta, the latter applied to Macedonia lor help, and was victorious. But thji friendship was soon fatal, for it involved Greece in the contest between Philip and the Romans, who, at first, indeed, restored freedom to the Grecian states, while tliey changed iEiolia, and soon after MHcedoinB, into Roman provinces; but they afterwardi began to excite dissensions in the Achsan league, interfered in the quarrels of the Greeks, and finally compelled them to take up arms to maintain their freedom. 8a unequal a contest could not long remain undecided; the capture of Curintli, Ui B. c, placed the Greeki in the power of the Romans. During the whole period whicb elapsed between the battle of Chteron^a and the destruction of Corinth by the Romans, the arts and sciences flourished among the Greeks ; indeed, the golden age of the arts was in the time of Alexander. The Ore. cian colonies were yet in a more flnuriih. ing condition than the mother country; especially Alexandria, in F.gypt, which be- came the seat of learning. As they, alio, in process of time, fell under the riomiiiion of the Romans, they became, like their mother country, the instructors of their conquerors. In the time of Augustus, the Greeks lost even the shadow of their former freedom, and ceased to be an independent people, although their language, manners, cua- tonis, learning, arts, and taste spread over the whole Roman empire. The characl^r of the nation was now sunk so low, that the Romans esteemed a Greek as the most worthless of creatures. Asiatic luxury had wholly corrupted them ; their ancient love of freedom and independence was extin- guished; and a mean servility was substi- tuted in its place. At the beginning of the fourth century, the nation scarcely showed a trace of the noble characteristics of their fathers. The barbarians soon after began their ruinous incursions into Greece. The principal traits in the character of the ancient Greeks, were simplicity and grandeur. The Greek was his own in- structor, and if he learned any thing from others, he did it with freedom and inde. pcndence. Nature was his great model, and in his native land she displayed herself in all her charms. The uncivilized Greek was manly and proud, active and enter- prising, violent both in his hate and in his love. He esteemed and exercised hospi- tality towards straneerB and countrymen. These features of the Grecian character had an important infiuence on the religion, politics, manners, and philosophy of the nation. The gods of Greece were not, like BX THB lAWB OF DRACO KVRRT CRIMB WjI8 FITNIBHRD WITH DRATH. riiur or maoidon won tbi rkuovt battlb or caMnonmt. ».e 338. ce wa» now lian province, cieiit roura|;e 1 length, 1,1011 J !e, Sparta and {} C^c l|i»torn of Srcccc. 761 Ihow of AtU, turroiinded by a liolv ob- •curitf s thejr were human in their faulti and virtue*, out were placed far above iiinr- tali. They kept up an intercourse with men; good and evil came from their hand*; all physical and moral endowment* were tlieir gift. The moral iiyitem of the earli- ett Greeks taught them to honour the godi by an exact observance of custom* ; to hold the rights of hospitality sacred, ond even to spare murderers, if they fled to the lanciuaries of the gods for refuge. Cun- ning and revenge were allowed to be prac- tised against enemiea. No law enforced continence. The power of the father, of the husband, or the brother, alone guarded the honour of the female aex, who there- fore lived in continual dependence. The loss of virtue was severely punished, but the seducer brought his gifts and offerings tu the gods, as if his conduct had been guiltless. The security of domestic life rested entirely on the master of the family. From these characteristic traits of the earliest Greeks, originated, in the seiiuel, the peculiarities of their religious notions, their love of freedom and action, their taste for the beautiful and the grand, and the simplicity of their mauners. The religion of the Greeks was not so much mingled with superstition as that of the Romans; thus, for example, they were un- acquainted with the practice of augury. The Greek was inclined to festivity even in religion, and served the goda less in spirit than in outward ceremonie*. His religion had little influence on his morals, his be- lief, and the government of his thoughts. All it required was a belief in the gods, and in a future existence ; a freedom from gross crime*, and an observance of pre- icribcd rites. The simplicity of their man- ners, and some obscure notions of a su- fireme God, who hated and punished evil, oved and rewarded good, served, at Arst, to maintain good morals and piety among them. These notions were afterwards ex- alted and systematized by poetry and phi- losophy; and the improvement spread from the cultivated classes through the great mats of the people. In the most enlightened period of Greece, clearer ideas of the unity of the deity, of hit omniscience, his omnipresence, his holiness, his goodness, his justice, and of the necessity of worshipping him by virtue and purity of heart, prevailed. The moral lyatem of some individuals among the Greeks was equally pure. The precepts of morality were delivered at tint in sententious maxims ; for ex- ample, the sayings of the seven wise men. Afterwards,Socratcs and his disciples arose, and promulgated their pure doctrines. The love uf freedom among the Greeks sprang from their good fortune, in having lived so long without oppression or fearof other na- tions, and from their natural vivacity of spi- rit. It was this which made small armies invincible, and which caused Lycurgus, So- lan, and Timoleon to refuse crowns. Their freedom was the work of nature, and the consequence of their original patriarchal mode of life. Their flrtt king* were cun- sidi-red as fathers uf families, to whom obedience was willingly paid, in return fur protection and favours. Important affair* were decided by the asteinblie* of the {leople. Each man was master in his own lOuse, and in early times no taxes were paid. But a* the kings strove continually to extend their powers, they wt-re ulti- mately coiivpelled to resign their dignities; and '- tates arose, with form* of go- vern iuL'linihg more or less to arts- tocri ^ or democracy, or composed of a union of the two ; the citizens were at- tached to a government which was admi- nistered under the direction of wise laws, and not of arbitrary power. It was this noblaloveof a free couutry,which prompted Leonidas to nay to the king of fersia, that he would rather die than hold a deapolio iway over Greece. It was this which in- spired Solon, Themistocles, Demosthenes, and Phocion, when, in spile of the ingrati- tude of their countrymen, they chose to serve the state and the law*, rather than their own interests. The cultivation of their fruitful country, which, by the in- dustry of the inhabitants, afforded nourish- ment to several millions, and the wealth of their colonies, prove the activity of the Greeks. Conimerce, navigHtiun, ati'd manu- factures flourished on all tides; knowledge of every sort was accumulated; the spirit of invention was busily at work ; the Greek* learned to estimate the pleasures of society, but they also learned to love luxury. From these sources of activity sprang also a love of great actions and great enterprises, so many instances of which are furnished by Grecian history. Another striking trait of the Grecian character, was a' love of the beautiful, both physical and intellectual. This sense of the beautiful, awakened and developed by nature, created foi^ itself an ideal of beauty, which served them, and ha* been transmitted to us, a* a criterion for every work of art. CHAPTER II. Wb have seen to what a state of degra- dation the Greeks were reduced in a tew centuries after their subjugation by the Romans. Thus it continued as long as it was either really or nominally a portion of the Roman empire; till at length, like the imperial mistress of the world herselti it bent before the all-subduing Alaric the Goth, A. n. 400 ; and shared in all the miseries which were brought by the nor- thern barbarians who successively overran and ravaged the south cf Europe. After the Latin conquest of Constantinople, in 1204, Greece was divided into feudal prin- cipalities, and governed by a variety of Norman, Venetian, and Prankish nobles ; but in 1261, with the exception of Athens and Nauplia, it was re-united to the Greek empire by Michael Paleologus. Itut it not long remained unmolested; for the Turks, then rising into notice, aimed at obtaining K M K M h H a ALBXANnan J>IB0 at BABYLON, tub capital of CHAI.DBA, B.C. 323. TUB COMMtKCI or AMOUNT SIIBKCa WA* BXTMNSIVI AND IMrORTA^IT. 762 ^f)c ^reasuru of H^tstor^, ^c. power in Europe i and Am-irath II. de- prived tlie Ureelcs of ail their ciiiei and ca«tle( un the Euxine ten, and along tlie conata oi Tlirace, Mucedon, and TheiHaly ; CHrryiiijt liii vicioriiiut arm*, in aliort, into the miJiit of the Peloponuciiua. The Gre- cian cinpernrt acknowledged him aa their superior lord, 'and he, in turn, afforded them protection. Thin conquest, however, will not ell'ecied ivithout a bruve reaiit- auce, pnrticuiurly from two heroic Chrii- liana, John Ilunniudei, a celebrated llun> gurian Kcneral, and George Cnitriot, an Alixiniaii prince, better known in history by the nHnie uf Scanderberg. When Mohammed II., in Hal, ascended the Ottoman throne, the fate of the Greuk empire icemed to be decided. At the head of an army of 3U0,'. At himie the Janissaries were ever dissaliatied. Anil Iloumelia was in a disturbed state. The divan, however, exerted themselves to quell the Seruans, and they were aided by tlie Bosnians, in consequence of which msDy sanguinary combats took place. Uut rely. ing on the promises of Russia, and receiv- ing pecuniary succour from Ypsilanti, the insurgents continued the contest, issuini; from their fastnesses on every favourable opportunity, and marking their prugrest through the surrounding country, by spreiid- ing devastation in every uirectiun. In the meantime Russia openly declared war against the Porte in Iti(i7, and carried on the war until 181*2, when the iresi; of Bucharest was negotiated; and though ■ome efforts were made to obtain a concei- sion in favour of their Servian allies, yet one difficulty after another being stariid by the Porte, a peace was at length con- cluded, as before, upon such terms as let': the insurgents to their fate. At lengih it was agreed, that Milosh, brothcr-in-litvr to Czerni George, a native, should be their prince ; that the sum of lUO.UOU/. should 6e paid yearly to the Turks, whose gnrrimms in the fortresses of the Danube were to be limited, and that the prince should imiiii- tain a few national forces, for the regula- tion of the internal policy. The period that intervened between ISlo and 182U was apparently tranquil : the Ut- toman affairs seemed prosperous ; the sul- tan Mahinoud, by his vigorous measures, ninintained peace with his neiglibuurt, quelled the spirit of the mutinous Janicsa- ries, suppressed several revolts in the east- ern part of the empire, drove the W'eclia- bites from Mecca, and gave more weight to the imperial firmans than they liad heretofore possessed. But under this ap- pearance of tranquillity, all those projecit were forming which produced wliat «e term " the Greek revolution." The Greeks TRBY MA?IY OK TUB ANCIENT HAMBS OF FLACBB ABB STILL RBTAINKO. TUa COUNtBI •UBKOUMBINS til VKIHOIPAL TOW!<» It MO*rLI riKTIbl. Vi^t iQistOTQ of f the Mussulmans was parti- cularly (* ./ected against the Gr'eek clergy. The uatriarch of Constantinople was mur- dered, with his bishops, in the metropo- lis. In Adrianople, the venerable patri- arch Cyrillus, who had retired to solitude, and Proesos, archbishop of Adrianople, and others, met the same fate. Several hundred Greek churches were torn down, without the divan paying any attention to the re- monstrances of the Christian ambassadors. The savage grand-vizier, indeed, lost his place, and soon after his life ; but Malimoud and his favourite, Halet elfendi, persisted in the plan of extermination. The commerce of Russia, on the Black Sea, was totally ruined by the blockade of the Bospliorus, and the ultimatum of the ambaRsador was not answered. Baron Stroganoflr, therefore, broke off' oil diplo- matic relations with the reis effendi, July 18, and on the 31st, embarked fur Odessa. He had declared to the divan, that if the Porte did not change its system, Russia would feel herself obliged to give "the Greeks refuge, protection, and assistance." The answer of the reis effendi to this de- claration, given too late, was sent to Pe- tersburg) but it was only after the mnit atrocious excesses committed by the Jsois. saries, and the troops from Asia, that ilis foreign ministers, particularly the Britiib minister, lord Strangford, succeeded m in. ducing the grand - seignior to recsll tht command for the arming of all Mussuluuoi and to restor* order. ' CHAPTER III. All eyes were fixed on Tripoliita, which was now in a slate of close blockade, and Its fall daily expected. The usual pdpuli. tion was about I6,U0U souls; it is alio com- puted, that the garrison, with all the Alb*. nians of the Kiayah, amounted to hwiu men ; there could not, therefore, have brtn I fewer than 3U,(HI0 persons within the wslli; I yet they allowed themselves to be bluck- 1 aded by 6(i0(t undisciplined and ill-srmed Greeks, without artillery or cavalry. While the Turkish horse were in a state lor ler- vice, the Greeks did not attempt aiiyiliini in the plain ; but their forage soon t'aiird, and the oiil^ food they could get wa« vine leaves. Provisions were becoma 'ery scarce, and the Greeks had cut the pipes, and thus intercepted the supply of water. Ypiilaiiii, however, was impatient, and felt anxious to begin a regular siege; but he bad neither proper ordnance nor engineers. Some can- non and mortars had indeed been brought from Malvasia and Navarin, nnd were en- trusted to the care of an Itiiliun adven- turer, but in the first essay he burnt a mortar, and was dismissed. Tilings ucre in this state, when prince Mavracordato arrived, bringing witu him some French and Italian otHcers. In the beginning of October the Turlii began to make propositions for a capitu- lation, and the treaty waa proccpdiii);, on the 5th, when an accidental circumstHnce rendered it of oo avail, and hastened the catastrophe. Some Greek soldiers, Imving approached one of the gates, began !o con- verse, and, as usual, to barter friiit with the sentinels. The Turks imprudently as- sisted them in mounting tiie wall, but no sooner had they f^ained the top when the; threw down the lulidels, opened the gate, and displayed the standard of the croti above it ; the Christians instantly ruihud from all quarters to the assault, and the disorder became general. The Turks im- mediately opened a brisk fire of cannon and small-shot ; but the gates were car- ried; the walls scaled; and a dcaperntc struggle was kept up in the streets and houses. Before the end of the day the contest was over, and the citadel, which held out till the next evening, surrendered at discretion. About 6(iU0 Turks, it is said, perished, some tliousands were made pri- soners, and numbers fled to the moun- tains. While these transactions were occurring at Tripolizza, four pachas proceeded in the month of August from the frontiera of Tliessaly and Macedonia, to Zeiiouni, with the design of forcing the straits of Tiier- THR WANT OF NAVIOABLK nirKRS IS OnVIATP.n BY MirMKROVS Olll.rS, &C. VOLOANIO Action I« TMACRAaLa IN MAHI or TUB tiaitllK ltLA:ait in the movement of IH'.M. In the he;rin- ninnof May, in that year, a small siiuoiiron of Ipsariots appeariuu; off the coast, I'ur- nished the aga with a pretext for lii- i.,i- pressions, and he brKaii by sei^iu^ forty of the elders arid bialiops ; who were im- mured as hostages fur the good conduct of the people, " On the 28rd of April," vays Mr. Bla- quirre, " a fleet of fifty sail, ineludiiii; Ave of the line, anchored in the hay, and im mediately began to bombard the town. while several tliousand trooiis were Inudi ( under the guns of the citadel, whicli ale j opened a heavy lire on the Greeks. It was in vain for the islanders to make any re- sistance s deserted by the Samlans, moat of whom embarked and sailed away when the Turkish fleet hnve in sight, they were easily overpowered and obliKcd to fly. From this moment, until the lust direful act. Scio, lately so great an object of adinirutiof. to strangers, presented one coniiuued scene of horror and dismay. Uaviu); massacred every soul, whether men, women, or chil- dren, whom they found in the town, the Turks flrst plundered and then set fire to it, and watched the flame» until nut a house was left, except those of the foreiifu con- suls. Tiiree days had, however, been suf- fered to pass, before the intidels ventured to penetrate into tiie im , i: ' if the island, and even then their ex -I . sen lere eoutlned to the low grounds. Vt ,.iie some were occupied in plundering tlie villas uf rich merchants, and others setting lire to the villages, the air was tint with the miiittled )i;roans of men, w v-jf n, and children, who were falling undei the swords and daggers of the in''d(''.4. Tlie only exception made during the massacre was in favour of young women and boys, who were preserved to be afterwards sold as slaves. Many of tlie for- mer, whose husbands had been butchered, were running to and fro frantic, with torn garments and dishevelled hair, pressing their trembling infants to their breaiits, and seeking death as a relief from tlie still greater calamities that awaited them. " Above 4U,0tJU of both sexes had already either fallen victims to the sword, or been THB SUORRS Or TUB MOttBA CONTAIN AN ABUNDANCB OP FOSSIL SOBLIiS. VUB HKAII TBMrBMATUBl OV aBBBCB VARIBI MUBB tHAN IN MUtV COUKTBUi, 766 ^^c ^reasuci} of l^istotQ, $rc. ■elected for lale in the baxaws, when it occurred to the pacha, that no time ihould be loit in pertaading those who had fled to the more inaccesuble partt of the itland, to lay down their arma and lubmit. It being impouible to effect this by force, thcT had recourse to a favourite expedient with Mussulmans ; that of proclaimine an amnesty. In order that no doubt should be entertained of their sincerity, the foreign consuls, more particularly thost of Eng- land, France and Austria, were called upon to guarantee the promises of the Turks; they accordingly went forth, and invited the unfortunate peasantry to give up their arms and return. Notwithstanding their long experience of Turkish perfidy, the solemn pledge given by the consuls at length prevailed, and many thousands who might have successfully resisted until suc- cours had arrived, were sacrificed i for no sooner did they descend from the heights, and give up their arms, than the infidels, totallv unmindful of the proffered pardon, put them to death without mercy. The number of persons of every age and sex who became the victims of this perfidious act was estimated at 7000. "After having devoted ten days to the work of slaughter, it was natural to sup- pose that the monsters who directed thie frightful tragedy would have been in some degree satiated by the blood of so many innocent victims ; but it was when the excesses had begun to diminish, on the part of the soldiery, that fresh scenes of norrorwere exhibited on board the fleet, and in the citadel. In addition to the women und children embarked for the pur- £ose of being conveyed to the markets of 'onstantinopie and Smyrna, several hun- dreds of the natives were also seised, and, among these, all the gardeners of the is- land, who were supposed to know where the treasures of their employers had been concealed. There were no less than 600 of the persons thus collected hung on board the different ships; when these executions commenced, they served as a signal to the commandant of the citadel, who immedi- ately followed the example, by suspending the whole of the hostages, to the number of seventy-six, on gibbets erected for the occasion. With respect to the numbers who were either killed or consigned to slavery, during^ the three weeks thnt fol- lowed the arrival of the capitan pacha, there is no exaggeration in placing the former at 26,000 souls. It has been ascer- tained that above 30,000 women and chil- dren were condemned to slavery, white the fate of those who escaped was scarcely less calamitous. Though many contrived to get off in open boats, or such other ves- sels as they could procure, thousands, who were unable to do so, wandered about the mountains, or concealed themselves in caves, without food or clothing, for many days after the massacre had begun to sub- aide on the plains. Among those who had availed themselves of the pretended am- nesty, many families took refuge in the houses of the consuls, who were indeed bound by every tie of honour and hamanitv ta afford them protection. It has, how. ever, been asserted, upon authority which cannot well be doubted, that the wretched beings thus saved from Mussulman ven. feance, were obliged to pay large ranaomi efore they could leave the island. N» more, numoera of those who escaped the massacre, afllrm, that it was extremely difficult to obtain even temporary pratee- tion under the Christian flags, without first gratifying the avaricious demands of those who conceived this appalling event a legitimate object of mercantile specu- lation." At the commencement of the eampaigu, Colocotroni, with 300 men, was dispatched' to Patras, where a part of the Turkish flret had landed a great body of men in the lat- ter end of February. On his approach the Turks went to meet him with almoat all their force. Colocotroni, not consider- ing himself strong enough for them, re- treated to the mountains; but suddenly stopped, addressed his men, and wheeling about, advanced towards the enemy. Upon this the Turks, struck with a pamc, think- ing he nad received notice of a reinforce. ment, turned their backs &nd were pur- sued by the Greeks up to the walls of the town ; 600 of them were slain in less than two hours, and Colocotroni blockaded the place. The Ottoman fleet was pursued by the Greeks under Miauli and Tombaii, and the admiral's frigate nearly fell into the hands of the Greeks. Msrco Boziorio and Rango gained many advantaees in Epirus, and took Arta, the key of Albania ; but, owing to the treachery of Tairsboi, it was abandoned. Odysseus and his com- panions endeavoured to check the enemy in liivadia and Negropont ; but the dis- aster of the Greeks at Cassandra so much strengthened them, that they advanced again, and threw some reinforceB.ents into Athens. The fall of All Pacha had now so mnch increased the resources of Choursid, that he concerted measures, which would have been the destruction of the Greek csiite, hnd they been skilfully executed. Mavro- cordato, in order to frustrate them, laid a plan to undertake an expedition into Epi- rus, draw off the Turks from the Horea, relieve the Suliotes, and carry the war into the heart of Albania. He communicated his plan to the executive, and it wa« de- termined to place 5U00 men at the disposal of the president, who was to lead the ex- pedition in person. The only forces, how- ever, which could be mustered, were the corps of the Philhellencs, and the first regi- ment of the line, neither of them complete, with 700 men commanded bv general Nor- man and Kiriakouli, to relieve the Suli- otes. He arrived at Pytras on the 12ih of June ; but Colocotroni here opposed many difficulties to any of his troops beiug de- tached, and he was obliged to leave with- out the expected assistance. Accordingly, he sailed to Missolonghi with only a few TUB CLIMATB OP ATTICA IS COKSIDBRBU TUB MOST GBKIAL IN aBBXCB. AkOHATIO FLAHTS, MCULIAML* AOAFTBO FOB TBI HORBV-BMB, ABOVrO. ^^f l^tstoYi} of (Simcc. 767 hundred men. A large force of the enemy wu in the meantime collected at Lariua and Zetouni ; Colocotroni aaddenlr left the blockade of Patraa, aud proceeded with all bit army to Tripolina, leavinK an op- portunity for the Turkish garrison either to enter the Horea, or cross the Lepanto. Consternation prevailed in the Pelopon- oeius; and Corinth was abandoned and re-occupied by the enemy, not without the laapicion of treachery. The situation of Ypsilanti waa at thii time very critical: he had no money or pro- Titions, and hardly 1300 men to oppose 30,000; he therefore, in order to stop the enemy's progress, threw himself into the citadel of Argos, while Colocotroni took up the strong position of Lemo on the west of the gulf. The first body of the Turks, con- tisting of 70U0 cavalry and 4000 foot, halted near Argos, and part of it proceeded to Na> poll ; soon after Marchmont Pacha arrived with lU.oUU more. The pacha, however, en- tered Napoli, and contmued several day* inactive; when threatened with the ex- trrmities of famine and drought, he gave orders for the return to Corinth, and his army set out in the greatest disorder. Co- locotroni attacked and destroyed fiUOO of them in a few hours ; the advanced guard was attacked in the defiles by the Mainiotes under Nikitas, and 1300 perislied in the fint onset. These successes happened be- tween the 4th and 7th of August. On the 18th the pacha attempted to draw the Greeks into aa ambuscade, but they got into his rear, and he was defeated with great loss; tlie next day, determining to re- gain the pcfiition they had lost, the Turks uain attacked under Hadji AH, who was ilain in the engagement, and nearly 2000 of his men were lost, as well as a large qnantity of baggage and several hundred horses. The Greeks, however, had no means of following up their successes. Tpsilanti advanced to Napoli to assist in its reduction, while the tmops left un- der the command of Coliopulo, not being supplied with rations or pay, became so weary of the service that the greater part withdrew, leaving Colocotroui' s eldest son with 200 or 300 men to continue the block- ade of Corinth. Soon after this, Coloco- troni, at the passes near the isthmus, stop- ped the Turks who wished to bring suc- cours to Napoli ; and they being driven to the greatest extremity of famine, and the Palamida or citadel having been surprised, the garrison bad no alternative left them but to surrender. The Greeks took pos- leisioD of this important place on the 11th of January. The Turkish commanders, on the surrender of Napoli, determined to proceed to Patras, which the Greeks had lately neglected blockading. Setting out in the middle of January, they had reached Akrata near Vostitza, when a detachment from Misaolonghi stopped one of the passes, and shortly after another body blocked up the other ; so that the Turks were reduced to the greatest straits, feeding upon horses, the herbs on the rocks, their saddles, and at last one another. For nearly three weeks longer the place held out, when Odysseus arriving, and on una of the beys being no- quainted with him, a negotiation was coiO' menced, by which the garrison obtained per- mission to embark, and tha beys were sent prisoners to NapoU. The number of the cne< my that perished on this ni>casion, without firing a shot, amount:.a, It Is said to SIHH). Thus ended the seeona cainpaijfn in tha Morea, costing the Turks not fSwer than 25,000 men in the Pelujnonneiua alone. The operations in Epirui, though on a smaller scale, were little less Interesting. Mavrocordato put hit forces in motion, and first making a feint •• if he wished to reach Salona, returned on the village of Therasova, and entered Mtssotongbl on the 17th of October, where greater difllculties than ever awaited liiin. flttre he was be* seiged by the Turks until the 9tb of No- vember, when the blockading snuadron was chased away by six vessels bearing the Greek flag ; and on the 14lh MavrouiU chalis arrived with the long expfctcd suc- cours. A sortie was then mmk) but it was of little avail, and the garrison was so much weakened, that Omar Vrioni deter- mined to attack the place. Accordingly on the morning of Christ uiai'dny, at A o'clock, 800 men approached the walls with scaling ladders unperceived, and had even fixed some, but thev were instantly cut downj the conflict that followed was desperate and sanguinary, and the Turks were ooliged to retire with the loss of 1'.{U0 men and nine pieces of cannon. The rising now became general through the country, and the retreat of the enemy was intercepted iu all quarter* ( so that of the whole force brought into the country, onlv three months before, not half escaped. Mavro- cordato arrived in the Peloponnesus in the early part of April, 1823, after an abseuco of ten months. The national congress met at Astros, * smalt town in Argos. on the lUth of April, 1823, in a garden under the shade of orange trees; nearly 800 deputies were occupied in the debates, which began at aunrlse. The following oath was taken at the first meeting by each member i—"l swear, in the name of Ood and my country, to act with a pure and unshaken patriotism, to promote a sincere union, ana abjure every thought of personal interest in all the dis- cussions wbieh shall lake place In this sa* cond national congtess." Having settled a number o( important points, its labours ended on the 80tb, The third meeting of the congress was deferred for two year* ; and the executive and legislative body was transfeVred to TripollMH, wbeirB measures were immediately taken for opening the third campaign. The enemy was not idW at the summer advanced; a fleet of seventeen frigalvs, and sixty smaller vessels, was sent with stores to supply the remaining t'ortrctsses in Ne- gropont, Candia, and the Mon-a; and, after accomplishing this object, tlie capllsn pa- cha arrived at Patras about the uiiddlo of TUB VBOBTABT.B PBODUCtS AKB TBBT SIMILAB TO THOSB Of ITAI.T. [3 F n TBI Bias woooT sianiCTi contaiii wolvri, jackalli, LTnxsat bobbucki, Ac. 758 ^^e tlTreasuri) of l^istors, $cc. June. Tasnff Pacha led on a lar^e body to Thermopylc, and Muitaplm conducted another to the pass of Npojpatra, near Zei- touni, the former, especially, laying waste the whole country, and committing all man- ner of excesses. Odysseus in the meantime arrived from Athens, and Nilcitas from Tri- politsa, and a sort of guerrilla warfare was commenced, which so harassed the Turks under Tusuff that they retreated in the greatest disorder. Mustapha was attacked, and forced to take refuge in Negropont, at Carystos, where he was closely olockaded. Marco Botcaris, who commanded the Greeks at Crionero, fell on the Turks, and either killed or captured two-tliirdsof their number. The same brave leader under- took a forced march Mainst Mustapha, who had 14,000 men, while he had only 2000. On assigning each man's part at midnight on the I9th, his last words were, " If you lose sight of me during the com- bat, seek me in the pacha's tent." On his arrival at the centre, he sounded his bugle, as agreed upon, and the enemy, panic-struck, fled in all directions. In the midst of tlie attack, which was now gene- ral, he was twice wounded, and at last car- ried off from the field expiring; the strug- gle, however, was maintained till day-light, when the Greeks were victorious on all points, and the loss of the eiiemv was not less than 30U0. One of the first a«ts of the capitan pacha, on his arrival with his fleet, had been to declare Missolonghi, and every otiier Greek port, in a state of blockade. The entrance of a few Greek gun boats, however, was sufficient to set the capitan pacha at defiance ; having remained inac- tive for above three months, and lost nearly a third of his crewa by epidemics, he at length made the best of his way to the Archipelago. At the commencement of the year 1824, proclamation was issued by the president and senate of the United States of the Ionian islands, declaring their neutrality, and their firm resolution not to take any part in the contest; also prohibiting any foreigner, who should do so, from residing in the isliuids. Among the Greeks dissen- sions still prevailed, every faction following its own plans, and seeking to advance its own influence. Mavrocordato, Colocotroni, and Ypsilanti, headed different factions, among the members of which there was neither unanimity of counsel, nor unifor- mity of action. The Turkish fleet sailed on the 23rd of ApriL The Greek seaate summoned Colo- cotroni to surrender himself, and to de- liver up Napoli and TripoliHa, but he re- fused ; the troops that were investing Pa- trai quarrelled about the division of some of their booty, and were withdrawn ; in the meantime the Turks sailed from Le- Santo with fourteen ships, and blockaded [issolonghi. In order to encouraje tlie Greeks, a loan of A(iO,OUOI. was contracted for in London. About this period Ipsura was threatened by the Turkish fleet, which was now at Mitylene. The island of Caso was attacked on the Sib of June by n Egyptian squadron, and after an obstinate resistance was taken on the 9th. Several naval actions occurred about thii time, in which the Greeks generally liaj the advantage ; and had not the long deia? in paying the loan in London threatened ruin to the cause, the success of their arnn was such as to give great hopes of a speed} deliverance from the Ottoman power. On the ISth of April, this year, lord Byron died at Missalonghi, of an inflammatory fever, after having tealously devoted him- self to the cause of the Greeks from the time he first landed, in Autpst, 182:<, up to the period of his death. His exertions had been great and unremitting, but he never seems to have been free from apprehension lest the jealousies and divisions among the Greek leaders would not ultimately prove destructive to all their patriotic eSbrti. Taking advantage of an insurrection that broke out on the Morea, at the head of which were Colocrotoni and his sons, the troops of Mahomet Alt, pacha of Egypt, were directed to land in great force there; and it now became evident thkt the neigh- bourhood of Navariuo was destined to be the scat of war. On the 1st of May the Egyptian fleet, from 65 to 70 sail, left the port of Suda, where it had been watched by a Greek squadron under Miaoulis, who now tailed to Navarino. On the 8th, Miaoulis's squa- dron, amounting tn 23 vessels, was near Zante; the Egyptian fleet, 46 in number, being off Sphacteria. In about an hour from 2000 to 3000 troops effected a debarka- tion from the Egyptian fleet, on the island. The garrison ot old Navarino capitulated on the 10th, and the garrison of Navarino on the 23rd. After the surrender of Sphac- teria, a great part of the Egyptian fleet was followed by Miaoulis into the harbour of Modon, and more than half of it destroyed by fire-ships. In the end of May the Turkish adminl left the Dardnnvlles, and on the Istuf Jnne was encountered by the Hydriote Sakhturi, who, by means of his firc-ships, deatroyed three men of war and some transporti, Soon after the capitan pacha entered Suda, and joined the Egyptian fleet from Nava- riuo. The Greek fleet was dispersed by a tempest, and bavins; no fire ships, they re- tired to Hydra, while thr Turkish admir.il landed a reinforcement of 5U00 men nt Navarino, and went to Missolonghi nitli seven frigates and many smaller veaseli. The siege was now vigorously pressed; the lagunewas penetrated on the 21st of July, and Anatolica, an island to the north, sur- rendered to the Turks. The supply of water was now cut off, batteries had been erected near the main works of the place, the ramparts had been injured, and part of the ditches filled up ; at length a genual attack was ordered on ihe 1st of August, and the town assailed in four places at once. On the 3rd the Greek fleet, consist- ing of 25 brigs, attacked and destroyed two small ships of war and ail the boats in the BKAnS ARB 80MRTIMK8 MRT WITH ON TUB KOHTnRHN PnONTIBR. VBB HILL! or aBBKCB ABB ADMIBAILT AOAFTBO VOB TBB TINB. ^f)f, Ulistor^ of CK recce. 759 ii Itirnne, relieved Mi«M>longb- Kni;! obliged * I the eneiiiy't fleet lo retire. 'Ju the 10th the Greek* atteinpted, but without suc- cess, to burn the Turkish fleet in the har- bour of Alexandria. On the 20th i:he fleet of the Greeks, about 30 sail, commanded by Miaoulis, eni^aged the Turks between Zante, Cephalonia, and Chiarenza, and an action ensued, which lasted with little in- termission for two days and nights, till at length the Greeks were obliged to retire. On the 29th another naval action took place, and skirmishes on the two next days, when the Greeks forced the enemy to take shelter in the gulf. Nothing of importance happened during the year 1826 to give the Greeks encou- ragement. After B lengthened blockade of Missolonghi, in which every effort was made by the Greeks to defend it, that im- portant fortress was taken by assault and sacked. Nor were the events of the early part of 1827 such as to hold out hopes of a successful issue of this prolonged and barba- rous contest. Athens was taken in May by the Turks under Kiutaki.not long after the arrival of the gallant lord Cochrane in its neighbourhood, with a considerable naval force. The loss of the Greeks on this oc- casion amounted to 700 men killed, and 240 taken prisoners, including eighteen Philhellenians of different countries. Kiu- taki, supposing that lord Cochrane and general Church were among the Euro- peans, had the prisoners brought before him, and, after examining them carefully, caused the eighteen Europeans to be po- niarded before nis eyes, and ordered the 223 Greeks to be massacred. The interference of the g^eat European powers could no longer well be deferred; and an important treaty between Great Britain, France, and Russia was concluded, expressly with a view to put an end to this horrid warfare, and, under certain tribu- tary stipulations, to establish the inde- pendence of Greece. The ambassadors of the three powers, on the 16th of August, presented the said treaty to the Porte, and waited lor an answer till the 3l8t. Mean- while the Greek government proclaimed an armistice in conformity with the treaty of London ; but the reis effendi rejected the intervention of the three powers. The Greeks then commenced hostilities anew, and on the 9th of September the Turkish- Egyptian fleet entered the bay of Navarino. A British squadron appeared in the bay on the 13th, under admiral Codrington. To this a French squadron, under admiral Rigny, and a Russian, under count Hey> den, united themselves on the "2ud. They demanded from Ibrahim Pacha a cessation of hostilities ; tliis he promised, and went out with part of his fleet, but was forced to return into the bay. He, however, conti- nued the devastations in the Morea, and gave no answer to the complaints of the admirals. The combined squadrons of Englanil, France, and Russia now entered the bay, where the Turkish - Egyptian fleet was I drawn np in order of battle. The flrst shots were fired from the Turkish side, and killed two Englishmen. This was the sig- nal for a ^adly contest, in which Codring- ton nearly destroyed the Turkish- Egyptian armada of 110 ships. Some were burned, others driven on shore, and the r^st dis- abled. Enraged at the battle of N<< farino, the Porte seised all the ships of the l^ranka in Constantinople, detained them for some time, and stopped all communication with the allied powers, till indemnification should be made for the destruction of the fleet. At the same time it prepared for war; and the several ambassadors left Constantino* pie. Upon this the Porte affected to adopt conciliatorjr measures ; hut it was evident they were msincere ; for from all parts of the kingdom the ayans were now called to Constantinople, and discussed with the Porte the preparations for war; and all the Moslems, from the age of nineteen to fifty, were called on to arm. In the meantime, the president of the Greeks, Capo d'Istrins, established a high national council at Nnpoli ui Romania t took measures for instituting a national bank ; and put the military on a new foot- ing. The attempts at pacification were fruitless, because the Porte rejected every proposal, and in Britain the battle of Nava- rino was looked on as an " untoward event." In this state of indecision and uncertainty, Ibraham took the opportunity of sending a number i>i Greek captives as slaves to Egypt. In the meantime, the French cabi- net, in concurrence with the British, to carry into execution the treaty of London, sent a body of troops to the Morea, whilst admiral Codrington concluded a treaty with the viceroy of Egypt, at Alexandria (Au- gust 6), the terms of which were that lora- ham Pacha shouil evacuate the Morea with his troops, and sei at liberty his Greek pri- soners. Those Greeks who bad been car- ried into sluvery in Egypt, were to be freed or ransomed; 1200 men, however, were lo be allowed to remain to garrison the for* trctsps in the Morea. To force Ibraham to comply with these terms, the French gene- ral Maison arrived, on the 29th of the fol- lowing August, with 164 transport-ships, in the bay of Coron. After an amicable negotiation, Ibrahim left Navarino, and sailed (October 4) with about 21,000 men, whom he carried with the wreck of the fleet to Alexandria ; but he left garrisons in the Messenian fortresses, amounting to 25,000 men. Maison occupied the town of Navarino without opposition ; and after a mere show of resistance on the part of those who held the citadels of Modon, Coron, and Patras, the flags of the allied powers floated on their walls. Nothing hostile was undertaken against the Turks by the French out of the Morea, because the sultan ^ould in that case have declared war ngaiust France; and Britain and France carefully avoided such a result, that they miKht be able to mediate between the Porte and Russia. To defend the Mo- rea, however, from new invasions from the "WHEBK'kB WB TIlKAn, 'TI< HAIINTRD, HOLT OROIJMD." — BTROM. TUB ABIAT MASS 0» TUB FOPUtATIOir BBLOlfO TO TRB OBBBK CHOBCB, 760 tH^t treasure of '^istotn, $rc. Turk*, the three powers agreed to send a manifeito to the Porte to this effect : " that they should place the Morea and the Cy- clades under their protection till the time when a deflnitive arrangement should de- cide the fate of the provinces which the allies had taken possession of, and that thejr should consider the entrance of any military force into this country as an at- tack upon themselves. They required the Porte to come to an explanation vrith them concerning the flnal pacilication of Greece." The Oreeks, in the meantime, continued hostilities ; and the Turks relaxed not in retaliatingr with bitter vengeance on all who came within their power; nor would Mahmoud recall the edict of extermination which he had pronounced when he com- manded Dram Ali, a few years before, to brinK him the ashes of Peloponnesus. Ibra- him had wantonlv burned down the olive groves as far as his Arabians spread, and the Greeks were sunk in the deepest misery. It must not be supposed that the allied powers were wholly unmindful of the great object they had undertaken ; but many seri- ous obstacles tending to delay its accom- plishment presented themselves at every step of the negotiation. The basis of a settlement was, however, at length agreed upon ; the principal points of which may be thus briefly stated :— The Greeks, to pay to the Porte an annual tribute : a joint c^.nmission of Turkii and Greeks to de- termine the indemnification of the Turks for the loss of property in Greece : Greece to enjoy a qualiHed independence, under the sovereignty of the Porte : the govern- ment to be under an hereditary Christian prince, not of the family of either of the allied sovereigns; at every succession of the hereditary prince, an additional year's tribute to be paid : mutual amnesty to be required ; and all Greeks to be allowed a ?ear to sell their property and leave the 'urkish territories. The situation of Capo d'lstrias, the presi- dent, was ali this time most embarrassing. He was without means, in a land torn by discord ; yet hia attention had been zeal- ously directed towards the maintenance of order, the suppression of piracy, and the formation of a regular army ; the establish- ment of courts of justice, and schools of mutual instruction ; of means for collect- ing the revenue, and providing for the sub- sistence of the wretcned remnants of the population. He called together the fourth national assembly, at Argos, and in a long address (July 23, 1839), gave an account of the state of the country and of his mea- sures, particularly directing the attention of the assembly to the organization of the forces and the revenue. The conferences between the ministers of the three powers, at London, had now for their object to select a prince to wear the crown of Greece. It was iirst offered to prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg, Feb. 3, 1830, and was aroeptcd by him, as "sove- reijfn prince of Greece," on the 20th. On further consideration, however, he resigned the honour; alleging as his reasons— the unwillingness of the Oreeks to receive him, and their dissatisfaction at the settlenirnt of the boundaries. He further ohserred, that the answer of the president of Greece to his appointment, in his judgment, an- nounced a forced submission to the allied powers, and even that forced submission was accompanied by reservations of the highest importance. Much dissatisfaction was shown in England, and various motives were assigned to the prince for his refusal; but it is perhaps unnecessary to seek for any other motive than that which would force itself on the notice of any man of correct feelings and good taste, narael;, the irksomeness of filling a regal station, with the consciousness that his unwilling subjects regarded him as an intruder and a tyrant. After the resignation of Leopold, several princes were proposed as candi- dates for the throne; and at length Otho, a younger son of the king of Bavaria, ac- cepted the trust, and was proclaimed at Nauplia, Aug. 30, 1832. During the dis- contents and jealousies of the '.previous year, count Capo d'lstrias, the pVesident, had been assassinated. Such havoc had the ravages of war made in Greece, and so necessary was repose to all classes of its inhabitants, that the first years of Otho's reign passed away in a com- paratively tranquil manner; although the sullen murmur of discontent was occasion- ally heard as, one by one, the several state appointments were filled by the king's Ger- man friends, to the exclusion of natives. At length, in September, 1843, the people, urged by distress and dissatisfaction, rose against the constituted authorities of the kingdom, and accomplished a revolution without bloodshed or violence — without endangering the personal safety, or inflict- ing any humiliation on the king. The mi- nisters were arrested at their Louses, but were liberated in a few hours. The popu- lace assembled in front of the palace, and demanded a constitution. The king assured the people that he would consider their de- mand, and that of the army, after consult- ing with his ministers, the state council, and foreign ambassadors, but was informed that the ministers were no longer recog- nized, and that the council of state were then deliberating on the best course to pursue. An address from this body was sub- sequently presented to the king, in which the instant dismissal of the Bavarian mi- nisters was insisted on, and a list of those chosen to succeed them in office was pre- sented. 'Wisely foreseeing the result of re- sisting de'nands, which were founded in justice an 1 reason, his majesty with a good grace acceded to them, and the affair ter- minated apparently to the satisfaction of all parties. It is, however, too important a catastrophe in the history of Gieece to be dismissed with so slight a notice: we shall therefore avail ourselves of the following extract from an account of this bloodless revolution, as given in a Greek papur of the 15th of September, 1813:— x a h m i » as THB OBBKB FRIRSTS ARE FOOU, BUT THKIK LIVES ARB EXBMrT.AIlY. rULt BKLiaiOUl TOI,liR4tlON II •VAIIA|ll«illlll It THI COMTITUTIOH. Vlht tl^ictoru gf Q^tutt, 761 " A wine revolution, ac(iompli»h««( in OH* aar.amidnt the moit psrCttflt or4ltr, WttllUHt k liiiKle offeiiHive erf bein^ UU»t4, DVfH tgainst the HavariHiii, lint ranewnd ill* cluiini of Greece to the eiiteem Iiu4 »)rtii« patby of nation* and their KmarnmniHn, Every body Icnowa the uufortutmr* »\(UH' tioD in wliich Greece w«* placed. TliM Greeks had exhaunted every mean* in (lii conference, bad vainly aeknowleddttd Hit manv grievancea of the Grwtk p8opl«( tll# government ob^'-^iiiely perwvtirsd ill ll» evil course. The ion bad no otiiar «!• ternative but to ^ nut itself into lli« abyss opened by te. veurs' mi*t«k«» mid incapacity, or to estn «t« ils«lf tk»r(lfrom by a dangerous but inevllabls nlfort. Vot •owe time the movement waa In proerHS* of preparation on different point! «l Ibt country, that it mlKbt be effeeted wllliOttt any disorder. The hostile attitude Mium' ed by the government against those wite sought to enliKbten it, tlie entriiordiniirf dispositions adopted witbin the lest few days with a view to assail the liberty klld the verv lives of the cititens (« nillilHry tribunal had been established) most d«t voted to the national interests, nee«M«rily tended to hasten the manifestlitiOH oflllt contemplated movement. '• Last night, at two o'clock, A, N., • few musket shots Ared in the air unnuunced the assembling of the people In ditt'ereiit quarters of Atliens. 8oon afterward* (li« inhabitants, accompanied br the entire garrison, inarched toward* tne iqueri of the palace, crying, ' The ennstitutioii (»t even' On reaching the plaee, tli# entire garrison, the artillery, cavalry, and Infaii* irv, drew up under the windows of III! king, in front of the palace, and tli« |>eO' pie, having stationed theniselve* ill till rear, all in one voice demanded » eoiistt' tuiion. The king appeared at » low wlii< dow, and assured the people that lie would take into consideration their deinund end that of the army, after consulting witli Mi ministers, the council of state, and llie rei presentatives of the foreign powers, Hut the commander, M. Calegri, Imvillg eieii' pcd forward, made known to llie niHj«Nly iliat ' wll§ shortly appeared on thi* balt^oiiy, Kuiroiiiid' ed by his ministers and other pefROneifeii and was received with aculantation» by llie people. The cry of ' Long live tlie eon* stitutional king* resounded, together Willi that of the < constitution for ev«r,' Tlie new ministers entered iinniudiatcly OH tlie discharge of their function*." ft WM* the opinion of Peter the Great »f Hutilfl, that Greece would at some fu- ture day again become the favoured seat of lM«rature and the srtst nay, that having Itiede the circuit of Europe, and been fos- tered In Knvland, France, and Germany, ' tliey would take their departure from those eoUHtrie*, reach Itassia, and thence revisit tll« |il«ee of their birth in all their pris- ; tine ilory, That time, should it ever ar- ; rive, is, In ail probability, very far distant i but It iiiMf be well to close the present his- ; lorle sketch with a few brief remarks on | Ureeeo in Iti past and present state. ¥lie government of the different states ' jf Mn«l«nt Greece was purely monarchical; it tttbsequentif varied from a mixed uio- \ HMMby, u in Sparta, to a democracy, a* i •t Athens. In most states there was a ! eoiitlnued struggle between an oligarchical •nd popular faction i and a* one or other yreVAlled, their adversaries were exiled, or unrelenilngly pot to death. In their cultivation of literature and the «rf • they surpassed all nations. The poems of Homer are still unrivalled ; and Hesiod, with many others, maintained the reputa- tion Wliloh their great poet had won. Dra- HIMIIC composition was invented byThes- Iji*, end brought to perfection b^ iEschines, llophocici, Euripides, and Aristophanes^ ilistory was cultivated with success, by llerodstus, Thucydides, and Xenophon; Mnd, KItbsetiuently b* Polybius, Diodoru* lll«ulii»« Arrinn, and Plutarch. In oratory mIso UCBU. 762 ^^t IITteasuitf of l|istort}, $cc. eating a oraftf and ovemaching policjr. Thejr ever shewed an eitreme pronenest to civil discord, and through their own dissen- sions and treachery thev first fell a prey to Macedon, and afterwaras to Rome. The language of the ancient Greeks has undergone manv alterations in the course of time ; and tnese commenced with the decline of the eastern empire. The irrup- tion of the barbarians hastened the corrup- tion of the language, as well as the fall of the empire ; and ages have passed in which this nation had no language but that of its ancestors. About the twelfth century some taste for learning arose ; the crusades then commenced, which brought the East into relation with the West, the Greeks with the Latins and Saracens ; and though there was a striking distinction between the sub- tle and artful character of the Greeks, and the barbarous rudeness of the Latins, new ideas were inspired into the mind of the nation, and new expressions were intro- duced into its language. The Italians par- ticularly had great influence over the Ko- maic, or modern Greek, which was then formed ; poets and prose writers availed themselves of this new languajfe; which, though as remote from the ancient Greek as the Italian is from the tongue of ancient Some, soon became the national idiom. The modern Greeks are thus described : — " There is a pretty marked distinction among the inhabitants of the three great divisions of Greece— Greece north of the Isthmus, the Peloponnesus, and the islands. The inhabitants of northern Greece hB\ t retained a chivalrous and warlike spi- with a simplicity of manners and mode e<<' life which strongly remind us of the pic- tures of the heroic age. The soil here is generally cultivated by Bulgarians, Albani- ans, and Wallachians. In eastern Greece, Parnassus, with its natural bulwarks, is the onl^ place where the Hellenic race has maintained Itself; in the mountainous parts of western Greece there are also some rem- nants of the Hellenic stock. In these parts the language is spoken with more purity than elBCwhere. The population of the Peloponnesus consists nearly of the same races as that of northern Greece, but the Peloponnesiansare more ignorant and less honest than the inhabitants of Hellas. The Albanians occupy Argolio and a part of the ancient Triphylia. Among the rest of the inhabitants, who all spclc Greek, there are considerable social differences. The population of the towns is of a mixed character, as in northern Greece; where there is an active and intelligent body of proprietors, merchants, and artisans in the towns, and among them some of Greek stock. The Mauiotes form a separate class of the population : they are generally called Maniotes from the name of one of their districts; but their true name, which they have never lost, is Spartans. They occupy the Kifty and sterile mountains between the gulphs of Laconia and Messeuia, the represeutatives of a race driven from the sunny valley of the Eurotas to the bleak and inhospitable tracts of Taygetos, though the plains which are spread out below them are no longer held by a conqueror, and the fertile lands lie uncultivated for want of labourers. In the islands, there is a ain- Kular mixture of Albanians and Greeks. The Albanians of Hydra and Spoziia hR*e long been known as active traders and excellent mariners. The Hydriotea made great sacriflces for the cause of independ- ence in the late war ; the Spezziotes, more prudent and calculating, increated their wealth and their mercnant navy. The island of Syra, which has long been the centre of an active commerce, now con- tains the remnant of the population of Ipsara and Chios. The Ipsariots are an active and handsome race, and skillul aea- men: the Chiots, following the liabita of their ancestors, are fond of staying at home and attending to their shops acd mer- cantile speculations ; they amaas wealth, but they employ it in founding eatablith- Uteuts of public utility, and in the educa- tion of their children. In Tinos, the pea- sants, who are also the proprielors, culti- vate the vine and the tig even i^uldat the most barren rocks : in Syra, Santurin, and at Naxos, they are the tenants of a miaer- able race of nobility, whose origin ia traced to the time of the crusades, and who atill retain the Latin creed of their anceatort. Besides these, there are various bodies of Suliolcs, of people from the heights of Olymp -f, Candiotea, many Greek familiea from Asia Minor, Fanariotes, and others, who have emigrated, or been driven by cir- cumstances within the limits of the new kingdom. The Ipanriots are those who are supposed to have the least intermixture of foreign blood. They have the fine and cha- racteristic Greek physiognomy, as preserv- ed in the marbles of Phidias and other an- cient sculptors ; they are " ingenious, lo- quacious, lively to excess, active, enter- prising, vapouring, and disputatious." The modern Greeks are generally rather above the middle height, and well shaped ; they have the face oval, features regular and expressive, eyes large, dark and animated, eyebrows arched, hair long and dark, and complexions olive-coloured." The character of the Greeks, while under the Turks, was thus summed up by Mr. Hope. " The complexion of the modern Greek may receive a different cast from different surrounding objects : the core is still the same as in the days of Pericles. Credulity, versatility, and the thirst of dis- tinctions, from the earliest periods formed, still form, and ever will form, the basia of the Greek character. When patriotism, public spirit, and pre-eminence in arts, science, literature, and warfare, were the road to distinction, the Greeks shone the first of patriots, of hfcroes, of painters, of poets, and of philosophers. Now that craft and subtlety, adulation and intrigue, are the only paths to greatness, the same Greeks are — what you see them ! " THB LANOUAOK Ot THB HODBRIf OBBBKS IS RALIiBO B0M*IC. louKRV courBiims iomb or thb most rioDUCTivK rRoviitcsa or loiori. THE HISTORY or TBB OTTOMAN OR TURKISH ET.IPIRE;. Thb Tttrki are of Tnrtarian or Scythian extraction ; and thii appellation was first given them in the middle ages as a proper name; it being a genera) title of '. onour to til the nations comprehended under tlie two principal branches of Tartar and Mon- gol, who tnerefore never use it as a proper name of nny particular nation. The Scy- thian or Tartarian nation, to which the name of Turks has been peculiarly given, dwelt betwixt the Black and Caspian seas, and became first known in the seventh cen- tury, when Heraclius, emperor of the EnHt, took them into his service; in which tliey to distinguished themselves, by their iide- lity and oravery in the conquest of Per- sia, that the Arabian and Saracen c^iliplis had not only select bodies of them for guards, bat their armies were composed of them. Thus gradually getting the power into their hands, they set up and dethroned caliphs at pleasure. By this strict union of the Turks with the Saracens or Ar. bs, the former were brought to embrace the Mahometan religion, so that they are now become intermixed, and have jointly en- larged their conquests ; but as the Turks became superior to the Saracens, they sub- dued them. The following account has been given of the origin of the Ottoman empire. Gen- ghis-khan, at the head of his horse, issued out of Great Tartary, and made himself master of a vast tract of land near the Caspian Sea, and even of all Persia and Asia Minor. Incited by his example and success. Shah Solyman, prince of the town of Nera, on the Caspian Sea, in the year 1214, passed Mount Caucasus with 50,000 men, and penetrated as far as the borders of Syria; and though his career was stop- ped there by Genghis-khan, yet in the year 1219 he penetrated a second time into Asia Minor, as far as the Euphrates. Othman, his grandson, made himself master of seve- ral countries and places in Lesser Asia, be- longing to the Grecian empire : and having, in the year 13U0, at the city of Carachil'er, assumed the title of emperor of the Oth- mans, called his people after his own name. This prince, among many other towns, took, in the year 132G, Prusa, in Bithynia, now called Bursa, which Orchan, his son and successor, made the seat of his empire. Orchan sent Solyman nnd Amurath, his two sons, on an expedition into Europe ; the former of whom reduced the city of Callipolis, and the latter took' Tyrilos. Amurath succeeded his father in the go- vernment, in 1360 ; took Ancyra, Adriano- ple, and Philippopolis ; and, in 1363, over- ran Servia, and invaded Macedonia and Al- bania. Bajazet, his son and aaceeisor, waa very successful both in Europe aiid Asia, de- feating the Christians near Nicopolis ; but, in 14ul, he was routed and taken prisoner by Tamerlane. His sons disagreed; but Mahomet I. enjoyed the sovereignty, and his son Amurath II. distinguished himself by several important enterprises, and par- ticularly in the year 1444 gained a signal victory over the Hungarians near Varna. The Byzantine empire was already cut off from the west, when Mahomet II., the son of Amurath, and his successor, at the age of twenty-six, completed the work of conquest. It is said, that the reading of ancient historians had inspired him with the ambition of equalling Alexander. He soon attacked Constantinople, which waa taken, May 29, 1453; and the last Paleo- lot;us, Constantine XI.. buried himself un- der the ruins of his throne. Mahomet now built the castle of the Dardanelles, and organized the government of the empire, taking for his model Nushir- van's organization of the Persian empire. In 14.56, he subdued the Morea, ana iu 1461, led Comnenus, emperor of Trebizond, prisoner to Constantinople. Pius II. called in vain upon the nations of Christendom to take up arms. Mahomet conquered the remainder of Bosnia in 1470, and Epirus in 1465, after the death of Scanderbeg. He took Negro- pont and Lemnos from the Venetians, Caffa from the Genoese, and, in 1473, obliged the khan of the Crim Tartars, of the family of Genghis khan, to do him homage. In 1480, he had already conquered Otrauto, in the kingdom of Naples, when he died, in the midst of his great projects against Rome and Persia. His grandson, Selim I., who had dethroned and murdered bis father, drove back the Persian power to the Eu- phrates nnd the Tigris. He defeated the Mamelukes, and conquered, in 1517, Egypt, Syria, and Palestine. During fifty years, the arms of the Ottomans, by sea and by land, were the terror of Europe and of Asia, especially under Solyman II. the Magnifi- cent, also called the Lawgiver, who reigned between 1519 and 1SG6. In 1522, he took Rhodes from the knigltjts of St. John, and, by the victory of Mohaez, in 1526, subdued half of Hungary. He exacted a tribute from Moldnvia, and was successful against the Persians in Asia, so as to make Bagdad, Mesopotamia, and Georgia subject to him. BKVBRAIi FAKTS OF THE TURKISH nOSIINIONS ARB TIRTIIAI.LT INnBrBNnBRT. MO COUMTkT II KOIIB KBOOLSNT OV FHUITI AHO ILOWBBS TUAN TURKIT. 764 ^Y;c ^rcasuiQ oC 1I)i»torD, ^c. lie w«* already threatening to overrun Ger< manTi and to plant the atandard of Maho- met in the weat, when be waa checked be* fore thewalU of Vienna, iu 1639. But a* Hungarr had placed ita king, John Zapo- lya, ander the powerful protection of the padiihah, and the lucoeiaful corsair Bar- oaroana v>* matter of the Mediterranean, had conquered Northern Africa, and laid waite Minorca, Sicily, Apulia, and Corfu, the tultan Soljrinan might hare conquered Europe, had he known how to give iirm- neit and coniistency to his plana. He was resisted at sea by the Venetians, and the Genoese Andrew Doria, by the grand mas- ter Lafalette in Malta, and by Zriny, under the walls of Zigcth. Twelve sultans, all of them brave and warlike, and most of them continually vic- torious, had now, durini^ a period of two centuries and a half, raised the power of the Crescent ; but the internal strength of the Stat., waa yet undeveloped. Solyinan, indeed, b> his laws, completed the organ- isation begun by Mohammed II., and in 1538 united the priestly dignitv of the cali- phate to the Ottoman porta ; but he could not incorporate into a whole the conquered nations. He also imprisoned his successor in tlie seraglio. From this time, the race of Osman de- generated, and the power of the Porte de- clined. From Solyman's death, iu 1566, to our own time, most of the Ottoman sove- reigns have ascended the throne from a prison, and lived in the seraglio until, as It not unfrequently happened, they again exchanged a throne for a prison. 8eve- ral grand viaiers have, at different periods alone upheld the falling state, while the nation continued to sink deeper into the grossest ignorance and slavery ; and uachas, more rapacious and more arbitrary than the aultan and his divan, ruled in the provin- ces. In its foreign relations, the Porte was thcisportof European politicians, and more than once was embroiled by the cabinet of Versailles in a war with Austria and Russia. While all Europe was making rapid pro- gress in the arts of peace and of war, the Ottoman nation and government remained inactive and stationary. Blindly attached to their doctrines of absolute fate, and elated by their former military glory, the Turks looked upon foreigners with con- tempt, as infidels. Without any settled plan, but incited by hatred and a thirst for conquest, they carried on the war with Per- aia, Venice, Hungary, and Poland. The re- volts of the janizaries and of the governors became dangerous. The suspicions of the despot, however, were generally quieted with the dagger and the bowstring; and the ablest men of the divan were sacrittced to the hatred of the soldiery and of the ulema. The successor to the throne frequently put to death all his brothers ; and the people looked with indifference upon the murder of a hated aultan, or the deposition of a weak one. Musiapha I. was twice dethroned ; Os- man II. and Ibrahim were strangled, the former in 16S3, the latter in \(Ha. Selim II., indeed, conquered Cyprus in 1671, but in the same year, don John of Austria ds> fcated the Turkish fleet at Lepanto. \ century after, under Mahomet Iv., in 1669 Candia was taken, after a resistance of thirteen years ; and the vitier Kara Muits- pha gave to the Hungarians, who had been oppressed by Austria, their general, count Telceli, for a king, in 1683; but, the very next year, he was driven back from Vienns, which he had beseiged, end, after the de- feat at Mohaes, in 1687, (he Ottomans loit most of the strong places in Hungary. The exasperated people threw their sultsg into prison ; but, in a ahort time, the grand vizier, Kiuprili Mustapha, restored order and courage, and recalled victory to the Turkish banners ; but he was slain in the battle against the Germans near Sulan- keinen, in 1691. At last, the sultan Mus- tapha II. himself took the field ; but he was opposed by the hero Eugene, the con- queror at Zentha, in 1697; and, on the Don, Peter the Great conquered Asopli, He was obliged, therefore, by thet 'reaty of Carlowitc, in 1699, to renounce \in claimi upon Transylvania and the country be. tweeu the Danube and the Theias, to give up the Morea to the Venetians, to restore Podolia and the Ukraine to Poland, and to leave Azoph to the Russians. Thus commenced the fall of the Otto- man-power. A revolt of the jauizariei, who, abandoning their ancient rigid diui. pline, vi'ished to carry on commerce, and live in houses, obliged the sultan to abdi- cate. His successor, the imbecile and vo. luptuous Achmet III., saw with indiffe- rence the troubles in Hungarv, the war of the Spanish succession, and the great northern war. Charles XII., whom he protected after his defeat at Pultawa, fi- nally succeeded iu involving him in a war with Peter; but the czar, although sur- rounded with his whole army, easily ob- tained the peace of the Pruth, by the >ur- render of Azoph, in 1711. In 1716, the grand vizier attacked Venice, and took the Morea ; but Austria assisted the republic, and Eugene's victories at Feteruardein and Belgrade in 1717, obliged the Porte to give up, by the treaty of Passarowitz, in 1718, Teineswar, Belgrade, with a part of Servia and Wallachia, but still it retained the Morea. Equally unsuccessful were Achinet's arms in Persia; in consequence of which an in- surrection broke out, and he was thrown into prison in 1730. In 1736, the Russian general MUnmich humbled the pride of the Ottomans; but Austria, the ally of Russia, was not successful, and the French ambassador in Constantinople effected the treaty of Belgrade, by which the Porte re- gained Belgrade, with Servia and Walla- chia. Catherine, empress of Russia, soon after her elevation, began to make it a favourite object in her plan of politics to gain a dic- tatorial ascendancy over the king and diet of Poland. This she effected partly by the M THK88ALT 18 BBPUTRn AS BKINO THK OABnEN OP BUBOFBAN TUBKKT. la IC CODRTBT II rBOraHTX lO IKIVCVKI AI in TUmiBT. intrig I* and penuaiive bribe* of brr mi- nuter at the court of Waraaw, and partly br marchin(( a powerful ariov into that kiDgdom ! but at icon ai tliii hostile atep wu taken, the Porte took the alarm, ana> ilimulated by jealoutv of its northern rival, ftsolved to aupport the liberties and inde- pendence of ine Pole*. These resolutions being formed in the dlran of Constantinople, M. Obreskow, the Itaisian resident there, was, according to the constant practice of the Turks on such occasions, committed a prisoner to the castle of the Seven Towers, (Oct. 5, 1/68.) War was declared against the empress of Bussia, and the most vigorous preparations were made to collect the whole force of the empire. The court of Russia was far from seeking a rupture with the Porte, being fully employed in important objects nearer home; but being uuuble to prevent s war, two armies, amounting together to 150,000 men, were formed, at the head of the lar(|est of which prince Gallitzin crossed the Dniester, and entered Moldavia, with a view of becoming master of Choczin; but the prudent measures taken by the Tur- kish vizier frustrated all his attempts, and obliged him to repass the river. The im- patience of the Turks to pursue these ad- vantages, and to transfer the seat of war into Fodolia, excited a general disgust at the cautious and circumspect conduct of their leader; in consequence of which he was removed, and Maldovani Ali Pacha, a man precipitate and incautious, appointed in hi* stead ; who, by repeated attempts to cross the Dneister in sight of the Russian trmy, lost in the short space of a fortnight 34,000 of his best troops; which spread •uch general discontent through the army, that, renouncing all subordination, the troops retreated tumultuously towards the Danube, and no less than 40,000 men are taid to have abandoned the standard of Mahomet in tliis precipitate flight. The Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wal- lachia were overrun by the Russians, and most of the places of strength became easy preys to the conqueror. The campaign, which opened so auspiciously for the Ot- tomans, oy the rashness and folly of their general ended in their disgrace and ruin. The vizier was degraded and banished. The czarina, who almost from the com- mencement of her reign had endeavoured to establish an eflicient naval force, which, under the skilful superintendence of sir Charles Kuowles, had been successfully ef- fected, now caused a large fleet of Russian men-of-war, commanded by count Orlow, to proceed from the Baltic to the Mediterra- nean, to annoy the Turks on their ext<>s:ive coasts in the Levant. The unskilfulness of the Russians in maritime affairs greatly re- tarded the progress of their fleet; and it was not until the spring of I770> that it ar- rived at the scene of action, although many experienced British officers were volunteers in the expedition. The Turks, to whom the sea lias ever proved a fatal element, for some time had no force capable of op- posing the enemy, so that the Morea was exposed to their ravages, and several plarea of strength were Uken ; the Grrek inhabi- tants every where joyfully received the in- vaders ; but at length an army of Albanians being collected, they drove the Russians to their ships, and having recovered the whole country, chastised the revolt of its inhabi- tants by the lawless vengeance of a licen- tious soldiery. The Russians, now driven from the Mo- rea, had advanced in full force into the Egean sea, and, passing the straits which divide the island of Scio from the coast of Natolia, were met by a Turkish fleet of lu- perioT force. A furious engagement ensued on the 6th of July, in which the Russian admiral Spiritof encountered the captain pacha, in the Sultana of 90 guns, vara arm and yard-arm. The two ships running close together, grappled each other. The Rus- sians, by throwing hand grenades, set the enemy's ship on tire, which rapidly spread, and soon readied the Russian shi|f. This dreadful spectacle suspended the action be- tween the two fleets, until both ships blew up. Only twenty-four Russians were saved, among whom Were the admiral, his son, and count Theodore Orlow; the ship car- ried 90 brass guns, and had on board a chest containing £00,000 rubles (n2,&0U{. sterling.) Although each fleet was equally affected by this event, yet it infused a panic among the Turks, which the Russians did not par- take of. During the remainder of the day the Turks maintained the action ; but on the approach of night, the captain pacha, contrary to the ndvice of his officers, gave orders for each ship to cut its cables, and run into a bay on the coast of Natolia, near a small town anciently called Cyssus, but now known by the name of Ciiisme. Hos- sein Bey, who had raised himself by hi* ta- lents for war to be second in command, saved his ship by bravely forcing his way through the enemy's fleet. Here the Rus- sian fleet soon after blocked them up, and began a furious cannonade; which being found ineffectual, a fire-ship was sent in at midnight, on the 7th of July, which, by the intrepid behaviour of lieutenant Pugdale, grappled a Turkish man-of-war, and the wind at that moment being very high, the whole Ottoman fleet wa* consumed, except one man-of-war and a few galleys which were towed off by the Russians. The Rus- sian* the next morning entered the har- bour, and bombarded the town and a castle that protected it ; and a shot happening to blow up the powder magazine, both were reduced to a heap of rubbish. Thus, through the fatal misconduct of a com- mander, there was scarce a vestige left, in a few hours, of a town, a castle, and a fine fleet, which had all been in existence the day before. It is somewhat remarkable, that this place was rendered famous by a great victory which the Romans |;ained there over tlie fleet of Antiochus, in the year before Christ 191. The Turkish fleet consisted of flft4»n IN GRNEEAL THII TURKS AKB KXCESSIVELY FROUO, ARBITUART, AND SENSUAL. fj Z TUI OULTIVATUE Of TUB lUIb III TUBKIT II •■NSkAI.Iif OtrRlltlO. 766 1S^\)t ^rca»ury of ¥|istoro, ^t. •hip* of the line, from sixty to ninrty euni, beilda • number of xebec* and gaTleyi, •mounting tn the whole to near thirty lail. The Rusiilaua had only ten thini of the Unp, and fl«e frijcatet. The Turkish fleet being thui annihilated, it might have been expected that the Ruieian admiral would have ahaken the Ottoman emuire to its very foundations i that he would have put It to the proof how far the Dardanelles were effectual for the defence of the Hel- lespont. Had he proved successful against thi)se celebrated barriers, Constantinople itself, the seat of empire, must have fallen into his hands. It seems evident that the views of Russia did not extend to the effect- ing such a purpose ; her ileet, during the remainder of the war, was only employed in making descents on the Turkish islands, and with little or no success. In that apace of time the Kreat Russian army having passed the Danube, found its progress in Bulgaria stopped by I he range of moutitains which intersects that coun- try, whilst it was continually harassed by detachments from the Turkish camp. The expences of the war were sevcrcljr felt by each empire, and although that of Russia had gained the aR<>endancy, no beneficial consequences had been realii:ed. In this state of affairs, the grand seignior Musta- plia III., emperor of the Turks, died, Jan- uary 31, 1774. in tlie fifty-eighth year of his •gc, and seventeenth of his reign ; he ap- pointed hit brother Abdulliamet to succeed him in the throne. The war was continu- ed with spirit ; but a large Turkish army, commanded by the reis effeudi, being most dis);racel'ully defeated by general Kamen- ski, tlie Porte, no longer able to maintiun the war, was compelled to receive terras from tlie conqueror. A peace was signed on the 2I«t of July, 1774, at Kainardgiac, to rHtily which the mufti issued his fetfa, or ordinance, in which, to the great degra- dation of Ottoman pride, it was said, that, " seeing our troops will no longer light the Russians, it is necessary to conclude a peace." The treaty of peace consisted of twenty- eight articles, by which, among other ad- vantages, the Russians obtained a free nnvi- gation in all the Turkish seas, togctlicr with the passage through the Dardanelles. Russian consuls were likewise to reside in the Turkish sea-ports. Although peace was, upon these condi- tions, restored, yet it socm became appa- rent that the latent ambition of Catherine caused her to meditate the utter subver- sion of the Turkish empire, and to indulge in the hope that she herself should ellect it. To t)ring forward tliis grand design she made a progress from Moscow to tlie Crimea, with all the pageantry of imperial state. Whilst on this journey she received a visit from the emperor of Germany, Jo- seph II.. and, as the visits of potentates are generally fatal to the peace of the world, lh■ BtiaiBLi TO tub aiouBiT orrioki in tub itatb. V^l^t 1^i»to(u o< ^nrbcQ. 760 tnd M*KiBni, inlenpcncd in thoie parti. Tb« euaiice of that worablp prkncipallT (outiitad kn adoring Iba planata and it sad •tarti annia and imBgea they honoured aa Inferior deitiaa, whoea intarceeeiona with tb« Almiitht* in their favour the; implored t thef believea in one Ood: in tlic future pun- iabment of the wiolied, for a Iouk aeriet of ;r«ri, though not for everi and conitantljr prayed three tiniea a day ; namely, at aun- riie, at ita declination, and at tunaet i they futed three timea a yeart during thirtr dajii, nine dayi, and levan daya ; they of- fered many lacrillcea, but ate no part of them, the whole being burnt i they like- wiie turned their fncce, when praying, to a particular part of the horiion i the* per- formed pUgrimagea to the city of llarran in Meiopotamia, and had a Kreat reapect for the temple of Mecca and the pyramida of EKTpt, imagining the latter to be the •epulclirea of Beth, alio of Enoa and 8abi, kia two aoni, whom tlie> coiiridered aa the founder! of their religion. Ueaidaa the book of Pialmi, they had other bucks which they eiteemed equally lacred, particularly one, in the Chaldee tougue, which they called "ilie bonk of iJelh." They have been called " Christiani of St. John the Hnptiit," whoie diiciplei alao they pretund to be, uiiiig a kind of baptiam, winch i» the Kreati at murk they bear of Chriitianity: circuiiiciaiun waa practiaed by the Arabi, although 8ale la lijeut on that practice, when dearribing the religion of the Sabiani; they likewiae ibaiained from awino'a flcih. 80 that in thii aect we may trace the caaential articlea of the creed of Muasulmani, Mahomet waa in the -lOih year of hii age when he aiaumed the character of a pro- phet ; he had been accuaiomed for aevernl yean, during the month of Ramadan, to withdraw from the world, and to lecrete himielf in a cave, three milea diatant from Mecca I " converiation," aaya Mr. Gibbon, " enrichei the underitandtng, but lolitude ia the achool of geniui." During the ttrat three yeara, he made only fourteen uroae- lytei, among which were hii wife Khndi- jnh; hia aenrant, or rather slave, Zeid Ali, who afterwarda married the prophet's fa- vourite daughter Fatima, and was aurniuned " the lion of God :" Abubekar, a man dii- tinguiahed for hia merit and hia wealth; the reit conaiated of reapectable citizens of Mecca. The Koreiahites, although the tribe from which he sprung, were the most vio- leut opposers of the new religion. In the tenth year of his prophetic ottice his wife died; and the next year, his enemies having formed a design to cut him off, and he being seasonably apprised, fled by niglit to Medma on the 16th of July, 622, from which event the Hegira commenced : he was ac- companied only by two or three followers, but ne made a public entry into that city, and aeon gained many proselytes, on which be assumed the regal mid sacerdotiil cha ractcrs. As he increased in power, that moderation and humility, which' hud be- fore distinguished hia conduct, were gradu- ally erased, and he became tierce and san- guinary 1 ha began to avow a dailgn of SropagRtmg hia religion by tha sword, to eatroy the monuinenta of Idolntry, and, without regarding tha aanetity of daya or montba, to pursue the unbelieving natiuaa of the earth. The Koran inculcates, in tha most absolute aeuae, the tenets of faith and predeatinaiion. The Arat companiona of Mahomet advanced to battle with a fear- leas conltdrnce, their leader having fully pollened their minds with the assuranet that paradise awaited those who died Aght- ing for the cause of their prnuhet, the Kraliflcntions of which were held out to e such as best suited the arooruus com- plexions of the Aral)iana : llouries of black- eyed girls, resplendent in beauty, btoduiing youth aud virgin purity; every inuinent of pleasure was there to be prolonged to a thousand years, and the powers of the man were to he increased nn bundrrd-fuld to render him capable of such felicity: to those w ho survived, rich spoils and the pos- sessions of tluir female captives were to crown their conquests. Mahomet was pre- sent at nine battles or sieges: and flfty cn- ternrises of war were acliieved in ten years by niniaelf or his lieulcuants. Seven years after his flight from Mecca he returned to that city, where ho was publicly recognized as a prince niid prophet: the idolatrous wornhip of the C'aalia whs imniediiUclyabo- lialicd, and succeeded bv the aiiiiplic.ly of the Mahometan eaiabliahnieiit. This Arab lawgiver retained both hia mental and bodily powers unimpaired till he reached hia 6U(h vear, when his health began to decline, and lie himself suspected that a slow poison had been adminiatcrcd to him by a Jewess, under the effects of which he languished ; but his death waa caused by a fever, in the C3d year of hia age, the 632d of the Chris- tian era, and lUth of the Hegira. There are some particulars told respecting Ma* hoinet, which have gained general belief, although void of all foundation : such is the story of the tame pigeon, which the people were taught to believe imparted religioua truths to the car of the prophet ; the epi- leptic tits, which have been said to cause him to fall down as in a trance, he ia not supposed tp have been subject to ; and the suspension of his iron coffin at Mecca is a moat absurd falsehood, it being well known that be was buried at Medina,, in a atone coffin. Of the chapters of the Koran, which are 114 in number, the Sieur du Rver makea ninety-four to have been received at Mecca, and twenty at Medina; but, according to Mr. Sale, a much better authority, the cotn- mcntniors on the Koran have not flxed the place where about twenty of these revela- tions were imparted ; so that no inference can be drawn now far the prophctnad pro- ceeded in his pretended inspirations when he fled from Mecca ; neither does the order in which they stand pornt out the time when they were written, for the 7-lth chapter ia supposed to have been the flrst revealed, and the (38th to have immediately followed it. TIIK SUODEIf KI.RVATION AND fAM. OF rUBtlC OFFICEBS IS QUTIK COMMOS. a Z 3 T wane BATH! AND KHAN* AaK FOUHD IN MOST VARTI OF TVBmCT. 770 ^fft treasury of lliistore, $c(. The most amiable features in the religion which Mahomet establislied are. profound adoration of one God, whose names, or rather tirles, are amaziuKly diversified in the Koran; (theso are collected, to the amount of nine hundred and ninety-nine, and serve as a manual of devotion;) the daily oflfering up of prayers to him, which consist of short ejaculations; stated fasts, and a constant distribution of a larKe por- tion of lersonal property to the relief of the indigent and distresued: nor is the charity which is enjoined confined to alms-giving, but comprehends, in its fullest extent, ge- neral humanity and acts of beneficence to all MusBulnians. A general resurrection of the dead is another article of belief reite- rated in the Koran. Whatever superstitious practices adhere to it, oannot be imputed to priestcraft, for no religion that ever was promulgated to the world, the unadulter- ated religion of Jesus Christ excepted, so entirely excluded the influence of the priest- hood; it may indeed be called emphatically " the laical religion," since its founder had the address to obtain the most enthusiastic regard to his dogmas, without giving wealth or consequence to those who were ap- Sointed to illustrate and enforce them; in- eed, the Koran reproeohes the Christians for taking their priesi« and monks for their lords beside God. — The pilgrimage to Mecca, praying toward that place, and the ablutions which are enjoined on the most ordinary acts and occasions, together with the ado|>tion of that religious sophism pre- destination, in its most extravagant extent, seem to comprehend the superstitious parts of this religion ; but it has other character- istics which betray its spurious origin, and prove its destructive tendency. To compensate for the rigid fastings which it enjoins, and the disuse of wine which it requires, a most licentious indul- gence is allowed in the use of women ; and niough they may not, as has been imputed to them, deny to that sex a future state of existence, yet, as they consider women merely as instruments of grntitication, all those amiable qualities which the sex is, capiible of displaying when the faculties are properly expanded by a judicious aud libe- ral coarse of education, are suppressed us soon as formed. Another foul taint in this religion is, the abhorrence which it creates against all those who do not embrace the same doc- trines ; and also, the direct tendency of that faith to consign the human mind to a state of arrogant and incurable ignorance by considering the Koran as comprising every thing worthy of being known. The Arabs, from the genial influence of their climate, as well as from habits transmitted through so many generations aa to be formed into innate principles, were libidinous beyond most of their species, and no individual among tliem felt that propensity stronger thHU their prophet; neither policy nor in- ciinntion therefore prompted him to bring his disciples under severe restraints with respect to women; he ought not, however. to be denied the praise which is due to having in somo measure tempered the luat. ful fierceness of his countrymen ; and he may be said to have effected some reforma- tion, when he restrained his followers even to four wives, when he forbad inceatuoas alliances, entitled a repudiated wife to a dower from her husband, made adultery a capital oSience, and rendered fornication punishable by law. Besides the Koran, which is the written law to the MKh-.^.-'-ns, alike as to the be- lief and practice of religion and the admi- nistration of public justice, there is the Sunnah, or oral law, which was selected, two hundred years after the death of Ma! hornet, from a vast number of precepts and injunctions which had been handed down from age to age, as bearing the stamp of his authority. In this work the rite of circumcision is enjoined, concern- ing which the Koran was silent; nor was it necessary to be there commanded, as the Arabians adhered to it before this esta- blishment. By the express command of their founder, the Mahometans set apart Friday in each week for the especial wor- ship of God. They are ever assidtous to make converts to their faith, nor can they reject the most abject or profligate wretch, who declares his desire of becoming a true believer, even although they know him to be ignorant alike of their language and the principles of their religion. Charity, as already observed, is enjoined in the strongest terms in the Koran : and the Turks are remarkable for acts of be- nevolence to the poor and the distressed, and are even caretul to prevent the unfor- unate being reduced to necessities. They repair highways, erect cisterns of water for the convenience of travellers, build kah'.is or caravanseras for their reception ; and some devout people, it is said, erect sheds by the way side, that the weary traveller may sit under the shade and take his refreshment. In chap. iv. of the Koran, are the following injunctions; " Show kindness to thy parents, to thy relations, to orphans, to the poor ; to thy neighbour who is related to thee, and to thy neighbour who is a stranger; to thy familiar companion, to the traveller, and to the captive whom thy right hand hat taken : for God loveth not the proud, the vain glorious, the covetous, or those who bestow their wealth in order to be seen of men." They name their children as soon ai they are born ; when the father, putting some grains of salt into its mouth, and lifting it on high, as dedicating it to God, cries out, " God grant, my son Solyman, that his holy name may be as savoury in thy mouth as this salt, and that he may preserve thee from being too much in love with the world." As to the infants who die young, before they are circumcised, they believe they are aaved by the circumoision of their futh(r. Their children are not circumcised, like those of tlie Jews, tit eight days old, but a i SI e TUS USB OF THS WARM BATU IS UNIVRRSAL AM0:«a ALT. CLASSES. ruLtaAMX II AUTHOHItID BI THB XOBAll, BUT ROT OFTKR BBIOBTBB ffO. Vtfft 1|l3tOC9 of ^tttfcCQ. 771 at eleren or twelve, and tometimea at foar- tecD or fifteen years of age, when they are (ble to make a profession of their faith. When any renegado Christian is circum- eiied, two basins are usually carried after him, to gather the alms which the specta- tora freely give. Those who are uncircum- eiied, whether Turkish children or Chris- tians, are not allowed to be present at their public prayers; and if they are taken in their mosques, they are liable to be impaled or burnt. The fast of Ramadan is observed by the Tnrki exactly in the same manner as by the Persians. The feast of Bairam begins with the next new moon after that iast, and is published by firing of guns, bon- Ire*, and other rejoicings. At this feast the houses and shops are adorned with their finest hangings, tapestries, and sofas. In the streets are swings ornamented with featoons, in which the people sit, and are tossed in the air, while tney are at the same time entertained with vocal and in- strumental music performed by persons hired by the masters of the swings. They have also fireworks ; and, during the three day* of this festival, many women, who are in a manner confined the rest of the year, have liberty to walk abroad. At this time they forgive their enemies, and be- come reconciled to them; for they think they have made a bad bairam, if they har- bour the least malice in their hearts against any person whatsoever. This is termed the Great Bairam, to distinguish it from the Little Bairam, which tliey keep seventy days after. They have also several other festivals, on all which the steeples of the mosques are adorned with lamps placed in various figures. They regularly pray three times a day, and are obliged to wash before their pray- ers, as well as before they presume lo touch the Koran. As they make great use of their lingers in mating, they are required to wash after every meed, and the more cleanly among them do it before meals. Alter every kind of defilement, in fac , ablution is enjoined. By the Mahometan law a man may di- vorce his wife twice, and if he afterwards repents, he may lawfully take her again; but Mahomet,to prevent his follo u s R S « a N l>ERV0RHi:«0 TUiail DBVOTIONB, THB TU!1K» TAKK Orf Tll«in tnORS. TUB VKINCIFAI. BIVKR* Of ISOI* BISB IN THB BIMAbATAU MOUNTAina, m » •a •4 M o f> a B u a «B if » M K IS 4 * H e B •4 »• O THE HISTORY OF INDIA. As the Hindfla (or Hindoos) never had any historical writings, all the information to be obtained respecting the original in- habitants of India is gleaned from popu- lar poems or the accounts of foreigners. How vague and unsatisfactory such ac- counts always are, and how mixed with fa- bulous invention, the result of all researches in such labvrinths most abundantly proves : we shall, therefore, make but a biief ana- lysis of it. Under the name of India the ancientr. included no more than the peninsula ou this side the Ganges, and the peninsula beyond it, having little or no knowledge of the countries which lie farther east- ward. By whom these countries were ori- ginally peopled is a question which has given rise to much speculation, but which, in all probability, will never be solved. Certain it is, that some works in these parts discover marks of astonishing skill and power in the inhabitants; such as the images in the island of Elephanta, the observatory at Benares, and many others. These stupendous works are, by Bryant, attributed to the Cushites or Babylonians ; and it is possible that the subjects of Nim- rod, the beginning of whose kingdom was in Shinar, might extend thenigelves in this direction, and thus fill the fertile regions of the east with inhabitants, before they migrated to the less mild and rich coun- tries to the westward. Thus would be formed for a time that great division be- twixt the inhabitants of India aud other countries; so that the western nations knew not even of the existence of India, but by obscure report ; while the inhabi- tants of the latter, ignorant of their own origin, invented a thousand idle talcs con- cerning the antiquity of their tribes. According to Hindvi tradition, then, and the popular legends of their hardc, their country was at first divided between two principal families ; called in oriental phrase- ology, " the families of the sun aud moon." These were both said to be descended from Brahma originally, through the patriarchs Daksha and Atri, his sons. Vaiwaswat, (the sun,) had Daksha for his father ; and So- ma, (the moon,) sprung from Atn. The first prince of the f.^mily of the sun was named Ikshwaku, who was rucceeded by his grandson, named Kakutstha. But the most celebrated prince was Rama, the ton of Dasaratha, who was banished to tlip forests by liis t'athur for fourteen years, and was acRompunied there by 8ita, his wife, Sita having been carried off by Ravana, (or the ginnt with ten beads), who was king of Lanka, or Ceylon, Kama, assisted by SugrivR and Hanuman, (who are de- scribed a'i monkies), pursued bim to hii capital, took it, put him to death, and placed his brother Vibhishna on the throne. The t'/aditions of the south of India add' that upon Rama's victory, colonists came from Ayodhya, or Oude, cleared and tilled the ground, and introduced the arts of civilized life. Rama returned to Ayodh;a over which he ruled for many years ; and was succeeded by his son Kusa, whose posterity inherited the throne after him. Fururaves, the son of Budha, the sou of the moon, was the first prince of the lunar dynasty. His capital was Pratishthilna, at the confluence of the Ganges and Jumna. To him is attributed the discovery of tlie art of kindling fire. His eldest sen, Ayua, succeeded him. Ayus had t wo sons, Nahnsha, wlio suc- ceeded him; ind Kshetravtiddba, who es- tablished a separate principality at Kasi, or Benares. Nahusba'a successor was Ya- yati, who had five sons, the youngest of whom, Puru, he named as his successor. To the other four, whose names were Yadii, Turvasu, Druhya, and Ann, he gave the viceroyship, under Puru, of certain pro- vinces of the paternal kingdom. One of the descendants of Druhya was Gandhar, from whom the province now called Candahar, received its name. Tlie posterity of Anu established themselves from the south of the province of Belmr to the upper part of the Coromandcl coas^t. In fact, it appears that the descendants of Yayati colonized and introduced civilica- tion throughout the greater part of south- ern and western India. Among the descendants of Paru there were several celebrated princes; one of whom, named Bharata, tne son of Dush- yanta, ruled over a very extensive territory, so that India has been sometimes called after his name, Bharata Versha, the coun- try of Bharata. The most material facts that we next notice in these annals are, that some centuries after this, Hasti, a descendant of Puru, removed the capital further north, on the hauksofthe Ganges; which city was called after him, Hastina- pur: also that, four descents after Hasti, the sovereign of Hastinapur was Kuru, fi-om whom the country to the north-west was called Kurukshetra, a name it still retains. From what we have already produced as a specimen of the Ilindtl annals,— which we have endeavoured to give as free from mythological distortions as poss.ble, — it will be admitted that a further analysis of them, unless we had space sulhcient to H ID a * ■* i I s i rUB WlIOtK COURSE Olf TUB GANGES Ij RKCKOXiSl) AT ABOUT I.'JjO SUMS, TilK nUUBBB OV TBOail WUU SPBAK BEnUALBB IS ABOUT '26 UII.1.10NI, ^^e l^istoru of 3£ntJta. 773 make suitable comments u we proceeded, would be both uninterRstiDg and au unpro- fitable occupation of time. " The whole course of the political his- torr of ancient India," as I'roffgsor Wilson observes, " shows it to have neen a coun- try divided amougst numerous ]«etty rajalis, constantly at variance with one another, and incapable of securing their subjects from the inroads of their neighbours, or the invasions of foreign enemies. " The early religion of the Hindda, aa represented in the Yedas, seems to have been little more than the adoration of lire and the elements. The attributes of n Su- preme Being, as creator, preserver, and de- stroyer, were afterwards personiKed, and worshipped as the deities Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. Philosophical notions of matter and spirit were next embodied ; and cele- brated individuals, like the Jcmip;oda of Greece, added to the Pantheon: other mo- didcaiinns, some as recent as four or five centuries, were subsequently introduced. "The division of rtie Hindiis into castes is It peculiarity in their social condition, which early attracted notice ; but such an arrangement was not uncommon in anti- quity, and it prevailed in Persia and Egypt. In tiiese countries it gradually ceased ; but in India it has been carried far beyond the extent contemplated in the original system. " The orig^inal distinction was into Brah- man, religious teacher; Kshetruja, war- rior; Vaisya, agriculturist and trader; and Sudra, servile: but from the intermixture of these and their descendants, arose nu- merous otlier tribes or castes, of which the Hindis now chiefly consist; the Brah- man being the only one of the four original divisions remaining." The first among the western nations who Jistlnguished themselves by their applica- tion to navigation and commerce, and who were of consequence likely to discover these distant nations, were the Egyptians tnd Phoenicians. The former, however, soon lost their inclination for naval aftairs, and held all sea-faring people in detesta- tion; though to the extensive conquests of Sesnstris, if we can believe them, must this feeling in a great measure be attributed. He is said to have fitted out a fleet of 4(iO sail in the Arabian Gulf or Red Sea, nhich conquered all the countries lying along the Erythrean Sea to India; while the army, led by himself, marched through Asia, and subdued all the countries to the Ganges ; after which he crossed that river, and advanced to theEantern ocean. Stvabo rejected the account altogether, and ranks the exploits of Sesostris in India with the fabulous ones of Bacchus and Hercules. Soon after the destruction of the Baby- lonian monarchy by the Persians, we find Darius Hystaspes undcrtakiug an expedi- tion against the Indians. Herodotus in- forms us, that he sent Scylax of Carynndra to explore the river Indus ; who sailed from Caspatyrua, a town at its source, and near the territories of Pactya, eastward to the sea; thence, turning westward, he arrived at the place where the Phoenicians had formerly sailed round Africa, after which Darius subdued the Indians, and berame master of that coast. His conquests, how- ever, were not extensive, as they did not reach beyond the territory watered by tiie Indus ; yet the acquisition wos very impor- tant, as the revenue derived from the con- quered territory, according to Herodotus, « as near a third of that of the whole Per- sian empire. According to major Rennel, the apace of country through which Alexander sailed on the Indus was not less than 1000 miles; and as, during the whole of that naviga- tion, he obliged the nations on both sides of th%river to submit to him, we may be certain that the country on each side was explored to some distance. An exact ac- count, not only of his military operations, but of every thing worthy of notice relating to the countries through which he passed, was preserved in the journals of his three oSicera, Lagus, Nearchus, and Aristobu- lua; and these journala Arrian followed in the composition of hia history. From these authors we learn, that, in the time of Alex- ander, the western part of India was pos- sessed by seven very powerful monnrcha. The territory of Porus, which Alexander first conquered and then restored to him, is said to have contained no fewer than 2,000 towns ; andtlie king of the Prnsii hud assembled an army of 20,000 cavalry, 2,0UU armed chariots, and a great number of ele- phants, to oppose the Macedonian monarch on the banks of the Ganges. The country on each side the Indus was found, in the time of Alexander, to be in no degree inferior in population to the kingdom of Porus. The climate, soil, and productions of India, aa well as the man- ners and customs of the inhabitant;, axe ex- actly described, and the descriptions found to correspond in a aiifi^ruMg manner with modern accounta. Th° '. icd. The descripti. !• oi tl>e inhabi' t.ti ire equally paiti nlar, tlieir living "ntirely upon vegetabl'jf! 'heir division mt '.ribea or caates, «it)'. w.i: y -T he particulariiics of the modern Hindoos T'le mi'^tary ope- ration!', howe' er, exterd- ■; but a very little way into India pipperiy so railed; no fur- ther indeed than the modern province of Lahore, and tiie rountrica on the banks of the Indus, from Mi u tan to the sea. On the dentil ir' /»;exander, the eastern part of hia dominions devolved first on Pytho, the son of Agenor, and afterwards on Seleucus. The latter was sens, be of the advantages of keeping India in ibjec- tion. With this vicwyhe undcru. ' r. ,;- pcdition into that country, part y to con- firm his authority, and partly to defend the Macedonian territories against Sand-acor- tus, king of the Prasii. Tlio particulurB .if THOSE WHO SFKAK HI.NnOSTAKKK ARR NOT VKWKR THAN 20 MIH.IONS, turn DlallMCTIOMI nkTWKKN TUB CAt. Ill INDIA ABH UVTKH AB8UUU, n m •) m m H H H M M u ■ s « « a o M It > M M H 77-4 ^l^e ^rcBSttCQ of l^tstorp, $cc. hia expedition are very little known ; Justin being the only author who mentioni them. Plutarch tells us that Seleucus carried iiis arms farther into India than Alexander; and Pliny, whose authority is of consider- ably greater weight than either, in this in- stance, corroborates the testimony of Plu- tarch. The career of Seleucus in the east was stopped by Antigonus, who prepared to in- vade the western part of nis dominions. The former was, therefore, obliged to con- clude a treaty with Sandracottus; but Dr. Robertbon is of opinion, that during the lifetime of Seleucus, which continued forty- two years after the death of Alexander, no diminution of the Macedonian territories took place. With a view of keeping. up a friendly intercourse with the Indian prince, Seleucus sent Megaathenes, one of Alex- ander's officers, to Palibothra, capital of the kingdom of the Prasii, on the banks of the Ganges. This city is by Dr. Robertson thought to be the modern Allahabad, but major Rennel supposes it to be Patna. As Megaathenes resided in this city for a con- siderable time, he made many observations relative to India in (""neral, which he after- wards published. I! He mingled with his relations the most extravagant fables; auch as accounts of men with ears so large that the; could wrap themselves up in them ; of tribes with one eye, without mouths or noses, &c., if the extracts from thia book, given by Arrian, Diodorua, and other an- cient writera, can be crdited. After the embaaay of Megaathenes to Sandracottus, and that of his son Damaichus to Allitro- chidas, the successor of Sandracottus, we hear no more of the affairs of India with regard to the Macedonians, until the time of Antiochus the Great, who made a short incursion into India, about 197 years after the death of Seleucus. All that we know of this expedition is, that the Syrian mo- narch, after finishing a war ha carried on against the two revolted provinces of Par- thia and Bactria, obliged Sophagasenus, king of the country which he invaded, to pay a sum of money, and give him a num- Der of elephants. It is probable that the successors of .Antiochus were obliged, soon after his death, to abandon all their Indian territories. After the loss of India by the Syrians, an intercourse was kept up for some time be- twixt it and the Greek kingdom of Bactria. This last became an independent state about sixty-nine years after the death of Alexander; and, according to the few hints we have concerning it in ancient authora, carried on a great traflic with India. Nay, the Bactrian nionarchs are said to have conquered more extensive tracts in that region than Alexander himself had done. Six princes reigned over this new kingdom in 8uccessi(Mi; some of whom, elated with the conquests they had made, assumed the title of the great king, by which the Per- sian monarchs were distinguished in their highest splendour. Strabo informs us, that the Bactrian princes were deprived of their territories by the Scythian noraades, known by the names of Asii, Pasiaui, Tacliari and Scaurauli. This is conttrmed by the t'esti mony of the Chinese historians, quoted by M. de Guignes. According to them, about 126 years before the Christian era, a power ful horde of Tartars, pushed from their na- tive seats on the confines of China, and obliged to move farther to the west, poured in upon Bactria like an irresistible torrent overwhelmed that kingdom, and put rd end to the dominion of the Greeks, after it had lasted nearly 130 years. From this time to the elose of the fif. teenth century, all thouglits of establish^ ing any dominion in India were totallv abandoned by the EuropeAos. The only object now was to promote a commercial intercourse with that country; and Egypt was the medium by which that intercouise was to be promoted. Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, first raised the power and splendour of Alexandria, by carrying on a trade with India. His son Ptulemy Philudelphus pro- secuted the same plan very vigorGusly. In his time the Indian commerce once more began to centre in Tyre ; but, to remove it eSectually thence, he attempteid tt form a canal between Arsinoe on the Red Sea near the place where Suez now stands, and i the Pclusiac, or eastern branch of the Nile. ' This canal was about lOU cubits broad, and thirty deep ; so that by means of it the productions of India might have been cou- veyed to Alexandria entirely by water. On the conquest of Egypt by the Ro- mans, the Indian commodities continued, as usual, to be imported to Alexandria in Egypt, and from thence to Rome ; but the most ancient communication betwixt the east and west parts of Asia seems never to have been entirely given up. Syria and Palestine are separated from Mesopotamia by a desert; but the passage through it was much facilitated by its affording a sta- tion which abounded in water Hence the possession of this station became an ob- ject of such consequence, that Solomon built upon it the city colled in Syrian Tad- mor, and in Greek Palmyra. lioili these names are expressive of its situation in a i spot adorned with palm trees. Thou<,'h its situation for trade may to us seem very un- favourable, being sixty miles from the Eu- phrates, by which alone it could receive the Indian commodities, and 2(10 miles from the nearest coast of the Mediterranean; yet the value and small bulk of the ^oods in quesiiou, rendered the conveyance of theri by a long carriage overland not only practicable, but lucrative and advantage- ous. Hence the inhabitants beeame opu- lent and powerful, and this place long maintained its independence after the Sy- rian empire became subject to Rome. The excessive eagerness of the Romans for Asiatic hixuries of all kinds, kept up an unceabing intercourse with India during the whole time that the empire continued in its power; and, even after the destruc- tion of the western part, it was kept up be- tween Constantinople and those parts of B ! 8 1 « 1 m I u M « S H K i 80CIRTT IN HINDOSTAN IS COMPOSED OF UItfCOH»ANT MATERIAtS. IBB DUTIHCTIOMI or 0*«TN NA«N 1H» dMAIIAOtail OV HINOOO tOCIBTT. ^I^c lliftoro o( atnTJia. 775 India which had been vUlted formnrty by merchants from the we«t. Long Iwfurti (ItIN period, however, A much htitt* dim ship, who lived »buut eivlitv yt<«r« lifter Egypt had been annexed lo iUu tUi- man empire. This man having oh««'rvi>4 ibe periodical khifting of the imomhoon)*, and now steadily they blew fruiit tli*< «»«)! to west during some months. veMtur(«4 to leave the coast, and sail hiildiy aotODK titit Indian Ocean, from the mouth of (he Arn* bian Gulf to Musiris, a port on thd MmIa bar coast; which discovery wan ftnikmnA t matter of such importanoe, timt (li(t name of Hippalus was given lo tlM* wtt(4 bf which he performed tltu voyage, ('l)iiy gives a verj particular acouunl of the itiMti aer in which the Indian traltlo w»» mow carried on,mentioning the pariieulnr Mtttgi4« and the distances between them. While the Seleucidee continued (0 miny the empire of Syria, the trade with Itidi* continued to be carried on by land, 'fhw Rouians, having entended their doitiJflloiiM at far as the Euphrates, found this UM'tltod of conveyance still estAhtished, and (h(t tr^du was by them encouraged Aii4 ^ftt tected. But the progress ofthe (iarAVNtm beintc frequently interrupted by (he i'ltr tbians, particularly when Iht'y trHVfll>i4 towards ttiose countries where silk Hii4 other of the most valuable nmnufHiilurON were procured, it became an objedl to tliD Romans to conciliate the friendship oC (li« lovereigna of those distant countr)««, Dr. Robertson takes notice, tlwtt, ttmn the evidence of an Arabian Hiercltant wli« wrote in 862, it appears, that not oitlv (he Saracens, but the Chinese also, were ilesti' tute of the mariner's compass t eontrary to a common opinion, that this ins(riim« ton in China. A regular eoniitiBWB w«» now carried ou ii m the Persian Uulf to all the countries Uing betwixt it and (ihilia, and even with China itself. Many Naraceim settled in India, properly so called, MS Wtll as in the countries beyond it. III llie (f)ly of Canton they were so numerous that H)H emperor permitted theni 10 have a cadi m judge of their own religion i the Arahtaii lantsuage was understood and simki i'»" m:iining ruins, appears to have been a Vi iy large place. The Indian histurittiis tfimi', I tint It contained 30,000 shops in which liftiil nut was (told, and 60,000 sets of mu- sli'lanf and singers who paid a tax to go- vttfitinent. The third kingdinn was that orl/H«li«mire, Arst mentioned byMassoudi, who xlvi>s n short description of it. The foiirin kingdom, Quxerat, is represented by the same author as the most powerful of lh« whole. Another Arab writer, who flou- rhtllKd about the middle of the fourteenth (..'. "hose viipital was La- hore. In 1184 l:;8 f'ins wove expelled by the Gauri, and in 1194 Mohammed ''ori penetrated into Viniilostan as far as >'.' nnres, committiii;; a. great devastation as Mahmud Gaziii ha• ; X * I M " I HK WHO KATS BRKF IS NO HINDOO, BUT AM UTTSU Otj'TCAST. THR MOSUL KMriRV WA« CONaol.lDATBD VHOBR AVRUNSIBBK, IN 1700. V^lit l^istore o( Sntiia. 777 Ian, defeating the Indians everywhere, and •UuglitcriniK the worihipperi of Are. Un Ike 25th of March Ihii iniatiable conque- ror retired, leaving Mahmud in poMemion of the throne, and reserving only Punjab to himself. The death of Mahmud III., in 1413, put an end to the I'atan dynasty. He was suc- ceeded by Chizer, a descendant of Maho- met, and his posteritv continued to reisn until 1460, when Alia II. abdicated the throne, and Belloli, an Afghan, took pos- Mition of it. Under him a prince who re- tided at Jionpour, became so formidable, that he left him only the shadow of autho- rity. Belloli's son, however, recovered a ^at part of the empire, about 1601, when iie made Agra his residence. In the reign of Ibraham II. sultan Baber, a descendant of Tamerlane, conquered a considerable part of the empire. His first expedition was in 1618; and in I52a he took Delhi. On the death of Bnber, who reigned only five years, his son HumaiooD was driven from the throne, and obliged to take shelter among the Rajpoot princes of Ajimere. The sove- reignty was usurped by Sheer Khan, who in 1545 was killed at the seige of Cheitou. His territories extended from the Indus to Bengal; but the government was so un- settled, that no fewer than live sovereigns succeeded within nine years after his death. This induced a strong party to join iu re- calling Humaioon, who is said to have been a prince of great virtue and abilities ; but he lived only one year after his return. Upon his death, in 1555, his son Ackbar.one ofthe greatest princes that ever reigned in Uiudostan, succeeded He was then only fourteen years of age; but, during his lung reign of nfty-one years, he established the empire on a more sure foundation than it had probably ever been before. We are now come to a period when the European powers began to be interested in the affairs of Hindustan. The Cape of Good Hope had been duublcti in I lie rfi^n of John n., king of furtt;$al: Kmunuol, his successor, equipped foiu- ships, fur the discovery of the Indian coast, and gHve the command to Va»ca dc Gama; who, liaving weathered several storms in his cuise along the eastern coast of Africa, JMiided in Hiudoslan, at'ter a voyage ai thirteen months. This country, whieh has simre been al- most entirely reduced by war mder a fo- roipn yoke, was, at the time o' the arrival of the Povtuguese, divided oetwecn the isinga of Cambaya, Dellii, ilisnagur, Nar- iiiigim, and Culicut, e>'.i'li of wliich reck- oned several sovereigns among their tribu- taries. The last of these raonarchs, who is better known by the name of zamorin, which signifies emperor, possesbcd the most maritime states, and his empire ex- tended over all MalabHr. Vasco de Gama having informed himself of these particulars when he touched at Melinila, hired an able pilot to conduct him to that port, iu which trade was the most flourishing. Here he furtunatcly met with a Moor of Tunis, who understood the Portuguese language, and he put himself under his direction. He procured Gama an audience of the lamurin, who proposed an alliance and a treaty of commerce with the king his master. This was upon the point of being concluded, when the Mus- siilmen interfered, who so far swayed the monarch from his purpose, that he resolved to destroy the adventurers, to «'liom he had just before given so favourable a re- ception. The zamorin, who wanted neither power nor inclination, wanted courage to put hi* design into execution ; and Gama was per- mitted to return to his fleet : he sailed for Lisbon, which he reached in safety, and was received with rapturous joy by the people. The pope ofave to Portugal all the coasts they should discover in the east: and a second expedition soon after took place, under the command of Alvarez Ca- bral, consisting of thirteen vessels. They first visited Calicut, where fifty Portuguese were massacred by the inhabitants, through the intrigues of the Moors, ('abral, in re- venge, burnt all the Arabian vessels in the harbour, cannonaded the town, and then sailed to Cochin, and from thence to Ca- nanor. The kings uf both these towns gave him spices, gold, and silver, and pro- posed an alliance with him against the zamorin, to whom they were tributaries. Other kings followed their example; and this infatuation became so general, that the Portuguese gave the law to almost the whole country of Malabar. The port of Lisbon had now become the grand mart of Indian commodities- To secure and extend these advantages, it was necessary to establish a system of power and commerce. With a view to these ob- jects, the court of Portugal wisely reposed its confidence in Alphonso Albuquerque, the must discerning of all the Portuguese that hud been in India. The new viceroy acquitted himself beycmd mperlation. lie fixed upon Gun, where there was a good harbour and wlioleHUMic air, as an esta- blit^hnieiit, heinK situated in the middle of Malabar, belonging to the king of the Dec- can, and which soon alter became the me- trnpnlis of all the Portuguese settlements m India. As the government soon changed its schemes of trade iiitn projects of conquest, the nation, which had never been guided by the true enmmercial spirit, soon as- sumed that of rapine and plunder. In re- ference to tills we may observe, that of all the conquestii made by the Portuguese iu India, they possess at present only Macao, Diu, and Gua: and the united importance uf these three settlements in their inter- course with India and Portugal is very in- considerable. Towards the close of the 16th century, Drake, Stephens, C&vendisli, and some other liliiKlish navigators, by doubling Cape i Horn, and the Cape of Good Htipe, veached I India. The success attending these first I voyages, was sufficient to determine some n g> m m M a K ft o i4 o *■ o ■ ft •a < h O M « B a B < a H BRITAIN F0RSBSSK5 MORE POWlill IK INDIA THAN AVIIIINGZKIIK KVKR HAD. UA ..J ?■■ MOST UONOVMABIil BMrLOTKaNT !■ THAT Of TUB rHIKlTUOOD. 778 ^\H ^ITreasurB of l^ifttorg, $cc. of the principal merchants in London to eatabliili a company in 1000, which obtain- cdan exclutive privilege of trading to the Bait Indies for nfteen years. The funds of tliis companr were, in the beginning. Inconsiderable. They fltted out four ships, which sailed in 1601, under Lancaster, an able man, who arrived with them, in 1603, at the port of Achen, at that time a celebrated mart. He was received by the king with the highest marks of res- pect, and had every favour shewn hira that could be wished for, to faciliate tlie eitab- lishuient of an advantageous commerce. The Enelish admiral was received at Ban* tarn in tne same manner as at Achen ; and a ship, which he had dispatched to_ the Molucca islands, brouKl't him a consider- able cargo of cloves and nutmpgs: with these valuables, and pepper, which he took in at Java and Sumatra, he returned safe to England, The company now determined to form settlements, but not without the consent of the natives. They applied to James I, for assistance, but obti^ined none. Tliey, however, out of their small funds, erected forts, and founded colonies, in the islands of Java, Poleron, Amboyna, and Banda. They likewise shared the spice trade with the Dutch, who soon became jealous of their rising prosperity. They at first pro- ceeded by accusations, equally void of truth and decency, to make the English odious to the natives of the country ; but these expedients not meeting with success, they resolved to proceed to acts of violence ; and the Indian ocean became the scene of the most bloody engagements between the maritime forces of the two nations. In 1619, the two companies signed a treaty, signifying, that the Molucca islands, Am- boyna, and Banda, should belong in com- mon to both nations. The Dutch, however, not only soon found means to render the treaty ineffectual, but to drive the English from Abo^na. This latter transaction was replete with so much cruelty, that it will remain a lasting stigma on the Dutch na- tion. The English, harassed in ever^ mart by th(r Dutch, who were bent on their des- ; tructiun, were obliged to give way to their power. India was totally forgotten ; and ' the company was greatly reduced at the death of Charles I. Cromwell, proud of his success, and sen- sible of his own strength, was piqued that the republic of the United Provinces should pretend to the dominion of the sea, and de- clared war Bgainat the Dutch. Of all the maritime wars which have been recorded in history, none were conducted with more knowledge and bravery ; none have abound- ed with more obstinate and bloody engage- ments. The English gained the superiority, and peace ensued. — But to return : Under Ackbar's successor, Jehan Guire, the war was faintly carried on, the empire being disturbed by his rebellious son SImh ! Jehan, and his councils distracted by the in- ' fluenceof his mistress NonrJelian. In this I monarch's reign Sir Tiiomas Roc, the first British ambassador at the court of Hindos- tan, arrived. Jehan Guire died in Wij and was succeeded by his son Shah Jehan 'who pushed the conquest of the Detcanwith vigour, but in so destructive a manner, that most of the princes submitted, A war next broke out with the Portuguese, which ended iu their expulsion from Hoogly. Shah Jehan was a debauched prince; and his rebellion against bis father was reta- liated by that of his aon Aurengxebe, who dethroned him, disguising his ambition under the mask of religion, and commit. ting the greatest crimes under that pre- tence. He engaged in a war with bis bro- thers Morad and Dara, whom he defeat, ed and put to death, and then pretended to lament their misfortune. He, however treated his father with tenderness till bit death in 1666. From 1660, when Aurunr- cebe attained full possession of the throne till 1678, a profound tranouillity prevail! ed throughout lb* empire ; but from a jea- lousy of Sevagee, the founder of the Mah- ratta states, he undertook the conquest of the Deccan ; and, having quelled a rebel- lion of the Fatans beyond the Indus, he persecuted the Hindoos so sever^lyK-jliat the Rajpoot tribes in Ajimcre cuameiiced a war against him. At his death in 1707, his empire extend. ed from lO^ to 35° latitude, and nearly as many degrees in longitude. " His re- venue, " says major Rennel, " exceeded 35,U(I0,000{. sterling, in a country where provisions are about four times as cheap as iu England, But so weighty a sceptre could be wielded only by a hand like Aurungzebe's i and, accordingly, in fifty years after his death, a succession of weak princes and wicked ministers reduced tliia astonishing empire to nothing." He left four sons ; Mausum, Azan, Kaum- Bush, and Ackbar, This last had rebelled against his father, and been obliged to 11^ to Persia thirty years before. A civil war commenced between Mausum and Azem ; and a decisive battle was fought, wherein SUU.OOO men were engaged ou each side, and Azem was defeated and killed. Mau- sum then assumed the title of Bahader Shah, and, during his short reign of five years, gave proofs of considerable abilities. He defeated and killed his brother Kaum. Bush ; after which he reduced thUU,0UU<. sterling, Alter a conference with the emperor, Nadir seized upon 200 cannon, with some treasure and jewels, which he sent off to Candahar. He then marched back to Delhi, where a com- motion arose about the price of corn. While Nadir endeavoured to quell it, a shot was lired at him, and narrowly missed him ; upon which the barbarian ordered a general massacre of the inhabitants, and sJHughtered l*2U,00(i, or, according to some, 150,000 persons. This was followed by a leisure of all the jewels, plate, Inc., which could be found; besides, exacting the 3li,000,000{., which was done with the ut- most rigour. In the midst of these scenes Nadir caused the marriage of his son to be ce- lebrated with a grand-daughter of Au- rungzebe, and then took leave of the em- peror, with professions of friendship, on the 6th of May, 1739. He is saud to have carried off goods and treasure to the value of 13a,000,UOU(. sterling. Mohaiumed had also ceded to him all the provinces of Uiu- dostan west of the Indus. About the same time the Rohillas, a tribe from the mountains between India and Persia, erected an iudependent state on the east of the Ganges, eighty mile* from Delhi. The empire seemed now to be running fast to its dissolution. Nadir Shah being murdered, Abdallah, one of his generals, seized on the east part of Persia, and the adjacent Indian provinces which Mohammed Shah had ceded to Nadir, and formedtliem into the kingdom of Kandahar. In 1739 Moliamnied Shnh died, and was succeeded by his sod Ahmed ; during whose reign, which lasted only six /"tars, the divi- sion of the remainder of the empire look placet and nothing remained to the family of Tamerlane but a small tract of territory round Delhi. In 17-18 the Nitam Al MulcV died, at the ace of 1U4, and was succeeded bv his son Nazir Jung, to the prejudice of his elder brother Oasi, visier to the nomina'. empe- ror. The contest that followed on this occa sion, for the throne of the Deccan and the nabobship of Arcot, first engaged the Bri- tish and French to act as auxiliaries on op- posite sides. Immediately after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the French command- ant, M. Dupleix, began to sow dissension among the nabobs, who had by this time usurped the sovereignly of the country. On this occasion Mr. (afterwards lord) Clive lirst appeared in a military capacity. He had been employed before as a writer, but seemed very little qualided for that de- partment of civil life. He row marched towards Arcot at the head of 310 Euro- peans and 500 sepoys ; and in his Urst ex- pedition displayed the qualities of a great commander. His movements were conduct- ed with such secresy and dispatch, that he made himself master of the enemy's capital before they knew of his march ; and gained the affections of the people by his genero- sity, in affording protection without ransom. In a short time, however, he found himself invested in Fort St. David's by r»jah Saib, son to Chunda Saib, an Indian chief, pre- tender to the nabobship of Arcot, at the head of a numerous army; the operations of the seige being conducted by European engineers. But Mr. Clive, having intelli- gence of the intended attack, defended him- self with such vigour, that the assailants were every where repulsed with loss, and obliged precipitately to raise the seige. He then marched in quest of the enemy ; and, having overtaken them in the plains of Arani, attacked and entirely defeated them. This victory was followed by the surren- der of the forts of Tiinery, Conjaveram, and Arani I after which, he returned in triumph to Fort St. David's. In the be- ginning of I7&3, he marched towards Ma- dras, where he was reinforced by a small body of troops from Bengal. Though the whole did not exceed 300 Europeans, with as many natives as were sufficient to give the appearance of an army, he boldly pro- ceeded to a place called Koveripank, about fifteen miles from Arcot, where the enemy lay to the number of 1,500 sepoys, 1,700 horse, with 150 Europeans, and eight pieces of cannon. Victory was long doubtful, until Mr. Clive having sent round a detachment to fall upon the rear of the enemy, while the English nttucked the entrenchments in front with their bayonets, a general con- fusion ensued, the enemy was routed with conHid»!rable slaughter, and only saved from total destruction by the darkness of the night. The French to a man threw down thuir arms on this occasion, and surren- dered themselves prisoners of war ; all the B O H m m IS w M 4 J TUK ClllllSTIANS ADOUNl) MOST IN TUB SOUTHKRN FAllTS OF INDIA. ■ AOH rKIIIOINCI IAS ITS llirABAtl AKMT, COMI -iR-oyitr, Ac. 760 ^f)c ^uasurtf of l^(jstort), Sec. baggage and cannon fklling at the same tima into the handi of the victors. M. Dupleix, motlifled at thit bad lue- ee«a, proclaimed rajah Saib, ion of Cliunda Baib, nabob of Arrot ; and afirrwardi pro- duced foriced cunimiiiiona from the areat MoKul, appointinK him Kovernor of all the Carnalir from the Kriitnah to the lea. To carry on this deception, a mestengcr prucended to come from Delhi, and was re- ceived with all tliR pniiip of an aiiibas«ndor from the K^eat MokuI. Dupleix, mounted on an olephHnt and preceded by music and dancing women, after the oriental fashion, received his commission from the hands of this impostor; aftn which he affected the atale of an eastern prince; kept his diirbus at court, appeared sitting cru8S-lc|;K<^d on a sofa, and received presents as snverciKn of the country, from his own council as well from the natives. Thus the forces uf the English and French East ' ndia companies were enitaged in a course (. ' hostilities, un- der the title of auxiliaries o the contend- ing parties at a time whtii no war existed between the two nations. Next year both parties received consider- able reitifurcenients ; the Enalish by the arrival of admiral Watson with a squadron of ships of war, having on board a regi- ment commanded by colonel Aldercroon ; and the French by M. Gadeheu, commis- sary and governor general of all their set- tlements, on wliose arrival M. Dupleix de- parted for Europe; and a provisional treaty and truce were concluded, on condition that neither of the two companies should for the future interfere in an^ of the diifer- ences the' might take place m the country. Maf'.rs, iiowever, did not long continue in a state of tranquillity. Early in 17i>5 it appeared that the French were endeavour- ing to get possession of all the Deccan. M. Bussy, the successor of Dupleix, demand- ed the fortress of Golconda, from 8alabat Zing ; and M. Leyrit encouraged the go- vernor who rented Velu to talce up arms against the nabob. He even sent 300 French and as many sepoys from Fondicherry to support this rebel, and oppose the English employed by the nabob to collect his reve- nues from the tributary princes. Aliverdi Khan, an able and prudent sub- abdnr, who had for fifteen years been nabob of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, having died in ir&6, 8urnj»h Dowla succeeded to the nabobship. He was congratulated on his accession by Mr. Drake, the English pre- sident at Calcutta, and readily promised protection to his countrymen ; but he soon after took offence at the impri-onment cC Oniichund, an eminent Gentoo merchant, who had lived several years under the protection of the English government. Of this circumstance, however, Surajah did not directly complain ; but founded his pre- tence of war upon the conduct of the Eng- lish in repairing the fortitications of Cal- cutta; which indeed was absolutely neces- sary, on account of the great probability of a war with the French. The nabob, how- ever, threatened an attack if the works were not instantly demolished. With this requisition the ^resident and council ure- tended to cuniplV' '^'ii they nevertiicleii went on with thfin. 'luraiah DowU took the tteld on the .Mi>t!i uf May, I7&fi, sitb an army of 40,013 foot, 30,000 horse, nt 400 elephants; and nn the 2nd of June, detached S0,(>0" men to invest the fort st Cnsstumbaznr, a large town on an island formed by the n est branch of the Gaiivcs. This furt was regularlv built, with iiity cannon, and detended by 30U men, prin- cipally sepoys. The nabob pretending s desire to treat, Mr. Watts, the ehirf of the factory, was persuaded to put hiniitlf in his power; which he had no sooner done, than he was made a cluae prisuiirr, along with Mr, Batson, n surgeon, who sc- coinpaiiied him. The two prisoners «rre treated with great indignity, and ihrrstcn- ed with death; but two of the council who had been sent for by the tyrant's command were sent back again, with orders to per- suade the people of the factory to surren- der at discretion. This proposal met wiih great opposition ; but was at last cmiplicd with, though very little to the alvsitSKeof the prisoners ; for they were not only de- prived of every thing they possessed, but stripped almost naked, and sent to Huogly, where they were closely conflned. The ns- bob, encouraged by this success, marched directly to Calcutta, which he invested on the ISth. It was impossible that the gnrrisnn cnold long defend themselves againist the great force brought against it; little or no at- tempt was therefore made at resistance: the fort was consequently soon taken, and the effects of the factory destroyed. Many of the English escaped in boats and eliipi down the river, but many were taken ; of these, 146 were confined lor the nlKht in s room twenty feet square, named the Black- hole, and which the English had made for a place of confinement. The dreadful heat and want of air ouickly deprived some of existence ; others lost their reason, and ex- pired raving mad ; their entreaties and of fers of money to their guards to give them water, or to remove them, were mocked st or disregarded ; and when the door of the dungeon was opened next morning, only twenty-three were taken out alive. Having plundered the town, Surajah Dowla de- parted, leaving in it a p;arrison of 3000 men. The news of this disaster put an end to the expedition projected against M. Bussy ; and colonel Clive was instantly dispatclied to Bengal with 400 Europeans and 1000 sepoys, on board of the fleet commanded by admiral Watson. They did not arrive till the 15th of December at a village called Fulta, situated on a branch of the Ganges, where the inhabitants of Calcutta had taken refuge after their misfortune. Their first operations were against the forts of Bus- budgia, Tanna, Fort William, and Calcutta, now in the hands of the enemy. All these were reduced almost as soon as they ap- proached them. Iloogly, the place of ren- dezvous for all nations who traded to Ben- s ■ s u s' 5i mSCIFLINB IS MAINTAINED DT IMrBlrONMEKT, NOT DT PI.OGGINO. Tlia COTTUN rLANt If UBUWN IN AI.MOIT KVaMT r*kT or IMIIIA. Vl\)t l^istors of lEnUia. 781 1^1, (lit wMTChouMi and ihopi beinK al- •tfi tiled with the richeit merchaiidiie a( the couDtry), wm likewite reducrd and deitroyed, with the icrannrtei and ilore- bouiet of lalt on each tide of the river ) I which proved very detrimttnial to the na- I bob, hy depriving nim ol' the lueani of lub- liiKDce lor hi* Arni|r. I tfurajah Dowla, enrai^ed at the lucceia ! of the EnRliih, now teemed dctcrinincd to I eraih them at once by a general engage- ment. From thi», howevvr, he was intiiiii- dtled by a luccesaful attHi'k on Ilia camp, ' vhich induced him to conclude a trciity.on i the 9th of February, l/A/, on the I'ollowing ' cooditinns :— I That the privilegei Kranteii to the English by the Mogul tliouldnot be diiputed ■.—•i. 7'hat all goods with English orders should pass bv land or water, free of (ny tax:— a. All the company's facto- ries which had been srited ny the nabob ihould be restored ; and the goods, money, tad effects accounted for: — 4. Tbut the Enitlish should have liberty to fortify Cal- cutta : and 6. To coin their own gold and iiW«r. As intelligence was now received of a vtr between France and England, an at- tack was meditated on Chanderuagore. It remained, therefore, only to obtain the con- irnt of the nabob; but, in ten days after the conclusion of the treaty, he sent a let- ter to admiral Watium, complaining of his intention, and surmising that the English designed to turn their arms against him u soon aa they made themselves masters of Chandernagore. This was strenuously denied by the admiral; and a number of letters passed, in which the latter made use of expressions which were supposed to imply a tacit consent that Chanderna- gore should be attacked. An attack was therefore made, and it toon capitulated. This intelligence, however, teemed to be by no means agreeable >>j Sur^jah Dowla. He pretended displeasure on account of the English inlrinij;ing the treaties, and complained that 'iiey had ravaged tome garts of his dominions. This was denied y the admiral ; but from this time both parlies made preparations for war. Tlie nabob returned no answer till the 13th of June, when he sent a declaration of war. The English council at Calcutta now re- solved on the deposition of the nabob; which at this time appeared practicable, by supporting the pretensions of Meer Jaf- tfcr All Cawn, who had entered into a con- spiracy against him. Meer Jafiler had mar- ried the sister of Ailverdi Cawn, the prede- cessor of Surigah ; and was now supported in his pretensitm* by the general of the horse, and by Jugget Seet, the nabob's banker, the richest merchant in all India. Colonel Clive bexan his march Hgainst Surajah Dowla on the 13th of June. The decisive action at I'lnatey followed (June 23), in which the treachery of Meer Jaf- lier, who commanded part of th^ nabob's troops, stood neuter during the engnge- meiit, and rendered the victory eaxy. At day-break the nabob's army of l.i.UUU horse and 15,U0l) foot, advanced to attack the English. Clivr't troons were posted in a grove defended by niudbanki. After can- nonading them till noon, the enemy retired to their fortitiit'l caniu; and thortiv alter, Clive stormed an angle of it, put them to the rout, and pursued them lor a space of six miles. The uiifortunHie nabob lied to his capital, hut lelt it the followiiiK even- ing disguised like a faquir, with only two atleiidnnts. Uy these he appears to have been abandoned ami even robbed; for on the Urd of July he whs louiid wandering for- inken and iiliiiost nuked on the road to I'litna. Next dny he was brought back to Muxadabad, and a few hours alter privately beheaded by Meer Jnltier's eldent son. Meer Jattlrr ainl I" Enxlish alliet now took possession of ' iiital in triumph. Un the 2!)lh ol Jii< nel Clive went to the palace, and, i uee of the rajaht and grandees of tin . mw i, solemnly handed him to the uiusnud (or mrpet) and throne of state, where he was unanimously saluted tubahdar, or nabob, and received the sub- mission of all present While these trans- actions were going forward, the utmost ef- forts were used to expel the Frehch en- tirely from Bengal. It had all along, in- deed, been the opinion of Clive that it was impossible fur the French and the English to co-exist in India. Both parties now received considerable reinforcements from Europe; admiral I'o- cock being joined on the 'Mth of March by commodore Stevens with a squadron of live men-of-war and two frigates; having on board general Lally with a large body of troops. The British admiral went in quest of the French licet, and an engagement took place, in which the French were de- feated with the loss of CUU killed and a great number wounded. In the treaty concluded by Clive with the new tubahdar, it was stipulated that one hundred lacs of rupees should be paid to the East India Company for their losses and the expenses of the campaign, with compensation to ail the sufferers at the taking of Calcutta: the company was also to have the semindary, (or right of farming the produce of the soil claimed by the crown) of a tract of country to the south of that city. The subahdur was also pro- fuse in his donations to those to whom he was indebted for his throne. Ilis gifts to Clive amounted to 18U,UU0/. ; and however much the latter may have been censured at the time for receiving a reward from the tubahdar, he was justified by the usages of Asia, and there seems to be no reason nhy he should refuse a gift from the prince whom he had so greaily hcuelitted. The remainder ol the year 175'J proved entirely Invuuruble to the British arms. D'Achc, the French ndiniral, who had been very roughly handled hV Hiluiiral I'ocoek on the 3rd of August, 17r>S, hiiviiin rtiitted his fleet, and iieiiig reinforced by tuice ineu-of- war at tlie isilands ul Mauritius und Bour- bon, now ventured once more to lace his aniii.i;unist. A third battle eneued un the JII.K PA0UIC8 Ot UINDOSTAS AKK NOT Fdl.'AI, TO TIIO.SK OP mlNA. M A I ] IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // >.**% 1.0 I.I 1^ |2.8 12.5 U£ 1^ |2.2 m 1.25 |M ^ ^_ 6" -■ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^.4ls tHB BBITIIB •OTBBHMBUT IB IBBIA IB AM BMUaBTBBBD BBtrOVUM. 782 ^^e (SPrcasure of l^istotQ, $cc. lOth of September, 1759. when the French, notwithetanding their luperiority both in number of abipt and weight of metBl, were obliged to retreat with con«iderable loss, having 1600 men killed and wounded, while those on board the Engliih fleet did not exceed 570. Bjr the 17th of October the Britiih fleet was completely refitted ; and admiral Pocock, having been joined by a reinforcement of four men-of-war, «oou af- ter returned to England. All this time the unfortunate general Lally had been em- ployed in unsuccessful endeavours to re- trieve the affairs of his countrymen: but his fate was at last decided bv laying siege to Wandewash, which had lately been taken by colonel Coote. The advantage in num- ber was entirely in favour of the French general ; the British armr consisting only of 1700 Europeans, including artillery and cavalry, while the French amounted to 3300 fSuropeans. The auxiliaries on the English side were 3000 black troops, while those of the French amounted to 10,000 black troops and 300 Caffren ; nor was the difference less in proportion in the artil- lery, the English bringing into the field only fourteen pieces of cannon and one howitser, while the French had twenty five pieces in the field and five on their batte- ries against the fdrt. The battle began at noon (Jan. 22, 1760), and in three liours the whole French army fled towards their camp ; but quitted it on finding themselves pursued by the English, who took all their cannon except three small pieces. They collected themselves under the walls of Cheltaput, about eighteen miles from the field of battle, and soon after retired to Pondicherry. Colonel Coote now caused the country to be wasted to the very ^ates of this for- tress, bv way of retaliation for what the French nad done in the neighbourhood ot Madras. He then set about the siege of Cheltaput, which surrendered in one day ; a considerable detachment of the enemy was intercepted by captain Smith; the fort of Timmery was reduced by m^jor Monson, and the city of Arcot by captain Wood. This last conquest enabled tlie British to restore the nabob to his dominions, of which he had been 'deprived by the French, and it greatly weakened both the French force and interest in India. M. Lally, in the mean time, had recalled his forces from Syringham, by which means he aug- mented his army with SCO Europeans. These were now shut up in Pondicherry, which was become the last hope of the French in India. To complete their mis- fortunes, admiral Cornish arrived at Ma- dras with six men-of-war ; and, as the French had now no fleet in these parts, the admiral readily engaged to co-operate with the land forces. The coiisoqiience was the reduction of Carical, Chellam- brum, and Verdachellum, by a strong de- tachment under major Monson ; while co- lonel Coote reduced Permacoil, Almam- verpa, and Waldour. He was thus at luat enabled to lay siege to Pondicherry itsclt'; and the place capitulated on the ISth of January, 1761, by which an end was pm ta the power of the French In this part cf tkl world. While the British were thus enulovcd. Meer JaAer, the nabob of Bengal, wholud been raised to that dignity by the ninol Sungah Dowla, found himself in a very dis- agreeable situation. The treasure of the late nabob had been valued at sixty, four crore of rupees (about 80,000,0001. sierlinc) and in expectation of this sum, Meer Jsr- fier had submitted to the exactions of the English. On his accession to the govern, ment, however, the treasure of which hs became master fell so mueh short of expee. tation, that he could not fulfil his engsn. ments to them, and was reduced to the extremity of mortgaging his revenues. In this dilemma his grandees became factious and discontented, his army mutinous for want of pay, and himself odious to his sub- jects. To this it may be added, that Mr. Van- sittart, the successor of Clive, who knew but little of the merits of the respective pRrtiei, was willing to conclude a treaty with Coi- sim Ali, the nabob's son -ia- law, for hit dethronement ; by which the pro 'inces of Burdwan, Midnapore, and CliittHgonK. w«re to be made over to the company, and large rewards given to the members of council. Meer Cossim was accordingly ruied to the musnud; and the old nabob hurried into a boat with a few of his domestic* and necessaries, and sent away to Calcutta in a manner wholly unworthy of the high rsnk he so lately held. So unhlushiugly, indeed, was the whole of this affair conducted, that the servanta of the company, who were the projectors of the revolution, made no secret that there was a present promised them of twenty lacs of rupees from Cossim, who was desirous of making the first act of hit power the assassination of Jaffier ; and wat very much displeased when he found that the English intended giving him protection at Calcutta. It could scarcely be supposed that Meer Cossim, raised to the nabobship in thii manner, would be more faithful to the En- glish than Meer Jaffler had been. Nothiug advantageous to the interests of the com- pany could indeed be reasonably expected from such a revolution. No successor of Meer Jaffier could be more entirely in tub. jection than the late nabob, from his na- tural imbecility, had been. This last con- sideration had mduced many of the council at first to oppose the revolution ; and indeed the only plausable pretence for it was, that the administration of Meer Jaffler was to very weak, that, unless he was aided and even controlled by some persons of ability, he himself must soon he ruined, and very 'probably the interests of the company along with him. Meer Cossim, however, was a man of a very different (Usposition (mm hit father-in-law. As he knew that he hud not bet^u served by the English out of friend- ship, so he did not think of making any re- turn out of gratitude; but, intteud of thia, considered only bow he could must easily Bt/ROPKANS ARM TALLBB, STRONOKB, AND tlUOl HOBUST TUAN TUB HINDOOS. n uHUAi* tBB aiHaooi roiaiit mobb a«ii.i>i ta*ii tHB lUKoraAiia. JS^^t l^totors of SnUta. 783 bdk with Mch troabieaoine alliM. For ivhil*^ howefer, it wm necMMury for him to take all the advantage he could of hia illiuee vith them. By their aaaiatanee he drared hia dominiona of invadera, and lireagthened hia frontiera. and he reduced the rajab* who had rebelled againat hia ■iNidtecuor, obliging them to pay the uaual tnauM; by which mcana he repaired bia luDcet, and thereby aecured the fidelity ofhittroopa. Uaring thna, by the aasiitance of the Baglifb, brought hia govemme:?t into aub- l jeetlim, he took the moat effectual meana I if aeearing himtelf againat their power. * Ai the Ticinity of hia capital, Muxadabud, 4 ; to Calcutta, gave the Englioh factory there i I in opportunity of inspecting hia actions, • : ud interruptrng hia deaigna when they * I thought proper, he took up hia residence at • ! XoBxheer, a place 300 milea farther up the J I Oanget, which he fortified in the beat and , I moit npeditioaa manner. Sensible of the i [ ajvantagea of the European discipline, he i now resolved to new-moidel his army. For i tbii purpose he collected all the Armenian, ! Persian, Tartar, and other soldiers of for- tune, whose military characters might serve ' to raise the spirits of his Indian forcea, and ' abate their natural timidity. He alao col- ' leeted all the wandering Europeana who bad borne arma, and the aepoys who had been dismissed from the English aervice, aud distributed them among his troopa. He changed the faabion of the Indian match- locks to muskets, and made many excellent I improvementa in the discipline of hia army. ; But it was soon discovered that all the paina I taken by Meer Coasim to discipline his troops had not rendered them able to cope with the Europeans. Several acta of trea- cherous hostility on his part waa followed b; a formal declaration of war ; and several engsKementa took place, in all of which the British army proved victorious, and Coaaim's army retreaied. His active enemy accordingly penetrated into the heart of his . territories, crossed the numeroua branches of the Oangea, and traversed morasses and foreata in search of the native foe. At length the two armies met on the banks of a river called Nunas Nullas, Au^. 2, 1763. Cosaim bad chosen his post with great judKinent, and hia forcea nad much of the appearance of an European army, not only in their arms and accoutrements, but in their division into brigadea, and even in their clothing. The battle waa more ob- atinate than usual, being continued for four hours: but though the Indian army con- sisted of no fewer than 20,000 horse and 8000 foot, the English proved in the end victorious, and the enemy were obliged to quit the field with the loaa of all their can- non. It is impossible for us to pursue this history of Anglo-Indian warfare into all ita details. Our readers must, therefore, be content with rapid descriptions or passing rf marks, as may happen, in the narration of events sulHciently important in them- selves to require a lengthened notice in worka of magnitude wholly devoted to tha aubjcct. We pasa on, then, by observing that Meer Cossim waa aubdued and de- poacd, and that MeerJaffler waa once more aeated on the musnud. His reign waa, however, very short ; and on his death tha council of Calcutta raiaed to it hia aon, Nii^um-ud-Oowla, making him pay, aa uaual, a latge aum for hia elevation. The high charaeter which h>rd Cliva had already gained in the Eaat Justly marked him out for the government of India ; and on the Srd of May, 1785, he landed, with full powera aa commander-in-chief, preai- dent, and governor of Bengal. He remained in India about two years, during which period he effected the most deairable refor- mationa iu both the civil and military de- partments. Sujah-ed-DowIa, subahdar of Otade, and the nommal emperor of Delhi, Shah Alem II., having assisted Meer Cossim, the Bng- liah marched against them. Allahabad and Lncknow were taken. The nabob waa glad to purchase peace bv paying the eapenaea of the war; and the emperor conferred upon the English the revenues of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, and his imperial confir- mation of all the territories conquered by them within the nominal extent of the Mogul empire. The Eaat India Company had now acquired territory equal in extent to the most flourishing kingdom of Eu- rope ; and from this date, a. n. 1765, com- mences the recognised aovereignty of the English in Hindostan. It ia worthy of no- tice that, although actually independent, the great anbahdara continued to the laat moment of the empire to aolicit imperial firmana or patents from the court of Delhi, confirming them in the power they already possessed. In the south of India, besides the real authority in the Carnatie, the English had received the northern cireara in grant from the Nixaro, on condition of furnishing a body of troops in time of war. This alli- ance involved them iu a series of contests with Hyder Alt, who had made himaelf, aultan of the HindA slate of Mysore. The political importance acquired by the Eaat India Company induced the govern- ment of Great Britain to claim a ahare in the administration of the Indian terri- toriea ; and in 1773 it waa determined in parliament, that all civil and military cor- reapondence ahould be aubmitted to the king'a ministers ; that a aupreme court of judicature ahould be sent out from Eng- land ; and that the three presidencies ahould be subject to a governor-general and council, the former to be approved of by the king. Warren Hastings, the first govemor- ?eneral, found the company's finances in ndia much embarrassed, and a general confederation against the English in pro- gre'ss amongst the ndtive powers. Not- withstanding violent opposition in his council, he conducted the govrrnmrnt through its difficulties, repulsed Hyder, humbled the Mahrattas, and obtained from i e M *• s Si TUB HtnOOOS ARB TUB Biat BUKKBUS AND WBBSTI.BB8 IB ASIA. ■ IMD008 ABB •BNBHALLX IHABWD, WABT, ANO OALCULATINO rBOfLI. 784 ^^c ^reasurv of l|(stor|), ice. AMf-ad-DowU, the tubahdar of Oude, the Mmindary of Braaret. On his return to England, Warren Hasting* was impeached by the house of commons for corruption and oppression, and tried before the house of lords. The trial, owing to frequent inter- ruptions, was protracted for seven years, at the end of which he was honourably ac- quitted. Those proceedings, however, are not neoessarj to be here dwelt upon, as they beloa* more especially to the parlia- mentary history of England. During his twelve years' government in India, MTarren Hastings bad raiaed the revenue to double its previous amount ; but he had added twelve millions and a half to the debt of the Company. Lord Cfornwallis succeeded as governor- general in 17S6. The relations between the British government and those of Luck- now and Hyderabad, were revised and strengthenecl; and in a war with Tippoo Saib, who had succeeded Hyder in the principality of Mysore, lord Comwallis de- feated bis armies, and besieged his capital, Seringapatam. The sultan, to obtain peace, gave up considerable territory to the Bri- tish. It was under the administration of lord Comwallis, who was possessed of first- rate qualities for this office, that the princi- pid Judicial and revenue regulations, still in force, were enacted, particularly the per- petual settlement of the revenue of Bengal with the cemindars. In 1798 lord Comwallis returned to Eng- land, and was succeeded by sir John Shore ; but the pacific system of policy followed by him forfeited that consideration which the British government held in his predeces- sor's time amongst the native states. In 1798 he was succeeded by lord Momington, i^erwards marquis of Wellesley. Tippoo had greatly augmented his army, and many severe battles had .been fought between him and the British, but without humbling his tone, or much diminishing his power. For several years, in fact, the affairs of India bad continued in a state of doubtful tranquillity. The jealousy of the British was at length Justly aroused by a proclamation of the French governor of the isle of France, in 1798, which openly mentioned an alliance formed between Tippoo and the French republic, for the destruction of the British power in India. The governor-general, on this, demanded an explanation of him, which being evasive and evidently intended to procrastinate our military operations, the reduction of the fort of Seringapatam waa immediately re- solved on. After bavin {( been repulsed, with con- siderable loss, in an attack of the Bombay army under general Stuart, Tippoo Saib re- treated to Seringapatam. The main army, under general Harris, consisted of 31,000 men, besides the nitam's cavalry, all com- pletely equipped : that under general Stu- art was equally efficient. Ou the 3rd of April the army came within sight of Se- ringapatam, took its position on the 6th, and on the 6th the principal outposts were in possession of the British. BeversI let ters passed, and on the 20th general Hsr' ris received an overture of pesce from Tio poo, which he answered, on the 22nd, with '■ a draft of preliminaries ; but the ternii I were too severe for the enemy to accept I On the 3nd of May, therefore, the Brititlj i batteries began to open, and in the courH I of the dav a breach was made in the fsuiie- bray wall ; the main rampart was shst- ! tered ; and, to complete the miafortune of the besieged, a shot having struck their ' magatine, it blew up with a dreadful ex. plosion. The breach being thoui;ht prae- i ticable, on the night of the 4th ui' May 4uuo men were stationed in the trendies before day -break. The assault was led on bv general Baird, and began at one o'clock. Is sis minutes the forlorn hope had rearhed the summit of the breach, where the Bri- tish colours were instantly planted. In a few minutes, the breach, which waa too feet wide, was crowded with men. After s short conflict the panic became general in the fort ; thousands quitted it, and others laid down their arms. A flag of truce wai soon after sent to the palaccfof the aultan, offering protection to him and h:s frieiidi upon surrendering unconditionally. The young prince surrendered to general Bnird, and the body of Tippoo was afterwardi found in the gateway of the fort, lying among heaps of slain, covered with wounda. His dominions were now partitioned among his conquerors, and the Mahrattas were admitted to a share, from motives of policy, though they had taken no part in the war. A descendant of the ancient ra- jahs of Mysore, about five years old, waa sought out and placed on the throne with greiA ceremony, under certain conditional and the sons and relations of Tippoo were removed to the Camatic. Thus terminated one of the most important wars in which the Anglo-Indians had been ever engaged ; and for some time at least it securpj them firom the re appearance of a formid- able enemy, a. d. 1799. As the conquests of Tippoo and Hyder were retained by the British, and a aub. sidiary treaty had been formed with the nizam, by which the defence of hia domi- nions was undertaken by them upon hia providing for the expense, the greater psrt of the Deccan was now directly or indi- rectly subject to their authority. Arrangements were next concladcd with the nabob of Oude, by which the lower part of the Doab and other countries were ceded to the British for the support of a subsidiary force. Upon these transactions followed a war with the Mahratta chiefi, Scindia, and Ragoji Bhosla, rajah of Berar, whose armies were defeated in the south by ■ir Arthur Wellesley, brother of the gover- nor-general, and in the north by lord Lake ; and the upper part of the Douab, with Delhi and Agra, were taken posaesninn of in the north ; whilst in the soutli, Cuttack on the eastern, and part of Guzerat on the western coast, were annexed to the British dominions. A war with Holkar, another in TIOOVR AND MANIINRSS OP MINO THRT ARB INPBKIOil TO TBI ARABS. la 1814 ^^t m»totXi of SntJia. 785 llkhntt* prince, followed. He made a lipid ioeurtioD into the Douab, and com- giltted tome ravagea ; but waa pursued by lord Lake to the Sikh country, and all his lerritoriea occupied by a Brittth force. The I «bole> however, waa rcitored to him at the I Hhieh wat the aituation of Briliah India It the period of the marquis of Welleiley'a ' reiurn to Europe. He hud conducted our I ifiir* in tliii quarter of the ^lobe with an oriental maguifleence of deiign, and per* b«p« of expeoditnre ; but he aeems fairly , ' to tlaim the merit of haviug crushed in a 1 1 Bott masterly manner the alarniing com- binstions of Mahratta and French enmity, tad eoiircljf to have laid the basis of the metiures which were successfully follow- ed out by lord Coruwallis. 1 1 And here for a moment must we pause. Whilst we are thus slightly recording some of the actions of this great statesman, his funrral knell is tolling. Niiie-and-thirty years have almost passed away since he left tbit scene of eastern glory, where his wise conncils were so ably seconded by the bra- vely snd skill of a brother who has long lince earned the title of " the greatest cap- Uin of the age," and who, thank Heaven 1 itill survives, to vindicate, if necessary, the bonour of a grateful country. Glorious compeers I venerable ir. age, but more ven- erable still in noble patriotism I In 18U5 lord Wellesley was succeeded by lord Cornwallis, af^un appointed governor- general. His policy was of a pacific char- icter ; and upon his death, soon after his arrival in India, it was adopted bv his tem- porary successor, sir George Barlow. Lord Minto arrived in India in 1807. His attention was chiefly directed to the subju- gstiou of the remaining possessions of the French in the East ; and the Isle of France and Mauritias, and the large island of Java, were subdued by armaments fitted out in India. At the end of 1813 the marquis of Hast- ings arrived as governor -general. The de- termination of nis predecessors to abstain from interference with the native states had been attended vvith deplorable dis- sensions amongst themselves, and had en- eonraged them to commit outrages on the British dominions, the repressal of which toon led to active warfare. On the northern frontier the "onduet of the Oorkha govern- ment of Nepaul having provoked hostili- ties, the Himalaya was traversed by the British armies, and an extensive tract of mountain country permanently annexed to tlie state. The aggressions of the Findarees, a set of freebooters, secretly supported by the Mahratta princes, were next punished by the annihilation of their hordes. In ,1814 theie bands comprised about 40,000 horse. who subsisted wholly on plunder. In the course of the operations against them, the peishwa and the rajah of Nagpore attempt- ed, by treacherr and murder, to rid them- selves of British controul ; and hostillities ensued, which placed the territories and persons of both princes in the bands of their enemies, a. d. 1818. The Findarees were at first bodies of mercenary horse, serving different princes for hire during war, and in time of peace subsisting upon Elunder. Lands along the Nerbuddah had een assigned to some of their leaders by the princes of Malwa; and from hence they occasionally wade incursions into the Bri- tish provinces, devastating the country in the most ferocious manner, and disappear- ing before a force could be assembled against them. It was resolved, however, in the vear 1817. to hunt them into their native holds, and either to exterminate them, or to drive them from the position which they occupied, in the very centre of India. By the end of the rainy season of that year, a numerous array took the field for tb's purpose. The plan was, that the armies of the different urenidencies should advance southward, and gradually conver- ging to a coinraou centre, hem in, on every aide, the territory of the robbers. This was at length effected; the greater part of them being destroyed, and the rest hnm- bled to complete submission. Upon the re -establishment of peace. Puna, and part of the Mahratta territories, were retained, and the rest restored to the rajah of Satara. Appa Saib, the rajah of Nagpore, who had escaped from confine- ment, was deposed, and a grandson of the former rigah elevated on the throne. Holkar, a youth, was taken under the Bri- tish protection, which was also extended to the Rajput princes. By these arrange- ments the whole of Ilindostan was brought under the power or coatroul of the British government. In 18'23 the mnrquis of Hastings quitted his government, leaving British India in a proud and prosperous condition. At the end of tlie same year lord Amherst arrived from England. In 1824 war broke out with the Burmese, who had for many years given much trouble on the eastern fron- tier. An expedition was sent to Ran^joon, which, in the second year of hostiiiiies, advanced nearly to Ava, the capital ; and the Burman government was glad to iiur- cliase peace in 1826 by the cession or As- sam, Aracan, and the Tenasscrim provinces. The beginning of the same year was sig- nalized by the capture of Bliurtpore, a strnni; fortress in Upper India. Tlie more recent events in British India will be found given as fully as our limits would permit, in the latter portion of the history of England. 1» 1334 IBS LAST TXSTIGB Of MO.N0P0I.T WAS FINALLT tVT A!l BWn TO. LOnO AaiD TALLBII ADO ■AnOI OBItBTI. THE HISTORY OF PERSIA. Thr liinlti of tills molt ancient and cele- brated ttnpira have been variouiljr stated ; but its oriKtnal name was £lam, so called from tite son of Bhem, whose descendants wore Its Mrst Inhabitants. In the books of Daniel, Ksdras, fto., it is called by the names of Pars or Pharas, whence the mo- dern name of Fnrsia ; but from what those namci were derived it now uncertain. Prom the accounts of those who have roost studied the subject it would appear that the ancient kingdom of Persia was situated more to the east and northeast than the present t whence, until its autlio- ritjr extended over Media and Assyrin, it was hut little known to the nations of Eu- rope. It is sometimes spoken of as the kinifdoin of Dacirla, ft'om Balilica, or Balkh, its eauital i but is termed by Oriental wri- ters, Iran. The country beyond it consti- tuting modern Tariary, the Scythia of the ancients, is called by the orientals, Turan; and between these two, Iran and Turan, eolllsions were frequent in early times. The history of Persia flrst emerges from Iheobseurity of antiquity with Cyrus. Hys- taspei, the Median Cyaxares, or his con- temporary, under whom Zoroaster lived, belongs to the uncertain time before Cyrus. With Cyrus (6&0 — 629 >. c.) began the period of Persian power in tlie weat. By uniting the Persians and Medes under his sceptre, he mado them the ruling nation In weitern Asiat he conquered Croesus, took Babylon, ana reduced Asia Minor. Although the history of Cyrus is very ob- scure, it Is certain that he not only founded a vast empire, but established it by his ge- nius and valour. He defeated the Baby- lonians, together with all their numerous allies at the fnmous battle of Thymbra, overt uriied the monarchy, and made liim- self master of Babylon. He afterwards considerably extended his conriuests ; and the boundary of his vast empire was the rlvor Indus on the east, the Caspian and liuxine Seas on the north, the i^^ean Sea on the west, and /Ktulin, with the Arabian or IVrsInn Gulf, on the suuth. Although the charactei, cf Cyrus has bei4» Klven to us very differently by Xeno- plion and Ili^rodotus, it must be allowed, upon the whole, that he was both a power- ful and a worthy prince. He introduced a new dlielpliiio Into his army ; and furnish- ed theni with weapons for close eombat in- stead of bows and arrows, which contri- buted in a great measure towards liis ex- traordinary success. Having settled the civil government of (he coiiquured kingdoms, and restored the Jews to their own land, Cyrus took a re- view of all his forces, which be found to consist of 600,000 foot, 120,000 horse, vti 2O0O chariots armed with scythes. With these he extended his dominion all over tli« nations to the contines of Ethiopia and to the Red Sea; after which he coniinued to reign peaceaoly over his vast empire till Lit death, which happened about 529 a, c. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Camby. i ses (629—622), who conquered Tyre. Cj- ! prus, and Egypt. After him, a Magias ruled for a short time, who gave himieir out as Sm^rdis, brother of Canibyses. He was dethroned, and Darius Hyslaspea ob. tained the crown by lot, or the choice of his colleagues (521—487 a. c.) He reduced the revolted kingdom of Babylon, and sub- ; dued Thrace, Macedonia, and a small part i of India ; but his attempt to conquer the ; Scythians beyond the Danube was uniuc- i cessful. He reduced tlie Greek coloniet in Asia Minor, which had attempted to shake off the Persian yoke (501 b. c.) ; but he was unfortunate in his war against the ' European Greeks, and Egypt revolted from | him. His son Xerxes (487—467 b.c.) ef- '' fected the submission of Egypt, but was defeated by the Greeks on the Held of : Maratlion and at Salamis, and was obliged to defend himself against their attack* ia ' a disastrous war. I Under Artaxerxes Longimanus, {the Aha- \ »uenu of tlie Scriptures), the iirst tymp- i toms of decline became visible. Egypt ( again revolted, and was again conquered, I after a bloody struggle. The Greek var j terminated disadvantageously, in 449 b.c; : and Megabyzus excited a dangerous insur- 1 rection. The next changes of government j were rapid and violent. Xerxes II., Iiisonir ; legitimate son, was murdered, after a reign I of forty-iive days, by his natural brdther, I Sogdianus, who suffered the same fate lix j months afterwards, by the hands of ano- i ther illegiiimHte sou of Artaxerxes— Ocliui, who assumed the name of Darius II., and reigned until 404 b.c. under the induence of his wife Parysatia. The revolts of hit satraps hastened the decline of the empire, and the Persians were obliged to ackaov- ledge independent kings in Ei^ypt. But the internal troubles in Greece, of which the Persians artfully took advantage, saved them, for a time, from a united attack b; the Greeks. Artaxerxes (or Mnemon) uai entirely subservient to the will of his mo- ther, Parysatis. His brother Cyrus, who had been made governor of Asia Minor, supported by 10,000 Greeks, under Xeuo- phon, attempted to dethrone him, (4(10 B. c), but he was defeated and killed. Do- mestic dissensions obliged the Lacedse- TUKHK AUK fBW RIVBnS l» FBR.1IA ; BTBN STBEAHLBTS ABB BARB. TMB OBCUABDS OF FEBIIA ABB BICB IB ALL TUB FBUITB Of BDBOrR. ^^r l^istocQ of ^cisia. 787 monians to abanilon their advantnget in Alia Minor, and to conclude tiM diiad- Tanttgeou* peace of Antalcida* ^387 a. c.) The army of Cyrua coropriied a bod« of Greek mercenariea, who, alter tlie death of tlie prince, effected their retreat through tlie heart of Persia, in defiance of all at- tempti to cut tliem off. A oarticular ac- coant of this haa been given by their com- mander, Xenophon, and ia known aa " the retreitt of the ten thouiand." Artaxerxea III. aecured hia throne by patting to death hia numeroua brotheri. He re esiablithed the Persian supremacy over Phoenicia and Egypt, but waa a lusu- rioui and cruel prince. After a reign of 33 yean, he was poisoned by his minister. Bagoas, an Egyptian, in revenge for the iDdignities he had heaped on tlie religion of his country. Bagiias then gave the crown to Dariua Codoroanus, a prince of the blood, who was conquered by AUxan- der iu three decisive actions, on the Grani- eus, at Issus, and at Arbela, and lost his life (330 B. c.) ; after which Alexander made himself master of the whole empire. After the battle of Arbela, Alexander took and plundered Persepolis, whence he mnrcked into Media, in pursuit of Darius, who had fled to Ecbatana, the capital. Thif prince had still an army of 3U,UU0 foot, among whom were 4000 Orieks, who continued faithful to the last. Besides these he bad 4000 slinKcrs and 3000 horse, molt of them Bactrians, commanded by Ueisui When Darius heard that Alexan- der had marched to Ecbatana, he retired into Bactria, with a design to raiiie another army ; but soon after he determined to ven- ture a battle with the forces he still had left. On this, Bessus, governor of Bactria, and Nabarzanes, a Persian lord, formed a conspiracy to seize his person, and, it Alex- ander pursued them, to gain his friendship by betraying their roaster into bis hands ; bat if they escaped, their design was to murder him, and usurp the crowa The troopi were easily gained over; but Darius himself, when informed of their proceed- ings, and solicited to trust his person among the Greeks, could not give credit to the report. The consequence was, that he wai in a few days seized by traitors ; who bound him with golden chains, and, shut- ting him up in a covered cart, fled with him to Bactria. After a moat extraordi- nary march in pursuit of Darius, Alexander was inl'urmed that the Persian monarch was in the custody of Bessus and Nabarzanes, and that he himself was within one day's march of the conspirators, whom, indeed, he soon afterwards overtook, marching in great confusion. His unexpected appear- ance struck them, though far superior in number, with such terror, that they imme- diately fled ; and, because Darius refused to follow them, Bessus, and those who were about him, discharged their darta at the unfortunate prince, leaving him wallowing in his blood. After this they all fled dif- ferent ways, and were pursued by the Ma- cedonians with great ilaughter. In the meantime, the horses that drew the cart in which Darius was shut up, stop- ped : for the driven had been previously Billed by Bessus; and Pnlystralus, a Mace- donian, being distrcsard with thirst, was directed bv the inhabitants to a fountain near the place. As he was filling his hel- met with water, be heard the groans of a dying man ; and, looking round liiin, dis- covered a cart with a team of wuuniled horses, unable to move. Approaching it, he perceived Darius lying in the carl, having several darts in his body. He had enough of strength, however, left to call fur some water, whijh Polysiratus brought him; and, after drinking, lie turned to tlie Macedonian, and with a taint voice told him, that, in the deplorable staie to wlnrh he was reduced, it was no sinnll roi.il'ort to him that his last words would not be lost: he then charged him to return his hearty thanks to Alexander for the kmdness he had shown to his wife and family, and to acquaint him, that, wiih his Inst breath, he besought the gods to prosper liini, and make him sole monarch of the world. He added, that it did not so much concern him aa Alexander to pursue and bring to con- dign punishment those traitors who had treated their lawful sovereign with such cruelty. Then taking Polystratus by the hand, " Give Alexander your hand," said he, "as I give you mine, and carry him, in my name, the only pledge I am able to give, in this condition, of my gratitude and affection." Having uttered theap words, he expired in the arms of Polystratus. Alex- ander coming up a few minutes alter, be- wailed his death, and caused his body to be interred with the highest honoura. The traitor Itessus being at last reduced to ex- treme difficulties, whs delivered up by his own men, naked and bound, into tlie hands of the Macedonians ; on which Alexander gave him to Oxyathres, the brother of Da- rius, to suffer what punishment he should think proper. The manner of it is tliu!i de- scribed by Plutarch : — Several trees being by main force bent down to the ground, and one of tlie traitor's limbs tied to each of them, the trees, as they were suffered to return to their natural position, flew back with such violence that each carried with it a limb. Thus ended the ancient empire of Peraia, 209 years after it had been founded by Cyrus, and leaving Alex- ander its sovereign, b. c. :i29. On the dissolution of the Macedonian empire, after the death of Alexiinder (323), the Seleucides ruled over Persia until 246 B. c. They were succeeded by the Arsa- cides, who founded the empire of the Par thians, which existed until 229 a. o. Ard- shir BabCfcan (Artaxerxes) then obtained the sovereignty of Central Asia, and left it to his descendants, the Sassanides, who ruled 407 yein. With them begins, ac- cording to Hammer, the romantic charac- ter of Persian chivalry; and tlie six most renowned rulers of this dynasty, among whom are Behramgur, Cliosroes, Parwis, and Nuihirvan, are the subjects of Persian y m m 9 o f m o n m H a SALT LAKK8 AMD DRBART WA8TB8 ARB TBI CBABACTBBISTIC8 OF PBRBIA. «■■ MIMBBAI. KICnil or rBKlIA **■ ALMOST WB0I.11 OHBXrLOHIO. 768 ^l^c ^tcasuro of l^istorc, $rc. romMcei. Ardihtr, ion of Batian, ralrd from 316to 341. The war* which he carried on with the Romaaa were continued under hie auccetsor. Sapor I., againat Oordian and Valerian (the latter of whom fell into the hands of Sapor, and wat treated in a moit revolting manner), and were not ter- minated until the peaee of king Naraei with Diocletian (303). Wlicn Sapor the Great had become of full age, the empire again recovered atrength. He punished tite Arabs for their incursions, and took the king of Ye- men prisoner t and demanded from the emperor of Constantinople the cession of all the country to the Strymon, as Ardshir had once done. Constantine the Great, Constanline II., and Julian resisted his demands ; but Jovian purchased peace by a cession of the five provinces in question and the fortress of Niaibis. Sapor also extended his conquests into Tartary and India. VTar and peace suecessively fol- lowed, without any important events, after the death of Sapor. Under Artaxerxee II., Sapcr III., and Vararanes IV. (until 399), the empire flourished. Arabs, Huns, and Turks suc- cessively appear on tlie field, as allies or enemies ot Persia. Tezdegerd I., a friend of the Christians, conquered Armenia in 4)2. In the year 420. vararanes V. ascended the throne by the aid of the Arabs. He was victorious against Theodosius II., defeated the Huns »-ho invaded his empire, and conquered the kingdom of Yemen. He was succeeded by Vararanf s VI. and Hormisdas III. In the year 437, Firos (Pheroses) ascended the throne by the assistance of the Huns ; but afterwards made war aKainst them, and lost his liGs in battle, in 483. Valens, or Baiash, was stripped of a part of his terri- torries by the Huns, and obliged to pay them a tribute for two years. The Sassa- nides, however, soon regained their great- ness and power. Kobad subdued the Huns; and though be had recovered his throne, in 498, by their assistance, yet, at a later period, he waged a successful war against them, against Athanasius, the Indians, and Justinian I. His youngest son and successor, Chosroa Nnshirvan, was distinguished for his un- common wisdom and valour. Under him the Persian empire extended from the Me- diterranean to the Indus, from tbe laxartes to Arabia and the coniines of Egypt. He waged successful wars with the Indians and Turks, with Justinian and Tiberius, and with the Arabs, whom lie delivered from the oppression of petty tyrants: he- also suppressed the rebellions of his brother and his son. The Lazians in Colchis, wearied with the Greek oppression, submitted them- selves to him; but, when he attempted to transfer them into the interior of Persia, they again placed themselves under the dominion of Justinian, whose arms were now victorious. Nushirvan died of grief during the negotiations for peace. War continued under Hormuz (Hormirdas IV.) until the reign of Chosrou II., nnderwhoa tbe Persian power reached its highest pitch. By successful wars he extended Kit conquests, on the one side to Chslcedon ' (616), on the other over Egypt to Lybis and Ethiopia, and finally to Yemen. But the fertane of war was suddenly clisngeil by the victorions arms of the emperor He- radius. Chosran lost all his conqueui, and his own son Sirhes made him prisoner and put him to death (638). ' The decline of Perfia was hastened br continued domestie feuds. Sirhes, or Ks. bad Sbimjeh, was murdered in the sime Tear. His son Ardshir (Artaxerxes III.) out seven years old, succeeded him, anj was murdered, in 639, br his general 8«r. bas (Sheheriar). The chief Persians pre- vented Serbaa from ascending the throne: and after numerous revolutions succeeding each other so rapidly that historian! haie confipinded the names, Yexdegerd HI., s nephew of Chosrou, ascended the throne in 633, at the age of sixteen. He wai at- tacked by tbe caliph Omar, in 636, sod Persia became a prey to the Arabs and Turk*. Yexdegerd lost bis life in 6fil. With the conquest of Persia bv the caliphi begins tbe history of the modern Peraian empire.- The dominion of the Arabs la«ted 485 vears, from 636 to 1320. As some of the Arab governors made themselves inde- pendent, and Persian and Turkish princtt fossessed themselves of single pruvincei, ersia continued to be divided into nnnie- rous petty states. Among the principal dynasties were, in tlie north and north- east, 1. The Turkish house of the Thnhe- ridisin Khorasan, from 820 to 873;— 2. The Persian dynasty of the Soffaridea, which dethroned the one last named, and ruled over Khorasan and Farsistan until 902;— 8. The Samanide dynasty, which egtabiiahtd its independence on Khorasan in 8/4, under Ahmed, in the province Mavaralnar, and lasted to 999. Ishmael, Ahmed's son, de- throned the Soffarides, and became power- ful ; and under his descendants originated,— 4.Tlie Gasnavides, in 977, when Sebelctecliin, a Turkish slave and governor of the Sania- nides at Gazna and Khorasan, made him- self independent at Gasna. His son Mah- mood subdued, in 999, Khorasan, aud in 1012, Farsistan, and thus put an end to the dominion of the Samanidcs. He siihie- quently conquered Irak Ageroi (101') from tlie Bouides; and even extended hia con- quests into India. But his son Maaud vai stripped of Irak Agemi and Khorasan b; the Seljooks (from 1037 to 1044) ; and the Gaznavides, weakened by domestic divi- sions, became, under Malek Shah (1 182), a prey to the Gourides; — 5. The sultana of Oour (Gourides) became powerful in IISO, by means of Aladdin Hosain, but loat their ascendancy, after several important reigni, partly by the encroachments of the princes of Khowaresm, and partly by domestic dis- sensions ;— 6. The dynasty of Kliowarestniaa Shalis (from 1097 to 1230) was founded bjr Aziz, governor of the Seljooks in Khowa- resm, or Karasm, where he rendered him- THK TunQuoisR IS ractTbiAB TO FnaaiA, ano rovva in obbat qvahtitibs. *0. I •• 4 e a R 4 I 4 ■ * 4 €^t l^istory of :)pcKSia. 789 ■elf independent. Ta^ash (1193) deatroved ibe empire of the Seljuokt, and took Kno- rasao from tbe Gourides. Hi* aon Mo- baniined conquered Mavaralnar, aubdued the Gouridea and Gaina, and occupied tbe greater part of Peraia. But, in 1330, tbe great khan of the Monicnla, Genehia Khan, and hia beroio aon Gelalcddin Mankbern, deprived bim of nia doniiniona ; and he died in 1330, after a atruggle of ten yeara, in a lonely hut in the mountainaof Kurdiatan. In wettem and north-eaatem Peraia reigned— 7. Mardawig, a Peraian warrior, who found- ed a kinKdum at Dilem, in 928, which soon extended over lapahan, but waa deatrojred b; tbe Bouidea;— 8. The Bouidea (aona of Bouia, a poor fiaberman, who derived hia origin from tbe 8aaaanidea).b]r their valour and prudence, extended their awajr over the greater part of Peraia, and, in 945, even over Bagdad. They were cbiefl* diatin- guiahed for their virtuea and love oi acienee, and maintained themaelvea until 1056, when Maiek Bahjm waa obliged to yield to the Seljooks ;— 9. The Sehooka, a Turkiah dy- naaty, ai ia auppoied, driven by the Chinese from Turkestan, first became powerful in Kborasan, with the Gasnavides. Togrul- beg Malimood, a brave and prudent war- rior, drove out the aon of Mahmood, the Gaznavide sultan, in IU37 ; extended his do- minion over Mavaralnar, Aderbijan, Arme- nia, Farsistan, Irak Agemi, and IrakArabi, where he put an end to the rule of tbe Bouides at Bagdad, in 1056, and waa in- vested with their dignity, as Emir tl Omrah, by tlie caliphs. Some of his descendants were distinguished for great activity and humanity. The most powerful of them, Mrlak Sliah, conquered also Georgia, Syria, and Natolia. But the empire gradually declined, and waa divided into tour king- doms, which were destroyed by the shahs of Khowaresm, the atabeks of Aleppo, and the Monguls. Genghis-khan established the power of the Tartars and Monguls in Persia (1120— 1405). Those Persian provinces which had been acquired by Genghis-khan fell to hia younger son, Tauli, in 1 229, and then to tbe son of the latter, Hulaku, at lirst as gover- nors of the Mongolian khans, Kfguk and Mangu. Hulaku extended bis dominion over Syria, Natolia, and Irak Arabi. He or bis successor became independent of the great khan, and formed a separate Mon- golian dynasty in those countries, and sat on the throne till the death of Abnsaid, without heirs, in 1335. His successors also descendants of Geughis-khan, had merely the title of khana of Persia. The empire was weak and divided. Then appeared (1387) Timurlenk (Tamerlane) at the head of a new horde of Monguls, who con()uered Persia, and filled the world, from Hindos- tan to Smyrna, with terror. But the death of this famous conqueror was followed by the downfall of the Mpngul dominion in Persia, of which the Turkomans then re- mained masters for a hundred years. These nomadic tribes, who had plun- dered Persia for two centuries, wrested. under the reigns of Kara Jussuf and bia successors, the greatest part of Persia from the Timurides, were subdued by other Turkoman tribes under Uaong Hassan (1468), and incorporated with them. They sunk before Ismail Sophi (1506), wbo art- fully made use of fanaticism for his politi- cal purposes, and whose dynasty lastca Iron 15U6 to 1723. Ismail Sonhi, whose anceator Sheikh Sophi pretended to be descended from All, took from the Turkomans of the witita ram, Aderbijan and part uf Armenia, slew both their princes, and founded upon the ruina of their empire, after having con- quered Shirvan, Oiarbeker, Georgia, Tur- kestan, aud Mavaralnar, an empire which comprised Aderbijan, Dlarbeker, Irak, Far- aistan, and Kerman. He assumed the name of a shnli, and introduced the sect of Ali into the conquered countries. His succea- aors, Thamaa, Ishmael II., Mahouinitd, Hamceh, and Ishmael III., (from 1623 to 1587), carried on unsuccessful wars against the Turks and the Usbecks. But Shah Abbas the Great (1687 to 16?9). re-established the empii^e by his conquesta. He took from the Turks Armenia, Irak Arabi, Mesopotamia, the cities of Tauris, Bagdad, and Bassora ; Khorasan from the Usbecks; Ormux from the Portuguese, and Kandahar from the Monguls: and hum- bled Georgia, which had refused to pay tri- bute. He introduced absolute power into Persia, transferred his residence to Ispa- han, and instituted the pilgrimage to Mes- hid, in order to abolisn that to Mecca among the Persians. The following rulers, Shah Saffl and Ab- bas II. (from 1629 to 1CG6) had new wars with the Turks and Indians ; with the for- mer on account of Bagdad, « hich was lost ; and with the latter on account of Kanda- har, which was reconquered in 1660. Un- der Shah Solyman, however, (1666 to 1694), the empire declined, aud entirely aunk under his son Hussein. The Aft^-lians in Kandahar revolted, in 1709, und r Vlirweis; and his son Mir Mahmud coni;''A'.'f< the whole empire, in 1722. A state of ' narchy followed. Mahmud having become insane, was dethroned by Asharf in 1726; the latter was subdued by Thamas Kuli Khan, who, with the assistance of the Russiana and Turks, placed Thamas, aon of Hussein, on the throne in 1729. But when the latter ceded Georgia and Armenia to the Turks, Kuli Khan de- throned him, and placed hia minor aon. Abbas III. on the throne. He recovered, by conquest or treaties, the provinces ceded to the Russians and Turks, and ascended the throne under the title of Nadir Shuk, Abbas III. having died in 1736. He re- stored Persia to her former importance by successful wtrs and a strong government. The booty carried off by Nadir has been estimated' at 70 millions sterline. The em- peror and all the principal noblemen were obliged to make up the sum demanded, with their jewels and richest furniture. Amongst the moat remarkable of the lat- 1 raasjA has but few bba-ports on thk casfian and thb oul». [4/? 790 Vl^t ^ttasttty of l^iiMor?, tfi. ter article* w«i tlie throne of the emperors of Delhi, made in the thape of a pea- cnnk, and richly ornamented with precious itunet. Alter hit return from India, Nadir sub- dued the northern IcinKdomi of Khwaraim and Bokhara, and lettted at Menhcd, which he made hi* capital: entertninini; (uipi- ciona of hi* cideit oon, he had hi* eye* put out, and remorse for the crime made him flranticly ferociou*. Va«t number* of people, of every rank, full victim* to hi* rage, until lome of hi* officers conipired againit, and a**a*tinated him, *.n. l7-t7> The death of Nadir Shah wai followed by a period of coufuiion. Ahmed Shp«rpnt, Aliba* Mirza, and hji ' favourite, Ilusscin Kuli Khan, who bt'lirvrd Russia to be involved in domestic trou'jlei to Bttackrtbat pover in 1836. The Per- sian* invaded the Ru**ian territorie*, witi). I out a declaration of war. in*iigated part of the Mohammedan population to insurrec- 1 tion, and advanced a* far as Elisabeth|iol ; l but thay were defeated in several bnttlet, i and the Russians under Paskewitch con. quered the countrv to the Araxes, which, by the treaty of Tourkmantchai, in 1829, wa* ceded to Russia. i On the death of Futteb Ali Shah, in 1835, ' hi* grandaon, the preeent *overeign, son of j the prince royal, Abba* Mirta, *uccvcded { to the throne ; and, profiting by the dear- bought experience of hi* predecessor, it understood to be favourable to the iuier. e*t* of Ru**ia, or, what i* more likely, con- siders it prudent to keep on good tcrmi with a neighbour who ha* it *o much in hi* power to injure him. The late Abhai Mirsa had, with the conaent of the Eait India Company, raiaed and disciplined a body of troop* in Aterbijan, with a view of oppoaing the Ru**ian*; but on the com- mencement of the war with Turkey in 1822, a* Briti*h officer* could not *erve against a power on friendly term* with Great Britain, they were ditmiased ; but the regular Per- sian army marched against the Ruaaiana, and were *ucce**ful until they were disabled by the cholera. Tet it i* clear that tlieir army i* (till verv inefficient, compared witli what it formerly wa*; for when, in 1837, Mohammed Mirta, the preaent shah, made ever\ effort to bring a large force ai;aintt Herilt, the besieging army did not exceed 86,000 men of every description, wliicli wat considerably lea* than half the number of efficient troop* engaged with the Russiani in the previous war. With a few observations on its past and present *tate, we muit brinp; this brief sketch of the hi*tory of Persia to a cluie We have seen that before the Macedonian conquest of Persia, the latter monarch; was unrivalled in extent and power. The Greek* greatly interested tbemselvci to learn the manners, the laws, and the form of government of the Persians, and found that they adored the sun and moon: they erected neither temple nor altar, nor statue, to their god*. Their Magi were their *age* and their prieats. They lield at Babylon a lolemn feast to Venus. The kings and lords of Persia kept a great num- ber of concubines ; and such was their jea- lousy, that not only the sight of them wai forbidden to all persons without the serag- lio, but every one of them wa* separated and confined under a strong guard. The king of Persia assumed the title of the Great King. His authority, however, was not without bounds: the important business of the nation was debated in a A FBRSIAN PI.ATTBB8 WITH BQUAI. SKILL AND PUOPUBION OF COHFLIUSNTS, JR^t l^ifttois of Urabia. 7»l ioTi>rrif(n eounril, eompoted of Mfen prin- ci|>iil lur<<«, who always arcompanlcd th« nrince. The Orceka obaervad among tha Fcriiana a fcreat atl«iitlon to laaltcai tha kinc frequently rendering it bimiair lo hia •uhjecti.and not confldiug in any inilanee, tliii material duty of the prince, but to tuch penona a* were profoundly learned in the law, and who could not attain the eminence of the judsmentaeat under the age of fifty yeara. Tna Uvea of alaTct did not altogether depend on the will of their maitrra ; and the pain of death could not be pmnoiinced upon them for the flrat fnult. Thia empire, according to the bett inrnrmation, waa divided into 137 govern- ment i. The lordiwho presided over them were called tatrapa, (limilar to viceroys of our day), to whom the king coukigned « coniiderable revenue. Agriculture wa« par- ticularly honoured by tha Peraiana ; there wat in every diitrict offleera appointed by the atale to overlook the cultivation of the earth. The conquered nationa aupported the espeneea of the atate, the Peraiana themtelvea being exempt from every tax and impoat. The preaent government of Persia ia an absolute monarchy : but the right of sue- eeiainn, as in ancient timea, and aa in all Asiatic monarchies, ia undeflned, and ge- nerally rests with the strongest, whence a perpetual recurrence of bloodshed and anHfciiy arises. The religion is Mohain- nirdan, and the Peraiana are spalnua fol- lowers of the Sheah persuasion, or those who look upon Ali, the son-in-law of the prophet, aa his legitimate auccessor. The people coDiiat of four claases ; the first are the native Irihei, who live in lanta. and arc migatory with the seasuus-aa tha Zend, Affshar, and othera i the second are similar tribes, of Mongol or Turkoman origin, set. tied in the country, of which the Kaiar, or royal tribe, is one; tha third are the in. hahitants of the towns, and thosa nf tha country who follow agriculture; and the fourth are Arab tribe*, nlio occupy tha country towarda the Persian Gulf. When the Arabs overran Persia, ahont the middle of the seventh century, three languages were spoken in the country, the Parsee, Pclilvi, and Deri, eiclusive of the Zend, or languaae dedicated to religion. The Persians make high claima lo ancient lltera'ure; but the greater part of that which escaped destruction in the time of Alexander, waa destroyed under the ra- liplis. Persian civilisation declined during the first period of the Arabian dominion. But learning revived in Persia in the lime of the Abassides, and learned men and poets were encouraged by personal favoura and distinctions, till the time of Genghis Khan, in the iliirteenth century. Under Timur, in the fourteenth century, and the Turks in the Hfieenth, it continually de> dined, and in the sixteenth was almost en- tirely extinct. The oppressions and dis- turbances to which Persia has since been continually subject, have prevented the re- vival of lenruing. No oriental nation pos- sesses richer literary treasures of the ear- lier periods, particularly in poetry and hia- tory; but their acquaintance with useful science, or the fine arts, is most crude and limited indeed. ARABIA. The historv of the Arabiana, called by some " the children ot the east," ia one of an unstable, bnt intereating people. Con- nected with the early portiona of the Sacred History, and reflecting strong evidences of the truth of thkt history, we find in its annals the descendanta of the patriarchs. Islimael and Esau, in particular, throw an interest over the map of this country, and carry ua back to that era when the hope of the promised seed waa the atar of guid- ance to the chosen family. Various are the tribes that peopled this country ; from three of these the present Arabians are supposed to be descended — two of them from the race of lahmael, and the third from Cush, the aon of Ham. Of the early history of these wandering peo- ple, it may truly be said, in the language of scripture, respecting Ishmnel, "he has been a wild man ; his band has been aKainst every man, and every man's hand against hiqi ; and he has dwelt in the presence of aU his brethren." In vain have the re- spective powers of the auccessive empires of the world attacked this wonderful peo pie. The Egyptians, the Greeks, the Per- sians, the Romans, especially the conqueror of Jerusalem, have in turn failed in their gigantic efforts to subdue them. Their sub- jugation has never been eOected ; they have never been led captive as a nation; they occupy the some seats, cultivate the same soil, and retain very much the old linbits and customs of their patriarchal founders. The religion of the early Arabs partook, to a considerable extent, of that of the Hebrews, but so far from being strict ob- servers of the lawa of Moses, they came under the denomination of idolators, for, although they acknowledged one supreme God, tliey worshipped the sun, moon, and stars as subordinate deitiea. This reli- gion has been called Sabiuniim, from Sabi, a supposed aon of Beth. The Arabs also worshipped images, and had their tutelary guardians for appointed times and seasons of liie year. After the destruction of Jeru- salem, by Titus, many of the Jews took re- fuee in Arabia, where they made no incon- siderable number of prosclyd's ; so that, in a century or two, the Jewish Arabs became a very powerful section of the whole people. In a similar way, converts to Christianity were made;*for in the persecution which the followers of Christ sulTered in the third century, many fled to Arabia, where they preached their doctrines with such xeal and success, that in a short time they had made great prugrcss there. The faith of m M A « • M M m m f 4 M XIUINTS. IN XTBRT M08QUK ABB THBKB RBOVLAB BCCLBBIABTICAL OmCBBB. 702 S^c ^rcasurQ of H^Utoro, ^(* III* Persian Magi, of which Zoroaitcr wai lb* founder, haa long before beta em- braeed bjr nunierou* Arab tribes « so that, in the 0lb century, lite population of Arabia was divided into Hablane, Magians, Jews, and Christians. As the propaitator of a new code of rell- Son, falsely ascribed to divine rrvelatluu, • celebrated Mahomet stands conspicu- ous in their annals. Amon|(St tlieni he made many converts, and his successors have for centuries maintained the ascen- dancy he founded. Of this extraordinary man, however, and the successful mission l^e undertoolc, it is not necessary here to enter into the details) haviuK specially de- voted a considerable space to an account of the rise and progress of Mahometanism, at the conclusion of our historic sketch of the Ottoman empire— to which the reader can turn for further inl'ormation. In many respects this new religion was but little more than an adaptation of va- rious part* of the reliKions previuuHly ex- isting in Arabia (if we except the idola- trous worship of the Babinn) ; the people in general, therefore, were in some mea- sure flited to receive it ; and, when the sen- sual character of the Mulianimedan para- dise is considered, its rapid promulgiition is Ics* surprising than would otherwise at (trst sight appear. But, beside* the de- light* which were to attend upon all who perished in battle in the cause of the '* true faith," he made it incumbent upon all his follower* to spread his doctrine* by the eword, or to pay tribute for their un- belief. The attractions of plunder had charms which the Arabs could not with- stand, consequently great number* flocked to hi* stanilnrd. No caravan dared ap- S roach the place of his resort, without the anger of being pillaged ; and by making a trade of robbing, he learned insensibly how to conquer. Of his soldiers, Bnd«ven his vanquished enemies, he made disciple*, giving to them the name of Musiulmen; that i* to say, faitl\ful. Having now be- come a great general, and an eloquent preacher, he took Mecca; and the greater part of the strong places and castle* of Arabia fell under the power of his arm*. Mahomet was ansisted in hi* war* by Abubeker, his fatlierin-law; by Ali, his cousin and aon-in-law; and hy Omar and Othman ; and in twenty-three year* from the commencement of hi* career, he found all Arabia had embraced his dr>ctrine, and aubmitted to hi* government. Mahomet intended Ali, who had married hi* daughter Fatima, as hi* successor ; but Abubeker, on account of his age, and by the interest of Omar and Othman, was chosen. Thi* election of Abubeker cave birth to the *chi8ms and civil fi-ar* which followed. The succe**oT* of Mahomet took the title of caliph*, or vicar* of the prophet. Full of that Are or xeal which genernlly ac- eomponics and inspires a new religion, they spread into different countries their doc- trine and their power. Persia and Greece were among the Arst to sulfer i Damascus, Antioch, and all Syria, followed. They then f tenet rated into Palestine, and took Jerus*. em. They destroyed entirety the monar. chie* of Pereia and the Medei of Koraian, of Diarbeek, of Bactriana, and of Mesopo- tamia! nor was their progress less success- ful in Africa; they subdued ali the coait to the west of Kgypt ; aud Egypt itsrif submitted to their government, tngetlier with the islands of Cyprus, Rhodes, Can. dia, Sicily, Malta, and many others. It appear* that in Asia and Afiriea, at dif- ferent timea, there were upward* of flfty caliph*, (ucceesors of Mahomet, every one of whom pretended to be his descendants, and the trife interpreters of the law. The greater part of these caliphs sunk into lux- ury and effeminacy, confided the manage, ment of the government to their emirs, «nd the principal oRtcers of the palace. The calipn haa at last litil* more to do than to take cognicance of matter* of religion, and in all public prayer* hi* name wai Hrst used. Thus had the enormous power of these ruler* become weak by their indo- lence, *o that it degenerated into a mere title, and ended in annihilation. By imposture and fanaticism the Arabian dominion suddenly roae into importance, and, like other gigantic empires, it fell bv its own unwieldiness. Spain, Egypt, and Africa were soon engaged in eifecting their independence. Ere long the caliph* found it necessary to call to tmeir aid tliose wild horde* of Tartar* and Turk* who had par- tially received the doctrines of the prophet, and Iroin them they chose a body of merce- nary troops to guard their iVonlier* and protect their persons. For a few genera. lion* they by thi* mean* held together their tottering power; but their auxiliaries coveted the possessions of those whom they assisted, ana the overgrown empire gradu- ally crumbled away, till a Tartar army, in I2S8, captured Bagdad, and put an end to the nominal existence of tlie caliphate. Tlie religion of Mahomet wa* untouched: but the power of the " commander of the faith- ful" was transferred from the caliphs of Bagdad to the Turkish sultans; while the heads of the different tribes still continued to govern tlieir subject* a* they had go- verned them before. In the eighteenth century, areform.tlion was commenced by a (beik, called Malio- met Ibu Ahdoulwahab, who converted to hi* views the sheik of the Arabians, Kbn Saaoud. The reformation was extended, and its progress waa marked by the demo- lition of several towns, and the massacre of thousands of people. The son of the Saaoad, Abdelaagis, sent an expedition against Mecca, wliich he completely de- stroyed, excepting the sacred temple. He captured also Medina, where he was as- sassinated — a deed which his son Saaoud avenged by seizing the accumulated trea- sures of axes stored in that city, by means of which he made himaelf master of all Arabia. TUB CAMBb IS TO TBK ASAIIAM WU&T TUX BRIN-DKIR IB TO TUB LAPLANDKR. * ■ THE HISTORY OF CHINA. CnAPTER I. TiBB« it probably no esiitinir nMion whoie liiitor;^ li leii aecuratel* known or more inauiiitiveljr touKht after by the rrad- ing public of England, than that of China. The nioRt itartling itatcmenti alike aa to *he antiquity of the nation and the number of the population have been gravi-ly put into circulation by iprave writers, «■ though the " omiie ignotuni pro magniflco " were not a latirirai remark, but a pniloiophical com- maud. More, probablv, of authentic in- formation upon the lubject of thii tinga- lar people has been acquired during the Init half century, than during the whole lapie of the preceding aget. Marco Polo and Du Ilalde, subjected as they now are to the correction of Dr. Morrison, Outtlafl', Latrobe, and other able European reiidenU in China, may safely be taken as our guide, though, were they not thus corrected they would lead into frequent and very gross error. The Chinese writers pretend to trace back their goverument to a period anterior to the Flood ; a ridiculous absurdity which we should not feel ourselves called upon to notice, but that Burop«au writers of no mean order have, without going to the full extent of Chinese eitravagance, admitted their existence as a nation considerably more than two thousand vears before Christ. Its early history, indeeo, like that of most other nations of any considerable antiquity, seems to be an imaginative distortion of a few truths mixed up with a vast number of bare and mere Actions. Their founder and first monarch thef affirm to have been Fobi, who is presumed by many writers to have been the same with Noah. The eastern mountaiua of Asia they take to be the Ararat of Scrip- ture ; and they assert that, as the waters subsided, Noah followed the course of the rivers to the aonth until he arrived at China, wliere, being much struck with the beauty and fertility of the land, he eventually set- tled. The astute author of " An Essay on the Manners and Spirit of Nations" has shown a strong predilection in favour of the high antiquity of Cliina, and brought forward many arguments in support ot it. " This state," says he, " hut( existed in Rplen- dour about 40UU years, without either its laws, manners, language, or even the mode and fashion of dress having undergone any material alteration. Its history (whieb. In his opinion, IS incontestable) being the only one founded on celestial ohiervations, is traced by the most accurate clinmultigy, so high as an eclipse calculated i\hh years be- fore our vulgar eia, aud veriAed by the mis- sionaries," &c. As the Chii.ese, contrary to the practice of almost all nations, have rarely, if ever, ■ought to conquer other countries, i!.?'v annals for manv ages funiish nothing re- markable i and although they date the origin of their imperial dynasties (exclndinK those of the fabulous tiuiei) two tliousaiia years before the Christian era, we find that the country was long divided into several states or independent sovereignties ; the princes or chiefs of which were perpetually at war with each other. Though it was in the very nature of things that some oue prince should be more powerful than the others, and even be possessed of a certain degree of authority over tliem, yet war between ■tate and state was the chief condition of China. Dynasty succeeded dynasty ; ter- ritorial limits were perpetually shifting with the good or ill success uf this or of that prince ; and what Milton says of the early warfare of the petty princes of Britain, may most justly be repeated here — that it would be no mure useful or interesting to dils'e upon the early wars uf the ChiDcsc, than to describe the akirmitibes of the kites and crows. Twenty-two dynasties of princes ara enu- merated as having gjvcrned China from 3207 a. c, to the present day, the reigning emperor being the fifth luunarch of tlic twenty-second or Tai-Tsin dynasty. MThat may be termed the authentic iiistory of China does not begin till the time of Con- fUcius, who flourished about five centuries before theChristian era, and wbomust be re- garded as the great reformer of China. He endeavoured to unite in one great confe- deration the numerous states which harass- ed each other by mutual wars, and cnn- atructed a moral rode for the government of the people, lie forbore to dive into the impenetrable areann uf nature ; neither did hfi oewilder himatclf in abstruse researches on the essence and attributes of a Deity, but confined hiiiiself to speuking with the most profound reverence of the First Prin- TOR cHixKSB cAiL TnsMSBLVBS " Tni8iwoji:i," OB MES or TnisiNe. UBi TBI BAKLT BBUSIOR OF CHINA WAS ATTMRBBD WITH VBW CHBBXORIBS. =Tl 794 ^%t CrcasutQ o{ l^tetor^, ^c dple of all beingf, whom he repreiented as the most pure and perfect Essence, the Author of all tbinfts, who is acquainted with our most secret thoughts, and who will never permit virtue to go unrecom- pensed, nor vice unpunished. It is not until a. c. 248 that Chinese his- tory begins to be at all developed. Che-. Hwang-te, the founder of the Tsin dynsitjr, in that year succeeded to the throne, \ni the pettv princes of China, as well >'i t^e Huns who inhabited the immense piains beyond the Oxus, speedily found that they had a warrior to deal with. Whenever these Iirinces ventured to meet him they were in- kllibly defeated, until he had completely subdued all the states, and consolidated the empire. Having provided for his power within the empire, he next turned his attention to its regular and efficient defence againa.. foreign invaders. The very desultorineii) of the at- tacks of the Huns made it difficult to subdue them. When he could laeet with them, and force them into a pitched battle, he never failed to give an excellent account of them ; but they were no sooner dispersed than they rallied; no sooner chastised in one part of the empire than they poured furiously down to repeat their offences in some other. Whether the monarch himself, or his able g:3neral, Mung-Teen, conceived the grand idea of surrounding China— as it was then limited — with a wall, it would now be no easy matter to ascertain ; certain it is that the wall was erected under the super- intendence of the general. This perfectly stupendous monument of human skill and industry (which is ISOO miles in length, 30 feet high, and 15 feet thick on the top), could only have been completed by an absolute monarch. In a free country, where both labour and mate- rials would have to be paid for by the go- vernmeni at a fair rate, such a labour would not be thought of, or if proposed, would be scouted as utterly impossible, on account of th' enormous expense. But the emperor of China had only to will and be obeyed. He ordered that every third man through out the empiro should aid in the vast work ; and we may suppose that of the multitudes thus put into requisition, few had any pay- ment at all, and none had anything more than scanty rations of the coarsest food. Like the Israelites in Egypt, and like the native builders of the vast pyramids, the builders of the great wall of China were but slaves, whose slavery only differed from that of purchased slaves, that it was but for a time that they were purchased, and that the price paid for them was not in cash or merchandise, hut the sic volo, the absolute will of the emperor. Of the extent and magnitude of thia pro- digious wall we have already spoken ; out a farther idea of it may be formed from the curious calculation of a modem author, who says that " there are sufficient materials in it tb build all the dwelling-houses iu Eng- land and Scotland, allowing two thousand feet of masonry to each ! Or, were the ma- terials pulled down, and a new wall made of them, to be twelve feet high and four feet thick, that wall would be ample enough to encircle the globe ot the equator J" By the stern exercise of his unchecked power, the emneror had this mighty wall, with embattled towers at convenient dis- tances on the top, completed, and the towers garrisoned, so as to serve at once for watch towers and fortresses I But though he was a warlike and spirited prince, and though he seems to have had a nigh and chivalrous desire to protect his empire from the insults and rapine of its barbarous enemies, his reign was b;^ no means free from cause of censure. His warlike spirit, however com- mendable in itself, seems under some cir- cumstances to have degenerated into a sa- vage obduracy of character. Thus we lind that the very man who so efficiently exerted himself for the physical projection of his subjects, was so utterly insensible to their moral and intellectual wants, that he or- dered the destruction of the whole body of Chinese literature, in the low and disgrace- ful hope of thus destroying all traces of Chinese history previous to the commence- ment of his dynasty I The mode in which the wish was earned into execution was every way worthy of the motive that prompt- ed it ; — if it is true, as it is recorded, that for refusing to aid in this wholesale and worse than Darbarous destruction, upwards of Ave hundred of the learned were brutally buried alive I The works of Confucius were secreted by some man of noble and well- directed mind, and were found, years after the emperor's death, by some workmen em- ployed in repairing a house. If the Chinese are still very far from being a wise, or even a truly and thoroughly civi- lized people, they at least have mherited none of their early emperor's blind rage against literature. Such as their literature is, they universally admire it ; to be a learn- ed man — as they understand the phrase- is to have a right to aspire to any office in the emperor's gift ; to oe unlearned, is to be utterly and irrevocably incapacitated from rising above the lowest employments of menial, mechanical, or trading life. " If," savs Gutzlaff, " they can write a good essay, discourse upon the doctrines^f Confucius, aud unite with this a knowledge of their own country, and a few imperfect geographical notions, they are truly learned men ; but woe to him who dares to utter anything be- yond what has been taught by Confucius." It would undoubtedly be all the better for the Chinese if they were less pr^udiced, and gave their really acute and active minds a wider and more liberal range ( but a na- tion is far from being contemptible or hope- less of the very liiKhest future intellectual efforts, where thei-e is a general diffusion of even tuch learning as that here spoken of. But of their intellectual condition we slmll speak at some length in a separate chapter. tiTBRATuan Awn rnii.osoPHT wbrk kahlt cin.rw Avr.it in chika. iorui. l^i&totv of C^inB. 795 CHAPTER II. On tba death of Che-Whitng-te, hit ton Urh-ihe^ leu politic or leit powerful than Ilia father, found it impoasime to prereot new outbreaks among the princea who had been reduced to the position of mere noblea and lieutenants of the emperor. Whether leaguing against the commands of the em* peror, or fiercely assailing each other, they filled the whole land with strife, rapine, and bloodshed; where the sword had shed hu- man blood, the torch in but too numeroiu instances consumed human habitations; entire cities were in some cases destroyed and made utterly desolate, and the total annihilation of the empire seemed at hand, when there arose in the land one of those men of iron nerve and iron hand who never fail to appear during great revolutions, and who always appear at precisely that moment when the myriad evils of aiiarchy can only be put an end to by a man who possesses the talents of the soldier joined to the un< bending will of the despot. Lien Pang, the man in question, was ori- ginally the captain of a band of robbers, and notorious in that character alike for his boldness and his success. The dis- tracted state of the country opened the way to his joining the profession of a leader of free lances to that of a robber, and, at first in alliance with some of the princes, and subsequently in opposition to all of them in succession, he fought so ably and successfully, that he subdued the whole empire, changed his name to that of Kaon- te, and ascended the throne, thus founding the Hang dvnasty. Though thus success- ful within, he was greatly annoyed by the Huns; and so far was his usual success from attending him in his endeavours to free the empire from tbcra, that he bought their quietness with many and costly pre- sents, which on his death and the succes- sion of his son was clianged to a stipulated annual tribute. Durfng several years there were no events worth I. -cording, in the history of China; but, in the reigiLof HVoo-te, the empire was assailed by a succession of misfortunes and calamities. Owing to a long continuance of heavy rains the Hoang-Ho river burst its banks, sweeping away everything in its path, and causing a destruction, not only of pro- perty but also of human life, that was truly terrible. During the same reign the culti- vated lands were left completely bare by the invasion of a vast army of tbos^ destruc- tive creatures, locusts ; and a fire occurred in the capital which burned property to a frightful extent, and was only extinguished after it had consumed a great portion of the city, including almost the whole of the im- perial palace. To counterbalance these great national calamities this reign had one piece of national good fortune of the high- est consequence : the Huns had made their appearance again in vast nuiubcrs ; they were completely routed i.n a great battle by the Chinese, under their general, Wei-sing, who took many thousands of prisoners, to- gether with the whole of the tents, stores, and baggage of these nomadic plunderers. 80 thoroughly humbled were the Huns om this occasion, that for very many years they did not again make their appearance ; they even paid homage to the emperor, Senen Te, against whom, however, they brake ont as fiercely aa ever towards the close of Ua reign. In the firat year of the Christian em Ping-te ascended the imperial throne. He only reigued about five years, and being a weak prince, was even during that period j rather the nominal than the. real emperor; ■ for both he and the empire were completely I ruled by Wang-mang, a prince or great energv, who, on the death of Ping-te, took ! actual possession of the throne, of which I he hiid long been the virtual owner. Many Sriucva espoused the cause of the displaced ynasty ; but though they perpetually made war u{>on the able usurper, he kept posses- sion of the throne during the remainder of his life. Vrang-mang died a. n. 23, and was suc- ceeded by Ilwae yang wang ; he died in Ajj>. 58, and was succeeded by Kwang-Woo. l^is reign is chiefly remarkable on account of the introduction into China, from the neighbouring country of Eastern India, of the Buddhist religion. In the year 89, and the reign of Ho-te, the Tartars, who as well as the Huns and the Cochins were the perpetual pest of China, again made their appearance. They were worsted in several encounters, ana very many thousands of them perished. They were driven, broken and dispirited, to the Caspian, and only then escaped owing to the fear with which the mere prospect of a long voyage inspired the Chinese. For se- veral years after this event the aOairs of China were in a very pitiable state; the Tartars, returning again and again, added by their ravages to the distress caused by bad seasons ; and just under those very circum- stances which made the rule of a vigorous and able man more than ever desirable, it, singularly enough, chanced that reign after reign fell to the lot of mere children, in whose names the kingdom was of course f;overned by the court favourites of the ex- isting empress; the high trust of the fa- vourite naturally arising more ftrom the empress's favour than from his fitness or integrity. Drought, famine, plague, and the trequent curse of foreign invasion, made this part of Chinese history truly lament- able. In the year 220 the empire was divided into three, and with the usual effect of di- vided rule in neighbours between whom nature has placed no boundary of sea, or rock, or impracticable desert. In the year 288, the emperor Woo-te suc- ceeded in again uniting the states into one empire. He died about two years later, and was succeeded by Ilwuyte, who reigned seventeen yt%rs, but wks guilty of many cruelties, and conxcquently much disliked. The history of no fewer than 113 years, terininatiug a. o. 420, may be summed up THK SMPRROR IS, IN BrVlITT, TUB SI.AVK OF CUSTOM ASn KTIQHSTTB. TBI rOLICI or CBINA. IB RXTBBMBLT ACTIVB AND TIOILAMT. 796 Cfre ^reasurn o( 3l^{atort), $cc. in three words— confusion, pillage, and ■laugbter. Either natite generals and na- tive armies fouglit, or the Iterce Hun and still fiercer Tartar carried death and dis- may throughout the empire. Years of bloodshed and confusion at length inclined the more important among the native com- petitors to peace, and two empires were formed, the northern and southern; — the Nan and the Yuh-chow. Lew-yn, or Woo-te, emperor of the south- ern empire, though he was far superior in the wealthiness of his slmre to the prince of the north, was originallv the orphan of parents of low rank, who left him in cir- cumstances of such destitution, that liis youth was supported by tlie actual charity of an old woman, who reared him as her own son. As soon as he was old enough he enlisted as a soldier, and subsequently made his way to the empire by a succession of murders upon members of the royal fa- mily, including the emperor Kung-te, who was the last of the Tsin dynasty. Lew-yn, or Woo-te, compelled that unfortunate mo- narch publicly to abdicate in his favour. The prison of deposed kings is proverbially synonymous with their grave. The case of Kung-te was no exception to the general rule ; he was put to death by poison. Woo-te died in 422: his son, Ying-Yaug- Wang succeeded him ; but was speediljr de- posed iu favour of Wan-te. Tnis prince issued an edict against the Buddhist doc- trines, which in the northern dominions, where the prince just at that time was pos- sessed of far more power than his southern brother, proceeded still more harshly. All Buddhists were banished: the Buddhist temples burned, and many priests put to deatn or cruelly tortured and mutilated. Wan-te, learned himself, was a great friend and promoter of learning. Several colleges were founded by him, and his exertions in this respect were the more valuable, as they were imitated by the prince of the north. Wan-te having sharply reproved his son Lew Chaou, for some misconduct, and threatened to disinherit him, the son bru- tally murdered him at the instigation of a bonze or priest, who represented that act as the only means of preventing the father's threat from being carried into effect. The guilt of both the prince and his priestly instigator met with its titting reward. Lew- aenen, half-brother to the prince, raised a powerful army, and attacked Lew Chaou, who with his whole family were beheaded, and all his palaces razed to the ground. Fei-le King- Ho has been aptly enough compared to the Caius Caligula of Rome : bloodshed appeared to be his greatest de- light; to be privileged to approach him was at the same time to be in constant peril of being butchered ; and he was no less obscene than cruel ; an immense and gorgeously decorated hall bein^ built by him, and ex- clusively devoted to the most disgusting and frantic orgies. The reign of so foul a monster could not be otherwise than short. The very officers of his palace could not to- lerate his conduct, and in the year follow ing his accession to the throne he was dispatched by one of the eunuchs of his palace. Ming-te Tae-che succeeded to the throne A.D. 466. What he might have proved if his accession had been unopposed we can but guess; but, being opposed, he was aroused to a rage perfectly ungovernable. Those of his relatives who actually took up arms against him were not more hateful than those of them who did not, and many of the letter were put to death by him. His whole reign was passed in warfare with one or more of the princes of his family. This state of things lasted for nearly six years, and caused so much misery to the people, that there would speedily have been a gene- ral rising for the purpose of dethroning Iiim, but for his opportune death. Anarchy and war marked the two follow- ing reigns of Chwang-yu- wang and Shun-te ; the former was dispatched by an eunuch employed by an aspiring general, who alto compelled Shun-te to abdicate in his favour, and soon afterwards assassinated him. In 479 the aspiring and reckless general Seawu-Taduching ascended the throne, un- der the title of Kaou-te-now ; he reigned but two years, and the succeeding priures of this dynasty, Tsi_, which terminated in 503, were engaged in continual war with the prince of the north, but performed nei- ther warlike nor peaceful services to merit notice. A new dynasty, theLeang,was now com- menced by Woo-te, who ascended the throne in 602. Under him the old wars between the northern and southern empires were continued. Nevertheless, though war- like and active at the commencement of his reign, he showed himself a gtent admirer and patron of learning. He revived some learned establishments that had fallen into decay, and founded some new ones; but probably the most important service that be did it was that of publicly teaching in person. We may fairly doubt whether such a prince was not better skilled in the arts of war, as then practised, than in studious lore ; but his example tended to make learn - ing fashionable, and he may therefore be said to have afforded it the greatest encou- ragement. Whatever his actual attainments, his love of study seems to have been both deep and sincere ; for while yet in the prime of mental and bodily vigour, he abandoned the pomp and power of the throne, and re- tirea to a monasterv with the avowed inten- tion of devoting the remainder of his life to study. This, however, had such mis- chievous effect upon public affairs, that the Erincipal mandarins compelled him to quit is peaceful retirement and reascend the throne ; but the rest of his life was passed in strife and tumult, which eventually broke his heart. His son and successor had scarce- ly commenced his reign, when he was put to death, and succeeded by Yuen-te. This emperor also was fond of retirement and study, and greatly neglected the affairs of his enipi"e, which, distracted as it con- stantly was b;° the violence and intrigues of Q " I 5i ■ I t- { «s I ■ I a ■ K M : k ; S! e : Si a 8 m t SEDITION 18 PUNisnnn in china with bxtbaordinary sevrritt. IN CBINA HONOUR! AND SIONITT ABB ONLY GOHrBRIIND Bl OVVICB. the princes of the empire, required a itern and vigorous attention. 8hin-pan-seen, who was not onl^ a prince of the empire, but also prime mmister to the emperor, raised a rebellion against hit confldinK and peaceful master, whose first intimation of his danger was given to him by the fierce shouts of the rebel force at the very gates of his palace. On liearing those boding shouts, the emperor, awakened from his delicious reveries, calmly closed the book he had been so intent upon, put on his armour, and ascended the ramparts. A single glance showed him that it was too late for resistance ; he returned to his li> brary, and, setting fire to it, abandoned his sword, and resigned himself to his fate, liie library of this unfortunate monarch, who would probably have been both pow- erful and glorious had he ruled over a less divided and turbulent people, is said to have contained 140,000 volumes; an immense number to have been collected eveu by roy- alty at such a time and among such a pe^le. Tne next emperor worthy of any men- tion, however slight, is VTan-te, whose short reign was so vigorous, prudent, and suc- cessful, that he must be considered to have been the chief cause of the re-union which occurred so soon after his death between the northern and southern empires. He died in 566, and was succeeded by his son, Pe-tsung, who was speedilv dethroned by his uncle and the empress dowager. The throne was then filled bv 8uen-te. During his short reign of less than three years, he fought boldly and constantly against his opponents, and did much to- wards promoting the fast approaching union of the two empires. On the deatn of Suen-te, in the year 569, he was succeeded by How Chow, a mere sensualist and idler, whose debauchery and indolence di^susted and angered his people more, probably, than hardier and more active vices would, even though they had been productive of a fiercer and more ob- vious kind of tyranny. A powerful end war- like noble, Yang-keen, put himself at the head of the disaffected nobles and their fol- lowers, and laid siege to the imperial city. The inhabitants, who, as might be expected, were even more disgusted with the effemi- nacy and profligacy they had witnessed, than the besiegers, threw open the gates almost without a struggle. The immediate advisers of the emperor and the notorious companions of his profligate revels were sternly put to death, and search was then made for the emperor. That cowardly sen- sualist had taken refuge with all liis family in a dry well, whence he was dragged out half dead with terror, and expecting no less than instant death at the hands of the vic- torious rebel leader. But Yang keen, either in mercy, or with the politic view of placing an additional obstacle to all other i retenders that might arise, spared both him and his family. On usurping the throne, a. d. 572, Yang- keen's very first act was to consolidate the northern empire with the southern. In this he found little diffluulty. Wei. tt.e last really great prince of the northern empire, was both so well able to war, and so little in- clined to do so without occasion, that he made his state at once feared without, and peaceful and prosperous within. He was poisoned by his own mother, a woman of high but cruel spirit, and of great talenta but most restless disposition. Both she, while she acted as regent to her grandson, and the latter when he had taken the reins of government into his own hands, plunged the state into all the venomous and mischievous wars of the imperial princes ; and this fatal departure from the peaceful polity of the former ruler, and the absence of any improvement in his military power, struck a blow at the safety and integrity of the northern empire, which, after a sepa- rate existence of upwards of a century and a half, was re-annexed to the southern em- pire almost without an effort. CHAPTER III. Tano-kbbn having been so successful in obtaining the throne and consolidating the empire, turned his attention to restraining the violence and rapine of the Tartar chiefs. His reputation for skill, valour, and firm- ness, here did him good service. Bold and rapacious as the Tartars were, tliev were too well aware of the character of the mo- narch whom they now had to deal with, to hope that he would either overlook any of the advantages he possessed, or neglect to use them. They professed themselves de- sirous rather of his friendship than his en- mity; and to show the sinceritv of what they called their amity, but what would have been far more correctly termed their terror, they went so far as to pay him ho- mage. With his usual shrewd policy, Yang- keen gave one of the imperial princesses in marriage to the principal Tartar chief. Nor was he ill rewarded for the facility with which he permitted himself to substitute alliance for strife. During his reign, his people remained free from the incursions of the Tartars, which had previously been as frequent as the natural tempests, and far more destructive. On the death of Yang-keen, in 604, the heir to the throne was strangled by a younger brother, Yang-te, who, having com- mitted the fratricide, and removed allother obstacles from his path, ascended the throne in 605. The means by which this prince obtained the throne, common as such means are in despotic and but partially civilized nations, deserve all the detestation that we can bestow upon them ; but if he obtained the throne shamefully, he filled it well. Though eminently a man of taste and plea- sure, he was no less a man of judgment, enterprise, and energy. In the early part of his reign he foniied extensive gardens, which for magnitude and tastefulness were never before witnessed in China; and in these gardens it was his chief delight to ride, attended by a retinue of a thousand TUB LOWER ORDEnS AKK PASSIOWATEIY ADDICTED TO GAMBI.INO. TBB COMDITIOM OF THM rOOB Ilf CHINA IS WBBTCBBB IN THB BXTBBMB. 798 ^^e ^tcasurp of lEiistorQ, Sec. ladin, iptendidly attired, who amuaed him with vocal and initrumental music, and with dancins and feats of grace and agility on horseback. This luxnrioas habit did not, however, prevent him from paying great attention to the solid improvements of which China at that time stood so much in need. It would be idle to remark upon the importance (to both the prosperity and the civilisation of a people) of good and numerous means of communication be- tween all the extremities of their land. Many of his canals and bridges still exist, as proofs both of his teal ana judjjtpient in this most important department oFthe duty of a ruler. His talents, energy, and accomplishments did not save him from the fate which we deplore, even when the worst of rulers are its victims. He had been on a tour, not improbably with a view to some new improvement in the face of the country, when he was assassinated. This melan- choly event, it seems very probable, arose firomthe successfnl artilicesof Le-yuen: he was both powerl'nl and disatfected; hud previously sienaliccd'himself by the most factious conduct, and immediately after the assassination put himself forward to place King-te upon the vacant throne. What motive Le-yuen had in making this man the mere puppet of sovereignty for a brief time, it is difficult to conjecture ; hut it is certain that King-te had scarcely ascended the throne before Le-yuen caused him to be strangled, and assumed the sovereign power himself. It is strange that ill acquired power is often used at once with the greatest wis- dom and the neatest moderation, as though in the struggle to obtain it all the evil por- tion of the possessor's nature had been ex- hausted. Le-yuen, or rather Kaou-tsoo, which name he took on ascending the throne, was a remarkable instance of this. Nothing could be more sanguinarv or un- scrupulous than the course by which he became mastcrof the empire; nothingcould be braver, more politic, or as regarded his internal administration, milder, than hia conduct after he had obtained it. For some years previous to his usurpa- tion, the Tartars had returned to their old practice of making incursions into the nor- thern parts of China, on some portion of which they had actually proceeded to settle themselves. Kaou- tsoo attacked them with great spirit, and in many severe engage- ments made such slaughter among them as to impress them with a salutarv fear of pushing their encroachments farther. Lookmg with a politic and prescient eye at the state of other nations, Kaou-tsoo was extremely anxious about that singular and ferocious people the Turks, who about the commencement of his reign began to he very troublesome to Asia. . Dwelling between the Caspian sea and the river Hypanis, the Turks were a sylvan people, hardy, and living chiefly upon the spoils of the chace. Thus prepared oy their way of life for the hardships of war, and having their cupidity excited by the rich booty of the caravans, which thoy occsaion- ally rushed upon from their peninsular lair to plunder, this people conld not fail to be otherwise than terrible when, under a brave and poUtic leader, they went forth to the conquest of nations instead of the pillage of a caravan, and appeared as a great mul. titude instead of a mere isolated handful of robbers. To China they were especi- ally hateful and mischievous; for they were perpetually at war with the Persians, with whom, just at that time, far the most valuable portion of Chinese commerce was carried on. The Persians fell before the Turkish power, and that restless power endeavoured to push its conquests into China. It might probably have effected this had a different man ruled the empire ; but the emperor not merely repulsed them from his own territory, but chastised the disaffected Thibetians who had aided them and pushed forward into China, whence he expelled the Turks. After a victorious and active reign of twenty-two years and a few months, this brave and politic emperor diod, and was succeeded by Chun-tsung, whose effemi- nacy was the more glaringly diseracefnl from cxntrast with the brave and active character of his predecessor. The single act ibr which his historians give him any credit, is that of having made it necessary for the literati, who by this time exercised pretty nearly as much influence in both private and public affairs in China as the clergy did in Europe during the middle ages, to sustain a rather severe public exa- mination. Of the next seventeen monarchs of China there is literally nothing recorded that is worthy of transcript; nor during their reigns did anything of moment occur to China beyond the civil dissensions, which were frequent, and, indeed, inevitable in a country where effeminate princes commit- ted their power to intrigfuing eunuchs, who scarcely ever failed to prevent a resumption of it, by the dagger, or the poisoned cup. Chwang-tsung, son of a hrave and skil- ful general, founded the How Tan j; dynasty, and, at least at the outset of his reign, was a bright contrast to hia predecessors. He had from mere boyhood shared the perils and hardships of his father, whom he had accompanied in many of his expeditions. At the commencement of his reign he gave every promise of being the greatest mo- narch China ever saw. In his apparel and diet he emulated the frugality of the mean- est peasant and the plainest of his troops. Lest he should indulge in more sleep than nature actually required, he was accustomed to have no other bed than the bare Kround, and, as if this luxurious way of lying might lead him to waste in sleep any of that pre- cious time of which he was a most rigid economist, he had a bell so fastened to his person, that it rang on his attempting to turn round, so loudly as to awaken him, and after it did so he immediately rose, to repose no more until his usual hour on the i 9 a 4 a 9 , e ! It m 2 K e IS It It a ■ * s t < BOBBRRIKS IN CHINA ABB VRRT BABRI.Y ACCOMPANIED WITH SIUBDEB. turn OBIIfBSI AKI *HB MOST SXriBT rlSHSaMBII III THB iTOBLB. I^istorn of CD^tina. 799 eoiiaiiig night. Extreinei are proverbially said to meet ; but certainly one would never luive lutpected that lo Spartan a youth would have heralded a manhood of exceed- ing luxury, and even licentiouinesi. But 10 it waa ; his companion! were among the most debauched waasaileri in his empire, and he emulated their conduct. Yet though he departed from the, ncrhaps, too rigid severity of bis manners, ne was, to the last, a brave and active man, and was slain at the bead of his troops in a battle fought in U26, having, in apite of some personal defects of character already noted, been on the whole one of the most respectable of all the native Chinese emperors. The next emperor was Ming-tsung, who reigned for only seven years. But if his reign was short, it was both active and be- neflcent ; and if there are many greater uames in the imperial annals, there is not one more beloved. His people looked upon him as a parent, and his whole reign seems, in fact, to have been the expression and achievement of a truly kind and paternal feeling. He died in 933, with a character which greater monarchs might envy. Min-te succeeded to thr throne in 933. He only reigned one year; but in that very brief space of time he contrived to deserve, if not to obtain, the execration of the Chinese women, not only of his own time but up to the present hour. He it was who established the truly barbarous prac- tice of conflning the feet of female children in such a manner that the toes are bent completely under the soles of the feet, which are, it is true, rendered very diminu- tive in appearance by this abominable me- thod, but are at the same time rendered almost useless. The loitering and awkward gait of the women would be suflicient to make this practice deserving of all abhor- rence as a matter of taste merely, but when we consider the exquisite torture which the unhappv creatures must have suflfered in girlhooa, it is really wonderful that surh a practice can so long have existed in any nation possessing even the first rudiments of civilization. Min-te died in 934, in the first year of his reign, and was succeeded by Fci Tei, who paid the fearful price of fratricide for the throne. He possessed, it would seem, a great share of merely animal courage, and Uke the generality of persons who do so, he was distinguished for his exceeding bar- barity. Even the Chinese, accustomed as they were to despotism in all its varieties of misrule, could not endure the excess and wantonness of his cruelty. A formidable revolt broke out ; and finding himself hard pressed by his enemies, and abandoned at every moment by his troops, he collected the whole of his family together, and, like another Sardanapalus, set tire lo his palace —his wealth, his family, and himself being consumed in the flames. - Kaou-tae now ascended the throne, being the first of the How-tsin dynasty. He was more the nominal than the real monarch, his minister, Hung-taieu, usurping a more than imperifti power. The minister, in fact, is in every way more worthy of mention than the monarch, fur according to the most credible accounts the invention of printing from blocks was a boon conferred by him upon China in the year 937. Both this reign and that of Chnh-te, which closed this short-lived dynasty, were occupied in perpetual battling with the restless Tartars, who, for ages, seem to have had an instinctive certainty of having, sooner or later, the rule of China as the re- ward of their determiued and pertinacious inroads. In 960, Kung-te, a child of oniy six yean of age, being upon tne throne, the people artie and demaudcd his abdication. Of maternal and eunuch misguverninent they certainly had for centuries past had abun- dant and very sad experience. How far the successful aspirant to the throne was con- cerned in rousing their fears into activity and fervour dues not appear; but it is cer- tain that the revolt against the infant em- peror, and the election of Chaou-quangyin as his succesor, were events in which the people showed great unanimity of feeling. This founder of the Sung dynasty did not commence his reign under the most pro- mising. circumstances ; for on the ceremo- nial of his acceptance of the throne, he ac- tually ascended it in a state of intoxication. Nevertheless, this prince, who on his elevation to the throne took the name of Toou-tsoo, was in reality one of the best of the Chinese monarchs, both as a warrior and as a domestic ruler. The imbecility or infancy of some uf bis predecessors, and the pernicious habit into which others fell of leaving the actual administration of af- fairs in the hands of eunuchs and other corrupt favourites, had caused the court expences as well as the court retinue to be swelled to a shameful extent. The new emperor, immediately after his accession, caused the most rigid enquiry to be made into the expenses of the state; and every useless office was abolished, and every un- fair charge sternly and promptly disallowed. In effecting this great and important re- form, the eniperor derived no small advan- tage from having formerly been a private person, as in that capacity he no doubt would have the opportunity to note many abuses which could never be discovered by the emperor or any of the imperial princes. His frugality seems to have been as impar- tial as it was wise ; for though he raised his family, for four generations, to the rank of imperial prinres, he at the same time in- sisted upon their being content with the most moderate revenue that was at all con- sistent with their rank. 1'hough the election of the new emperor was nearly us unanimous as such an event can reasonably be expected to be, it must not be understood that bis elevation met with no opposition, even of an armed cha- racter. On the contrary, the independent princes of llan and the extreme northern people of the empire rose in arms to oppose him. H t> O O O h m M M H •• K M m < D u M m H m m « ■4 »• o M e TKORTABI.RS AHE TUB CHIEF FROVISIO:* OF Al.t, RANKS IN CHINA. 800 ¥■■ tmtvtJU wiua tub XikHLiKST ciiristian miibionaribs is china. ^tic tlTrcBdurt) of l^istori), $cc. Wh«n we bear in mind the long and in- iaAttigableandcavoun of the Tartan to ob- tain a footing in the interior of the Chinese •mpira, and oonpla that fact with that of thalr now leaguing with the Chinese re- voltora against the new emperor, we shall not ba very prfsnmptuous ir we iiflimi that tba opposition to lilm was in fact, though not In appearance and name, far more fo- reitfn than native. The emperor made im- mailsa leviea of men throuithout the pro- vinces tliat wore faithfiil to him, and march- ed against his enemies. Tiie subsequent eonitlots were dreadful i the troops of the Prinoa of Han well knowing that they liad little mercy to hope for if talcen prisoners, fought witli the fury and obstinacy of des- pair, and they were well seconded by tlie Tartars. Thousanda fell in each engage- ment I and though the emperor was a war- rior, and a brave one, he is said to have often subsequently shed tears at the mere iwmembranoe of the bloodshed he witnessed during this war. The overwhelming levies of the emperor, and, perliaps, that '' tower of strength "—the royal name— which the adverse faotlon wanted, made him, but not till after a desperate struggle, completely iuoeesshil. Having put down this opposition, he next proceeded against the prince of Choo, whom na capturea and deprived of his dominions. Among the niilllons of souls whom lie thus added to hia subjecti! was an extremeljr nu- nieroua and well-appointed army. This he forthwith incorporated with his own, and thus strengthened in force, marched against Xyang Nan and southern Han. Hera again he was completely successful, and he now turned his attention to the ohastlsement of the Mongols of Lenon-tung, who had Joined the prince of Hnn in the farmer war i but the issue of this expedition was still uncertain when the emperor died. Though engaged in war fivm the begin- ning to tlia very end of his reign, this em- peror was extremely attentive to the internal •tate of his empire, and more especially in A particular which previously had been but (00 much negleoted— the impartial adminis- tration of Justice. When he was not actually in the Held he was at all times accessible ; to the humblest as to tlie highest tlie gates of the imperial palace were always open, and In giving his decision ho knew no dis- tinction between the mandarin and the poor labourer. This conduct in his military and civil alTaira produced him the enviable cha- racter of being "the terror of his enemies •pd the delight of his subjects." While •ottvely engaged in the prosecution of the war against the Mongols, he was seized with •n illnesi which terminated his valuable Ufa. in the year O70< TaC'tsung, son of the last mentioned mo- narch, ascended the throne at the death of hia father, whose warlike measures he pro- ceeded to carry out, and whose warlike cha- racter and abilities he to a very great extent inherited. During his entire reign he was engaged In war t now witli the Mongol*, at that liuie the most threatening of ail the enemies of the empire, and now with this orthat refVactorynativeprince. It is«trange that in all the ages in which so much blood- shed and misery had been caused by wars between the princes and the emperors, the latter never thought, so far as we can per- ceive from the account now extant of their proceedings, of the obvious and efficient po- licy of concentrating their forces upon the Sositionsof individual princes, and on evrry eclsive advantage over an individual prince thus unfavourably situated for resistance, demanding such a contribution in money as would effectually impoverish him ; at the same time demanding as hostages from him, not only some of the more important of his own family, but of all the other great families connected with him. These mea- aures, severe as thejr undoubtedly would have been upon individuals, would have been merciful indeed as regards the great mass of both the contending parties; more- over, the hostages might have been so em- ployed and so treated at the imperial court as greatly to reduce the individual hard- ship. After twenty-one yeat-^ of almost perpetual warfare, with maav successes and comparatively few defeats, Tae-tsung died in 997, leaving behind him a cha- racter only less honourable than that of his predecessor, inasmuch as he paid far less constant and minute attention to the internal order of the empire and the indi vidual welfare of his subjects. Chin-tsung now succeeded to the em- Sire, a prince whose character and con- uct strangely contrasted with those of his two immediate predecessors. The bonzes, or priests, were the only persons who liad reason to like him ; and even their liking, excited though it was by personal advan- tage, must have been mixed with no sliitht feeling of contempt. There was no tale that they could tell him which was too ex- travagant for his implicit belief; no com- mand too absurd for his unqualitied obe- dience. Every morning the imperial zany was busied in relating his ovcrnigitt dreams, and it need scarcely ne said that the bonzes took especial care so to interpret those dreams as to tend to confirm the weak- minded and hypochondriac monarch in his fatuous course, and to make that course as profitable as possible to themselves indi- vidually, and as favourable as possible to their order at large. The bonzes were not the only persons who profited by this emperor's fatuity: the warlike, indefatigable, and shrewd Tartars speedily perceived the difference betwixt an emperor who divided his time between dreaming and listening to the interpreta- tions of his dreams — leaving the empire and its vast complicated interests to the care, or carelessness, of eunuchs and time servers— and the warlike and clear-headed emperurs with whom they Itad to deal during the two preceding reigns. They poured in upon the empire with a fury proportioned to the ineffective resistance tliey anticipated, and their slirewd conjectures were amply justi- fied by the event. Resistance, indeed, was M U M M !• H M a < k or tATB yRAns tiik rnoTKSTANT missions oavf. oainbo ononND. TO LBAKII TO "OBBt" It TBI SUVMUM BONVM OF flMAlB BBOCATIOK. I^istory of Ci^ina. 801 made to them on the ftrontien ; but initead of their being driven beyond the frontiers with a meiiage of mourning to thouaands of Tartar familiei, their abience wat pur- chaied. Great itores of both money and ■ilk were paid to them by order of the Chinese court, whicli, like the Romans when Rome had become utterly degenerate, was fain to purchase the peace it dared not or could not battle for. Ting-tsung, Shin-tsung, and Hwuy-tsung, the three immediate successors of the weak prince of whose reign we have just spoken, followed his impolitic and shameful policy of purckiuinff peace. We emphaticollv say impalitie, because common sense tells us that to yield tribute once, is to encourage the demand of ft in future. And so it proved in this ''Me. The tribute once se- cured, the hardy and unprincipled Tartars again returned to the charge, to be again bought off, and to derive, of course, renewed assurance of booty whensoever they should again think proper to apply for it. Hwiyr-tsung, the third of the emperors named above, having a dire perception of the error committed by himself and his three immediate predecessors, determined to adopt a new course, and, instead of bribing the "barbarians" who so cruelly annoyed him, to hire other barbarians to expel them, thus adding to the folly of buy- ing peace the still farther folly of giving the clearest possible insight into the actual weakness of his concUtion, to those who, being his allies as long as they received his wages, would infallibly become his enemies the instant be ceased to hire them. This prince eng;aged the warlike tribe of Neu-che Tartars in the defence of his ter- ritory. They ably and faithfully performed what they had eoKaged; but when they had driven out the Nien-chcng Tartars they flatly refused to quit the territory, and made a hostile descent upon the provinces of Pe- cheli and Shansi, which they took posses- sion of. At the same time the Mongols were pouring furiously down upon the pro- vinces of Shan-tbng and Honan ; and the terrifted aud utterly unwarlike emperor saw no other means of saving bis dominions than by coming to immemate terms with his late allies and present foes — the victo- rious and imperious Neu-che Tartars. He accordingly went to their camp, attended by a splendid retinue of his chief officers, to neijfotiate not only for a peace, but also for their active and prompt aid against the Mongols. But the emperor had so long left the affairs of the empire in the hands of intriguers and venal sycophants, that he was not sufficiently acquainted with his ac- tual position to take even ordinary precau- tions; he was literally sold by his minis- ters into the hands of his enemies; and on reaching the Tartar camp, he found that he was no longer a powerful prince treating for oeace and alliance with an inferior people, but a powerless prisoner of war, in the hands of his enemies, and abandoned by his friends. And abandoned he indeed was, by all save his son. That spirited Srince, faithful to his fallen father, and in> ignant at the treachery that had been Sractised against him, put the ministers to eath, and nthered an immense force against the Mongols, who, in the mean time, had been making the moat rapid and terrible advances. Rapine and Are marked their path whithersoever they went. The emperor's gallant and faithful son made admirable but useless efforts to approach them. Leaving devastation and misery in their rear, they rapidly approached the ca- pital, laid siege to the imperial palace itself, butchered thousands of the inhabitants, including some of the imperial family, and lent the rest into captivity. CHAPTER IV. Kaov-tsuko II. at this period reigned over the southern provinces. When the barbarians overran the northern parts of the empire he made bold and able attempts at beating thera off from his dominions ; but they were far too warlike and numerous for his limited resources. To the northern provinces and to the captive emperor be was unable to afford any assistance bv force of arms, nor could his humblest and most tempting offers to the savage foes induce them to liberate a prisoner or evacuate a rood of land. All that he was able to gain from them was permission to retain bis own rule in peace, on paying an annual tri- bute and acknowledging his subjection. During two succeeding reigns the Chinese enjoyed the bleasings of peace; but the im- prudence of Ning-tsung, untaught by ex- perience of the danger of calling in barba- rian. aid, brought into China a vast horde Mongols— the fiercest and greediest even among the barbarous Tartar tribes. In 1194 the celebrated Genghis Khan was at the head of the Mongol Tartars. At the outset of this warrior's career his people re- volted from him, excepting only a very few fhniilies, on the ground of his being, at the death of his father, too young to rule a numerous and extremely warlike people. But tlie youth displayed so much talent and courage, and his earliest essays as a war- rior were so entirely and strikingly success- ful, that the tide of opinion speedily turned in his favour; and an old and venerated Mongol chief having, in a public assembly of the people, prophesied that the youth, then known by his family name of Temujin, would, if supported as he deserved to be, prove to be the greatest of their khans — Genghis Khan (the Mongol words for great- est king) was immediately made the vouth's name by acclamation, and the bold, but barbarous and vacillating people as unani- mously submitted to him now, as formerly they had seceded from him. It was to this chief, who had already made his name a name of terror far bevond the banks of Hhe Selinga, the native abode of his fierce race, that Ning-tsung, the then emperor, applied for aid to drive out other Tartars, by whom, as well as by native mal- contents, the nation was very sorely op- pressed at that period. IM A CHINVSB EDUCATION MRMOBT IS PBEFBRnKD TO TALBHf. l*r M OHIIIA, ■nOCKIDIII* ASH ADO MOTaillS TO HVUAII E1I0WLIID«I. 802 ^^c ^nastttQ of l^istorQ, 8cr. GenghU Khan, already inured to con- qoeat and thirttine for eitended dominton, aagerly complied with the impolitic requeit of NinK-UunK. During the reign of that monarcn, andof Le-taung, bjr whom he waa, at hit death in 1935, lueceeded, the Mongols naaaed from triumph to triumph, the un- happy natifei suffering no leei from the bar- barians who were hired to defend them than from the other barbarians who avowedly en- tered the empire for purposes of rapine and bloodshed. Le-tsung, a prince whose na- tural indolence was increased by his supersti- tious attachment to the most superstitious priests in his empire, was a voluntary pri- soner in his palace, while the Mougols were driving fVom one province to another, not merel* the intruding foe and foreij^ner, but also the rightful and already suffenoK inha- bitant. The atrocities committed in what the Mongols seemed to be bent upon making an actual war of extermination were dread- fUl ; the most authentic accounts, and those which seem most entirely free from exag- geration, speaking of the slaughter among the unfortunate people as amounting to some hundreds of thousands. Genghis Khan dying, was succeeded by a grandson named Kublai;- and Le-tsung also dying, was succeeded by Too-tsung. This last named prince was as debauched as his predecessor had been superstitious; and, wholly taken up with the gratification of his shameful sensuality, he saw, almost without a care or struggle, the Mongols under Kublai proceeding with their ravages, and Kublai at length become master of the northern provinces. Thua far successfiil, it was not likely that the conquering chief should forbear ft>om turning his attention to the southern pro- vinces, which, as we learn firom Marco Polo, was considered by far the most wealthy and splendid of the kingdoms of the east. The very wealth of the southern empire, and its comparatively long exemption from war, rendered it pretty certain that it would easUy be overrun oy him who bad conquered the hardier and more experienced warriors of the north. Province after province and city after city was taken, without the expe- rience on the part of the Mongols of any- thing even approaching to a severe check : many of the most powerful nobles, who were the most bound in honour and duty to have defended the country, actually joining the enemy. With rapid and sure steps the enemy at length approached the city of Kinsai, the capital and royal residence, and wealthy to an extent not easily to be described. The then emperor, Kung-tsung, seems to have despaired of successful defence against a foe so long and to such an extent victorious, and to have supposed that his empress could more successfully appeal to a victor's mercy than he could to the fortune of war. He accordingly got together all the treasure that could be at all conveniently embarked on board his fleet, gave the command of it to his most experienced naval commander, and put out to sea. A strange circumstance is related of the siege of this city, a circumstance, to say the truth, which has so strong a family like. ness to incidenta that are given to otiier parties, both by authentic history and by fictions, that we give it with but little be- lief in its truth, and only relate it, lest in omitting so striking an incident, which is G'ven by some very grave writers, we sliauU y ourselves open to the charge of careleas- ness in overlooKing, or presumption in re- jecting it. The fact of the defence of Kinsai being committed to a beautiful woman, did not prevent Kublai from ordering his generals to use the utmost exertions in bringing the siege to a speedy conclusion. Such orders ensured an activity which reduced the em- Sress and her garrison to the most alarming istresses ; but the empress consoled her- self under every new disaster by a prophecy which had been made by a court astrologer —a kind of cheat verv popular with most of the Chinese monarcns of that time— that Kinsai could only be taken by a general having a hundred eyes. As such a specimen of natural history waa by no mutns likely to appear, the empress allowed frothing to Jaunt her, until on enquiring the name of a general whom Kublai had entrusted to make a new and vigorous assault on the city, iihe was told that it was Chin tan ba j/an These words— which mean the hundred-eyed —seemed in such ominous agreement with the requirement of the prophecy, that the empress allowed her hitherto high courage to give place to a superstitious horror, and she immediately surrendered the city, ou receiving from Kublai assurance, which he very honourably fulfilled, of treatment and an allowance in conformity with her rank. 8a-yan-fu, which was a far stronger city than the capital, and against which no super- stitious influence was oroiu;ht, held brafcly out against the utmost efforts of the Mon- gols for upwards of three years. Marco Polo and his brother Nicolo, the Italian travel- lers and traders, anxious to ingratiate them- selves with the formidable and prosperous Kublai, supplied him with besieging engines which threw stone balls of the tremendous weight of 120 pounds. Such missiles soon made practicable breaches in the hitherto impregnable walls. The town was stormed, and Kublai, enraged at its long and obfiti- nate resistance, gave it up to the mercy of his troops. CHAPTER V. Thr fVigitive emperor found in some dis- tant and strongly fortified islets, a shelter for his treasure, but not that safety I'or himself which he had sought with so much sacrifice of dignity and character. He had not long been at b\s post of ignoble se- curitv when he was seized with an illness which speedily terminated his life. The empress, wlw seems to have been alto- f^ether as brave and adventurous as her lusband was timid, strengthened the Hcct at Yae islands, under the command of the MO ONB MUST rnF.SUMB TO BK WtSBR THAN HIS FOnEFATIinRS. Ill ckinA Tm Most vbitui. actiom abb bbbvlatbb bv law. I^totorv of ^^(na. 803 emperor's favoorite B^mlral, Low-uwfoo, proclaimed Te-pinf, her son, emperor, and repaired with him on board the fleet. The llongol fleet, after attaeking Canton, hove in iiKht of the imperial fleet, when a tre- mendotts action commenced and continned for an entire day. The Mongols, though e*en their loss was dreadful, were victo. rious, and the Chinese or imperial fleet was so much shattered that Low-sewfoo fonnd it impossible to get his crippled ves- sels through the straits. Dreading the very worst from the resentment whicn Kublu was likely to feel at this new resistance on the part of the empress, that brave but an- fortunate woman committed suicide by Jumping overboard. Her terrible example was followed b* several of her principal attendants, including the admiral, who leaped overboard with the young enipcror in nia arms. 80 disastrous a day as this could not fail to be decisive ; all the com- paratively small part of the south that nad hitherto held out was quickly overrun, and the whole empire was now under a Mongol emperor concentrated into one. Under the title of Shi-tsu, Kublai ascend- ed the imperial throne in 1379, and in so doing laid the foundation of the Yuen dy- nasty. With the greediness and want of judg- ment with which conauerors, in common with more vulgar gamblers, appear to be incurably alBicted, shi-tsu having obtained the mighty and vast empire of Cnina, now determmed to use its resources in adding Japan to his already unwieldy poscession. But tliis time he was fated to a fortune very diflierent from that which usually at- tended him. The Japanese, instead of shrinking at the approach of a force that from its previous successes might well have made them pause as to the prudence of re- sistance, fortified their forts In the strongest manner time would admit. One being at length taken, the resistance of the gamson was punished by the butchery of every man, without exception, eight of the num- ber being beaten to death with clubs. The real reason of this cruel distinction being awarded to the eight unhappy persons was, most likcW, that they were distinguished either in their rank or in the zeal and de- termination of their resistance. But the fondness that exists for the marvellous has caused this occurrence to be attributed to the somewhat inexplicable mechanical im- possibility of putting them to death by de- capitation, on account of iron chains which they wore round their necks. The brutal cruelty displayed by Shi-tsu or his olBcers to the gamson of this single fort, was productive of no advantage to his arms. Before the terror such barbarity might possibly have carried into the hearts of other garrisons had time to produce weakness or treachery, a tremendous storm arose by which a great portion of the Tartar, or rather the Tartar- Chinese, fleet was wrecked. The extent of injury so alarmed the commanders, that they liastened home with the remainder of their ships, abandon- ing many thousand of their foUowart to tk« venaeance of the Japanese. Shi-tsu died in 12«A ; and it was not nntfl his grandson, Tchiug-sung, ascended th« throne, and began to ImiUte the ambltioua and warlike conduct of his great predeces- sor, that anything worthy of even casual mention occurred in the history of the sub- jugated people of China. Tching-sung is better known in Sunpe as Timoor the Tartar, or Tamerlane, whose treatment of his opponent BaJaset has been made the subject of so many dramas and tales. His name of Timoor (the iron) seema to have been exat t ly suited to his energetic, untiring, and unspuing nature. Fixing the imperial residence at Samarcand, he ap- pears to have formed the project of carry- ing on the work of subjugation to the ut- most possible extent in all directions. Persia, GeorKia, and Delhi, speedily felt and succumbed to his power; be drove the Indians quite to the Ganges, and utterly destroyed Astracan and other places in that direction. BaJaxet, the Ottoman mo- narch, seems to us to have had the most just caur.e imaginable to arrest the course of a man who was evidently determined upon making himself, if possible, the sole raoiiarnh of the east. But the Ottoman was far inferior to the Tartar in that strength which is as important to success as even a good cause itself. We are assured that while Bajazet had only 120,000 men, his opponent brought 700,000 into the field. Probably the force of Tamerlane has been very much exaggerated, though even allow- ing for great exaggeration there can be no doubt that, in numbers, the army of B^jaiet was infinitely exceeded by that of his oppo- nent. The day on which this tremendout battle was fought was sultry in the extreme, yet so obstinate were both parties, that the contest continued from the morning until a late hour at night. Tlie comparatively small army of BaJazet was in the end com- Eletely routed, and the unfortunate monarch iniself taken prisoner. Tlie conduct of Tamerlane on this occasion was such as would cast disgrace on the most signal cou- rage and talents. Instead of allowing the sympathies of a brave man to soften him towards his singularly brave though unfor- tunate opponent, he had him put into an iron cage and carried from place to ^lace with him in all his excursions, exhibiting him as one would a wild beast, and at the same time displaying on his own part a temper far more like that of a wild beast than a brave and successful warrior. The unfortunate Uajazet lived in this most piti- able conditiou until the year 1403, when he died, as tradition says, and as was most likely, of a broken heart. Tamerlane during his various and exten- sive expeditions hml committed the inter- nal government of his empire to certain princes of his house — his grandsons and nephews. Their authority and character being far less respected and feared than his own, several insurrections bad tslien place, and Tauicriane, or Tcliin-suiig, now march- ■ M i D ;: M ■ M R ■4 m s OBNIIja Alin IKAOINATIOX ARB AlIKB UNKWOWN AMOIfO THB CHINBSB. 804 TMM aOLD MIMKI ARI WOailBS ■XCLUIIVBI.V ■! aoVBKNMBIIT. ^|)c ^rtasutQ of I^Uton;, (cc. ed toward! China with the aTowed deter- mination of inflictiuK aevere chastitcmentt but aa he wa« advancing with forced marchei for that purpose, he wm siczcd with an illuesa which terminated both liia enterpriiei and hit life, in l.'iUS. After the death of the formidable Tamer- lane hi* dearendanta kept up a perpetual ■cramble for the empire, in which they con- trived the utter ruin of the high character thejr owed to him. A icriei ot revolt! and intrigues followed eacli other during the rule or the ttrifes of lome lucceeding em- perors and pretenders ; and the next event of which we feel it necessary to give any account is an embassy sent from Persia to China in the reign of Yunglo, also called Ching-tsoo. The account of this embassy it the more interesting, becaune it gives us consider- able insight into the manners and state of society in China at that time, and men- tions what Marco Polo does not — tea, to which, more than aught else, China owes its importance in the eyes of the modern inhabitants of Europe. Even at this early period the Chinese seem to have all the modern jealousy of the entrance of stran- Sers into the so-called " Celestial Empire." iefore the embassy in question was allowed even to set foot upon the boundaries of the empire, an exact list of all persons belong- ing to the embassage was required, in- cluding even the very humblest attendants, and the ambassadors-in-chief were called upon to swear to the truth and exactness of the list. Chinese jealousy being satisfied thus far, the embassage commenced its toilsome journey of one hundred days to- wards the capital. It is only fair to add, however, that after their first suspicion was formally and officially silenced, there seems to have been a most liberal hospitality shown in the way of substantial good fare, accompanied by an unstinted supply of ex- cellent wines. The capital of China, Cambuln, now known far better by the name of Pekin, is spoken of as being even at that time a city of great magititude and opulence. It would seeio not unlikely that tne silly absurdity of the Chinese, in speaking of such people as the English, Dutch, and other highly civilised Europeans, under the opprobrious name of outsiac barbarians, is an absurdity which others beside the Chinese are unfor- tunately guilty of. The way in which mo- dem writers allow themselves to speak of the Chinese is in many things to be equally reprobated. The long intercourse with Jesuits, mis- sionaries, and others specially sent there, with arcference to their science, judgment, and aptitude for the difficult business of communicating, not merely knowledge it- self but also the desire for it, could scarcely have left the Chinese so much behind the rest of the world in invention and practice in the higher productions, even had no pro- gress been previously made by them. But when so early as the 15th century we hear of such an achievement as the Ttrning Towtr. of which we are about to give a it. scriptlon, who will connent to bcrirve that above four centuries later ihcy are the backward and ignorant people they are called ? That really wonderful structure, the turning tower, is stated by shrewd and in telligent observers to whom we owe our knowledKe of it, to be worthy of the visit and careful examination of every smith and carnenter upon the face of the earth. What in tact, are we acquainted with of merely human construction that can for an instant bear comparison with a tower fifteen stories high, each story twelve cubits litxh, and the whole edifice twenty cubits in circum- ference i What can surpass the inKcnuity of the people who could make this large structure, liavingatntal height of 18UcubUi which turni round upon a metal axU; and that with little more difficulty than if it were merely a child's toy 7 Assuredly, the people who even in whim could erect such a structure as this at a period of more than four centuries ago, cannot now be the in- capable and unprovided race which many late accounts would represent them. The emperor's palace at Pekin Is described as being rich and spacious in the extreme. While tne ambassadors and theirsuite were there, it was constantly surrounded by about two thousand musicians, playing and sing- ing anthems to the praise of the emperor, whose throne was of solid gold, ascended by a flight of nine silver steps. On t he emperor ascending this extremelv gorgeous throne, the chiefs of the embassy were intro- duced } and after a brief and merely formal audience, at which they did not prostrate themselves in the Chinese fashion, but bowed in that of the Persians, thev were reconducted to the apartments provided for them, where a sheep, a goose, and t wo fowls, with firuit, vegetables, and tea, were daily served out to every $igper»ont.' The evil deed, whether of man or nation, very rarely proves to be other than an evil seed. The unprovoked aggression of the Chinese-Tartars under Kublai, was not only Sroductive of great injury to the Chinese eet at the time, but led to very many sub- sequent losses and calamities. Favourably situated as Japan was for the maintenance of a fleet, it was a power upon which such a piratical attack as that of Kublai could not be made without incurring serious dan- ger of heavy reprisals. Tiu-tsung, an extremely well-inclined prince, found the attacks of the Japanese 80 frequent and so fearfully injurious to his people, and to the imperial fleet, that his earliest care was directed to that sub- ject. The Japanese, an essentially sea- faring people, had, according to the least exaggerated accounts, fh>m six to seven thousand vessels of various sizes, manned with their most daring and unprincipled peo- ple, not a few of them ready for piracy and murder, as a part of their proper trade. Running suddenly into the Chinese ports, the daring adventurers committed acts not merely of robbery, but of the most wanton IBON AND SEVERAL 80BT8 OP COFFF.R AIIR rOCND IN ABUIfUAIfCB. t 8 •I 8 I ■ » e ■ e a M a ■ B a ■ ■ D ■ 4 ■ k destmetio towns ani mense bo( bis reign spirited ai these dar probably of them, t minated. 8tten-tB named en ascend tl be dethrc the empi uncle, army wa grandees gagemen msurgent thrown, would ha after belt the empc leader*, defence, rank of c tates of < Thoug was thus ed by re\ death in tung, a I his guai being di^ viser, th< sonages spirited common venal coi prompt ing the Chinese they hni I andgovi person. { were tal j look vei I were no newly i ; riablyui I days th I tions, n the Tar taking t made ft to do m chin he perial c penal i who, li he had spirit c able m: and op and te n 5 B s D >■ i •< b •• B P e H a B 3 a a ■ B M 4 H R O O H m •■ M H M ' M a them, Ching then 11 thath missio placed whom • um FAIITS or CHI!«4' AkB DIICKIDCO Al UIOHLT riCTUIIIIIQira. l^istotQ o( Cbina. 803 deitrnetion of property and lifp, firin|r whole towni nod villaeei, and retiring with itn- menie bootjr. DurinK the eleven ycMri of bii reicn the emperor Tin-taung wa» to ipiritea and Inccixant in hit oppoaition to tbeitt! daring roveri, that he would moat prohabljr have permanently rid hia country of them, had hia life not been ao early ter- minated. Baen-taung, who auceeeded to the laat- named emperor, waa but barely allowed to aacend the throne when he waa about to be dethroned by aome of the grandeea of the empire, among whom waa hia own nnde. Fortunately for the emperor, hia army waa more faithfttl to him than the grandeea ; and after a moat obatinate en- gagement between it and the force of the tnaurgenta, the latter were completely over- thrown. With a far greater lenity than woold have been ahown by aome monarcha after being ao early and ao deepiv offended, the emperor apared the livea ol the ring- Icadera, though, aa a aheer matter of aeif- defence, he reduced aome of them to the rank of comraonera, and confiacated the ea- taiea of othcra. Though the commencement of hia reign waa tliua atormy, he waa very little diatuAi- ed bv revolta afterwards, to the time of hia dcatfi in \4'M. He waa auceeeded by Chin- tung, a minor ; the empreaa dowager being hia guardian, and the real atate authority being divided between her and her chief ad- viaer, the eunuch Wan-chin, Thia latter per- aonage aeema to have had nobler and more apirited notiona of govemmcat than were commonly diaplayed by the effeminate and venal court favouritea. He not only took I prompt and active meaaurea fbr represa- ing toe Tartara, who annoyed the Tartar- Chineae with aamuch impartiality aa though they had been atill a purely Chinese people and government, but alao took the field in peraon. Both he and the youthful emperor were taken prisonera, and mattera began to look very proaperoualy for the Tartara, who were not onlv more expert in the use of the I newly introduced fire-arms, but also inva- ; riably used them, which upon certain solemn I days the Chinese, from auperstitioua no- I tiona, refused to do. Aa a matter of course, the Tartara alwaya sought every chance of taking them at so great a disadvantage, and made fearfVil havoc whenever they contrived to do so. But the bold spirit which Wan- chin had infhsed into the councils of the im- perial court, soon turned the scale. The im- perial authority waa asaumed by King-tae, who, however, subsequcntljr showed that he had assumed such authority in the truest spirit of a loyal subject and most honour- aole man. He advanced against the Tartars, and opposed them with such skill, courage, and tenacity, that he completely defeated them, compelled them to restore the young Ching-tung to liberty, unramsomed, and then immediately descended from a dignity that has so often'been obtained by the com- mission of the most detestable crimes, and placed upon the throne the young sovereign whom his valour and conduct had already rentored to liberty. The remainder of the reign of Ching-tung, about ten years, waa cumpnrativcly peaceful and pmape roua. The early part of the Itilli century pro- duced an event of which even yet the eon- acquencea are but partially and dimly accn —the appearance of the Portugneae at China. They went there merely oa adven- turoua marinera and keen tradera t but it ia ({uite within the pale of probability that betore aueh another apace aa three hun- dred yeara, the whole vaat population may have— aa the nmolt conaequcnce of what to men douhtlesa acemed the merely ac- cidental and incidental aeitlcment, after much atriving, of a mere handful of Chria- tiana— become converted to Chriatianity, and contributing to the demand for En- ropean induatry and the conaequent in- creaoo of European happineaa. To India the Portugupae had already made their way by the Cape of Good Hope, and in India they had an extremely flourishing aet- tlement. The governor of the Portugneae in India determined to aend a aomewhat impoaing embasay to China: accordingly, Androda and Peret, the two ambaaaadora, aailed to Canton, their own veasel beinjr under a convoy of eight large ahipa, well manned and armed. Perei and Andrada, with two vessela, were allowed to proceed up the river on their embaaay. While they did so, the crewa and mi-rchanta who were left with the other veaaela in the Canton river, busied themselves in endeavouring to trade with the natives. Aa uaual, wherever a turbulent body of aeamen ia concerned, the laws of meum and f Hum were frequently set at nought, and this one-sided ayatem of free-trading ao greatly enraged the Cbineae, that the little fleet waa aurrounded by the Chinese war junks, and only escaped cap- ture by the opportune occurrence of a ae- vere atorin. Perez, though far up the country, and personally innocent, waa aeiaed by the Cliinese as the scape-goat of hia fellow countrymen's offences. He was hur- ried back to Canton with t'ne utmost igno- miny, loaded with irons, and put into a pri- son, from which he never again emerged until death aet him free. About thia time a atate of bloodahed and horror exiated in China, auch aa probably waa never before equalled, even in that country of diatraction, the annala of which are so confused by usurpations, inter- mingling of dynasties, and alterations in territorial extent and nomenclature, that the hiatorian who desires to convey truth is not unfrcquently obliged to allow hia pen to pause until the current of the older nistories becomes less turbid and torrent- like. On the accession, in 1627, of Hwae-tsung, the Tartars, who, during the comparatively quiet seven years reign of this emperor's iniraediatc predecessor, liad been preparing themselves fot war, broke out lierciMy and suddenly. The time was peculiarly favour- able to their anticipated overthrow of the empire, wliich waa overrun by two robbers, wliose ufmiVs were not only more numerous f M •1 M •• H e i m 4 H s « H H M •• M CHINA PROrea la about KIEVE.-* TIJIBS TIIK SIZB of ORKAT BRITAI!!. [4C3 fon ^^t ^ITnasuro of l^istory, $rc. than that nf th« emperor, but had already iO fkr beaten it at to have obtained poi' ■•••loii of Mine Important praviiicci. Citjr after cilf bad fallen before tlicM llerre rebel*, and the Imperial troopt were in tome placm reduced lo tuch an extremity of fa- mine, that the bodies of exeruted crimlnaU (termed a portion of their diigutting food, and human flesh was, without shame or remark, exposed for sale in the open markrt. The imperial (teneral was at lenxth so pressed by the rebel troops, that bvinx at oDca in despair of successful renistance, and determined not to surrender, he caused the dykes tc be cut ihrouKh which restrainrd the river HoanK-ho from inundntiuK the country in which he was encamped, and at one fell swoop he and th>) whole of the troops and inhabitants, in all above SUO.UUO, were drowned. If the affairs of the empire were desperate before, the loss of this force could not fail to complete the ruin. The rebels and rob> bera who had alone been so formidable, now united with the wilv Mantclioo Tartars, who had so well known now to " bide their time." The unfortunate emneror flnding that there was no longer any nope or saietv for him even in his own palace, strangled himself. The last city that endeavoured to make head against the victorious and formidable Tartan and robbers was Tae-yucn. The inhabitants, and a comparative liaiidfVil of imperial troops, defended this with a stern obstinacy, which, under a different state of things in the empire at large, would have been very likely to save it ; the Tartars were repulsed again and again, until the very number of thrir slain enabled them to fill up the ditches and mount. Instead of ad- miring the gallantry of their conquered op- ponents, and treating them with merry, the Tartars savagely put the inhabitants to the sword, and then gave the devoted city to the flames. Woo San-quei, an able politician as well as a brave general, did not, even now that the emperor was slain, and the most pre- cious parts of the empire in the hands of the Tartars or rebels, despair of retrieving affairs. By a lavish distribution of rich presents he engaged the Mantchoo leaders to abandon the cause of the rebels, and to join with him against their chief. Woo San-quers policy succeeded in pro- curing him the alliance of the Mantchoo Tartai's; and, aided by them, he vanquished their former allies, the robels, after a series of achievements on bo;h sides, that equal anything recounted in the wars of the most distinguished generals of ancient times. But a new proof was now exhibited of the danger of purchased allies, who, like the elephants used in Indian warfare, are liable to become as formidable to their friends as to their foes. The Tartarn having nut down the rebels, took possession of Pekiit (or Cambulu), which tney expressed their determination to " protect," a word to which armed protectors attach a meoning very different from that assigned to it bv the protected. They proclaimed Shun-che, a son of their own monarch, ampernr of ih« northern provinces of China, the srat nf his government being Pekin, while ths princes and mandarins of tha southern pro* vinces proclaiuird Choo-yew, tha Mat of whose govtrnwent was at Nankia. CHAPTEK VI. THina being a northern and a sonihern empire, and the thrones being respect iv«lf Ailed by a TarUr and a Chinese, it miglit easily have bean foreseen that war and bloodshed would once more vex the unhappy people of both empires; and the opposite natures of the two emperors, far from de- creasing, increased this probability. Th* emperor of the South was unworthy of bit biKh station, and ill calculated for its pe- culiar exigonciet at that time. His indo- lence and gross sensuality, added, no doubt, to the tyrannies of the subordinates to whom he committed the cares of state, while he abandoned himself to his indul- gencies, caused a spirit of revolt lo show itself, which the northern emperor was not slow to avail himself of. Mxrching ra- I pidly upon the southern provinces, he pot- I sessed himself of the capital. Nankin, and I after a long series of successes, becsuie 1 master of the whole empire, with tlicexrcp- { tion of some few comparatively uniniportHnt , portions; and the princes of even thete i may be said to have been his tributaries I rather than independent rulers. Shun-che was the tirst emperor of China I who came into direct hostile collision with ' the Russians, who, in his reign made their . Way to the great river Amur on the borders ' of Tartary. The Russians seized upon I Dauri, a fortiHcd Tartar town of some ' strength, and in several battles obtained slKnal advantages. But subsequently the ChincRC recovered their ground, and a treaty I was entered into by which all the northern hnnk of the Amur, together with the sole navigation of that river, was assigned to the Chinese, and Tobolsk was fixed as the neutral trading ground of the two nations. Busilv and successfully as Shun-ehe was engaged in war, he seems to have been by no means insensible to the importance of the arts of peace. The PortuKuesc and other missionaries and scholars wlio, in de- spite of almost innumerable obstacles, had by this time settled themselves in China, in considerable numbers, found at the hands of this warlike monarch a degree of friend- ship and patronage highly creditable to him. He not only prevented them flrom bein(^ subjected to any annoyance, but even appointed one of them, Aaam Sehaal, tu the post of snperintcndant of mathematics, a post at that time, of some importance in Germany, and one that gave opportunity, of wliicli Sehaal in the next reign very skil- fully ovuilcd himself, of obtaining the high- est influence in the state. Shun-che, though an energetic mon, as is evident by his warlike achievements, and a sensible man, as we may judge both from the favour he showed to learned foreigners, AOniCULTURB AS A 8CISNCP. IS BUT LITTLB STUDIBn IN CHINA. I^ision) of C^ina. eo7 ■ M 5 •> 5 u a tk and tlie rradinei* with which h« accfpttU of their initruction in many branrhea of learning, waa, at the lanie time, aoincwhat of a Mnnuallat. Toward* the clo*e of hit life he devoted an undue unrtkon of hi* tlina to pleaaure, and hit deaili, which toolt place in lAAl, la aaid to hare occurred tlimu /)> excess of grief, occasioned br the drath <>i ■ favourite concubine t of which, had we not so manjr instances on record of human Innoniistvncj, one would have supposed it impossible for a man of hia atern and inar> I lial nature to be guilty. Kang-he, who now ascended the thronr, I was a minor, four principal personages of ' the e>npire forming the regonev. The Ger- man, 8ehaal, was appointed to the important post of principal tutor. Such was the in- fluence 8cliaal acQuired in this position, that he was virtually for some time prime : minister of China. I But the abilities of Bchaal and the other missionahea, though they could raise them to power and influence, could not guard them flrom envy. The Chinese literati, and ; even the regenta themselves, at lengtli be- came eicited to anger bir the very learning they had availed themselves of, and by the influence it had procured for the foreiiiners, through Schaal ; for among the many ser- ' vices he bad rendered to the state, it is said ; that on one occasion he actually preserved I Macao firom destruction. But envy was ; a-foot, the most absurd charges were made against the missionaries, and they were at i length deprived of all employment, while i many of them were loaded with chains and ! thrown into prison. Schaal, who waa now ; far advanced in years and verv inflrm, sank beneath his afllictions soon after their com- mencement, and died at the age of seventy- nine. It is much to the credit of the voung ; emperor that he had so well proflted by the \ instructions of his foreign friends, that as I soon as he attained his ma}oriiy he restored ' them to their influence and appolntmfuts, the place of the deceased Schaal being be- stowed upon the missionary Verbeist. We must, perhai)s, blame rather the barbarous cruelty of his time and country when wc add, that on divcovering that his four guar- dians and regents of tne empire were the chief instii;atoi8 of the disgrace and suffer- ing that had been inflicted on the mission- aries, he confirmed the horrid decree of the tribunal, which sentenced not only the of- fenders, but also their unfortunate families to be cut into a thousand pieces 1 We have previously alluded to the skill and courage evinced by the general Wuo- aan-quei vrnen the Mantchoo Tartars and the rebels caused so much misery to the empire ; when the Mantchoo Tartars, after aidmg him in putting down the rebels, had fairly established the Mantchoo dynasty upon the throne, the general was appointed governor of Kweiehow and Yun-nan. His position in the north west of tlie empire, discontent with his command, distinguished as it was, added, perhaps,' to a natural rest- lessness and lovfe of warfare, caused him now to levy war upon the neighbouring places, ilia military skill and his grtal resoiir'-fs sprrdily enabled him 10 maka liimii'ir inaKf er of the southern and wester* firovince*. His «)t ixsa viasat oneasoyreat aiiij 10 rspid, thai iti« emperor ana kit court wcr' thrown into constrffnattnn. aai i Verliiesl, vt Im amoog his numcroua abilitita included ilmt of a fnuoder of great gttUt was applied to to superi Blend th« eaatmg of snnie. From some incaptieablf moiivea he declined complianca with tha rcqtMill, or rather the order, for as a hif h oOlcar of tha eiiioire sucli he must have felt it. To sup- fwiie a r Ugious scrupla, in the cas« of men so ambitl-ias as the inissionari«>« liad shown llumselves, and so pliable a* they had been ill far less iustiflable course* on the part of the c(;urt, is difficult t and yet on no other ground can we reeonc'le Verbiest's refusal on this cccasion witk his sanity. Certain it is, that he nut only refused, hut persisted in so doing, until signiflcant hints that hia refusal was attributed to collusion with tha rebels, showed him that his life would not be safe did he not comply with the nnpa- ror's wishes. Cannon were then cast, and the speedy consequence was, that Woo San- quel, who, probably, would in a brief space have been master of the capital and tlia throne, was beaten back within safe limits. Woo San-quei, after another unsuccessful endeavour at usurping the empire, died in inrs, and was succeeded in what remained of his power, by his son, who shortly after put an end to hi* own life. In 1680 the Mongol TarUr* assailed tha emperor, but the cannon with which Eu- ropean skill in the great game of manslaugh- ter had furnished nim, enabled him to beat off these enemies with greater ease. Ha had the same success over the Elenths on the north western frontier of the empire. Successful in v.ar by the aid of the mis- sionaries, he was no less so in commerce) the czar, Peter the Great, would in all pro- bability, but for their mediation, have been prevented from concluding a peace with China ) and though the commercial advan- tages which resulted from that peace were not immediate, they were vast aud certain. Asa whole, the reign of thia emperor mav be considered by far the noblest of all spolccn of in his country's annals. As a military sovereign he will bear comparison even with the daring and hardy Kublai; while, like our own Elizabeth, he had the rare merit — scarcely inferior to genius itself— of skill in discovering genius, and of steady support to ministers possessing it, regardless of court intrigue and court jealousies. Canton, in his reign, even more than it ha* ever been in our time, was a port open to all nations, and by commerce with all nations was China enriched,; and his people had real cause for grief when he died, in the year 17i2. Yung-clnng,]yho now ascended the throne, bagan his reign by an act wliich held out but little hopes that he would distinguish liimsclf by wisdom like that of his prede- cessor. It has been seen that in the pre- cediugrcigu tlie missionaries had performed V» rKATUnSS and COHrLGXION, AS IN MAN.NBRS, THEY ARB ALL ALIKB >HB TRRT raASANTB IH CBIHA ABB AfTEIITIVB TO BTIQUBTTB. 808 ^I;e treasure of l^tstoro, $on the question of the importation of opium, the moral consideration as to the sale and use of that drug are really quite beside the question: had the article of trade been Yorkshire cloths or Birmingham hardware, the same collision must sooner or later have taken place. Opium was imported into China as early as the l/th century, and it was not until towards the close of the 18th century that Kea-king prohibited it. We applaud him for doing this. It was high time to put some check upon the use of it ; for though it was professedly imported only as a me- dicinal drug, it was imported to the extent of lOUO chests per annum as early as 1767, and the importation had been perpetually inbi easing in amount up to 1796. Up to this time, be it remembered, the traffic was strictly legal; it paid a duty of five mace per catty, and was for the most part deli- vered to and bonded by the government. It is clear that from 1796 the trade in this drug was mere smuggling ; equally clear that whether John Touikins or " The Company" was the trader, that trader was a smuggler. We will go farther. When the East India Company, having the mo- TEA WAS A LUXURT BBLnOM BBBN IN KNOI.AND BVBN IN ANNB'b REIGN. CAHTON II FBCQI.IABI.I TBI BIiroKlUlf 0» CaiHIl MAXDFAOTOBBI. ^\)t ^istote of ®|)ina. 811 t tt ■-* M » e A N « ■1 nopolf of tbe eastern trade, compelled the I not! of Patna to grow opium inttead of ; nee, and compelled the ryot* of divert other parti of the Anglo-Indian territory ' to do the lame, the act wai one which the Engliih presi ought loudly to have de- nounced, and which tbe Engliih lenate ought to have put a stop to, on pain of the loM of the Company'i charter. All thii is clear ai noon-day; but there is another consideration. The government of China is essentially paternal ; from the emperor to the lowest officer of his state link connccU link, as from tbe father of a family to his youngeit child or bis meaneit lervant. The trade in opium wai forbidden from time to time by edicts; true: but the very offlceri who were charged with the duty of enforce- ing those edicts were themselves tbe virtual importers of opium I Had the Chinese au- thorities at Canton and along the coast not connived at the trade for enormous bribes, or, as was even more frequently the case been themselves actual traders in the ar- tide, the trade would have been at an end years ago, and when only a comparatively small portion of British capital wai in- volved in it. It appeari to ui that the public prohibi- tion of a drug of which tbe consumption was hourly increasing, and the aid given to its importation by the very persons ap- pointed to carry that prohibition into effect, are merely " part and parcel" of the lettled Chineie policy of fleecing barbarians to the utmost possible extent, on the one hand, and of always having a convenient pretext for such a stoppage in trade as circum- stances might make convenient in the way of temporarily or permanently making the fleece longer and flner I It would be an instructive lesson for some of our politi- cians to con— the difference of proUt to China, between the 100 chests imported in 1776 at a fixed duty of five mace the catty, and that upon the 40,000 chests smuggled in 1840— at whatever profit the unscrupulous authorities could extort I It was not until 1839 that anything in the shape of a real determination to put down the trade was exhibited by the Chinese ; for the occasional stoppages of trade and blus- tering manifestoes, as already said, we look at as mere measures for making the fleece longer and finer I Lin appeared at Canton, in that year, a "high commissioner" — an officer possess- ing almost dictatorial powers, and one who had not been more than thrice previously appointed during the present dynasty. In an edict he said, " I, the commissioner, am sworn to remove utterly this root of misery ; nor will I let the foreign vessels have any offshoot left for the evil to bud forth aijain." Tlie British commissioner and between two and three hundred British subjects were then thrown into a state of close confine- ment ; tbe guards placed over tliem heaped every insult upon them, and threatened them with being deprived of provisions aud water. Captain Elliot, the British lupcr- intcndant, under inch circuroitancei, law no means of evading the demands of the Chinese; and upwards of 2U,UU0 cheiti of opium, valued at 2U,U00,U(iO of dollars, were delivered to commiiiioner Lin for diitruc- tion. In 1840 war was declared by England againit the Chineie. The leading eveuti, however, which followed being related in the history of our own country, it would be luperfluous to repeat them here. Vie will merely add what has transpired since that was written. All differences being finally adjusted, and bis celestial majesty being on terms of the strictest amity with her Britannic majesty, a ratification of the treaty between the two countries was announced on the :!7tb of July, 1843. From that day the Hong mer- chants' monopoly and Consoo charges were to cease ; and the conditions upon which trade was in future to be carried on, ap- peared in a notice issued by sir Henry rottinger, the British plenipotentiary in China ; who published an export and im- port tariff, and also a proclamation, in which he trusts that the commercial treaty will be found, in practice, mutually advan- tageous, beneficial and just, as reitards the interest, honour, and the future augment- ed prosperity of the governments of the two mighty contracting empires and their •objects. The proclamation Issned by the imperial commission contained a perfect amnesty, and the remission of punishment tor all w! o have served the English ootdiers with supplies, iic, in days pa6t, and concludes by stating that. " From henceforward amity and goodwill shall ever continue, and iliose from afar, and tliose who are near, shall perpetually rejoice together," Bnt despite tliese fine promises, in IB47, fresh ontrages on the part of the (leople of Canton led to another temporary capture of the Do<;ue forts. The Emperor Tao> Kwang died in 1850, ai'ler a reign of thirty years, and was succeeded by Y-Ching. Hut the rule of llie present Tartar dynasty, even in the heart or its own dominions TBI BZiaTBROB OF JiPtB. 812 ^^e ^rcasuvi) of llistoru, Sec. THE HISTORY OF JAPAN. . Jafan it a general name given, by Euro- peans, to a great number of islands, lying between the eastern coast of Asia and the western coast of America, and which to- gether compose a large empire, extending from the 30th to the 4l8t degree of north latitude, and from the I30th to the 147th degree of east longitude. The inhabitants can this empire Niphon, which is the name of the largest island belonging to it. It was discovered by the Portuguese about the year 1452. The religion of the Japanese is Paganism, divided into several aects, who live together in harmony. Every sect has its own tem- ples and priests. The spiritual emperor, or dairi-aama, is the chiet of their religion. They acknowledge and honour a Supreme Being; and the temples are open to every individual, whatever his creed or country. Christianity had once made a consider- able progress in Japan, under the auspicea of the Portuguese and Spanish Jesuits, among whom was the famous St. Francia Xavier ; but it ended tragically, owing to an ill-conducted conspiracy of the fathers against the state. This proceeding pro- duced a persecution of forty years' dura- tion, and terminated by a most horrible massacre, scarcely to be paralleled in his- tory. After this, not only the Portuguese, but Christians of every nation were totally expelled the country, and the roost effec- tual means taken for preventing their re- turn. In 161 1, the Dutch had the liberty of a free commerce granted them by the impe- rial letters patent, and established a fac- tory at Firando. They were then at war with Spain, and Portugal was at that time under the Spanish government. The for- mer, by taking an homeward bound Por- tuguese ship, found a traitorous letter to the king by a captain Moro, chief of the Portuguese in Japan. The Dutch imme- diately forwarded tliis lettter to their pro- tector, the prince of Firando. This letter laid open the whole plot which the Ja- panese Christians, in conjunction with the Portuguese, had laid against the emperor's life and throne. In consequence of this discovery, in the year 1637, an imperial order was sent to the governor of Naga- saki, to admit no more Portuguese into the empire. Notwithstanding this proclamation, the Portuguese found means to carry on their trade two years longer, hoping to obtain leave to stay in the island of Desiina, and there continue to trade: but they found themselves disappointed; for the emperor on the assurance given him by the Dutch East India Company, that they would sup- ply him in future with all the articles here- tofore supplied by the Portuguese, declared them, and the Castilians, enemies of the empire ; and they were totally expelled the lountrv in 1640. Their extirpation, and with them the Christian religion, was to complete, that not • vestige can now be discerned of its having ever existed there , The government of the Japan empire is an hereditary, absolute monarchy. The imperial dignity had been enjoyed, for » considerable time before the year isuu, h* a regular succession of princes, under the title of dairoi. Soon after that epoch a civil war broke out, which lasted nia'nv years. During the destructions it occa' aioned, a common soldier, named Tarekoy found means to raise himself to the im- perial dignity, and the dairo was obliged to submit to terms. This revolution took place in 1617. Tayckoy reigned sevrrttl vears, during which he made excellent laws, which still subsist. At his death he left the crown to his son, Tayckosnania then a minor ; but the treitipli^rous prince under whose guardianship he was left, de- prived him ot his life before he came of age. D^ this murder the crown passed to the family of Jejassama, in which it still continues. The Japanese must be placed rather a- mong the polished nations than otherwise. Their mode of government, their skill in agriculture, in manufactures, arte, and sciences — their politeness, good - nature, prudence, frankness, and courage— entitle them to this distinction. They seem to possess nothing of the vanitv of Asiatics and Africans ; but are careful only to pro- vide themselves, from the productions of their own counti^y, with those necessaries and comforts of life, so desirable to enlight- ened human beings. The language of the Japanese has some afHnity to the Chinese ; though it appears, from its various dialects, to have been a kind of compound of that and other lan- guages, derived from the various nations that first peopled these islands. Their man- ner of writing, and their architecture, are very similar to those of China. The internal trade of Japan is very ex- tensive, and their industry will bear com- parison with that of the Hindoos, or even Chinese. Foreign eommerce, however, is vigorously opposed by the government, in consequence of the supposed Portuguese treachery before mentioned, and the at- temps ot the Jesuit missionaries to Chris- tianise the people. The number of Dutch vessels allowed to come each year, and the quantity of each description of wares to be sold, are strictly defined. The ships, imme- diately on their arrival, are strictly searrh- ed, and the crews are kept, during their stay in port, completely secluded from tlie natives ; while all the business transactions are conducted by the Japanese, who also unload and re-load the vessels. Nay, so TUB CalMINAI. LAW! Or JAFAB ARK TIRHICVITB AND SABOVINABT. TUB CITLONItB AKB DITIDBD INTO CAITKd, LIKE TIB UIHOOOI. pclled the 'ion, and in, w»s 10 n now be ed there. " empire cl'y. The ?ea, for « r 15(10, hy under the epoch, a ted many it occa- Tarckoy, the ini- . » obliged I ition touk I d levrrul ' excellent 1 death he ;ko»aina, us prince » left, de. I came of passed to I'll it stilt ^^e lEast 3Ent(ta Sslantfs. 813 rigid are the^ in preventing their aub^ecta from having intercoune with other nations, that it it a capital offence for the natives of Japan to travel into other countries; and their seamen even, when accidentally cast on foreign shores, are, on their return, sub- jected to vigorous examination, and some- times tedious imprisonment, to purify them from the supposed pollution contracted abroad. The cautioas and ceremonious way in which the Japanese transact their busi- ness with the Dutch merchants is thus de- scribed : — About the time when the Dutch ships are expected, several outposts are stationed on the highest hills by the go- vernment; they are provided with tele- scopes, and when seen at a distance, notice is given to the governor of Nagasaki. As soon as they anchor in the harbour, offi- cers go on board, with interpreters, to whom is delivered a chest, in which all the sailors' books, the muster-roll of the whole crew, six small barrels of powder, six bar- rels of balls, six muskets, six bayonets, six pistols, and six swords, are deposited. This IS supposed to be the whole remaining am- munition, after the imperial garrison has been saluted. These things are conveyed on shore, and housed ; but returned again on the day that the ship quits the harbour. The beginning of the rear is the time ob- served for holidays, or days of leisure and enjoyment ; and at this time the ceremony of trampling on images, representing the cross, and the virgin and child, is perform- ed. The images are of eopper, about a foot long. This ceremonv is intended to im- ?ress every individual with hatred of the !hristian doctrine, and the Portuguese, who attempted to introduce it; and also to discover whether any remnant of it is jeft among the Japanese. It is performed in the places where the Christians chiefly resided. In Nagasaki it lasts four days; then the images are convejed to the cir- cumjacent places, and afterwards are laid aside till the next year. Every person, ex- cept the Jananese governor and his attend- ants, even the smallest child, must be pre- sent. The population of Japan is supposed to exceed fifty millions. The army in time of peace consists of 100,000 infantry, and 20,000 cavalry : the force during war being increased by levies from the different pro- vinces to 400,000 infantry, and 40,000 ca- valry. The arms used bv the former arc the musket, pike, bow, sabre, and dagger ; those of the mounted troops being the lance, sabre, and pistoL Their utiUery is very inconsiderable. THE EAST INDIA ISLANDS. CEYLON. CiTLOif is a large island of the East In- dies, separated from the continent by the Gulph of Manaar and Palk's Straits, near the southern extremity of Hindostan. It is SdO miles in lenKth from north to south, and averages about 100 in breadth. The conquest of this island was the first at- tempt of Albuquerque, the celebrated Por- tujtuese admiral. He found it well peopled, and inhabited by two different nations; the Bedat in the north, and the Cinglaatet, or Sinyalese, in the south. The former were very barbarous ; but the latter in some state of civilization. These, however, de- rived great advantage from the mines of precious stones, and also from their pearl fishery, the greatest in the East. It is said that the proper name of the island is Singhala, and that part of the po- pulation called Singalese have a tradition that their ancestors came thither from the eastward nearly 2,400 years ago; but many authors suppose them to be a colony of Singhs or Rajpoots, who arrived about 500 years o. c. From the ruins of cities, tanks, aqueducts, canals, bridges, temples, &c. at Trincomalee and other places, Ceylon has evidently been at some remote period a rich, populous, and comparatively civilized country. The Portuguese not only con- quered, but tyrannized over them to such a decree, that they assisted the Dutch in expelling them from the island in 1658, after a bloody and obstinate war. by which all the Portuguese settlements fell into the hands of the Dutch East India Company. The wars with the king of Candy, the most potent, if not the sole sovereign of the island, were very detrimental to Hol- land. In a sanguinary war, which ended in 1766, the Cevloncse monarch was driven from his capital, and the Dutch made a very advantageous treaty. Their sovereignty was acknowledged over all those narts of the country they possessed before tne war, and that part of the coasts held by the natives was ceded to them. They were allowed to gather cinuamon in all the plains; and the court stipulated to sell them the best sort, which is produced in the mountains, at a very moderate price. The government also engaged to have no connection with any foreign power, and even to deliver up any Europeans who might happen to come into the island. In return for so many concessions the king was to receive annually the value of the produce of the ceded coasts; and from thence his subjects were to be furnished, gratis, with as much salt as they had oc- casion for. Matters were in this situation when the- English attacked the Dutch in 1/94, and conquered Trincomalee, and all their settlements in the island ; and it afterwards became a part of the price of the peace of Amiens in favour of England. The English had no sooner taken pos- session, than they unhappily were involved IN CIVILIZATION*, TRR CKYI.ONKSR ARE ON A TAR WITH THB niNPOOR. [4D lAfA M »llf inaUIIUBD >I TBI HOMBIB AND BXCBLLKHCB OP 1*1 fIDITI. su Cfic iiTitasuru of l^istoii}, ice. in a war whh the king of Candy, owinir to •oma niliundarttanding relative to certain arlloUf of fiommaroei and the livei of many brava men were aaeriflced to it ; ra- ther, hbweveri by the Ireacherr and bad faith of the Ceyluneee king and hla mini- ttar, than by fair and honourable warfare. The population of Ceylooi independently of the eulonieta whi hare at variout timea poiieiied themielrei of the Roasts, consist of— 1st, the native Bingalese or Ceylonese, one braneh oeoupying the Candyan terri- torlea, and the otlier the coasts; 2nd, the Vaddaht, or aborialnes. who, in an almost aavage atala, Inhabitea the mountainous regione and unexplored fastnesses; 3rd, the Moore, who are found in all parts of the Itland ; and 4th, the Malabar and other lllndooi, who dwell ehielly on the nortliern and eastern coast* Of all these races the Candyan Ceyloneie differ least from Euro- peana In form, feature, and physical power. There are also « Mia, and arrived lafe at Java, where he lound the inhabitanta prejudiced aKaintt hi* nation. They rousnt and negotiated bjr turni. At lengtli they were permitted to trade, and, in a short time, loaded four vesaeli with >pice« and lineni. The admi- ral, with hi« fleet, sailed to the Moluccas, where he learned that the natives of the country had forced the Portuguese to aban- don some of the places in which they had settled, and that they only waited for a favourable opportunity of expelling them from the rest. He established factories in several of these islands, entered into a treaty with some of the kings, and returned to Europe laden with riches. In 1G(J2, the states-general formed the Dutch India Company. It was invested with authority to make peace or war with the eastern princes, to erect forts, main- tain garrisons, and to nominate officers for the conduct of the police and the adminis- tration of justice. The company, which had no parallel in anti(}uity, anc was the pattern of all suc- ceeding societies of the Kind, set out with grcnt advantages ; and, soon after its esta- blishnient, they fitted out for India four* teen shius and some yachts, under the command of admiral Warwiqli, whom the Hollanders look upon as the founder of their commerce, and of their colonies, in the East. He built a factory in this island, and secured it by fortitications. He had fre- ijnent engagements with the Portuguese, in which lie generally came off victorious. A sanguinary war was the consequeuce of these liostilitifs between the two nations, in which the Dutch were successful. Batavia, which, from • small beginning, has become the capital of all the Dutch possessions in India, has one of the best and safest harbours in the world. The city is surrounded by a rampart 21 feet in thick- ness, covered on the outside with stone, and fortified with 22 bastions. This ram- part is environed by a ditch, 43 yards over, and full of water. The river Jucutra runs through the midst of the city, and forms fitteen canals of running water, adorned with evergreens. The inhabitants consist of Dutch, French, Portuguese, Javanese, Chinese, Malays, Negroes, and many others. Cutfee, su|;ar, and spices are produced here in great abundance : and, altoKCther, it may be said to be one of the moat valu- able colonies belonging to any European nation. The island was taken by a British force from India in 1811, and held till 1816, when it was restored to the Dutch. BORNEO. BoBif KG is one of tlie largest islands in the world, being 1500 miles in circumference. Is is seated under the equator, and occu- pies nearly the centre of the eastern archi- pelago. The west and north-east sides of It are a desert, and the east is compara- tively little known. The inland parts are mountainous; and the south-east, for many leagues together, la an unwholesome no- raHS. Uorneo was discovered by the Portnguese in IS3I. The English and Portugue»« se- veral times attempted to found e*iabli*h- ments on Its coasts without success. The sovereignty nl the south coast was ceded to Ihf Dutch by the sultan of Banjeruiasiiln 1787 ; but the niont Imporiaiit evviii In ilie rereiit history of Uorneo Is the eiiieri)rii« of Sir Janii-s Brooke, who lliiit visiteii the Uland ill isay, and hai* since beuii a<:tively eiijcsKed In the suitpreitsloii of piracy, the dirtustiou of education, and the encourage- niriit of commerce and luanuisclurei. The Dyaks apiieikr to be the aborigines ; they are Uiviil«a into numerous tribes, the rhief heiiig those of the Interior, or hill Dyiiks, and the Dyaks of the coast, many of whom are daring pirates; and csnni- ballsm exiiils among many of the tribes. The Dyaks of the north coast have been conquered b« the Malays, who treat them with great cruelly. I he Island is divided into iiianji separate states, governed by na- tive chielb ; the best known of these is Borneo Proper, which extends over the level space on the north coast, the sultan of which is under the superintendence of Sir James Brooke. On the north coast, near the north-wext part of the Island, is the territory of Sarawak, which Is under the rajahship of Sir James Brooke. This territory enjoys an excellent climate, is rich in mineral and agricultural products, and Is admirably situated for Inde. Borneo is rich In minerals; guM, silver, tin, iron, and es- pecially diamonds, one of the largest found weighing 367 carats, and, according to the absurd mode of valuation, worth 269,378/. Excellent coal is worked in Borneo Piuper and Baiijermafisin, and rich Iron mines were discovered In the south-east angle of the liile ill 1848. The soil is very r«-rlile. The forcKts furiiUh valuable limber, ami, ill con.inon witii many otiier isles of the Archipelago, the giitla perclm, now so exten- sively employed in iiiaiiut'actiires. Ainoii); vei;etahles are maize, rice, yanist, balaliiM, cocoa-nut, betel, lobiicco, cotton, siiK^ar- caiie, pepper, and oiIkt spices and fruits. THE MOLUCCAS, OR SPICE ISLANDS. Thrsk consist of Aiuboyna,Temate, Fe- dor, Motyr, Cilolo, and several utbrr small islands. The Portuguese were the iirst Europeans who possessed them, but were obliged to share their advantages with the Spaniards, and at length to give up the trade almost entirely to them. These two nations joined to oppose the Dutch in their first attempts to gain a settlement ; but the Dutch, assisted by the natives of the country, by degrees gained the superiority. The ancient conquerors were driven out about the year 1615, and their place sup- filied by others equally avaricious, though ess turbulent. As soon as the Dutch had established themselves in tiie Moluccas, they endea* voured to get the exclusive trade of spices into their own hands ; an advantage which I u M *• M ■ M M » M e M U B a o m »• ■ ■ M o Ik e M M » & u H ■ O H B O ■ < a H ■ •• 4 TUB CI.OVR FLAHT BBSEMni.BS A I.AROB FEAR TRBR, 20 TO 40 fRBT HIOB. •Aso roBiia TUB caiir rooB or vbb irbabitaut* or AMBotHA. 816 ^I)c ^rcasurs of l^istorQ, ice. the nation thejr had jact expelled was never able to procure. They skilfully availed themielvra of the forte they had taken, and those they had erected, to draw the kings of Ternate and Tydor, who were masters of this archijpelaKO, into their schemes. These princes, for a small sum of money, ( little more than 80001.) agreed to root out all the clove and nutmeg trees in the islands under their dominions i and a garrison of seven hundred men was appointed to secure the performance of the treaty. At Amboyna they engrossed the whole cultivation of cloves. They allotted to the inhabitants four thousand parcels of land, on each of which they were compelled to plant one hundred aYid twenty-flve trees, amounting, in the whole, to Ave hundred thousand : and the collective produce ave- rages about one million of pounds. The island of Amboyna is about thirty- two miles long and ten broad, and is di- vided into two parts, a greater and a lesser peninsula : the former is called ifi(o» ; and the latter, Leptimor. As the massacre of the English at Am- boyna, by the Dutch, in 1631, was attended with such acts of perfidy and cruelty, it may be necessary, even at this time, not to pass them over in silence. 'We have before observed, that the Dutch disposessed tlie Portuguese of Amboyna in 1615. They did not, however, become masters of the island at once. The English had here five facto- ries, who lived under the protection of the Dutch castle: holding; themselves safe, in re- spect of the friendship existing between the two nations. Great differences had arisen between the English and Dutch colonists: at length a treaty was concluded, in 1619, bv which the concerns of both were regulated, and certain measures agreed upon for pre- venting future disputes. Some short time afier, the Dutch pretended that the English and Amboynese had formed a conspiracy to dispossess them of one of their forts. The plot, it was alleged, had been discovered by a Japanese and Portuguese in the English service, who were most inhumanly tortured into such confessions as their cruel inqui- sitors thouglit proper. Upon this evidence, they immeaiately accused the English fac- tors of the pretended conspiracy. Some of them they imprisoned ; and others they loaded with irons, and sent on board their ships; seizing, at the same time all the English merchandise, with their writings and books. These acts of violence were followed by a scene of horror unexampled in the pun- ishment of the most atrocious offenders. The tormenting tortures to which they put the innocent factors, are too shocking to relate ; and those who did not die under the agonies of pain, were consigned to the executioner. The whole of the transaction affords the most irrefragable testimony that the Hol- landers did it with no other view, than of monopolizing the whole trade of the Spice Islands. Tliey acted a similar tragedy at Poleron, about the same time, where they put to the torture one hundred and sixty, two of the natives, whom they likewise charged with a pretended conspiracy. Until the French revolutionary war, the Dutch enjoyed, in peace, these intaluable islands, when Amhuyna, and the other Mo- luccas, submitted to the English. Thk BANDA. Oh NUTMEG ISLES. Thb Banda Isles is the general name of twelve small islands in the East Indian Archipelago. Two of them are unculti- vated, and almost nninhabited: the other three claim the distinction of being the only islands in the world that produce the nutmeg. If we except this valuable spice, the islands of Bauda are barren to a dreadful degree. The land will not produce any kind of corn, and the pith of the sago serves the natives of the country instead of bread. This is the only settlement in the East Indian isles, that can be considered as a European colony: because it is the only one where the Europeans are proprietors of lands. The Dutch company finding that the inhabitants of Banda wk»e savage, cruel, and treacherous, because they were impatient under their voke, resolved to ex- terminate them : and their possessions were divided among the white people, who pro- cured alaves flrom some of the neighbour- ing islands to cultivate the lands. The cli- mate of Banda is particularly unhealthy; on which account the company attempted to transfer the culture of the nutmeg tn Amboyna I but all the experiments that have been made have proved unsuccessful. The Banda Islands were discovered by tlie Portuguese in 1512, and colonized in 1524; but were taken by the Dutch in 1599. The English possessed themselves of them in 1810,bttt restored them to the Dutch in 1814. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Tub Philippine Islands are a large group belonging to the eastern archipeln^o, the firincipal of which is Luzon, a long, irregu- ar, and narrow island. They were disco- vered by Magellan, in 1521, who called tliem the archipelago of St. Lazarus, as the dis- covery was made on that saint's day. But they were subjected, nr rather part oftliem, to the S()aniards, by Don Louis de Velasro, in 1564, in the reign of Philip II. and de- rive their present name from him. The natives are supposed to be of Chinese ex- traction. Manilla, the capital of the island of Lu- zon, and of all the Philippines, is situated on the south-east part of the island, where a large river falls into the sea, and forms a noble bay, thirty leagues in compass. On the 6th of October, 1762, the Eng- lish, under general Draper and admiral Cornish, took Matiilla by storm, after a siege of twelve days ; but, to save so line a city from destruction, they agreed to ac- cept a ransom, amounting to a million ster- ling, part of which, it is said, was never paid. TUB BANDA ISI.BS FUOUUSB ABOUT 100,000t.BB. Or NDTUB08 ABNUALLT. rALiSTiN* coniiiTS caiivLT or moaaiD HULa mo mabbow talibii. THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE, AMD, MOni FARTICULARI.T, Or THE JEWS. Bt the Tarioui iiam«i of Hebrews, !■• raelitet, or Jews, were this most illustrious people of ancient times known, who dwelt m the land then culled Canaan. Contrary to the obsciiritjr in which the origin of other nations is veiled, we have the evidence of Holy Writ for the rise, progress, decline, and fall of the Jews. They deduced their descent from Arphaxad the son of 8hem ; and we have it on record, that Abraham, the sixth in descent from Eber, the grand- son of Arphaxad, dwelt in Assyria, but re- moved into Canaan or Palestine, with his family, to the intent that the true religion of God should be preserved bv them, his " chosen people," amid the idolatrous cor- ruptions of other nations by whom they were surrounded. The period of which we are now speak- ing was about two thousand years before the birth of Christ. At that time the in- habitants of Mesopotamia and Syria ap- pear to have be€n par|)y nomadic, or wan- dering, like the Tartars or Scythians ; for we find that Abraham and his descendants sojourned in different parts of Canaan and Egypt, until the time of their protracted residence in the latter country. Abraham at his death transmitted the inheritance of the "promised land" to his son Isaac; and Isaac was succeeded in the patriarchate by his younger son Jacob, also called Israel. Jacob had twelve sons; the descendants of whom remaining distinct, constituted the twelve tribes of the Israelites in after-time. Joseph, the youngest but one of these sons, having unconsciously excited the jealousy of the rest, was sold by them as a slave, to some Arabian merchants, by whom he was carried into Egypt : there, as we read, he became known to the king, and was made his chief minister ; and in a time of famine, for which his foresight had provided, he was the happy means of providing his aged father and the whole of his family an asy- lum in the fertile district of Goshen (b. c. 1705). The pathetic and interesting story of " Joseph and his Brethren," as narrated in the Bible, requires no comment in this place ; but, we may, perhaps, be allowed slightly to digress, in order to illustrate the case of Joseph's memorable rise from the condition of a slave to that of the chief ruler of I'baroah's household. European notions of slavery very naturally picture to the mind all that is horrible, cruel, and re- volting ; and it would seem next to an im- possibilltv that, by any chance, one so help- less and degraded as a slave could becunie an officer of trust, or— more wonderAtI still — the chief minister and adviser of a mo- narch of a mighty kingdom. It is, however, remarked by marshal Marmont, who some years ago travelled throuxh Turkey, ftc., and who evidently paid great attention to the condition of the people and the cus- toms of the countries he visited, that slaves in the East are far from being in the con- dition we miKht suppoae; and it is there- fore not unreasonable to believe that the kindness with which the* are treated at the present day is derived from immemo- rial custom. He observes, "The most docile slave rejects with indignation any order that is not personally given him by his master; and he feels himself placed immeasurably above the level of a tree or hired servant. He is a child of the house; and it is not unusual to see a Turk entertain so strong a predilection for a slave he has purchased, as to prefer him to his own son. He often overloads him with favours, gives him his confidence, and raises his position ; and, when the master is powerful, he opens to his slave the path of honour and of pub- lic employment." As peaceful dwellers in the rirh and fertile valleys of Goshen, the Israelites in process of time became sufficiently nume- rous to excite the envious alarm of the Egyptians; and they accordingly under- went many persecutions, until the Almighty raised up Moses as their deliverer. The miraclcK he was empowered to work, the murmurings and backslidings of the peo- ple, their idolairoiis propensities, and all other particulars relative to them while wandering through the parched and arid deserts ofArabia, form interesting portions of the sacred volume; we shall therefore pass on briefly to the death of Moses, and the delegation of power to Joshua, the ac- knowledged chief of the Jewish nation, B. c. 1431. Joshua was now ninety-three years of age, and had unt'er his command six hun- dred thousand men capable of bearing arms, besides the aged and infirm, women, children, and servants. On every side were warlike nations, some of them represented as containing men of gigantic stature and immense personal prowess; their towns were well fortified, and every necessary preparation had been made to repel inva- sion. The veteran leader was, however, un- dismayed ; and, relying on that protecting Power who had delivered the people from Egyptian bondage, and brought them safely to the frontiers of Canaan, he went on BOTH FAI.KSTINR ANO SYRIA AHK SOMKTIMKS VISIFRn BT THK FI.AGVK. Unr tIB ILOrBS OV MOUNT LiaAROII AKB MOt* OAiafULLT CULTIVATID. 818 V^1)t ^rcasurs of l^istorQ, ^c. "eonqnerinf and to conquer." At length, after ■ubdulag the "promiicd land," and eitablithing iti trani|uillit]p, he divided it among the twelve tribei ; charging them, at the eame lime, to give a tenth part of their gooda to the tribe of Levi, who were oonucraied lolel* for the prietthood i and henee oroceeda the origin of tithn. Hav- ing ruled Paleitine aa witclf ai he had conquered it bravely, and being now one hundred and ten years old, the aged war- rior recigned hit breath. Joehua wai no aooner dead, than the Jewi gave Ihemielvee up to anarchy, by wliich means they shortly fell under the Sower of Cuihan, king of Mesaootamia. .I'ter a servitude of eight years, Othoneel became Judge of Israel; at whose death, Eglon, king of Moab, reduced them to his obeci.ence; and under his yoke they con- tinued eighteen vears. Ehud tlien ruled as judge of Israel, in whose time they fell un- dt-r the government of Jabin, king of Ca- naan, wTio held them twenty-nine years: when Deborah and Barak, jointly, judged Israel for thirty-three years. A fourth ser- vitude, of seven years, then followed .un- der the Midianites. Then Gideon, and his successors, to Jair, ruled Israel as judges thirty-six years; when in the fifteenth year of lait, the fifth servitude commenced, un- der the Philiitinea and the Ammonites. Jephtha succeeded aa judge, and was fol- lowed in his office by four successors, the last of whom was Sampson, (whose super- human strength was exerted with such ter- rible effect on his enemies, the Philistines). In his time, however, the Israelites fell again under their oppressors' yoke, and were ruled by them forty years. Eli then became judge, who being nearly a hundred years old, bis two sons, Hophni and Phi- neas who acttd under him, took advantage of his weakness to commit the most profli- gate abominations. They were, notwith- standing, by no means deticieut in bravery : but having sustained a great defeat by the Philistines, in which tliey lost their lives and the sacred ark, their aged parent was so overcome on hearing the fatal tidinj^s, that he fell backward from his chair and instantly expired. Samuel, at that time but a vouth, though divinely inspired, was then chosen judge of Israel; and during the latter part of his administration the land was in a more peaceful state than it had been for many previous years. When Samuel had iieen judge of Israel about twenty years, the peof)le, wishing to imitate the example of their neighbours, demanded that they should have a king to rule over them. Samuel accordingly se- lected Saul for that high office, and on pre- senting him for their acceptance, "all the people shouted and said, God save the kiug 1 " Although many of the Israelites were afterwards discontented with having a king who had been their compaiiiun and equal, the numerous proofs which Saul gave of his military qualifications checked their murmurs. He attacked and defeated the forces of the different nations who ha- rassed the frontiers of his kingdom, and took signal vengeance of thrir old and implacaole enemies, the Philistines. Ai a warlike monarch he reigned with glory but put an end to his life. The judftes of Israel are to be considered as the defenders of religion, and the uro- tectora of the laws ; they decided upon war and peace, and were at all times niagis. trates aud warriors. He was succeeded by David, a shepherd of the tribe of Judah, under whom the Kovernment gained considerable strength. He was succeeded by Solomon, hit toni celebrated for his wisdom and his magnili! cencei he rendered the people happy by continual peace, a.id by the encoursgrment of commerce; he had the reputation of being a wise prince, and his writings and his laws were received and esteemed io tlie most distant countries, with all that vene- ration the^ deserved. His son, Rehoboam, an insensible despot, ruled the Inraelitei with an iron rod. Ten of the tribes sepa- rated themselves from hiBKOvrnnientiand chose Jerobuaiu for their kin»;. Palestine now became two kingdoms ; tt^.>.' one railed Judah, aud the other Israel. ,A ilifferenne in religion was soon after introduced ; that called the Samaritan, or Israelite, was em- braced by the ten tribes; while Mudah and Benjamin kept to the ancient usage of their forefathers. Under Hosea, king of Israel, the ten tribes were carried away captive to Nine- veh, by Salmanazcr. Nebuchadnezzar very soon placed the people of Judah in the like unhappy situa- tion of the ][iecp)e of Israel. After having conquered •tr'^saUm, he transported them to Babylon, il>e capital of his empire. Tliis captivity lasted ?evonty years, when Cyrus ga\e them the liberty of returning to their country. Great numbers accepted tlieoffcr, conducted by Zerobabel, Neheuiiah, and Esdras. They rebuilt Jerusalem and the Temple. They re-established their state, and lived under their own laws, paying a small tribute to the kings of Persia ; and suffered idolatry no more to take place of their devotion to the true God. The Jews were subject to the kinjs of Persia at the time Alexander made the conquest of that empire. At his death, his vast dominions were divided between his principal captains ; and the king of 8]iria had a part of Judea ; but lying, aa it were, upon the frontiers of both Syria and Egypt, it suffered severely from alternate inva- sions. Jerusalem, siuce the Babylonian captivity, had no particular governors who took upon themselves the title of kini;; the high-priests held the interior adminis- tration, and were respected as much as if they had actually been in possession of the throne. Ptolemy Soter besieged Jerusalem, and carried away one hundred thousand cap- tives, whom he dispersed through Egypt, Libya, and the country about Cyrene, where their posterity for many centuries after continued to exist. Duriug this period, 8i- d a e a a 4 if M m CLOUDS OF LOCUSTS 80HBTIME8 nESTaOT TUB FBODITCB OF THB WHOLB LAND. ^Ift mmt^ of Palestine. 819 mon, larnkineil the Jiiit, wai hich-prieit i • man not leti remarkiible for hi* nieriu •^ (OTernor, than for hi« eminent pielv. Under hit directions tlie cuion of the Old Teitament wae completed, and thencefor- ward traniniitted to future generations without further reviial: ». c. 3U3. It wai about thia time that the aect of tbeSaddu- eeei arose, who denied the existence of a future state. Tliey were, however, inferior in numbers and popularity to the Phari- sees, who entertained a decided belief in the resurrection, and in the doctrine of future rewards and punishments. Under the patronaite of Ptolemjr Philadclplius, the Hebrew Scriptures were trauslaiea into Greek, for the beneit of the Jews reRidinc in Egypt. This version is usually called the Septuagint, because, according to tra- dition, the translation was entrusted to sevpniy persons. The situation of the Jews under the Sy- rians was various. Antiochus Epiphanes, wishing to alter their religious ouinions, took the power of the disposal of the high priesthood into his own hands, which he alternately disposed of, and dispossessed, according to his caprice. He pillaged the temple, and put Eleazer to death; and also the seven brothers, Maccabees, with their mother. He also caused to be put to the sword, on the sabbaih-daj, all those that had assembled together for the pur- pose of devotion. This cruel and unjust persecution caused the Jews to rebel : they were lieadr>d by Mattathias ; and, after his death, by his son, the celebrated Judaa Maccabeus, the defender of the religion, and the saviour of his country. That hero being killed in battle, was succeeded by Jonathan, who united in himself the spiri- tual and temporal powers. His brother Simon succeeded, and waa ec^ually cele- brated for his wisdom as his virtues, and was the first of his nation who had govern- ed Judea peaceably and absolutely, since the return from Babylon. He wm killed at a banquet, and was succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanua, who was succeeded by Judas, surnamed Aristobulut, assuming to himself the title of king. Alexander Janntens was the next king, a hero very little inferior to David. He left two sons, Hyrcnnus and Aristobulus. The former held the sceptre during the life of Alexandra, his mother; but, soon after the death of that princess, Aristobulus declared war against his brother, and deprived him of his Kingdom. Judea having become a Roman province, Pompey the Great, its conqueror, re-estab- lished Hyrcauus in the government, and took with him Aristobulus to Rome, to heighten the glory of his triumph. Fhra- ates, king of Parthia, deposed Hyrcanua, and put in his place Antigonus, son of Aristobulus. Soon after Herod, surnamed the Great, an Idumean by birth, and pa- tronized by Antony, obtained permission from the Romans to assume the title of king of the Jews. This prince, although a tyrant to his subjects and to his family, added lustre to the Jewish nation i he repaired Jerusalem, rebuilt the temple, and procured to him- self successively the favour of Ca*sius, Ca- sar, Antony, and Oetavius; augiiirnting his power by the art which he pomirasetl uf pleasing those of whom he held his crown. In his reign Jasos Chsist was born. Alter the death of Herod. Angust is divided the government uf Judi-a between the sons of Herod : he bestowed one half upon Archelaus, and the other half upon Herod • Antipas and Philip. Nine vears afterwards, Augustus, being disnatisfled with their conduct, sent them into exile, and placed the government of Judea under the pro-consul of Syria. The governors appointed by the Romans over the Jews were for the inont part ty- rants, which served to streng'lien in them the propensity for revolt. Tliey had been taught that a descendant of the house of David should deliver them from oppres- sion ; they believed that the time was near- W arrived, and their insolenre increased as the fulttlmeut of the prediction, in their opinion, drew near. They were almost in continual sedition : and althouKh arvcrely puniihed for their turbulence, their ardour in a cause wherein they supposed their own liberties, and those of their posterity depended, was not in the least diminished. In the year 66 after Christ, the standard of revolt was set up. Jerusalem was be- siesed by Cestius, whom the Jews com- pelled to retire. Nero, who was then in Achaia,no sooner heard of that event, than he sent Vespasian into Palestine, for the purpose of effecting that conquest which Cestius had been found unequal to obtain. Vespasian, who had already distinguished himself in Germany and Britain, entered this devoted country with a well disci- plined army ; and as he encountered every- where a fierce resistance, he put to the sword men, women, and children. All the cities and towns that lay in the way of his march, were taken and plundered. Those persona who escaped the cruelty of the conqueror, fied to Jerusalem, then in tlie hands of two furious parties, each of whom persecuted their opponents with unfseling cruelty. Civil war and assassination be- came the consequences of their unbridled rage, ond the priests themselves were not exempt from the popular fury. The siege of Jernsalcm was suspended by the death of Nero. Three emperors mounted the throne; Galba, Otho, and Vitellius; all of whom died violent deaths. At length Vespasian was elected to the pur- Sle. He immediately sent his son Titus to erusalem, to finish a war which he had so successfully begun. Titus having arrived before Jerusalem previous to the feast of Easter, took his station on the ^onnt of Olives, and, invest- ing the city, he snrrnunded it with a wall, flanked with thirty towers. The mngazincs of corn had been destroyed by fire, and a most cruel famine raged within the city; but, notwithstanding their terrible situa- H M U ■ e DAHASCDB 8 W0RD-BI.AnBS HATB LOST THBIR TORMER RBrUTATIOIf. S20 ISfn ?!rrrasurQ of IQUtotQ, (cc. tioD, th« bmicKcd refuted the advaniageont coudiiloDi oflered to them bjr the IIoiiirii (eneml. At length he bPCRme mattrr of the citjr, which wm nearly reduced tu a»hei, and alio of the temple. A ecene of but- chery then commenced, and was continued for aeTcral dayt, until Jerutalem waa left utterly deeolate. According to Joienhui, eleven hundred thoueand penoni perUhed during the airge, and at the capture ; and tliuie that were taken priioner* were made alaves. The miiifortunes of Jerutalem were not con- fined to the Jew* of that city, but ex- tended to the whole of that peonle under the Itoninn power; tome were thrown to fernciotti bcaatt at the public garnet, and othert told into bondage. Tlie tulTeringt, indeed, of the devoted inhabiianti, frau^t at tome of the tcenet are with thrilling inlereit, are tuch at humanity thuddert to contemplate, and over which pity it glad to throw a veil. Tkt Stati 0/ thr Jew$ rinet th* Dettruetion Tna Jewa, obliged to quit their coun- try, irritated and provoked by the cruel , treatment they had received, meditated to ] avenge themaelvei of their enemiei. They j began to put their murderout detignt into execution at the city of Cyrena, in Lybia, and in the itiand of Cyprus, where, tince their flijtht, they had increated contider- ably. They were headed by an enterprit- inv but arlftal man, named Andrew, under whom they not only committed the great- est exceitet, but alto gained tome advan- tagea over the Egyptiant, and even over the Romans. The emperor Tn^an found hinitelf obliged to march an army againtt them; but they were not reduced until after several engagement!, maint ained wit h the greatest obstinacy: they were at length overcome, and were treated by the Ro- mans rather at enemiet of the human race, than at rebels ngaintt the power of Rome. Lybia became to far depopulated in this conflict, that the Romans thought it ne- cessary to tend a colony to repeople the waste. The Jews, aotwitbstanding their recent misfortunes in Palestine, aRsin revolted. Adrian, the successor of Trajan, sent Ju- lius Severus against them. This general (according to Dion) killed 680,000 in dif- ferent battles ; and, he further asserts, they could not reckon those that perished by famine, or otherwise: so that very few Jews escaped in this war. They razed (continues Dion) fifty fortified castles, pil- laged and burnt 986 cities and towns, and made such a general massacre of the in- habitants through the country, that all Judea was in a manner converted into a desert. Before this massacre, the number of Jews, according to the calculations of the priest made under Nero, and estima- ting those destroyed under Titus, amount- ed to 2,64G,UU0 persons. Adrian, after having ruined and massa- cred the gre«tcst part of the remalnini number, prohibited, by a soUnin edici conHrmed in the senate, any o^ those tlut had escaped the sword, from returning iiuu their own country ; and from thit time this unfortunate people have been entirtiv diinersed. ' Notwiibstandinv the prodigions nnm- hers which periihed in the surceDivc ottt. throws of the Jewish nation, it is ejrar that very considerable colonies of ijirni settled in different countries, as the traveji of the apostles alone amply testily. Iq Rome, Alexandria, and many otiicr pUces, there were fluuriihing coniniuniiici. 8ume devoted tlicnueives to the cultivnllon of the arts and sciences, others iiursucd lisn- dieral't trades, innny practised as pli;ii. cians, but most of them turned their at- tention tn commercial tpeculations, md soon became notorious for their wealth and overreaching cupidity. In the fifth century tliey were banished from Alexandria, where they had been et. •blished from the time of AlexRnder. They rendered themselves the ridicule of all ns- tiuns by their enthusiasui iq I'avour of a false Messiah, who appeared a. that time in Cundia. This impostor, who was nsnied Motes, and pretended to be the ancient legislator of the Jews, asserted that he had descended from Heaven, in order to enable the children of Abraham to enter the Land of Promise. A new revolt in Palestine, in the sixth century, served to shew the turbulent dis- position of the Jewish race, and tlie in- create of the massacres of that people, Phociaa drove them from Antioch, auti Ileraclius from Jerusalem. Wliile some of the scattered families re. norted to Egypt, Babylon, and other po- lished countries in the East, there were othert who settled in Arabia, penetrated to China, or wandered over the European con- tinent. But many still remained in Pales- tine. After the conversion of the Romiin empire to Christianity, Judea became an object of religious veneration, and the em- press Helena repaired hither in pilgrim- age, and built various splendid temples. A crowd of pilgrims resorted thither subse- quently from every part of the world : the most numerous arriving from the west, over which the church of Rome had fully established its domination. In the com- mencement of the sixth century, however, an entire change took place. Judea was among the countries first exposed to the fanatical followers of Mahomet, and soon fell under their sway. But when the Turks poured in from the north, they no longer observed the same courtesy. They pro- faned the holy places, and the intelligence of their ontrattes being conveyed to Europe, loused the religioiu spirit of the age into those expeditions called the crusHdes. All Europe seemed to pnur itself upon Asia; the Saracen armies were routed, Jerusalem taken by storm, and its garrison put to the sword. The leader of the lirst crusade, Godfrey of Bouillon, was made king ; and JSRi;SALEM HAS NO MANUFACTUIIR OR TRAnS TO OIVR IT IMrORTANCI. ^fn l^iatorv of ^aUttinc. 821 • fttif ChrUlian lovnreiftnty eitiibliihed, wliicli riidurfd for nbuve eii(litT yrara ; the iluly Land ciinlinually itreaiii!ri|r wilh tha bliMMlof Chriatian and Nnrarrn. Tlic Mahu' nielHD itHtri, wliiiia rrsDurcea were all at band, Kraduniljr, liowpvrr, rt-itained the ai- erndaiicy. In IIN7 JiidcH »aa coiiqiinrrd bjr Haludiii; on the drrlii i> of whuie kiiix doiii It patted throuKh < urioua handu, till, in the leth century, It «na CTeutually awal- lowed up in the Turkitli empire. Great calaiiiliiet to the Jewa occurred duriiiR the cruaadea. AVherever the fanati- cal loldlen who wrre on their inarch to I'aleitine patted, Ihey uillaged and luur- derrd the trattered iiilmnitaiitt of the once happjr land of Canaan, and the people of the nationa among wlioin thejr dwelt rob- bed them of their valuablet without re- morte. The pertccution wat general, their furioui enemiei endeavouring, aa it were, to extirpate the very name of lirnel. It ihould be obterved, however, that both Ma- hoinetana and Jewt being animated by a like hatred of the Chriitkana, we often iind them acting in conrert, etuecially during the Saracenic conquett of Africa and Spain. Nay, under the rule of the Spanith Moa- lemi, the condition of the Jewt not only enjoyed complete toleration, but they cul- tivated tcience, and were entruated with the bigheat offlcea of the atate. In the twelfth eenturjr, Philip Augua- tut, king of France, bHnithed them twice from hit kingdom; and during the reien of Philip le Bel, they were accuied, and not without juttice, of cruel exaciiont and utu- riout extortiona. They were alto charged with having committed outraget agaiuit the hott, of having crucitied children on Good Frida*. of having intuited the image of Jetui Chritt, &c. They were put into the bandt of the judgei ; and, although no proof whatever wat brought forward to lubttantiate their guilt, thev were deli- vered over to the populace to oe dealt with according to their pleature. Philip ba> nixhed them eiitirelv from France in 1308, and contitcatcd all their cffectt. Louit Xa, hit tuccetsor, permitted them to re-etta- blisb tliemselvci in hit kingdom, on condi- tion of their paying him a large aum of money. In the reign of Philip the Long, brother and tuccettor of Louit, they were maaiacred and pillaged. In 1395, Charlea V. banished them, aud conliscated all their property. Thia wat their fourth and lait banithment. lu I3, it it unnecessary to offer an opi- ni'-'n ; both are,cuncealed from mortal kin by the impenetritble veil which cnwrapt futurity. M i o m H a ■ m ■ ■ TiiU OllRAT OKJKCT OF INTBHKST AT J*Ri;tAI.BM It TUR UOLT IRPrLCOBB. AEMBNIAR If L&aOSI,T MADE Vt Of TUBKiaH AND riBtlAlf WOHOt. 822 ^i^c ^reasurfi of l^istot]?, 8c(. ARMENIA. Thi ancient hiitory 'of 'tbit large and warlike people is connected with that of llie leveral mighty nations who in turn I filled the world with the terror of their I namei. Its lirst kinic appears to have been > Scython, the next Barzanes, after whose death the kingdom was divided into several petty kingdoms. The Medes under Astya- ges subsequently subdued Armenia, which was reduced to a province under Persian governors. It was afterwards divided into Blajor and Minor by Artarias and Zadri- ades, who having united their forces, esta- blished each himself in his respective pro- vince, independent of his master ; the Ibriiier possessing Armenia Major, the other Mi- nor. They were contemporary with Han- nibai, who planned for Artarias the cele- brated town of Artarata. Assisted by_ the Boman alliance, these usurpers maintained their power in despite of the several at- tacks of their former master, Antiochus. After their death, the Armenians suffered considerable loss in a war with the Par- thians. Marc Antony put Artavardes, the sovereign of Armenia, to death, to make room for Alexander, his own son by Cleo- patra; others say that he led him captive to Home in golden chains. Trajan reduced Armenia to a Roman province ; but in the reign of Constantine tiie Great and his successor, it had its own kings, dependent indeed ou the emperor. Aliliough St. Bar. tholomew is said to have introduced Chris- tianity into Armenia, there can be no doubt that It was Christian in the beginning of the fourth century. Sapor, the Persian con- queror, reduced it to a province at the end of the fourth century. Tlie Saracens sub- dued it in A. D. 687, who gave way to the Turks about a century afterwards. It was then called Turcomonia. Armenia partially recovered its indepen- dence, but waa again subdued by Occadan or Heccate, son oiGenghia, iirst khan of the Tartars. A remnant of the royal family of Armenia still remained; and we And one of them, Leo, came to England to solicit the aid of Richard II. against the Turks, by whom he had been expelled from his throne. Armenia was again made n pro- vince of the Persian empire, iv 14/2. Se- lim II. reduced it to a Turkish province, in 1623; the greater part of which still re- mains subject to the Crescent. ALBANIA. Albania was nominally a province of the Turkish empire. Its history is diversified, and mixed up with the various fortunes of the surrounding nations. Looked upon as barbarous by the Greeks and Romans, be- cause very slightly explored bv them, Alba- nia, better known to those celebrated peo- ple as lUvricum, and Epirus, still retains much of the simplicity of primitive habits, BO that it is emphatically called the Scy- thia of the Turkish empire. The ancient historians describe the inhabitants of this country as peculiarly fierce and untract- able. The remoteness of its situation, and want of union amongst the several tribes which inhabited the country o'Albania, ren- dered the valour of its people' of little con- sequence to the general affairs of Greece, and accordingly we find them but slightly mixed up with Grecian politics. Under the conduct of Fyrrhus II., one of the most consu-nmate generals of antiquity, who waged a bloody war with the Romans in Italy, the Albanians, or Epirotes, routed Antigonus, king of Macedonia, and held that country in subjection ; but their con- quest ended with the death of their com- mander, and they in turn fell under the power of the Macedonians. The Romans made some settlements in their country, and availed themselves of the many fine harbours to be found along its coast.' At their decline, with other por- tions of that once mighty empire, Albania fell a prey to Alaric and the Goths, although some of their descendants afterwards re- tained possession of the northern district. Sigismund, one of its kings, was celebrated for his alliance with Theodoric, the victor of Clovis and Odoacer, a. d. S26. Albania now became the prey of the Sclavonian na- tions, till it was settled within its present limits, under the Bulgarians, in 870. As the Greek empire declined, the Albanians again rose to distinction, and at last re-es- tablished their independence, in spite of the most strenuous exertions of the Bulga- rians, who were masters of all the neigh- bouring districts of Greece. Forming a fourth division of the army of Nicephorus Basilices, a. d. 107!), they greatly distinguished themselves. During the next century, the period of the cru- sades, there were several settlements nn their coasts by the Sicilians, Franks, and other nations. After the conquest of Con- stantinople, 1204, Michael Angelas esta- blished an independent government in this district. Albania has cut somefi^rein the annals of the last fortjr years, chiefly through the enterprizing spirit and politic conduct of All Pacha, who raised himself to a degree of power which long kept the Turks, who were nominally his masters, in a state of fear to attack him. After amassing im- mense treasures, and keeping up indepeu- dent alliances with the European powers, he was, in 1823, finally cut off by the Turk- ish officers. The modem name of Albania is Arnaut. a I 5! ■ a M M a %> THB AnniINT ABHBNIAN EXISTS ONLY AS A DBAD I.A:C0IIA0B. ALL ■OYPTIAII KILICI OV ANTIQUITY ABI •lOANTIC in «»■. THE HISTORY OF EGYPT. (WITH SYRIA.) Thi early historr of Egypt, like that of China, is so involved in obscurity and fable, tliat for many ages it must be passed over in silence; for it would be an insult to com- mon sense, in a work professedly historical, to narrate the marvellous actions ascribed to Osiris, IhIs, Typbon, Apollo, and a host of ideal personages who, as we are told, over Eg^pt "once held sway." After those purely fabulous ages, the first king who makes his appearance in the limes called heroic, but without any certain date, is Menes, who is by some considered the tame with Misraim, the son of Ham. Ue drained the lower part of Kgypt, convert- ing that which was before a morass, into firm ground ; turned the course of the Nile, so as to render it more beneficial to the country, that river having before his time washed the foot of a sandy mountain in Lybia; built the city of Memphis; insti- tuted solemn festivals and other religious rites; instructed his subjects in many valu- able arts; and accomplished a variety of wonders usually attributed to the founders of kingdoms. It bein^ impossible to follow the succes- sion of princes, it most suffice to state, that after the death of Menes, Egypt was di- vided into several dynasties, or principali- ties ; but its most natural and permanent division appears to have been into three por- tions, sometimes under one, and sometimes under different kings. The most southerly Eortion was called Upper Egypt, or The- ais, the capital of which was Thebes, still remarkable for the extent and magnifi- cence of its remains. The central part, or Middle Egypt, had Memphis for its capi- tal, eituated opposite to the modern capital Cairo. Lower Egypt was the country along the branches of the Nile, as it approached the sea: many large cities were built in this tract, one of the chief of which was Heliopolis. We learn that some ages afterwards (b. c. 2084), Egypt was invaded by the Hycsos, a pastoru tribe from the north, who pe- netrated to Nubia, and established them- selves in that country, and in Egypt, as the sovereign power. These are known as "the shepherd kings," and they were eventually expelled by Amosis, king of Lower Egypt, b. c. 1825. Various princes succeeded, who all bore the title of Pharaoh. The Israelites set- tled in Egypt, and were reduced to a state of slavery, from which they were delivered by divine interference ; and, as we are fur- ther informed in Holy Writ, one of the Pharaohs, with all his host, was drowned in the Bed fiea. The most distinguished prince of this race was Scsosiris, who marched victori- ously through both Africa and Asia, as far as to the countries beyond the Ganges, and enriched Egypt with the booty he ac- quired. After his return, he divided the country into thirty-sis districts or govern- ments. In 725 D. c. Sabachus, king of Ethiopia, conquered Exypt, and left the throne to his natural successors ; but after the reign of Tharaca, his grandson, a period of anar- chy followed, and Egypt was divided a- mongst twelve kings ; one of these, Psam- metichus, with the assistance of the Greeks, subdued bis competitors, and became sole monarch, b. c. 670. After his death, the Egyptian kings continued in frequent hos- tilities with the neighbouring nations of Judea and Assyria, attended with various success, and were at last reduced to Per- sian subjection by Cambyses, the son of Cyrus. B. c. 525. The Persians remained masters of Egypt until the year 327 b. c, when it was con- quered by Alexander tlie Great, who was received with joy by the Egyptians; the Persians having made themselves odious to the people by their exactions, and by their contempt of the Egyptian religion. Alexander, as great in the cabinet as in the field, permitted the conquered to enjoy their own laws and customs. He founded Alexandria, which soon became the deposit of the commerce of the East ; and it ceased not to flourish until the discovery of a pas- sage to India by the Cane of Good Hope. After the death of the Macedonian hero, Ptolemy Soter, one of his generals, took upon himself the government of Egypt, and his descendants enjoyed it till the year 30 of the Christian era, when it was con- quered by the Romans ; and it became a province to that empire after the defeat of Marc Antony, and the death of Cleopatra. The Ptolemies governed Egypt for 293 years. The four first of the family were active and wise princes, who promoted the prosperity of their country, and encouraged literature and the arts. Ptolemy Soter, the son and successor of Ptolemy Lagus. established an academy of learned men at Alexandria, and founded the celebrated library at that city, which, by the time of the Roman conquest, con- tained 7(10,000 volumes. It was pnrtly aC' cidentally destroyed by fire in Julius Ce- sar's attack on Alexandria; but the losses were replaced in Vucceeding centuries, until the 7th after Christ, when it was totally de- stroyed by order of the Mohammedan ca- liph Omar. s THIS QREAT PTRAMID OP SHIBEB OCCUriES MORB THAN 13 ACRRS. MANT riNX BFKCIMBIfl Of XftTrTIAM milICa A»> IN TU« BniTKB MUIIUM. 824 STfjc ^renauri) of l^istore, $cc. o !l H B9 H tt O •> M «• N » • ei > For nearly leven centuries E^pt belong- ed to the Roman and Greek eiiipireg, and was for a lengthened period the granary, as it were, of llonte. It then remained un- der the power of the Mohammedan calijphs till the beginning of the l-2th century, when they were expelled by the Turcomnus, who in their turn gave way to the Mamelukes, in 1250. Before we proceed further with our hasty ■ketch of this once mighty kingdom, we will endeaTour to give the reader some faint idea of it as it existed in its former state. Tlie ancient kings of Egypt were always considered as subject to tne laws of the empire, and their manners were, in some particulars, regulated by set rules ; among I which, the quality and quantity of the pro- ! visions for their tables were allotted. If a j king, during his reign, governed arbitrarily, I or unjustly, his memory was condemned I after his death. No people were ever more . idolatrnns ur superstitious than the Egyp- { tians. Men, animals, and even plants, were I tlie objects of their worship : but the deities I Isis and Osiris were in the greatest repute, : and adored generally throughout the coun- I try. They also especially worshipped Apis, ' n bull, dedicated to Osiris, at Memphis ; • and Mnevis, a similar bull at Heliopolis. I But every city had its sacred animal ; a I stork, a cat, a monkey, a crocodile, or a I goat ; any irreverence to which was severely Sunished, and an injury held deserving of enth. The tribunal of Egypt was com- posed of thirty jiidge.s, chosen from among the priests of Heliopolis, of Memphis, and of Thebes; who administered justice to the people gratuitously, the prince allowing them a sufficient revenue to enable them so to do. The Egyptians had two kinds of writing; one sacred, and one common. The former was the representation of ideas by iigures of animals, or other sensible objects, called hieioglyphics; many inscriptions of which still exist, as do inscriptions and writings in the common character. The prieits were held in the highest reverence, and the hieroglyphics were known to them alone. riiiloBophy was early cultivated by the Egyptians, and the doctrine of the Me- tempsychosis taught in their schools, to which many of the Greek philosophers re- paired. They also made great progress in astronomy and geometry, and in the arts, particularly of architecture, of which the whole country still offers extensive co- lumns, obelisks, and those stupendous spe- cimens of human labour, the pyramids. We now return to the history of Egypt after it became possessed by the Mame- lukes, of whom it may be as well that we should here speak. According to M. Vol- ney, they came originalljr from Mount Cau- casus, and wrre distinguished.by the flaxen colour of their hair. The expedition of the Tartars, in 1227, proved indirectly the means of introducing them into Egypt. These merciless conquerors, having slaughtered till they were weary, brought along with theui an immense number of slaves of both •exes, with whom they filled all the markets in Asia. The Turks purchased about 12000 young men, whom they bred up in the pro- fession of arms, which they soon excelled in : but, becoming mutinous, they deuoted and murdered the sultan Maiek, in I26u The Mamelukes having thus got possession of the government, and neither understand- ing nor valuing anything but the art of war, every species of learning decayed in Egypt, and a degree of barbarism was in- troduced. Neither was their empire 01 long duration, notwithstanding their martial abi- lities ! for as they depended upon the Chrii- tiun slaves, chiefly brought from Circassia, whom they bought for the purpose of train! ing to war, and thus fllling^up their ranks, these new Mamelukes, or Borgites as tlicy were at first called, in time rose upon tlirir masters, and transferred the government to themselves, about a. o. 1382. They became famous for ferocious valour ; were almost perpetually engaged in wars either foreign or domestic ; and their domi- nion lasted till 1617, when they were in- vaded by Selim I., the Turkish sultan. The Mamelukes defended theMstlves with in- credible bravery; but, overpbwered by num- bers, they Arcre defeated in almost every en- gagement. Cairo, their capital, was taken, ana a terrible slaughter made of its defend- ers. The sultan, Tuman Bey, was forced to fly ; and, having collected all his forces, he ventured a decisive battle. The most ro- mantic efforts of valour, however, were in. Bufilcient to cope with the innumerable multitude whiclt composed the Turkish army. Most of his men were cut in pieces, and the unhappy prince was himself taken and put to death. With him ended the glory of the Mamelukes. The sultan Selim commenced his govern- ment of Egypt by an unexampled act of wholesale butchery. Having ordered a theatre to be erected on the banks of the Nile, he caused all the prisoners (upwards of iiU.tHIO) to be beheaded in his presence, and their bodies thrown into the river. He did not, however, attempt the total exter- mination of the Mamelukes, but proposed a new form of government, by which the power, being distributed among the diffe- rent members of the state, should preserve an equilibrium ; so that the dependence of the whole should be upon himself. With this view, he chose from among those Ma- melukes who had escaped the general mas- sacre, a divan, or council of regency, con- sisting of the pacha and chiefs of the seven military corps. The former was to notify to this council the orders of the Porte, to send the tribute to Constantinople, and provide for the safety of government both external and internal ; while, on the other hand, the members of the council had a riglit to reject the orders of the pacha, or even of deposing liim, provided they could assign sufficient reasons. All civil and political ordinances must also be rati- fied by them. Besides this, he formed the whole body into a kind of republic ; for which purpose he issued an edict, stating. ALt THS ARCHITBCTURK OF THK VOYFTIANS WAS MIANT FOB XRDUnA.ICI. VAklOUS BICII UATB aBBM IIITBUDUCBO BT DirrBBBMT CONQUBRORS. J^\ft 1|(8totp of lEgwpt. 825 "Though, by the help of the Almighty, we have conquered the whole kingdom of Bgypt with our invincible armies, neverthe- let* our benevolence is willing to grant to the twenty-four sangiacs of Egypt a repub- lican government," &c. The conditions and regulations then follow, the most impor- tant of which are those which make it in- cumbent on the republic to provide 12,000 troops at its own expense in time of peace, and as many as may be necessary fur its protection in time of war; and also to tend to the Sublime Forte a certain sum in money annually as tribute, with 600,000 measures of corn and 400,000 of barley. Upon these conditions the Mamelukes were to have a free government over all the inhabitants of Egypt, independent of the Turkish lieutenant. Thus the power of the Mamelukes still continued in a very considerable degree, and gradually increased so much as to threaten a total loss of dominion to the Turks; but, singular as it may seem, not- withstanding a residence of nearly six cen- turies, they never became naturalized in the country. They formed no alliance with the females of Egypt, but had their wives brought from Georgia, Mingrelia, and the adjacent countries; so that, according to Volney, their offspring invariably became extinct in the second generation : they were therefore perpetuated by the same means by which thev were first established ; that is, their ranks were recruited by slaves brought from their original country. In- deed, as many writers nave remarked, the Circassian territories have at all times been a nursery of slaves. Towards the end of last century, when they constituted the whole militr.ry force, and had acquired the entire gov«rnment of Egypt, the Mamelukes, together with the Berradijes, a kind of mounted domestics, did not exceed 10,000 men. Some hundreds of them were dispersed throughout the country and in the villages, to ncaintain the authority of their corps and collect tribute ; but the main body constantly re- mained at Cairo. " Strangers to each other, bound by no ties as parents or children, placed amongst a people with whom they had nothing in common, despised as re- negades by the Turks, ignorant and su- Serstitious from education, ferocious, per- dious, seditious, and corrupted by every species of debauchery, the disorders and cruelties which accompanied their licenti- ous rule may be more easily imagined than described. Sovereignty to them was to have the means of possessing more women, toys, horses, and slaves, than others ; of managing the court of Constantinople, so as to elude the tribute or the menaces of the sultan; and of multiplying partisans, countermining plots, and destroying secret enemies by tne dagger or poison. But with all this, they were brave in the ex- treme. Their beys, and even the common soldiers, distinguished themselves by the magnificence and costliness of their ac- coutrements, though these were in gene- ral clumsy and heavy. Being trained from infancy to the use of anus and horseman- ship, they were admirable horsemen ; and used the scimitar, carbine, pistol, and lance, with almost unequalled skill and vigour." About the year 1746, Ibrahim, an officer of the Janissaries, rendered himself in reality master of Egypt, Itaving managed matters so well, that of the twenty-four bevs, or sangiacs, eight were of his house- hold ; so that by this means, as well as by attaching the officers and soldiers of his corps to bis interest, the pacha became altogether unable to oppoae him, and the orders of the sultan were less respected than those of Ibrahim. At his deaih, in 1767, his family continued to rule in a despotic manner; but waging war among each other, Ali Bey, who bad been a prin- cipal actor in the dixturbances, in 1766 overcame the rest, and tor some time ren- dered himself absolute master of Egypt. This remarkable man was a Syrian by birth, and had been purchased when a vouth in the slave market at Cairo; but being possessed of great talents, and of a most ambitious turn of mind, he, after a variety of extraordinary adventures, was appointed one of the twenty four beys of Egypt. The Porte, being at that time on the eve of a dangerous war with Russia, had not leisure to attend to the proceedings of Alt Bey; so that he had an opportunity of vigorously prosecuting his designs. His first expedition was against an Arabian prince named Hanimam ; against whom he sent his favourite Mohammed Bey, under pretence that the former had concealed a treasure entrusted viith him by Ibrahim, and that he afforded protection to rebels. Having destroyed this unfortunate prince, he next began to put in execution a plan proposed to him by a young Venetian merchant, of rendering Gedda, the port of Mecca, an emporium for all the com- merce of India ; and be even imagined he should be able to mak'^ the Europeans abandon the passage to the Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. With this view, he fitted out some vessels at Suez; and, man- ning them with Mamelukes, commanded the bey Hassan to sail with them to Gedda, and seize upon it, while a body of cavalry under Mohammed Bey advanced against the town. Both these commis- sions were executed according to his wish, and Ali became quite intoxicated with his success. Nothing but ideas of conquest now occupied bis mind, without consider- ing the immense disproportion between his own force and that of the grand seignior. Circumstances were then indeed very fa- vourable to his schemes. The sheik Uaher was in rebellion against the Porte in Syria, and the pacha of Damascus bad so exas- perated the pcvople by his extortions, that they were ready for a revolt. Having made the necessary preparation!, Ali Bey dispatched about 5U0 Mamelukes to take possession of Gaza, and thus at- BSTrt BAB SUrrSRItD TUB WORST KIND Of DBSrOTISM DHORR TUB TURKS. :*B VBM ■eTrrxAR army hai bhm iiiw-modbi.lso bt mbbbmb* all 82G ^i}e ^(casutQ of l^istorQ, $cc. cure an entrance into Palcitine. Oiman, the paclia of Damascus, however, no sooner heard of the invasion than he prepared for war, wliile the troops of Ali Bey held them- selves in readiness to fly on the first attack. SheiW Daher hastened to their assistance, while Ostnan fled without even offering; to inal. Slicik Dalicr him^etf I tei, and Moliammed aoon became matter i i of Ncre also. Mere he bt'liaved with his I insrM cruelty, and abandoned the city to i , be plundered by his soldiers. But his ca- : S reer was soon stopped, his death just at ' 2 the time occurring through a malignant 1 JeTcr, aftrr two days illness. jj I Soon alter Mohammed's death a contest ' trose among several of the beys, as to who 4 should succeed him. But the chief strug- H gle lay between Mourad and Ibrahim, who, tl having ultimately overcome the rest, agreed 2 i in 1/85, to share the government between 1 them, and continued to rule as joint pa- i chas for many years. From that lime we *■ : have no accounts of anv remarkable trnns- J : action in Egypt, till the French invaded I that country m 179H; which we shall as K B t concisely as possible relate, and then take a brief survey of some striking events that have occurred more recently. When Selim III. ascended the Ottoman throne, the French revolution was just breaking out; but until Buonaparte's me- morable invasion of Kgypt and Syria, its effects were not much felt in that quarter of the globe. The two Mameluke beyu, Mourad and Ibrahim, were at that time at tlic head of the government. The French landed near Alexandria on the 1st of July, 1/98; and that city was taken by assault on the 5th, and pliiiidcred by the soldiery. They then marched to C«iro, but wore met by an army of ftla- melukes in the plains near the Pyramids, where the French gained a signal victory, which was followed by their occupation of the capital, and the submission, in general, of the inhabitants. The destruction of the French fleet, by the English under Nelson, in the bay of Aboukir, was the next event of importance ; yet, notwithstanding this great calamity, Buonaparte was not deterred from pursu- S ing his original design, but set out at the g j head of 10,000 men to cross the desert a ; which separates Egypt from Palestine. On M his arrival in Syria ne conquered several i j towns, one of which was Jatfa, where an ^ I act of atrocity was committed by him, •> I which, notwithstanding all the sophistry 4 I that has been employed to palliate it, will a ! ever remain as a foul and infamous blot on B : the French commander: this was the deli- berate murder of a large body of prisoners, chiefly Albanians, who bad surrendered to the French, and for whose sustenance, it was pleaded, the latter had not sufficient provisions I We shall not enter into a detail of the memorable siege of Acre, undertaken by Buonaparte, who after putting every engine into operation that skill could dictate, or disappointed ambition suggest, was com- pelled to retire, humbled and discomfited Dy sir Sydney Smith and his gallant fel- lows, who had been sent to the Syrian coast for the express purpose of assisting to expel the French. In both our histories of "England "and "France," the subject, down to the expulsion of the French from Egypt, will be found: be it sufficient, thrre- fore, in this place to say, that flic noble defence of Acre in reality put an end to alt his hopes of conquest in the East, and that the British army, under the brave Aber> combie, completed, in 1801, that overthrow which had so well been begun by a hand- ful of British sailors. The most remarkable person connectet. with Egypt, aftrr the period of which we have been speaking, was Mehemet Ali, the Turkish pacha of that country. 1 his chief, who has since become so prominent in Egyptian and Syrian history, was ambiti- ous of making himself independent of the Ottoman Porte; bnt as this could not be effected while the Mameluke beys retained their power and influence, he determined on their extirpation by a cold-blooded act of treachery. He accordingly invited them to a grand festival, to be given in honour of his SOD Ibrahim, who had just been appointed commander-in-chief of an ex- pedition against the Wahabites of Arabia. Wholly unituspieiou» of the treacherous de- sign of Mehemet Ali, the beys arrived at the castle on the app inted day, (March 1st, 1311), each attended by his suite; but they had no sooner entered than tliey were seized and beheaded. The execution of all the chief Mamelukes throughout the coun- try immediately followed; and Mehemet now, though nominally a vassal of the Turkish empire, exercised all the func- tions and privileges of an absolute sove- reign prince. In the histories of 'Turkey' and 'Greece' will be seen how large a share Mclieniet Ali and Ibrahim had in fomenting and car- rying on the war between those countries. It will also be seen in its proper place in the history of " England," that >feliemet Ali had provoked the insurrection in Syria, and but for the interference of England and her continental allies, would have wrested Egypt and Syria from the Turks. But the allied fleet, under the command of sir R. Stopford and commodore Napier, bombard- ed and captured the whole line of fortilicd places along the coast of Syria, ending their operations with the destruction of St. Jean d Acre. This place, so renowned of old fur scenes of desperate valour— scenes in which British heroism has been so strik- ingly conspicuous — was doomed again to witness the prowess of our arms. A heavy cannonade for neerly three hours was ki-pt up, by which time the g[uns of the torts were silenced ; when, owing to one of the bonib»8hots falling on the enemy's pow- der magazine, an awful explosion took place, and 1200 human beings were blown into the air. This decided the fate of the war; and Mcheniet Ali, after a long nego- tiation, in which the allied powers of Eu- rope took part, was reinstated in his vice- royship of Egypt, the government of that counti7 to desctnd in a direct hereditary line, A.D. 1B4I. Mehemet All, from men- tal decay, became incapable of govern- ment in June, 1848, and hi* sou Ibra- lOTPTIAN ARCUITBCTURR HAS FOOND BUT FEW IMITATORS KI.SEWnBRR. 828 aikxanhmia ii now ths centbs or communication with inuia. ^^( ^rtasuru of l|istortj, $cc. him WM Invetlfd wlln the puhallc ol KKn*t i'y »•«) Turkluli Sultan. Ibralilm UylMK Novt'inbt-r (nWnviUtg, he wag cue- vvviitiil l*y AObuR I'lmlia, koii of Toiisiiour. 'I'liii I'tk'Oralt'il Mt'liviiiel All, whose cxtra- onlliiiirjr rari'i-r had rendered E^ypt and liliMM ir objecli of Kurn|iean Intercitt, died Inly 'J. \iHii, aK«d BO. Uiidttr Abltaii I'uilia the work of reform liii» t'oiitliiiii'd enefKetU't bntoii a mitigated i>rliii'l|ilit. Mthemei All centred every thiny in hlniM!ir, but tlie pri'iientrnler judiciously HH'k* to IlKliteii hlR respunalbilltlei by Klvlny iiiwe freedrmi to the people. Thus tliti ftfllNlti have been reaiored to Hie right rnini which the military nysteni of the fornifr ruler lia«i duK<'*ded them ; and liie practice of dlipoiiiiK oC thut part of the produce itald M runt Iimd been altered for the bene- fit lit llie duulc.'g. Under Hie old adminls- irallon, llie|iriidiiccof the toll thus extorted by Kuvurtimeiit waa munopolised and di«- tribnii'd by favour at arbitrary piiceii. It is MOW dl»|HHH!d of fairly, by public sule, to tlm hlKli*'Kl bidder, and ioriner causes of I'omplalitl with the foreign merchant have liuen removtd. Much hbcral policy has biirne It* naluritl fruit. The exports ot l'. 0. . made some re- tribution for this 8evt..ty by establishing certain salutary regulations, amongst which may be reckoned, his establishment for the perpetual distribution of corn, for the be* netit of this city, a. o. 302. Under Constan- tine Alexandria again flourished by its trade and commerce, A dreadful and almost uni- versal earthquake, July 21, 363, shook this city to its very foundation, and swallowed up 50,UUO of its inhabitants. Although the second capital of the Roman empire, Alex- andria was captured by the Moslems, un- der Amrou, the general of the caliph Omar, Dec. 22, A. D.640. Bloody and obstinate was the siege: amplv supplied with provisions, and devoted to the defence of their dearest rights and honours, its inhabitants bravely withstood the astonishing efforts and un- wearied bravery of their enemies; and had Heraclius as promptly seconded their re- solution, the crescent of Mahomet had not then reigned in bloody supremacy over the Christian cross. It was invaluable to He- raclius, and its loss was a source of great inconvenience to Bvzantiuro, to which it had been the storehouse. Since, in the short apace of five years, the harbours and fortifications of Alexandria were occupied by a fleet and army of Romans, twice did the valour of its conqueror, Amrou, expel them ; but his policy had been to disman- tle several walls and towers, in pursuance of a vow ho had made of rendering Alex- andria as accessible as the home of a pros- titute. In the year 642 the library of Alex- andria was destroyed by order of the caliph Omar; and so extensive was it, that its vo- lumes of paper or parchment sufficed to light the fires of the 40UU baths which were in the city, for more than six months I So waned the splendour and glory of this mighty city. The dominion of the Sara- cens withered its energies, and Alexandria gradually sunk from its high estate, so that in the year 876 its extent was contracted to half its former dimensions. Mournful, but still majestic in its decline, it still re- tained the Pharos, and part of its public places and monuments. In 920 its great church, called Cosarea, which had formerly been a pagan temple, erected by Cleopatra, in honour of Saturn, was destroyed by fire ; and two years after, this second, or Arabic, Alexandria, was taken by the Magrcbians, who, after various vicissitudes, at length finally lost it to the Moslems, a.d. 928, when more than 200,000 of the wretched inhaliitniits perished. The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1499 completed the ruin which had, for some centuries, been advancing under the Turkish dominion ; and Alexandria ceases from tliat time to possess any particular interest for the his- torian, until the close of the last century. The first consul of Prance, whose name will be reckoned up with the Marcdonian Alex- ander and the Roman Osar.like these two great prototypes of his ambition, diitplayed in Alexandria his skill and progress. It fell to his army Julv 4, 1798, after a defeat of the Arabs and Mamelukes. The thun- ders of the British navy braving defeat and discomfiture through the ships of Prance, at Ahoukir, were heard at Alexandria, and the British ensign waved triumphant over its wails in the yenr IHOI, as agntn in 1800. Amongst the names of various heroes con- nected with this once mighty city, tlat of Abcrcrombie, who died here in the urms of victory, shall live enrolled in the annals of history. ANTIOCH. Tna history of this interesting place is pregnant with great and important events, connected as well with prol'ane as sacred history. It was founded oy Antigonus, and by him called Antigonia, a name which it soon after changed for Antiochia, in ho- nour of Antiochus, father of Selencus. The sent of empire for the kings of Syria, and of government for the Roman ofticers, An- tioch was a place of considerable import- ance. It contained four distinct cities, and was therefore called Tetrapolis. An- other city, built in its suburbs, called Daphne, superseded it in magnificenre and luxury so much, that, not only did " to live after the manner of Daphne " becnine proverbial, but Antioch was termed An- tioch near Daphne. Its history is confined pretty much to the various calamities of war and pesti- lence which, at different times, have .vi- sited and scourged this city. By the as- sistance of Jonathan, the leader of the Maccabees, king Demetrius punished the contumacy of his dissatisfied subjects by slaying 10,000 of them, b. c. 143. An ex- traordinary earthquake laid it in ruins in the reign of Trfjan, a. d. 113; the emperor himself being 'with difliculty saved from destruction. Antioch rose from its ashes under the auspices of Trajan, and was again nearly consumed by fire in 133. It was restored by Antoninus Pius, but was dispossessed, a.d. 177, by a severe edict of his, of all its ancient rights and privileges, as a punishment for abetting the fac- tion of Ovidius Cassius, governor of Syria, a measure, however, which was soon an- nulled. In 194 Severus, topuni!«h the part which its natives took in the faction be- tween him and Niger, passed a similar edict, and subjected Antioch, reduced to the level of a village, to Laodirca, but the next year he revoked his sentence. In the meanwhile Aqtiuch had been distinguii^h- ed for some events connected with the spread of Christianity, which, it is snid, was established here by St. I'etcr, in the year 3H. It was here the followers of the Rcduemer were first called Christians, and THK ANCIKNT MTKS OK ORKKCR WKRB IMITtTKH BY TllK COLONY OF ANTIOCH. [t /i'3 BABBART HAS MOBB 0» A BUBOFBAII THAU Of All AfRICAII CUAHACTKI 830 VH^t treasure of l^fstor^, $cc. an BtMmbW of the apottlet wm held, in 56. There hsTe alto been teveral council* convened in Antioch at different period*. From it* *ituation, it wa» neceiiariiy ex- posed to severe attack* during the war* between the Fenian* and the Romans, when the power of the latter beKnn to de- cline. It twa* three times taken by the Per- sian monarch. Sapor, who, after its last cap- ture, plundered it and laid all its public buildings prostrate. In 331 it was visited by a severe famine. Sixteen yenrs after- ward* it* importance wa* increased by Constaiitine it., who, at an immense ex- pense, formed the harbour of Seleucia for It* convenience. During the residence of the emperor Julian here, on hi* way to the Persian empire, there occurred through- out the Roman province* a severe famine, which visited Antioch more severely than other places, from the establishment of a corn-law by the emperor. In 381, two great scourges appeared, plague and fa- mine; the former soon subixded, but on the continuance of the latter, Libaniu*, the bishop, entreated assistance from Ica- rius, prefect of the East, who answered the entreaty with brutality and insult. A com- motion ensued, which, however, terminated without bloodshed. Six years afterwards, a tremendous tumult took place, in conse- quence of a tax imposed upon the people by the emperor Theodosius, in comme- moration of the tenth year of hi* own reign, and the fifth of that of his son Arca- dius. The governor of the city with ditH- culty escaped the frenzy of the populace ; and great indignities were offered to the emperor's statues by the people, who were made to atone for this ofwnce by the most cruel puni*hments. St. Chrysostom dis- tinguislied himself on this occasion by preaching homilies to the people, which tended very much to reform their dissolute and corrupt practices. Severe measures were on the point of being executed against Antioch by command of Theodosius, when they were averted by the united entreaties of St. Chrysostom, some hermits, and Fla- vianus, bishop of Antioch.. But there was no defence to this ill-fated place in the year S98 against the awful visitation of an earth- quake, which, on Sept, 19, laid desolate the most beautiful quarter of the city, A simi- lar visitation occurred in 635, in the reiitn of Justin. * Neither was the fhry ot msn long with. held from working utter destruction to An- tioch. In 540 it was captured by Cosriioes king of Persia. The chnrches were pij! laged, and, like another NebucliR.lneKar he appropriated their gold and silver to his own use. Rapine, Pillage, and Mi in her fullest insubordination, were let loose. An- tioch had not a dwelling Ivtt ; her people were scattered, slain, or carried into capti- vity. Once more, pbcenixlike, it rose from its ruins, to experience another earthquake in 580, which destroyed 30,l)UU persons. A new enemy now appears on the page of history. The Saracens took Antiucn in the year 034, and retained poxscHiiion of it till 858, when again it was annexed to the Roman empire. The Turks next became masters of it ; and they in turn lost it to the Crusaders, who made a principality nf Antioch, in 1098, under Bohemond, prince of Torento. He was taken prisoner by the Turks in 1101, but liberated in Uua. Mean- while Antioch had been gevcrned by Tan- cred, who died the year after his appoint- ment. The whole of the principality of Antioch, excepting the city, was overrun by the sultan Noureddin in 1148, who in the year 1160 took Bohemond III. prisoner. On hi* liberation in 1175, he was created knight bv Loui* YI, of France, and died in 1201. The pirincipality of Antioch was dis- *olved in 1268 by the capture of the city by Bibar*, aultan or Babvlon. It then became a portion of the Turkiah empire, which it has since continued, having experienced during that period two earthquakes— one in 1759, and the other in 1822. Antioch has listed to the march of em- pires; the splendours of the Macedonian, the majesty of the Roman, the voluptuous- ness of the Persian, the vigour of the Sara- cenic, and the tyranny of the Osmanic, have in turns revelled in her palaces, and adorn- ed or degraded her beauty ; whilst the voice of Christianity has whispered in her tem- ple, and the thunders of the iticomprehen- sible Deity have spoken in awful prodigies, and awed her inhabitants by pestilence, fa- mine and earthquake*. THE BARBARY STATES. Barbakt ii a vast territory of Africa, containing the states or kingdoms of AU S'er*, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, Tripoli, and area. It stretches entirely across the nothem shores of Africa, from the Atlantic Ocean on the western boundary of Egypt, taking almost the whole range of the south- ern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. In width it is various, and bounded by the " great desert," The Romans obtained possession of Bar- bary in the time of Julius Ceeiar, and re- mained masters i ' it till a, d. 428, At that time Bonifacius, the Roman governor, re- volted, and called in to his assistance Gen- seric, king of the Vandals, who had been some time settled'in Spain, They agreed to divide the country between them : Gense- ric was to have two-thirds, and Bonifacius one-third, Genseric set sail in May the same year, with an army of 80,000 men, together with their wives, children and effects. Gen- IM ANCIRNT TIMKS TH« rRRTIMTT OF THIS RRGION WAS PROVBRBIAI,. VKSKTATION !• TIKV SIMILAk TO THAT Or tSI laUTB or ■rAIK. ^&e 1^(8tortj of laigicrs. 631 (trie had no looner effecicd hit iHndiiiK, tnd icrured a part of the country, than he turned hii arm* againat HonifuciuR, defeat- ed him, and obliged him to ihelter hiintelf in Hippo, which place he believed in May, 430; but was under the necetiity of retir- ing, from famine. The Roman tent an army into Africa, under the conduct of the celebrated Aspar from Conatanlinoplc ; a dreadful battle eniued, and Genieric be- came the victor. The Vandal* were by tliii victory rendered masters of Africa. Cirtha and CartliaKe were the only itrong places pouesied by the Romans. In 436, peace was concluded between the Romans and the Vandals. The former ffHve up part of Nuniidia, the province of Procon Salarit and Hyznncene, fur which a yearly sum was to be paid to the enipi-ror of the East. However, in 4'A9, the Romans being engaged in a war with the (ioths of Gaul, Gcuieric took this advantage to seize CarthAKC, by which he considerably en- larged his African dominions. Un the taking of Carthage, Ocnseric made it the seat of his empire ) and, in -l-IO, madeadescent on the ixland of Sicily, plun- dered it, and returned to Africa. Being now become formidable to both empires, Theodoaius, emperor of the East, resolved to assist Valentinian against so powerful an enemy. Accordingly, he fitted out a tieet, consisting of 1100 ships, filled with the flower of his.arm^, under Arcovindus. Genseric now pretending a desire to be at peace with both empires, amused tiie Ro- man general with pacific proposals, till the season for action was over. Theodo- aius being obliged to recall his forces to oppose the Huna, Valentinian found it ne- ceaaary to conclude a peace with the Van- dals, yielding them quiet possession of the countries they had seized. Oenseric was now become so powerful, or rather so low was the power of the Ro- man empire reduced, that, in 455, he took the city of Rome, and plundered it ; and after his return to Africa, mude himi aftrr a reign of furty-sevrn years. He was iurceedt'd by his son liunnerie, who proved a greater tyrant than his fathvr, prrsecu- ting the Chrlstiau* with the utmost fury j and during his short rrign of scvrn year* and a half, he destroyed more r>( them than Genseric had done during his whole life. The successors of Hunneric, Uuiamund, Thraaamund, and llildrric, of whom we know very little, except that the latter was deposed. In the aeventh year of hia reign, by Gelinier, a prince of the blood royal, who proved a greater tyrant than anv that had gone beliire him, and was held in ab- horrence, when the emperor Justinian pro- jected an invaaioii of Africa. Accordingly, he sent a ponerful fleet and army against Gelimir, under the command uf the ccle* brated Beliaarius. Gclimer committed the managrnient of his army to his brothenL Gundimer and Gelamund : Ihry attacked the Romans ; the engagement was long and bloody, but at leuKth the Vandals were defeated, and the two princes slain. Geli- mer headed a fresh army, which was also Afeuted, and the loss of Carthage followed. Another defeat follovted close upou the for- mer. Gelimer fled into Numidia, and an end was put to the Vandal power in Barbary. Gelimer was af'tervkards brought in gold chains before Justinian, whom he besought, in the most submissive manner, to spare his life. This was readily granted by the emperor; and a handsome yearly pension was also allowed him. Barbary remained under the Roman power until the caliphate of Omar, when It was reduced by the Saracens. It con- tinued subject to the caliuh till the reign of Haroun al Raachid, when Ebn Aglao, the governor, assumed independence. I'he house of Aglab was driven out by Al Moh- di, the first Fatimite caliph. Al Molidi reigned twenty-four years, and was succeeded by bis son, Abul Kaaem, who took the name of Al Kayem Mohdi. During this reign we read of nothing re- markanle, except the rebellion of Yesod. He was succeeded by his son Ishmaei, who took upon himself the title of Al Mansur. Al Mansur was succeeded by his son, Abu Zammin Moad, who assumed the sur- name of A! Mocz Ledenillah. This caliph conquered Egypt, and removed the caliph- ate tu that conntry. The other material events that have taken place in the Bar- bary States will be found iu the historical notice of Algiers. ALGIERS. Aloibbs, a country of northern Africa, and which was regarded as the most pow- erlul of the Barbary states, has long bicn the subject of European indifrnation for its piratical practices, and the ignominious slavery to which all Christians who fell into its power were irrevocably doomed. But the hour of retribution has at length come; and the events of late year» have greatly contributed to call the attention of the civilized world to its past and present history. Tliere is a variety of opinions respecting the original inliabitants : some contending, that they were theSahans who plundered the imtriarch Job; others, the Cnnaanites who were driven out of their M « m M •1 M m m SALINK HOT AMI COM) SrRINOS ABK EXC'EEDINOM ABUNDAST. CATTLI CORITlTUra THk miNOirAL WBALTB OF «!!■ MATIVBl. 832 TEfft tlTreasuiL) of IQ(stort), $cc. country bjr Joshua. Be thia ai it may, the Algeriue klnitdom formerljr made a conti- dernble part of the Mauritenia TinRitnnia, which Julius Cassar reduced to a Itoman province. Tlie Algeriues shared in tlic for- tunes of Rome; for, at the decline of its empire, thejr fell to the Vandals, who in turn were expelled by the 8.<\rBccns about the middle ot the seventh century. From that period they were subject to the Arabs, till the year 1061, when Abubukur ben Omar, by the agency of his marabouts or saints, assembled a large force of malcon- tents in Nuraidia and Lybia. His follow- ers were called Morabites, and the king- dom which he founded is distinKuished by that appellation. Religious frenzy seems to have imparted resolution and strength, the sinews of victory, to these combatants ; whilst a variety of favourable circumstan- ces, arising from the absence of the most powerful of the constituted authorities, enabled Abubeker to vanquish tl. . several sheiks who opposed him, and at length reduce the whole of Tingitania under liia sway. His «ucce8sor Tusef, or Joseph, founded Morocco as the capital of the Morubitish kingdom. An event which at first seemed to threaten his project with annihilation, turned out to the increase of his power, and the consolidation of bis empire. In order to strengthen his new dynasty, he sent ambassadors to a powerful sect of the Mohammedans, called Zeneti, dwelling in Tremecen. The Zeneti, whom he wished to bring back 'o what he called the true faith, not only murdered his emisisaries, but with a large army invaded his kingdom. Fearful and terrible was the retribution he exacted from tbem. He ravaged their lands with Are and sword ; and, assisted by the inhabitants of Fez, who refused the Zeneti the succour they had expected from them when they retreated upon their city, he al- most annihilated the whole tribe, to the amount of nearly a irxllion of souls, in- cluding women and children. Tiieir deso- lated country was soon repeopled by colo- nics from Fez ; and Joseph, forgetful of the efficient support he had received from the Fezzans, attacked and subdued both them and the remaining Arab sheiks, who, rely- ing upon their supposed impregnable fort- resses, had not yet submitted to his au- thority. This dynasty of the Morabites, founded by the influence of the marabouts, fell before the power of Mohavediu, a ma- rabout, in the middle of the 12th century, whose priestly tribe was expelled bv Abdu- lar, governor of Fez. Thus did the con- quered become conqiierors, only to fall be- fore the renovated power of the descend- ants of those very princes whom Abubeker in the 11th century had stripped of tiieir power. Their descendants Uivided tiieir new conquests into several small kingdnins or provinces, divining the present kingdom of Algiers into Trenienon, Tenez, Algiers Proper, and Bujeyali. Tlie alliance of these four kingdoms was so well cemented, tliiit mutual amity reigned amongst thein fur nearly three centuries. It was interrunted by the aggression of the king of Tremecen who was in consequence attacked, and sub-' jected by the potentate of Teres, Abul K. rez. He left Ins power divided amongst hit three sons, winch occasioned di»cor(f«, and afforded the Spaniards an opportiinitv of attacking them. Ferdinand of Spain liav ing driven the Saracens from Kuropp, f,,!. lowed them into Africa, and, in 1604 and 1609, took possession of Orao, Bujeyah, Al- giers, and other places. The successes of the count of Navsrre struck such terror into the Algeriiios, tUtit they sought the protection of Sclim Eutt. mi, an Arabian prince. This alliance how- ever, though actively exerted, did not save them from becoming tributary to their Eu. ropean invaders, who raised a strong fnrt on a small island opposite the city, in order to deter the maraudings of the corsairs The death of Ferdinand, in 1616, seemed the signal of their liberty; for they soli, cited, with larger oBfers, the succour of Ameh Barbarossa, whose valour and suc- cess had rendered him the most redoubt- able captain of that period. Barbarossa readily answered their call, ard niarclicd with a larje and powerful army to Algiers. having first reduced and then treac',.!ruusly murdered Hassan, another celebrated cor- sair, whose followers, cons. sting of Turks, he compelled to follow in 'tis ranks. The whole populace of Algiers, with the prince Selim Uutcini at their head, received this accomplished butcher with every de- monstration of gratitude and honour ; which he repaid bv causing the prince to be mur- dered, and liimself to be saluted by his li. centious followers with "Long live king Ameh Barbarossa, the invincible king of Algiers, the chosen of God to deliver the people from the oppression of the Chris- tians." This part of the acclamation iniglit have been acceptable enouKh to the Alge- rines in respect of the object for which they had sought bis friendship; but the concluding words, " destruction to all who shall oppose, or refuse to own him as their lawful sovereign," struck such terror into them, that they acknowledged his preten- sions and received him as their king. His treachery to Selim was followed by brutal insults to Zaphira, bis widow, who having vainly attempted to atab the tyrant, poi- soned herself. The reign of B?rbarossa. began in trea- chery and usurpation, was continued by havoc and bloodsheti. The signal barba- rity he exercised over some conspirators whom he had detected, effectually repressed nil similar plots aj^ainet him in those who disliked his authority, whilst his unbound- ed liberality to those who followed him obtained the favour of others who sought their own private advantage in preference to their country's liberty. An attempt, fomented by Selim, son of the prince wlium Barbnrossa had murdered, proved abortive, although backed by lO.UUU Spaniards under the command of Dun Diego dc Vera. The king of Tunis also, at the head of lO.UUO THE ARABS SBI.DOM KTI.I. TUKia 8UKKP, &C., DVT I.IVB ON THEIH MILK. AtUOtt ALL TM* BUkOrHAN fHADIt ABB VOLLUWIO IN TNB TOWHB. 5ri)e l^latoro of Hlgfets. 833 Moon, wBi defented br the Algerine KUto- cr*t with only lUOO Turkinh mmqucterr* tnd St)wHamp.jjg23 •Aire ....) 6. Delaware . . 162G The Swede*, The Dutch. English Puritani. Ditto. 1633 1 Massachusett Emi grant*. Lord Baltimore and 6. ConnecficHf 7. Maryland.. 1633 { !{<,„,>„ Catholics 8. Rhode I$- 1 ,.,- f Massachusett Emi land I'Udb^ g^g„jg When colonized. Jig whom. '■ ^"liia ^T.'. } ' "63 Virginian Settlers. '"■'^"/'If/afr.'!';}"''" Ditto. 11. NeiB Jersey. 1070 Dutch ond Swedes. 12. Pennsy/ea- 1 ,„„, /William Penn and nia......;'6'*'l Quoker*. IZ. Georyia . . . 1732 Gen. Oglethorpe. These formed the original States, con- nected and swayed by the British ; and their early history is like that of other in- fant countries, whilst the difficulties they had at ttrst to'encounter were aggravated by the inveterate hostility of the natives, who found themselve* displaced, and lorded over by men of different countries and dif> ■ W m » i M A i IHK INI.ANO NAVIOATION OF TUB WNITRO STATBS IS UNBQDAI.LKn. »H« rBOORKSS Of rOrVLATlOM IN THB UHITBD ITATSt .1 mODICIOUir 836 Vli)t STveasurg of IQiatore, $cc. ferent habits from themselves. Many were the leagues of the natives to crush the rising States, but all alike ineSectual from the time of Philip of Pokanohet to that of Tecumesh. Rude valour is never an equal match to the arts of civilization ; a small power well and skilfully directed easilj' puts to flight large. masses undisciplined and without cultivation. Every age affords numerous instances of the truth of this. But although the European settlers were, by the superiority of tneir arts and dis- cipline, rendered triumphant over their rude and savage ofTponents in general en- counters, manv a deed of death was re- taliated upon them, by sudden incursions ; and many an individual and familjr have been immolated to the grim genius of American brutality. The earliest colonists suffered the greatest hardships and encoun- tered the most bloody perils, from which ■ome of the later ones were exempted, as well by the advancement and strength of the others, as by their own more humane and judicious policy. But the United States had to comoat not only with barbarian enemies, but with European also. The acljoining country of Canada was a fertile source of disquie- tude and harassings. For not only did the French settlers, in the wars between their mother states, assault and war with the En- glish colonists, but they stimulated against them the wild war cry of the native In- dians. The barrier provinces of New York and New England telt most severely this ill neighbourhood. Desolation and blood- shed spread tlieir ravages through these devoted lands on occasion of every renewal of war; and many were the projects of a combination of power, aided by England, to dispossess the French of Canada. In 1690 an attempt was made, but it was ren- dered abortive by the tardiness of the Bri- tish admiral; and the years 1692 and 1696 witnessed similar scenes. The short period of repose enjoyed by the colonies subsequent to this period was interrupted by the general war in Europe; and not only did New York and New Eng- land experience the renewal of former bar- barities, but even Pennsylvania and Vir- ginia, and South Carolina and Georgia es- caped not the lash of European and In- dian depredations. A brighter star now began its dawning, which, though occa« sionally obscurated, at length attained its senith. In 1745, Louisbourg was gallantly taken by William Fepperell and a small body of New Englanders. In 175a, the English general Braddock received a sig- nal defeat ; but three years afterwards Fort Duquesne, now cnlled Pittsburg, was cap- tured by the Briti^u and provincial troops. Success followed success, till Quebec and the whole of Canada fell under the power of Britain. In this exploit the name of Wolfe is consecrated on the shrine of im- mortality. Thus relieved from the incur- sions and annoyances of their enemies, the States were so rapidly impelled to wealth and greatness, that in a few years the pa- rent country looked towards tlicm to bear some share in the burden of taxation which the war had imposed upon her. The stamo act, in 1765, elicited the first scintillation of that flame which was afterwards to blaxe so brightly on the altar of independence This was repealed, and tranquillity ajtain settled in the States, to be interrupted however, by another act of the English legislation, levying duties upon certain ar- ticles imported into the colonies. The co- lonists, having acquired some conscious, ness of their own strennth and importance during the conflicts which terminated in the expulsion of the French from Canada and having within them seeds of that stub- born spirit which characterises him whom Goldsmith has elegantly called "True to imagined right beyond controul," felt indignant at the attempt to exact from them taxes in spite of themgelves, and re- solutely determined to resist the legisla- tion. The British ministry partially yielded to their resistance, reserving only the duty upon tea. This was met by the colonists with a compact amongst themselves, not to import or use this excisable commodity ; and so keen was their spiri , and so de- cided their resolution, that t le people of Boston seized and threw into the sea a large quantity of it, which had been sent into their port. The legislature of the mother country retaliated upon them by passing an act to close the port of Boston, and by other severe measures against the charter of Massachusetts. This roused the indignation not of them only, but of even the provinces most remote from them, and most removed from the operation of the obnoxious measures. In August, 1774, a congress of delegates assembled at Philadelphia. The proceed- ings in Massachusetts, where a provincial congress had been constituted, were ap- proved of— a resolution neither to import from,nor export to,Great Britain was passed, and an earnest remonstrance was addressed to the English parliament. In vain com- pulsion beeaine the lan<;un$;e; troops were sent against the colonies, and coercive mea- sures were adopted against all the States except North Carolina, New York, and De- laware. This exemption was intended to be the apple of discord, but it failed, for these provinces refused the boon which had been denied to their sister States. Now sounded the cry of preparation, to be rever- berated from the engines of war, which opened their destructive fire, April 18, 17/5. The first collision took place at Lexing- ton. The Americans had collected some warlike stores at Concord, which a body of 800 English troops destroyed, and in the exploit being assailed by a small partv of militia to the amount of 70, they killed eight of them, and wounded a great many. In their turn they were much annoyed by the natives, and tiiough reinforced by 900 men, under lord Percy, they lost before they reached Boston 273 men in killed, wound- ed, and prisoners. The next action was at SLAVKRT STILI. EXISTS IN TniBTEBN STATES OP TUB I'MOW. HAISI IB TUB rRinCirAL ABUCLl 0» AHBBICAN BUSBANDIIT. ' 3 'S I' i f 1 < « H ^l^c lijwtoiy o( llmciita. 837 Bunker's Hill, where 1300 of the Americnn ' troops, partially protected by entrench- { ments, for a Ion? time maintained their post against double the number of regular troops, having three times repulsed their attack, and only yielding when destitute of tmmunition, with which to return the Are of the British from their field pieces, and the guns of their ships, which raked with great e8fect their position. Their retreat was effected in good order, with the loss of 453, whilst the British lost above 1000 men, and general Warren. This engagement took place on the 17th June, 1/75. Matters now assumed a warlike aspect ; and the following year beheld troops levied in the name of the United Colonies, and l^ueral Washington appointed commander- in-chief. The first nttempt made by this illustrious patriot was the siege of Boston, which commenced in July. In the follow- ing March the British evacuated the place, and embarking aboard their fleet, sailed for Halifax. In the meantime, an expedition undertaken by the Americans in two divi- sions against Canada, failed with great loss, and their general Montgomery was killed, and general Arnold wounded before Quebec. On July 4, 1776, the solemn act of declar- ing the colonies free and independent, with a constituted government of their own, was published, after a suitable address to the ling, parliament, and people of Great Bri- tain. Strong measures were now resorted to. The wRr had become general, and all hopes of bringing it to a speedy issue, con- sisted in promptitude and large numbers. Accordingly, in August following, 24,000 British troops, under sir William Howe, landed on Long Island, about nine miles from New York, where the American gene- ral held his head-quarters with about 17,000 troops. Four days after [their arrival the British gained a partial victory ; and on the 14th of September, Washington evacuated tlie island, of which the British took im- mediate possession — and, Nov. 12, they cap- tured Fort Washington, with its garrison of nearly 3000 men. This was followed by the capture also of Fort Lee, on the Jersey shore. The tide of success seemed to set in for the British. Washington's army was dispirited, and very much diminished by the departure of several of the troops whose term of ser- vice had expired. Nothing but the most determined spirit of freedom could have sustained both the Congress and army to persevere in their now almost hopeless con- test. But the spark of liberty once expanded to a blaze is not to be extinguished by re- TcracB— and true patriotism will generally extract even from depression the means of triumph. Accordingly, Washington strove to dispel the gloom which brooded over the horizon of the New State, heavily and drearily, by some brilliant exploits, which, whilst they tliinned the ranks of his op- ponents, shed a lustre upon his name, and infused fresh animation into his troops. His successful attacks upon the British posts at Trenton and Princeton, compelled them to evacuate the principal part of New Jersey. Nor were their exploits at the conclu- sion of the year 177ti less injurious to the British, than the skill and address of the American general in the following spring, with a great inferiority of force, were supe- rior to the plans and operations of the Bri- tish general, who, »)«ffled in his attempt upon Philadelphia by land, chan|{Pd hit system and resolved to attack it from the south. To counteract this attack, Washing- ton pushed forward, but having sustained a defeat with the loss of 1200 men, and find- ing the attempt vain, he abandoned Phila- delphia to its fate. Sept. 26, sit W. Howe entered the city, having stationed the prin- cipal part of his army at Germantown, about six miles distant. An attack made upon this post by the Americans failed, and they lost a great number of men. But their losses in this quarter were more than compensated by their successes in the northern states. After capturing Ticonderoga with a garrison of .'J,000 men, and surmounting all obstacles which the enemy could throw in his way, so that he had almost reached the object of his ex- pedition, which was the capture of Albany, (a measure which would have been greatly injurious to the colonies). General Bur- goyne was compelled, on the 17th of Octo- ber, to surrender his whole army prisoners of war at Saratoga. This triumph was not less glorious to the .\merican arms, than useful in rekindling their courage, replenishing their stores, and conciliating to their side the favour of the European powers, espe- cially the French government, from whom they received the assistance of a fleet and an army. Neither did Washington suffer his troops to remain inactive, or the British to be unmolested; for on the retreat of the latter to New York, he attacked and harassed their march, and though ho avoid- ed a general engagement, in an action at Monmouth, he came off victorious. The only other exploit in this vear, was the un- successful attack of the American' general Sullivan on Rhode Island. Although the British carried on the ope- rations with activity in the southern states, the year 177'J does not present us with many striking events. They captured Sa- vannah, but were repulsed in an attack upon Charleston ; whilst in the north the American general Wayne, with a small body of troops, carried by assault the strong po- sition of Stoney Point. In the following year, active operations were continued by the nriti»h in the south- ern states; they captured Charleston, and thereby wiped a«ay the disgrace of their defeat in the preceding year; and Carolina was almost entirely overrun by them. Ge« neral Gates, who was sent against them, sustained a complete defeat by lord Corn- wallisat Camden. Genera! Greene, who su- perseded him, rallied his scattered troops, and hy great Activity and skill was enabled to stem the torrent of British valour. Trea- chery now showed itself in the American H e •a o H H K < M H I* m e •s N ■ TOBACCO IS THB RTAFLK PRODUUT OF MARTI,AHD AKD ▼IROIIflA. C4F COTTON WOOL II TUB SBIAT ABTICLI OF BXrOB* TBABB IN TMB VNITID «TATB|. 838 ^i;e treasure of l^istorn, See. camp, but hapijily for the coloniei it waa rendered abortive by a timely discovery. The name of Arnold is branded with in- famy, and the English mqjor Andrd was executed by the Americans as a spy. Very early in the following year an infe- rior body of American militia, under gene- ral Morgan, defeated some British troops at Cowpens: whilst at Guildford the colo- nists sustained some loss. Various now was the fortune of war. Greene, after a partial defeat at Camden, gained a deci- sive advantage at Entau Sprmgs. The cri- sis now approached. Comwallia having re- ceived remforcements, entrenched himself at Tfork Town, in Virttinia, when he was blockaded and bcseiged by a French army, in coi^unction with Washington. After sus- taining their combined attacks for nearly three weeks, lord Cornwallis was reduced to the humiliating necessity of surrendering his army prisoners of war, to the amount of 17,000 men. From this blow the British never reco- vered. The loss of two armies, by surren- der, convinced the English government, at last, that they were lavishing their re- sources, and wasting their power in a vain contest ; and though they made some par- tial attacks subsequently, the surrender of Comwallis's army may be considered as the conclusion of this destructive and in- glorious war. The independence of the colonies waa acknowledged by the British government, by a treaty signed September 23, 1783. We may here remark that the assistance yielded by France contributed to aid the triumph of North American in- dependence, and thereby inflicted a severe blow upon the British possessions and power. But it recoiled with a fearful con- vulsion upon herself. The lessons of Ame- rican freedom were wafted across the At- lantic to the plains of Gaul, and fomented that terrible explosion of public principles in France, which demolished the throne and altar, and strewed the wrecks of its explosion over all the countries of Europe. Ending in a despotism, too great for hu- man strength, the unwarrantable aggres- sions made on Spain and Portugal, applied the match to the mine of slavery, vtiiich controlled the energies of the various dis- tricts of South America, and led to the emancipation of those states, which now, rising from the ashes of oppression, open to the eye of history, a vista of great events yet hidden beyond the horizon of time. To these states there may be yet seasons of adversity and trial; but where the spirit of freedom is, there is strength— and they who are now feeble in infancy, will here- after become strong in maturity. Their slow advance to consolidated power is strongly contrasted with that speedy and efficient growth of greatness which marks the remaining history of the North Ameri- can colonies, and shows the fouce of the different genius which had pervaded the respective climes — characteristic of the spi- rit of their mother countries. Noble and spirited as were the effbrta made by the colonies, and glorious as was the termination of the struggle, they soon found that their condition of independence waa not in itself the boon of prosperitv During the war, a series of da-jger, and the necessity of union and unceasing actiom had kept their attention devoted to one object; that object obtained, they found leisure to survey their condition. The sa- crifices thev had made now began to be felt A heavy debt had been incurred, and thev were a prejr to all those evils which war ever bears in its train. Public morals were at a low ebb— public credit deranged— the acts of the congress " more honoured in the breach than the obvervance." The ar- rival of peace, like the sudden calm after a storm, had nearly wrecked the fortunes of the youthful states. The real friends of the country now saw the danger, and a remedy was provided which, happily for them, proved effective! At Annapolis commissioners from five states assembled in 1786, and the result of their deliberation was a proposition to convene delegates, from all the states, in order to consider the best means of revising their union and alliance. The result was the pre- sent constitution of Tub Uni ^bo States. This measure tended greatly to consolidate their power, and reduce their executive to order and authority; and although there arose two parties, and souie delay took place before its general adoption, it became effective in the year 1789 ; and under the Satriotic guidance of Washington, as presi- ent, and John Adams, vice-president, to use the words of Mr. Canning in reference to our own constitution, it was found " to work well." Their wisdom led them, in opposition to p»eat numbers of their countrymen, to re- main neutral in the sliock which convulsed unhappy France, and caused every state in Europe to reel with a violence which sap- Eed the foundations of them all. They had, owever, a war of four years with the In- dians, which, though attended with loss and defeat at the beginning, terminated successfully under the auspices of general Wayne (a. d. 1794,) who had previously dis- tinguished himself in the capture of Stoney Point from the British, in a most gallant manner. Washington after being twice elected president, declined the office a tliird time, and was succeeded by John Adams. The aggressive and insulting conduct of the French towards the United States at length aroused them to hostilities. An army of regular troops was established, the command of which was given to Wash- ington, who died, universally lamented, Dec. 14, 1/99. The Americans now in- creased their navy; but the war was of short continuance, and confined to one or two acti(mson the ocean, in which the su- superiority of the youthful state over the French marine w(m clearly established. In the collision' of the two parties, in the year 1801, the democratic or republican partjr succeeded, in opposition to Adams, in raising Jefferson to the olttce of presi- TIIK roNSUVPTION OF SI'IRITI)Oi;s T.IQHOns IN THB U. 8. IS BNOIIMOOS. THI AUBHICAH BANKS ABB IKBI8F0NStBI.B JOISl ITOCK AtSOCIATIOMI. B < H u K fi 9 M IS M H M a « 9 H t< *> e H M e €lft l^Csiory of ^meiita. 839 dent, and u ider him, it must be confesied, proiperitjr shone upon the republic. Raised DOW to considerable consequence, the poli> tics of America beean to have some influ- ence upon those of Europe; whilst the af- fhirs of the Old World uecessarily impli- cated in some measure the proceedings of the United States. The measures ot re- taliation and blockade, pursued by the Bri- tish and French government for some years tfier the renewal of war in 1803, affected not only the whole of Europe, but also the transatlantic world. After a variety of events, especially relating to commerce, the intercourse of which nad been much Srevented, war was declared against Great iritain June 18, 1812. AlthoDgh in the previous year the Ame- ricans with a body of regular troops and tome militia had defeated a large assem- blage of Indians, their army at the begin- ning of the war was in a very iuefflcient state, and their efforts were accordingly at- tended with signal defeats. General Hall, with an army with which he had invaded Canada, was captured by general Broke, at an easy rate ; whilst another army of about 1000 men, under general Van Ueusselaer, shared the same fate, but not without a manly strugf !s. ■ - the ocean they were more fortunate. li. '"ral well-fought engagements be- . I '''t''^'ates and smaller vessels, the /- a:' displayed great skill and bra- \. <■ ■■ '.:8t, to balance their defeats, the £iigkish have to boast of the capture of the Chesapeake by the Shannon, captain Broke, in the most gallant and spirited manner, and of the Argus, sloop of wsr, by the British shin Pelican. On Lake Erie a British flotilla surrendered, after a long and well-fought actiou, to an Ame- rican one of inferior force, under com- modore Perry. The military character of the United States recovered its tarnished glory ; various and bloody were the strug- gles between the belligerents on the north- west frontier, and in Canada; and great loss was sustained by botii sides, with al- ternate defeats and victories. In the meanwhile the Atlantic frontier, which had previously enjoyed tranquillity, became the scene of bloodshed and hostile movements. The British were completely defeated in an attack upon Craney Island; but they took and sacked the small town of Hampton. An expedition fitted out by the republic against Montreal failed, and was attended with very considerable loss to the Americans, at the elose of the ^ear 1813. A similar attempt met with a simi* lar fate in the beginning of the following vear; but general Brown maintained the high character of the American arms at Fort Erie and Chippewa, both of which he captured from the British ; who were also foiled in their attempt to retake the former place. Nor were they unsuccessful only by land. Defeated on lake Erie, their squa- dron on lake Champlain yielded, after a severe contest, to an inferior force of the i Americans; whilit an expedition, under | governor Prevost, against Platsban w«« also abortive. But now liberated from Spain and Por- tugal, Great Britain sent some of her vete- ran warriors to display that prowess in the New, which had been so distinguished in the Old Worid. An attack was made by a body of 4000 or 6000 men upon Washing- ton, which proved successlul ; but this triumph was counterbalanced by the de- feat and death of general Boss at Balti- more, and the failure of a large army of British troops in an attack upon New Or- leans. Both parties now seemed weary of a contest, in which there was little to gain from victory but empty renown ; and ac- cordingly peace was concluded betweeii them at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. The thunders of the American navy were first heard in the Mediterranean, in the capture of a frigate and sloop of war, by commodore Decatur, from the Algerines ; whom the Americana compelled to re- nounce by treaty, for ever, the practice of holding American prisoners in slavery. This was in the year 1815 ; and four years afterwards a treaty was concluded with Spain for the cession of Florida to the United States, which did not actually take place till the year 1821, when the Ameri- can troops took possession of the territory. In the following year an almost unanimous vote of the congress acknowledged the in- dependence of the Spanish provinces in South America. The two most Important events (hat have nnce occurred in the history of the Uiijied states are, the annexation of Texas, wlilcli look place in 1844, and the war with Mexico, which broke out in 1846, and ended in the acquisition of California, which has opened a career of prosperity to the republic whose limiu can be neither foreseen nor described. We shall conclude this sketch with m brief account of this new State, and the causes of its unexampled progressi. By the treaty of 1848^ California was formally ceded to the United States; and in the month of May of the same year, an unexpected career suddenly opened for this new state of the Union by the chance discovery of grains of gold on the bank of the Snvra- nirnto, a short distance from the BHy of San Francisco. This prompted a more care- ful and extensive exploration, and the result was the revelation of an auriferous • eglon of vast extent and extraordinary productiveness. According to the report of Mr. King, the American coniniissinnersvnt to inquire into the capabilities of the gojrl districts, ti:ey were found to comprehend an area 500 miles \ong, by 40 to SO in breadth. The news of the discovery and richness of the deposits spread rapidly, and before the end of the first season of 1848 the enterprising adventurers had been re- warded by the acquisition of gold of the value of l.000,000{. In 1849 immigrants had flocked to the Sacramento and its alBuents from all quarters, Europe, Ame- rica, Mexico, China, Chili, and Australia. San Francisco, which, in the early part of 1848, consisted of a few rude cabins, at the end of the ensuing year had an exchange, JU8TICB — BOnOVR — EVBRT NOIILB QUAI.ITV, IS SACRIPirBn TO PA HTT-SPf BIT. THB SILVER AND GOLD MINES OP MEXICO ARB ITS CHIEF WEALTH. 840 Cl)e €vtai\xvv af ?^i)St0ri), ^c. s thestre, cliurchn. several nming houses, Slid numerous durable dwellinn, some or stone, but mostly of sun-dried orlcks, with • countless outlying throng of tents and bootlis. The miracles wrought b; the transform- ing power of gold were moral as well as physical. On the Arat influx of Iminitiranta there were few inhabitants, and no govern- ment or police in the country ; and the new settlers were unacquainted with the pre- viously existing Spanish laws for the se- curity of persunfi and propertv. From the difficulty of deciding wliellier slavery should or not form a consliluent of the new society, the Congress of the United States was un- able to decide on the admission of Cali- fernia into tlie Union, eitlier as a state or a territory. This dilemma, however, was promptly mastered under the judicious gui- dance of tlie American portion of the popu- lation. In June, 1849, representatives were cliosea in all parts to meet for the purpose of framing a constitution. They speedily conipletea their purpose, and to tlieir cre- dit unanimously resolved that the non-ex- istence of slavery should be a fundamental article of the constitution. As a conse- quence the chief obstacle was obviated to incorporation into the Union. The Ameri- can government had indeed already sent a military governor to the province, and who, with the temporary tolerance of Lynch law, from necessity in ihe absence of regular tri- bunals, succeeded in maintaining a certain degree of order among the many unruly and desperate characters that had crowded to the diggings. Under these extraordinary cir- cumstancesthe population of California has suddenly swelled from a few thousands to nearly half a million. Of the addition made to the amount of the precious metals from this sources no very consistent estimate has appeared ; but from the application of greater experience, capital, science, and mechanical power, there is no reason to infer that up to I8S3 Ihe ratio of produc- tion had declined. Tlie quantity of gold transmitted to the United States and Europe from the commencement of the diggings to the middle of I8.'i2, appears toliave amounted to upwards of 30.onu,ooo{. At the commencement of this article we gave the names of the original thirteen slates, with the dates of their colonization, &c. We conclude by observing that there are now thirty-one states, besides tlie dis- trict of Columbia, and the territories of Mimesota, Oregon, New Mexico, and Utah. The names of the states are— 1. Maine; 3. New-Hampshire; 3. Vermont; 4. Massachussetts; 5. Rhode Island; 6. Connecticut ; 7. New Yorii ; 8. New Jersey ; 9. Pennsylvania; 10. Delaware; II. Mary- laud; 13, Virginia; 13, North Carolina; 14. South Carolina ; 13. Georgia; 16. Alabama; 17. Florida; 18. Mississippi; 19. Louisiana; 30. Arliansas; 31. Tennessee; 33. Ken- tucky; 33. Ohio; 34. Michigan; 35. In- diana; 36. Illinois; 37. Missouri; 38, Iowa; 39. Wisconsin; 30. Texas; and, 31. Cali- fornia. MEXICO. This rich and interesting country may be regarded as altogether a Spanish colony, though it is no longer dependent on Siiiiii. having become a federal republic. Dis- covered by Fernando Corlez, a. o. 1519. I It was by him taken possession of In the ; name of tlie Spanish government. The ex- ploits by which he made himself master of this country, seem ratlier to beloiiK to romance than history; but the circum- stances of the age, and the nature and ' character of Ihe opposing powers, throw j an air of univert>al interest over operations so multiform and diversified, as the conquest of a great and powerful slate by a body uf ' men hitherto unseen by tUeni, posscsniiig j all the advantages of skill and experience , in war, and resolution and enterprise in I action. The first conquest made by Corlei wa» on the river Tabasco ; after which, laiidini' I at St. Juan de Ulloa, he erecitd a fort, where he received two aroba!>)>adors sent I by the emperor of Mexico with oAVrs of . assisianre. A haughty answer was the re- I ply of Cortez ; and gifu of the most costly I character were heaped upon him by the I natives, in the hope of conciliating pt^ai-e and preventing his further advance. Dan- I gers, however, encomuassed his steps. Se- ' ditiou broke out in his camp, wiiich he ! had Ihe address not only to quell, but turn ' to his own advantage, A new town was I founded, called La Villa Rica de la Ver» I Cruz, Still a more alarming mutiny showed I itself, which he again convtrted into the means of executing a measure fraught with . Imminent risk, but calculated to superin- ; duce the deadly courage of despair. 'Iliis ; measure was the destruction ol the fleet, : Soon after this, being joined by one of the ' native caciques, with a force of little more than 1000 men, fifteen horses, and six can- nons, he entered the state of the TIasralaiiii, whom, after a desperate resistance of four- teen days, he subdued, and converted into j allies. At Cholula he massacreu 6u(io of the natives in revenge for tlieir treachery. I Success now wafted his banners, and the { capital of the empire lay before liini. Re- { ceived by the emperor Montezuma at the liead of his nobles, Cortez was conducted to a house in the city, which lie instaiiiiy i fortified In the strongest manner possible. It appears there was a prediction amongst i the Mexicans, that a strange pe<>ple should I come to chastise them for their riiiis— a! piece of superstition of wiiich Corlez availed | himself. By treachery he obtained posses- ; sioii of the person ol Montezuma, whom I he kept a prisoner for six months. Worn | out at length, the Mexican emperor ac- knowledged himself a vassal of the Spanish throne. In the meanwhile Cortez lost no ' opportunity of strengthening his power, by i surveys of the country, and dividing the spoils amongst his followers.- He was again o'l the point of losing the fruit of his exer.ions : for Velasq'iez, who commanded the expedition from which Cor- tez had been dispatched from Cuba, hearing of his success, sent out a large force under Narvaez, to seize him, and take possession of Mexico. This formi>lable danger Cortea frustrated, as well by bribes as the rapidity of his movements, almost without blood- shed. But this lie observed gave fresh spirit H ■I a, o a o ?.' u , u SS i a' z ■< s « > < M :t 14 z < u a : H > St a < S ^! at : ■< ! K) a. A. ■< THB MEXICAN LAWS ARB MILD AND JUST, BUT ALMOST POWERLESS. LOWBR CANADA II INHABITED BY DliSCBNDANTS or rilKKCII SBTTLERsT €^e ^iitavu at ^mertcn. 841 to the Mexican*, who •ttaci'ed him on hit return, and wounded him in hi* fortrcM. Tlie wrelciied Montezuma, who liad been pitceid in tlie van to Ui-ter llie auailanta rrom prosecuting ttieir attack*, was wound- ed, and died of a broken lieart. Cortex was compelled to evacuate the place Kecretiy, but only to return with a larger body oi force* at the expiration of six nioiitli*. We tlwi'tly afterward* Hud his liead-quarters at Tezcuco, wliere, with the aMiistauce of the Indian*, he built a tlotilia of 13 ship*. Reinforced witli 300 men, eiglit horses and iome military stores, he renewed the siege. Galianily wa* the capital defended by Gua- tiuiozin, tliu new eiupb-ror, and Cortez was once taken prisoner, but rescued at the ex- pense of a severe wound. Seventy-four days did the city hold out, althouKli the ranks of Coricz were augniented by 100,000 Indians. August 13. ISI3, beheld Ouatl- mozin a prisoner, and his capital In the hands of tlie merciless invaders — merciless to him they were, for Cortrz stained the lustre of his glory by putting the brave but ill-fated monarch to the torture. But there Is even in tliis world a retributive justice ; and worldly minds, however sublimed by courage and enterprise, generally encounter reverses similar In character to their own conduct. Success had excited envy ; and Cortez was doomed to find that no courage and enterprise can be'altogetlier free from reverses. Created captain-general of New Spain, (the name wliich he had given to Ins conquest) even after an order had been issued, but not executed, for Ids arrest — established in high favour and honour with tlie emperor, liis native master, — endow- ed with a grant of large possessions in the New World, — he had the mortification to liiid himself possessing only military com- mand. The political government was vested in a royal ordinance. His enterprising spi- rit led him to the discovery of^ tlie great Californian gulf, but liis glory was on tlie wane: irritated and disappointed, he re- turned to Europe to appeal against the pro- ceedings of the royal ordinance, but with- out redress; and he who had barbarously tortured the gallant emperor of Mexico, died 26 years afterwards of a broken heart, A. D. 1547, In the 62iid yeivroffii.i age. Abstracting the interest which allended the discovery and first conquest of Mexico or New Spain, the historian finds a tame succession of events, wliich claim but a very vague notice. From the year 1535 to i80u, lliere was a succession of fifty viceroys, one alone an American by birth. At tlie lat'.er period, a spirit broke fortli, elicited by centuries of oppression and exclusive favour to Europeans, which led the Mexi- cans to ofi'er resistance to the dinunlon of Spain. The disunionists were headed by Hidalgo, an enthusiastic patriot, wlio was proclaimed generalissimo Sept. 17. 1810. He unfortunately tialted in his advance to- wards the capital, which gave the royalists time to rally; and a few months afterwards, lie was put to death. Uutwitli him the spirit of iiide|iendence vanished not. Morelos, nii- otlier priest, assumed the command, and se- veral pi luces were com|)letely ensured to llie side of liiierty. A congress ol forty menihcrs was called, but after the defeat and execu- tion of Morelos, it wa* dissolvetl by General Teran, who succeeded him. After Ian- guiHhing for some time, the revolt was en- tirely quelled in 1810. Tlie change of system introtluccd into bpain by the cortes alarmed the ccilesi- asiics ill Mexico, wlio, for tiicir dt fence, elected Iturblde, under whom a bloodies*; revolution was efi^i;ci<'d, and Mexico main- tained in all its right, independent of Hit. Spanish doniiuioii, a.d. 1823. After an I HNtirpation of tlie title of emperor for Utile more than one vear, Itnrbide was compelled to lay down his usurpation, and he retired to Lcgliorx. A federal government wa* now formed, and sworn to, Feb. 84. 1836. Still coninio- lions arose, in one of wliich Itnrbide, who ; had been Induced to return, lost hi* life. , It would be of no use to enter Into any details respecting the subs«quent history of Mexico. In 1836, it lost lexa* (now incorporated with the United Stale*), after , a sanguinary engagement at San Jaclii- ; to ; tiid in 1848, It was compelled to surrender its provinces of New California and New Mexico to the United Slate*, after a war of two years' duration. But Mexico is still one of the noblest territories in the world, and so vast that, before the losses above alluded to, lis extent wa* more tlian five times that ol^tiit Spanish iVninsiila. To this day it comprises immense iiroviiice* abounding in mineral and vegetable wealth, ricli in liistoricai traditions, and possessing advantages from geograpliical situation which are secortl to none. But Mexico, at the present moment, exisU In little but a name. It cannot construct, organise, or maintain any constitution or government. It cannot discharge any of the functions of s state, or provide for any political ne- cessiiies, domestic or foreign. Its sub- stantial anarcliy is only mitigated by the sparseness and indoU'iice of its population. it has no frontiers except on ilie map ; the very Indians Invade it at all (mints with impunity, and an enemy more formidable than the Indians is waiting for the inevit- able consnnimation wliicli it would be wholly superfluous to precipitate. CANADA. This is the most important province pos- sessed by Great Urilaiii in North America. Its liistory is closely interwoven with that of tlie United States, with the people of which it has been, both under its original and present masters, in almost constant collision. Founded by the French in Itiua, tlie colonists were for many years in danger of being overwhelmed by the native Indians, with wliom at lenirtli tliey entered Into treaties, which enabled them to annoy very materially the neigiibouriiig states under tile British jurisdiction. Twenty years after tlie founding of Quebec, tlie riglit of trading with Canada was granted exclusively to a company of Freiicli merchants, who, in Ihe following years, were disiiossessed of Que- bec by Sir Uiivid Kcilh. This coniincsl re- mained in the hands of the Brilisli tilt it was ceded at the treaty of St. Gerniaius. UPPER CANADA HAS KEEN PEOPIED BY V. 8. LOYALISTS AND BRITISH. Ct F3 r: PRRU OIVRM BIRTH TO SOMB OF THE LARGEST RIVBR8 IN THE WORLD. 843 Cf)e ^vtaiMVi} af V^i^tav^t ^c* In IM3 llie Wrtt Imlla Company ob- MmA Ihti exi'lnalve riKlil of commerce for ( forty ymn, and Canada for thirty years •iijoyi'il irMii(|iiilllty, nnd lt« concomitant, liriinjiiTUy ; wlilcli were tnlerriipli'd by a bold but tinnucCHMfnl expedition of the IwoidHof New KiiuUnd, con»litllog of 1,300 or l,;¥H) men unuer the command of Sir VVlllliini l'lil|i|M, Tills attempt was re- pttaied about iieveiiteeit years afterwards (1711) on a larKer M'ale, bift shared the ■aniu reiiult, alihotiKh 4000 veteran British Irnopit were employed. Llllitt nccnrs In the afTnlr* of Canada denervlnic nolire, till the breaklnir out of tint continental war In I7M, when Canada lieiMinitf thii theatre of mllitHry scenes, Which ended, three years afterwards, in the cnnniuwt of It b* the Uritish. The KiiirlUh General Wolfe, thotiKh defeated III M* Itrst operathms by the French, at Ifnuth, after an action anslalned by eqnal KiUnnlry on both sides, obtained pokses- •Inn of Oneber. In this exploit the op- poslnir Kcnerals, Montcalm and Wolfe, are «i|ii«lTy renowned for splilt and conra^e ; one did not survive the niortlflcatlon of ileftiat — lilt uthur only lived to hear the shouts of victory. This conquest was rati- lied to the EnKli*h by the treaty of I76a. Since that period It long enjoyed com- parative peace : for with the excepllon of one un8ucceire«sed. In ISI3 tlie independents of Chili were subjugated, but their elTortA were ti'iiiinpliant in 1817, under General San Martin, and Chili was not only evacu- ated by tlie Peruvian army, but sent an arm tula i held iuile * claii and i Thi n geil TUB HHOItRS OK CHILI ARE GENGUALLY STEEP, HIGH, *KD ROCKY. THB DIAMOND IS TUB MUKT Cal.KBRATIO fMODUCTIU!! Or ■•AIIL. ^^r l^istorg of 'amctUa. 843 army to redilinte upnn Peru. Lima capi- tulated on July 6, 1M21, and San Martin held levees in the vice-regal palace. The independence of Peru was solemnly pro- claimed on the 28th of the same month, and 8an Martin was proclaimed protrctur. This oflice he laid down, after calling to- gether a conetituent and sovereign con- gress, on the 2Uth of September, 1.S2-2. Disinterested as was this abdirntion, it was not followed by prosperity to the country. The inadequacy of the junta ap- pointed by the congress soon became ma- nifest: the patriots were defeated early in 1823 i the congress now dissulvrd, anarchy predominated, and Lima surrendered to tho Hnanish troops in July of the same year. They were partially dispossessed by Bolivar and the Cnilians shortly afterwards ; and Peru, though safe from Spanish subjuga- tion, has ever since been like a vessel lOhMid by every caKual wave, unsafe, and exDo^ed to coiiiliciing dangen. CHILI. Tliis country was subjugated in 1460, by the Peruvians, who retained possession of it till they were driven out by the Spaniards under Alroagro, in 1535. The Spaniards were driven out by a general rising of the natives three years afterwards. Fizarro at- tempted to colonize the country in 15-10, and though opposed by the natives of Co- piapo, he succeeded in conquering several provinces, and founded the city of Santiago, February, 1341. In attempting to extend his conquest he exposed his settlement for six years to the strongand repented attacks of the Maporhians, in whose district San- tiago was. His lieutenant, Pedro de Val- divia, to whom this extension was en- trusted, made the Promanciuns his allies, and, surmounting various attacks and op- positions from the natives, founded the cities of Conception, Imperial, and Valdi- via. He was shortly afterwards defeated by his old enemies the Araucanians, who took him prisoner, and he was at length despatched by an old chief with the blow of a club. These Araucanians kept the new colo- nies for several years in a continual state of alarm and distress; and so far succeeded in avenging their former dafeats, as in 1598 to capture Vallanca, Valdivia, Impe- rial, and other towns, and form the cities of Conception and Chillar. Nor were these the only losses sustained by the Spaniards. The Dutch plundered C'hiloe, and mavsa- cred the garrisiAi. The feuds between the Araucanians and Spaniards were settled by a treaty of peace in 1641, which lasted fnr fourteen years; then cnrae a war of ten years, and another pence. In 1722 a con- spiracy for the extirpation of the whites was happily frustrated. The colonists were gathered into towns, the country divided into provinces, and severnl new cities found- ed by the governor Don Josef Manto, 1742. A similar attempt by Don Antonio Gon- zago, iu respect of the Araucanians, re- lighted the torch of war, which blazed three years, when harmony was restored. Nor dues anything of uarticnlar moment occur in the history of Chili, till 1809 , then a successful revolutionary movement took place, and for four or live years fortune fa- voured the cause of independeuce ; but in isu a royalist army from Peru nearly e«. tinguished the flame of liberty. Success (in 1817) retunied with general San Mar- tin, who brought them friidom. 1). Ber- nado U'lliggins was made director of the junta; and a fatal blow was struck at the power of the royalists on the 5th of April, I.SIH, when a large tract of coast was de- clared in a state of ' '- -' • ' i by the Chilian navy under lord C •; In IS20, «■ stated in the historj ,. Peru, the Chilian army under San Martin, liberated Pern from the Spanish thraldom, and San Mar- tin retired into the ranks of private life in Chili. His example was followed by U'llig- gins, who resigned the dictatorship Jan. 28, 1H23, and was succeeded by general Freire, the commander-in-chief. The royalist flag, which was hoisted in September, near the city of Conception, was pulled down, after a short period, and a free constitution ap- poiut«d, with a popular government. BRAZIL. Thb honour of discovering this conntrv is contested between Martin Behem, and Pedro Alvarez CabrnI, at the close of the 15th century. It was originally called Santa Cruz by Cabral, but afterwards Brazil, from the name of a wood produced there. It was first colonized by some refugee Jaws, in 1548, banished from Portugal, and was fostered by the able gnidanre of governor de Sonza, and the blandishments of the Jesuits. In ir>24, San Salvador was taken possession of by the Dutch, who were in turn defeated by an armament of Spaniards under Frederic de Toledo. The Dutch, iu in30, succeeded in making themselves masters of Temerara, Paraiba, and Rio Grande. Maurice of Nassau ad- ded Scara, Sercgippee, and the greater part of Bahia; and the whole of Brazil was on the point of yielding to their arms, when the revolution which drove Philip IV. from the Portuguese throne, afforded an opportunity to both the Dutch aud Portu- guese to expel the Spaniards from Brazil. By an agreement between them, the coun- try received a plural title, being called Bra- zils from the circumstance that both the Dutch and Portuguese possessed almost an equal share of it. By cunqu.-st and treaty the whole at length fell to PorlM^al. In 18U6 the royal family of Portugal, driven from Europe by the invasion of the French, migrated to Brazil, which from thiit period has risen rapiilly in iinport- unce, independence, and strength. In ls)7, a revulutiuii broke (uit in I'ernnuihuro, which failed. A free con^tilulion was pussed, and the kins returned to Lisbon. Suhsequeully the prince- regent, on his hirtliduy, Uct. 12, 1822, was proclaimed lA ri-ATA IS KOTEn FOR ITS KXTKNSIVB AHin ANO SALT DF.SERTS. TBI ORINOCO RUNS THROCOH VBNRZURLA AND NBW QRANADa. 844 Cf)e ^veaiutu at |^(Ktori?» ^r. comlUutional emperor of Drazil, inde- pendanl of llie PoriuKiieie throne — • niea- •ure which hat tinre b«en ronnally recoy- nliied by the governiuent of the parent country. I From It* central poiKlon in reference to the commercial counlrlei of the irlobe, and It* extenilve line of coast, Brazil it mott favourably dtuated for trade. But lt« ilow { progret* in thit and other retpectt may be chiefly ascribed to the narrow policy c' the parent ttate, PorluKal, which left tv. her coloniet little tave esninplet of pride, indolence, and tuperttltloii. The emlKra- tlon of free tcttlert wat ditcouraited, niur- 1 cantlle tntercourie wUh forettrnert wat In- ! terdicted, and no instrumentality exiitcd fur tlie diffusion of general lute .igence. i'rior to 1808, not a printing press existed in Braail. But latterly the country has been | more alive to Ks true interests, and Intelli- gence has rapidly spread. By iu rigliteoiis > and liberal treatment, too, of the coloured races it hat neutralised the worst element of political evil, and the sincerity which it it now evincing in the abolition of tlie slave trade is evidence both of sound policy and adminltlratlve power. THE REPUBLIC OF LA PLATA, OR UNITED PROVINCES. Thb title of the United Provincei is of modern date, as the following brief outline of the history of this part of the New World will exhibit. Juan Dla7.deSolit, a Spaniard, it said to have been the flrtt adventurer who explored the country, and took pos> session of it, a. t>. 1513. Sebastian Cabot, in IS36, in the La Plata, discovered the Island St. Gabriel, the river St. Salvador, and the Paraguay. Buenos Ayres was founded in IS3S, by Don Pedro de Mendoza. This did not flourish much, on account of tlie restricted state of commerce, which was, however, gradually relaxed, and in 1748 the annual flota made its last voyage. A free trade with several American ports began in 1774, and an extension to the Spanisli ports was granted in 1778. Under a viceroy trade augmenii'd, and commercial prosperity en- sued. Buenos Ayres was captured in I8U6 by (jeneral Beresfurd, with a British army, which was in turn compelled to surrender a few weelis afterwards to General Llniers, a French officer, at llie head of a body of inllitla. Sir Home Popham, with S(X)0 men, having captured Fort Maldonado, attacked Monte Video, without success; but, rein- forced by Sir Samuel Auchmuly, at length carried llie town by storm. TIik operations were extended under General Wliltelocke and General Crawford, who with 13,000 men renewed the attack upon Buenos Ayres, bulfwere defeated and captured by the native militia. Llniers, who had con- tributed so largely to this defeat, was raised by the people to the vice-royalty. The United Provinces escaped not the swell of that storm wlilch the French in- vasion stirred up in Spain. After various intrigues and plots, Ferdinand VII. was at lengili proclaimed in Buenos Ayres by the address of Don Josef de Goyeueclie. A rising of the people (August, IB09) was suppressed by Llniers, who was shnriW after deposed and sent into exile. Rabid were the convulsions wlilch now tlinok this unhappy country ; till, on Mav 36 1810, tlic people Dse, expelled the vlcel roy, and appointed a provisional Junta of nine persons. Thit it llie era of their in. dei'endence. But petty dis-nslont and IntrigHcs, In- cident to the eflortt of rising iiidepeiideiice iulc.rupted the progress of success iieren' and Venezuela or Caraccas. It will, there- fore, be necessary to detail the distinct history of these two original states. Granada, or as it is called. New Granada, was discovered by Columbus in his fouith voyage, and taken possession of for the Spanish government. But tlie lirst re- gular colonists were Ojeda, and Nlca Rssa, in l.iOS; the former founded the district called New Andalusia, but with no great success; the latter. Golden Castile, and he also perished. These two liistricts were united |.I5>4) In one, called Terra * I HI Si u K < ' O 5 ' M X H o m M a t. , .J < 9 H Q a PS 0. Q 9 < , .J B « ' ■ O s H a H ^ 0) •< •< u S u a < : m H S o 09 th O I si ' o H t ft ■ H A THB MEAN ELRVATION OF THE ANDES IN COLOMBIA IS 11,000 FKET. pucovBBx WAS Moaa kAriB in touTn luku m mobth amkbic*. ■ !< h \* » S * 5 ■ S ■ ^\)t I^Utor? of Smtttta. 845 Pirm*, under AviU, who luceeMfully tx- trailed the ditcoTi-riei, and founded the town of Panama. Other addition* were •abieaufintljr made, and the kingdom of New Granada waa eatablithed under a captain-general, in 1547. Aa it had been Mtablithed, lo did it continue for more than ISO yean, when in 1718 it became a vice • royalty, which form of government lasted but for six yeara, when it waa tup- planted by the original one, which wai again luperseded in 1740 by the incubiu of the vice-royalty. Thua did it continu till the weakneii of the mother counti from the invaaion of the French, afTurdca an opportunity to raiae the ataudard of independence. Many and varioua have been the eventa attendant upon the ttrug- Sle for mastery ; but a severe blow was in- icted by their old maateri in 1810, who, under Morillo, defeated the colonists with tremenduuB loss. Three yeara of renewed subjection followed, when the auceesa of Bolivar, and the union of Granada with Vcneiuela caused a brighter star to arise. VaNBCDai.A.—Thia district waa discovered somewhat earlier than Granada, bj Colum- bus, in 1498. After several fhiitlesa at> tempta to colonise it, the Spanish govern- ment disposed of the partially subdued na- tives to the Weltsers, a German company of merchanta. Their mismanagement led to a change in 1560, when Venesuela, like Gra- nada three years before, became a supreme government under a captain-general. From that period to 1806 Venezuela was a torpid vassal under the Spanish crown, when a futile attempt for independence was made under general Mirando, a native. Simul- taneous with Granada, Venezuela rallied for liberty when the mother country was prostrate before the ascendancy of France in 1810. In the following year a formal pro- clamation of independence was made July 6, and success seemed to attend the cause. Then came the dreadful earthquake. Super- stition re-nerved the arm of freedom, and the royalist general, Monteverde, discom- (ited Mirando, and again overran the pro- vince. In 1813 Bolivar called independence a^ain into action, and aucceaa attended him for three years, when another defeat waa sustained, which was followed by ano- ther in the following year, ai;d then by a victory. Reverses again recurring, com- pelled the congress to appoint Bolivar dic- tator; and in 1819 the union of Venezuela with Granada was effected under the name of Colombia. Colombia may therefore date its history as a bation from this union which was agreed upon Dec. 17, 1819 ; and the instal- lation of the united congress took place Mav 6, 18-21 ; which was followed on June 24, by a victory obtained by the president Bolivar over the Spaniards, at the cele- brated battle of Carabobo, in which the royalist army lost above fiOOO men, besides their artillery and baggage. BOLIVIA. Tbb history of this recently formed aUta. known before as Urraa P«au, partakea of the nature of an episode in the life of iba illuntnoua Bolivar, in whosa honour ila present name was given, and to whose wiat councils it ia so much indebted. Previously to the baltle of Ayachucc, in 1834, it fom' ed a part of the Spanish viearoyaliy of Bue- nos Ayres; but general Sucre, at the head o^the republicans, having then defealrd .e royalist troops, the independence of .he country was effected I and in the fol- lowing year, at the request of the people, Bolivar drew up • constitution for Us go- vernance. " On, referring to our •• Biographical Trea- snry"the reader will And in the life of BoLiTAa the following passage, which it so applicable to our present purpose, that, in this limited space, we cannot perhaps do better than to trausrribe it. " Hit re- nown was now at its height, and every act of his govemnieat showed how lealously alive he was to the improvament of the na- tional institutions and the moral elevation of the people over whom he ruled. In 1823 he went to the assistance of the Peruvians, and having succeeded in settling their in- ternal divisions, aud esUblishing their in- dependence, he was proclaimed liberator of Peru, and invested with supreme authority. In 1826 he visited Upper Peru, which de- tached itself from the government of Bue- nos A^res, and was formed into a new republic, named Bolma, in honour of the liberator; but domestic I'actiont iprung np, the purity of his motives were called in question, and he was cliiirged with aiming at a perpetual dictatorship ; he accordingly declared hit determination to resign hi* power as soon as his numerous enemies were overcome, and to repel the imputa- tions of ambition cast upon him, by retir- ing to seclusion upon bis patrimonial es- tates. The vice-pie8ident,Santander, urged him, in reply, to resume bis station as con- stitutional president, and though he waa beset by the jealousy and distrust of rival factions, he continued to exercise the chief authority in Colombia till May, 1830, when, dissatisfied with the aspect of internal affair*, he resigned the presidency, and expressed his determination to leave the country. The people ere lon|^ became sen- sible of their injustice to hi* merit, and were soliciting him to resume the govern- ment, when his death, which happened in December, 1830, prevented the accomplish- ment of their wisnet-" The government of Bolivia is in the hands of a president, to which office general San. j Cruz was elected in 1829. , GUIANA. Guiana i* an extensive region of South America, lying betwtcii the Amazon and Orinoco riverik and siibillvitled into British, Dutch, and Freiirh Guiana. The Britiith possessions fcomprinu the several districlt «( Ucrbice, bsseqiiibo, Ueiiierara, and Siiri naiii. It is atiseried by some that Cviliim- M.ATIWA IS AMONG THE VAI.UABI.K MINKBAl. PROnTICTIOMS O? RRAIIU *HH GI.IMATI UV TUt LOW LANOt II VKHI VaUBALl'III TU IIUBOI BANll. 846 (IT^e ^rcasuro of l^istorfi, $cc. bus MW Ihl* coMt In U.W, and by olliera that It WM ditcovereiJ by Vaico Nunez tn IM4. Ii became, liowever, known to Burnpe III 1491, when IUIvIkIi lailetl up toUrhioco In lilt cliliiieiical search of El UoraUo, a city sii^UiMed tn be pave, and were cnunrmed by llitt treaty of Paris, 1814, to Great Britain. AMAZONIA. A eovntry of South America, so called firom a martial and powerful state, in which a body of women, with arms in their bands, opposed Frunciscn Ort'llana, in hit passage down the river Maragnnn. It was flrst discovered by him, a. ». 1541 ; when, with fifty soldiers, he was waftrd in a vessel down the stream of a smaller river into the channel of the Maraguon, which he also called Ainaion. The origin of the name Amazon is foldfd in some mystery. It is applied exclunivrly to females of strong; and martial hahitii, and was first used in reference to a nice of them who, whether actually or fahu- lously is a matter of dispute, founded an empire in Asia Minor, upon the river Tlier. niodoon, along the coast of the Ulai'it Kea, as far as the Caspian. But whether tlie account of them is fabulous or true, tlicy are mentioned by the most ancient Greek writers, as well as by others of a late date; and various are the accounts givcu both of their origin and history 3 ll a \\ THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. (SOMETIMES CALLED THE ARCHIPELAGO OF THE WEST.) Tub West Indies consist of a number of islands in the central part of America, ex- tending from the tropic of Cancer south- ward, to the coast of Terra Firma and Mexico ; the principal of which are Cuba, Hayti or St. Doming, Jamaica, Porto Rico, Trinidad, St. Christopher, (commonly called St. Kitt's, ) Antigua, Guadoloupe, Martinique, Barbudoes, St. Lucia, St. Vin- cent, Grenada, and TobnKO ; for the most part discovered by Columbus near the close of the Ifith century. The islands are in possession of vari. ous powers, whom we shall notice as we proceed in the description, begiuninij^ with CUBA. Cuba, the largest and most westerly is- land in the West Indies, was diacovered by Columbus in 1492 ; and was first called Jnana, in honour of prince John, son of Ferdinand and Isabella; afterwards Fer- nandina ; then Santiago and Ave Maria, in deference to the patron saint of Spain and the Virgin. The name of Cuba is that which it was called by the natives at the time of its discovery. It is about 8U0 miles in length, and about 123 in breadth. The Spaniards made no settlement upon it till 1611, when Diego dc Velaaouez arrived with four ships, and landed on the eastern point. This district was under the government of a cacique, named Hatney, a native of St. Domingo, who had retired hither to avcid the slavery to which his countrymen were condemned. Those who could escape the tyranny of the Spaniards had followed him in his retreat. The Spaniards soon overcame the In- dians. Ilntncy was taken in the woods, and condemned to be burned. When he was fastened to the stake, and waited only for the kindhng of the f..t. a priest ad- vanced towards him, and proposed the ce- remony of baptism as a means of entering the Christian paradise. " Are there," said the cacique," " any 8paniard§ I'a that happy placet" "Fes," replied the priest. " / will not," returned Ilatney, " go to a place where I should be in danger of meeting one of them. Talk to me no more of yuur religion, but leave me to die." Tiiere are some traces of cultivation a( St. Jago, and at Mataiiza;! the fine plant- ations are all confined to the beautiful plains of the Havanmili. The Havaniiah, the capital of Cuba, is a fine city, and the harbour one of the rarest in the world. The F.nglish took it in tlie year I7C2. niid it wrk rettnred at the peace of 1763. Of late years many Americans have settled in the islainl, some for healtli, but most as merchants and planters, and luriii a most active and enterprising portinu of tlie inhabitants. In the course of 185U and I IBil two attempts were made to revolu- tionise the government by niaraiidlng expe- ditions from tlie United States. But butli of tliem signally failed, and In the hist their leader Lopez, and many of his followers, were captured, and executed as pirates. HAYTI, OR ST. DOMINGO. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and is, next to Cuba, the largest of the West India islands. It is upwards * THB ISLANR OP HATTI IS, AS ITS HAMB IMPIIBS, TBBT MOnifTAINODS. VBB rALMBTTO, OB Cll JHfit mt%t lEnHia Blanks. 847 of 400 rollei in length, from eaut to we«t, and Bvcraaet more than 100 in brcadili. Uavinif takfn poiseaiion of it in the name of Spain, Columbui founded the town of La Itabella on the north coaRt, and etta- blithed in it, under bit brother I>>e)fo, tlie flrat lettlenient of the Spaniards in the New World. It was in high estimation lor the quantity of gold it supplied ; but this wealth diminished with the inhabitants uf the country, whom they compelled tu per- petual labour in the mines; and it was en- tirely lost when those wretched victims were no more. The cruelties of the Spa- niards almost exceed belief. It is cum- puted, that considerably tnurc than a mil- lion r latives (the number at the time of its d .jvery) perished in the space of fifty years, by the hands or through the mean* of the conqueror*. The gold mine* have failed for want of hand* to dig them. The Spaniards thouxht of procuring slaves from At'rirn, to re-opcn them, and numbers were imported; but the mines ou the continent having hceu begun to be worked with good eOect, those of St. Domingo were no longer of importance. The settler* then turned their thought* to agriculture, which wa* cultivated with auccess. Sugar, tobacco, cocoa, casaia, gin> gcr and cotton, were among their produc- tion* at the close of the lixteenth cen- tury. The iminen*e fortune* raised in Mexico, and other parts, induced the inhabitant* of St. Domingo to despite their icttlcment* ; and they quitted the island in number*, in *earch of thoae regions of wealth. Thi* conduct ruined Lt. I)umingo. It had no intercourae with the mother country, but by a single *hip, of no great burden, re- ceived from thence every third year; and the whole colony, in J 71 7i consisted of only 18,410, including Spaniards, Mestces, Mu- lattoe* and Negroe*. The Spaniards retained possession of the whole island till IC65, wnen the French obtained a footing on it* western coast, and laid the foundation of that colony, which afterwards necame so flourishing. The French settlers increased very fast; and sugar-works were erected in great numbers. Coffee, cotton, ginger, and other products, were put into cultivation : the planter* became rich, and the negroe* nu- merous, uqtil the fatal measure of giving liberty to the slaves was adopted, without preparatory means, by the French national convention. At that period the negroes in the French part of St. Domingo were estimated at about 500,000; and while the revolutionary terrorists in France were hourly exhibiting scenes of brutal barbarity, and recommend- ing their action* as worthy of imitation by all other nations, the inhabitants of St. Domingo were precisely in tlint unsettled situation which seemed to favour the com- mission of similar atrocities, under the pre- text of avenging past injuries and redress- ing present grievance*. The laws of St. Pumingo were, indeed, according to the account given by Mr. Bryan Kdward* !■ hi* "Historical Survey," dreadfully ua*. aual; niulatioes were in a situation more egrading and wretched than that of Ike enslaved negroes in any part of the Wert Indies. No law allowed the privileges of a wliite person to any descendant of n African, howevi-r remote. In suck a situ- ation it is not to be wondered at, that they should have listened with pleasure to the news of the French revolution, and to the acts of the asoembly, which abolished slavery, and established enualitv of rinhls. The island was in a political name. The pride of power, the rage of reformation, the contentions of party, and the cnntlict of opposing interests, now pimtiiced a tem- pest that swept everything bd'ore it. In October, I790, James t)ge, a free mulatto, who had been at Paris, and who is de- ■cribed a* an enthusiast for liberty, but mild and humane, returned from France, and put himself at the ht^nd of the in- surgent negroes and people of colour; but being defeated, in March, 171 Whitelock, landed, and took possession nf Tiburon, Treves, Jeri-niie, Leogane, Cape Nicholas Mole, and upward* of ninety miles of the eastern coast, with little opposition. It was, however, a dis- astrous aoiuisition to the English, for in less than six months after their arrival, not less than 6000, of whom 150 were ofllcer*, fell victims to disease. Leogane wa* soon after retaken by the negroes, who now amounted to above 100,000, under their s m 3 S B M M ■ e > o R H « m ■ o •a O ■ TUB .MOUNTAINS, KVRN TO TUKIB SUMMITS, ARB CSrABI.B OF COlTITAtlOII. SS AimOtlUllaRMIilTI. 848 Cfft ^rtasuro o( l^istorv, ^c. leneral Toulttant L'Ouvcrtnre ; and Tibu- roD wm taken bjr the French under ge- | Deral Rigaud. To remedy thrae dinnitprn, i another itxtiedition wna undertaken by the Britlab, but waa attended with vait ex- | pen«e and the loii of many brave troopi. Coloneli Briibane and Markham were kill- ed i and at li^ngth, in I79H, the Uriliih hav- inc turrenflerFd I'urt au I'rinre and Cape Nioholai Mole to Reneral llcdonville, tfie iiland waa totally anandnned by iliem. At thii time the name nf Fort au Prince wai rhanied to Port Republican ; and the BpanVth part of the iiland wai taken not- ■eiiion of by I/Ouverture ; a man or iu> perior talent* and cbnrncter, whoxc un- remittinK exertion* were directed to the laudable object of healing the wound* and ImprnvinK the conditio\i of every cla** in the iiland. The beneflclal cflfpcti of «urh an administration were aoon Tiiible. The waited colony benn to revive ; the plan- tationi were again brouicbt into a fertile Btate ; the port* were oprncd to foreifpi veiieli; and, notwitliitandinK the ravnKca of a ten year'i war, the commerce of St. Domingo wai rapidly recovering; while the population alio increaied with aitoniching rapidity. In I7O8, when the Britiah force* evacu- ated the i*land, the military eitablinbuient of St. Domingo did not exceed -tO.OOU ; but in two year* it wa* more than double that number. Touiaiant waa regarded ai an extraordinary being by hi* loldiers, and no European army wai ever subject to a more rigorous discipline. Every oiH.-er commanded, pi*tol in hand; and had the power of life and death over the gubalterni. Sixty thoniand men were frequently re- viewed and exercised together ; on which oecaaions SHOO ofticer* were «een in the fleld, carrying arms, from the general to the enaign, yet with the utmost attention to rank, and without the imallest symptom of insubordination. In these reviews, says M. de la Croix, Touissant appeared like an inspired person, and becamrl'lie fetiche or idol of the blacks who listened to him. In order to make himself better understood, he frequently addressed them in parables, and often madn use of the following: — In a glass vessel full of grains of black mnize, he would mix a few grains of white mnize, and say to these who surrounded him, " You are the black maize ; the wliites, wlio are desirou* of enslaving you, are the white maize." He would then shake the vessel, and presenting it to their fascinated eyes, exclaim, " See the white here and there !" in other words, " See how fur the white are apart -in comparison of yourselves" The gleam of prosperity, however, which result- ed from his wise administration waa but of abort continuance. The independence of St. Domingo was proclaimed on the lat of July, I8III ; and while the inhabitants were indulging the hope of future happiness, a atorm was ga- thering, which burst upon them with ac- cumulated fury. Scarcely was the peace of Amien* concluded, whein a formidable ar- mament of twealy-aix ahips of war wu e(Hlipped by order of the flmt coiiiiul, wiih the determinaliiin of reducing the revolted colony of St. Domingo. On board this fleet were embarked 2A,0(M) chosen trnopi, , amply furnished with all the apparatus of inilllnry slniiKhler; and the chief poininind was cnnAded to general Le Clerc, ilip bro. ther-in-lnw of lluunaparle. Before prncerd. iiig to hostilities, however, recourae wsi had to various perfldioui acts. Attmipta were made to sow disunion among tlie free people of 81. Domingo. ProrlHiiistiont and letters, expreiied in all the deluaive Jar){on of the republic, were widely eirrii. lated. The chiefs of both cnlnura then in France, and the two sons of Toiiiaaant himself, who had sent them tliitlicr fur in. atructirn, were preiied into the service uf this expedition. Th..' French forces arrived in Jnnusry, 1SU3; yet so little did Touissant expect In have any enemy to combat, that he whs nt the time making a tour round the cniiern part of the island, and had given nn urdera for resistance in case of altark. After ilie French troops had disembarked, and prcvi. ously to commencing operations in the in- terior of the country, Le Clern thnii^lit proper to try what etfect the sight of liii two sons, and a specious letter from llim- naparte, would have upon Touissant. «;oia- non, their tutor, who had aceninpnnied them from France, and was one of the chief conlidential agents in this expedi- tion, was accordingly deputed on tliiH er- rand, with instructions to press Touisonnt's instant return to the Cape, and tn bring back the children in case he shoiihl not succeed. On arriving at Touisaant's coun- try residence, and learning that its owner would not return from his excursion till the next day, the wily Frcncbmnn availed himself of this delay to work upon tlic feel- ings of their mother, r.hose leara, and the. solicitations of the children, when their father returned, for a while sliook his reso- lutions. But being at length eonflrmed in his suspicions of the snare that whs laid for_ him, by the conduct and langiisgc of Coisnon, Touissant suddenly compnucd his agitated countenance; and, gently disen- giiging himself from the embraces nf his wile and children, he took their preceptor into another apartment and gave him tiijs dignified derision:— "Take back my rliil- dren ; since it must be so, I will be faith lul to my brethren and my God." Unwilling to prolong this painful scene, Touissant mounted his horse, and rode to the camp ; and although a correspondence was after- wards opened between him and Le Clerc, it failed to produce his suhmii-sion. Hostilities now commenced. After se- veral obstinate conflicts in the open field, and the burning of several towns, tne blacks found themselves overpowered, and were compelled to retire into the inaccessible fortresses of the interior, whence they car- ried on, under their brave chieftain, Touis- sant, a desultorv, but destructive warfare agaiust detached parties of their enemies. 5' I- ■*. OOHIROO WAS THE FIRST PFnMASKNT SKTIT.E»f RNT MAnK IN AMKRIOA. rii rvk mt mt%t lEntiia EslnnUa. 640 At IraRth, however, the negroe* kiid cultl- vntort were either tuhdurd b* the ternir of the French arniy, ur ci^nled ny the deceit- ful promiiei of the French Rcnrral, who had pubtiihed In hi* own nanin, itnd in thut of the flrit eoniul, rrpeatrd lulitmn drelHrationi that the freedom uf all the In- bahitanta of 8t. DoiuinKn, of all cnloiim, (hnuld be prenerTed inviolate. Hut no •ooner did Lr C'lerc iind that hii plan »ur- ceeded than he threw aaide I he inaHk, ami iiiiied an order reitoring to the proprie- tors, or their altorncyi, all their aiu-ieiir •uthoritT over the ncKrnea upon thi'ir i-ii- tatei. Thia order at oiipe opeiii-d the eyen of the ne|(ro populntinn; Touinnniit nnd Chriitophe united their forcci; and audi waa the tierce and active niiiure of their attacks, that Le Clerc waa ohIiKcd to ahun- don inoit of hii former coiiquestii, and leek refuite in the town of Cape Francoia ; where he again iiaued ■ proclAinKtion couched in iuch apecioua terma, that the blacka and their leader* accepted the conditiona of hit proiTered amneit^ , Tbia maater-pii-ce of deccpiinn having thua full* aucceeded, and the French now having the dominion ot' the whole ixland, they began to put in execution their medi- tated ayktem of alavery and dent ruction; and, at a ureliminnry ttep towards thia ob- ject, Le Clerc cauncd Touiaiiant to be pri- vately leizrd in the dead of the night, to- gether with hia family, nnd, putting him on hoard a faat-tailing frignte, he wna con- veyed to France, na a prisoner (May, IH02). There, under a charge of exciting the iie- groea to rebel, he waa committed to close cuttody, and waa no more heard of by hit torrowing countrymen, till his death waa announced in the following par at having taken place in the fortrets oi Joux. Aroused br the bate treachery of Le Clerc, the black chicftaint, Dessalinca, Chrittophe, and Clervaux, again raited their atandarda, and were toon found at the head of coniiderable bodies of troops, ready to renew the ttruggle for liberty, and determined to succeed or perish in the attempt. Many and desperate were the contests which ensued; Le Clerc died, and was succeeded in the command of the French array by Rochninbaud; but the losses they sustained by disease as well as by this harassing warfare rendered any escape from Hayti preferable to a conti- nuance there; and, aa the war had then i recommenced between Great Britain and France, the French gladly surrendered themselves prisoners ot war to a Hritish squadron, and were conveyed to EiigUnd. I The independence of Hayti, which had been first proclaimed in IHOO, was thus consolidatea, and Dessalines erected the west or French part of the island into an empire, of which he tiecame emppi^r, with the title of Jacques I. (Jan. I, 18U4). Uut his reign was ol short duration ; the crueU ties he perpetrated caused a coiiipirary to be formeo against him; and, two years after his coronation, he was surrounded by the conspirators at his head quarters, and struifgling to escape, rteeived hia death- uliiw. The assassination of nestalinei eansM another Uivitiim of the Island, and anolhar civil war. In the north, Chnslnph* as- sumMj the government, with thf niwii o|fii to all hukhis, hut witliciTiiiiii txi lii»|vt-ddviiiiia«is luihe French. The llayiuns alao agried to pay ISO niillbiis of Iniiirs to Fraiiri-, In lite annual paynieiili, as an inili-innlty roi the losses ol iliecoliJiiJKtsiliiriiig llie revolution, riu! flri-t liisialiiiriit of 30 millions was panl III ItlJti ; but It litliig i-viileiit lliat tlic a it exaction was lityniid the ability nl llajtl t<. repent, It was uurced. In ihjh, to ifilui-f IheorigliiH) suir ••> 60 millions fraiii's, to be paid ill six ln«t.il..v :,'■ by lw>7. Down to ht4.,, M' '.iiire island was under the Haylliin go^iiiiiieiit as one rf|>oblic, but in the latter y<.-ar, owiiif; to the violitioii by the Hayliaiis of the lirnis on uliii-li iIm- aiiiiexatloii oi' Doininica had taken plnie, and their -'"iisal to permit tliu eniigratimi of wliile coloiiiklM Into any part ot llic It^lan', ilie Uoiniiiicaiis wjre ttrivi n lo d'irliic llieir iinlepenileiire, wliicli liide- pciiilt'iice was recoginzed by firt-at llriiaiii In IH.5U. Since that time. Hayti lia» hien traiisiornieil, by a coupd'etiil of SnMloiii|m>, frmn a repiililic into a monarchy, and it has been the liicessanl object of thfi> bl.ick po- tentate, who was crowned emperor in IHSI, under the rule of Fuiislin I., lo gnbjiigaie the Doiiilnicaiis, and to regain po»>sesi>ioii of the entire Islainl. In this, however, he lias been signally frustrated, bis army raised for MAISa AND FLAIIfTAIM ARR INDIGBNOt'l, AND l:t KXTKNSIVB V%n. [ia =3r *■■ TOBACCO 0» CUBA IS CBbBBBATBD AI.Ii OVBB TUB WOBL0. H O K M e M »i o k ti •• R M a H a M 860 ^^e (ITreasurQ of 31|ii5toti), ^c. th« purpoM havtnir. In the Ant tntUnce, bMD entirely ditpened and beaten, while his tuiMequent threaii of renewing the attack have been checked by the Joint in- terference of England, France, and the United Slatet. The mediation of these power*, however, has not yet produced an actual peace, and all that iliey have acconi- pliilied lias been a provisional truce, which was agreed upon In I8S1, and which was to expire in October, 1853. Tiie position of Dominica, as regards the probable course of the future commerce of the world, is so important, as to render It desirable that an increased knowledge should be cultivated of the various advantages it presents. This republic comprises about two-tlilrds of the inland of Hayti, and forms that part of it which is nearest to thiscountry, the wektern side, or Hayti proptr, being under the despotic authority of the black emperor Soulouque. But although the Dominican republic is much larger than Hayti, its po|)ulalion is only about 300,000, while that of Hayti is estimated at 700,000. The Dominicans are of Spanish origin, and consist of about one-tmrd whites, and a small proportion of blacks, the remainder beine a mixed race. The Haytiaus belonged to a French colony, and are all black, no white persons being allowed even to hold land or properly of any kiod in the country* PORTO.RICO. PoRTO-Rioo was discovered by Columbus in 1493 ; it is about one hundred mileM in length, from east to west, and forty I'rom north to south. The Spaniards neglected it till 1509, when thirst of gold biuught them thither from St. Dbmingo, under Ponce de Leon, to make a conquest, which afterwards cost tliem dear. Ambition, revenge, and the love of gold, prompted the Spaniards to the most atro- cious outrages. They found the inhabit- ants brave and fond of liberty ; and as they looked up to the European visitants as a superior order of beings, to their authority they at iirst voluntarily submitted. It was n»■ aBIII* ABOOV 100 BITBmi. ^^e mt%t 3Entiia lEslantis. 8fil ST. CHRISTOPHER'S; OR. ST. KITT'S. Tata itlaad, which belongt to Great Bri- tain, waa diieovered, in 16tfa, by Columbua, who gave it the name it beara. It waa the mother conntrj of all the Engiiah and French lettlementa in the 'West Indiea. Both nationa arrived there on the aame day in 1626; they ahared the island be- tween them; aigned a perpetual neutrality; and entered into a mutual engagement to assist each other againat their common enemy, the Spaniards. War commenced between England and France in 1666, and St. Christopher's be- came a scene of carnage for nearly Ealf a century, terminating only with the total expulsion of the French in 17OS. This island is about fifteen miles long, by four broad. There is no harbour in the country, nor the appearance of one. NEVIS. This small island, now belonging to the British, was origindlly discovered by Co- lumbus ; and the Knglish, under sir Thomas Warner settled on it in 1638. It is sepa- rated fro.n at. Christopher's by a narrow channel ; and ia properly only one very high mountain, about seven milea over each way. It waa ravaged by the French in 17O6, and the next year almost destroyed by the most violent hurricane ever recorded. ANTIGUA. Antiova, a West Indian island, belong- ing to Great Britain, is one of those deno- minated the Windward Islands. It waa called by the natives Xaymeca, but Colum- bus gave it the name of Santa Maria de la Antigua. The island is about twenty miles long, bjr eighteen broad. Columbus dis- covered it in 1492, but it waa found totally uninhabited by those few Frenchmen who fled thither in 1629, upon being driven from St. Christopher's by the Spaniards. The want of fresh water induced these fu^tivea to return as soon as they could gain their former places of residence. It appears that in 1640 there were about thirty English families settled in this island; and the number was not much increaoed when Charges II. granted the property to lord Willeughby of Farham. Hia lordship sent over a considerable number of inha- bitants in 1666; but, from that time till 1680, it grew nothing but indigo and to- bacco; when the island bein^ restored again to the state, colonel Codnngton in- troduced the culture of sugar. The harbours nf this island, particularly that called English Harbour, are the best belonging to the British government ir these seas ; and the whole is so much en- compassed with rocks and shoals, that it is very dangerous for those unacquainted with its navigation to effect a landing. For this cause it has remained unmolested by the French in all the late wars. I^IONTSERRAT. Tub ialand waa discovend by the Hp*. niarda in 1493, who gave it the name of a mountain in Catalonu, which it reaemblcd in ahape. It is about twelve milea in length, and five in its broadeat part. The English landed here in 1632, and aoon after drove off all the natives. The progress of the colony waa slow ; and it acquired no kind of importance till the close of the seven- teenth century, wh^n the culture of sugar took place. It has no harbour, nor evea a tolerable road ; and maaters of vesacla are under the necessity of putting to sea when they see a storm approaching. It ia in the possession of the English. JAMAICA. Jamaica, the largest and most valnable of the British West India islands, was dis- covered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1494. It is about one hundred and aixty- five miles in lenath, from east to west, and its average breadth about forty miles, bear- ing a resemblance to a long oval. In 16U3, Columbus was driven upon the island by a storm, and having lost his ships, he im- plored the humanity of the natives, who gave him all the assistance that natural pity su{;gesta. They soon, however, grew tired of supporting strangers, and insen- sibly withdrew from their neighbourhood. The Spaniards, who had already treated the Indians ungenerously^ now took up arms against one of their chiefs, whom Iney ac- cused of severity towards them. Columbus, forced to yield to the threats of his people, in order to extricate himself from so peril- ous a situation, availed himself of one if those natural phenomena, in which a man of genius may sometimes find a resource. From the knowledge he had acquired of astronomy, he knew that an eclipse of the moon was fast approaching. He took ad- vantage of this circumstsnce, and sum- moned all the caciques in the neghbour- hood to come and hear something that concerned them, and waa essential to their preservation. He tlien stood up in the midst of tliero, and Having upbraided them with their cruelty, in suffering him and bis distressed companions almost to perish, he thus emphatically addressed themt "To punish you for this, the God whom I wor- ship is going to strike voa with his most ter- rible judgments. This very evening you will see the moon turn red, then grow dark, and withhold its light from vou. This will be only a prelude to your calnmitics, if yon obstinately persist in refusing to give as food." He had scarcely dune speaking, when his prophecies were fulfilled. The In- dians were terrified beyond measure ; they begged for mercy, and promised to do any thing that he should desire. He then told them, that Heaven, moved with their re- pentance, was appeased, and that nature was going to resume her natural courae. From that moment provisions were sent in from all quarters; and the Spaniards were TBK DAT! AMD RIGHTS ABB BBABtT BQUAI. TBBOUOBOUT *BB TBAB. THB BKBAD-raUIT THKB WAS ORlelNALliV IlfTHOOlrCBD VBOM OTAUKITB. 852 Vlfft treasury of l^istorp Sec. never in want of any thing during ttie time tbey remained there. It waa Don Diego Columbus, son of the discoverer, that tirst fixed the Spaniards in Jamaica. In 1509, he sent thither seventy robbers from St. Domingo, under the com- mand of John de Esquimel; and others soon followed. These wretches went over apparently for no other purpose but to shed human blood ; in fact, they never appear to have sheathed their swords while tliere was an inhabitant left. The murderers raised several settlements upon the ashes of the natives; but that of St. Jago de la VeKa was the only one that could support itself. The inhabitants of that town contented themselves with living upon the produce of some few plantations, and the overplus they sold to the ships that passed by their coasts. The whole population of the colony, cen- tered in the little spot that fed this race of destroyers, cousisted of about 15UU whites, and as many slaves, when the English came and attacked the town, took it, and settled there, in 1655. The English brought the fatal sources of discord along with tnem. At first the new colony was only inhabited by 3(K)0 of that fanatical army which had fought and con- quered under the standards of the republi- can party. These were soon followed by a multitude of royalists. The divisions which had prevailed for so long a time, and with so much violence, between the two parties in Europe, followed them beyond the seas. One party triumphed in the protection of Cromwell; the other trusted to the go- vernor of the island, who was, in secret, a royalist. The name of this governor was Dudley ; and by his disinterested behaviour he enforced his authority. When Charles II. was restored to the crown, a form of civil government was es- tablished 8t Jamaica, modelled, like those of the other islands, upon that of the mo- ther country. The governor represented the king; the council, the peers; and three deputies from each town, with two from every parish, constituted the commons. In 1682 the code of laws was drawn up which has so long existed. Jamaica soon after became the grand de- pot of the buccaniers, a set of pirates who plundered the seas, and ravaged the coasts of America. Here the spoils of Mexico and Peru met with a ready reception ; and here "extravagance and debauchery held their court," till this destructive race became extinct, or annihilated, in consequence of the frequency of the murders they com- mitted. The illicit trade carried on between Jamaica and the Spanish colonies, had, in 1739, according to the best calcula- tions, brought into the former upwards of 66,O(H),0UOf. sterling. The court of Ma- drid thought to put a stop to it, by prohi- biting the admission of foreign ships into the Spanish harbours, on any pretence whatever. But the people of Jamaica sup- ported themselves in this trade under the protection of the KuKlish men-of-war, by allowing the captun five per cent, upon every article of which be authorised the smuggling. After the establishing of register ships by Spain, this trade gradually diminished ; and some time previous to the year 1760, it was reduced to about 67,0OO<. per annum. The British ministry at that time wishing to restore or recover the profit of it, thought that the best expedient to repair the losses of Jamaica was to make it a free port. This was no sooner done than the Spanish Ame- rican ships flocked thither from all parts, to exchange their gold and silver, and other commodities, for the manufactures of Eng- land. St. Jago, or Spanish Town, is the capital, but Kingston by far exceeds it in size and opulence. The town of Port Hoyal stood on a point of land running far out into the sea, and ships of 700 tons could come up close to the wharfs. When the earthquake happened on the 7th of June, 1692, this town contained two thousand houses, all of which were destroyed, and vast num- bers of persons perished. The earthquake was followed by an epidemic disease, which carried o£F 3U0O more. Fort Royal was soon rebuilt ; but in January, 1703, it experi- enced another great calamity, a fire neatly reducing it to ashes. Many people now re'- moved to Kingston. It was, however, built a third time, and waa rising towards its former grandeur, when it was overwhelmed by the sea, on the 28th of August, 1722. Kingston, although not esteemed as the capital of Jamaica, is the commercial capi- tal: it was built in 1692, from a plan of colonel Lilly's, after the earthquake which destroyed Port Royal. It is a beautiful city, laid out in squares, with streets wide and regular, crossed by others at right an- gles. The harbour is spacious, and capa- ble of admitting lOUO ships, or more, in safety. The internal quiet of the island has been fully established since the expulsion of the maroon or mountain Negroes, during the latter part of the I8th century. Jamaica is divided into three counties; Middlesex in the centre, Surrey in the east, and Corn- wall in the west. These are subdivided into 21 parishes. The island is governed by the laws of its own house of assembly and council. — — — . MARTINIQUE. MAnTiNiQUR, one of the discoveries of Columbus, and the principal of the French Caribbee islands, is about forty miles in length, and ten in average breadth. It was first settled by M. Desnambouc, a French- man, in the year 1635, with only 100 men from St. Christopher's. He chose rather to have it peopled from thence than from Europe ; as he foresaw that men tired with the fatigue of a long voyage, would be likely to perish, after their arrival, either from the climate, or the hardships incident to most emigrations. They completed their first settlement without any difficulty. The natives, intimidated by fire-arms, or seduced TUB rLAHTAIN, BANANA, YAM, CASSAVA, AND SWXBT FOTATO, ABB INOIOBNOUS. *l. nt. upon rued the ter shipi linished; T 176«, it annum. wUhing thought he loites art. Thi« ■shArae- 11 parts, md other of £ng. capital, ■ize and al itood into the 'ome up thquake i92, this ises, all )t nuni' thquake e> which 'as soon expert. t neatlv now ile- :r, built irds its helmed 722. I as the al capi. plan of ' which !autitiU t» wide {ht an> 1 capa- ore, in THB KisonacKa or vobt-bico am wbollt AaRicvi.TVB*k < m h M H U u a B X k, K H •■ e ■ a K H u M O B U H s a n 4 iS been of the IK the iniaica diesex Corn- ivided 'erned embly a s ■ ft o « es of reiich H8 in t was mch- luen ither from with ikely from It to heir The tc^ I. VLf)t mtsx Hmn BlanTjs. 853 by promises, gave up to thr French the western and the southerr. i '> r$ of the is- land, and retired to the oi'-ier. '.'his tran- quillity was of short duratio;-.. The Caribs, when they saw those enterpriding strangers daily increasing, were resolved io extirpate them : they therefore called in the natives of the neighbouring ixles to their asRis- tance, and suddenly attacked a little fort that had been newly erected. They were, however, repulsed, leaving upwards of 70U of their best warriors dead upon the spot. After this check, they disanpeared for a long time ; and when they did appear, it was with presents in their hands to their conquerors. The Indians, whose manner of life re- quires a vast extent of land, finding them- selves daily more straitened, waylaid the French who frequented the woods, and destroyed them. Twenty men had been killed, before any one was able to account for their disappearance. No sooner was it discovered, than the aggressors were pur- sued, their houses burnt, their wives and children massacred ; and those few that escaped the carnage, fled from Martinique, and never appeared there any more. The French, by this retreat, became sole masters of the island. They were divided into two classes : the first consisted of such as had paid their passage to the island, and those were called inhabitarts. The govern- ment distributed lands to them, which be- came their absolute property upon paying a yearly tribute. These had under their command a number of disorderly people, sent from Europe, at their expense, whom they called engages, or bondsmen. This eni^gement was a kind of slavery for three years, and when it expired, they became free. The first cultivation was confined to to- bacco, cotton, annaito, and indi[!:o. That of sugar was introduced in 1650. Benjamin Da Costa, ten years after, planted cocoa. In 17I8, all the cocoa-trees were destroyed by the season, and the coffee-tree immedi- ately took its place. Early in the 18th century Martinique be- came the mart for all the windward French settlements; and Port Royal became the magazine for all matters of exchange be- tween the colonies and the mother country. The prosperity of this island was very great until the war of 1744, when a stop was put, in a great measure, to the contraband trade with the Spanish colonies, by the introduc- tion of registered ships. Martinique was taken by the English in the beginning of the year 1"62, and re- turned to France in July, 1763. It was again taken by the English in 1801), but restored to France by the peace of Amiens. The empress Josephine, and her first husband, the viscount Beauharnois, were natives of this island. GUADALOUPE. GcADAT.oiirK, n valuable island colony belonging to the French, was one of the dia- coveriet of Columbus. It is of an irregu- lar form, about twenty-five miles long and thirteen broad. It is divided into two un- equal parts by a small arm of the sen, nrarly SIX miles long, and varying from 100 to 300 feet in breadth. This canal, known by the name of the ilivier(f..o/«, or Salt Rivtr, is navigable for vessels of fifty tons burthen. The part of the island which ?ives its name to the whole colony is, tovi irds the centre, full of craggy rocks. Among thcs« rocks IS, a mountain, called La Sovfriirt, or, the Brimstone Mountain, which rises to an immense height, and exhales, through yanous openings, a thick and black smoke, intermixed with sparks that are visible by night. From these hills flow numberless streams, which fertilize the plains below. Such is that part of the island properly called Guadaloupe, or Basse - terre. That part which is commonly called Grande-terre has been less favoured by nature. In 1635, the first settlement was made on this island by two gentlemen from Di- eppe, named Loline and Duplessis, with about five hundred followers. Through imprudence, all their provisions were ex- hausted in two months: famine stared them in the face, when they resolved to plunder the natives. This, however, did not avert the dreadful alternative. How far the ac- counts of their horrible sufferings are to be credited we know not, but it is asserted that the colonists were reduced to graze in the field, and to di^ up dead bodies fur their subsistence ! Many who hsd been slaves in a I jiers deplored the fate that had broken their fetters ; and all of them cursed their existence. It was in this manner that they atoned for their crime of invasion, till the government of Aubert brought about a peace with the natives a. n. 1040. The few inhabitants that had escaped the calamities they had brought upon them- selves, were scon joined by some discon- tented colonists from St. Christopher's, and by Europeans fond of novelty. But still the prosperity of Guadaloupe was im- peded by obstacles arising from its situa- tion. Slartinique engrnssed every species of traftic, from its coin'cnient harbours and roads. It was in consequence of this pre- I'erence, that the population of Guadaloupe, in I'UO, amounted only to about -tooo whites, and 7000 slaves, many of whom were Ca- ribs ; while the produce of the island was proportionably small. Its future progress was, however, as rapid as the first attemp's had been slow. At the end of 1755, the colony contained near ten thousand whiles, and between forty and fifty thousand slaves ; and such was the state of Guadaloupe when conquered by the English in 17.'>y, after a siege of three months, in which time the island suf- fered so much as to he nearly ruined. The conquerors, however, delivered the inhahi- tants from their fears: they overstocked the market, and thereby redurert the prire of aU European cciiimodities. The colonists bought them at a low price, and in eoimc- quencc of this plenty, obtained long delays a ' M ' u ! s I A : o *> I a ■ « M a) o , s ar SEVEKAL M0U:»TAIKS IV MARTIWIQUK ABK EVini'NTt.T KJTTIHCT VOl/CAItOES. [4 <7 3 ▲ CHAIN Of VOLCANIC Jl( UNTAINI HJlTltHO* TUttOUQUOUT SUADALOUrM. 654 ^l^e ^reasuiQ of 3[|i«torQ, $cc. for pnynent. The colooy wai restored to France by the peace of Parts, in 1703. DurinK the French republican war, Gna- daloupe was taken by the EnKlish, and re- taken by the French, in whose hands it now lemaias. ST. LUCIA. St. Lvcia was discovered by Columbus, and is about tliirty miles in lengtli, by twelve in breadth. The English took pos. session of it in the beginning of the year 1639, without opposition. They lived there peaceably about a Tear and a haltj when they were massacred by the natives. In ir)5U,' about forty French arrived there under Rousselan, who married one of the natives, and was beloved by them. He died four years after. Three of his successors were murdeied by the discontented Caribs ; and the colony was declining, when it was taken by the English in 1664, who evacu- ated it in 1666. They had scarce left it, when the French appeared again on the island. Twenty years after, the English drove out the French. The English again quitted it; and it at length remained wholly without culture. In 1718, marshal d' Estrees obtained a S rant of St. Lucia, and nentover a comman- nnt, troops, and inhabitants. This gave umbrage to the court of London, which had a prior claim ; therefore, the French minis- try, ordered that things should be put into the same state as they were before the grant. In 1722, the duke of Montague had a grant of St. Lucia from the British ministry. This gave uneasiness to France ; and it was at length agreed, in 1736, that neither na- tion should occupy it, but that both should " wood and water" there. However, the peace of 1763 gave to France this loug-cou- tested territory. During the American war, 1778, it was taken by the English. It was afterwards given up to France ; then again captured by the English in 180.3, with whom it now remains, having been detinitively assigned to us by the treaty of Paris. ST. VINCENT. This island was discovered by the same enterprising navigator, and nearly at the same time, as the other islands in its neigh- bourhood. It is about sixteen miles long, and eight broad. For some time after its discovery, it was the general rendezvous of the red Caribs, the original possessors ot the western archipelago. In 1660, when the English and French agreed that Dominica and St. Vincent should be left to the Cnribs as their pro- Eerly, some of these natives, who till thea ad been dispersed, retired into the t'ornier ; but the greater part into the latter. This population was soon after increased by a race of .\fricans, whose origin was never positively ascertained. It is supposed tliat they were slaves intended for the Spanish markets, and wrecked upon the coast. But by whatever chance these strangers were brought into the island, is now of no im- portance. The natives treated them with kindness, and mingled with them in mar- riage; from whence sprung the race called Black Caribs. In 1719, many inhabitants of Martinique removed to St. Vincent. The ttrst who came there settled peaceably, not only with the consent, but by the assistance, of the Red Caribs. This success induced others to follow their example ; but these, whether from jealousy, or some other mo- tive, taught these Caribs a fatal secret ; it was, that they could sell their lands. This knowledge induced them to measure, and fix boundaries ; and from that instant peace was banished from the island. The Black Caribs no sooner knew the price which the Europeans set upon the lands they inhabited, Ihaii they claimed a tiharewith the Red Caribs, and also a share in all future sales. Provoked at being de- nied a part of these profits, they formed themselves into a separate tribe, swore never more to associate with the Red Ca- ribs, chose a chief of their own, and de- clared war. lu this war they were mic- cessful, made themselves masters of kll he leeward coast, and required of the Euro- peans that they should again buy the lands they had already purchased. A Frenchman attempted to shew the deed of his purchase of some lands which he had bought of a Red Carib ; " I know not," said the Black Carib, " what thy paper says; but read what is written on my arrow. There you may see, in characters which do not lie, that if you do not give me what I demand, I will go and burn your house this night," Time, which brings on a change of mea- sures with a change of interest, put an end to these disturbances. The French be- came, in their turn, the strongest. In less than twenty years the population amounted to 800 whites and 3000 blacks. In this si- tuation was the island when it fell into the hands of the English, to whom it was se- cured by the peace of 1763. In 1779 it was re-captured by the French ; but it re- verted to Great Britain in 1783. The English had no sooner got posses- sion, than they issued an order to deprive the cultivators of the lands of their pro- perty, unless redeemed. The settlers re- monstrated against a proceeding so unjust, but were disregarded ; and the lands were ordered, by the English ministry, to be sold indiscriminately. This seventy made them disperse. Some went to St. Martin, Margalaiite, Guadaloupe, and Martinique ; but the greater part to St. Lucia. Ttie Caribs still occupied the windward side of the island, which contained fine plains; but having refused to evacuate them when ordered so to do by the Eng- lish, the latter took to arms to compel thnm. These unfortunate p.-ople defend- ed themselves with extraordinary courage during several years, but were at length TRINIOAU IS WELL WATRnilD BY NUMGROUS STREAMS IN BVERT DIRECTION. ■HI AVMBASa VALUl OF A StATI WAa lOIIIWHAI LBII TDAII 601. ^^e mt%t £n))ia Sslantis. 855 obliged to lubmit. The greater part had been exterminated during tlie war, and the remainder either fled, or were leut off the iiland. DOMINICA. Dominica, discovered by Colurabns, in 1493, ii about thirty mtlei long, and lix- teen broad. This island was for many years afterwards inhabited only by its na- tives. In 1733, nine hundred and thirty- eight Caribs were found there, dispersed in thirty-two carbets, or huts; and three hundred and forty nine French lived vn a district by the sea-side. At the peace of 1763, when '* '?'>came an English colony i'. was found to \tain six hundred whit>;s, and two thousi blacks. The island was captured by thv French in 1778, but re- stored at the peat. ! of 1783. _ The great aUvanta|;e of this island to the English is its situation. It is nearly equi- distant from Guadaloupe and Martinique, and at a small distance from either; and its safe and commodious roads and bays enable their privateers and squadrons to intercept, without risk, the navigation of France in her colonies. GRENADA. Grbitasa, one of the West India islands belonging to Great Britain, is about tlurly miles lung, and twelve miles broad. The French formed a project for settling there as early as the year 1639. yet they never carried it into execution till 1651. At their arrival, they gave a few hatchets, some knives, and a barrel of brandy, to the chief of the natives they found there; and ima- gining they had purchased the island with these trides, assumed the sovereignty, and goon aeted as tyrants. The Caribs, unable to contend with them by open force, took the usual method which weakness inspires to repel oppression : they murdered all whom they found alone and defenceless. The troops that were sent to support the infant colony, destroyed all the natives they found. The remainder of these mi- serable people took refuge upon a steep r«ck ; preferring rather to throw them- selves down alive from the top of it, than to fall into the hands of an implacable enemy. The French called this rock, Le Mo) 7 des Sauteurt, (the Hill of the Leap* ers), "liich naine it still retains. The French held this island till 1762, when it was captured by the British, to whom it was conlirmed by the treaty of 1763. The French, however, retook it in 1779 ; but restored it in 1783, agreeable to the treaty of peace. of Colombia, being only separated from it by a narrow strait. I. was first visited by Columbus in UUS, at the time l.e discovered the river Orinoco. Its favourable situation for carrying on trade with the mam, aa well as the neighbouring islands, its ex- tent, fruitfulncss, and the convenience of its harbours, make it an object of consi- derable importance; indeed, so fertile is the soil, that not more than a thirtieth part of its surface is incapable of cultiva- tion. Cocoa is more extensively grown in Trinidad than in any of the other British Antilles, and is of superior quality ; but its sugar plantations are still more important. Coffee, indigo, tobacco, and cotton, also come to perfection here, though the quan- tities grown are but small; but all the fruits and vegetables of the adjacent tro- pical climates are found in abundance ; and the pines transplanted from France or Spain are said to equal their parent stocks. The mineral products of Trinidad are considerable, but the moat abunUaut is that of asphaltum, which is found in the greatest profusion in the lake Brca, or Fitch lake ; part of which is in a liquid state, and consists of fluid pitch of un. known depth, in a stale of slow ebullition, and exhaling a strong bituminous and sul- fihurous odour. Exclusive of this pitch ake, Trinidad has several extinct vulcanic craters and other positive evidences of vol- canic agency. It is, however, happily ex- empt from the destructive scourge of hur- ricanes. Although discovered in 1498, Trinidad was not taken possession of by the Spa- niards until 1588, when a similar scene of extermination of the natives occurred as marked most of the other territories in the New World which fell under their power. Raleigh visited it in 1595 ; and the Frenrh took It in 1696, but soon after restored it to the Spaniards, who held it till it was taken by the English in 1797, and ceded to them by the peace of Amiens. TRINIDAD. TaisiDAn is the most southerly of the Windward Islands, and, next to Jamaica, the largest and most valuable of the West India islands belonjtinK to Great Britain. It lies immediately off the north-east coast ST. EUSTATIUS. St. Et'STATius, one of the West India islands, in the group called the Leeward islands, is about tifteen miles in circumfe- rence, and is, properly speaking, nuthin^ but a steep mountain, rising out of the sea in the form of a cme, the centre of which is apparently the crater of an ex- tinct volcano. Some Frenchmen, who had been driven from St. Christopher's, took refuge there in 1C;:9, and abandoned it soon after. The Dutch got possession of it in 1639. They were afterwards driven out by tlie English, and the latter by the French, to whom it was ceded by the treaty cf Breda ; notwithstanding which, Louis XIV. re- stored it to the Dutch, in whose possession it remained until the American war, when it was taken by the English, and retaken by the Dutch. During the French repub- lican war, it WRR again taken by the En- glish, with whom it now remains. THK island of TOBASO I« BBTOND tub E*N0B 0» tub qU"HtCAN«S. ^ fn aVIIIAMt BIIOOVMSII TBI ROnTH-WBSTBmif IHOKBI OF AMBKIC*. PfiO ^l^c treasure of K^istorp, Sec. TOBAOO. ToRAOo, on* of the Ylett India islands btlontinK to Great Itrltain, is about thirty- tilt nilltm in lungtb, and twelve in hrcadtn. In lAiiSi two hundred mna, from Flushing, landod th«rs to lay th« the foundation of a l>ulflh eolony i upon wliieh the ueighbour- ini Indiana Joined with the Spaniards to oppose an establisliment lliat gave um braife to both. V'hoever attempted to stop their fiir/i were murdered or laiien prison- ers i and tlie few wlio escaped into the woods soon dosfrted the island. In 1064, the Dutch sent a fresh colony to Tobajro, which was driven out, in IfliiS, by the Knitllsli, Tlie English were soon de- § rived of this conquest bv the French; ut Loula XIV., satfsfled with having con- quered It, reitored It to the Dutch. In the month of February, tS77> a French fleet, destined to eiece upon Tobago, fell in with the Dttteb fleet sent out to oppose this ex- ttedltion. They engaged in the road of the laland ^ and the courage displayed on both aldaa waa auch, that every ship was dis- maated, nor did the engngcment cease till twelve vessels were burnt. The French lost the fewest men i but the Dutch kept poBsessioB of the island. D'Kstrees was determined to take it, and landed there the aame year, in the month of December, at a time when there was no Meat to obstruct his progress. A bomb, thrown from his camp, blew up their pow- der magacine. whicfi proved a decinive strobe I and the Dutch, unable to resist, surrendered at discretion. The conquerors availed themielvca to the utmost of the rlglita ot war i not contented with racing the forllfleations, they burnt the plan- lationa, seised upon all the sidps in the harbour, and transported the inhabitants. Thia eonquest was secured to Franco by the peace that toon followed. The French, however, neglected this im- portant Island ( not a single man was sent thither for many years, and it fell into a very low condition. The English claimed a right to Tobago; their arms conflrmed their pretensions ; and it was ceded to England by the peace of 1763. It was taken by the French in I78I, and ceded to them by the peace of 1783. The English again took it in the French republican war, (1793), and it now remains with them. THE BAHAMAS. Thksb islands, the flrst which Colum- bus discovered in America, are about Ave hundred in number, and belonii; to Great Uiitain. St. Salvador, one of them, was tlie first land discovered by Columbus, on tlie 12th of October, UJ2. They are, in general, little more than rocks just above water. When first discovered, some were densely inhabited, and their natives were sent, by the Spaniards, to perish in the mines of St. Domingo. Not one of them had a single inhabitant in 1672, when the English landed a few men on that called New Providence, who were all destroyed by the Spaniards seven or eight years after. This disaster did not deter other English- men from settling there in 1690. They had built about 150 houses, when the French and Spaniords jointly attacked them in 1703, destrojred their plantations, and car- ried off their negroes. The pirates next got possession, and insulted every flag, till 1719, when England fitted out a sufiicient fo-— e to suhduj them. The greater part of thf n accepted the pardon held out upon SI nission, and served to increase the co- lony., which Woods Rogers brought with him from Britain. There are other islands in the West Indies, belonging to the English, Danes, Swedes, and Dutcii, but of so little coiiside- ration, that to give details of them would afford but little interest or real inorina tion to our readers. THE HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. Untiii the last nenturv It was believed that a great continent existed in the South- ern Ocean, to which the name of Terra AiutraliB wa* given t it being inferred that the difrHceiit points of land discovered to the south of the islands of Java and Cele- bes, and of (he Cape of Good Hope, afforded ainiile proof of such n theory. The disco- veries nf modern gcogrnplmrs, however, go to invalidate the hypothesis that there is any continent south of America. under the names of Auslrnlin (or Aus- tralasia) and Polynesia is comprehended a maritime division of the globe, in contradis- tinction to the older terrene divisions of ! Europe, Asia, Africa, and America ; being altogether a classification of islands, includ- ing no one continent under a general name, like the other divisions of the world, in which various kingdoms are circumscribed by one sliorc ; and so far it is an anomaly in geographical cinssitication. We shall first speak of tlie more important division, now known as tlia aRITlin POSSHSStOMH m AMEKICA AUE CKNEnAI.lT coin AWn STEniI.E. tua KOCKS AMD HKtra ur ^uirmALiA ari tub womb or tbb cokal iriict. ?!r^« 15(«torn of HustraUa. S67 a D 9 4 o U II H »i IS o A A u M ■ M H < m < m M M ■ M o e M n n H ■J u f< u M M « •a H o AUSTRALIA. Tnia includes the teini-continenUl mans of litud hitherto known as New Holland, and the itlands of New Zealund, New Ca- ledonia, New Hebrided, Queen Charlotte's Islands, Solomon's Archipelago, New Bri- tain, New Ireland, New Hanover, Admi- ralty Isles, and Papua or New Guinea. In no part of the globe can greater ex- tremes of barrenness and fertility occur than in the various islands comprehended in Australia. On the shores of New Hol- land, its most prominent feature, we find fruitful plains covered with verdure east- ward, and on the south and south-western coast nothing but naked hillocks of sand. This island, if such indeed it is to be called, almost etiual in site to the whole of con- tinental Europe, presents of itself an un- equalled and almost unexplored field for geological enquiry. The natives of Australia are, for the ma- jor part, of a negro character ; and nowhere is human nature found in a more depraved state. An enormous head, flat countenance, and long, slender extremities, mark their physical conformation, together with an acuteness of si^ht and hearing. Captain Cook's descriptmu of this race h'% oeen verified b" every succeeding observet. "The skin," 8a<^8 he, "is the colour of wood soot, or what is usually called chocolate colour. Their features are far from disagreeable: their noses are not flat, nor are their lips thick ; their teeth are white and even, and their hair naturally long and black ; it is, however, cropped short." It seems that a decidedly inferior variety of the human race is found in Australia, and has spread itself to a considerable distance north and east among the islands of Polynesia and the eastern archipelago. The Australian is puny and weak compared with the African nc^ro ; and his intellectual attainments are quite on as low a scale as hia physical powers. ______ NEW HOLL.\ND. Tbr Portuguese and Spaniards appear to have visited this region in the 16th century, Isut it was the Dutch who first made it known to Europe. In 1CU5 they coasted it along the western shore as far as 13" 45' of south latitude; the farthest point of land in tbeir map being called Cape Keer Weer, or Turn -again. In 1616 the west coasts were discovered by Dirk Hartag, commander of an outward-bound vessel from Holland to India; and in the year 1801 there was found, by some of the navi- gators by whom that coast was visited, a plate of tin, with an inscription and dates, in which it was mentioned that it had been left by him. In 1618, another part of the coast was discovered bv Zeachen, who gave it the name of Arnneim and Oieman ; though a different port from what afterwards receiv- ed the name of Van Uii'iiihu'* Land from Tusman. In 1619, Jnn Vau Edels gave his name to a southern part of New Holland ; and another part received the name of Leu- weu's Land. Peter Van Nuyis gave his name, in 1627, to the coast that commu. nicates with Leuwen; and another part bore the name of De Wit's Land. In IRJS, Peter Carpenter, a Dutchman, discovered the great Gulph of Carpentaria. In I6A7, Dampier, an Englishman, sailed from Ti- mor, and coasted the western part of New Uulland. In 1C99, he left England, with a a design to explore this country ; as the Dutch supprenscd whatever discoveries had been made by them. He nailed along the western coast of it, from 15 to is degrees of latitude. He then returned to Timor; from whence he sailed again ; examined the isles of Papua; coasted New Guinea; dis- covered the passage that bears his name, and also New Britain ; and sailed back to Timor along New Guinea. This is the^me Dampier who, hetwei-n the years l(i.«3 and 1691, sailed round the world, by changing his ships. Nutwilhvtanding the attempts of all these navigators, the eaniern part of this vast country was totally unknown till captain Cook made his voyages, and, by fully exploring that part of the roast, gave his country an undoubted title to the pos- session of it ; which it accordingly took, under the name of Naw South Walks, in 1787. Captain Cook having given a favourable account of this country, an act passed in parliament, in 1779, under the auspices of judge BlackstOne, lord Auckland, and Mr. Howard, to establish a colony in it, where the criminals condemned to be transported should be sent to pass their time of servi. tude. Some difficulties, however, prevented its being pat into execution till December, 1786, when orders were issued, by the king in council, for making a settlement on New Holland. The squadron appointed for put- ting the design iivexecution, assembled at the Motherbank on the 16th of May. 17H7. It consisted of the Sirius frigate, captain John Hunter; the Supply armed tender, lieutenant H. L. Ball ; three storeahips, the Golden Grove, Fishburn, and Unrrowdale, for carrying provisions and stores for two years ; and, lastly, six transports ; these were to carry the convicts, with a detachment of marines in each, pmuortioned to the nature of the service. On the arrival of governor Philip at the station, he hoisted his flag ou board the Sirius, as roiiimodore of the squadron. On the I3th of May they weighed anchor. The number of convicts was 778, of which 558 were m%n. On the 3rd of Janu- ary, 1788, the Supply armed tender came within sight of New Holland ; but the winds becoming variable, and a strong current THH MUBRAT RITBB IB MO* LBSB TBAM 1500 MILBS IN LBHOTH. r- * LAKIt AKB ABDRDAMT IH AUITEALIA, BUT RONI ABl TBBT LABOB. 91 H K B O O M a k e •4 ki M M > O m m M N H £ M H H a M b M m ■4 ■4 H •s B e X H H tt K M a> k 858 ^^f ^nasurp of l^istotQ, Sec. impeding (heir cnnne, prevented ihem from reaching Botany Bay before the IStli day of tl>e lame month. Governor Philip had no looner landed than he let about an examination of the country turruunding Botany Bay, which had been so strongly recommended by cap- tain Cook ai the moit eligible place for a lettlement. He found that neither the bav, nor the land about it, appeared favourable for a colony ; being in lome places entirely awampy ; in others, quite destitute of water. The governor, finding the diflScultiea that he bad to surmount, determined to examine the lands further on, and accordingly went, with several officers, in three boats, to Port Jackson, about three leagues distant from Botany Bay. Here they had the satisfac- tion to find one of the finest harbours in the world, where a thousand sail of the line might ride in perfect safety. A cove, whicli he called Sydney Cove, in honour of lord Sydney, and the country around it, he destined fo. the settlement: orders were therefore imn. Valei, commences at Cape York, in lU". Hif. 8. lat., and terminates at Wilson's Promon- tory in Bass's strait, in SO" Of, including an extent of 700 leagues. A chain of moun- tains appears to run parallel to this coast, through its whole length, whose bases are (torn 10 to 30 leagues rrom the sea. Until of late years all attempts to pass this natu- ral barrier have been unsuccessful. It lias, however, at last been overcome ; and, in- stead of the sandy deserts or the inland seas with which conjecture had occupied the interior, the discovery of beautiful mea- dows, watered by considerable rivers and by chains of ponds, has given to the colo- nists new prospects of extention and riches. The coasts towards the south are in gene- ral elevated and covered with lofty trees. Towards the north they are lower, bordered with mangrove swamps, and lined with a labyrinth of islets and coral reefs. The Blue Mountains, which rise behind the seat of the colony, are a mixture of primitive and secondary rocks. Only the south-east part, with compara- tively small sections in the west and south, and an iiiconiilUerable tract in tlie north, near Port EMinglon, have been thoroughly explored. Some useful expeditious have been conducted by Mr. Eyre, Governor Grey, Dr. Leichardt, and Sir T. Mitchell; but much of the interior is still unknown, and some features of its best known regions can only be sketched. The following are the present settlements, with the date of tlieir eslablishnieiit :— The British settle- ment of New South Wales, of which Sydney is the capital, was made In 1788. Western Australia, or Swan River, in 1839; Sonih Australia, of which Adelaide is the ciidial. In 1834. Anotralia Telix, or Port Philip, chief town Melbourne, establiHJied in 1837, Is a dependency of New South Wales. North Australia was colonised in 1838. Australind on the western roast, about eighty miles south of Swan River, was established in 1841. The government, after passing through the usual phases, is now by a recent act of parliament expanded in all the setllenieiils into a coniiiitution. The wealth of Australia consists mainly in its flocks, which produce the finest wool in the world ; and pasture is so abundant, that sheep may be reared by all who laUe the trouble to attend to them. Tlie fish- eries too, tliou!;h heretnrorv neglected, Id B H m bcf n > ravourile Iknil of eniigralton for tlie ^rltlih populMlon : but in extraordinary im|M'luilia4b«!t>n|{lvi-n toeintKratloii tliltlier by the recent dlicovery of the viild betia, which inu«l sreally liiltiience the iiiiure cha- racter of Aumraliaii iiutiitlry and the local (lliiribuiloii o( ItH Inhabitant*. We tubjoln a brief account of thin lutereatlng dMbovery. On the and of May, I8il, the rlllieni uf Sydney were iiartlcd with the announcement that gold had been diacovercd in a native ■late within the Colonial Territory. Mr. Hargreaven, a renident of Brlnhane Waier, who hid recently returned from Calirornla, •truck with the Minllarlty of the geological formation, felt persiiiKled that tTiere mukt be gold III levcral dJHtrict* of the colony, and on limlUuting a scarcli lil»cX|iec(atioiiii were realised. The locality in which llic flrst dlwovery of gold wa« made by Mr. Hargreavet, wa« In the iiri|;lihourh»od of Summerhill Creek, thirty miles from Ba- thurtt, (or about MO troni Sydney). A iipot on the bank* of Suninierhill Creek noon acquired, and hai retained, the attrac- tive name of Opliir. Uut tlie Uphir dig- glnis were ihortly iur)ia»aed in amount of Sroduce by Ihoiie of 1 nron, a river wliicli ows Into the rljcht bank of Ihe Macquarle, Meroo Creek, further northward, anotlier of the tilea of aurlfernua wealth, belonv* to the basin of the lanie river, the whole valley of which, from the neighbourhood of Balhurat downward*, appear* to poweu on either hand abundaul auppllet of the glittering treaiure. 1'lie din iwoveriei to which we have been referring, a* welt as other* that shortly enaued, were made in iocaliliea within Ihe limit* of the New South Wale* territory. But it wa* «oon aicertained that the aurl- feroiu deposit* of the Auitrallan *oll were not limited to that colony. Gold llrld* that surpassed thoseof New bouih Wales In richness of yield, were found to 'exist In the neighbouring provinces of Victoria, and til places more accessible from the niarilime districts. Early in the month of September, gold was found at a place called Ballaral, fortv miles distant from Geeloiig (on Port Philip), and within a few days after at Mount Alexander, seventy wiles distant from Melbourne. The latter locality has proved by far the ricliest of the Australian gold Aelds hitherto worked, and has attracted by much the greater number of diggers. The workings at Ballaral and Mount Alexander, rapidly proved so suc- cessful, as completely to throw into shade the diggings that had been already com- menced at Anderson's Creek, and other places nearer to Melbourne. Within a year from the date of that announcement, gold to a value exceeding four millions sterling had been shipiH-d to England, from the Australian colonies ; and upward* of thirty thousand digger* were eagerly employed in the search after the precious metal in a single locality of the 'v'Jcly ex- tended gold fields belonging to these por- tion* of the soiilhcrii hemisphere. It is impossible lo predict what conse- 3uences may result from this important iscovery ; but a glance at wliat bus been done during Ihe last twenty years may serve to indicate the future progress of the coun- try. Within this short period lh« map of New Holland ha* crtduailv been Ulled up: lh« ba)* and headlands of the sca-boarJ have been siict'e4slvely settled j river after river ha* received eiiterpritliig cullivalors on it* banks; »(eani tiavi^atlnn lias uuited Ihe bri*tling points of louo mllesof ci>»kl. whilst an average of auo mile* along that coast has been subdued to pasturage or Ihe plough. The oiarU of trade have been supplied with wool, tallow, hnriis, hidei, ornamental and hard wooils, IrcnaiU and co|ii>er; so that Eiixland, the emporium of trade, is both cloilied, adorned, and forll- lied with Ihe produce of this anllpecting the issues of this adventure, and tlie New Zealand Company eiiloyed a large share of the public favour. It undertook to transplant English society in ail its ranii- flcatioiis lo the further side of the globe ; and sent out in the same expedition, judges, a bishop, clergy, persons who by purchase had become landed proprietors, artiaans, peasants, medlca^ men, and printers. But eitlier because due precautions were not taken in the selection of colonists, or that AUSTRALIA BEYOND THB TROPICS IS HIGHLY PAVOURABLK TO HEALTH. CANHItALISM II ■TILL ra^CTIIRD ih iomb rA^ts Of rOLTN»I«. M 860 ^^c ^reasin; o( 1$(stort>, ^c. Ilie cnlnnloli ilieniM'lvei wrni out with ex- ■fKfriited Idrai nf the advaiiiairM vecured to them, llie ri-tiilt fell aliort of irciieral ex- pectation. Qiiarrul* bitwrvii tliu tctllert and the natlvei broke out, and the ly^leni of local gfnvernnient, wlicn put to the te»t, Hiia found not to tiillil the puriioi>«a for wliloli it had been conrorled. The ffriev- ani-ft of the native* ai Irnuth illniulali'd them Into a rorniidable Iniiirrectlon, under their rhicf Hekl ; but ilnce Ita anppreulon In 1848 iranc(ulllity ha* prevailed. Insplteofail hindrance*, however, lorletjr has by dcfcree* widened it* bail* In New Zea- land. The first body of emlRrantH, who ar- rived there in 1830, founded the aeltlenienlii of Wellington and Nelion on opposite shore* of Cook'* Straits. They have been followed by different swarms at dilTeiviil times, two 91 which make rcligloua prlqciplet, and the rlirhl In civil afTairiof (plf-irovernnieni, Hit' basl* of Iheir »o«'ial orifanliialloii. At a place called Otago, about 400 mile* from \>ei- lliiKton, a *etlleinenl of Scotchmen, iiicin- her* nf^ the Free Church of Scoliniid, iia* •truck root. And furtlier north, at Can- terbury, the Chnrcli of Enffland has set tip her ktandard under the auspices of tlieCnn- terbury Associallon, of whi<°h the Arch bishop of Canterbury Is tx offfio Ihe pre- sident. It I* satisfactory to find Ihiit Hie nallvea, reclaimed from their bariiarous habits, and paciAed llioii|{h not subdued by a wise conciliation rsllier llian bv violence, are rapldiv acquiring the faith and Induxirial habits of the colonists, with wlioni lliey will- inifly coalesce. In 1«S9 New Zealand re- ceived from Ihe Rriliah government a cnn- stltiitinii modelled on that of the Australian settlenientii POLYNESIA. Tuts name, a* we nave already obserr- ed, ia given by modern geogranliera to va- rious groups of islands in the Great Pacific Ocean, lying east of the Asiatic islands and Australia, and on both aides the equator; stretching through an extent of about 6100 miles from north to south, and 3600 from east to west. Every thing bespeaks their submarine creation, and in many are po- sitive evidence* of volcanic agency. Tliey are sometimes divided into Northern and Southern Polynesia, and classed in the fol- lowing groups : — Pelew Islands ; Carolines ; Ladrones ; Sandwich Islands ; Friendly Is- lands; Gallapiigos ; Admiralty Isles ; Mew Ireland; New Britain; and New Hanover; Solomon's Islands; New Hebrides and New Caledonia ; Queen Charlotte's Islands ; Na- vigators' Islands; Socictv Islands; Mar- quesas ; Pitcairn Island sc. Of these we shall only mention a few; as they can hardly be said to come within the acope of a work professedly historical; though their entire omission might be regarded as a defect. LADRONES, OR MARIANNE ISLANDS, Tbn Ladrones area duster of islands be- longing to Spain, lying in the North Pacitic Ocean, between the 12th and Slst degrees of north latitude, and about the l-i5th degree of east longitude. They were dis- covered by Magellan, who gave them the name of Ladrone I»land», or the lalandt of 'Shitvtt, from the thievish disposition of the inhabitants. At the time of this discovery, the natives were totally ignorant of any other country than their own, and, aa it ia said, were actually unacquainted with the element of fire, till Magellan, provoked by their repeated thefts, burned one of their Tillages. At the latter end of the 17th century thev obtained the name of the Marianne Islands, from the queen of Spain, FRIENDLY ISLANDS. Tub Friendly Islands are a group or cluster of islands said to be upwards of one hundred in number, in the Southern Paci- fic Ocean. They received their nanif from the celebrated captain James Cook, in the year 1773, in consideration of the friendship which appeared to subsist among the in- habitants, and from their courteous beha- viouito atraiigera. The chief islands are rni; practics or tattooiko thr pacb and bodt obnkrallt prbvails. Mary Ann of Auatrla, mother of Charles II., at whose expense missionaries were sent thither to propagate the Christian faitli. Though plunged in the deepest ignorance, and destitute of every thing valued by the rest of mankind, no nation ever shewed more presumption, or a greater conceit o/ themselves, than these islanders ; for, to use the words of an old voyager, they look- ed on themselvei- as the only sensible and polished people in the world. { As Japan lies within six or seven days sail of tnem, some have been induced td believe that the first inhahitauts came from that empire: but, from the greater resem- blance to the iaiiabitants of the Philippine Islands than to the Japanese, it is more probable that they came from the former. Coaimodore Anaon visited the Ladrones in 17-12, and describes Tirrian, one of the group, as abounding with every thiag ne- cessary to human subsistence, and pre- \ aenting at the same time a pleasant and delightful appearance, where hill and val- ley, rich verdure, and spreading trees form- ed a happy intermixture. Subsequent navi- gators, however, found the island to have been deserted, and become an uninhabit- able wilderness. The natives of the La- drones are tall, robust, and active, manag- ing their canoes with admirable adroitness. Guajan is the largest island in the group, and the population consists of settlers from Mexico and the Philippine Islands. iC eJ an by TO •D CO wl of all ■a ho 0< 1 ■I*. ferniiiKiil, (lit; III. At a |ila«'u M from Wei- 'liiiicn, iiit'in- it-ollniid, lis* irtli. at Can- nd fiait tf I up Kaor IlieCuii- h thr Ari'h tt'-io Ihe pre- hiid lliitl llie !lr barbarriua It iiibdufd bjr n bv violence, •ml liKlu! km- pfwvad aiaca CooPa Uma. SOCIETY ISLANDS. Taa Society lalands, in the Paciflc Ocean, are eight in number ; vis., Otabeite, Hua- heiae, Ulitea, Otaha, Bolabola, Mau/owa, Toobaee, and Tabooyamanoo. They are dtaated between the latitude of 16« W and 16* 65' south, and between the longi- tada of ISO" sr and 162o weat. The peo- ple^ relifl^on, language, cnatoms and man- neta, aoil, and productiona, are nearly the sanM aa at Otaheite, of which we ahall •peak. Otaheite waa diacovered by captain Wal- l\i in 1767, who called it King George the Third's Island. Bougainvilw, a French chrctiiunavigator, nest arrived at it in 1768^ and staid ten daya. Captain Cook, in the Bndeavour, next visited it in 1769, i; com- paay with Mr. Banks, (afterwarda air Jo- aeph Bauka,) Dr. Solander, and other learn- ea men, to obaerve the transit of Venus, and ataid three moaths; and it waa visited by captain Cook in hia two aucceeding voyagea; since which time the Spaniards, and other Europeans, have called there. It coaaiaia of two peninsulas, great part of which ia covered with woeda, consiating of bread-fruit trees, palms, cocoa-nuts, and all tropical vegetation. The people of thia and the aeigbbouring ialanda, are the most honeat and civilised of aa'y in the PaciBe Oecaa ; bat it appears certaia that the ia- 8ANDW1CH ISLANDS. Taa Saadwi«h Iaiaada, ia tha Mortli Vft. cMe Oeeaa, coaaist of alevaa ia aambar. lliey are called, by the aativaa, Owhvkae, Mowee, Baaai, Moiotoi. Takoorowa, Waa- koa, Alooi, Neehaehaow, Otahowa, Mat*- tinae, aad Takoora ; all iakabliad, oaeaat the two last. They were diaeava i ad ar caplaia Cook in 1777 aad 1771*. GoaU aad Baropeaa aeeda waia left by the Bagiiah at their departure tha iiat time t but the poascssioa of tlie goaia aooa gave rise to a eoutest hetweea two die- irieta, ia which the breed waa ealiraly de- airoved. The iahabiiant* are undoubtedly of the aama race a* those that passasa the islaads south of tha equator ; aad ia their persona aad manner, approaah aearer to the New Zealanders than to their leaa die- taat neighboura, eiiber of the Society or Friendly Islands. Tattooing tha body ia practised by the whole of them. As these islanda are not united under one government, wars are frequent auMag them. The aama aysiem of sabordiaatioa prevails here aa at the other iaiaada, the aame absolute authority oa the part of tha chiefs and the saasa aureaiatiag aahmia- aion oa thr pait of Ike peoale. The go- vernment is monarchal, ana hereditary. Owh^hee, the easternmoat and largeal of these islands, was diseoverad by eaplaia Cook on the SOth of November, 1778, oa hia return from hia voyage northward. Having circumnavigated the ialaad, and anchored in a bay, called Karakakooa, he found great alteration in tha conduct of the natives, and a general dispositioB to theft; and it appeared evident that the common people were encouraged by their chiefs, who shared the booty with them. Still, however, no hoaiilities ware com- menced. The greatest bouours wen paid to the commander; and, on hia going ashore, he was received with caramoaiea little short of adoratioa. A vast quaatity of hogs, and other proviaioas, were pao« cured for the ships ; and oa the 4th of ft- bruary, 1799, they Itft the ialaad, aot with* out most maKDiflcrnt presents from tha chiefs, and such as they nad never meeived in any part of the world. Unluckily, they encountered a storm on the 6th and 7th of the aame month, durinit which the Besota* lion sprung the head of her fore-mast ia such a manner, that they were obliged ta return to Karakakooa bay to have it ra- paired. On the 13th, one of the nativaa being detected iu stealing the tonga from the armourer's forge iu the INsco«ery, waa dismissed with a pretty sever* itoagingt this had but little effect ; for. ia the af- ternoon of the same day. another hav- ing anatched up the tongs and a chisel, jumped overboard with them, aad swoaa for the shore, and having got oa baaid a caaoe, escaped. These tools were sooa after returned, through the means of Pa- taa aafi.1. or taa aaTiTaa la naaaaiaa Taaia cawoas is woa aaarpt. [4 W j tiB rorgLATioR or whi aAimwieH islaum m latiiiAffBS At UOJUtO. 869 f^U ^nuartf of IftiMorv, trc. nab, ■ ehitf. Bat eaptain Cook wh not Mtiillcd with the rteovery of the iioIcd Kooda oiilf ; ha inaialed upon having tha chief, or IM oanoa which carried him, by way of rapriaal. Aa tha oAear waa pre- paring to launch tha canoe into the water, ha waa interrnpted by Paraah, who in- elated that it waa hie property, and ha aboaM not take It away. Tbia bronihi on hoatilitlea. The Indiana atueked the eail- Ota wttb atonee. and aoon dro«a them to thair boata. Tbay then beian to break in piaeaa tha pinnace, after having taken every thine out of her that waa looae. Before the Bngltab reached the thip, Pareah over- took them in a canoe, and delivered tlie midahipman'a cap, which had been taken Afom him in tha acafle. He ioined noaea with them, in token of nriendeliiu ; and de- aired to know whether captain Cook would kill him on account of what had happened. They aeanred him he would not ; and made aina of reconciliation on their part. On tbia ha left them, and paddled over to the town of Kavaroah, and that waa the laat time he waa aeen by tlie Engliah. Next day it waa found that the large cut- ter of the Diicovery had been carried off in the night timet on which captain Cook ordered the launch, and email cutter, to go under the command of the aecond lieu- tenant, and to lie off the eaat point of the bay, in order to intercept all the canoea that might attempt to get out, and, if ne- ceaaary, to Are upon them. The third lieu- tenant of the Reiolution waa diapatched to the weatem part of the bay on the aame aervice. Captain Cook now formed the re- aolntion of going in peraon to aeiae the king himaelr in nia capital of Kavaroah: with thia view he left the ahip about aeven o'clock in the moruing of Sunday, tha 14th of February, attended by the lieutenant of marinea, a aeijeant, a corporal, and aeven privatea. The crew of the pinnace, under the command of Mr. Roberta, were alao armed i and aa they rowed aahure, the cap- tain ordered the launch to leave her atation at the oppoiite point of the Bay, in order to aatiat hie own boat. Having landed with the marinea at the npper end of the town, the Indiana Hocked round him, and prostrated themtelvea before him. The king'a aona waited on the captain aa aoon aa he aent for them, and bjr their mean* he waa introduced to the king, who rendily eonaented to go on board; out in a little time the nativea began to arm themtelvea with long apeara, cluba, and daggera. An old nrieat now appeared with a cocoa-nut in Ilia hand, whicn he held out aa a nreient to captain Cook, ainging all the while, with a view to divert the attention of the cap- tain anA hie people from obaerving the motiona of the Indiana, who were bow every where putting on their thick mata which they nae aa defenaive armour. Cap- tuin Cook beginning to think hie aitua- tioB dangeroua, ordered the lieutenant of marinea to inarch towarda the ahore, aa he himaeif did, having all tha while hold of the king'a hand, who varr readily aceompa- nied htm, attended bv nia wife, two aona, and aeveral chicft. The Indiana made a laoa for them to paaa; and the diataaea ther had to go waa only about Afty or aixly Saraai while the boata lay at no mora tkim va or aix yards firom the land. Tha king'a youngeat eon, Keowa, went on board tha pinnae* without haaitation i and Tarraboo, the king, waa about to follow, when hia wife threw bci arma about hia neck, and. with tha aaaiatance of two chiefb, forced him to tit down. Tha captain flnding that he could not take the king along with Urn without a great deal of bloodsbad, waa on the point of giving ordara for hia people to re-embark, when one of the Indiana throw a atone at him. Thia inault waa returned by tha captain, who had a double-barrelled gun, bv a discharge of email shot ttom one of the barrela. Tbia h|id little effect, aa the man had a thick mat before him ■, and aa he now brandiihed hia spear, the captain knocked him down with hia musket. The king's son still remained in the pinnaea i and the detention of him would have been a great check upon the Indiana; but Mr. Roberts, who liaa the command of the pin- nace, set him on shore, at hia reiiueat, aoon after the first Are. Another Indian being observed by the captain to be brandishing his spear at him, lie lired at him, but miss- ing, allied one close by bis side ; upon which the aeijeant, observing that he had missed the man he aimed at, received or- ders to Are also, which he did, and killed him on the spot. Captain Cook now called to the people in the ooata to come nearer, to receive the marinea. This order waa obeyed by Mr Roberts ; but the lieutenant who commanded the launch, inatead of coming nearer, put off to a greater die- tance, and by his conduct deprived the captain of the only chance he ha^ for hia life. Captain Cook waa now observed mak- ing for the pinnace. An Indian waa aeen to follow him, who struck him on the back of the head with a club. The captain stag- gered a few paces, and then tell on hia band and one knee, and dropped his mus- ket. Before h^ could recover himself, ano< ther Indian stabbed him with a dagger in the neck, and he fell into the water; when a savage struck him with a club, which pro- bably put an end to his life. Thejr hauled hia body on the rocks, and used it in the moat barbarouB manner. The chief who Arat struck him with the club, was named Kari> mana Raha ; and he who stabbed him with the dagger, waa called Nooah. Owing to the barbaroua dispoailion of tha Indians, it waa found impoaaible to recover captain Cook'a body i however, by dint of threats and negotiation, aome parte were , procured, by which meana the navigatora were enabled to perform the last oScea to their much reapected commander. Theae being put into a eoflin,and the aervice read over them, were committed to the deep, « ith the uaual hononra, on tha 31at of Feb- ruary, 17791. Tnaaa asm ma»t laLAMna i« aobTiinatA tbt UMTiairan »t nuaoriAiia. I 3 8 N H 4 M 4 H M s M I M 4 U M M 4 o 4 u o B O « ■I H WUfflMR COMTi QT^i %i«torv of IctUnV. MS ICELAND. lOBlARB li a Urf • UUnd in the nnrthern Srt of the AtUalic Ucran, hi-iwren the rd and tbt 67th degree* of north lati- tuda, and between the lAth and itard d«- greaa of we*t lungituda from Lundun. It la of a vrry irregular ihape, and contalna about SA.UUO iiihabiianti. At what lima the iaiand of Icfland waa flrst peopled i« uncertain. Tha lealand ehroDicle* go no farther back than tha ar- rival of the Norwegian*! about the *ear Ml, when Naddodr, a pirate, waa driven on tlie cuait. In 804, Oarder Buafaraon, a Bwcde, encouraged by tlie account given by Naddodr, went in aearch of it, aailcd round it, and save it the name of Oarder- aiiolmer, or (tarder'i Itland. Having re- mained in Ireland during the winter, be returned in the apring to Norway, where be deacribed the newdiacovered iaiand aa a pleaaant, well-wonded country. Thi* ex- cited a deaire in Floke, another Swede, re- puted the beat navigator of hia time, to undertake a voyage thither. Floke ataid the whole winter in the iaiand, and, be- cauaa be found great qiiantiiiea of floating ice on the north aide, he called it Iceland, which name it liaa ever aince retained. In 874, Ingolfr, and hia friend l.irfr. ea- tabliahed a colony : and in aixtr year* the whole iaiand waa inhabited. The tyranny of Harold, king of Norway, contributed not a little to the population of Iceland. Be- aide* the Norwcgiana, new coloniea arrived firom diiferent nationa. In 9i2fl the? choae a chief; but hi* power* were inconaiderable, and the Icelander* began to wage war againat each other. They remained, however, free from a fo- reign yoke till 1361, when they became aabjeet to the Norwegian*. Afterwarda Iceland, together with Norway, became •nbject to Denmark. Iceland i* famoua for the volcanoe* with which it abound*, appearing, indeed, to owe ita esiatence to *ubmarine volcanic agenoy, and to have been upheaved at in- terfal* from the bottom of the eea. Tract* of lava traveraa the iaiand and almoat in every direction; beaide* which the coun- try abounda with other mineral maaaea in- dicative of an igneoua origin. The buna- ing mountain*, *o dreadful in their effect, aeldom begin to throw out Are without giving warning. A rabterraneoua noise preeeoe* the eruption for eeveral day*, with a roaring and cracking in the place from whence the ftro ia about to burai forth. The immediate aign i* the bunting of the maaa of ice, or snow, which cover* the mountain, with a dreadful noiae. The flame* then iaaue forth, and atonea,.aahe8, Ac. are thrown out to vaat diataneea. Eg- bert Olaaaen relatea, that, in the eruption of Kattlegia, in 17&6. a atone weighing 390 lbs., waa thrown to the diatance of twenty- four Engliah mile*. Beaidea more than thirty volcanle aou- taina, there eiiaia an imroenaa number of email eouea aud cratera, f^om which aireama of melted aubiiance* have been poured forth over the surrounding ntgiona. Twenty-three eruption* of Ueela are re- corded aince the occupation of the iaiand by European* i the ttr*i of whieh oeeurred in 1U04. But to enumerate the ravage* of the many volcanoea with which Iceland abounda, would greatly eaeeed our limita. It will be auffioient to give an account oi that which happened m I7f4;i, aud which, from ita violence, aeem* to have been un- paralleled in hiiiory. It* flrat aign* were observed on the flr*t of June, by a trembling of the earth in the wealem part of the province of Skapter- flail: it increaaed gradually till tha 1 1th, and became at laat *o great, that the inha- bitnnt* i|uitted their bou*ea, aud lay at night in tenta on thn ground. A conti- nual smoke, or steam, was perceived rising out of the earth iu the northern and unin- habited parts of the country. Three fln spouts, as they were called, broke out in different places ; one iu Ulfarsdal, a little to the east of the river 8kapta; the other two were a little to the westward of the river Ilverflsfliut. The three Are spouts, or streams of lava, united in one, after having risen a considerable height in tha air, arrived at last at such an amaiing alti- tude aa to Im seen at tlie distance of ap» wards of 300 miles; the whole country, for double that distance, being enveloped in the densest smoke and steam, while the atmosphero was filled with sand, brinalone, and ashes, in such a manner aa to oecaaion continual darknraa. Considerable dalbaga waa done by the pumice stone, whieh frU red-hot in great quantities. Along with these, a tenacious substance, like piteb, fell ia abundance. This shower having oontU nued for three daya, the flra became very visible, and at last arrived at the amaainc height already mentioned. Bometimea it appeared in a continual stream, at othera in flashes, with a perpetual noisa like tliun* der, which lasted the whole summer. Tha obscurity occasioned by thi* eitraordiiary eruption, •ceiu* to have reached aa Car aa Great Britain ; for, during the whole aum* mer of 17i)3,a base or duUneaa appeared to darken the atiuoapliero. The whole extent of ground covered by the lava, was computed to he ninety milea lona, bv forty- two in breadth; the deptk of tne lava being from sisteen to twenty fathoms. Twelve riveia wero dried npb twenty-one villagea were destroyed, ana 334 persona lost their Uvea. After thia eruption, two new islanda were thrown up in the aea ; one of about three miles in ciroumfennce, and about a mile in height, at the distance of 100 miles south- west from Iceland, in 100 fatboma water. raw MBTSLS Aaa Ma* with, but tub auLrnoa la inazaAraTiaLB. ^^ TBI BXrOBtl Of •BmBRLAMB ABB WBAI.B OIIi. BBAl, ABB BBAB-BBIBB. 864 ^'^t ^rcasnttt o{ llfstotQ, (cc. The other lay to the vorth-weat, betweea leeland and Greenland. Both theae ialanda aubaequently disappean 4. Iceland aboanda alio vith hot ani boil- ing springs, called gepter$, some of vrhieh throw the water into the air to the sur- prising height of from 200 to 300 feet. These are, indeed, the roost remarkable phenomena in Iceland. The great geyser, or princiiMU Tovntain of this kind, rises from a tube or funnel, seventy-eight feet in verpendicular dep^h, and from eight to ten feet in diameter ai iue bottom, but gridually widening till it terminates in a ea^m that time all correspondence was cnt off, and all knowledge of Greenland buried in oblivion. It is supposed that a nation called Bchrel- lings, whose descendants still inhabit the western part, got the better of the settlers, and exterminated them. All that can be learned from the most authentic records is, that Greenland was divided into two dis- tricts, ealled West Bygd, and East Bygd; that the western division contained four parishes, and 100 villages ; »nd the eastern district was' still more flourishing. This colony, in aBcient times, certainly compre- hended twelve ext'.'Dsive parishes, one hun- dred and ninety villages, a bishop's see, and two monasteries. Manv attempts have been made to re-discover the east country, without effect, by the Danes and the £ng- lisb. The land has been seen, but the ice has always prevented any approach to the shore. The Greenland Company at Bergen, in Norway, transported a colony to the west coast; and in 1712, the Bev. Hans Egede, and others, endeavoured to reach the east- ern district by coasting, but were obliged to return, owing to continual storms. That part of West Greenland which is now settled by the Danes and Norwegians, lies between the IMth and 68th degrees of north latitude ; and thus far, it is said, the climate is temperate. To the northward of the 68tk degree, the cold is orodigiously intense; and towards the end of August all the eoaat is covered with ice, which never thawa till April or May, and some- times June. Thunder and lightning rarely happen ; bat the aurora borealis is ^trj frrauent and splendidly luminous. "The Greenlanders are constantly employ- ed either in fishing or hunting ; at sea they pursue the whales, morses, seals, fish, ana sea fowl ; and on shore they hunt the rein- deer. *BB BNB. TBaBTATION IS IIMITKB tO MOSS, VVnoI, ABB A VBW STDBTBD TBBBS. London : A. and G. A. Spottibwooob, New-«tre«t>Square. , ■ — 1 [ M R Uea m§ ^ •s M -riff. e ^n ktet, 1 «1- 1 ith« »nti> rao- iluid hU- lee- from turyj trie*, ently )re M f the ri«ely roing icient eraal} I who niong led by calti- M « a e s » a e ■ « A m 4 e •I e r hun- 's see, have >untry, Eng- the ice to the ;en, in le wcit le eaat- ibliged I. Iiieh it CKiant, [feet of lid, the thward ;ioaaIy AuKoat which aome- nurely to wry I imploy> ■ea they •b, and beicin- M b a M m f e M ■ M O B M 'I m N H J I