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'I 
 
 hhSij tuu '^iSr^5^^''4^^ 
 
 /ENGl'lSlf GRAMMAR 
 
 FOR SCHOOLS, 
 
 / 
 
 WITH 
 
 OutliiifH of I lit rodiietoi-y I -iv-ssoiiw lor Orul 'l.'eaoliiiis 
 
 Li C'oiiiplo(f* S.>'>'toi»i of ( J i-jidiiLited KxwrciHosi in 
 
 I^^tyl»l<)l<>^.^', Aiialywix ai»«l Syntax; ami 
 
 an Ai)pen<lix oonfaininjj: txix 
 
 Historical JSlcoti^li of tlie / 
 
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 liiln^liisli. X^anj^iiajxc 
 
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 . ♦> 
 
 SEOOisriD 33r>iTioisr. 
 
 PUEHCUIBKI) HY IWV. COUNCIL OK PrrMJO Tn.STKUCTION roil USK 
 IN THE PUULIO SCHOOLH OF NoVA ScOTIA. 
 
 I 
 
 irALlFAX, N. S. : 
 
 A. vSc W. ]VIACIvINI.AY, 
 
 ruiiM.su Kus. 
 1894. 
 
"""^x^yfiHir^. 
 
 -^«6M%,*i^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 /I 
 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 l: 
 
 
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 •«vv\ 
 
 
 wintered, according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the year 1883, 
 By a. & W. Mackinlay, >^ 
 
 In the office of the Minister of Agriculture, at Ottawa. 
 
 ^ , ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 i. 
 
 
 
 rRIKTfcr UV TUB NOVA SCOTIA PRINTINA CO., ItALIPAX. 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
\ 
 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 
 \, » 
 
 'J 
 
 >fi 
 
 ir 1883, V»- 
 
 :»4 
 
 The present work has no higher aim than to prove a service- 
 able manual for school use, and thus fulfil the promise of its 
 title. In its pnjparation, grannnar has Ijeen recognized as a 
 science, which, while capable of important practical api)lication8, 
 has als(» a distinctive educational valu«. On cither side of this 
 concej)tion of gramnuvr, are two views somewhat jn-evalent, but 
 each involving, it is believed, a certain amomit of ern»r. One 
 of them finds expression in the popular definition of grammar 
 as the science v)hich teaches hmv to apeak and write eorrertly. 
 This limitation of the purjioses of grammatical study to purely 
 practical ends is open to two prime objections. In the first 
 place it entirely fails to recognize the educational impor*^ nee of 
 the scientific .studj' of language. That study nmst have a 
 place, for its otvn sake, in all well regulated systems of mental 
 training, and the (In^t and most natural field for its prosecution 
 is undoubtedly the native speech of the pupils themselves. 
 Secondly, the mere study of the i>rinci[)les of grammar can 
 never impart ability to speak and write coriectly. That ability 
 comes largely from fortvmato ass(»ciations, but chiefly from one's 
 being habituated to the right use of words by a careful drill, 
 early begun and long continued, — a drill involving constant 
 correction of wrong expression's, the observant imitation of 
 accurate models, and assiduous practice in composition, under 
 proper guidance. 
 
 As a re-action from the theory that the only object of l*'nglish 
 grannnar is to teach the correct use of English, it is sometinies 
 contended that the study of its principles lias no practical bearing 
 or utility wliatever. This is to swing to the opposite pole of 
 error. While it would be im{)ossible for an incorrect speaker 
 to transfonn himself int(» a correct one by a theoretical invcHti- 
 gation of the laws (»f language, it is still true that efforts at 
 improvement in liabits of speech may be greatly furthered by 
 such iuventigation, to say nothing of the fact that grammar, 
 
 l??/^ 
 
'» 
 
 ..r •»...■«,.•, 
 
 IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 H 
 
 as the. register of ai)proved usage, furnishes the criteria by 
 which wc can at all times test the accuracy of our expressions. 
 
 Economic reasons, if no other, rendering it desirable to 
 provide a text-book which will serve a pujiil in passing through 
 all the grades of our schools, most matter involving the 
 discussion of disi)uted usages, minute distinctions, pec\iliar 
 forms and idiom^vtic exi>ref;sions, has been arranged in Notes, 
 whi< can be p.issed over by jujiior pupils without inc<m'- 
 venience, to be taken uj) in connection with subsequent reviews. 
 In respect to the Krujic of the work, the aim has been to draw 
 the line as accui-ately as po.ssiljle between too innrh and too 
 little. While no effort has been made to produce a iihilological 
 treatise, it is believed that the grammatical principles and 
 pecidiarities of our language are treated with as great fulness 
 as is desirable within the limits of ordinary common and liigh 
 school work. The subject of analysis, as introductory to. and 
 ex-planatory of, the rules of syntax proper, is unfolded and 
 illustrated as fully as in any of the popular treatises on that 
 special depai'tment of grammar. 
 
 In regard to the mode of treatment adopted, the work 
 has l)eon prepared in sympathy with modern tendencies 
 towards freeing English giaunnar from traditional shackles 
 inherited from the complicat A inflections of the classical 
 languages, as well as towards tlie simplification of grammatical 
 fornmhe in general. Thus the purely hyiioLhetica] distinction 
 of person, needlessly ascril^ed to nouns, is dropped, (iender is 
 put upon the simplest possible basis, and as .an attribute of 
 nouns is recognized ns almost as ideal as person. The sub- 
 junctive mood is held to remain in ordinary verbs only wiiere 
 it clearly retains its distinctive characteristic, viz., a commcm 
 form for the three pcrsoiis of the singular ; whi^e the syntax 
 of the inHnitive, as a living and active part of the language, is 
 th<)Ught worthy of fuller treatment than it s(jmetimes receives. 
 
 The exercises have been carefully selected, and are arranged 
 upoh a plan, which, with proper oversight on the part of the 
 teacher, will aid in the attainment of an intelligent mastery of 
 the whole subject. 
 
 1. 
 the 
 
 stiuli 
 intnl 
 Tlu'.> 
 gnu 1 1 
 outbl 
 stud] 
 2. 
 
 havci 
 ni: nl 
 disci 
 lean 
 
 • > 
 
 •.♦♦•>'-.-:, 
 
 
•m 
 
 1 
 
 criteria by 
 vpressions. 
 esirable to 
 Jig thrcMigh 
 •'Iving the 
 I'oculiar 
 Mil IVotcs, 
 *'it incon- 
 it reviews. 
 11 to draw 
 '''' .111(1 too 
 hilological 
 ^jples and 
 •it fulness 
 •ind high 
 y to. and 
 ''<^led and 
 s on that 
 
 'he work 
 Rudencies 
 
 shackles 
 
 classical 
 mmatical 
 •stinction 
 fender is 
 'ibute of 
 l^he sub- 
 y ^v•jlore 
 connnon 
 i wynfax 
 n:ige, is 
 cceives. 
 ""•inged 
 
 of the 
 itery of 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS, 
 
 1. rt is ])r<>))(istMl tliat the text-look shall n(;t be placed in 
 tlu; bands of inipils until they are ])rei)ared to enter upon the 
 studies of tlie .' /.»'^/' ^"radt^ of the Coninion School ('ours(\ The 
 introduetniy L'^ssons are dt\>igiird for i>urely oxi/ tt^aehing. 
 They do not constitute a complete treatise on elementary 
 grammar, but simply embody tht^ substance of the oral work 
 tiutlined in the C'ouisi' as jJreliTninary to cntrai>"e on the foiinal 
 study of the scienct>, 
 
 2. In arranging the matter of these Lessons, two objects 
 have been kept in view : first, to unfold in a clear aii<l orderly 
 m.'.nner the I'undameiital prineiph s of grammar ; seeor.dly, to 
 discourage all attempts to substitute for real teaching and 
 learning the nu htaritcr reciitation of di>tinitions and i-iiles. 
 
 H. The Ijessons are submitted as a general guide t<» teachers, 
 who, it is assumed, are capable of clothing the outlines furnished 
 with ai>proiiiiate explanations ;uid illustrations of their own. 
 iSo class exercis'^ should lie lu-gun by placing before the children 
 a bald statement of the principle to lie estalilished. The latter 
 should b(^ (ilnfrit by jn-ojier (juestioning from knowledge already 
 possessed by the pupil-^, in connection with ilhistrativt; stMitences 
 on the black-board. The greatest care siiould betaken to unfold 
 and impress by re[)eated ])ractice in sentence-building the 
 relations which the various elenuMits of language sustain to 
 one another, in a langiiage like I'higlish, in which the same 
 word may lepresent sineral parts of speech, it is in the 
 highest dej^'iee important that children should learn to dis- 
 tinguish words by thair funrtinn in a senttniee. 
 
 4. The tiiri.sinn.! of the Lessons hux'i been determined by 
 convenience of treatment, and have no reference to (he (iinoiint 
 of work to hf (ilidi! /!.",{ (it rarli rcriUitio)!. '^Pliis must be left to 
 the judgment of the teacher, who, however, is earnestly 
 recommended not to attempt too much. It is believed that the 
 Lessons may well occu]»y tln^ whole time assigned to their 
 subjects in the Course of Study. The aim should be to secure 
 by fre(pient review and copious illustiatioii a firm gras[> of the 
 iudinu;ntary distinctions of language. 
 
 5. Vv'hen the tinni has conn' for ]. lacing the te\t-))t>ok in the 
 hands of the pupils, the first few v.-eeks of the term should be 
 de\<tte<l to a care'ful imituv of x}\v ititroductory Tifssoiis. 'J'Ikj 
 exercises beh.ngiiig to the body of the work ha\e been jilaced 
 together, as on the whole the most convenient method of 
 location. They are caicftilly adapted in order (jf develoimuint 
 to the text which they illustrate. A rirtnin aiiiouiit of 
 exeirt.se-iror/c nhonld ari'inniianji even/ rc'itotion. The Noten are 
 int<Mided for advancecl jaipils only, though ti^ichers may 
 occasionally deem it wise at an earlier stage to derive therefrom 
 material for explanation. 
 
r 
 
 f 
 
 \ 
 
 Mi 
 
 1, 
 
 ami 
 
LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 r. 
 
 Language in GENERAii. 
 
 1. The niiiul exercises itself, or reffcts, on what i.' 
 bt'en. heard, or IVlt. In so doing it is said to ihuil\\ 
 and llie mental acts themselves ;ne called iln)U(jhts. 
 
 2. Men have a natural desire to communicate their 
 tlioughts to others. This they can do in vari(»us way-^. 
 There arc certain expressions of countenance which 
 every one understands to indicate joy, an<^'er, or 
 surprise. An infant, long Lefore it can speak, is ablo 
 to make known its wants and to show its admirati* n 
 of new or brightly colored objects. A clenched fist, 
 violently'' shaken, tells us of anger, and of a eh sire to 
 inflict injury or punishment. 
 
 3. When we give expression to our thoughts by 
 sounds uttered with the voice, we are said to ialh\ and 
 the vocal sounds themselves taken together C(.)nstituto 
 
 language 
 
 iMTn^mvje. really mc.ins that which is spoken by the tonrjne. The 
 sounds making up lan«^ua^'e are said to be articulate. This is 
 derived (rom a Latin word nieanin<]f "a little joint." Articu- 
 late sounds are those which are rejjularly connected and clearly 
 uttered. Soimds which convey no nieaninir because thev are 
 juml)led together, or are indistinctly spoken, «re said to be 
 inarticulate. 
 
 4. People have agreed that certain marks or 
 written characters shall rejireseMH certain articulate » 
 sounds. Hence there is a distinction between .spi^hii 
 language and writtctt language. The former apjteals to 
 the G'.ir, the latter to tiie etje. Tl;e tJtowjht is the same 
 in whicheveu way it is expressed. AVerc it rujt, how- 
 ever, for writing, the principles of language could not 
 be conveniently studied. 
 
/ 
 
 VIU 
 
 LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 Wll 
 
 ifc 
 
 11. 
 
 The Sicn'tence. 
 
 1. As (jur tliou^flits are distinct from each otlier, so 
 l<in<^Miige, which is the fj'pre.ssioi/ of" thouj^ht, is ualur- 
 ally divided into distinct portions. Each part or 
 division of lan;^ua«jje which expresses a complete 
 thought is calhni a Sentence. Th<' oriLjinal meaning of 
 the word spiitence was fltoiKiht or o/jI/n'o/l 
 
 2. Wlienever we talk so as to he understood, we 
 talk in sentences. 
 
 Tliat inomitaiii is lii^her than 
 
 I was t(K) late for 
 
 Tlic little boy was ^hul to ^^et 
 
 The i)ietty girl on the front seat 
 
 are i/ot sentences, because tlu^y do not convey any mean- 
 ing. \\y slight additions, what was before meaningless 
 becomes, in each cast% a !<i'titi'j>i'.e or cxprddsion of a 
 CO nplcte llioiKjht. Thus, — 
 
 That mountain is hi;i'h'Jr than Dlomidon. 
 
 I was too late for sch'-ol. 
 
 The little boy was j^lad to <:;et his prize. 
 
 The pretty girl on the front seat knav herltsson. 
 
 (Repeated exercises should be given at this point, 
 until the fundamental conception of the sentence as a 
 comjj/ctc stdlcincut is fully grasped). 
 
 in. 
 
 Subject and Predicate. 
 
 In every sentence we say sometlilmj about S'lmcJIiiiKj. 
 In the sentence *'John is a good boy" we say 
 about (or of) Jt^hn that /le /.s' a (jood boy. A sentence; 
 therefore, must consist ot two ])arts. One of these 
 is that (f which soniefhii/'j Is said. This is called the 
 
 Subject. 
 
 The other part is fhe sfafemiDd ntado concern in (j the 
 ruhjed. This is called the Predicate. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 N 
 
 ScotiJ 
 
 P\ 
 
 nil 
 
LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 IZ 
 
 1 other, 80 
 
 '; is iijitiir- 
 
 ' part or 
 
 f'ompI(3te 
 
 iicaning of 
 
 ■stood, wo 
 
 my nu'iiii- 
 
 Sioft of (I 
 
 lis i)oint, 
 lice as a 
 
 malhliKj. 
 we say 
 entence_. 
 >f' tlicse 
 io<l tliu 
 
 (hnj the 
 
 I 
 
 Nova Scotia is a peninsula. 
 
 Subject : — Nova Scotia (that of which somctliinjj^ is s^-id). 
 Pirdicdte : — is a peuiiisu'a (siatcnicut made couccruut^ Nova 
 
 Scotia). 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Point o/tf fl/e subject and predicate in the following 
 
 SfnitctK'cs : — 
 
 Stars shiiic. Eaulos are swift. War is a dreadful evil. 
 Kaiii has fallen. Death will come. Alexauder the Great died 
 a dniiikard. John is a j^ood hoy. 
 
 (The ahovo and all succeedinjj; exercise-sentences are given 
 
 simply as sped incus. It should he one of the teacher's chief 
 cares to amplify and vary the exercises. A suitable :nethod of 
 (piestioninjj;- would he as follows: — 
 
 Jiain has fallen. 
 
 Is this a sentence? Yes, because it exjjresses a complete 
 thoutrht ('or makes a com])lete moaningj. 
 
 Wliiit is the subject ? Hain, because it is that of which 
 sonu'thinj;' is said (or coneeruin;^; which a statement is nuule). 
 
 What is the predicate ? has /'alien, (because it is the statement 
 made concerning rain).) 
 
 IV. 
 
 Words. 
 
 1. Let us (liviile the sentence "The little birds 
 
 sin^' sweetly," into subject and [iredicate. 
 
 Subject: — The little hirds 
 Predicate : — sing sweetly. 
 
 We see that both subject and predicate consist of individaai 
 
 parts or elements, the little. .. .birds sing sweetly. 
 
 These individual ])arts are called words, 
 
 2. A W(jrd as i^pnlccii consists of one or more 
 articulate sounds; as v:rilleii. it /vy^rt'-'^vv/A-i' those soumls. 
 
 ?). Every word in a sentenct?, as we shall see more 
 clearly afterwards, has its own particular part to play, 
 in consequence of its meaning', and of iLo manner in 
 which it is used with other words. 
 
 4. The shortest sentences consi.st of tica words. 
 In the sentence above given as an example, we can omit 
 
f^ 
 
 ^i 
 
 
 X LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 all the words excei)t hiixh and si7ig, and still have a 
 sentence, hirds sing. A sentence like " birds sing," in 
 which the suhject and jnedicate are each comi)osed of 
 a single word is sometimes called a naked sent- nee. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 R(Hh(ce tlie fulloivivg into ihc form of naked sen- 
 ten CCS : — 
 
 John's eldest hroJiier runs fast. The moon shines in the sky. 
 Pretty parrot talks like a man. Mueh rain fell last night. 
 Beautiiul sliij)S sail on the river. 
 
 V. 
 
 KouNS AND Verbs. 
 
 Tn a naked sentence such as '* birds sing" W(! can 
 observe a great diih-n iice in the force of the words 
 used. One word, " l)irds," is the name of a class of 
 animals with which we are very fandliar, whose, hn'ins 
 we can see, and whose music v/e can hear. The otlier 
 word, "sings," is not the nujne of anything. It 
 simply fells us something alxnit the '* birds," tells us 
 what tlieij do, — they sing. 
 
 A word like "birds" which is the i}a7ne of vsome- 
 thing is called a noun. 
 
 A word like " singo/' which teJ/s or aj)irms is called 
 
 a verb. 
 
 Some words may be either nouns or verbs. In the 
 sentence, " Water h cold," waler is a noun, because it 
 is a name. In the sentence, " The l)oys loater the 
 ])lants," it is .; verb, because it is used to make a state- 
 ment. To assign a v.'ord to its proper class as noun or 
 verb, we must consider whether it is a miming word or 
 a telliny woril. 
 
 EXKnciRE 1. 
 
 point ont the noUflS and Verbs /// the/olfowing sen- 
 tences : — 
 
 Sun rises. Winds blow. BoyH ])Iny. June has come 
 
 i 
 
 Sprin| 
 Fire * 
 
 Dog 
 
 S>\ 
 
 o 
 
 ^•j^ 
 
LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 XI 
 
 ill have a 
 sing," in 
 11 posed of 
 lib nee. 
 
 aked .s 
 
 6•e;^ 
 
 in the sky. 
 iast night. 
 
 We can 
 
 »e words 
 
 (dM«s of 
 
 *^^' fori 1)8 
 
 Ih3 otiier 
 
 'ig. It 
 
 teJIs us 
 
 >f sonio- 
 is called 
 
 In tho 
 cause it 
 fer the 
 u state- 
 *oft?f or 
 vonj or 
 
 fifj sen- 
 I come 
 
 
 Sprinjj rejoices. Lion roars. Soldiers march Gold glitters. 
 Fire hums. Burns smart. 
 
 EXKRCISE 2. 
 
 Sftpph/ rorhfi for flm folloirliKi mnins:— 
 
 Moon- — . Snow — 
 Dog . Roosters 
 
 (jiirls— ■ 
 Teacher- 
 
 Horses — 
 Mother— 
 
 EXKUCISK 3 
 
 Supply nof/nii far tlip folloiriiui vfrhf^: 
 runs. hites. V^'^y • 
 
 scolds 
 melts. 
 
 praJsca. digs. shine. 
 
 VI. 
 
 The Noun. 
 
 ^^''o luivo s(en tlint a iionii it- llit^ iKunr of soTiicthiiig. 
 Tlie word " noun " siinidv means '* name." 'J'he 
 nomclJiiiHi whose name i.s called a uonn may he an 
 ohject whicli we can .sw, as a hornc; hcdr, as thunder; 
 smell, na II perfume; touch, as annthlmj solid. Or it 
 may be an object of thout/ht simply, that which we 
 can thinh' altont, but not see, heur, t^c. ; as, l/'fe, 
 death, antitmi), mind, soid. A ntai:^ also may Ik; the 
 name of a qnaHtij of an ohject ; a.s, heantij, leni/th, 
 industrij. 
 
 2. Nouns which are the natnes of indiridnal 
 (djjects are caihid Proper nouns. Sucli «re all names 
 of persons and places; as, John, (Jie>ar, (^ueen 
 Victoria, Halifax, London, North America. 
 
 Proper nouns alwaijs hefjin uu'th a copifal li'lter. 
 
 3. * Nouns wliich are the names oi' clasess ot ol»ject.s 
 aro called Commoil noun.s. Sweh are nnin, woman, 
 horse, child, vessel, city. 
 
 EXEuuisr:. 
 
 Point out the proper and common nouns in the 
 followiiKj sentences : — 
 
 1« . Jacob had twelve sons. Sodom was one of the citioc 
 
 X 
 
Xll 
 
 LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 I', 
 
 I \ 
 
 f 
 
 n 
 
 nijr 
 
 of the Plain. The most populous continent is Asia Hannibal 
 pained a viefory over the Kornans. " Up euards, and at tneni," 
 said Weilinston. Napoleon was sent in exile to St. Helena. 
 Quebec is lar^^er than New Brunswick. Annapolis is an old 
 town. 
 
 Yir. 
 
 TuK Yv 
 
 nn. 
 
 1. We liavo FO"u that liic. veil) is tliat woid in a 
 S(!nt('iict; that /r/Av or (f.s-snrf,^ sjomotliini^. Now as cvci y 
 sentfucG contains a statcniont nia-lo ahoufc .sonictliiiiL^^ 
 every sontencci must contain a vcrh. Varh moans 
 
 (1 
 
 won 
 
 aiK 
 
 I tlic name lias ,.'on isivm htMiiusc; tlu; 
 
 V(.M'b is considered tlu; most impi'itant word in tlic 
 sentence, hein*' tliat hy which tlie statement is mride. 
 
 Tl 
 
 le noun ( 
 
 lenoti 
 
 tl 
 
 in<^' I lie person or iliin<^' concernm 
 
 til 
 
 win'ch tlie verb makes a sta'ement is calle(l tlu^ 
 subject f>f the verb. 
 
 '2. On exam:nin,Lf a nnmber of verbs, as, for 
 in.stance, those m the ftillowinif sentences: "Jolm 
 
 r. 
 
 oVH ffin, 
 
 T.'acl 
 
 eacliei' 
 
 s/c.'7».s'," <• dames .s'/r//.V',s'," 
 pdrsHfcJcs," " l)iiby /^////.s'," "Sister lovcs,^^ we find tiiat 
 thoy cjin be divi<led into two classes. " dames strikes," 
 "Teaclier ].ersuades," "Sister loves," thonj^fh state- 
 ments are made in tliem, nevertli<dess seem iiirinnjih'ti'. 
 We naturally ask, strikes irluit / (or u'liotn /), persnades 
 tvhow i loves ii'IkW) ? (ov /Hinf ?) ', and when these 
 rpiestions are answerei] ; "dames strikes f/n' tdhlc" 
 " Teacher persuades f/tn f<r/inhn's,^' " Sister loves sf/u/i/,'^ 
 we see that the full expressions for wbi(di we were 
 lookiu",' liave Imh'u supplieil. Verbs which thus almost 
 necessarily re(|uire some adih'd woid to comj)Iete their 
 nuNudnj; are called transitive. They express (irllnv, 
 and the wonl triuifiltlrc. denotes the </'iin(/ orrr of their 
 action to some person or thiiiLj. The natiu^ of that 
 person or thin;^' is called the nhjrr/ of the action, and 
 as a noun, it is said to be the object <d tin) rerh. 
 
 Verbs which arc nut transitivo, such as run and wa/fr, may 
 •xprofis action, but not as going over to an object. 8entcnccti 
 
 contaiil 
 an iX'tif 
 who dl 
 what \\ 
 
 slee\is] 
 ihe}ti< 
 do von 
 the sel 
 
 (Sol 
 
 that til 
 
 cb\sscsl 
 
 same vj 
 
 ivr(nni>\ 
 
 reservi 
 
 1 
 
 il 
 
 .duUitL 
 

 LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 Xlll 
 
 ^. and at th«'i7i " 
 
 to 8t. JfeJfiia. 
 
 i'"Iis 18 an old 
 
 wrtid in ;, 
 ()\v as every 
 
 ''^'^> nie.ins 
 'h'ciusc fl,,, 
 
 ■<""<1 in Mie 
 "t is jiia«]e. 
 ^"ncerniijf,' 
 called the 
 
 s, as, for 
 
 f- "Join. 
 
 ' <'.i('lie)' 
 
 f' /ind ttiat 
 
 's strikes/' 
 
 '.^'i Mate-' 
 
 I'<M'sua(I,i.s 
 '^'n tliese 
 
 i'^' 
 
 ^//>A 
 
 We u-(.i'(3 
 
 I>< ''lIlMdst 
 t'tt! Dicii. 
 
 <>r llieir 
 "f tliat 
 
 i"ii, and 
 
 0. 
 
 "''^*. may 
 entciiccs 
 
 con tain in{^ transitive verbs are those which most fully describe 
 a?) a<'tion. When anythinjx is done, it is natural to ask, first, 
 who does it (.s»^>/c/7), second, what kind of an action (rt'ri), to 
 what iMjrson or thing is the action done (ahject). 
 
 2. Oil the ((tlier hand, tlie si'iitences, "John 
 sleeps," " l)()ys run," " Baby talks," are a»uj)h>fe in 
 the)H'^eli:ed. 8uch verhs as ^iJcrp.-i, /^///w, vffu, whicli 
 do iidt require tlie addition of an ohjeet to complete 
 the sense are called intransitive. 
 
 (Sonic teachers at this ])oint jnay dceui it ptopcr to explain 
 that the distinction above drawn between the t\vo principal 
 classes of verbs is not an dhso/uft' one : tliat in nianv cases the 
 same verb has both a transitive and intransitive use. Verbs of 
 itinonjilitc prrdiaifinn, which form a class Ity themselves, may bo 
 reserved to a more advanced stage of the study of grammar). 
 
 EXIiltCISK 1. 
 
 Diatii/'/nish hrtirrrn traiisitive ((ii(\ intransitive 
 
 ?V'/7w /// Ihe fnlloirliKj sfti/uNCCfi, i>ointliiij out also the 
 
 subject (iikI object : — 
 
 The sea roars. God created the world. Victoria rules 
 England. Tiie people stood. John formerly cherished hopes, 
 but he now despairs The King dicil, and his followers sadly 
 dug his grave. The geiural rode; the soldiers walked; the 
 cump-followcrs carried the baj.'gage. 
 
 KXKIICI8F-: 2. 
 SiippJi/ I'nfnfi/^/flve rnhf^' to corrcKjhind wUh thn 
 
 Lion 
 Criminals 
 
 I igors 
 Habv 
 
 Water . Silver — 
 
 The old liorso . 
 
 KXKllOI.SK 3. 
 
 SKiipIt/ frtifix/'firi' ;v';7/,s' trif/t oh/rrfs In rorro'^poDd 
 wltJi ilw. follouiiiHi siihji'cfs : — 
 
 Tiions . Fierce dogs . The parth- 
 
 (luake . JatnoH — — . Much study — — . 
 
 Idle boys . 
 
il 
 
 \H 
 
 XIV LESdONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 VIIT. 
 
 TiiK Adjective. 
 
 1. We have seen tliat every sentence can be 
 sejiarated into two <{reat divisions, the subject and 
 the predicate, and tliat eacli cf tliese mat/ consist of a 
 sin<(le word, the word conijxisin^L,^ tlie subject beinrj 
 called a ?ionu, that composing the |)r(Mlicate, a verb. We 
 have seen also that some sentences contain words 
 which are nci/her nomit^ nor verhs ; they are not 
 luuiu's and they do not tell or a.st^t'rf anything. 
 
 EXKUOrSK. 
 
 Ill the folJoivinij sentences point out words which are 
 neither nouns nor verbs: — 
 
 Little birds sing. Bad boy frets. Cold water refreshes. 
 Sharp skates cut smooth ice. Idle i^irls get poor lessons. 
 
 2. It will be noticed that all the words poinied 
 3ut in the preceding exercise as neither nouns nor 
 verbs, are Joined to nouns. In each case they describe 
 the object of which the noun is the name. 
 
 Words thus joined to nouns for the purpose of 
 description are called adjectives. 
 
 3. The adjective is simply a helping word ; it adds 
 to tlie meaning of the noun but it makes smaller the 
 number of objects to which the noun applies. 
 " Birds" is the name of the whole class ; " little 
 birds " of a i)articular part of that class, that part which 
 is described by the woril little. 
 
 4. Very many adjectives describe objects by indi- 
 cating some qaality belonging to them. Such are 
 sweet, sour, large, small, good, bad, wise, foolish. 
 These adjectives are said to qualify nouns. 
 
 5. Many other adjectives describe objects by a 
 reference to number, (juantity, situation, ^c. Such 
 are one, two, first, second, all, some, several, this, that. 
 
 These adjectives are said to limit nouns. 
 
 iThesel 
 
 (1.), 
 
 .It is pH 
 
 H gene 11 
 
 ftiiy on| 
 An i| 
 ant, any 
 
 A\\ 
 
 a boy, 
 
 (2.) 
 before 
 particul 
 in whiir 
 
 ■■■ 7. 
 Joinei 
 
 
 I. 
 
 4. 
 
 ^!> 
 
LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 XV 
 
 tence can be 
 f' ^nhject and 
 // consist of a 
 subject beincr 
 \ H verb. We 
 ^)nt;iin words 
 '•/T are not 
 
 o 
 
 '(h' wliicli are 
 
 ^ter refreshes. 
 Jessons. 
 
 '»'<!« poiiju'd 
 
 nouns nor 
 
 'ley describe 
 
 I^irposo of 
 
 »'<' ; it adds 
 smaller tbo 
 '» «PI)lies. 
 ss; "little 
 I>art which 
 
 t« by indi- 
 
 ^uch are 
 
 % foolish. 
 
 'cts by a 
 K Such 
 this^ tliat. 
 
 G. Two adjectives deserve particular mention. 
 These are av or a, and the. 
 
 (1.) Jn or <? is sometimes called the Indefinite Article. 
 . It is placed l>cforc a noun denoting a sinr/le object to describe it in 
 H general way as one (anyone) of a class; as, a horse (that is 
 ■tny one of the class horse) eats grass. 
 
 An is placed before a word beginning with a vowel ; as, an 
 ant, an enterprise, oji idiot. 
 
 -4 is placed before a word beginning with a consonant; as, 
 a boy, a month, a clock. 
 
 (2.) The, sometimes called the Definite Article, is placed 
 before nouns, whether denoting one or more objects, to point out 
 , ^particularly the person or thing spoken of; as, This is the way 
 Mn which you shall go. 
 
 * 7. Any noun in a sentence may have an adjective 
 |oined with it. 
 
 if EXERCISE 1. 
 
 Point out the adjectiveS in the folfowing sentences: — 
 
 1. I like the keen air of October. Sunny skies cheered his 
 , fainting heart. The perfumed air of sweet fT»'..ie. Several men 
 tried three times, Small countries sometimes make great men. 
 This man walked ten miles. 
 
 I EXERCISE 2. 
 
 j Attach qualifying adjectives to the foJIoiclng 
 
 i 
 
 iioiivs: — 
 1. 
 
 4, 
 
 book. 7. 
 
 — sun. 2. 
 teacher. .5. 
 road. 
 
 moon. .3. 
 ■ day. 6. 
 
 - tlog. 
 copy- 
 
 EXEKCISE 3. 
 
 Attach limiting adject ires to the folloirivrj voitns: — 
 
 I. 
 
 4. 
 
 — men. 2. 
 goods. 5. 
 
 — miles. 3. 
 -pencils. 6. 
 
 raountain. 
 
 child. 
 

 I 
 
 ^ f 
 
 m 
 
 \- 
 
 XVI 
 
 LEI3S0NS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 IX. 
 
 The Adverb. 
 
 1. Wo have seen thiit a na/i'ed sentencCj 
 " ])ir(ls .siiiL,'," may Im3 increii.sed by attachin*. 
 to the sahjed-noiin "binls,"— '' little birds sin 
 sjiall now see that the same sentence may he 
 by attaching a word to the predicate- vert) 
 
 Ijirds sin^' sinect/i/. 
 
 binh 
 
 smiT 
 
 fj ) 
 
 it d 
 
 eseri Des 
 
 b 
 
 Sweetly" teik ns 
 tlie lUiiiiDer in w 
 
 
 (2; 
 
 
 ly\ 
 
 
 He wa 
 
 such as 
 
 ha])i)e 
 
 ■J, a word 
 
 g." Wo 
 
 Do 
 
 increased 
 
 1 will 
 
 ^Ttv^s," — 
 
 
 
 Jiow the 
 
 
 diich tlie 
 
 I — 
 
 lie his 
 
 action expressed by the v-'rh is perfurmeih Otliei 
 words mi-lit l)e joiiied to the verb, which would 
 des('ril)e tlie time, plaa-, or decree of the action ; as, 
 lUrils sing freqaeHllij. Jiirds sing ecenjtohere. IJirds 
 
 sing much. 
 
 2. A word thua Joined to a verb to deHcritio its 
 action is called ;iu a'clverb, auvl is said to modify <»r 
 limit the meaning of the verb. 
 
 The adverb sometimes precedes and sometimes 
 foltoi,:-^ its" verb. 
 
 3. Occasionally adverbs, chieliy those denoting 
 deijree, Viaut tlie meaning o^ <(dj<>ctims ; as, A veri/ 
 simple fellow. A (jlm'ioKslij tine day. 
 
 More rarely an adverb limits the meaning of another 
 adrert) ; as, John sang quite successtuUy. 
 
 EXEUCISE 1. 
 
 Point Old the adveibs in the following sentences:— 
 
 The hoys worked faithfully. The horse ran fast. We see 
 thronnh a jrlass darkly. The <xxxn is tiiero. Do well what- 
 ever you undertake Dinner time will soon he hero. James 
 is wondrously wise He tried that too often. 
 
 EXKUCISE 2. 
 
 (1.) Supply adverbs of manner in the following 
 sentences : — 
 
 He wriies . The man walked . They waited 
 
 1. 
 
 J 
 
LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 XVll 
 
 1 ten CO, such as 
 t;icliin<T a word 
 
 !"<''^ f^iiig." We 
 fiy hti increased 
 
 Is us how tlie 
 
 in which the 
 
 )niied. Otl,,.,' 
 
 wliich Would 
 
 i" fiction ; as, 
 
 '" (lf.'»-('rihc its 
 
 *^ modify or 
 
 'id sonietiuies 
 lose denotin«' 
 
 iiig of another 
 
 1 sentences: — 
 
 fast. We see 
 Do well w hat- 
 here. JauicH 
 
 10 Ibllowii)" 
 o 
 
 )y waited 
 
 (2.) Advcrhs of time in tlic following : — 
 
 I will overtMke you. lie is not in London — 
 
 He was thero . James visits uie now. It - 
 
 Iiappens. 
 
 (.'} ) Adverlis (d' place in the following : 
 
 Do yon sec that tree ? Good news, father \% 
 
 i will i)e to-inurrow. He, Who made all thino^s, is • 
 
 (4.) Advcrhs of degree in th(! following: — 
 
 I ])rerer this to that. John thon{;ht that was ro 
 
 he his l:\st lesson. I am sure that I did not say so. 
 
 X. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 1. The distinction between the suhji'rt and preiliriife 
 of a sentence has been reix.'utedly pointed out. We 
 have seen tliat each ni;iy he a single word, or may 
 consist of several words. 
 
 Pointing out the suhject and {)redicate of^p, sentence, 
 antl the parts of which each is (loniposcd, is called 
 Analysis, Aunli/sii^ means (he taliliKj to pieces oj 
 soiiietiiiiHj c.ompcse.il of pdrts. 
 
 2. in a ndked sentence the subject and predicate 
 are said to be simple. 
 
 3. When the simple subject is increasi'd by other 
 words, it is said to l)e enlarged, iiud words thus 
 increasing the subject are called enlargements. 
 
 The most common enlargement is tlie (if/Jecf/ve. 
 It will hereafter be seen that all other enlarLjements 
 have the force of adjectivea. 
 
 4. When the simple predicate; is increased by other 
 words, it is said to be extended, ami words tiius 
 increasing the j)redicate are called extensions. 
 
 The must common extension is the ((<lrirh. It will 
 be seen hereafter tlat all oilier extensions have the 
 force of adverbs. 
 
■'■^ 
 
 XVlll 
 
 LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 5. For the sjtke of coiivenion<;o, the adjectivos an 
 or a, and tha are often not digtingui/ned as enlargo 
 ments, but treated as forming parts of the sii])ject. 
 
 The negative adverb Jiot is part of the predicate 
 and not an extension. 
 
 EXERCLSE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences by pointing out : — 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Enlarijement. 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Extension. 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Healthy persons live long. Wise hoys study bard. The 
 lame horse stumbles badly. All tlie boys are here. Bravo 
 soldiers die bravely. Great troubles (|;;i('.kly followed. Wise 
 plans succeed well. The little fellow.*^ did not complain aloud. 
 
 G. The object of r transitive verb is not considered 
 an extension of the predicate, but is treated as a 
 separate element of the sentence. The object may be 
 enlarged by an adjective, just like the subject. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences by pointing out : — 
 
 Subject. 
 
 EuJanje- 
 vient. 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Object. 
 
 EnJnnje- 
 ment of 
 Object. 
 
 Extension. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Little boys answer hard questions quickly. Good news 
 always brings much p!easu'?a, Diligent study gencally 
 secures good lessons. The mischievous sailors luckily 
 chose a bad day. 
 
 XL 
 
 Different Kinds of Sentences. 
 
 1. When we talk we do not always make direct 
 etaUnnents, that is, ajjirm or deny something. We 
 
 
 ofienl 
 certal 
 
 cxcl; 
 
 fine'" 
 
 ( 
 aro c; 
 
 (3. 
 " T>oa| 
 
 (4. 
 Ciueej 
 
LESSONS ON LANOirAOE. 
 
 XIX 
 
 ic adjectivos an 
 ■^^ed as enhir-^'o 
 tlie 8u})j(..ct. 
 'f t'l^' I'l't'dicate 
 
 [pointing out ; 
 
 Extension. 
 
 u<Iy liard. The 
 
 •e here. Brave 
 
 followed. Wise 
 
 complain aloud. 
 
 'lot considered 
 tiented as a 
 >J>ject may be 
 f>joct. 
 
 "ting out :— 
 
 ?/ I Extension. 
 
 Good news 
 '<lv gene'-allyr 
 "ilors luckily 
 
 S. 
 
 make direct 
 hing. We 
 
 often find it nece.'^i^ary to a.^k a question, command a 
 certain thing to be dene, express a wis}), or utter an 
 exclamation. 
 
 (I .) Sentencos wliich simply ofjirm or ^A ;?//.• as, " Tfie day is 
 fine" ; "John did not ^^o," •'reVailt-d declarative. 
 
 (2.) Sentences which ask (pications ; as, " Will you go,'? 
 arc called interrogative. 
 
 (.T.) Sentences which contain n, roininmul or request; us, 
 " Leave nie alone," are called imperative. 
 
 (4.) Sentences which express a wish ; as, " God save the 
 Queen," aie called optative. 
 
 (5.) Scutences which express an exclnmation ; as, "What 
 r* beautiful day it i.s! " are called exclamatory. 
 
 I :..". Every .sentence, trhen icrltteii, requires to have 
 placed alter it a certain mark or character. These 
 I marks are : — 
 
 (1.) The Period, (.), placed after declarative and impera- 
 lice sentences; as. Truth is mi<ihty. Go home. 
 
 (2.) The Interrogation-point, (?), placed after in/erro^a 
 live sentences ; as, Do you intend to po? 
 
 (3.) The Exclamation point, (!), placed after earc/ama/ory 
 and optative sentences: as. How the wind does make one 
 shiver ! May Heaven bless you ! 
 
 3. Other marks are used to distinguish the (liferent 
 parts of a sentence. The art of marking oil' language 
 into sentences, and sentences into parts is called 
 
 punctuation. 
 
 EXRRCISK. 
 
 Dlstitufuish the kind of the foHoirlv(j sentences, and 
 punctuate each set/fe/ice : — 
 
 God is love May we meet again When shall we meet again 
 Depart from me Thy kingdom come How fresh is this morn- 
 ing air Never did he do worse We are not sure Hope on, 
 hope ever 
 
 (The pu])d3 should be exercised in changing sentences from 
 cne kind to another). 
 
 XII. 
 
 M'uMiJEu OK Nouns. 
 
 1. As a noun is a name, so it must sometimes be 
 the name of a single object, as bird, and at other times 
 of a number of objects of the same kind, as birds. 
 
XX 
 
 [iESSOXS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 I 
 
 5.; 
 
 w 
 
 Tl>e (listinclion ot iionns foinidiMl on ilio iinmbcr of 
 o])j('ct.s which they denote is called number. 
 
 2. When .1 noun denotes one object it is said to 
 be of the singular luuiiber , as, boy, ,L,nrl, house, ship. 
 
 3. When a noun denotes several objects of the 
 same kind it is said to be of the plural number; as, 
 boys, girls, houses, shijis. 
 
 4. The plural number is generally formed by 
 
 (Id 
 
 adding -,s' 
 just given. 
 
 to th 
 
 si 
 
 le singular, as sliown in tnc exam})les 
 
 th 
 
 )1( 
 
 5 The folic 
 
 to th 
 
 !!!( 
 
 ral 
 
 iiig are exceptions 
 rule : — 
 
 (1.) Nouns ending s, sh, ch (sounding soft as in church) 
 
 and X add cs to form the plural ; as, tress, tresses ; fish, 
 
 fishes ; porch, porciies ; box, boxes. 
 
 (2.) A few nouns form their plural by en; as, ox, oxen. 
 
 (3.) Also a few by changing the principal vowel ; as, man, 
 men ; foot, feet ; goose, geese. 
 
 EXERCISE 1. 
 
 Didimjiiitfh the following nouns as singular or 
 
 lilural : — 
 
 House, uncles, queen, women, dish, torches, brush, trapa, 
 earl, boot, ducks, fiog, inkeepera, bull. 
 
 EXERCISE 2. 
 
 Give t/ie plural of the following nouns : 
 House, steer, inarch, fox, thrush, doe, child. 
 
 EXERCISE 3. 
 
 Give the singular of the following mmns : 
 
 Lamps, mistresses, priuces, princesses, soldiers, mice, spoons, 
 bookcases. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Number of Verbs. 
 
 1. The distinction ])et\veen bird and birds, that is 
 between the singular number and the plural number 
 of nouns, has been pointed out. We shall now see 
 that there is something corresponding to this in verbs 
 
 van a] 
 tliat 
 3. 
 verb 
 pJo'/st 
 
 4. 
 verb 
 j)Jatj. 
 Tjectel 
 Joseil^ 
 
 5. 
 be re 
 berr; 
 and 
 
T.EHSONS OX LANGUAGK. 
 
 XXI 
 
 <'ie nnmbor of 
 
 mber. 
 
 f*t it i.s said to 
 
 ii'J, house, sliij). 
 
 "^>J<'cts of the 
 
 al 11 u 111 her; as, 
 
 ^y formed b^- 
 the exam])Ies 
 
 to tlie general 
 
 ->ft as in church) 
 ss, tresses ; fish, 
 
 fls, ox, oxen, 
 vowel ; as, man, 
 
 singular or 
 s, brush, traps, 
 
 !>^ ; 
 
 > mice, spoons. 
 
 '^'ds, that is 
 '/■^//ii umber 
 ill now sH,e 
 is in verbs 
 
 2. "We say " />/yY7 SJngS," but " hn\h sing.' This 
 variation in thr. form ot verbs is exj^resscd by saying 
 that ///'' vcrh (Kprcs in iininlivr irlfli t'f.-t nuhji'cf. 
 
 3. AVlien tlic subject of the verb is tjingular, tlie 
 verl) also is said to be singular ; as, John striki'S. l>oy 
 2)h()is. 
 
 4. "\Vh(>n the subject of tlie verb is plural, the 
 verb also is said to be plural ; as, Men stril'e. IJoys 
 p/(tl/. Also ^vith two or more singular subjects con- 
 nected by and the verb is plural ; as, Charles and 
 Joseph />l'(!/. 
 
 The singular form of the verb can very often 
 
 5. 
 
 be recognized by the termination -S. We shall see 
 liereafter, however, that in many cases the singidar 
 and }>lural i'oims of the verb are alike. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Correct an}! of tlie fo/lotrnu/ sfufmres which t/oii 
 
 hrtjard as violatlmi the ride ahnre (jiven as to the agree- 
 
 mcid of tlie rvrh and its snhjcct in nnmher. 
 
 Baby talk. Book-keepers writes. Clergymen preaches. 
 Water flows. Brooks flows. Ox haul. Girls dances. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 l!^0Mi NATIVE Case. 
 
 1. We have seen that a noun may be the subject 
 of a verb ; as, Kin(/s- rnle. BooJts are read. 
 
 The noun, which is the subject of a verb, is said to 
 
 be in the nomiDatlve case. 
 
 2. This noun may have another noun standing 
 beside it to explain its meaning more fnlly. The 
 latter noun is also in the nominative case, and is said 
 to be II, apposition with the former ; as, The river 
 Thames overllowed its bank. Tennyson, the poety 
 wrote a beautiful ode. 
 
 3. A noun that denotes the person or thing 
 directly addressed, is in the nominative case; as, King, 
 live forever I FeJloic-suldiers, I ask you to do or die. 
 
I 
 
 V 
 
 XXU 
 
 LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Point out in the follmiing seafenze-'^ nouns In the 
 
 nominative case : (I )^(v subjects ; {'l)a>iin apposition 
 
 witli the .snhject ; (3) a.s ilenofln;/ the olijed of address : — 
 
 Tlie trooj)s foiv^ht bravely. William, the Prince, soon arrived. 
 The star Orion shines in the sky. Paul, thou art besido 
 thyself. Their General, Georj^e Washington, was greatly 
 beloved. 
 
 XV. 
 
 OnjECTivE Case. 
 
 1. A noun that is the object of a transitive verb is 
 said to be in the objective case ; as, Tlie bullet killed 
 the man. 
 
 The objective case of nouns is in form exactly like 
 the nominative. The cases can only be distinguished 
 by the relation in which the nouns stand. 
 
 2. The object, like the subject, may have a noun 
 in apposition in the same case ; ns, The army crossed 
 the River RJilne. 
 
 exercises. 
 
 In the following sent imccs point out all vonns In tlw 
 
 objective case, dldlugnlshlng them as objects, and as 
 
 nouns in apposition with the object : — 
 
 The boy has two balls. Seven days make a week. I saw 
 Dawson, the druggist. Two ponies were drawing the Wiigon, a 
 huge affair. The colonel saluted his superior olHcer, the 
 general. 
 
 xvr. 
 
 Possessive Case. 
 
 ■• ■»• 
 
 1. In such an expression as, " William's book," we 
 do not refer to William as either the snfy'eet or object 
 of an action, but as an owner or possessor. William's 
 is said to he in the possessive case. The principle 
 may be stated generally thus : The noun denoting an 
 owner or possessor is in the possessive case. 
 
 2. The possessive, unlike the nominative and 
 
 objec 
 a ion 
 
 iccogi 
 its re 
 posse; 
 noun 
 noun.' 
 
 hoi/s 
 
 o 
 
 ce» 
 
 Us 
 
 f 
 
 
LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 XXlll 
 
 >' noniis hi the 
 
 ^>ii apposition 
 ^'/address:— 
 
 ince, soon arrived. 
 
 thou art beside 
 
 -oil, was greatly 
 
 msitive verb is 
 ))ullet killed 
 
 11 exactly like 
 ! (listiiiguished 
 
 ' have a noun 
 iriny crossed 
 
 ' )}0}()i>< hi till' 
 bjects, and as 
 
 a week. I saw 
 ng the Wiigon, a 
 ■ior ofKcer, the 
 
 m's book," we 
 >]pct or ohjad 
 '•• Wm/am's 
 The principle 
 denoting an 
 e. 
 
 linative and 
 
 objective, is a real case. We mean by this that it has 
 a form of //,v oivn ; a noun in the possessive case can be 
 lecognized at sight ; we are not obliged to inquire into 
 its relations to otlier words to determine its case. The 
 possessive case adds 's to the >rdinary form of the 
 noun ; as, Jolm^^ cap. The mafif< house, l^ut plural 
 nouns ending in .s' add only ' ; as, IIt)ri<cs shoes. '\\\ii 
 hoi/s^ skates. 
 
 3. A noun in the ]iosscssive Ciis(! immediately pre- 
 cedes tlie noun denotiii}' tlie thing owned. 
 
 i EXKHCISK 1. 
 
 Pohil out ill tlic followhiy Si ntfWC'i all lunmx in the 
 
 possessive case : — 
 
 I saw Samuel's kite. The dog's tiiil was hittcn off. To- 
 iiiorrow's sun may never rise. I saw the cajitain s regiment 
 . leaving. Those tall mountains' peaks pierce the sky. Ilorf-'cs' 
 ears show when they are frightened. 
 
 I EXERCISE 2. 
 
 M ^^'/'/'l.'/ hf'fore each of the follow iiKj nouns a sivijidar 
 ^nonu ill iJic [lo.ssessive case : — 
 
 — hook, 
 trunk. 
 
 seissors. 
 
 lionso. 
 
 horses 
 
 chisel. 
 PLXEHCIHK 3. 
 
 Sii[>iihj htfure each <f the f:ill<)iriinj uoinin a y l/irol 
 rioiiN i^i the possessive case : — 
 
 slates. names. co\ers. 
 
 thimi)les. 
 
 studies. 
 
 canes. 
 
 wall.5. 
 
 f XVII. 
 
 :-t Analysis. 
 
 1. In studying the structure of sentences, we have 
 
 seen that both the subject and object may be enlarged 
 
 1 by an adjective. We are now in a positi(»n to see that 
 
 certain other words may take the place of an adjective 
 
 in this enlar^^ement. These are : (1), A noun in 
 
LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 •sY, wrote some famous 
 new ])iiper, tJie Tlmns] 
 
 ssess 
 
 case : as. 
 
 Y 
 
 10 sai /())''■■< 
 
 consciences urc sometime 
 
 several enl;ir<'(Mnents 
 
 lie I HE. 
 
 Audhjze accord'nKj fo form pn'rlouxhj t/ircn tlic ful- 
 lotrii/ff .sffifpucrs. ( WIkti' firn or won' oihirgi'inotiffi 
 hclovg fo the sanui noun, mrt'te tlwin In order one beloir 
 the other, (leser thing each): — 
 
 Simpson, the tailor, made John's punts. Wellinf^ton'a white 
 plume caufrht llie sohliers' eyes. The ehler twister enjoyed thnt 
 great Ide^sinjj;, licalth. The sun's heut dr'ed the (hiinp paint. 
 Tlio city's heiiuty cliaiined our frioni's, the American visitors. 
 That sad event proves man's inhi<manity. 
 
 XVI I r. 
 
 ] Pronouns. 
 
 It would be very inconvenient, if, whci. we refer to 
 ol»j(H;ts, we were always oblijzed to nso their names in 
 full. For instance, if your name was .John, and you 
 had a brother whose n;. me was Thomas, the followiui^ 
 sentence would iiave a very awkward sound : — " Here 
 is Thomas, .John's (the speaker poiiitiui,' to hinisedf) 
 brother. Tiioiuas came yesterday ; »Iohn (pointiuLj as 
 before) was j^lad to see Thomas." Tt would be much 
 simpler to say: — 'Micro is Thornas, nu/ brother; he 
 came yesterday ; / was ^lad to sec him. 
 
 2. Tlie words which we have put in (he place 
 of names are called pronOUnS, that is, wiU'ds 
 stundiwj for nonns. Pronouns, strictly speakinj^, are 
 not names, but they serve the purpose of names, when 
 what has bciui before said, or some other circumstance, 
 enables us to underst.md the person or thin<.( nferrecl to. 
 For instance, if wo have been s])eakin^ of a friend, it 
 
 will 
 ret'i-' 
 
 Willi 
 
 31 
 
 posi 
 
 "Plk 
 in tl 
 
 V . /\ 
 
XJI 
 
 LESSONS ON LANGUAGE 
 
 XXV 
 
 >to some famous 
 per, the Tlnv;^] 
 
 ''■^ iii'c sometimes 
 
 J ^'iilirg(;munts; 
 
 '/ iJ'rrn tho fnj. 
 >>'<l(;r our h,'li„r 
 
 VelHnf,'ton's white ' 
 f^ter enjoyed tluit 
 tlie (larnj) paint, 
 ^nierican visitors. 
 
 <•''. '.V«! ivfer to 
 tli'*ir names in 
 ^<jlin, and you 
 tliu f'(t]lo\vin<r 
 un.l :— *' H^.,.^ 
 
 1^' to Iii nisei (') 
 I (|><»intinrr as 
 •"''1 ''0 much 
 / brother; 1h> 
 
 i'> llio pIa(3L' 
 t if^, Words 
 «|H'alvin|^r^ are 
 names, when 
 "ircums(ane(!, 
 1^' referred to.' 
 ' ^ friend, it 
 
 will not be necessary to repeat bis name whenever wo 
 refer to him ; we shall be understood if we say : " //e 
 will be here to-ni<.,dit." 
 
 3. Pronouns, as standiuf^ for nouns, can take all the 
 positions of nouns, whether as ,s7/^/V''7, >>l>jcrt, or 
 t/ppo.-i/fire. Pronouns, however, arc very rarely found 
 in the relation of apposition. 
 
 4. IVonouns agree in ninuher with the nouns for 
 which they stand. 
 
 EXEliCISE. 
 
 /// till' full oinlii'i spiiteiiccn point aut ttw. imntx, irJtlfJi, 
 
 as standing lov nouns, !r>i( consiitcr to tm pronouns : — 
 
 I saw tho eaptai!!, who told ine tiiat he was ready to sail. 
 The j;en(ral, seeinjr the sohliers about to mutiny, comnianded 
 them to l>e put in ihc prison which he had built. Open thou 
 t!ie gates. We snw theni killing him. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 PeUSONAL PaONOUNH. 
 
 1. There are three pronouns which indicate tnj 
 tJii'lr form whether they stand for tlu! fi/tcd/i-cr, the 
 //I'l'Sd)/ sjio/i'eti to, or the juTfioii or th'iiuj ^ipoken of. 
 
 These are 7, Tlioii, and /A' (-^hc., it ). 
 
 '1. I is called th'! First Personal Pronoun, and 
 denotes tlie speaker. It is always written, with u 
 c ipital. 
 
 3. Tliou is called tlio Second Personal Pronoun, 
 and denote.N the jterson or thing spoken to. 
 
 4. He (she, it) is called the Third Personal Pro- 
 noun, and denotes the person or thing spoken of 
 
 5. I and tlum hiwc (/ij}) rent forms for tin; two num- 
 bers, an<l tlu>. former for the three c "in Ixith ntnubers. 
 'i'lie plural forms, t/o/i and i/otir, of tin; second personal 
 |)r(Uioun have taken the j)lace ot tlie singular in 
 ordinary conv<'rsation and writing; as dohn, //o// art! a 
 naughty boy. Voa, tlnu'cdbre, is singular or plural, 
 according to tjje meaning. 
 
n 
 
 XXVI 
 
 LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 (The paradigms of these pronouns will be presented to the 
 pnpils on the l)la(kboard and fully explained. They may then 
 be memorized.) 
 
 G. The pronoun of tlio third person lia.«? not only 
 the same distiuctions as tlie i)rece<liii<^ for nuinhcr and 
 ca>«e, but lias three forms in all the cases of the 
 singular nuniher. By examining a few sentences such 
 as, ** Father is awaj^ hiit he will soon be home" ; " My 
 sister is here, (ihe will bo glad to see you"; "The 
 stone sank, if is out of sight," we are led to see that a 
 different form is used according as the pronoun rej)r(!- 
 senta a being of the 7nale ><ex, a being of the femal'. 
 .\rx, or an object hat^iiKj n.o sex, because without life. 
 Tlie term gender is employed to mark this distinction. 
 
 7. The pronoun he, applied to beings of the 
 ntfile sex, is said to be of the maSCUline gender. 'I'he 
 proiKtun f<he, applied to l)eings of the frDKilc sex, is 
 said to be of the feminine gender, 'i'he pronoun //, 
 appli'Ml to things without life, is said to be of the 
 neuter gender. Neufer means neither. 
 
 8. ( )bserve that the neuter it is also generally used 
 to stand for tho names of inferior animals, parlicularly 
 when there are not distinct names for each sex ; as, I 
 will kill that snake, or it will hurt s(»i!i<d»od>. 
 
 I). 'J'lie possessive cases of the personal pronouns 
 are fre<]uently regarded as fuf/erfireft. 
 
 10. Tlie distinction of gender is attributed to nouns 
 and pronouns generally, the sex (tf the ohjeet determin- 
 ing the (jender (»f the umue, according to tlie principles 
 above laid down. C)ur language, howeve?', really 
 requires no refereiuu' to the matters of sex and gi^xler, 
 save as regards the right use of tlu; third personal 
 pronoun. 
 
 EXKRCISK 1. 
 
 Point out (itnt eldxnifij tltr personal pronouns in the 
 
 folloiriinj senteiireH \ — 
 
 Wo saw voii She told (Iipui so. I did it. Thoy bade lior 
 faruwull. 'riioii tutHt Hiuitten liiiu. 
 
 Sil 
 Jolinl 
 awjiyl 
 
 ■■tf 
 
 1 
 
 1. 
 
 ^\ 
 
 told 
 
 
 repi 
 the 
 
 A 
 
 ») 
 
 
 et:ll 
 
presented to the 
 Thej may then 
 
 ' ll-'l.S hot only 
 
 T minihcr juk! 
 
 c;i.sc"s of jli(. 
 •-<'n((.Mico8 such 
 
 i<»iiie " ; '' My 
 
 1 to see that a 
 
 lonouM rcpn;- 
 
 of th(! fcmah' 
 
 without life. 
 
 P--< »listinc<i()ri. 
 L'iii^rs (,f ||„. 
 
 .^ciKh-r. Tlie 
 
 'i)ntl(: sex, is 
 
 l»ron()iiii //^ 
 
 to bu of the 
 
 ^'icrally used 
 
 parlicularly 
 
 l» SOX ; as, I 
 
 'al pronouns 
 
 ti'tl to nouns 
 ■'' 'Ictcniiin- 
 ^' j'i'incijilcs 
 '^H'v, really 
 *ii(l ^^indcr, 
 r<l pursonal 
 
 onus /// the 
 Ijfly \mh\v her 
 
 LKS.SONS ON LANOUAHR. 
 
 KXFiucisr: 2. 
 
 XXVIl 
 
 4 
 
 S'/p/tli/ the praprr fi)nn of tkn. t/u'nJ jiornnual pronoun 
 (s/}/(//lli(l') hi till' folloil'liHJ K('tltt')l.ri'.< : — 
 
 Sununer ia no lo'!<ror here ; T am son y tliat has tjono. 
 
 John left vesterdiiv ; we mi,<.s . Mv niiir(^ has slruvi'd 
 
 away. Did you see ? James has h>st hooU. 
 
 XX. 
 
 IIkI.ATIVK AN'D iNTl'.'i.liOr.ATIVi; PlloNOUXS. 
 
 1. In such a sentonci; as, "This is the man irlio 
 told Uic," wo find a iironoun irlio, which, inaiMition to 
 reprcsiiutin;^, or standinj^; for, tli»! noun man, connects 
 tlio words which follow it with those preceding it. 
 
 2. Pronouns wliicli thus roniwrt words, as W(dl as 
 stand f(ir nouns, arc called relatiVB. Tlio fore^^'oing 
 noun or pronoun to wliicdi the relative refers, or f(jr 
 
 which it stands, is called its antecedent. 
 
 3. The relative pronouns are n-ho, irhlrh, what, and 
 ih<it. 
 
 4. Tlie possessive case of who is niltomi and the 
 objective whom. Tlie rehitive pronouns have no other 
 changes of form. 
 
 5. Who is us(m1 oidy wlien th(! antecedent is the 
 nanui of a person ; us, Soldiers who tight. 
 
 (). Th(5 antecedent of that may bo the name of 
 either a ])erson or thing ; as, The man that speaks. 
 The tr('(.' tha* grows. 
 
 7. VViiich can now be; used only when the antecedent 
 is the nanj(^ of an object without life, or of an 
 inferior animal ; as, 'I'he leaves which I'all The dog 
 which barks. 
 
 H. The ante<;edent of w/iat being indeliint(! is not 
 exi»ressed ; as, He did what In; was loM ^ do. 
 
 9 117/0, whicJi^ and what, are also used to ask 
 questions. They are then culled iiiturroijatim prunounn. 
 
;" ■■ i! 
 
 t 
 
 XXVlll 
 
 LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 EXERCISE 1. 
 
 Point md tlie relative and interrogative pronouns 
 
 In the fdlloirl.iui i^enlcnccx, sf(din(/ thf case ami iifnuber 
 of each, ((ml ■'!per////in(/ the antecedent of lite relative : — 
 
 I will seok the friend whom I love. The sprin<^ which used 
 to jjive us such nice drinks is dried up. The God that we adore 
 will deliver us. This is the prize that I value nriost. What is 
 hritihtcr than ^old ? Who can believe it ? I told the man that 
 related the ^tory which you have just heard, tliat he was 
 mistaken. Which do you believe? 
 
 XXI. 
 
 Moods of Verbs. 
 
 1. The test of a verb is that it makes a stateniont. 
 Verbs naturally uiulergo chaiif^es of form correspoiulipg 
 to the great varieties of statements which it is possible 
 to make. The first of these changes to which we shall 
 refer has reference to the vianner in which the state- 
 ment is made, and is called mOOd. 
 
 2. When we make a direct slatcment, as when we 
 say *' binls sing," the verb is said to be in the 
 indicative mood. 80 also when we ask (jiK'stions ; as, 
 Answered thou not 1 
 
 3. When the statement has tlie f<»rni of a command 
 or a i€(jne.it, the verb is said to be in the imperative 
 mood ; as. Lore your enemies. 
 
 4. That form of the verb which is used to ex|)ress 
 the action in a genend manner is called the inflnitivp 
 mood ; as, We told him to f/o. The intinitive mood 
 g(merally follows another verb, which is said to (jorern 
 it. It is usually preceded by to, but some common 
 verbs such as tdd, dare, nial'e, see, feel, do nof 
 re(juir(i to before an inlinitive following them ; as, 
 John saw his brothers depart. 
 
 Pt 
 
 9,ente\ 
 
 TlJ 
 horscl 
 Coimi 
 his fri 
 
 I 
 
LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 XXIX 
 
 ative immoiuis 
 •'c and iinrnhe)' 
 (he relafice : 
 
 >'-in<r Avhich used 
 0(1 that we adore 
 most. What is 
 old the man that 
 tJ, that he was 
 
 a statonic'iit. 
 corresponding 
 
 it is possible 
 liich we shall 
 lich the state- 
 as when we 
 ^ f^e in the 
 uestions; as, 
 
 f a command 
 
 imperative 
 
 I to express 
 
 '^ infinitive 
 
 litive niood 
 1(1 to <!or<>)n 
 JJ(3 coniMioii 
 'h <!') iiof 
 tlioin ; as, 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Point out the moods of the verbs in the following 
 sentences : — 
 
 f The news nrrived yesterday. The noise will frij^hten the 
 hoi.^t's. Lovest thou nie ? Go to the ant, thou slujj^p;ard. 
 Coinmand him to come. Trust not in ojjpression. He hade 
 his fri-ind he of good courage. Strike when the iron is hot. 
 
 i 
 
 xxir. 
 
 Tenses of Verbs. 
 
 1. Tlie statement made l»y a verb may apply to 
 tlie present, j)ast, or future. For instanc( , tlie .state- 
 ment "the sun rises" refers to an event K<'i"o <^'i at 
 tlie present time. ])Ut if we should refer to the past 
 (as yesterday) we would say " the sun ?'o,sv' yesterday ;" 
 or if to the future, ** the sun w/'U rit^e to-morrow. 
 
 2. The change in verbs to denote time '■ called 
 tenso. There are primarily three tenses, the Present, 
 
 Past, and Future. 
 
 3. Kach tense has two numbers, corresixmding to 
 the number of the subject, as singular or plural. It 
 has also three ppi\S(mii in both num])ers. 
 
 4. The form which the verb takes when the subject 
 is the First Personal l^ronoun is called the First Per- 
 son ; as, 1 /oce. 
 
 The form which the verb takes when the subject is 
 the Second Personal Pronoun is called the Sp'JOnd Per- 
 son ; as, Thou loiH'sf. 
 
 1'he form which the verb takes when the subject is 
 a noun or the thinl personal pronoun is called the 
 
 Third Person ; as, Mother /orcfi. llo /<>ren. 
 
 The verb whose subject is a rchdirr pr<moi(n is in 
 the person re(piir(!d by the antecedent ; as, I who htve ; 
 thou who loresf ; he who hren, 
 
 (The teacher at this stage will present on the black- 
 board in successive lessons tho present, past and future 
 
: 
 
 J 
 
 il ;!' 
 
 If 
 
 ill 
 
 .V 
 
 
 ! ...i 
 
 
 t 
 
 XXX 
 
 LESSONS ON LA NO U AGE. 
 
 M 
 
 toiise.s, indicative iiioutl. of he, pointing,' out tlio prculiar 
 use of that verb as a cop/thr, ccjiiiiectiiig nouns and 
 jn'onouns witli other nouns and pronouns, or with 
 adjectives and adverbs. Also tliu same tenses (indeli- 
 nite form) (,'f lom and irrit<', or of simihir verbs). 
 
 EXKIICISE. 
 
 D/'stuir/iiish the tenSBS of the verhs in the followiuj 
 sentences : — 
 
 The toHinstor drives too rapidly. I am afraid that I shall 
 tear my dross. The birds Hanji^ sweetly. We were ready when 
 the time came. Others thought diffe.ently. Much time goes 
 to wa.ste. The fire will burn brightly. 
 
 XXlil. 
 
 Voices of Verbs. 
 
 In such a sentence as, "elohn strikes tlie tabh'," 
 J(»hn, the subject of tlie transitive verb strikes, names 
 the doer of the action denoted by that verb. The 
 saUiG vicain'vr/ is conveyed by "The table is struck by 
 John." Here the su))j(;ct tablr names tlie receiver of 
 the action. The distinction in the form of transitive 
 verbs depending on the rehition of the subject to the 
 action expressed by the veib, whether as doer or 
 receiver, is called voice. 
 
 2. There are two voices, tlie Active* and trie 
 Passive. In the AcUve voice, the vsubject of the verb 
 represents tne doer of the action ; as, Joseph hit the 
 ball. 
 
 In tlu! Passive voice, the subject of the verb repre- 
 sents the receiver of the action ; as, The ball was hit 
 by Joseph. 
 
 3. Intransitive verbs have no distinction of voice. 
 
 4. The Passive voice is formed by attaching to tiie 
 successive tenses of the verl) J)e a form of the verb 
 called the rmst /)((rticiple. This participle is formed in 
 various ways, which it is not necessary now to describe. 
 
LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 XXXI 
 
 ut the poculiar 
 ig nouns and 
 oiins, or witli 
 tenses (indefi- 
 • V(!rbs). 
 
 the followin i 
 
 i'l that I shall 
 ere ready when 
 luch time f;<>es 
 
 i the tahle," 
 ^rihes, names 
 verb. The 
 is struck by 
 »e r PA' elver of 
 of transitive 
 ibject to the 
 as doer or 
 
 ^e- and the 
 of the verb 
 I'll hit the 
 
 ver]j repre- 
 fiU was liit 
 
 )n of voice. 
 Iiin^' to tiio 
 »f the verb 
 1 formed in 
 o describe. 
 
 I 
 
 EXRRCISE. 
 
 Distinyuish the VOiceS of the verbs in the foUoiving 
 se/ttences : — 
 
 The men sawed the lofj. The lop was sawn by the men. 
 They shoot the deer. The cart was drawn by ox' ii. We 
 carry a heavy load. The man said: I am killed. We shall 
 either conquer or be conquered. 
 
 XXIV. 
 
 Conjunctions. 
 
 1. Wliile lanf^na^'e is necessarily iniirked off in sen- 
 tences, the sentences themselves may be more or less 
 closely connected. AV^e can say: " 'i'he sun sets. 
 Darkness (;omes on," or can combine these statements 
 thus : "The sun sets co/d darkness conies on." 
 
 2. Words thus used to connect sentences are culled 
 
 conjunctions. 
 
 There are two chief classes of conjunctions, co-or- 
 dlnatlnrf and xnhordliKitiixi. 
 
 3. Co-ordinating conjunctions connect sentences 
 which are indein'iident ol each other in nieaniuL,' ; as, 
 Our friend is not handsome huf iie is learned. 'J'he 
 principal conjunctions of this class are and, hiif, r/st\ 
 for, or. Co-ordinate C(»njuiictions connect irords as 
 well as sentences; as, 'i'he boys niid j^irls are enjoying' 
 thems«dves. He did bis work quickly and well. 
 John is slow hut sure. 
 
 4. Subordinating conjunctionsjoin to one sentej.ce 
 others d(q)endent on it in meaning ; as. That man is 
 poor hecaufie he is lai'.y. 
 
 There are a j^reat many conjunctions of this class, 
 such as, altJioiKih, JH'canse, cjrcfiit, if, nofnu'fh.sfanditKj 
 though, unless^ lest, that, than. 
 
 Subordinating conjuiu^tions never connect mere 
 worda. 
 

 1 
 
 I 
 
 ;:! 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 If y 
 
 
 ■ i 
 
 
 
 It- 
 
 k ■ 
 
 XXXll 
 
 LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 EXERCLSE. 
 
 Distinguish the co-ordinating and subordinating 
 
 conjunctions in the fullowiny sentences'. — 
 
 He has worked hard and is very tired. You should y^o liome, 
 for it is very late. John tried very hard, because it was his last 
 chance. The teacher is very kind, else the children would not 
 love iier so much. If you jro, you will find it very j)lea.sant. I 
 will do so, since you wish it. He is richer than he is wise. 
 Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 
 
 XXV. 
 
 1. 
 
 mind, 
 thing 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Objects as they exist, or are conceived r.f by the 
 stand in certain relations to each other. One 
 may be above, tx'low, around or upon another. 
 When we move, we coma from this place to tliat. 
 
 Words thus i)laced before iK)nns to s1k>w the relation 
 of that which the noun denotes to something else are 
 
 called Prepositions. 
 
 2. Prepositions are among our most common words. 
 After, among, at, be fore, behind, below, between, by, for, 
 in, of. on, througii, to, under, up, with, may be 
 mentioned as most frequently occurring. 
 
 3. The noun or j)ronoun following a [)reposition is 
 in the ohjectire case ; as, I sent it to him. This letter 
 came from us. 
 
 4. Kemember that the preposition, while it never 
 like the conjunction joins sentences, yet marks a 
 connection or relation between the word which it 
 governs and some preceding word. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 In the following sentences point out the prepOSitionS' 
 
 t\e words which fiieij govern in the objective case, ana 
 the related words. 
 
 They sailed in a ship. Wo started for Liverpool, but went 
 to London. The boys ran up the hill. Tobacco is injurious to 
 health. The books of the book-soller are many. Of llim, 
 and through llim, nnd to Him are all thin<?s. I have returned 
 from France, and am now pa.ssing throuj^h England. 
 
 1115^' 'l^ 
 
 tioveri 
 
 I assign 
 its re 
 Thus 
 
LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 XXXlll 
 
 subordinating 
 
 n should fro home, 
 
 use it was his last 
 
 hildreii would not 
 
 very pleasant. I 
 
 than he is wise. 
 
 oived rf by the 
 ch other. Ont3 
 upon anotlier. 
 "0 to that. 
 (»w thn relation 
 iiethiiig else are 
 
 common words. 
 
 hetiveen, hy^for^ 
 
 with^ may be 
 
 I i)rej)osition is 
 n. This letter 
 
 while it never 
 
 yet marks a 
 
 I'ord which it 
 
 e prepositions' 
 stive case, ana 
 
 erpool, hnt went 
 t'o is injurious to 
 nany. 'Of Jlini, 
 I have returned 
 ;;laiid. 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 i Parts of SrEEcii. 
 
 1. We liave bri<'lly considered, tlioiigli not pre- 
 Icisely in this order, the noun, prciKniii, atljeetive, 
 fverb, adverb, conjnnction and preiiositicjn, the nature 
 
 of each, and the jiart whicli each phiys in niakiiiif np 
 [a sentence. Speech is a term liaving the same mean- 
 [in<,' as hnigioige ; conseipieiitly, tlie words mentioned 
 [are often spoken of as the '"I'arts ol Speeeli." 
 
 2. Cinnbinations o\' words taken at random do not 
 |niid<e sentences, nor, in a i)roper sense, constitute 
 
 l;inj;u;i,i;e. 'Y\\i\ '' Parts of Hpeech," as tlieir name 
 biiiplies, are related to one another, and each con- 
 ;iil)utes its share towards mal^ini; up tlie sentence. 
 I'i'he noun leipiirt'S a verb to vhich it miiy tstiind in 
 Ithe relation of subje'ct, or a prei)osition or verb to 
 ^^Li^vern it in the objective c;ise ; the verb must have 
 ^a noun or pronoun as its subject ; the adjective a 
 Jnoun which it may (piality or limit ; the adverb a 
 I verb, or some other wonl which it may modify. 
 
 3. The followin.Lij sentence contains the I'arts of 
 S[)eech ; " dames and John ghidly <^'avc to them 
 IiirL!;e presents." 
 
 ^\^len we descril>e the words of a sentence by 
 assitrniiii; eacli to its pro[M.'r i)art ol speecli, and stating 
 its relations to otlur words, we are said to parse. 
 Thus in the si'nteiice just given ; — 
 
 Jonie--^ and Jo//// arc })roper nouns, each of the 
 ma.sculine gend(!r and singulaii-^niml'er, in tlu^ nomi- 
 iiMtive case, and togi.'tlier tbrming tin! subject of tlie 
 verb f/ave, 
 
 At/il is a coordinating conjunction connecting the 
 nouns Jo/tn and Jmties, 
 
 (il(t(llii is an iidverb of maiun r modifying tlu; verb 
 (jori>. 
 
 Gave is a transitive verb, indicative mood, past 
 
XXXIV 
 
 LESSONS ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 tense, plural inimber, agreeing with its compound 
 subject Jolin and James. 
 
 (Singular nouns coupled with and require a plural 
 verb.) 
 
 To is a. pre].)ositi(>n showii.g the relation between 
 the ])ronoun tliem and the verb (jave. 
 
 T/iem is the third personal pronoun, common gen- 
 der, plural number, objective case, object of the 
 preposition to. 
 
 Large is a (jualifying adjective attached to (or 
 qualifying) the noun prcf^eiifs. 
 
 Prcf^eiits is a common noun, neuter gender, plural 
 number, objective case, governed by the transitive 
 verb ffave. 
 
 (Difficult exercises in parsing should not be 
 attempted. Much fuller statements than the above 
 should be elicited by proper questioning : \Vhy^;>Y>/>er 
 nouns? Why of tlie masculine gender? How do 
 you know that they are subjects? e^c, ike) 
 
 4. There is but one class of words which we have 
 not mentioned. Interjections. 
 
 Interjections are the disconnected words we utter 
 when under the inlkience of some strong or sudden 
 feeling ; as, oh ! ah ! alas ! They are generally ranked 
 among tlie Parts of Speech, th(jugh they do not enter 
 into the structure of sentences like other words. They 
 stand absolutely alone— b^iing as it were thrown in. 
 
 t 
 
E. 
 
 li its compound 
 
 require a plural 
 
 relation between 
 
 m, common gen- 
 object of the 
 
 iittached to (or 
 
 ?r gender, plural 
 i the transitive 
 
 should not be 
 tlian the above 
 ig : \\hy 2)roper 
 Jer? How do 
 <^c.) 
 which we have 
 
 words we utter 
 rong or sudden 
 :enerally ranked 
 ey do not enter 
 r words. They 
 •vere thrown in. 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 m 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. Language or Speech is the Instruuient by which 
 human beings express and exchange tho\ight. 
 
 Tlie term lanqunfje. is derived froiu tlie Latin word h'lh/nd, 
 tongue. It is not properly applied to j^estims, faeijil move- 
 ments, and other phvsieal si^^ns by whieii feelinu:, and, to some 
 extent, ihouijht, are oceasionally ex])ressed. lian<;iiaj;e eonsists, 
 jtrimarily, in the oral nttennce of sounds wliieh by usa^e repre- 
 sent certain ideas ; seeondarily, in written eharaeters which 
 by usa<,'e represent certain articulate sounds, 
 
 2. Grammar is the science wliich treats of the 
 principles of language. 
 
 General or univfrsnl o;rammar traces out and classifies prin- 
 ciples common to all lanuuajres ; purtinilar grammar explains 
 the laws and usa^j-es of a sintrle lan<rua<jre. 
 
 English Grammar is the science which treats of the 
 principle-' of the English language. 
 
 S. The true unit of speech and, therefore, the 
 true starting point of grammar, is the sentence, or 
 expression of a complete thought. 
 
 Sentence is derived from the Latin word senfenfid, thou<;ht or 
 opinion. In the nature of thin;;s, tlic expression of a thought 
 imi)lies a complete meaning in the language which expresses it. 
 
 Every sentence when examined is found to consist 
 of two })arts, — 
 
 (1.) That of which something is asserted, called the 
 
 Subject. 
 
 (2.) That which is asserted of the subject, called the 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 ■'•s^ 
 
tJUSt 
 
 i 1 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 m 
 
 I » -1 
 
 i 
 
 s r 
 
 r 
 
 ETYIVIOLOGy. 
 
 Sentknces. 
 
 Subject 
 
 Stars 
 The inercenuries 
 A yood conscience 
 (He) who steals my ])urse 
 Tlie s;;iiit ol" yoiir iailr-rs 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 t 
 
 shine 
 
 were tlirif-e dcfeatecl. 
 
 is a i^riccless treasure. 
 
 steals trasli. 
 
 sliall start tVoni every wave. 
 
 Tlie siibiect and predicate are called the essential 
 terms of ji sentence, because every sentence must con- 
 tain both. 
 
 4. S'.'iitences are composed of words. 
 
 A word is a significant combination of articulate 
 sounds, capable of being repix'sented by written 
 characters. 
 
 Words stand for ideas and thinL's, but they coavey no infor- 
 mation \inless combined in sentences 
 
 A few words, such as .1 and 0, consist each of a siny;le sound, 
 and arc r^presenied by a single eiiaraeier. 
 
 h That part of granniiar which ti-eats of individual 
 v^'ords in their forms and functions is called I^ltymology ; 
 that which treats of words as arranged in sentences is 
 called Syntax. 
 
 Closely connected with Syntax is Analysis, or 
 the resolution of sentences into their essential terms. 
 Analysis logically })reccdes syntax, and by ascertain- 
 ing: what is common to all sentences rendei's the laws 
 of syntax more simjdc and intelligible. 
 
 j*« 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 9 
 
 redicate. 
 
 shine 
 
 in'ce defeated. 
 eele.ss tvetisiirc. 
 
 lis tnisli 
 {'I'oin every wave. 
 
 J«<1 the essential 
 
 itence imist cou- 
 rts. 
 
 ion of nrticiilatc 
 ited by writtcMi 
 
 ey convey no infor- 
 [li of a sin<,dc sound, 
 
 eats of individual 
 died P]tyniology; 
 1 in sentences is 
 
 is Analysis, or 
 
 essenfial terms. 
 
 lid by ascertain- 
 
 rendei-s the laws 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 /I 
 \ 
 
 6. Etymology treats of the classification and forms 
 iof words. 
 
 NOTH. — T]u' wovi^ ctiiiiioldijii is (li'rivctl from the TJ rook, .iiid piiinaiily 
 Inic.iiit tin- sdciic liich frriifs aj llic uri<jin of ir(,r(h\ Its sij^niliratujii 
 I was nalurally fxtciidtd to ciulirare tlie ciMiicnts inrliidtd in otir (Icliiiition. 
 Tlie siilijcrt (ifdfi-ivatioii is iikh'c advanta^MMHisly stiidicd in sjx'cial iiiaiiuais 
 !()!' wiiid-aiialvsis, and is tliorctorc pioiu'ily oiiiiltcd tVdiii a stiictl\ .i,'iain- 
 iiiiatical <l(diiiitioii. A distiiiclioii is soiia'timus diuwn lietwet'ii ijraiuiiiati- 
 |c«i and //(■.'>?'/r(frti utyinoiogy. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF WOKDS. 
 
 7. Words fire divided into classes according to the 
 Idiiferent })ur{)oses for which they are used in speech. 
 
 The classes into which words are thus divided are 
 1 commonly called the Parts of Speech. These are — . 
 
 1. Noun. 
 
 2. Adjective. 
 
 3. Pronoun. 
 
 4. Verb. 
 
 5. Adverb. 
 
 6. Pre})osition. 
 
 7. Conjiuiction. 
 
 8. Interjection. 
 
 With the exce})tion of the preposition and interjec- 
 tion, the parts of speech admit of sub-classilication. 
 
 NoTK. — The namo, " part of s]>eecli," as given to a word shows tliat tlie 
 latter is in some s(nisc inianipltle; that soiiicthin,!^ is laekini^ to nialie a 
 iv/iole. The whole iuiplieil in the ti-rni is, as we have seen, Uie setUtnce. 
 
 FORMS OF WORDS. 
 
 8. Certain classes of words admit of change of 
 form, in order to express difference of relation. These 
 are the noun, })ronoun, verb, adjective, and some 
 adverbs. Pre})ositions, conjunctions, interjections, and 
 most adverbs are invarial;le in form. 
 
 Change of form m nouns and pronouns is called 
 
Hk» 
 
 f 
 
 i 
 
 4 ETYMOLOGT. 
 
 declension ; in verbs, conjugation ; in adjectives mu\ 
 
 iidvcrbs, comparison. 
 
 NoTK I. — Compared with Latin ami Groek, and also with most modri' 
 toiiijm's, tin; Kii^lisli lati;;ua;^o has but f't^w and sli<;ht changes of forin. Ii 
 nouns, vimIis, and sonni pronouns, tho same loim is repeatedly nsfd tn 
 •'Xprcss diircrcnt rflations. 
 
 NoTK 2. — Tho ordinary trrin rmploycd in u'rainniar to dcnoto tlioohaii.' 
 of (orni in word-^ i^ induction, from (lio Latin injlcti'rt', to lieinl, rt*ft'nii;j 
 to niodilications in tho cyj/Z/z/i/.s of « ords l)y which tlu-y were adapted i" 
 dill't'i't'iit ri'laliniis in a scnttMici!. Whilo tiic word is liiiihly t'xpicssiv. 
 as a]>plii'd to siicli iai!;xna'4<'s as llic Latin, (rrt-ck, An^^lo-SaxoM, .: 
 (Icrinan, whosn ctyniolo'^y is essiMitially based on tcrininational ohanjj;r- 
 it-i rolcntion in Mriixlisb jx'"'"iniar lends to finbai'rassincnt. It rami"' 
 be usimI rotit/iri'h-'iisii'iu'ij as a j^ramnuUioal t«rin without doinjj violent 
 to its prop«r meaning. 
 
 THE NOUN. 
 
 9. A noun U a word used as the name of sornetliinu: 
 as, liurse, river, ijold, Cromweli, wisdo'.n. 
 
 (1 ) Tho wt;r\l ikhiii iiiciins tuiinr. (From Latin iiomrii, 
 nanic.) 
 
 (2.) Nouns name not only objects havino; an actual material 
 existence, l)iit i/nd/itics, i(le<(s nndfrcliw/s in their widest ran«;e. 
 
 CLASSIFICATIO^f OF NOUNS. 
 
 10. Nouns aecordini; to t/ie extent of their ineammj 
 are divided into two principal classes, 
 
 (1.) Proper nouns. 
 (2.) Common nouns. 
 
 11. A Proper Noun is the name of an individual 
 person or thinuf, and is used to distin»j;iiis]i that person 
 or lliinj^ fi'oin all oliiers of the same class; as, (iustavus 
 Adolplnis, Mississippi, Tuesday, Vienna. Observe the 
 lisliuj'tioi! betv.'cen these words and the words, man, 
 river, day, city. 
 
 (1.) The word juitfwr is derived from the Tditin jn'oprins ami 
 means i>irii. iV Proper iNoim is one's oirn name. 
 
 (2.) l*ro))(>r nouns are iiivarial)ly written with a Cftjjital lette 
 at th(! iK'^innino:. 
 
 (3, ) As a rnlo, proper nouns jire not supujiranf. Even when 
 tho mimo, /// list If, has a meaning, that meaninj; is not generally 
 applied to the ohjoi^t for which the noun Htands. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 5 
 
 ; in adjectives an 
 
 il also with most modr. 
 u'lit cliaiij,'es of form. I 
 
 I 111 is ie[)eatodly iif,ed i 
 
 iinarto donofft tlicclian- 
 
 ^'(•^■/•t^ to Lend, rt'tfiriii' 
 eh tlit'y were adai)t.'d i' 
 oni is liii^lily cxpicssiv, 
 
 <ii-.M'k, An^clo-Saxoii, ^i 
 
 II tciiniiiational olian<,'t . 
 '•anassin.M.t. It raim.,^ 
 
 ^^llhoUt d(>il|;r violeiic^ 
 
 '(me of somctliiiio: 
 
 (From Latin vomen, 
 
 i;r an actual material 
 i tlicir widest ran«;e. 
 
 srouNs. 
 
 t of (heir tneamiif/ 
 
 of an individual 
 unish that jhtsoii 
 hsh; as, Gnsfavns 
 na. Oljserve tin* 
 
 lli(^ words, man, 
 
 i T,atin proprius ami 
 imc. 
 
 with a capital Icttc 
 
 Jlranf. Kvon wlieri | 
 injj: iHUotgeiioi-ally 
 in<lfl. 
 
 In their orirjin, however, many proper nouns were dfsniiifire; 
 as, Siioirdon, Momit Blanc, Ncir Kih/IoihL Many family sur- 
 names are of this character; as, Snu't/i, Brown, 7\}i/lor, Carjxntcr. 
 
 (4.) \Vhen use<l as the comnKJU ajijiellation of a numher of 
 ijiuividuals, a proj)er noun retains its essential character. In 
 fill h case it has l)ecn apjjlicd separately, and is not used like a 
 lommon noun to denote a whole class. Tliou^li there are 
 leveral Londons, St. Johns, and Avons, Londun. St. John, and 
 lvou are still ])roper nouns. 
 
 . (5.) Proper nouns are sometimes used in the plural to denote 
 liaises or jiroups; as, the Ptolemies, the Wijhcrforccs, the 
 
 acsars, Also the name of a well-known person may he applied 
 J others who resonilde him in charaitir or achievements ; as, 
 
 Mt. Thomas A(pn'nas was the Plalo of tlie Midtlle Aoes." 
 
 12. A conimoil noun is a name a|)[)lic'al)l<' alike to 
 class of objects and to each individual ol" which the 
 
 lass is coinjtosed ; as, tree, boy, city, rivef, hero, ])oet. 
 
 I The word common is derived from the Latin communis, shared 
 ly sevi- il. The name is the common property of all the indi- 
 liiluals .oakin;^ u)) the class. 
 
 13. As all nouns which Jire not proper jire ranked 
 is roiuiuon nouns, a sub-elassilietUiou ot tlu; hitler is 
 >ui:i:t'''^te(l. AVe note : — 
 
 (1 , ) 'I'hc Collective Noun, or name which denotes a numher 
 t)f individuals takt n as a mass and spoken tjf as a sin;;le olijecl; 
 Is, herd, jury, ])arliamenf, cahinet. 
 
 . (2.) The Abbtiact Noun, which is the name not of a 
 knalerial ohject, hul of a (|uality, action, siattv or any other 
 puiely mental eoncc|(lion ; sis, .sweetness, fiiction, sleep, irutli. 
 
 (.'5.) L^idcr this head intiy he specially jneutione«l, (it) 
 flames of the mental Jind moral poweis ; 's, metnorv. con- 
 -Kience ; (/>) names of arts and ^eicnces ; as, ]»(;etry, loj^ic, 
 lliotany ; (c) j^eneral mums such as space, time, t.^<'. 
 
 f (4.) The term (ihslnid, dtiivid from the Latin (il>}<ir<irtns, 
 Idrawn off, implicH that the (juality, &v., is thoujjlit of hy itself 
 land entirely detjiched from iho ohject to which it helon^H. 
 
 I Noli: 1. — Almtiacl hoiiiik uic HoiiictirticH a^(•^l in n coiicu'lc mmim' to 
 jdciiolc I lie (»/>yrf/ rut lici' I liaii lilt' f/t/d/////, hk wIh'ii i,"iitli '\h need tor thu 
 l\\ liMJi' clfthB oi' youiiK in»'ii or «■ 'lilily tor the order (tf noli|»»»i. 
 
 I NivrK 2.— Abstiart nvf ratntnini imiuiih liccaiisc ttir\ utaiid gfnrrnthf or 
 tunivrrfiiltjf tor tli«« qliiilities wliicti tiiry dtiiotf, 
 
 14. NoTK. — To tin' uImiVi' Kill* clasHis of roiniiioii iiouiih hoIuo Krain- 
 inariaiiii would Hdd tlio iiaiiioB of matiriul subilancry, 'I'Iivbu nri*, 
 
6 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ! 
 
 however, logrioally iiicliiiled in the tjeneral definition and need no special 
 tn-atiniMit. They stand lioth for the sul)stance in ^'eneral and f«)r any 
 |iartieulai' jMirtion, the rclatioa iiein;,' tliat of a class to tht indivitlnal- 
 ooniposin;,' it. Other writers, with little reason, treat such nouns as a 
 l»arli(Milar tyjie of abstract nouns. 
 
 15. All common nouns ivro sii/iiijirdiif, inasmuch as they 
 describe the objects to wliich tliey are applictl. 
 
 CHANGES OF FORM IN NOUNS. 
 
 16. Nouns arc changed in form to mark distinctions 
 of (jrcnder, Number and Case. 
 
 NoTi;. — Tlie distinction of /ifrson sometimes atti'i'mted to nonnr-i is a 
 prammatical tietion. It is rejected hy Whitney, Morris, I'.ain, Smitli, 
 Mason and the eliii'f modern antliorities on l^udisli tiruniniar. Person 
 is an atlrihiUe of tlie vnh, not ol' the noun. The distinction hitwticn (he 
 eo-ealled ptrsonnl jiro nouns is not a matter oi form hut of iwaning. 
 
 GKXDKK. 
 
 17. Goiul^r (Latin i/cuiis a class) is of two kinds 
 Ndtnral and GntnntKtllcid. 
 
 18. Natural iicnder has no respect Uy form and is 
 simidy a threefohl classilication of nouns, correspondini^ 
 to tlie threefold character of objects denoted by nouns, as 
 bciniif oftlu^ tnole s{i\, o^ t]w. fenin/e n*.^\, or without sex. 
 
 Natural i^cnder is applied to all nouns, to tliose 
 having; ij^rammatic:il i^ender as well as others. 
 
 19. (1.) Nouns (h'notini,^ objects of tlui male sex are 
 said to be of the masculilie geiulei , as, em[)eror, duke, 
 
 (2.) Nouns deiiotinijf objects of i\w, finnnle sex arc 
 said to be of the feiuinino gender; as, empress, duchess, 
 
 girl. 
 
 (3.) Nouns dtMioting objects without the distinction 
 of sex arc said to be of tht^ lieuter (Latin neuter^ 
 neither) gender; as spade, riv(M*, idol. 
 
 (4.) Nouns denoting indilh'rently objt^cts of the 
 male or female sex are said to l)e of the COlTimon 
 gender; as animal, child, parent. 
 
 NoTK. — Tin' common definition of ^iench-r as the ihstinclion of sfx\ i« 
 misleadin;; Uh applied to that vast nn^'nity of ninniK wliicli Imvo no 
 Urauimaticiil m>nder. Tin' correct htatenu'nt is timt the sex or mnt si\r 
 of the obirrt iletermints thr i^emlrr of the noun. Tin' nniverKui application 
 ofthiH |>riiicil>lu luaket* (Render in Knfilinh a matter of uxtrenie niiuidiuity. 
 
 20. 
 
 of SMll 
 
 iiig to 
 
 U 
 coniin 
 
 (1 
 tei'uiii) 
 
 •v. or wil 
 
 femii 
 cndii 
 
 and 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 1 and need no special 
 
 KoiitM-al aiKl for any 
 
 ■f^s to the imlividiials 
 
 rt'at siicli nouns as a 
 
 iiiiismueh as they 
 
 DUXS. 
 
 lark distinctions 
 
 •ilnitiMl (o nouiin i.H a 
 ■^'onis, r.uin, Sinitli, 
 k'laininar. Person 
 
 nfiu-ii:)ii hifwcrn Uk; 
 )U( Dt'mraniiin. 
 
 is of two kinds 
 
 to form iuu\ is 
 s, coiTes|)on(Iiii<r 
 ):e(I by nouns, as 
 
 or without sex. 
 
 "»niis, to those 
 
 'fliers. 
 
 I lie male sox an^ 
 
 CMnpcror, duke, 
 
 female sex jiro 
 :Ji>ress, (luchoss, 
 
 ' the (h'sfhirlion 
 (Latin neuter^ 
 
 objofta of tho 
 
 I' tlu) common 
 
 'ixtinclinn 0/ x^.r, \n 
 •IX vsJiicli iiavii no 
 hf se.r or ni>n trjr 
 iiiv.'iNal n|.|.li,.i,(i,j„ 
 ttruiue niiinilioity. 
 
 I 20. Grammatical gender is a change in the form 
 ..J of some nouns wliich denote living beings, corres{)ond- 
 ^ ing to the sex of the ol)ject whicli the noun denotes. 
 
 It is of very limited application in English and is 
 conlined to the following cases: 
 
 ^, (1). When' tho tna?t'uline termination -rr, and the feminine 
 I terniinatiou -ess, are added to a common stock or stem ; as, 
 
 }f(isrulina 
 
 Murdor-er 
 
 Sorcer-er 
 
 Adnlter-er 
 
 roiiinine 
 
 Murder-ess 
 
 Sorceress 
 
 Adiilter-es3 
 
 In accordance wiili this rule in'doin'r was formed from tlie 
 stem of an old Hn^Hsh word whose mMsenline form was 'widinvwf 
 and feminine form ' widiiwc' Modern Kn;;li>h a|)[»roi)riated 
 tlie simple stem as the feminine fonn. 
 
 (2). When the Feminine termination -f.s.s, is attached, w!*h 
 or witijout euphonic chanj^e*, to a lixed masculine form ; a-' 
 
 Afasr.uline 
 Author 
 
 F, 
 
 (' nil nine 
 
 liaron 
 
 Count 
 
 Deacon 
 
 Kmperor 
 
 Founder 
 
 Ilo.-t 
 
 r 
 
 iion 
 rop 
 
 ihet 
 
 Sontister 
 
 Authoress 
 
 Baroness 
 
 Countess 
 
 Deaconess 
 
 Kmpross 
 
 Foundress 
 
 Hostess 
 
 Lioness 
 
 Prophetess 
 
 SoiiL'stress 
 
 (3). When words horrowe<l from other ]an^ua<j;ea take 
 fennnino endin};s peculiar to those hni<^ni.i;;es. Anioiif; these 
 eMdiMj^saro-///j' (Latin), />('- (Greek and Cierman) -a (Romance); 
 
 as. 
 
 Manrnline 
 Executor 
 
 (M'O 
 
 11 
 
 Lamljjjravo 
 
 Sij;nor 
 
 Sultan 
 
 re nil nine 
 
 Fxecutrix 
 
 Heroine 
 
 Landj^ravino 
 
 Sij^Miora 
 
 Sultana 
 
 Czdrina, fctnitiiuo of Cz<tr comhiiies tho terminations •/«(<') 
 ami -a 
 
^isM 
 
 mmmm 
 
 nwiap* 
 
 ^ 
 
 8 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 I 
 
 EJ 
 
 NOTK. CSS the only teiniiiiation which can be employed in fomiiiif? new 
 
 feiniiiinet*, is of Norman French orij^in, -esse from the late Latin -issa. 
 It gradually supi)lantcd the Saxon feminine suffix, -ster, of which we 
 liave a remnant in spinster. Tapster, maltster and all similar words were 
 orifjinally feminine. SongstrcsAwl seamstress are douhle feminines. -en 
 was another old feminine ending surviving only in vixen. 
 
 (4). When masculine or feminine nonus or pronouns are 
 prefixed or affixed to nouns of tlie common gender; as, 
 
 Masculine 
 
 Ile-^oat 
 C()ci< -spar row 
 Man-servant 
 
 Feminine 
 
 She-goat 
 Hen -span ow 
 Maid-servant 
 
 \ 
 
 There is no grammatical form corresponding to the neuter 
 gender. 
 
 21 The Knglish language making little use of distinctive 
 forms of gender, a knowledge of the (jender of its nouns 
 generally j)resupposcs a knowledge of their mcanin]}. Lists 
 of pairs of musculinc iuid feminine nouns marking sexual oppos- 
 ites arc incorrectly given in many grammars as illustrating 
 (I mtxie of dish')i(/uis/iiiuf tjcmlcr. The (picstion involved is one 
 of mcanimi and not oi' </r<niim(ir. As, however, the number of 
 these related jiairs is not large, wo sulyoiu the most 
 imj)ortant : 
 
 )()V 
 
 Jiachelor 
 
 Boar 
 
 1 
 
 liridi'groom 
 
 IJrother 
 
 Buck 
 
 Jiull 
 
 Cock 
 
 (volt or foal 
 
 Dog 
 
 Drake 
 
 Karl 
 
 Father 
 
 (JafUr 
 
 (Jatidcr 
 
 (icuilcniau 
 
 Hart 
 
 Horse, Stallion 
 
 iisiia 
 u-r 
 
 H 
 
 Ki 
 
 Lad 
 
 iiord 
 
 Man 
 
 ml 
 
 Maid 
 
 Sow 
 
 Girl 
 
 Bride 
 
 Sister 
 
 Doe 
 
 Cow 
 
 Hen 
 
 Filiv 
 
 Bitch 
 
 Duck 
 
 Countess 
 
 Motl 
 
 ler 
 
 lianuner 
 
 (lOose 
 
 Tiadv 
 
 H ^ 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 (iiicen 
 
 I 
 
 oe 
 arc 
 ife 
 
 ass 
 
 L:idy 
 Woman 
 
ETTMOLOGT. 
 
 » 
 
 (loyed in forming new 
 he late Latin -issa. 
 , -ster, of wln'ch we 
 I similar words were 
 iiiMt' feniinines. -en 
 •ixen. 
 
 or pronouns are 
 jendcr; as, 
 
 "^eminine 
 
 e-goat 
 m-sparrow 
 ill -servant 
 
 luy to the neuter 
 
 ISC of distinctive 
 '('I' of its nouns 
 • mranhuj. I.j.sts 
 ing sexual ojjpos- 
 i'« as illnstratin;,^ 
 1 involved is one 
 •'. the nuniher of 
 I'join the most 
 
 raid 
 
 o\v 
 
 irl 
 
 ride 
 
 ister 
 
 oe 
 
 [)\V 
 
 llv 
 
 teh 
 
 luk 
 
 iiintess 
 
 )ther 
 
 inrner 
 
 ( )se 
 
 ,iy • 
 
 e 
 
 re 
 
 (i! 
 
 eeti 
 
 IS 
 
 Lv 
 limn 
 
 Milter 
 
 Monk, Friar 
 
 Nephew 
 
 Pa])a 
 
 Kam 
 
 Ruff 
 
 Sir or Sire 
 
 Sloven 
 
 Son 
 
 Staj,' 
 
 Steer 
 
 Uncle 
 
 Wizard 
 
 Spawncr 
 
 Nun 
 
 Niece 
 
 Mamma 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Reeve 
 
 Madam, dame or 
 
 Slut dam 
 
 l)aujj:hter 
 
 Hind 
 
 Heifer 
 
 Aunt 
 
 Witch 
 
 NoTR. — In several of the ahove-nientioiied pnirs, Uio Jioiiiis (liontxh <1if- 
 Icrii);^ in appearance were closely rr- ;tectc(l in tlieir ori^'iiial roMiis. Thus: 
 
 Gnniier and Goose are ladieally the same word, the il in fjaiider 
 bciiiLr euphonic and tlie r x siihstitute for the oriurinal s. The proper root 
 vowel was a, wliicli in g-'ose became? -gradually chaii^'ed to oo. 
 
 Woman is derived from wifmnn, i. e., wite-maii. Wife was ori;,'inally 
 one who w fares. 
 
 Laily is by Jririvatinn a proper feminine form of loi if. Li)rd is sliortened 
 from !ilnfor.'; lady from the coriespoiidin;,' IVniinine hlaefflige, Tiie 
 oiiixinal nieanin;; was (/i.spensfr nfhrenl. 
 
 Sepheio and niece have a common descent (through the French) from 
 tlie Latin nfjios. 
 
 The mostly oltsolefe lerins gaffir and gnmnifr are simply shortened 
 forms for grnnd-fatlitr and iiriinil mothfr. 
 
 Bridegroom is a masculine form derived by composition fron) t)io 
 feminine, ^'roo^n (properly ^oow — for gnma), being old Knglish for man. 
 bridegroom is Brides' man. 
 
 Lass is clearly a contraction of lad- ess. 
 
 1^ EXCEPTIONS IN Gi^NDER. 
 
 22. The following exceptional usages are to be 
 noted : — 
 
 1. A noun wliich properly denotes an animal of a particular 
 SOX is Honu'times applied to animals of hoth sexes ; as, horno 
 (masculine), pjoose (feminine). 
 
 2. Sex is often disre^^arded in speakinjx of animals and 
 youiijj; children, their names hein^ treated as of the neuter fjf'iidcr; 
 as, The child hurt //,< finj^er. 
 
 n. liy the figure of Personification, ir.nnitnato ohjecta 
 are spoken of, or addressed, as if endowed with life, and their 
 names take the ti;en<ler reciuired hy the sex imputed to thein ; as, 
 War shakes his horrid locks. The moon sheds Arrsoft radiance. 
 
 NoTK. — The priiiclpleH tl'.^',ermining the sex of persotiilied ()l)Jccts lun- 
 not be laid down with exact precision. (Jenerally it may be sai<l that 
 natural olijeets of an impressive character, and natural )ihennmena 
 accompaniod l)y inanifeatationH of trreat power and violence, are per- 
 
''^ 
 
 i 
 
 I .M 
 
 l\ 
 
 
 I 
 
 li 
 
 ,-^ 
 
 KTYMOLOGY. 
 
 sonified as males; olyccts nii«1 phenomena characterized by beautr, 
 productivenfcss or •.ni!(liu'><8 females. 
 
 4. Collective nouns thonj^h denoting groups of males or 
 females are treated as of the neuter gender ; as. Parliament 
 adjourned its session. The multitude trusted /i? own strength, 
 
 23. The distinction of gonder in Englisli nouns is 
 of pructicul imjjortance only as relates to the accurate 
 use of the pronouns he, she, it, and their derivatives. 
 
 No'l'K. — The huvs of our li\nj.Mia;_'(' wliich make gender simitly a classifi- 
 cation of noun^ liascd on t^cx, anil allow no clianp'e of form to the adjectivf 
 exoe])t comparison, are in strikiiiji contrast with the usages of Latin, 
 (iri-ek, Ani^lo-Saxon, German, and many otlier tongues, wliieh have 
 complieated systtiuis of grammatical j,'ender applicable alike to tlie noun 
 and adjective. 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 24. Number is a variation in the form of nouns, 
 which sliovvs wliether we are speaking of one tiling, or 
 of 7}wre than one. 
 
 25. Tliere are in English two numbers, — tlie 
 Sinirular and the Plural. 
 
 (1.) The Singular number is that form of the noun 
 used when but one object is denoted ; as, book, window, 
 life. 
 
 (2.) The Plural number is that form of the noun 
 used when more than one object is denoted ; as, books, 
 windows, lives. 
 
 NoTK. — Sin<?nlar is derived from (he T.atin slnf(ulnris, one by itsrlf; 
 plvral from the Latin plum, more. In Old En}:;li.-li there was a Dual 
 (Latin duo, two) number used in the jronouns of the first and second 
 persona, 
 
 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 
 
 26. The Singular Number may be considered the 
 original form of the noim. 
 
 The Plural is genendly formed by adding s (or es) 
 to the Singular; as, dog, dogs; vulture, vultures ; brush, 
 brushes. 
 
 27. The following classes of nouns take -es: 
 
 (I.) Nouns ending in .s, .s7<, soft; ch, r, z; ns, moss, mosses; 
 dish, dishes; fhureh, chinvhes; fax, titxes ; topnz, topazes. 
 
 (2.) Nouns in // pricedcd hy a consonant, or 7«-, the^ being 
 changed into i; as, duty, duties; soliloquy, soliloquies 
 
 NoTi 
 
 an old s 
 
 (3.) 
 car<j;o, 
 
 Not 
 
 jivecedt 
 form th 
 the foV 
 word.s 
 
 (4 
 
 e: 
 
RTYMOtOGr 
 
 11 
 
 ■icterized by beauty, 
 
 'iidfr simply a clnssifi- 
 l"ni) to tlie;u]jpctiv( 
 
 nuuibersj—tho 
 
 JTnTK. — The plural of most nouns of this class is regularly formed from 
 an old siiii^uhir in -io, as lailic, ladit-s. ^ 
 
 (3.) Some nouns endinjj: in o preceded by a consonant, as, 
 carji^o, cargoes ; echo, eclioes. 
 
 NOTK. — Usacce is (piite variable as to the plural of nouns ending in o 
 preceded by a eonsonant. As a general ii-le, noniis in every day use 
 form their ])liiral in i-a, as ealieo, potato, negro, manifesto, voleano. I!ut 
 the following, among others, take ,v only; junto, solo, tyro, canto, such 
 words as ipiarto, octavo, etc., and all words in Io. 
 
 (4 ) Sotno nouns cnditio' ill /. In the plural of these nouns / 
 is changed into v; as, loaf, loaves; calf, calves ; wolf, wolves. 
 
 The singular endings in /" which do tiot follow this rule are 
 iff (exce))t tliief), oof, Jf (except sonietinies staff), rf (except 
 Kouietinies wliari'); as, belief, beliefs; roof,roofs ; rebutV, rebulls; 
 dwarf, dwarfs. 
 
 The following nouns constitute indivitUnil excejitions to the 
 rule: waif, waifs ; gulf, gulfs; oaf, oafs; clef, clefs ; coif, coifs; 
 reef, reefs. 'jt- , 
 
 Snirves and turves as plurals of .sra?/'and tKrfdvc practically 
 obsolete. 
 
 In the ])1ural of all nouns ending- in fc, except Jiff, stifc, and 
 strife, f is changed into r ,• as, life, lives ; wife, wives. 
 
 (.5.) Som'Miouns ending in /; as, alkali, alkalies; liouri, 
 houries. But Mufti, Muftis. 
 
 XOTK. — The plural ending -es is a modification of -«', an Anglo-Saxon 
 siiflix Used in forming the phiral of ma-culine nouns. The change took 
 place in eaily Knglisli, and the form -rs was ( xteiided to uoui\s generally. 
 Siibseipieiitly through the assimilative iullnence of the Norman French 
 phnal in -s, the e of the termination was dropped when not required for 
 the sake of euphony. 
 
 28. The foi'co;oiiio^ rules embrace all the regular 
 modem I'^iiijlish metlir 's of formiiio; tlie phiral. There 
 are retained, howevei. in the case of a few nouns of 
 Anglo-Saxon origin, other i)liiral formations. Tiiese 
 are : — 
 
 (1.) By adding eji; as, ox, oxen, child, children. 
 
 (2.) By a change of ro(»t vowel; as, man, nitMi ; woman, 
 women; foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; louse, lice ; mouse, 
 
 nnee 
 
 X 
 
 / 
 
 NoTK.— TA t1>«.fn'st class belong .-nch nouns as khii', jilural «)f ratr, nud 
 a lew plurals eitluu- o'bsolete or confined to local dialeet.s, as > iinc (plural of 
 t'!tr), /)o,sr'n (nlnral ot h<is('),.<li<i(iii. Cplural of .■<//«.'')■ C/ii/'lien and hrellirfn 
 nre dfudile nhirais. The forim-r adds vn- to rhihler, itself plural of rlnbl. 
 The latter adds -^/i altera chanm' in the root vowel. tVi/r/rr/t,<f Is also a 
 double plural, allixing s to (he Anglo Saxon suthx -rn. 'I'he compounds 
 of HKin fo'.ui (heir plurals like (he simple word, I\hiss\il)nnn:\\\\{ Tvrruninn 
 are sonieiimen errone<(Usly supposed (o be included In these compoundB 
 Their plurals nre n'^^ular. 
 
52 
 
 ETTMOLOGT. 
 
 'r U 
 
 u 
 
 
 m < 
 
 i 
 
 
 IRREGULARITIES IN NUMBER, 
 
 29. There are several noiUi3 which cannot be 
 classed under any general rules for the formation of 
 the plural. Here are included ; — 
 
 (1.) Nouns which have the same form forboth numl)crs; as, 
 sheep, (leer, <iToiise, trout, ])racc, cannon, species, series. In 
 some nouns denotintr quantity or weif^ht, usajre justifies the 
 employment of the sin<;uhir, even when re<^idar ))lural forms 
 exist ; as, the cliannel was twenty falhom deep. Other words 
 thus used are, score, <,fross, dozen, couple. 
 
 (2.) Nouns wliich have no ])Uiral ; as, music, poetry, flax, 
 gohl, and abstract nouns, as ])ride, honesty. 
 
 But abstract nouns may be jiluralizedto denote repeated 
 instances of any particular quality ; as, nej^ligences, virtues, 
 animosities. 
 
 Names of materials are also used in the ])lural, in connection 
 with commercial transactions, to denote different (jnnlitifs or 
 f/iKcles : as, wools, teas, sugars. 
 
 (.3.) Nouns which liavc no sinnfulav. These include, 
 
 n. Names of instruments and articles of clothiufr consist" 
 in>r of two similar ])arts ; as, scissors, tongs, trousers, drawers 
 bellows, shears, snutter-;. 
 
 b. Names of certain jtortions of the body, and of some diseases 
 yames and ceremonies, which may be regarded as made up of 
 )>arts ; as, entrails, mumi>s, billiards, bands, vea])ers, nujitials 
 obsequies. 
 
 c. Certain miscellancou: nouns : as, 
 Aborigines, / 
 
 Ides 
 
 Lees 
 
 Oats 
 
 rromises 
 
 Suds 
 
 Thanks 
 
 Tidings 
 
 Victuals 
 
 Annals 
 
 Antipodes 
 
 Archives 
 
 Cfilends 
 
 Credentials 
 
 Drogs 
 
 Dimips 
 
 (4.) Certain ])lMral forms which arc generally construed as 
 singular ; as, amends, barracks, gallows, means, news, odds, pains 
 shambles. 
 
 \V(i;ics formerly came under this class, but is now used 
 regularly. Sununons is singular, with a plural summonses.* 
 
 "Such wordn aa etliicx, optics, physics, i^-c, wore oiijj[iiially Grtek 
 ailjcctives in tliti jilmal uii!i»htH\ Tlioii^'h in becomhi,' En;^!i8li nounH 
 tht-y li.ive tultcn s as a snbHtitiito for the foreign plural ending, tliey are, 
 by virtue of their meaning, singular. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 18 
 
 VEBER, 
 
 ich cannot be 
 e formation of 
 
 )oth numbers; as, 
 x'cics, series. In 
 sajrc justifies the 
 liar plural forms 
 cp. Other words 
 
 usic, jwetry, flax, 
 
 ) denote repented 
 li{,'ences, virtues, 
 
 al, in connection 
 '.ram qnnlitiea or 
 
 e include, 
 
 clothinjr consist" 
 •o users, drawers 
 
 lof somediscas(\s 
 as made \\\) of 
 eflpors, nuptials 
 
 lly construed as 
 iws, odds, pains 
 
 t is now used 
 iuinmonses* 
 
 oiigiiially Greek 
 
 1^' /'^"^'HbIi 110UI.8 
 
 *^"diUK, they are, 
 
 (5.) Certain forms which are properly sin«rular, but have 
 i acquired a plural use throu;:h the influence of their ending in 
 •s- ,• as, alms (Anj^lo-Saxon ^'^V;/jr.ss^', old English ahnes), eaves 
 (Old English efes), riches (Norman French rir/i,-sse.) 
 
 (6.) Some nouns having two plural forms, generally with 
 la difference of meaning ; as, 
 
 Siiignka', 
 Brother. 
 
 Cloth. 
 
 Die. 
 
 Genius, 
 
 Index. 
 
 Pea. 
 
 Penny. 
 
 Shot. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ( brothers 
 I brethren, 
 ( cloths, 
 \ clothes, 
 { dies, 
 j (lice,^ 
 j gcnuises, 
 j ycnii, 
 j indexes, 
 I indices, 
 i l'<^'as, 
 I l)case, 
 ( ])ennies, 
 I jience, 
 j shots, 
 ( shot. 
 
 by birth, 
 
 of the same society. 
 
 varieties of cloth. 
 
 garments. 
 
 stiimjjs for coining. 
 
 cubes for gaming. 
 
 men of genius. 
 
 f.ibled sjiirlts. 
 
 tables of contents. 
 
 algebraic signs. 
 
 single seeds. 
 
 the grain as a species. 
 
 separate coins. 
 
 value or amount. 
 
 discharges. 
 
 balls or bullets. 
 
 (7.) Letters, figures and other characters, used as nouns, 
 which form their plural hy adding 's ; as, Omit the 9's ; dot 
 \our i's ; be careful of your -j-'s and — 'a- 
 
 FOREIGN PliUKALS. 
 30. Many foreign words, especially tliose wliicli 
 are imperfectly naturalized, retain their oiiginal plurals, 
 thus, 
 
 FROM THE LATIN. 
 
 Siiii/ithir. 
 
 Addendum, 
 
 Amanuensis, 
 
 Animalculurn, 
 
 Apex, 
 
 A])pendix, 
 
 Arcanum, 
 
 Axis, 
 
 (Calculus, 
 
 Cumulus, 
 
 Datum, 
 
 Desideratum, 
 
 Dictum, 
 
 Phind. 
 
 Addenda. 
 
 AniiinucM>es. 
 
 Aiiimalcula. 
 
 Apices.* 
 
 Appendices.* 
 
 Arcana. 
 
 Axes. 
 
 (^Uculi. 
 
 Cumuli. 
 
 Data. 
 
 Desiderata. 
 
 Dicta. 
 
 • Al«o regular. 
 
u 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ; 
 
 : 
 
 ; ' 1 
 
 
 I 
 
 SivrpiUtr. 
 
 ErHuviuin, 
 
 Erraruiii, 
 
 Formula, 
 
 Focus, 
 
 Fnn;^i'.s, 
 
 (lonuri. 
 
 Larva, 
 
 Locus, 
 
 Mai^nis, 
 
 iMcdiuin, 
 
 INIeniorantlum, 
 
 Nchula, 
 
 Oasis, 
 
 Kadiiis, 
 
 Sfimuliis, 
 
 Straluui, 
 
 Tcrniiiuis, 
 
 Tumulus, 
 
 Vortex, 
 
 Vortex, 
 
 FliOM THE GKKLK. 
 
 Analysis, 
 
 Apsis, 
 
 Automaton, 
 
 Basis, 
 
 Crisis, 
 
 Criterion, 
 
 Ellipsis, 
 
 Hypothesis, 
 
 IMiasma, 
 
 Parenthesis, 
 
 Phenomenon, 
 
 Thesis, 
 
 Cherub, 
 8crai)h, 
 
 Beau, 
 Flambeau, 
 
 FROM THE lIEnUEW. 
 
 FHO:\I THE FRENCH. 
 
 FROM THE ITALIAN. 
 
 Bandit, 
 
 (^onversa/ionc, 
 Dilletaiito, 
 Virtuoso, 
 
 Plural 
 
 Effluvia. 
 
 Eirata. 
 
 Formulae.* 
 
 Foci .* 
 
 Funyi. 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Larvae. 
 
 Loci.* 
 
 Magi. 
 
 Media.* 
 
 Memoranda.* 
 
 Nebula?.* 
 
 Oases, 
 
 liadii. 
 
 Stimuli. 
 
 Strata.* 
 
 Ti'rmini. 
 
 Tumuli. 
 
 Vertices.* 
 
 Vortices. 
 
 Analyses. 
 
 A))si(les. 
 
 Automata.* 
 
 Bases. 
 
 Crises. 
 
 Criteria * 
 
 Ellipses. 
 
 Hypotheses. 
 
 Miasmata. 
 
 Parentheses. 
 
 Phenonu-na. 
 
 Theses. 
 
 Cherubim. 
 Seraphim. 
 
 Beaux. 
 Flambeaux. 
 
 Banditti* 
 Conversazioni, 
 Dilletanti. 
 Virtuosi. 
 
 Also regular. 
 
 .1 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 15 
 
 PLUKAL OF COMPOUND NOUNS. 
 
 31. The pluml of compound nouns is ijenerally 
 formed by adding the ])lural sufFix to the principal noun, 
 that is to tlie noun described, wliatever he its position ; 
 as, hrot/(ers-'m-]ix\w, ivmt-trecs, cousins-goriuau, courts- 
 murtial, mow^Q-trapn. 
 
 Note. — U-sa-jce justifies the piinaliziiv/ of both parts in kni},'htB- 
 templars, mon-servaiits, and a fow other words. Tlie conij)oiient par<s in 
 i^iU'li cases are really nouns in apposition. 1 he idiom is French. 
 
 32. Some nouns are comjiound in appearance only, 
 their elements coalescini^ so intimately as to form but 
 a single word. In such cases, the phiral is formed 
 regularly r as, forget-me-nots, handfuls. 
 
 33. In forming the plural of proper names com- 
 bined with a title, some variety of usage occurs Thus 
 we may say, <^he Miss Browns, the Misses Brown, and 
 (according to some authorities) the Misses Browus. 
 The first is the preftu-able form. On the other hand, 
 it is never alh^vvable to .^,ay the Messrs. Browns ; we 
 must say the Messrs. Brown. 
 
 CASE. 
 
 34. Case is that vaii;^tion in the form of nouns by 
 which different relations to other words in a sentence 
 are denoted. 
 
 There are three cases, — the Nominitive, the Posses- 
 sive, and the Objective. 
 
 XOTK. — In modern English the nominative and olijective cases of nouns 
 (tlion;^']i not ot pronouns) are alilce in furm, an<l coiiseciueiitly can only 
 be distinguished by tlu nse of tlu^ noun in a sentence. 
 
 35. Tlie Nomiuative case is the form used when 
 
 the noun is the subject of a sentence ; as, Men are 
 
 mortal. Hannibal invaded Italy. 
 
 The nominative case lias other uses, the detailed treatment of 
 whic'li properly belonfj^s to Syntax. 
 
 36. The Possessive case is Jie form used when 
 the noun denotes ownership or possession ; as,, John's 
 book was Itst. The nurse's story was a sad one. 
 
16 
 
 ETYMO LOGY. 
 
 f 
 
 M 
 
 i 
 
 r! t 
 
 
 
 w - 
 
 ll 
 
 i'^ 
 
 
 J 
 
 W- 
 
 37. Tlie Objective ciso is the form used vvlien the 
 noun denotes tli(M)hj(',ct of an action, or when it follows 
 a preposition ; as, Hannibal invaded Ital?/. Men live in 
 houses. 
 
 NoTK 1. — Tlio word case is derived from the Litin casus, a falling. The 
 ancient j,'raniniariaiis represented the siihjeet by a perpendieular line, and 
 the forms of the noini denotinj^ other relations by lines fallinj; away from 
 this at tlid'ereiit inclinations. Hence the term declension (sloping or 
 falling away). Fierce di-cussions arose as to tlie right of tlie nominative 
 to be called a can'. The theory certainly does not uphold tlie claim. 
 
 Note 2. — We liave seen that nouns have but two distinct case-forms in 
 English. Fronoutis ^'ein^ially have sejiarate forms for the subject and 
 object, and so tar as tlify are concerned the objective is necessiuily recog- 
 nized as an in<lep(Mident case. In treating of nouns the three- fold distinc- 
 tion of cases is observed, both for the sake of unifbrmily and because it is 
 justified by the three distinct relations of subject, possessor, and oliject. 
 
 Note 3. — Compared with tlie elaborate case-systems of Latin, Greek 
 Anglo-Saxon, German, and sonu' other languages, that of modern English 
 is exceedingly simple. Latin has six cases, (ireek, ^vi^, (Jernian, four 
 and Anglo-Saxons four in norms and five, in pronouns. Our language 
 retains but few traces of the Anglo-Saxon case-endings. I'hest' are 
 limited to the possessive case, and a few i>r(iiu)nii;ial endings. The ron- 
 slriiction of the Anglo-Saxon dative (case ol ilic indirect object) has not 
 entirely disappeared, though a separate form is no longer u.^ed. 
 
 The absence of case-eiidiiijjs in p]n<j:lish is 
 sn[)plied hy the use of prepositions and b)'^ changes in 
 the position of the noun or pronoun in the sentence. 
 See 170 (3), 2GG, and 277. 
 
 FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 
 
 38. Nouns in the siiiL^nlar nnndjer, and plural 
 nouns ending in any otlicr lefh'v tlion s, form the 
 l)ossessive case by adding an apostrophe and s, ('s) to 
 the nominative ; as, boy, boy's ; children, children's. 
 
 But |»lural nouns ending in s, form the possessive by 
 adding only an apostrophe; as, boys, boys'. 
 
 Note. — The apostrophe without 5 is sometimes used in the possessive 
 singular to ])revei;t (h(^ ui.idea.-ant nuiltiplioation of hissing sounds, as, 
 for conscience' sake ; tor righteousness' sake. Such expiessions, when 
 they have fixed themselves in the language, arc; allowable, but in geneial 
 it is more elegant to avoid liar-hness by using tlie prepositimi of and the 
 objective case. Thus, the orations of Demosthenes is preferable to either 
 Deinostlif lies' s orations, or Demosthrncs' orations. 
 
 39. In compound nouns and complex names, the 
 possessive ending is attached to the last word ; as. My 
 soii-iu law's house. The Czar of Russia's fleet. 
 
KTTMOLOGt. 
 
 17 
 
 1 used vvh<3n the 
 vvJieii it follows 
 (y- Men live in 
 
 c«VM.», a falling'. The 
 '•■•penflin.Iar line, nu<] 
 •fs falliM- away from 
 
 '\7,y'<" 'lominalive 
 'Ik'M the clann. 
 
 i^.tin<-tca.s(>-fonn.s in 
 ;<>!• the .>snl)jf.ct arxl 
 '•'^ iK^ces.siirilv rr-roir. 
 
 '.''thiee-fourdifitinc- 
 '"y and l.ecaiise it is 
 ■''fssor. and object, 
 ms of /,ati,^ Greek 
 t of inodoiii Kii^'Iish 
 A'-'', (.'eniijui, four 
 '"»■:'■ Oi.r lan-uaue 
 ■'"''/.'^'s. Thes,. are 
 en.lui^rs. The rnn- 
 'ect ol.jeot) has not 
 
 in Kncrlisl, ,s 
 J>.y cliaiiires irj 
 t'le sentence. 
 
 VE CASE. 
 
 'N JHid plural 
 •* «, form (he 
 
 «"f^ «, Cs) to 
 
 children's, 
 possessive hy 
 
 in tlie possessive 
 iMhiif sounds, as, 
 xpiessions, wlien 
 'p, hut in freneial 
 sition o/'and tlie 
 Bferable to either 
 
 names, the 
 f>'*fl; as, My 
 fleet. 
 
 li >r; if Am 
 
 -ijiieen 
 
 .s book," 
 
 This rule applies to names of partners or associates 
 in a common business or enterprise; :is, Smith and 
 Thompson's office; Liddell and Scott's lexicon. 
 
 Note 1. — 5iaa fjeneiJc ending; of tlie j^enitive(oi possessive) case in the 
 nido-Kuiopean laiij^naj;C<*'<- '"'le Kn<,'lisli tfrniination 's, is derived from 
 fs, one of tiie jLjenitivi' endinj^s used in AnL;h>-SaxoM. In the earlier 
 pi-iiiid of Enj,'lish, the possessive sinj^uhirand tli, i>lural iionMnativehavin;^ 
 a cnnunon endinnj, es, the former for the saki> of distinction d , mI the 
 vowel, and mark«d the elision by the apostri'i»he. 
 
 NoTK 2. — Thoujili tli(! tlieory once lield that 's is an abbre.' 
 is eironeoMs. involviiifj as it does several absiinlities ('as, Qii. 
 his), it is still tlie fact that sueh expressions as "John Smitli 
 were formerly sanctioned by good authorities. 
 
 40. In prose tlie use of the distinctive possessive 
 form is chiefly limited to names of persons, animals, 
 and personified or dignified objects. Other nouns 
 generally require the preposition of with the objective 
 case. 
 
 Poetry uses the possessive with greater freedom. 
 
 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 41. The regular arrangement of the cases and 
 number of a noun is called declension (see 37, Note 1). 
 The following are models of declension : 
 
 i^itu/uldr Plural Singular Plural Snujular 
 
 Nom. Bo)- boys man men tliief 
 
 Poss. Boy's boys' 
 Obj. Boy boys 
 
 man s 
 man 
 
 men s 
 men 
 
 thiefs 
 thief 
 
 Plural 
 
 thieves 
 
 thieves' 
 
 thieves 
 
 V 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 42. An adjective is a word used with a noun to 
 exp'ess some (piality or limitation of that which the 
 noun denotes; as, young children ; sweet apples ; several 
 horses ; this man. 
 
 (1.) AdJ(Cfive is dci'ivcd from the Latin word, a fl/fcti vus 
 capable of being joined, which is itself a derivative from adjeduif, 
 joined. 
 
 (2.) When the adjective is joined directly to the noun, as in 
 the preceding exanij/les, it is said to be used attributively ; 
 when it is brought into connection with the noun by means of a 
 verb, as in " Sugar is sweet," it is said to be used predicatively 
 
18 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 (.3.) Nonns, especially those (Iciiotinf; nuttorial, and adverbs, 
 acquire the force of adjectives by bein:; placed in the attribu- 
 tive position ; as, A silver watch ; the inoautain ravens ; tlie 
 above examples 
 
 A noun in the possessive case is attributive to that on which 
 it depends, and is often interchan^reabie with an adjective; thus, 
 "A kin(fs crown is = " a re'jal crown" ; " ii father's love" is = 
 "paternal love." 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 43. There are two general classes of Adjectives : 
 Qualifying aiul Liiiiitiiig. 
 
 44. Qualifying Adjectives denote a qitaliti/, or 
 attribute; as, good men, black horses, steep hills. 
 
 45. Qualifying adjectives answer t!ie question of 
 lohat kind or sort f They include the great body of 
 adjectives imd require no special sub-chissiflcation. 
 The name is derive<l from the Litin qualis, of tvhat 
 sort? I he following points may be observed: 
 
 (1.) Qualifying adjectives include ninny words orijjinally 
 and strictly participles ; as lovinfj;, soothinj;, frequented, for- 
 gotten. Such words may in their adjectival use be passed as 
 part ici J lid I adjc-lives. 
 
 (2.) Qualify ini,'' adjectives are often used with an ellipsis 
 (omishioii) of the nouns tu which they relate; as. Blessed are tlio 
 meeh. lie took stej)S to hold the tronlilesome in check. 
 
 In these sentences tliere is an obvious oniission of the word 
 persons. 
 
 (3.) Some (inalifyini^f adjectives are used when ])receded by 
 the word the to c\|)ress (jrneral or abstract ideas; as, the (food, the 
 beautiful, and the true 
 
 (4.) The following; classes of (puilifvinp ailjectives arc often 
 tised completely as nouns, with the ordiiuiry Ibrnis for number 
 and case. 
 
 (a) National and associational a])ptllativcs; as, Creek, Italian, 
 Christian, liepubiican, Liberal, C()nsi'rvati\e. 
 
 (b) Latin comjmratives ; ns, senior, junior, inferior, elder. 
 
 (c) Some French and Latin derivatives; as, native, mortal, 
 criminal, ancient, modern. 
 
 LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 
 
 46. This class of adjectives inchides all adjectives 
 which do uo express a quality or attribute. 
 
i<^f> and ndverhs 
 ' !" the attiilni- 
 tatn ravens; the 
 
 to that on whicli 
 Juljective; thus, 
 Iter's love" is = 
 
 IVES. 
 
 Adjectives : 
 
 Q^falltf/, or 
 I.ills. 
 
 question of 
 '•t'ar l)0(ly of 
 
 ci;»ssiflc;ition. 
 ^cifis, of what 
 ved ; 
 
 ^rds originally 
 ■f'qiicnied, for- 
 ' he pasMeci as 
 
 itii an /'///y^s/.^ 
 blessed are the 
 ;civ. 
 
 ' ^^ the word 
 
 I preceded hy 
 - the (jwmI, the 
 
 ives are often 
 ' ^o»* niiniher 
 
 ''■^'^'k.Itaiian, 
 
 ''<»r, ehler. 
 t've, niorinl, 
 
 adjectives 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 21 
 
 50" C()in])arisoii is a varintion of tlie form of adjec- 
 tives, to express (juality in ditlereiit degrees. 
 
 NoTK. — C'nnii)arisoti is the only clianjiP in form of wliicli tlicEnijlisli 
 ailjfclivc is susceiitible. TIip Anglo-: axon ndjoctivc, like tliat oi" ilie 
 (irVtU, liiitin, antl ni ny other laiigna;:t's, l)!i<l (li(l<M<iit forms to mark 
 (li>tin('tions lA' ijfiufrr, iitunher nud cnsf, and iii tlic-c respects a;.'r('fil mKIi 
 Mic nonn with wliieli it was joined. 'J'he Saxon adjectival en(lin;:s of 
 iiMiiibei' continued in Use till the lifleenth i-entnry. Tlie demonstratives, 
 //(/.< ami t/iat, are the only En;,dish a<ljectivos retainin;^ a special form for 
 number. 
 
 51. There are three Degrees of Comparison : Tlie 
 
 Positive, tlie Comparative, and the Snj)erlative : 
 
 ( 1 .) The Positive degree is the nnniodilied ad j* ctive, 
 (](>ii()tini; simply the jio.ssession of a cei'tain (piality or 
 aitrihute 
 
 N<»TK. — The simple form 111 the adjective is not in strictness a 'A trr^e 
 of comparison. Tht; use of the expressiDU, pusitive <le;;tee, is, imvv- 
 ever, conveident, as well as sanctioned hy a usa^je as ojd as formnl 
 ;,'ramniar. 
 
 (2.) The Comparative Deirrcf is a form (»f the atl- 
 jceiive, which shows that tlie (jiiality or attiihiite which 
 it denotes belonj^s to one of two contracted objects, or 
 sets of olijrct-, in a i^reater dcjuret* than to the olher; 
 MS, the IIiniala_>as are hi(/her than the AIj)s. 
 
 (.') ) The S'Mjerlative IX-o-nM' is a form of the adjec- 
 tive, which shows that the (inality or attrihnte \\hich it 
 denotes heloiiijjs to oik- ot several coiitra^letl objects, 
 or sets of ob'ccts, in a hi«j:her deiiive than toimvof the 
 others ; as, Socrates and Plato were the wisest men of 
 their age. 
 
 51. Some adjectives of (pialiiv, l)\ reason of their sii/ni/i- 
 
 rtititni, do not admit of compiui.^on. 
 
 Sn 
 
 ih ate: (i/mii/littf, 
 
 ('(itoid, villi f\ ciiiiscioiis, (oiilinui <l, 'had, ^'iii/iti/, ici ilashui/, 
 i.rfcnidl, i'.rli/nu', full, (/mtuitoiis, lii/iiiitf, ji'Jtrt, jtnjhlual, 
 •oi/al, frw, utiircisdl. AIho, adjectives dt iiotiuji;' slinjie ; as, 
 
 rii rii 
 
 far, h , 
 
 ,1 
 
 nniiiuiiir, s/Hh rico 
 
 Ih 
 
 ,1 
 
 Such adjectives juc ternud invaiiable. Miiny of t'tcm 
 nro coninared jti noetry and popidin* speech, their ^tli^•t huiiHO 
 hiin^^ diHretrardnl : as, She was tht> iiiDst fwr/crt of her .sex. 
 The rhirfVst ol t' n thonhand. 
 
 52. The otdy Ihniliiiij adj«!Cilvcs which admit of t ompari.son 
 letiiMte adjectives ol (|naiilit,y or niimlwjr; Ji«, y^w. 
 
 at« Koine 
 

 V . 
 
 I 
 
 r ■ 
 
 ill 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 ll 
 
 ^ 
 
 7N 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 ft 
 
 p:tymology. 
 
 FORMATION OF THE COMPARATIVE AND 
 SUl'KHLATIVE DEGREES. 
 
 53. (!■) Tlieconii):irativ(Mlogroeis regularly formed 
 by adiliiig 6'/' to the i)o.sitive ; as, great, greater ; dull, 
 dulhu*. 
 
 (2.) Tlic su])ei'lative degree is regularly formed by 
 addiig -est to the Positive ; as, great, greatest ; dull, 
 dullest. 
 
 (3.) lu adjectives couij)ared reguhii'ly a liual consou- 
 aut precede*] by a single vowel is donhlcd^ final e is 
 (1i'( pped^ and final // precediMl by a consonant is c/rz/it^f^rf 
 into i; as, hot, hotter, hottest; wise, wiser, wisest; 
 ha|)[>y, happier, happiest. IJut, sweet, sweeter, sweet- 
 est; coy, coyer, coyest. 
 
 54. Comparison by adding -cr and -est is limited to 
 adjectives of oni^ and tno syllables. INIany of the 
 latter reje(;t this m()(U> of comparison on account of 
 the harshness of sound involv«!d. These with adjec- 
 tives of more than two svllables are compared by 
 })r(:}Hxing to the positive, w/o/v for the coin[)arative, and 
 most for the superlative ; as, earnest, more earnest, most 
 earnest; pc.v^erfnl, more powerful, most powerful. 
 
 55. Th(> following classes of dissyllabic adjectives 
 are compared regularly in -cr and -est. .^ 
 
 (1.) Thoso whose positive Imstlic accent on the .svco>j</syIl»ihlc ; 
 fts, divine, diviner, divint st ; nolite, politer, politest. 
 
 (2.) Those endin;; in //, f>li\ »/•, and (>//>,• us, lovely, lovelier, 
 loveliest ; ahle, alder, ablest ; tender, tenderer, toinlerest, (hut 
 not proper); narrow, narrower, narrowest. 
 
 (3.) A tew not easily classed; as, handsoino, pleasiuit. 
 
 NoTR. — Si»int' iii'idcrn autliovs, uinnn^ wlmm Cnrlylt* U proininoiit, in 
 disn';,'iir(l of cniiliDiiy, i\ro iiii-liiuMl to t\tcinl (he (ist? of InitnH iti tr and 
 -fst iKil ((Illy ti) diwHyllulik's ni)t iiioliidcd in the iilnive ^la:*^^•M, hut iil«u to 
 pol.VHyllablt'H. 
 
 IRREGULAR (^OMRAHISON. 
 
 56. A mnnber of tlu^ most co!»iinon and Impcrtant 
 mljectiyes arc <'umpured irregularly, as, 
 
 /*«».«. Coiiijt, Sup, 
 
 Good 
 
 better 
 
 buMt 
 
ETYMOLOGY 
 
 23 
 
 worse 
 
 worst 
 
 less 
 
 
 least 
 
 more 
 
 
 most 
 
 older I 
 
 
 oldest I 
 
 el lie r f 
 
 
 eldest ) 
 
 f'artlier 
 
 
 farthest 
 
 further 
 
 
 furthest 
 
 former 
 
 
 foremost or first 
 
 binder 
 
 
 hindmost 
 
 inner 
 
 
 inmost or innermos 
 outmost ) 
 utmost > 
 uttermost ) 
 
 outer, utter 
 
 
 
 later, la 
 
 tter 
 
 latest, last 
 
 tietiier 
 
 
 nethermost 
 
 Far 
 
 (Forth adv.) 
 Fore 
 Hind 
 {In prep.) 
 
 (Out adv.) 
 
 Late 
 
 (Neath ohs.prrp.^ netliei 
 
 NoTK 1 — In som»! of the foro^oii >,' adii'i-livpstlio irrpmilnrity consists in 
 till' use of (•oinjiariitivi' iiihI siipcihitivi' i'mhis Imviii;,' n>» ctvinDloLridal con- 
 iii'ctioii with tlu^ iiositivf. «s in the . .-i' o\' ^noil and lm<(. U\ otliers, 
 oltsoli't*^ inodt's of comjiaiison fir»> ictaii:i"l. 
 
 NoTK 'l,— OI(ifri\w\ (>l(/,st ill'- ii|»|.lii .1 l.otli to prrsojis nitd tliiii;j:s. Etitet 
 and fl)lfsl iin- fliictly used witli icI.Tcuct' to mu'IiiIh'Is of tlic sum<! fiiuiily. 
 
 NoTK.'l. — Wlit'in dilli'ifiit torin> of rotnpiirutivt's or snporhUivus exist, 
 IlicrciH usually some tlill'crciicc of iiiiatdn^' hctwoen thcin. 
 
 N<)TK4. — In old writers donlde comparatives and snperiiUives are qnite 
 comiiioa ; as " uioro lu-nror." " The most unkindest out of all." 
 
 57. Comparjitivo (limi)iittinn of (|iiality is expressed 
 by prelixinjr tlic words less luid Icfist to tlie jjositive, 
 without iH'i^ard to tlie niiiuber of its syllables; .as, wise, 
 less WIS*', least wise. 
 
 Tlic termination ish expresses a slii^lit <logree of a 
 (|nality ; as, reddish. 
 
 58. When the positive dei:jroe is precedes] by an 
 ii.iCnsive word such as, iv/y/, eutremeh/, exceedinqh/^ 
 the rcsiiitiiiij (expression is sometimes called tlie sn/ier- 
 lative of excellence. 
 
 NoTR.— In Latin antl Oreek tlie onlhi.'^ry snperl .live w.ih oftou Used ill 
 tlds Kense, as, vir ilortissnniis, a \vv^ learned man. 
 
I'w mn iny mmmmfm 
 
 1 
 
 ^) I 
 
 ^ 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 59. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; 
 as, " 'I'ii(! (MPjuMiter Wio was absent has returned; J 
 met /ihn in tiie street." 
 
 NoTH 1. — Tim proiii»iiii pan also stand for atiy expression wliicli is 
 r(/uir/i/fnt In a noun, iiarticularly for the noun clnvse nun tli<i injinitive of 
 Ike rrrh 
 
 N(»TK L*. — The pronoun <lnis not yiruni' an ol)jeet <lire(;tly. Its cliief 
 oflice is to stunil for tlie naiue ami so save repetition. 
 
 60- To pronouns, as to nouns, ])elong the distinc- 
 tions of iifender, numl, r, and case, l^ronouns differ 
 from nouns in ixenerah/ liavini; a dislinct form for the 
 ohjective case. In pronouns, variations in (fender and 
 number are, willi few exceptions, hrouglit about by tlie 
 use of different words. • 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF PKONOUxNS. 
 
 61. Pronouns uvi) divi<h'd into tlie following 
 classes : — 
 
 1. Personal 
 
 2. Uelative 
 
 3. Interrogative 
 
 4. Demonstrative 
 .'5. Indcrmite. 
 
 NoTKl. — The functions ofproiioinis are so varied as alioost neceswuily 
 to h",n\ to variety of elassifiealion. 
 
 No'l'K 2 — In lliis (leiilise \)c) wokIs are reeoyni/eil as pronouns unless 
 tluN lia\e the ei Mist ruction rWi] force ot /lou/rv. I'l e annnialons elrtssificaf ioti 
 of certain words as (ii/jrrlivr )>ri iidiins nr fninon innl niljrrtivi s is wluilly 
 rejceteil. livery word (|ualityin;; or limiting tiw Jiicaninjj of a noun 
 expiissed el' uiidert-locd is an mlJKlivi . 'J'ln line mark olji /itonouti is 
 (hut it takes the place of a noun, that is, stmnls for it hu eomplotely 
 us tore(|uiic nolliinii to be supplied. 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS , 
 
 62. The Personal Pronouns are I, thou, and hd 
 (she, it.) 
 
 ( 1 .) I denotes the speaker, and is calh'd the pronoun 
 of the Jirsf p(»r,son, or tlu; ^firsf personal pronoun. 
 
 (-.) Thou denotes the person spoken to^ and is ca'ledi 
 th(5 j)ronoun of the second person, or the s€Cond\ 
 personal pronoun. 
 
 J 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 27 
 
 'i<'<;tly. Its cJiief 
 
 most iiecei^gnrlly 
 
 66. When, however, these possessive forms nte used as 
 iwtccfdeuls to rc/dtive /)ronouiis they should l)e ]»!irse<l as 
 j)ron()uus; as, Their sorrows shall he multiplieii that liasten 
 after another God: And do yon now .strew fioncrs in hts 
 way, tliat comes in triuni[)h over Pomi)ev's blood ? 
 
 In the sentences quoted their and Jiis have each a distinct 
 ])reuoininal force. 
 
 COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 67. Tlio compoiiiul |)(3rson;il proiiomis are foi^ned 
 hy adding tlie word self (plural sdves) to the possessive 
 of the first and second personal pronouns, and to the 
 ohjectice of the tliird, in both numbers. They are, 
 
 Sinyular, 
 1. Myself 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 Thyself ' 
 Yourself 
 
 Ilimselt 
 Herself 
 Itself 
 
 Pluml. 
 Ourselves. 
 
 Yourselves 
 
 Themselves 
 
 The compound personal ])ronoima are used without 
 change ot torm in the nominative and objective cases. 
 
 68- They have two uses — 
 
 CI) Eiiijihdtic or intrnnivf, when they arc in apposition with a 
 noun or jtronoun to impart lorce or emphasis to the statement ; 
 as, He hiinsi'lf did it. We are oursclre.s to hhime. 
 
 (2) Riflrxivf, when they n fhct, or hciid hack upon tlu> person 
 or thin^ spoketi of the action cx|»rcsscd hy the verb ; as, Men 
 frcciuently kill thcmselrcs hy over-exertion. 
 
 NoTK. — Self wuh orii^inally iiii rtd,it'ctiv(', ami was (Icclincil n« such. 
 ^flls()Il rcfjnnlK inii iviid (/(// in tlic (OmiiioiiikI ri)iiiirt iis not iciil posnessivcH, 
 Itiit (•orriiptionw of tlic Anj^lo-Suxon t'lc and //"', the Isitcr forms iinriirlvfS, 
 flc. lii'ln^ <lim to n t'ul^^• analoj;y. 'V\u' comiioiiutl of \\\o Ihiid |)crNon 
 rt'tiunh tli'.i oliji'ctlvi! (ilativi), Iml wln'ii tlif »in|iliatic mljiiaivc own 
 liitfiveneH bet ween tlic t'liMMcntM, tli" ponHi'KKlvt' form uwiM Iw iim«m1 ; 
 AM, tlitdr own Ki'lvi-8. Self oiiMit' to li<> iiMcd an a noun in th*; to>iif<M>ntli 
 century. In connection wit li tin- |ninioiiim in uhc was twofold, (1) to 
 add ctnidmsls to tlic personal jironouns, n\n(')> like tin: l.alln tpst, (2) to 
 Btr«*nKtiicn vie, liitn, &c., w In-n used icti('\i\ cly. The pinial frlvvs 
 came in an the ndlcctivc nsc of scif ifas('<l. (M' about the naiuu date it 
 thu Uttv of myself, himse{f, &c., as iiouiiiiativiM. 
 
i"'f 
 
 28 
 
 KTYMOLOOT. 
 
 RELATIVE PRONOUlVS. 
 
 69.^ A relative ])r<)nouii is a word which in addition 
 to representiiii^ a preceding rionn or prononn, called 
 the antecedent,, connects tlie clause which it introduces 
 
 with the rest of tlie .sentence. 
 
 -< 
 
 NoTK. — The t< Tin relative as d"soriptiV(i of tliis class of proJiouiis was 
 not Wfll chosen. Tin- other classes of pronouns also relate to nouns t;oin)4 
 hftfore, or a.iteoedents. Thef^rammatical peculiarity of so-called relatives 
 is that they hav(^ a conneclive force, coinbinin;^ the functions of pronouns 
 and conjiiiietions. 
 
 70. The relative pronouns are who, which, that 
 and wliat. 
 
 1. Who has the same form for both numbers and 
 is thus di'clined for case alone : 
 
 Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 Singular and Plural. 
 
 Who 
 
 Whose 
 
 Whom 
 
 Tr modern English the nominative and objective are 
 used only when the antecedent is the name of a person. 
 
 The possessii'e is freely api)lied by the l)est authors 
 to inanimate objects and living creatures generally ; as, 
 '•That undiscovered country from ivhose bourne no 
 traveller retui'ns." 
 
 NoTK. — Wko was orifjiiiplly inlerroirntivo. Tn early English it was 
 sometimes a])plied to thing's without life. It is fre(iuently used with an 
 ellipsis of the antecedent, an, Wlio steals my purse, steals trash." 
 
 (2.) Which, that, and what are invariable in form. 
 
 C'S.) Which is used when the antecedent is the name 
 of an inaniniiite object or of one of the lower animals; 
 ns, The mountains which were covered with snow. 
 The dogs which by their pcrp<!tual barking. 
 
 NoTK. — Iiiko irlio, tohirli wasori>;inally intevrojxafive. Prior totholftth 
 century, it was freely applied to persons. The authurixcd yerHion of tho 
 Hlble nboutuls in illu.'^tratioii.s of IhiB use. 
 
 (4.) That is used to represent both persons and things 
 in restrictive clauses; as. "1 that speak to thee am lie." 
 ' Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown." 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 29 
 
 numbers and 
 
 IS and thiniTs 
 Jioe am he." 
 
 (1.) That as a restn'rtire or (lefinincj word cannot be used 
 when the antecotlent is nhvady ])erll'('tly defined. Thus, we 
 cannot say " Weiiinjj:ton iJuit is l)nried in St. Paul's was a ^n-eat 
 Licneral " For the same reason, it can never l)e = <tn<l he, like 
 }rh() in the sentence, " They asked a favor ot the king, who 
 iunnediately gn-anted it." 
 
 (2.) Some of the distinctive uses of that will he better under- 
 stood in connection with tlie analysis of coin]»lex sentences. 
 Here it is suflicient to observe that that should l)e used in pre- 
 
 Icrencc 
 
 to icJio or which : — 
 
 ), which, tliat ■ ''"''' l"'''^f^"« «""' f*''"-;^ 
 
 (I When there are two or more antecedents standing for 
 
 h. When irho or which would be and)iyn(»iis from inability to 
 ilctcrmine whether their lorcc is intended to be nstricilrc or 
 iiiiitiiiiialirc, as in such a sentence as the following : " I received 
 ten pounds from my l)rothcrs who tire in London." 
 
 r. After the interroizative n^ho ?, ami after sonic, am/, each, 
 iirr//, (ill, onlji, and adjectives in the superlative degree. 
 
 NoTK 1. — Tlutt is tilt' oldest til' tlic li-llllivcs. II is llu: llciltiM' i)f lilt) 
 Aiiiilo-Saxou tlfinoiistrjitivc, Asliich liiui al-u a iflntive use. Jii Imili uses 
 tilt' iifiitcr h.ns lakeii the place of the otlie.- geiiileis. 
 
 No'l'i", 2. — 'I'liat was t'oniieily usetl in an indetinite sense like whnl ; as, 
 " We s{u-aU tluil we ilo know " 
 
 (o.) What apjditis only to tilings and is i.sihI when 
 the antece(hint i.s omitted, particularly wlioi it is 
 iiidellnite ; its, " We should always do what is right." 
 
 NuTK — What is I 111' neuter tiC who. It is pinpei'Iy sin.L'iilar, Init pue'; 
 stiitencesas the follow iii;i are found : '"Wlial (\re called lioulders, /?/(/ - 
 tile theory of },'Iaciers." (ALCassiz). 
 
 COMPOUND RELATIVES. 
 
 71. Certain comjiound forms have l>een produced 
 l)y ad'hng the woi'ds so and ever eilher se|)arately or 
 coinbini'd, to the sim[)le relatives. These are, whoSO, 
 
 whosoever, whotver, v/hatever and whatsoever. 
 
 These compounds are iiidetiinte in their signilication, 
 file aiiteetMleiit lasing u-iually omitted. 
 Whosoever iilone is declined. 
 
 Nam. Whosoever 
 
 Po&s. Whosesoever 
 
 Obj. Wlioms()(3ver 
 
 NoTK.— TliOKO coninonnds are hpconutij; olwoli-to. 
 
 72. Hesides the proper relaliv(!s, other words huvo 
 oa.:ii8ionullj^ the force ol relative pronouns : 
 
■msr "■ « ! s ~ 
 
 ,tt i; 
 
 li iim < 
 
 30 
 
 KTYMOLOGT. 
 
 [ . 
 
 (I.) As, ^vhen it introduces a restrictive clause fol- 
 lowing the words sftck or same. " You will always find 
 him such cis he professes to be." 
 
 (2.) But, when followinfr a negative antecedent it is 
 equivalent to a relative })ronoun and the regative 
 'ddvvrh not ; as, " There is no one but will admit the 
 truth of this statement. 
 
 IKTERKOGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 73. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun used 
 in asking (juestions. The interrogative pronouns are 
 who, which and what. 
 
 1. Who is declined like the corresponding relative. 
 It is used with reference to persons only. It is never 
 an adjective. 
 
 2. Which is applied to both persons and things, 
 and supposes a known class or number to which the 
 person orthing iiupiired about belongs; as, " Which do 
 you prefer — to be honored or to be des})ised?" 
 
 Which used intcrrojjativcly is ^onorally an ndjrctive. See 
 40, 4. Thf iiitorro;^ative irh(:t/i(-r is tkjw obsolete. 
 
 3. What is the indefinite interrogative. Though 
 capable of being used in connection with persons (as 
 " What is man ?'') it is regarded as always of the neuter 
 gender. 
 
 74. Whoever, whichever, and whatever are used 
 
 as comj)ound interrogatives. 
 
 DEMONSTRA^TIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 75. Th(^. demonstrative words that and thia^ with 
 their plurals these and these are properly adjectives. 
 In a few constructions, however, they may be regarded 
 as demonstrative ^rr()?/o?ois. "■' 
 
 1. When ///'// and its plural those arc used to prevent the 
 re|)etition ot" a |trecedin<r noini, as, "The fame of Ca'sar is 
 supe/ior to that of ronijiey." " The rivers of Anieriea are 
 longer than ihos« of Europe." 
 
 2. When this and that nice<iuivalent to the /«r«jpr 
 
 the Uitter (or the om the oiher), iXA, " Virtue and viee are 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 81 
 
 ndjective. See 
 
 3Ver are used 
 
 as opposite to each other as light and darkness ; that ennobles the 
 mind, this debases it." 
 
 Note. — When used in similar sentence-s the former and the latter are 
 itrictly demonstrative pronouns. 
 
 3. When this and that refer to a sentence ; as, 
 
 " See Falkliuid dies, the virtuous and the just! 
 See {godlike Turenne ]»rostrate in the dust ! 
 
 Sec Sidney bleeds amid the marMal strife! 
 Was this their virtue, or contemj)t of life V 
 
 NoTK. — Oft^n when reftTiiiit,' to proccdiuj; sentences M/s and that may 
 still be eoiislrned as iiiijcctives, their iioims beiiiii eiisiiy supplied trom the 
 pifdieate "In the line, 'to he, or not to be, tkrit is tlie (jnestion,' tJint 
 may bo considered as a pronoun, having; a wliole clause for the antecedent, 
 
 We niij,'ht still consuler tlie woid as an adjcistive with a noun 
 
 dropped, or put in aditlrient place, and so look upon the passaj^e as an 
 alibrcv iation of 'to be, or not to be — that ipiestion is it.' 'One thin<j 
 l.ave I <b'siied of the Lord, that (thing) I will se'k after.' "—Bain's Higher 
 r.iiglisk Uraimvar. 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 76. Certain ])ronouiis are called indeflnitB, because 
 they do not signify any particular subject, but persons 
 or things generally. The words thus classed (except 
 none) are generally adjectives. Here belong, 
 
 (1.) One, none; as, "One must protect one's honor." "Ask 
 as earnestly as ye will for some niarks of his favor ; he will grant 
 you none." " The longest life, if a good one, is the best." 
 
 (2. ) Other, another ; as, "A man should eherisb in himself, 
 what he praises in others." " Another's wealth." 
 
 (3.) The distril)utives either, neither, wheti used without 
 nouns expressed or uiulerstood ; as, " Will you go or stay ? I 
 will do )ieilher,s\r." " So parted they as either s way tliem led." 
 
 77. Many of the words commordy classed ns indefinite 
 pronouns are really cither nouns or adja'tives Aiit/ht, nant/ht, 
 I rrri/liodi/, somthody, nubodi/, are nouns ; any, some, all, are 
 adjectives. 
 
 NoTK. — In such expnssions a.s " I tell you what,'' w'lat is generally 
 (•onsi<hTeil as an indefinite pronotui. Sucli expre sions always refer to 
 ;i following sta'enient, and tlie use of what is prolialdy to be explained 
 by Ih^ omission of 1 think or 1 knoio. 
 
 78. 'I'he expressions emh othrr, nno another, arc sometimes 
 called reciprocal pronouns. They are both elli|)tical. "They 
 love fwh other" is = " 'i'licy love, earh (loves) tl'O other." 
 Though on analysis the elements are found to be adjectives, 
 the compound wholes are pronouns. 
 
 \^ 
 
1 i 
 
 ;7<gH0K2S=-. 
 
 
 •I 
 
 i * 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 32 
 
 > 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 79. A verL 1« a word used in making statements ; 
 as, The days c iong. Tlie liusbandman so2Vs tlu3 
 seed. The Kiiii^ was called tlie father of his people. 
 
 (1.) Tlie word statements, as used in tliis definition, inchides 
 commands, pxhortatinns atid questions; as, Present arms. /?e just 
 and fexir not. Who (joes there ? 
 
 (2.) IV?*/; is derived from the Latin rerbmn, a word. The 
 verb is in an empliatie sense the irord of a sentence. We eannot 
 make a sentence without usin;^ a verb, which either constitutes 
 the entire predicate, or forms its essentia/ part. 
 
 (3.) The noun or pronoun denotiiiir tliat c(nicernin,u- which 
 the statement is made is e.illed the subject of the verb. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF VIOliBS. 
 
 80. Verbs are divided as to tlieir meaning into two 
 general chisses, — transitive and intransitive. 
 
 81. A transitive verb denotes an aetion wliich is 
 not confined to tlie doer, but passes over to an object; 
 as, The Inuiter shot a dee?\ Love your enemies. 
 
 ( L) Transitive is fiom the Latin transco, I ^o across. The 
 aetion is conceived of i\H f/oinf/ across, or jihssing over, from the 
 doer to the object alfeeteci by it. 
 
 (2 ) A transitive verb does not by itself make a complete 
 statement; it re(|uires a completing; term, which in grammar is 
 known as the object of the verb. This object is either a noun 
 or pronoun in the objective ease, a verb in the infinitive mood, 
 or a noun clause. 
 
 (.3. J Wlicn the subject and object denote the same person or 
 thiiij:', the verb is said to be used reflexively ; as, lie (deases 
 himself. 
 
 82- An intransitive verb denotes either a state or 
 condition, or an aetion which does not pass over to an 
 o])J(!Ct; as, They sat all day long (state or condition.) 
 Some ran ; others walked (action not passing over to 
 an object.) 
 
 None. — Tlu> (lisiiiulion tliiis made in flip si^niification of ni<:raii«itiv« 
 verbs Ix'tvM'cii siiniilc .\tn/f or rondition. ami union not passin^^ over to an 
 object is not nlwtiys vciv mark.'d. Some verbs (siielj for iiistaiiee as live, 
 slefp) may with ahuost etiual propriety be referred to either part of the 
 definitiuii. 
 
 83. Tliere is an important class of verbs commonly 
 
KTTMOLOOT. 
 
 33 
 
 nii( into two 
 
 ranked as itifransitu'e from their not taking after 
 
 them an object or noun in tlio ohjfictivo cise, but 
 
 whicli nevertheless are incomplete in sense. 
 
 Such verbs are he Cwhen not moaiiiiij; to exist), seem, 
 appear, become, ffrow (sick), turn (pale), &c. The fact that 
 they require their tnoaninir to bo completed !)y a noun or 
 ailjeotive has f^ivcn them the name of verhs of Incomplete 
 Predication. 
 
 1. The noun complcintnit of the-^e verbs is always in the 
 s;ime cas'^ as the subject. 
 
 2. Mdi/, ran, vtnsf, s/inll ami irill (when not auxiliaries) 
 anil similar verbs are to he reirardeil as verbs of Incompleto 
 Predication, always takini^ as tlieir coniplemont a verb in the 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 3. Under tnis b.ead also belonjrs tlu; passive voice of verbs 
 of n'tmin<i, cnl/iit;/. Sec Tliero the coniij'oncnt may be either 
 a noun, adjective, or intinitivo. 
 
 84. Verbs commonly transitive are used Difnnisit/'vcl// when 
 the action is asscrti'd in a jj-cneral or indctiin'te manner; as. He 
 retuls well. The child sjmiks. Men build; tinn( pulls down. 
 
 85. Verbs commonly intransitive arc sometimeji used transi- 
 *.ivel(j: — 
 
 (1.) Wiien they have a rnusafirr meanini; ; as, She ran the 
 needle into her fin,L:;er. They stood him on his feet. 
 
 (2.) When the verb is followed by a noun allied to itself in 
 meaning; as, Fie ran a race. I have fo\i(iht a j^ood Ji'jht. This 
 is known in syntax as the cognate objective. 
 
 (3.) When the verb is made transitive by the addition of a 
 preposition so closely uj.ited with it as to l)ecome a pari of 
 itself ; as. He lautjJnd at their folly. 
 
 (4.) In some poetical usages ; as, " IZycs hooked love to eyes 
 that spake again." 
 
 THE FORMS OF VERBS. " 
 
 86. Verbs are varied in form to denote the follow- 
 ing distinction.s : 1. Voice. 2. Mood. 3. Tense. 4. 
 Number. 5. Person. ^: 
 
 VOICE. * • 
 
 87. VoiCB is a variation in the form of transitive 
 verbs to denote the relation of the subject of the verb 
 to the action expressed by the verb. There are two 
 voices, the Active and the Passive. 
 
84 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 (1.) In the ActiVB voice, tlie suhject of the verl) 
 denotes tlie actor ; as, The soldier sharpeiu the sword. 
 
 (2.) In the Passive voice the subject, of the verb 
 denotes the object of the action; as, The sword is sharp- 
 ened by the soklier. 
 
 88. In the sentences j;ivcn as illustrating the nscs of the 
 active and ])assive voices the same thought is expressed. When 
 the active voice is em))l()veci attention is directed to the (x-tor 
 more ])roininently than when the passive is used. The latter 
 emphasizes rather the action exj)ressed by the verb. 
 
 89. The forms of the ])assive voice are all nnnpound, \mu^ 
 made np of the various parts of the verb be, and a verbal form 
 known as the passive participle. 
 
 90. Intransitive verUs take the forms of the active 
 voice, their signification not admitting of a passive 
 use. 
 
 (1.) But when an intransitive verb is followetl by a 
 phrase consistinj; of a preposition and its noun, the verb may be 
 used in the ])assive voice, the preposition becoming? an adverbial 
 adjunct; as, His nei<;hbors /awc/Zu'r/ </< him. He was laui/hed at 
 by his nei<i;hbors. 
 
 (2.) So also with intransitive verbs takin<x a cognate ohiective; 
 as, They ran the swiftest race on record. The swiftest race on 
 record v:as run by them. 
 
 (3.) In such expressions as " he teas gone," " they ore 
 arrived," there is an apparent passive voice in intransitive verbs. 
 For the use of auxiliaries in forming the perfect and plujicrfcct 
 tenses of intransitive verbs, see 1.32, (2.) / 
 
 . MOOD. " 
 
 91. Mood is a variation in the form of verbs denoting 
 the mode or manner in which the action or state 
 expressed by the verb is represented. 
 
 There are properly three moods, — the Indicative, 
 the 8nl)jnnctive and the Imperative. 
 
 (1.) The forms embraced by these moods arc spoken of 
 collectively as the finite verb, because defined or limited by the 
 conditions of nnmhcr and person. 
 
 (2.) The verbal form which expresses simple action or state 
 without any limi/ation is called, though not with strict ])ropriety, 
 the Infinitive Mood. 
 
 (T.) It was formerly the custom to group together certain 
 combinations of the verbs wwj (mii/hl), can (cou^d), must, should 
 
 4 
 
 93. 
 
 tUS, SI 
 
 dcpena 
 
KTYMOLOOT. 
 
 35 
 
 H or state 
 
 and n-ouhl, \\\x\\ the infinitive mood of otlicr verbs, as a special 
 mood eiillcd tlie Potential. 
 
 9?r^-^riie Indicative Mood embraces those forms of 
 tlie verb wliieh are uircd in direct assertions and 
 iiKjuirieft ; as, T am hei'e. He gave the book. Did he 
 fjive the book ? 
 
 This mood derives its name from the Latin indiro, I declare, 
 
 93. Tlu! Subjunctive IVFood embraces tliose forms of 
 the verl) vvliich are used in conditional^ and doubtful or 
 continyenl assertions; as, If he were rich, lie ivovld 
 gladly help you. If the iilan succeed^ many will rejoice. 
 
 When the condition is assumed as a fact, the indica- 
 tive is the [)ro|)er mood ; as, If I ivas mistaken, I did 
 not know it. 
 
 (1,) The subjunctive mood is pocniled from the Latin suhjiinC' 
 tus, sul)joined, because it is generally used in subjoined or 
 dijH'udeut clauses. 
 
 (2.) The subjunctive is generally preceded by such words as 
 [t] thoHiih, hat, mtltss, irhdher, jnoridi-d, etc. By placing the verb 
 i)cf(>re its subject, the conjunction if nuiy be omitted without 
 changing the sense ; thus, If he icere rich is equivalent to Were he 
 rich. The conjunctions ptcceding the subjunctive are not to be 
 considered as forming part of the mood. 
 
 (3.) In modern English there is a tendency to restrict the use 
 (f the subjunctive as a distinct mood to very narrow limits. 
 This is seen, 
 
 (I. In replacing it by the indicative forms in many con- 
 ditional constructions; as, Whether he thinks too little or too 
 much. 
 
 6. In the common use for the simple subjunctive of com- 
 pound forms with should, laudd ; as, If he should come, for, If he 
 cowe. 
 
 (4.) The subjunctive mood is sometimes used in indipendent 
 sentences to ex])rcss a wish ; as, Thy will Ix- done. Perish the 
 thought. Be it so. Part we in anger. This is called the 
 optative use of the subjiniclive, from the T^atin opto, I wish. 
 It belongs esitceially to jioctry and to a dignified style of writing 
 now seldom employed. It is tbuiul, however, in certain ciJUimon 
 and well established phrases. In ordinary writing and speech 
 mat/ and let, followed by the infinitive, have generally replaced it. 
 
 ^ 94. The Imperative INIood is that form of the verb 
 used in commands, requests, and exhortations ; as, Call 
 
V 
 
 v^ {^ 
 
 }(\ 
 
 ETTMOLOnr. 
 
 the witnesses. Give me another chance. Honor the 
 King. 
 
 (1.) The iiiipfriitivc mood is so callt'd from the Latin imprro 
 I commanil. lit'(iiie.sts, exhortations and entreaties are simply 
 S()/)<'iii'd cumiiKinds. 
 
 (2.) The imperative is in hoth voices the same in form as the 
 inlinitive, and in the a(!tive voiee is the simple root of tlie vcrh. 
 
 (3.) The snl)iect of the imperative is always the second 
 personal prononn, expressed or nnderstood. 
 
 (4.) The r>n;^dish hin;;iia<ie has various other construetions 
 capable of eonveyin^j^ tlu' idea of eonitnand. Thus, 
 
 a. By llie use of .s7<«//; as, The ]>arliament shall assemble 
 anjiually. Thou sfui/f not steal. This mode of exj)ression is 
 thief! V confined to le'MsIalion. 
 
 b. By the use of Ai and the infinitive; as, Lcth'wn ntire. 
 fjct us 70. Here the princi|)al xxrhs retire and //o are in the 
 infinitive, ))receded by let in the im])erativc. The idea of 
 command, etc., is conveyed by the compound verb. 
 
 r. By the use of innst and the inlinitive. This, however, 
 CAjtTUSSvs uert ssitij or co m^^dsJ^nj rather than fiTrnjitLiwrfi ii_ 
 
 95. Tiie so-call73(l Infinitive mood (see 91. 2.) is 
 the simplest form, or root^ of the verb, used to express 
 the action or state denoted by the verb vvitliont any 
 limitation of nnmber or person. It is generally pre- 
 ceded by the word /6», which as thus employed, is some- 
 times called the sign of the infinitive. The use of the 
 infinitive is illu.strated in tiie following senhMices: 
 To hciir is to (fbey. lie commanded them to retire. I 
 saw i\w.\\\f(tlL They durst not resist. 
 
 (1.) To is omitted when the infinitive follows the verbs .s7«(i//» 
 H'///, >«(///, run, must, Itt, dare (venture), bid, mttkr, need, pleasct 
 and the active voice of verbs denotiu*; sensation and i)ericption, 
 such JiS see, hear, perreire, etc. 
 
 (2.) While popularly classed amonu; the moods, the inhnitivc 
 Is, strictly s|>cakin;,^ a rerbal nonn. As such it may bo cither 
 the subject or object of a verb. However like the reijular 
 modal forn»s, the infinitive tnood of Iransitivo verbs is followed 
 by the objective case. 
 
 N(»TK. —llorno TooUo'h Idmifinration of tlio Hi^n to wllli n (lothic noim 
 fii;;iiltytn^ nition ir* piin<ly tiiiicitni, Tli*> lilNtory of our l:kn^Kn)^M> hIiowb 
 ooiicliiNivt'ly (lint th*> to |iri>tix*'d l<> tlu* InllnitivitiH tho ortiinttiy |ir<<|Mmitloii. 
 
 Ill .\ii^lo Siixoii, tlit> iiiliiiilivo w;iH tit'iiU'd UN till niiMtiHct vchnl iioiiti, 
 iiiid ili'cliiicd. Tlif hiiii|ili> form (iioiiiiiiiiiivi> aii'i iicciir'Htivi-) nuiodin-un. 
 Tli« tl«ii\i' «•«»»' I'lidi'tl bi aitne or -enne. TIiIb wiw iiHi'd lo dtiuntvi purpos* 
 aiul watt always ]irtM!«Hioil by Ihu prepunitlun to. In ihr> oourM of time 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 37 
 
 Honor the 
 
 Latin impero 
 03 arc simj)ly 
 
 in form as the 
 t of tlio verl». 
 s tlie second 
 
 c'onstriu'tioiis 
 
 h(tll assomblo 
 expression is 
 
 ,<'t him ntirr. 
 I" are in the 
 The idea of 
 
 his, however, 
 
 91. 2.) is 
 to express 
 'ithout any 
 lerally pre- 
 lid, is sonie- 
 i use of the 
 sent(Mices : 
 o retire, I 
 
 10 verhs s/itiil, 
 
 uvril, p/caset 
 
 d peni'ption, 
 
 the inhtiitivo 
 
 lay 1)0 either 
 
 the re^niar 
 
 8 is loUowcd 
 
 ft 'JofJilc rumn 
 
 ktlKi'lt^O t(||0W8 
 
 iry pi!iM»Hilioii. 
 t vc<l)nl iionii, 
 f) <'ii<lf<liii-(ui. 
 
 raiime of time 
 
 \ 
 
 (between the 12 anil l.'Sih centiuies) thosti tonniiiations hj a Ki'R'li'a' pro- 
 cess of nttenuatioii, wasted away, ami the infinitive came to represent tlie 
 simple rout of the verb. Tlie infinitive liavinji been thus rettuictJ to a 
 fixed form, took, save in tlio ca>^e of tlie verlis mentioned in a precedinij 
 , arajrrnpli (!l.'3.(l.)) tlie incpositional prefix AVliich lunl be»n oiij^inally the 
 iniirk of a . pecial form, the flativr of imrjwse. 
 
 V PARTICIPLES AND GEBUNDS. 
 
 96. There are two otlier verbal fornts not usiinlly 
 ranktMl as ISIoods the Participle and the Gerund. 
 
 97. The Participle is a verbid adjective. As a verb, 
 it expresses action or state; as an (ft/Jcctive, it is iisetl 
 
 as an iidjiini 
 
 ;t of 
 
 It^ 
 
 a r.otni. 
 d f 
 
 name is derived from its prnhofxttrnq in the 
 
 h 
 
 timctioiis of two distinet parts of speech 
 
 There are two simple participles, the Present and 
 the Past. 
 
 98. The Present Participle denotes incomplete 
 
 action or state. It alwtiys ends in -iii<j ; as, loving, 
 
 seein*^, speakinjx, walkin«j^. 
 
 (1.) The ])resnit nartif "^le is Honietinies cahecl the Ini/)n/}rt 
 /'(tiiiri'ii/r, hfcmisv' it marks an incomplete iiction or .stiite. 
 Tlu' Iniii denoted riiilly (U'pcnds on eoiMiieted xmrds. 
 
 (2.) The present pnrticipie ol'ten drops the ideas ofiietion iiiid 
 time, and lieeomcs a ^itnple (pndilyin;,' iidjeetive mimitfint; of 
 eomjiiuixin ; as, A l<>iin(/ j)artnt. A most <istviii.s/iii,(j eiretiin- 
 btaiiee. 
 
 99. The Past l*articiple denotes complete action. 
 It eiiils in 'd, -t^ ov 'U; ns, lovt d, lamnht, sp«>ken ; lint 
 in some verhs has i •) sidlix ; as, come, slln^^ (Uv^. 
 
 (1.) Thepust ttaitieiph' often nppnmehes very neiuMy ihe use 
 (d' a siniph' ndjeeitve; as, The oil i<ju(ii(d tale. 
 
 (2.) It is nsed with certain prefixes to f(»rm adjtetixi-s with a 
 negative nniining ; as, tiiisoiifiht, unknown, disiiiterestetl. 
 
 100. In tniHsitive verhs, \hv present participle is 
 active; the past piirticipU>, yu/.s.s//r. In intransitive 
 verhs, there is no distinction of voice between (he 
 pjirticiplefl. The only dillerence in their force i» 
 that of denoting complete or incomphte action <>r Httite. 
 
 101. Tht-eo compound |iarlici|iial forms dest^rve 
 uotice. T.liese uro tiio Perfect Participle Active, the 
 
88 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Impertect Parf iple Passive, and the Perfect Parti- 
 ciple Passive. 
 
 (1.) The Perf' ot Participle Active is conipotindod of 
 tlic past piirtic |)le n the word hacing; as, liavinj; loved, hiivin;; 
 
 slept 
 
 (2.) The Imperfect Participle Passive 
 
 IS coniDouiK 
 
 led 
 
 of the j)ast partieiple {\iid the word luin<i; a . heiii;; loved. 
 
 (3.) The Perfect Participle Passive is eoirn«)iind("! (^i 
 the past i)artiuple and Uie words hdriuj been; as, having; bee 
 loved. 
 
 The iin|»crfeet and perfeet j.ju'tieipies passive are only found 
 
 n 
 
 in fraiisltirt' verh^; 
 
 102. Tlic Gerund is a ver 
 
 Old noun. As a verb it 
 it mav l)e the 
 
 exj)resses actu>ii or .state ; as a noun 
 eubjec'-- or object of a verb, or it may follow a prcpo- 
 aitioi. ; as, Phtyinq marbles is a favorite ifame with 
 boys. The art of buildiny cathedrals is lost. Seeing 
 is belicvinf/. , 
 
 III some of its uses the i'lUMiiid is interchangeable 
 with the infinitive. Thus infinitives may rt!j)lac<' the 
 g'3ruml', in the sentence, Secitig is b<;ltevin(/=z7o see is 
 to believe. 
 
 (1.) The word iicnind is from the Latin ;/i'ro, I carry on, and 
 8i;^nilics tiie rurn/in;/ nn of an action. 
 
 (2.) Tlic i^erund must he eaii fidly distin;.juisluMl from the 
 ]»reseiU parlieiplf and the al)str.iet noun in in;/, hoth whieh 
 agree with it in form. 
 
 a. The gerund and participle alike govern nouns in the 
 objective ease ; hut the forujer takes the construction of a noun ; 
 the latter that of an (iilinfliY 
 
 b. The noun \niiiif may he preceded hy the and. unlike (he 
 ,. gerund has not the verhal power of taking after it an ol>jc« t in 
 r|L>the ohjcciive, hu! is foJKjwcd l»y the pn'position of. — The 
 
 \ following sentences illustrate these distinctions. 
 
 Partiriplr. The wirul, ifinftprsin;/ the cloutl.s, 
 gladdens our hearts. 
 
 Ucrund. 'J'lie wind, l»y <//s7»r/-.v/m/ the cloudfi, 
 gladdens our hearts. 
 
 iVoun. lly the disixrHini/ ol (he cliuids tlio v/liul 
 gliitUU lis our hearts. 
 
 c. Certain cnwjtonml gerundial forms are cfterted hy the 
 use of the gerunds uf the verb haw and U cuiuhined witii purti- 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 39 
 
 erfect Parti- 
 
 ponipoundcd of 
 t,' loved, liiivifi;; 
 
 is oonipoiiiided 
 l loved. 
 
 compounded of 
 S hiivin«jf heeii 
 
 lie only found 
 
 \s a vet'b it 
 may l>u (Ik; 
 >w a j)r('|)()- 
 .i,'aine with 
 Dst. SeeiiKj 
 
 rchaiigcahlo 
 roplaco tlie 
 f=To see is 
 
 carry on, and 
 
 li('<l from the 
 , l)olli wliie'i 
 
 louns in the 
 Ml of !i iiDitii ; 
 
 d. unlike the 
 
 an oltjet { in 
 
 on y/:— The 
 
 vied hy fho 
 with jmrtl- 
 
 r- 
 
 ciples ; as, Tn consequence o^ hdvinrj seen the Medusa, they were 
 turned into stone The iveoUeetion of hdviivj been vanquished, 
 prevented further effort. 
 
 NoTK 1. — Etymolofjicany the <;tM-iind is the modfni representative of an 
 olil A'^lo-S.aAon noun in-"/ii,', and is. so far ."xs descent is ooncerned, tlie same 
 word as tlie al)>tract noun with winch it lias an int»'relianLC<'alde use. 
 
 " Tile 7I(o</h:,'- of aiitliors is not to niy taste" is precisely ei]nivalent 
 to" Quo///):,' aiittiors is not to inv taste. The tirst mode of expression 
 had exclusive posses.-ion of the ticld prior to the sixteenth century, since 
 which date, ih(> omission of the i)rep(>sition and the assignment of a, traJi- 
 sitive verhal power to the (toruierlnoini, have 'gradually liccoun' the estah- 
 lishcd usa;?''. 'J'lic eliaoi,''' i" in accordance with the modern tetnlmcy 
 towards al)rid^nient and simplitication. 
 
 NoTK 2. — Tlu' theory advanced hy sonu- ^grammarians, that tin* ^icriind 
 is a new form of the Atr^Io-Saxou infixitivi, is lics«'t willi uisiipcrahledirti- 
 cidlies It leaves a nap of several centuries in the historical <levclo|)men'c 
 of the Ian;;ua^'e, \ i/. from tlic disapp "arance of the Saxon infinitive cndm;; 
 in itn or m, niitil the modern use of tlu^ ni-rund ht'>;au towards the end of 
 the ItJth century. Tlie connection lietwei-ii the ;;erund and tlie noini in 
 »/»:,' (earlier Urti,') is so chi.sc anil dearly traceahle that no theoretical consid- 
 erations «'nn weiijli aixainst it. 
 
 NoTK .'?. — .\part from the (|Ucstion of origin, the propriety of reco(j- 
 nizili;; tlu^ i,'(Muiiil as a di>tinct fjuin in inodiun llii^^lish cannot \»e disput- 
 ed. It is awkward to sujiply a jirci>>sitioii to govern the followm.; noun, 
 while even that device is imj)ractic.ihlc in the case of th» cotnponnd 
 jiorundial fnrmn, 
 
 XoTKl-t-In such phra.^ep t{% n-^otni;,n running, we. liave simply tli« 
 gerund prcctMled hy a prepositiiui; a h-iii;; »n (m on. So in tlie 
 "xpri'Hsioii tkf housf is hiiihtint;, htiil/liiiif is a u'erund with an oti 'Ited 
 preposiii(ui In s\ich express-idus as uutliciniistirk:, riiliiii(-/iitbil. ivnl/cing 
 aiitl riding are properly ti'mndi^for walkii;;, for ridinjj, respectively. 
 
 J^ TENSE. 
 
 103. Tease is proiuM-Iy u variation in the form of a 
 V(M'l) to express tlie time of the action or state asserted. 
 
 The word tonse is derived from the Latin (rnijnis, time, throni^h 
 the French limits, 
 
 104. There bt'ini; lliree <jfrainl divisioiLS of time, the 
 IWsenf, the Post, aiwl th«' Future, vrihs liavt; three 
 principal forms corrt'spoinlinj; to those divisions and 
 hcariiiL,^ their names, — the Present Tense, the Past 
 Tense, and the Fntnrti Tense; as, 1 sj)€(d', I spoke, I 
 s/t(i/l spetd'. 
 
 105. The term tense is also used to denote, as 
 eloselv eonneetcMl with relation of time, that variation 
 
 * • ft 
 
 in the form of verbs, hv which their aetitm or sttite is 
 represeniCd as complete or ineoniplete, 
 
 106. Hence in the indicative mood in which tho 
 
40 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 teiise-system is most clearly and fully developed, each 
 
 of the three i)rinci[)al tenses appears in three forms or 
 
 modifications : 
 
 (1.) The Present, or tense afTirniing present action 
 
 or state, aj)pears as, 
 
 n. The Present Indefinite, which denotes neither eoni- 
 pleteness nor incoiii|»let('iu'ss, hut without reference to its duratiop, 
 represents the action or state as heh>nging to the present time; 
 as, I irn'fr, he runs, you obn/. 
 
 h. The Present Progressive, whieli represents the action 
 or state as iiieoinph-te and eoiiliiiuous ; as, 1 am initlii;/, \\ii is 
 riniitnH/, you are oh(i)!)uj. 
 
 r. The PiCBent Perfect, calh'd jxenerally the Peifect, 
 which represents the action or state as roinphtv at the present 
 time; as, 1 /idrr iriillcn, he lias run, you /i<in' ui)''i/<'il. 
 
 (2.) The Past, or tense allinning past action or 
 state, appears as, 
 
 fi. The Past Indefinite, whidi represents a past action 
 or state as neither complete nor ineomiilete. hut simply as 
 heUni^ini;' to /mst time; ii-, 1 n'ri.fc, hv rtin, yunohcijcd. 
 
 h. The Past Progressive, whicli denotes an action or 
 state ns incomph'te and continu'jus in past time ; as, I was wriU'n(/, 
 he Wits riinnliH/, you n-< rr oh<t/lni/. 
 
 c. riie Past Pel feet, ialied also tlie Pluperfect wliicli 
 rejiresents an action or state as routplctc in past time; as, I hud 
 wrt'lttn, hii Innl run, yoH hdil ohri/('(i. . 
 
 ('?.) Tiic Fu> lire, or tense aiririniMg/>//>/r« action or 
 state, appears as, 
 
 (/. The Future Indefinite, which represents an action 
 or state as neither complete nor incompUte, luit simply as 
 helon;;in^ to future time ; h^, I s/uill write, he »/// run, you wi/i 
 
 h. 'I'he Future Progreasive, whicli denotes an action 
 or s!nt«i as iiicomplefe and continuous in future time, as 1 shall 
 In writ in*/, he will be. runniun, you will lie olii'ifinjf. 
 
 r. The Futuie Perfect which represents an action or 
 state iis coin]il(fi' in fulurc time; as, 1 shall have wrillrn, he will 
 harr run, you //•/// hare nhi i/i tl. 
 
 107. Tlie fftroixoitii; fonscs, with the excoption of 
 the Fiilinc Pioijjrcssive, ar<! fotiiid in both voices. 
 There is in ihe active voice a niodilicjition of the 
 perfect or complete tenses to combine the ideas of 
 
 co< 
 th 
 
 left 
 arm 
 ben 
 
 f 
 
ETTMOI.OOT. 
 
 41 
 
 :)ped, each 
 e forms or 
 
 eut action 
 
 cither com- 
 tsdu ration, 
 L'.sent tunc ; 
 
 s the action 
 n'lifit/, he is 
 
 3 Perfect, 
 
 the present 
 
 action or 
 
 )ast nction 
 simply as 
 
 action or 
 xis wn'l {}}(/, 
 
 ict nhich 
 as, I /i(t(l 
 
 iction or 
 
 HI action 
 imply na 
 , von in'/l 
 
 an action 
 as I ahuH 
 
 iction or 
 ', he wUl 
 
 >tion of 
 voicc'8. 
 of tlio 
 
 AVXXA of 
 
 completeness and continuousness. The three tenses 
 thus formed are, 
 
 (1.) The Present Perfect Progressive; as, I have 
 hen writin;/. 
 
 (2.) The Past Perfect Progressive; as, I liad hem 
 uritiJifj- 
 
 (3.) The Future Perfect Progressive; as, I shall have 
 been tiritinff. 
 
 NorK. — Ttio profjrossivo tciisps fntiiirl in \ho pnssiv" voico Imvo lioon 
 iiitiodiiccd into the l;uitl<ia'_'i' m nioil, rn times. p'oiiiicriy tlie ineiuiiiii,' 
 expressed )>y thrill was (;i>nV('>t'<Miy uliat seoin to I>e nrtire Hmu^ useil 
 ill a pnssii'e sense, f^wch as " piepa'atioiis are nuikini;" "ttn- lioiwe is 
 hiiilitin^." As seen elsewhere (see 102, Note 4) vutki ua ami fjiiHilim: in 
 these sentences are not pnrtirif'l-s, Imt geriituh, witli tlie l(lepo^itioll 
 a or in omitted. Compare " Forty and six years wa-^ this temple in 
 bxiildins." 
 
 108. The followini^ is a comph^ti^ scheme or synopsis 
 of the tenses of tl'' Indicative Mood in hotli voices, as 
 ilhistrated 1)V tlie V(!rb strike: — 
 
42 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 '5 I i! 
 
 : K^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fcJD 
 
 
 .2 3 1 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 5.0- 
 
 ?5 
 
 C 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 ;S <u « 
 
 
 . 
 
 5 
 
 • 
 
 U3 
 
 • 
 
 ^1^ 
 
 S- 
 
 en 
 
 "to 
 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 'to 
 
 c 
 
 * i 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 
 •a 
 
 «3 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 XJ 
 
 3 
 03 
 
 ^ *4-« vn 
 
 2P 
 
 ■S 
 
 f£ 
 
 -o 
 
 s: 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 " rt '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 '-^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 ■ — ■ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 S'" ® 
 
 Ti 1> U 
 
 <^ 
 
 03 
 
 
 03 
 M 
 
 
 ,3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 .= >■ (4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hH 
 
 
 bc'$ t>. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — tfc 1) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 .S K ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 u-H 
 
 
 
 .« 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 • 
 
 j3 
 
 -^•% 
 
 
 M 
 
 fl 
 u 
 
 • 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 t-i 
 
 en 
 
 «> «^ r. 
 
 • 
 
 3 
 OB 
 
 a> 
 
 >• 
 03 
 
 C 
 
 M 
 
 <a 
 
 3 
 73 
 
 4-« 
 
 c 
 
 X 
 
 > 
 
 03 
 
 g 
 03 
 
 >•- 3 
 
 111 
 
 > = a. 
 
 
 -C 
 
 > 
 
 
 *^ 
 
 «-4 
 
 r3 
 
 
 M 
 
 c3 
 
 M 
 
 of 
 
 Xi 
 en 
 
 '^ ' 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 HH 
 
 t— 1 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St** 
 
 
 
 *. 
 
 • 
 
 * 
 -Id 
 
 tb 
 
 
 • 
 
 C 
 
 
 fcJD 
 
 .5 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 'J2 
 
 ^^ 
 
 — > -.0 
 
 J2 >'► 
 
 1 
 
 C 
 
 US 
 
 m 
 
 c 
 
 'M 
 
 13 
 
 4iJ 
 CO 
 
 4.^ 
 
 cn 
 
 tJD 
 
 'u 
 
 tb 
 
 i 
 
 r ■"' - 
 
 15 1" 
 
 Qs 
 
 M 
 
 
 / « 
 
 C/1 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^^ M rn 
 
 
 
 S3 
 M 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,:i 
 
 Indejinite. 
 
 •c 
 
 M 
 
 • 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 u 
 
 m 
 
 B 
 
 c3 
 
 • 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 «^ 
 
 • 
 
 U 
 
 3 
 
 4^ 
 
 '73 
 
 1 
 
 If) 
 
 S3 
 
 
 
 t— ( 
 
 
 M 
 
 h^ 
 
 u5 
 
 — " — , 
 
 
 
 ,— , 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 _,„^ 
 
 Tr a 4) "2 
 
 C.5 >1 
 
 • 
 
 .H ^ -o 
 
 ^ g t> 
 
 4) OJ > 
 
 •^ & 1 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 4) 
 
 4-1 
 
 1 
 
 .« . .2 
 
 o © o 
 
 •5 Cm 1 
 
 ♦- ® S s 
 
 1^^ 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 p 
 
 V 
 V 
 
X^ \mX ^^^ ' 
 
 '^\j\y\^' 
 
 
 2a ) 
 
 
 •~ «- - 
 
 
 i^ o- 
 
 
 •1 ♦; - 
 
 
 s: ij « 
 
 
 'Of'"? * 
 
 
 1 C S* 3 
 
 tt) 
 
 
 .s 
 
 i - 2 
 
 4-> 
 
 ! " -w *j 
 
 
 'fss." 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -^ r '^ 
 
 ^*— ' 
 
 5 r:^ 
 
 
 C ■»-■ 3 
 
 
 « i^ 
 
 
 O'S ., 
 
 
 ^ 0) 
 
 
 C 4> U 
 
 
 .= > e4 
 
 
 tc'^ >. 
 
 
 c ?■ 1; 
 
 4ii 
 
 •= £^ 
 
 o 
 
 = tcH 
 
 *^ 
 
 S =- 
 
 u 
 
 u C 
 
 
 2 ^^'"5 
 
 en 
 
 J 01 
 
 c 
 
 
 bee 
 
 
 have 
 
 
 ♦-* "" "^ 
 
 ^■~* 
 
 ,-^ ■/' o 
 
 -5 ' 
 
 
 t-4 
 
 
 So- 
 
 
 
 
 - > « 
 
 ,,„^ 
 
 ti t — 
 
 . 
 
 rj > " ^ 
 
 to ! 
 
 '-•^i; 
 
 C 1 
 
 *- •'. •'H 
 
 
 C rt 3 
 
 *-* 
 
 *^ i.^ 
 
 c 
 
 
 *-* 
 
 ;. 1^ i: 
 it-* 
 
 ■ 
 
 - Ui r/3 
 
 L 
 
 < £1,.»M 
 
 
 Zi^.c 
 
 
 -'=•=1 
 
 true 
 
 tn - 
 
 
 •« 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 ? a V ^ 
 
 u: 
 
 3 «:-r-3 
 
 
 :> c Cb| 
 
 1 i 
 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 1 a iJ •> 
 
 -*V ; 
 
 ® * s 
 
 
 = ^^ " •» 
 - i^.5 
 
 
 43 
 
 / 
 
 
 It will be observed that the only* tenses eonsHlibg of 
 Himple forms are the present and past indefiniteiy 
 
 For the sake of conveiiionce, the present, ])ast and future 
 Indefinite tenses, will hereafter Ikj referred to as simply the 
 present, past and future. 
 
 109. Tlie ])resent tense, except in tlie case of the 
 verb be, contains the simple or orij^itial form of the 
 verb as found in the infinitive mood; as, strike, run, 
 love. 
 
 The formation of the pMst tense will be treated of 
 under the head of Coujtu/ation. 
 
 110. The compound tenses ari^ formecl by a com- 
 bination of one or more of the verbs be, hare, shall 
 and will, with the infinitive mood and ])articiple8, 
 either separately or variously cond)ined. Be, have, 
 shall, and tvill, when thus used, are called Auxiliary 
 
 Verbs. ' 
 
 111. The verb do is also used as a tense-auxiliary 
 in what is culled the emphatic form of the present 
 and past ; as, I do understand. I did tell you. 
 
 TENSES IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE, IMPERATIVE 
 AND INFINITIVE MOODS. 
 
 112. The Subjunctive mood in the active voice has 
 oidy the t*'nses of the presetif, system, namely, the 
 I)n'seht in(h'finite, the present progressive, the present 
 perfect, and the present perfect proirressive. The verb 
 be and the passive voi(;e of other verbs have also a 
 past system, embracin<^ the past indefinite and past 
 progressive tenses. 
 
 (1.) Ohl Kn<!;lish had a past and past perfect sub- 
 junctive m the active voice. The latter went h)niy 
 since wholly out of use, and the former tliou<j;li 
 rtitained by some t^rammarians (as Mori is), is almost 
 eijuady obsolete. Both tenses were discarded by tlie 
 translators of th<? authorized version of the Scriptures, 
 who use freely indicative forms in constru(!tions plaiidy 
 requiring subjunctive, if sucli were at command; as, "If 
 
 T 
 

 P/rrMOLOGY. 
 
 W. 
 
 S !i, 
 
 i(f? 
 
 -/- 
 
 thou Inewest the gift of God," " If tliou hadst been 
 here." Some iri'iiniinuriuns uive the same forms under 
 both moods. In view of the rapid decadence of the 
 subjunctive, as a separate mood, this is quite unneces- 
 sary. 
 
 (2.) Ill the compound tenses of the Subjunctive, 
 wonhht aii<l would (sing.), would (jilural), take the 
 j)hice of shoidtht and should in the second and third 
 persons, when tlie verb is used in a prinei[)al sentence, 
 that is, is not preceded by ij\ fhomjh^ c<:c. 
 
 J13. The Imperative mood has l)ut one tense, 
 haviijg tile ibrin of tlie simj)l(; I'oot. 
 
 ii4' The Inlinitive mood lias tlie four tenses of 
 !i9 prr'4-.Mit system. 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 115. Number is a variation in. the fn'm of verbs 
 corresponding to the nunil)er ot" the subject, as, gold 
 shines; stars shine. There :iro, tlicretore, in verbs ns 
 in nouns two numbers — tlio Siiiiruhir and the Plural. 
 
 NoTK. — Striolly spH;\kin_u'. "Hli llic cxor-jition of he, K»i},'li.-<h verbs liavo 
 111) (listiiirtiv(\ forisis for iiumln r. the im:vi1;s bv nliii-h it is iiot<'<l liaviii^jj 
 lifcn nri.,'inally j>uii'l>' jfrsoiKil stiflixos. Tims -,v. wliich ciiabU's iiss to 
 (1istiiii,'iiisli ht'lwt'fii [\\y') Itii'ts \\w\ (llicy) love in piopwrly siiniily a siuti of 
 tlie IIiIkI fifisoii, Init liiaMt'.ucli iis tlic {ihiial muiilicr lias no spi rlHc 
 (Kirsoiial ('ii(',iiiLr>', tliis ti'niiiii!>iii>ii st'rv<'s also as a siuru of siiijriilaiity. 
 hi Aii,LcIo-Sax.iii, the iiliiral ciKliiij: of tlic rrcsciit Indicati vo was -nth. In 
 Old ICiij^lisli this u'avc way to ~cn. In inodi-rn lCii;.'li.sli, tlu! plural of tlii« 
 t<ni8c is uhvays tlu'sunu' as the root, or .siinpU- vorb, 
 
 PERSON. 
 
 116. Person i^ a variation in the form of vtrbs, by 
 which we mark whether the subject is the first personal 
 pronoun, the second personal pronoun, or some other 
 word ; as, I strike, thou strikesf, he (or any singular 
 noun in the nominative case) sh'ikes. 
 
 When the subject is th(^ first jiersonal pronoun, 
 the verb is said to be of the First Person. 
 
 When the subject is the seccnul pt'isoiial pronoun, 
 
 the veil) is said to be of the Second Person. 
 
 All other forms of the V(;rb are spoken of as of the 
 
 Third Person. 
 
 ml 
 
 oi 
 
 te 
 
 th 
 
ndst been 
 
 •ins under 
 
 ice of the 
 
 unueces- 
 
 l)JMiictive, 
 take the 
 
 and tliird 
 sentence, 
 
 ne tense, 
 tenses of 
 
 of vorhs 
 
 as, li'old 
 
 verhs ns 
 
 i Phii'al. 
 
 ver1)s liavo 
 )tt'«l liaviii^' 
 al)li's IIS to 
 ly a si;,'ii of 
 no sjxcitic 
 siiicriiiai ity. 
 as -nth. In 
 iiial of tlii.s 
 
 l^frhs, by 
 xTsonal 
 le other 
 siii^idar 
 
 troiiQun, 
 
 •ronoun, 
 
 s of the 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 45 
 
 (1 ) In Englisli as in Anglo-Saxon, tlie phiral 
 number is without variation for person. 
 
 (2) The tenses of the subjunctive mood liave but 
 one form for all persons in the singular. The past 
 tense of he is the only exception. 
 
 (,3) In the indicative present and past, the second 
 person singular adds st or est to the first person. In 
 the ])rest'nt teu.^e, the third person adds s (old form /// 
 or eth) to the first person, but in the past tense it is tlie 
 same as the first [)erson, 
 
 XOTi'". 1. — It iniiM licubticrvcd iliat ptrson i^ a pincl.v (•cr/^fj/ili.^liiictioii. 
 To atU'iii|)t to make it lli(> l>nsis of a tla^silica ion of iioiiiis and lli<!i to 
 tlilint' person in rirhs as a con<'^^lloll(linli \aiiation in form, is to do jriosa 
 violcnfc to fact, tcM- no iiistaiui- »-.ni lie ;;ivin or conccivi-d ot in wliicli a 
 noun of the .so-ca!lt'd (irst oi sfi-ond poison stands as tlie suljcct of a 
 veil* 
 
 N()Ti;2. — 'I'Iki t('i-niii:atii)nM markiii'^' pirson .r« oii;,'iiialIy piisnnal 
 proiiotiiis, in all tin- luiiLrnn;r('> of llic Indo-Kun ."aJ- torl<. Only in inn 
 dues the Kn^lish retain /;/ (e.>nipari> ?;/«) tlie ci. aclcrislic It^lter of 
 tlie «'iidin,;; of tli(> tiist |ii'isi>ii. hi -st {)i-e.si iftli: ^('^;olld person and 
 -rth (softened into 5) of llie lliird pefsuii, it displays, however, with ^'reat 
 coinpletoiies.s the eharaeterisiies eoinmoii to the whoh' ,i,'i()np. Tlie nrinii- 
 ti\t endin;; of the seeoiid [leisoii was -5 or -t (i\s (irrek sn, Latin tu, 
 Kii^lish t/ioii) ; of third person -t (the root eonsof,iint of a lari^e nnniber of 
 demonstratives of which the Kiif^dish t/i" anil ti'uU ur.iy bo taken as 
 specinieiirt ) 
 
 CONJUGATION. 
 
 117. Conjugation is a systematic arr:iugement of the 
 various forms ot a verb, ac(3ordiiig to Voice, JMood, 
 Tense, Number and Person. 
 
 118. Ill order to understand the whole formation of 
 any verb, it is necessary to know only the root or simple 
 form as giyeii in the inliiiitiye mood, the past tense 
 of the indicative mood, and the })ast particip'e. 
 
 Hence these three forms ar»^ called tlu^ PrlnclpHl 
 Parts of the verb. Tims, /ove. /orerf, lored : fntr/t, 
 f.nu(//tf, f(iu<//tt ; f/ire, f/ave, (/irrtt, m;iy be t.iken as 
 brief (h'scriptioiis of tht^ verbs iove, (rach ;uid f/i('<'. 
 
 119. Verbs are diyided .according to the mami(»r in 
 which tlu^ j)ast tense and past parliciph! are dei'ivcd 
 from llu^ simple form of tin; verb into two great classes 
 or conjugations called the Weak and the Strong. 
 
 120. In verbs of the Weak Conjug.ition, the past 
 
46 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 r 
 
 tense and past partici pie, which are al ways o/«X*c, end in-d 
 (-ed ) or /,' as, ?nove, moved, moved ; pull, pulled, pulled ; 
 deed, dealt, dealt, -d{ed), the re^^ii'ar suffix of this 
 conjugal ion is a contraction of tlie word did. The 
 connecting vowel e of the sulfix is used only when the 
 root ends in a consonant. 
 
 A verb of the weak conjugation has six simple 
 forms: love, lovesf, loves (lovet/i), loved, lovedsf, loving. 
 
 121. Verbs which attacli -d(cd) directly to the root 
 ar(> called Regular ; uh, dff/rade, der/rnded, degraded; 
 waif, waited, waited. All other verbs ot this Conjuga- 
 tion jire t(!rmed Irr^^gular. 
 
 122. The fbllowiiiL; are the chief varieties of Irregular 
 verbs : — 
 
 (1) Those ill which without any ehaii'j;c in proiimieiation t 
 is used interehaui^eahly witli -(}{'■({) ; as, drcsa, dress< d or dnst, 
 dressed or drest. So pass, learn, s/wil. 
 
 (2.) Those in which final d of the root is changed into /» 
 as, retid, rent, rent ; liiiild, Intilf, Iniilt; (jird, gird, (jirt. Such verbs 
 have also re<;iilar forms. 
 
 (3.) Tho?e in whieh the vowel is shortened (sometimes only 
 in jironunciation) with /"added as an ondin;; ; as, ft el, felt, felt. 
 So, al<o, mean, keep, deal, rnep, sleep, sireep, etc. Others as 
 leap, dream, etc., are l)oth re;j;uhir and irre^rnlar. 
 
 (4.) Those which add '/ after a chan;:re of the root vowel ; 
 s\!i,Jlt'e, fled, fled; sai/, said, s(}id; shop, shod, shod. Hear, heard, 
 heard, is in appearance regular, but clianges the pronunciation 
 of the root vowcj. 
 
 (5.) Tho^c ending in t or d, which shorten the root vowel, 
 but take no added ending; us, feed, fed, fed. S«) i\Uo. shoot, lead, 
 blcid, meet. Ll(/ht has a past tense and j)articiple ///. 
 
 (6.) Those ending originally in a h or 7 sound, which 
 change the vowel and final consonants into the sound au</ht : as, 
 beseech, hesontjht, liesoia/ht. So Inii/, brinij, seek, catch, think. 
 IVork, while regular, has also a form n'rnwiht. 
 
 (7 ) Those ending in •/ or -d which have their past tense 
 and past ]iariiciple llie same in form as the root; as, ;<m/,;h(/, jml; 
 shed, shed, shed. 
 
 linrst is now generally ranked here, though it was originally 
 a stront) verb, having a past i»articiple bursten. 
 
 (8.) A few not easily classed ; as. Sell, sold, sold; tell, told, 
 *old; have, had, had; make, in<fde, made; clothe, clad, clad. The 
 
KTYMOLOGY. 
 
 47 
 
 L*e,end ui-d 
 •id, pulled ; 
 IX of this 
 lid. The 
 ' when the 
 
 jix simi)le 
 7*7, loving. 
 
 to the root 
 degraded ; 
 > Coiijugu- 
 
 )f Irregular 
 
 mnciation t 
 ' d or Urcst, 
 
 Vu:e(l into /» 
 Such verbs 
 
 etinios onlv 
 
 Others as 
 
 oot vowel ; 
 /fv//-, heard, 
 )nuiiciation 
 
 'Got vowel, 
 shoof, /end, 
 
 Mild, which 
 
 'iii'/h( : as, 
 
 tfrh, think. 
 
 past tense 
 t/, put, ])ut; 
 
 originally 
 
 '; tell, told, 
 lad. Tlio 
 
 last three arc shortened by loss of the final consonant of 
 the root. 
 
 123. In Verbs of tlie St;:ong Conjugation, the past 
 tense is formed by a eliange in the vowel of the root, 
 and the past participle regularly ends in -n or -en ; as, 
 strive^ strove, striven ; forget, forgot, forgotten ; fly, 
 flew, flown. 
 
 These illustrations show that the vowel of the participle is 
 sometimes the same as that of the root, sometimes the same as 
 that of the past tense, sometimes dilferent from both. 
 
 A verb of the Strong Conjugation has seven simple 
 
 forms : write, writest, writes {wrifeth), wrote, wrotest, 
 
 icriting„ written. 
 
 (1.) N or en which was formerly the constant ending of the 
 past participle is now entirely lost in many verbs, and with 
 others its use is variable 
 
 (2.) Some verbs originally belonging to the strong conjuga- 
 tion now take cither invariably or occasionally a part of the 
 forms of the weak, while not a few have passed over entirely to 
 that conjugation. 
 
 (3.) A ))hilosophical classification of verlis of tl.e strongcon- 
 jugation renders necessary a mi?iute examination of the older 
 forms of English and some other languages allied to English. 
 
 At best, such a classification must be far from exact, owing 
 to the confusion caused l>y irregular changes. For ])rac"ical 
 jturposes it is sufllicicnt to gro>ip together those verbs which are 
 on the whole most alike in their formation. Thus, ,,. 
 
 n. Like aiiuj, san;/, stm;/, arc conjucated, h(<iii>, rit)(j, spriiuj, 
 swim, stiiik, drink, shrink, sink. So like rlin(/, c/ung, chiwj 
 are co\\]\\^^i\tci\, fin;/, stnn/, striiiff, snu'n;/, urini], slink. 
 
 '). Like bind, bound, bound (irejind, grind and wind * 
 
 c. Like speak, spoke, spoken are break, bear, swear, wear, 
 tear (all of which have an old past with a), steal, weave, tread. 
 
 d Somewhat like give, gave, given arc bid, hade or hid, 
 bidden, eat, ate or cat, eatt ii. 
 
 e. Like take, took, taken, are shake and forsake. 
 
 f. Like ride, rode, ridden are rise, stride, smite, write, drive, 
 .strive ami (sometimes) thrive. 
 
 This groupitig of similar forms might be further extended, 
 but the limit of unclassifiable words would soon be reached. 
 
 (4.) Be, was, been, is made up of parts coming from difiercnt 
 roots, and is throughout so irregular that its forms can only be 
 learned from its full conjugation. {See 127.) 
 
48 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 t 
 
 ->* 
 
 124. When t^c participle has two forms, one with, and the 
 other without en, the former is |)rcferre(l when tlie ])articiple has 
 an adjectival use; as, fmyotfcn lore ,• a dntnky}) fellow ; ixsmi'ffpn 
 heart ; clore)! tonyues ; hidden joys. Indeed some words in en 
 in their ori<;in ])articiples, are now used only as adjecttives, the 
 real participles beiiij^ formed in another manner. Such arc, 
 hnundcn, f/ravm, roficn, molten. Lorn (ohs.) and forlorn arc of 
 participial orij^in, bein*,' derived from the An;;lo-Saxon leoson to 
 lose, with a not unusual change of s into rn. 
 
 oo 
 
 iV^ 
 
 r 
 
 125 
 
 (1.) List of Ikuegular Vekbs. 
 
 lif|r-= 
 
 (Verbs marked tliu 
 a t have also 
 
 Bend 
 
 Bereave 
 
 Beseech 
 
 Bet 
 
 Bleed 
 
 Blend 
 
 Breed 
 
 Brinj^ 
 
 Build, 
 
 Burst 
 
 Burn 
 
 Buy 
 
 Cast, 
 
 Catch 
 
 Clothe 
 
 Cleave (trans.) 
 
 Cost 
 
 Creep 
 
 Cut 
 
 Deal 
 
 Dream 
 
 Dwell 
 
 Feed 
 
 Feel 
 
 Flee 
 
 Gild 
 
 Gird 
 
 Have 
 
 Hear, 
 -4-Hit 
 ^l^urt 
 
 Keep 
 
 Kneel 
 
 Knit 
 
 s * have also the 
 the Ibrms of the 
 
 bent 
 
 bereft 
 
 besought 
 
 bet 
 
 bled 
 
 blent* 
 
 bred 
 
 brought 
 
 built 
 
 burst 
 
 burnt* 
 
 bought 
 
 ."^ 
 
 cast 
 
 caught 
 
 clad* 
 
 cleft* t 
 
 cost 
 
 crcj)! 
 
 cut 
 
 dealt 
 
 dreamt* 
 
 dwelt 
 
 fed 
 
 felt 
 
 fled 
 
 gilt* 
 
 girl* 
 
 had 
 
 heard 
 
 hit 
 
 hurt 
 
 kept 
 
 knell • 
 
 koit 
 
 regular forms. Those with 
 kStrong Conjuguti(ui.J 
 
 bent 
 
 bereft 
 
 besought 
 
 bet 
 
 bled 
 
 blent* 
 
 bred 
 
 brought 
 
 built 
 
 burst 
 
 burnt* 
 
 bought 
 
 cast 
 
 caught 
 
 clad* 
 
 cleft* t 
 
 cost 
 
 cre})t 
 
 cut 
 
 dealt 
 
 dreamt* 
 
 dwelt 
 
 fed 
 
 felt 
 
 fled 1 
 
 gilt* 
 
 girt* 
 
 had 
 
 heard 
 
 hit 
 
 hurt 
 
 kept 
 
 knelt ^ 
 
 knit 
 
le with, and the 
 e ])nrticiple has 
 illow ; asnn'fff'}) 
 no words in en 
 
 adjectives, the 
 CI". Such are, 
 
 forlorn are of 
 ^axon leoson to 
 
 i. Those with 
 lyutionj 
 
 It 
 
 Lay 
 
 Lead 
 Leap 
 Learn 
 Leave 
 Lend • 
 Let 
 Lin-ht 
 Lose 
 Make 
 Mean 
 Meet 
 I'ay 
 Put 
 Pen 
 Read 
 Rend 
 Rid 
 Say 
 Seek 
 Sell 
 Send 
 Set 
 Shed 
 ■Shoe 
 Shred 
 Shut 
 Sleep 
 Slit 
 Speed 
 Spell 
 Spend 
 Spill 
 Spit 
 Split 
 Spread 
 Stay 
 Sweep 
 Sweat 
 Teach 
 Tell 
 Think 
 Thrust 
 Wed 
 Weep 
 Wet 
 Whet 
 Work 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 
 laid 
 
 laid 
 
 led 
 
 led 
 
 leapt 
 
 leapt 
 
 learnt* 
 
 learnt* 
 
 lea 
 
 left 
 
 lent 
 
 lent 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 liL* 
 
 lit* 
 
 lost 
 
 lost 
 
 made 
 
 made 
 
 meant 
 
 meant 
 
 met 
 
 met , 
 
 paid 
 
 paid 
 
 put 
 
 ]iMt 
 
 pent* 
 
 pent* 
 
 read 
 
 read 
 
 rent 
 
 rent 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 said 
 
 said 
 
 sought 
 
 sought 
 
 sold 
 
 sold 
 
 sent 
 
 sent 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 shod 
 
 shod " — 
 
 shred 
 
 shred 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 slept 
 
 slept 
 
 slit 
 
 slit 
 
 sped 
 
 sped 
 
 spelt* 
 
 spelt* 
 
 spent 
 
 spent 
 
 spilt* 
 
 spilt* 
 
 spitt 
 
 spitt 
 
 split 
 
 split 
 
 spread 
 
 spread 
 
 staid 
 
 staid 
 
 swept 
 
 swept 
 
 sweat 
 
 sweat 
 
 taught 
 
 taught 
 
 told 
 
 told 
 
 thought 
 
 thought 
 
 thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 wed 
 
 wed 
 
 we])t 
 
 wept 
 
 wet* 
 
 wet* 
 
 whet* 
 
 whet* 
 
 wrought* 
 
 wrought* 
 
 ^ 49 
 
50 
 
 KTYMOLOOY. 
 
 V 
 
 c 
 
 ^ 
 
 (2.) List op Vkrhs of the Strong Conjugation. 
 
 ( Verbs marked tlius * have also re<2:idar fornjs accordinu: to the 
 weak (•()njnf:;ati()n. Forms of the .strong conjugation arc 
 wanting when brackets are used.) 
 
 abode 
 
 arisen 
 
 awoke 
 
 born 
 
 borne 
 
 beaten 
 
 iKlield, beholden 
 
 bidden, bid 
 
 bound 
 
 bitten, bit 
 
 l>U>wii ..«- 
 
 biokcn 
 
 chidden, chid 
 
 chosen 
 
 cloven 
 
 clung 
 
 come 
 
 crown,* Obf, 
 
 dug 
 
 done 
 
 d rawn 
 
 drunk 
 
 driven 
 
 eaten 
 
 fallen 
 
 fought 
 
 found 
 
 flung 
 
 flown 
 
 forborne 
 
 forbidden 
 
 forgotten 
 
 forsaken 
 
 frozen 
 
 gotten, got 
 
 gi yen 
 
 gone 
 
 graven 
 
 ground 
 
 itfil » 
 
 fiunj?*""* 
 heaved 
 
 Abide 
 
 abode 
 
 Arise 
 
 arose 
 
 Awake 
 
 awoke 
 
 Bear (bring forth), 
 
 bore, bare 
 
 Bear (carry), 
 
 bore, biu-4{_ 
 
 Beat 
 
 beat 
 
 Begin 
 
 began 
 
 Behold 
 
 beheld 
 
 Bid 
 
 bade, bid 
 
 Bind 
 
 bound 
 
 Bite 
 
 bit 
 
 Blow ^ 
 
 blew ,,„,.^ 
 
 Break 
 
 ^l)f(7ire'^ 
 
 Chide 
 
 chid 
 
 Choose 
 
 chose 
 
 Cleave (split), 
 
 clove 
 
 Cling 
 
 clung 
 
 Come 
 
 came 
 
 Cr3w 
 
 crew* 
 
 Dig — ^ 
 
 dug 
 
 Do 
 
 did 
 
 Draw " 
 
 drew 
 
 Drink \ 
 
 drank 
 
 Drive 
 
 drove 
 
 Ent 
 
 fttt 
 
 Fall 
 
 fell 
 
 Fight 
 
 fought 
 
 Find 
 
 found 
 
 Fling 
 
 flung 
 
 Fly 
 
 flew 
 
 Forbear 
 
 forbore 
 
 Forbid 
 
 forbade 
 
 Forget 
 
 forgot 
 
 Forsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 Freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 Oct 
 
 got 
 
 Give 
 
 gave 
 
 Go 
 
 went 
 
 Grave, en- 
 
 graved 
 
 Grind 
 
 ground 
 
 Qravu. 
 
 Kii:^^ -^ 
 
 Hang 
 
 nung* 
 
 Ilcavo 
 
 hove 
 
 Tlej 
 
 ni(i 
 
 Ho 
 Kill 
 
 U\\ 
 
 Lie) 
 
 Ki([ 
 
 4- Bill 
 
 KisI 
 
 Hi\| 
 
 Kuf 
 
 Sc(I 
 
 Sec) 
 
 Sh{ 
 
 :y/ 
 
KTYMOLOr.Y. 
 
 51 
 
 UGATIOX. 
 
 TTew 
 
 (hewed ) 
 
 
 hewn* 
 
 1*11 1 * ^ 
 
 
 Hide 
 
 hid 
 
 
 hidden, hui 
 
 niiiiu: to the 
 
 Hold 
 
 held 
 
 
 held, holden 
 
 ii^^ation are 
 
 Know 
 
 knew 
 
 
 known 
 
 
 Lade 
 
 (laded) 
 
 
 laden, loaden 
 
 
 Lie 
 
 lay 
 
 
 lain 
 
 
 Kido 
 
 rode 
 
 
 riilden 
 
 
 ■fHino: 
 
 rani; 
 
 
 rung 
 
 
 Kise 
 
 r(»se 
 
 
 risen 
 
 
 Hive 
 
 (rived) 
 
 
 riven ^^ 
 
 
 Knn 
 
 ran 
 
 
 run 
 
 
 See 
 
 saw 
 
 
 seen 
 
 lolden 
 
 Seethe 
 
 sod* 
 
 
 sodden* 
 
 1 
 
 Shake 
 
 shook 
 
 
 shakt'U 
 
 
 / -Shaved 
 ' Shear 
 
 (shaved) 
 
 
 shaven* 
 
 
 shore 
 
 
 shorn 
 
 
 Slnne 
 
 shone 
 
 
 shone 
 
 
 Shrink 
 
 shrank 
 
 
 shrunk 
 
 uM 
 
 Sin-; 
 
 sanj; 
 
 
 sung 
 
 
 Sink 
 
 sank 
 
 
 sunk 
 
 
 Sit 
 
 sat 
 
 
 sat 
 
 
 Slav 
 
 slew 
 
 
 slain 
 
 
 Slide 
 
 slid 
 
 
 slidden, slid 
 
 ! 
 
 SHnp 
 Slink • 
 
 slung 
 slunk 
 
 V. 
 
 slung 
 slunk 
 
 
 Smite 
 
 smote 
 
 
 smitten 
 
 
 Sow 
 
 (sowed) 
 
 
 sown* 
 
 ■' 
 
 S|)eak — 
 t'pin 
 
 . fijioke 
 
 
 spoken 
 
 spun ■""" 
 
 
 SpUIl 
 
 ! 
 
 Sprni); 
 
 spraiifj 
 
 
 sprung 
 
 *^j 
 
 Stand 
 
 stood 
 
 
 stood 
 
 I 
 
 Steal 
 
 stole 
 
 
 stolen 
 
 1 
 
 Stick 
 
 stuck 
 
 
 stuck 
 
 1 
 
 Stinji^ 
 
 stung 
 
 
 stung 
 
 1 
 
 Stink 
 
 stank 
 
 
 stunk 
 
 1 
 
 Stride 
 
 strode 
 
 
 stridden 
 
 1 
 
 Strike 
 
 Btruck 
 
 V 
 
 struck, striek<ll 
 
 J 
 
 String; 
 
 strung 
 
 strung 
 
 M 
 
 Strive 
 
 strove 
 
 striven 
 
 
 Swear 
 
 3W(tre 
 
 
 sworn 
 
 
 Swell 
 
 (swelled) 
 
 
 swollen* 
 
 
 Swim 
 
 swam 
 
 
 i!wum 
 
 
 Swin^; 
 
 swung 
 
 
 swung 
 
 f 
 1 
 
 Take 
 
 took 
 
 
 taken 
 
 1 
 
 Trar 
 
 tore 
 
 
 torn 
 
 1 
 
 Thrive 
 
 throve* 
 
 
 thriven* 
 
 1 
 
 Throw 
 
 threw 
 
 
 thrown 
 
 1 
 
 •^ Trcttd 
 
 trod 
 
 
 trodden 
 
62 
 
 Wake 
 
 Wear 
 
 Weave 
 
 Win 
 
 Wind 
 
 Wrin^ 
 
 Write 
 
 KTVMOLOr.r. 
 
 
 woke* 
 
 (waked) 
 
 wore 
 
 worn 
 
 wove 
 
 woven 
 
 won 
 
 won 
 
 wound 
 
 wound 
 
 wrun^ 
 
 wnmi; 
 
 wrote 
 
 written 
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 f 126. Wo liave seen that the only siinjjlo tons(\s ( f 
 
 the English verb are tht^ present and past indojinite of 
 
 the active voice. All the oth(»r ten.^es are compound^ 
 
 and are formed bv condjinini; with th(^ inlinitive 
 
 mood, or one of the ptir'iciples, or with l)oth inlinitive 
 
 and participle, certain otiier verbs, which as thus used, 
 
 are called Auxiliary verbs. 
 
 The auxiliary verbs are, hure, s/kiII, in'll, he and do, ffavp, 
 shiill, u'Hi and r/o have liieir nuxiliarv use solely in forniiii<,' 
 tenses, and lunee arc known as tense-auxiliaries, /it is a 
 voice-auxiliary, hein^ used throu^hoiit in lorniin<,' the 
 passive voice. It is also a t«nse auxiliary in the forniatioti of 
 the so-ealli'd ])ro;;ressive tenses of the aetive voice. 
 
 No verb retain in;; its own full and |»ro])or ineaninjLf should he 
 called an finrilinn/. .\/iisf an«l rmi, therefore, arc mrcr aux- 
 iliaries. Sfiull {should) and in'l/ (would) are wf'en independent 
 verbs. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 127. (//ave, will, atid do arc complete verbs, but (»idy 
 the forms having an anxilii.ry use are here given.) 
 
 Sin^Xiitnr. 
 
 1. I have. 
 
 2. Thou hast. 
 S. He iiai). 
 
 HAVK. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Presnit Tense, 
 
 riural. 
 
 1. We have. 
 
 2. Ye or You have. 
 
 3. Tl»ey hav*'. 
 
 / 
 
(^I1.S(\S ( f 
 
 'liiiite of 
 
 iiliiiitive 
 iiJiiiitive 
 us used, 
 
 ffavf, 
 
 /ii is a 
 
 iiiiiy: the 
 lilt ion of 
 
 loiild he 
 
 ■'7- mix- 
 
 •indent 
 
 RJ38. 
 
 toiily 
 
 .) 
 
 KTYMOI.or.Y. 
 Past Tenfte. 
 
 53 
 
 Slnjjular. 
 
 1. I had. 
 
 2. Thou liadst. 
 
 3. He had. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We had. 
 
 2. Ye or Yo'.i had. 
 
 3. Thev l-.ad. 
 
 SUBJUP^CTJVE MCOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 I. (10 I have. 1. (If) We have. 
 
 2. (It) 'Ihoii have. 
 
 3. (If) lie have. 
 
 1. I shiili. 
 
 2. Thou ^halt. 
 
 3. He shall. 
 
 1. I shoiihl. 
 
 2. Thou shouhl.^t. 
 3 He should 
 
 1. I will 
 
 2. i hoii wilt. 
 
 3. lie will. 
 
 1. I would. 
 
 2. Thou wo 
 
 /. He would 
 
 2. Thou wouldst. 
 
 2. (II) Ye or You have 
 ;{. (ll) Thev have. 
 
 SHALL. 
 
 Pnm ul Ti'usr. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1. We .shall. 
 
 2. Ye or You shall. 
 
 3. They shall. 
 
 1, We should. 
 
 2. Ye or You .should 
 3 Thev should. 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Pn»cnt Ttn»f, 
 
 Past T( use 
 
 I Wc will. 
 
 2. Ve or You will. 
 
 3. Thrv will. 
 
 '. . Wc would. 
 
 2. Ye or You wiMild. 
 
 3. They would. 
 
 1. Ido. 
 
 2. Thou dost. 
 
 3. He does. 
 
 1. I did. 
 
 2. Thou tWiUl, 
 
 3. IJcdiU. 
 
 06. 
 
 present Trnnt, 
 
 1. We do. 
 
 2. Ye or You do. 
 
 3. 'n»<y do. 
 Past Tci»si\ /^ 
 
 T. We did. 
 
 2. Ye or You did. 
 
 3. The^ did. 
 

 . -2 i- ■« 
 
 :i !. 
 
 54 
 
 ^ 
 
 ETYMOLOGY, 
 
 BE. 
 
 Be. 
 
 Sln<;uliir. 
 
 1. I am. 
 
 2. Thou rtrU 
 
 3. He is. 
 
 'nncipoi 
 
 [V< 
 
 Parts, 
 
 as. 
 
 i> 
 
 jtet 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Teuao. 
 
 V 
 
 I lira I 
 
 I . Wo aro 
 
 2. Ye or Vou are. 
 .^. Thcv .'.re. 
 
 Present Pcrfrct Tense. 
 
 1. I v/as. 
 
 2. Thoii wast 
 
 3. He was. 
 
 1. T have boon. 1. We have hecn. 
 
 2. Tlioii hast l)een. 2. Ye or Y<m liave l)ecn. 
 
 3. He has been. 3. They have been. 
 
 Pitsl Tense. 
 
 1 . We were. 
 
 2. Ye or You were. 
 
 3. They were. 
 
 Pdsi Perfect Tense. 
 
 1. T had been. 1. We had been. 
 
 2. Thou hadst l)eeii. 2. Ye .»r You had been. 
 
 3. He had been ^ ^ 3, Tboy had bee»i. 
 
 Future Teusr. 
 
 1. T shall be. I. Wesliall be. 
 
 2. Thou wilt be. 3. Ye or You will be, 
 
 3. Ho will be. 3. They will be. 
 
 Future Peifect T"nse. 
 
 1. I sluill have been. 1. We shall luive been. 
 
 2. 'i'hou wilt hav! bocn. 2. Ye or You will have been. 
 
 3. He will havr ' , ,,, 3. Thev will have been. 
 
 SoBJUNCTlVK MOOD. 
 
 Pnfent Tense. 
 I. (If) 1 be. 1. (If) We be. 
 
 2. (If) Tbou be. 
 
 3. (II) He k'. 
 
 2. (If) Ye or You be. 
 
 3. (If) They be. 
 
 Compound Form.* 
 
 1. (II') I should be 1. (If) We sh. Mild be. 
 
 8. (If) Thou -.houidsl be. 2. (If) Ve i»r You should be. 
 
 3. (II) He Hhould he. 3. (H) He should be. 
 
 ™ .,. . .„.,. / ...■ : 
 
 flee IVi, (2.^ < 
 
 ;tj:-,:fe;^ 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 55 
 
 Present Perfect Tcr.ae. 
 Singula.!-. i'lura?, 
 
 1. (Tf) I have Ixjon. 1. (If) Wv.- huve been. 
 
 2. (If) Thou luive been. 2. (Il) Ye or You have been. 
 
 3. (If) He have been. 3. (If) They have been. 
 
 Compound Form.* 
 
 1. (If) I should have been. I. (If) We sliouhl have been. 
 
 2. (If) Thou shouklst have 2. (If) Ye or Vou should have 
 
 been. l)een. 
 
 3. (If) He should have been. 3. (If) They should have been. 
 
 Past Tf'uxo.. 
 
 1. (If) I were. 1. (If) Wo were. 
 
 2. (If) Thou wert. 2. (If; Ye or You were. 
 
 3. (If) He were. 3. (If) They were. ^--^ 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 2. Be (thou). 2. Be (yc or you). 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense — To be. 
 
 Present IVrfeet Tense — To have been. 
 
 Piirtlri'itli s. 
 I^ri'scnt — Beinj;./| Pcrfirf — Having been. — /'as/— Been. 
 
 Gcritinls. 
 Simple — Iking. | CompoiuKi — Ilavin<; been. , 
 
 ^ 
 
 COMPLKTE CONJUGATION OF THK THANS) 
 
 VKKH DRIVE. 
 
 Princfjxil Parts.— DYXve, Drove, Driven. 
 
 VK 
 
 A ( 5 T I V I ] V ( ) 1 C K . 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Pkkhknt Svmtkm. 
 
 Prcsntt I tidf finite Tinnc. 
 
 Sin^fulur. I'lural. 
 
 1. I drive. 1. We drive. 
 
 2. Thou drives!;. 2 Ye or Vou drive. 
 
 3. Ill) drives. 3. They diivtJ. 
 
KTYMOLOGY. 
 
 Mii'MiInr. 
 
 1. I !iin (Irivinir. 
 
 2. TliDii ;irt driving'. 
 
 3. Ill- is (lri\ itJ<^ 
 
 1 . I I.MVc driven. 
 
 2. Tlioii liiist driven. 
 
 ■J. lie lias drive 
 
 n. 
 
 Present Proi/rcssive. 
 
 rinral. 
 
 1. We are driving;. 
 
 2. Ye or Yoii are driving. 
 .'J. Thev are drivlii<'. 
 
 Preseut Pcrfert, 
 
 1. Wc liave driven. 
 
 2. Ye or You have drive 
 
 3. Thev have driven. 
 
 n 
 
 Prrsent Perft'it Proi/irssirr 
 
 I. I I 
 
 lave neeii drivinj^ 
 
 hi) 
 
 1. We have hcen drivititr. 
 
 2. Tlioii liasi hecri drivill;,^ 2. Ye or You have hcen driving. 
 
 3. lie has heen driving. 3. They liave heen driving. 
 
 Past Svstkm. '' 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 3. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 
 o 
 
 3. 
 
 I drove. 
 'I'h(»n drovcst 
 lie tirove. 
 
 Pd.'it Indjhiitf Tense. 
 
 1. We drove. 
 
 2. Yc or Yon drove. 
 
 3. Tlu-y drove. 
 
 /'(/.s7 Pioffrrssirc. 
 
 T wa^ drivii:ir. 1. We were driving. 
 
 Thou \\a>t driving. 2. Ye or You were driving. 
 
 lie was driving. 3. They were driving. 
 
 /'list Pt'iftrf. 
 
 I had driven. 1. We ha<l driven. 
 
 Thou hadst driven. 2. Ye or Y(»u had driven. 
 
 lie had driven. 3. They had driven. 
 
 Ptist Perfrrf Proi/rcssive. 
 
 1 had heeji diiving. I. We had hern dri\ iMg. 
 
 Tliou hadst Urn drivitig. 2. \v or You lunl lif( n driving. 
 
 He had heen diiving. 3. Thev had been driving. 
 
 FrrrKK Sv.stkm. 
 Future hkih finite Tense 
 
 1. I AwxW (]rive 
 
 2. Tl 
 
 lou wnt dnve. 
 
 3 He will (hiv( 
 
 1 . We shall drive. 
 
 2. Ye or You will «trivo 
 d. Thoy will drive. 
 
 Future Proip^ssive, 
 
 i, I f<liall he driving 
 
 I. We shall l»c driving. 
 
 2. Thou wilt he dn\liig. 2. Ye or You will in- ilriving. 
 
 3. lie will Iw driving. 
 
 3. They will he driving. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 3. 
 
 a* ■*' 
 
 i 
 
 '.■■?:^:M 
 
^'• 
 
 L'll 
 
 11 driving. 
 
 •innr. 
 
 en. 
 
 «i riving. 
 
 'IK'. 
 
 KTYMOLOr.y. 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 .07 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 1, 
 
 1 slmll liave driven. 1. Wc shall have driven. 
 
 'JMiou wilt have driven. 2. Ye or Yon will have driven, 
 lie vill have driven. 3. They will have driven. 
 
 Future Perfect FrtH/rcssive. 
 
 I sliall have heen driving. 1. We shall have been drivinj:!:. 
 Thou wilt have been 2. Ye or You will have been 
 
 drivin<>;. driviiij^. 
 
 He will have been driving. 3. They will have been driving. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Indejinit' Tense. 
 (If) I drive. 1. (H) Wc drive. 
 
 (It) Thou drive. 
 (If) He drive. 
 
 2. (If) Ye or You drive. 
 
 3. (If) They drive. 
 
 Compound Form. * 
 
 (If) T should drive. 1. (If) Wc .should drive. 
 
 (If) Thou shouldst drive. 2. (If) Ye or You should drive. 
 
 (If) He should drive. 3. (If) Tlicy should drive. 
 
 Presevt Proifressive. 
 
 (If) I be driving. \. (If) Wc be driving:. 
 
 (If) Thou be driving. 2. (If) Ye or You be (hiving. 
 
 (if) He be driving. 3. (If) They be driving. 
 
 CompoHud Form. 
 
 (If) I should be tiriving. 1. (If) We should Ik- driving. 
 (If) Thou shouldst bo 2. (If) Ye or You should be 
 
 (Iriviuv liriving. 
 
 (If) He shoubf be driving. ,•*. (If) They should 1)0 driving. 
 
 Present Perfrrt. 
 
 (If) I have driven. 1. (If) We have driven. 
 
 (If) Thou have driven. 2. (If J Ye or You have driven. 
 
 (II) He have driven. 3. (If) They have driven. 
 
 Compound Form. 
 
 (If) I should have driven. 1. (If) Wc sh' id have driven. 
 (If) Thou .shouldst have 2. (Ifj Ye or You shouhl Imve 
 
 driven. driven. 
 
 (If) IIcHhuuId hrtvc driven 3. (If) They should Iiavednven. 
 
 '>y. 
 
 • IM lU; ^) 
 
58 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Present Perfect Proffressi've. 
 
 1. (If) I have been drivinj^. 1. (U) We have been drivinpf. 
 
 2. (If) Thou have been 2. (If) Ye or You havu been 
 
 (Iriviiifr. driving. 
 
 3. (If) lie have been driving. 3. (If) They have been driving. 
 
 Compound Form. 
 
 !. dO I should have been 1. (I() We should have been 
 d"!ving. driving. 
 
 2. (If) Thou sh.Mildst liavc 2. (If) Yc or You should have 
 
 been driving. been driving. 
 
 3. (If) He should have been 3. (If) They should have been 
 
 drivintr. 
 
 driving. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 2. Drive (thou.) 2. Drive (ye or you). 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present IndcHnite Tense. — To drive. 
 
 Present ]*rogressive. — To be driving. 
 
 Present Perfect. -To have driven. 
 
 Present Perfect Progressive. — To have been driving. 
 
 Participles 
 Present. — Driving. 
 Perfect. — Having driven. 
 Perfect Progressive. — Having been driving. 
 
 Gentnds 
 Simple. — Driving. | Compound. — Having driven. 
 
 , K'' 
 
 3? A S S I V TC V O I C T: . 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PUK.SKNT SVHTKM. 
 
 Present ( Imhfinite) Tense, 
 
 1 . I am driven. 
 
 2. Tliou art driven. 
 
 3. He is driven. 
 
 1. We are driven. 
 
 2. Ye or You are driven. 
 
 3. Tliev arc driven. 
 
 Present Prof/ressive. 
 
 1. I am being driven 1. Wc arc being driven. 
 
 2. Thou art being driven. 2. Ye or You are being driver 
 
 3. He is being driven. 3. They arc being driven. 
 
ETYMOLOGT. 
 
 50 
 
 drivinp^. 
 have been 
 
 ri driving. 
 
 e been 
 iild have 
 live been 
 
 ini. 
 
 n. 
 
 I; 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Present Perfprt. 
 
 I have been driven. 1. We have been driven. 
 
 Tbon hast bteii driven. 2. Ye or You have bet'n driven. 
 He has been driven. 3. They have been driven. 
 
 Paht Svstkm. 
 
 {Past (Indefinite) Tense. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 I was driven. 
 Thou wast driven 
 lie was driven. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 
 \i drivel 
 en. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 1. We were driven. 
 
 2. Ye or You were driven. 
 
 3. They were driven. 
 
 P(tst Proyressve. 
 
 I was bein;^ driven. 1. We were beinj; driven. 
 
 Thou wast bein;; driven. 2. Ye or You were bein/j: driven. 
 He was being driven. 3. They were being driven. 
 
 Past Perjeet. 
 
 I liad been driven. 1. We liad been driven. 
 
 Thou hadst been driven. 2. Ye or You had been driven. 
 He had been driven. 3. Thev liad been driven. 
 
 Future Ovstem. 
 
 Future [Tndejinlte) Tense. 
 
 I shall be driven. 1. We shall he driven. 
 
 Thou wilt be driven. 2. Ye or Y(vu will l)e driven. 
 He will be driven. 3. They will be driven. 
 
 Future Perfect. , 
 
 I shall have been driven. 1. We shall have been driven. 
 Thou wilt have been 2. Ye or You will have been 
 
 driven. driven. 
 
 He will have been driven. 3. They will iuive been driven. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PllKSKNT SVSTFM. 
 
 t 
 
 Present {fndeHnitr) Tense. 
 
 (Tf) T )'e driven. 1. (If) We be driven. 
 
 (If) Thou be driven. 2. (If) Ye or You be driven. 
 
 (If) He be driven. 3. (If) They be driven. 
 
 Compound Form. 
 
 (If) T should be driven. 1. (If) We should be driven, 
 
 (If) Thou shouldst be 2. (If) Ye or You should be 
 
 driven. driven. 
 
 (If) He should be driven. 3. (If) They should be driven. 
 
60 
 
 ETYMOLOGT. 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 
 1. (If) I have l)ccn driven. 1. (If) We have been driven. 
 
 2. (If) Thou liiive been 2. (If) Ye or You have been 
 
 driven. driven. 
 
 3. (If) He have been driven. .3. Clf) They have been driven. 
 
 Cunipound Form. 
 
 1. Clf) I .should liave been 1. (If) We shouUl have been 
 
 driven. driven. 
 
 2. flf) Thou shouUlst have 2. (If) Ye or You should have 
 
 driven. been drikcn. 
 
 3. (If) lie should have been 3. (If) They shouhJ ha,e been 
 
 driven. driven. 
 
 Past SvsTior. 
 Past [Indefinite) Tense. 
 
 1. (If) I were driven, 1. (If) We were driven. 
 
 2. (If) Thou wcrt driven. 2. (If) Ye or You wore driven. 
 
 3. (If) He were driven. 3. (If) They were driven. 
 
 Peist Profiressh.'e. 
 
 11. (If) I were bein;^ driven. 1. (If) We were beinj;;' driven. 
 2. (If) Thou wert being 2. (If) Ye or You were being 
 
 driven. driven. 
 
 a (If) He were being driven. 3. (If) They were being driven 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 2. Be (thou) driven. 2. Be (ye or you) driven. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Indefinite Tense. — To be driven. 
 Present Perfect. — To have been driven. 
 
 Partieipl's. 
 
 Past Indefinite. — Driven. 
 
 Past Progressive. — Being driven. 
 
 Perfect. — Having been driven. 
 
 (I'eiunds. 
 Incomplete. — Being driven.] Complete. — Having been driven, 
 
 1^+- 
 
 128. SPECIAL FOHMvS OF CONJUGATION WITH DO. 
 
 Do (See 127) is used Jis a teiise-iiuxiliary — 
 
 (1.) In the ])resont and past tenses of the indicative mood 
 and in the imperative mood, to express e7ui)hasis; as, I do assert. 
 They did reply. Do ell the truth. 
 
 Em 
 
 ( 
 
 fiei/a 
 did. 
 pi (til 
 
 N. 
 
 illllio 
 forhh 
 N( 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 61 
 
 TIlis mode of conju<i;atioii is sometimes called tlie 
 
 Emphatic P'orm. 
 
 (2.) In tlio )>ieseiit himI ]ii\st teiisos of tlie iiidicativi', in 
 uci/dtirc ami inli-no(/(tlii'c .sentence's ; as, I ilo iiut hnoir. Thou 
 didst not rouH'. Neither du I vondonn thee. Does he covt' 
 plain ? Did they 70 ? 
 
 NoTK 1. In afliniialivc sciiteiucs /!i> i\\)i] ifiil nrv not alway.s oiii- 
 pliatic. Imt ai»! ii^cil singly lo luoiiiDfc fiiliicss or .^Mi<)(;tliiu-«.s of 
 expression; ac, ''TIhw set bmid before Hini, aii<l lie rii'l eat." 
 
 N'oTi: 'J. Ill iiitenoi;ali»<' and iie^aMve senleiices i/o and iN>f hnvo 
 alniDst, entirely su()lilante'i dn-ect eNpies-ions like: Itiviit thou me? 
 1 01 hill Vie not. 
 
 XoTK ;5. iJo is often u^^eil a.s a sub.stitiitu for olli. r verbi; a.s, I can 
 write as well aa 'le '/o^'s. 
 
 Tliat tlie coininon cxiiiMiiation of this as a ea.>-e (tf rllifi.six is iuconeot 
 is shown by siioh a sentence as follows: 1 tran.-acted this busuieiss as 
 well as he could have tinne, 
 
 IMPERSONAL VKRBS. 
 
 129. Verbs ii.sed with the subject it, when it does 
 not stand for any jiarticiilar action but siin})]y aids 
 the verb in indicating that souie process or action is 
 i^oin^ on, are called Impersonal verbs; as, It rains. It 
 is ffroiving dark. It will fare well with the good. 
 
 130. The term impirsnivd. is by some <rriimmarians 
 applied specially to sueh peculiar forms as mc-lhinks, ine-sptms, 
 and iw-lisls. M<-ttiinks and mr-scoits are identical in meaniiii^, 
 thivk's of the former heinf^^ derived not from thcnruu, (A. S.), to 
 think, hut from fhiukni (A. S.) to seem. Lint, to please, is used 
 hy Shakespe:ire altogether as a |)ers()nal verb, but only iti the 
 present tense. The m<> in these forms is in the dative ea.se, i e., 
 the ease of t'le indirect objeet=/o me. 
 
 ANOMALOUS VKRRS. 
 
 (With the exc(q)tion of /;c, do, have, dare and need 
 these verbs are also defective or wanting some of their 
 })arts.) 
 
 131. Be (For conjugation see 127.) This important 
 verb is made up of !)ai'ts derived from several roots : — 
 
 (1.) As, the root of the ])rcspnt indicative. The 7;j in am 
 is identical with the ])roiioun vm. In art and arc. s is softened 
 into r is is shortened (or as. 
 
 (2.) Be, the root of the ]iresent stitrnnctive, the imperative, 
 the infinitive, and tin; participles. Ttu"e was orij^inally a 
 prcseat indicative from tiiis root, conjugated as follows • 
 
IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 
 V ^^ 
 
 Q- 
 
 1.0 
 
 I.I 
 
 1.25 
 
 
 Ui 
 
 u 
 
 25 
 2.2 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 U i 1.6 
 
 v] 
 
 <9 
 
 /a 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 />^ 
 
 
 / 
 
 /A 
 
 PhotogTcipliic 
 
 Sciences 
 Corporation 
 
 33 WIST MAIN SIRECT 
 
 WIBSTER.NY MSSO 
 
 (7<6) •73-4303 
 
 A^ 
 
 <^ 
 
 :i>^ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 o^ 
 
62 
 
 KTYMOLOGY. 
 
 imji 
 
 dnr. 
 
 n 
 
 1. I he 
 
 2. Thou hee'sr. h<'st 
 
 Plural 
 
 1. Wc ben, bin, be. 
 
 2. Ye ben, bin, be. 
 
 m 
 
 3. He be (bc'eth, l)e'th) 3 They ben, bin, be. 
 
 Traces of this use are found in Milfon, and several writers of 
 the Elizabethan era. 
 
 IJec-n shows that this old verb was sfroiit/. 
 
 (3.) "Was or We3, the root of the past indicative and sub- 
 junctive, .s is softened into r in the subjunctive and in the plural 
 of the indicative. This root is t'le past tense of an old stronj^ 
 verlt in sail, to lu*. 
 
 132. Have, (For coujn^^iition s(!e 127). Tlic 
 
 pociiliur forms of tliis verb result from contraction, 
 
 thus .* — 
 
 Hast = hav'st = havest. 
 Has = hav's = haves. 
 Had = havM =» haved. 
 
 (1.) The auxiliary use of /tare is not directly connceled 
 with its ori^nnal nicaiiin;^' " ^ have written a letter," now 
 expresses an action perfected or completed at the ])resent time. 
 The ori;^inal expression seems to have been, " 1 fiare a letter 
 written," denoting:: the result of a past actioi' rather than the 
 action itself. Intransitive verbs have jiradually conformed to 
 the usiif,^' of transitive verlis, and now generally tiike hnce as 
 their auxiliary in tiie ju-rfect system. In such forms as h conic, 
 7ctis (/one, which ;;ic ^tiil iiaod English, we have relics of the 
 original mode of forminjj: the perfect and ])luperfeet tenses of 
 inlrtiiisltlrc verbs, of wliich he, and not //o(v, was the proper 
 auxiliary. Trench and (ierman have not admitted a >imilar 
 eiuMoachiuent on the province of their verbs denotitig being 
 [elre ami sein) as auxiliaries of intransitive verbs. 
 
 (2.) If(u/ followed by coniparativ ' words such ns nither, 
 better, as lief', is souuMinics con^i.iered a corruption of wonhl. 
 It is rofdly an old En;;li^h subjunctive (past tense with present 
 nieaiiinu) lollowed by the iuhniiive "I had rather die than 
 live" is c(juivale'it to "I should h(»ld dyin^' preferable to 
 living." lief (in an lit/) in an adverb meaning </l(iifliJ or 
 irilllnf/li/. 
 
 133. Do (For coiijti^iition see 127). 
 
 When used as a principal verb, the seeon<l person singular, 
 present itulicative, tak<'s the rc^rular form tlnest, and the thircl 
 person (archaic) tloetli. hid was orii^inally the letluplicated 
 past tense. 
 
 134. Dare.JDurst, (To have courugo). 
 
 prcst 
 verb. 
 
 as, 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 n1. 
 
 n, [)iri, be. 
 1, bin, be. 
 ben, bin, be. 
 
 cnil writers of 
 
 ative and sub- 
 in tbe phinil 
 nn old stron;; 
 
 27). Tlio 
 contraction, 
 
 \\ connected 
 
 letter," now 
 
 present time. 
 
 lid re a letter 
 
 lier than tbe 
 
 ion formed to 
 
 take hatH' as 
 
 ns as in rnnn', 
 
 relics of tbe 
 
 "ect tenses of 
 
 s tbe i)ro(»er 
 
 ed a similar 
 
 notin<^ being 
 
 eh as I'lithcr, 
 un of would. 
 with present 
 her (lie than 
 preferalde to 
 !,' ///(«//// or 
 
 ion sinj,'nb»r, 
 nd tbe third 
 reduplicated 
 
 This verb in old authors occasionally omits the s of the third 
 person, sinjj^ular, present indicative : thus, 
 
 " The duke darr no more stretch t'nis finirer of mine, than 
 be dare stretch bis own." — Slxikesprare. When meaning to 
 r/idllenfjp, it is re<rular. /htrst is never present. 
 
 135. Need. 
 
 Net (I sometimes omits the .s of the third person singular, 
 present indicative active, es|)ecially when followed by another 
 verb, as. Why )i((<l be fear '. When the re<,Milar form is used, the 
 following i'ltinitive must be proceeded by to. In such sentences 
 us, '• He must needs }j:o," txcds is an adverb. See 144, (2), d. 
 
 136. Owe, Ought. 
 
 ►Si. Owe in its common meaninf;, to hr in dihf to Imir to pai/, is a 
 're<;iilar verl). 
 
 Oiij^bt, used to express duty or oblitration, is u ])ast tense, 
 t'ormed irrc^rularly, and as a past, has the tbinl person sin;^ular 
 like the first. It has a present meanin;^^ and a past sense is 
 couvcyt'd by puttin;^ tliv^ following verl) in tiic perfect infinitive.'y 
 as, " You oujxht to hare ohrijrd your ])arents." /C 
 
 137. Must. 
 
 Must, like ouijlit, is a past tense, and is invariable in form. 
 It is used as a jircsent to express compulsion or necessity; as, 
 " You }n\isl not do it," " It must be so." It i.s followed by the 
 inlinitive mood without to. 
 
 The ori^iinal An^'lo-Saxon verb was viotun, whose present 
 survived in moti', used by Spenser and other j)oets. 
 
 Must is lu'ver a mere auxiliary, having always its own jirojicr 
 force. 
 
 138. 
 
 Can 
 
 Can. 
 
 is thus conj-i{j;atcd. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 1. 
 
 Sivijular. 
 I can 
 
 Thou canst 
 He can 
 
 '2. 
 
 Siiit/uiin . 
 I could 
 
 Thou couldest or couldst 
 lie could 
 
 I'KKSKNT TKNSE. J'hlKd. 
 
 We can. 
 
 Ye or You can. 
 
 They can. 
 
 Phirnl. 
 Wc eotild. 
 Ye or You eoidd. 
 They could. 
 
 TAHT T1:N8K. 
 
 the past 
 lingular 
 
 ike tbe followiuf; verbs tiiiiif,sli<il/ atid irill, was originally 
 tense of a strong verb, and hence has the /////*/ person 
 the same as lUcJhsl. Could is u iiuMJern past, t'ormed 
 
 / 
 
■I \ 
 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 64 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 with some irrcj^ularitv after the analojry of the weak conjuga- 
 tion. The insertion of /, which is not found in the primary 
 root, is supposed to ho due to the infhience of should and 
 would, opcrutinj^ hy a llilse analogy. 
 
 Can, like must, is never an auxiliary. It is followed by the 
 infinitive without to. 
 
 139. May. 
 
 May is thus conjugated. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 rUKSKNT TKN.SIO 
 
 Simiuldr 
 
 1. T 
 
 Phind,. 
 
 mav 
 
 Thou maycst or nniyst 
 
 We may 
 Yc or you 
 
 11 
 
 e m 
 
 'ly 
 
 T 
 
 you may. 
 
 jey may 
 
 Sinf/nl(ir. 
 
 PAST ti:n.si-: 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. I might 
 
 2. Thou mightost or mightst 
 
 3. Hemiiiht 
 
 We might. 
 
 Yc or You miirht. 
 
 T 
 
 icy might. 
 
 Mai/ as an old past h.is tlic same form in the first and third 
 persons singular. This vcrh denotes jicrmission or liberty, 
 (primarily /iv'f(/o//;//o/// i)ltslttch s). It is generally i\ /iriun'iKil 
 verb, though in some constructions it approaches very nearly an 
 au.rilian/ use. Morris claims that it is always an indej)endcnt 
 verb. Slason and Smitli reg.ird it as occasionally a mere 
 auxiliary, as in the sentt'iiccs : " (]ivc me water that I tiiai/ not 
 thirst," "It is possible that I iii(iij])v proved mistaken." In these 
 illustrations, however, it is by no means clear that the verb has 
 lost its original meaning. In iikh/ // represents an original 7 
 Hence the modern weak )iast iin)/lit. .)/ai/ and jii{(j/it are 
 often incorrect ly used where slmnld and would arc recjuircd. 
 
 140. Shall and will, (For Coiijii^^atioii .see 127). 
 
 The original iiu'aiiinj^ of sh<(ll was " to owe, to be 
 boiiiid, orobliiratcd ;" of will " U) intend, to re.solve, to 
 be aeterniintMl " Tbe general nilt! lor tb(! u.se of tliese 
 important verb.s is that .sA^/// retains its jH'oper ineanin<; 
 ill tbe si'rond and third persons, will in tbe /?V,s7 per- 
 son : in otber persons they are iise<l us auxiliaries to 
 denote siniply luf urity. See p;iradiL;ins of be and drive. 
 
 JMore partieidarly, 
 
 (1.) shall in the .second and third peisoiLS denotes an 
 obligation imposed by the will of a superior authority, and hence 
 M used ill commamh, proph Kie$ and legal prohibitionk as, 
 
 •'Tin 
 thou 
 
 C- 
 shall 
 torcPJ 
 whidl 
 whic 
 ironi 
 
 /; 
 
 ill ion, f 
 mav 
 
 .i]iini| 
 the o| 
 
 sjiccc 
 (or V 
 
 go 
 rend" 
 
ETYSIOLOOT. 
 
 e$ 
 
 ^vcak conjuga- 
 ' the primary 
 o^" should and 
 
 llowed by the 
 
 'iral. 
 
 may. 
 
 mil. 
 
 I uii<;ht. 
 )t. 
 
 St and third 
 I or Jiherty, 
 
 'I /"iiiripal 
 '■y nearly an 
 'iidejH'iidc'Ht 
 "y a mere 
 t I iiKri/ not 
 In these 
 the verb has 
 1 on>inaI 7 
 
 jiii(//d ai-u 
 ' I'eiiuirod. 
 
 set; 127). 
 wt', to ha 
 e.solve, to 
 e of those 
 
 /trsf per- 
 liarics to 
 lul (/rive. 
 
 onof«>s nn 
 •ind hence 
 mm as. 
 
 <4 
 
 ■' ThepenoraI,f//r/// cnnsc procliimntion to be made," " Tn the day 
 thou catcst ilicreof, thou .s//^/// surely 'iie," "Thou .s7/a// not steal." 
 (2.) Though used in the first person 11s a sini))le future 
 ahitll in that ])crson sometimes retains a trace of its oriy'ina 
 force, ii\di,'atiiiu- that tlie speaker has formed a resolution by 
 which iie considers himself /)"((//^/, as, " I sJin/l recount the errors 
 which in a few nionths alienated a hn'al iicntry and priesthood 
 irom the House of Stuart." {M(inin/(ii/, JI. K.) 
 
 (3.) Will in the first jterson exjtresses (isiionf or (lefvrinl 
 
 na- 
 
 i///o/(, as, "I irill return" (if asked.) I /r/// return (whatever 
 may hinder.) 
 
 (4.) In (piestions and in rej.nrtiuLr the statements and 
 •piinons of others, sIkiH or irill is useil accordiuLT as the one or 
 the other is expected in the reply, or was employed in tlie direct 
 
 s|»eecli ; as, " Will you <ro ? " if we expect the rej)ly, " I will 
 (or will not) <ro," hut " Shall you 1:0^' it we expect " I shall 
 <ro " So " he thinl;s he shall siu'cccd " is the correct indirect 
 renderinj^ of " I think I shall succeed." 
 
 XoTK. — " To (lefino complotely tlic (fitlciciirf lic'wftcn shall and will 
 woulil tak»^ a fjrcat ileal df louin; ami sdiiic of the distiiictioii.s aro very 
 dt'licatf ami dilliciilt. The ji('.i|ilc nl' Ireland and Scntliinij and part of the 
 I'liitt'd States have Ion. been inaeemate in tlie iist> of tlu' two aiixiliarieH, 
 pnttinLC will oMen wlnic tlie cidtivateil and apjiioved idiom re(juire» 
 shall," — Whitnrii's Essentials of Kngliak Grawtnar. 
 
 S/i(t/l and irl/l were both oriuinallv i>ast tenses. S/iould and 
 
 iroiild are derived past lorms of tlie weak conjugation 
 
 f th 
 
 They 
 
 are n.-ied as simple auxiliaries in forminj; com]>ound tenses of the 
 subjunctive nn)od. Uoth sis auxiliaries and principal verbs they 
 have nearly the same distinctions ot use as shait and will. 
 
 When will denotes " to exercise the will," " to put forth a 
 volition," it is coi -''ete and rcL-ular, and re(|uires /o before a 
 followin;,' infinitive. 
 
 141. Quoth, worth, wot, yclept. 
 
 Quof/i = ttiid, first iind third jK'rson singular, jmst indefinite. 
 It always pT'cedes its subject jind cannot like s<ii/, be followed 
 l>y a connected cbiuse. It is fnun the «anie root as hiqtieath. 
 The use of (juolh is chiefly confined to humorous writing;. 
 
 W'ordi is found only in third person singular, present sul)- 
 junctive, used w itii an optative or imperative signification ; as, 
 •' Woe trorfli the day." It means " to come to pass," " to befall.' 
 
 Wol (now obsolete) imans hik-noir. The lorms found in the 
 authorized version of the liible are, present indicative, wot; 
 past indicative, wisi, 
 
 Shakespeare uses a piesent participle vitfinri nnd wnttlruj. 
 
 Ychjit is the past participle o\' rli/jiian (A. S ) hi call. 'V\\G y 
 is the same as the participial prefix (jv of (tcrtnan. 
 
66 
 
 ,/ 
 
 tf 
 
 ETYMOLOir. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 142. An Adverb is a word used to limit the 
 application of a V(M-b, adjective, or other adverb; as, 
 lie acted straiKjely. A very sweet api)le. He died 
 too early. 
 
 143. Adverbs accordiiiii^ to th«Mr force in a sentence 
 are divided into two general classes, — simple and 
 conjunctive. 
 
 (1.) A Simple adverb is one wliich contains its nieaiiin<; 
 witliin itscll and nicroly modifies the word to wliieli it is attached. 
 This class cnihraces l)y far the ijjrvMter niinil)er of adverbs. 
 Strmiffe/i/, veri/, and too, in the preceding; para^^rajth are sini)>le 
 adverl)s. 
 
 (2.) A Conjunctive advei-b is one whicii mi addition to 
 limitini^ a word in its own eUiuse, connects tliat chuisc with the 
 rest of the sentence. The chief conjunctive abverbs are, ivltcn, 
 tvlierc, whence, ivhither, iv/i//, w/ierein, iclic.reapi'r, &c. 
 
 As, (foHowinj^ .so, such, or as), is a conjunctive adverb. 
 
 (3.) Care should be taken not to confound coitjn)) tirendnrhs 
 and conjnnrfions. It will be seen that the latter are mere con- 
 necttccs. The former not only connect clauses, but e.xert a liiidt'nuj 
 force on particnhxr words. 
 
 NoTK. — " It in sclf-evidiMit that any \vor<l whicli fulfils the fiiiirtioiis ol 
 an a<lvi'ib must 1)1? an a<'veili. Il may tlisolnirge other functions u.s well, 
 L '0 an adverb it is and must be." — Mason. 
 
 143. In respect to their meaning., adverbs (includ- 
 ing both sim[)le and conjimctive), can be classified as 
 denoting, 
 
 (1 ) Manner, as, 
 
 As 111 Thus. 
 
 Ih)W Otherwise Well. 
 
 However So Wisely. 
 
 And an immense number formed from adjectives by the ending /y 
 
 (2.) Degree, as, 
 
 almost less most, 
 
 altogether least . (piite. 
 
 half mueh scarcely 
 
 little more very. 
 
 a. i\o is nn adverb of degree in such comparative phrases 
 
 as, "^ 
 
 he wa| 
 
 h. 
 of d< n\ 
 
 (3 
 
 (•* 
 
ETYMOLOrrY. 
 
 67 
 
 US, no 
 
 hfffer, 
 
 no voT 
 
 se. '! he is ;ni adverb of deji^rce in such 
 
 o limit the 
 adverb; as, 
 He (lied 
 
 > <i sentence 
 simple and 
 
 'f*^ mean ill fj 
 'tisufracliwr 
 ■ f>f adverbs. 
 '• iu-e .simple 
 
 ' addition to 
 use with the 
 'S are, ivhcD^ 
 
 Ivor!), 
 
 ' tlreadrcrbs 
 ^ mere con- 
 
 c finiofioiia or 
 (■'Oils U.S well, 
 
 "< (iiiclud- 
 issified as 
 
 us. 
 •II. 
 
 sely. 
 endiii<r/y 
 
 :ely 
 
 I 
 
 B phrases 
 
 expressions; as, YV/e more thel)etter : The more he has, ihc more 
 he wants. 
 
 h. Adjeetives and adverbs are ehielir modilied l>y advcrl)S 
 
 o( (li i/rrr. 
 
 (3.) Time, as, 
 
 afterwards 
 
 auain 
 
 aixo 
 
 always 
 
 Ix'fc'e 
 
 flaiiy 
 
 (4.) Place, as, 
 
 above 
 
 back 
 
 below 
 
 down 
 
 elsewliere 
 
 ever 
 
 hereafter 
 
 hite 
 
 never 
 
 now 
 
 presnitly 
 
 seldom, 
 since. 
 
 sometimes. 
 soon. 
 
 IV, 
 
 to-di 
 when. 
 
 far t lie re. 
 
 heme thither, 
 
 here up. 
 
 hither where, 
 
 thenec whence. 
 
 The adverb of place t/ifre is often used without meaninfr, as a 
 nu'rc instrument of inversion ; as, I'/kii- is no use in denyinj;' it. 
 
 (5.) Cause and Effect, as, 
 
 ueeordiii},./ wherefore, 
 
 hence whence, 
 
 thence why. 
 therefore 
 
 (6.) Emphasis, as, 
 
 nevertheless still, 
 
 notwitiistandinj; yet. 
 
 (7.) Affiimation or Negation, as, 
 
 ave no. 
 
 certainly surely. 
 
 ' indeed yea. 
 
 nav ves. 
 
 ^V.s and A''> are jtropcrlv inn(isf');tnir<'s. They were ori<j;in- 
 ally adverl)s, but are now indcpemhnt nsponsive particles. 
 Tliey are often called re&ponsivea. 
 
 (8.) Potentiality, as, 
 
 Perhaps Probalily. 
 
 l'()ssil>ly. 
 
 (9.) Repetition and Order, as, 
 
 Once First. 
 
 Twice Second. 
 
 &c., &c. 
 
68 
 
 KTVMOLOrjT. 
 
 FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 144. Most adverbs ;ire derived or formed directlv 
 from otlier parts of speech. 
 
 (1.) From Adjectives. 
 
 a, BytTresiiiHx /// ; as, truli/, Jutsfi/i/. This is tlic lat^gest 
 class of adverbs. It sIkjuM he noted that on being converted 
 into adverl)-;, adjectives ole change b!e/>/ into W// ; those in ir 
 change ir into ifuil .• and those in //, |)reccded by a consonant 
 change // into /; as, uhli', nhlij, (nintic, {hwMicalli/, pretty, piett/Vy, 
 
 h. By the suffix misc.; as, likewise, otherwise. 
 
 c. IJy the prefix a; as, aback, ahead, anew, a.>ide. 
 
 d. By taking the sainj form; as, iniu-h, niDre, little, fast, t:.r. 
 Some such adjccnves also admit of /y in becoming adveri)S, often 
 with a change of meaning, thus : 
 
 Eoen and evmlij ; Idle and hUelij ; .s'</v; and suri/i/. 
 
 (2.) From nouns, 
 
 a. By the prelix d ; as, abreast, asjiorc. 
 
 h. Jiy the suilix ir:ir(l or ivanU ; as, backwards, homeward. 
 
 ('.. By the sutlix winp.; as, lengthwise, cross wis(\ 
 
 d. By taking the sanu' foi in ; a^^, home, b;ii'k, half, needs. 
 The latter is properly a j)0ssessive case. The three former are 
 objective. 
 
 (3.) From pronouns. Here belong three scries of abvorbs 
 corresponding to one another derived from the personal, demon- 
 strative and relative pronouns. 
 
 a. Here, hither, hence. 
 
 b. There, thither thence, then, thus. 
 
 c. Where, whither, whence, when. why. 
 
 (4.) From pivjjositions and other adverbs by the snflix 
 ward or ivdrds ; as, towanl, towards, forward, uj)war(l, downward. 
 Many adverbs are identical in form with ]>repositions ; as, by, in, 
 otf, out. 
 
 145. Compouiid adverbs are short phrases of two 
 (but sometimes more,) words, which have grown into 
 one ; as, a/waf/s, already, almosty sometimes, hencefor- 
 wnrd, nowadays. The combination of a [)r(;postion 
 with its noun as one word Is very common ; as, indeed^ 
 overhead, beforehand, forever. 
 
 146. Adverbial phrases differ from compound 
 adverbs in that tlie (dements liave not grown together into 
 one word. They serve the purpose of single adverbs 
 and are often difficult of analysis ; as, at random^ oj 
 
 yore, 
 'for fi\ 
 
 141 
 
 are c 
 (listal 
 later\ 
 or ue\ 
 are <l 
 erall' 
 
 141 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 69 
 
 'no,l (lireotlv 
 
 fiii: (!on verted 
 V ; those in ir 
 ii coiisonaiit 
 "■^■ff//, prett/7//, 
 
 «iile. 
 
 ft'e, fust, h:r. 
 fv<lverl)s, often 
 
 », 'lomewiirU. 
 
 '"ilf, needs. 
 ' Cornier are 
 
 "^ of al.vorhs 
 0"iil, deiiion- 
 
 ^ tlie siifTix 
 <l'>\vnward, 
 ; i»S by, in, 
 
 9S of two 
 
 own into 
 /iencefor- 
 ''<''|>ostion 
 s, rndeed^ 
 
 )nipoiii,(l 
 
 tlierinto 
 
 adverbs 
 
 idom^ of 
 
 yore, in vain, in short, at all, oj old, of late, ere long, 
 
 for good, 
 
 COMPARISCN OP ADVERBS. 
 
 147. Some adverbs admit of a romjiarison. 'I hefie 
 are chieHy adverbs denotin^j manner, time, degree and 
 distance; -a^, siveetlg, more szveeflf/, most siceetly ; late. 
 Inter ^ last; little, less, least; near, nearer, nearest 
 or next. But few word.s wbicli aie invariably adverbs 
 are compjMed. Tlie eompaiison of adverb.s is gen- 
 erally l)y more and most. 
 
 148. The .snffixes for com})avison are tiie same as 
 for adjunctives, <^r and est. The termiiia ional comparison 
 is chiefly limited to those adverbs which have the same 
 form as the corresponding adjectives ; as, hard, loud, 
 lung. With the exception oi'ea/li/, adverbs in Ig are 
 compared by more and most. 
 
 149. T'he foUowinic are irreiiular. 
 
 Pas. 
 well 
 
 
 Comp. 
 better 
 
 Sup 
 best. 
 
 badly, 
 
 ill 
 
 worse 
 
 worst. 
 
 nuich 
 
 
 more 
 
 most. 
 
 little 
 
 far 
 
 (forth) 
 
 
 less 
 
 fan her 
 further 
 
 Uast. 
 tan best, 
 fiirihesi. 
 
 near, ni<,^h 
 late 
 
 nearer 
 later 
 
 nearest, next 
 last. 
 
 NoTK. — F(irthf\ nw\ //7r//((.«iMlri' >aiil hy s^onic to be pioiicr'y \:>vt\ in 
 mnijKirison ol' distances; fiirtlicr ur.i] fart/iesl to inovciiHiii iii aihancc. 
 'i'lu' dibtiiicticMi is not always an evident one. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 / 
 
 ISO.' A Conjunction is a word used to connect 
 
 |-^enleiices ; ts, " JMen may come and men may go. 
 
 " Von condei.nn me, but your sentence is not just." 
 
 (1.) "Ciininiiclioii is iVoii- the Ltitiii 'ODJuiuiiie, to join lo^elher. 
 (2.) — ^"'oiijuneti^e adverbs eoinieet sentences, but they also, 
 us we have seen, mo lify the ineaninj^ of words. 
 
 151. Conjunctions according to their use are divided 
 into two classes— co-ordiiiating jind sub-ordintiting. 
 
70 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 This distinction is the basis of tho classififiition of sentences 
 into romjilex and romponnd. (See 2(>3 and 230). 
 
 152- Co-ordina'ing coniuiictions coimoct sentences 
 /of equal order or niiik. The most common are and, 
 or, but, for. By contraction, tliese conjunctions often 
 connect co-ordinate words-, as, John (uid ,]a\\\(^a ran a 
 race. A tardy bat well-deserved reward. I will kill 
 him or his doij^. 
 
 (1.) And is ternu'd Copulative, because it simply rox/ilrs 
 one sentence with another. 
 
 (2.) Or imj)h'es an 1 is called an Alternative. Closely 
 allied to it, in force are either, elsf, neither, nor, 
 
 (3.) ICithrr . . . .or, )iiithpr....iior, und H'h<thi'r.,..or, are 
 called correlatives, because they relate to each other, 
 occurrin<4 in succession, and introducinu- two alternatives. 
 liofh . . . .(Hid, arc copidnfire correlatives In these constructions, 
 the second word is the /ca/ coiniective. 
 
 (4.) But implies somethinj; opposed or adverse to tjie 
 previous statement, and is therefore termed adversative . 
 
 Such words as nex'rrthelcas, notmithfittoidiiii/, still, onhj, i/rt, are 
 jj^encrally ranked as adversative conjunctions. It is clear, how- 
 ever, that they are properly adverbs, modifying; the verb of the 
 clause in which they stand. The only case in which they m:iy 
 be rcji^arded as conjunctions is when they are not preceded by a 
 correlative word as thoni/h, &c.; as, " ';e came,//'/ will not stay." 
 Even here it is i»refcrable; to consider i/et un eiiipJidtic adverb, 
 with a connective omitted. 
 
 153. Subordinating conjunctions join a subordin- 
 ate or dependent sentence to that on which it depends. 
 
 (1.) A dependriit sentence, known in Anal\ sis as a dci)endcnt 
 olau'je, virtually forms a part of another clause, called the 
 principal, in whitdi it has the value of ii noun, an adjective, or 
 an adverb. 
 
 (2.) Subordinating conjunctions never connect words 
 only. 
 
 154 Subordinating conjunctions may be roughly 
 
 classiHed ; as, 
 
 (1.) Of cause; as, became, ituismuch as, since, whereas. 
 . As = inasmuch as, is a causal conjunction. 
 
 (2.) Of condition ; as, except, if, provided that, unless, with- 
 out. 
 
 (3.) Of concessioa ; as, albeit, althutujh, notwithstanding, 
 thowfh. 
 
 tli(i\ 
 
 isU 
 
 re ill 
 to 
 
 Will 
 
 siti[ 
 sal 1 
 
 tn.l 
 
KTYMOLOGY. 
 
 71 
 
 ' f^f sentences 
 
 't sen tenet's 
 »" JJi-e cfnr/, 
 '•fions often 
 <K"e.s ran a 
 I wil! kill 
 
 "i|ily cou/t/es 
 ve. Closelj 
 
 '■ . . .0/-, arc 
 OiU'h othor, 
 •'I'i'riiativcs. 
 i^nsfnic'tions, 
 
 (^'•■■^0 to (ho 
 ative, 
 
 <''t'ar, liow- 
 ^'^'•'i of tlie 
 li tlit'v iniv 
 i'''C(k'(l l)v a 
 " not staV." 
 nlii' advJrl), 
 
 subordin- 
 • fJepends. 
 
 Lflepc'iulcnt 
 calle.1 the 
 iU<''t'tivc', or 
 
 cet words 
 I'O uglily 
 
 GTcas. 
 i/'^.s-.s, wUh- 
 
 (4.) Of ti' '.e; as, nfier, hefnre, ere, siiirp, fifl, nvtil. 
 
 (5.) Of comparison ; ns, t/i(tn. 
 
 (6.) Of end or purpose; as, hst, m order that, so that 
 
 t/idf. 
 
 Noricl. — 7Vint,\u its poruliar fuiiftion of introduoiiif; a noun clause 
 is iiy sonn' callfil a substantive coiijuiiciioii. 
 
 XorK '2. — liUt (oriuiiialiy and i>nip( liy a i)ici>ositi<>n) is sonit>tiin»>a a 
 siibnn/iTinliiKj conjiinctinii =: c./rc/^i or unlfs^. As a prt'iiositioii, it jne- 
 oeded noun clauses intiodi ofd by tlmt. I?y the oinission ot t/mt, it came 
 to acquire the force ot a conjunction. " 'I'hcre is no one hut knows it," 
 was tirbt "There is no one hut that In' knnics it." The use of the prepo- 
 sitions f.rrfpt, he/ore, n/ttr, .sincf, as roiijunctians, j^rew up in precisely the 
 same way. 
 
 ..^ 155. Tli<J words whieh are used so/clt/ as coujunc- 
 'tions .tfe conij)ai'atively few. The cliief are and, lest, 
 
 or, noi\ tlian. Words sometimes conjunctions at other 
 
 times are, 
 
 (1.) rronoims or adjcctivos; as, hotJi, cither, ncitlur, that. 
 
 (2.) Advorhs ; r.s, nfler, Ixfore, ere. 
 
 (3.) l'rc'j)Ositions ; as, after, except, till, iintii, withotit. 
 
 156. It will be observed that some conjunctions are 
 made u[) of two or m* re words ; as, as soon as, inas- 
 imich as, in order tltat, &c. These are sometimes 
 
 called phrase conjunctions. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 157. A preposition is a connective word placed 
 before a noun or pronoun to sliow its relation to some 
 other word in the sentence; as, The beginning o/' the 
 battle. I saw clouds in the sky. 
 
 (1.) Preposition is from the Latin jirac osifus, ])lac'cd before. 
 These words were ori<jjinally ])reHxed to the verb to modify its 
 rneaninf?. 
 
 (2 ) The noun or pronoun following a preposition is said 
 to he governed by it. and is in the objective case. 
 
 (3.) The word with which the noun or pronoun is broiigh 
 into rehvtion, may be : — 
 
 a. A verl), as ; I lire in the liousc. The hWd /lew throuf/h 
 the air to its nest. He remained on the cold j^roiind under the 
 clear sky. 
 
 I). An adjective; as, lieneficial to the ])iiblic interests. Free 
 from exposure. 
 
 
72 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ■ 
 
 c. Another noun or pronoun ; as, A load of stones. Who 
 o/thc Gods? 
 
 <l An adverb, (rarely); as, Sufjicienfli/ for the end desired 
 
 When a preposition connects its object with a noun or ])ro- 
 noun, the reintion is called (uljf'<-llval when witb a verb, 
 adjective, or other adverb, adrcrhinL 
 
 (4.) Prepositions fre(inontly take for their object instead of a 
 ncjun or ])ronoiin, an adverb of phico or time, or a pbrase 
 ecpiivak^nt to an adverb, made up of a j)rej)osition and its object; 
 as, froui ahnt-p, till noxo, at once, for ever ; from under the table, till 
 after the elections. 
 
 (5.) Prepositions do not always ])reccdc the words which 
 they f^ovcrn ; as, Look the whole woild over. The ills that fiesn 
 is heir to. 
 
 158. As all material objects sustain to ea(;li other 
 tlie rehitioiis of place., the most getieral function of 
 prepositions is to denote tliat relation : — 
 
 (1.) Rest in a ])lace ; as, at, lu/, in, or, out, with, ^c. 
 
 (2. ) Motion to or from a place; as, down, from, into, up, ^c. 
 
 (3.) Rest or motion ; as, about, above, before, between, 
 beyond, ore), through, under. 
 
 159. Tlie otlier cl)ief relations ex])ressed by prepo- 
 sitions are time, cause, purpose, or means ; as, I have 
 not seen you since Cliristmas. He acted from prin- 
 ciple. He did it for the best. He was slain bi/ the 
 sword. 
 
 160. Prepositions may also be classified as : — 
 
 (1 ) Simple; as, at, afJer, by, down, for, from, in, of over, 
 on, since, till, to, up. 
 
 (2.) Derivative; as, about, above, across, against, amour), 
 arour d, before, behind, between. 
 
 (3.) Compound ; as, inside, into, outside, throw/lwut, upon, 
 
 within 
 
 NoTK. — There may lie added the inoperative and participial forms or 
 oerfain ver>)s, now nsed as prepobitions : concerning, ilxtring, e.rcfpt, res- 
 ]>erting, save, touch in g, Sfa. Theee are sometimes called verbal 
 prepohiiions. The adverlial adjectives, nigli, near, next, like, in some of 
 th( ir uses have a prepositional iovce. 
 
 161. vSome combinations of words are used so much 
 after the manner of prepositions, that they may be 
 regarded as e«juivalent to prepositions; as, om^ of., from 
 outf in respect to, in regard to^ according to, Sfc, 
 
 so 
 
 gel 
 
 
ETYMOLOOT. 
 
 73 
 
 ries. IV/io 
 
 h1 desired 
 
 m or j)r(r 
 Ji a verb, 
 
 istead of a 
 
 a piirase 
 
 its object; 
 
 '■ tdhle, till 
 
 i'ds which 
 tliiU fiesa 
 
 ell other 
 ction of 
 
 0, up, Src 
 
 ^ prei)o- 
 
 I liuve 
 
 n prin- 
 
 V the 
 
 ?f, over, 
 
 t, upon, 
 
 An'iiis or 
 n>t, res- 
 verbal 
 ■some of 
 
 much 
 -y he 
 from 
 
 These are sometimes called Compound Prepositions, 
 sometimes Preposition-phrases. 
 
 162. The following is a list of words which are 
 generally prepositions : 
 
 about 
 
 ul)()ve 
 
 across 
 
 afore 
 
 after 
 
 aj^ainst 
 
 aloii<^ 
 
 amid 
 
 amidst 
 
 amonj; 
 
 ajnon<j^st 
 
 around 
 
 at 
 
 athwart 
 
 \ before 
 behind 
 below 
 l)eneatli 
 beside 
 besides 
 between 
 betwixt 
 beyond 
 but 
 by 
 down 
 
 > for 
 from 
 
 in 
 
 inside 
 
 into 
 
 near 
 
 next 
 
 ni^'h 
 
 of 
 
 ctr 
 
 on 
 
 outside 
 
 over 
 
 round 
 
 since 
 
 tlirouirh 
 
 throuL^'hout 
 till 
 to 
 
 toward 
 towards 
 under 
 underneath 
 until 
 unto 
 up 
 upon 
 with 
 within 
 without 
 
 163. It should be particilarlv oliserved that prepositions 
 and adverbs are so closely allied that the same word may l)e 
 either part of speech, according to its usi' in a sentence. Thus 
 in " He ran xip (juickly," up is simply an adverb modifyinir r<m : 
 in " He ran up the iiill," up is a preposition showiufj; the relation 
 between hill and ran, and {governing the former in the objective. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 164. An Interjection is a word which, without any 
 grammatical connection with other words, ex])resses a 
 sudden emotion or feeling; as, ah/ alas! hey! 
 faugh ! whew ! 
 
 Interjectlo'i is from the Latin inh'rjedus, thrown amonj;. 
 
 165. The force of an interjection chiefiy depetuls upon the 
 infiection of voice with which it is uttered. Thus the same 
 interjection may express dilfcrent feelings with different tones. — 
 Tims ah ! and o/i ! varyin},dy indicate pain, joy, disgust or sur- 
 prise. 
 
 166. Several ordinary words sometimes approach in their 
 use the character of interjections. Such arc hail, how, indeed, 
 behold, what, whij. 
 
 167. Some words now considered interjections were once 
 ordinary parts of speech. Thus, Zounds, {" by God's wounds") 
 
74 
 
 KTYMOLOOT. 
 
 ' 
 
 i 
 
 e(/ad ("by God,"). "I'fs (ah lasso, i. e., O (me) miserable), deary 
 (Odieu, i. c, (.) Goc?) 
 
 168. Certniti exclamatorv phrases are formed by eombininj? 
 inte'';eetions with other words, as, Ah me! horror! O is very 
 often used with the nominative of address; as, "Lift up your 
 heads, O ye gates !" 
 
 NoTK I. — It will be seen that the interjection i« not in a .strict sense a 
 " part ofHiteeoh," inasuuich as it plays no part in foiming the sfntcniidi 
 whole . 
 
 NoTK. 2. — "The interjections are not real natnial ouihursts ort'eelin;.'. 
 like a wercam, a j^mali, a sii^'h, thmii^h tiny come nearei to this eharaeter 
 than anythin^l else in our ianj^iia;,'e. 'i'hey are, like all onr olher woiils, 
 means ot eoninmni.'ation : tlii'y ai'e ntteianees hy \\hi(li we seek to siu'niiy 
 »o I'tlters tliat we are nmved by sneh ami ssuch leelin^'s."— Whitnn/s 
 ssentiaLs of Eii^li>k Grammar, 
 
 \ 
 
STNTAX. 
 
 75 
 
 Me}, dear. 
 
 y roml)ining 
 •' O is very 
 'ift uj) yoilV 
 
 i^tiict sense ii 
 the .smlrnlidi 
 
 >*(s offecliiiM^. 
 tills ohaiilet.T 
 oilier wokIs, 
 vek to siu'iiity 
 "— Wliitnty's 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 169. Syntax is tliat pint of i^rainmur wlilcli treats 
 of \v»)i'(ls as nrnuK/ed in sentences. 
 
 Si/iil<ix is derived from the Greek sm/j, with, and h(.cis, iirnnij;e- 
 iiient. 
 
 170- Tli(3 iiiJiiiiK'i' in wliieli words arr joiiu'd tooctluu* 
 in S(MJteiiC('s is rcLnilatc*! l)v tiircc coniurelieiisive 
 
 < ' «■ I 
 
 principles, Conco7'(f, Gon.rntuent^ and Order. 
 
 (1.) Concord is tln^ ugivement of connected words 
 in gender, nuniher, case, or person. 
 
 (2.) Government is the i)()vver of u word to deter- 
 mine the case of a noun or pronoun, or tlie mood of a 
 verb. 
 
 (3.) Order is simply the arrangement of tlie words, 
 but in conscijuenceof tlie eonjpai'ative fixedness of form 
 characterizing our lanijuao;e, it is the most inlluential 
 j)rineiple of English syntax. 
 
 171. Th(! formal stati'ment and explanation of these 
 princi[)les constitute Si/ntax Proper. 
 
 172 rbe laws of Syntax Propt-r are rtMidered more 
 inttdligible by a previous study of the Analysis of 
 Sentences. 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF SKNTEXCES. 
 
 173. A sentence is tbe expression of a complete 
 thouglit in words ; as, I saw him in tlie house yesterday. 
 
 It is often convonieJit to desjonnte by s<»nio spceinl form n 
 group of words hiiviiio a close yrnniniafieul coniiettioi!, hut not 
 cxpressin^r a conipiete tlioiitiht. Such a ^'roup of words is 
 cttlled a Phrase. The piineipal (lasses u\ |)hrases arn:— 
 
 (1.) The piepositioiial, l.itrodueed by a preposition ; aSi 
 Under those cireiMnstance.s. 
 
76 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 (2.) The infinitive, introfliiccd by the infinitive mood ; as, 
 To 1)0 exposed to so ^nxat danrrer. 
 
 (.'{ ) The participial; ns, ILivintrJieroinplished his purpose. 
 (4) The gerundial ; as, In do'u\<^ this. 
 
 (5.) The absolute, eonsistin;; of a noun or pronoun, and 
 participle, independent (^'<:riunniatieal eonstruetion ; as, 'Hip sun 
 hdviiu} set, the lieet weijjjlied anehor. 
 
 174. Sentoiiais tako (lifTtTPiit itiimos accol•([ill^• t'" 
 the manner in which tlie thoui^ht is (ixpresseil. The 
 five principal types are ; — 
 
 (1 ) The declarative; as, Man is mortal. 
 
 (2.) Tlie interrogative ; as, Why do you delay ? 
 
 (3) The imperative; as, Leave the room. 
 
 (4.) The optative ; as. May truth prevail ! 
 
 (5.) The exclamatory ; as, How husy are the hces ! 
 
 175. In Analysis th(^ derhirative sentenee may be 
 taken as the model of all .sentences. IlXxq gramnuificnl 
 connection l)etwe;;n the principal part-^of a .sentence is 
 invariable, beini^ altoi^erher iniU'jx'iulent of the form ot 
 the sentence. 
 
 176. Kv«iry .sentence consists of two parts, — 
 
 (1.) The Sabject <>r that of which somethin«jf is 
 afiserted. 
 
 (2.) The Predicate, or that which is asserted of the 
 Subject. 
 
 Skntkncks. 
 Subject, 
 lairds 
 Mistakes 
 He 
 
 Predicate, 
 
 are common, 
 was called John. 
 
 a. Sxihjrct is from the Latin suhjirtntn, the thinsj; phued 
 hf'Hciith, — that on which the assertion is hased ; prcdimh , from the 
 Latin /n-Kiinur, to declare or assert. Strictly the term jx-idlrttfe 
 is aiiDlieahlo only to sentenccH containini; a direet assertion. 
 
 ap 
 But see 176. 
 
 h. Since x\\g finite irrJi [see 91, {1),| is the only word hy 
 whicli a statement can he made, every pre<licatc must contain 
 R (hiite verb. 
 
 c. Since the subject stands for sninrt/n'u;f about winch a 
 statement is made, it nmst be either a noun, or some, ex/nrssion 
 equivalent to a noun. 
 
 an( 
 int(| 
 porl 
 ].rc 
 
 eiti 
 th. 
 
 Gr 
 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 77 
 
 t'c mood ; as, 
 
 1 lii-purj)ose. 
 
 )roMOMn, and 
 ; Jvs, Tko. sun 
 
 bees ! 
 
 ^ ni.'iy be 
 unintifical 
 
 <'Ml('|ICC is 
 
 X' t'onn of 
 
 iethin^ is 
 
 •ted of the 
 
 n. 
 John. 
 
 "JX I>IiK'od 
 . /rori) (lio 
 
 assertion. 
 
 word hy 
 It contain 
 
 which a 
 "t'pnssion 
 
 (I. It will he seen more plainly hereafter that however lonp; 
 and involved a sentence may be, it is still s>isccptil)le of division 
 into tiiese two ])arrs : the siihjeet heinj; the full description of tlje 
 j)v^rson or thin^ ahout which the statement is made, and the 
 j>redicate the comi)Iete statement made ahout it. 
 
 177. Since every word in a sentence beloni;s to 
 t'itlier subject or ))re(licate, these are i)roi)erly Ciille<l 
 the Essential Terms of tlu? sentence. 
 
 178. The Analysis of Sentences, or more projjeily 
 Grammatical Analysis, includes the division of a 
 
 sentence into its es>enfial terms, nnd the subdivision of 
 tlie hitter into their component elementary parts. 
 Ana/ijsis is from the Greek (iiKt/usis, division or separation. 
 
 THE SUBJECT. 
 
 179. Tlu^ subject of every sentence is either simple 
 or enlarf/ed. 
 
 (1) Th<' simple sid)ject is either a noun or pronoun 
 in tlie nominative case, or a word or {)lira.se ecpiivalent 
 to a noini, without any (piulifyinij; or connected words. 
 
 (2) Tile enlarged subject is tlie simpl(! sid)iect to- 
 i;etlier with all words and phrases connected with it 
 in the attributive relation. 
 
 Sucii words and ])hrases are called enlargenjents of 
 the siibjc^et. 
 
 In the sultjoined sentence, the sim|)lc suhject is printed in 
 italics, the inlar;:fmeiits in hiack letter, the predicate in oniioary 
 type: This /;/</;/ of valor, having thrice delivered his 
 country, died with his armor on. 
 
 180. In loeic the terms suhini a\n\}iir(lit'atc are always used 
 in the widest sense to inclinl. the noun and all its atlril>\ites, and 
 the vcrh and all its modifiers. Hence logical s>il>i«ct ami logical 
 ? redicate art; convenient expressions for convcyinj,' this larger 
 meaning. The uiundditied suhject ai;d predicate arc !)}• wjiy of 
 distinction called grammatical. 
 
 181. Tlu^ type of the simple or ijrammatical Hid>ject 
 is the noKit. This subject nmy be : — 
 
 (1) A noun ; as, Tnit/i will prevuil. 
 
 (2) A pronoini ; as, //»// <'liml>ed the whII. 
 
 (3) An adjective used ellipticallv; hm, The /><>yr arc often 
 
78 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 (4) A jrcrund either with or without an ohject ; as, Building 
 sliips is a useful occupation. Walkinf/ is a j)leasant exercise. 
 
 (.5) A simple infinitive or an infinitive ))hrnse; as, To err is 
 human. To rr/icri on onr's follifs is often profitable. 
 
 a. When the suliject names the ])erson nddrrsset/ it is gener- 
 ally omitted ; as, Go (thou) home. Come (you) here. 
 
 />. It is convenient to consider two or more nouns cou[)led hy 
 (tiid as t();^ether constitutin<x a siiiip/f suhject. 'lliis is npcessun/ 
 when the connected nouns denote [)arts of one whole; as, '/Vo 
 <in<l tirn make four; and wln'u the assertion made in the predicate 
 catinot be made of each noun separately ; as, China and 
 /V/vMire far apart. Even in sentences like "James and rJohn 
 arc hajijty " notinn;;- is ;j;aiiied by scparatinif tiie nouns, while the 
 plural verb would l)e, as it were, left witliout a subject. 
 
 r, The sim])le subject answers to the question irhn? or w/nit? 
 asked in refTenee to the action or state expressed by the predicate 
 verb 
 
 182. As tlic siiii[>le stihject lias tlie force of a noun, 
 all of its enlariiX'iiuMits must have the force o^ adjectives. 
 The simple suhicct may be ciilariied by: 
 
 (1) One or more adiectives; as, RiiJi men are not always jj^en- 
 erous. 'I'lie //////< sjxiciaKs dome of St. Paul's is a monument of 
 Wren's ^itnius. 
 
 (2) A noun or prom^tin in apposition; as, The river Rhine 
 is famous in hisU»ry. The man himsrljW'ul it. 
 
 A noun is said to be in apposition to aiu)ther noun, when it 
 denotes the same person or thin;,^ and is joined to it in con- 
 struction. 
 
 (.'{) A noun or pronoun in the possessive case; as, The 
 Kin'i's cause was desperate. 
 
 (4.) A ])repositional jdirase; as. The brother of the Genend 
 arrived yestenlay. Mone hui (he brave deserve the fair. 
 
 (.') ) A participle, or participial phrase; as. The i)oet, di/ivi/, 
 smi<i a last sweet soni;'. Ilarin;/ conipit led thise jtrejienitions, 
 .Mallioroii;:;h Icit for the Continent. 
 
 6.) An infinitive or iuliin'tive phrase; a<, A desire to lire \h 
 natural. An ambition lo In' a micwnvd raptaiii impelled him 
 fo.wanl. 
 
 (7.) An adverb of place or lime \ised for brevity insnutf 
 of a ])repositional phri\>e ; as, Atitumn here (in this country) 
 comes early. His exploits ihire made him famous. 
 
 (8.) Two or more of the above in eotnbimition ; as, The .<«//»- 
 (t;« impressions of tjond men are not always correct, " Btirned 
 Marmion's swart hif check with fire " 
 
 veil 
 is 
 
 ^*tl#itii 
 
SYNTAX, 
 
 79 
 
 'ct ; as, n,n7din^ 
 ^i\nt exercise. 
 
 ■^c ; as, To err is 
 ble. 
 
 sser/ it is gener- 
 hcre, 
 
 ^iins coupled hy 
 'lis is tiprcssfiru 
 ^;J!oIe; as, 7 wo 
 "1 tlie|)re,ii^.a(p 
 '•^, C7i/N(r (11,(1 
 iiies and John 
 onus, while the 
 ''joct. 
 
 "7h> ? or fr/,(,f y 
 y the jirechVute 
 
 e of H iiouii, 
 
 >t always j>en- 
 "lonuMient of 
 
 ' J-iver /iV<//}e 
 
 out), when it 
 f'J it in con- 
 
 *-; as, The 
 
 Mr. 
 
 I'<>ef, r/y/V^/, 
 >rrj)('n(tl„)is, 
 
 '0 /o //>,. If, 
 I P^' I led him 
 
 '0' insftnd 
 *< ''ountry) 
 
 S 'rh(! .f///. 
 " liurned 
 
 a. Nouns are sometimes used as enhirgements with the force 
 of adjectives; as. The //<t/i//ieii>l v\]}\'css 
 
 h. In such a setitcnce as, " It is uood to be here," the in- 
 litiitive^])hrase, " to lu- here" is i!]>|)ositional to the subject it. 
 
 r. It is convenient to treat the adjectives a or an, and the as 
 parts of the subject. 
 
 THEPREDICATE. 
 
 183. We li;ivo soon tliiit tlio predicates of a sentcMice 
 always coiitaiiis a jiiu'te rerh, that is, consists of a finite 
 verb, citlior alone or having other words connected 
 with it. 
 
 184. AVlien the i)r( dicate consists of a single finite 
 verb it is said to be simple; as, Dogs bark. The w^ind 
 is Uoiruifj. 
 
 When the j)redicate consists of a verb of incomplete 
 predication and its complement, it is said to be complex ; 
 as, I (tin sick It sconed a (jreat mistake. 
 
 185. Tliis complement from its close connection 
 uitli the snbject is known as the Subjective com- 
 plement.. It may be : — 
 
 (1.) A noun or ))ronoun in the nominative case; as, The men 
 are sai/ors. lie was sahited (m/nror. 'fhis comi)lenu'iit is 
 sunu'tinies preceded by the conjunction us; as, He was regarded 
 as a benefactor. 
 
 (2.) An adjectiv(>; as, The people were.s7«/c. They turned jxile. 
 
 (4.) A pri'positiomil phrase; as, The work was of (/rrat 
 imrncnt. 
 
 (5.) An infinitive or itidnitive jthrase; as, To sec is to Mieve. 
 He seemed l<> hr a man (>/' i>i<)l>lfij. 
 
 a. Hesides tiie vcrlis winch properly tlenofe incomplete predi- 
 cation, many verhs are of'ien used as sueh.whicii are also c.ipablc 
 of standin:: as simple or compicte |trcdicates, such as (freu\ in 
 the sentence " he '/'■'•"' pale;" /////( in the sentence "he tumid 
 sick," &c. 
 
 b. Tr.uisitive verbs si^nifyin^' to rv///, mtmo, cfionse, render, 
 nnistitiiff, &(•., when in the pas.'^ive voice are verbs of incom- 
 plete prcdicaiion ; as, He trtis c/idsrH iteneral. 
 
 c. Ih when it si;iiiilics to txisi staJid> as a complete pre<i< 
 catc; as, *' He is, aiul is the rewarder of them that dili};ently seek 
 Him." 
 
 d. Au adverb ur adverbial adjunct \a never the complemeat 
 
80 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 ■■•',< 
 
 of a vcrh of incomplete predication. In such sentences as, " He 
 is here," is is a complete verl». 
 
 186. The elements of the logical predicate wliicli 
 are geiiei'ally classed and treated separately are the 
 object and the extension. 
 
 (the object.! 
 
 187. The object in Analysis is identical with tlie 
 grammatical object of a transitive verb. Its type is 
 the noun. It is therefore cajiable of the same modiii- 
 cations and enlarjjements as the subject. See 180 and 
 181. 
 
 The object answers (o the question whom ? or what? 
 asked in reference to the action ex[)ressed by the 
 verb. 
 
 188. Strictly all transitive vcrlis are verbs of mromphlc 
 predication, and their ohject is of the nature of a complement. 
 It I:s, however, convenient to limit the term conipJemrnl to words 
 used to com];lete the meaiiim;' of tin' di^tinet and easily rccot;- 
 nizahle class of verbs pre\ iousl^ <lefined as verbs of incomplete 
 ])redieation. 
 
 189. Some verbs are followed by two objects : — 
 
 (1 .) Verlis" of <-aU'nif], namintj, c/ioosimj, rcidcrint), iiuikiiiff, &e.; 
 as, They ea'led /n'm Joint. The peojile elected Uitiutus Piso atiisul, 
 
 a. We have seen thai .^ucli verl)s in the passive voice arc 
 ])ure verbs of incomi)l<'le jircdication. In the active voice, the 
 second object has a coinplementaiy force and is apj)ositional to 
 the first. It may properly be called the objective comple- 
 ment. 
 
 h. The objective complement may be m)t oidy a imnii, but an 
 ndicrtivc, or iiijimtirc mood ; as, They deemed him jioiu) ious. 
 Tlie strain made the timbers l>i'vd. 
 
 c. Verbs ot ordirinii, cinnmnndlnq, ^irqintj, &c., take tlu'ir 
 objective complement only in the form of an infiiiitlrf ; as, 
 CtBsar commanded the le<j;ions/o advance, 'i'hisintini'ivc rcnuiins 
 after the jiass've voice. 
 
 d. Many verbs nniy b»' f diowcd by an objective complenuMit 
 wlicn they are used to denote the brinj:iiiL,^ somethinu' to pass by 
 means of the action which the verb expitsses; as, Ttic mai<l ke])t- 
 the water Imt. Ihi bent the stick rvooLd 
 
 Such verbs arc said to bo used factitively, (from I^tin 
 facae, to luukc.) 
 
 nicii 
 
 ;.MVl| 
 
 ind| 
 
 to 
 
 II 
 
 prci 
 noiil 
 a sif 
 
 V 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 81 
 
 dices as, " He 
 
 i^Jite wliidi 
 ely are tlie 
 
 11 vvitli the 
 
 Jt« {y\\Q^ is 
 
 line iiio;Ii(i-. 
 
 lee 180 and 
 
 ? oi- 7rh(tt ? 
 'Cd by the 
 
 )r ninin'p/ftc 
 foinpleniont. 
 'Ill to words 
 easily rofo^'- 
 (' iiK'oinplete 
 
 jects :— 
 
 mnkim/, &v.; 
 ' Piso consul. 
 
 ^e voice arc 
 
 ■c voice, the 
 lositioiial (o 
 e comple- 
 
 "«'<», l>utnn 
 1 jH'im lions. 
 
 take tln'ir 
 hntire ; as, 
 ivc remains 
 
 r>ni|)Icniont 
 'o puss hy 
 niaid kept- 
 
 •ojii Latin 
 
 .^^ 
 
 (17^ On a cl'.anrrc of construction from the active to the 
 {>iissivc voice, the i''\j( rt becomes suhjcct, and the ohjecfive comple- 
 ment tlic si(hj('r(iv(' complement ; as, The water was kept hot. 
 
 (2 ) Verbs of f/fvini/, j)nniiisi>i(/, jKii/iDf/, Jhrt/irhifj, &c.; as, I 
 is'wc ijoH Diji vord. Here wovdU the direct object, and //ox, the 
 indirect. If the order is chanj,a'd, the latter ;jjenerally reciuires 
 to be preceded by tl'C ])reposition to. 
 
 In tills treatise tlie term indirect ohjtct is used to include the 
 ])repositional phrase consistinj^ of /o followed by a noun or ])ro- 
 noun, when by a rhanrjo of order the phrase can be replaced by 
 a simjde noun or ])runoun. 
 
 DCF" In the ])assive voice, either object may be made the 
 subject, the other remaining; as, " I told him a story" may 
 become, "^ 
 
 "A story was told him by me," or, 
 
 " He was told a story by me." 
 
 (3.) Verbs of askinrj and tcurhiiKi: ns, I asked hhn a very 
 ])ointed rjiustioii. The Sophists tai<ji,ht their jtupih rhetoric. 
 'JMicse objects may be re}j:arded as both direct. In the passive 
 voice, the first object becomes the subject, and the second . 
 remains; as, He was asked a question. / ,. 
 
 EXTENSION OF THE PREDICATE. ^OV^ 
 
 190. 'Viiy word or phrase modifying the assertion 
 made in the predicate is called an Extension or Ad- 
 verbial Adjunct of tlie predicate. 
 
 Extensions or adverbial adjuncts generally denote 
 some circumstances of time., place., manner or cause, as 
 modifying the action or state ex))ressed by the verb. 
 Tlieir type is of course the adverb. 
 
 191. Grammatically^^ extension may consist of:— 
 
 (1.) An adverb; as, TheTjTM-^wnfir swc/7///. 
 (2.) An adjective used for an adverl); as, Shtw sets the sun. 
 {'\.) ' A noun with or without an attributive; as, lie stayed an 
 hour. I am anxious <dl the lime. 
 
 (4 ) A prepositional or j;erundial phrase; as. They returned 
 in (jreat /itistc. He spent his time /;/ doinff (/ood. 
 (5.) An infinitive; as. We live to learn. 
 
 An in^'Milive phrase ; as, I cotne to inquire j/oiir intentions 
 A participle; as, They passed by, rnnnintj. 
 
 -."^ 
 
 (6.) 
 (7.) 
 
 torrt nts 
 (9.) 
 
 A participial phrase; as, The rain came /Hmrin;/ donm in 
 
 An absolute jdirase; a?. The battle lo^d, the {general gave 
 himself U}< to grief. 
 
 (10.) A ftombir.ation of two or more of the above; as, The 
 

 i 
 
 4 
 
 !i 
 
 
 82 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 name suwrnrr, on his hnmricnrd inarr/i, the kinj^ wns xinexportfdh, 
 surprised oij he sdwc eiii'ini/. 
 
 a. The Dc^-aiive adverb not is not treated as an extension, 
 but as nn inte^rral part of tlie predieate. 
 
 h. Care must i)e taken not to treat adjiinets of the com- 
 vleinent as extensions of the predieate verb.-r 
 
 192. Wc have seen that exteisions are of four 
 kinds, nccordinii; as tliey express :— (1.) Time. ('2.) 
 
 Place, (o.) Manner. (4.) Cause. 
 
 193. Extensions of time niav denote : — 
 
 (1.) Exact date (When?); as, He lived in the eir/hteaith 
 citititri/. It is six o'clock. 
 
 (2.) Durntion (how long?); as, George the third r--' ... 
 nearly sixti/ years. 
 
 (3.) Repetition, (how often ?);as. He did it loi times a dai/ 
 
 194. Extensions of place may denote. 
 
 , (1.) Rest in a plaee (where?); as. We met in the park 
 
 {9,.) Motion towards or into a place, (whither ?); as. He is 
 going to London. The Gauls came into Itali/, 
 
 {3.) Motion from a place, (whence?); as, The ambassador 
 departed frotn Brundnsium. 
 
 a. Mai!y expressions which do not denote actual place, must 
 be treated in analysis under this head, Such are : "Put not 
 yoiir trust in princes." " They glared tiercely at rnc another.' 
 " I will hand down my name to distant a(/es." 
 
 'j. In such expvessions as "The ship has sailed /c»r Valj)a 
 raise", the idea of purpose is combined with that of plac. 
 
 195. Extensions of manner niav denote : — " 
 
 (I.) Manner simply, (how ?); as, Wc walk . ')?r/j/, 
 
 (2 ) Means; as. Men grow rich % iinhistiij. 
 
 (3.) Agency; as, His plan was fustrated /»// his adrersarip 
 
 (4.) Instrument; as, They that lake the sword shall perish 
 hjj the sword. 
 
 (5.) Resemblance; as, They ran like deers. 
 
 (6.) Accompaniment ; as. He determined to die ?c/V// his 
 brother. 
 
 (7.) Degree and measure; as. He ate sparinrjly. It cost 
 ten dollars. It weighed tlirer j-onuds. 
 
 (8.) Substitution and exchange; as, I will ",sk this ol 
 you in return for that. 
 
 (9.) Certainty and uncertainty; as, Th(>u shalt swh die. 
 
 ;w 1 a 
 mistaken. 
 
 Our soldiers will no doubt return victorious. Perhap 
 
 m 
 
 (10.) Effect; as, This course soon brought him to ruin. 
 
 «/ 
 
 •ol 
 
 nicil 
 
 S''// 
 
 )re< 
 
 (e> 
 
 ms 
 rep 
 
 iliikJi. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 83 
 
 s xinexpertfdh, 
 an extension. 
 s of the com- 
 li'O of four 
 
 Time. (2.) 
 
 tlie eifjhtecnllt 
 tliini I"-' _J 
 / timrs a (}<iii 
 
 !"■ park 
 
 '• 0; as, He is 
 
 ambassador 
 
 I I>lace, must 
 '= "Pntnot 
 Vic another.' 
 
 for Vulpji 
 
 J)/(IC". 
 
 ~i! 
 
 Jilrrrsan/. 
 ^liall jtorish 
 
 lie ?fv/// /i/H 
 !/■ It cost 
 "sk this o« 
 
 ' w /■•/</ dio. 
 ^'/'■'' 1 urn 
 
 rum. 
 
 (1 1 .) Theme of thought or discourse ; as, lie reflecteil 
 
 uj)oti the. Din'jir iiKf/csfi/. 
 
 ■■^' 196. Extension (^ cause may denote : — 
 
 (1 .) Cause or reason ; as, lie died of a broken heart. The 
 men cried for rrri/ joi/. 
 
 i'2.) Purpose ; as, Kat to live, not live to eat. I am here for 
 si)f/it-sfei)!ti. 
 
 (3.) Motive ; as, lie did this from pure imilice. 
 
 (4.) Condition; as, With proper precautions, (i,e., if proper 
 precautions arc taken), the ])lan cannot fail. 
 
 (5) Concession; as, With ten thousand men at command, 
 (even tli()U<;h he had, &e ) he was nevertheless badly outgeneraled 
 
 ic^.) Material; as. The hull was made '.>/'//07«. \ 
 
 { i'. ) Adversati . euess i as, Tn spite of that he accomplislied 
 his pur])()se. C'harles tried the experiment, notuHthstandimj 
 repeated irarnin(/s 
 
 a. An absolute participial j)hrase denotes according to the 
 context, time, manner, cause, co)icession, condition, or a com- 
 bination of these ideas. All absolute ])hrases are extensions of 
 the predicate. 
 
 h. Extensions of cause and manner express so many 
 varying shades of mcanitig that it is almost impos.-iIf!e to 
 exhaustively emuncrate and classify them. While we have 
 attenij)ted smh a classilication as will ansv/er the practical 
 ])urp()ses of analysis, phrases will no doubt occasionally present 
 themselves, lor Vthich definite provi>ion has not been ma'lc. 
 
 197. Tiie subject, enlargement of the subject, pre- 
 dicate verb, objcii, und extension, may each consist of 
 an interrogative word or phrase. Tims : — v 
 
 Suhj'ect. Who can do more than I ? 
 I'lnlar<jcment. I(7/r// noise is that ? 
 Pndicate. Are ym\ sure? 
 Ohject. W/ioni (lid you discover ? 
 Extension. Whij does he complain ? 
 
 Generally in interrogative sentences the analytical order and 
 syntactical arrang(;inent do not coincide 
 
 PRACTICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 198. Practical Analysis is either general or detai ■ 
 ed. 
 
 General Analysis is simply distinguishing the logical 
 subject from the logical predicate. Thus : 
 
 ^, 
 
 ^ 
 
 <0N 
 
 ^^l 
 
 
84 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 M 
 
 Lifcniry life is full of curious plicnoineiia. 
 
 f.o()ir.(d Snhjpct. Literary life. 
 
 Lorfiml Predicdte. is full of curious phenomena. 
 
 The golden hou '"youth passed swiftly away. 
 
 Lof/lral Suhjcct. ' golden hours of ycuith. 
 
 Loyiail Pre l.'r.-ite. passed swiftly away. 
 
 199. Detailed Analysis is naming, so far as they 
 o^.cur in any given sentence, the following elements : — 
 
 (1 .) The suhject {grammatical). 
 
 (2.) Enlargements of suhject. 
 
 (.3.) The predicate, distinguishing when the predicate is 
 complex hetween, (a) verb, and (h) comj)lemeut. 
 
 (4.) OI)ject. 
 
 (.5.) Enlargements of object. 
 
 (6) Objective complement. 
 
 (7.) Extensions. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF DETAILED ANALYSIS. 
 
 200. The following are examples of detailed 
 analysis. 
 
 (1.) 
 The pause in the tournament was still uninterrupted. 
 
 Suhject. The j)ausc. 
 
 Eni. of Subject, in the tournament, {prep, phr.) 
 
 Predicate, (complex) 1. was {ver!)) 2. uninterrupted 
 Subjective comp. adj.) 
 Extension, still {(idv. time.) 
 
 (2.) 
 Other geniuses I ])ut in tlie second class. 
 
 Subject. I. 
 
 Predicate, put. 
 
 Object, geniuses. 
 
 Enl.ofOb. other, (/m. ar//.) 
 
 Extension, in the second class {prep, phr. place.) 
 
 Her husband, Prince George of Denmark, sat in the House of 
 Lords as Duke of Cumberland. 
 
 Subject, husband. 
 
 EnL oj Subject. 1. her {lim. adj) 2. Prlnc" George of 
 Denmark {app. noun with enl.) 
 
 bcrlil 
 
 A 
 
 '11 
 
■dv as they 
 ements : — 
 
 predicate is 
 
 US. 
 
 detailed 
 
 ted. 
 
 interrupted 
 
 3 House of 
 Grcorge of 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 85 
 
 Pirfhrnfc {cnmploT.) 1. sat (vt-rb). 2. As Duke of Cum- 
 berland (subjective coniplcnicnt). 
 
 Extension, in the House of Lords, {prep. j>/ir. place). 
 
 (4.) 
 
 To attempt to fri<j;bton men into morality has never proved 
 successful. 
 
 Suhjrct. To attempt to fri;;hten men into morality, {htf. phr.) 
 
 Prt'dinitc. (coinp/cT.) 1. has proved (verb). 2. Successful 
 (snbjccti\e complement.) 
 Kxtoision. never (time). 
 
 (.5.) 
 
 He seems to have done his duty faithfully, 
 
 Suhprt. He. 
 
 Pirdicatr, {romp/ex). 1. Seems (verb). 2. to have done 
 liis duty faithfully, (subj(>ct. comp inf. phr. co!isistiti;,M)( injinitive 
 to have done, cnlurtjed ohjcct, his duty, and extension of manner, 
 faithfiilly.) 
 
 201. Tlie analysis of sentences may be given in 
 tabular i'ovm, according to the model given on tlie 
 following page. Additional co\nmis maybe provided, 
 if thought necessary, for the subordinate elements into 
 which the complements are often capable of being 
 resolved. 
 
 SENTENCES. 
 
 (!■) 
 
 In that hour of deep couM-ition 
 Ho beheld, with clearer vision, 
 Tbiou<:h all outward show and fashion 
 Justice, the Avenger, rise. 
 
 (2.) 
 
 Lost each human trace, surrendering: uj) 
 Thine iudividui 1 iiein<r, shalt thou go 
 To mix forever w th the elements. 
 
 (3.) 
 
 A few years afterwards, another cause, having no connection 
 with his personal (jualities, gave the name of this unhaj)py 
 prince, a mehmeholy celebrity. 
 
 m 
 
86 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 
 <— V — — * 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 5 ^ 
 
 ^ -5 . 
 
 x 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 
 !-. . 
 
 c3 
 
 
 
 • FN ^- F— N 
 
 *-• ..Go 
 
 is 
 
 
 
 u — ■ — - 
 
 ♦-^ /J 
 
 
 
 • 
 09 
 
 o 
 
 .cont 
 
 ision 
 hion 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ^ i-.S 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 H 
 H 
 
 1^1] 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 rt S i; 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O - — O ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 r 
 
 <«< 
 
 
 
 hH ?i H 
 
 h-i tr" 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 -^ <N CO 
 
 r>\ 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 , , 
 
 , 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 tj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "■ 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 ■^.o 
 
 
 
 . H -^ >. 
 
 
 
 a: 
 
 
 
 = 'l^i 
 
 
 
 
 a> ~ 
 
 
 ■/, •— ' "^ o 
 
 , 
 
 
 v>. 
 
 r* 
 
 
 *^ M 
 
 H 
 
 
 ■w 
 
 
 
 
 'A 
 
 
 K 
 
 -= c 
 
 
 o ^^3 s 
 
 •-s 
 C3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■*-» — 
 
 
 pG 
 
 o 
 
 
 • 
 
 1:^ 
 
 -J 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 0) .. 
 
 
 
 "4) 
 
 ^.i 
 
 
 F-S .*-, 
 
 
 
 !^ 
 
 ■n 
 
 
 o *- 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 ■-2 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .■~ 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 -13 
 
 
 
 a> 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 •s 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 IJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 >o 
 
 2 
 
 4-> 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 %^ 
 
 'i; 
 
 "^ o 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 r=3 
 
 i: CD 
 
 c3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 -— N. 
 
 
 9Q 
 
 
 O,-, . 
 
 . ■ * t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 a us. 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 - 5 ^ 
 2 > S 
 
 
 pi 
 
 
 C ^— ' 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 Surre 
 tiiine 
 being 
 
 1. Ar 
 
 2. ha 
 quuliti 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 •xoar^ing 
 
 V 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 -a 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 2(1 
 
 \VOl'< 
 
 one 
 'Y 
 
 the 
 
 com 
 
 torn 
 
 stru 
 
 ii:iti 
 
 dill 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 87 
 
 « 
 
 o 
 
 — -~ :^ 
 
 202. W(3 have tliiis far been engaijcd in analy/ini^ 
 the ehiments of the sentence proper, a combination of 
 words expressinijf a complete thought, and containing 
 one subject and one finite verb. 
 
 The sentence thus defined is known in analysis as 
 the Simple sentence, because it is c.ipable of being 
 combined with other subjects and j)redicates so as to 
 form new sentential wholes of a more complicated 
 sti'ucture. The sentences resultinn- from this combi- 
 nation are either complex or com[)ound. 
 
 ^y COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 
 203. A Complex Sentence consists of a simple 
 sentence having connected with it one or more suhor- 
 dinate subjects and })redicates ; as, You will receive 
 good news, ivhen you reach home. 
 
 The elements of a comj)lex; sentence are calhnl 
 clauses, there beinfj^ as muny clauses as there are |)redi- 
 cates in the whole sentence. 
 
 (1.) The simple sentence is called the principal clansc. 
 
 (2.) The connected ])ropositions whicli explain or modify 
 some ])arr of the ])rincipal assertion are called subordinate or 
 dependent clauses. A conijjlex sentence may contain more 
 than one subordinate clause. These nniy have no connection 
 with each other, or a suhordinate clause may have another 
 clause dependent on it, and this in turn another, and so on. 
 
 204. (1.) Subordinate clauses are /.generally introduced by 
 suhordimitinir conjunctions, coniuncti\c adverbs, or relative pro- 
 nouns. They may be re.irarded as expansions info the /una of 
 senffiias of single words or phrases in a simple sentence. Thus, 
 "I paid the hired man his due on the comj)letion of his task" 
 is a sinij)le sentence. By easy substitutions for the adjective 
 hired, the noun dxe, and the adverbial adjunct on the roinpletion 
 of his task, we can expand it into three comj)le.x sentences, 
 
 hired man ivhat icds due him, on the conn 
 
 paid 
 
 of his task 
 
 ipU 
 
 h. I paid the man, tcho iras hired, his due on the completion 
 of his task. 
 
 c. I jiaid the hired man his due, when his task was completed. 
 
 (2.) The conjiniction, or conjunctive adverb, introducinj^ a 
 subordinate clause, often has unswerin^^ to it iu the principaJ 
 
 *. 
 
^^ 
 
 88 
 
 
 ' SYNTAX.NL V 
 
 clause an adverb r.llicd in moanin{r; as, Where liberty is, then 
 is my country. Whfji lie refuses, then it will be time to speak. 
 ThoiKjh lie full, yrt will ln' rise a<:ain. 
 
 Such nonls iirc siiid to be correlatives, and their relation 
 clotely resi-nibles that between a relative pronoun and its 
 antecedent. 
 
 205. It is thus seen that subordinate clauses dis- 
 
 diarire tlie functions of nouns, adjectives and adveibs, 
 
 or of words and phrases liavin<jf tlie force of tliese parts 
 of speech. Tliey are therefore classified, as, 
 
 (1.) Noun claiLses. (2.) Adjective (or attribu- 
 tive) clauses. (3.) Adver])ial clauses. 
 
 206. It is also seen that subordinate clauses are 
 really pai'ts cf the principal sentence to which th.y 
 beloni;, havinij precisely the same relation to some 
 W(")rd or phrase in that sentence as the iiouii, adjective 
 or adverb, for wiiich they are used, would have had. 
 
 NOUN CLAUSES. 
 
 207" A Noun clause is one which in its relation to 
 tlie rest of the sentence has the force of a noun, 
 208. The noun clause may be : — 
 
 (1.) The sobject of the verb of the prineii)a! clause; as» 
 That ijonth should be ii(ui(fi(iue is in accordance with nature* 
 Whdtrrer the Kiix; sai/s is law. 
 
 When a noun cl.uise is thus used as a subject, it is often 
 placed after the jriu' ipal clause, the predicate verl) taking it ns 
 US jirannnatical subject, the noun clause l)eiu<; then in 
 apposition to //. Thus; ft is now seen th<it i/oii were inlsta/ceti. 
 Here the noun clau.-M-, thuf you were julstakru, which is ihe real 
 (iiibject, is an rppositional cnlarjicinent of the nomiiuiJ subject 
 it. It thus used is sometimes spoken of as tht anticipatory 
 subject. 
 
 (2.) The object of the verb of the principal clause ; ns, They 
 soon perceived that it iras a strdmtr. Men know not irhitt tlni/ 
 are. 
 
 It is used as an anticipatory object before a noun 
 cIhuho ; ns, I deemed it stranye thdt i/on should <h>id>t mij word. 
 
 (3.) The complement of a verb of incomjdet" predication 
 in the ])rinci|)al chuisc ; as, His expectation wan ihnt the Ki'hj 
 would not rrrnrer. 
 
 (4.) The object of a preposition ; as, In wluiterer wo^ fie 
 koLe4, he saw danger 
 
 an 
 
 (| 
 proij 
 
 /S /M 
 ( 
 
 liavl 
 
 as, 
 
 not! 
 
 rl 
 
 vcrl 
 
 ^dRsKviak 
 
"% 
 
 ^^^'^y is, thort 
 "lie to speak. 
 
 fieir rolafion 
 '^iin and its 
 
 "Jaiises dis- 
 
 "i adverbs, 
 
 'IiL'se parts 
 
 or uttrihu- 
 
 /.'iiises are 
 vliicli th ,y 
 
 ' to some 
 
 ' 'td.joctive 
 ive ha«I. 
 
 cIurioM to 
 
 yhuiso; as. 
 itli nature* 
 
 it is often 
 ikiiijx // as 
 ;■ tlien \n 
 ' »iisfa/r«'n. 
 is the naf 
 "t/ suhjeet 
 2ipatory 
 
 ; «s, Tlioy 
 if'fuit titf'if 
 
 'I iiotin 
 ' word. 
 
 •'<lication 
 fite Ki>i<; 
 
 r uuijf lie 
 
 h^^[ 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 89 
 
 The prc]>osition and the noun ehiiise ^^ovcrned hy it constitute 
 an adverbial modifier or rxtcnsion of tiie ])redieate. 
 
 (5.) An appositional enlargement of some noun or 
 pronoun in the j)rincij)al ehuise ; as, The statement thdt knowtedi/e 
 is ])oiver is j)roved true hy history. 
 
 (<).) The S('/'mi)i(f object of certain nouns and adjectives 
 havin<r a verbal meaning; a'ld deuotin-r a transit ivn action or state; 
 as, We are not denwons that f/n's ahonld (aL-e phirr, i. e., We do 
 not desire that '/*/,< s/ionid take })lare. 
 
 The nouns and adjectives capable of easy transformation into 
 verbs are tho.sc sijj^nifyin;^ yjroo/', ccrtainfij, consciousness, tf'c. > 
 
 NoTK. — SotiU' ;.'nvii)iniiiians art^iH' tliat siuli m)un claiis»>.s are really in 
 ai>p()witioii witli n noini unilfrstixxi. Tims, " Wf ;ire iiut desirous (of this 
 object, nnmclji) t/iut this shoitlif take jilar.r." This is not a satisiactory 
 explanation. Neither is tlie theory that *he noun clause is to !>• oonsidered 
 as an extension : thus, We are not desirous {in resjiect to this, namely) that 
 this shonlil not take place. 
 
 209. Tlie chief connective of noun clauses is the 
 conjunction that; as, That this is so is by no means clear. 
 
 (1.) 7'/iat is sometimes omitted, especially in familiar con- 
 versation; as, I told him (that) it was useles's to complain. 
 
 (2.) In this use oi' that, the ori<,'inal demonstrative force of the 
 word is very apparent. As thus employed it is sometimes called 
 the substantive conjunction. 
 
 210. Till! otl'.er connectives of noun clauses are 
 chiefly interrou^ative words su(;h as who, what, when^ 
 wht/, how. Whether and //' tire us(ul in introducing 
 clauses denoting indirect (|uostions ; as, I asked him 
 if he were willinf/. 
 
 211- A noniT cTanse which is propeily the object of 
 a verb of sai/itif/, thinking, hrlieriuf/, &c., often litis 
 prominence given it by being placed without a con- 
 junction !it the beginning of the senteiu'e, the principal 
 s(Mit(Mice Ix'ing introduced i)ar('nth('ti('ally; tis, Such, I 
 believe, ivere the rcftsons that actuated tiim.-=\ believe 
 that suck were the reasons that actuated him. ^ 
 
 ADJKCTIVI-: CLAUSKS. 
 
 212 An Adjective Clause is one which in iU 
 relation to the rest of tlu^ sentence litis tlu; force of tin 
 adjective ; Jis, Often the men who work hardest (i. e., the 
 hardeit-tvorked men) live longest. 
 
U I 
 
 90 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Of the throo varictic:^ of snl)or(Hnatc clatises, the ftdjoctive 
 clause is the siinplcst in its fonstnictioii, It is always equivalent 
 to an adjcc'tivc and usnally follows the noun or pronoun wliicli it 
 limits or qualifios. Tliis noun or pronoun may be rouiKl in any 
 part of the sentence. 
 
 213. Adjf^ctive clauses arc introdncefl : 
 
 (I.) By relative pronouns; as, The [jrass v'hivh to (hii/ is' 
 to-tnorrow is cast into the oven. Praise the hrid^^'C t/idf cdirlcs 
 i/(iu sdj'f ovrr. 
 
 (2.) I>y conjunctive adverbs denotinjr pfare, time, manner, 
 &.('.\ as, This is a jdace irlurc (lanycrsahmind. That is the reason 
 whi/ I did not conic. 
 
 In such sentenecs fhe conjunctive adverb may always l)e 
 resolved into a ]>hrasc coniaininu' a relative ])rononn. Thus, 
 where (binders abound is=^//< irliich danecrs abound; ir/ii/ 
 I did not Cdme is^:=r>// (ic<-onnt of w/iic/i I did not conu;. 
 
 214. Adjective; Clauses introducod by relative pro- 
 nouns an; either restrictive or explanatory. 
 
 (l.) The restrictive clause limits the apjtlication of the 
 noun or pronoun to which it is attached, and is }j;enerally intro- 
 duced by that, but sometimi's bv irlio and ir/iic/i ; as, Uneasv lies 
 the head that ir'C<irs a croirn. 
 
 (2.) The explanatory clause introduces an additional 
 statement without any special restricti\(' force; as, The kin<^, 
 who n'orc <i J()f}>/ hilntcl, rode at the head of his troops. 
 
 (\\.) The relatives n^hn and n-hi<!i also introduce clauses, 
 which, while seeminy'v adjectiv(>, are really inde|)endent 
 ,«2ntences, the velative beiu;; equal to aiid followed by a per- 
 gonal ju'onoun ; as. I met the n\an himself, who (and he) 
 promptly coiitradii'ted the report. 
 
 8ueh clauses should always be treated in analysis n^ 
 princi|tal sentetices. See 2.M2 (2.) 
 
 Notice fhe dill'erenee between the rolU)winir sentences 
 
 That 
 
 is the spot where we ])arted." " 1 followed him to the dockyard, 
 \ch< re {and there) WKi \)\\\'\('([.'* --^^ 
 
 No'Im;. — " '/'/(rj/ is iunl()ulit«'(lly tin- proper rrslnirflvi' rcliitivc. ir/iuiiinl 
 v'/rc/t did not hc'^iii to « luMoadi iijtoii itn j^idiiiid until nWi'v tlic ITili cen- 
 tury, "The lient \vi iters ol'ieii appeiir to k'I'M"' !>"»"'' ft pepaiiite eniploy- 
 liieiit for tlie reliUiveH. Now, lis ic/ic lunl whirli i\re most eiiinuiniily 
 pieteiTed loi' eo-ontiiiatioii, it Woulii ln' a ele.U' LCiiiii to eoiilii.e tle-m /n 
 thi« Ki'iise aniHo if^erve //('»M'or (lie resliielive i\ppliea»ioii uloiie, Thtt 
 nrntrs(f)ni nt ihrn icohIiI Jali in leit/i the iiiit.ti s^rurrnl <isr tif '■ t/itt," n ■ 
 pfrinUfi l)fi/onit the limits of Jortnnl rotn/'osilion " nHiii'ii llffi/ier Engli»*^ 
 Grnmmur," 
 
 215. The relative is sometimes omitted when it is tlir 
 object of a restrictive chuise ; us, Tulie all (that ) I havi 
 s» 
 
 htit 
 for(\ 
 
 IJ(H(\ 
 
 onnl 
 )vii:| 
 
 Sin[ 
 can I 
 
 sh. 
 
 Til 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 91 
 
 'lie .adiroffve 
 i'.vs equivalent 
 -'iioiin wliich it 
 
 found m anij 
 
 III' ell tn (hi, I is' 
 f/i(if Cdirics 
 
 fioie, manner, 
 t is the reason 
 
 always he 
 loiin. Thus, 
 l)oini(I ; irhij 
 inc. 
 
 ''Htive pi'o- 
 
 "iUioii of (lie 
 "oiiilly infro- 
 , Uneasy lies 
 
 ^1 nddifioiial 
 S Tlu' kin^', 
 
 IS. 
 
 'in-e clauses, 
 iiidejieiidc'iit 
 il h\ a pcr- 
 '" (and he.) 
 
 iUialysis as 
 
 s :— " That 
 L' (loekvurd, 
 
 If 9 
 
 111' 17l)l (Tll- 
 
 a'o rinploy- 
 f <''>iiiiii(i(i'|y 
 line Ili.'iii /o 
 loiio. Th,% 
 '•llittr rt. 
 \fttr Engiia ^ 
 
 lifisfhf 
 ) 1 havt 
 
 216. Adjoctive clauses are soniotimos introduced by 
 bill (see 72. (2).,) and hy r/.s wlicii it t'ollows such or 
 same; as, Tliere is no candid man. hi/f, will odtnit the 
 force of your reasoninf/. Send .such assistance as 
 
 ion cun. 
 
 his relative use of hut lias tirt 
 
 )\Vfi on 
 
 t of 
 
 in elliiisis or 
 
 was 
 
 ft 
 
 omission. '' Imt will admit the (oree of your rcasonin;^ 
 )ii,i:inally " hut tlmt he will admit the force of yonr reasoning; 
 Similiuly "asyouean" has re>u'!ed from '" i\s t/idt which you 
 can (send"). 
 
 217. 117,''/ and the compoinid relatives infrodnce noun 
 '•huises. If, Ii(»\vrv('r, they are rcsohed into antecedent and 
 relative, the former heeomes a jiart of the jiriuriiKil clause, and 
 the latter the eoiMiective of an adjee.ive clause ; tiuis, " Do ivhat 
 ijoH li/iC," Wi\\ be ehanu'ed into " Do ih;it ii-hich //i>u lik<'." 
 
 218. The di'-tinctiun hetween noun and ailjective cliiuses, 
 should he eareluUy noted in eases where tiny airree in form- 
 The tests to he a]i|ilied are the same which should he used in 
 distinfjnishinir n noun from an (nljicfive In the sentente "They 
 are near the place irh('i-( thru should inert" the italicized clause is 
 adjectival because it (|u;ililies the noun ji/arc ; it is a noun clause in 
 " They arranged tv/icre fhn/ should n'cft," beennse it is the 
 object of the transitive verb airamjcil, 
 
 ADVEIUUAL CI.AUSKS. 
 
 211rAn A(lver])ial Clause is one which in relation 
 to the rest of the sent<-nco has the force of an aiirerb. 
 It niodilies some vei'h, adjei;tive, or Jidverh of tlie prin- 
 cipal sciilcncc. 
 
 220. A<lv('rl»ial clauses ar(! of umw. fi'o(pient occiir- 
 ren .'c than either of the other varieti«'s of subordinate 
 clauses. IJcini; equivalent to adverbs, thev a(huit of 
 precisely the same classifica.ioJi.as denotiii;^, (1.) Time; 
 (2.) Place; (.'{.) .Manner; (4.) C'ause. 
 
 221. Adverbinl clauses of timo are intioduced : 
 
 (I.) liv the eonjiuietive adverbs, n'hfn, while, &e. ; as, When 
 he ritunnd, he found everythinu in confusion 
 
 (2.) \\y the conjiniciioiis ((//*/•, hi Jon , m , sinff, until, Sn'.] a.s, 
 liefhre tildl hi/ jun/ mis tstidilishid, men's lives Were not safe. 
 
 222- AdverbinI clauses of phu^e av*' introduc(Ml by 
 tlie coujtmciivt* adverbs whvre^ whither^ w/ienrf,&v,.',HHj 
 Wherever I take my sUuul^ I sue a smiling landacape. 
 
 r> 
 
 ^ 
 
92 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 \'4 
 
 . -.% > 
 
 223. Adverbial clauses of manner are frequently 
 introduced by the conjunctive adverb as. They 
 denote : — 
 
 (I.) Manner simply; as, Do as yon are told. 
 
 (2 ) Resemblance: as, He ran as one runs for his life. 
 
 NoTK. — As if ax when, nnd as thoui(h, imply an ellipsis of (he voH) of 
 the principal clause, often, liowever, in a (litlVrent inootl. Thus. "He 
 shrank back, as if lie were afraid," is, -"He shrank back, a.s he would have 
 shrunk, if he had been afraid. 
 
 (3.) Result, consequence, or effect; as, The enemy 
 shouted so loudly, t/idt the sound reached our camp. 
 
 (4.) Comparison; as. He is as wise as yon are. They are 
 rieher than are any of their neiijhl)ors. 
 
 The verb of the subordinate clause is often omitted after tJian 
 and as; as, I am taller than i/ou {are.) One is as ^ood a.s the othtr 
 (is.) 
 
 (.5.) Limitation and Proportion; as, I am satisfied as far 
 as that goes. The lomjer I stay, the better I like it. 
 
 224. Adverbial clauses of cause denote :— i 
 
 (1.-^ Cause or Reason, introduced by as, innfmuc% as, as, 
 because, se. i))g that, since, &c ; as, Because I am poor, therefore am 
 I despised. 
 
 NoTK. — The idea of reason is sometimes conveyed by a relative pw 
 noun, or conjunctive adverb; as. The ^jeneral dr.^erveiily commended 
 the soldiers who hmt uained so i^rvat a victory. When thei/ found that all 
 was lost, tlicy shed bitter tears. 
 
 (2.)/ Condition, introduced by except, if, unless, &c ; as, / 
 
 yuu ash jne, I will tell you. Unless this be done, we will assuredly 
 
 perish. 
 
 NOTK. — Condition in past and future time can be expressed witliout a 
 conjunction; ns, Had this hren the case,{he IntelliLrence would certaiidy have 
 reached us ere this. Should yon come, you will receive a rij^ht royiil wel- 
 come. (See i'3, (iJ)), For a fuller treatment of comlitioni'l sentencesi ee 
 Syntux. 
 
 (3.) Concession, introdiu-ed by although, though, &e.; as, 
 Though all forsake thee, yet will not I forsake thee. 
 
 NoTK. — Concession as well as condition may be expressed without a 
 conjunction; as, Were he evrn to tnke an oath, still I woul<l i. t liclii've him 
 The emphatic adverbs, yet, still, nev>rthless. ho.., are used in the principal 
 clause only when it i- preceded by the concessive clause. 
 
 (4.) Purpose or Motive, introduced by that, lest, in order 
 that, so that; iiA, The ii;iiuiiri\\ sent s|)iea, //<a< tliey migfU watch the 
 proceedings of thn enemy. Take heo<l lest yon fall. jmL^"^ 
 
 NoTK. — In imitation of a classical construction j!'.iri)me\ sometimes 
 expressed by the use of a relative pronoiur.as, Committsidners were ap- 
 poiutwd, who stioutU fnune regHHtiiuns and condutt the entire business. 
 
 musi 
 fereil 
 ()ftei| 
 liter; 
 
s 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 9a 
 
 e frequently 
 as. Tliey 
 
 'ji- /lis life, 
 
 s of (he vt'Hi of 
 iK Thus, " He 
 « he ivould have 
 
 Tho enemy 
 
 e. They are 
 
 tod after than 
 od as the other 
 
 Ui.sticd as far 
 
 fmitcn as, as, 
 therefore am 
 
 » relative pro 
 y coiMineiided 
 'ound that all 
 
 <, &c ; as, / 
 ill assuredly 
 
 ed without n 
 •»n1ai?ily have 
 lit royal wel- 
 ^•Miteiicesi ee 
 
 fjh, &v,.; as, 
 
 '<1 wilJioiit a 
 t ln'licvo hill) 
 the piiiicipal 
 
 s/, in order 
 \ watch the 
 
 ' Noniet lines 
 'IK weri* np- 
 
 225. The classification given of adverbial clauses 
 must not be taken as absolute and exhaustive ; the dif- 
 ferent classes shade into one another: and a clause is 
 often used to express an idea quite dilferent from its 
 literal meaning. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SKNTENCES. 
 
 226. Th(i general analys's of a complex sentence 
 consists in distinguishing the principHl clause from the 
 subordinate clause or clauses, and stating the relation 
 which the latter sustain to the princi[)al (clause or to one 
 another. In general analysis each subordinate clause 
 is treated as if it weie a siiit/fc word.— uouu, adjective, 
 or adv«'rb. When the coimective of a subordinate clause 
 is a conjunction, it is not considered an integral j)art 
 of the clause which it introduces. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF GENERAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 They said that he would be killed if he attempted 
 that. 
 
 Principal clause. They said 
 
 Suhordiudte clauses. 1. (that) he would be killed, 
 (noun clause, subordinate to principal clause, object of 
 said.) 
 
 2. if he attempted that (adverbial clause oi condition 
 subordinate to 1 and modifying verb would ho. killed.) 
 
 227. Detailed analysis consists in adding to the 
 above tlu^ analysis of the principal atid each sid)ordinate 
 clause separately, as already described in treating of 
 simjde sentences. 
 
 228. In detaihul analysis the following notation 
 (which is substantially that ot Mr. Dalgleish) may be 
 conveniently employed : — 
 
 (\.) Represent the principal clause by the capital 
 letter A. 
 
 (2.) HeprestMit all subordinate clauses directly do- 
 j)endent upon the princijtal clause by a\ numbering 
 them successively 1 «^, 2 a^, &c 
 
fr 
 
 . 11 
 
 ife 
 
 
 n 
 
 94 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 (3.) Represent all subordinate clauses dependent 
 on a} as 1 a^, 2 «^ &c. 
 
 (4.) Continue tliis process of notation as far as 
 circunistatices may re(|uire. 
 
 229. Wonls necessary to the full irraniniatical con- 
 struction are often omitted in the subordinate clauses 
 of compl(^\ sentences ; as, You reid better tlian I (<lo). 
 I am monarch of all (that) I survey. 
 
 Words such as lliati nnd as used in making coiujiatisoiis arc 
 naturally followed by al)l)roviatcd forms of expression, in order 
 to avoid repetition. 
 
 XoTK. — "In )iart by abl'icviation, in i)art by otlier cliaii^ics of roii- 
 Ktriictiwii and of the value of words, I'very liiii;ina;;n lias many nioi'u-s of 
 expression whidi are t'Xce;)tional, unlike i\s orlinary oonil>iii.itions — 
 phrases ami seiUenees wliicli if taken liteially wouM nut nu-an what we 
 use. them to mean, or which puzzle us when we attempt to analyze and 
 (ixplaiu llu'ui. Such irreu'u'ar expressioi's are railed idinuis (from a (ireek 
 word meaninj; ' ji cu'iarity.') Theii' prodihtion is a i arl of tliat constant 
 chan.ire of lauiiua;^'' whieh is often ealled i's ':^rowt]i.' In oidcr ri^ally to 
 account for Iheni, we need especially a kMowi<d^e of the iiistiny of our 
 lauf^na^ie. 'J'lie i)r(>sent usii,!,'c of any ton.Liue we cannot fully undeistaml 
 without knowing,' somethin;,' of il.s jiast Urtaj:es, out of whicli the-e have 
 tcrcjwn ; and otlou a '_'reat deal ol study, and a c(unpiirison of othei' lan- 
 ;:ua;,'es, is reipdred for settlin;; diHicnlt points." — Whitiin/s Essfnlials of 
 EiigUs.'i Grammnr. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF AXALYSLS OF COMPLEX 
 SENTENCES. 
 
 (!•) 
 AVhenever he appears in [)ublic he is surrounded by 
 his courtiers. 
 
 A. II(! is surronndcd by his courtiers. 
 a}. Whenever lie ap[»ears in public. 
 
 Analysis of complete sentence. 
 
 Suh. He. 
 
 Prod, is surrounded. 
 
 Kxtcuslons, 1. by his courtiers (prep, phr.^w^^cut.) 
 
 2. whenever in [)ublic, {((t/c. cl, time — (i^.) 
 
 Analysis of a^. 
 
 Snh, He 
 Fred. a])pear.s 
 
 )Ul 
 
 111 
 
 vail 
 
 {a< 
 
 ;l. 
 
 ^ 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 95 
 
 es (Impendent 
 oii MS far as 
 
 niiiatical con- 
 inat(3 clauses 
 1" lliau I (do). 
 
 Hnpiin'soTis !iro 
 •-^^ion, in order 
 
 cll.1?);;('S of roii- 
 
 i many uu)n.>^ of 
 
 cninliin.itioiis — 
 
 t tiiiMii wliat we 
 f to analyze and 
 IIS (froiii a Gn-ck 
 
 of t)iat ooiistaiit 
 11 onlcr loally to 
 
 (' liistoiy oC'diii' 
 fiill}- iliKlcistaiid 
 
 Iiifii ili.'-e liavc 
 
 >n nC uHicr laii- 
 ''s Essentials of 
 
 Mi»Li-:x 
 
 ■ouiidod by 
 
 
 Extensions. 1, "VVlienever {conj, adc. time) 2. in 
 l>ul»lic {prep. phr. place). 
 
 (2-) 
 
 Tliosc provincials who were permitted to bear arms 
 in the le<,dons were rewanh'd witli a present whose 
 value was continuallv diminishini'-. 
 
 A. Those provincials were rewarded with a present. 
 
 rt'. who were permitted to bear arms in the legions 
 {(-idj. cl. eulargiiii,' subject of A.) 
 
 a'~. whose value was continually diminishing {adj. 
 cl. enlarging noun prfsott). 
 
 Analysis of complete sentence. 
 
 Sifh. Provincials. 
 
 I\nl. 1. those. 2. who legions {aJj cl. a^) 
 
 Prcd. were rewarded. 
 
 K/'tension. with a diminishing (prep. phr. man 
 
 ner, — including (/-', enlargement of uouu present.) 
 
 Analvsis eg a^. 
 Stdj. who 
 
 J*n'd. were permitted 
 Olj. to bear legions (?'?(>/'. ;<///•.) 
 
 Analysis of a^. 
 Suu. value 
 A'y//. whose 
 Pred. was diminishing 
 Extcn. continually (tidv. of time.) 
 
 (;j.) 
 
 What pledge shall I have that you will favor me 
 so kindly as you pi'opost? ? 
 
 A. What pledge shall I liave ? 
 
 r('. (that) you so kindly {noun clause in app. 
 
 to ol)j of A.) 
 
 «'■*. (as) you propose {adv. t7. of comparison) modi- 
 fying predicate ot <i^ .) 
 5 
 
n 
 
 . SYNTAX. 
 
 Analysis of com])lete sentence, 
 
 Suh. J. 
 
 Prad. simll liave 
 Ohj. j)l('(li!;o 
 
 IJkL 1. Wlitit {interr. a<lj.) 2 (tluit) yoir 
 proi)()se. {<t^. and a~.) 
 
 Suh 
 
 Analysis of a 
 
 '>' } 
 
 on 
 
 Pred. will favor 
 Ohj 
 
 mo 
 
 Ext. so kin<lly {<(dr. nianner.) 
 
 Analysis ot a^, 
 Sid>. you 
 Pied, propose 
 pyjct. as {couj. adv.) 
 
 (I) 
 
 Here is a story, wliicli in roiiglier slia[)e, came from 
 a grizzlc'(l crii)})lc, whom 1 saw sunning liimself in a 
 waste Held alone. * 
 
 A. Here is a story 
 
 a^. which, in rougher a cri}>[»le (ca//'. c/. eu 
 
 larging subject of A ) 
 
 (V^. whom alone {adj. cL enl. cr ipj de, ii noxm 
 
 forming part of extension of (/^.) ^ 
 
 Analysis of complete sentence. 
 
 Std). a story 
 
 PJ/d. which in ronglier alone {((^ . and a-. ) 
 
 Pred. is 
 
 PJxt. here {adv. place.) 
 
 Analysis of a\ 
 Suh. which 
 Pred. came 
 
 PJjt. 1. In ronghor sha[)e (prep, phrase manner.) 
 2. from a grizzled cripple {prep, phase, place.) 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 07 
 
 Anal 
 
 vsis or a- 
 
 I) you, 
 
 amo fi-om 
 iiisoJf ill a 
 
 iJj. cl en 
 '/e?, a noun 
 
 a2. ) 
 
 manner.) 
 
 Sub. I 
 Pred s 
 
 aw 
 
 sunniiiij; liinisc 
 
 ^If 
 
 Ohj. wlioni 
 
 Ext. 1. iiloiH^ (pred atlj.) '2 
 i\v](\, (p(frf.icfp. p/trasc.) 
 
 Tlie C'haj)]:i,in lias often told nic, tliat upon a catcM-li- 
 isiiii:' (lay wlicn Sir IvoLiur lias Ix'cn pleased with a 
 l)ov that unswers well, he has ordered a liihle to he 
 j^iven liini next day tor his eneouraLT^'nient. 
 
 A. The ehaplain lias often t«.id me, 
 
 a^. that upon a catechisin<i" day he has ordered 
 encourageuKMit {noun clause^ ohj. of prc(L of A) 
 
 rt'-^. When Sir Ko<>ei' has been phrased with a boy 
 {adj chinse enlarging day., a noun forming [)art of 
 extension of a"^ .) 
 
 «•'. That answers well {adj cl. enlarging hoy^ noun 
 formitig part of extension of <^<-.) 
 
 Analysis of complete sentence. 
 
 Sub. The chaplain 
 Pred. lias told 
 Obj. ina. me 
 
 ObJ. di)\ (tliat) upon encouragement (r«\ r<", a^,) 
 
 Kxt. often {(tdv. time.) 
 
 Analysis of rt^. 
 Snh, he 
 Pred. has ordered 
 
 Obj. a hihle, encouragement {inf.phraM e([ual 
 
 to noun clause "that a lUble should be given &c.") 
 
 Analysis of w^. 
 
 Sub. Sir liou'er 
 
 Pred. has be(ui pleas(Ml 
 
 Ext. with a boy {prep phrase.) 
 

 if 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 98 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Analysis of «•''. 
 Suh. That 
 Pred. aiisweis 
 KxL AVi'll (r^r/i;. of manner.) 
 
 (fi.) 
 
 It is a very ancient re[)roacli, snufixcsted by the ii^nor- 
 ance or tlie malice of infidelity, that the Cliristians 
 allnred into their ])arty tlie most atrocions criminals, 
 vv]io,as soon as tliey \\v\\\ tonclied by a sense of I'emorse, 
 were easily p<M-sua(l(Ml to wash away, in tlu; water of 
 baptism, the liuilt of their past eondnct, for whi(;h tin; 
 temples of the i;o(ls refused to grant them any expiation. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF COMPLF/FE SKNTFN(M<:. 
 
 A. It, infidelity. 
 
 a^ . that, criminals (nonn clciusn in app. to sub. 
 
 of A.) 
 
 a2. who were easily, conduct («/'//. clause enl. 
 
 noun criminals.') 
 
 1. cr-"^. as soon as remorse [adv. clause^ tirae, 
 
 modifying predicate of a-. 
 
 2. rt'\ for which, expiation (adj clause, enlar. 
 
 noun guilt.) 
 
 We give the detailed analysis of the above sentence 
 in tabular form. 
 
 n 
 o 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 99 
 
 ■' the iijnor- 
 Christians 
 criminals, 
 )f JVinorse, 
 ! wa(('i- of 
 wliicli tli(; 
 (expiation. 
 
 >{). to sub. 
 lause enl. 
 use, time, 
 se, enlar. 
 
 seutence 
 
 * 
 
 CD 
 
 i 
 
 
 into their 
 
 party ( prep. 
 
 phr. place.) 
 
 tasily (adv. of 
 manner.) 
 
 1. As soon as 
 (adv. of time.) 
 
 2. liy a sense of 
 reniorse (prep, 
 phr.) 
 
 for which (prep. 
 
 phr. — suhsti- 
 
 tiition.) 
 
 
 
 
 'dMOJ 
 
 ■RO 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 Q ~ -i. 
 
 
 O 
 
 f5 
 
 
 1 • 
 
 2 5S-1; 
 
 
 
 
 ■puj 1 
 
 1 i 1 
 
 
 
 
 DICATE. 
 
 1 
 
 >. 5 "^ !», ?•■ ■^ Si- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •^ 
 ^ 
 
 .2 
 
 •2 
 
 u 
 
 'ci 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Subject, j 
 
 -si 
 
 • • C "5 -1 -^- 
 
 : -•■'". = c^" 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 • 
 
 
 (r.2 i 
 
 o 
 
 
 *^ S 
 
 
 S 
 o 
 
 C cs tK 
 
 1 
 <" t.- 5 
 
 " S "" . 
 
 a^ 4> 2 <o 
 
 • 
 • 
 
 « ■ 
 
 u . 
 
 s : 1 
 
 -« .• - 
 
 ^ e 
 '«S8 
 
 o S & . 
 g 
 
 a 
 a 
 q 
 
 • '^- ~ 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 e • 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 2 : 1 
 
 rt.S e< 
 
 * .2 -5 
 
 is .5 
 
100 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 COMPOUND s?:ntence. 
 
 230. A Compound Sentonce is a combination of 
 tvv<j or niorc! {)i'incij)al clauses, witli or without subor- 
 dinate clauses; as, The wind blew fiercely, a/«r/tlie ship 
 was exposed to i^reat danger. The statesman to whom 
 I refer, died young, hat his fame is destined to be as 
 immortal as the greatness of his country. 
 
 It follows that a compound sentence may be com- 
 posed ot two or moi e simple sentences, two or more 
 complex sentences, or of o:.e or more sini[)le sentences 
 coml)ined with one or more complex sentences. 
 
 231. The [)rincipal members of a cjmpound sentence 
 
 are stud to be co-ordinate. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to observe tliat the term co-ordinate in 
 grainniiU" is not cftnfnicd to this ai)j)lication. It is freely used in 
 jiTuininar to denote generally words and clauses o( eqiuil order or 
 rank. 
 
 There are four types of co-ordination in compound 
 sentences, (1) Copulati>'e, (2) Alternative, (3) Anti- 
 thetical, (4) Causative. P^ach type is rei)resented by 
 characteristic conjunctions, which, however, are often 
 omitted. ,;-- - /' 
 
 232. Copulative co-ordination simply joins inde- 
 pendent statements. r 
 
 Its re|)re.sentati\c coinicctive is the conjunction and, but the 
 construction is often made more emphatic i)y its omission ; as, 
 lie formed scliemes ; h« carried them into execution; he made 
 himself famous. 
 
 Co-orvliiiation of chinscs without conjunctions is sometimes 
 called collateral. 
 
 (1.) iVor and iicithrr (less frctpiently) are neijative copulas, 
 when they are cquivaletit lo <ind not; as, T!iey marched rapidly 
 ?/o/'(lid rliey neglect to take due precautious for their safety. 
 
 {'2.) W hen n-ho or irhich has the force of and followed by a 
 
 personal pronoun, it may be considered as copulative, and its 
 
 clause treated as an independent member of the sentence rather 
 
 than as attributive or adjectival. (See 214 [2]). 
 
 XoTK. — Also, btsiiJes, likewise, moreover and siniilav wordis, treated by 
 mnny ),'raiinnaii;\iis as copitldtive cnnjnnctions, are really adverbs. Wlieu 
 foimd ill tlie sucoe-sive clauses of eompouiid seiiteiice.s they are often 
 lut'cedcd by r<a/ coiijiuiotioiis. Tliat they are adverbhil modiliers rather 
 than conui'otives is .shown by the fact that they are yeiierally found in 
 imiepeudent sentences. 
 
 23 
 
 of o 
 Kill 
 licit 
 
 2 
 
 It o ire 
 
 a 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 101 
 
 nl)iiiation of 
 
 tliout suhor- 
 
 and the sliip 
 
 nan to vvlioin 
 
 led to be as 
 
 lay ])e coni- 
 
 wo or inor(! 
 
 lo sentences 
 
 nees. 
 
 ind sentence 
 
 co-ordinate in 
 
 freely used in 
 
 erjHdl onler or 
 
 1 compoimd 
 ', (3) Anti- 
 I'esented by 
 V, are often 
 
 joins inde- 
 
 and, hut tlic 
 omission ; as, 
 ^n ; he made 
 
 is sometimes 
 
 ttive copidas, 
 'ched ni|)idly 
 r safety. 
 jI lowed hy a 
 tivc, and" its 
 tenee rather 
 
 •<is, treated by 
 h^erhs. When 
 liey are often 
 3di(iers rather 
 ally found ki 
 
 233. Alternative co-ordination inij)lies tlic aHlrmation 
 of one of two statenients, or tiie denial of J>oth ; as, * 
 Either yon are mistaken or I Inive lost my memory ; He 
 neither atebimself, nor was be willing foi- otiiers to eat. 
 
 234. Antithetical co-or<lination iniMlics a contrast 
 I)etween two sentences, as, Ulysses w;is not liand.some, 
 but be was eloqeunt. 
 
 NoTK. — Tlic note iiiidcr 2.'?2 \\ ill apply to tlic adverbs ntvtrtheUss^ 
 lioiiTVfr, notiritiistfonfini^, &c. 
 
 235. Causative co-ordination is pro})c rly marked 
 by tbe conjunction /b/", and implies tbat one statement 
 is tbe (pound or reason of anotber; as, Great fear took 
 possession of tbem, /t>?' tbe^ bad be;M'd of tbe King's 
 approacb. 
 
 Xori-; 1. — The co-onHiuitlon t':<prcsK-il liv for is easily di.>lin.i:ui>h;ililc 
 fioni the sriborilimitioii (•xpre.--.x('d by bicause. Jifcduac ii!5sif;ii.>(iiir(lly (he 
 omifee of the pievion.xly iiu'iitioned siciion or t;fiite; as, 1 am ha;i])y hicfinsf 
 1 am rich. For siil'stituted tor hfrtivs,' would imply a ]>1(k('.-.s ol l■f^'i^(.^ill^ 
 or inference. J am hai'py, ybr 1 am rich, (and rich tKnpIc, you knov, , are 
 always happy.) 
 
 S'oTK. 2 — The reninrk.s in n.ole U'.xler '2'.V2 are ajiplicable, lo the 
 illative ndcrrhn, tiurtfore, whcrfjore, {fc. olten tet down as cohJiiih;- 
 tions. When these words are nsed in co-ordinate mcmbcis ol coni| oniul 
 sentences, ronJnnL-iions ai'e either exi)ressed or nnder.'-ti.od. Their chief 
 use, how ever, is in independent senlences. 
 
 236. In analyzing compound sentences, tbe links 
 of connection between tbe co-ordin.ite members, sbonid 
 be pointed out. A convenient analytic notation con- 
 sists ill extending tbat recommended for use in tbe 
 case of simple and complex sentences: '^ 
 
 (1.) Let tbe principal sentences be successively 
 mimed A. B. C , &c. 
 
 (2.) Let sentences subordimite to A. be ii.insed 
 a', a~, &c. ; tbose subordintite to 15, L'^ , //-, &c. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF GENERAL ANALYSIS OF A COM- 
 POUND SENTENCE. 
 
 He prayeth !)ost who loveth Ik'sI 
 Allthintrs, liotli ^rent nnd small ; 
 For the dear (Jod who ]()\ctli 1;s, 
 *lle made and loveth all. 
 
 * He here is Rn instance of pleonasm and does not enter as an element 
 of analysis. 
 
 .>^., 
 
 ^ 
 
i 
 
 ' 
 
 n. 
 
 h 
 
 
 .?■'. 
 
 i«i 
 
 i 
 
 102 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 A. II 
 
 c pn 
 
 ivt'tli best 
 
 a^. who lovetli 
 
 sm 
 
 nil. 
 
 E (for) the dear God made and lovcth all 
 
 //•i 
 
 who loveth u^^ 
 
 The (lotailed iinaiysis of Coiniwiiiid Sentences is to 
 be conducted :iccordin<j^ to the methods previously de- 
 scri!)e(| tor simple and com[)lex sentences. 
 
 237, Compound scMitences often assume a contract 
 ed form. This occurs wlienevcr an elenuMit connnon 
 Ui all th(5 memhei's is expressiMl but once. Th(^. connnon 
 element may be su!)ject, predicate, complement, object 
 or extension; as, John rc^ads and writes well^rjohn 
 reads well ai»d Jolm writes well. Kither you or I nmst 
 o()=: Kither you must i;o, <>r 1 nmst ^o. 
 
 (1 ) We have seen that a seiUence is to he considered sini})le, 
 when a simple predicate has for its subject two or more nouns 
 oupUul l>y .//i*/. 
 
 (2.) So sentences may he analyzed as siin/>Ic, when a simple 
 predicate has two or more objects or two or more extensions. 
 
 NoTK. — Wt^ Inve sih'm tliiit two or moro inilcpi'iidi'Mt v'lauscs inny lu^ 
 so olosiily o.nmi'otc!!! tii simim^ as to \h' (!(>ll^i(l('n'll as toiiniiij^ toi^'cthrr a 
 niiiiplo siMi'oiKio, even whoii nol roiun'ctcd liy ooiijuiiotivMis. On flic other 
 liaml, Hiini>l<M'i)iiiii'(tivi'« Miieh as 'Uii/, />mV, ami t'v<'ii /or, ar<' ot^cii jilarcil 
 at tlic ''<-A'""""i.' '*' 'i^''"^''"*"'i to iii'liriti^ ill a ;it'ii('iill way its relation to 
 what LToi's liclort!, WIuh',.. i' tin'ii ti i.'ivfn subject and piedicate sliail eon- 
 dtil lite "';'>'"/''''''' ■'"''"'''"'■'', 01' a rUiusf of a rotn/Kiiinii s^ntmre e,aiiMOt Iih 
 (leei<leii iiv any li\eil rule. Soinetliiiiiz deptnils on the elo.-i less ut" tliH 
 einiiieelioii ; ROmetliiii;^' on the taste of tlie wriler. Hsa;ie is jiartleulaily 
 variahle Aith seiitonces beyiniiin^ with, ihrrefore,where/ore, consequmtUf, 
 
 'I'he followin^^ suo'^festions for the analvsis of complex and 
 compound sentences may be found serviceable: 
 
 It. In ainily/in^ prosi', preserve, as nearly as ]iossihle, the 
 order in which the ntembcrs an* f(Mind in the orio;inal p;issaj;e. 
 In the case of poitri/^ however, it will (d'ten be be>t to rearrange 
 the claunes iu prose order, befor; atlemptin;; to analyze. 
 
 b. The whole passage to lie analyzcil snoiild be divided into 
 as nniny parts as there are linite verbs, expressed or tiiiderstood, 
 and a',1 omissions carefully supplied. 
 
 r. Any iditnuatic ( \pression whiih cannot, owinj; to its 
 ])eculiar construction, be nd'crrcd to any dcliiiite |>lace in the 
 prt'ccdin^ clH«silicali»»ns, should be iitterpreti'd in harmony 
 with the obviotis »en^e of the jjassaye jvnd analyzed accordingly. 
 
 1- 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 103 
 
 eilCes IS to 
 vioiisly (lo- 
 
 ;i contnict 
 
 Ik' (.'oinnioii 
 KMir, object 
 A'clJ— John 
 >' or I must 
 
 • Invd siniplo, 
 more nouns 
 
 len a simple 
 ti'nsicjtis. 
 
 aiiscs iiiiiy lio 
 11^' to,'rtli(-r a 
 On flic o«li.r 
 ' "Ocii placi'il 
 its icliiiioM to 
 •iN' shall (>on- 
 »<•( cnimot he 
 
 »>' '"...SS <>(' tllH 
 
 « p!»<'titiiliu'ly 
 ><)ssiI)Io, tlie 
 
 l!ll pMSSil/^e. 
 
 > re mnirige 
 
 lividnl into 
 iiridcrstoddj 
 
 ''i>i^^ to itH 
 liu'i^ ill tiio 
 
 liarnionv 
 iTordiiiglv. 
 
 SYNTAX PROPER. 
 
 r()xc( )Ki). 
 
 238. Concord is the .iirrecinent of connected words 
 ill ii;<Mi(ler, numher, case or person. 
 
 The Knj^lish lanjiuaj^c liaviiij; low clianiit's of form in its 
 words has low (ip/Kiroif ronconls. Most of thcsi- have liceii 
 necessarily deveU)ped under Ktymoh)<iv. 'I'hey are Iiere stated 
 mure fully and systematieally, and the princijtal execptional 
 uses are notcij. 
 
 239. Coneoiil li:is ni;iiiily to (h) witii tlu; r<lt;iions 
 of nouns iind verhs, and of pronouns and nouns. 
 
 4-^ RU^HS OF CONCORD. 
 
 240. Rul(! I. The noun or jironoun wliicli is the 
 /subject of a Hnite verli is in th'? nominative case; Tlio 
 
 < sun sliines. 7 strike. 7%^'y complain. 
 
 This rule, simple as it appears, is often vi(»lated : — 
 
 (I.) In interro;xative sentences and relativi' clauses, wIumi the 
 pronoun is nearer to some other verb than to that of which it is 
 the sul)ject ; as, Wfutm, I would ask, ever saw a ;^rander si^lit ( 
 Here ic/ioin as the siihjfct of saw sht)uld he ir/to 
 
 (2.) When the veil) is omitted; as," It was not for such ns 
 thiin to hoast.' 'i'liat t/iuii is ineorreel is seen when the 
 omitted verb ore is supplied. 
 
 241. Hub* Ii. The noun or |)ronoini describin*^ 
 /1h^ subject after ii V(U'I) of incomplete predication is iii 
 (bt^ nouiinalive case; as, Tboii art tlie nufn. (^assus 
 WUH fleeted consn/. Tliev did not seem coirdrtfs. 
 
 S«) also when a r.oun in the suliji-etivecompKnieiit follows tho 
 infinite mood of a verb o( incomplete p' 'dicatioii; wa, He appearii 
 t*)ln\ a wise mini. 
 
 This luh' is often violated under cireumslanees siniHur to 
 those stated ill Rule I, (1); as, Whom say ya that I aiu ? 
 
104 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Note — Some modorn '^'riiminariaus arc disposed to, justify the use of <he 
 objective caM' of tlic pcrsniiul |ir<)iioiiiis afti r it >s and it iras, and snine 
 similar oxprcssioiis (as " it can't In- )iif. Sirl/t ) 'JMiis use of tlic olijcctivc 
 is ('crtiiiiily very (^niiimon in crillo(]!ii;il lanu'iiau'c, wImi'c (lie aiiiilication uf 
 linlc II. is fcit to involve infulciablc .-tilfnos. In rcp;irts <>( familiar 
 conversations tlic olijcctive is freely nsol l»y Sllakc^ pearc, Swift, Tliaekf-ay, 
 (Jcur;,"' Klliott, and o.lnr standard wriUrs. Tlic u-au'ds not ixrammnlirjtUti 
 dclcnsible, a'i<l cannot lie tclerulcd in diLruiticti writin;,'- " 't '•'* } " 
 is snitalilc to an occasion <<t' <ii;,'nity; a«. "It ;s 1, he not afraid." Wlio 
 doo not feci that licre tlicre is a majesty and iirotnincnce Lriven by tln^ 
 in)niinative case, wliicli makes the assurance what it was to the diseijtlcs ? 
 Hut Ironi this pKiniincncc it is that wc .shrink in ordinary talk. 
 We shelter ourstdves in the accusative (injcctive) Vif, which thonu'h 
 uuL'ianiniatic.il, yet is acquiesccil in, as better snitinji the t'ccdinu' ol the 
 mind. We iill rememlMr the st.y of (Jeor^jc III. reaibn;^ Taley'ft fable 
 about a piu'con. ami cxclaimin;,'. "II A//, tlint's tn> .'" The Kinu was Just 
 as riu'hl in the t.r/irtssion <tf the intcrpretati'U. as he was in the interpreta- 
 tion itself, lie cinild iiui ha\e said. " nV //. Ilnit is I .'" — Dean Alford, 
 (pioted ill I'aiii's ///;,'.''<;■ Kn^lisli (iimiinKtr. 
 
 242. Rul<( J II. A noun :itta(.-li(Hl to a noun or 
 jd'onoiiii for tli(j ])ui'jios<i of (U'scrlption or di'linition is 
 
 \f in the siinu' cmsc; as, TIk; i;ro;it orator Cirero (i\iu\\\v\\X\y 
 (lefcndcd llio poit ArcliidS. I saw AVatcrlou, thixtjfeld 
 of iilory. 
 
 Thoattacliod noun is said to W in apposition. 
 
 yC (')• WIh'u iiomi,^ ill tli(> ]i()s.sossiv(.' ciisc arc in apiiosition, 
 /The si^n of the jio-sscssive is alHxed to the l.ist only ; us, 1 hoii;;ht 
 this at Smith, the (lri!,uoi.si's. 
 
 'i'his |trin(i|ile soiiutiuKs ajiiiHos when rioiiiis are eoniiceted 
 by eonjitnefioiis ; as, (Jud and natiu'e's hiuid. 
 
 / (2.) The po.-'sessive cas'' is sunietiincs used when the rehition 
 yi^ is really that (d' ii/>iiosin'i»i : as, AlVieji's vast continent- 
 ' (^)n^|)a^e such e\]ire sjoiis as the t 'it\ o/' Boston, th-; I'rovinec 
 o/'Nova Scotia. 
 
 243. Huh' IV. VUr. noun or iironoun dcnotini*' u 
 ptM'Hon or tliiiiLj addressed is in tht^ nouiinativt* case; as, 
 
 V/' I ehiirge thee, (Jn>mHU'll, llino away ainitilion." 
 "O Thou, who f(» all teinph's (h)st prefer the upriglii 
 heart and pure." 
 
 This i.s ealled the nowhutfliu' if address. 
 
 NoTK. — Some iXi'inu'uai ians import from tin' l.iUin Mm term vornlivf (Ih 
 n nnim* for th h parlicnliir use of the Uomiualive. Ibil Hurcly it is iiol 
 Ue<'cssary to eneiiud ei lln^ilish (Jraminar with plnurcMiIo^'y of which lliern 
 wr.s lillh> need even In the lani^n.<;.'e fiom which it is proiKmed to hot row it. 
 
 244. Uuhi V. A noun used with ti parlieiph^ to 
 
 \rttsi' is in tlio noiniinitivu uise ; 
 
 wit 
 
 V 
 
 fur 
 
 pk 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 lOi 
 
 tliouspof the 
 'v/.s', aiiil some 
 I tilt' olijcctivc 
 aiipliratioii of 
 ts (if (ainiiiar 
 It, Tliiickcfay, 
 Vinnitintirathi 
 " It is l" 
 ifraid." Who 
 ivcii by t!i(( 
 ) lir (liscijilcs ? 
 rditiai-v talk, 
 ivliicli tlioiii.'li 
 Iff'liir,' (il the 
 I'.ilcy's faille 
 \\)\'j, was Jn>t 
 K' iiitci|ircta- 
 ■l»«aii Allnnl, 
 
 L )I()IIII ()|- 
 
 'litiitioii is 
 
 'loflUlMltlv 
 
 lU-At Jj'e/fl 
 
 II. 
 ijpposiflon, 
 
 IS, 1 iMMlyllt 
 
 • eotuicc'tod 
 
 the Illation 
 
 c'oiiiinoiil. 
 
 « I'rovitu'o 
 
 cilotiiii;- a 
 ^ case; as, 
 iiihiiioii." 
 I' upriglit 
 
 I vtirnlive m 
 ly It is ii(»t 
 wliicli t!i(.in 
 1) Ijoi row It. 
 
 i<'i|»I<> to 
 
 as, Clouds having oLscurcd tlic sun, the rost of tlie 
 Journev, was more [)leasant. ( " 
 
 Note 1. — III oai'ly Eiii^llsli, tisa^'o vilirattil In tvM* n tin' iioininativo 
 and c>lij«'ctiv(' tor the case absolute. Thus : — 
 
 " I shall not la;^ beliiuil, uor on 
 
 The way, thmi lemting, 
 
 * * * " * « « « 
 
 Do you, that [uvsuiued 
 
 Mf ovirtliroirn, to cuter lists with lnavcn." — Miltou. 
 
 N..TI-: 
 
 lu siu'h (^vju'essions a-> ^fttfritllji sin n kin ^, rr.nsiihr 
 
 ,&<• , \\eolt("n have a |iai'ti('i|ili' u.-el (th-ohitrni uiilmut a uoiiu. 
 
 s-euteiUTs a-: "(Jeiierally sfcakini.', 1 jnc 
 
 I 
 
 :r tiiiii , 
 u such 
 
 ("i«n-i(lciiu'_' tluit wi 
 
 ^ aic ill a critical [losition, \sc ouilutlc," $n\, the i»:\rtici|'le is in re^jidar 
 / attachment ti> the subject. I'.ut usa'-e .justities .^ueh espi'e: sious as, 
 Ihuernllji siiKikiivj;, tlie i'ersi:ins were cowanls. Cimsidi riuii tlu' cir- 
 cuinstanres, it is not str.iuu'c nur nrui\ wa-< det' aieil. Sonu- ^'r.iin- 
 inariaus, quite erroueuU'ly. have li-calecl these iuilei>euilent nr al)snluti) 
 participles ns gerunds '.lovciiied by a pre[i(isitiou uuder'-t""d. 
 
 '/ 245. Kiih' VI. A linite verb ai^rces in nutnhei' 
 I witli its .snl)Je(;t; as, The hoy reads ; the men read. 
 
 As the vcrl) tiiid the stil/n'ct arc hoth si)okoii of the stino 
 person or thiiiu, they inusr of course ay:ree in the only 
 attiilmte which they have in coininon, viz, niuiilnr. 
 
 (1). The ciiief violation of this rnU.' arises from tuistakinir 
 nouns and pronouns, which are i nliiiymriitii of the real 
 snhjt'ct, for the siihject itself, particuhirly when these enlarjjenn'iits 
 stand Itetween the siiliject and the vcrl». Stich sentences as the 
 toUowirt^f are not intconiinon : — " TIic (lismissal of sneh a 
 nohhMiian and of two cal>iiu>t tninistcrs in swift siiceession //v/y; 
 ill received hy tlie inttion at lar;;e." " Twelvt; days' iroii- /mrr 
 heeii paid fo'"." Observe thit f/ic i/nniiitiiitini/ iiilfiiyrmnitu afl/ic 
 suhjcrt /itii'd tiot/iliHf to do with <htcnnlniii<i t/ir iiiinibcr of ihv nrh. 
 
 ('!.) An inlinitive, an iidinitive phrase, or a nonn clanse tised 
 as the snlijeet of a sentence is followed hy a si;i<:idar verl) ; as, 
 To err is hninan. To he proof auaiiist fear has lotij: l>r<H 
 the cdniraeteristie of a Ilritish soldier. Whatevi'i is, /.s ri^ht. 
 
 (.T). WhcJi tlie noun is />/iti(i/ in fhnn, hut sini/ii/in' in 
 iiirdiilni/ the verh is often siii;:tdar ; as, IJiul news tniri Is fast 
 'J'lie wa;:('s of sin is (h-ath. 
 \y^ (4.) Titles of hooks, and wofds (piofetl a.s frf»/r/,s', are always 
 JjCsin^jtilar ; as, 'I'lni Ymrs lir/iin tlif Musi is an interesting tale of 
 nuntieal adventiife. Siiicida/ rir( s is an e.xpfcssive phrase. /, 
 
 246. I{ni(! VII. A ('(illeclivi' noini, thoULih .s/;/v/<A/r 
 
 ^ • 4in form, tiikes 11 |iliiral verb wlien tiif ohjeetH mtikiiii^ 
 
 '|up tlie eolleetive iniity are taken individiinlly \ us, Tlie 
 
 peasuiitry were ill-chul and liull-stiirved. The i^tiicmlity 
 
 ti 
 
106 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 (« i 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 of tlie people are dotiiif^ after prelacy. The public 
 
 have been too often deceived by such cyies and 
 
 protestations to be deceived again. 
 
 Cases of (lonl)t under this rule are not offreciucnt oecurrcnee. 
 Sueli nouns as nation, (inni/,Ji('it, purlinnicnt, mob, jxirfif, rhurrli, 
 ])Iainly implying a unitary idea, are always foiuid with siuffular 
 verhs. Some variety of usn^c, however, oeeurs with names 
 denotinfif a eolleetion of hut f'tur individuals, such as juri/, 
 court, ruhiiirt, commlttvf, &,c. These are sometimes found with 
 plural verhs in the writinjrs of staiulard authors. 
 
 247. Kule VIII. When the subject consists of 
 two or nion^ nouns, or expressions e<|uivalent to nouns, 
 connected by (ukL tlie verb must be ]ilinal ; as, John 
 and Jatnes iverc tlie sons of Zebedee To be good and 
 to do good include all that is re(iuired t>f man. 
 
 Th(! following real, or a[>parent, exceptions to this 
 ride should be noted : — 
 
 (1). When flHf/eonneets simjtly ditVerent names of the same 
 )erson or tliintr, the verh should he sin^rulnr; as, That exeellent 
 man ami <,nfted ])oet is now well-uiuh forj^otten. 
 
 (2). When nouns are Joined which nearly i(j;rec in meaning, 
 or denote ohjeets elosely conneeted in faet, or in the thou;i:;ht of 
 the speaker, the verh may be siujrular; as, Wherein dot/i sit the 
 dreac! and fear of kin<is. The prime ohjeet and juupose of his 
 plan iras thus thwarted. So also, " The ])eiiec and ^ood order 
 of soeiety mis not prouioted hy the feudal syste'u" (Hallan;' 
 is justifiahle. liul " The Ianjziui;je and historv of the Lithuanians 
 /,s elosely eoinieeted with that of the Greeks'^ (Freeman) jjirsses 
 the prineipic too far. 
 
 NutkI. — UmltT th(> priiiciijli' of tliis t>\<'('|)ti()ii srrli t'xprcssioiis ns 
 " (lie wlictl aiul axle icns ((lit otrciuiir *'; " J)i('i»<l luul butter i.s my u.suni 
 breakfast" arc dei'iiicit corrctt \<y hoiiic jirftininariaiiH. 
 
 NoTK 2. " W(> wotiii'tinicN lienr tl.at 'two and two (ire foiu'; ' fliroe 
 Innt'B four firr fw«'lvf,' hut the ' aif ' i« scarofly (IcfciisiMf in cither case. 
 It would lie eoirect to nay tli 't ' two |ioiiii(Js ami li\i' |ioiiii(Im aif (oi vinkr) 
 Pdveii |ioiiiids,' lint Willi iniiiil)'rM ill the alistract what we iiieiiu in that 
 the iiiiiiHrieal ooinliinatioii of two ami two is the same as tour. So 
 ' twicH one fjrf two' mtist he wroii},', heeaiise there is no jihirnlity in th« 
 Btiiet M'lise and ' three times toiir' fhonld he reLjarded as a eomhination or 
 verity made up in a |'arti<Milar way." Hain's Ili^hfr Ettt^lfxii (Jramviar. 
 
 \^ ('\). A siut;uh»r verh is pro])er when the nouns uro indi- 
 
 I viduidi/.ed hy the word tnvh or crcrif; t\s, 
 
 * JCdc/i ollieer ami xn/i soldier has his speeiai grievance to 
 
 comnlain of. 
 
 hirri/ thing to gratify the senses and evert/ thing to plcaso 
 
 the tnste ivas there in rich ahundanee. 
 
 (4 
 
 /, 
 
 a 
 
 su 
 
 
 a 
 
 IS 
 
 tl 
 
 
 /* 
 
 K 
 
 i^ 
 
 ot 
 
 a 
 
 /..the] 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 107 
 
 The public 
 !i Qj'ies and 
 
 nt oocnrroncr. 
 
 , J XI if I/, rhnrcli, 
 with ,siii<rnliir 
 s with natiu's 
 such as /»/•//, 
 L's lound with 
 
 consists (»f 
 lit to nouns, 
 il ; as, Jolin 
 bo o()0(l and 
 an. 
 ions to this 
 
 ? of the same 
 'hat excel lent 
 
 > in meaninp, 
 le thoiij^ht of 
 n (loth sit the 
 npose of his 
 (I {.rood (tnler 
 h"_ (IlaMan;^ 
 Lithuanians 
 man) j)ivsses 
 
 oxproHsioiiH an 
 ir IS my iisual 
 
 rour'; Mliree 
 n «'i(licr cam', 
 arf. (oi make) 
 menu Ih that 
 as four. So 
 iirnlity in t)i(! 
 iiiibiriatioii t>i- 
 // Ctramvtar. 
 
 IS uro indi- 
 
 rievnnee to 
 p to picaso 
 
 /> 
 
 
 (4). Other seeniinjr viohitions of tin's rule may he justified by 
 a suj)j)Osed ellijisis of the vcrh. This oet iirs 
 
 a. When the verb ])reeedes a series of nominatives ; as, Tiiine 
 in the kinL,rdom, and the |)ower, and the mlory. 
 
 b. When the seeond noun is accompanied by a nepi'Mve; as, 
 Hi<;ht, and not the princijiles of expediency, /.s tlu ,'ole-star 
 of an honest man's career. 
 
 (.5). As ti\/l (IS and irit/i are sonictiities used to connect 
 nouns with tlu- force of niu/; as, Burke as well as Sluridan 
 were t'reat orators. The shiji with her sailors //v/v lost. — Tiie 
 sense here is plural, and so sc<'ms to justify the plural vcrh. 
 Hut in such cases it is much better to use (iiid. (icncrally irith 
 and <(s iir/l as d(j not connect parts of a eumidative subject 
 hut simjdy ititrijduce an attril)uti\<' idea or make a comparison, 
 ami have no effect on the nundter of the verb 
 
 248. Kiilo IX. When the subject consists of two 
 
 (tr more singular noiuis, coniioctcd by or or nor, tho 
 
 verb must 1)0 siiiixidar ; as, Jolni or his brotlior //os 
 
 your book. Noitlier '.'lo deot iioi" tho army is in 
 
 readiness. 
 
 Such sentences arc always a contraction of two or more 
 co-ordinate sentences. 
 
 NoTK. — The use of tlio plural ulttT ueiUitr. . . .nor ii\\i\ nor. ...nor is 
 fouiKl ill soitio autliors of rt'iiiUe, but slioiilii not be cDuiiti'iiaiiceii. Tlio 
 ft)lln\\iiii^ s«'nttMK'i' from Matthew Ariioiil is a >iio-s violation of the rnle: 
 " NiilluM- ^h'. .Vibbiiey nor Mr. Kocbiick tire ]>y iip/i.irc inaccf.srtibli! to 
 consicb-rations of tliis sort." 
 
 , 249. Knle X. Wlicn the subject of a verb is the 
 ,'Tii'st or second ju'i'sonal pronoun, or a relativ<» havincr 
 ithe fii'st or se(;ond j)ersoiial proiioufi as its antecedent, 
 the verb is in tlie person corresiioiidinn to such pro- 
 noun ; as, \ read ; thou readest ; I who speak; thou 
 who speakest. ^ 
 
 Various rides have been laid down for determining; tlic jwrson 
 of the verh, when it has for its stdtjcet a 8iii|,Mda.' notin or 
 pronoun connected by or or nnr with the siniridiu* of the first or 
 secoiul persomd pronouns. All /h rsiins ' .ivino the sanu' form in 
 the plural, tho (piestion is of no practical acccmnt when either 
 of tlie subjects is plural. Latham's rides arc: — 
 
 yi_ (I). Where '/7/k7' (U' urillirr 'm used the verbis in the third 
 l>erson ; as, lather he or / is mistaken. 
 
 (2). Hut when cit/it r or init/n r is not used, the verb takes 
 the person suitahle to the first subject; as, I or he <ini mistaken. 
 He or I is inistuken. 
 
 ^1 
 
 fei 
 

 108 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 V 
 
 -J 
 
 Those rules nre lU'itlier AmiiiiKmI on ivas-on nor stipported l^v 
 f^ood iisap'. OtluT riiitlioritit's sii;:<;est it the verb j^lioiiM 
 always take the person reipiiretl hy the neivrest siil>ject, Atnid 
 so iniieh uncertainty, it is ',\ise to avoid the eonstriKtion 
 aliou'tther hy usiii^' the | i"jier verb with each subject; as, Kitlier I 
 (//// mistaken, or he is. 
 
 NoTK. — r ami tlidii nr.> si,' ly iror/s wliii li ivfiuirc sjicrial ((Uiiis of 
 tlio vcili, o!illc<l lUii r rln'Ui {]io Ji/st ami s'^roivl persons. Tlic fcnu of tin' 
 verb, ciillfd l.y \\,i\ of distiii-Hoii t'.ic thir,' v^rson, con ('-l)(imls lo nil 
 \\(>\\\\>< irl/.lniiit f.rn/iiion, aii'l to all pio.ioi -.-i -.cpt / and tlioii and tin- 
 i'elati\t's wlir'ii iiiid.T their iiifliunrt-. Ir is .-iiiUiLro ilial iiKidiTii '^raiii- 
 umiaiis, lia\iii,' cn'i'ctua'ly wccdi'd out «{' i;iytn"i.i';-y tlic ii.-clt'ss lictioii of 
 /(^r.so/i as an attriliiiii ol' mums, liaAi' ;i(i! exj ■ ; 'dS\nta\ i>i iikcniainn-r. 
 
 250. Kiilc XI. I'roiioiiiis • Ic tlic n'<'!i<l<'r iuid 
 miinbci- of tlic ii()iin;> for wliicli ihcy .stiiml; :is, All 
 tliiit a m(i?t, liath wiil /»/? ij;iv(» for his life. 
 
 (I). Under this rule when the suhjvet of a verb is a relative 
 ]no\\o\u), the (nit<re<l(>nf deterniines the nniiihcr of the verb; jis 
 He (lies well, wh*' lircs well. 
 
 (2) Two or more sinirular aiitece<lent'* connected by n}hJ 
 recpiire a j)ronoun in the jdural ; by or or nor, in the sin^uhir ; 
 as, Tlie General and bis aid-de-iamp, who are absent, will return 
 to-nio-ht. If ship or fort bo struck, repair it sjieedily. 
 
 (.3). Ai)art from its proper w^c, the neuter pronoun it as an 
 unticipntorji subject may rchite to nouns and jtronouns of till 
 numbers and oenders iind to ])hrases and sentences; jis, // is ho. 
 It is sh.i'. It is /. // was tlteij who spoke. It is (lij/irii/t to 
 sneered in siic/i an enttrprise. 
 
 It is also used without Jin antecedent before impersonal verbs 
 denoting' o])erations of the weather; as. It rains. 
 
 (4). The use of the phiral form oi" tlit pronoun is sometimes 
 allowable, when it lias an anteceik'Ht (drh or rw/// im|ilyin<4 
 different <i;enders ; as, Let each esteem other Itetter than 
 l/ienis(/res. So also to prevent the cumbrous use of " ho or she," 
 "his or her." 
 
 25L Rule XIF. TluMl.inonstrativi! adjiH'tivea //i/.s 
 Mhd t/i(tf. iiiiiH'o 111 iiuihIk'!' with t}ic nouns that tlicv limit ; 
 as, T/iis nuin, t/iese men ; t/uil house, f/iosc houses. 
 
 Such expressions as "//j/.s-ten years" may perhaps ho justified 
 by the consideration that the term of years is viewed as a unit. 
 
 GOVKKNMMNT. * . 
 
 252. Government is the [)ovver of a word to deter- 
 mine the case of a nouu or pronoun or the mood of a 
 verb. 
 
 A 
 
5r snpportcfl hy 
 ho vevi) slioiiM 
 sii!>jOfr. Amid 
 
 ill! COIIStriK'tio!! 
 
 jc'Ct; !is, KitluT I 
 
 ' sjiceial Coriiis of 
 The forin (if []i<- 
 orrc'-pniiils to :ill 
 ami t.hoit !Ui(i till' 
 at iiioiliTii i^raiii- 
 i' iiM'lnss ti('lii)M (if 
 a\ i!i liKi' iimiiiifi'. 
 
 H'cndcr ntid 
 taiid ; as, Ali 
 
 oil) is J' n'larivo 
 oi' the verb; us 
 
 iinoftod hy mnl 
 n tlie siii^iihir ; 
 scut, will ret II I'll 
 ilily. 
 
 roiioiui // as an 
 |)ioiiouiis of all 
 es ; as, // is /ic. 
 U is (liffirnlt to 
 
 iipcrsonal verbs 
 
 111 is sometimes 
 
 I'verii implyitii; 
 
 )v better than 
 
 of " he or she," 
 
 lj('f!tivos thh 
 
 at ihoy limit ; 
 
 '(' houses. 
 
 a))s bo jiistifietl 
 \ve<l as a unit. 
 
 )i(l to (leter- 
 »o mood of a 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 RULES OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 109 
 
 253. Rule I. A noun deiiotiuiT the tliin<j possessed 
 i/ovcnis the noun or pronoun denotiuij f/ie possessor in 
 tlio posj-essive case ; as, The King's crov/n. Whose 
 iiuaiie and superscription is this ? 
 
 ( 1 ). The name of tlie possessor always preecdcs the name of 
 the thiiif; possessed. 
 
 {•2.) The use of the ]iosscssivc ease is ehivfly eonfined to 
 
 possessors dr)ioliii</ liritifj hinuis. \\\ the ease ot'iiianimate objects 
 
 till' idea of possession is <j:enerally expressed by the preposition o/". 
 
 This restriction is not regarded in jioetry ; as, " Monntains 
 
 aliove, /'JdiiJi's, Ocean's plains below. 
 
 (.'?). Tlie ])Osscssive is often used when the idea conveyed is 
 not that of strict possession,") but ot some other connection ; as, 
 M(tc<iuJ(iii's History of KnjiJand. The Common S</innis' fund. 
 We mean in these cases a history trn'ifcn hij Macanlay, and a 
 Wind (It si)itn(l for (lie siipport of Common Si'ho(ds. So wc have 
 such expressions as "a i)K>utli\^ P'^y." *' '^ fA'^'s rest," "at his 
 n-ifs end." .<:c. 
 
 (4). In snch j)lirascs as "a poem of Tennyson's," "This 
 Canada of oars," we have simjdy n inixture nf'firo ronstnirtfons, 
 nanu'ly the An,i,do Saxon ]iossessiv<! and the Norman Vrench 
 possessive with <»/. All attempts at urammatical explanation 
 lieyond the statement of this ob\i()n^ fact ha\e failed to yield 
 any satisfactory results. Lennie's method of dealiii;; with " that 
 ton;ziic of ///.s " by siijiplyint;' a j^oveniiii;:' noiui, //» a*^/ or niouf/i, 
 does not much surpass in absurdity other ex})Iaiiations which 
 have been offered. 
 
 (.')). A noun or pronoun denoting; a jiosscssor before a 
 i,a'rund or uerunilial j)hrasi' is put in the nussessivc to denote the 
 sith/'trf of the action expressi'd by lie gerund ; as, I was 
 indijiuant at Willidiu's hesitatiny' to fi;o. Some writers prefer to 
 use the /•<iiliii/>/e instead (»f the i/ir-itu/, when of course the 
 l»recedin,!4' noun is in the <)l>l>rh're case. 'Idie ;;enind is inuidi to 
 be preferred in such a sentence as that giveji, and wlienever the 
 noun, as, denoting a living being, can jiroperly take the 
 possessive ease 
 
 254. Rid<* II. Transitive^ verbs in tlie active voice 
 govern the (d^jective case; jis, Follow fne. 
 
 (1). I'urticiph's and gerunds h:ive tlii' saim^ governing power 
 as the verl»s to which they belong; as, Having repi(»ved f/ii:in, 
 he dismissed them. The duty of aceusitig /u'ln lieioiigs to ine. 
 
 Hence the noun following the gerund of a verb of incomplete 
 
 % 
 
fr^ 
 
 110 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 predication must be taken to be in the nominative case ; as, The 
 atrocious crime of" bcin;;' a youn^ niftn. 
 
 (2). A noun following,' a verb of incomplete ])re(lication in 
 -^■i^m ohjective comjilement is in the objective case ; as, I saw it to 
 be him. 
 
 255. Rule I IF. A/low, bring, deny, do, for (five., 
 get, give, lend, offer, pay, promise, refuse, send, tell, and 
 
 vj some otlier verbs may take a second object to denote 
 tlie object or tbini^ affected by their action ; as, Forujive 
 us our trespasses. Pay me that tlioii owest. lie told 
 tliem a sad story. 
 
 ^ 1. The two objects are o:encrally (listiiiLniisliLMl as direct and 
 indirect. The indirect ol)ject abvays i)reccdcs the ilircct. 
 
 X. 2. The indirect object corresponds to the ddtire ease in 
 Latin, denoting- that /'* or Jhr which anythin^i^ is done. 
 
 ^. Wiien the verbs arc in tlie ))assive voice, the indirect 
 onjcct rcnnxins ; as, Our trespasses arc f'or;;i\i'n us. A sad 
 story was told t/iein. But with sonic ot the verbs it is cipially 
 correct to retain the (lir<rf o!)jeet, ehan^Lfiug the indirect into the 
 sul)ject; as, He was promised asituntion. 
 
 256. Hnle IV. The verbs ask and tertc/t are 
 allowed by two objects, both of which must be 
 
 considered as direct ; as, The jndije asked the witness 
 a question. Tlie Sophists tauglit i\ni\v pupils rlietotic. 
 
 jjj 1. The objects may be distinguished as denoting; the /)rrsv>/j 
 
 /•and the t/ii)itf respectively. 
 
 2. In the passive voice the object dcnotin^ji; the thin<: is 
 retained, the object denotiuu'' the person becominj^ thv suhj'i it : 
 as, The witness was asked a iiU'-stion. I'lie j)upils were taji;,dit 
 rhetoric. 
 
 ,r NoTK. — By a .sort of coiupressivo process thoso verbs lunforin two 
 Rujclioiis at OMoc. Wti emisay, '' I tnuu'lit the pupil," ;»iiil " [ liiii^lit lo;;U!;" 
 we eaii also coiiililiit' these eNprcssioiis into " 1 lauglit the pmiil lii;,'i<!." 
 
 257. Rule V. Appoint, call, choose^ constitute, 
 create, elect, name, render, and similar vcjrbs take a 
 
 ,. r s(>cond object to compltste their ineanini;; as, The 
 ('onncil ai)i)ointed tliese tliree men arbitrators. The 
 king ma(h^ /<///? his chief f/(/r/A'^7*. 
 
 I. As these verlis involve the idea of makinj^ somethin{» 
 
 , become something else thoy are called factitive, from the Latin 
 
 facae to luake.^. , .. ^,^„„„ 
 
 t 
 
 / 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 case ; as, The 
 
 prcfliciition in 
 as, I saw it to 
 
 do, for(fivt;, 
 wnd, tell, HI 1(1 
 ect to den(»t(3 
 ; as, Forgive 
 ■St. lie told 
 
 (1 iis (lircrt and 
 direct. 
 
 < hit I re case in 
 )no. 
 
 e, the indirect 
 11 IIS. A sad 
 .)s it is i'(|nally 
 idircct into the 
 
 1 1 teach tiro 
 cli iimst he 
 1 the witness 
 oils r/tetot ic. 
 
 ting the person 
 
 : tile thinjj: is 
 !<; the siihjci-f : 
 Is were tan;,^ht 
 
 •l)s pertbnti two 
 
 ' I tlliit^ht lo;;U;;" 
 
 constitute, 
 lii'hs take a 
 ^; us, Th(! 
 (itors. The 
 
 ng something 
 lom the Latin 
 
 ^ 
 
 2. The ohicctive cases foliowing those verl)s are distin- 
 guislicd as nhjcrt and ohjpcfirc mwp'i iiunf. Wiiile the latter 
 is in apposition to the former, it at the same time romphies or 
 lills out tlic mcMiiing of" the vcrl). 
 
 3. In rlu- passive voice, tlic nhjfc/in' comj)Iement becomes tlie 
 ,sf</>yV«7/Vp com))h'ment. *, 
 
 258. Ivwle VI. An intransitive verh may he 
 followed hv an ohieet expressiiii; in the form of a noun ^^ 
 the action siiinilied hy the verh itself; as, S(Mieea lived - 
 a virtuous life. Tliev ran a hotlv contested race. 
 
 "<5v 
 
 y-* 1. This is cjilled a cognate ohject; or the noun is said to a 
 'he in tlie cognate olijcctivc. ^ 
 
 2. So also intransitive \erl)s used /(I'tifirdi/ may he followed 
 hy an ohj^'ct qiialitied hy an adjective as jui ol jective complenieni; 
 as, The jirima doniia sang Ic rsdf hoarse. The horses ran ili< in- 
 st'ln's oiU of hreatli. 
 
 259. Rule VI r. Nouns in the ohjective case are 
 used adverhially after verhs, adjectives, nnd adverhs, to 
 denote time, space, direction, measure, value, and de(/rec 
 
 ■ of di^fferotce heficeen oJtjects compared ; as, Long 
 weary hours they waited. T'liey marched ten miles. 
 It cost ten dollars. This is a irreat deal hetter than 
 that. Such a trihute is worth a fortune, 
 
 260. Rule VIII. Prepositions govern the ohjiu'tivc 
 case of ruums and pronouns; as, I appeal from him to 
 her. 
 
 J (I.) The preposition to is generally omitted after the 
 
 ' adjective like. 
 
 (2.) It should he particuhirly observed that mnny v<>rhs 
 wliich are accordim;- to delitiilion itilnnisifiri', that is which 
 cannot take after them a iii>'in ohjeet, hut re(juire the iiuer- 
 vention of a jireposition, may take an object in the form of an 
 infinitive mood or a nomi clause. Such are rrsoh-p, 
 (li fi'niiin<\ insist, &v.; as, 1 have ilelermined lo i/o. They insisted 
 (hot it shi)ii/(i he (lone. 
 
 261. Rule IX. The conjunction than takes 
 
 after it the ohjecliv*^ cnse of the relative pronoun 
 
 who; us, I may mention Hampden, — than whom no 
 
 nobler patriot ever lived. 
 
 The use of the ohjrrlli'c where tlie grammadcal construction 
 plainly re<iuires tlie nomlnalive can he j»artially explained 
 
 
*;jti':-:/j:,lf^--_'iA 
 
 112 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 l^ 
 
 by reference (o a tendency on the ]'iirt of old writers to avoid 
 Ptilfness hy iisiii^- tli • <;l),('('tive of llie jjrontnms after the 
 cdinpnriifive dcj^ree a ;»i /A'/.'/, ^'irli expressions as "She is 
 talk'r tlian liim " ahound in early Knvlish and arcstiti tolerated 
 in eoHotjuial lan^^naue. Thun irhoii liiis established itself as 
 the ref^nlar form ol' e\j»ression. 
 
 2()2. Kulc X. SoiiK^ interjections are ftjllovved by 
 tlu! ohjective case of the firsf, and tlie nominative case 
 of the srcond p Tsonal pronoun; as, Ah me! how 
 unfortmiate T am. IIo ! ye tliat thirst. 
 
 263. Hiile X . Tile infinitive mood nniy depend 
 on a verb, an adj'-etive or a noun; as, Jolni began to 
 preach, 1 am aide to Jinish wliat I have beiiun. His 
 anxielv t<> (ivuid one class of danijer, led him into 
 grealei' ones. 
 
 JMore purliculai'ly th(> infinitive mayj)e: — 
 
 (I). The snhjective complement alter a verb of incomplete 
 predication ; as, lie appears lo /ore retirement. 
 
 (•2). Tin; oltjective com]»len)cnt al'ter a factitive verh ; as, 
 Xe'xes appointed him to nilc over l.vdia. 
 
 (.'}). 'i'lie ohjective eomjdement after verhs of roinDuvidlnf/, 
 oifrcalin;/, orikrui;/, iin/iiitf, ^c. ; as, I nr<:ed him to stihiiiif. 
 
 This class of verbs cannot take a iionii as their second object 
 or objteiive C(Mni)lement, and when in the passive voice they 
 retain the inli'iitive as a direct object. 
 
 (4). The din ct object of a transitive verb; as, Snch men 
 deserve to surrrcd. 
 
 (.5). 'J'he oiijeet ol' intransitive veibs denotin^^ desire, ability, 
 intention, endeavor, diiiy, iSc, »Jcc.; as, I long losicynx. We 
 resolve to rf>»<y»/r;r. ISee Rnle VIII (2) 
 
 (f)). An adverbial niodilier of an inlransilivc verb or of an 
 adjective ; as, Tin- pupils dcli;^ht lo stiuhf, i. e,, /// simlij'nxj. 1 
 am ha])))v lo /teur it. 
 
 (7). i''((nivalent (o an adverbial clanse of jinipose after verbs 
 both transitive and intransitive, iind al'ter adjeiMves and nouns; 
 ns, I have come to stoi/. 1 om readv to i/o. A messenger was 
 Bent to covuintiu'cdte the ] (leasing' intelligence. A house to ht. 
 
 (I. Ill Anglo-Saxon this was the only infinitive jireecded by 
 to, and in ICnglish it is the vu\y case i'l v.! '.h tu has its fall and 
 jivjpi'r i'orce. In older I'jigii.'-h to \\as often preceded by /o/- ; 
 as, ^^'hat went yo out /or to ^"'. 
 
 b. 'J'Jiis iiiliin'tivc has a wiilc ami varied use, (lenotini; iwjt 
 
 "N 
 
 V 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 n:^ 
 
 ntcrs fo avoid 
 inis nCfcr the 
 IS :is " She is 
 still tolerated 
 ~iicd itself as 
 
 followed by 
 inalive case 
 1 me! lion- 
 
 V- 
 
 DMV (lepCIld 
 
 111 bc'iraii to 
 x'.Uitii. Ills 
 'd him into 
 
 of ii)con)j)k'te 
 vo vt-ri) ; as, 
 
 i'o»ini(in(fiti(/, 
 
 ' Slllilllif. 
 
 second oliject 
 ve voice they 
 
 s, Such men 
 
 losire, ahiiity, 
 !(r >ou. We 
 
 eri) or of an 
 I stndijinij, I 
 
 se after vrrhs 
 •i Jilid iioiiiis ; 
 .'.st!en<,rer was 
 •nse to la. 
 
 j)receded hy 
 ^ its full anil 
 2ded l)y for ; 
 
 IcJiotini; lujt 
 
 A 
 
 only ]))ir/)osr, hut also ohjfit^^rfsuU, rcnisujiK nre, txc. ; as, lie 
 sank to risi' no more. This is to be done to (lay. 
 
 c. It may follow any adjective or adverb limited !>y too or 
 
 i/h 
 
 eiioiKi/i ; as. 
 
 Tl 
 
 lis IS too niueii 
 
 to I 
 
 ose. 
 
 I 
 
 im hold en()ii}i;li to srny so. 
 
 <l. The inlinitive of result is found especially after the 
 conjunctive adverh as' \vlien jtreeeded hy ,s(/r// or so; as, They 
 shouted so as tc he heard. 
 
 e. Hy an v'lli])sis the inlinitive of purpce often seems to bo 
 used independently ; as. To tell you the truth, I ditler from you. 
 The infinitive in sncli e.\])ressions as "when to qn," "where 
 to st((i/," " how to do it," couu'S under the head of jmrpoAe. 
 
 (8.) The object of the pre))OsitH)ns <d'(,:it i\m\t>ut : as. They 
 were about to Icace. The j^^eneral had no alternative hut to 
 stwrendtr. 
 
 264. Rule Xir. The conditional conjunctions tf\ 
 unless, c^c, and tin; concessive conjunctions ail//oH(//t, 
 (Jiouc///, &c., are followed hy the suhjiuictive mood in 
 clauses denoting future unce.rldiith/ ; as, If he were 
 put to the proof, he would not stand the test. Though 
 he slai/ me, yet will I trust in Ilim. 
 
 (1). Modern Enjrlisli usaue inclines to the employment of 
 the roiii/iouiid forms of the sulijunctive where\er jtraciicable. 
 Thus, .s7;()«/f/ Ar' for /rov, and should slui/ for shii/ in the a!>ove 
 sentences. 
 
 (-2). In reu^ard to coiuliiioniil and concessive sentences the 
 folio winjj^ points should be noted : — 
 
 a. The indicative is the proper muvHi nhcn (he reference is 
 to a /fi'Mjr that Vv'hiJi \:i tissi'mrd as a fact, as. If he /s witty, 
 he is als(j wise. Though lie was rich, yet ."or our sakes lie 
 became poor. 
 
 I). So also when the supposition relates to a future event 
 viewed as hicomlivj n jUvt : as, If he dms not come to-morrow, 
 you will be; disajjpointcd. 
 
 This is tlie rule in modern ""''n^^Hs)!!. Old writers freely used 
 tlic subjinictive in such clauses, in imitation of the Jjatiii and 
 frrcek [Si f/nid hdheani, ddho) ; as. If h In' tli(;w, bid me come to 
 thee. 
 
 r. When a suj)])Osiiion is made rc^ardin;.,' the future, as a 
 mere conreptlon, without my re^^ard lo the rcali/atiou of the 
 event, the subjunetivo is the proper mo(jd in both condition and 
 conclusion ; us. Were he to say that, he would 'e mistaken, or 
 If he should saij that, lie would he mistaken. 
 
 d. When a su])])osition is nmde as a more conception, but 
 contrary to «wuio fact, u'* supposed fact, the subjuiu-tive mood la 
 
 h 
 
114 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 used in both condition and conclusion, the latter showini; what 
 the result would he, or would have l)con, if the supposition had 
 been valid ; as, If they rcen' wise (wliich tliey are not) they 
 iCDuld (tr.t {\\[\\iYo.n\\\. In this constructi'>u the past suhjunctive 
 of he is used with a present nieaniiiji, ae.d whin the suf»position 
 refers to ]»ast ti'ne, the condition takes the past perfect 
 indicative, the su;)junctive havitiLT n(j di.-tinet forms /or that 
 tense ; as, If thev had hi en wise, thev rtould have acted 
 differently. 
 
 265. Rtilo Xni. Present and fiitufe tenses in a 
 ^})rinci))a! elause reijuire nifn/, shalL an<] will in the 
 
 stihordinate clause ; ptist teiises i'('(|iiir(^ vn'«iht, shaidd 
 am\ tvoH Id ; as, I come (have come, sliall come) tliat 
 I 7)inf/ attend to the business. 
 
 I came (had come) tliat I might attend to tlie 
 business. 
 
 OKDEK. 
 
 266. In ofeneral it may be said tliat the meaninq 
 of an English sentence depends on the order in which 
 the words are arranijed. The relation of words to one 
 one another in p)vernment and sense can in most 
 cases be determined oidy by their relative positions. 
 Our language lacks the H(!xibility of arrangement 
 beloiigitig to tongues possessed of elaborate systems of 
 case-endings and verbal tei'ininations. 
 
 267. The natural order of words in an Eni»lish 
 sentence is ; — 
 
 1. The subiect and its enlariivments. 2. The 
 verb, 3. The obicct with its enlarij:('nients. 4. The 
 extensions or adverbial adjuncts of the predicate. 
 
 This order, however, is not absolutely inflexible. 
 Within the necessary limit of makinij the meaniiii; 
 plain considerjible variety of arrangement is allowable. 
 Sentences whose principal elements dejiart from the 
 natural order are said to be inverted ; as, " Thee the 
 all-beholding sun shall see no more." Inversion to a 
 reasonable degree often tends to promote clear and 
 emphatic expression. 
 
 Writ 
 most 
 
 ClTlll' 
 
 Cih 
 
 r 
 
 \ 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 Ilo 
 
 shoufntr what 
 
 ipposition had 
 
 are nor) they 
 
 ist snhiiinc'tive 
 
 he siJi)|K).sition 
 
 past perfect 
 
 forms /or that 
 
 liavc acted 
 
 tenses in a 
 
 icill in tlie 
 
 V ////'/, should 
 
 COUK!) tliat 
 
 ^"11(1 to tlie 
 
 lie meaning 
 er in which 
 'ords to one 
 m in most 
 e positions, 
 n-ungemont 
 systems of 
 
 in KnoJish 
 
 2. The 
 
 4. Tlie 
 
 predicate. 
 
 inflexible. 
 
 3 meaning 
 
 allowable. 
 
 tVoni the 
 
 Thee the 
 
 rsion to a 
 
 clear and 
 
 NOTK. — "Tlioiij^li in plain iflit^inatir Kn^lisli nit invoitctl onlcr is not 
 common, yet onr lanj;iiaj,'e iidniits inxcrsiuii tn a \ciy larj^i- lit'^'icc 
 Writers arc therefore free to arranue tlieir words in tlie (.ider tliat does 
 most justice to the thnnj,'lit. No man iiectl fail to write stion^ly c)r 
 emphatically thron;:li the siipi)ose(i detieiency, in this lesptM't, of the 
 Kii<;lisli toii;_'ne." — Angus's Handbook oj ttie En'^Uah Ton^^ite. 
 
 RULES OP ORDER WITH PRINCIPAL 
 
 CEPTIONS. 
 
 EX- 
 
 268. Rule T. The subject precedes the verb ; af .. 
 Canute commanded the waves. 
 
 EXCKPTIONS. 
 
 The subject follows the verb : — 
 
 (I). When not heiTi<; tin interrogiitive prononn, it stands in 
 an interroijative sentence ; as, Carest thou not for any of these 
 thinjxs ? 
 
 (2), With the imperative mood ; as, See tlmti to that. 
 
 (3). In conditional cUiuses without a conjiniction ; as, Were 
 I yon. 
 
 (4). In exchunatory and optative sentences ; as, How great 
 v/as my snrprlac ! I'erish the tlutuqlit ! 
 
 (.5). When the verh is preceded hy neithi-.r or nor, equivalent 
 to and not ; as, Nor was he h\r astray. 
 
 (6). When the verh is preceded hy the expletive there and 
 the adverbs lure and there ; as, There is no (foiihf. I lere spreads the 
 lovely vale. There rose the lofty mountain. 
 
 (1). After verhs of saijin;/ used jiarenthetieally ; as, Quoth 
 I ; said he: continued the narrator. 
 
 (8). For the sake of emphasis, particularly when the verh is 
 intransitive, so that no dan<:er exists of confounding,^ the suhject 
 and ol)ject; as, After the li^ht infantry marched the (jreniuliers ; 
 then followed the horse. Red as a rose is she. Echo the 
 mountains round. 
 
 269. Rule II. The object follows the verb which 
 governs it ; as, He saw the distant smoke. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 A'- 
 
 ^ 
 
 (1.) When the object is a relative jironoun, an interrogative 
 pronoun, or a noun limited hy a relative or interrogative 
 adjective it precedes the verb ; as. This is the place that I have 
 chosen. Whom seek ve ? Wh\rh hook will voii take ? 
 
 (2.) The object may preede the verb when emphasis can be 
 secured without obscuring the sense; as, Money Marlborough 
 sought, quite as much as fame. 
 
 v 
 
iin 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 1 1: 
 
 Inversion ivlways oni|ili;isizos tla- oh/ni, ]nit i,s never aIIowiiI)Ic 
 when it nould leave the (jneslion :is to ,sv/.';/Vr/ an(l'>/;/V'r/ (lonl)tful. 
 
 The prononns ean of course he inverted with much <;rcater 
 freedom than nouns. " I/i'm the Ahniijhty power hurled 
 headlon.^" is ])erfee.tly nnanil)i^MU>ns ; hut any ?h»//» suhstitnted 
 for /(iin wouhl niake the nieaidnj; doubtful. So also tliere is no 
 lialtility to mistake "dien the siihjfrt is a tirsf or sicond personal 
 pronoun, atid when the subject and object ditt'erini:; in number, 
 the verit points out tlie lormer by its for in. 
 
 X()|M,- _\ii cxci'ptioii Id ;1i(' priiici[)!c tliat tlic indirect object /r^c?*/^.* 
 tlir ilii(( I occ.Mirs wlicn ttii! latter is ttu! pr(jii()\iii /7. Tliu.s, " Givr. it nic " 
 lallicr tlirvii " (Jive iiif it." 
 
 270. \i\\\c. III. Tli(^ limiting adjoctivo.s a or an, 
 and (ha should l)o prefixed to each of two or more 
 iioims follovvino; one another, when tliese denote dill'jrent 
 ol)j(^ct.'^. Tims, " I saw the colonel aiul ollicer in 
 charjre" would imjdy thnt the eolonel uuis the oHieer 
 in cliaiie ; •' I saw f/ir coijnel and fJtc ollicer in charire" 
 l)I:iiiiiy marks out two distinct pcM-sons. In the iollow- 
 iiio- sentences the repetition o\' d {(in) shows the ref'erencte 
 to he to distinct individuals ; as, *' In the deg(Uierate 
 days of Ronu^ the iniperial i)urple was worn hy n 
 voluptuary, an adidterei", a bastard, a {)arrici(lts and 
 an idiot." 
 
 271. IJule IV. Th(^ (intcccdnit and the pronoun 
 ■shoidd be so placed iti relation to each other as to 
 mak(! th(^ meaniii<.( plain. 
 
 This rule is of special iin]K)rtanee when the sentence contains 
 two or niore words eapalde, so fur as yranmnitical eonslruetion 
 iscoiu'eraed.ofbeiu}:' construed as nntecedenls. Such a sentence 
 fts the followiii;: is obscure — 
 
 " The ;iontleman whom you met was .John (^uincy Adams, 
 son of .John Adams, w!io was once President of the United 
 Stat 
 
 tl 
 
 cs. 
 
 As i\ pnirlird/ rule, pliu'c the antecedent in the closest 
 possible proximity to the pronoun, whenever there is liability of 
 confusion. In " He hath made llim to be sin f«)r us, who knew 
 no sin" a sli;j;ht re-arran;;i'ment would nuke the nieaidnji 
 tumiistakeable : "He hath made llim, n/it> k-iicir )i() sin, to Iw 
 uhi iur us." 
 
 NoTK. — fiit'Ut i'oii('ii««loii often result« IVom bilniriii)^ to^^Hher in the 
 nniiic ht'iitciici's tlit> iiii(it'i|iiil<ii V an<l cohmikim iisrh ul' the \\or<l it. Tliim, 
 " /( is 11 pity tiiat (< wiiH thiMi;:lit lu'ccxHary lor it to bu iloiiu; tiiid, ii' U 
 Wiut iK'ecHtfury, that lie should be choHcu to Jo it." 
 
 le 
 
 cam 
 
 the 
 
 the 
 
 CUlp 
 
 a!e 
 
SYNTx\X. 
 
 117 
 
 CUT aIIo\vaI)Ic 
 
 'i'j/r<V(loill)tfiil. 
 
 iriiK-h <,'rcjUor 
 
 "'wcr Iiiirlcd 
 
 /'/ siihsfitutcd 
 
 Iso there is no 
 
 t;ori(l i)er.s()iiiil 
 
 i,!,^ in number, 
 
 ^ '>^>}i'i't prrcei/fx 
 , "Uivo itinii" 
 
 "S a or an, 
 vo (»r iiioiHi 
 otediirji-c'iit 
 1 olliccr in 
 tlio ofllccr 
 I" in cliarire" 
 
 tlH' folloW- 
 
 10 reference 
 <leir( Ml crate 
 worn hy a 
 
 ••icide, and 
 
 10 pro if nun 
 'tl»er as to 
 
 ■neo contiilns 
 construction 
 li a sentence 
 
 inoy Adiuns, 
 tlio United 
 I tli(^ closest 
 ■i liidiility of 
 ', wlio knew 
 10 inuiinini^ 
 " Kin, to Ih) 
 
 !,'«■( her in the 
 »<l it. ThuH, 
 lit) i and, if U 
 
 272. Knlo V. Prepositions ordinarily precede 
 tlieir objects iind are placed as near tlieni as p.ossible. 
 
 'J'he disrc^.'^ard of this j.rincipic in the f'olIowinL' .>^t iiti nee 
 ciinnot he defended: When in, nhm«r witli one or two frimds, 
 the Nntional (jdllai/, I \Viis chaniied with .-•iiiie ot the | iiinti!i;'S. 
 
 EXCICI'TIONS. 
 
 (]). Wlien tlie oltject is a tilativc or interro;.':ilive pronoun, 
 the ]ii'e,iosition t'ometiines follows it so as to in* rence the 
 ein|ilia>is ^^ithont oltsci',rin;j: the tMciininjz ; a>, ^^']l;lt is he tit 
 /(» Y 
 
 The relative l/idt invari;i!ily ]iree((!es the ])re|i(isifioii \\hi(!i 
 ^foverns it ; as, The ills l/ml llfsh is heir fi>. I'lai'in"! the other 
 relatives a' ' the inti rroiialiM s hef'ore fl;e jucposition befits 
 f'liniiliar conversation rather than (li;:nificd writiii}!. 
 
 ('2). /\ii)/i/itisif< occasionally jn^tifics jinttin;:- the object ''I'Toro 
 the |ire|)osifion in otiier cases; as, A prolbnnd i<no\\ Ied;;e of 
 iDatlieniaties I do not prt'tcnd /". 
 
 273. Hnle VI. The altrihntive adjective iinniedi- 
 ately i)ivcedes the noun wliicli it (inalifies or lunits. ^ 
 
 ExCKl'TIONS. 
 
 (1). Wln-n two or more adjectives are joined as adjuncts to 
 the same t.oiin they are ^'cnerally |>hu(d after the noun ; as, lie 
 was a niiin ti>hh\ r/nirnDts <lisi}it< ifslnl. 
 
 (2). So when the adjective is enhnyed by phniscs; ns, 
 Halifax was a stalcsmji;; .dnisi lo rasli nimsiDs. 
 
 (.'{). In ecrtaiti CNtablisJied expressions the adicriive Inis a 
 fixed place after the noun ; as, (icrcnior (liiunil, lit !r Ajij an nl, 
 I'in f ijninale, fiinc hiiin iiii'iial. 
 
 NoTK 1. — la pocfi v jmu'h IV<M'<lotn !■* \\>-i\] !ti rcvpcct t" llii« jilncc of 
 tilt' ndicctive. Iiiit III iirrsc sd slioiiy is tlic ;^<ii( lal |>iiiici|''i' siaiiil in 
 Iviilc \'l. tliilt it iiiiprtssfs oil iKitnis nml /i/inisis /iliiiid iiiitm i/mli,!/ hi fore 
 iioiuis till' (liaratMn i){ <ti/jtclires ; iif, 'i'iic inm ln>r>*c. A ativil fur vvthinti 
 
 t.'lll.W. 
 
 No'rK2. — "Al'kdiI deal of liyitfrniliciMn liai* Iciii wiif-tci] on t^iicli 
 |llll■a^^•- ft« ' Tlic tlnct' lii^t vcixH ol llii' cliaptrr," St<'. Wean tilil tiint 
 tliih is iiicorirct, ln-causr tip re in t>iil\ one liisi vcim-. On tliis | i ii i iplc 
 ir in t'i|iial'y \M(in;i to talk nf ' 'i'lii' tii.-t lu'iiis nfinlancs' or ' l lif \i\y[ 
 (ln\s o( I'liiiipcii,' tor tilde is only oim !ii>i liour, ntnl t'i\f last (lii.\. 
 Hnrelv it tlnro are several lust (lu>s,tlel, nnnil'ei ni»> lie fpeellid. It 
 wiiiltl be tile heij^ht ol ptilantiy in alter ' llii* t«o eMest nam «enl to 
 Hca' into * Mis el^'cst two sons went to sen'; vel stib-tly tliere <'an tie only 
 one eblt sf son. (Jeiinan writers se** notliin".' wion).' in sinli |l||^n^e'4 hm 
 •die <lr<'i eislen.' ' die >,wei let/ten,* &c. All lliese snpei liillv en admit of 
 a little lii\ily in llieii applii atioii. Just as '/-/»/ and r.ilnthc ixlniit ol ilie 
 HUperlatives f//»V/i .v/ and ».r/r» >/)<>'. ' Tlie tlin c tlt^t xer^es' Miiipl\ nirioiH 
 ' The (lilee VelsfH Itelole wllit'll tlieie is Mo otlier.' 'those who tell nri 
 to ivritu ' 'Die tU'8t Huw vudhv,' umJ no un, must du no un Die liyjiotliiiHlit 
 
 S 
 
118 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 I 
 
 that tlie wliolc ininil>Pr of verses is divhlod into sets of three, of whioli 
 Rcts the fir>t is taken. 15ut wliat if the ('liapter only contains five 
 altogether?" — Mason, Ena. Crnvimay. 
 
 NoTK.S.— " The tline first i)Y tlie first three. Great iloiiht exists as to 
 whicli of tliese eXJ)r('^si()Ms is correet. DifTicnIties seem to attach to botli. 
 Wlien \M' say \\u\ tlirec first, W is avl<f'l, liow eaii tliree lie tirst ; and wlien 
 we say tlie. /tr.s< three, we seem tu iniply that this sholilil he followetl hy a 
 secDml three, a third tliree, and mi on. Tlie t'oiiii !ni»t coininonlv nsetl is 
 the * thst three' ; * the ,//r.si six hooks of Knelid'; ^ Ww. first ten men voii 
 meet'; ^ Wx^i first fort if yens of the century.' Hut thert^ are oocasioiiH 
 when i,'ooil writers think the other form preferable; thu« '• i\n> tliree first 
 lUO.'^pels' ; ^ tho tirn eldest ol the family' ; the si.r verirest y^mr hand'; 'the 
 fathers of the fire first centuries.' ' I have not numhei'd llie lines except 
 of the four first hooks' (t'owper). We may conceive tlie i^'ronnd for the 
 distinction on some such priiiciple as this. Suppose a nnmher of persons 
 waitiii;^ tor admission to a imhlic spectacle. The manaf;er wishes to irive 
 (lii'e<rtious as to the order of admission. Now if w(> sujipose it setlletl 
 heforehand that three shall he admitted at a time, the finly question 
 remaining is ff»A»V7 three, to which the answer is the three first. Hut if 
 it iie undi-rstooil that they are to lie admitted in the order that the.\ stand 
 in, the (jueslion is how many at a time, and the answer is the tirst three. 
 Tlie place of spiM-ial emphasis is the second wonl, the liist three, the three 
 first." — r.ain. Hi^/nr Eiil;. (Irainmcr. 
 
 274. Rule VII. A«]vorl)s, and plirases luiviiii^ tlic 
 force of :uivt!rl)s, sliouM he placetl so as clearly to 
 inodifv tile intended words. 
 
 x.' 
 
 Under this <;eneral rule, — 
 
 (1). Ati iidvi'rl) pn'ocdt'S the tidjectivc or iulvorb whirh it 
 iiKHlitios; its, A rc/y liappy niati. lie tmswerod far more 
 mitiivofiilily tliiiii I :mtici|):it(Ml. 
 
 (2). All xdvcrl) luiiy cIMu'r pn vcde or follow the vorlt which 
 it nioditios. Hut, — 
 
 (t. An ndvorl) dcnotiiij; manner generally follows an 
 intransitive verb ; jis, They ran Jhst. The men sneeeeded 
 aUininthli/. 
 
 b. An adverl) with transitive verhs {renerallv follows the 
 objeet ; as, He recover. d hiii senses i/niditdl/i/. Why do men 
 ne}i;leet their own interests so stn/ild/i/f 
 
 (!. A. jirepositional phrase is often conveniently placed 
 hetweon the verb and its object ; as, The appeals of Demosthenes 
 stirred, iiuf/i /x'riillur emri/i/, feeling's diverse indeed, hut liy no 
 means conlradictorv. Vt»u persist in askin^j;, /» spite of (til iiii/ 
 Icars, (piosiions which are very unpleasant to answer. 
 
 (I. 'I'he advcrh is >;enerally placed between the hist auxiliary 
 and the purticiple; as, I h:ul iikh/i/ forgotten yt)ur message. 
 Hef«)re tiiiit time, 1 fciir that tlu; evil results will have been /)<//// 
 disclosed. 
 
 V. A^of out f/ ... .hitt also. Not . , . .l>i:f out//, at Ivasi, liot/i..,, 
 and ri'tlirr. . . .or, in ii/nr. . .nor, should be so jdaced u> to brin;^ 
 um Uic liuiusc, reullj iiitciiJuJ 
 
 
'/■ three, of which 
 ly contairia Jivo 
 
 "III it exists as to 
 
 attach to both. 
 ' first; and when 
 1ki foHowf-d by a 
 'imiionly used is 
 rst ten men you 
 re are oocasions 
 s ' the tliree first 
 'onr hand'; 'the 
 
 the lines exeept 
 
 KioMiid for tJie 
 tnher of jiersons 
 r wishes to j,'ive 
 ppose it settle.! 
 e only qnesiion 
 eo first. IJiit if 
 
 that tlie,) stand 
 ^ the first three. 
 
 three, tlie three 
 
 1 llJlviltcr tlie 
 
 » clearly to 
 
 'Oil) wliiih it 
 L'<1 fttr more 
 
 le verli which 
 
 follows nn 
 m siK'cot'Uod 
 
 ' follows the 
 Vhy do men 
 
 riitly jiIiuTd 
 Demosthenes 
 I. '>nr hv no 
 ite of all mij 
 
 • 
 • 
 
 ist nnxihary 
 'iir messHjfC. 
 vo been /«/(y 
 
 'XI, lioth.... 
 tt* to hrin^' 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 119 
 
 Ji: X K UO I S E s . 
 
 ETYMOI.OGY. 
 
 TiiK Noun 
 I. 
 
 I)i'.\ti))(iui,'<h, hji tnifh rh'niufj in dijfrrcvt irai/s, as the trarlicr mat/ 
 direct, t/ir proper aiid (he common viuin^ in the folhncinr] sen- 
 tenrcs : — 
 
 London is the lar;j;est eity in ihe world. The Sultan's 
 seejitre trembled in bis firasj). ("icero and Demosthenes were 
 orators. Moses dwelt lorty years in the laml of Midian. Natnre 
 made (.^hurchill a poet, ('ohnnbus discovered America. The 
 enrfew tolls the knell of jiariinj,^ day. The republic of Spartii 
 l)a<l two n)n<,dstrates called kind's. Stndies serve for ornament 
 and deli;j:ht. Napoleon the First was a mitive of Corsica. The 
 wajxes of sin is death. The honse is in Kdinburj;. Paris is the 
 capital of France. The battle of (iettyshnrj; was fon<iht in 
 IVnnsylvaiua. lirittania needs no l)nhvark, no towers along 
 the steep. Ili<:li in his stirrups stood the kine^. We expeet the 
 Smiths and tlie Hrowns to-morrow. 
 
 11. 
 
 Distijitjiiish the abstract and collective nowts in the fnU 
 Inirimi st nlinna. 
 
 TJie jury did not a;j;rce. Truth is stranger than fiction. The 
 congreirafion (feparted in silence. Wisdom's ways are ways of 
 pleasantness. The crowd sliowcd ^^reat patience. Industry is 
 the road to wealth. The paths of {ilory lead i>ut to the grave. 
 Order is heaven's first law. Honor is virtue's reward. The 
 fleet consists of forty siiips. liiL;liteousm'ss cxalteth a nation. 
 Tlu' council took no action in the matter. Poetry ami music 
 are considered line arts. Kicher by far is the heart's adoratioti. 
 A tl(H'k of sh H'p fed on the nionntains. The shouts of the 
 multitude annotinccd the triumph of the victors. 
 
 Ill- 
 TV'// thf (/ruder of the followinq nouns, fudntniq out /lartieu/arli/ 
 the tiouiLs that fuire grammatical ijendejr: — Widow, boy, book. 
 
120 
 
 Kxr.ncisKS. 
 
 aunt, ninstor, sliij., l)ri(lc, lady, monk, ^oosc, abbot, heir, 
 finperor, (pircii. ruler, cow, fox, siiti, imirdrrcr, count, sultan, 
 tea, jiocios, pniiiciuc. hird, cbild, lioness, lno, nuiyor, hofioat, 
 moon, iKiicnt, idol witch, sorceress, aiiinml, girl, snow, Held, 
 maid, wife. 
 
 Wn'ti llir plural (t/'t/n fulloirin;/ voims -—Book, brusli, change, 
 clini( ii, ki>s,f'oN, niuli", hero, ha by, potato. l>rothcr, man, calf, sky, 
 eliimiiey, ox, mouse, nioiian h, wife, cliihl, story, alley, sou in- 
 law, nuuiscMvant, seraph, sphinx, beau, handit, axis, ma};us, 
 (latutn, vertex, ;xeuius, j;eiius, miasma, radius, foriuitla, criterion, 
 locus, irisis, phenonienon. 
 
 VII. 
 
 \]'iit( till singular ('('tin JnHoin'iii/ vamis : — Dice, woniyn, 
 geese, chi'rubiin, pence, boilies, data, foci, tu'bulae, wolves, allies, 
 storevs, crises, indices, arches, llaiidteaux, feet, Mullis, bases, 
 hvpothoes, tumuli, ap>ides, loavt s, honries. hrethren, chickens, 
 genera, larvae, virtuo>i, oafs, dilletanti, dicta, Tv|)ices, elUuvia, 
 
 oases. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Write thepoBsessive case singular and plural of the following 
 nouns— Lady, ihiid, >i-ler, woman, prince, (Jcrman, goose, 
 wolf, author,' princess, house, (»x, church, (hvarf, siiecp, thiel, 
 day, attorney, mouse, sistei in law, Charles, Mussulman, ally, 
 forenum. 
 
 IX. 
 
 11 '/•//#' .v iih'iiri s //* irliirh (or/i (tf tlio fn/lou'hii/ iintiii^ shall ap/unr 
 in III' Uoniiuattve ; "/>•'» '>''■"'' '"■»,< in irlilrh mrli slmll it/>/iriii ill flic 
 objective 'cv : — Tarent, l>ody, »niud,sludies, John, Kujilund, 
 
 year, 
 
 "book, 
 
 JamesJ 
 
 youth, 
 
 pencil, 
 
 physic 
 
 June, 
 
 slu'i'e, 
 
 Givl 
 whale, 
 law, \\i 
 fish. ]l 
 
 roof, »1 
 crew. 
 
EX I'll {CIS MR. 
 
 121 
 
 ', nhhot, heir, 
 count, sultiin, 
 
 lilVOr, lionoilt, 
 
 •1, f-nou, fiflil, 
 
 <<ili()irl),fi mas- 
 •■,i;r(), niiui-siT- 
 ^\'. kiiiy-. liiud- 
 '■- liiirt, host, 
 ;>ltT, coif, sir, 
 
 iJtr f<)l!oiri)i,i 
 ^*-'!^^, mistress, 
 In-uoiif, imir- 
 i!<'r, countess, 
 ;litcr, sj)ii\vn, 
 
 '•'«i'^li,chany[e, 
 i:iii, calf, sky, 
 iillcy, son in- 
 fix is, ni;i;;iis, 
 ila, criicrion, 
 
 >!<•(', women, 
 ■olves, ill lies, 
 till lis, hnses, 
 n, chickens, 
 '•'s, clllnviii, 
 
 lie folhtwinfr 
 
 iiiiti, ;^oose, 
 
 iiccp. thief, 
 
 ilman, ally, 
 
 chilli (ififxnr 
 '/'/iriii ill tlir 
 I, Kii«:bin(l, 
 
 year, pulpit, in:ister, sheep, horses, journey, industry, market, 
 hook, picture, piimo, river, coiintryujan, mountain, husiness, 
 James, widow, huslmnd, people, forest, ])aper, thirst, sij;ht, 
 youth, music, Icarnin;i:, <'hurc!i, Moufhiy, Ottawa, ink, water, 
 liencil, hearing, hens, cattle, hike, road, trout, mother, 
 physician, dwart", friend, house, lields, wood, sky, cows, hoat, 
 -lune, hell, ^M-amn)ar evening;, sun, lime, shade, Mary, rocks, 
 shore, sunshine, sleep, folly 
 
 X. 
 
 Ciivc all the possihic forms of the followin;;- nouns: — Child, 
 whale, huly, wife, alley, jieuny, hrother, tlolm, duke, father-in- 
 law, nu)use. die, ox, index, match, sheep, army, (ieru\any, lion, 
 tish, pea, tooth, jrulf, elt. fox, hero, canto, school, wharf, 
 roof, tluty, tax, swine, music, apple, peer, j)riile, seraj)h, poet, 
 crew. 
 
 Ill (It'scribini:' ;i word as it stands in the sentence of 
 wliicli if forms a part we arc said to parse it. Tiic 
 term pd. se is closely connecitcd in nieaiiinix with "part" 
 (of speech — Latin pxrs orationh, " part of speech"). 
 
 This(les('ription (»r pnrsiftf/ inelndesa statement of: — 
 
 1. What pari of s|(eech the word is, and to which of tlie 
 classes and suh-classes, of that part of speeel it holouLrs. 
 
 2. The 'jrammatiiMl form or I'orins imder which the word 
 presents itsi-lf in tin; sente:ieo. As to a noun this implies a 
 statement of ils y* /uA/-, nmnhir ami fvf.sv. 
 
 iJ. 'I'he relation ii\ which ihe word statids to other words 
 in the sentence. The p;ut which a word thus jdays in a 
 sentem-c is tei-htncally calh'd its conatiuctioil. 
 
 In I'e^ard to tlu^ (!onstruclioii of iioinis, we have seen 
 that a iioim may be: — 
 
 [a.) Tlio si(])i<rf of an action; (h.) the ohj, cf of an action 
 or of a preposition; (r.) in the possessive ease as denoiin^' 
 
 iui'iiiis/il/> or fiitf^si ssinii. 
 
 TIm'sc |H'inciples may now he put in the foim in 
 which tluiv ifeiierally appear in the .so-calh'il '• rules (»t 
 Syntax,'* it hein<^ ti'ieii for i^ranted that the piudieato 
 of overy sentence (Contains ix verb to which tlu; subject 
 corresponds, and that the action followed by an object 
 in th«! ol)j«'ctive cjiso is cxpre.s.si'd by u transitivu verb 
 ill the tictive voice: — 
 
122 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 si ri 
 
 I. The subject of a verb is in the iioniiiuitive case. 
 
 II. Transitive verbs in the active voice govern the 
 objective case. 
 
 III. Prepositions iifovern tlie objective case. 
 
 IV. A noun denoting tJie t/dtif/ possessed, governs 
 the noun denoting t/te possessor in the possessive case. 
 
 V. A noun attaclietl to another noun, and denoting 
 the same person or thing, is put in tlie same case. 
 
 VI. The noun following the verb fo hr, and denot- 
 ing tlie same person or thing as the subject, is in the 
 nominative case. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF PARSING NOUNS, 
 
 John struck the carpenter's brother. 
 
 (1.) John is a proper Tioun, masculiiio ^ciidcr, siiijxular num- 
 ber, noininative ease, siil>)ect of tlie verb snuek : "Thesiibjeet 
 ot a verb is in tbe nominative ease." 
 
 (2.) Carpevter's is a eonnnon noun, masculine jronder, 
 sinfjular niunbcr, possessive ease, ooverned by (or ciependinj; on) 
 the noun brotlie : " A noun (lenutin«;' tbe tbinjn: possessed 
 {.'overns tiie noun denotinj; tbe jtossessor in tlie possessive ease." 
 
 (.'}.) lirolhcr is a eonmiou noun, masculine {render, sinj^ular 
 numl)er, objective case, /^'•ovcrned by (or object of) tbe verb, 
 struck: " Transitive verbs in tl;e active voice govern' tbe objec- 
 tive case " 
 
 The mob saw the folly of its course. 
 
 (1). Mob is a collective notui. neuter ;,'endcr, fsce 22 (.3], 
 singular ntunber, nominative case, subject (>f tbe verb saw. 
 " Tbe subject ot" a veil) is in tbe noininative case." 
 
 (2) FoUii is an abstract noun, neuter gender, singular num- 
 ber, object of tbe verb smr: "Transitive verbs in tbe active 
 voice govern tbe objective case." 
 
 (.3.) Course is a conunou noun, neuter gender, singular num- 
 ber, objective case, govenu'd by tbe i)rej)osition of: " Preposi 
 tions govern tbe objective case." 
 
 Tbe above examples are given as illustrating tbe ordinary 
 mo»le of parsing. It is open to teacbers, es|)ecially with t)egin- 
 ners, to adopt a fuller style, reipiiriug every detail connectcc' 
 Nvith tbepansed words to begiven,witb tbe reasoji for everytbing 
 
 XI. 
 
 Parse full 1/ the nounn in the folJoirhuj sentences: — A pound 
 'JVoy contains twelve ounces. Many men have died for con< 
 
 SCI en c 
 
 clotbes 
 
 comnu 
 
 brotbc 
 
 Tbe 
 
 is tbe ( 
 
 Vanit\ 
 
 j)ca(eu 
 
 ciubt II 
 
 tion. 
 
 fatbcr 
 
 renowi 
 
 banner 
 
 der, w 
 
 Karl ol 
 
 tbe Co 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 123 
 
 science' sake. The eagle's wiiifrs were broken. The hovs' 
 clothes were hiully torn. Tea. suunr and tobacco are articles of 
 commerce. 'I'he girl's father is (onie. Did you see John's 
 brother? fiive me ten dollars. Mary ^ave her hook to .John. 
 The hoys wont to the j)lav-!_'round when the hell ran^^ Vice 
 is the deformity (>f man. Vonth is the season of im]>rovemcnt. 
 Vanity easily mistakes sneers for smiles. Your //* is the only 
 ))ea( emaker ; much virtue is in if. There are no fewer than 
 eiuht <nu/s in this sentence. Such tricks luith stronij; imajjina- 
 tion. 'i'he borrower is servant to the lender. The child is 
 father to the man, John (iilpin was a citizen of credit and 
 renown. The kint; was on the throne Confusion on thy 
 banners wait Without doubt, a bad cause weakens its defen- 
 der, while a jua)od cau.NC adds stren;ith to its champion. The 
 I']arl of Clav(.'n(lon accompanied Prince Charles in his exile on 
 the Continent. On the deck a nu\iden wrings her hands. 
 
 Full many a S^^n, of purest ray serene, 
 
 The dark unfathomcd caves of ocean bear; 
 
 Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
 And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 
 
 N 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 I. 
 
 /)istiu(/n''sh f/ic qualifying niuf t/n limiting (i(l/(< tires in (lie 
 fii//<nri)ii/ seiitcncrs : — The way was lonj:, the wind was cold, 
 That »min is a very indifferent speaker. He l)ron;,^ht me sundry 
 {/oods, some coarse, some fine. The tenth man who came was 
 mv old father, lie has three brothers in the fortv-seeond 
 regiment. On this hold hro\», a lordly tower. True gentle 
 love is like the summe'* dew. Tiu-re were few women in th*^ 
 settlement. What num is that i Such conduct deserves purdsh- 
 luent. All j:() to one place. Not from one lone eloud, but 
 every mountain now hath found a tongue. 
 
 II. 
 
 I)istin;/itis/i thi'limitiiuj udjrctiveH in the fnllnwiuij snifrnrrs, as to 
 the sub-class to ir/iir/i carli li('l(»i</s : — A few apples were found 
 on the n round No man is perfect. Some authors have men- 
 tioned it. This house is too small. What books do you reail ! 
 FiVery science has its principles. 1 saw him on several ocea 
 sions. The whole army was destroyed 1 arrived on the second 
 ;lav of Mav. He has manv friends. Several iiersons have seen 
 him. Hoth boys told the sanu; story. Wo have much wheat, 
 but little barley. They have five dollars and twenty cents. I 
 do not know which road to take. I have eaten enough applea. 
 
121 
 
 f;.\f:i{('fsRs'. 
 
 They have visited yonder cMstlc. Have you any fruit? All 
 men are mortal. Kither hook will suit me. In neither place 
 were the same rocks found, 
 
 III. 
 
 Ih'sfiiii/iiis/i the a<lj(ftli'(s 1)1 t/ic folliHrinrj snntencps, ns i)i ihc 
 attributive or predicative position: — The fruit is rifie. 
 Sui)erstition is the mark of a weak miiul. She is tall and 
 handsome. That ])laiit possesses a pernicious (luality. His 
 answer was a mere evasion. You liavc jKjwcrful enemies. 
 This wine is very excellent. Paris is not so lar<,a^ as London. 
 The Alj)s are very hi^h and very steep. 1 will show you my 
 Howers. His nu\Tiners are natural. A intone wall encloses the 
 old city. I do this not because it is pleasant, but because 
 it is ri^ht. Our staunch {;ood friend is he. That fair sad 
 face is f^oTie. Very s])aci()us was the wiywam. The lovely 
 youn;,'' Lavinia once had friends. H(nv poor, how rich, 
 how abject, liow august, how compli'-ate, iiow wonderful is 
 nmn! Roll on thou deep and dark blue ocean. 
 
 Turr in the wild wliite winter snows 
 Turn out the sweet sjiring daisies. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Write out t/ic comparative aiid superlative ((f(/rffs oj 
 fuUominfi adject uw a: — Rich, sweet, splendid, sly, rosy, merry, 
 old, noble, hot, far, l)itter, huuible, bail, free, divine, complete, 
 heavy, sad, pious, fierce, ]HK){\, numy, low, little, coy, briyht, 
 mighty, late, near, fore, worthy, lovely, studious, hind, beautilul, 
 noble, imhistrious, holy, big, luunlsome. 
 
 V. 
 
 Write (Hit ihn throi' dajrecs of <:uiii}>arisnn of follniriiiij 
 ■//'tiirt's: — (iayest, larger, coyer, hottest, poorer, mon\ worst, 
 (It. Ithy, eldest, earlier, loveliest, wittii-r, jiroiidot, thicker, k'ast, 
 ihiimcst, longer, best, sweeter, hottest, next, I:ist, easier, noltler, 
 <)ull, merriest, tenderer, ugliest, hindmost, sadder, lirst, fu'rcest, 
 lunnblesf, purer, tamer, drier, richest, holler, hund)lest. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Write sidtnhh' adjeclives before the nouiu in Exercise VI, 
 under the noun. 
 
 Tlio jKU'sinij of till iidjectivc: consists in nt;itiiii( its 
 cduss aiiil siil)-chiss, its (K'i^rt'c and modi! of conipari.son, 
 uiid the noun wliioli it (|iialilics or limits. 
 
r:xi:i!CisE.s. 
 
 125 
 
 ly fruit? All 
 neither phu-e 
 
 icf's, as i)i till 
 fruit is rif)e. 
 
 10 is tJill ami 
 quality. His 
 ri'ul enemies. 
 
 :e as London. 
 
 show vou my 
 
 11 eneloses the 
 , hut heeause 
 rhat fair sad 
 . The lovely 
 ', how rieh', 
 
 wonderful is 
 
 ire </('(/rfPs Of 
 rosy, merry, 
 ne, eompk'te, 
 , coy, hriyht, 
 uil, beautilul, 
 
 ','/" follntriiKj 
 mor(>, worst, 
 Iiiekei-, least, 
 isier, ii()l»ler, 
 lirst, (iereest, 
 
 'St. 
 
 'Ixervise VI. 
 
 ''(:ifiii,if its 
 >nn»;irisou, 
 
 Ptir.<cfi(!/i/ (ill till adjectives atid noniis /'» the follo'i-inr/ 
 sc>if(}irts : — 'J'he younii- men were wild and tmsteady. A little 
 learniui; is a dan^ierous thinu'. Home ih'ojjIc like interesting 
 hooks. Kadi year luini^s forth its millions. A sadder and a 
 wiser man he rose the morrow morn. Ayr, ^nir<:lin<r, kis>ed his 
 ])chhled shore. Many a carol, old and saintly, san;j the 
 minstrels. Stone wall (h- not a jirisou make nor iron hars a 
 ea^^e. There are several sorts ol scandalous tempers; some 
 malicious ami sonie efl'emimite, some ohstinate, brutish ami 
 sava^i'e. (Jod's )irovidence is hi^iher, ;!nd deeper, and larger, and 
 
 ■^trouL'er than all the skill ol 1 
 
 us advcrsaru's. 
 
 Tl 
 
 le wind IS sa( 
 
 and restless. The soundin*.'- :iisles of the dim woods rau'^ to the 
 anthem of the h'ee. A daik and heavy writer is supposed to he 
 ]»roloun(l. Few and short were the jiraycrs we said. The most 
 ambitious men are generally the most unhajipy. There is 
 tempest in that horned moon. Autumn is less varied than 
 sprinj:', but it is richer. Banners — yellow, glorious. L:()l('en, on 
 its roof did lloat ami Mow 'J'Ik; most able uieii arc not always 
 the nu)st virtuous. It touched the tan^'-Ud jxolden curls and 
 brown eyes full of ^rievinJ,^ The least excusable of all errors 
 is that which is wiilul. 
 
 S( (' the soft ;^rcen willow springinj; 
 When the waters ;;ently pass. 
 Every way her free arms flinjiin<j^ 
 O'er the moist and reedy grass. 
 
 Ye hermit oak«, ami sentimd jdnes 
 Ye mountain forests old and j^ray, 
 In all your loiij; and winding lines, 
 Have ye not .seen the way .' 
 
 ruOXOUNS. 
 I. 
 
 J*oi)ilo!it (IikI fliissi/'i/ f/ir' prOUOUllB /"/( tlir f()lli-irli)'i s,)ifilh •<: 
 
 — Take hi r Up ten lerly. Love thyself last. \Vhaf :lioii sc 
 is that portion oi' eternity wliicli is called time. Who is 1: 
 One could do thai in two hours. 1 that speak to iliceani In-. 
 The only yood (<n earth was pleasure; not to follow that was mu. 
 What wi;:ht is that which saw that 1 did see ? Myself hath 
 been the whip. What is sweeter than honey ! If you do this 1 
 shall do that. ^Ve laiiLMicd loudly but they were silent. He 
 \\\\o does wrotii: deserves jmnishnu'iit. I'ay me tla- money 
 •^liich you owe rjic Ye fherel'oru who love luorcy leach yo»u 
 
 
 '"':• ■. 
 
I 
 
 'I 
 
 I 
 
 126 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 sons to lo\e it too. 'Tis tlic divinity that stirs within us. Ro 
 kind to each other. One should lovo one's native hind I shall 
 iKjt answer for another's coTiduct. Whom do you serve under '. 
 lie will surelv hurt hiir. elf. Whoever nuiy say it, I shall not 
 helicve it. Who told yoi lu~ story ? He is a man whom I 
 despise. Which of then' rij^lu ; You wront^ed yourself to 
 write in sueh a ease. What is done cannot be undone. Mav I 
 not do what I will with mine own? 
 
 II. 
 
 Uvdcrh'tir llic relative pronouuK ocnirn't)'/ iti t/ir Jitlloiciiii/ 
 soitenres and dniihli/ iivderline fhcir antecedents: — He returned 
 the jK'ucil which I lent him. The hoy that said so told an 
 untruth, They have not a' ways what they want One man 
 admires what displeases another. He who promises runs in 
 deht. 'I'hosewho are contented are hap|)y. The first newspaj)er 
 that was ever issued ajipearcd at Venice. I know what you will 
 say. He will reward whoever deserves it I had a dream which 
 was not all a dream. Fools who came to scott" remained to i)ray. 
 The evil that men do lives after them. 'J'here i< no tiresi(le 
 liowsoe'er defended, Imt has one vacant chair. Vou are the 
 person who is to blame. 
 
 III. 
 
 /)istii)f;vish Ix-lvrcn flic emphatic and reflexive us(s of t/ic 
 roiii/toiinrl pn'soiHi/ protwiois in t/ic fol/ovivff senlcnas: — 1 shall 
 fi'o myself. He hurt himself. You yourself said so TIk'v do 
 not intend to trouble themselves. l)io<zene.s lived by himself in 
 a tid). Time itself shall be no more. The mountains them- 
 selves decay with vears, I love to lose mvself in other men's 
 mmds. The avaricious man makes himself rich. I blame 
 myself for doinjr it. We should love ourselves last. The nuui 
 liimself knew it He himself was the architect of his own 
 fortune 
 
 Pronouns arc pfirscd substantially as nouns. It is 
 necessary also to state the antecedent and to bear in 
 mind tlie Ibllowiui:: ride of syntax : Pronouns take 
 tbe gender and number of the notnis for wliich they 
 stand. 
 
 The relative ivhat should be parsed as the subject or 
 object, as th(5 ca.s(^ may be, of the verb in its own 
 clause, that cla<»se b(^in<^ the sid)j(!ct or object of the 
 viM'b of the principal clause. The resolution of what 
 into Uiat which is seldom necessary in parsing. 
 
 Pi 
 
 the f> 
 is tht 
 a life 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 127 
 
 witliin us. R,. 
 ■t' land I shall 
 )ii serve under ! 
 y it, I shall iiof 
 a nnm whom I 
 .U'c'd yourself to 
 indonc. May I 
 
 ?7i tilt' folloirliKi 
 — He retiirneil 
 ■■lid so tohl an 
 mt Otic man 
 oniises runs iu 
 first newspaper 
 i' what you will 
 a dream which 
 rnained to j>ray. 
 L' is no fireside 
 Vou are the 
 
 ive ns(s of the 
 'nrcs:— I 'shall 
 so They do 
 I hy himself in 
 Mintains them- 
 in other men's 
 i<h, I hiame 
 i>st. The man 
 't of his own 
 
 onus. It is 
 
 i to hear in 
 
 moiiiis take 
 
 wliicli they 
 
 le subject or 
 
 ill its own 
 
 hjcct of the 
 
 ion of w/mt 
 
 IV. 
 
 Parse fully all the nouns, adjectives (tnd pronouns in 
 the f/llowiiifj xentevces : — It was a morninix in August. Yonder 
 is tile fairest tapestry that ever I saw. He tlirice had plucked 
 a life from the dread sweoj) of tlie down-streamin;; seas. For 
 'tis tlie mind that makes tlie body rich, He usually divided his 
 time into tlirec equal ])ortions. He was one who may with 
 justice be ranked anions; the ii^reatest generals any ajxe has pro- 
 duced. As he ex])ired he exclaimed, "1 have done my duty; I 
 thank God for it." They say the ton<2;ues of dyiiifi: men enforce 
 attention, like deep harmony. Glory is like a circle in the water 
 which nt'ver ceases to enlarge itself. Oh, who can hold a tire in 
 his hands by thinkinjr on the frosty Caucasus^ It is our country- 
 men who fly. Let us see what jroes on at honu'. Who is to 
 till the fields wiien they depart ? One often finds it dillicult to 
 do one's duty. They throw thcnisclves into a ririLi: with the 
 kinji^ in the midst. IJival factiijus made war on each other. 
 What he meant was plain onou<rh. This frail hark of ours when 
 sorely tried, may wreck itself wirhout the pilot's ^4ii!t. Is it so 
 true that second thoughts are best ? The soldiers whom he led 
 were devotedly attached to him. What did he say ? Who is 
 the honest man ? He covered up his face, and bowed himself 
 a moment on his child. A whisper half revealed her to herself. 
 But we loved with a love which was more than love. 
 
 Saxon and Norman and Dane are we 
 
 But all of us Danes in our welcome of thee. 
 
 (/Verb. J 
 
 *»■■ .« * 
 
 In the followiiifj sentetires underline the transitive rerlis, 
 dnnhlji niulrlitic the. intransitive, a^id trebli/ underline the Vfrhs 
 0) incomplete predication : — The man sold his ])t(>perty 
 and went awny. He was carry injj^ a heavy burden when he 
 fell. Buy that horse if you ehoo.«^e. I cannot (iisj)OHe of my 
 estate. They are Piill waitiufj, let us return. Did you find 
 him on the street. The enemy retreated over the hill. While 
 some forded the stream, others crossed in boats. Many believed 
 that he had left the country. Claverlunise (jrdered one of his 
 dra<.joons to tiro. The sun rises at six o'clock. I came, I 
 saw, I conciuered. - When a j^ieat man departs from us, what 
 we dc;^".ire to know about him is not so much what he did, i)ut 
 what he was. The town swarmed with boL'^^arsi. I j^row faint 
 at every step. Miscralde objects lay upon the causeway. Wo 
 live in deeds, not years. • John is always pleasauf. He niost 
 lives who thinks most, feels tlie uoblest, acts the best. 
 
 I 
 
"Tf"' 
 
 M 
 
 128 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Methought I licard a voice cry, "Sleep no more; Macbeth 
 doth murder nleep." They raised a {jreat wall. He became 
 weaker every day. It can embroider mi'slin and forj^e 
 anchors, cut steel info ribbons, and impel loaded vessels. He 
 appears to be a good man. 
 
 Fell sorrow's tooth dotli never rankle more 
 Than when it bites, but lancctli not the sore. 
 
 II. 
 
 Jn the. folloiriiiff sonfences (iistiiif/iiish the verbs in f/ic active 
 voice <nid ihose in the passive voice; and (jii'e the passive 
 and active forms ronespojidinf/ to each: — The barons met at 
 St. Edmondsbnry. The man was heartily disliked. He 
 understood the answer. At (Miristmas thoy presented their 
 claims. A footstcj) was heard on the pavement. A chihl was 
 was seen floating on the water The king fell to the ground. 
 Tb.e boat was pnt back, and the ])rince held out his arms for 
 his sister. The moonliL'ht deceives yon, my lady. Thus the 
 great work was done. One hundred hon.-ies were burned to the 
 ground, " Enyland expects every mati to do his duty " was 
 answered with a cheer. The wounded were carried to the 
 rear. But his arm a light hand presses, and he hears a low 
 voice call. In the midst of his seir-defence he was struck with 
 apoplexy. The fleet was commanded by a daring chief called 
 Hastings. Women of all ranks could spin thread, and weave or 
 cml)roider cloth The tyrannous and bloody deed is done. I 
 ki.ss thy hand but not in Hatiery, Civsar. 'JMience through the 
 garden I was drawn. One morning early this accident 
 encountered me. They lighted a taper at the dead of night, 
 and chanted their holiest hymn. 
 
 III. 
 
 Tn the foUou'infj sentences underline the i^erhs in the subjunc- 
 tive mood, donhli/ nuderline those in the infinitive mood 
 and trehlji nndeiiine thoae in the imperative mood: — If I 
 were to tell you. yoti'lwonldj^scarcch, helievQ»it. Screw not the 
 cord too sharply lest it snap. Ccune and see. Alas! that 
 thou shonldost die ; thou, who wert nuide so beautifully fair. 
 Do not stoj) to think. Scatter the blossotn uruler her feet 
 Come to us, love us, and make us your own. Sing on sweet 
 thrush, upon the leafless bough. See, thou ;lo ic not. 
 liemember the Sabbatli day to keej> it holy. Touch not, taste 
 not, handle not. He acts as if he were hungry. Had I 
 the moans I t IkhiM like i.u travel. Strike till the last armed 
 foe ex))ircs. Ho wise to-day, 'tis nuidnoss to defer. Though 
 they suffer, they do not complain. If it were not for hope 
 the heart would break. To please you is our constant 
 
 enc 
 Da 
 
 bai 
 
 thi 
 
 I' 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 129 
 
 nore; Macbeth 
 I. He became 
 lin and forge 
 d vessels. He 
 
 ore 
 sore. 
 
 in the active 
 c the passive 
 l)an)ri.s met at 
 disliked. He 
 esented their 
 A child was 
 > tlie ground. 
 fc hi.s arms for 
 y- 'i'lius the 
 hnnied to the 
 is duty " was 
 arried to the 
 hears a low 
 s struck with 
 ,' chief called 
 and weave or 
 id is done. I 
 3 through the 
 his accident 
 'ad of night, 
 
 ^ subjunc- 
 tive mood 
 Dod: — If 1 
 
 I'lew not the 
 Alas ! that 
 ntit'ully fair. 
 Icr her feet 
 ng on sweet 
 do ic not. 
 ■li not, taste 
 ■y. Had 1 
 last armed 
 c. Though 
 ^t for hope 
 ir constant 
 
 endeavor. Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 
 Dare you say so ? Let us look at the picture. To die is to be 
 banished from myself. 
 
 Let satire, then, her proper object know 
 
 And ere she strike, be sure s!ic strike a foe. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Point out clmrhf and nnmp thf participles and gerunmi^-4-.,-^ 
 
 in the fol/niriiif/ sfiifpnivs :\- Uq speiit a week in revising his -^ 
 
 work. He stands leaning uporniis staff'. He is fond of 
 writing letters. I saw a horse running away. They live l)y 
 visiting and borrowing. Properly speaking, there is no such 
 thing as chance. Hut lookijiig dcc!]), he s.iw the thorns which 
 gr(»w upon this rose of life'. We cannot prevent his going. 
 Oblige me by leaving the room. It looks like refining a 
 violet. And when his courtiers came, they found him there, 
 kneeling upon the floor, altsorfied in silent prayer. Having 
 spoken to the man, lie departed. After having travelled .'^o 
 many miles, I am tired. They were desirious of iieiug 
 admired. iStunned bv the blow, she fell to the ground. ^^ 
 
 III tJir/hllou'infi list undf-rhnti the regular, f/o?;A/y uiidfrIirilE.\y\y^ 
 the irre^iilsiv, and trclifi/ underline the strong r./Z-s : — Move,' 
 jKiy, heave, blow, ben(I, kneel, fight, aj)))e;ir, dig, cut, dwell, a^.^ 
 go, give, throw, sec, rid, put teach, sit, wriie, win, .secure, love, 
 rise, set, raise, sing, al)ide, weep, shout, ring, wesue, suit, sow, 
 lend, ride, ]iart, thrust, fling, do, sail, slope, lay, h'e, n)ark, feed, 
 hurt, smooth, bereave, freeze, make, knock, jnill, choose, speak. 
 
 VL 
 
 Write out all the simple forms of each of the following 
 ve.rhs : — Smile, turn, beseech, sell, cost, mourn, mount, knit, 
 wring, tread, toss, miss, gird, dream, swim, tear, look, think, 
 sweejt, laugh, bide, lonir, fly, pen, liglit, tune, read, flee, tend, 
 hope, bleetl, bind, ring, shrink, reap, thrive, stand, mend, mean, 
 cling, burn, tame, steal, ciow, spill, teach, tempt, seek, ])<)ur, 
 roast, hear, bet, jiaint, tral'k, spin. 
 
 In parsiiii^ a verb we st ite, (1) WhetlitT it is 
 tran.sitive, iiitraii>itive or a verb of iiicoinplete predi- 
 cation, aii<l if transitive, whether of the active or 
 passive voice; {'1 ) Wliether it is of the weak or strong 
 conjugation, and if of the weak, whether it is regular 
 or irregular ; (8) Of what mooil, tense, number, per- 
 son. The student is now supposed to be familiar with 
 the following principles of Syntax: 
 
 W 
 
 II 
 
i 
 
 r 
 
 130 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I. A finite verb agrees witl) its subject in number: 
 
 II. (1) When the subject of a finite verb is tlie first per- 
 sonal pronoun or a relative pronoun havinjf the first personal 
 pronoun as an antecedent, the verb is in the first person. 
 (2) When the subject of a finite verb is the second personal 
 pronoun or a relative pronoun havinc^ the second personal 
 pronoun as an antecedent, the verb is in the second person. 
 
 In these case^ the verb may be jiarsed as in the person 
 TCf/nirrd In/ its sulijfcf. 
 
 III. When the subject of a (iniie verb is a noun or 
 pronoun (except as above) the verb is in tlie third person, 
 in this case in ]tarsin«ij it is sufiicient to state that the verb is 
 in the third person. 
 
 IV. The infinitive mood may dejier-d upon a verb an 
 adjective or a noun. 
 
 V. The participle takes the coustnu'tiou of an ailjcclive, 
 and is to be jmrscd as limitin<; the mcaiiinj^r of the noun or 
 pronoun to whieh it is attached. The (fenmd takes the con- 
 striu'tion of a noun in the siuLruiar number, and is to be parked 
 ;vs the stibjcct or object of a verb, or ol)jcct ot a proposition, 
 nccordinfj to its jiosition in a sentence. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF PARSING VERBS. 
 
 Deeply .grieved, I saw him (l('[)art after breaking 
 the friendship of a lifetime. 
 
 Grieved: l*H.st participle iif verb grieve (transitive, weak, 
 regidar), limiting the meaning of jtronoun I. 
 
 Saw: A transiiivo verb in the active voice, of the stronp^ 
 ^•onjugaiion : priiu'ipal parts, sec, sdir, .srr/j : indicative mood, 
 
 5)ast indefinite tense, singular ntnnb(>r, to agree with its suliject 
 , and first person asreiniired by that subject. 
 
 Depart: An intransitive verb; weak conjugation ; regular, 
 principal ]»arts, depart, (hpaiftd, d'pmli'd: infinitive nu>od, 
 jiresent tense, depending upon the verb rmr. 
 
 Breaking: Simple active gerund of veib break (tiansi- 
 tive, strong, hroifi-, hmki , hrohii), in tlie objective case govesncd 
 by the preposition ti/tcr. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Poi-fif> fidUj nil tJif nouns, prononna, adjective«i and 
 >artici 
 
 .-.iTi 
 
 ipU 
 
 
 
 in was one of those faces which ro- 
 
 vcrba {inclndii 
 
 loirini/ seiittnns 
 
 (piiie to be seen with the light of life. At liome, and as a 
 
 host, he wa>' delight fnl. lie endetl by accepting and approving 
 
 what ho had c(unnienced with persecuting. He whh coino now, 
 
 hu said, to the end uf hiH journoy, lie lookeil n look that 
 
 tlirea 
 
 kno\\| 
 
 die til 
 
 not bl 
 
 if.coj 
 
 Inikil 
 
 p(»et 
 
 Siiuil 
 
 nuiti* 
 
 ConsI 
 
 enteil 
 
 (lestrl 
 
 oiilv 
 
KXERCISKS. 
 
 131 
 
 niher: 
 
 is the first per- 
 il rst pcrsonul 
 first person, 
 'coiid jtersonal 
 'cond personal 
 second person, 
 in the person 
 
 IS 
 
 fi noun or 
 tliird jierson, 
 lit tlie verl) is 
 
 ^n a verb 
 
 an 
 
 in adjective, 
 tfu* noun or 
 akcs tJic con- 
 ■« to l»e p;ir>e(l 
 V proposition, 
 
 BS. 
 
 LM' l>r«'akiiifr 
 
 iisltive, weak, 
 
 'f the str-inpf 
 '■■itive mood, 
 til its 8nl)ject 
 
 ion ; re m; II la r, 
 niiive inooti, 
 
 !"''!> k (tinnsl- 
 i.^c i^ovc! ncd 
 
 ctlvc«i nnd 
 ill ilii /'(,/. 
 which ro- 
 
 p. nnd ns n 
 
 I ap[)rovinj; 
 (oino now, 
 
 I look that 
 
 tlireatcned her insult. Law wills that eaoli particular be 
 known. Now trend we a measure, sai<l vounfr Locbinvar. Let me 
 die the death of the ri^'-bteous. Who is here so rude that would 
 not be a Roman ? I am aliont lo return to town. I will not do 
 it, come wb-t may. 1 did it upon pain of losinj; my life. He lies 
 lurking; for you unanare-;. The (|iiestioii whether I'ope was a 
 poet has hardly yet bet n settle(I, and is hardly worth settling;. 
 Since then, and more than once, sen;ites have ruiitx wilb accla- 
 nnition to the echo uf bis name. Hew down the bri«l<;e, Sir 
 Consul, with all the speed ye may. It ap|)eare(I to me like 
 entering' a city of f.ri;\nts. who, after a loii;; conllict, were all 
 destroyed, leavinir the ruins of their various temples as the 
 only proofs of their former existence. 
 
 Advkhi'.s. 
 
 L 
 
 Airanijr tfir fttlloiriin] adveibs in tirn rolnmiis a< simple 
 and conjunctive: — ^^'b('ll, easily, now, where, very, soon, 
 whence, lu^w, wisely, seldom, why, otherwise, beautifully, 
 almost, wherein, ill, jierbaps, aye, whither, sometimes, tli<>re, 
 uj), once, hem-e, therefore, ns, so, prolial)ly, truly, secondly, 
 lea.^t, indeed, <Iaily, below, Ip ' er, pos-^ibly, nay, a^aiu. 
 
 n. 
 
 In the fiilhvriiKi sfiititircs point nut tlip (ulirrhs and <-hissifif 
 them accordimi to tht ir imiinluti : — Tiiey will soon be here. 
 She writes remarkably well. Me is not \i}r\ rich. My sdii is 
 twice as old as you s. Do not write so last. It is all over 
 now. It was a ion;; lime w^o. I .xliall p) there first. They 
 were wcIcoukmI ev-'r\ where I can searccdy tell you when I 
 shall \.'o. The man will certainly cone. I find it dilVuiilt 
 sometimes to \ioX work. \W\\ did yoii do so '. It is much 
 better to ijive tluui to receive. Thoy loved not wi.s(dy. She 
 has (|nite enouiih I shall Ik* then' prc-ienily. Does that boy 
 still write as badly \\a ever '. He mu.-t neetis die. 
 
 in. 
 
 Form (idnrlis J'loiii lh< /ol/oin'ii;/ irords , — True, merry, day, 
 leiiutb. saucy, side, late, far, >horc, lionu', cros-«. brave, up, for, 
 pretty, joyful, upon, yay, like, .sur(». lHUj;lii:"^, fore, fiee, back, 
 down, Jimiable, lero«'ioiis, breast, oihci wise, sweet. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Compare the following rf'//v'»//< .- — Karly, soon, late, ill, 
 nuTrily, mmdi. sonly, far, ni^^b, fre(jiu'nily soundly, little, 
 honestly, well, ttoUiom, sweetly , prudenily. 
 
 i\ 
 
i:i2 
 
 EXFTFICISEH. 
 
 \i. 
 
 rOVJUVCTIONS. 
 I. 
 
 fn tlip fnl/oin'ni/ m nteu> nnch'rline the co-ordinare ro?i)unc- 
 tioiis (vxf (lonlili/ HiidprliiK the sub-orditiate: — He will not 
 coino Ik!c;iuso lie is not ready. Yoii iiro idle i)nt he is indns- 
 tiioiis. Time and iid(» wait for no in;in. He vas of ])oor but 
 honest parents Sho is older than I. They left ere I came. 
 Before tliey could lo.ivc tlie ship went down. You must stay, 
 for it rains Love not sleep, lest thou came to poverty. 
 Unl'^.-'s you attend to thi-; husiness, i shall do so myself. The 
 anL'<d wrote and vani>^lied. i'hey have withered and died or 
 (led with tl>e spirit ahovo. Though I have heard them many a 
 time, they never rantr so sweet before. Notliinj; that is plain, 
 but may be witty, if fhnu hast the vein. He dcdayed hi.> march 
 until the sjw \v came. Keep a clea'i lieanh, and a clean Hrc for 
 me, for I'll be back, my girl, before you know it. 
 
 II. 
 
 fi) the fnl!ow'n\(j lirufcnrrii KudtiJiw tlw corrrelative rouiiiuc- 
 li'iiis (tiiil (liiiihli/ itndi'illiic (lie phrase conjunction8;—Hoth 
 Jt)linand J.iino> were there. We caine in order that you might 
 go. Von may do jr pidvidcd that you do it well. Neither the one 
 nor the other will suit I shall pav vou as soon as I receive 
 my money Hither you or I must stay. Inasmuch as you 
 have not done your work, I sh;»ll not pay you. Tell him to 
 come provided that you see him. .John was drowned ns well 
 us his bro'hcr 
 
 /;/ 
 
 1*HKI'09ITI0NS. 
 
 In tlf fi<lli)ir'nn} Hiviiruris itudrrline the prepo.9itions: — Ho 
 works in the Held. 'I'Irs is fi-r usiv Vou must not go out on 
 account oi the storm. There is a j»on(l behind the house. Wo 
 looked iliioiigh the window. They rode inside the coach. Ho 
 departed from home. It is not sullicient for us. I want to 
 purchase a load of hay. Vou tnay go instead of me. Accorc.- 
 ing to the latest rcp(U't, she was still very ill. I a-n weary of 
 work. Thi\t shij) h is sailed round the world He is above me 
 in the chiss He ran iiway from w^. She Ht;«yi'il within tho 
 house. Without mo yo can do iu>thing. Wo c<Mild not come 
 owing to the weather. He laughed at nnv Notwithstanding 
 this, ihcy were good frieinU. That is beside the mark. He 
 did it out of sheer kindness. In spite of you I will return. 
 AH save one were lost. Of Him, and through Him, and tu 
 Uiiii, ure all thin^^H. The bout camo ulopgsido tho quay. 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 133 
 
 inare ronjnnc- 
 He will not 
 It lio is itulns- 
 iiH of poor hut 
 't ere I came, 
 oil niusr stay, 
 to poverty, 
 tnyseif. The 
 and (lied or 
 tiioiii tiiany a 
 that is plain, 
 ynl hi.s niarch 
 (dean fire for 
 
 live ron/'in.r- 
 tiona:— Hoth 
 at yon nii^^ht 
 sithor the one 
 (I as I rtueive 
 nncdi as you 
 Tell him to 
 nied na well 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 I) 
 
 tions: — ITo 
 
 lot p) out on 
 house. Wo 
 I I'oacdi. lie 
 • I want to 
 10. Accord- 
 •n weary of 
 is ahove me 
 within the 
 <l not come 
 'ithstandin<; 
 mark. lie 
 will return. 
 Ii'ii, iukI to 
 [|uay. 
 
 Till': 8 1 -M I • I , !•; 8 1: n t k n c k. 
 
 1, 
 
 J )/'.-!/ it/f/fi is// //,<' /n//uin'i/>/ sfiiffiires^ ,is derlarativG, 
 interrojr,ative, imperative, optative '/• exclamatory:— 
 
 Wi'la" not a sU'cpin}.' lion Is it .-nowiny:? M:iy a fair wind 
 Mow tonight! Shut the door. Tiie rain is lallin;: U\^\. '1 inte 
 tlit's swiftly. I> lu' an hoiu'st man '. (Jo to tlie ant, thou slii^Liani. 
 (lod sa\e tin- (^ui-iii! ll<»w warm it \>\ Ihnc yon hanu'd 
 \u\\r U>s('ii '. Conu'. come awav Mnv von ho happv ! I hi' 
 liuhtnin^ lla.^hes. How the storm ra«;i's ! He (nrcfni. Thy 
 kinj.'ih)m come ! The fruit is not yet ripe. How htisy yon arc! 
 The <;rass is ;:recn Blow, li!ow, ihon winivr wind. Truth 
 will juvvail. Which one do yon want ? Send the hoy away. 
 How are tlie miLihiv iallcn ! 
 
 ir. 
 
 /// Un fdllnirlmi srnh nrrs (1i,sf!lHli(it<li hilincii f/i(i 
 
 subject "/.'" predicate: — 
 
 The iiiiihir was hrokt'u. Hies <ol!e(t honev. Kvcrv lionsc 
 should han' a ^.^ardcn. <Mir wr|| is dei'p. Kii;ilrs jLTetierally ^^o 
 alone. Tho di'^tant hill.s look Iduc. The child was \cry \onn;:. 
 ( 'olnml'tjs diseoverc<l Amciica. IniU is a very n>ehil niein! 
 To err L-i hiMnan. How it came la re is a mystery In sjtrin^ 
 the Icavis come I'oitli. I,ilc'> unaic-t hlc-sin^r is to lia\c a 
 sonnd mind in a sunml hody. Tlu' tnasurcs of the rohhers were 
 hidden in a lave Hal*' tin- people in the world live at tin; »'x- 
 iKMisc ol the other hall We saw the irt miiloiis waves ;;listt nin;,' 
 in the snii 
 
 III. . 
 
 Ill fill' f(i//niriii>/ srnfriirry il/.</ iiiniiis/i IhIkiui lliv 
 
 grammatical <iifi logical x>ihj,'rf >in>/ in-niiniic :— 
 
 Ten dollars fell to my share. The liu;:e old oak is stdl stand- 
 ing hy tlie roadside. My little hriMhei lan away from school, 
 1he<dd gentleman resides near the city. Tin- younj; j;ovcrnes!i 
 tuikd with jjreat vivacity. lUikei's dealli caused ^reul eunster- 
 
134 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 nation, llollin'j^ stones ^^atluT no moss William, Prince of 
 C)r;uij,f(!, iisL'cnd'Ml the throne of (Ircjit nritai?!. Tlie stream, 
 hein;^ .Aiil, eonid not l»e tonleil Ity tlie enemy. Brown, the 
 hatter, died yesterday. Thirty shi|)S of the lino were snnk in 
 the channel The voun;^ nnin was wretchedly dressed. The 
 whole caravan jterislicd (rum thirst in the desert. Ileavcm from 
 all creatures hides tiie hook of fate, Despise not the jioor. 
 (jentleness overcomes 'nanv foes. The hiiildin;; was destroyed. 
 
 IV. 
 
 /// f]ii' foiioirhiij ^i'i,f('iii-i'.'< pniiii <>iif /III' enlargements 
 
 ()/' /III' suhji'cf, i^liil 1 iKi iif ii'hnt I'll,}) rniislsfs : — 
 
 The I"'n!j:li<h army mar(die(l (hron!j;h Calais. No I'rinK" 
 Minist<'r has done so '.riie dawn ofd.iy is apjtruacdiin;,'. Whan;;, 
 the miller, has hecn here. Tiie Duke's Ijhiary was destroyed hy 
 fire. Hrncc, kin;r of Sv'otland di'fcated the Knylish. The 
 captain's do^ wi'nt mad. 'IMie love of money is the root of all 
 evil. The hoy, havi'iii' hroken the ulass, ran away. The time 
 to act has arrived It is not always wise to l>e over-anxions. 
 The Allan steamers sail from Montreal in the summer. iMy 
 cousin J( tin's little hoy, havin^r hist his halance, fell into the 
 dock. Whost' hook is this'/* Ilavelock, the hero, is deail. 
 Unaccustomed to restraint, he lonycd for iiherty. Ca'sar havin;; 
 con(|Ucrcd Gaul, crossed over to IJritain. 'Tis only noble to be 
 <;o()(l. 
 
 V. 
 
 /9/.s'////f////V/ f//r iu'i"1!cnti'f< in the. fulhucimj .sanfences 
 
 nfi simple "/• complex : - 
 
 IJirds fly. The wind wa.s cftld. The child appears fretful. 
 The Iteantifiil white siu^w is fal!in;i:- 'I'he ea;;lc is a bird of prey- 
 The wlude affair seemed trifling;. Nova Sc(jtia is a peninsula. 
 The storm ra;:es. The mei'chant has ijrown rich. Ho was 
 called connnandcr of the faithful. The (Io;j:s are barkin;;'. Ho 
 intends to bo a clcriiymaiy I am not he. 'I'he children may 
 
 iday. He was n«»t of souml mind. The child was named .Jt)hn. 
 Ic is here. To laliour is to worship, lie became a man. 'I'ho 
 nialti'r was dceiued of impcrtante. A new house will bo built, 
 •lohn seems him-elf a^aiu I am of opinion. The boat is 
 waitiny;. Who is coming '. 
 
 vr. 
 
 /// /hi' fnllnirli'if sntfcnfi'.'^ ff/sftHf/m's/i hcticci'ii the 
 
 object '///'/ objective tomplHment:— 
 
 We heard the thunder roll. 'I'he people nnulc Nii])ok'on 
 flr»t Cunsul. 'i'hey coiidomned him to dio. 'Ihis news iwikng 
 
 .Tie »i 
 cons 
 
 I'll CI 
 
 liim 
 termi 
 
 dir( 
 
 n 
 addij 
 ])rou| 
 neviT 
 
 )M»UI 
 
 Wh 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 135 
 
 '"am, Prince of 
 
 'riio .stream, 
 
 lirowii, tlio 
 
 were sunk in 
 
 dressed. Tjie 
 
 Hcavon from 
 
 not the jioor. 
 
 *vas destroyed. 
 
 iilargements 
 
 ^^> Trime 
 •iii.ir. Whan;,', 
 ■< dostrovcd liv 
 ii;;lish/ The 
 »e root of Jill 
 i'hc time 
 overanxious, 
 limner. My 
 'i-'ll into the 
 t'ro, is dead. 
 Ca'sar havin;,' 
 ' nohle to be 
 
 '!/ ■'<('/fft.'nce8 
 
 •ears fretful, 
 hird of prey, 
 n peninsula. 
 h- Ho was 
 arkin- Ih, 
 hildron uuxy 
 latned John. 
 . iiuin. The 
 ill 1)0 huilt. 
 I'he hoat is 
 
 tiircu the 
 
 ' Na])oleon 
 lews iuiikns 
 
 .Tie nnhap])v. The kin}; commanded the waves to retire. They 
 considered him a htuefactor. Tlie lire keeps the iiouse warm. 
 I'll call thee Ilamlct, Kin;,'', P'athcr, Royal Dane. The hoy saw 
 him ride away. They chose him as their captain. VVc did 
 term him dishonest. The general ordered his men to advance 
 
 ili.sfiiKjnitih heticeen the 
 
 vir. 
 
 /// ///'! foUniriiKi st'itfcnrrs 
 
 direct 'nt>i indirect <'/>j"-f .- — 
 
 A son owes honor to his parents. She has never sent her 
 address to me. TIh; teacher ;:avc Churles a lon^r lesson. I 
 jiromised my son a n<w hook. Who toM yon that story. I can 
 never rejiay iiiin his kindness. His father allowed him forty 
 pounds a ytar. My kind father srnf me a nice jJresentT The 
 l».inkcF"oTTerc(l him a snUicicnt sum. Who will lend mc a knife? 
 Why do you not otter him a situ.ition f I can pnjcure you a 
 ^(>od servant. They l)rou;:ht him fruit in al'undaiu'e. You 
 can do mo a i:reat favour. 1 shall ;:et you one. How can you 
 refuse me such a paltry sir I houtxht m\ daughter !• gold 
 watch. 1 t)rilcn' 1 uiy f,oi\ u suit oi clothes. 
 
 VIII. 
 Ill tin' fi>l}i)ir',i;.^ ^I'litenrcx pi nut out <tN'/ ('i'i({<-si/{/ ill 
 (h'fall flw extensions /" f/m i>ri;t!,'ntt>: — 
 
 All the attendants moved ahout noiselessly. He killeil the 
 bird with a stone. This Ixdng granted the ease falls to the 
 ground. He ;. es to look after the nuittor. He came last nij^ht. 
 Peace was coiu'liuh d it I'erlin. Vou have not acte«i wisely. 
 We do TM)t live to eat. He dug it with a .spade John sails for 
 liondon in u lew days. He s)ieaks like a child. IJricks are nuidc 
 of clay. For all his wealth he was not happy. They walked 
 two miles. Tea conu's from China. I sliall stay a week. They 
 went along sin^iug. We inloruM>iI tiim hy h'ttiT He assisted 
 tlu? man l'n»m iluty. Perhaps I should tu)t go. I write twice a 
 day. John will stay instead ot vou. The warehoiis*' was 
 hurned to aslies. Of cour.se I shall speak. 1 shall certaiidy 
 remain in L'aris one month to seo the sight.s. 
 
 I.\. 
 
 Analyze, ii"tli generally oml in detail,///'' /<>/fowiu<f 
 
 8Ciitnn'i/<: — 
 
 1 went there hy hoit long ago Vvwv lu) more the heal of the 
 sun. The wish was father to the thought. The hoyn c.anio 
 home last night Annoyed at his tricks thev d smis»(Ml liim. 
 A rich old lolubiyc hius left liim a largo uncucuiuburod estate iu 
 
136 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 'h 
 
 England, No man ever bclicld licr witliont admiration. Bear 
 hence this body. Still, I paced iij) and do^vn. Harry Percy's 
 spur was cold. Me damp hcjrror chills. William's account of 
 the aflair alarmed us. (Mi the top of" of the hill stands a church. 
 They shook the depths of the dcsoit gloom with their hymns of 
 lofty cheer. Considering his opjiortunitjes he has done well. 
 Give me a glass of water. I told you that a wc<'k ago. ..^riie 
 prisoner was declared LMiilty. She is in the kitchen. His 
 parents called the child Joliti. They invited ns to enter. The 
 hoys were ordereil to behave themselves. Have you ever kntiwn 
 the man confess being in fault '? Now fades the glimmering 
 landscape on the sight To climb steep hills recjuircs slow pace 
 at first. Spring is l)ut the child of chnrlish winter. From the 
 centre all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and the 
 brute. Graceful and artless she moved with propriety 
 
 Knowledge to their eyes her ample jtage, 
 Kich with the .^})oiis of time, did ne'er unf'oUl. 
 
 And for many a day old Tubal-cain. 
 Snt brooding o'er his woe : 
 
 Half a league onward, 
 All in the vnlley of death, 
 liode the six hundred. 
 
 A band, the noblest band of all, 
 Tliroiigb the rude Morgarten strait, 
 
 Wifli bla/oued strea:::ers and lancc« tall, 
 Moved onwards in jirincely state. 
 
 I 
 
 TiiK CoMri.ix Skntknck. 
 X. 
 
 Ih lliv Jiilhiii'liKi SI J, fences' (Jis//t/t//n'sh f/n' principal 
 
 from file subordinat'' clauses:— 
 
 You will liiid it when you get there. The uian who found 
 the money is here. I ell him I ^ball finish it. You cannot go 
 if it slornis. Do you Kntiw how old sIuj is? The man who is 
 iirudent looks to the rutme. I low he succeeded i.s a mvsterv to 
 me. lie that is down needs fear no (all. It is not true that ho 
 8uid so. Thrice is he atined that hath his (puirrel just. I did 
 not know tliaf till yon told me. When' thou dwellest, I will 
 dwell. As the tree falls, ,so mitst it lie. Cold as it is I shall 
 go out. 
 
fion. Bear 
 rry Percy's 
 account of 
 Is a church, 
 r hymns of 
 (lone well, 
 n^'o. ^rhe 
 chon. His 
 ntor. The 
 L'vcr known 
 [riiniincrin;,' 
 slow j)iice 
 Fnun the 
 vl and the 
 
 y 
 
 I. 
 
 )rincipal 
 
 lio found 
 ■annot go 
 m who is 
 lystcry to 
 L- (hat ho 
 t. I did 
 :.'it, I will 
 ti I shall 
 
 ANAIiVSrS. 
 
 XT. 
 
 137 
 
 •^ 
 
 In till' fnifdiciiui sfNfou'Ps poii/f (i)it flic noun clauses 
 
 and sfdfc thoir <ir(i)nn}(iti<'<il yoJatlon: — 
 
 Men should be what they seem. T knew that he was not 
 there. My reply was that I knew n()thin<; about it. Tiiat they 
 did so cannot be deniod. The children said that tlie man fell 
 from the scad'ohl. Wo are not certain that they will come. The 
 house is comfortable in every res|)t'ct except that it wants paint- 
 iii":. Trv how far vou can run. The circumstance that he 
 was present must not be disroirardcd. It is not true that he 
 said so. He is conlident that I shall succeed. He never knows 
 when be should {;o. It is stran<;e that you shouM think so. 
 N|i^dy can tell why he left. How he will ;^et od' remains to be 
 seen. I refuse to say who is my iuforinci-. I asked them if 
 they were willing. 
 
 Xil 
 
 In fhc fdlloiclnfj i^i'nff'nrt'.-^ pn'iif n>i} fh^' adJBCtive 
 
 clauses tatd sfxfi' flu'ir (/rani/i>'i/ii-<i/ i'l'lnllon : -- 
 
 I know the persons who did it. The evil that niiyi do lives 
 after them. I am near to the place wlicre they slioiS4, meet. 
 •He is*the frjcmau, whom the tiutli makes tree. Return 
 place whence you came. Y'oii juay have the carrinjze such a.- 
 is. There is not a person in the country but has heard of it. 
 Who steals my purse, stca's tra-h. Can y(>u tell ine the reason 
 why he left ? 'I'ell me the time when 1 m;iy expect you. I 
 met the eleivyman on the street, who toM ine the wliole cir- 
 c;ymstances. He had done that which could never be for- 
 givcu. t, 
 
 XIII. 
 
 In Iht' fd'loirlng sfnfi'nrrs point onf thf adverbial 
 clauses tm'f n'ifs.<i/// till in in >/rfiiil : — 
 
 Whither thou j^oest I will |u;o When I was youn^ I iliou^'bt 
 of nothinj; else but pleasure. I ^■liall iro, if it is nut too late. 
 tSince vou say .so, I must believe it He lalks a^^ it he knew all 
 about It Wc admire the man becaiis*; be is so honest. As 
 800U as I discovered the mistake I hastened to rectify it. He 
 lies where pearls lie deep. This one is as ^,M)od as that. Thou;,Mi 
 I warned them, they paid no attention. Love not sU'cp, 
 lest thou eoino to poverty. The earlier you rise the better 
 your health will be. Hail wo known this we should have; 
 acted differently. Itissodaik that we cannot see. lie came 
 in before the moon rose. Vou may ^o wherever you choose. 
 We study, in order that wo nniy improve our minds. Unless 
 you hurry you will miss the boat. 
 
 ;i 
 
 i 
 ii 
 
 I 
 
138 
 
 ANALYHln. 
 
 NOTES ON THE USES OF SOME COMMON WORDS. 
 
 Many of our comint)!) words have vnritMl and almost 
 perplexing uses, p;irticularly as mimed iren. Tlie fol- 
 lowing explanations and references may bo found 
 serviceable : — 
 
 1. A:— 
 
 (a). Limiting Adjeetivp. 47. 
 {h). Preposition. 102, (i:«»to 4.) 
 
 2. As :— 
 • Idverb of manner and of (Icr/rre. 
 C r.inctive adverb. 14.*^ (2) : 
 
 '. *•/ 
 
 e) 
 
 144.(1), (2). 
 
 in trod noes adverbial 
 clauses of luannor. 22.3(1) (2) (4) (.'i) : also introduces ad- 
 vcrl)ial clauses of time in siu-li an expression as " Tiiis occurred 
 an I was enteriui;." It may also l)e ccjuivak'nt to a relative pro- 
 noun. 72(1): introduces af/yVr//?,v' clauses. 216. 
 
 (c). Subordinating conjunction. 154 (1): introduces 
 adverl)ial clause.s of cawse. 224(1). 
 
 As well as is a co-ordinntivg conjunction. 
 
 As appears ami as follows are best treated ns adverbial 
 phrases. 
 
 3. P.UT:— 
 
 (a). Co-ordin.ating Conjunction. l.')2 (4) : introduces 
 antitlietical co-ordinnte clauses. 2'U. 
 
 (b). Preposition. 1G2. Often used to <rovern noun clauses 
 (15.'), note 2) and the intinitive nnjod (204 |H] ). (Such 
 expres.'-ions as hut lie arc wholly indefensil)l('). 
 
 {r). Subordinating Conjiniciion. (icnerally eipial to a 
 relative pronoun with a negative. (72 (2). 154, Note 2: 
 ii.troduces adjective clauses. IKl. Also eriual to hut that or 
 that not; as 'I Htti not so tired hut 1 can help you. (For 
 princijilo involved see 154, note 2.) 
 
 (r/). Adverb; as, " I am /"</ a shadow." fliis construction, 
 in which h\tt .seems etpial '>"///, lias resulted from the omissicMi of 
 a ])recedin<: n<gativc, hut being jiroporly a proposition. — " I am 
 (nothiufi) but a shadow." 'I'liis j)rinciple explains the apparently 
 e(piivaient expre.ssions : " I cannot but comply " ami " I can but 
 comply." 
 
 f). 
 
 G. 
 
 7. 
 
ANALYSTS. 
 
 J WORDS. 
 
 m<l almost 
 The fol- 
 hi) foiuid 
 
 (2). 
 
 s adverbial 
 •oiliicos ad- 
 lis oct'nrred 
 relative pro- 
 
 introduces 
 
 I adverbial 
 
 introduces 
 
 '»/« clnnsos 
 ). (Such 
 
 |iial to a 
 , Note 2 : 
 '"// i.ltdt or 
 ou. (For 
 
 istniotion, 
 rnissi(M) of 
 I.—" I am 
 ij)piueri(ly 
 ' I can but 
 
 4. If : — 
 
 139 
 
 intrndnces adverbial 
 
 {ti). Subordinatinfr Conjunction 
 clau-^es of condition. 224 (2). 
 
 Subordinating; Conjunction : introduces «oi/» clauses. 210. 
 
 5. 
 
 NoiJ :— 
 
 152 f3) : introduccH co- 
 introducing 
 
 (<i). An alternative conjunction 
 ordinate altenwtin' clauses. 2.'?'J. 
 
 (/>). A copulative co-ordinate conjunction 
 CO ordinate copulitive clauses, 232 ( I ). 
 
 G. That : — 
 
 ('/). Demonstrative adjective. 4f') (2). 
 
 (ft). Demonstrative pronoun. T.'i (I) (2) {-W. 
 
 (r). Relative pronoun. 70 (4) : introduces restrictive 
 adji'ctive clauses. 214 (J). 
 
 {(I). A Conjunction, introdiu-iuLC noun clauses, 20!) (1) (2). 
 
 {<'). A Conjunction, introducing; adverbial cl-'-scsof maw/ifir, 
 223 i'l) and 224 (4). 
 
 7. What:— 
 
 (<t). An in terror: i.tlvc adjective. 4G r4). 
 
 (//). A relative pronoun, 70 (.'i). 
 
 {<•). An intorroj:ative pronoun. 73, .".. 
 
 [d). An indefinite pronoun. 77, note. 
 
 In addition to the above uses, vJiat folIo\.cd hy a preposition 
 (<;encrally cither vIOl or hij) is sometimes equivalent to the 
 adverb "partly"; as, " What with drink and what with 
 j^ambling, he ha.s s(juandored his fortune " 
 
 8. Who and Which : — 
 
 («). Introduce adjective clauses (explanatory) 214 (1). 
 (h). Introduce adjective clauses (n!>trictive) 214 (2). 
 (c). Introduce clauses nit/xirtnt/i/ adlcctlve but really 
 co-oidluate. 214 (3). 231 (2). 
 
 [d). Introdiwe noun clauses. 210 
 
 Introduce adverbial clau.ses. 222. not;. 
 
 9. 
 
 (a), 
 (h). 
 
 ('•). 
 id). 
 
 10. 
 
 Whkv, Whk.nok, Whkuk :— 
 
 Introduce adverbial clanse.s, 221, 222. 224. note. 
 Introduce adjective clau.ses, 213 (2). See also 2'.8. 
 Introiiuce noun clau-es, 210. 
 Introduce co-ordinate clauses, 232 (2» 
 
 Why:- 
 
 (a). Introduces adjective clausew, 213 (2 1. 
 (b). Introduces noun clauses, 210. 
 
 u 
 
n 
 
 [I 
 
 140 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 frivG I/oth a f/eaerdf and (loJiiih'd analysis of the 
 
 following nmiph'X .^rntoH'es : — 
 
 Take your lodjiinf^s at the Golden Fleece where you will find 
 a ^uide to Strashurt;. The stone is not in Switzerland, rocky 
 as it is, that siiall hear that inscription. Of every tree that in 
 the {Titrdcn ^n-ows, thou inay'st freely eat His follies had 
 reduced him to a situation where he had much to fear. When 
 Jolin opened the hox he found nothing;. Until you return I 
 shall remain. Cromwell couM ])ut forth a commandinf; oratory, 
 when he achiressed his fellow Puritans It was a past that 
 Tiever was present. We know that he who 1ms so nobly main 
 tained his country's honor may safely h>,> intrusted with his 
 own. There are occasions when the desired effects of style 
 are giiined hy diffuseness You remeni!)er what a sorrow it 
 was that settled down n))on our city. I have never yet 
 esteemed a rich man happy who enjoys nothing; of that which 
 he pos.sesses. '1 here was no i-ity there liy which they could 
 defend themselves It is a nu'ssen^er who comes, inviting 
 man's ascent. Those thin<is aUjne are to l)e feared whence 
 evil niMy proceed. I know not h<jw nature was yet to he 
 suhjuj,Mted hy steam Ualei<;h is the host model of that 
 ancient style, which some writers wmld affict to revive at 
 present. " Tiie thicker the hay the easier it is mowed" was 
 the concise reply of llie liarKarian. My answer is, that the 
 whole was a deception. All hope abandon, ye who enter here. 
 The Etruscan Ian <.,Mia<;e presents ;\ problem, which no i)hilolo<.fist 
 has been able to solve. Ih rodotus says "iMinas was a great 
 confjneror." What seems to us but sad funereal tapers, may 
 he heaven's distant lamps. Goldsmith's praise of him — that 
 he wound hin»self into his subject like a serpent — gives the 
 reason why he sometimes failed as an orator, why he always 
 succeeded as a wi iter The 8j)anish conquerors little thought 
 thut the descendants of the few cattle (which) they allowed 
 to ran wildly, would resume the original character of the 
 species. The purveyors of the I'rinee, who exercised on this 
 atul other occasions the full authority of royalty, had swej)t 
 the country of all that could be collected which was < steemed 
 fit for their mastcu-'s table. There could not, surdy, he a 
 more conclusive jjroof that the bank, which had enclosed them 
 so long, could not have been created on the rock ou which it 
 
 res 
 
 ted. 
 
 Underutath this stone doth lie 
 As much beauty as could die, 
 Which in life did harbor give 
 Tu more virtue than doth livo. 
 
 '"i. 
 
 "> 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 141 
 
 The Compqund Sentence. 
 
 'ilysis of the 
 
 e you will find 
 zerland, rooky 
 7 tree that in 
 is follies had 
 o fear. When 
 you return I 
 ndin;^' oratory, 
 lis a past tliiit 
 
 nohly main 
 isted with his 
 ffects of style 
 tt a sorrow it 
 ve never yet 
 of that which 
 eh they could 
 >ines, iiivitin^r 
 eared whence 
 vas yet to he 
 lodel of that 
 
 ; to revive at 
 mowed " was 
 
 )r is, tlKit the 
 
 ho enter here, 
 no j)liilul()<rist 
 
 s was a great 
 
 1 taj)ers, may 
 of him — that 
 
 'tit — o;ivos the 
 hy he always 
 little thought 
 
 they allowed 
 racter of ihe 
 oised on this 
 y, had swept 
 was ( steemed 
 
 surely, he a 
 nclosed them 
 
 on which it 
 
 det'iil ihe folloiriug 
 
 Aiinlipir hot]) (jencvdlJii aud hi 
 
 Compound Sentences : — 
 
 They would neither go themselves nor would they allow 
 others to go. Jamc s will return to-morrow, hut he will not 
 stay. He asked me to join him, but I had no time. The 
 bridge was broken down , accordingly I could not proceed on 
 my journey. Th.e nij^ht was cold and the stars twinkled in 
 lIic sky. They toil not, neither do they spin. Jane jilays and 
 -ings well. lie is not clever, but he is studious. This house 
 is mine ; the farm is also mine. ,^rhe sim went down, nor 
 ceasec^ the carnage tlien. Thither do yotir work properly, or 
 leave the room. The day is very cold, for it is snowing. The 
 f^tream was deep, yet clear. Wis<lnm is the principal thing ; 
 therefore get wisdont. , 1 he ])lougliman homeward plods his 
 weary way, and leaves 'the world to darkness and to me. (io 
 to the ant thou sluggard ; consider her ways and bi; wise. lie 
 wtis not only jtrudent, but also iujlustrious. There was noth- 
 ing to be seen, and .so wo went on our way. He remains in 
 ;he house, for he is not well. The sun gives light and heat. 
 Not a drum was heard, not a f'aneral iu)te. On the one side 
 was a deep gorge, on the other a lofty mountain. We Hrst 
 walked slowly, then we (luickened our ])aee, and then we 
 began to run. She blushed, for she was ashamed. Everything 
 seemed against liim, still he per.severed. At twenty years of 
 age the will reigns- at ^hirty,'>the wit; and at forty, the 
 judgment. And beT*nii>!C ik; was of the same crafli.'I.e abode 
 with ihem^andV^^rought ;\ foi" by their occuj)ati()n they were 
 tent-makers. A kind of dread had hitlieito kept me back ; 
 but 1 wns restless now till I had accomplished my wish. 
 
 We are such stuif 
 As dreams are made on ; and our little life 
 Is rounded with a sleep. 
 
 '^^ 
 
 Men must work,,iind women mr.st weejt,' 
 'I'liough storuKS be sudden, ami waters deep, 
 And the harbor bar bo moaning. 
 O l^-.^ 
 
 Men'.s evil manners live in bras.*< ; 
 Their virtues we write in water. 
 
 ^^^ _-C /: 
 
 The day is done and the darkne.ss 
 Falls from the winga of night. 
 
 li 
 
 . 
 
142 
 
 8entp:nces for correction. 
 
 The broken soldier, kimlly hid to stay, ' 
 Sat by his fireja. .1 talked the ni^ht away? 
 Wept o'er his wounds lor tale-; of sorrow done,' 
 ShouUlered his crutclij ami showed/how lields were won. 
 
 Sentences for Correction. 
 
 >>t 
 
 > 
 
 u' 
 
 Correct tlte fnHow'nig t^euievres : — 
 
 (The pupil sliould state the privciple. violated, whether in- 
 cluded in a rule of si/iidir, or a law if rtifniolof/iad /hnn.) 
 
 Th(f<e kind of apples do not suit nie. The teacher nnd 
 lis ])npil who is aloent has returned. Neither preeept nor 
 cxaiujile are so foreihle ns hal)if. Esieh of tlie sailors h:id 
 their shure. The "Id\lls of the Kin«i " are eonsidered 
 Tennyson's niasterpieee. 1' seeni^ to he liim. lliiii and her 
 went tof^ether. 'I'lure is none of my uncle's marks upon 
 you. I took it to he he She is older ilian ine. I am a 
 ]dain hlunt man that love my friend. ' Two shillin^^s and 
 sixpence are halfa crown. "i^'liis twenty' years have I served 
 you. Neither of the wo Amen had their tools with them. 
 Him beintr on deck, we gave three cheers to the good ship. 
 This measure jrained the king as well as the peoj)le's appro- 
 bation. The Bislu>p's of London charge was well received. 
 -They who he had most injured he had tlie greatest reason to 
 Uve. James is the strongest of the two hoy». It is more 
 easier to build two houses than to maintain one. These sort 
 •f actions injure society. Are either of these men suitable 
 for the position V\, The captain cf the coniftany was killed 
 and the men they aTl fled. It is not tit for such as us to sit 
 in that high j)]ace. Let thou ami I the battle try. Charles 
 or Thomas will trive us their company. The ehildrens' shoes 
 are worn out. Why ilo you not sell them horses'? James is 
 a boy which loves his work. That is the woman ivho I gave 
 the "b«<>k tp. Wh0 called the servant? Me* 5 Was you 
 away yesterday tiV^There is as much real religion and 
 morality in this couniry as in atty other. He came agreeable 
 to his promise. I cannot by no means admit it to be true. 
 The sueee.'^s was very great of that enterpiise. He is a better 
 reader than a writer. He has not done m^thing to-day. He 
 that is diligent you should commend. Hiin that is inilu.'vt£i<>us 
 will bo rich. It was Htnner, him who wr#te the lliad.\^ Me 
 bemg present, they were emi)ariasse<l. Kli«de Island \^ the 
 sinatkst m{ the •ther States. That letter was wrote neat , 
 pjvery •no must jiulge of their tNVn feelings. Ho i.s like a 
 beast wf prey, who in void #f com}»assion. Thou can see how 
 little hi^ve heei^ doi)^. The flock are his •hject. He, I niU8t 
 
 KcL.^ 
 
 
 /, 
 
 
SKXTEN'GKS FOR COIiUECTION. 
 
 113 
 
 lone,' 
 
 ilds were won. 
 
 ^ whether !u- 
 fil for III.) 
 
 toaclicr and 
 I»r('ixj>t nor 
 ■0 sailors hud 
 I'O ('onsidcrod 
 Him and her 
 ' marks upon 
 "i(^ I am a 
 sliillinj^s and 
 lavc 1 served 
 < with them, 
 lie {,'00(1 ship, 
 eople's appro- 
 well received, 
 est reason to 
 It is more 
 Those .sort 
 men suitable 
 ly was killed 
 1 as us to sit 
 try. Charles 
 Id reus' shoes 
 ' James is 
 I jvho I .rave 
 
 \ WrtS VOU 
 
 reli;:i(>u and 
 lie aj,necal)lo 
 t to he true, 
 le is a hetier 
 
 to-day. He 
 •s indu.>Oirious 
 e Iliad.WMe 
 [slaud i^the 
 
 wrote neat<. 
 Ho 1.S h"k« {i 
 can see how 
 
 He, I must 
 
 < 
 
 punish ; hut she T will forjiive. Would you accept the {rift, 
 if you were her. Life and death is in the power of the tonirue 
 lie hids me to eonie. lie l)a.« went in presit lasir . The ship, 
 with all her crew, were lost. Stronj; proofs, not a loud v(»iee, 
 [iroduccs conviction. | You may ^o with James and I. I 
 would go if I was heSi 
 
 Correcl where iiecessnrn : — 
 
 It was the most jvrfect specimen I have ever seen, fJreat 
 ]);>i!!s >vas t;»ken to make it snitah'e. Xo one was to Idanie 
 i»ut me. Neither yonih nor hi'auty are a security aj:Minst 
 <leath. I will he (iinwned, nolxjdy shall hel|) uie. Who of 
 all the men in the world do \ou tliink 1 saw. I love \-ou 
 more than them. It is thoy. The droppin^r of eumlironi* 
 words is a {.'reat ^--ain. The crowd is turlmleut. Let every 
 one please them>;elves. Not to exasperate him, I only spoke 
 a few wor<ls. We sorrow not as them that h.ive no hope. 
 iff/ h hiwe the sound of / in cough And iiiiiny a holy text 
 arouufl she strews. It cannot heme you mean. Tie re was 
 only tliiee of us ro-(hiy. Half a million ))Oojd(> was kdled l>y 
 the eiirtlupiake. The great (nator and statesman are no 
 more. Did you st e the hoy and the horse win'eh we are 
 looking for ? I ihink I will remain for a week. When will 
 we all throe meet again ? tScven days has ehipsrd since your 
 arrival. Are your compasses at hand? I'hy.sics is an 
 importjint hranch of science. Thomsm's "Seasons" are 
 seldouj re;ul. Two-thirds of the country was .'•uhmergi d. A 
 man of candor and honesty are liot)ored. Verse .-ind prose 
 run into one anotln r like li<:ht and >hade Less than twenty 
 dollars are sntlicient. Have you no other hall hut tins'? 
 The L!irl could neither read or write. The Hcx^k of Proverbs 
 were written by Solomon. Ihre ct>mes my friend and tencher. 
 A tloek of sheep is coming nj) the street. Uread and milt 
 is my n.sual breakfa^^t. Theie was r.\eing and chnsin<; on 
 CiUiohie lea. 'Ihe lleot was seen eominir up the hay. 
 When I consider how each of the jjrofe-sions is crowded. 
 Having arose, he left the room.- Ca'-ar a-; well as Cicero 
 were chxpient. Neither the general nor his staff wore 
 lafcen. They or she was pre-cnt.* Ijo^or I gees to Boston 
 shoitly. The tity that had so long hatlled the enemy, 
 it was at la.st captured throujli treachery. The eav( s 
 of the house are liftcen feet from the ground. They 
 jn 'ired out the wat<'r hy jjailsfiil. It is certainly the finest 
 wi '-h I liMve ever seen. Nothing hut ^M-ave and serious 
 studies delights hiin. I am verily a man who am a Jew. 'I he 
 man >.hom you thou;.'.ht was honest turns out to he a rascal. 
 Did _\ou e.vpect to have heard such a '^^peecdi ! I never have 
 uor uevcr will for-^et it. Am I the pn])il who is to he punished ? 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
M 
 
 |!; 
 if. 
 
 144 
 
 SKNTENCKS FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 'I!- 
 
 Asa, his heart was porfect with the Lord. The sjieerli you lead 
 was Macnnhiy the historian's. Death elnidis alike the j)riuce 
 and the peasant. Of two evi's ehocse the least. Tlie ni<j:ht- 
 inyales voiee is the most sweetest in the {;rove. The thief 
 wliieh wa.s tnkcn yesterday refuses to ^\\g hi> nane Tlierc 
 was a row of trees on each side of tlie road. Either the youii'.r 
 man or his {guardians have aeted iin]>rndeiUly. His worship 
 and Htren<;th is in the clouds. There was now a lar;,'!- nnin'ier 
 of men standing near Iliin e.xeepted all was lo.-.t. He is not 
 the person as told me the story. '^Fhe two fir.st hoys in the 
 •^lass. The thunder was heard to roll over onr heads. Kvery 
 thouj^ht and tcelin<; are opposed to it. That is applied to 
 persons as well as thinjj:s. 'The Iojj;ieal and histoiieal analysis 
 of a lan^uajje jfenoraily to some degree eoineidcs. That is 
 either a man or woman's voice. 'I'he air, earth and water teem 
 with life. If he is attentive he will inijtrove. K'ei'.son foihids 
 us commit an injustice. The wiitinj; that hook has cost me 
 much work. The pu|)il wrote quickly the exercise. (Jrammar 
 should teach us to speak properly. Th(Mt<i:h tlii» measure is 
 mysterious it is worthy of attention. The ajiples taste sweet. 
 The temple was hiiilt i)y ^Solomon, the son oi David, who has 
 heen called the wisest ol men. 'IMie >on l;is father s(jn;:ht. He 
 went to town yesterday that he may altcMid the convfntion. 
 Thonph he fall yet he will rise .ijjain. Oh ! unfortunate me ! 
 what shall I do '( Have you read that poem of Hrowninjj's ? 
 Much depends on tlolin's acce|)tin<r the jiosition. Four times 
 five are twenty. That j)oet and drama ist has left many 
 mcmontoes of his ^rt atness. By those means he succeeded. 1 
 purchased this trunk at Mrown's the hatter. I tiid not f.ay it 
 was he. The ere"- exj)ecis to have their own way. I houj^ht 
 ten cross of huttons. Have von seen the Miss Smith's to-day ? 
 Do you u^e K'.rkland's and Scott's ,\ritlnnetie ? If it haj)pen 
 HO I shall he as iniu-li pleased. I did not ))erceivc them do it 
 The water has hursted the ho-rshcad. 
 
 
 s^ 
 
 
 u 
 
 O 
 
 
PAKsrxo. 
 
 145 
 
 e spoocli yo!i read 
 alikf the prince 
 Hst. The iiijrht- 
 i;'>ve. The thiof 
 i> nane There 
 'itlier the your)!.f 
 V. His worship 
 a h»ro;(. mirn'ier 
 {"•'t. He JA not 
 tirsf hoys in the 
 r heads. Kvory 
 '>t in applied to 
 ■^toiiciil analysis 
 "<'i«i«'s. That is 
 I and water leeni 
 Ivci'.son foihids 
 n)k h;is cost me 
 •cise. (;rainmar 
 thi? measure is 
 I>Ies taste sweet. 
 '>!ivid, who has 
 lier son;4ht. He 
 llie convention, 
 iiifortnnato me ! 
 ol lirowninjjf's ? 
 '>»i. Four tinies 
 lias left /nany 
 le ynccceded. I 
 t <li<i not fiay it 
 ^^i^y. I hou^'ht 
 smith's to-dav ? 
 • if it ha|)pen 
 ivc them do it 
 
 X 
 
 CO 
 
 <o 
 
 •35 
 
 (U 
 
 
 «« 3 
 
 u c 
 
 M 
 
 o ■"^ 
 
 r, = y 
 
 ■*-» 1^ •" « _ 
 
 •:; i* 3 c - -• - 
 
 ~ u ai * - • - 
 
 C« « « .' - T' = 
 
 o -i; ■" i = ^ ^ 
 
 _a f * - • « = 
 
 — ^ 
 
 't -- 1, 
 
 i t i :2 4. 
 
 i « -^ .= 
 
 a 5 
 
 . .t: r *i - - 
 
 >, > * O 4J XI 
 
 ._' h 
 
 — 4) 
 
 
 So 
 
 = -= 
 
 
 
 C - 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 J'3 
 
 > ;:; 
 
 r 
 
 .::? 
 
 B i 
 
 J* ■:e -1" 
 
 •z 5 
 
 t.5 
 
 
 * ii .r* ' .= * 
 
 ^'t 
 
 
 s 
 
 3 '/J 3 
 
 
 2 " u O 
 S , I. •» 
 
 ^ .^ '"" "k" 
 " > •— .^ 
 
 ■ ». r^ -* 
 
 *.< ? O 
 
 ■7 &•* 
 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tL—t 
 
 < 
 
 ti'j 5? .5-2 
 
 § = c a $ 
 
 - *J - 3 
 
 c 2,B « 
 ^ 6 c '" 
 
 3 
 
 B 
 
 
 U 
 
 J.- 
 
 i 5 
 
 
 
 c s *" 
 
 > « 
 
 it: 
 
 -1 1) 
 
 " 41 
 
 4, •— I, 
 
 > * 1) 
 
 M 
 
 5 2 ♦» <u « 
 
 e, W 
 
 
 B O 
 
 V, 
 
 
 w 
 i) 
 
 O 
 
 <« 
 
 »^ 
 
 B 3 
 3 3 
 O ^ 
 
 r -c 
 
 B 9 
 
 s.i, 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 .2 * 
 
 « 
 
 •r * > 
 
 (8 ■ •J 
 
 c 4< si 
 
 *i o 
 
 9 
 
 09 
 
 tea 
 
 B O 
 
 :5 a 
 
 li 
 
 V 
 
 t 
 
 a ii 
 2> 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 . 2 . 
 
 ■? 1-2 
 
 1 5' 
 
 
 Oh 
 
 
 ^-1 
 
 ^;^. 
 
 y 
 
 
 I 1 
 
 I 
 
I4G 
 
 PARSING. 
 
 The mother heard her chiMreii talkin;.' nnd siiilied to think 
 how v.iin were all tlieir expeciiiiioiis. People will not look 
 forward t( |)»)Sterify who never ln(»k liackward to tlieir aiiees- 
 tors O, jiuljiincnt, thou art fled to lirutlsh henstw! He heiii^ 
 (\vm\ we shall live. Man's inhunianity to man makes (■ouiit!e>s 
 thousands mourn. If yr suffer (or rijihteousness' sake, happy 
 are ye. I^ove rules his kingdom without asw(»rd. The Prime 
 Minister prondsed him a situation. 'I'he I'resident made him 
 Consul. I shall ask him the (juest'on to-morrow. A ^'ood 
 situation was offered me, hut I deidined it. The farm is worth 
 all the money you jr;\ve for it. The star of tnilitary };lory, 
 risiii}; like a uuiteor, like a meteor has set. You are too 
 humane and considerate, thinjj^s few people can he cliarj^ed 
 with. In mnfters <d" conscic-iue, first thoughts are hest, in 
 mait( rs of prudence the he.st ih( iij^^hts iire last. To do so, my 
 lord duke, replied Morton, undauntedly, were to nckuowled^fe 
 ourselves the reltels you term us. Drink deep, or ta>te not the 
 Pierian spiiiif;. The hattle continued two days. The " Plea- 
 sures of Memory " is an admirahle work, ("harj^e, Chester, 
 charge! on, Stanley, on! were the last words of Marniiou 
 Love your ememies. That u'rent or.itor and statesman \a 
 entitled to our gratitude. The Cutnmittce has at length 
 hrought in a report. He sleeps the sleep that knows no waking. 
 She walks a goddess, ami she moves a (jueen. To teli you the 
 truth, I was not pre'cnl. Hememher that to he huml)Ie is to 
 he wise Let them lau;.'h who win. We:e he ten times the 
 villiau that he is, he would still (iud supporters. Let a douhlo 
 portion of his spirit re-t upon me. Is (it her of these men 
 woithy "f pulilic c nlidence ! Few, few jihall parr where nniii/ 
 meet. He si Idom lives friigaliy, who lives hy ehanee. It wa?" 
 tho Homau that aime<! at the coiKpiest of the world. iJohti or 
 Thonnis will ^ive us his company. In hi-* an '.er he sti iiek 
 hinij-elf. I «io not lare who knows it. I shull go tmself. 
 The hfrtvest man that e'er foight, mighf have treinhlod I 
 have hcatd what you said, \\'h« se hooks have you f Theio 
 are snme who think diffirently. The rtMding of the report 
 occupied half an hour. Aftir lUfeaticg the eueu»y h" nu»reh<il 
 on. I will cither s(»iid it or hii ig it inv.self, 1 shall give such 
 as I have. lla^illL: lost his l(alth he was (>hligcd to relimpiish 
 his studies. Whether ho will do it or not is uruertain. He 
 went a hunting yesterday. .Murk Inn my fall, and tluit that 
 ruintd iin'. Such conduct hecomew j; nnui. What private 
 grief ihey iuive, alas! I ki'ovv not. Oh what a tangled weh 
 we weavo 1 Child of the sun, refulgent hummer eonies. The 
 boy will become a man. 
 
 What! cnn'st thou not forhcar me half an hour? 
 Thou get thee ^one, anti dig my grave lliyst'lC. 
 
PARKIXf}. 
 
 147 
 
 
 L^Iiod to think 
 will not look 
 <> their aiices- 
 fs ! He heinjr 
 iikes (•()Uiit!o''S 
 ■i' .s;iko, hniij)y 
 Tho Prime 
 •'lit matio hill) 
 row. A ;roo(l 
 fiinn is norrh 
 nilitarv Lrlorv, 
 I «»n aro too 
 m ho ciiarp'd 
 arc lu'st, ill 
 i'o do so, iiiv 
 o nckiiowlc'du'e 
 • la>te not the 
 The " Plea- 
 i »•;:••, C lie.- tor, 
 ' of Marniioii 
 statesman is 
 rts at length 
 ws no wakinjr. 
 [o tell voii the 
 hnrnhle is to 
 t<'ii liiiic'.H tho 
 Let a (loiihlo 
 of these TiH'ii 
 n where man/ 
 nice h was 
 lid. (John or 
 ;er ho Hti lu'k 
 ill p> fiUHelf. 
 trcmhled I 
 K)!i r Theio 
 j{ the report 
 y h n iiiHreheil 
 nil ;;ive siieh 
 to rcdiiKj'.iisli 
 eertaiii. Ho 
 lid that that 
 ^'liat private 
 lani^led ^eh 
 i'oinef«. The 
 
 Sneli was that temple Imiit i.v Solomon 
 'J'lian wlioni none riiher reiuned o'er Israel. 
 
 ITc'.jieward weej)iii;_r went Nil>om!s, 
 Sorrowiiij,'' for her Hiawatha, 
 Feariii;;- lest his strength should ^lil him 
 Lest his fasting sln)iild he fatal. — /.nii(i/i/!oii\ 
 
 P>reak, hreak, hrenk, on thy rold |/rny stone.«j, () sea, 
 And I would that my tongue could utter 
 The thouyhts that aris*- in me. — 'J'rtiui/sotK 
 
 Tlioy dnj: his ^rave e'en where he lay 
 Uui every nuirk is gone — Scnit. 
 
 Tl e hour is come, the eherinlied hour 
 
 When fiom the Imsy world set free 
 
 I ^eek, at length my lonely hower, 
 
 And muse in silent tlntu|;lii on thee. — I/mtk. 
 
 Who ean paint 
 Like nature ? Phu ima;;in!itiou hoa»«t, 
 Amid its yay erfation, hufs like hers * 
 
 " Since I need*< must i«a\ niv -ay, 
 
 Since on hoard the dutv s d")ne, 
 
 And from Midn Honi! to ( roisic Point wlifMitiit btiCArUD ? 
 
 Sluee 'ti» awk and havf I u\\\y ; 
 
 Siiien t>'" others no iish.>re, — ' 
 
 (^)mo ! A jfood whole ludidjv ! 
 
 Leave t«»p) and hpo my wife, whom I call the Hellc Anroro " 
 
 That he asked, and that he y:of,— nothing uxoro.-^nrouunnj. 
 
 But where in he. (he Pil^'rim <<( my son^ ? 
 Meihinks he comcth late and tarries^ lon^. 
 
 r? 
 
 Then if thon fallefl, oh ('romvell, 
 Thou falleMt u hlo.vi^ed tnartvr.— . 
 
 I'sed mart) r , — Shakrspttrt. 
 
148 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 And ii(»\v, f;iro\vt'll ! Tis hard to jrivc ihec ap 
 
 t'^ 
 
 With (k-.itii so like a ^'ciitio shunher oi, v,fii."^ : 
 Add thy dark sin ! Oh ! I could tlriiik thf (':{:, 
 If from this \v()(! its hittorriess ha<l wott Ich', 
 iMav (io<l have called thee, like a wanderer, iio.ne, 
 My'lost hoy, Ahsah)in !— .V. P. Willis. 
 
 Back I turned, 
 Thon folh>\vln^ cried'>t ah)nd, " Kctnrn, fair Eve! 
 Whom flit'st thon ! Whom thou Hirst of hirii thou art. '— Milton 
 
 Would'st tht)U have that 
 Which thou esleein'st the ornament (»f life, 
 Ami live a I'o.vard in thin<' own esteem, 
 Lettintr " I dare ti )t " wait upon " 1 would " 
 Like the poor Cat in the adaf^e. — ■rihakcsptate. 
 
 The stars sliall fade away, the sun himself 
 Glow dim with nge, and nature sink iu years. 
 
 Ti"!, 
 
 MhCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 
 
 ( Pdrsc lf<dlci::ed woi'd^. ) 
 
 An they approac hed the coa-if, they saw it cjvorcd witli a 
 multitmh! of pcojile, ti'lunn the novelty of the spectacle hud 
 drawn to;;ether, whose attitudes and ;re->tuie.s ex])ressed wonder 
 and iistonishnient at (he stran^^e ohjects, wlii'-h pretjenled 
 llii'i/iselri .< to t/t' it view. — I'oln'rtson. 
 
 When Dr. Johusoi .1 asked hv Mr. Boswell how he had 
 attained in his extr. • lary excelleace in conversation, ho 
 replied, he had no other rule or systcni than tliis ; that, when- 
 ever he had anything to s<ii/, Ijo tried to say it in the l)est 
 munner Ik; wan aide. — dhul'iiimi'. 
 
 As the I'almer. li},'hted hv a domestic icilli a torch, passed 
 throui^h ihi' inincate conihination of ajiartinents of this lar^e 
 and irrcLTular m in«iioii, tlio cuphearer »'ominj; hehind hint whiii- 
 pered in his car, that if he IkkI no ohjccfion to a cup of ^ood 
 •nead in his apariiuint, thre were many (hMucstics in that 
 fHiuilv who would ;;ladly ho ir ilni news lie had hronj,'ht from 
 tlu' lloly Land. |),ii(it'ul.irly llmt which concornod the Knijjht 
 of I V anhoo. — ScoH. 
 
 When he received pieces of poetry which ho tliought had 
 worth in thorn, he rewarded the writer.— jfVic Tatler. 
 
 \ 
 
 ^Vt--^;: , 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 149 
 
 fH'.ne, 
 
 art. ' — J////o,j 
 
 .111. I " 
 
 J A LYSIS. 
 
 >vorc(l with a 
 spoctacle had 
 rcssod woiidor 
 I'll J > rose II ted 
 
 how he hud 
 iver.siti(»n, he 
 ' that, whou- 
 t in the best 
 
 torch, passed 
 of this lar^^e 
 id him wlii;^- 
 
 riip of j^rood 
 
 •sties in that 
 
 ronijlit from 
 
 th(! Kiiijjht 
 
 ilioni,'ht had 
 r. 
 
 The poor hoy at the villaiire school hrs tnkon fOtnTort as he 
 has read that the tim'^ '-an when ])at,io' V'eli.;fcr, w/.ose frithfi 
 told iiini he sho'ihi (:o to C< llcue if lu' had to sell ew-rv uv\>^ of 
 his fiirni to pny ihe expenses, laid his h'^ad on the ^hcnlder 
 of that fond nnd discerniiifj ])Hreiit, nmi wr])t the tlitniks ho 
 could not spo'ik. — licenlt. 
 
 I rcnieinhcr. Sir, that when the treaty wns concludod hetweeti 
 Friince and Kn^dnnd at tlie pence of Atniens, a stern old 
 Kiifilishinan and an orator, who disliked the terms of the 
 jieace ns i<:noiiiiiioiis to Mnj^land. said in the House of f'i>iii- 
 mons, that if Kiny William con/il know the terms of the lieaty, 
 he would turn in Ms '<;;''n. — Wdister. 
 
 Those le^al ihecks which, while the sovereij^n remained 
 depeiident on his siil>jects. had hecn aile«piaie to t!;e purpose 
 for which they were desi;^ned, were now found vantnu/. — 
 Mdfduldif. 
 
 lie that docs not feed the force of a<ireeaMe views and 
 situations in his own mind, will hardly arrive at the sati.»>fac- 
 tions they hrin^^ from the reflections of oihcrs. — Tlir Tntlvr. 
 
 l*erhajis the thiu^r of all others that struck an observer most 
 when he came to s<h the piinco riKirli/, was the oii^Miiality of 
 his mind — //rips. 
 
 The h'jjh idea of his own anthoiity, wliich he liad imhilied, 
 made him incapi.ltle i f (/ivini/ way to the spirit of liheity which 
 hcjjan to prevail I'lnoii^ Ins .su!)jecfs. — I/iimi\ 
 
 The Moslem Kmpire in Spain was Im! a lailliant exotic, that 
 took no permiineiit root in the soil it emhcUished — 11'. /inuff. 
 
 A wise jiatiiot who understHiids the wants of his time, will 
 throw himself into the scale, wliich most needs the weight ot 
 hi8 intliience. — //illcrd. 
 
 The effect of this disinclination <>ii the part of the jmldic 
 towards till artificers of their pleasur(s, when they a'temjit to 
 cnlar^:e till ir means of (iiiiiinif,(/, may he s( en in tli«' lensnrcs 
 usually passed liy vul<:ar criticism upon actors or arti-"s who 
 venture to (hante tlio character of their efforts, that, in .'•o 
 (toi)H], they may enlnr^je the scale of their ait. — Scnit 
 
 Wherever a j)oor atid rude nation, in wl.i( li tlu; form of 
 government is a limited monarchy, receives a ;.m'" at accession t)( 
 wealth and knowledge, it is in inunediate daajjer of fallinj^ 
 under nrhitrary \)owcr.~ Ataroitlat/, 
 
 The tender (Kid, ufter a youth spent in the enj(»ytnent of 
 fame and liiMiry, was condemned to a hopidcss exile on the 
 frozen ImnkH of the Danuhe, w h»»ve he was e.xposed, almost 
 without defence, to the fury of these monsters oi the desert, 
 with whose stern spirits he feared that his j;eutltJ sluide mi^ht 
 hereafter be cunfuundeJ. — (HUmu. 
 
 I 
 
150 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 -"' . 
 
 ^■:^(f 
 
 
 r- 
 
 ■"^ Ji 
 
 
 R 
 
 iM 
 
 ^ 
 
 'J I; 'I If4;| 
 
 t 
 
 flBri 
 
 
 At nii(lni;xl>t, in his Ruardod tont, 
 The Turk sn( (Ircinniuf] of tho hour 
 "j's. Wlion (Jri'ccc, lior kiioo in sii|)))liiin('e \w\\\, 
 Should trciiddo at his power. — llnlhrk. 
 
 If cVr Djy son 
 
 F :ll()ir tho war. ir-U him it is a scliool, 
 '^ NVhoro all the piiiicijilcs Ipiidiii;: to honor 
 Arc tauffht, if truly followed. — Mussini/er. 
 
 That ho is mad. 'tis truo ; 'tis Iriio, 'tis pity ; 
 And pity 'tis, 'lis true. — SluiLrs/H'ttrc. 
 
 Not (iiijoyuK'nt. and not sorrow, 
 
 Is onr d's'incd ond or way ; 
 
 Hut (i) net , that cai'h lo-iiKjrroir 
 
 Finn us fuilhor than todnij. — fjimnfi'lhnr 
 
 I \on<'rat<? tho m;\n who.so hoait is warm, 
 
 Wh'»;o hands aro pnr^'. whoso floctrino and who^e life, 
 
 <\i-iiiri,l;'i,i, oshiiiii, Incid proof 
 
 'I'h.it ho is honost in tho saon-d cau.se. — CoM?yyer. 
 
 Faintly as tolls tho oviMiin;;: (diimo, 
 
 Our voicos koi'p tinio, and our o;us ko«p lime. — Moore. 
 
 On tho other sido tiproso 
 Htdal, in a<t, moro i.rr;j«'<'lnl .uiil hnmaiio: 
 A faiior />r/.si>/< Inst not. Ih'itrvn ; In? soomed 
 For di;jniry ''nm/io'tcd ami hiuh r.r/t/oit ,• 
 Mat idl was falso ;ind hollo.v ; tho'iy^h his toatruo 
 Dropind manna, and I'nild mako i!io worso ap]>oar 
 Tho l.otrir roas ni, to porplox :ui<l dash 
 Maturi'!*t conn.-ois ; f(M' his thou<.;'jts wore h)W ; 
 To vioo indn>ti'ious. hut to iKddi'r (h-oiU 
 Tim'rons ;uid siothfnl ; yot !io pk-asod the oir, 
 Ami with porsn isivo accout thus ho-^an. — Milton, 
 
 Omr- upon a tnidni;.jht dit.iry, while I pomlercil, woak and 
 
 woary, 
 0\cj inany a <jnainl and ouritnt*' vo'utno of fory^otiou lore — 
 Wliilo 1 noddod nearly /."»/»/<//»", suddenly ihoro camo ft tiippiu;;, 
 As of !«umc oue ijenily ru;>pin4, rii|»plu<^ at luy chatiihor door 
 
 --Pot. 
 
 rv y-ajrya ji 
 
 ^^^^^faafe4^4,i^l'^tf>-. ■ -^ V-. 
 
e horit, 
 
 nor 
 
 f'y; 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 lllUV. 
 
 wlioie life, 
 
 rper. 
 
 le. — Moore. 
 
 tori^'HO 
 
 ■e {i?»i>t'Jir 
 low ; 
 ' oir, 
 
 MiihtH. 
 
 red, weak itiul 
 fttton fi»r« — 
 
 IHU" ;\ tilp|»iri;:, 
 I'hjttijlirjr Hoor 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 PiiKF-iAiiNAKY. — By ii careful invostiiiatioii of tli(3ir 
 relations and allinitics, tli*^ ditVcrent laiii,niai^es of man- 
 kind liav(5 l)e(Mi cla-i-ilicd hy tiic modern scit'ncc of 
 compaiMtive pliiloloixy into a few leadinij; families or 
 groups. Of these tin; m!)st eomjirehensive and imijortaiit 
 is that vai'ion^ly known as the Aryan, Indo-drernianie, or 
 Indo-Knropean. 'I'iie primitive tongue from which th«i 
 various hraiiehes of this remarkal)le tamily ot hinuuaires 
 have sprunn^, was spoken hy ji race; whose; nativi^ 
 seat seems to have; hecMi the eentral tahle-lands of 
 Asia, hut whose (h'seendants at the dawn of history 
 
 ft 
 
 wtM"t; found haviiii^ a wide !;('Oirraphi(! d ditVusion from 
 India westward to tlu; Atlaiitie ocean. For evidence' in 
 detail that such a race an<l .such ahiniju iije once existi^l, 
 students must he rcfei'red to <reati>''>i on comparative 
 philoh)!^y. " It is clear that, when two m- mure lan- 
 liuairciA employ the sanu; wortls to evpi-t >> \\\i\ most 
 familiar ohjects and mtist simple ideas, — when they 
 possess the same; niuuerals, the same proiimms. the 
 same prepositions, and the same system ot irrammatical 
 inlle(;tion, — these Ian •jfui:j^e^ wt >• originally one and the 
 sann;, tu* derived from sum* common parent. However 
 fur removed IVom one unother the naticuis mav oe 
 
 ft 
 
 which now speak them, however dilleicnt may he Oieir 
 forms of reli^jion, it mav he asserted, witiiout the possi- 
 hiiit\ of douht, that they wen; at s,»me r«!mot«; iMU'iod 
 one jveople, possess! u;; u oumum liinuii' •• and a com- 
 m<m ('ivili/atioti. A fipw vt^ars iiiio it \vo4i d have Immmi 
 <hMnne(l the heii^ht of .nhsordity to imiLtiiie that the 
 Euixlish and the Hindus were oriyitially om people, 
 speaklntf the same laiimiai(ts and clearly distinj;uisluMl 
 from Owher families of aiiiikiini; and yet c<.n)parat.ive 
 
 
 i 
 
152 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 '-m 
 
 -*-,- 
 
 l)liil()l()^7 Ikis {"stablislicd tliis fact by evidence as clear 
 and in(sistil)le as tliat tlie eartli revolves around 
 the sun." ^ Marsh's Lectures on the Enylish L(fV(/t(af/e). 
 
 Classii'k A'i!<>\ or ill i: Inho-Kuhoimcax I.anouac.eh. 
 — Tlie |iur|»()S(; of this sketch does not re(|uire an 
 exhaustive chi«pific:iti<)n of the Indo-European lan- 
 guaj^es. ThtMuain divisions, which, it must he l)orne 
 in mind, are "branches of one common trunk, not 
 off-shoots, the one from th<' otlua-" are: — 
 
 1. T/te JiuIldH. The true renresentative of this 
 brarcli is the Sanscrit, which ceased to be a livin^r laii- 
 j:;ua<jje as early as the third centuiy before Christ. The 
 Jlinc'ustani and some other dialects of modern India 
 stand in the same relation of descent to Sanscrit as 
 Italian and Spanish to Latin. 
 
 2. Jnmiaiior Medo-Pcrsic Here belonir the ancient 
 Zend ; the languajjje of the cuneiform inscriptions of 
 Cyrus, Darius and Xerxes; and modirn IN-rsian. 
 
 3. The Grerk, includinj:; the various classical 
 dialects, and tlu; Uonxiic or modi'rn Greek. 
 
 4. The Lntin. The modern descendants of ancient 
 Latin are called the Romance lauiiuai^cs. Of these 
 the chief are Frencjli, Italian. Spanisii and Tortugese 
 
 5. The Celtic. Of this branch there are two 
 quite distinct varieties, the (Ja'lic and the Cymric. 
 The former includes the (ialic ])roj)er of the Scj)tch 
 Ililihlands, tlu^ Krse or native Irish, and the INIanx of 
 the Isle of Man; the latter, the Welsh, tiu' Cornish 
 (now extinct) and the Armorican of the French 
 I'rovince of Brittany. 
 
 () The S/nroiric, represented by the Polish, the 
 Bohemian, and the Hussian. 
 
 7. The Tevfonic. This important brani'h includes : 
 (1.) Th(^ Ilinh CJeiinaii.sjKiken in Up|>er or Southern 
 Germany; {'2.) the Low German, sp<>Ken i»i the Low 
 Counti-ies or Nethei lands, and in Northei'U Germany; 
 and, (.'i) tlu; Sciuiilinavian, comprising the various 
 diaJectfi of Sweden, Norway, l)»3nmark and Iceland. 
 
 T 
 
 Eiig 
 
 settl 
 
 tlie 
 
 the 
 
 coiit 
 
 Vvh 
 
 and 
 
 Tlie 
 
 in li 
 
1^ 
 
 TriHTORICAL SIvKT(!n. 
 
 153 
 
 lice as clear 
 ves around 
 Limffuaye). 
 
 [iANOUAGEH. 
 
 re(juire an 
 
 opeaii lan- 
 
 t lie home 
 
 trunk, not 
 
 ivt' of this 
 liviu":; lan- 
 hrist. The 
 (Umii India 
 Sanscrit us 
 
 the ancient 
 riptions of 
 rsian. 
 > chissical 
 
 c»f ancient 
 Of tliest! 
 
 Portuiicse 
 are two 
 
 ' Cymric. 
 
 lie Scotch 
 INIanx of 
 
 le Cornish 
 
 le French 
 
 \)\h]), the 
 
 I includes : 
 S(juthern 
 I the r.ow 
 jlerniMny ; 
 e various 
 celand. 
 
 TiiK Enomsh a Tkutonic Languagic. — The 
 English, whicli, in a wide historieil sense, is the h.n- 
 guiii>e spoken hy the K.iglisii pruple from their first 
 settleincMit in Hritain to tini present day, helorgs to 
 the Low German division of th<^ Teutonic hr iiich of 
 the Indo-European fiinily. At the pi'esent time tlie 
 continental dialect most closely resemblini; Eairiish is 
 Fris^ian, spoken in the jirovince of West Friesland, 
 and in some of the islands off' the coast of Schleswig. 
 The following diagram shows the position of English 
 in the grand Indo-European grouj) : 
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN. 
 
 Indian, Ininian, Ce tic, TEUTONIC, Latin, Greek, Slavonic, 
 
 High German, LOW GERMAN, Scandinavian 
 
 Dutch, Flemish, ENGLISH, Frisian, Plattdeutsch. 
 CiRCtlMHTAN'CKS OF ITS T\TIU)1M'<TH)N INTO BlllT.MV 
 
 — When the Romans invade<l Britain, they found it 
 occupied hy a Celtic po])ulation, most of whoso 
 original dialects are still preserved, — Ga'lic in the 
 Ilighhinds of Scotland, INIunx in the Isle of Man, and 
 Welsh in tlie Principality of Wales. During the four 
 centuries ot Roman occupation (48-409 A. D ), the 
 great maps of ahoriiiinal inhabitants continued to 
 s})eak Celtic, tlumgh Latin seems to have been under- 
 stood hy considerable numbers of the common people 
 in the vicinity of the chief Roman settlements. It is 
 ueedless to diwcuss whether a longer possession of 
 
 1 
 
154 
 
 III8T0HICAr> SKCTCfl. 
 
 tlit^ isl.'iiid would jirolcilily liave issiiul ii) miioiIu'I* 
 Ixonmnce oi- N(o-L;itin toinjiic.siiiiihir to tlie laiiiiUJiws 
 to wliicli KoiiKtn coii'ji., St aii<{ coloi.izjition ^iiw birili 
 ill Spjiiii iiiid France. As a niattcr of fact, tlie coi - 
 quciors \vitli<li'cvv wiiliout ! avinir apprcciahly modified 
 tlic laiii>n;;i;c of tlic subji ct race, one of whose cliief 
 cliaracteristics lias been tlu; tenacity with wliich it has 
 clung to its native idioms under ciicuinstances of the 
 greatest difficulty. Tin.* Tcuionic con(|uest of Brit; in, 
 begun in tlie r)tli and conijiletcd 'n the (Ith century, led 
 to iuiporlant historical C()nse(|uences. Whether or net 
 A. I). 449 was tlie exact date at \\hich the German 
 tribes fii-st appeared in liritam, whetln r the traditional 
 Ileiigist and Ilorsji were myths or r*;;! persoiijiges, it 
 is ceriain that the <'ej)arture of the Komaiis was soon 
 fo.low'd by the airival cf successive hands of invaders 
 from the eastern shoie of the North Sea. The 
 jirincipal part of the islai d was soon subjugated, and 
 in this case subjugation meant the virtual extirpation 
 of the native irhabitants from tlie regions subdued. 
 Fragments, houever, of tin jirlmitive people found 
 shei'er in the niouii'ain fastnesses of the West and 
 North, and liave tin re jxipetutited unto this day their 
 race and hugu;ige. The eoiMpu riig tiibes soon 
 became fused in one us thk Kngijsii rKoi'Li-', and 
 their laii«iuage has secured the widtst geogiaphical 
 extension of any tongue ever sj.oken by man.* 
 
 ' " I'-nuIis1t iiiay Ik; lifi'id all omt tlie world from (lie lips (,t a l;ir;rer 
 iiiiinlu'riif iiLTsinis tliiiti ;inv otiitr funii of s|ifcu'li ; it is r.iiiidl.v l»ofiiiiiiirj: 
 \]\i lanyii.ijii' tif friiilc ami coimm rcc, tlie uiiitvi'i;,' rk'ipciits of oui 
 iiio(l( 111 life. Sik'iice, tiiM, is ln';^in?iiii^ (o claim licr for lis o\\ ti, and it 
 is ii(,t liiiiy a;;n tliat a Swedish and l>ani>li writer on seii'iititie suhjoets 
 eaeli iliose to speak in KnuliNli i\itli( r than in (li"ir own idioms for the 
 saKo of y^aininua wider andieiiee. Ijltle liy little the old ilialeets and 
 laii^'ua^rt's of the eaith are disappearin.c with ineirased means of eom- 
 inuiiieatii 11, and let iis add also tlie spread of the Knj:lish race, and that 
 lan^riiaue has most ehaiiei' of snpeisodiiiu' tht in whieh, lik(> our own, has 
 d'siaided fill' eiimlifoiis maehineiy of inflectional '.iiamniar. 'I'lie ureat 
 t;riiiiiii onee adxi^ed his eoiiiitrymen to u'ive up their own toiij^Mie in 
 favor of Kntilish, anil a tiiiie may yet come when they will follow the 
 iidviietd' tlie founder of aeieiitifle Uuriuati pliiloloj,'y."— Profeatjor Sayec, 
 of Oxford. 
 
niSTORICAfi SKETCH. 
 
 155 
 
 ii) .'uioilicr 
 
 U\ laii^U;)ir('S 
 
 n j^jivc l)irili 
 ic't, tlie coi - 
 tly modified 
 whose cliicf 
 wliicli it liMs 
 I ices of il)e 
 t of Bri(; in, 
 century, Jed 
 ctlier or net 
 lie Geiinan 
 e iMiditional 
 Tsouitges, it 
 IIS \v;is soon 
 of invaders 
 Sea. The 
 ugated, and 
 extiipation 
 IS snhdued. 
 'oph' found 
 • West and 
 is day their 
 lilx's soon 
 KoTLK, and 
 t'o::rajihical 
 in.* 
 
 ips i.f a lartror 
 .idly lii'cuiiiiiiy; 
 
 lllL'lltS of oui 
 
 i:>< <»\vn, and it 
 iitific sidijocfs 
 idiiiiiM tor the 
 i dia!(.'its and 
 iiL'aii.s of L-oui- 
 nico, iuid that 
 oiir own, liivs 
 1'. 'I'lio ^vvnt 
 wii ton^iic it) 
 ill follow the 
 ofeasor Sayce, 
 
 Historical Dkvkloi'mknt of Knglisfi. — In the 
 
 wide sense in vliich tlie Kui^Iish laiinua<re is now 
 generally taken, it presents itself in thvoo. periods or 
 stages of development, which may hv <iistini:iiished as 
 old, widdlf^ and new or modern English. Before we 
 proceed to consider tliese se|)arately, it is projier to 
 observe that it is oidy an Instorictd view of the suhject, 
 which will iustifv us in considerini; tlie laiiiiuaije 
 spoken by our Teutonic forefathers and JMo'.k'rn 
 Eiiiilish as identical. It has been well said 
 that " Old English, oi- Anglo-Saxon, and jModern 
 English are for all p/Y/r^/c^// ends, distinct languages, — 
 as much so for example, as Lttin and Spatdsh. No 
 amount of familiarity with INIodern i'.nglish, inclu(iing 
 its local dialects woidd enable the sMdent to read 
 Anjilo-Saxon, three-fourths of the vecabularv of which 
 Inive perished a: d been reconstructed within 800 
 years ; nor would a knowledge of these lost words 
 give him the power, since the grammatical system 
 in accidence and syntax would be entirely stranj^e to 
 him." Yet it can be clearly shown that all the 
 changes which have taken place liave not affected the 
 essential identity of the language ; that tliose changes 
 are but tl;e modifications necessarily incident to a 
 living speech ; tliat while JModern Eiiiilish has lost 
 most of the infkctions ajid much of the vocabulary of 
 the language in its earliest staue, and while it has 
 borrowed in all directions to make good thest; losses 
 itis still in its substantive charactcrisiics a Teutonic, 
 lani:ua;'<\ evolved bv natural and easily traceable 
 processes of giowth from that spoken by the tribes 
 which con(piered Engl.ind. 
 
 0\.D English ok A\(iLO-SAXON. — The German 
 invaders of Britain belonged to different, though 
 closely related tribes, and probably spoke different 
 dialects of a conunon Low German spcMch. As the 
 earliest extant specimens of old English date n<'aily 
 300 yeurs after the original iuvasiou, it is impossible to 
 

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 33 WeST MAIN STRUT 
 
 WIBSTER.NY I4S80 
 
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15G 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 tr.'K'c^ the lifferences exist ini; umoiifj the dialects as 
 first introduced. There is reason, however, to assume 
 that distinctions afterwards found to exist in various 
 parts of the island were due to original differences^, and 
 also for believini; that the Aniiles who settled tl: ^ 
 Northern and Eastern [)art of the island as far as the 
 Scottish Highlands, spoke a dialect more akin to the 
 Frisian branch of Low German than that spoken by 
 the Saxf)ns, who concjuered and colonized the West 
 and South. Probably in the earlier, as we know for a 
 fact in historical tiujes, tiiese dialectal differences 
 were not very m trked. As in course of time, but 
 certainly several centuries before the Norman Con- 
 quest, the whole j)eople without tribal distinction, 
 became known as J^ngHshmett, so their vernacular 
 tongue, as distinguished from Celtic on the one hand, 
 and Latin on the other, became known as the 
 Knglish language. Indeed the fact that literature 
 began to flourish first amor)g the Angles of Northum- 
 bria — though its career there was abruptly terminated 
 by tiie Danish invasion — enabled that powerful tribe 
 io impress its name upon tne common language of the 
 island, some time before they secured for it an equal 
 pn'vahince as applied to the entire people. In 
 illustration of this, the case of King Alfred may be 
 ref('rre<l to, who, while carL'ful to call himself " Kmg 
 of th(} West vSaxons," and to appeal to the dignity of 
 "Saxon" institutions, still called the language in 
 which he wrote, jind in which he founded a new litera- 
 ture, Knglish. 
 
 The period of Old English may be said to have 
 ended with the I Itii century r. c. " with the death of 
 the generation who saw the Norman Con(pie3t." So 
 far as we know, the language was never called Anglo- 
 Saxon l>y tliose who spoke and wrote it. A few 
 passages of old English literature have been preserved, 
 in winch that term is used, but in no case as a desig- 
 nation of the language of the people. Indeed it is by 
 
IHHTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 ir>7 
 
 (li.ilects as 
 ', to assume 
 t ill various 
 3rences, and 
 settled th ^ 
 s far as the 
 akin to the 
 
 spoken by 
 \ \he West 
 know for a 
 
 differences 
 \ time, but 
 »rman Cou- 
 distinction, 
 
 vernacular 
 3 one hand, 
 /n as tlie 
 ; literature 
 f Northum- 
 terminated 
 verful tribe 
 uago of the 
 t an equal 
 ioi)le. In 
 ed may be 
 elf '' King 
 dignity ot 
 iiguage in 
 new litera- 
 
 d to have 
 »e death of 
 uest." So 
 led Anglo' 
 :. A few 
 preserved, 
 18 u desig- 
 ed it is by 
 
 no means certain that it d«Mioted a Juncfion or union ot 
 the two tribes. It seems ratlier to have been used to 
 distinguish the Saxons in Britain, living among the 
 Angles, from theSixons in their oriifinal seat on the 
 continent. As apjdied to language, the term "Anglo- 
 Saxon " was first em|)loyed by modern philologists 
 While its use lias tended to obscure tin; f^ict that 
 Modern Eng'ish has been derived by a regnlar process 
 of development from Old Englisli — that in fact, they 
 are essentially one langiiage — it is very ccnvenient 
 when we deal, — as we now propose bricfiy to do — not 
 so much with their resemblances and identities, as 
 with their s[)ecia] p( ints ol differentiation. 
 
 Literary remains in Anglo Saxon.— -The earliest 
 specimens of old English or Anglo Saxon composition 
 are some fragments, chiefly |)oetic, written in the 
 Anglian or Northumbrian dialect, which nntil the 
 disinptive influence of the Dani.sh invasion wa.s felt, 
 took the lead as the iiicliuni of literature. It is, how- 
 ever, to the inspiration given to learning in tin; 9lh 
 century by Alfred, King of the West Saxons, that we 
 are indebted for the chief literary remains of Saxon 
 England. In fact our knowledge of classical Anglo- 
 Saxon is largely derived from works written and 
 lianded dov.'n to n.s by that distinguished nn)narch 
 himself. These an; chiefly translations from Latin 
 into Anglo-Saxon, and include the following : IJcde's 
 Kccl<'.fila.stlv<il Jlifitort/ ; The Unirersa/ Il/sfort/ of 
 Orosius; (Jregory's Pastornl Oire \ and the Consola- 
 tion of Phllosoplnj of Iki'thius. Other Anglo-Saxon 
 remains of importance are the epic poem of I>eowulf ; 
 the poems of Cynewulf; the celebrated Anglo-Saxon 
 Clironicic, and the |)oetic )>ara[)hrase of Oenesis and 
 other ])art8 of the Pentateuch, sonu^what doubtfully 
 a.scribed to a primitive bard, (Jaedtnon. 'i'he iSawon 
 Chnmli'le was a comj)ilation carried on through c(;n- 
 turies. Wliat may lie (tailed a lirst edition wa.s pre- 
 
 1 
 
158 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 
 pared by an Archhisliop of Canterbury, by whom the 
 work was brought (h>wn to 891 A. I). Monks in 
 various parts oi' Knghuid carried on the uiKh'rtakiiig 
 witli great care and zeal until 1154 A, D. when its 
 cessation marked an important turning-point in the 
 history oi" the Kuglish language. It is justly regarded 
 as the most valuable literary legacy b(Mpieathed us by 
 our Teutonic ancestors. 
 
 Charactkkihtios op Anglo-Saxon. — 1. Old Eng- 
 lish or Anglo-Saxon was a remarkably hom()<i<iiie<>ns 
 language?. Its words with scarcely an exception 
 beh)ngi'd to its own native st(jck. It contained 
 a few Latin roots iricorporated, during the (ier- 
 man wars, in the giiiieric Teutonic tongue, and 
 which, tliend'ore, Anglo-Saxon possesse<l in common 
 witii various continental dialecls ; also a few others 
 naturally introduced as incidental to tlie gradual 
 adojttion of (Miristi inity. The Danish invasion ami 
 s<'ttlenient no doubt produced importauu results on 
 the conversational idioms of certain localities, but 
 made no marked iiii|)res.sion on the language of 
 literature. The Danes in England do not seem to 
 have put forth any special etfoi't to extend, or even 
 pre/<erue, their native tongue. As in Normandy, they 
 easily gave it u[) for a more cultivated language. 
 iMiglish was the, ofTiiual speech even wiieii D.iuish 
 Kings sat on the throne. 
 
 2. As a homogeneous language, it possessed an 
 almost unlimited power of se{f-develoi)ment. It freely 
 formed its com|)ounds and derivativi^s fri)!n its own 
 r(!sourc<'s. Modern English has lost this ])o\ver of 
 independent evcjlution, and when a new term is 
 needed, is \)bliged to have recourse to foreign roots. 
 For our " Remorse of Conscience" Old English had 
 the " Againbite of Tnwit " 
 
 3. Anglo-Saxon was an iiilh-clioiial language, that 
 is, its words were subject to numerous diauyns of form. 
 
HlST'iHKAL HKKTCH. 
 
 159 
 
 whom the 
 AFoiilcs in 
 |ni(h'rt;ikinir 
 ). when its 
 |<iint in the 
 ply regarchid 
 [ithcd us hy 
 
 01(1 En- 
 
 excej)ti()n 
 contained 
 the Ger- 
 nijue, and 
 in common 
 lew others 
 iio j^'radual 
 vasion and 
 residts on 
 ^alities, but 
 inL^iiage of 
 lot seem to 
 id, or even 
 iMndy, they 
 ^ laMgnage. 
 en Danish 
 
 ssovsscd an 
 . It IVeely 
 >rn its own 
 l)o\vt;r of 
 ^v term is 
 '•'ign roots, 
 iiglisji had 
 
 .'imge, that 
 "•>' of fitrm. 
 
 The t'(-i lowing ii'ay I'c mentioned as ;;raniiiiatical 
 peenliarilies distinguishing it from motU-rn KuLjlisii : — 
 
 (1.) (iouder was marked by special tt'nninations, and not 
 rejjfulated as in ujndern j'^iiglish by the sinipk' itiiiiciple of sex. 
 It rxt.oiuU'd to adjectives and participles, as well as nomis. 
 
 (2.) X(»mis were declined in variou?- 
 
 way 
 
 ai 
 
 id liad five 
 
 cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative or 
 instrumental), each case havinp;' its sjjecial endinjjr or endings. 
 
 (.'».) Pronouns had a (/((^r/ number. 
 
 (4.) The infinitive mood ended in -an; the infinitive of 
 
 pur|; 
 
 ceded bv h 
 
 (dativ 
 
 e HI -(inn 
 
 e or -cnne. The latter only was i)re- 
 
 (■). ) Participles were declined like adjecti\es. The present 
 participle ended \n -(vde; the passive participle was iireceded 
 by the prefix (le- 
 
 ((i.) I'lffonal terminations played a nmch more imifortant 
 part in the conjuj^ation of Vfrbs than in modern Knglish 
 Simll and }vill had not assumed a proper auxiliary use in 
 denoting'' simi)!e futurity. 
 
 (7.) Prepositi<tn.s were fcdlowed by \ari(»us cases. 
 
 ()l,D KnOMSII Till': TkUK PaIU^NT of AFoDKliN 
 
 Encujsii. — 'I'liough Mo(h'rn Knglish is the most heter- 
 ogeneous of languages, though it has l(i,->t all })ower of 
 devehtpmeid; from witlnn, lhou,L:h it is nearly hare of 
 inlk'ction, it is still, both iiistorieally .iiid actually, the 
 litical dcseeudant and representative (d the tongue 
 wlii(di we have just deseriheil. All its peculiarities of 
 structure and idiom anj Anglo-Saxon, ^^'hateve^of 
 inll( ' )n it ha:; hd't, its pronouns, conjunctions and 
 prej)osilio!is, h)urdil'ths of the words ^vllich are in most 
 i'r('([ueiit ami lanuliar une, are Anglo-Saxon. *" From 
 the saiuc copious fountain havt' s|)rnng wtu'ds desig- 
 nating the greater number of (d)j('(;ts of sense — terms 
 which occur most freciuently in discourse, and which 
 recall the most vivid conceptions : ttini, vioon^ v.arth, 
 iii't', 'I'll/, iiif//if ; words expri'ssive of the dearest con- 
 nections, the strcuigest and most jiowerful feelings of 
 nature, from .-iir earliest day^ : niof/irr, father, sisfcr, 
 brother, ii'ifc, hono\ Iicarot ; parts of the 1)ody : ej/e, 
 <'fn\ foffv, ionfh^ loiii'f, foot ; tlu; language id' business, 
 hiti/iiii/, .W////7, r/irap, trodf : ot the shop, market, ami 
 everyday life: Itriml, milk, /icad, /cm'fc, Jtonnf^ l/(tr<i ; 
 
 m 
 
IGO 
 
 illSTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 I! ) 
 
 our jti'ovcr'hs : yl// /.v )i<it </o/,f tlmi ijiiili'v^^ ; A bird i 
 
 n 
 
 tin' hfiNiJ ''.s' /rorf/i 1 iiui in. Hm hii.s// 
 
 onr 
 
 1 
 
 inLiUaife ol 
 
 humor, tsatiri', and collixjuial jiloasaiitry, tlu^ most 
 eiicM";L,f('ti(; word.s wt^ can employ, wlictlier of kindnoss 
 or invectivo— in line words expressive of our strongest 
 emotions and activities in all the most stirring scenes 
 
 o 
 
 f life, from tlie cradle to the "rave, are Anirlo-Saxon. 
 
 i)v as another writer''' expresses it, 'MIk; mil 
 
 ncs ol 
 
 tl 
 
 le elements aiK 
 
 I th 
 
 leir chauues, o 
 
 f tl 
 
 le seasons, 
 
 tl 
 
 le 
 
 lieaveidy hodies, the divisions ot time, the features 
 of natural scenery, the oij^ans ot the hody, the modes 
 of liodily actions an<l posture, the commonest animals, 
 the words used in earliest chiMhood, the oi'dinary 
 terms of traffic, tlie constituent words in proverhs, 
 the designation of kindred, tlie simpler emotions of 
 tlie mind, terms of pleasantry, satire, contemi)t, in- 
 dignation, invective aiul angei', are for the most part 
 unhorrowcd." 
 
 ]\Iii)DLH English. —The }>eriod of Middle Knglish 
 extends from the heginning of the 12th to the lugin- 
 uing of the IGtli century. Some would iix tlu; precise 
 beginning of tlie period at 1154 A. D., the date of 
 the conoluding part of the Saxon (.'hronicle, which is 
 the latest surviving monument of the old language. 
 But We know that the causes which led to the trans- 
 formation of Anglo-Saxon had then heen nearly a 
 century in operation, and it is almost certain that the 
 conijiiler in order to harmonize the entire series of 
 Chronicles purj^osely wrote in the dialect of a past age. 
 
 The Norman Conquest and its social and jxditical 
 consequences had an important, hat perhajts generally 
 overrated, inihience on the language of the Knglish 
 I)eopIe. "The Conquest estahlished in Kngland a 
 foreign ctmrt, a foreign aristiicracy, and a fiweign 
 hierarchy." In all the circles representcfl hv these 
 powerful classes the Norman dialect of the French 
 
 •Professor Rogers in EiUnhurgh Review, 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 161 
 
 liiii<,fU;.go was exclusively used. It i::; a ini.^ako to 
 su])|)Ose that Aiif;lo>Sax()n was fbniia!ly jiiMsciibctl or 
 forciI)ly suppressed. Its de^n-adaiiuii was tlie iii(>vit- 
 able result of a political aiui s(H'ial revolution. It was 
 not used in the courts, in ecclesiastical assembles, in 
 national councils, in the mansions ot the nohility and 
 <j;entry, in s(;h(iols; for in none of these were An<^do- 
 Saxons found. Ihit the <i;reat mass of the people, 
 Inuniliated and oppressed as they ueic. did not unlearn 
 their native tongue and adopt that ot theii con<juerors. 
 For many years after the Conquest hut tew French 
 ^vords found their way into tin.- lan,L^ua;,fe of the 
 common people, and these were strictly limited to 
 
 by tl 
 
 le inter- 
 
 terms whose use was made necessary 
 course of a subject with a superior race. 
 
 In less than a century after the Conciuest, Old Fnglish, 
 confined to ^feneration after generation of boors avl 
 \)^ ughmen, ceased to be a literary language. Its mot 
 M'ords, those a>^ necessary for human intercourse in an 
 illiterate as in a cultivated state (»f society, HvimI on aa 
 vigorously as ever; they still constitute tin; backbone 
 of the I^ngli>-h language ; but the great mass of terms 
 denoting advancfd thought and culture, terms which 
 had been previously employed in art, theology, poetry 
 ancl general literature, became lost forever. Thus the 
 first niarke(l (dfect of the Norman Con(|uest and con- 
 iKicted events on the English language was an enor- 
 mous shrinkage of its vocabulary. Ceasing to be read 
 and written, it lost its sjK'cilic literaiy elements. It is 
 ini|)ortant to (d)serve that the large numbi'r of Norman 
 French words now in our language, and whose intro- 
 duction was one of the features dilferentiating Middle 
 English from Anglo-Saxon, did not come in under the 
 pressure of the Conquest, but at a ninch later period 
 Hs tlie result of a revival of Kngiish literature. Its 
 noetic and rlietoi" 
 
 V 
 
 'in 5 
 
 irn 
 
 )1.V 
 
 n- 
 
 English, on resuming the lunctions of a literary la 
 yuage, was? forced to repair the loss by an aj)peal to 
 
162 
 
 IIISTOUKJAL SKETCH. 
 
 the rival tonLfU(\ (Joiiiinoner words —the names of 
 familiar, heluvetl and revered ()l)J<.'cts, pronouns, par- 
 ticles, the mo.st importanr verbs — the illiterate people, 
 
 in thfiir subjugation and serfdom, liad treasured u[) 
 beyond the possibility of loss. 
 
 That, nouMiver, winch completely distinguishes 
 Muhlle from 0I>1 English, refers not to the vocabidfiri/f 
 but to the t/ri(/)ini,ar of the language. Prior to any 
 extensive influx: of French terms, when, as the lan- 
 ^ni;\ge ol the peasantry, l^iglish was alt(^gether devoid 
 of litiirary aims and characlcr, it 1 ad begun to 
 lose that elaborate system of grammatical inflec- 
 tions which we have seen marked its earlier stages. 
 In th is, English yiuii)ly shared in a tendency com- 
 mon to all the Low German tongues.* Ihit the 
 process of grammatical sim{)lilication in l^iiglish was 
 greatly a(;celerated by causes which diil not operate on 
 the continent. The lirst of these was the impossibility 
 of preserving nice terminational changes and distinc- 
 tions when the language, having lost all written 
 standards, w%as sjjoken wholly by uneducated peo[)le. 
 Philologists have caileil attention to a tendency 
 observable in tlie uncultivated classes of all nations to 
 blend widely difl'ering teruiinational sounds in an 
 indistinctly neutral one. The second caus<^ though 
 operating most powerfully at a somewhat later j)eriod 
 than that just mentioned is thus lucidly explained by 
 Grimm : — 
 
 •' Wlien the English language was inundat(Ml by a 
 vast influx of French words, few, if any, French 
 forms were receiv<ul into the gr.immar; l)ut the 
 Saxon forms soon dropt away, l>ecause they did not 
 suit the new sorts ; and the genius of the language, 
 from having to deal with the newly imported words 
 
 * " IIiul thuro l>eoii no Nornuin invasion, Kni^iish would have iurived 
 at tho simo siinpUlk'ntion of its Km>""'H' !*■■< nearlv every other nation of 
 the Low German stoek has (K»ne."--Morris, ilititork'al Otithn'!S of 
 Enijlibh A wide nee. 
 
 in 
 
 of 
 
 int 
 
 pb 
 
 iii( 
 dei 
 di. 
 
 T 
 
 na 
 
 / 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 1G3 
 
 naiiios of 
 louns, par- 
 ity people, 
 asured up 
 
 stin^'uishes 
 ocahiddry, 
 •ior to finy 
 
 the laii- 
 cr (l(;void 
 begun to 
 ;al inllec- 
 k'l- stages, 
 iiicy com- 
 
 Hut the 
 iglisii was 
 • pei'ate on 
 )i)8sil)ility 
 I <listinc- 
 writton 
 d peui)Je. 
 tendency 
 nations to 
 Is in an 
 'S tliongh 
 ter i)ei'iod 
 ained by 
 
 t(Ml by a 
 
 , French 
 
 ')ut the 
 
 did not 
 
 language, 
 
 od words 
 
 avo arrived 
 jr nation of 
 
 JlltliU'-tl of 
 
 in a rude state, M'as induced to neglect tlie inflections 
 of tlie native one. Tliis, for instmce, led to the 
 introduction of x as tlie universal termination of all 
 
 plural nouns." 
 
 In the histcu-y of ^^liddle English, though much 
 irregularity and coidusion prevails, successive stages of 
 dev('lo|)ment may be traced with some degree of 
 distinctness 
 
 1. n 
 
 It'. 
 
 Th 
 
 raiixi 
 
 fid) I 
 
 Pi'r!(»1 UOO-lL'oO A. I).-- 
 
 lis, PS we na /e j^ecn, was a perioi 
 
 1 of- litciMi'v sta-j:- 
 
 natioii. Of the scanty remains of a scanty literature, 
 probably the most iui))ortant is the Ohdh] iini (1200 A. 
 ]).), a poetic version of parts of the gosjiels and of the 
 
 cburcii service, 
 
 Tl 
 
 lere w 
 
 e see the Anirlo-Saxon in- 
 
 flections in a large measure retained. })ut evidently in 
 a stat(! of incii)ient decav. Among changes in the 
 direction of gi'e;iter simplicity of form may be men- 
 tioned the following : — 
 
 (1.) The j^'cnder of nouns has l^econie practically tlie same 
 as in niodtu'ii Knglisli. 
 
 (2.) Adjectives begin to drop the endings denoting case and 
 number. 
 
 (;». ) f.s- has become the regular sign of the plural number 
 and genitive (possessive) case. 
 
 (4.) /( in the termination of th(^. iniinitive mood is fve(|uently 
 dropi)ed and to is sometimes usjhI liefore tlie ordinary infinitive. 
 
 (.').) S/hiI/ ;uu\ ;rill come into use as au\iliarie> 
 ((>.) Tlie pnst jiarticijile drops its prefix. 
 
 Th 
 
 (h 
 
 d th 
 
 lit' words used throughout this ])eiiod are almost 
 without exception ])ure I'jiglish. 
 
 2. The Earl,/ Prrlml, I2o0-13r)0 A. D.— The few 
 important relics (jf this jiciiod, such as the I'nir1<nua- 
 t(oiii)\ King Ilc.iry III (I2r)0 A. I).), and the rhymed 
 Chronicle of TJ(d")ert of (Jhucester { 1 .SOO a'. D.) 
 indicate that the decay of original inflections had 
 gone on with amazing rajudity. Many dillerent 
 endings are reduced by a curious process of '• phonetic 
 decay" to -f'. This tcM-mination soon became silent, 
 and was gradually dr()pi)ed. It remains, however, 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
IGI 
 
 lilHTOIlICAL SKETCH. 
 
 aftor cortaiii Icttors as a ^'cneral vorhul oiuling. A 
 teiKlcncy to hrin^' in French words to sup))ly 
 (k'licicncies in the redut'cd Kii;^'Iisli vocabulary ])t\^ins 
 to show itself. 
 
 w. 77/'! Pi'rlntl of FnU Dci'doimutui. — The most 
 marked feature of this period, into which great 
 changes ar«i crowdeil, was an enormous influx of words 
 taken iVoiu the French. ^Tany of these iin])ortation.s, 
 brought in to meet a teni])orary necessity, did not take 
 permanent root in our langu;ige. Still, enough remain 
 to form a very important element of Modern I'Jiglish, 
 and to make our language i)articulai'ly rich in 
 such .synonym.^, as, (in.^n'cr^ ri'-^jxnid ; ]iiiiih'i\ pra- 
 vciif ; hrarc.^ rnjidnf, tV:c. This extensive intro- 
 duction of French words did not result fr^m 
 accidiMit, nor from the special tastes of particular 
 authors. We have seen tliat the langunge had been 
 denuded by an irresistible process of many of the 
 terms tending to tit it for a literary medium. 
 But it no longer lay under a ban. Tlu' Teutonic 
 element of the nation had triumphantly asserted its 
 ascendancy. Tiie nobility and gentry had at h^ngth 
 recognized and accepted English as the national tongue. 
 What could be more natural than that the.^^e cultivated 
 classes, among which literature would chieily circmlate, 
 should seek to supply from familiar sources the 
 deliciencies of their iHiwdy acquired language? Nor 
 was the introtluction of F^'ench words conlined to 
 the language iiUiferdture. In the changed life of this 
 new era, social barriers which had stood for ages were 
 broken down ; there was a freer intiu'course among the 
 various grades of society, and the language of the 
 comnu)n peoi)le becami^. enriched with many terms 
 which the ruling classes imjiorted from the tongue 
 which they had so long spoken. But this {>rocess of 
 incorporation must not be nnsunderstood. The 
 French words, most of them really of Latin origin, 
 which became a permanent part of our language, did 
 
 110 
 
 (( 
 
 of 
 fo 
 de 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 IG5 
 
 to >^n|)|)ly 
 !;uy Ijegins 
 
 -I'lie most 
 ii^;li great 
 X of words 
 portatioiis, 
 1 not take 
 l;Ii r(Miiaia 
 
 rich in 
 ii<h'i\ lira- 
 iv(! iiitro- 
 ult from 
 Jiarticiilar 
 Iiiid beoii 
 ly of the 
 mcflinm. 
 IVutouic 
 isertcd its 
 at length 
 al tongue, 
 cultivated 
 circulate, 
 irces the 
 igc ? Nor 
 n lined to 
 ife of this 
 iges were 
 Miong the 
 ,'e of the 
 iiy terms 
 e tongue 
 process of 
 d. The 
 n origi!), 
 Liage, did 
 
 not come in as Fr^nirh word: 
 
 'n 
 
 lev were made 
 
 Enr/Jish words hy the very act of admission, and 
 "were at once su])j<'cted to all tlie duties and liahilities 
 of English words in the same- position " TIh^ facility 
 for adoj»ling words from another language tluis 
 develope(l, und(Uiht(Mlly prejKired the way for that 
 extensive appropriation of I.atin and (Jreek roots 
 which marks the car^^er of ^Fodern English. 
 
 The chief Avritings of this jieriod are the Vision of 
 Piers Plomihind)), a satirical allegory, the Cantcrhnn/ 
 Tales of Chauc<'r, a g(.'nuin<! Knglish classic, Sir John 
 Mandeville's Itlnerarij or Travels, famous as the first 
 work in Knglish pro>e, and Wycklille's well-known 
 triinslati(jns of tlie Hihle. 'fhe art of j)rinting give 
 such an impulse to literary activity that it may 
 almost be said that the establishment of (Jaxton's 
 press in T-jigland towards the end of the loth cenlnry 
 completed the development of Middle English. T\'o 
 obstacles in th(! way of linguistic progress may be 
 named, to the removal, or at least the /esseiuNfj of 
 which, the ])ress powerfully ontrihuted. (3ne of 
 these was the cajjricious and chaotic orthography 
 natural to a period in whicdi language was being 
 reconstructed. The other was the number of different 
 dialects which long divided the people and rendered 
 unity and concentration of literary effort impossible. 
 Aided by the ])rinting i)ress, the genius of Chaucer 
 and Wyckliffe made , hat was called the Midhtnd 
 dialect the language of i'jiglish literature. Other 
 dialects, however, have been locally preserved in 
 various parts of llritain even to this tiay. The great 
 Northern dialect which for ;. time rivalled the Midland 
 is th(» only one of these attaining to any literary 
 celebrity, or which indecMl can be sa'.l to have had a 
 literature. It is that «lialect, which, as localiz(!d in 
 Scotland, enshrines the proiluctionj of Allan lianisay 
 and Ilobert Burns. 
 
16G 
 
 III8T0RICAL SKETCH. 
 
 Mf>DKUN' English. — ModiM'n KiiLrlish may be srnd 
 to (late from tlie boffinning of the IGth century. The 
 cliaiiges which have since taken place have been 
 chan<fes of growth and dcvcilojunent, changes of 
 vocabulary and orthography, and have not allected the 
 structural character of the language. English was 
 practically r>s bare of inilection 400 years ago as it is 
 to-day. With the exce|)tion of th as the ending of 
 the third person singular of verbs, not an old Anglo- 
 Saxon forjn is obsolete now, which was not obsolete 
 then. It is true that Ihe great writers of the 16th 
 century use many words whicii are now unknown, as 
 •well as modes of construction and arrangement by 
 which their writings are easily recognized as belonging 
 to a ])ast epoch ; yet no modern scholar can feel 
 that there is any nvVicul distinction between the 
 Englisli of r>en Jonson and Siiakespeare, and the 
 English whicli he writes and speaks himxdf. 
 
 The first centuiy and a half of the Modern Englisli 
 period was marked by an immense accession of words 
 of classical origin. In the previous importiition of Nor- 
 man French terms, which were in reality almost always 
 Latin roots slightly disguised, our language had estab- 
 lished for itsL'lf principles of adaptation which could 
 be applied indefinitely, and which are still used with 
 reat activity to accomodate it to the ceaseless j)rogress 
 
 a 
 
 of 
 
 I 
 
 art and science. Under the influence of tl 
 
 16 
 
 \enaissance in art and literature, of the rtivival of 
 classical studies, and the newly developed spirit of 
 scientific investigation, Englisli at the period under 
 review, enormously increased its vocabulary by draw- 
 ing directly from tlie Latin, This recourse to forc^ign 
 aid was necessary ; for, as we shall see, our language 
 possesses but little facility for forming words diiectiy 
 from its own resources. Still many writers allowed 
 the new tendency to carry them too far. If, as the 
 net result, the l«nuuas[o was enriched, it was also 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 167 
 
 lav be H.'iid 
 
 tury- The 
 liave been 
 changes of 
 iflected tlie 
 iglisli was 
 igi) as it is 
 eiuliiig of 
 old Anglo- 
 ot obsolete 
 f the 16th 
 ikiiown. as 
 (oineiit by 
 1 beloiifMiifj 
 [• can feel 
 ^u'ceii the 
 , and the 
 
 I'll English 
 1 of words 
 on of Nor- 
 ost always 
 had estab- 
 ich con Id 
 nsed with 
 s pi'Dgress 
 of the 
 'evival of 
 
 si)irit of 
 od nnder 
 
 by draw- 
 o foreign 
 
 ianguai^e 
 ^ directly 
 
 allowed 
 f, as the 
 was also 
 
 called upon to sutler some serious losses; for not a few 
 useful and noble Saxon words were needlessly siori- 
 ficed to the desire for more ornamental terms. 
 Fortunately, many of the newly imported words and 
 phrases did not secure general acceptance and died 
 with their invcaitors. 
 
 Genp:f{al Yif:w of Modern English. — ^lodern 
 English is weak in formative elements. Asa rule, new 
 words can b(? formed in English only bv deriving, so 
 to say, fhc ruic material from foreign sources Its 
 own existing stock c/f words does not yield itself up 
 freely for this use. One serious disadvantnge in con 
 nection with this constant bringing in of foreign roots 
 is apparent. In ancient Greek or modern German, 
 each new compound, being of nntlve maviufacture, 
 woidd need no exj^lanation, its eh-ments being already 
 familiar and understood. In English the great bidk 
 of newly formed compounds are to all, save classical 
 scholars, entirely unsuggestive. 
 
 Is it a (;*o??/y>asv7fi language ? If this question refers 
 to the on'i/iii of the words composing the English 
 vocabulary, we must answer it in the aflirmative. In 
 that sense ours is the most composite of languages. 
 It has words in common use whos(> roj,)ts eiidjrace 
 almost the entire circle of ancient and modern tongues. 
 While, as we have seen, it has little native spontaneity 
 of production, it has a plastic ))ower of aihiptation to 
 which nothing comes annss. We have already referred 
 to its wholesale ai)i)ro])riation from French and Latin. 
 It constantly a{»))eals to the ductile Greek for aid 
 in kee[^ing its extensive scientific nomenclature abreast 
 of the progress of the age. From almost every 
 speech under heaven the ubi(iuitous spirit of Ihitish 
 commerce or Ihitish colonization has j)icked up 
 foreign elements and permanently incorporated them 
 in the language. 
 
 As to the t)ro})ortious in which native and foreii;n 
 
 m 
 
168 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 ek'iiieiits cuter into the general vorjabularv, cstiiiiiites 
 vary. I'roliably not more tlian a tliinl of the words 
 registered in our largest dictionaries are of strict 
 An^vSaxon origin. Tfowever, no jnst idea can be 
 derived fi'orn the most exact vumpricaJ comparison. 
 The character and use of the words must be taken into 
 account. A vast number of the im|)orte(l terms are 
 purely sjtecial, used, perhaps, by a single author, or 
 conhned to a single science. However necessary to 
 the higher styles of literat.:re, to scientific exposition, 
 to ])hilosophical discn.ssion, words of foreign origin 
 enter but slightly into the rudimentaiy structure ot 
 the language. In a preceding |)aragra|)h in wliich 
 viie esseiitial identity of earlier and later luiglish was 
 discussed, the f/HKhancn^af character of the Anglo- 
 Saxon element of our language lias been set forth.* 
 
 If, however, the question asked refers not to the 
 origin of the vocalmlary, but to the construction and 
 governing ])rincii)les of the langunge, the answer must 
 be widely ditrerciit. In that sense, Englisli is tfof a 
 composite language. liidHed few, if any, languages 
 surpass it in structural simplicity and unity. Apart 
 from a few exceptional case.^ of foreign nouns allowed 
 tem})orariiy to retain their native forms, it puts its 
 own decisive mark on every term which it appropriates. 
 Ind<'ed it may be said that the vast inllux of words of 
 
 tlie past 100 years has been 
 
 origin during 
 
 foreign 
 
 absolutely without influence on the [inuwuttr of the 
 
 language. 
 
 Coxci.UHiuN. — In the grammatical text to which 
 this sketch is «ubjoined, tlui results of tluit critical 
 
 * " Wo niUHt nu'dllcft thiit in nnlinary oodvors.ition our voraliiiliiry is 
 lluiifi'il, ;iiul that we tlo iiDt onijilnv mort> tliaii from tliroi' to five 
 tliousiiiul wiinlH, while our hi'st writers malxo use of ahout twieti thnt 
 
 nunilier. Now it is |>ossihli< to eariy on eoi 
 
 iversatioi\, ami write 
 
 mnnerotjs sentences wi(!ii>ut any l)orrowetl terms ; hut if we eiuhtuviT to 
 •pea l< or write without- mal<in«: use of tlie n ilive eh-ment (;.'rammar or 
 Voeahulary) we sliall I'.ihl that MUeli a thills^ is impossihle In our talk, 
 In the \Mirks of our ifroiitost writers, tho Knjflisl* cloinont ^roatiy pro 
 poiuleraios." Morris. 
 
 stui 
 yea 
 
HISTORICAr. SKKTCrr. 
 
 GD 
 
 , estimates 
 
 the \vr»r<ls 
 
 (if strict 
 
 lea can Ije 
 
 >in|)arison. 
 
 taken into 
 
 terms are 
 
 author, or 
 
 cessary to 
 
 'Xjxisition, 
 
 iL,Mi origin 
 
 nicture ot 
 
 in wliich 
 
 iL^iisli was 
 
 he Anglo- 
 
 forth.* 
 
 lot to the 
 
 iction and 
 
 svvei- must 
 
 I is not a 
 
 hinL,Mia<fes 
 
 y. Apart 
 
 IS allowed 
 
 : puts its 
 
 jropriates. 
 
 words of 
 
 has Ix'cn 
 
 <ir of tho 
 
 study of Kiily lMi>;lish whic^Ii lias eh.iracterizeil ncent 
 years havtj been taken advantaLje of at various points 
 to elucidate disputed questions of etymolnj^ry or 
 syntax. A minute analyticd investi.Ljation of^lder 
 forms would bo out ot [)lace in a brief historical 
 survey like this. So also, notwithstandin:^' the (dose 
 relations subsistin|jj bi'twei'u language and literature, 
 it has been felt necessary to resist all tem[>tation to 
 digress into the sp(*ci;d (Uiclosure of the latter. 
 
 As to the Knglisii Lanouacjh itsklf, comparisons 
 lik<dy to tu'Mi out to its disadvant;ige nn'ght l)e insti- 
 tuted with various other languag(!s !u p'lrfirn/ar 
 poliif.^ ; but, on a broad view, those who speak it can 
 boast that no other people possesses a nobler or 
 more effective instrument for accomplishing the ends 
 fur which language has Fmmui given. 
 
 I 
 
 to which 
 it critical 
 
 •oeiilmlary is 
 ircc ti) (Ue 
 If, twici' Mint 
 I, and wiito 
 
 CllilwlVrr to 
 
 (;;riiiuiimr or 
 111 I'ur tilk, 
 «:ivitly pro 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 LKSSONS ON LANGUAGE 
 INTRODUCTION (to main treatise) 
 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Classitieation of words 
 
 Fori s of words .... 
 Tfik Noun .... .... 
 
 Clas-sification of Nouns 
 
 Oiiaiifj^es of form in Nouns 
 
 Geu<ler .... .... 
 
 Natural Gender . .. 
 
 Grnnunatical Gender 
 
 Exeeptions in Gender .... 
 
 Number .... .... 
 
 Formation of the I'lural 
 
 Irrt'<j:uliirities in Number 
 
 Foroi;rn IMurals 
 
 IMural ot Coniitound Nouns 
 
 (^asc .... .... 
 
 Formation of tlie Possessive Case 
 
 Declension of Nouns .... 
 Ad.ikctivks .... .... 
 
 Clhssilication oj^ Adjeetives 
 
 (,iu;\lifvin<; At^ectives 
 
 Limitin;:;' Adjeetives .... 
 
 Comparison of Adjnetives .... 
 
 Formi\ti(»n of the Degrees of Adje 
 
 Irrtgular Comparison .... 
 
 etiv 
 
 • • V • 
 
 es 
 
 Pa lie. 
 
 vii-xxxiv 
 
 1 
 
 3-74 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4-17 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 1ft 
 
 1ft 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 1 7-23 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 39 
 
 Pro 
 
 CI 
 
 Pe 
 
 D( 
 
 P 
 
 Ct 
 
 Rt 
 
 Cc 
 
 In 
 
 Dt 
 
 ' In 
 
 Tin; 
 
 CI 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 171 
 
 • • • • 
 
 Pa ere. 
 vii-xxxiv 
 1 
 3-74 
 3 
 3 
 4-17 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 9 
 10 . 
 10 
 12 
 13 
 15 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 17-23 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 80 
 89 
 89 
 
 Pronouns 
 
 Classification of I'ronouns 
 Personal Pronouns .... 
 
 Declension of the Personal Pronons. . . . 
 
 Possessive Adjectives .... . . • . 
 
 Coin[)ound Personal Pronouns .... 
 
 Relative Pronouns .... .... .... 
 
 ConipouHtl Helatives .... .... 
 
 InterrojL!,ative Pronouns ... .... 
 
 Demonstrative Pronouns .... .... 
 
 Indefinite Pronouns .... .... .... 
 
 IIIKVKKH ••.. .... .... 
 
 Classification of Verbs .... .... 
 
 Forms of Verbs .... ... .... 
 
 ^'^'-'vill •••• «••• •••• •••• 
 
 Participles and Gerunds .... . . . . 
 
 1,1 Miliucr •••• •••• •••• •••• 
 
 *■ cr?>uii .••• •••• •••• •••• 
 
 Conjugation .... .... .... .... 
 
 List of Irre^ailar Ver!)S .... .... 
 
 List of Verbs of the 8tronf? Conjugation . . . . 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs .... .... .... 
 
 Conjugation of Auxiliary Verbs .... 
 
 " tl)C Verb drive. 
 
 Special forms of Conjugation with do . . . . 
 
 Impersonal Verbs .... .... 
 
 Anomalous Verbs .... .... .... 
 
 Advkhuh 
 
 Formation of Adverbs .... . . . . 
 
 Comparison of Adverbs .... .... 
 
 Conjunctions ... .... .... 
 
 Phki'ositions 
 
 lNri:iUK(yrioN9 
 
 oY^IAa. 1... .... ... 
 
 TiiK Analysis OF Skntknces 
 
 The Subject 
 
 
 2-1 
 
 -29 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 84 
 84 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 2.5 
 26 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 27 
 28 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 29 
 80 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 30 
 31 
 
 • • • • 
 
 32 
 
 -65 
 38 
 
 • • « • 
 
 
 33 
 33 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 34 
 37 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 39 
 44 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 44 
 45 
 
 • • • 1 
 
 
 48 
 50 
 
 • • • « 
 
 
 59 
 58 
 
 « • • • 
 
 
 55 
 60 
 
 t • • 
 
 
 61 
 61 
 
 . . . • 
 
 6G 
 
 -69 
 68 
 
 • • « • 
 
 
 69 
 
 
 69 
 
 -71 
 
 » • • • 
 
 71 
 
 -73 
 73 
 
 * « ■ t 
 
 75- 
 
 118 
 
 
 75- 
 
 1U2 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 77 
 
172 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 • • • • 
 
 The l*iT(lic'ate .... 
 
 The Ohjcct .... 
 
 Exiension of the Predicate 
 Practical Analysis .... 
 
 Examples of Detailed Aiialv-sis .... 
 
 Complex Sentences .... 
 
 Noun Clauses .... .... 
 
 Adjective Clauses 
 Adverbial Clauses 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • • • • 
 
 Analysif* of Complex Sentences .... 
 Exam])les of Analysis of Complex Sentences 
 Compound Sentences 
 Sv'TAX Proper 
 
 Concord .... 
 
 Kulesof Concord 
 Government .... 
 
 Kulesof Government . 
 Onler .... .... 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • • » • 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • • f • 
 
 lUiles of Order (with ])rincipal exceptions) 
 
 • • • fl 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • • • • 
 
 EXEHCISKS .... 
 
 Etvmol()i;v .... .... 
 
 Analysis ... 
 
 Sentences for correction .... .... 
 
 Miscelliincous .... .... .... 
 
 AiTiiNDix (Historical Sketch of the English 
 Latiiruage) .... ... .... 
 
 (In future editions an index of words will be 
 desirable ) 
 
 
 79 
 
 • • 
 
 80 
 
 
 81 
 
 • « 
 
 82 
 
 
 84 
 
 • • 
 
 87 
 
 
 88 
 
 • • 
 
 89 
 
 
 91 
 
 • • 
 
 93 
 
 
 94 
 
 • * 
 
 100 
 
 
 100-118 
 
 • • 
 
 100 
 
 
 100 
 
 • • 
 
 108 
 
 
 109 
 
 • • 
 
 114 
 
 
 115 
 
 » 
 
 119-150 
 
 
 119-132 
 
 • • 
 
 133-141 
 
 
 142-144 
 
 • • 
 
 145-150 
 
 
 161-169 
 
 jiven, if found 
 
79 
 80 
 81 
 82 
 84 
 87 
 88 
 89 
 91 
 93 
 94 
 100 
 100-118 
 100 
 100 
 108 
 109 
 114 
 115 
 119-150 
 119-132 
 133-141 
 142-144 
 145-150 
 
 lt)l-H;9 
 I, if found