IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) <° 1.0 I.I i^y^ iZ5 *^ 1^ 112 ^ 1^ ■■■ S 1^ 1.2.0 u gUii '•2^lll'-^ '-^ ■ < 6" » V] /: '/ Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SS0 (716) S73-4S03 I^A^ .fff Cd to nt le pelure, 9on d 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 '?^ :nture REGIONS. fet-;-fe. TREET. .-.* JO lO «3< 40 i>U (Jo lanMaynil. |iiin pfM m m nm^ v\m» mm h, mm ii'Aiiia iimbu iiii»ii<.' mwi mw. itiiimii *m' • • 249 315 POLAR SEAS AND REGIONS. CHAPTER I. The Climate of the Polar Regions. if The climate and seasons within the Arctic circle [xhibit most peculiar and striking features, which lodify in a singular manner the whole aspect of na ure. An investigation of those phenomena seems lerefore necessary for enabling the reader to com- prehend the narrative, and to follow through such jy regions the paths of the daring navigators. And tie more fully to elucidate the subject, it will be [roper to give some explication of the principles that jgulate generally the distribution of heat over the [urface of our globe. Many of the facts relating to the Polar climate have jen collected in the course of the bold and ardu- |us attempts to penetrate to India across the northern jas. Projects of this kind, after being long sus- mded, were, in 1818, renewed, and embraced with jculiar ardour by the English government. For two or three years previous to 1818, the captains of lips employed in the northern whale-fishery had ge- [erally concurred in representing the Arctic sea as ' a sudden become almost open and accessible to le adventurous navigator. By the more speculative jlaters, it had been supposed that the vast icy bar- |er which, for many ages, obstructed those forlorn jgions was at last, by some revolution of our globe, ^ d r 10 CLIMATE. t : broken up and dispersed. The project of finding north-west passage to Asia, — a project so often] attempted and so long abandoned, — was by consr. quence again revived ; and the more daring sclienie| of penetrating to the Pole itself had likewise bee seriously proposed. Of the complete success cii either plan, the hopes of sober thinkers were indff ' extremely slender; yet the prospect held foil I, seemed to be more inviting, on the whole, than at nnv former period when such bold undertakings had beeii attempted. The discovery of a north-west passapr. were it ever attainable, could hardly, it is true, he of any real benefit to our commerce ; since, in siidi high latitudes, where only it must be sought for, it would at all times be veiy precarious, and liabk to interruption from the prevalence of ice. The scheme of actually reaching that northern point on the surface of our globe, which terminates its axis of rotation, however interesting in a philosophical view, can only be regarded as an object of pure cu- riosity, and not likely to lead to any useful or prac- tical results. Yet was it befitting the character of a great maritime nation to embrace every chance of improving geographical knowledge, and of ex- tending the basis of natural science. The books and memoirs which contain the latest accounts of the state of the northern seas, either suj^- gested the enterprise then pursued, or were brouglit forward in consequence of its adoption. Mr. Daines Harrington, a man of learning and some ingenuity, em- bracfcd with ardour the opinion of the possibility of ap- proaching to the Pole. In successive papers commu- nicated to the Royal Society of London he not onl\ condensed the information furnished by the older voy- agers, but exhibited the results of the numerous que- ries relating to the same object, which he had circu- lated among persons engaged in the Greenland fishery. He thus proved, that in certain favourable seasons, the Arctic seas are for several weeks so open, that intrepid CLIMATE. 11 '. of finding ect so ofteni ^as by consr. iring- scliemi- ikewise be*!) e siiceoss of 5 were indfM ' t held fort!, e, than at any ings had bet ii ivest passap( , it is true, I if ince, in sin li sought for, it s, and liable ►f ice. The em point on ates its axis philosophical : of pure cii- ^eful or prar. character of very chance and of ex- n the h 5, either su^:- ere brouglit Mr. Daines ^enuity, em- ibility of ap- ers commu- he not onl} e older voy- nerous que- 3 had circii" and fishery, seasons, the hat intrepid vigators might safely penetrate to a veiy high titude. In compliance with his sanguine rcpre- ntations, the Admiralty, in 1773, despatched Captain hipps to explore those regions ; but this commander as unsuccessful in the attempt, having reached only e latitude of 80i degrees when his ship got sur- unded by a body of ice near Spitzbergen, and es- ped with extreme difficulty, though many of the halers had in that summer advanced farther. Mr. an ington did not, however, despair ; and, following ut his views, he induced Mr. Naire and Dr. Higgins make experiments on the congelation of sea-water, he various facts were collected in a small volume, which Colonel Beaufoy subjoined an appendix, ntaining the answers made to his queries by Rus- an hunters (who are accustomed to spend the liole year in Spitzbergen), relative to the probability travelling from that island to the Pole during win- r, in sledges drawn by rein-deer. The reports of ese hardy men were sufficiently discouraging, hey pictured the winter at Spitzbergen as not only vere but extremely boisterous, the snow falling to e depth of three or five feet, and drifting so much, ong the shores by the violence of the winds a« ten to block up all communication. The danger being surprised and overwhelmed by clouds of ow, raised in sudden gusts, was so great, that they ver ventured to undertake any long journeys over le ice. Nor did they think it at all practicable to iave loaded sledges dragged over a surface so lOugh and hilly, by the force of reindeer or dogs. ^ The speculations of Mr. Scoresby had more than •dinary claims to attention, as exhibiting the con- lusions of a most diligent, accurate, and scientific )server. Trained from infancy to the navigation the frozen seas, under the direction of his father, most enterprising and successful leader, he con- )ined experience with ingenuity and judgment. For ^vcral years, duringr the intervals of his Greenland 12 CLIMATE. # #' t .■* voyages, he prosecuted a reijiilar course of study which enriched liis mind with liberal attainments, aiiJ gave a new impulse to his native ingenuity anl ardour. It was exceedingly to be regretted that anr jealousies or official punctilios should have prevente( government from intrusting the principal commaii(! of the Polar expedition to him who not only proposed it originally, but whose talents and science, joined to his activity, perseverance, and enthusiasm, affordec^ assuredly the best promise of its ultimate success. Hans Egede, a benevolent enthusiast, formed plan of reclaiming the natives of Greenland from the! eriors of Paganism. After various ineffectual at-j tempts, he at last procured, by subscription, the sural of £2000, with which he purchased a vessel, and car-l ried his family and forty settlers to Baal's river, in! the 64th degree of north latitude, where he landed on the 3d of July, 1721. He was afterward ap. pointed missionary, with a small salary by the Danish j^^overnment, which occasionally granted some aid to the colony. During his stay, which lasted till 1736, he laboured with great zeal in his vocation. In 1757, the year before his death, he printed his Description of Greenland, in the Danish language, at Copenhagen. A translation of that work, much improved and en. larged, with useful additions by the editor, contains valuable information, tinged with a large portion of credulity. It is remarkable, that two centuries of extreme activity should have added so very little to our knowledge of the Arctic regions. The relations of the earlier navigators to those parts possess an in- t erest which has not been yet eclipsed. The voyage of Martens from Hamburgh to Spitzbergen may he. cited as still the most instructive. But the best and completest work on the subject of the northern fisheries, is a treatise in three volumes octavo, trans- lated from the Dutch language into French by Bernard de Reste, and published at Paris in 1801, CLIMATK. 13 under the title liistoire des Pechcs^ des D^couvertes^ et des Eiablissemens des Hollandais dans les Mers du Nord, The Arctic expedition, which in 1818 attracted the attention of the public, proposed two distinct ob- jects, — to advance towards the Pole — and to explore a north-west passage to China. These were no doubt splendid schemes ; but, in order to form a right estimate of the plan and some anticipation of its pro- bable results, it was necessary to proceed with cau- tion, and employ the lights of science to guide our steps. The facts alleged, respecting the vast islands or continents ©rice recently separated and dispersed from the Arctic regions, gave occasion to much loose reasoning, to wild and random conjectures, and visionary declamation. Glowing anticipations were confidently formed of the future amelioration of cli- mate, which would scarcely be hazarded even in the dreams of romance. Every person possessing a sUght tincture of physical science, conceived himself qualified to speculate concerning the phenomena of weather, in which he feels a deep interest ; and hence Ji very flimsy and spurious kind of philosophy, how- ever trifling or despicable it may appear in the eyes of the few who are accustomed to think more pro- foundly, gained currency among certain classes of men, and engendered no small share of conceit. iMeteorology is a complex science, depending on so many subordinate principles, that require the union of accurate theory with a range of nice and various observations, as to have advanced very slowly towards perfection. With regard to the nature and real extent of the change wluch had taken place in the condition of the icy seas, the reports have no doubt been greatly exaggerated. To reduce them to their just amount, it would be necessary to estimate the annual effects produced in those regions, and likewise to compare the observations of a similar kind made by expe- B 14 CLIMATE. rienced navigators nt former periods. From a! <*rilical examination of the various facts left on record, it will perhaps appear, that those Arctic seas liave been more than once, in the course of the last half century, as open as they are now repre- sented. 'I'o discuss with accuracy the question o£ithc periodical formation and destruction of the Polar iei^, it becomes necessary to explain the true princi- pies which regulate the distribution of heat over the globe. This I shall attempt to perform, independent of every hypothesis, by a direct appejitl to experiment and observation. ^ If, at any place we dig into the ground, we find, by tlie insertion of a thennometer, that, as we succes- sively descend, we approach constantly to some limiting temperature, which below a certain depth continues unchanged. This depth of equilibrium varies in different soils ; but seldom exceeds thirty or fifty feet. If the excavation be made about the commencement of winter, the temperature will ap- pear to increase in the lower strata ; but, on the con- trary, if the pit be formed in the beginning of sum- mer, it will be found to grow colder as we descend.* Hence, the mass of the earth merely transmits very slowly the impressions of heat or of cold received at its surface. The external temperature of any given day will perhaps take near a month to penetrate only one foot into the ground. By digging down- wards in summer, we soon reach, therefore, the im- pressions of the preceding spring and winter ; but the same progress into the ground brings us back to the * In the dreary climate of Hudson's Bay, it is remarked by the resi- dents, that, even during the summer months, in digging through the ground for a grave, they always come at the depth of a few feet to a stratum of frozen earth. A singular feature of the remoter Arctic tracts is the frequent appearance of red snow. This deception is occasioned by the interspersed multitudes of minute plants, now termed Protococcus Nivalis^ a species ofAlga, whicb penetrate to a great depth through the enow, and vegetate in the seveiest weather. CLIMATK. 15 From a> ts left on >se Arctic course of now reprc- on oUthc o^ ! Po the Polar rue princi- it over the idependent jxperiment we find, by wc succes- / to some tain depth iquilibriuni ;eds thirty about the re will ap- m the con- of sum- descend.* its very ceived at iny given I penetrate \g down- the ini- but the ick to the by the resi- I through the 3W feet to a irctic tractis occasioned ^rotococcus I through the fcinporatures of the autumn ;iinl of Iln^ 'sMuniier. SI ill lower, all the various Huctuatioiis ul hrnt be- I'oine interntin^led and confounded in (mio cniunioii moan. Such observations arc iwon) easily and ror- KM'tly made, by having thermometers, with lono; stems, sunk to different depths in the ground; and fiom an extensive register we may conclude, that the icinpcrature of the ground is always the mean result of the impressions made at the surface during a s«'rics of years. The successive strata, therefore, ;it •iieat depths, may be regarded as permanent records of the average state of the weather in distant ag(»s. Perhaps the superficial influence will scarcely de- scend fifty feet in the lapse of a century. Co[)ions sj)rings, which percolate the bowels of the earth, ajul lapidly convey the impressions of subterranean hear to tlie smface, will consequently furnish the most :i<'(;urate reports of the natural register of climate. These, if rightly chosen, differ not sensibly in their emperature at all seasons ; and, whether they have; heir seat at a depth of one hundred or of five hun- hed feet, they affect the thermometer alike.* AVe ire hence entitled to conclude, that however Ww. veather may have varied from year to year, or •iiangedits character at intervals of short periods of ear.', it has yet undergone no material alteration luring the efflux of many ages. Some philosophers attempt to explain such fa(Ms s are now stated, from the supposed internal hejit f the globe, caused by the action of central fires ; nd pretend, in support of their favourite hypothesis, ■ The celebrated fountain of Vaucluse, situate in the latitude of 43'» J5', and 360 feet above the level of the Mediterranean Sea, has been ob- trved to acquire its highest temperature about the first day of Septem- ler, and to reach the lowest at the beginning of April, the former beiiiii |r>o.3, and the latter 54°.! by Fahrenheit's scale; which gives 550.'2 lor is mean heat,. The waters are collected from the fissures of an exten- live limestone rock, and seem to receive the superficial impressions in fie space of three mouths, lliey burst forth with such a volume as to jrin, only a few yards below their source, the translucid Sorgue, a river karcely inferior in its discharge to the Tay above Perth. IG f LIMATi:. i that tlie teinper;ilMi'<: always increases near the bot- tom of very deep nnnes. But this observation holds only in particular situations, where the warm exha- lations irom the burning of lamps and the breathing of the workmen arc collected and confined under the roofs of the galleries. In the case of a deep open pit, the effect is quite reversed, the bottom beinij always colder than the mean temperature. This i^ owing to the tendency of the chill air to descend by its superior density. The superficial impressions of heat and cold are thus not sent equally downwards ; so that the warmth of summer is dissipated at the mouth of the pit, while the rigours of winter are col- lected below. A similar modification of temperature we shall find occurs in profound lakes, in conse- quence of the disposition of the colder and denser portions of the water always to sink down. The permanent heat of the ground is, therefore, produced by the mere accumulation of incessant ex- ternal impressions. These impressions are received, either directly from the sun's rays, or circuitously, through the medium of atmospheric influence. But air is better fitted for diffusing than for storing up heat. The whole mass of the atmosphere, it may bo easily shown, does not contain more heat than a stratum of water only ten feet thick, or one of earth measuring fifteen feet. According to their relative temperature, the winds, in sweeping along tlie ground, either abstract or communicate warmth. But the sun is the gTeat and original fountain of heat, which the internal motion excited in the at- mosphere only serves to distribute more equally over the earth's surface. The heat imparted to the air, or to the ground, is always proportional to the ab- sorption of the solar beams; and the results are hence still the same, whether we embrace the simph; theory, that heat is only the subtle fluid of light, in a state of combination with its substratum ; or pre- fer the opinion, that light has always conjoijied •i ,1 ] CUMATF. 17 wifli it a corlain ndmixturo of Uir invisihlo nialtrr of heat. Owin^ to the splinicMJ f^rm of llu» carlli, ami \]w ol>liqnityof its axis, vriy (iiflti. nt quanlitips of h<:ht 01 licat are received in ffif si'vcral latitudes. 'J'he same portion of heat which would raise th<' teiuprra- lurc of 136 pounds of wiiNr a dep^ree on Fidireuhcit's scale, is only capahle of nieltiiifif one ]iounerpetual commerce of heat be- 132 18 CLIMATE. t weeii the Poles and tlie Equator is hence maintained, by the agency of opposite currents in the atmosphere. These currents will often have their direction modi- fied ; and they may still produce the same effects, by pursuing an oblique or devious course. The actual phenomena of climate only require the various winds, throughout the year, to advance southwards or northwards at the mean rate of almost tvply to the s. Water leat, from uniformly, es for the from the vv degrees of boiling. le volume alteration depressed ,^ grees of stagnant, m of ex- lys ready, ier conge- ler arc in srs, Willi- out distiu^bing the vast abyss below. Contrary to what takes place under milder skies, the water drawn up from a considerable depth is often warmer within tlin Arctic circle than what lies on the surface. The floating ice accordingly begins to melt generally on the under side, from the slow communication of the lieat sent upwards. These deductions are confirmed by the nice results of astronomical observations. Any chaiii^e in the temperature of our globe would occasion a corres- ponding mutation of volume, and consequently an alteration in the momentum of the revolving mass. Thus, if, from the accession of heat, the earth had jjained only a millionth part of linear expansion, it would have required an increase of five times propor- tionally more momentum to maintain the same rota- tion. On this supposition, therefore, the diurnal re- volution would have been retarded at the rate of three seconds in a week. But the length of the day has (01 tainly not varied one second in a year since the age of Hipparchus ; for we cannot imagine that the ancient observations could ever deviate an hour from tlie truth. We may hence conclude that, in the lapse of three thousand years, the mass of our globe has not acquired the ten-millionth part of expansion which the smallest fraction of a degree of heat would have communicated. ' The accumulation of ice on the surface of the ocean would likewise have occasioned a prolongation of the length of the day. This effect would no doubt be diminished under the Arctic circle, from the proximity of the glacial protuberance to the axis ; but its influence would cause a notable difference. After the continued action of the sun has at last. melted away the great body of ice, a short and du- bious interval of warmth occurs. In the space of a few weeks, only visited by slanting and enfeebled rays, frost again resumes his tremendous sway. It begins to snow as early as August, and the whole 24 CLIMATE. ground is covered, to the depth of two or three feti.j before the month of October. Along the shores aiK the bays, the fresh \\ ater, poured from rivulets, ot drained from the thawing of former collections of snow, becomes quickly converted into solid ice. As the cold augments, the air deposites its moisture in the form of a fog, which freezes into a fine gossamer netting or spicular icicles, dispersed through the atmosphere and extremely minute, that might seem to pierce and excoriate the skin. The hoar frost set- ties profusely, in fantastic clusters, on every promi- ■ nence. The whole surface of the sea steams like a lime-kiln, — an appearance called the frosUsmoh, caused, as in other instances of the production of vapour, by the water's being still relatively warmer than the incumbent air. At length the dispersion of the mist, and consequent clearness of the atmosphere, announce that the upper stratum of the sea itself has cooled to the same standard ; a sheet of ice spreads quickly over the smooth expanse, and often gains the thickness of an inch in a single night. The darkness of a prolonged winter now broo£ impene- trably over the frozen continent, unless the moon chance at times to obtrude her faint rays, which only discover the horrors and wide desolation of the scene. The wretched settlers, covered with a load of bear- skins, remain crowded and immured in their hut, every chink of which they carefully stop against the piercing external cold ; and, cowering about the stove or the lamp, they seek to doze away the tedious night. Their slender stock of provisions, though kept in the same apartment, is often frozen so liard as to require to be cut by a hatchet. The whole of the inside of their hut becomes lined with a thick crust of ice ; and, if they happen for an instant to open a window, the moisture of the confined air is immediately precipitated in the form of a shower of snow. As the frost continues to peretrate deeper, the rocks are heard at a distance to split with loud CLIMATE. 25 three feeij shores am rivulets, Of lections of lid ice. As moisture in le gossamer irough the might seem ar frost set- i^ery promi- earns like a frosUsmoh, jduction of 3ly wanner ispersionof Ltmosphere, sea itself leet of ice |, and often ight. The ds impene- the moon which only the scene. d of bear- their hut, igainst the t the stove ^ le tedious is, though so hard whole of a thick nstaiit to ed air is Ihower of deeper, ith loud i px[)losionR. The sleep of death seems to wrap up (lie scene in utter and oV)livious ruin.* At length the sun reappears above the horizon ; itil his languid beams rather betray the wide waste; iMiin brighten the prospect. I3y degrees, however, I 111' f'nrtlier progress of the frost is cheeked. In the iiioiitli of May, the famislied inmates venture to leave iluir liut, in quest of fish on the margin of the sen. \s tlic sun acquires elevation, his power is greatly inci eased. The snow gi'adually wastes away — the i'-r^ dissolves apace — and vast fragments of it, de- : itched from the cliffs, and undermined beneath, pre- (ii itate themselves on the shores with the crash of ihuiider. The ocean is now unbound, and its icy ilorne broken up with tremendous rupture. The ( iiormous fields of ice, thus set afloat, are, by the violence of winds and currents, again dissevered and dispersed. Sometimes, impelled in opposite direc- lioiis they approach, and strike with a mutual shock, hko the crush of worlds, — sufficient, if opposed, to reduce to atoms, in a moment, the proudest monu- ments of human power. It is impossible to picture a situation more awful than that of the poor crew of a whaler, who sec their frail bark thus fatally iiicloscd, expecting immediate and inevitable de- struction. Before the end of June, the shoals of ice in the Arctic seas are commonly divided, s(vattered, and dissipated. But the atmosphere is then almost con- tinually damp, and loaded with vapour. At this sea- son of the year, a dense fog generally covers the * " The sound of voices wliicti, during the colct weather, coiild bo lieaid at a much greater distance llian usual, served now and then to Itreak the silence whicli reigned around us ; a silence far different from liiai poaceahlo composure whicli characterizes the landscape of a culli- \ nt»(l country ; it was the death-like stillness of the most dreary deso- laiion, and the total ahsenceof animated existence." — Parky. During the winter at Melville Island, people were heard conversing at the dia. mice of a mile. This was no doubt owing partly lo the density of the !• ifiid atmosphere ; but chiefly to the absence of all obstruGtiou in a scene of universal calm and darkness. c • ij ■.I I 26 rf.rivfATPu surface of the sea, of a milder temperature indeed than the frost-smoke, yet produced by the inversion of the same cause. The lower stratum of air, as it successively touches the colder body of water, be- comes chilled, and thence disposed to deposite its moisture. Such thick fogs, with mere gleams of clear weather, infesting the northern seas during the greater part of the summer, render their navigation extremely dangerous. In the course of the month of July, the superficial water is at last brought to an equilibrium of temperature with the air, and the sun now shines out with a bright and dazzling radiance. For some days before the close of the summer, sucli excessive heat is accumulated in the bays and shel- tered spots, that the tar and pitch are sometimes melted, and run down the ship's sides. Notwithstanding the shortness of the summer in the high latitudes, the air on land becomes often op- pressively sultry. This excessive heat, being con- joined with moisture, engenders clouds of mosqui- toes, from the stings of which the Laplanders are forced to seek refuge in their huts, where they enve- lope themselves in dense smoke. Humidity marks the general character of the Arctic regions, "which are covered during the greater part of the year with chilling fogs. The sky seldom appears clear, except for a few weeks in *vinter, when the cold at the sur- face becomes most intense. Yet the rigour of that season is not felt so severely as the thermometer would indicate. When the temperature is lowest, the air is commonly calm, and, therefore, abstracts less heat from the body than the exposure to a strong wind of much inferior coldness. The providence of the natives serves to mitigate the liardships they have to suffer. The Esquimaux, on the approach of win- ter, cut the hard ice into tall square blocks, with which they construct regular spacious domes, con- nected with other smaller ones, for the various pur- poses of domestic economy. They shape the inside with :irt'lisi< :i soli( checkj ))ortioi cxternl (lay. l(.'ss del limits 81,}^ a trr sol^ slice o inosph( or a lej the ni fill ring tude of noon, t the sni; ponds 1 nearly ilie nig] The ap] frozen ] very de usually about tl gives i reappefi the Arc has bee The Arctic s one pre other b tracts, 1 or cont of the £ hnipid n.iMATi;. a? ■,i with care, and give it an evon, glossy suiiaco by llie iirt'iision of water. The snowy wall soon becomes :i solid conci-ete mass, wbieb, being a slow conduetoi-, checks the access of cold, wliile it admits a sufficient ])ortion of light. It may also be remarked, that the; external darkness prevails only during a part of the (lay. Since twilight obtains whenever the sun is less depressed than 18 degrees below the horizon, the limits of entire obscuration occur in the latitudes of HlJ"^ and A&h°; in the former at midda}^ in the win- ter solstice, and in the latter at midnight in the sol- stice of summer. Between these extremes the at- mosphere at the opposite seasons glows to a greater or a less extent, from the middle of the day or of the night. Accordingly, Captain Parry's party, (luring their detention at Melville Island, in the lati- tude of 74° 40', found, that in clear weather, about noon, they could easily, in the depth of winter, read the smallest print on deck. This position corres- ponds to the alternating parallel of 58° 20', which nearly reaches Orkney, where the transparency of ilie nights in the height of summer is well known. The approacli of twilight is, besides, advanced in the frozen regions by the superior refractive powe; of a very dense atmosphere. The horizontal refraction usually raises the lower limb of the sun and moon about the twelfth part of their diameters, and often gives it a wavy and fantastic outline. Hence the reappearance of those luminaries is hastened within the Arctic circle, though the quantity of anticipation has been much exaggerated. The ice which obstructs the navigation of tli;^ Arctic seas consists of two very different kinds ; the one produced by the congelation of fresh, and tlie other by that oi* salt water. In those inhospitable iracts, the snow which annually falls on the islands or continents, being again dissolved by the progress of the summer's lieat, pours forth numerous rills and limpid streams, which collect along the indented 28 LLIMATi:. shores, iuicl ill the ilonj) buys enclosed by precipitous rocks. Tbere, tliis clear and gelid water soon freezes, and every snccessive year snpplics an addi- tional investing crnst, till, after the lapse, })erhaj)s, ol several ccntnries, the icy mass rises at last to llit size and aspect of a monntain, commensurate with the elevation of the adjoining cliffs. The meltiiiir of the snow, which is afterward deposited on sncli enormous blocks, likewise contributes to tlieii growth; and, by filling up the accidental holes m crevices, it renders the whole structure compact and uniform. Meanwhile, the principle of destrucMion has already begun its operations. The ceasch^ss agitation of the sea gradually wears and undermines the base of the icy mountain, till, at length, l)y tlic action of its own accumulated weight, when it has perhaps attained an altitude of a thousand, or even two thousand feet, it is torn from its nozen chains, and precipitated, with tremendous plu!'ge, into the abyss below. This mighty launch now floats like a lofty island on the ocean ; till, driven southwards by winds and currents it insensibly wastes and dissolves away in the wide Atlantic. Such I conceive, to be the real origin of the icy mouniams or icebergs, entirely similar in their forma- tion to the glaciers which occur on the flanks of the Alps and the Pyrenees. They consist of a clear, compact, and solid ice, which has the fine green tint verging to blue, which ice or water, when very pure | and of a sufficient depth, always assumes. From the cavities of these icebergs, the crews of the northern whalers are accustomed, by means of a hose, or flexible tube of canvass, to fill their casks easily with the finest and softest water. Of tlie same species of ice, the fragments which are picked up as they float on the surface of the ocean yield the adventurous navigator the most refreshing beverage.* * The water \'»hich flows from those Arctic glaciers becomes frn/,en again on the approach of winter, and forms along the coast a tliick stra- •recipitoii:^ ator soon ^ ail addi- erliai).s, of 1st to lilt' irato Willi e mcltiiiLr a on such to llicii i liolcs or npact and estnirtioii ceaseless idermiiU's th, by till' en it has :1, or evea 311 chains, , into the »ats like a wards by dissolves f the icy r forma- ts of the a clear, reen tint ery puie . From of tlie s of a r Of tlie picked lield the lerage/ ies frozen Ihick stra- 1 iiiii&JSmT>5IS^«PHa5^£s- Icebergs.— LP' 28.] It \\'< It ho w Urralod (it* eo\n| of tlio Ivcsolvrl l)lisho(lI ])ro(lurt (listing^ lizatioii dinphnij llaket stronuc in fact, the con tlirrefo' brine in slowly, lirackis potable To ci contain saline i process renheit' in<]:-poii therefo warme down 1 About a sheel turn of b under th( * Capt ice had about the In. ^M «nlytt»ei portion 1: :^7th pan 01' salt. CLIMATi:. 29 Tt wns loiiff (lisputrd amonnr the Iranird, whether Itlio waters of the ocean are capable of bein^ eon- Lrpiilcfl; ai' 1 many frivolous ami absurd arguments, \o\' course, were advanced to prove? the impossibility of llie fact. IJut the questit)n is now completely 1 resolved ; and the freezinji^ of sea-water is esta- blished h' fh by observation and experimtmt. The j)roduet, liowever, is an imperfect sort of ice, easily (listinn:uishable from the result of a rej?ular crystal- lization: it is porous, incompact, and imperfectly (linphanons. It consists of spicular shoots, or thin Hakes, which detain within their interstices the stronger brine ; and its granular spongy texture has, in fa(^t, the appearance of congealed syrup, or what the confectioners call water-ice. This saline ice can, therefore, never yield pure water; yet, if the strong brine imprisoned in it be first suffered to drain off slowly, the loose mass that remains will melt into a ijrackish liquid, which in some cases may be deemed potable.* To congeal sea-water of the ordinary saltness, or containing nearly the thirtieth part of its weight of saline matter, it requires not an extreme cold ; this process taking effect about the 27th degree on Fali- renheit's scale, or only five degrees below the freez- ing-point of fresh water. Within the Arctic circle, therefore, the surface of the ocean being never much warmer, is, m the decline of the summer, soon cooled down to the limit at which congelation commences. About the end of July, or the beginning of August, a sheet of ice, perhaps an inch thick, is formed in the turn of blue solid ice, imbedded in the beach, and from six to ten feet under the surface. * Captain Parry remarked, that the superficial water near melting ice had scarcely any trace of saltness. In other observations made about the end of July, he discovered the water at the surface to contain only the 550th part of its weight of salt ; but under ten fathoms the pro- portion had increased to the .^9th, ajid at the depth of 300 fathoms to the 37ih pan. Tlie friable ice of sea-water was found to hold the 1 I5th part of salt. C 2 30 CLIMATE. ■«. »i: / space of a single night. Tlic frost now maintains ascendency, and slioots its increasing energy in iill directions, till it has covered tlie whole extent of those seas with a solid vault to the depth of several feet. But, on the return of spring, the penetratinir rays of the sun gradually melt or soften that i(;y floor, and render its substance friable and easily dis- rupted. The first strong wind, creating a swell in the ocfMii, then breaks up the vast continent into large fields, which are afterward shivered mto fra^r. ments by their mutual collision. This generally happens early in the month of June; and a few weeks are commonly sufficient to disnerse and dis- solve the floating ice. The sea is at last open, for a short and dubious interval, to the pursuits of the ad- venturous mariner. While icebergs are thus the slow growth of ages, the fields or shoals of saline ice are annually formed and destroyed. The ice generated from melted snow is hard, pellucid, and often sv/ells to enormous heiglit and dimensions. But the concretion of salt water wants solidity, clearness, and strength, and never rises to any very considerable thickness. It seldom floats during more than part of the year ; though, in some cold season, the scattered fragments may be surprised by the early frost, and preserved till the following summer. The whale-fishers enumerate several varieties of the salt-water ice. A very wide expanse of it they call 3,Jield, and one of smaller dimensions ?iJloe. When a field is dissevered by a subaqueous or groTi'ii swell, it breaks into numerous pieces, seldom ex- ceeding forty or fifty yards in diameter, which, taken collectively, are termed a pack. This pack again, when of ?. broad shape, is called a patch ; and, when much elongated, a stream. The packs of ice are crowded and heaped together by violent Wihds ; but they again separate and spread asunder in calm weather. If a ship can sail freely through the float- ■1 1 i CLIMATE, 81 niaiiUains leroy in all cxiom of $i; of so vera] H oiietratintr ^ tliat icy easily dis- a swell ill ineiit into ' into fra^r. generally lid a few ? and dis- pell, for a >f the ad- i of ages, y formed ted snow LIS heigJit lit water id never t seldom ough, ill may be till the eties of it they grozi'ii pin ex- taken again, , when ce are s; bnt calm float- msr pieces of ice, it is called drift-ice; and the ice itsr.4 is said to be loose or open. When, from the clVcct of abrasion, tlic; hiri^^or blocks of ice are crnm- lilrd into minute frat^inents, this (Collection is called brash-ice, A portion of ice rising above the common level is termed a hummock, beintr produced by tlie squeezing of one piece over another. These huin- mocks or protuberances break the uniform surfac^c of the ice, and give it a most diversified and fantastic; jippearance. They are numerous in the heavy packs, and along the edges of ice-fields, reaching to the lieiglit of thirty feet. The term sludge is applied by the Sailors to the soft and incoherent crystals which ilie frost forms when it first attacks the ruffled sur- face of the ocean. As these increase, they have some effect, liKe oil, to still the secondary waves ; but tliey are prevented from coalescing into a continuous slieet, by the agitation which still prevails ; and they form small discs, rounded by continual attrition, and scarcely three inches in diameter, called pan- cakes. Sometimes these again unite into circular pieces, perhaps a foot thick, and many yards in cir- cumference. The fields and other collections of floating ice are often discovered at a great distance, by tliat singular appearance on the verge of the horizon, which the Dutch seamen have termed ice-blink. Tt is a stratum of lucid whiteness, occasioned evidently by the glare of light reflected obliquely from the surface of the ice against the opposite atmosphere. This shining streak, which looks always brightest in clear weather, indicates, to the experienced navigator, 20 or 30 miles beyond the limit of direct vision, not only the extent and figure, but even the quality of the ice. The blink from packs of ice appears of a pure white, while that which is occasioned by snow-fields has some tinge of yellow. The mountains of hard and perfect ice are the gradual production, perhaps; of many centuries. 32 C'r.iHATr:. Alonff tlie western coast nt r- , I into Davis's Strait, they form ^If™'""''' P^olong-c! which presents to the mnr n '"imense rampan ■ resemUing, at a distance "vCp '' "'^'™^ -'Pectac I; mantlmg castles, or fleets mL?Tfi' °^' '^''•'••chev' year, but cspeciaiiv in W L ^"^ *^"" sail. Even detached fr'om llfei? seatf rd'V,"? ^^f Partial deep sea. I„ Davis's Strai't ^hosp "k "'' '"'° *'^ the most frequent • an/.K /rv"**" icebergs aprieii soundings exLed 300 fathoZ °'"'° ^=*>'' ^^''-e'^tl raous dimensions aremett^r'^'^^fs of sue], enm-. compare them to cities rnd'n^' *u ^"^'^^ «'=ame. thefamiliarnamesofAmsterll " t^°'^ <>" *em are carried towards the At hnr ^k""" H^erlem. Thev generally flows from the '"^^ ^^ ^he current whiS reach the warmer ^tern?TV^^'' ''"'' after thev J-apidly dissolve, aiTdfi^a^L^fl-'^^e'- latitudes the Xrw °f a few moXj ^""PP^"'-' P'-obably i' float ;'but°show a' fit Tmf Z ""^^'^^ "ack as thev brought up on the deck Th^^*"" ^""'y^ ^ue wh,!, rent like crystal thev «;> ^}}oi}gh perfectly transm streamlets IftZ^C^tT. T'^'"'' ^re^d^^; congelation. This n.im ;„ l'^"'*"^ '" the act of part lighter than fr^sh watV*"'"^ ""'^ =» ^l^elnl project about one-tenthJff'-'""^* consequenTi jceberg of 2000 feet "i heLht Z^f^v.*'' ««»• "" ^floated still rise 300 feet ahov^l*^ therefore, afte water. Such, perhaps m-lfu *® ^"■"'ace of the the extreme dimeSns %h„t°"''^'"''"' ^ "^'^^v may even acquire more p'i^,, .• ^ '"ountains of ice f^ard by thet'r?;„t^a'»-> ^eyarecaS" east into the Atlantic, wK bath/r'" *^ """h- fluid, they rapidly waste nmf'jf '" * warmer shown by experimen? that ff /f °'^''- I* ""ay be '"ey «oat had only th J'te^Jl.^^eJa^:,!': ,Tlll, ^S CLIMATE. 33 . prolonged ise rampan, I e spectacle. I i' churches, ^■ ail. Evcrv re partial] V ?d into thf T*gs appeal wh^re thr. such enoi^ ch seamen ^v on them ?m. Thev rent which after thej- udes thev obably in 'k as they ue when transpa- ireads oi act of fifteenth quentlv ea. All re, after 9 of the nearly of ice 2 from m, and id con- caiTied north- 'armer ay be which mass f we would lose the thickness of an inch every our, or two feet in a day. Supposing llie surface f tlie sea to be at 52o, the daily diminution of thick- ess would be doubled, and would therefore amount o four feet. An iceberg having 600 feet of total levntion would hence, on this probable estimate, ofjuire 150 days for its dissolution. But the melting f the ice would be greatly accelerated if the mass vcre impelled through the water by the action of viiids. A velocity of only a mile in an hour would riple the ordinary effect. Hence, though large )odies of ice are often found near the banks of New- biindland, they seldom advance farther, or pass loyond the 48th degree of latitude. Within the Ar(;tic regions those stupendous blocks remain, by heir mere inertia, so fixed on the water, as cora- bnonly to serve for the mooring of vessels employed 'ill tlie whale-fishery. In such cases, however, it is a necessary precaution to lengthen the cables, and ride at some distance from the frozen cliff; because the fragments of ice, which the seamen term calves, are frequently detached from the under part of the mass, and, darting upwards, acquire such a velocity in tlieir ascent, that they would infallibly strike holes into the ship's bottom. The ice produced .rom salt water is whitish, po- rous, and almost opaque. It is so dense, from the quantity of strong brine enclosed in its substance, that, when floating in the sea, it projects only one- fiftieth part above the surface. The porous saline iee has a variable thickness, yet seldom exceeding six feet. But this saline ice which, during the greater part of the year covers the Arctic seas, is .iunually formed and destroyed; a small portion of it only, and at certain seasons, escaping the general wreck. The thaw commonly lasts about three months; and during that time tlie heat of the solar rays, which, though oblique, yet ad w lih unceasing energy, whether applied directly or through the inter- .*•- ■ '• 34 cuivTATr:. ventioji of tlip nir ^,. .i the autumn, the winter and /hf "•' ""^ '''>•"•«« oi proved by experiment tCmi '1""8'- I' may (, power of the sun at the soIst?,t"' *', ^'« 't^^'f- " of a week.melt astra umof fi, ■''°'^'^' '" *he spa.o may hence fairly comnme th '""""^^ '><' '«e. \v,! sufficient for thawk^^"'!'''? """"'''1 '"»*'« to b^ It should likevvLe b! 1^. 'Y^ <"" ^^r incho prevailing hazineL' of the aS *^''. "^i^ to 1 1' latitudes, those sing-iIar nnM^^""^'" '''^"orthein always dart from an azmp =i emanations whid Perate climates dim nlshZ^' f"*^ *" ">« more ten sun often by one-fifth part can ""''" ?"'"» "f th ■ this account nerhn^LP ' °^" scarcely exist n, ^ruction of'p'ZfFltl^tTZ^f/e annua, d'^J-' ot four feet. ^^ "« swelled to a thickness itisaSlte'';''„'r'%PT^- °f tha-in, ,« annual format o„a,^3 dest™^."'^ "congelation. ?iC mcessant beamsInsumLf '°''^''^'^ ^™«*ed by iiess of winter by th" m" f',"^/'' P""^'"''^ m the dark- cold. None of t^he anS n"""'"'^ ""<* Penetrant" have at all supported s„Ph°r''=^'»'"e tribes co tual an-anffemm,h! ''f '"''"''«• But in the li spent in meltSvav thp"^'"' ''"=" "^ summer is' ^^'nter is partly^sSd b ' th ' " «" '" ''^ficie^c; i gress of con-. becomol in";',''' 'o«r, k X^ ^^'herate even of Uvem;^,!!"^ ""» '«ion i„ a tra'-t of ^S>'if""y «Pend al L"'i'^* «<•»'''' =oI,l ,„,* ."?'^'' ""'St thus di«..j,., .:'." f^les from tl,c pervaded he" ho?'" "'" '=''°«"? had [f ' ? ^°"M "ot . Accordino- to<^^'^"'a«« from tl,e bo n ^ Progress, « comparison of fif'^^V'^^^^ns of La&'J. "P^^"'* H servafion ,? "' ""^ *eorv of tin^F -^^ funded on K'l^H nni ^: ""l.^' ^-^P'h^of Ae o^^;;*/'^'"'*! ob' ' Point, and ten' ^ ""^ Wowin,r months eTe^^r/'" '" «^«ep over tte' """^r ^'our, it vvSr,"""' ''* the rate of «ft ^^antic six of ^va er on V '?' f^" ^^^'^ to eoof tt? ""^^ an •'^ome perZn, T^^" -^"^roe. °°' *«' ^ast body or islandroS wP ,""='ff'"em want such cir- Jat heat, [load of he field ►r the re^ condi. rmome- ebrated ent re- 724, by bserva» I H than a our in- which A tive to ■^ intage, % v^inter. ' or the 1 ellous Its, On glancing over the incidental notices of the state of the weather, it is obvious that no material change has taken place for th(3 last thousand years in the climate of Europe; but we may conjecture that it lias gradually acquired rather a milder character; at least its excessive severity appears on the whole to be of rarer occurrence. The weather seems not to affect any precise course of succession, although two or more years of remarkable heat or cold often follow consecutively ; yet there can be no doubt, that series of atmospheric changes, however complicated and perplexing, are as determinate in their nature as the revolutions of the celestial bodies. When the science of meteorology is more advanced, we shall, perhaps, by discovering a glimpse of those vast cycles, which result from the varied aspects of the sun combined with the feebler influence of the moon, be at length enabled to predict with some degree of probability, the condition of future seasons. The in- termediate period of nine years, or the semi-revolu- tion nearly of the lunar nodes and apogee, proposed by Toaldo, seems not to be altogether destitute of foundation. Thus, of the years remarkably cold, 16-22 was succeeded, after the interval of four periods or 36 j^ears, by 1658, whose severity lasted through the following year. The same interval brings us to 1695, and five periods more extend to 1740,--a very fa- mous cold year ; three periods now come down to 1767, nine years more to 1776, and eighteen years more to 1794, the cold continuing through 1795. Of the hot years it may be observed, that four periods of nine years extend from 1616 to 1652, and three such again to 1679. From 1701 to 1718 there was an interval of seventeen years, or very nearly two periods, while three periods reach to 1745, another period to 1754, and one more falls on 1763 ; and from 1779 to 1788, there are just nine years. The year 1818 would therefore correspond to 1701, 1719, and 1746, and consequently very nearly to 1718. Again, the years D2 '*%l 42 CLIMATE. 1784, 1703, 1802, and 1811, at llie intervals of succes- sive perio(ls, were all of them remarkably warm. A eyele of 51 years, ineludinp^ tlierefore six of these subordinate [jeriods, has lat(?ly been proposed with much eonfiden<-e, but a[)parently on slender grounds. Ifcthe climate had unders^one any real chanije in the more temperate parts of Kurope, a correspondini,' alteration, with very distinct featincs, must inevitably Ir.ive taken place in the An^tic regions. Ihit a dispas- sionate inquiry discovers no circumstanct^s which at all clearly point at such a conclusion. On this head we may readily satisfy ourselves, by a short retro- spect of the prm(Ui)al facts which have been recorded by voyagei^s. Greenland, in its position and general outline, ap- pears to resemble the vast promontory of South Ame- rica. From Cape Farewell, a small island, divided from the shore by a narrow inlet called Staaten Hock, in the latitude of ()0°, it stretches, in a north- \yesterly direction, about 200 miles to pape Desola- tion, and then nearly northward to Good Haven, in latitude 05°, where it inclines nearly a point towards the east, as far as the island of Disco, which occupies a spacious bay, between the latitudes of 67° and 71°, in Davis's Strait. Thence the continent extends almost due north, beyond the latitude of 76°, till it is lost in the recesses of Baffin's Bay. On the other side, Greenland stretches about north-north-east, 300 miles, but with a great sinuosity, till nearly op- posite to Iceland, in the latitude' of 64o, and now advances almost north-east to the latitude of 75", when, suddenly bending to the north, it holds this di- rection beyond Spitzbergen and the latitude of 80°. The coast is every where bold and rocky, like that of Norway ; and the interior of the country consists of clustering lofty mountains, covered with eternal snows. But the western side, which forms Davis's Strait, is indented with numerous bights, creeks, and fiords or firtlis, which, for the space of two or three months each year, look verdant, and a ield tolerable t liide of 'i lorming I H\u;hU are calk I seasons, I cliannel they sh( till they whales j mals, ii above t' of Apri ally dis ders th Strait, t three n better other fc than hs hardy i hazard, I CLIMATK. 43 succes. irm. A )f lliL'se oA with (rounds. ianu:e in pondinir evitably I (lispa.s- vliich at liis head "t retro- ecorded iiie, ap- th Ame- divided Staaten L north- Desola- Lven, ill owards pasturage. The oast(!rn shore, ajifiiin, which pro- pLTly bounds the (ireenhmd seas, can rarely be ap- pjoaclied by the whalers, as the accunnilated stream of ice, which in sununer is consiaiuly (hirtint? iVoiu the north-east, creates a formidable barrier. The position of this icy boundary, ihou^di nearly parallel to the land, is not absolutely fixed, but varies within cf rtain limits in difl'er(!nt years. The late survey by Mr. S(;oresby was therefore; not very satisfactoiy. Ill Davis's Strait, the whalers gcnc^rally resort to Disco Hay, or push farther north; sometimes as far iis tlie latitude of TG*^, to the variable margin of the iri'cat icy continent. On tlie other side of d'reen- l;!!ul, about the meridian of eiulit deyfre(;s east from (ircenwi(;h, the ice, in warm seasons, n^tires to the latitude of 80°, beyond Hakluyt's Headhmd, at the extremity of Spitzbergen ; whiU;, at other times, it aiivanees as far south on the same line as the lati- tude of 70°, envelopinir the wliole of that island, but IbrminiT below it a wide bay, called the Wlialcfisher's Hii;ht^ on the parallel of Bear Island. The former arc called open., and the latter close seasons. In open seasons, the ships employed in these fisheries find a cliannel from 20 to 50 leagues wide, through which they shoot forward along the shores of Spitsbergen, till tliey reach the latitude of 78° or 79°, where the whales are most abundant. The chase of these ani- mals, in the Greenland seas at least, seldom lasts above two months, commencing generally at the end of April, and terminating with June, when they usu- ally disappear, and the prevalence of dense fogs ren- ders the navigation very dangerous. In Davis's Strait, the fishery continues often for two, or even three months longer. Mr. Scoresby thinks it were better if our Greenland ships, like the Dutch and other foreigners, began their voyage somewhat liter than has become the practice. In close seasons, tho hardy navigator is obliged, with imminent peril and hazard, to impel his ship, by boring under a press 44 CLIMATE. of sail, and assisted by ropes and saws, through the drift-ice which borders the great barrier, endeavouring to follow every vein of water that runs nearly in the required direction. If he fail in this attempt, he must forego the chance of a profitable voyage, and content himself with the humbler pursuit of catching seals. The space over which the line of ice may be sup- posed to oscillate in the Greenland seas, extends 1400 miles from Cape Farewell to 200 miles beyond Jan Mayen's Island, which it includes, and has a mean breadth of about 80 miles. Such is the extent of the mere surplus ice formed and dissolved from year to year, — exceeding the whole surface of Great Bri- tain. Hence the quantity melted or liberated during the years I8I6 and 1817 bore no very considerable proportion to the ordinary fluctuating mass. It is therefore evident, that whatever may be the casual variations of the frozen expanse, no mighty alteration has yet taken place in the climate and condition of the Arctic seas. If we compare the journals of former navigators, we shall be convinced that all the changes of the Polar ice are periodical, and are again repeated at no very distant intervals of time. We may pass over the pretensions of some Dutch captains, who alleged that they had been carried by winds or currents as far north as the latitude of 88°, or even that of 89° 40', and consequently only twenty miles from the Pole ; since their estimate, at all times rude, from observa- tions with the fore-staff, was then founded on mere dead reckoning after a continuation of foggy weather. Davis, in 1587, ascended, in the strait which de- servedly bears his name, to the latitude of 72° 12', where he found the variation of the compass to be 82° west, or nearly the same as at present. In 1616, Baffin advanced, in the same quarter, as high as the latitude of 78 degrees. Hudson had, nine years before, penetrated in the Greenland seas to the lati- tude of 81°, and seen supposed land as high as that of 82° it is m( been early regions] ceeded a very In 1751, calls a from Hi 83i°, w| being farther, safety of JuneJ latitude as far as latitude beginnii his courg (lays of same pc indeed h most ex was perl ful and beyond ; the late navigate he was ( ? which b latitude he met ^ find the subsequ vanced accomp Kergue opposit CLIMATE. 45 of 82° lying" to the north-east of Spitzbergen. But it is mortifying to remark how little progress has been made in geographical discovery since those early and intrepid adventurers explored the Arctic regions with their humble barks, which seldom ex- ceeded the size of fifty tons. We must pass over a very long interval to obtain authentic information. In 1751, Captain M*Callam, whom Mr. Barrington calls a scientific .: l* : an, sailed without obstruction from Hakluyt's Headland as high as tlie latitude of 83 i°, where he found an open sea ; and the weather being fine, nothing hindered him from proceeding ffirther, but his responsibility to its owners for the safety of the ship. Captain Wilson, about the end of June, 1754, having traversed floating ice from the latitude of 74° to 81°, at last found the sea quite clear as far as he could descry ; and he advanced to the latitude of 83°, till, not meeting with any whales, and begiiming to apprehend some danger, he shaped back his course. At this veiy time. Captain Guy, after four days of foggy weather, was likewise carried to the same point. The Polar seas at this period must indeed have been remarkably open ; for one of the most extraordinary and best-authenticated voyages was performed in 1754 by Mr. Stephens, a very skil- ful and accurate observer, whose testimony is put beyond all manner of doubt by the cool judgment of the late astronomer-royal. Dr. Maskelyne. This navigator informed him, that about the end of May, he was driven off Spitzbergen by a southerly wind, which blew for several days, till he had reached the latitude of 84i° ; and that in the whole of this run he met with little ice and no drift-wood, and did not find the cold to be anywise excessive. In different subsequent years, the Greenland whalers have ad- vanced to the latitude of 81 or 82 degrees. This was accomplished even in 1766 ; although, according to Kerguelin, the whole space between Iceland and the opposite coast was then frozen over. The year 46 CLIMATE. 1773, or that in which Captain Phipps performed liis voyage, was still more favourable for approach injir towards the North Pole. In 1806, the elder Mr. Scoresby ascended to the latitude of 81° 5(y ; but in the following year he could not proceed farther than the parallel of 78i°. In 1811, the higher latitudes . were again accessible ; and, after a short interval, the summers of 1815, 1816, and 1817 are represented as open seasons ; though none of the whalers have now penetrated so far into the north as had been done in many former years, and particularly in 1754. In this plain statement, one can perceive no de- cided symptoms of any general or progressive ten- dency towards a dissolution of the Polar ice. The frozen border alters its position from one year to another, and probably returns again to the same limits after certain short periods of time. Such fluc- tuations are analogous to the incessant changes which affect the state of the weather in the more temperate regions. The complex system of winds moulds the climate, and varies the features of the seasons over the globe. It is a common remark of those who fre- quent the Polar seas, that they find always the least obstruction from ice when the preceding winter has been very severe in the more southern latitudes. In the year 1766, though the frost had proved most in- tense through the rest of Europe, the whalers reached a high latitude ; and, not to multiply instances, the three seasons preceding 1818, reckoned very open, succeeded to winters notoriously cold and protracted. Nor is it difficult to discern the reason of this seeming paradox ; for our severe winters are occasion jd by the prevalence of northerly winds, which must arrive at the Polai' seas from the south, and consequently transport so mucii warmth to them as may check the usual rigour of the frost. The main argument, however, brought to prove the deterioration of the Arctic climate, is drawn from the supposed existence of a colony, which had once ^ f flourishi for sev< its remj accumuj have o^ way, h; sober e: chronicll that thef notion, land wa^ The wh( cates th( After merous Roman by their I life of pirates '^ course o of Euro] shores ol century, and Wes — plunde ravages mands, c king the where t of these coast of Buttl] confined carried i ing dista powerfu roving p seas, ha^ called S CLIMATE. 47 rmed his roach ing Ider Mr. ; but in her than latitudes interval, resented 5rs have ;en done 54. no de- ive ten- e. The year to e same ich fluc- s which uperate aids the ins over 7ho fre- le least ter has 3S. In ost in- eached es, the open, acted, ending id by arrive iiently k the i^e the mthe once flourished on the eastern coast of Greenland, but has, for several centuries, become extinct ; all access to its remains being at length completely barred by the accumulation of ice. This tale, which seems to have owed its birth to Torfaeus, the historian of Nor- way, has obtained very general credence. Yet, a sober examination of the early Sagas, or northern chronicles, so full of wonder and fable, will show that there is no solid reason for entertaining such a notion, or believing that the first settlement of Green- land was made on the east side of the continent. The whole contexture of the original narrative indi- cates the very opposite conclusion. After the North had ceased to send forth her nu- merous swarms upon the fertile provinces of the Roman empire, the Scandinavian nations, prompted by their peculiar situation, betook themselves to a life of maritime adventure. Those bold and hardy pirates visited every sea, and pillaged, during a course of nearly three hundred years, all the coasts of Europe, from the extremity of Scotland to the shores of Sicily. During the first half of the ninth century, they conquered the Orkneys, the Shetland and Western Isles — obtained possession of Ireland —plundered England and France — and extended their ravages to Italy. In 876, the Northmen, or Nor- mands, extorted from the weakness of the French king the cession of the fine province of Neustria, where they quietly settled ; while another party of these fierce invaders had occupied the fertile coast of Esthonia, on the south side of the Baltic. But the visits of those intrepid navigators were not confined to the richer countries of the south. They carried ravens with them, for the purpose of discover- ing distant land, by the direction of the flight of those powerful and sagacious birds. In 861, Nadodd, a roving pirate, in one of his voyages in the northern seas, happened to be cast away on an island which he called iSnowland. Three years afterward, Gardar and 48 CLIMATE. Flocke, two Swedes, visited it ; and having found a great quantity of drift-ice collected on the north side of it, they gave it the name of Iceland, which it still bears. But in 874, Ingolf and Leif, two famous Nor. wegian adventurers, carried a colony to this inhospi- table region, the latter having enriched it with the booty which he had ravaged from England. Other emigrants, whom the disorders of the times drove successively from home, resorted in crowds to the new settlement, which became very considerable in the space of a few years. Iceland itself was able, after the progress of about a century, to send out likewise her colonies. Thor- wald, a proud and opulent Norwegian chief, who had been lately banished thither from the court for some murder committed by him, soon died in exile, leaving his wealth and his restless spirit to his son Eric Raude, or the Red. This youth, actuated by the same vengeful passions, killed one of his neighbours in a fight, and was obliged to withdraw himself from Ice- land for the space of three years. In 982, Eric sailed in quest of adventure and discovery. In- structed by the reports of former navigators, he directed his course towards the south-west ; and, after a quick run, he descried two lofty mountains, the one covered with snow and the other cased with ice, which he called Huitserken and Blaaserken, or the White Shirt and the Blue Shirt, and soon reached a headland which he doubled ; and having entered a spacious creek, he spent the winter on a pleasant adjacent island. In the following season, pursuing his discoveries, he explored the continent, and was delighted with the freshness and verdure of its coast. Contrasting this new country with the dark rocks of Iceland, he bestowed on it the flattering appellation of Greenland ; and, on his return, invited settlers to join him, by circulating the most glowing and exag- gerated descriptions. With twenty-five vessels he sailed back again ; but of these only fourteen reached found a rth side 1 it still lis Nor. nhospi- ith the Other 3 drove to the able ill about a Thor- ^ho had )r some leaving •n Eric le same irs in a )m Ice- 2, Eric Y* 111- )rs, he ; and, ntains, d with en, or ached ered a asaiit ming Id was ;oast. ;ksof llation jrs to lexag- Is he iched w CLIMATE. 49 their destination. This colony was soon augmented, by the arrival of other adventurers, not only from Iceland, but from the Orkneys and other islands planted by the Norwegians. In the year 999, Leif, a son of Eric Raude, having visited the couit of Noi'way, was induced, by the zealous and earnest solicitation of KingOlaf Tryggoson, to embrace the Christian faith ; and, carrying with him some monks, he found, through their ministry, no great difficulty ill persuading his father and the rest of the settlers to forsake the rites of paganism. The first colony having extended itself along the coast to a wide firth, another settlement beyond that boundary was established farther towards the west. The former, called Oesire Bygd^ or the Eastern Settle- inent, is said to have included, in its most flourishing state, twelve parishes and two convents; and the latter, termed Vesire Bygd, or the Western Settlement, contained four parishes. 'Fhe colonists of Greenland were compelled to lead a life of hardship and severe privations. They dwelt in hovels surrounded by mountains of perpetual ice ; they never tasted bread, but subsisted on the fish v/hich they caught, joined to a little milk obtained from their starving cows; and, with seal-skins and the tusks of the walrus, they pur- chased, from the traders who occasionally visited them, the wood required for fuel and the construction Qf their huts. Combining the several circumstances together, it seems clear that the original colony of Greenland began about the southern promontory, near Cape Farewell, and stretched along the coast in a north- westerly direction. Farther north, and probably as high as the latitude of 60**, the second settlement was formed. For some centuries both of them main- tained a sort of commercial intercourse with Nor- way; but this trade became afterward very much reduced, in consequence of its being seized as an £ 00 CLIMATE. exclusive privilege of the Danish court. About the year 1376, the natives of the country, or Esquimaux invaders, whom the Norwegian settlers had in c n- tempt called Skrcellings or Dwarfs, attacked the western colony, which now claimed the assistance of its elder brother. The scanty population, how- ever, was enfeebled by such repeated alarms; and that dreadful pestilence, termed the Black Death, wliich raged over Europe from tlie year 1402 to 1404, at last extended its ravages to Greenland, and nearly completed the destruction. In fertile regions the waste of the human species is always quickly re- paired; but poor and barren countries can seldom recover from the depression of such severe calami- ties. The colonies which occupied Greenland appear to have languished near one hundred years afterward, till they became finally extinct about the commence- ment of the sixteenth century. But a notion has very generally prevailed, that only the western settlement of Greenland had perished^ while the eastern was merely secluded from commu- nication with the rest of the world by a vast barrier of ice, at length accumulated ou its shores. The only question lately entertained was, whether these ill-fated colonists have survived the catastrophe, or have been suddenly entombed in ice and snow, as the unhappy citizens of Herculaneum were anciently involved in a dense shower of volcanic ashes. Tre- mendous stories are told of the east side of Green- land being now tenanted by giants and stalking ghosts. For more than a century past the court of Denmark has, at different times, despatched ships to search after its lost colony, wliich, evidently under the impression of superstitious awe, found it impos- sible to penetrate on that enchanted coast farther than Cape Discord, in the latitude of 61<*. But in favourable seasons small boats can, without much difficulty, creep along the shore to a much higher CLIMATE. 51 parallel. If any settlers had ever occupied the nar- row bays, tliey mifrht surely have escaped either in their canoes or in sledo^es. The supposed existence of a colony on the east side of Greenland is clearly a fable, originating in a misapprehension of the import of the designations appUed severally to the two settlements. The one first made lay no doubt to the east, as well as to the south of the other; but the ships which resorted from Norway held a westerly course for them both. Between them a mutual intercourse appears likewise to have been maintained, which surely could not have taken place had they been divided by a chain of lofty and impassable mountains covered with eternal snow\ Traces of those ancient settlements are besides observed even at present scattered along the western shores of Greenland, as low down as the latitude of 61°, though not corresponding altogethei with the poetical descriptions of the Icelandic Sa- gas. Except the very slight remains of a church, the only vestiges now remaining consist of low naked walls, which had served as pens for sheltering the cattle. It may be safely affirmed that the settlements which, during the last hundred years, the Danes have been forming at various points on the west side of Greenland, are more numerous and thriving than those which existed at any former period. They consist of twenty-one colonies, stretching over an extent of 800 miles. The first establishment is only a single family, occupying Bear Island, a little to the east of Cape Farewell. Ten other hamlets, composed chiefly of Moravians, are planted at difler- ent points, from the latitude of 60° to that of 68°. Three settlements are distributed round Disco Bay, about the latitude of 69° : and seven more have been extended thence as far as the latitude of 73°. So far, therefore, from the population having been ex- tirpated by the increased severity of the climate, the 52 ANIMAL LIFE. truth appears to be, that the present estabHshments on the coast of Greenland extend ten degrees farther north tlian the ancient settlements at their most flourishing period. This advance of the colonies has been owing, no doubt, to the increased activity of the wlialc fisheries, and to the circumstance of these having been lately carried with success into Davis's Strait. But there is nothing certainly in their history which betrays any radical or permanent change in the climate of the Arctic regions. The same continent of ice still remains during the far greater part of the year, to bar the access of the navigrator to the Pole. with! who( CHAPTER II. Animal and Vegetable Life in the Polar Regions* When we contemplate the aspect of the northern world, — ^bleak, naked, dreary, beaten by the raging tempest, and subject to an extremity of cold which, with us, is fatal to life and to all by which life is sup- ported, — we naturally imagine that animal nature must exist there on a small scale, and under diminu- tive forms. It might be expected, that only a few dwarf and stunted species would be scattered along its melancholy shores, and that life, as it attempted to penetrate these realms of desolation, would grow faint and expire. But the mighty Architect of nature, whose ways and power far surpass human comprehension, makes here a full display of his in- exhaustible resources. He has filled these naked rocks and wintry seas with a swarming profusion of life, such as he scarcely brings forth under the most genial glow of tropical suns. He has stored them ANIMAL LtFE. 53 with the mightiest of living beings, compared to whose enormous bulk the elephant and hippopota- muS) which rear their immense shapes amid the marshy plains of the tropics, seem almost diminu- tive. Even the smaller species, as that of the her- ring, issue forth from the frozen depths of the Arctic zone in shoals which astonish by their immensity. Moving in close and countless columns, they fill all the southern seas, and minister food to nations. The air, too, is darkened by innumerable flocks of sea- fowl, while, even upon the frozen surface of the land, animals of peculiar structure find food suited to their wants. By what means, or by what resources, does Nature support, amid the frozen world, this immensity of life ] Wonderful as are her operations, they are always arranged agreeably to the general laws im- posed upon the universe ; and we shall find, in the structure and condition of the animal world, the powers by which it is enabled to defy this frightful rigour of the elements. Some of the provisions by which animal frames are adapted to the varying ex- tremes of the climate have almost the appearanc^^ of direct interposition ; yet a more profound investiga- tion always discovers the causes of them to be deeply lodged in their physical organization. It is on the seas and shores of the Arctic zone that we chiefly observe this boundless profusion of life ; and in conformity with that arrangement by which Nature supports the inhabitants of the seas, by making them the food of each other, so here also we observe a continued gradation of animals, rising one above another, the higher preying upon the lower, till food is at last found for those of largest bulk and most devouring appetite. The basis of subsistence for the numerous tribes of the Arctic world is found in the genus medusa, which the sailors graphically describe as sea-blubber. The medusa is a soft, elastic, gelatinous substance, spe- E2 * I 54 ANIMAL LU£. cimens of which may be seen lying on our own shores, exliibitin AXIMAL LIFE. 61 flakes. This whale yields also the peculiar aromatic substance called ambergris, formed under peculiar circumstances in the rectum, and voided as feces. Another species, called the narwal, about sixteen feet long and eight in circumference, appears to differ little from a small whale, except in a tusk projecting from his upper jaw, three to ten feet in length, which, suggesting to the sailors the idea of a horn, has pro- cured for him the appellation of the sea-unicorn. He is swift, yet is taken without much difficulty, and yields two or three tons of very fine oil. The dol- phin, another cetaceous animal of poetic fame, occa- sionally occurs ; and the grampus appears often in numerous herds, guided by some of larger size. The belvga, or white whale, is also a small species, dis- tinguished chiefly by its colour. All the shores and borders of the Arctic zone are crowded with huge amphibious races, which appear to form an intermediate link between whales and quadrupeds, — the mammalia of the sea and those of the land. Among these is to be distinguished the morse or walrus {trichecus rosmarus), whi(;h bears such a resemblance to our domestic quadnipeds, that sailors, according to their various impres- sions, have given it the title of sea-horse or sea- cow. It is a large, shapeless, unwieldy creature, 12 to 15 feet in length, and from 8 to 10 in circum- ference ; the head small, the limbs short, of an inter- mediate character between fins and legs. As a de- fence against the extreme cold, these animals not only have skins an inch thick, covered with close hair, but enjoy like the other cetacea a coating of oily fat, with which their bodies are completely enveloped. Thus cased, they lie stretched on the ice in the depth of winter, without suflfering any inconvenience. The most remarkable feature of the walrus, however, con- sists in two teeth or tusks, which project in a curved line from the upper jaw, and are nearly two feet in length. They are of beautiful white bone, almost 62 ANIMAL LIFE. equal to ivory, and much used in the fabrication of artificial teeth. The front face, when seen at a little distance, bears a striking^ resemblance to the human ; and its appearance is suspected to have sometimes given rise to the fanciful reports of mer- maids seen in the nortliern seas. Like all the ceta- ceous tribes, to which the walrus is allied, he is dis- posed to be peaceful and harmless. Captain Parry describes the supine security with which a number of them lay on the ice, piled over each other, without discomposing themselves at the approach of a party armed for their destruction. But they were doubt- less not aware of the deadly weapons with whicli man is armed, while his physical aspect displays nothing with whicli they might not deem themselves fully qualified to cope. In Spitzbergen, where they have been long the object of chase to the Russian hunters, they are reported to keep very strict watch ; it being said that one stands guard while the others sleep. Even when sensible of danger, they are not forward to face it, but rather shun the attack by rushing beneath tlie ice, when those behind, with their tusks, urge forward their companions. Yet when at length compelled to combat, they give battle with the utmost coolness and courage ; they then stand firm by each other, rush in one united body against the boats, and, striking with their tusks, en- deavour to overset them. Wlien repulsed too, they repeatedly rally, and yield finally only to the fire- arms of Europeans, or to the stratagems of the Es- quimaux. Maternal tenderness, and the determina- tion with which tVo female defends her young, are equally conspicuous in them as in members of the whale species. The seal, an animal well known on all the shores of Europe, need not be particularly described. The Arctic species are distinguished by their very great numbers, and by the various, or rather universal purposes to which they are applied by the Esqui- ANIMAL LIFE. 63 ima- ji are >f the lores The Igreat rersal fgqui- maux. They furnish food for his table, oil for his lamp, clothing fen' his person ; even their bones and skin supi)ly materials for his light portable boats and his summer tents. Before quitting the polar seas we must notice an- other inhabitant, whose migrations render it familiar to all the coasts of Europe. These waters, as already observed, apparently so cliill and ungenial, contain not only an ample store of animal life, but a vast superabundance, with which they supply all the seas of the temperate climates. From them in par- ticular, if we may believe the Dutch writers, are de- rived the extensive and valuable tribes of the herring. Their immense bands break up from their frozen depths about .January, and in March appear on the coast of Iceland. ^ Their column at this time, con- fined between Greenland and the North Cape, is of comparatively small breadth, but so dense that the water is darkened by them ; any wooden vessel let down brings up several : they may even be taken by the stroke of a lance. They follow certain of their number larger than the rest, called kings. These kings are held in much respect by the Dutch, who studiously spare their majesties, and even liberate them when found in the net, lest, deprived of this royal guidance, the nation should not find the way to their accustomed haunts. After emerging from the Greenland sea, this great army divides into two wings, of Avhich the right and largest bears down di- rectly upon Scotland ; at the north-eastern extremity of which it forms that immense field, in which the Dutch for so many years carried on their great na- tional fishery. They are now rivalled by the boat- men of Wick and Thurso. A detachment smaller in number, but some of which attain to superior excel- lence, fills the western bays of Scotland, and passing along Ireland, reaches the neighbouring coast of France. Meantime the left or smallei' wing, after ranging the Norwegian shore, has entered the Baltic, i mmmm 64 ANIMAL LIFE. In July all these advancing divisions halt, and by an unknown impulse begin to retrace their course to- wards their northern home. De Reste considers it certain, that the herrings, in returning, have a gene- ral point of rendezvous not yet discovered ; but it should seem that only the actual discovery of this rendezvous can ascertain its existence. However, about the end of September, they reach their resi- dences beneath the ices of the Pole, where they re- main three months ; all the rest of the year being spent in wandenng over the face of the ocean. Although the object of Providence in leading the herring this immense annual round is doubtless that of furnishing food to numerous animals, and espe- cially to man, yet the immediate impulse by which they are urged to so extensive and regular a move- ment has been the subject of much controversy. Anderson supposes that they fly before the numerous large fishes which fill the Arctic seas, and by which they are pursued and devoured, and that they form themselves into close bands with a, view to self-de- fence. But the regular course which they follow, year after year, and their constant return at a fixed period, suggests nothing of that tumultuous flight which such a panic would have prompted. It seems more probable, that they are led by those instincts which guide fishes to deposite their spawn in places remote and dissimilar to their usual abode. The fe- male herring, when taken on the coast of Britain, is found commonly to contain a roe, and as this roe comprises the embryo of ten thousand future her- rings, such a prodigious fecundity easily repairs all the havoc committed upon the species, not oni]" by its brethren of the deep, but also by the ingenuity of man constantly exerted for its capture and destruc- tion. The other animals which frequent the Polar re- gions belong chiefly or wholly to the land. In tb J caves of the rocks, or in the hollows of the I • • yfl ♦"• i <\, A^ I . ■*. '..'I V. 111. ^ I . i i iii ,1 lets ;es fe- is roe der- ail ic- iuc V ^ re- he iV^' .th iit)\ ,V ■ *Wi M - •-■»( .^■M. "W ICO, pod.s r;uit streii of til hair the of B time other, evidei burg^h (hear} times strictl; under his ma icy fra, swimni found c was for ally for cetacea him, sh plung-inj walrus 1 and that frequent whale h( for the I him a pr the dista being- pr without comes tri hy him a fiercenesi The an AMJIAL IIFE. es rant of the cliffs ami s ,o„ ' r 'm'" " ''"'"^ ">--. ty. stiengtl, of t|,e ii„„ „.(,,, ,V ""'"' ""'tfs til,. !"'r and a <.-o|,iot,iZpp :' 7p:^"y:'-'"ff "f "-Int. sof tlie winter of this nV, r, us lim „ '"''.'f '""^ '" •"''y of Britain he sulTrn ,tT "'"""''• I'ndortho h.-it I'ennant «avv one over whom"h ,''"""'"' ''«"«'tio , toe to time to pour , Tie pa IM? T'''"''y fr"-" oilier, kept for s^me vcars "^.v ^ %°'^ '"''""''•• An- evideiuiy suffered seveiClv from fJ^'^'*"".'""'*''"'". ' I'rgh summer. The h-mm ir !'u ¥"' "^ "ii Kdi,,.' "eary Arctic shores or on „ ""^ ''•'«'■ '''' on e t;mes two hundred ^i^s°'/,„7'"«";"« of ice. some! "T letly speaking-, amphihio^ ' u ' ^"^ ^"^ *« r,ot, underwater above a T, ^^^ <"innot remain 'is maritime SnV:,;"f;"':'^f' """ "'^ ^^^ "^y, fragment to anothei- Z "^'"""["S fiom one S'""'^.'-'^='«h to tli^ee of fom'rr''^ ""»'■" "'' iound one m the cout^^ ^r i. " niiles; yet P-imr was forty mile. a«^. "'t^ i"'™-'^ «<.nit,';;'h^r^ •■"ly for his prey, which cons ,f« f"' ,"""""■'» '^ontinu- cctacea and o/^eal-, which m.^h^''^ '"' ""^ «'naller 1' m, shun their fate bTll '""'''« 'o contend with plunging into the depths ^r,',"»^ «'"<'t watch, and walrus he holds drea^iV i ,""' waters. With Jl „ and that po,^rful S wfi 'i'""'"'""" ""eo, me '? frequently beats 1dm off \vi L^ '"' ^"o™ous tusks' whale he dares not athct I F'"'"' ''«'naffe. The for the huge carcass' nfdeaS'st^f"^'"'.^- '"«'°"% ./r, a prolonged and delicim.t (•„!''' .^^^"'^ affords «''e distance of miles u,,f ^"^^ = *'^ stents it at teuig precarious he' i, i ''"'?*' ''""'''•ps of sunnlv "■'thout food, and the furv ofT'l '«" '""r S comes tremendous. A sLhn^" 5""8-'^'- «>en be! *y him a ways as his nL Penods, man, viewe,? fierceness. ^' '"^ ?«>•' '« attacked with 'ploZr 1 he annals of the north are ah ^ •. F 2 ''"^'^ '^"h accounts 60 ANIMAL LIFE. I '9*' of the most perilous and fatal conflirts of the Polar bear. The first, and one of the most trapfioal, was sustained by Harentz and Heemskerke, in 1696, dur- ing their voyagfe for tlie discovery of the north-east passage. Having anchored at an island near the stiait of Waygatz, two of the sailors landed, and were walking on shore, when one of them felt him- self closely hugged from behind. Thinking this a frolic of one of his companions, he called out in a corresponding tone, "Who's there 1 pray stand off." His comrade looked, and screamed out, "A bear! a bear!" then running to the ship, alarmed the crew with loud cries. The sailors ran to the spot armed witli pikes and muskets. On their approach the bear very coolly quitted the mangled corpse, sprang upon another sailor, carried him off, and, plunging his teeth into his body, began drinking his blood at long draughts. Hereupon the whole of that stout crew, struck with terror, turned their backs, and fled pre- cipitately to the ship. On arriving there they began to look at each other, unable to feel much satisfac- tion with their ovvn prowess. Three then stood forth, undertaking to avenge the fate of their country- men, and to secure for them the rites of burial. They advanced, and fired at first from so respectful a distance that they all missed. The purser then courageously proceeded in front of his companions, and, taking a close aim, pierced the monster's skull immediately below the eye. The bear, however, merely lifted his head, and advanced upon them, holding still in his mouth the victim whom he was devouring; but seeing him soon stagger, the three rushed on with sabre and bayonet, and soon de- spatched him. They collected and bestowed decent sepulture on the mangled limbs of their comrades, while the skin of the animal, thirteen feet long, be- came the prize of the tsailor who had fired the suc- cessful shot. The history of the whale-fishers records a number ANIMAL UFE. ta'i., who, lake,, eomp etofl? "^ '^"^^ "P"" 11.1^" n^ tlie lance, a„d fe|i b,C-,uf ,^' ""''"■'«e, lost hoi 1 ,wF ing both pr.ws o„ h i , i ""^ "ssail,,,,,, who rL tremendous teeth ,1, '""'''**'' "l*"ed nU rnii ; to show him a/l ,ht K P""'^^''' 'w a ,nome„? "r fn nsiT^' '"'"■'''" ^''homTh;' near the c'oas't''i'f"l ^''?'' o*" "le Arehin^oi , «n1 precisionrth t hfZ"t^f4'-'''^P^oXtim; {0 effecHts'^rnTSe'' T '^ ''''"''''"-S Ren 'r''^ r«''SattaSa be ''''•'•''\^y -^""^ Himh" ^U' ''"' the ani,nal ho ^^^'■'"'he Spitz- cimbing the sides of the b^.f o.T'il? «"°ceeded i„ themselves for safetv inf« .1 ' ^" *<> sapors threw ;S,b/ the gunwa iT. The';ietr'\"''«'« 'h'^ % 68 ANIMAL LIFE. sailor, who, being pursued by one of these creatures, threw down successively his hat, jacket, handkerchief, and every other article in his possession, when the brute pausing at each, gave the sailor always a cer- tain advantage, and enabled him finally to regain the vessel. Tliough the voracity of the bear is such, that he has been known to feed on his own species, yet ma- ternal tenderness is as conspicuous in the female as in other inhabitants of the frozen regions. There is no exertion which she will not make for the supply of her progeny. A she-bear, with her two cubs, being pursued by some sailors across a field of ice, and finding that, neither by example, nor by a pecuhar voice and action, she could urge them to the requisite speed, applied her paws and pitched them alternately forward. The little creatures themselves, as she came up, threw themselves before her to receive the impulse, and thus both she and they effected their escape. Bears are by no means devoid of intelligence. Their schemes for entrapping seals, and other ani- mals on whicli they feed, often display considerable ingenuity. The manner in which the Polar bear sur- prises his victim, is thus described by Captain Lyon : — On seeing his intended prey, he gets quietly into the water, and swims to a leeward position, from whence, by frequent short dives, he silently makes his approaches, and so arranges his distance, that at the last dive he comes to the spot where the seal is lying. If the poor animal attempts to escape by rolling into the water, he falls into the paws of the bear ; if, on the contrary, he lies still, his destroyer makes a powerful sprinij, kills him on the ice, and de- vours him at leisure. Some sailors, endeavouring to catch a boar, placed the noose of a rope under the snow, baited with a piece of whale's flesh. The bear, however, contrived, three successive times, to push the noose aside, and to carry off the bait un- hurt. which thems and fii Ace forms sleeps of the isdoub to be, t of pre) niitting rica, w] females rigorou; nearly t The a feed on snow fo: both in 1 patient a of ail tl animal li in all; a under th food. E his sumn trated; b earth alio food in w large hen Melville : frozen su on the A Arctic zo it in the t of Hfe ; h mer chasi weals, and ANIMAL tIFE. 69 hurt. Captain Scoresby had half-tamed two cubs* which used even to walk the deck ; but they showed themselves always restless under this confinement, and finally effected their escape. Accordmg to Pennant and other writers, the bear forms chambers in the great ice-mountains, where he sleeps the long winter night, undisturbed by the roar of the northern tempest ; but this regular hibernation is doubted by many recent observers. The fact seems to be, that the males roam about all winter in search of prey, not being under the same necessity of sub- mitting to the torpid state as the black bear of Ame- ri('a, which feeds chiefly on vegetable food ; but the females, who are usually pregnant during the more rigorous season of the year, seclude themselves for nearly the entire winter in their dens. The animals which belong entirely to the land, and feed on herbage, are, in a climate covered deep with snow for nine months in the year, necessarily few both in number and species. The reindeer, a most patient and useful creature, the standing inhabitant of all the northern lands, reaches nearly as far as animal life can subsist. To the Laplander he is all in all ; and in tliat climate he can always dig from under the snow the moss or lichen, his favourite food. Even in the severer Arctic climates he carries his summer excursions as far as men have yet pene- trated ; but at the end of October the deeply-frozen earth allows him no longer to reach even the simple food in which he delights. Tliey then assemble in large herds, and migrate to the southward. From Melville Island they were even seen crossing the frozen surface of the sea, to reach a milder climate on the American shore. The people within the Arctic zone do not tame the reindeer, or yoke it in the sledge; it is not even for them the staff of life ; but it affords a favourite object of sum- mer chase, gives an agreeable variety to their meals, and yields their warmest and most valuable df- 4 i'li'rti 70 ANIMAL LIFE. t winter robes. The fiir-skin becomes always richer and more copious in proportion to the intensitj'" of the cold, against whi^-h it forms the only, but a suf- ficient defence. In the chase the deer fall easy vic- tims, even to the rude archery of the Esquimaux, being so simple and curious, that, if a man merely walks away from them, they follow. Some of these animals who joined Captain Parry's crews on Mel- ville Island played round them like lapdogs, and at setting out in the morning used to gambol by rearing on their hind-legs. The musk-ox, the only member of the bovine species which penetrates the Arctic zone, though in smaller numbers, affords a wholesome and agreeable variety of food. Its unwieldy form is f)rotected from the cold by an immense profusion of lair, which envelopes its whole limbs and figure, and also by an interior layer of wool, which appeared to Pennant the finest he had ever seen, and made, he was told, stockings superior to the richest silk. This last, we suspect, is a temporary winter clothing. The canine race affords several species which brave the most extreme severity of the Arctic cold, and remain after every other land-quadruped, except the bear, has taken its flight to the southward. Wolves, in considerable packs, continue still to seek their prey in the utmost depths of the Polar winter. It seems difficult to discover what food they find at that season ; but a regular pack attended the English discovery-ships, watching for whatever offal might be found exposed, and serenading them with nightly bowlings. As if by a sort of tacit convention, they did not presume to attack the sailors, but they ad- vanced in a most daring manner to the sides of the ships, and sometin.es even entered the huts of the Esquimaux, whose dogs they esteemed the choicest prize, and very speedily devoured them. The natives catch them by traps formed of little sheds of ice, at whose entrance is a portcullis of the same material, connected in such a manner with tlie bait within, that, cuUis of lif( surpri small little About voyage of; wl table ; forded salted The of the . of its p renderii The doj the Kan aspect. in form 1 Newfoul short pri general, blance to that they Parry an which do tra(;tions M^hich th brethren, an affinit; them aga long hair, neath it at the approi are much these valu with tend< puppies in m- ANIMAL LIFE. 71 that, when the latter is seized by the animal, the port- cullis drops, and the wolf is taken. Their tenacity of life is such as often, after apparent death, to cause surprises and even dangers. The Arctic fox, a small beautiful white animal, with woolly hair like a little shock»dog, occurs in still greater numbers. About a hundred were cauglit in Capt. Parry's second voyage, some of which were half-tamed and made pets of; while others, by a harder fate, were dressed for table; and their flesh, somewhat resembling kid, af- forded an agreeable relief from tlie constant use of salted meat. The dog, however, is tlie most important quadruped of the Arctic world, and tlie most valuable possession of its people, who have succeeded in taming and rendering it equally valuable for draught and lumting. The dogs of the Greenlander, the Esquimaux, and the Kamtchadale, are large, and of a somewhat wild aspect. Captain Lyon describes them as resembling in form the shepherd's dog, rising to the height of the Newfoundland, but broad like the mastiff, having short pricked ears, a furry coat, and a bushy tail. In general, they are observed to bear a strong resem- blance to the wolf, and the opinion is even prevalent that they are neither more nor less than tamed wolves. Parry and Richardson both mention instances in which domestic dogs were seduced away by the at- tra(;tions of female wolves ; yet the avidity with which the wolf devours these, his supposed tame brethren, does not seem very indicative of so close an affinity. Nature, with provident care, defends them against the cold, not only by a profusion of long hair, but by a soft dov/ny covering, formed be- neath it at the connnencement of winter, and shed at the approach of the milder season. The Esquimaux are much reproached for their harsh treatment of these valuable servants ; yet in infancy they are used with tenderness, the women often taking the young puppies into bed, and feeding them from their own 72 ANIMAL LIFE. mouths. As soon as they can walk they are yoked to a small sledge ; in endeavouring to s'luke off which encumbrance they learn to draw it. Severe and fre- ?[uent beatings, however, are necessary to train them or acting as a regular team. But their most severe privation is in food ; of which, during the season of scarcity, they obtain a portion barely sufficient to maintain life, and not at all to preveat them from falling into a state the most meager and debilitated. Their hunger is manifested bj' the nature of the sub- stances with which they sometimes seek to assuage it. Captain Parry saw one which ate a large piece of canvass, a cotton handkerchief laid out to dry, and a piece of a linen shirt. The Esquimaux, we must recollect, are subject to severe scarcities, and the food of the dogs being the same with theii* own, tlie animals, on such emergencies, can scarcely expect to be placed on a footing of equality. This rough usage does not seem incompatible with a measure of solid attachment to these valuable servants. The natives refused to sell them to the English,, till assured that they would not be killed. They rejoiced greatly to see a house built for them ; and at every visit a friendly recognition took place between the dog and his old master. When the animals are yoked in the sledge, a whip of twenty feet long enforces obedi- ence, while peculiar cries indicate the right or left, to turn or to stop. Three dogs could draw a sledge weighing lOOibs., at the rate of a mile in six minutes, and one leader has drawn 1961bs. the same distance in eight minutes. A full team, however, comprises eight or ten dogs ; though seven have drawn a full sledge at the rate of a mile in four minutes and a half; while nine, employed in conveying stores from the Hecla to the Fury, drew 161 libs, in nine mi- nutes. Capt. Lyon reports most favourably of the team which he himself formed, who used to draw him from ship to ship, a mile distant, in the deepest darkness and amid clouds of snow-drift, with the most his o hunti seal i surpr even their i The as the .lUtS, Here, those skies. humm nightii melod; petrel, the iO( wild cl nivoroi iine in carcass II) conl tiiem ai The 1 close at their pj storm, 1 with its crest ol on the with or feasting is fastei cut up, exceedii ing for The pec their eag ANIMAL LIFE. 73 most perfect precision, when he could not have found his own way for a hundred steps. Their sei-vices in hunting are also of great value : they can snuff the .seal in his hole, or the deer on the mountains, from a surprising distance. Assembled in packs, they face even the Polai' bear, keeping him at least at bay till their masters come up with spears to the attack. The air in those dreary regions is, almost as nuich as the waters, peopled with its appropriate inhabit- ants, who fill it continually with sound and life. Here, too, the species are nearly all different from those which wing their flight through the temperate skies. They do not shine with the bright hues of the humming-bird, nor breathe the soft notes of the nightingale, nor do they charm the air with the ricli melody of our woodland choirs; but the auk, the petrel, and the gull, clustering in myriads, cause all ihe rocks and shores of the north to echo with tlniir wild clang. They are almost all rapacious and car- nivorous ; the vast collections of shell-fish and ma- rine insects with which those seas abound, and the cHJcasses of the huge animals which are killed either II) conflicts with each other or with man, affording rliem an inexhaustible supply of nutriment. The fulmar, or peiiel {procdlaria glacialis), is the close attendant of the whale ships in every stage of their progress. Termed emphati(ially the bird of storm, it faces the northern tempest when raving with its utmost fury, and seats itself on the agitated crest of the mountain-wave, as calmly as if resting on the surface of an untroubled lake ! It follows with one uniform object, — that of snatching and feasting on portions of blubber. As soon as a whale is fastened to the side of the ship, and begins to be cut up, an immense muster talies place, sometimes exceeding a thousand, all stationed in the rear, watch- ing for the fragments which are wafted to leeward. The peculiar chuckling noise by which they express their eager expectation, the voracity with which they ii # 74 ANIMAL LIFE. seize on the fiit, and tlie hiitje morsels which they swallow, — the envy jsliown to tliosc; who have ob- tained the largest ol* these delicate morsels, and often the violent measnres taken to wrest it from them, — afford to the sailors curious and amusing spectacles. The surface of the sea is sometimes so covered with them, that a stone cannot be thrown without one being struck. When an alarm is given, innumerable wings are instantly in movement, and the birds, striking their feet against the water to aid their flight, cause a loud and thundei ing plash. The petrel, however, does not enjoy alone this delicious ocean-festival. It is sought with equal avidity by the various species of the larus or gull — the Arctic gull, the kittiwake, and the snow-bird (larus eburneus), which last excites admiration by its pure and beautiful white; but the elegance of its taste does not correspond to that of its appearance, fat blubber being its choicest luxury, while it utters a loud and disagreeable scream. But all these raven- ing tribes of the northern sky have a terrible rival in the glaucous gull (larus glaucits), who equals ii) rapacity and surpasses them all in power and strength. In consideration of this, the Dutch have invested him with the title of burgomaster; but that sage magirstrate uses, we trust, liis power in a very different manner from his winged representative, who employs it solely in wresting from the weaker species whatever he sees them possess, and esteems desirable. He is usually hovering high in the air, or seated on the loftiest icy pinnacles, whence, having fixed his eye on a delicious morsel, he darts down on the possessor, which, whether fulmar, snow-bird, or kittiwake, must instantly resign the coveted prize. Happily for these races, the burgomaster species is veiy small in number, compared to the multitudes over wliom he tyrannizes. The genus anas, comprehending the swan, the goose, and tlie duck, larire, useful, and often beautiful ANIMAL LIFE. /ii birds, traverse in vast fliglits all the iiortliorn seas and waters. Like the rest of the anseres, tliey liave all webbed feet, consisting of branehing toes con- nected by a membrane, which enable tliem to move with equal facility in the water as on land. The swan, with its stately plumage, frequents chiefly the inland seas and lakes, of which it has been (valled the peaceful monarch. The goose, a less elegant l)iit more useful species, migrates in vast immbers every spring to breed on the Arctic shores and islands, and affords a valuable supply of food to all the northern settlements. The Hudson's Bay Company salt three or four thousand annually for winter. The Indians celebrate the month of their arrival under the title of the goose-moon. Migration during the rigorous season, resorted to even by quadrupeds, be- comes the still more natural resource of the feathered creation. Even in September the flocks of geese, winging their way to the southward, supplied a warning to Captain Franklin of the winter that was closing in upon him. The duck reaches a still higher latitude than the goose, and endures still severer cold. Great flocks of that species called the eidvj arrive in spring on the most northern shores of Greenland. All the birds that fly over tlie frozen seas are provided by Nature w ith a rich and ample plumage, and a lining of soft down beneath; and the people of these countri(^s find the skins of birds, with the feathers inside, to be one of their most comfortable articles of clothing. •Jut the down of all the known species of birds is surpassed in fineness by ^hat of the eider, the deli- cious softness of which fits it for the couch of kings. A pound of eider-down, according to Sir Charles (Jiesecke, is usually sold for a pound sterling. The finest is that which the birds pluck from their breast to line the interior of the nest. The Green- lander, watcliing his time, removes this precious lining as soon as it is completed, whereupon the 70 VEOETABLK LIFE. poor animals form a second, destined to share the same fate. Amon^ other Arctic birds are the terns, which on the American coast are so very numerous, that an' island has been named from the immense flocks witli which it is annually filled. They produce the most delicate eggs of any water-bird. We may add the colymbus (guillemot), whose skin affords a peculiarly comfortable clothing, — the iringa (sandpiper), — the charadrius (plover), — the tetrao (grouse, and ptarmi- gan), of which a species, much valued on account of the delicacy of its tiesh, occupies the interior of Greenland. All ptarmigans change their colour from mottled gray or brown in summer, to pure white during the winter months. According to De Reste, the dark summer covering is shed at the end of autumn, and a new plumage shoots out, which is white, till darkened by the warmth of the following spring — or, to speak more accurately, a partial moult takes place in autumn, during which all the coloured feathers are thrown out, and their places supplied by white ones, while in spring most of these white plumes are again cast, to make room for others, adorned by the richer and more varied hues of sum- mer. Captain Parry saw this last change go on so rapidly among the grouse on Melville Island, as to be perceptible from day to day. The vegetable world does not, in this dark and outer boundary of the earth, possess such an import- ant and commanding character as the animal. Na- ture, without departing wholly from her system and laws, could not clothe with verdure and vegetation a soil which for nine months of the year is frozen as hard as rock, and covered with snow many feet deep. The plants of more genial climates, indeed, when inserted during the short and bright summer, spring up and wear for some time a promising ap- pearance ; but they are all nipped by the untimely win- ter. Still, Nature, in the northern rep-ions, especially vkoetadlt: life. 77 ill those approaching]^ tlie Arclict zono, does employ r<»sourcc.s similar to those hy which she cherishes jiiiimal life. The fir, the pine, and other trees of these climates, on bein^ pierced, distil, not the balmy and fragrant ^ums of Arabia and India, but rich, thick, coarse juices, by which their interior heat has been preserved, and which, in the sliape of pitch, tar, and turpentine, serve njany valuable purposes of commerce. Through the cherishing influences of tliese juices, the lakes of North America are bordered with tall dark forests, which afford to the agricultu- ral countries an inexhaustible supply of valuable timber. Even their gloomy foliage, while the forests of the south are every autumn strewing the ground with their faded leaves, brave through the winter all the fury of the northern tempest. Before reaching, liowever, the inclement sky of the Arctic bouna^ry, tliis magnificent growth decays. Trees that had been the pride of the forest dwindle into meager and stunted shrubs. Beyond the Polar circle, these juoiiarchs of the wood, if they appear, rise only to tlie height of a few feet, throwingout lateral branches. On Melville peninsula, dwarf-willow and the andro- meda tetragona almost alone afforded to the Esqui- maux a scanty supply of wood for their arms and utensils. Considerable quantities of drift-timber are, however, frequently found along many of the barren shores of the Arctic regions, supposed to have floated originally from the mouths of the Siberian and other northern rivers. The plants which abound most in these dreary climates belong to the tribes of mosses and lichens, the cryptogamia of Linnaeus, the acotyledones of Jus- sieu. The meager vegetation with which the Arctic surface is covered thus appears rather as if it were an exudation from the rocks than the produce of the soil. Yet the moss and lichen, w^hich form the pre- vailing features, are not only copiously produced, but possess a nutritious and salutary quahty, not dis- G8 > -:^l 78 VEOKTAllLE LIFE. j»layed in more fortunate reg^ions. One species of lichen (L. rungiferinus) foiina, as it were, the main staff of hfc to the Fiaplandcr; it supports the rein- deer, and the reindeer supports him. The lichen of icehmd, boiled in soup, or even converted into bread, is to the natives a substantial part of their subsistence. Farther north, where the depth of the snow, and the continuance of frost, drive the inhabit- ants to tlie shore and to animal food, tliese vegeta- bles still afford support to the deer and to the other quadrupeds which they use as food. It is even with a peculiar species of moss that they trim their lamps. The Jtmgus or mushroom, which draws nourishment without the aid of a proper root, and the Jilices or ferns, which consist only of one spreading leaf, the middle rib of which forms all their stalk, while their slender roots spread under the ground, — these find the means of existence even in Greenland. The order alga, and especially its genus fucus, comprehending nearly all the variety of marine botany, grows in vast abundance on the northern shores. These rude plants, which have little or no distinction of stem, root, or leaves, and whose fructifi- cation is often included within the substance of the frond, cover the Greenland coast with submarine mea- dows. The conferva, too, with their numerous fila- ments, spring up in profusion. • A few plants, not belonging to this imperfect order of vegetation, embellish, during the short summer gleam, the northern fields. Under the bright influ- ence of the sun at this season, indeed, some cf the most beautiful among the floral tribe expand their petals. The ranunculus and anemone display their rich and varied tints ; several species of saxifrage put forth their flowers ; and the yellow poppy has even a gaudy appearance — so that the genus papaver, which enriches the plains of Hindostan, is among the last to expire under the snows of the Pole. The nobler fruits do not ripen under this ungenial sky ; bord profl VKUETABLK LIFK. 79 yr'l shnil)s producinj? delicious berries appear on the l)or(I«!rs, at least, of the Arctic; zone in matchless profusion. The northern Indians (consider the fruit {}{' a bush called the aronia ovalis as the most deli- cious food ; besides which they have the strawberry, raspberry, red whortleberry, and various others. Several of these are covered beneath the first snows of winter, whi(;h are supposed to mellow them, and which, when dissolved by spring, show the bvrries still hanftinj? on the branches, while the buds of all the others are bursting, — the whole producing a deli- cious impression unknown to those who have not witnessed the desolation which immediately pre- ceded. These bleak climates enjoy a precious boon in the plants which act as an antidote to scurvy, and which defy the most severe cold of the Arctic zone. The cochlearia, a thick tufted juicy plant, of extremtk fe- cundity, is emphatically called scurvy grass ; and the different species of sorrel, especially the rumex digy- nus, were found by Captain Parry flourishing under the snow at the very farthest limit of vegetation. The extraordinary phenomenon of red snoaj ob- served by Capt. Ross and our other Arctic voyagers, naturally excited the greatest interest both at home and abroad. This singular aspect of a substance, with which we never fail to associate an idea of the purest and most radiant whiteness, has been ascer- tained to result from an assemblage of very minute vegetable bodies, belonging to the class of cryptoga- mic plants and the natural order called algae, Tliey form the species nBmedprotococcus nivalis by Agardli, which is synonymous with the uredo nivalin of Mr. Bauer. This plant seems by no means pecu- liar to the Arctic snows, but occurs on limestone rocks in the island of Lismore in Scotland, as well as among the Alpine and other countries of Eu- rope. Saussure observed it so long ago as in the year 1760 on Mount Breven in Switzerland, and so ^>. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 150 ^" 2.2 I.I 1.*^ 1^ 1.8 1.25 1 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" ► vl vl / ^J J> '/ s Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^^ ^. ^ 1^ tv U o'^ 80 VEGETABLE LIFE. frequently after that period that he expresses liis sur- prise at its having escaped the notice of Seheuclizer and other learned travellers. Ramond, whose ob- servations so beautifully combine the precision of science with the perception of the picturesque, found red snow on the mountains of the Pyrenees, as did Soiiimerfeldt, the botanist, on those of Norway. In the year 1818, vast masses of the same substance overspread both the Apennines and the Italian Alps ; and it is recorded, then ten years prior to that period the vicinity of Belluno and Feltri were cohered to the depth of twenty centimetres with rose-coloured snow. According to Captain Ross, the Arctic mountains on which he observed the red snow are about 600 feet high, and extend eight miles in length. The depth to which the colour penetrated has been vari- ousty stated by different observers. Some found that it descended many feet beneath the surface, while others never ascertained that it spread beyond one or two inches. There is no reason to suppose that the colouring matter itself, as well as the snoM% is a meteorological product, although Humboldt cer- tainly mentions a shower of red hail which fell at Paramo de Guanacos, in South America. Moisture is no doubt essential to the production of this plant, as it is to that of all the other algae ; but when once formed, it seems to possess the power of continued and increasingvegetation, even over rocks and stones, with only an occasional supply of fluid. The propa- gation of minute vegetable forms, like the increase of animalcules, is effected, under favourable circum- stances, with a rapidity of developement truly asto- nishing ; and the most probable conjecture seems to be, that snow is not the natural situation of the proto- coccus nivalis, but that, from its great tenacity of life, it not only preserves its vitality on that chilly and ungenial surface, but, during the partial thawing of the snow, continues to increase and multipl)'. If sue! expi duril sno^ eterJ prisu of ai A :ii- VEGETABLE LIFE. 81 such be the case, it is easy to suppose how a wide expanse may be covered with this red suffusion, during the dissolving and occasional flowing of the snowy waters. When once established among the eternal snows of the north, it becomes more nume- rous than the sands of the ocean ; and, increasing in density from year to year, at last presents to the as- tonished and admiring navigator a sight more sur- prising in its reality tlian any of the fabled wonders of an Ambian tale. A singular coincidence has been observed by bo- tanists to exist between a white ground and a red flower. Thus the rich and brilliant variety of a?i- ihyllis vulnaria is only found on a chalky surface ; and many of the higher orders of flowering plants show a decided tendency to produce red-coloured petals when they happen to spring up on white lime- stone. "How much more forcibly, then," says Agardh, " must this law operate upon plants like the algae, in which colour is an essential part." That excess of light produces the peculiar, or at least pre- vailing, colour of the snow-plant, may be said to be demonstrated by this singular fact, that the red colour gradually changes to green as it occurs more or less secluded from the action of light among the fissures of rocks, or beneath the hollows or under- surfaces of stones. This being the case, it will ap- pear the less incomprehensible that the same plant which is produced amid the snows of the Arctic re- gions, or the highly-elevated Alps of more southern countries, should be occasionally detected, even dur- ing the heats of summer, covering the brilliant white limestone of the plains. In the last-named locality it was discovered by the Baron Wrangler in the pro- vince of Nerike, and named by him lepraria kerme- sina ; and the two supposed species have been since ascertained to be one and the same. « w: In concluding our notice of this singular subject, we may observe, that when the warmth of the return- 82 VEGETABLE LIFE. ing sun has partially dissolved the surface of the snow, and thus contributed to the formation and de- velopement of these microscopical plants, the vivify- ing power of the solar light, aided by some peculiai- and as yet unknown property belonging to the natural whiteness of the snow itself, is highly influential in the production of the beautiful colour by which the}' are distinguished. rj. • » if)-r -i^'*-: ANCIENT VOVAGES. 83 CHAPTER in. Ancient Voyages to the JVorth. ^Ji/^^'^^^^^ to the »>' the compass, werp foil ■ ^ *® ""'' the invention extended into thole c1roZn"i ""'"''«'•' a»d scarcelv •he special subject of 'r'^l'"" ""^''•"^ ^hich S ryre, situated in the denth^^f"^!! «%inated. As fifhest seat of commerce C«rth *'*', ^'^a* ^as the a„v!:.T"' ^*'"''«-'«« the fim s&iH''»"^hter of ,t'y extensive discoveries unnnl^ ^'^'"''''' ""dertook however, were shrouded LT" *® "'^ean. These hy the jealous and mononlif • "'^^'^'7' Prompted along the elterio" coasts of V^?'''"^ '° ''a^" saHed '0 have reached the southern P*'," ''"^ France, and This was probably onlv th ' fi''*""""^ ^f Britain voyafes carried on'^^hThe view of n' " ^""^^ "' iietal rare and valued in 7h„ ,"' Procuriiio- tin a tendes, or islands of tin xif "^^y^- The CasL-- ^^»n and the Sdlly ^e's , 'l-'PS^'^'- *« be 6o™. ■nysterious and celebratpH^ ^^"^ together, are , "!« authors Of Eutp^!*"^ """^^ ™°n? the '^H ihc most distinguished of the Greek „„ • '"eureek navigators to f- 84 ANCIENT VOYAGES. the north was Pytheas, a citizen of Marseilles, a commercial Greek colony, which, favoured by its situation, had become the chief emporium of the commerce of Britain, already of some importance. This commerce, however, was carried on, not by the ocean, but by a land carriage through Gaul. Py theas seems the first who, inspired by motives of intelligen* curiosity, endeavoured by a maritime route to reach the British coast, and to penetrate to the remotest extremities of the north. Our knowledge of this voyage is indeed imperfect, since it is almost en- tirely due to Strabo, who, while he relates it, derides the whole as a palpable forgery ; yet the very par- ticulars on which he founds this charge go far to es- tablish the contrary. Pytheas appears to have passed the Straits, and sailed along the western coasts of France and Spain, which, from previous misconcep- tion, he confounds together. Thence he seems to have directed his course through the English Chan- nel, and along the eastern coasts of England and Scotland, till he reached the northern extremity of the island. Not content with this achievement, he continued to sail onwards into the depths of ocean, till in six days he arrived at Thule, an island, where it appeared to him that perpetual light reigned at midsummer through the day and night. Immediately beyond, his progi^ss was arrested by a barrier of a peculiar nature, by something which was neither earth, air, nor sky, but a compound of all the three, forming a thick viscid substance, through which it was impossible to penetrate. These statements have afforded much advantage to the skeptical adversaries of Pytheas ; yet the summer days of Shetland are really very long, and the thick and gloomy mists, with which the northern sea is often loaded, might make a peculiar impression on one who had ventiu ed into this unknown ocean, so far beyond the limit of former navigation : they might make him prone to believe that he had arrived at the farthest boundaries % ANCIENT VOVAOES. 85 ot nature. It seems difficult, however, to suppose, with Bougainville, that the voyage of Pytheas should ever have extended as far as Iceland ; but in another direction he appears to have penetrated to the Baltic, and also to have brought home some correct accounts of its shores, then known to the people on the Medi- terranean almost solely by the qualities of the anibei which was imported from thence. The voyage of Pytheas, though apparently quite authentic, did not lead to any change in the channels of Massylian trade. It was found probably botli cheaper and more commodious to transport the pro- ductions of Britain through Gaul, than to convey them by means of such a lengthened and perilous voyage. The only farther additions to ancient knowledge respecting the northern seas were made by the Romans, who, in order to conquer, were obliged to explore the earth. Agricola, before undertaking the campaign which was to reduce Scotland into a province, sent fleets to explore its most northern shores and bays. The Romans, how- ever, never appear to have sent naval expeditions, having discovery alone in view, to the north, or per- haps to any other quarter. Their delineation of Scotland itself is excessively rude ; and though they had traced the shores of Europe eastward as far as Russia, Scandinavia appeared to them only as a cluster of large islands in the North Sea. ,,> .*i In the decline of tlie Roman empire, that country, formerly almost unknown, became the seat of a most formidable and extensive naval power. Norway, under the terrible dominion of Harold the Fair- haired, and Denmark, under Gorm and Canute, sent forth fleets which pillaged all the maritime territories of Europe, and reduced many of them to temporary or even final subjection. Their expeditions, however, were fnnn the north, not io the north. Their objects were, not science, but ravage and conquest. The Runic tribes, indeed, were not without some tincture H ■f'^jj 86 ANCIENT VOYAOr.S. of letters and poetry; but their sagas, or poetickl chronicles, celebrate only the exploits of their mighty sea-kings and rovers, not any theme connected with commerce and the arts of peace. Yet a communi- cation with these tribes enabled Alfred, an illustrious monarch, who shone so bright in that dark age, to collect information respecting those extremities of the earth which had remained unknown to the Greeks and Romans. Ohthere, a chief who had come from the upper tracts of Norway, afforded some intelligence even respecting a voyage under- taken along the Arctic shores of Europe. Ohthere was considered a rich man in his own country, being owner of twenty oxen, twenty sheep, and six hundred tame reindeer. Fired by a spirit of . liberal research, he undertook a voyage to discover the regions which lay to the north of the high latitude in which his domain was situated. He sailed six % days in that direction, which appears to have brouglit him to the North Cape, tha farthest point of Europe ; lie then turned three days towards the east, and aftei*ward five days to the south. All this while the land on his right was desolate, traversed only by a few wandering shepherds and hunters, of Finnish race. Then, however, he reached a large river, the opposite side of which was somewhat densely inha- bited by the Biarmians, or people of northern Russia, who showed such a hostile disposition as obliged him to return. The fishery of the horse-whale (walrus) was found to be carried on here with such advantage, that many were afterward induced to follow the same course. Forster delineates the navigation of Ohthere as reaching to the interior of the White Sea ; but we do not think the period of eight days from the North Cape could have carried him farther than the river Kola, which agrees also with the supposi- tion of his having been arrested on the frontier of Russian Lapland. The direction in which the Northmen sought rich ^Jik . L ANCIENT VOVACES. 87 kingdoms to plunder and to conquer was always the south. To quit their bleak regions in search of others still more bleak, would Lave been wholly foreign to their views ; yet, as the sea was covered with their sails, chance and tempest sometimes drove them in that other direction. In 861, Nadodd, during a piratical excursion, unexpectedly discovered Iceland. This country had little to tempt a nation of freebooters ; yet so it chanced, that there existed materials for its colonization. Harold, in making himself master of all Norway, had crushed the rights and sway of numerous petty chieftains, and had thus created a large body of malecontents. He was will- ing to grant, and they to accept, a permanent refuge in this frozen clime. Numerous bodies of emigrants proceeded successively to Iceland, where they were organized into a free and independent community. They even crossed to the opposite coast of Green- land, and formed settlements, which for some time were tolerably flourishing, though they have since either perished or lost all communication with Ice- land. During the eleventh century, however, chance or enterprise led Greenland navigators southward to another coast, which they called Vinland, and which has been very generally believed to be America, though, after a careful examination of the authorities on which this opinion rests, we have been led to sup- pose that the new countiy was merely ? rore south- ern point of Greenland^. The limits oi ite present work, however, will not admit any detailed account of these settlements. The republican cities of Italy, during the middle ages, rekindled the extinct spirit of commerce and navigation, which they raised to a degree of prospe- rity equalling probably that attained by Tyre and Carthage during the height of their ancient gloiy. These cities reached a measure of power and opu- lence which enabled them to rank with the greatest kingdoms. Their trade, however, lay chiefly within 88 ANCIENT VOYAGES. tliH Mediieiranean, especially its eastern border, whither were brouglit over land or by the Red Sea the commodities of India. Few were disposed to quit this bright and golden track to face the tem- pests of the ocean and of the north ; yet were there not wanting a few adventurous spirits who undertook and were able to penetrate into these remote seas. Nicolo Zeno, an eminent and noble merchant of V\>nice, undertook, in 1380, a voyage to Flanders, during which a tempest drove him upon a coast which he calls Friesland. The position of this unknown shore has been a subject of controversy ; and some have even had recourse to the hypothesis of its having been since swallowed up by the ocean. When, how- ever, we find that Friesland was in fact a cluster of islands, to which are applied the names, Talas, Broas, Bres, Iscant, easily converted into Zeal, Brassa, Unst, we may conclude with Forster that it is pro- bably one and the same with the Shetland Isles. Zeno, being cast ashore in a state completely desti- tute, was received with great kindness by the Prince Zichmni, whose name seems to be a corruption of Sinclair. Finding Zeno eminently skilled in naval affairs, he reposed the highest confidence in him, and placed under his command various naval expeditions. So pleased was the Venetian with the favour of this northern potentate, that he invited his brother An- tonio to join him. The only voyage, however, which seems to have carried him far to the north was one to Greenland, and he gives a somewhat romantic account of a religious establishment formed in that country. The convent was built on the side of a hill, whence burst a copious boiling spring, whose waters enabled the monks to vanquish all the evils of the climate ; when spread on the frozen soil, they applied it for the production of the most useful herbs and culinary plants ; when introduced into the houses, they warmed with it the apartments, and cooked the victuals. Thev were likewise supplied from the ^^^n.ST VOVAGKS. 89 ^•omidy with 'iJi .. 7 . ux„,ies of life Z r,mdrH '''i^™'.'*'''" '» vS5 «en, where purchasers^ti!? r*"* '"«'"*«» of Ber- -"er countries; alsTopaV-^^^any a^^d jjg » vvriicn in vast # 90 ki* •• NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. flocks covered all the surrounding rocks, and even built on the sides of the houses. Many of these birds were so tame, that when the natives walked up to their nests, they were wont to step off, allow two or three eggs to be taken, and then resume their seat. The people were most strict in their attend- ance on religious duties, and carried their resigna- tion to the will of Providence so very far, that they rejoiced and sometimes even held a festival at the death of near relations. The Italians, accustomed to the feelings of southern jealousy, were extremely surprised to see all the members of a family sleep- ing together in one apartment, which they them- selves were admitted to share, without the remotest feeling of impropriety. In summer, both sexes walked naked to the nearest pool, and bathed, pro- miscuously, all in perfect iimocence, and without awakening any suspicion, — a practice indeed which pretty generally prevails in the northern countries of Europe at the present day. The summer having arrived, Quirini took occasion to go with the annual ship to Drontheim, and, travel- ling thence by land to Sweden, he found a vessel bound for Rostock, in which he finally returned to Italy by way of England. > >/. xv•.•'^V^ • ' i ^ -^ ' " CHAPTER IV. . ,' >i 11 ■•(H Voyages in Search of a North-East Passage. The latter part of the fifteenth century may be fixed upon as that period in the history of the world when maritime discovery proceeded on the greatest scale, with the most splendid results, and the most extensive influence on the condition of mankind. (li bi Em KOUTII-r.AST VOYAGES. 01 TiJivellors iind nuviiirators of the present day havo displayed an enterprise wliieli nothing eould exeeed ; but there remained for their efForts only the dark and distant boundaries of oeean, or the interior of barba- rous continents. On tlie contrary, vast kingdoms, new worlds, regions teeming with unbounded wealth, rewarded the daring career of Gama and Columbus. A new direction was given to human ambition and industry ; and the discovery of distant regions became not only a commercial speculation with individuals, but a grand object of national policy. England, one of the most powerful kingdoms of Europe, had always shown herself ready to embark in every scheme of utility : yet she was not alto- gether ripe for these extensive undertakings. The nations of Southern Europe were then nearly a cen- tury in advance of those ruder states which lay be- yond the Alps and the Pyrenees. Venice, Genoa, Seville, Lisbon, not London or Amsterdam, were the great schools of commerce and navigation. The habits and ideas of the feudal system, its proud in- dolence and contempt of mechanical pursuits, were only in the course of being gradually supersede d ; and the mercantile interest possessed as yet only a small share of that pre-eminent importance to which it has since attained. Henry VIL, amid these unfavourable circum- stances, and with nothing of the heroic or adven- turous in his composition, possessed yet qualities which enabled him to appreciate the importance of ma- ritime undertakings. Every thing which afforded any promise of filling his coffers was congenial to the taste of that monarch ; and for this reason he showed himself ready to meet the aspiring views of Colum- bus with greater promptitude than any other monarch of the age. That great navigator, after vain solicita- tion at the courts of Spain and Portugal, sent his brother Bartholomew to make propositions to Henry, which were very readily accepted ; but before his %p 92 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. messenger returned to Spain, Columbus, imder the auspices of Isabella, was already crossing the At- lantic. It was afterward with the full sanction and favour of Henry, though not at his expense, that John Cabot made that important voyage in which he dis- covered Newfoundland, an island which, though not fitted for culture, has become the well-known seat of the greatest fishery in the world. He was also the first European who came into contact with any part of the mainland of America. That prince afterv ':rd granted to John Elliot and Thomas Ashurst of Bris- tol, with several natives of Portugal, letters-patent, to undertake the discoveiy of lands and regions un- known ; but the result of their expedition is not re- corded. Notwithstanding these proceedings, England had not yet thoroughly imbibed the true spirit of mari- time enterprise. It had been kindled at a foreign shrine, and, when deprived of external support, gra- dually languished. This flame became nearly ex- tinct during the long reign of Henry VIII. That prince, full of bustle, needy of money, and not de- void of intelligence, might have been supposed rather prompt to embark in such enterprises ; but, involved in so many disputes, domestic and theological, and studying, though with little skill, to hold the balance between the two great continental rivals, Charles and Francis, he was insensible to the glory and ad- vantages to be derived from maritime expeditions. Sebastian Cabot, the son of the navigator just named, in order to obtain employment, was obliged to quit England and repair to Spain, where he was received with much favour, and spent the greater part of his life, either in attempts at discovery, or in a quiet re- sidence at Seville, where he was consulted and re- vered as a nautical oracle. After a long slumber, the maritime genius of England was suddenly roused. It burst forth under a young prince of high hope and promise. In 1553, .Lit NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. 93 the sixth year of the reign of Edward VI., the mer- chants of London, ar>ong whom are said to have been " men of great wisdom and gravity," felt a sudden and extreme ardour in the cause of discovery. There chanced at that critical moment to be in Lon- don no less a person than the younger Cabot, who had aided his father in the discovery of North America, and who, as already mentioned, had afterward, while residing abroad, become an oracle in every thing con- nected with navigation. With him the merchants en- tered into deep consultation, and in conjunction with him formed the general plan of a voyage, having in view to reach, by way of the north and north-east, the opulent and celebrated regions of India and Ca- thay. The obstacles to such an undertaking could not yet be fully appreciated. No just idea could at that time be formed of the immense breadth of Asia, its extension towards the north, and the enormous masses of ice with which its shores are encumbered. The youthful monarch, whether he had any influ- ence in inspiring this general ardour, or whether he caught the flame from his people, showed certainly the most eager interest in the cause. He had already named Sebastian Cabot grand pilot of England, with a salary, considerable in that age, of £l66. It was not by royal munificence, however, that the funds were supplied for prosecuting this arduous enterprise. An association, or senate, as it is called, was formed, who judged it most advisable to divide the concern into shares of £26, by which means the sum of six thousand pounds was easily raised, and employed in the construction and equipment of three vessels fitted for northern navigation. The preparations, with a due regard to the formidable character and length of the voyage, were made on a scale of which there had been no previous example ; Cabot says, "the like was never in any realm seen, used, or known. The timbers were made of extraordinary strength, by the best shipwrights; the keel was 94 NORTH-FAST VOYAGES. covered with thin sheets of lead, a contrivance then practised for the first time, and since found most im- portant ; provisions for eighteen months were put on board. Cabot, though unable, probably from his age, to accompany the expedition, drew out a series of instructions, in which the whole conduct to be ob- serve/! by the officers and crew is minutely laid down. He enjoins strict attention to private conduct and morals; that morning and evening prayers be read on board each ship, either by the chaplain or master ; that there be no " ribaldry or ungodly talk, dicing, carding, tabling, nor other devilish games." He pro- hibits all acts tending to the breach of discipline, *' conspiracies, part-takings, factions, false tales, which be the very seeds and fruits of contention." Naval subordination being in that age only imper- fectly established, and the tendency to mutiny ex- tremely strong, these exhortations were most neces- sary and important. All questions respecting the steering of the ship were to be decided by a council of twelve, the captain having only a double vote. Persons skilled in writing were^ in each ship, to keep a daily record of the course of navigation, the ce- lestial observations, the aspect of the lands along which they sailed, with every other interesting oc- currence. The masters of the different ships were to meet weekly, compare these records, and, after com- bining them with each other, enter them in a com- mon leger. Directions are even given for keeping weekly accounts, maintaining the cook-room und other parts of the ship clean, and preventing any liquor from being spilled upon them. The natives of the countries which they visited were " to be consi- dered advisedly, and treated with gentleness and courtesy, without any disdain, laughing, or con- tempt." Particular endeavours were to be made by fair means to allure some one on board, where he was to be well clothed and treated, so as to allure others; but we cannot so much applaud the hint, NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. 95 that " if he be made drunk with your wine or beer, you shall know the secrets of his heart." The mari- ners are exhoxted, however, to use the utmost cir- <;umspection in their dealings with these strangers, and if invited to dine with any lord or ruler, to go Avell armed, and in a posture of defence. The liveries furnished to the sailors were to be carefully kept by the mercantile agents, and to be worn only when their captain considered it an object to shosv them "in good array for the advancement and lionour of the voyage." He warns the mariners not to be too much alarmed when they saw the natives dressed in lions' and bears' skinsy with long bows and arrows, as this formidable appearance was often as- sumed merely to inspire terror. However, he seems {0 suggest a still more chimerical fear, when he. tells tliem, that there are persons armed with bows, who swim naked, in various seas, havens, and rivei-H, *' desirous of the bodies of men, which they covet tor meat," and against whom diligent watch must be kept night and day. We know not whether some confused rumour of the shark and alligator had an nifluence in suggesting this strange precaution. The question was now to elect a fitting commander, and many offers were made both by persons qualified and unqualified. The choice for the supreme direc- tion fell finally on Sir Hugh Willoughby. His re- commendations, as mentioned by Adams, were high birth, tall and handsome person, valiant conduct, and skill in war, — merits probably enhanced by ad- miration of the heroism which impelled him to ad- venture himself in this new and daring career. No mention being made of nautical experience, it may be suspected, that, amid so many brilliant qualities, this most essential requisite was not duly taken into account. The command of the next vessel was given to Richard Chancelor, an deve of Henry Sidney, fa- ther of Sir Philip, and who first gave lustre to that great name. Sidney stood high in the favow of the ^ 06 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. king, and was inspired with the most ardent zeal for the promotion of the voyage. Chancelor is spe- cially commended for " the many good parts of wit in him," tending to inspire the most sanguine hopes of his success. ^ All preparations being thus completed, King Ed- ward drew up a letter addressed to all " kings, princes, rulers, judges, and governors of the earth ;" which, if composed by himself, certainly reflects very considerable credit upon his spirit and judgment. He observes to these unknown potentates, that " the great and Almighty God hath given unto mankind, above all other living creatures, such a heart and desire, that every man desireth to join friendshi|) with other, to love and to be loved, also to give and receive mutual benefits." He represents, therefore, the duty of showing kindness to strangers, and espe- cially to " merchants who wander about the world, search both the land and the sea, to carry such good and profitable things as are found in their countrien to remote regions and kingdoms." With this view, it is stated, that a valiant knight, Sir Hugh Wil- loughby, and other trusty and faithful servants, liad departed from England. " We therefore desire yoiiy kings and princes, and all other to whom there in any power on the earth, to permit unto these, our ser- vants, free passage by your regions and dominions, for they shall not touch any thing of yours unwilling unto you." If such kindness were shown, he con- cludes, — " We promise, by the God of all things that are contained in heaven, earth, and the sea, and by the life and tranquillity of our kingdoms, that we will with like humanity accept your servants, if at any time they shall come to our kingdoms." It was judged inexpedient to delay the depart- ure of the vessels beyond the 10th of May, lest they should be overtaken by winter in the northern latitudes. All the members of the expedition took a solemn and tender leave of their relations, kindredi NORTH-EAiJT VOYAGES. 07 and " friends dearer than kindred," and were at their station on the appointed day. The vessels early in the morning dropped down from Ratcliffe to Green- wich, where the court, and, as it were, the nation, were assembled to witness and hail their departure. The king himself was confined by illness, but tlic principal courtiers stood at the palace windows, tlic rest of the household mounted the towers, while the people in crowds lined the shore. The ships fired their guns, causing the hills and valleys to resound ; and " the mariners shouted in such sort, that tlie sky rung with the noise thereof. In short, it was a very triumph." The thought of the distant and unknown seas into which they were so perilously plunginf? was either forgotten, in this moment of exultation, or served only to heighten its enthusiasm. ; « The expedition, after stopping a few days at Black - wall, sailed down to Woolwich and Gravesend, and thence to the coast of Essex, where contrary wind?^ unfortunately detained them till the 23d. Then, with a favouring gale, they quitted England, and shaped their course into the open expanse of the German Sea. The sailors, however, fixed their eyes on theii native land as it gradually receded, and many, unac- customed to these distant voyages, dropped a few natural tears at the thought that they saw it perhaps for the last time. Sir Hugh was desirous of touching at the coast of Scotland, but this was rendered impossible by con- trary winds, which obliged him also to make fre- quent changes of course, " traversing and tracing the seas." On the 14th July, he found himself in- volved in that labyrinth of isles which stud the coast of Norway between the 66th and 68th degrees of latitude. The ships then stood eastward and out to sea, till they came to the larger range of the Lofoot (Loffoden) Isles. The people, sub- ject to Denmark, were gentle and courteous; but the English, evidently ignorant of this coast, sought If m m NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. ill vain to learn how these islands were situated with regard to the Norwegian shore. They pro- ceeded onward to the large island of Seynam, or Senjan, where they endeavoured without success to procure a pilot. They were now approaching the northern cape of Europe, and saw before them the abyss of the Arctic Ocean, stretching onwards to the I*ole, and soon to be -filled with snows and tempests. In this critical conjuncture. Sir Hugh assembled the commanders, and exhorted them to keep close together ; but, in case of separation, appointed their rendezvous at Wardhuys, understood to be the prin cipal port of Finmark. The wisdom of this precau- tion soon appeared. Before the English could enter a harbour, there arose such "flawes of wind and terrible whirlwinds," that they were obliged to stand out to the open sea, and allow the vessels to drift at the mercy of the waves. Amid the thick mists of the next stormy night the vessels of Willoughby and Chancelor separated, and never again met. Cle- ment Adams, who was with Chancelor, says, that as they were driving before the gale, the Admiral loudly and earnestly called upon them to keep close to him ; but that he himself carried so much sail, luid his vessel was so superior, that Chancelor could not possibly obey this order. Willoughby's pinnace was dashed to pieces amid the tempest ; and next morning, when light dawned, he could see neither of his companions ; but, discovering at length the smaller vessel called the Confidence, he continued his voyage. He now sailed nearly two hundred miles north-east and by north, but was astonished and be- wildered at not discovering any symptom of land ; whence it appeared that "the land lay not as the globe made mention." The imperfect maps of those days appear not to have shown that rapid southerly bend which the coast takes towards the great opening of the Waranger Fiord, on which Wardhuys is si- tuated. Instead, therefore, of sailing along or towardsi NORTH-EAST VOVAOES. ^ the coast of Norwa,. u and deeper into ThTa&/'?n^in^ always deeper A length the soundS Inn- .• "^ """hem ooein fathoms, proved the nS^rff'K'^.^ ''^Pth of T"o volved in some great anH,!f^1 '" ''^ far out at sea in for some time toTa dfreSTM"*"-- They'i.en afterward again turned t^^ '° '^^ south-east Wt shifting thei? cour"es ImM dolT"'' ^"'^ «°Sned a?d't;f they groped th™r wav t .^^""^u^^^in'v and stormy seas, at lena-th Inn^ ""ough these va^t desolate, and cohered wS. l?.^ '''PPeared, but hiS ns fallmg ,ce, and the hmmtr^^^} -^^ cj'ash of 1^'« «"ast was evidently thiro^T"'^ '4' monsters, there was no point at which a ifL^^^'^-Zembla ; but After another attempt to nn^h.'?^ could be made manners became sensibfeS 2 *^ "orthward, the was t» be found oX bv an 1,- ^ "T^ °f Nonvav fX- I'^iy '"medToThe sou rx'''f S* "^ direct wMWadTrt;^eS£t^*fe^^ fort and security. An iln'^^ • ® ^^^ter in com- ward, in the hope probaWv l?^^""^ ^^'^ them we", the only point if, hCe im^' °L««°hing Wardhuy had any distinct kno-^Med^r Thf ^' °^ '"^eh they un nhabited, and destifntf Af l'^? '^"^^t was naked pomt where they^a shore'boM ' 'T^' '^^"^ ^vith one or two good harhn, 1^ „ "^ '*"'^ ""ocky, but only the middle of Seiwe^hf' .^^''S' though it W, the premature rigours o^f a noi'h''"'^ ^'^' al^eady^l frost snow, and fee drivtng^h^Ju^!?',^'''''" ' ""^"s" It had been the denth nf ,. • . ^h the air, as thou.. •iv. state of the ice. " Winds we have had at will, but ice and fogs too much against our "wills if it had pleased the Lord God otherwise." The captains determined to return to Waygatz, where they might confer together, and endeavour to find a more open passage. They were now obliged to warp from one piece of ice to anotlier, some of them so large that they could not see beyond them from the topmast. 'JThey were repeatedly enclosed by these masses, en- veloped with dark fogs, and obliged to make fast their vessel to icebergs, where, " abiding the Lord's leisure, they continued with patience." On the 13th August the vessels were involved among pieces of loose ice, one of which bioke the stock of their anchor, " and many other great blows we had against the same, that it was marvellous the ship was able to abide them." The boat, being between the floe and the brig, was struck, its side driven in, and the vessel itself was made to recoil backward. Pet and Jack- man did not reach Waygatz till the 16ih August, by which time, it being found impracticable to attempt penetrating again to the eastward, they sought only to repass the North Cape. They appear to have been zealous, well-intentioned men ; but,, not duly acquainted with the history of ice, they adhered too closely to the land, whence large masses are conti- nuaUy detached or carried down by the rivers, while the open sea might have afforded better hopes of a prosperous navigation. The United Provinces, when roused to resistance by the ferocious bigotry of Philip, and by the cruel- ties of the remorseless Alva, after a long, hard, and ji glorious struggle, succeeded in establishing their Ettle territory as an independent republic. Thence ' forth they began to look to the sea as the source of their greatness and prosperity. This element sur- rounded and penetrated their country on all sides,— it towered, as it were, above them ; and they had employed its inundatiq^js to defend their small domain ..ik. *ORTH-EAST VOVaOES. ,.„ against immensely suoerior r commerce embrJinf'ZZlr''^- Oommerce-a compensate for the nan-ow^ Iv""^"' necessary lo were hemmed, and toTaTJ ?.;" '^"'"" ^hich thev among the states of Eurone-pV*'*J''« fi^«' ran^ most promisins auart^. iP^' ■ '^^^ East was th« strictly guardel ^„"d1hel had l!^ ^PP'-^aches tvere could cope with the mi"hLo^ "5' yet a fleet which At antic andlndiafs^f'^hS^^ °f ^P^"» '" ^S -eXTh^^^^^^ 2S?e!"---P'^aria-^^^^^^^^^ -<^^;|lnrhS™ ",tr„^n by a pHvate S|"Wed at Amsterdam' EnchL'"'"" y^«'«' ^""e [he Pilot of the Amsterdim S^^'-u^""* Zealand, the expedition was gXrXt/i',.?,^'>°«e i?"Mance Barentz, who approved limL?*™*'*'''' "^^ William - expert „autical^4„ of the a1^ as one of the mo« ^i^ftnTfiaiiit^, '^ni? - »'>««''. wftrtL-ed^SrTwote-^^^^^^^^^ ^mpted to pass by^he oIhT'. ""5 "/ ^^ich at- Waygatz , U Barent, Ifj^t^ ?^, ^^^ Strait of course, endeavoiimH .!^ himself, taking a bolder of Nova ZemblaX °S S *" t^e^northS . posed, like a barter hf -1 * ®"'f ""^^^ ^hich op- he coasted theB^y'^l^^^^^'^P'^osress. hZ 'umerous flocks ofVe bird of th,, '''"'•^ ^'■°«' ^e he penguin, with wiZ so silu "^™^' P''°''ably ample bodv that ;> . , ^'"all compared to i«. eoiSd sSport he^reaS mof ""'^'l!^ hot*?h y '"ff the Black Cape and W^liw'V.'^^r- P«««- saw various features "haractSf ^* r ' l*"^ ^"'eh -",a.ongothe«tht|^£-lJ,£4r^e iif t no NORTJI-EAST VOYAGES. .* huge amphibious auiinal called variously sea-horso or sea-cow, of which they give a very good destn-ip- tion. Subsequently, at the Orange Isles, they came upon two or three hundred lying in heaps upon the band, and basking in the sun. Having fonned the erroneous idea that these animals are helpless on shore, the sailors inarched against them as to an assured victory, congratulating themselves on the multitude of valuable teeth which would become an c;asy prize. So completely were they mistaken, that these gallant amphibia not only encountered, but beat them off with loss and dishonour, breaking in pieces the pikes, hatchets, and sabres employed in this fruitless assault. The crews sustained also tho^ fierce encounter of the Polar bear. Having seen one on the shore, they entered their shallop, and dis- charged several balls at him, but without inflicting any deadly wound. They were then happy when they succeeded in throwing a noose about his neck, lioping to lead him like a lapdog, and carry him as a trophy into Holland. They were not a little alarmed by his mighty and tremendous struggles ; but what was their consternation, when he fastened his paws on the stern and entered the boat ! The whole crew hastily clung to the poop, expecting instant death, either from the sea or from his jaws. Providentially at this moment the noose got entangled with the iron work of the rudder, and the creature struggled in vain to extricate himself. Seeing him thus fixed, they at length summoned courage to advance and despatch him with their spears. Barentz, by the 1st August, reached the northern extremity of Nova Zembla, in lat. 77^ ; but the wind blew so strong, separating the ice into large flakes, tnat he and his crew, rather early it should seem, gave up hope and resolved to return. The two other vessels meantime pushed on along the coast, and in due time arrived at Waygatz. This island had a very agreeable aspect, being covered ^ NORTH-EAST VOVACKS. , , , peared very surprisino-, whpn n!^,t °"'^''' ^^'''■«h up- opposite coast was thSpo »^ ?®'"'«'" "" this noi- « but it was rio-htlv i,fJL,T/'*'°»°foimdffrZin'! do^vn the rivers Vft!*"' f 7 ^^^e^^u h winds and currents, o" twnln;^ '^''^'■''^ Wther'by observed one of thow LI I "? ^ PO">t the Dutch •■arved images which had^pf collections of rudelv Burroughs.^ These c4'^f>f,'^" ^°™eriy remarked b^ children, sometimes having f of men, Avomen, and a 1 with their faces turKZ.'^'r '"Z'^''' ''eadl, of reindeer lying at their fc !?'"''' ^"'J'liany horns Samo.^.' Cape of IdSr fct'eVnlf '=^"«d,Vher"! S.amoiedes have been falselvnhf 1 ""^'^s that tlie try, and that it were mrfr J i^^""?^** ^^'th this idola! these to have beenTma^es of^i'^"'«We '» conclude they cherished with S«''''P''"«'l friends whom not very exactlyTppeKw?r*J'°°' '"'t it doe™ have had friend! wi?h six o7e ^^1^™°'^""'* ^"°"'^ ^he expedition ha J^ ^^^ faces. their way VZgh X 'sTit'^f %"i'y '" ^'^orkin. passing which, aSd sanl,.^ r °^ Waygatz.-after t-oast of Nova Zembla th^ev w '°™'' ^P^^^ along the barriers; but havi^b ' nerilf ^ '"P^''^^ bytheicv hey arrived at a wfde bC n '"^"^ *'°»ncled these bending rapidly southward T/^l' ^'* *e coas - only the shore If theGmJf ohi J^"^'' *'« ^^s ffnri' '^'*' "»^ eastern boundarv^VA^^ ''°"''*^<' "»' dfford an easy DassaPho . °'l''^''"countrvmen the coast of Rimsfa„\apTand In t"''^"''' '^^"°» Texel on the 16th September ' "^ ^'""^^ *« '^e ^»P- - the A.in^ii't'-at/iXin ffi^ 112 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. <*■ %, Prince Maurice and the States-General no longer confined themselves to empty praise and sanction, but supplied funds to aid in a fresh voyage. Six vessels were fitted out, nofc as for adventure and dis- covery, but as for assured success, and for canring on an extensive traffic in the golden regions oi the East. They were laden with merchandise, and well supplied with money; while a seventh, alight yacht, wats instructed to follow them till they had passed Tabis, the supposed bounding promontory of Asia ; when, having finally extricated themselves from the Polar ices, and directed their course to China, it was to return to Holland with the joyful tidings. Petei Plancius, the most celebrated cosmographer of that age, drew up a map for their guidance, — doubtless in our eyes a very crude performance, but which combined all the geographical lights of that ignorant period. The armaments, which at that early epoch were set forth with the greatest pomp and the most ample equipment, usually issued in the most lame and abortive results. These large and heavily-laden ves- sels were peculiarly ill fitted for winding their way through narrow seas and channels encumbered with ice. Of all the northern expeditions, accordingly, ' none answered less than the present the great cost and magnificent expectations with which it had been equipped. The squadron sailed from the Texel on the 2d of June (1595), a period of the season decidedly too late. Nothing great occurred till the 4th August, when they reached the strait between Waygatz and the continent, to which they had given the appellation of the Strait of Nassau. They came to the Cape of Idols ; but though these were still drawn up in full array, no trace was found of the habitations whicli they might have seemed to indicate. A Russian ves- sel, however, constructed of pieces of ba^l. -ewed „ together, was met on its way from the Pechora to NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. 113 the Obi in search of the teetli of the sea-horse, whale- oil, and geese. The sailors accosted the Dutch in a very friendly manner, presented eight fat birds, and on going on board one of the vessels, were struck with astonishment at its magnitude, its equipments, and the high order wuth wdiich every thing w^as ar- ranged. This being a fast-day, they refused meat, butter, and cheese; but, on being offered a raw herring, eagerly swallowed it entire, head and tail inclusive. The navigators, after considerable searcli, fell in with a party of Samoiedes, who are described as a people of small stature, broad and flat face, little eyes, short legs, and wrapped entirely in reindeer skins, except a few who wore coloured cloth lined with fur. They manifested considerable jealousy of strangers, and on the approach of the interpreter, had draw^n their arrows to shoot him; but he called aloud, " We are friends ;" upon which they laid down their weapons, and saluted him in the Russian style, by bending their heads to the ground. The intercourse which followed was conducted on their part with considerable courtesy and good sense, mingled with a feeling of precaution and even alarm. On hearing a gun fired, they ran away and leaped like madmen, till assured that no harm was intended; and they were then amused by seeing a little stone placed on an eminence struck and shattered to pieces by a mus- ket ball. A sailor boldly went up to the chief, dig- nified in the narrative wath the title of king, and pre- sented him with some biscuit, which the monarch graciously accepted and ate, though looking round somewhat suspiciously. At length the parties took a friendly leave ; but a native ran after the foreigners with signs of great anger, on account of one of their rude statues which a sailor had carried off. These figures were now judged to be divinities, and the bones found lying before them the remains of sacri- fices offered to them in that capacity. The Dutch K 2 0^ -f 114 NORTH-EAST VOVAGF.S. ■N*« mi^ ■*' seem to have formed a still lower estimate than Bur- roughs of Samoiede sculpture. These images are de- scribed as little better than logs, somewhat rounded at the top to represent a head, with a slight projection for the nose, two little holes for eyes, and one larger aperture to represent the mouth. The discoverers had been informed, in answer to diligent inquiries, that beyond a point which might be reached in about five days' sail, there extended a large open sea to the south-east. They made re- peated attempts to reach this point ; but, after emerg- ing from the Strait of Waygatz, were always driven back by large bodies of floating ice. They perse- vered till the end of September, when these masses entered the Waygatz in such force that they were obliged with all speed to quit it by the western open- ing, and bend their sails towards Holland, without having accomplished any one of the brilliant objects for which this expedition had been undertaken. A very considerable disappointment was felt in that country at the failure of an expedition, from which such sanguine hopes had been cherished. The States-General declined supplying funds for a fresh armament ; but they proclaimed a reward to any individual or body of men by whom the object might be STiccessfuUy accomplished. The town-council of Amsterdam, with great spirit, determined to fit out another squadron, on a smaller scale, and equipped only for discovery. They prepared two vessels, which were respectively intrusted, one to Barentz, and the other to John Corneliz Ryp, with seemingly an equal division of power. Suspecting apparently a prevalence of home-sickness, they admitted on board none but unmarried persons, who, it was hoped, would be animated with a bolder spirit of en- terprise, and less inclined to long for return. The vessels set sail, still rather too late, on the loth of May, 1596. Their object seems to have been to avoid the coast of Russia and the Straits, to shun NORTH-EAST VOYAGES, 115 even Nova Zembla, and to push on direct tlirougli the wide expanse of tlie Northern Ocean. They even stood inadvertently somewhat to the west, and on the 22d came in view of the Shetland Islands. Barentz urged that they should turn due east, in order to compensate this deviation ; but Corneliz in- sisted that this would carry them at once into the Strait of Waygatz, the scene of so many abortive ef* forts, and insisted upon steering towards the north- north-east. After passing the Shetlands, they saw the most brilliant celestial phenomena they had ever witnessed. The sun was attended by two parhelia or mock suns, while a bright rainbow traversed all the three suns, and two other bows crossed the hea- vens in different quarters. On the 6th June some sailors called out, that a multitude of white swans were swimming in the water ; but the more expe- rienced gave warning that these swans would be found to be made of ice, and accordingly they were soon sailing in the midst of these moving masses. For two days they proceeded between them as between two lands ; while the colour of the sea, which was green as grass, gave them the idea of being near the country called Greenland ; but Scoresby has shown, as is elsewhere observed, that this colour is produced by the contents of the sea itself. On the 9th the ad- venturers discovered a long island rising abruptly into steep and lofty cliffs, the highest of which has borne the appropriate name of Mount Misery. Pen- nant, who erroneously supposes Bennet, in 1603, to have been the first discoverer, observes, — " The hor- ror of this isle to the first discoverers must have been unspeakable : the prospect dreary ; black where not hid with snow, and broken into a thousand precipices. No sounds but of the dashing of the waves, the crashing collision of floating ice, the discordant notes of myriads of sea-fowl, the yelping of Arctic foxes, the snorting of the walruses, or the roaring of the Polar bears." The hills were so excessively steep, ^r.^ )JM5. k,r ,*- no NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. llmt thougli a party contrived to clamber up, they durst not look down, and the descent proved most doubtful and perilous. At length, applying their backs to the face of the steep, they slid down with safety, which Barentz, who looked up, could never have thought possible. From a bear, which the Dutch attacked, and vainly attempted to secure by a noose, they gave to it the name of Bear island, which the English afterward attempted to supplant by that of Alderman Cherie. Proceeding onward, still by too northerly a course, they reached the latitude of 80°, and discovered a coast which soon proved to be- long to a country of great extent. This was Spitz- bergen, or East Greenland, which, from the latitude, they probably approached near its northern point of Hakluyt^s Headland. The name of Greenland, which *has in some degree adhered to this island, was given imder the erroneous impression of its belonging to that great extent of coast, so called by the Icelanders, in distinction from which it has been called East Greenland. The Dutch, finding their progress eastward stopped by this line of coast, now retraced their route along its deep bays, still steering southward till they found themselves again at Bear Island. Here Corneliz and Barentz differed once more ; the fc imer still adhering to his original views, and recommending that they should again push northward, and endeavour to find their way along the eastern coast of the newly- discovered land ; but Barentz insisted more ration- ally, that they ought to steer east-south-east, and en- deavour to round the northern point of Nova Zembla. Being unable to agree, and Barentz being resolved for this time not to yield, they determined to separate, and to make trial each of his respective course. Ba- rentz, whom we follow, proceeded according to his plan, till at midday, on the 17th July, he found him- self off the coast of Nova Zembla ; he had gone too far south, and was obliged to turn again northward. NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. 117 He pushed on as vigorously as possible, but it wus not till the fitli August that he doubled Cape Nassau ; but here finding the ice drifting along in large masses, and being involved in deep fogs, he judged it expedient to moor his vessel to a large iceberg. As the master was walking on deck, he saw a large bear endeavour- ing to scale the sides of the ship. He immediately called out, " All hands up !" and the crew, having mustered, raised loud cries, which induced the mon- ster to retreat ; but he soon returned to the charge. They had now a sail raised along the deck, and four guns loaded, which were fired with such effect, that the bear fled, and sought shelter amid huge masses of ice. On the 10th of August the ice began to separate, and the seamen remarked that the herg to which they were moored was fixed to the bottom, and that all the others struck against it. Afraid that these loose pieces would collect and enclose them, they quitted their moorings and sailed on. The ice was already for/iiing on the surface, and the ship in sailing through made it crack on all sides. The Dutch worked on their way, mooring themselves to successive frag- ments, one of which rose like a steeple, being twenty fathoms above and twelve beneath the water. They saw around them more than four hundred large ice- bergs, the fear of which made them keep close to the shore, not aAvare of that being the quarter where these dangerous bodies were formed, and along which they chiefly ranged. However, they steered on, and having passed what they called Little ley Cape, came to Orange Island, which forms the northern extremity of Nova Zembla. Here ten men swam on shore, and, having mounted several piles of ice which rose, as it were, into a little mountain, they had the satisfaction of seeing the coast tending southward, and a wide open sea to the south-east. They hastened back to Barentz with these joyful tidings, and the success of the voyage was considered almost secure. I'- tte; i^ m- 118 NORTII-KAST VOYACS KS. T' ^ ♦ But these liopes wore delusive. After doubling* what was called Cape Desire (now Zelania), the ice- bergs mustered in such force, that the crews gave up all idea of doing more than reach the strait of Waygatz on their return home. They were driven, however, so rapidly before the floating masses, tliat three men wlio had mounted one of them to recon- noitre, would have teen left behind, but for extraor- dinary exertions of agility. They were now drawn direct into what they called Icy Port, and the vessel was thrown into a position almost peipendicular, with one end nearly touching the bottom. From this critical attitude they were relieved next day ; but fresh masses of ice continually poured in, aug- menting the terrible ramparts with which they were enclosed. One side of the vessel was raised by suc- cessive pieces jammed beneath it, but the other was similarly elevated ; so that the ship was lifted to the top of the ice as by machinery. All this time the cracking, both around them, on every side, and within the ship itself, was so dreadful, that they were in continual fear of its parting into fragments ; but this interior cracking, arising merely from the freez- ing of the juices of the timber, was much less dan- gerous than they imagined. The Dutch now felt that they must bid adieu for this year to all hopes of escape from their icy prison. As the vessel was cracking continually, and opening in different quarters, they made no doubt of its going to pieces, and could hope to survive the winter only by constructing a hut, which might shelter them from the approaching rigour of the season. Parties sent into the country reported having seen foot- steps of reindeer, also a river of fresh water, and, what was more important still, a great quantity of line trees, with the roots still attached to them, strewed upon the shore. Not one of these trees could have grown on the frozen soil of Nova Zembla ; they were all brought down the rivers of Muscovy NoRTH-KA»T VoYAOE«. 110 and Tailary, and wafted over the ocean by winds ;»ud currents. This circumstance gave a peculiarly (;hcerful colour to the hopes of the mariners. Tliey trusted that Providence, which had in this surprisin^^ mannCi furnished materials to build a house, and fuel to warm it, would supply also whatever was necessary for their passing through the approaching winter and for returning at length to their native counti} . A sledge was instantly constructed ; tln-eo men cut the wood, while ten drew it to the tipot marked out for the hut. They sought to riiise a rampart of earth for shelter and security, and em- ployed along line of fire in the hope of softening tlu; ground, but in vain. — The carpenter having died, it was found impossible to dig a grave for him, and they lodged his body in a cleft of the rock. The building of the hut was carried on with ar- lour, as affording the only hope of life ; yet the cold (Midured in this operation was intense, and almost insupportable. When a nail was put into the mouth, it was frozen to the lip, and brought the skin away, drawing blood. The snow sometimes fell so thick, for days successively, that the seamen could not stir from under cover. They had at the same time hard and perpetual combats with the Polar bear. One day the master saw from the ship three of these furi- ous animals running towards the working party, and gave them warning by loud cries. They immedi- ately ran towards the vessel ; when one of tham, in his haste, fell into a cleft in the ice, and was given up for lost ; but the bears overlooked him, and con- tinued their pursuit of the main body. The sailors having at length reached the ship, made the circuit of it, and mounted from behind ; but their pursuers entered in front, and advanced furiously to the attack. A man, sent down to the kitchen to light a match, was in too great haste and agitation to accomplish that simple process, and the muskets were thus use- less. The crew could now parry the assault only by I If m 120 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. m iD^ throwing at the bears whatever came first to hand, by wliich the attention of the animals was always for a moment attracted, though they returned to the charge with fresh vigour. At length, when matters seemed approaching to extremity, a halberd was darted at the largest, which struck him on the mouth with such force that he retreated, and the others fol- lowed. Notwithstanding this intense rigour, winter had not yet thoroughly set in. Several days of south- west wind dissolved a vast quantity of ice, and they saw a wide open sea without, while the vessel was enclosed within, as it were, by a solid wall. By October they completed their hut, and prepared to convey thither their provisions and stores. S'ome painful discoveries were now made. Several tuns of fine Dantzic beer, of an agreeable and medicinal quality, and from which they had anticipated much comfort, had frozen so hard as to break the casks, bursting even the iron hoops by which they were held. The contents, indeed, existed in the form of ice, but this, when thawed, had merely the taste of bad water ; and though in the middle they found a liquor concentrating in itself the whole strength of the beer, it had not the true flavour and character of that beverage. They made trial of mixing the two together, but without being able to restore its proper relish and virtue. The sun, which had hitherto been their only plea- sure and consolation, began now to pay only short visits, and to give signs of his approaching departure. He rose in the south-south-east and set in the south- south-west, while the moon was scarcely dimmed by his presence. On the 1st November his full orb was still seen for a short interval ; on the 2d it rested on the horizon, from which it did not detach itself ; on the 4th the sky was calm and clear, but no sun rose or set. The dreary winter night of three months, which ro\ wl to in( in wa] niel asf NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. 121 had now set in, was not, however, without some alleviations. The moon, now at the full, wheeled Iier pale but perpetual circle round the horizon. With the sun disappeared also the bear, and in his room came the Arctic fox, a beautiful little creature, whose flesh resembled kid, and furnished a variety to their meals. They found great difficulty in the measurement of time, and on the 6th rose only late in the day, when a controversy ensued whether it was day or night. The cold had stopped the move- ments of all the clocks, but they afterward formed a sand-glass of twelve hours, by which they contrived tolerably to estimate their time. On the 3d December, as the sailors lay in bed, they lieard from without a noise so tremendous as if all t he mountains of ice by which they were surrounded had fallen in pieces over each other. In fact, the first light which they afterward obtained showed a considerable extent of open sea : yet this disruption must have been produced by a merely internal move- ment of the ice, not by any tendency towards thaw. As the season advanced, the cold became always more and more intense. Early in December a dense fall of snow stopped up all the passages by which the smoke could escape : so that a fire, at all fitted for the dreadful inclemency of the season, led to the danger cf suffocation. The men were thus obliged to keep the room at a miserably low temperature, for which they used- the imperfect remedy of heated stones, passed from one bed to another. One great trouble was how to wash their clothes ; whenever they took these up from the boiling water, and began to wring them, the linen froze in their hands ; and when they hung them up to dry, the side farthest from the fire was hard frozen. The cold becoming always more rigorous, ice two inches thick was formed on the walls. At length their sufferings came to such an extremity, that, casting at each other languishing and piteous looks, they anticipated that 122 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. this must end in the extinction of life. They now resolved that, cost what it might, they should for once be thoroughly warmed. They repaired, there- fore, to the ship, whence they brought an ample sup- ply of coal ; and having kindled an immense fire, and carefully stopped up the windows and every aperture by which the cold could penetrate, they did bring themselves into a most comfortable temperature. In this delicious state, to which they had been so long strangers, they went to rest, and talked gayly for some time before falling asleep. Suddenly, in the middle of the night, several awakened in a state of the most painful vertigo ; their cries roused the rest, and all found themselves, more or less, in the same alarming predicament. On attempting to rise, they became dizzy, and could neither stand nor walk. At length two or three contrived to stagger towards the door ; but the first who opened it fell down insensible among the snow. De Veer, who stood behind, re- vived him by pouring vinegar on his face ; and the wintry air, which had been their greatest dread, now restored life to the whole party. These unhappy mariners being thus compelled to afford a certain access to the wintry blast, its effects became always more and more insupportable. It seemed as if the fire had lost all power of conveying heat : their clothes were white with snow and hoar- frost ; their stockings were burned before the feet felt any warmth, and this burning was announced by smell rather than by feeling. Yet, in the very midst of these sufferings, remembering that the 5th January was the feast of the Kings, they besought the master that they might be allowed to celebrate that great Dutch festival. They had saved a little wine and two pounds of flour, with which they fried pancakes in oil; the tickets were drawn, the gunner was crowned king of Nova Zembla, and the evening passed as merrily as if they had been at home round their native fireside. Nothing can more strikingly il d ai w m] wl mi NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. 123 illustrate the salutary effects produced even in these desperate circumstances by mental occupation and amusement, — effects of which Captain Parry after- ward made so happy a use. About the middle of January the crews began to experience some abatement of that deep darkness in which they had so long been involved. On throw- ing a bowl, they could see it run along the ground, which was before impossible. Soon after, about midday, a faint flush was seen to tinge the horizon ; and this first dawn of the annual morning revived in their hearts the hope which was almost extinguished. On the 24th De Veer and two others ran in to say that they had seen a portion of the sun's disk. Ba- rentz demonstrated, from the structure of the earth, that this could not take place for fifteen days. Many, however, trusted more to the eyes of their compa- nions ; and bets were taken, which could not be de- cided in the two following days in consequence of a heavy fog in which the air was involved. The 27th, however, being clear, they went out in a body, and saw, ascending above the horizon, the full orb of that great luminary. Joy took possession of their hearts, and Barentz in vain continued to prove, that this appearance was contrary to every principle of science. He was not aware of the extensive power of refraction in this northern air, which in Capt. Par- ry's expedition, produced a similar abridgment in the duration of the Polar winter. Affairs now assumed a more cheerful aspect. In- stead of constantly moping in the hut, the men went out daily, employed themselves in walking, running, and athletic games, which warmed their bodies and preserved their health. With the sun, however, ap- peared their old enemy, the bear. One attacked them amid so thick a mist that they could not see to point their pieces, and sought shelter in the hut. The bear came to the door, and made the most desperate at- tempts to burst it open ; but the master kept his fl^i %, 124 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. t back firmly set against it, and the animal at last re- treated. Soon after he mounted the roof, where, having in vain attempted to enter by the chimney, he made furious attempts to pull it down, having torn the sail in which it was wrapped ; all the while his frightful and hungry roarings spread dismay through the mansion beneath ; at length he retreated. An- other came so close, to the man on guard, who was looking another wa}^ that, on receiving the alarm from those within and looking about, he saw himself almost in the jaws of the bear ; however, he had the presence of mind instantly to fire, when the animal was struck in the head, retreated, and was afterward pursued and despatched. The first reappearance of the sun had inspired hopes that the weather would become continually more mild and agreeable. It was, therefore, a severe disappointment, when, in February, a heavy north- east gale brought a cold more intense than ever, and buried the hut again under snow. This was the more deeply felt, as the men's strength and supply of ge- nerous food to recruit it w^ere alike on the decline. They no longer attempted daily to clear a road, but those who were able went out and in by the chim- ney. A dreadful calamity then overtook them in the failure of their stock of wood for fuel. They began to gather all the fragments which had been thrown away, or lay scattered about the hut ; but these being soon exhausted, it behooved them to carry out their sledge in search of more. To dig the trees, how- ever, out of the deep snow, and drag them to the hut, was a task which, in their present exhausted state, would have appeared impossible, had they not felt that they must do it or perish. In the course of March and April,' the weather be- came milder, and the attention of all the crew was drawn to plans and prospects of return. Southward on the side of Tartary, the icy masses were still floating, but to the north-east there was an immense NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. 125 open sea. Yet the barriers wliich enclosed the ship not only continued, but, to their inexpressible grief, rapidly increased, probably from the fragments which floated in upon the breaking up of the great exterior mass. In the middle of March these ramparts were only 75 paces broad, in the beginning of May they were 500. These piles of ice resembled the houses of a great city, interspersed with apparent towers, steeples, and chimneys. The sailors, viewing with despair this position of the vessel, earnestly en- treated permission to fit out the two boats, and in them to undertake the voyage homeward. The mas- ter at length agreed, provided there was no better prospect by the end of May. From the 20th to the 26th a north wind came on, and blew upon them a still greater quantity of ice ; so that they no longer hesitated to begin their work, and to bring from the ship sails and cordage. The mere digging of the boats from under the snow was a most laborious task, and the equipment of them would have been next to impos- sible, but for the enthusiasm with which it was un- dertaken. By the Uth June they had the vessels fitted out, their clothes packed, and the provisions embarked. Then, however, they had to cut a way through the steeps and walls of ice which intervened between them and the open sea. Amid the extreme fatigue of digging, breaking, and cutting, they were kept in play by a huge bear which had come over the frozen sea from Tartary. At length, the crew, having embarked all their clothes and provisions, set sail on the 14th with a westerly breeze. In the three following days they passed the. Cape of Isles, Cape Desire, and came to Orange Isle, always working their way through much encumber- ing ice. As they were off Icy Cape, Barentz, long struggling with severe illness, and now feeling his end approach, desired himself to be lifted up that he might take a last view of that fatal and terrible boundary, on which he gazed for a considerable time. -^ - L2 -^'^ 126 NOR^H-EAST VOYAGES. ..">■ On the following^ dny the vessels were again in- volved amid masses of drift-ic'e, and were so forcibly strnek, as v^rell as squeezed between opposite fields, that the men had bid a final adieu to each other. See- ing, however, a body of fixed ice at a little distance, De Veer took a rope and leaped from fragment to fragment, till he arrived on the firm surface. A communica- tion thus formed, .they landed first the sick, then the stores and provisions, and, finally, they drew the boats themselves upon the ice. During this deten- tion, Barentz, being informed of the severe illness of one Adrianson, said, that he himself was not far frorn his end. As he continued, however, conversing and looking on a chart of the voyage made by De Veer, it was thought that his disease could not be so seri- ous, till he pushed aside the chart, asked for a draught of water, and immediately expired. This event ex- tremely afflicted the crews, both from their personal attachment to Barentz, and the loss of his skill in {piloting the vessels. The sailors, with some drift-wood, repaired the boats ; the ice, however, was still close around, and they were struck with the fear that they w^ould never escape from this bank, but must perish upon it. On the 22d., however, there appeared open sea at a little distance, and having dragged the boats over succes- sive pieces of ice, they were again afloat. In the three following days they reached Cape Nassau, the ice frequently stopping them, but opening again like the gates of a sluice, and allowing a passage. On the 26th they were obliged once more to disembark ^and pitch their tents on the frozen surface. On the opposite coast they saw immense herds of sea-cows (walrus), and the air darkened with numberless birds. While they were fast asleep in the tent, the sentinel called out, " Three bears ! three hears /" The whole crew were instantly out ; their muskets were charged only with small shot for birds; however *' these sweetmeats," though they could not inflict any no^ NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. 127 serious wound, induced the monsters to turn, when one of them was pursued and killed. The dead bear was carried off in the mouth of one of the survivors to the most rugged parts of the ice, where the two devoured a large portion of his carcass. The year was now advanced ; the bright light of the sun and the occasional south-westerly breezes dissolved the ice, and gradually opened a way before them. It brought^ however, dangers of a new class. The distinction between fixed and floating ice had now almost ceased, the former melting continually away. As they thought themselves lying secure on a large field, a body of icebergs came in from the open sea, struck and dashed it to pieces. The pack- ages were separated from the boats, and several dropped into the water. It was laborious to scram- ble over the detached fragments to a place of safety, while the weighty articles sank into the softened ice, not without the greatest risk of falling to the bottom. For twelve hours the sailors floundered through this loose and broken surface before they could establish themselves on the field which was attached to the land. The 2d of July was the finest day yet seen in Nova Zembla; and the weather, continuing favourable, produced on the 7th an open sea, to which, with great labour, the men succeeded in dragging the boats. From this time their progress, though often obstructed, was never entirely stopped. In several of the rocky bays they caught an immense number of birds, these poor animals not having yet learned to fear man, and allowing themselves to be taken 1^ the hand. Near Admiralty Bay they saw two hun- dred sea-cows lying on a bank of ice, and attacked them ; but these powerful animals advanced to the combat, snorting and blowing in so tremendous a manner, that, had not a fresh wind sprung up, the mariners might have been in a serious predicament ; and they repented bitterly, amid so many inevitable \ii 1 128 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. evils, to have brought on themselves one so very un- necessary. On the 28th, after passinj^the bay of St. Lawrence, when they approached to the southern extremity of Nova Zembla, the navigators discovered* with sur- prise and joy, t\VO Russian vessels at anchor. They approached, and were received with the usual cour- tesy of that nation. . Several of the Russians recol- lected having met them in the former voyage, and were truly astonished, instead of the large and handsome vessels whose equipment they had so much admired, to see them in these miserable open boats, with meager and wasted frames. After mutual presents, the parties agreed to sail together to Way- gatz, but were separated by a heavy gale. On a small isle the Dutch found abundance of cochlearia, or scurvy-grass, by the use of which the sick recovered in a manner almost miraculous. On the 3d August they steered their course to the south-south-west, and, though somewhat obstructed by ice, came on the 4th in view of the coast of Russia. They had a tedious but safe coasting voyage to Kola, where, to their joyful surprise, they found John Corneliz, who received them with the greatest kindness, and af- forded them a comfortable passage to Amsterdam. As no account was ever given of this commander's own voyage, it may be presumed that it did not lead to any important discovery. The question as to a north-eastern passage was not yet considered as finally determined. The London merchants next took it up, and, in 1608^ fitted out Henry Hudson, who had already distinguished him- self by a voyage to Spitzbergen, and proved one of the greatest of the early navigators. The design of Hudson appears to have been, not to entangle himself in the straits and islands on the Russian coastf, but to strike direct into the channel between Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen. He dropped down to Blackwall on the 23d April, and on the 3d June saw the North NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. 129 Cape, bearing south- wesf. He still pushed on to the north and east, till he reached the latitude of 75 de- grees, when he found himself entangled among ice. He at first endeavoured to push through, but, fail- ing in this attempt, turned and extricated himself with only " a few rubs." On the r2th .Tune he expe- rienced a thick fog, and had his shrouds frozen ; but the sky then cleared, and afforded briglit sunshine for the whole day and night. On the 15th, Thomas Hilles and Robert Rayner solemnly averred, that, standing on deck, they had seen a mermaid. This marine maiden is described as having a female back and breast, a very white skin, and long black haii flowing behind ; but on her turning round they de- scried a tail as of a porpoise, and speckled like a mackerel. It seems uncertain which of the ceta- ceous species suggested this fancied resemblance to the human form. Hudson continued to push on eastward, varjdng, according to the wind, between the latitudes of 74** and 75°. On the 25th, however, heavy north and north-easterly gales, accompanied with fog and snow, obliged him to steer south-easterly ; and this course, on the 26th, brought him to the coast of Nova Zembla, in lat. 72° 25'. Here, seemingly with prema- ture resignation, when June was not yet closed, he con- cluded that it we/e fruitless to attempt to hold this year a more northerly course ; in place of which he resolved to try the old and so often vainly-attempted route of the Waygatz. From this he was diverted by the view of a large sound, which appeared to afford an equally promising opening. On its shores also were numerous herds of morses, from which he hoped to defray the expense of the voyage. Nova Zembla, on the whole, seen under this Arctic midsummer, pre- sented to him somewhat of a gay aspect. He says, it is "to man's eye a pleasant . land ; much mayne land, with no snow on it, looking in some places green, and deer feeding ♦bereon." The sound, however, as ■■'f I 1 130 NORTH-EAST VOYAGKS. might liave been conjectured from the strong current which came down, terminated in a large river, and ' tlie boats soon came to anchorage in one fatliom. The moi-ses also, though seen in great numbers, could never be brought to close quarters. The ice now came in great masses from the south, " very fearful to look on ;" and though, " by the mercy of God and |,. his mighty help," Hudson escaped the danger, yet by the 6th of July he was " void of hope of a north-east passage," and, determining to put his employers to no farther expense, hastened home to England. We know not whether the Muscovy merchants had been fully satisfied with the zeal displayed by Hudson in this expedition; for we find him in 1609 setting sail from the Texel under the auspices of the Dutch East India Company, whose hopes of a northern passage had again revived. On the 6th May he passed the North Cape, and on the 19th came in view of Wardhuys. Hudson, though so excellent a navigator, is a most unsatisfactory writer. His nar- rative, amid vague complaints of fog and ice, shows only that he determined to turn his prow, and seek to repass the North Cape, whence he steered across the Atlantic to America. Forster says that he reached Nova Zembla, an assertion directly contrary to the captain's own narrative, and inconsistent with the time spent in this part of the voyage. Accord- ing to Constantin, the crew, consisting chiefly of seamen accustomed to seek India by the tropical route, were soon alarmed by the fogs, tempests, and floating ice of the north. The truth is, Hudson's own mind seems to have been fixed on north-western discovery. This appears from several hints in his second narrative ; and he was probably inclined to content himself with a mere show of proceeding eastward, that, apparently baflied, he might follow his favourite direction. He seems to have been im- pressed with the expectation of finding an open sea between Virginia and Newfoundland; and in fact NORTH-KAST VOVAUKS. 131 il' i he discovered the imporlant bny which receives the liver called after him, the Hudson, and on which New- York has been since built ; but this lies out of our present sphere. The Russia Company made afterward some at- tempts to establish a factory on the Pechora ; but, after persevering for two or three seasons, they re- linquished this undertaking. In 1676, Captain John Wood, on his own sanguine representations of the probability of a north-eastern passage, was sent out by the Admiralty in the Speed- well. On the farther coast of Nova Zembla, how- ever, his vessel went to pieces, and the crew, cast on shore, with difficulty reached their companion, the Prosperous Pink, which afforded them a passage homeward. Wood, though he had done nothing , to tiirow light on the question, brought home an im- pression respecting it so very gloomy, that the plan of penetrating to India in this direction was thence- forward given up, and has not been revived even in the eras of the most enthusiastic enterprise. 4- •1^^^'' ^ »\ ^a Jt 132 i:arlv ruLAii voyages. -^ CHAPTER V. Early Voyages towards the Pole, The attention of the publhr, it lias appeared, had been early drawn towards a Pohir passage, which, by striking directly across the ice and tempests of that great boundary, might bring the navigator by a shorter route than any other to the golden realms of the East. Mr Robert Thorne, the zealous pro- motci of early discovery, in his memorials to Henry VIII. and other great men, placed always foremost the scheme of reaching India by this daring course. It was not wonderful, however, that such a voyage should not be the very first direction of modern en- terprise. A century had elapsed from the discovery of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, and half that period since the commencement of the naval career of Britain, before her seamen, despairing of success l)y the more circuitous eastern and western tracks hitherto followed, put forth all their strength, and attempted to penetrate this mighty northern bar- rier of the earth. Barentz, in his third voyage, had discovered Spitz- bergen, called at first New-Land, and afterward ' Greenland; but it was by fishing expeditions that Englisli vessels were first attracted into the high la- titudes of the Greenland or Polar Sea. In 1603, Al- derman Sir Francis Cherie, of London, fitted out the Godspeed, under the command of Stephen Bennet, seemingly with a vague scheme of pushing into the northern seas in search of whatever fortune might befall. Bennet began by the beaten track of the North Cape, Wardhuys, and Kola ; from which last I H^ # •* EARLY POLAR VOYAGES. 133 , pliicp, revorsinj?" liis direction, ho piiMliod north and lUM th-wcst into the Arctic; Sea. On the 16th An/^nst, at two o'clock, he descried two hills which S(!enjed to rise above the clouds. In four hours he reached the Bear Island of Barentz ; and not aware, it should scorn, of its previous discovery by that navip^ator, ^avo to it, from his own employer, the name of Cherio Island. Here the sailors caught only two foxes and a few fishes; for thougli they saw the te(>th of ;i morse, proving that those animals did " use there," (lie season was judged too far advanced to commence operations against them. They returned by way of Kola and the North Cape, and reached the Thames on the 15th October. •' ••' Sir Francis, on the return of the ship, thougli it came empty, judged there was encouragement enough ro send out next year the same vessel and commander. Kennet, accordingly, not only went out a second time, hut made several successive voyages, in whic^h the capture of the morse was carried on with considera- hlo extent and success. While these fishing voyages were going on, Henry Hudson, in 1607, was sent out by the Muscovy Com- pany to penetrate, if possible, directly across the Pole. It was the first occasion of this very bold at- tempt, and the first recorded voyage of this eminent navigator. Hudson, who sailed on the 1st May, after having cleared Scotland, and passed the latitude of Iceland, took a direction westward, being desirous to survey the northern and unknown boundaries of Greenland, thinking there might be an open sea in that direction as likely as in any other. On the 13th June, the ships were involved in thick fog, their shrouds and sails being frozen ; but "when it cleared next morning, the sailors descried a high and bold headland, mostly covered with snow, behind which rose a castellated mountain, named the Mount of God's Mercy. Rain now fell, and the air felt tem- perate and agreeable. They steered eastward to clear M ■f*^ i % ^'^ ^*s r li *f n 134 EARLY POLAR VOYAGES. this coast ; but, ufter being for some time enveloped in fogs, again saw land, very liigli and bold, and without snow even on the top of the loftiest moun- tains. To this cape, in 73°, they gave the name of Hold-with-Hope. Hudson now took a north-eastward direction, and on the 27th faintly perceived, amid fogs and mist, the coast of Spitzbergen. He still pushed northward, till he passed the 79th degree of latitude, where he found the sun perpetually ten degrees above the hori- zon, yet the weather piercingly cold, and the shrouds and sails often frozen. The ice obliged him to steer in various directions ; but, embracing every opportu- nity, he pushed on, as appeared to him, to 81 i^, and saw land still continuously stretching as far as 82°. But as the northern extremity of Spitzbergen does not lie beyond 81*^ of north latitude, he must here have committed some mistake, either in his latitudes, or in mistaking for land extensive fields and masses of ice. It has been supposed that he had again reached the opposite coast of Greenland; but this seems inconsistent with his bearings, which are always more or less to the e^istward. The latitudes of 81° and 82° he considers to be so completely barred with ice as certainly to defea,t all attempts at a passage to the Pole in this direction. It appeared to him, however, that these seas might be frequented with great advantage on account of the immense multitude of seals with which they abound. He re- turned, coasting along Spitzbergen, some parts of which appeared very agreeable ; and on the 15th of September arrived in the Thames. \^, ^^ The Muscovy Company, still the most enterprising maritime body in England, determined yet to fit out another expedition for Polar discovery. They in- trusted it to Jonas Poole, who had distinguished him- self in the Cherie Island voyages ; and it was hinted to him that though discovery was to be his main ob- ject, yet he might catch, at intervals, some morses, and even one or two whales, to make the voyage I? -5- > EARLV POLAR VOYAGES. 135 u m ¥. defray its own expenses. Poole took liis departure in due season, sailing from Blackwall on the 1st March, 1610. By the 16th he had reached the coast of Norway, in lat. 65° ; but the wind then blew from the north so "extreme fierce, with gieat store of snow and frost," and the vessel was so laden with ice, that it could not maintain a " fore course," but was driver back as far as Scotland. Here he re- mained ti*' .":.e 12th April, when, favoured by a southerly breeze, he again set sail, and, after many storms, snows, and extreme frosts, came in view, on the 2d May, of the North Cape. He then steered for Cherie Island, near which he judged himself to be on the 6th ; but the fog was such that he could not see a cable's length, and " the ship had many a knock ; but, thanks be to God, no harm v*^as done." Continu- ing to beat about in this obscurity, he entirely missed Cherie Island, and the first land seen was in 76° 50', being the shores of a sound on the coast of Spitzber- gen, which, from the deers' horns found there, he named Horn Sound. He pushed on to 77° 25', where lie found the air more temperate than he had felt it at the North Cape at the same season. Soon, how- ever, there was a complete reverse ; the ship was in- volved in thick fogs, — and wind, frost, snow, and cold seemed to strive for the mastery. After many a sore stroke he got the vessel through; but the mainsail was still " frozen as hard as ever he found any cloth," and could with great difficulty be set. He discovered an island, which he called Blackpoint, and the nearest promontory he named Cape Cold ; but next day the weather changed so entirely that, had he fallen in with it then, he would have given it a gentler appellation; therefore he called another cape Fair Foreland. Poole's views continued to brighten when he found that the sun, as the season advanced, gave a most powerful heat ; that the ice ^vas melted on the ponds and lakes, while that which still floated on the sea was not nearly so huge as he had seen it in 73 degrees. He conceived favourable 136 EARLY POLAR VOVAGES. hopes, therefore, even after so sharp a beginning-, and judged that a passage by the Pole was as likely to be found in this as in any other unknown direc- tion. He might therefore have been expected to ap- ply himself in the most zealous and determined man- ner to seek the passage. A large herd of morses, however, having come in sight, he despatched his crew in pursuit of them ; and from this time there is not another word of discovery, — but the taking of the walrus and the deer, and now and then the attack of the whale, absorb his whole attention. He met with some dangers. One day he attacked a herd of morses lying on ice, which proved hollow, and sud- denly broke, whereon ice and beast slid into the sea together, and the crew had great difficulty in not going along with them, especially one man ; for, be- sides being crushed by the weight of dead morses and ice, the animals that were alive struck at him in the water and severely bruised him. Upon the whole, he judged Spitzbergen to be milder than Cherie Island, and was surprised at the great number of deer, and at the care of Providence, which enabled them to subsist with so little pasturage, with only the rocks for a house, the starry canopy for a cover- ing, and not a bush or a tree to shelter them from the nipping cold of winter. Although Poole returned from this voyage without having done or almost attempted any thing, yet as he brought a considerable store of oil and morses' teeth, his employers were not ill satisfied. They fitted him out next year in the Elizabeth of 50 tons, and in their instructions distinctly informed Mm that discovery was to be his main object ; yet intimated, that as he proceeded with the Mary Margaret des- tined for the whale-fisheiy, he might begin with join- ing her in taking a whale or two, and in his course along the coast kill as many morses as might chance to present themselves. Having extracted the oil, lie was to floor the hold with their skins, which a tanner had agreed to purchase of the company ; but all this I I I f* EARLY POLAR VOYAGES. 137 only to lighten the cost of discovery, and not to bo in any degree a primary object. ' ■ The vessels set sail early in April (IGll), but were soon separated by fogs and storms ; and when Poole reached the coast of Spitzbergen, he found only three boats escaped from the wreck of the Mary Margaret. In the rest of his proceedings we never hear a single word of Polar discovery; but he applied himself most diligently to the secondary object ; and by the 3d of August he had accumulated oil, morse skins, and teeth, to the extent of 29 tons, — a good lading", he Observes, for a ship of 50. Accordingly it proved her ruin. As the last package was brought in she went entirely to one side, and all the morse skins which lay loose in the hold, slipping in the same di- rection, carried her entirely under water. Poole, who sat in the cabin, considered himself as having only the selection of two deaths, either to be dro\vned by remaining, or, in attempting escape, to be killed by the casks, staves, and divers other things which were traversing the ship in every direction. He chose the latter alternative as the least certain, and though twice beaten down, was plucked from the jaws of death, being enabled to crawl out with only liis scull laid open, his ears, back, and ribs severely bruised. The crew, who all escaped, were taken on board a Hull ship commanded by Thomas Marma- duke, of whom Poole makes many complaints, which Purchas, thinking too diffuse, has omitted. Of Greenland in general Poole observes, that when he went first, the mountains and plains were almost white with snow; afterward they appeared green with grass and a little moss; but, lastly, the sun with his powerful heat dissolved the ice, and exhaled such a profusion of vapours, that the day there dif- fered little from the darkest night elsewhere. He was, nevertheless, sent out a third voyage in 1612 with two vessels, the Whale and the Seahorse ; but he seems on this occasion also to have busied M2 ''*>*^^*tS'. mm.'- »mfK tr:m n r t»\t m 138 EARLV POLAR VOYAGES. himself solely in the attack 6f whales, which he killed to the amount of thirteen. Nothing is men- tioned of any thing being either attempted or pro- jected in relation to discovery ; but he relates that Thomas Marmaduke penetrated to the latitude of 82°. No detail, however, is given, nor have we any narra- tive from Marmaduke himself; which is to be re- gretted, as he seems to have been more deeply im- bued with the spirit of discovery than any other mariner of that time. The next expedition was in 1613, under William Baffin, the most learned navigator of the age, and one of the greatest names in northern discovery. It was not, however, by this voyage that he obtained his reputation, though he was provided with six good and well armed ships ; the object seems to have been little else than to chase from the Greenland seas all other vessels that might attempt to use them for fishery. Their system was, whenever they fell in with a foreign vessel, to summon the master on board, show the king's commission granted to the worshipful Company, and desire them to depart, on pain of having a cannonade immediately opened upon ^them. The strength of the English being in general decidedly superior to that of any other squadron that appeared in those seas, these terms were usually ac- ceded to without any attempt at opposition. At one time, indeed, five vessels, Dutch, French, and a large one of 700 tons from Biscay, mustered, and showed signs of offering battle ; but the Biscayner having lost courage and yielded, the rest were obliged to follow his example. Another Dutch ship having re- fused, and endeavoured to make off, so brisk a fire was opened upon her, that she had nearly run on shore, and was fain to submit. A considerable num- ber of English sailors seem to have been on board these foreign ships, who were all, wherever they could be found, forcibly taken out. It seems diffi- cult to discover on what ground the English founded their right to these coasts, since they had neither EARLY POLAR VOYAGES. 139 he len- pro- that 82°. irra- ; re- lliam , and T. It ained good jbeen as all m for fell in er on to the irt, on upon [eneral m that lly ac- ^^t one large owed aving :ed to ing re- afire m on num- [board they diffi- inded lither been tlie first discoverers, nor held them in any sort of occupation. In fact, they were not able ultimately to make good the pretensions assumed in so violent a manner. There is no mention of anj^ anxiety or efforts of Baffin for the purpose of discovery. On the con- trary, Marmaduke, who had been again attempting to penetrate to the north of Spitzbergen, was chid- den as having thereby liiudered the voyage, and was prohibited from an}^ farther attempts of the kind this season. The forrher, however, made some curious, and at that time novel, observations on the effects of refraction, in high northern latitudes. The Company still did not consider the question of a northern passage decided, as indeed since the time of Hudson it could not be said to have been seriously attempted. In 1614 they appointed Robert Fotherby,in the Thomasine, to accompany their great Greenland fleet of ten ships and two pinnaces, and while the rest were busied in fishery to devote him- self mainly to discovery. Bafifin accompanied him as pilot. After considerable obstructions, eleven ships being at one time fast among the ice, the cap- tain, by the 6th of June, pushed on to Hakluyt's Headland. He endeavoured to penetrate through Magdalena Bay, which he calls Maudlen Sound ; but the weather was foul, and the ice lay unbroken from shore to shore. On the 10th, the weather permitting, he stood farther out, and succeeded in passing to the north of Hakluyt's Headland ; but the ice now pre- sented an impenetrable barrier. Fotherhy then steered westward, in hopes of a more favourable opening ; but the ice trending south-w^st, he sailed twenty-eight leagues without success, and then re- turned to the Foreland. About the middle of July, the air becoming clear and favourable, the com* mander and Bafl[in ascended a high hill, to see what prospect there was of getting forward ; but, as far as they could discern, ice lay upon the sea, which indeed seemed wholly "bound with ice," though in lti '"■m 140 KARLY POLAR VOYAGES. the extreme distance there was an appearance of open water, which inspired some hope. After amusing themselves for some days with whale-kill- ing, they again mounted a very high hill, whence they saw an extensive sound, but much pestered with ice. This was Sir Thomas Smith's Sound, which they afterward ascended to its head, and found a good harbour, very advantageously situated for the whale-fishery. It was now the 9th of August, and Fotherby saw two Dutch ships, that had been appointed for north- ern discovery, making their way southward; but he was determined not to be baffled without some farther struggle. He pushed to the northward from Cape Barren, and had made twenty-four leagues, when he met the ice. He coasted along it for two days, hoping for some adventure among its shat- tered fragments ; but a north wind sprang up, with heavy snow, and every thing being cold, thick, and winter-like, he was forced again into harbour. The shore and hill being now covered with snow, the men's minds became possessed with a desire of re- turning to England; but Fotherby was unwilling to depart without some farther satisfaction. He went in a boat up Redcliffe Sound, and though ice was newly formed upon it, of about the thickness of a half-crown piece, he pierced through, and got into open water. The snow, however, continued to fall thick, and the east wind forcibly blew in the ice, so that they were glad to return to the ship. Passing a point, it was observed that a cross which they had erected, with the king's arms and a sixpence nailed upon it, had been taken down, " sixpence and all," by the Dutcn, and Prince Maurice's arms substi- tuted ; this, however, was speedily redressed. About the end of August, a gale sprang up from the south-west, and biought milder weather than at any.former period of the season ; and the strength of the thaw was proved, by the huge masses falling from the snowy banks into the sea, with a noise EARLY POLAR VOYAGES. 141 ■? likfi thunder. Conceiving better liopcs, Fotherby pushed out again, in a north-vt^est direction, till he came nearly to the latitude of 80°, when he heard a mighty noise of the waves, as it were, breaking on an extensive shore. It proved, however, that he was now on the margin of the great northern ice. He coasted for some time along that grand barrier ; but was soon embayed, and with difficulty extricated. The season advancing, he took the benefit of a north wind to steer homeward, and on the 4th October ar- rived at Wapping, with his whole crew of twenty-six men in perfect health. Fotherby, having recommended himself on this voyage by spirit and digilence, was sent out. next year (1615) by the worshipful Company, in the Richard, a pinnace of only twenty tons. After many conflicts with ice and fog, he reached Hakluyt's Head- land about the beginning of July. He soon began his career of discovery ; but a strong southerly gale driving him upon the ice, shattered his bark consi- derably, and obliged him to return. As soon as his vessel was refitted, he endeavoured, by a westerly (course, to find an opening among the ice, which pro- jected in various points and capes, but remained still fixed, and he found himself pushed by it southward to the latitude of 76°. We soon find him still farthei west, on what he thought should have been the south- ern part of Hudson's Greenland; and sea-fowls in vast flocks seemed to indicate land, but the fog lay so tliick, " that he might easier hear land than see it." However, about lat. 71 i°, the air cleared, and he descried a snovry hill very high amid the clouds ; and the fog lying on each side, made it appear like a great continent. It proved, however, to be only an island, probably Jan Mayen ; and as the shores presented nothing but drift-wood, and appeared as if fortified with castles and bulwarks of rock, no shelter was aflforded from a heavy gale which began to blow. This induced him to stand out again to sea. He regained tlie northern point of '■ ,*•?' 1 i 142 EARLY POLAR VOVAGEJfJ. Spitzbergen, and began to beat for a Polar pas- Bage. The wind, however, blew so strong from the north-north-east, that he gave up the attempt, only resolving, on his way home, to take a sur- vey of Hudson's Hold-with-Hope. He came to the place where it ought to have been, but find- ing no land, he insisted that Hudson must have been mistaken in the position assigned to it, — a sus- picion which has been recently confirmed by Mr. Scoresby. Availing himself then of a brisk nortli- erly breeze, he sailed for England. Fotherby, on being asked as to the prospects of a passage through these seas, replied, that though he had not attained in this respect his desire, nothing yet appeared to exclude hope. There was a spacious sea between Greenland and Spitzbergen, thougli much pestered with ice ; and he would not dissuade the worshijpful Company from a yearly adventure of £150, or x200 at the most; and the little pinnace, with ten men, in which he had sailed two thousand leagues, appeared to him more convenient for that purpose than any of larger dimensions. A very long period, however, elapsed before any attempt of this nature w^as resumed. :i Vv EARLY NORTH-WE!»r VOYAGES. 143 CHAPTER VI. Early Voyages in Search of a Korth-Wesi Passage. Notwithstanding the early, repeated, and vigorous efforts to discover a passage by the east and north- east, the west was the quarter which finally drew forth LhvO grandest series of naval enterprise, and flat- tered the nation longest with the hope of this signal discovery. The maritime world were yet very little aware of the immense breadth of America at its northern limit. That continent was long imagined to terminate in a cape, after rounding which, and passing through the strait of Anian, — an imaginary channel, supposed by the early geographers to sepa- rate America from Asia, — an entrance would be opened at once into the Pacific, and the navigator might proceed full sail to Japan, China, the Spice- Islands, and all the regions abounding in Indian wealth. Portugal, first of the European nations, had em- barked in the career of ocean-discovery. Her mo- narchs and princes devoted their most anxious study and all the resources of their kingdom to double the southern point of Africa, and thereby to overcome the obstacles opposed by that continent to a direct commerce with India. Their efforts were crowned by the discovery of the passage by the Cape, through which the trade and treasures of the Eastern World became theirs. This would have been the most brilliant maritime enterprise ever performed, had it not been rivalled by the contemporaneous discovery of America. Enough might seem to have been done both for the benefit and the glory of Portugal, with- 141 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. out clirectinM>illi-\voRt ronst of Anioric:i ; hut thrso we do not propose to includn in the prcsrnt narrative. Itritain now took np tins train of discovery, and mtulo it almost exclnsivcly her own. Her efforts in- deed were lon<( in vain : the barriers of nature were TOO mighty, and America, stretching: her boundaries mto rcirions that lie honeatli tlio perpetual sway of ttie northern tempest, afforded only a precarious and doubtful navi {ration. Kngland, however, has since earned higfh glory in this career ; she has formed in it some of her greatest naval commanders, has opened new (diannels for fishery, fixed the limits of the M^estern continent, and explored the wide seas and lar' particular reason assigned, our navigator weighed for home ; when passing by Greenland and Iceland, and coming in view of Orkney, the Texel, and Yarmouth, he reached Harwich in the beginning of October. Frobisher had made little progress towards a west- ern passage ; yet, having with such slender means penetrated thus far, and discovered a new country, dignified with the title of Meta Incognita, his voyage was considered highly creditable, and as affording good promise for the future. The public interest EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 153 Lar le; ing he was excited by another circumstance of a very illu sory nature. All his friends importuned him to give them something or other which had come from Meta Incognita. At a loss to satisfy this avidity, he cast his eyes on a large stone which, from its glittering appearance, he had been induced to take on board. He broke it into pieces, and distributed them among the circle of his acquaintances. One portion was received by a lady, who happened to drop it into the fire, where, after burning for some time, it appeared to glitter like gold. Being thereupon carried before the goldsmiths, they were so ignorant, or so misled by the enthusiasm of the age, as to pronounce it a valuable ore of the most precious of metals. This false decision threw all England into a ferment of joy. There was no difficulty now in equipping an expedition. The queen contributed the ship Ayde of 180 tons, besides means for enabling Frobisher to fit out two other vessels, the Michael and Ga- briel, of 30 tons each. Being invited to visit the queen at Lord Warwick's seat in Essex, he re- ceived her majesty's hand to kiss, with many gracious expressions. Frobisher sailed on the 26th May, 1577, with such a " merrie wind," that on the 8th June he touched at the Orkneys for fresh water, allowing his gentle- men and soldiers to go on shore for recreation. The poor inhabitants, having, it is probable, sufiiered from the inroads of pirates, fled from their houses wjth cries and shrieks, but were soon, by courteous trdltf- ment, induced to return. Their accommodations were found truly miserable ; they had no vent for smoke, but a fire in the middle of the house, on one side of which dwelt the family, and on the other the cattle, — oatcakes and ewe-milk their only food. The English now entered on their perilous voyage through the northern ocean, during which they were much cheered with the perpetual light, which allowed them at all hours to read or otherwise amuse them- 154 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. i selves ; Avhich is observed to be peculiarly cheering to such as " wander in unknown seas and long navi- gations, where both the winds and raging surges do pass their common course." They were surprised to see large fir-trees, torn up by the roots, floating in the midst of the ocean. On the 4th of July Friesland presented its awful front, consisting of a range of inaccessible mountains entirely covered with snow, unless where, from . the extreme steepness of the cliffs, it had broken off and fallen into the sea. During four days' sail, they saw, whenever the thick fogs for a moment dispersed, a similarly dreary coast, without any landing-place, and without a sign of human habitation or even of life ; yet little birds, ap- parently bewildered amid the mist, came and alighted on board, and gave the impression that there might be a milder region in the interior. But the inexpe- rienced part of the crew were especially struck by the islands of ice, rising thirty or forty fathoms above the water, and rooted at the bottom of seas which the line could not fathom. ' . . Frobisher now sailed across to Labrador, and touched at the sound which received his name. The coast, however, was found guarded by a mighty wall of ice, which the ships could not penetrate ; but the captain, with two of his boats, worked his way into the strait, and began to survey the country and people. So crude were then the ideas respecting the geogra- 'Vj^ of these regions, that they imagined the coast ^ 9f their left to be America, and that on their right Asia. Landing on the American side they scrambled to the top of a hill, and erected a column, which, after the great patron of the expedition, was called Mount Warwick. On their return, cries were heard like the lowing of bulls, and a large body of natives ran up to them in a very gay and cordial manner. They began an eager traffic for the trifling ornaments displayed by their visiters, yet declined every invita- tion to go on board, while the English on their part •/»• EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 155 did not choose to accede to their overtures of going* into the country. Frobislier and a companion, meet- ing two of the natives apart, rashly seized and began dragging them to the boats, hoping there to gain their friendship by presents and courtesy. On the slippery ground, however, their feet gave way, the Esqui- maux broke loose, and found behind a rock their bov.s and arrows, which they began to discharge with great fury. Frobislier and his comrade, seized with a panic scarcely justified by two such miserable assailants, fled full speed, and the captain reached the boat with an arrow sticking in his leg. The crew, imagining that something truly serious must have driven back their commander in such discom- fiture, gave the alarm, and ran to the rescue. The two barbarians instantly fled ; but Nicholas Conger, a stout fellow, servant to Lord Warwick, seized one of them and dragged him into the boat. Meantime the ships outside were involved in a dreadful tempest, being tossed amid those tremen- dous ice-islands, the least of which would have been sufficient to have crushed them into a thousand pieces. To avoid dangers which so closely beset them, they were obliged to tack fourteen times in four hours ; but with the benefit of the peipetual light, the skill of their steersman, and the aid of Pr6vidence, they weathered the tempest, without the necessity of driving out to sea and abandoning the boats. On the 19th, Frobisher came out with a large store of glittering stone ; upon which, says Dionise Little, " we were all rapt with joy, forgetting both where we were and what we had suffered. Behold," says he, " the glory of man, — to-night looking for death, to-morrow devising how to satisfy his greedy appe- tite with gold." A north-west gale now sprang up ; before which, like magic, the mighty barriers of ice by which the ships had been shut out melted away. They had now a broad and open passage by v;hich they entered Sit 156 H, EARLY NORTH-WKST VOYAO£0« the Sound, which, in the conception of the £nghshf was a strait leading into the Pacific Ocean. In a run of upwards of thirty leagues they landed at differ- ent points, and, mounting to the tops of hills, took possession of the country, with solemn and sacred ceremonies, in name of her majesty. Having found in one place a bridle of singular construction, they examined their captive upon it, who thereupon seized a dog, attached the" bridle, yoked the animal in a sledge, and exhibited the Esquimaux mode of driving. This person admitted knowledge respecting the five men captured in the preceding year, but repelled most strenuously the signs by which the English in- timated their belief that they had been killed and eaten. However, a dark source of suspicion was soon opened; for some boats of the natives were foimd, which, along with bones of dogs, flesh of un- known animals, and other strange things, contained an English canvass doublet, a shirt, a girdle, three shoes for contrary feet, — apparel wliich, beyond all doubt, belonged to their countrymen lost in the pre- ceding year. Anxiously hoping to recover them, they left a letter in the boat, and pen, ink, and paper, with which to return aiTaillwer. Still more vigorous mea- sures were determined upo» to recover or avenge them. A paily of forty, under Charles Jackman, marched inland to take the natives in the rear, and drive them upon the coast, where Frobisher with his boats waited to intercept them. The wretches had removed their tents into the interior; but the invaders, after marching over several mountains, descried an- other cluster of huts, supposed at first to belong to d different party ; but the agitation and alarm visible the instant they were observed, showed that thfr; was the guilty band. The Esquimaux, hastening to their canoes, pushed out full speed to sea ; and they rowed with a rapidity which would have baffled all pursuit, had not Frobisher with his boats held the entrance of thf Sound and there awaited them. As soon as they the r torei rush( tives, and { despe arrow out On f plung fall 11 compl their : eluded assaih lation. visage less a kind St gaining considi to asc( of the the dr€ charact mined, so disti young, her pec fired at apply re dressing She anc strange j Comfort mutual i Froois men. A \ £ARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 157 they saw themselves thus beset, they landed amoni^f the rocks, abandoning their skiffs, which they hoped to render useless by breaking the oars. The English rushed on with alacrity to the assault ; but the na- tives, stationed on the rocks, resisted the landing, and stood their ground with the most savage and desperate valour. Overwhelmed with clouds of arrows, they picked them up, plucking them even out of their bodies, and returned them with fuiy. On feeling themselves mortally wounded, they plunged from the rocks into the sea, lest they should fall into the hands of the conquerors. At length, completely worsted, and having lost five or six of their number, they sprang up among the cliffs and eluded pursuit. There fell into the hands of the assailants only two females, who caused some specu- lation. One was stricken in years, and presented a visage so singularly hideous as suggested to many no less a suspicion than that the great enemy of man- kind stood before them in person. This impression gaining ground, it was resolved to apply a test then considered infallible. Her buskins were plucked off, to ascertain if she presented that peculiar stucture of the lower extremities supposed to characterize the dread foe of the human race. As this essential character was found wanting, it was merely deter- mined, by liberating her, to deliver their eyes from so distressing a spectacle. The other female was young, with a child in her arms; and being, from her peculiar costume, mistaken for a man, had been fired at and the child wounded. It was in vain to apply remedies ; she licked off with her tongue the dressings and salves, and cured it in her own way. She and the male captive formerly taken looked strange at first, but, on becoming intimate, found much comfort in each other's society, and showed a strong mutual attachment. Frooisher still cherished hopes of recovering his men. A large party appearing on the top of a hill, O u i\ 158 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. signs were made of a desire for mutual accommoda- tion. A few of them advanc;ed, and were introduced to the captives. The parties were deeply affected, and spent some time without utterini:ST VOYAGES. 169 -i Ing- dance of the black and glittering stone of Frobislier, and many of the rocks appeared " orient like gold ;" but little attention was now excited by these delusive appearances. Although nothing was actually done by this expe- dition, yet the ultimate views which it had opened to Davis inspired sanguine hopes, and facilitated the equipment of a fresh expedition. To the slender ar- mament of the Sunshine and Moonshine was now added the Mermaid of 120 tons, with a boat or pin- nace. Davis sailed from Dartmouth on the 7th May, and on the 15th June came in view of the southern extremity of Greenland; but, owing to severe storms, it was the 29th before he reached the land formerly visited in lat. 64*>. As the English ap- proached, the natives came out in their canoes at first with shouts and cries ; but, recognising their com- panions of the former year, they hastened forward, and hung round the vessel with every expression of joy and welcome. Davis, seeing them in sucli fa- vourable dispositions, went ashore and distributed in presents twenty knives, refusing the offer of skins in return. The most intimate acquaintance was now begun ; yet they never met the strangers anew with- out crying, ^^Eiaout!" beating their breasts and lifting their hands to the sun, by which a fresh treaty was ratified. The two parties amused themselves by contests in bodily exercises. The Esquimaux could not match their opponents in leaping ; but in wres- tling they showed themselves strong and skilful, and threw some of the best English wrestlers. By de- grees they began to manifest less laudable qualities. They exercised many and solemn incantations, though, Davis thanks God, without any effect. They kindled a fire by rubbing two sticks against each other, and invited him to pass through it ; but he, in contempt of their sorcery, caused the fire to be trodden out, and the embers thrown into the sea. The natives showed soon a much more inconvenient P «i.' i 170 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. propensity to appropriate every articdc, especially iron, whicli came under their notice. Perhaps it was imprudent ever to have made presents, thus sup^- gestiniT the idea, which docs not seem to have be- fore entered their minds, tliat any thing could be obtained without an equivalent. However, they soon reached the highest pitch of audacity; they stole a spear, a gun, a sword, cut the cables, and even the Moonshine's boat from her stern. Tlie leading personages of the crew remonstrated wiLh Davis, that for their security he must *^ dissolve this new friendship, and leave the company of tliose thievish miscreants." Davis fired two pieces over their heads, wliich " did sore amaXe them," and they fled precipitately. But in ten hours they again ap- peared with many promises and presents of skins ; when, on seeing iron, " they could in nowise forbear stealing." The commander was again besieged with the complaints of his crew ; however, " it only mi- nistered to him an occasion of laughter," and he bid his mon look vigilantly to the safety of their own goods, and not deal hardly with the natives, who could scarcely be expected in so short a time " to know their evils." Davis now undertook an expedition to observe somewhat of the interior. He sailed up what ap- peared a broad river, but which proved only a strait or creek. A violent gust of wind having obliged him to seek the shelter of land, he attempted to ascend a very lofty peak ; but " the mountains were so many and so mighty, that his purpose prevailed not." While the men were gathering muscles for supper, he was amused by viewing for the first time in his life, a water-spout, which he describes as a mighty whirlwind taking up the water and whirling it round for tliree hours without intermission. Next day he re-embarked, and penetrated higher up the channel ; but was surprised to find, instead of the huge un- broken continent which he had supposed, only waste Early north-west voyages. 171 and desert isles, with mighty sounds and inlets piissing between sea and sea. During the eaptain's absence matters had become worse with the Esquimaux. The mariners on liis re- turn opened a fearful budget; the natives had stolen an anchor, cut the cable, and even thrown stones of half a pound weight against the Moonshine ; and he was asked if he would still endure these injuries. Davis, who probably suspected that tlie sailors' own dealings had not been veiy gentle, bid them have patience, and all should be well. He invited an Esquimaux party on board, made them various little presents, taught them to run to the topmast, and dismissed them apparently quite i)leased. Yet no sooner had the sun set than they began to " practise their devilish nature," and threw stones into the Moonsliine, one of whicli knocked down the boat- swain. The captain's meek spirit was at length kin- dled to wrath, and he gave full warrant for two boats to chase the culprits ; but they rowed so swiftly that ^ the pursuers returned with small content." Two * days after, five natives presented themselves with overtures for a fresh truce ; but the master came to Davis, remonstrating that one of them was " the chief ringleader, a master of mischief," and was vehement not to let him go. He was made captive, and, a fair wind suddenly springing up, the English set sail, and carried him away, many doleful signs being then ex- changed between him and one of his countrymen ; however, on being well treated, and presented with a new suit of frieze, his spirits revived, he became a pleasant companion, and used occasionally to assist the sailors. Davis, finding the wind favourable, pushed across the bay, in hopes of attaining the object of his voyage. On the 17th July the mariners descried a land diver- sified with hills, bays, and capes, and extending far- ther than the eye could reach ; but what was their honor on approaching, to find that it wa3 only " d that the two large vessels should remain to fish, while Davis in the pinnace should stretch out into a higher la- titude with a view to discovery. In pursuance of this plan he took his departure, and, continuing to range the coast to the northward, on the liiSth he reached a point whicli he named Sanderson's Hope, in upwards of 72 degrees, still finding a wide open sea to the west and north. Here, the wind having shifted, Davis resolved to hold on a western tack across this sea, and proceeded for forty leagues with- out sight of land or any other obstruction, when he was arrested by the usual barrier of an immense bank of ice. He first endeavoured to round it by the north, but, seeing no passage on tliat side, turned to the south, beating about for several days without success. Tempted by an apparent opening, he in- volved himself in a bay of ice, from which he was not extricated without much difficulty and some danger. He was obliged to wait the moment when the sea beating and the sun shining on this mighty mass should effect its dissolution. At length, on the i9th July, he came in view of Mount Raleigh, and P2 rMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) h // :a ^ 1.0 I.I u liii £ MS 12.0 11-25 1 1.4 m 1.6 Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^•\ ^ \ qv \ :\ •^-\ V o . o^ .1^ !l 174 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. at midnight found himself ;it tlie moiitli of llic in- let discovered in the first voyao^e, and which has since been called Cumberland Strait. Next day he sailed across its entrance, and in the two following days ascended its northern shore, till he was again involved among numerous islands. He seems now to have concluded this strait to be an enclosed gulf, and shaped his course to r 2^ch the sea ; but being becalmed in the bottom of the bay, he could not till the 29tli, by coasting along the southern shore, effect his retreat. Frobisher's Strait was now passed, seem- ingly without being recognised as such, but was called Lumley's Inlet. He next crossed the moutli of an extensive gulf, in one part of which his vessel was carried along by a violent current, while in an- other the water was whirling and roaring as is usual at the meeting of tides. This recess, being terminated by Cape Chidley, was evidently the grand entrance afterward penetrated by Hudson. Davis, however, who had only half a hogshead of water left, hastened to the point of rendezvous fixed with the two other vessels ; but, to his deep disappointment and just indignation, he found that they had departed. It was not without hesitation that, with the slender store remaining in his little bark, he ventured to sail for England ; but having scarcely any alterna- tive, he imdertook the voyage, and happily accom- plished it. Davis wrote still to Mr. Sanderson in sanguine and almost exulting terms. He had reached a much higher latitude than any former navigator, and, with the exception of the barrier of ice on one side, had found the sea open, blue, of vast extent, and un- fathomable depth. He considered, therefore, that the success of a spirited attempt was almost infal- lible. But the interest taken by the nation in such enterprises seems only capable of being sustained foi a certain period. Three fail uresi^j, had exhausted that interest, and made men indisposed to listen or in- EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 175 quire farther into the subject. It became the cry, as lie informs us, — " This Davis hath been three times employed; why hath he not found the passage 1" The death of Secretary Walsingham occurring at this period was a severe blow to the cause, while the invasion by the Spanish Annada soon followed, and engijossed for a space all the thoughts and ener- gies of the nation. Mr. Sanderson still continued ithe steady friend of Davis; but, unable to obtain resources for a new armament, he could only employ Molyneux, the best artist of his time, to construct a glol^e which comprised all that navigator's disco- veries, and is still preserved in the library of the Middle Temple. In 1602 the spirit of the nation revived. To the Muscovy Company, which had taken the great lead in all the early schemes of discovery, was now added the Levant Company; and these two great bodies, finding the course to India by the Cape still beset with many dangers, determined upon a joint effort to penetrate thither by the north-west. They sent out Captain George Weymouth with two vessels, the Discovery and Godspeed, which they called fly- boats, though they were respectively of 70 and 60 tons. He left London oil the 2d May, and on the 18th June came in view of the coast of Greenland, which appeared to him " a main bank of ice." The water was in many places as thick as puddle, mak- ing him imagine himself among shallows, till the sounding-line gave 120 fathoms without any ground. This, formerly observed by Davis, was probably the green cloudy sea of Scoresby, thickened by the in- fusion of numberless animalcules, i it" )! *f!^\ Weymouth, having made sail westward with a favourable breeze, came, on the 28th, in sight of the f oast of America. There appeared a promontory covered with snow, which he concluded to be War- wick's Foreland; but the vessels were tossed to and fro by violent currents, or overfalls, as he calls them, n« EARLY NOnTII-WEHT VOYAOF.!*. and involved in fogs so ibick, iliat they were oneff quite close to ;i hank of ice before it was perceived. However, being in want of water, the party landed, loaded their boat with ice, and found it to make veiy palatable drink. The crews heard a great sound like the dashing of waves on the shore ; on making up to which they were dismayed to find it " the noise of a great quantity of ice, which was very loath- some to be heard." The mist became so thick, that they could not see two ships' length, and detemiined to take down the sails; but were petrified to find them so fast frozen to the rigging, that in " this chiefest time of summer they could not be moved." Next day they renewed the attempt; but it was only by cutting away the ice from the ropes that they could be made to move through the blocks. The following day the fog lay so thick, and froze so fast, that ropes, sails, and rigging remained im- moveable. These phenomena produced a disastrous effect on the minds of the sailors, who began to hold secret conferences, ending in a conspiracy " to bear up the helm for England." It was proposed to seize Wey- mouth, and confine him in his cabin till he gave his consent ; but the captain, receiving notice of this ne- farious design, called the seamen before him, and in presence of Mr. Cartwright the preacher, and Mr. Cobreth'the master, called upon them to answer for thus attempting to overthrow a voyage fitted out at such ample cost by the honourable merchants. The men stood firm, producing a paper signed by their own hands, in which they justified the proposed step as founded on solid reason, without any tincture of fear or cowardice. They represented, that if they should suffer themselves to be enclosed in an un- known sea, by this dreadful and premature winter, they would not only be in imminent danger of perish- ing, but could not hope to commence their career of ^scovery next year sooner than May; while by EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAORS, 177 sne- d in Mr. for ut at The their step cture they un- nter, rish- er of by setting sail in due time from England they might easily reach this coast in that month. Weymouth retired to his cabin to deliberate, when he heard it an- nounced that the helm vv as actually borne up. Hast- ening on deck, and asking who had done this, he was answered, "One and all!" and he found the combination such as it was impossible to resist, though he took occasion afterward to chastise the ringleaders. The men, however, declared them- selves ready to hazard their lives in any discovery which might be attempted to the southward. Accordingly, on descending to 61° N. lat., Wey- mouth found himself at the entrance of an inlet, into which he sailed in a south-west direction, a hundred leagues by reckoning; but encountering fogs and heavy gales, and finding the season far spent, he deemed it necessary to regain the open sea. This inlet, however, was thought to present more favour- able hopes of a passage than any other that had yet been discovered. It appears in fact to have been the grand entrance of Hudson's Bay ; so that Fox justly ascribes some merit to Weymouth in directing that great navigator into this spacious expanse. As his course, however, of west by south, must have led him off the main channel of this large strait, and thrown him on the western shore of what is now called Ungava Bay, his estimated reckoning of a hundred leagues is evidently overrated. In 55*^ he found a fair land, consisting of islands and " goodly sounds," apparently the place where the Moravian settlement of Nain was afterward formed. Soon after, a dreadful hurricane from the west seemed to take up the sea into the air, and drove the ships be- fore it with the utmost impetuosity. Had it been from any other quarter they must have been dashed to pieces on rocks; however they ranged through the open sea, and in the greatest extremity " the Lord delivered us his unworthy sei-vants." He had now an easy navigation to England. 178 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGE?. No farther proceedings occurred till 160C, when the Muscovy and East India merchants fitted out a vessel of forty tons under John Knij^ht, who had been employed in the Danish voyages to Greenland, and was considered a stout and enterpiiding sailor. He sailed from Gravesend on the 18th Apiil, but was detained a fortnig-ht in the Pentland Frith ; Jhowever, ** two lustie fellows, well acquainted with these north parts of Scotland," took him into a good harbour called St. Margaret's Hope, where he remained till the 12th May. He directed his course almost due west, towards America, and had reached the latitude of 58°, when winds and cunents bore him to the southward. On the 19th of June he was in 5G° 48', when he saw the continent rising like eight islands. The vessel, however, had been so distressed with tempest and heavy fogs, and so bruised between mighty islands of ice, that it was necessary to put it into a little cove to refit. Here the wind blew with such violence, bringing great islands of ice against the vessel, that the rudder was torn from the stern ; and hence it became necessary to haul it on shore at the bottom of the cove, that it might undergo a tho-« rough repair. On the 26th, Knight, with some of his men well armed, went across in the boat to the opposite coast, in search of a better harbour, and to take a survey of the country. With this view, the captain, his mate, and another went over a hill, leaving three men in charge of the boat. These last waited the whole day in anxious expectation of the return of the party; they then sounded trumpets, fired muskets, and made every imaginable signal, but without effect. After waiting till eleven at night, they gave up hopes, and returned to the ship with these black and doleful tidings. The crew were struck with the deepest dismay at having thus lost their captain and best officers, and being themselves left in such deplorable circumstances. The boat was fitted out next moru'^ tn ac th( sw su bo ro^ EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 179 ing for search, but could not cross the channel on account of the ice. After two distressful days, on the night of Saturday, the 28th of June, as the boat- swain was keeping watch in advance of the tents, he suddenly saw rushing through the darkness a great body of men, who, on descrying him, let fly their ar- rows. He instantly fired, and gave the alarm ; but, before the crew could start from bed and be mus- tered, the shallop was filled with fifty savages, who, with loud cries and menacing gestures, showed them- selves prepared for immediate attack. The English mustered only eight men and a large dog, and though the rain fell in torrents, they determined rather to perish bravely, assailing this savage enemy, than to wait their onset. They advanced, therefore, placing the dog foremost. This bold front appalled the sa- vages, who leaped into their boats, and made off with all speed ; but they were entangled in the ice, and detained a considerable time, during which the pur- suers continued firing, and the savages were heard " crying to each other very sore." They are repre- sented, so far as could be judged, as very small peo- ple, tawny-coloured, with thin or no beards, flat- nosed, and man-eaters ; but this last particular was doubtless hypothetical. The mariners, placed in this alarming situation* made all the haste they could to fit their shattered bark for again taking the sea. They had first to cut a way for her through the ice ; but they had nothing which could be called a rudder, and the leaks were so large, that the sailors could scarcely enjoy half an hour's relief from the pump. At length they found means to stop up tolerably the principle fissure, and, after hard rowing and pumping for three weeks, succeeded in reaching the coast of Newfoundland. Among the fishing vessels on that station, they found most kind and loving friends, who supplied all their wants ; and after twenty days spent in repairing their ship, and refreshing their bodies, the crew enjoyed a 180 EARLV NORTH- Wi:8T VOYAGED. good passiijTO to l);irlin()iith, wIi^'iku^ tliey tiaiisinitted to London ail aucoiuit oi* tlic dolelul issue ol* then' voyage. \^.- it was Hudson that now stood foremost in the career of northern discovery, and earned a fame which has placed him among the greatest of British navigators. We have traced his career in former chapters — first in the daring attempt to cross the Pole itself; then in his second voyage for the north- east passage ; and also in his third excursion, which ended in the discovery of tlie river now associated with his name. But the most eventful of his voy- ages, and that marked by the grandest result, was the one which closed his labours, undertaken with a view to a western passage. The- narrative of tlie commander himself is only a meager journal, brought down to a particular point of the voyage ; but a full relation is given by a certain personage, naming himself Abacuk Pricket, against whose testimony, however, for reasons that will appear in due time, there rest some heavy objections. This expedition was fitted out by Sir John Wolstenholme, Sir Dudley Digges, and other persons of distinction, who did not, however, project it on a very magnificent scale. It consisted only of one vessel of 55 tons, provisioned for six months, which left the Thames on the 17th April, 1610. Hudson touched at the north of Scot- land, the Orkney and the Faroe Islands, all wliicli he judged to lie not in so high a latitude as the maps represented. On the 11th May he descried the east- ern part of Iceland, and was enveloped in a thick south fog ; hearing the sea dashing against the coast without seeing it. He was thus obliged to come to anchor ; but, as soon as the weather cleared, he pro- ceeded westward along the coast till he reached Snow Hill (Snaefell), which rears its awful head above the sea that leads to the frozen shores of Greenland. On their way the navigators saw Hecla, the volcano of which was then in activity, vomiting > £ARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 181 torrents of fire down its snowy sides, with smoke ascending to the sky ; an object not only fearful in itself, but which struck them with alarm, as an indi- $■ fro across the straits, and unable, "Nvitliout the utmost fear and peril, to venture on shore ; "which yet was absolutely necessary for obtaining provisions to carry them to England. They contrived, during some anxious and unhappy excursions, to collect three hundred birds, wliich they salted and preserved as th€ only stock whereupon to attempt the voyage. They suffered, during the passage, the most dreadful extremities of famine, allowing only half a fowl a-day to each man, and considering it a luxury to have them fried with candles, of which a weekly dis- tribution was made for that purpose. Ivet, now the Fiole survivor of the ringleaders in the late dreadful transaction, sunk under these privations. The last fowl was in the steep-tub, and the men were become careless or desperate, when suddenly it pleased (tod to give them sight of land, which proved to be the north of Ireland. They complain that on going jishore at Berehaven, they did not meet the sympathy and kindness which they so much needed ; however, by mortgaging their vessel, they obtained the means of proceeding to Plymouth-. Purchas closes the narrative by saying, — " Well, Mr. Pricket, I am in much doubt of thy fidelity ;" and he is not singular in this suspicion. It seems clear that this person did not avail himself of all the means by which he might have attempted to check the atrocious mutiny. Probably, however, had he been an active agent in the crime, he would have been betrayed by some of his accomplices ; or, if they had been all bound together by mutual guilt, they would have invented some story which would have palliated or concealed the offence altogether ; whereas it is set forth by this narrative in all its atrocky. ' '■ ' ' ' " Notwithstanding the calamitous and deplorable issue of this voyage, the discovery thereby made of a great open sea in the west seemed to justify the most flattering hopes of accomplishing a passage. a :|: \ \ EARLY NORTH-WEST VOVAGES. lO*! To follow out this prospect, ('aptaiii, afterward Sir Thomas Button, was despatched next year (1612), having Bylot and Pricket as guides. Button seems to have been an active and resolute seaman. He soon made his way through the Straits, and, pushing directly across the great sea which opened to the westward, he came in view of an insular cape, whicli he called Carey's Swan's Nest, and which afterward proved to be the most southern point of Southamp- ton Island. Nothing else broke the apparent conti- nuity of the ocean, and he cherished sanguine hopes that the first coast he should see would be that of Japan. Suddenly the alarm of land was given, wlien there appeared before him an immense range uf Arctic coast, stretching north and south, and bar- ring all farther progress. Button, deeply disap- pointed, gave to it the name of Hope Checked. Be- fore he had time to look for an opening, the gloom of the northern winter began to gather, and it be- liooved him to seek quarters for the season. These he found in the same creek and river, which afterward became the principal settlement of the Hudson's Bay Company. In spite of his best precautions, he lost several men through the severity of the cold, and was unable to extricate himself from the ice till the middle of June. He then steered northward, and sought an opening through the broad bay between the continent and Southampton Island, since called Roe's Welcome. Seeing this channel, however, be- come narrower and narrower, till it apparently closed, he gave up the attempt, and, after touching at several points of the island just named, returned to England. Although Button had been thus baffled by the unwelcome encounter of the v/estern shore of Hud- son's Bay, the merchants still justly considered it by no means ascertained that this coast was so ex- tensive and continuous as to preclude all passage into the ocean beyond America ; they lost not a sea- son, therefore, in fittin;;out (16M) two vessels under m 192 EARLY NORTH- WEST VOYAGES. h- Captain Gibbons, an officer of reputation, pronounced by Button *' not short of any man that ever yet lie carried to sea/' But either his reputation went be- yond his merits, or fortune was singularly adverse, for never was there a more abortive voyage. He was early entangled in a bay on the coast of Labrador, in which he was detained the whole summer, and which was afterward dignified with the appellation of " Gib- bons his Hole." Having here sustained some damage from the ice, he had no sooner extricated himself than he returned home. . The merchant adventurers, still undismayed, sent out next summer (1665) the Discovery under Bylot, who in all the late voyages had approved himself a skilful navigator, and was accompanied by Baffin, whose name was now established as the most skilful steersman and best nautical observer of the age. After passing Cape Farewell, they saw some most tremendous islands of ice, one of which rose 240 feet above water, and, according to the usual esti- mate, which makes this visible part only a seventh of the whole, had probably an entire height of 1680 feet. They entered the Straits, and having, on the 8d June, heard from the northern shore a tremen- dous barking of dogs, landed and found five tents covered with seal-skin, among which were running about thirty-five or forty of these animals, of a brinded black colour, resembling wolves. They had collars and harness suitable for certain sledges, lined with fish-bone, which were standing by. In one of the houses was a bag with little images of men, the only notice we find of any such fabrication upon this coast. The navigators soon descried a canoe with twenty individuals, whom they hailed with Greenland words of courteous import, holding up knives and other toys. Friendly salutations were given in return ; but neither party chose to trust themselves within reach of the other. At a little distance, the conflict of opposite currents amid lar2:e icebergs caused so A^ feARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 193 sent lylot, elf a affiii, kilful age. most e 240 esti- yenth 1680 a the imen- tents ning of a had lined e of , the this with Inland and turn; ithin nflict ed so .#. fearful a grinding, that they gave to the adjoining land the name of Mill Island. There they would have been in extreme danger " had not God, who is stronger than ice or stream," delivered them. The policy of Bylot in this voyage seems to have been to keep close to the northern shore of the strait ; and thus, entering Hudson's Bay at a higher latitude, lie hoped to keep clear of those lands which had barred the westerly career of his predecessors. On reaching, therefore, Hudson's Isles of God's Mercy, instead of steering southward to Cape Dudley Digges, he proceeded directly west, and arrived in the broad expanse, afterward called the Fox Channel. At length, indeed, he saw land, but it \/as bounded by a cape which had every appearance of being the most northerly point of America. He called it Cape Comfort ; though this name it soon appeared, was premature, for a single day had not elapsed, when " his sudden comfort was as soon quailed." They were now on the eastern coast of Southampton Island, which spread on every side its almost mea- sureless extent, seeming to preclude every prospect of an opening on either hand. Disappointment, the lateness of the season, and the pressure of the ice, concurred in persuading Bylot that there was nothing to be hoped for here, and determined him to set sail immediately for England ; whither he carried g, most unfavourable report as to any prospect of penetrating westward in that direction. But the adventurers were not discouraged by this unfavourable result. Turning their hopes to a differ- ent quarter, next year (1616) they again fitted out Bylot and Baffin with instructions no longer to at- tempt the passage by Hudson's Bay, but to enter the Fretum Davis (Davis's Straits), and push due north till they reached lat 80°, if an open sea should allow them to proceed so far ; then, turning to the westward, to round, if practicable, the extreme point of America, and to bear down upon Japan. Respect- R !f ! ii i tf i\ 194 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAOKS. ing this voyage, which, perhaps, of all those to the north, produced the most memorable discoveries, Baffin has favoured us with only a very meager nar- ration. Following the course pointed out, he reached, on the 30th May, Hope Sanderson, the farthest point of Davis's progress. Soon afterward the expedition came to a number of small islands, on which they found only females, some of very gieat age. These at first ran and hid themselves among the rocks; but the sailors having reached two dames, one of whom was estimated at fourscore, and having pre- sented to them bits of iron and the usual toys, the latter carried a favourable report to their youthful country women. The whole party soon came down to the shore, and four even went on board the boat. The charms of these ladies were heightened or disfigured by long black streaks made in their youth with a sharp instrument, and lodged so deep that they could not now be effaced. It was observed, too, that the dead were buried merely by piling stones over them, above which the body appeared, secured, however, from putrefaction by the extreme cold of the climate. The navigators sailed onwards in lat. 740, when they were arrested by a large body of ice, and obliged to turn into a neighbouring sound ta wait its melting. Here they received repeated visits from about forty-two natives, the only account of whom is, that they brought an extraordinary quan- tity of the bones of sea-unicorns or narwals, great numbers of which were seen swimming in the water. Hence this was called Horn Sound. The mass of ice now dissolved before the powerful influence of the sun, and the discoverers sailed northwards among its fi*agments ; but still, snow fell every day, and the shrouds and sails were often so hard frozen as to make it impossible to handle them. In 76^ they came to a fair cape, and then to a fair sound, to which they gave the respective names of Digges and Wolstenholme, the two main promoters of this i o h h b 'U karlV KonTH-wrsT voyages. 105 the eries, r nar- ched, point fiition 1 they rhese ocks ; »ne of r pre- rs, the mthfnl 1 down rd the litened I their o deep served, ; stones jcured, cold of n lat. of ice, und ta visits unt of quan- , great water. nass of nee of among ay, and frozen In 76° sound, Digges of this undertaking, and whose zeal was already associated with localities in the interior of Hudson's Straits. After having sustained a somewhat severe storm, the expedition discovered another sound, whicli would have.supplied them with a multitude of whales had they been duly provided with the means of cap- ture : this they called Whale Sound. Next, in 78°, appeared another inlet, the widest and greatest in all this sea, and which was named after Sir Thomas Smith, one of the main promoters of discover^'. This opening, which Baffin seems to have examined very superficially, abounded almost equally in whales, and caused particular astonishment by the extraor- dinary aberration of the needle, to which nothing similar had been ever witnessed. Between these two sounds was an island which was named Hak- luyt, after the venerable recorder of early English discoveries. Proceeding now along the south-west- ern. boundary of this great sea, the next " fair sound" received the name of Alderman Jones, another patron of these laudable pursuits. It may be remarked, that Baffin notices all these inlets, of which he was the first discoverer, in the most cursory manner, without mention of any attempt to trace, in their in- terior depths, an openhig into any sea beyond. In lat. 74° there appeared another broad opening, which was called Sir James Lancaster's Sound ; but while he calls it great, he seems scarcely to have noticed this future entrance into the Polar Sea ; on the con- trary, he observes, at the very same moment, that the hope of a passage became every day less and less. He sailed on ; but a barrier of ice prevented him from approaching the shore till he came within the " indraft" of Cumberland's Isles, " where hope of passage could be none." Finding the health of his crew rather declining, he sailed across to Green- land, where an abundance of scurvy-grass boiled in beer quickly restored them ; and " the Lord then sent a speedy and good passage homeward." lOG EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAOES. On returning, he expressed llie most decided con- viction that the great sea which he had traversed was a bay enclosed on all sides, and affording no opening into any ocean to the westward ; and his judgment was received by the public, who named it from him Baffin's Bay. He forcibly, however, represented the great opportunities which it afforded for the whale- fishery, as those huge animals were seen sleeping in vast numbers on the surface of the water, without fear of the ship " or of any thing else." Davis's Straits, accordingly, have ever since been a favourite resort of the fishers, who have not, however, often ventured into those liigh latitudes, where whales are described by Bafiin as more peculiarly abundant. There was now a pause in English discovery; every quarter had been tried, and none seemed to afford any farther promise. Denmark, however, which has always felt a natural interest in northern navigation, made an attempt to follow up the success of Hudson and Baffin. In 1619, Christian IV. sent out two well-appointed vessels under Jens Munk, who had the reputation of a good seaman. He suc- ceeded in penetrating through Hudson's Straits into the bay, whereupon he took upon himself to change the whole nomenclature of that region, imposing the names of Christian's Straits and Christian's Sea, and calling the western coast New Denmark. But this innovation, which was contrary to every principle recognised in such cases, has not been confirmed by posterity. When September arrived, and the ice closed in, he thought it prudent to seek winter-quar- ters, and, accordingly, established himself in the mouth of an opening, which, it is highly probable, was that channel which has been since called Ches- terfield Inlet. The season seemed to open with the best promise, commodious huts were constructed, and there were both abundance and variety of game. The Danes saw some of those brilliant aerial pheno- mena which are peculiar to those latitudes ; at one i r.AUIA .\;Jii'rFl-\VE.'iT \ UVAfJl'S. lor (iiiu' two, an(lcit:iiiuth(M-l]irpnsnn>< in \]\o sky, and llic inoon once environed hy n IranspMiont, , \ \ .■ RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 207 eked we may recollect Baffin to have described as the most spacious and promising in the whole circuit of these coasts. It was viewed with greater attention ; but Captain Ross considered himself as having dis- tinctly seen it, at the distance of eighteen leagues, completely enclosed by land. The space appears too great for so positive an inference, and the belief that ice barred its entrance seems to have been adopted on very slight grounds. He came next to a spacious bay, which had hitherto been unknown and unob- served, — afterward to that which Baffin had called Alderman Jones's Sound ; but in respect to both, the ice at their entrance, and the apparent boundary of high land in the interior, led, as in the other in- stances, to a prompt and unfavourable conclusion. The season was now somewhat advanced, the end of August approached, the sun set after a per- l^etual day of two months and a half, and a thick fog rendered the lengthening nights more gloomy. The land, seen at some distance, consisted of very high and steep mountains, presenting, however, some spots fit for human habitation. An opening, forty-five miles wide, to the southward of a promon- tory which was named Cape Charlotte, was decided against m the usual summary manner. On the 30th August, the expedition came to a most mag- nificent inlet, bordered by lofty mountains of peculiar grandeur, while the water, being clear and free from ice, presented so tempting an appearance that it was impossible to refrain from entering. This channel, which soon proved to be the Lancaster Sound of Baf- fin, was ascended for thirty miles ; during whicli run officers and men crowded the topmast, filled with enthusiastic hope, and judging that it afforded much fairer hopes of success than any of those so hastily passed. Captain Ross however, and those whom he consulted, never showed those sanguine expecta* tions. He soon thought that he discovered a high ridge stretching directly across the inlet ? and though I 208 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. a great part of it was deeply involved in mist, yet a passag-e in this direction was judged to be hope- less. The sea being open, however, the commander proceeded ; but about twelve o'clock Mr. Beverley, the assistant-surgeon, came down from the crow's nest, stating, that he had seen the land stretching very nearly across the entire bay. Hereupon, it is said, all hopes were renounced, even by the most sanguine, and Captain Ross sailed onward merely for the purpose of making some magnetical observa- tions. At three o'clock, the sky having' cleared, the commander himself went on deck, when he states that he distinctly saw across the bottom of the bay a chain of mountains continuous and connected with those which formed its opposite shores. The weather then becoming unsettled, he made the sig- nal to steer the vessels out of Lancaster Sound. Lieutenant Parry, however, declares that to him, in the Isabella, this signal appeared altogether myste- rious, being himself full of the most sanguine ex- pectations, and seeing no ground whatever for this abrupt retreat ; but his duty obliged him to follow. On regaining the entrance of this great channel. Captain Ross continued to steer southward along the western shore of Baffin's Bay and Davis's Strait, with- out seeing any entrance which afforded equal pro- mise. Cumberland Strait alone was similar in mag- nitude ; but it could lead only into the higher lati- tudes of Hudson's Bay, and afforded thus little chance of a free passage into the Arctic sea. After survey- ing, therefore, some of these shores, he returned home early in October. The Captain arrived in England under the most decided conviction, that Baffin's observations had been perfectly correct, and that Lancaster Sound was a bay, affording no entrance into any western sea. If even any strait existed between the moun- ».^w n RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 209 mag- tains, il must, he conceived, be for ever innavi- gable on account of the ice witli wJiicli it is filled. The intelligent individuals, ho>vever, who had fitted out the expedition with such zeal and on so great a scale, felt deep dissatisfaction both at this con- clusion and at the premises from which it had been drawn. The grounds, in particular, on which Lan- caster Sound, an opening so noble and so spacious, and in a position so favourable in respect to west- ern discovery, had been so abruptly quitted, ap- peared wholly inadmissible. The same opinion was very decidedly espoused by several of the officers, and especially by Lieutenant Parry, who was second in command, but had never been consulted on the occasion, and who declared the relinquishment of all attempt at discovery at that crisis to be in his eyes completely unaccountable. It was determined in short, that a fresh expedition should be equipped and intrusted to Mr. Parry, that he might fulfil, if possible, his own sanguine hopes and those of his employers. He was furnished with the Hecla of 375 tons, and a crew of fifty-eight men ; and with the Griper gun-brig of 180 tons, and thirty-six men, commanded by Lieutenant Liddon. These ships were made as strong and as well-fitted as possible for the navigation of the Arctic seas ; and were stored with ample provisions for two years, a copious supply of antiscorbutics, and every thing .which could enable the crews to endure the most extreme rigours of a Polar winter. Lieutenant Parry, destined to outstrip all his predecessors in the career of Arctic discovery ,weighed anchor from the Nore on the 11th May (1819), and on the 20th rounded the most northerly point of /he Orkneys. He endeavoured to cross the Atlantic about the parallel of 58°, and though impeded during the first fortnight of June by a series of unfavourable weather, obtained on the 15th, from the distance apparently of not less than forty leagues, a view of S8 210 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. the lofty cliffs composing Cape Farewell. On the 18th the ships first fell in with iceher^s, the air heing also filled with petrels, kittiwakes, terns, and other winged inhabitants of the northern sky. Parry now made an effort to push north and west, through the icy masses, in the direction of Lan- caster Sound ; but these suddenly closed upon him ; and on the 25th the two ships were so immove- ably beset, that no power could turn their heads a single point of the compass. The vessels remained thus fixed, but safe, when, on the morning of the second day, a heavy roll of the sea loosened the ice, and drove its masses against them with such violence that only their very stron": construction saved them from severe injury. The discoverers therefore were fain to extricate themselves as soon as possible ; and, resigning the idea of reaching Lan- caster Sound by the most direct route, began to coast northward along the border of this great icy field, till they should find open water. In this pro- gress they verified the observation of Davis, that in the narrowest part of the great sea, misnamed his Strait, the shores on each side could be discovered at the same moment. Thus they proceeded, till they reached the Women's Islands, and Hope San- derson, in about latitude 73*^. As every step was now likely to carry them farther from their destina- tion. Parry determined upon a desperate push to the westward. Favoured with a moderate breeze, the ships were run into the detached pieces and floes of ice, through which they were heaved with hawsers ; but the obstacles became always heavier, till they were completely beset, and a heavy fog coming on, made them little able to take advantage of any favourable change. Yet in the course of a week, though repeatedly and sometimes dangerously beset, they warped th^r way from lane to lane of open water, till only one lengthened floe separated them from a wide open sea to thje westward. By labo- *: RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. Jll the air jrns, sky. vest, Lan- him; love- ds a lined f the \ the such iction ^erers ; soon I Lan- :an to at icy s pro- hat in 3d his )vered a, till San- p was sstina- o the e, the es of sers ; they gon, any [week, beset, open them labo- riously sawing through this obstruction, they wore able to penetrate finally the great icy barrier, and saw the western shore, clear ofice, extending before them. 'I'he navigators now bore directly down upon Lan- caster Sound, and on the SOtli July found them- selves at its entrance. They felt an extraordinary (motion as they recognised this magnificent chan- nel, with the lofty cliffs by which it was guarded, aware that a very short time would decide the fate of their grand undertaking. They were tantalized, however, by a fresh breeze c>oming directly down ilie Sound, which suffered them to make only very slow progress. There was no appearance, however, of obstruction either from ice or land, and even the lieavy swell which came down the inlet, driving the watfiv repeatedly in at the stem-windows, was hailed as an indication of open sea to the westward. The Hecla left the Griper behind, but still without mak- ing any great way herself till the 3d August, when an easterly breeze sprung up, carrying both vessels rapidly forward. A crowd of sail was set, and they pushed triumphantly to the westward. Their minds were filled with anxious hope and suspense. The mast-heads were crowded with officers and men, and the successive reports brought down from the topmast pinnacle, called the crow's nest, were eagerly listened to. Their course was still unobstructed. They passed various headlands, with several wide openings towards the north and south, which they hastily named Croker Bay, Navy Board Inlet, &c. ; but these it was not their present object to explore. The wind, freshening more and more, carried them happily forward, till at midnight they found them- selves in longitude 83° 12', nearly a hundred and fifty miles from the mouth of the grand inlet, which still retained a breadth of fifty miles. The success of the expedition, they fondly hoped, was now to a groat extent decided. Tlie Hccla, at this time, slackened her course to mi 212 KECENT NORTir-WEST VOYAOES. nllow her companion to come up, whirli sh«» did in longitude 85^. Thev together proceeded to longi- tude 86° 30', and found two other inlets, which rhey named Burnet and Stratton ; then a bold cape named Fellfoot, forming apparently the termination of this long line of coast. The lengthened swell which still rolled in from the north and west, with the oceanic colour of the waters, inspired the flat- tering hope that they had already passed the region of straits and inlets, and were now wafted along the wide expanse of the Polar basin. Nothing, in short, it was hoped, would henceforth obstruct their pro- gress to Icy Cape, the western boundary of America. An alarm of land was given, but it proved to arise only from an island of no great extent. However, more land was soon discovered beyond Cape Fell- foot, which was ascertained to be tne entrance to a noble bay, extending on their right, which they named Maxwell Bay. An uninterrupted range of sea still stretched out before them, though they were some- what discomposed by seeing on the south a line of continuous ice ; but it left an open route before them, and they hoped to find it merely a detached stream. A little space onwards, however, they discovered, with deep dismay, this ice to be joined to a compact and impenetrable body of floes, which completely crossed the channel, and joined the western point of Max- well Bay. It behooved them, therefore, immediately to draw back, to avoid being embayed in ice, along the edges of which a violent surf was then beating. The officers began to amuse themselves with fruitless attempts to catch white whales, when the weather cleared, and they saw to the south an open sea with a dark water-sky. Parry, hoping that this might lead to a free passage in a lower latitude, steered in this di»*ection, and found himself at the mouth of a great inlet, ten leagues broad, with no visible termination ; and to the two capes at its entrance he gave the names of Clarence and Seppings. UKCKNT NOUTII-WliST '. • . '.CKS. 213 Hd in ongi- vhich . cape lation swell , with le flat- region ng the 1 short, ir pro- nerica. arise iwever, .e Fell- ice to a named sea still 2 some- line of -e them, earn. A id, with act and crossed f Max- idiately I, along jeating. 'ruitless [veather lea with . might steered mouth visible lance he The mariners, findincr the western shore of this inlet deeply encumbtiiod with ice, moved across to the • •astern, where they found a broad and open char\ nel. The coast was the most dreary and desolate they had ever be lield even in the Arctic world, pre- senting scarcely a semblance either of animal or ve- getable life. Navigation was rendered more arduous from the entire i regularity of the compass, now evi- dently approaching to the magnetic Pole, and show- ing an excess of variation which they vainly attempted to measure, so that the binnacles were laid aside as useless lumber. They sailed a himdred and twenty miles up this inlet, and its augmenting width inspired them with corresponding hopes ; when, with extreme consternation, they suddenly perceived the ice to diverge from its parallel course, running close in with a point of land which appeared to form the southern extremity of the eastern shore. To this foreland they gave the name of Cape Kater. The western horizon also appeared covered with heavy and extensive floes, a bright and dazzling ice- blink extending from shore to shore. The name of the Prince Regent was given to this spacious inlet, wliich Parry strongly suspected must have a com- munication with Hudson's Bay. He now determined to return to the old station, and watch the op- portunity when the relenting ice would allow the ships to proceed westward. That station was reached not without some difficulty, amid ice and fog. At Prince Leopold's Islands, on the 15th, the ice was as impenetrable as ever, with a bright blink, and from the top of a high hill there was no water to be seen ; luckily also there was no land. On the 18th, on getting once more close to the northern shore, the navigators began to make a little way, and some showers of rain and snow, accompanied with heavy wind, produced such an effect, that on the 21st the whole ice had disappeared, and they could scarcely believe it to be the same sea which 214 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. had just before bern covered with floes upon floes as far as the eye could reach. Mr. Parry now crowded all sail to the westward, and, though detained by want of wind, he passed Radstock Bay, Capes Hurd and Hotham, and Beechy Island ; after which he reached a fine and broad inlet leading to the north, to which he assigned Welling- ton, the greatest name of the age. The sea up this inlet being perfectly open, he would not have hesi- tated to ascend it, had there not been before him, along the south coast of an island n?med Cornwal- lis, an open channel, leading in a direction, which, being due west, he could have no hesitation in pre- ferring. Wellington- Inlet was now considered by the navigators, so high were their hopes, as forming the western boundary of the land stretching from Baffin's Bay to the Polar Sea, into which they had little doubt they were entering. For this reason Cap- tain Parry did not hesitate to give to the great chan- nel which had effected so desirable a junction the merited appellation of Barrow's Strait, after the much- esteemed promoter of the expedition. A favourable breeze now sprung up, and the adventurers passed gayly and triumphantly along the extensive shore of Cornwallis Island, then coasted a larger island named Bathurst, and next a smaller one called Byam Mar- tin. At this last place, they judged, by some expe- riments, that they had passed the magnetic meridian, situated, probably, in about 100 degrees west longi- tude, and where the compass would have pointed due south instead of due north. The navigation now be- came extremely difficult, in consequence of thick fogs, which not only froze on the shrouds, but, as the compasss was also useless, took away all means of knowing the direction in which they sailed. They were obliged to trust to the land and ice preserving the same line, and sometimes employed the most odd expedients lor ascertaining the precise point. They ejicountered ai^o a compact floe of ice. through RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 215 oesas tward, passed Jeechy d inlet elling- up this e hesi- e him, rnwal- which, 111 pre- red by "orniing g from ley had on Cap- at chan- ;ion the e mucli- ourable passed ;hore of I named im Mar- ,e expe- eridian, t longi- ited due now be- f thick ,, as the ,eans of They |serving ost odd They hvough whicli they were obliged to bore their way by main force. Thiough all these obstacles they reached the coast of an island larger than any before discovered, to which they gave the name of Melville. The wind no.v failed, and they slowly moved forward by tow- ing and warping, till, on the 4th September, Mr. Parry could announce to his joyful crew, that, having reached the longitude of 110^ W. they were become entitled to the reward of £5000, promised by Parliament to the first crew who should attain that meridian. The mariners pushed forward with redoubled ardour, but soon found their course arrested by an impenetrable icy barrier, rhey waited nearly a fortnight in hopes of overcoming it ; till about the 20th their situation became alarming. The young ice began rapidly to form on the surface of the waters, retarded only by winds and swells ; so that Captain Parry was con- vinced, in tlie event of a single hour's calm, that he would be frozen up in the midst of the sea. No op- tion was therefore loft but to return, and to choose between two apparently good harbours, which had been recently passed on Melville Island. Not with- out difficulty he reached this place by the 24th, and made choice of the most western harbour, as that alone which afforded full security ; but it was neces- sary to cut two miles through a large floe with which it was filled. To effect this arduous operation, the seamen marked with boarding-pikes two parallel lines, at the distance of somewhat more than the breadth of the larger ship. They sawed along these two lines, and then by cross-sawings detached large pieces, which were separated diagonally in order to be floated out ; and sometimes boat sails were fastened to them to take the advantage of a favourable breeze. On the 26th the ships were es- tablished in five fathoms water, at about a cable's length from the beach. For some time the ice was daily cleared roimd them ; but this Wkis soon foimd I :: 216 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOyAGEtf. an endless and useless kibour, and they were allowed to be regularly frozen in for the winter. Mr. Parry then applied himself to name the ex- tended group of large islands along which he had passed. He called them at first New-Georgia; but, recollecting that this appellation had been pre-occu- pied by a large island in the Pacific, he gave the name of " the North Georgian Islands," after his majesty George III., whose reign had been so emi- nently distinguished by the extension of nautical and geographical knowledge. The commander, finding himself and his ships shut in for a long and dreary winter, devoted his at- tention, with judicious activity, and a mixture of firmness and kindness, to mitigate those evils, which, even in lower latitudes, had often rendered an Arctic wintering so fatal. His provisions being very ample, he allowed the sailors weekly a pound of Donkin's presen'^ed meat, and a pint of concentrated soup, in- stead of a pound of salt beef; beer and wine were served instead of spirits; and a certain allowance was made of sour-krout, pickles, and vinegar. The sailors were also called together daily, and made to swallow a quantity of lime-juice and sugar in pre- sence of the officers, their improvidence being such as to afford otherwise no hope of their spontaneously imbibing this salutary draught. Their gums and s"hins were also regularly examined, in order to detect scurvy in its earliest symptoms. It was necessary to be very economical of fuel, the small quantity of moss and turf which could be collected being too wet to be of any use. By placing the apparatus for bak- ing in a central position, and by several other arrange- ments, the cabin was maintained in a very comforta- ble temperature ; but still, around its extremities and in the bed-places, steam, vapour, and even the breath settled, first as moisture and then as ice ; to dry and remove these annoyances became tlierefore a part of their daily employment. RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 217 llowed the ex- he had a; but, e-occu- ave the fter his so emi- [lautical is ships i his at- [ture of 3, which, n Arctic y ample, Donkiii's soup, in- ine were lowancc ir. The made to irin pre- ing such meously ms and to detect lecessary ntity of too wet for bak- larrange- lomforta- lities and \e breath dry and la part of Mr. Parry was, from the first, aware that nothing acted more strongly as an antiscorbutic, than to keep the men's minds in a lively and cheerful state. His plans for this purpose were very original, and proved very effectual. Arrangements were made for the oc- casional performance of a play, in a region very re- mote certainly from any to which the drama appeared congenial. Lieutenant Beechy was nominated stage- manager, and the officers came forward as amateur performers. The very expectation thus raised among the seamen, and the bustle of preparing a room for the purpose, were extremely salutary ; and wnen the North Georgian theatre opened with ** Miss in hei Teens," these hardy tars were convulsed with laugh- ter, not a little excited, perhaps, by viewing their officers in so singular and novel a position ; at all events the Arctic management was extremely popular. As the small stock contained in one or two chance volumes was exhausted, original com- positions were produced, and afterward formed into a little qgllection. The officers had another source of amusement in the North Georgia Ga- zette, of which Captain Sabine became editor, and all were invited to contribute to this chronicle of the frozen regions. Even those who hositated to appear as writers, enlivenc^ the circle by severe but good-humoured criticisms. Thus passed the time, Till, through the lucid chambers of the south, Looked out the joyous Sun. It was on the 4th November that this great orb ought to have taken his leave ; but a deep haze pre- vented them from bidding a formal farewell, and from ascertaining the period down to which refrac- tion would have rendered him visible ; yet he was reported to be seen from the mast-head on the 11th. Amid various occupations and amusements, the shortest day came on almost unexpected, and the sea* T 218 RECENT NORTH-^VEST VOYAGES. men then watched with pleasure the midday twi- light gradually strengthening. On the 28th Janu- a^ none of the fixed stars could be seen at noon by the naked eye ; and on the 1st and 2d of Febru- ary the sun was looked for, but the sky was wrapped in mist ; however, on the 3d he was perceived from the maintop of the Hecla. Through the greatest depth of the Polar night, the officers, during the brief twilight, had taken a regular walk of two or three hours ; avoiding only to go farther than a mile, lest they should be overtaken by snow-drift. There was a want of objects to diversify this walk. A dreary monotonous surface of dazzling white covered land and sea: the view of the ships, the smoke as- cending from them, the sound of human voices, which through the calm and cold air was carried to an extraordinary distance, alone gave any animation to this wintry scene. The otlicers, however, perse- vered in their daily walk, and exercise was also en- forced upon the men, who, even when prevented by the weather from leaving the vesseL^were made to run round the deck, keeping time to the tune of an organ. This movement they did not at first entirely relish ; but no plea against it being admitted, they converted it at last into matter of frolic. By the above means health was maintained an board the ships to a surprising degree. Early in Ja- nuary, however, Mr. Scallon, the gunner, felt symptoms, first in the legs and then in the gums, that decidedly indicated the presence of scurv^y, of which the immediate cause appeared to be the great collection of damp which had formed round his bed- place. At this first alarm, all the antiscorbutics on board, lemon-juice, pickles, spruce-beer, &c. v/ere put into requisition ; a small quantity of mustard and cress was also raised from mould placed over tlie stove-pipe ; and such was the success of these mea- sures, that in nine days the patient could walk with- out pain. Farther on in the season a number of RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 219 slighter cases occurred, which were somewhat ag- jrravated by an accident. As the men were taking their musical perambulation round the deck, a house erected on shore, and containing a number of the most valuable instruments, was seen to be on fire. The crew instantly ran, pulled off tlie roof with ropes, knocked down a part of the sides, and being thus enabled to throw in large quantities of snow, succeeded in subduing the flames. Now, however, their faces presented a curious spectacle, every nose and cheek being white with frost-bites, while the me- dical gentlemen, with their assistants, were obliged to run from one to the other, and rub them w^*h snow, in order to restore animation. With one man the amputation of several of his fingers became ne- cessaiy, and no less than sixteen were added to the sick-list. ' 1 The animal tribes disappeared early in the winter from this frozen region. The ofllcers, on the 15th October, made a shooting excursion, enjoying a very fine day, though with the thermometer 47*^ below the freezing point ; out they did not find a deer, a grouse, or any animal which could be ranked as game. All of them, deserting this wintry realm, had crossed tlie seas to America. There remained only a pack of wolves, which serenaded the crews nightly, not venturing to attack, but contriving to avoid being captured. A beautiful white fox was caught and made a pet of. On the 12th May one of the men gave notice that he had seen a ptarmigan ; and at- tention being thus excited, Mr. Beverley next day brought one down, and on the 15th three coveys were discovered. The footsteps of deer were also seen, which, from the impression made on the snow, seemed to be moving northward. From this time ptarmigans were supplied in tolerable numbers ; but they were made strictly a common good, being di- vided equally among the crew, witli only a preference iuTavour of the sick There was found, also, mixed 220 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. with moss under the snow, an abundance of the herb sorrel, a most potent antidote against scurvy. By these supplies, and by the more genial weather, the health of the crew, which at the end of March had been in a somewhat alarming state, was completely restored before the beginning of June. In extending their excursions, however, they were considerably incommoded by that distressing inflammation of the eves, produced from the glare of snow, called snow- blindness. It was cured in a few days by cold appli- cations, and it was prevented in future by covering the eyes, or by wearing spectacles, in which crape was used instead of glass. On the 16th March the North Georgian theatre was closed with an appropriate address, and the general attention was now turned to the means of extrication from the ice. By the 17th May the seamen had so far cut the ice from around the ships as to allow them to float ; but in the sea it was still immoveable. This interval of painful inaction was employed by Cap- tain Parry in an excursion across Melville Island. The ground was still mostly covered with softened snow, andieven the cleared tracts were extremely de- solate, though checkered by intervals of fine verdure. Deer were seen traversing the plains in considerable numbers. To the north appeared another island, to "Which was given the name of Sabine. By the mid- dle of June pools were eveiy where formed ; the dis- solved water flowed in streams, and even in torrents, which rendered hunting and travelling unsafe. Tbei e were also channels of water in which boats could pass; yet throughout June and July the great cover- mg of ice in the surrounding sea remained entire, and kept the ships in harbour. On the 2d of August, however, the whole mass, by one of those sudden movements to which it is liable, broke up and floated out ; and the explorers had now open water in which to prosecute their discovery. It was consolatory to tliink, that this was the very season at which they a RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 221 had last year t^Jelli^ Lancaster Sound ; and if they could make as offlfTtStit a voyage this summer, the following one would see them not far from Behring's Straits. But it was not without some obstructions that on the . 4th they reached the same spot where their progress had been formerly arrested. On the 15th they were enabled to make a certain progress; after which the frozen surface of the ocffean assumed a more compact and impenetrable aspect than had ever before been witnessed. The officers ascended some of the lofty heights which bordered the coast ; but, in a long reach of sea to the westward, no boundary was seen to these icy barriers. There appeared only the western extremity of Melville Island, named Cape Dundas ; and in the distance a l)old high coast; which they named Banks's Land. As even a brisk easterly gale did not produce the slightest movement in this frozen sui face, they w^ere led to believe that on the other side there must be a large barrier of land, by which it was held in a fixed state. On considering all circumstances, there ap- peared no alternative but to make th^r way home- ward while yet the season permitted, wne addi- tional observations were made on theiweturn, on the two coasts extending along Barrow's Strait. ' ' Mr. Parry's arrival in Britain was hailed with the liighest exultation. To have sailed upw^ards of thirty degrees of longitude beyond the point reached by any former navigator, — to have discovered so many new lands, islands, and bays, — to have established tlie much-contested existence of a Polar sea north of America, — finally, after a wintering of eleven months, to have brought back his crew in a sound and vigorous state,* — were enough to raise his name above that of any former Arctic voyager. * On!y one man died in tlie course of their lonu and perilous voyage, but whose disease was noway referrilile to a connexion with the expe- dition, the origin of his malady liaving been of a date anterior to the Bailing of the ships. T3 #• 222 RECENT N0RTIt<«WJE8Y «■* GES. '^■ No hesitation was felt ^ ^^||9HP^^ ^^^ another expedition ; but, considering iWte^i^Sigth of the ulti- mate barriers which had twice arrested the progress of the last, it became important to consider whether there was not any other channel by which the Polar sea, now ascertained to exist, might be reached and traversed with greater facility* In Hudson's Bay, neither of the great northern sounds of the Welcome nor of Fox's Channel had .been traced to a termina- tion. Middleton, in the former inlet, had ascended higher than any other navigator ; but a thick cloud had been raised around his reputation, and his Fro- zen Strait, after all, was very likely to be only a temporary barrier. If from either of these sounds a passage should open into the Polar sea, it might be navigated in a much lower latitude than that in which Parry had wintered, and might perhaps be also free from those large insular masses in which he had been entangled. There was fitted out then a iiew expedition, m which the Fury, of 327 tons, was conjoined with the Hecla ; the rommander con- ceiving th^tjvo vessels of nearly equal dimensions were bewBalculated for co-operating with and aid- ing eacltOTner, while the examination of coasts and inlets could best be carried on by boats. This of- ficer, now promoted to the rank of Captain, hoisted his flag on board the Fury; while Captain Lyon, already distinguished by his services in Africa, re- ceived the command of the Hecla, and proved him- self fully competent to the arduous duties of this new service. The equipment, the victualling, and the heating of the vessels, were all arranged with the greatest care, and with various improvements suggested by experience. The expedition was ready to sail on the 8th May, 1821, and • having then quitted the Nore, passed through the Pentland Frith and by Cape Farewell, suffering repeated detention ; but we shall not pause till we find it on the 2d July at the mouth of Hudson's # RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 223 (lother e nlti- ogress hether Polar ed and 5 Bay, ;lcome rmina- eended cloud is Fro- only a )unds a ight be that in laps be I which ut then 17 tons, ler con- lensions ,nd aid- sts and 'his of- hoisted Lyon, ica, re- d him- of this and d with ements [h May, passed irewell, |t pause idson's Straits. Captayi 'l^arry, accustomed as he was to scenes of Polar desolation, was struck with the pe- culiarly dreary aspect which these shores presented. The naked rocks, the snow still covering tlie valleys, and the thick fogs that hung over them, rendered the scene indescribably gloomy. The ships were soon surrounded by icebergs, which in one place amounted to the number of fifty-four, — one rising 258 feet above the sea. They were attended by large floes, rendered very formidable by their rota- tory motion. The peculiar danger of these straits, often remarked by former navigators, arises from the strong tides and currents that rush in from the Atlantic, and cause continual and violent move- ments among the huge icy masses with which the channels are filled. Captain liyon had proof of their strength when he had two hawsers repeatedly car- ried away, and his best bower-anchor, weighing more than a ton, wrenched from the bows, and broken off as if it had been crockery-ware. Amid these troubles, the sailors were amused by the sight of three com- panion-ships, two belonging to the 'JIudson's Bay Company, and one bringing out settlMTS for ^Lord Selkirk's colony. These last, who wete chiefly Dutch and Germans, were seen waltzing on deck often for hours together, and were only driven in by a severe fall of snow. Although almost in despair at the numerous detentions they had experienced, they recreated themselves from time to time by ma- trimonial arrangements, in which they were so dili- gent, that, it is said, there was scarcely a ball which did not end in a marriage. Amid these obstructions, the ships spent nineteen days in making seventy miles ; which course, how- ever, brought them, on the 21st, within two leagues of what ar^'called the Savage Islands* On the follow- ing afternoon a loud shouting was heard over the ice, and soon after there appeared a numerous band of natives, paddling their canoes through the lanes of 13? ii" m^' 224 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGKS. open water, or, where these failed, drawing^ them over the pieces of ice. Among a great number of kayaks, or boats rowed by a single man (see plate, p. 164), were five oomiaks, or women's boats, con- structed of a framework of wood and whalebone, covered with deer-skins, having flat sides and bot- * torn, and of considerable size. One of them, 25 feet • by 8, contained women, boys, and children, to the number of twenty-one. Presently began a wild, merry, noi^ scene of frolic and traffic. The natives carried it on with eagerness and even fury, stripping themselves of the very skins which formed their only covering, till they were in a state of total nu- dity, except that the ladies always made a laudable * reservation of their breeches. They drove what they meant should be an excessively hard bargain ; yet, being wholly ignorant of the value of the rich skins with which nature has invested the animals of this Arctic climate, they raised shouts of triumph when they obtained in exchange a nail, a saw, or a - razor. Their aspect was wilder and more dishevelled fthan that of any other tribe even among this rude race ; .their character also seems fiercer and more sa- vage ; and indeed it is in this quarter that most of the tragical encounters with Esquimaux have occurred. Some of the ancient dames were pronounced to be the f .^ RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 225 most hideous objects that mortal eye had ever be* held; inflamed eyes, wrinkled skin, black teeth, and deformed features, rendered thorn scarcely human : hence much apology was found for the dark and dire sur5picions cherished by Frobisher's crew re- specting one of these damsels, and the odd investi- gation to which it had prompted. The children were rather pretty ; thouj^h, from being thrown carelessly into the bottom of the boats, they had much the appearance of the young of wild animals. Besides traffic, the natives carried on a great deal of rather rude frolic, like that of ill-regulated school- boys. One of them got behind a sailor, shouted fp loudly in one ear, and gave him a hearty box on the ^ other, which was hailed with a loud and general laugh. They also carried on a dance, consisting chiefly of violent leaping and stamping, though in tolerable time. In spite of every obstruction. Captain Parry, early » in August, reached the entrance of Fox's Channel, and came in view of Southampton Island. It was now the question, whether to sail directly up this channel, and reach, by a comparatively short route, Repulse Bay and the higher latitudes, or to make the south-western circuit of Southampton Island, and ascend the beaten track of the Welcome. Captain Parry judiciously preferred the former, not- withstanding its uncertainties, on account^vof the great time which would be saved shoul<|^thisl course be found practicable. On the 15th he came to a strait stretching westward, and apparently separating the island from other land on the north. Hoping to find this the Frozen Strait of Middleton, he entered it ; but it soon proved a spacious and beautiful basin, enclosed by land on every side. He named it the Duke of York's Bay, and considered it one of the finest harbours in the world ; but, after admiring a large floe covered entirely with minerals, shells, and plants, he moved out of it, and pursued the voyage. 2!2n RKCKNT NORTII-WKST VOYAGES. On tlie 21st tlu; nnvi^jitors found themsnlves in jinotlier strait, not mucli onciiinborcd with ico, but darkened })y tliick fop:s ; and, before they ahnost knew wh(^re they were, a heavy swell from the southward sliowed that tliey had passed tliroiijrli tlie Frozen Strait, and wrre in tlie broad channel of th^ Welcome. They speedily entered liepulse Hay, in whieh modern speculation liad cherislied tlie hope of a passat^o ; but a short investigation, made by boats in every direction, proved that it was nsdly as Middleton had described it, completely cnclosj^l. A good deal of time had thus been lost throuf,di the fskepticism so unjustly attached to the narrative of that eminent navis;-ator. Captain Parry, havinfr come with all speed out of Repulse Bay, beijan the career of discovery alone^ a coast hitherto unknown. An inlet was soon found, and called by the name of Gore ; but when ascended a (certain lenirth, it was not found to reach far inland. At the mouth of this opening, the valleys were richly clad with grass and moss, the birds singing, butteillies and other insects displaying the most gaudy tints, so that the sailors might hiive fancied themselves in some happier climate, had not the mighty piles of ice in the Frozen Strait told a different tale. Hunting par- ties traversed the country in various directions, and the game-laws of the preceding year were strictly re-epacted, by which every beast or bird slain was to be employed for the general good, allowing only the head and legs as a douceur to the captor. The latter, however, adopted and made good a theory, agreeably to which the description, head, was greatly extended, so as to include even several joints of the back-bone. Having passed Gore Inlet, the expedition found itself among those numerous isles described by Mid- dleton, which formed a complete labyrinth of various shapes and sizes, while strong currents setting between them in various directions, amid fogs and drifting ice, rendered the navigation truly perilous. RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 227 Tho Fury was assailed by surressivo massrs riisliiiijtr out from ail inlet ; lier anelior was (lra^rj[r(Ml aloiijr the rocks with a ^a-indiii^r noise?, and on hein^' drawn up, the two Ihikes were fouiul to he hi oken ofV. The; same vessel was afterward earried ahinj^ by a viokMit cur- rent, amid thick mist, witliout tlieic h(Mnjrany means of jrui(Unjj^ or alteriiiff its direction ; so tliat Captain Parry considers it altogether providential that she was not dashed to pieces against the surrounding ro(5ks. However, one channel, and one oidy, was found, by which the mariners at last made their way throu«rh this perilous maze. No sooner had they reached the open sea, than, beinjr obliged to run before a strong: northerly breeze, they were much dis- licartened to find themselves, on the 3d of September, at the very point which they had left the preceding Gth of August. All the interval had been employed in the mere negative discovery, that there was nothing to discover. Captain Parry soon reached the northern coast, and resumed his task, which was rendered very tedious by the necessity of examining every opening and channel, in the hope that each might prove the desired passage into the Polar oeean. He first ex- plored a large inlet, the name of which he gave to Captain Lyon, then a smaller one, which was named from Lieutenant Hoppner ; and, by connecting these with Gore Inlet, he completed his delineation of the coast. The seamen had then the pleasure of opening a traffic with a party of Esquimaux, whose first timidity was soon overcome by the hope of being supplied with some iron tools. In the course of this transaction, the surprise of the crew was roused by the conduct of a lady, who had sold one boot, but obstinately retained the other in disregard of the strongest remonstrances as to the ridiculous figure she in consequence made. At length, suspicion rose to such a pitch, that, all courtesy being set aside, her person was laid hold of, and the boot pulled oft". Then indeed it proved a complete depository of stolen i -*'"■ 228 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. f. treasure, since no less than two spoons and a pewter plate were found within this capacious receptacle. The end of September now approached, and Cap- tain Parry found himself suddenly in the depth of winter. Snow had been falling during^ the whole of the short summer ; but the united warmth of the air and earth had melted it as it fell, and left the ground frtill open to the sun's rays. In one moment, as it were, the snow made good its lodgment, and spread its white and dazzling mantle over land and sea. The rays being then no longer able to reach the soil, the whole became subject to permanent and impene- trable frost. Some parts of the snow were indeed dissolved, and then refrozen in varied and beautiful forms of crystallization ; whereas at Melville Island, the dead white covering once spread over nature had never changed its aspect. A more serious symptom existed in the rapid formation of the soft or pancake ice on the surface of the deep. The obstacle pre- sented by this crust was at first so slight as to be scarcely felt by a ship before a favouring gale ; but it continually increased, till the vessel, rolling from side to side, and all her resources failing, became, like Gulliver, bound by the feeble hands of Lilliputians. At the same time the various pieces of drift-ice, which were tossing in the sea without, had been ce- mented into one great field called " the ice," that threatened every moment to bear down upon the ves- sels, and dash them in pieces. Under this combi* nation of circumstances, the navigators could no longer even attempt to reach the land, but determined to saw into the heart of a large adjoining floe, and there take up their winter-quarters. There Avas about half a mile to penetrate, which, in the present soft state of the pancake ice, was not very laborious. It was, however, far from pleasant, the ice bending like leather beneath their feet, and causing them some- times to sink into the water, whence they did not escape without a very cold bath. Captain Parry was now frozen up for another winter RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 229 pewter acle. id Cap- jpth of hole of the air ground lit, as it spread nd sea. the soil, impene- indeed •eautiful I Island, ture had jrmptom pancake cle pre- is to be ale; but ng from me, like putians. Irift-ice, )een ce- e," that the ves« combi* ould no irmined ioe, and ,s about nt soft us. It ing like some- iid not winter in the midst of the northern sea, and he forthwith applied himself to make the necessary arrangements with that judicious foresight which had been already so conspicuous in the same trying circumstances. Through lessons taught by experience, and by several ingenious contrivances, the ships were much more thoroughly heated than in the former voyage ; the provisioning, too, was pjoi- ample, and antidotes against scurvy still more copiously supplied. The Polar theatre opened on the 9th November with " The Rivals." Captains Parry and Lyon volunteered to appear as Sir Anthony and Captain Absolute ; while the ladies had very generously removed an ample growth of beard, disregarding the comfortable warmth which it afforded in an Arctic climate. The com- pany were well received, and carried through their performances with unabated spirit ; yet this season does not seem to have gone off quite with the same eclat as the preceding. Novelty, from the first the chief attraction, had worn off, and the discomfort of a stage, the exhibitions of which were attended with a cold thirty degrees under the freezing point, became rather severe. The sailors found for themselves a more sober and useful, as well as efficacious remedy against ennui. They established a school, in which the better instructed undertook to revive the know- ledge of letters among others who had almost en- tirely lost the slight tincture which they had once imbibed. These hardy tars applied themselves to their book with ardent and laudable zeal, and shov/ed a pride in their new attainments like that of little boys at school. By Christmas sixteen well-written copies were forthcoming from those who, two months before, could scarcely form a letter. Amid these varied and pleasing occupations, the shortest day passed over their heads almost unobserved, especially as the sun never entirely left them. Cap- tain Lyon never saw a merrier Christmas than was celebrated on board. The sailors, being amply re- U M' ■w 230 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. t galed with fresh beef, cranberry pies, and grog, became so extremely elevated, that they insisted on successively drinking, with three hearty cheers, the health of each officer. The animal world, in this less rigorous climate, even though the ground was completely frozen over, did not disappear so entirely as on Melville Island. A few solitary hares were caught ; but they were in a miserable state of leanness, weighing only five or six pounds, and had a pure white covering, which resembled swan's down rather than hair. About a hundred white foxes were found in the nets during the winter. These beautiful creatures, when first caught, were perfectly wild and ungovernable ; but shortly the young ones at least threw off this timidity. A delicate little animal found one day in the snare proved to be an ermine ; but it was excessively frightened, and to the general regret soon died. The winter months were also enlivened by various beautiful appearances which the sky at that season presented. The northern world, when the sun de- parts, is by no means involved in that deep, mono- tonous gloom which such a privation might indicate. After that luminary has finally quitted the earth, and the long northern winter has closed in, the heavens become a gay scene, through which the most brilliant meteors are perpetually playing. Those singular and beautiful streams of light, called commonly the Aurora Borealis, or Northern Morning, keep up an almost incessant illumination. They were discerned in full splendour by Captains Parry and Lyon during their Arctic residence. Tlie light had a tendency to form an irregular arch, which, in calm weather, was often veiy distinct, though its upper boun'dary was seldom well defined ; but, whenever the air became agitated, showers of rays spread in eveiy direction, with the brilliancy and rapidity of lightning. Some- time9 long bands of light were spread out with RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 231 inconceivable rapidity, but always appearing to move to and from a fixed point, somewhat like a riband held in the hand and shaken with an undiihitory motion. No rule, however, could be traced in the movement of those lighter parcels called " the merry dancers," whi(fh flew about perpetually in every direction and towards every quarter. In stormy weather the northern lights always became more rapid in their motions, sharing all tlie wildness of the blast. They gave an indescribable air of magic to the whole scene, and mnde it not wonderful, that by the untaught Indian they should be viewed as " the spirits of his fathers roaming through the land of souls/' Several questions have been agitated with respect to the Aurora, It has been said to be accompanied with a hissing and cracking noise ; and indeed Cap- tain Lyon observes, that the sudden glare and rapid bursts of those wondrous showers of fire make it difficult to fancy their movements wholly without sound. Yet nothing was really ever heard. Captain Parry complains, that he could not expose his ears to the cold long enough completely to ascertain the point ; but Captain Lyon declares, that he stood for hours on the ice listening, and at a distance from every sounding body, till he became thoroughly satis- fied that none proceeded from the Aurora. It has been a question whether this meteor hid the stars ; it was generally decided that it dimmed the lustre of those heavenly bodies, as if a thin gauze veil had been drawn over them, — an effect which was aug- mented when several luminous portions were spread over each other. In a clear atmosphere these lights shone with a brightness which gave the impression that they were nearer than the clouds : but whenever these last overspread the sky, the Aurora was hid by them, and must therefore have been more distant. To Captain Parry the light appeared to assume tints of yellow and lilac ; but to Captain Lyon its colour 232 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. always resembled that of the Milky- Way, or of very vivid sheet-lightning. The present writer saw the Aurora once, and only once, in its utmost brilliancy, and exhibiting all the phenomena described by these northern observers, — his impressions agreeing parti- cularly with those of Captain Lyon. Other luminous meteors, arising apparently from the refraction caused by the minute and highly-crys- tallized spiculae of ice, appear in succession to em- bellish the northern sky. The sun and moon are often surrounded with halos, — concentric circles of vapour, tinted with the brightest hues of the rain- bow. Parhelia, or mock suns, frequently adorned with these accompaniments, shine at once in different quarters of the firmament. Ellis, who was with Moor and Smith to Hudson's Bay, has seen six in one sky. They are most brilliant at daybreak, dimi- nish in lustre as the real sun ascends, but again brighten at his setting. The sun himself, for some time before he finally departs for the winter, and also after his reappearance in spring, tinges the sky with hues of matchless brilliancy. The edges of the clouds near that luminary often present a fiery or burnished appearance, while the opposite horizon glows with a deep purple, gradually softening as it ascends into a delicate rose-colour of inconceivable beauty. As the solar orb at these periods never rises more than a few degrees above the horizon, he is, as it were, in a state of permanent rising and set- ting, and seems to exhibit longer and more variously the beautiful appearances arising out of that position. At this time the naked eye can view him without being dazzled; and Captain Lyon considers the softened blush-colour, which his rays exhibit through frost, as possessing a charm which surpasses even that of an Italian sky. Amid all these resources, the monotony of the scene was beginning to be oppressive, when it was relieved by an unexpected incident, which attracted RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 233 universal attention. On the morning of the 1st February, a number of ^j|tont figures were seen moving over the ice, and/wlien they were viewed through glasses, the cry was r^ed, " Esquimaux ! Esquimaux !" As it was of great importance to deal courteously and discreetly with these strangers, the two commanders formed a party of six, who walked in files behind each other, that they might cause no alarm. The Esquimaux then formed themselves into a line of twenty-one, advanced slowly, and at length made a full slop. In this order they saluted the strangers by the usual movement of beating their breasts. They were substantially clothed in rich and dark deer-skins, and appeared a much more quiet and orderly race than their rude countrymen of tlie Savage Islands. On the English producing their precious commodities, knives, nails, and lieedies, an active traflfic was set on foot ; and the females, on seeing that much importance was attached to the skins which formed their clothing, began immediately to strip off those ./ith which their fair persons were covered. The captains felt alarm for the conse- quences, under a temperature more than fifty degrees below the freezing point; but were soon consoled by discerning underneath another comfortable suit. They were now cordially invited to enter their habita- tions, to which they agreed most readily, only that there appeared no habitations to enter. However, they were led to a hole in the snow, and instructed to place themselves on their hands and knees, in which position, having crept through a long winding passage, they arrived at a little hall with a dome- shaped roof, whence doors opened into three apart- ments, each occupied by a separate family. These proved to be five distinct mansions, tenanted by sixty-four men, women, and children. The mate- rials and structure of these abodes were still more singular than their position. Snow, the chief pro- duct of the* northern tempests, became here a pro- U2 1 Ji34 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. % tection against its*^ own cold. It was farmed into curved slabs of about '^ffff feet long and half a foot thick, put together*^ a most judicious masonry, so as to present a sfJlcies of dome-shaped structures, rising six or seven feet above the ground^ and about fourteen or sixteen feet in diameter. The mode of inserting the key-slab, which bound the whole toge** ther, would, it is said, have been satisfactory to the eye of a regularly-bred artist. A plate of ice in the roof served as a window, and admitted the light as through ground glass ; which, when it shone on the interior mansions, in their first state of pure and beautiful transparency, produced soft and glittering tints of green and blue. But, alas ! ere long, accu- mulated dirt, smoke, and offal, converted these apart- ments into a scene of blackness and stench. This little village appeared at first like a cluster of hillocks amid the snow; but successive falls filled up the vacuities, and converted it almost into a smooth sur- face, so that even boys and dogs were seen walking and sporting over the roofs ; though, as summer and thaw advanced, a leg sometimes penetrated, and appeared to the alarmed inmates below. Then, too, the ceiling begins to drip ; and the tenants, after re- peatedly endeavouring to patch it with fresh slabs, and catching, of course, some severe colds, are obliged to betake themselves to a more durable covering. In each room, suspended from the roof, burns a lamp, with a long wick formed of a peculiar species of moss, fed with the oil of the seal or the walrus, and serving at once for light, heat, and cookery. The family sit round the apartment, on a bench formed of snow, strewed >ii||th slender twigs and covered with skins ; but thS part of the dwelling must be carefully kept a good deal below the freezing-point, since a higher temperature would speedily dissolve the walls of the frail tenement. After a cheerful and friendly visit, an invitation was given to the £squimaux to repair t# the ships* ation ](hips« RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 235 « when fifty accepted it with alacrity. Partly walk- ing, and partly dancing, they soon reached the ves- sels, where a striking congeniality of spirit was soon found to exist between them and the sailors ; bois- terous fun forming to each the chief source of en- joyiment. A fiddle and drum being produced, the natives struck up a dance, or rather a succession of Vehement leaps, accompanied with loud shouts and yells. Seeing the Kabloonas or Whites, as they called the strangers, engaged in the game of leap-frog, they attempted to join ; but not duly understanding how to measure their movements, they made such over-leaps as sometimes to pitch on the crown of their heads : however they sprang up quite unconcerned. Their attention was specially attracted to the effects of a winch, by which one sailor forcibly drew to- wards him a party of ten or twelve of their number, though grinning and straining every nerve in resist- ance ; but finding all in vain, they joined in the burst of good-humoured laughter till tears streamed from their eyes. One intelligent old man followed Cap- tain Lyon to the cabin, and viewed with rational surprise various objects which were presented. The performance of a hand-organ and a musical snufF-box strucK him with breathless admiration ; and on see- ing drawings of the Esquimaux in Hudson's Strait, he soon understood them, and showed the difference between their dress and appearance and that of his own tribe. On seeing the sketch of a bear, he raised a loud cry, drew up his sleeves, and showed the scars of three deep wounds received in encounters with that terrible animal. The seamen sought to treat their visiters to such delicacies as their ship afforded, but were for some time at a loss to discover how their palate might be gratified. Grog, the seaman's choicest luxury, only one old woman could be in- duced to taste. Sugar, sweetmeats, gingerbread, were accepted only out of complaisance, and eaten with manifest disgust ; but train-oil, entrails of ani- f< 236 RKCENf NOftTlI-WKST VOYAGE^. mals,and anything consisting of pure fat or greas6, were swallowed in immense quantities, and with symi)toms of exquisite delight. This taste was first evinced by an old woman, who, having sold her oil- pot, took care previously to empty the contents into her stomach, and lick it clean with her tongue, ris- gardless of lur face becoming tlius as black as soot. Captain Lyon, being disposed to ingratiate himself with rather a luindsome young damsel, presented her with a good moulded candle, six in the pound. She immediately began to eat off the tallow with every symptom of the greatest enjoyment, after which she thrust the wick into her mouth; but the Captain, concerned for the consequences to this delicate virgin, insisted on pulling it out. In preference to strong liquors they drank water in the most enor- mous quantities, by gallons at a time, and two quarts at a draught ; a supply of liquid which is perhaps ne- cessary to dissolve their gross food, and which, being obtained only from snow artificially melted, is a scarce winter article. The Esquimaux were attended by a large pack of wolves, which seemed to follow solely to pick up whatever might be found straggling or defenceless about their habitation. These animals continued through the whole winter ravening with hunger, and in eager watch for any victim wiiich might come within their reach. For this purpose they took a sta- tion between the huts and the ships, ready to act against either as circumstances might dictate. They did not attack the sailors even when unarmed, though they were often seen hovering through the gloom in search of prey. Every stray dog was seized, and in a few minutes devoured. Two wolves broke into a snow-house close to the ship, and carried off each a dog larger than himself; but, being pursued, one of them was obliged to drop his booty. In the ex- tremity of their hunger they hesitated not to tear and devour the cables and canvass found lying near ■-^ kECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 237 the vessel. A deadly war was therefore waged against these fierce animals, of which thirteen were killed in the course of the season, and sent to be eaten by the Esquimaux, — a present which was received with much satisfaction. As spring advanced, the attention of the officers was almost wholly engrossed by the prospects of navigation and discovery during the approaching summer. Their Esquimaux neighbours by no means destitute of intelligence, and accustomed to shift continually from place to place, were found to have acquired a very extensive knowledge of the seas and coasts of this part of America. One female, in par- ticular, named Iligliuk, who bore even among her countrymen the character of a " wise woman," was, after a little instruction, enabled to convey to the strangers the outlines of her geographical knowledge, in the form of a rude map. A pencil being put into her hand, she traced the shore from Repulse Bay with such a tolerable measure of accuracy as in- spired great confidence in what she might farther de- lineate. Iligliuk then began to exhibit a coast reaching far to the north, being, in fact, the eastern limits of Melville peninsula. Next her pencil took a westward direction, when her farther progress was watched with the deepest interest ; upon which she was seen tracing a strait between opposite lands, that extended westward till it opened on each side, and spread into an apparently unbounded ocean. This delineation, which promised to fulfil their most sanguine hopes, gratified the officers beyond mea- sure, and they loaded Iligliuk with attentions which unluckily soon turned her head, and made her so conceited and disdainful that they were obliged to discontinue their notice of her. Captain Lyon, in the middle of March, undertook a journey across a piece of land, lying between the station of the ships and the continent, which had been named Winter Island. The party were scarcely * ^ 2:^8 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAOES. gone when tlioy cnroiintercd a heavy gale, bringing with it eh^uds of (hi ft, witli a (;okl so intcnso, tliat they (!oul(l not sioj) for a moment without having their faces covered witli frost-bites. After some vain strug«;les tlicy determined to pit(;h their tent } but as tliij ti^miKTiitiue witliin was at zero, and was rontinnally loNveiinir, they fc^lt that they could not live tlirou^li ilu^ niglit under this shelter. They therefore (\\\n undertook another journey. In a few hours he crossed Winter Island, and reached the strait separating it from the continent, covered with heavy-grounded ice very difficult to walk upon. The sun, now powerful, produced such a glare on the RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAOES. 2:i9 snow as aflerted several of the party witli severe blindness ; while the only means of procurint; wjiter was by holding np plates of ice in the solar rays, by which they were oradnally melted. The party, hav- mg reached the mainland, proceeded a considerable way alonff the (foast, crossiiijr s(>v(ral bays upon the ice; but at last they came in view of a bold cap(% wliich they fondly and vainly hoped was the extreme point of America. Here they were overtaken by a storm of snow, Init not accomi)anied, like the former, with perilous cold ; it melted as it fell, and fornuHl a pulp which penetrated into their tents, yet did not dissolve so completely as to be fit for drinkin<>-. This storm kept them imprisoned for sixty-eij^ht hours ; which dreary interval tlK.'y enlivened by readinf^ iu turn from three books they chanced to have with them, and as soon as the sun began to gleam they hastened to return to the ships. The end of May presented a ci^loomy aspect, the season being still more backward tlian in the more northerly and rigorous climate of Melville Island. The snow was dissolved only on some spots, and hardly any symptoms of vegetation were yet visible ; but as there was an extent of open water in the sea without, Captain Parry determined upon sawing his way through to it. This was a most laborious pro- cess, the ice being much thicker and stronger than at the commencement of the season ; and after the seamen had continued at it more than a fortnight, and were within forty-eight hours of completing a canal, the body of the ice made a movement which closed it entirely up. As they were looking on in despair at this disaster, another passage opened, which they attempted to render available. This too was closed in the same manner ; but these agitations had at last the effect of causing the whole mass to float out into the open sea, and thus leaving to them an unobstructed passage. On the 2d July the ships began their career of 240 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. I discovery. They had a favourable run through this sea, which formed a continuation of Fox's Channel ; but a strong current from the north was bringing down the masses of ice with great force. The Hecla underwent some severe pressures, and, within five or six hundred yards of the Fury, two large floes dashed against each other with such a tremen- dous concussion, that numberless huge masses were thrown fifty or sixty feet into the air. The vessel, had she come for a moment within the sphere of these movements, must have been dashed to pieces, — happily, she escaped. This current, however, was highly promising, since it could not be traced to the mouth of Hudson's Straits, but must have come from the western ocean which they were so anxious to reach. The ice passed by, and the ships proceeded with a favouring wind and tide. The shores began now to put on their summer aspect ; the snow had nearly disappeared ; and the ground was covered with the richest bloom of Arctic vegetation. The expedition came to a fine river named Barrow, which formed a most picturesque fall down rocks richly fringed with very brilliant plants. Here the reindeer sporting, the eider-duck, the golden plover, and the snow- bunting, spreading their wings, produced a gay and delightful scene. On the 14th the navigators reached the island of Amitioke, which had bc^n described as situated near the strait they were then endeavouring to reach. They saw about two hundred walruses lying piled, as usual, over each other on the loose drift-ice. A boat's crew from each ship proceeded to the attack ; but these gallant amphibia, some with their cubs mounted on their backs, made the most desperate resistance, and one of them tore the planks of a boat in two or three places. Three only were killed, the flesh of which was found tolerable, afford- ing a variety amid the ordinary sea-cliet. The discoverers now proceeded northwards, and RECENT NORTH-^EST VOYAGES. 241 saw before them a bold and hig-h range of coast, se- parated apparently from that along which they were sailing. This feature agreeing with the indications of the fair Iligliuk, flattered them that they were approaching the strait exhibited by her as forming the entrance into the Polar basin. They pushed on full of hope and animation, and were farther cheered by reaching the small island of Igloolik, which she had described as situated at the very commencement of the passage. Accordingly they soon saw the strait stretching westward before them in long perspec- tive ; but, alas ! they discovered at the same moment an unbroken sheet of ice from shore to shore, cross- ing and blocking up the passage ; and this not a loose accidental floe, but the ice of the preceding winter, on which the midsummer sun had not produced the slightest change. Unable to advance a single step, they amused themselves with land-excursions in different directions; and Captain JParry at length determined, on the 14th August, with a party of six, to undertake an expedition along the frozen surface of the strait. The journey was very laborious, the ice being sometimes thrown up in rugged hummocks, and occasionally leaving large spaces of open water, which it was necessaiy to cross on a plank, or on pieces of ice instead of boats. In four days they came in view of a peninsula terminated by a bold cape, the approach to which was guarded by succes- sive ranges of strata, resembling the tiers or galleries of a high and commanding fortification. The party, however, scrambled to the summit, whence they enjoyed a most gratifying spectacle. They were at the narrowest part of the strait, here about two miles across, with a tide or current running through it at the rate of two miles an hour. Westward the shores on each side receded, till, for three points of the compass and amid a clear horizon, no land was visible. The captain doubted not that from this po- sition he beheld the Polar sea ; into which, notwith- X *-^- ,-*,.. 242 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. standinsr the formidable barriers of ice which inter- vened, he cherished the most sanguine hopes of forcing his way. He named this the strait of the Fury and Hecla, and gave the sailors an extra can of grog, to drink a safe and speedy passage tluough its channel. Captain Parry now lost no time in returning to the ships, where his arrival was joyful and seasonable ; for the opposing barrier, which had been gradually softening and breaking into various rents and fissures, at once almost entirely disappeared, and the vessels next morning were in open water. On the 21st they got under way ; and, though retarded by fogs and other obstructions, had arrived on the 26th at that central and narrowest channel which the com- mander had formerly reached. A brisk breeze now sprang up, the sky cleared, they dashed across a cur- rent of three or four knots an hour, and sanguinely hoped for an entire success, which would compensate so many delays and disappointments. Suddenly, from the crow's nest above, it was announced that ice, in a continuous and impenetrable field, unmoved from its winter station, occupied the whole breadth of the channel. In an hour they reached this barrier, which they found soft, porous, and what is termed rotten. Spreading all their canvass, they bore down upon it, and actually forced their way through a space of three or four hundred yards ; but there they stuck, and found their progress arrested by a fixed and impenetrable mass. From this point, during the whole season, the ships were unable to advance a single step. Nor had the crews any means of ex- erting their activit)^ except in land-journeys. Cap- tain Lyon undertook an expedition southward, to ascertain if any inlet or passage from sea to sea in this direction had escaped notice, The country, however, was so filled witli rugged and rocky hills, some a thousand feet high, and with chains of lakes in which much ice was floating, that he could not pro- RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 243 fogs nee a of ex- Cap- rd, to sea ill iintry, r hills, lakes 3t pro- ceed above seven miles. Though it was the begin- ning of September, the season was only that of early spnng; and the buds of the poppy and saxifrage were just unfolding, to be prematurely nipped by the fast-approaching winter. More satisfactory information was derived from another excursion made by Messrs. Reid and Bush- man, who penetrated sixty miles westward along the southern coast of Cockburn Island, till thev reached a pinnacle, whence they saw, beyond all doubt, the Polar ocean spreading its boundless ex- panse before them ; but tremendous barriers of ice filled the strait, and precluded all approach towards that great and desired object. It was now the middle of September, and the usual symptoms, of deer trooping in herds southward^ floating pieces of ice consolidating into masses, and the thin pancake crust forming on the surface of the waters, reminded the mariners, not only that they could hope for no farther removal of the obstacles which arrested their progress, Wk that they must lose no time in providing winter-quarters. The middle of the strait, at the spot where they had been flrst stopped, occurred as the station whence they would be most likely to push future discovery ; but prudence suggested a doubt, whether the ships, en- closed in this icy prison with such strong barriers on each side, might ever be able to effect their extrica- tion. It appeared, at all events, a serious considera- tion, that they might be shut up here for eleven months, surrounded by rocks and ice, amid the pri- vations of an Arctic v/inter. By returning to Igloo- lik, they would be ready to catch the earliest open- ing, which was expected to take place on the east- ern side, from whence a few days would then bring them to their present station. On the 30th October, by the usual operation of sawing, the ships were established in a harbour at Igloolik. The ensuing season was passed with tlie 244 RtcENT ririt fre- ledition. Japtaiu Lyon attempted to penetrate across Melville Penin- sula, but found the route so rugged and so barred by steep chains of mountains, that he was obliged to re- turn in nineteen days without any discovery, except of two rapid rivers falling into the sea near Igloolik. Lieutenant Hoppner accompanied a party of Esqui- maux to Cockburn Island, but could not penetrate to any distance inland. It was the 7th of August before they were able, by severe sawing, to reach the open sea ; by which time Captain Parry had renounced the hope of effecting any thing important during the short remnant of this season. He formed, however, a very bold plan, which was to bring aU the stores of the other vessel on board the Fury, and with it alone to brave a third winter in the Polar regions, hoping that the succeeding summer might be more propitious. But as he was preparing to carry this too daring pro- ject into effect, a report was made that symptoms of scurvy had broken out on several of the crew, whose physical strength appeared to be generally impaired by the two hard winters through which they had passed. This left no choice; and, in compliance with the general opinion of his officers, Captain Parry began his voyage homeward. The ships were drifted about in a stormy sea covered with ice for twenty- four days ; but, being at last favoured with a west- (?rly breeze, they crossed the Atlantic, and on the 10th of October, 1823, arrived in Brassa Sound, Shetland. After two successive years thus passed in the depths of the frozen world, whence not the faintest rumour of the expedition had reached Britain, its members were viewed almost as men risen from the dead. The bells of Lerwick were rung, and other extraordinary demonstrations of joy made on their arrival. In a few days they entered the Thames. Two attempts had thus been made, each to a cer- tain point successful, but both arrested much short cf the completion of the grand enterprise. The 256 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. government at home, however, were not willing to stop short in their spirited career. The western ex- tremity of Melville Island, and the strait of the Fury and Hecla, appeared to be both so blocked up as to afford little hope ; but Prince Reg-ent's Inlet, when explored during Captain Parry's voyage, had pre- sented, indeed, an icy barrier, but such as had so often given way suddenly and almost instantaneously, that its existence early in the season could not be con- sidered very alarming. A passage through this channel would bring the ships to the great sea bounding the northern coast of America, that had been seen from the strait of the Fury and Hecla, and along which Captain Franklin had partly sailed, and by which there was the fairest hope of reaching, by the most direct route, the waters of the great Pacific. To follow up these views, Captain Parry was again fitted out in the Hecla ; while, in the accidental ab- sence of Captain Lyon, the Fury was intrusted to Lieutenant, now Captain Hoppner, who had taken an active part in the operations of the last voyage. The expedition set sail from Northfleet on the 19th May, 1824, and was in Davis's Strait by the middle of June. As the season, however, chanced to be pe- culiarly rigorous, it was not till the 10th of Septem- ber, that, after repeated repulses and severe straining, they caught a view of the bold and magnificent shores of Lancaster Sound, in which a few solitary icebergs were floating. After this they thought themselves fortunate, when, by pushing their way through many miles of newly-formed ice, they reached Port Bowen in time to make it their winteiv quarters. The provision made during this winter for the physical well-being of the expedition was still more complete than in the former voyages. The heat of the cabins was kept up to between 50 and 60 degrees, and the seamen wore next the skin a clothing of fur, a substance which nature has endowed with a warmth RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. 267 lai' surpassing that of any liiiman fabric. Yet the deep monotony produced by the perfectly uniform aspect of external nature, instead of becoming less sensible by habit, was only the more painfully felt. As the Arctic theatre had lost its attraction. Captain Hoppner started the idea of masquerades, which were, perhaps, still more out of keeping with the place and persons ; but the sailors caught at it with })ieasure, and on these occasions all of them acted their part with great spirit, and with strict decorum. The salutary and steady influence of the schools was iigain revived, and the whole crew gave their pre- sence, either as teachers, scholars, or spectators. The spring was unusually favourable, and, with comparatively easy sawing of the ice, the navigators warped out to sea on the 19th July, 1825. As it ap- peared most desirable to coast southward along the western sliore of the i^iet, they stood across the bay, but were soon arrested by a continuous barrier of ice, which, however, left an open space on the opposite side. A fruitless attempt was now made to penetrate southward, the channel there being found to be equall)'^ impeded with ice ; hence it was judged ad- visable, with the view of seeking a less encumbered passage along the western shore, to stretch to the northward. An adverse gale, by which they were overtaken near the mouth of the inlet, now drove them eastward; but at last they regained their course, and soon came in view of the bold face of the Leopold Isles, the rocks of which rise in hori- zontal strata of limestone to the height of 600 or 700 feet, resembling a huge and impregnable fortress. Having touched at Cape Seppings, Captain Parry proceeded down the inlet, where he was no longer arrested by an unbroken barrier of ice. The sea, however, wa.3 still heavily encumbered by numerous small fragments, that were tossing about in every direction, and pressed upon the ships so hard, that tlie m.en wished for a contrary wind ; which, coming Y2 258 RECENT NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. from the south, would open and disperse the masses collected and driven against them by the north wind. In this anxious and precarious state, they worked slowly on till the 1st August, when they reached the latitude of 72° 42', longitude 91° 50'. Here Captain Parry, from the Hecla, saw the Fury receive a most severe shock by a large floe, that forced her against the grounded ice of the shore ; and tidings soon came, that she had been very sharply nipped, and was ad- mitting water copiously. The commander trusted that this would prove as harmless as the many shocks which this vessel had already endured ; that the water made its entry by means of the twisted position into which she had been thrown ; and that, when she was relieved from pressure, her leaks would close. But the next accounts were, that she could not be kept clear of water except by the action of four pumps, at which the whole crew, officers and men, were obliged to work. It became evident that the evils under which she laboured could only be dis- covered and remedied by the operation of heaving down, by which her position being reversed, the parts now under water would be exposed to view. This ex- pedient required a harbour, and there was none at hand ; however, something was formed, which resembled one, by connecting with anchors and bower-cables the grounded ice to the shore. Four days were spent in unlading the Fury of those ample stores with which she had been provided. The operation was interrupted, too, by a violent storm of snow ; while the external ice, being driven in, demolished, in a great measure, the slender bulwarks by which the vessel was secured. Her holds were filled with water, and every examination proved the damage of her hull to be still more serious than was at first apprehended. No means or prospect appeared, either of securing her in her present position, or of floating her to any known place of safety. In these circumstances. Cap- tain Parry, without expressing any opinion of his o h al S nasses wind, rorked led the laptain a most igainst L came, as ad- trusted shocks lat the osition len she [ close, not be of four d men, hat the be dis- heaving e parts 'his ex- thand; [embled cables e spent s with mwas while I a great vessel ler, and hull to lended. Icuring |to any ;, Cap- of his RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. 259 own, called for a report from Captain Hoppner and his principal officers, all of whom agreed " that an absolute necessity existed for abandoning the Fury.*' Signals, thereiTore, were immediately made to the officers and men to carry their clothes and effects on board the Hecla. The stores, from want of room, were necessarily abandoned along with the ship ; and barrels of beef, beer, biscuit, and other valuable articles of provision, were left exposed on those- savage and desolate shores, where they were unlikely to afford aid or benefit to any human being. After such a disaster, and the end of August being arrived, there was just time enough left to bring the Hecla home with a fair prospect of safety, — an event which was in due time accomplished. CHAPTER VHI. Recent Voyages towards the North Pole. Since the times of Hudson and Fothorby, during the lapse of more than a century, the attempt to reach and to cross the North Pole had not been re- sumed. The extraordinary zeal, however, which, in the early part of the reign of George HI., and under the patronage of that excellent monarch, was kindled in the cause of naval discovery, failed not to extend in every direction. Mr. Daines Barrington, distin- guished by the union of rank with scientific acquire- ments, espoused with ardour the belief that, in spite of every obstacle, the Pole of the earth might be reached, and various facts thereby brought to light, which at present are hid in mystery. He read to the Royal Society several papers on this subject, whicli were afterward reduced into a separate trea- 260 RKCENT POLAR VOYAGES* tise ; and that learned body, imbibing with zeal tho opinions of their eminent jissociate, solicited the Board of Admiralty to fit out an expedition which might attempt to realize this interesting object. The Earl of Sandwich, then at the head of the naval de- partment, entered with ardour into the Society's views, and drew up the plan of an expedition, which lie submitted to his majesty, assured of meeting witli his cordial concurrence. The intentions of govern- ment having now transpired. Captain John Phipps, afterward Lord Mulgrave, offered himself for the command, and was accepted. Two bomb-vessels, known under the rather odd names of the Race- horse and the Carcass, were selected, and stored witli an extra provision of wine, spirits, and whatever else could contribute to the comfort and health of the crews. The Carcass was commanded by Lieutenant Lutwidge, under whom Horatio Nelson, afterward so celebrated in the naval annals of Britain, served as cockswain. Other equipments were added, not hitherto customary in nautical expeditions. Those formerly fitted out in England were chiefly set on foot by mercantile bodies, who were content to combine geographical discovery with certain views of com- mercial advantage. The expeditions projected under the auspices of George IIL were the first which had the promotion of science for their sole object. Mr. Israel Lyons, an eminent astronomical observer, was employed by the Board of Longitude to supply the ships with suitable instruments ; they also sent two chronometers, constructed with the greatest care by Kendall and Arnold for measuring the distance from the first meridian, by difference of time. Mr. Cumming constructed a seconds-pendulum, fitted to determine the range of that instrument in high latitudes. Sir Joseph Banks and M. d'Alembert, drew up papers suggesting various scientific objects, respecting which observations would be desirable. The vessels were also supplied with Dr. Irving's ap- RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. 261 paratus for distilling fresh water from the sea, — an invention which, being then recent, excited much in- terest. ' Thus equipped, the expedition began to move On the 21st May, 1773 ; but being detained by contrary winds, could not quit the Nore till the 4th June. The last object seen on land was Whitby Abbey ; and Captain Phipps then steered into the mid-chan- nel of the German Ocean, endeavouring to avoid equally Norway and Shetland. In sixty degrees of latitude the sun set about twenty minutes past nine ; tlie clouds making a beautiful appearance by its re- flection from below the horizon. In latitude 66°, on the 19th June, that luminary, even at midnight, was still visible. Captain Phipps here undertook to make deeper soundings than were ever known to have been before attempted ; and with a very heavy lead he reached 780 fathoms. The temperature at that depth was 26° Fahrenheit, while in the air it was 48°. Trial was now made of Dr. Irving's ap- paratus, which was considered completely success- ful, inasmuch as it was found to produce a sufficient quantity of perfectly good water either for drinking or cooking, without any inconvenient expense of fuel. This favourable opinion has not been confirmed by nautical experience; and the practice, chiefly, we believe, from the quantity of fuel required, has never come into general use. On the 27th June, the navigators found themselves in the latitude of the southern part of Spitzbergen, without any appearance either of ice or land. On the 29th they saw the shore, and stood close in with it. This coast " appeared to be neither habitable nor accessible ; for it was formed by high barren black rocks, without the least mark of vegetation ; in many places bare and pointed ; in other parts co- vered with snow, appearing even above the clouds : the valleys between the high cliffs were filled witli snow and ice. The prospect would have suggested 202 RECENT POLAR YOYAOES. the idea of perpetual winter, liad not the mildness of the weather, the smooth water, hright sunshine, and constant daylight, given a eheerfuhiess and novelty to the whole of this striking and romantic scene." The mariners enjoyed fine weather in sailing along this bold and lofty coast, and measured the height of several of the mountains, one of which was fomid to be 4500 feet. On the 30th June they learned from the master of a Greenland vessel, that the ice lay sixteen leagues oif to the westward, and that one Dutch and two English ships had been lost in the course of the season. In the first days of July, Captain Phipps con- tinued to steer along the coast of Spitzbergen, pass- ing several Greenland ships busily engaged in the fishery. On the 4th he came to Magdalena Hoek, near which he landed, and began observations upon the variation of the compass, which were soon interrupted by a thick fog. Being informed by the Rockingham Greenland ship, that the ice was ten leagues off Hakluyt's Headland, he determined to steer for that north-western extremity of Spitzbergen. On the 5th, as he was avoiding certain islands off Danes Gat, something white was seen amid the mist, and a noise was heard as of surf breaking upon the shore. The commander, desiring the Carcass to keep close to him, determined to stand for it, and see what it was. Ere long, amid thick fog, the crews saw an object on their bow, partly black, and partly covered with snow, which they at first mis- took for islands, but which soon proved to be the main body of the ice, on which wind and sea were beating with violence, and from which they could not have escaped, except by constant change of tack, and by the utmost alertness of ofllcers and men. Captain Phipps, finding himself now upon the main northern ice, and being informed that it ex- tended, unbroken, to the north-west, determined to move eastward, — a direction seldom taken by th<» nil RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. 263 less of le, and ovelty cene." : alonp: ight of found id from ce lay at one in tlie )s con- 1, pass- in the Hoek, IS upon e soon by the ivas ten lined to ;bergen. inds off nid the ig upon Carcass r it, and og, the ck, and St mis- be the a were ly could oftacl;, en. lon the t it ex- lined to by th(* whale-fishers, and where he hoped to find some etual light of the northern sky. After passing Shetland on the 7th September, he met with a series of very heavy gales, during which he lost three boats, and was obliged to throw two guns overboard. However, having reached Or- fordness on the 24th, he proceeded without farther difficulty to the Nore. The result of this voyage, which was considered as having been made under fair and even favourable circumstances, tended altogether to chill the hopes of penetrating nearer to the great northern bounda- ries of the 3arth. It seemed that, from the eightieth degree, ice in one unbroken field stretched to the Pole, and that its margin presented an impenetrable wall to the navigators of the Greenland Sea. Dis- appointed hope was followed, as usual, by a suspen- sion of interest ; and the northern realms had sunk almost into oblivion, till the revival of the recent spirit of discovery. Public attention was first recalled to them by Mr. Scoresby, who, bred as a practical whale-fisher, had been nursed, as it were, amid the tempests and snows of the north, and had observed their aspects with an intelligent and scientific eye, very unusual amonj^ those who pursue so rough and bustling a trade. In 1806 this gentleman made the nearest approach to the Pole that has ever yet been fully authenti- cated ; for the statements of the Dutch, and other navigators, who boast of having gone much nearer, are subject to great doubt as to their observations of latitude. Mr. Scoresby was then acting as mate under his father, who commanded a Greefland ship. They at first proceeded by Jan Mayen into the west- "-- \ 268 RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. ern bight, where the seal-fishery is carried on ; but afterward they changed tlieir purpose, and came round to the whale-bijrht. They found the waters encumbered, even in a low latitude, by much broken ice, through which they made their way not without some danger. They then reached an open sea, so extensive that its termination could not be disco- vered, and it was believed to extend four or five hundred square leagues. On proceeding northward, however, they soon arrived at a very close conti- nuous field, consisting of bay-ice compacted by drift- ing fragments. They pushed their way througli it by the most laborious exertions, — towing, boring, warping, and mill-dolling — a process which consists in the use of a sort of battering-ram. Having thus opened a path across a very extended barrier, they came, almost beyond hope, to an open sea, which appeared nearly unbounded, having only the ice on the south and the land on the east. Their object was to catch whales ; and, following their primary purpose, they chose a west-north-west direction. Swiftly crossing the short meridians of this, parallel, they soon passed from the 10th degree of east to the 8th degree of west longitude. Their latitude was 79** 35', and the sea was still open on every side. As whales, however, were wanting, they changed their tack, and ran east-north-east about 300 miles, till they came to the 19th degree of east longitude ; and here they found themselves in lat. 81° 30', being a degree higher than Phipps had reached, and only about 500 geographical miles from the Pole. Had discovery been their object, they had now a brilliant opportunity; and neither master nor mate would have been insensible to the glory of acquiring en- larged knowledge of these utmost boundaries of the earth. But they had been fitted out by a mercantile body to bring home a cargo of whale oil, and this solid purpose could not be postponed to the most brilliant speculations of science. The sea lay vast Rrxr.NT POLAR VOYAGES. 209 i; but came kvaters )rokeu rithout sea, so clisoo- or five liwarcl, conti- y drift- 3Ugh it boring, onsists ig thus ;r, they , which ; ice on r object jrimary rection. )arallel, t to the e was Ide. As d their es, till e; and eing a d only Had rilliant would Ing en- of the tcantile id this most ly vast and open before them ; but, as it contained no wliales, it behooved them to steer their course backwards to- wards Hakluyt's Headland, in the vicinity of which they caught twenty-four of those valuable animals, flrom which were extracted 216 tons of oil. Mr. Scoresby indulged his curiosity by landing on some of the insular tracts which fill the depths of the Polar sea, and clambering up the lofty steeps which usually rise from their shores. Charles's Island, or Fair Foreland, at the north-west of Spitzbergen, was the first Arctic giound on which he landed ; but the fog soon spread so thick, that he could remark little except the immense multitude of birds which clustered aroimd the rocks and precipices. Afterward, in 1818, he landed near Mitre Cape, and undertook to reach the summit of that singularly insulated cliff of which it consists. Mucli of the ascent was over fragments of rock so loose, that the foot in walking slid back every step, and the party could make no progress but by the very laborious operations of running and leaping. The continuance of frost appears to cause this extraordinary decomposition of the rocky sub- stance. At one place they found a ridge so steep, that Mr. Scoresby could seat himself across it as on the back of a horse. They reached the summit, es- timated at 3000 feet high, about midnight, when the sun still shone bright on its snow-capped pinnacl(\ causing such a rapid dissolution, that streams of water were flowing around them. It is considered remarkable, that, in this frozen region, where, even at a moderate elevation, the mean annual temperature must be below the freezing point, the highest sum- mits should put off their winter-covering of snow, in which so many peaks, both of the temperate and of the torrid zones, are peipetually enveloped. It would appear, however, that during the short interval of continuous summer-day, the rays of the sun, beating perpetually on the mountain-tops, which are raised above the fogs that surround the watery surface. Z2 270 RECENT POLAR VOYAGED. produce a decree of lieat mucli greater tlian corres- ponds with the latitude. Hence the general average of the year, and especially the part which composes the long Arctic night, must be marked by a fearful depression. The view from this summit is described by Mr Scoresby as equally grand, extensive, and beautiful. On the east side were two finely-slieltered bays; while the sea, unruffled by a single breeze, formed an immense expanse to the west. The icebergs reared their fantastic forms almost on a level with the summits of the mountains, whose cavities they filled, while the sun illumined, but could not dissolve them. The valleys were enamelled with beds of snow and ice, one of which extended beyond reach of the eye. In the interior, mountains rose beyond mountains, till they melted into distance. The cloudless canopy above, and the position of the party themselves, on the pinnacle of a rock, surrounded by tremendous precipices, conspired to render their situation equally singular and sublime. If a frag- ment was detached, either spontaneously or by design, it bounded from rock to rock, raising smoke at every blow, and setting numerous other fragments in mo- tion, till, amid showers of stones, it reached the bot- tom of the mountain. The descent of the party was more difficult and perilous than the ascent. The stones sunk beneath their steps, and rolled down the mountain, and they were obliged to walk abreast, otherwise the foremost might have been overwhelmed under the masses which those behind him dislodged. Finally, to the astonishment and alarm of the sailors beneath, Mr. Scoresby and his companions, in a part of their descent, slid down an almost perpendicular wall of ice, and arrived in safety at the ships. The beach was found nearly covered with the nests of terns, ducks, and other tenants of the Arctic air, in some of which there were young, over whom the parents kept watcji, and, by loud cries and vehement ■""^ \m% H-m w-^ur ■*< ■ RECKNT POLAR VOVACES. 271 gfistures, sought to defend them ag^ainst tlie ji^ulls and otiier predatory tribes lioveriiijij around. Several sailors who had robbed tliese nests were followed to a considerable distance with loud and violent screams. ' Mr. Scoresby, also, in 1817, landed and made an excursion on Jan Mayen's land. The most striking feature was the mountain Becrenberg, which rears its head 6870 feet above the sea ; and, being seen to the distance of thirty or forty leagues, proves a con- spicuous landmark to the mariner. The first object which attracted the eye were three magnificent ice- bergs, which rose to a very great height, stretching from the base of Beerenberg to the water's edge. Their usual greenish-gray colour, diversified by snow- white patches resembling foam, and with black points of rock jutting out from the surface, gave them exactly the appearance of immense cascades, which in falling had been fixed by the power of frost. A party ascended a mountain which composed only the base of Beerenberg, yet was itself 1500 feet high. They were not long in discovering that the materials composing this eminence were entirely volcanic. They trod only upon ashes, slag, baked clay, and scoriae ; and, whenever these substances rolled under their feet, the ground beneath made a sound like that of empty metallic vessels or vaulted caverns. On the summit they discovered a spacious crater, about 600 feet deep, and 700 yards in diameter, the bottom of which was filled with alluvial matter, and which, being surrounded by rugged walls of red clay half- baked, had the appearance of a spacious castle. A spring of water penetrated its side by a subterranean cavern, and disappeared in the sand. No attempt was made to ascend Beerenberg, which towered in awful grandeur, white with snow, above the region of the clouds ; but at its feet was seen another crater surrounded by an immense accumulation of castel- lated lava. A large mass of iron was found, that had been smelted by the interior fires. The volcano 272 RKCENT POF.AR VOVAGF.S. t * was at this time entirely silent, Init Mr. Seoresby next year saw smok(; rising from it to a great height ; and tlie same phenomenon had, in 1H18, been dis- cerned by Captain Gilyott of the Richard, who even remarked a shining redness like the embers of a large fire. The most important discoveries, liowever, effected by Mr. Seoresby, took place in 1822, when he sailed in tlie ship Baffin, of 321 tons and 50 men, for the whale-fishery. He departed from Liverpool on the 27th March, "and on the 28th passed tlie Mull of Can- tyre, but immediately after encountered a violent gale, which, blowing on this dangerous coast, obliged him to take shelter for ten days in Loch Ryan. This interval of leisure was improved, according to his laudable custom, for purposes of scientific experi- ment; and in this instance he had particularly in view the improvement of the chronometers used in navigation. On the 8th April he again set sail; passed on the loth the dangerous rocks and islands of Skerivore, west of Tiree; and on the 11th, at noon, saw the island of St. Kilda. On the 11th, when only in lat. 04® 30', the cry was raised that ice was in sight, and the mariners were soon involved in its streams, accompanied with the usual dense and deep obscurity of Arctic fogs. On the morrow they were stopped by an extensive patch, which they spent several days in vainly attempting to double ; but at length, setting all sail on the ship, they made their way through it in the course of an hour. They now proceeded northward with a fair wind, observing the brilliant phenomenon of the Aurora Borealis, and seeing the ocean covered with large quantities of drift-wood. On the 25th April, in lat. 75®, they found themselves in the region of continued day; and being now in " a fishing latitude," took out their boats, coiled their lines, and prepared the harpoons, lances, and other apparatus. On the 27th they reached the 80th degree, and were within fc RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. 273 ten miles of Hakluyt's Headland without having yot felt any frost. Continuing to approach the VoU% Mr. Scoresby reached, on the 28th, the main northern ice at the same point where it had been found by Lord Mulgrave. He proposed to run along it to tlu; eastward, in hopes of reaching a good fishing station, but the state of the wind compelled him to turn in the opposite direction. On the 6th May the first whale was taken. On the 9th a heavy gale from the north-east produced symptoms of cold, similar to those felt in the extremity of an Arctic winter ; the skin adhering to metallic substances ; water spilt within three feet of the cabin fire converted into ice ; even a mug of good beer nearly frozen at the very foot of the stove. Mr. Scoresby's situation was painful; the sea was covered with such a dense stratum of frost-rime, reaching to the height of 50 feet, that nothing could be seen from the deck : and he could not guide the ship without mounting the topmast, where the view was clear, but the tempera- ture was from 3 to 8 degrees below zero, which the gale rendered most intensely piercing. Soon after, being involved in floating ice, he had a most diflficult course to steer, though he observes that, to a true navigator, the high exertion of nautical skill required to perform the continual evolutions and changes of course necessary amid floating ice, is productive of peculiar enjoyment ; and accordingly he extricated himself without any material damage. Mr. Scoresby, finding no whales in his present station, determined upon a change. For some time past, these high latitudes, probably in consequence of having been so longjished, had become nearly unproductive, and the only good cargoes were ob- tained by penetrating through the ice to the eastern shores of Greenland. A trip in this quarter coin- cided with another object in which Mr. Scoresby felt peculiar interest. I'he whole range of this coast was absolutely unknown, unless at a few points, 271 TIF.CENT POLAR \ OVAOlJ?*. which the DuUrh liiid uppioiurhcd and named ; and it formed a eontinuous Une willi tliut on which tiie colonies of Old Greenland, the subject of much in- terest and controversy, were supposed to have been situated. In this course Mr. Scorosby was amused by striking; instances of the refractive power of the Polar atmosphere, when acting upon ice and other objects discerned through its medium. The rugged surface assumed the forms of castles, obelisks, and spires, which here and there were sometimes so linked together, as to present the semblance of an extensive and crowded city. At other times it resembled a forest of naked trees ; and fancy scarcely required an effort to identify its varieties with the productions of human art ; — sculptured colossal forms, porticoes of rich and regular architecture, — even with the shapes of lions, bears, horses, and other animals. Ships were seen inverted, and suspended high in the air, and their hulls often so magnified as to resemble huge edifices. Objects really beneath the horizon were raised into view in a most extraordinary man- ner. It seems positively ascertained, that points in the coast of Greenland, not above 3000 or 4000 feet high, were seen at the distance of 160 miles. The extensive evaporation of the melting ices, with the unequal condensation produced by streams of cold air, are considered by Mr. Scoresby as the chief sources of this extraordinary refraction. It was on the 8th of June that, in 74^^ 6' north la- titude, a vast range of land was discovered, extend- ing from north to south, about ninety miles, and of which the most northerly point was concluded to be that named on the charts Gale Hamkes' Land, while the most southerly appeared to be Hudson's Hold- with-Hope. Mr. Scoresby's ambition, however, to mount some of its bold crags, which no European foot had ever trod, was defeated by the interposition of an impassable barrier of ice ; and a similar one RKCENT POLAR V()VA(JES. 275 having dosed in behind him, he was oblij^ed to sail bark and forwanl for sevoral days throujj^h a narrow chainiel. Ihuinjf this interval he liad a j^ood oppor- tunity of takinj? tlie boarinps and directions of thi?i ^reat line of eoast. The latitude, as given in the maps, was tolerably correct, and was indeed his only j(uide in tracinpr the positions; for the longitude, after the most careful observation, was found to differ seven degrees from the b(^st charts, and ten degrees from those usually supplied to the whale-fishers. This coast was generally mountainous, rugged, and baiTen, bearing much resemblance to that of Spitz- hergen, though less covered with snow. It could not he fully ascertained whether some low ground might not be interposed between the sea and the mountains ; but their aspect, and the general analogy of the Arc- tit! shores, suggested the idea tliat these mighty cliffs (lipped perpendicularly into the waves. Mr. Scoresby followed the usual system of naming the prominent objects, either after persons eminent in science or after his private friends. The two prin- cipal bays or inlets were designated from Captain Kater and Sir Walter Scott ; while two spacious fore- lands or projecting peninsulas, the former supposed to be an island, were assigned to Dr. Wollaston and {Sir Everard Home. Other bays and capes were be- stowed upon Sir Thomas Brisbane, Dr. Brinkley, Colonel Beaufoy, Dr. Holland, Mr. Herschel, and some of the author's personal friends. Afterward, obtaining the view of some smaller bays to the south, he was enabled thus to compliment Sir George Mac- kenzie, Sir Charles Giesecke, Baron Humboldt, M. de la Place, and M. Freycinet. Mr. Scoresby now made a movement eastward in search of whales, of which he found no traces in the vicinity of land. This change of purpose was attended with a very distressing circumstance. Wil- liam Carr, one of his most expert harpooners, and a line active fellow, had struck a whale, which flew off 2t6 RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. with such rapidity, that the line was jerked out of its place, and threatened the sinking of the boat. Having snatched the rope to replace it in the proper position, he was caught by a sudden turn, instantly dragged overboard and plunged under water to rise no more. The boat having at once righted itself, the sailors looked round and asked, " Where is Carr 1" One man only had seen him disappear, but so instan- taneously, that he had merely missed the object, without being able to say how. The distress and agitation of the survivors afforded the stricken whale a respite, of which he availed himself to effect his escape. Mr. Scoresby, deeply distressed, took the opportunity next Lord's day of calling the attention of his crew to their own most important interests, and to their preparation for such a catastrophe as had befallen their comrade ; on which occasion ali the sailors seemed much affected. About a month was passed in searching for whales at a little distance from the shore, and several of these animals, as well as narwals, were taken ; but as they ceased to appear, it was resolved again to stand in for the land. On the 19th July the navi- gators came in view of a range of coast, of a very bold and peculiar character, extending about forty miles. It presented a mountain-chain from three to four thousand feet high, rising at once from the beach in precipitous cliffs, which terminated in num- berless peaks, cones, and p)rramids, with sharp and rugged rocks everywhere jutting out from their sides. From one of the mountains rose six or seven tall parallel chimneys, above each other; one of w*hich, crowned with two vertical towers, was called Church Mount. This coast received the name of Liverpool ; while to the mountains was given that of Roscoe. The range of shore terminated at Cape Hodgson; beyond which, however, steering south-west, they descried three other promontories, to which were successively given the names of Cape Lister, Cape ' r RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. 277 erked out of of the boat, in the proper um, instantly water to rise ited itself, the 2re is Carr?" but so instan- d the object, ; distress and tricken whale to effect his sed, took the the attention ant interests, latastrophe as h occasion ali ing for whale 9 ind several of tre taken ; but ved again to Fuly the navi- ast, of a very T about forty from three to nee from the lated in num- th sharp and m their sides. or seven tall ne of which, lalled Church >f Liverpool; t of Roscoe. )e Hodgson; .-west, they which were iLister, Cape Svvainson, and Cape Tobin. Here Mr. Scoiesby took, for the first time, the oppo tunity of landing, when he found the beach much lower than that farther to the north, and consisting in a great measure of loose stony hills. After some examination, he came, near Cape Swainson, to an enclosure formed by pa- rallel walls, similar to those which the Esquimaux construct for their summer huts, and within which were hollow structures like bee-hives, such as they use for stores. A narrow scrutiny showed remains of fuel, charred drift-wood, half-burned moss and ashes ; which last was considered as indicating the place to have been occupied at no distant period. There were also found instruments of wood and bone, one of them tipped with iron. Resuming their course at sea, and still holding south-westward, there now appeared a spacious inlet, to which, in looking upwards, no termination could be seen. Mr. Scoresby, while penetrating this inlet, discovered another sound branching to the northward, behind the Liverpool coast, and supposed to form it into an island. The opposite shore of this entrance w^as named Jameson's Land, from the eminent pro- fessor of natural history at Edinburgh. Beyond Cape Hooker, the southern point of Jameson's Land, another large inlet stretched towards the north, to which was given the name of Captain Basil Hall. It had every appearance of convertirg Jameson's Land also into an island. The coast to the westward of this last approach received the name of Milne's Land. Between Cape Leslie, the northern point of Milne's Land, and Cape Stevenson, on the opposite shore, the original opening continued to stretch into the interior, without any appearance of a termination. Combining this observation with the position of Jacob's Bight in the same latitude on the western coast, which Sir Charles Giesecke traced to the lieight of 150 miles, where it opened into a sort of inland sea, there appeared a strong presumption, that, A a 278 RECENT POLAR VOYAGED. instead of the continuous mass of land which oui* maps represent, Greenland composes only an im- mense archipelago of islands. To this great inlet, the entrance of which was bounded by Cape Tobin on the north, and Cape Brewster on the south, Mr. Scoresby gave the name of his father, though poste- rity will probably be apt to associate with himself the name of " Scoresby's Sound.*' These coasts, especially that of Jameson's Land, were found richer in plants and verdure than any others seen by our navigator within the Arctic circle, and almost meriting the appellation of Greenland. The grass rose in one place to a foot in height, and there were meadows of several acres that appeared nearly equal to any in England. Nowhere could a human being be discovered; but everywhere there were traces of recent and even frequent inhabitation. At the foot of a range of cliffs, named after Mr. Neill, secretary to the Wernerian Society, were several hamlets of some extent. The huts appear to have been winter-abodes, not constructed of snow slabs like those of the Esquimaux of Hudson's Bay, but resembling those of the Greenlanders, dug deep in the ground, entered by a long winding passage or funnel, and roofed with a wooden frame overlaid with moss and earth. The mansion had thus the appearance of a slight hillock, and seemed quite an underground habitation. Near the hamlets were excavations in the earth, serving as graves, where implements of hunting, found along with the bones of the deceased, proved the prevalence here of the general belief of savage nature, that the employments of man in the future life will exactly resemble those of the present. There was one wooden coffin, which the author was willing to believe might mark a rem- nant of European colonization. It was thought sin- gular, that the dwellers on this coast should have been "recently so numerous, and yet not one of them left ; but probably these were winter-quarters, while RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. 279 during tlie summer the natives had repaired into tlic interior, where they might find those land-animals which retreat to the southward during the more rigorous season. On emerging from this large sound and proceeding southward, Mr. Scoresby discovered another conti- nuous range of coast, which afforded to him a bay to be named after Mr. Wallace, and three capes after Messrs. Russell, Pillans, and Graham, eminent pro- fessors in the university of Edinburgh ; also an island named after Captain Manby; another after Dr. Henry, and a cape after Mr. Dalton, two distin- guished chemists at Manchester; also another cape after Dr. John Barclay of Edinburgh. Disappointed as to any appearance of whales on this coast, Mr. Scoresby again steered out to sea and to the northward. Icebergs surrounded him, amount- ing at one place to the number of five bundled. This course brought him in a few days within sight of lands stretching more northerly than those recently surveyed, and connecting them with the others which he had first discovered. There appeared two large territories, seemingly insular, to wliich were given the names of Canning and Traill. Between them was a most spacious inlet, honoured with the name of Sir Humphrey Davy. On penetrating this open- ing there arose several points of land, probably islands, which afforded a range of mountains, made commemorative of Werner, the celebrated geologist ; a smaller ridge was assigned to Dr. Fleming ; after which were appropriated Capes Biot, Buache, Carne- gie. He landed on Traill Island, and with incredible toil clambered to the top of a hill, where he hoped to have found a small plain containing a few speci- mens of Arctic vegetation; but this summit was steeper than the most narrowly-pitched roof of a house, and, had not the opposite side been a little smoother, he would have found much difficulty in gliding down. Beyond Traill Island, and separated 280 RECKNT POLAR VOYAGES. from it by a considerable inlet named after Lord Moimtnorris, was another coast ; the pointed extre- mity of which received the name of Captain Parry. This promontory being at no great distance from Cape Freycinet, which had been seen in the first sur- vey, there was thus completed the observation of a range of four hundred miles of coast, formerly known only by the most imperfect rumours and notices, and which might therefore be strictly considered as a new discovery. Mr. Scoresby afterward approached more closely to Canning Island, and penetrated a sound between it and the main, connected apparently with Hurry's Inlet, and where he gave names to Capes Allan, Krusenstern, and Buch. Our navigator would have been happy to examine more of the Greenland coast, having on one occasion had a fair prospect of being able to run southward to Cape Farewell ; but the ship was not his own, and his destination being to catch whales, compelled him to turn in another direction. He had met hitherto with much disappointment in this pursuit ; and, the season being far advanced, was apprehensive of being obliged to return with a deficient cargo. But on the 15th of August numerous whales appeared round the ship : of these five were struck and three * taken, which at once rendered the ship full-fished, and placed him among the successful adventurers of the year. He could return, therefore, with satisfactory feelings ; and the pleasure of the voyage homeward was only alloyed by the occurrence of a violent storm off Lewis, in which Sam Chambers, one of the most esteemed of his sailors, was washed overboard. To these discoveries of Mr. Scoresby some addi- tions were made next year by Captain Clavering, who was employed by the Admiralty to convey Cap- tain Sabine to different stations in the Arctic sea, for the purpose of making observations on the compara- RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. 281 examine live length of llie pendulum as affected by the prin- ciple of attraction. Captain Clavering sailed on the ,3d May (1823), and on the 2d June arrived at Hammerfest, where he landed Captain Sabine with the tents and instru- ments. The observations being comp eted, he sailed on the 23d, reached the northern coast of Spitzber- gen, and fixed on a small island between Vogel Sang and Cloven CHff for farther scientific operations. While Captain Sabine was employed upon the island, he endeavoured to push into a more northern lati- tude ; but after great exertion, he could not reach beyond 80° 20'. Accompanied by the former, whom he had now rejoined, and whose observations were completed, he left this coast on the 22d July, and steered for the eastern shores of Greenland, of which he came in view on the 6th August. The scene ap- peared the most desolate he had ever beheld. The mountains rose to the height of several thousand feet, without a vestige of vegetation, or the appear- ance of any living creature on the earth or in the air. Even the dreary waste of Spitzbergen appeared a paradise to this. He landed Captain Sabine and the scientific apparatus on two islands detached from the eastern shore of the continent, which he called the Pendulum Islands, and of which the out- ermost point is marked by a bold headland, rising to the height of 3000 feet. While Captain Sabine was employed in his course of observations. Captain Clavering surveyed a part of the coast which lay to the northward, being the first which Mr. Scoresby saw. It was at some dis- tance, with an icy barrier interposed ; but was found indented with deep and spacious bays, suspected even to penetrate so far as to convert all this range of coast into a cluster of large islands. The inlet, which the former navigator had assigned to Sir Walter Scott, was believed by Clavering to be that discovered by the Dutch mariner Gale Hamkes j Aa2 282 RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. i i but we have not ventured to remove tliis last from the more northerly position fixed by Mr. Scoresby. Other openinfrs which occurred in proccedingr to- wards the north were named, by the Captain, Boos- ter's Bay, Ardincajjle, and Roseneath Inlets; and he saw bold and high land still stretching in this di- rection as far as the seventy-sixth degree of latitude. In regard to the natives, Captain Clavering was more fortunate than his predecessor, who saw only their deserted habitations. On landing at a point on the southern coast of Sir Walter Scott's Inlet, he received intelligence of Esquimaux having been seen at the distance of a mile, and hastened ihither with one of his officers. The natives on seeing them immediately ran to the top of some rocks ; but the English advanced, made friendly signs, depo- sited a mirror and a pair of worsted mittens at the foot of the precipice, and then retired. The Esqui- maux came down, took these articles, and earned them away to the place of their retreat ; but they soon allowed the strangers to approach and accost them, though their hands when shaken were found to tremble violently. By degrees confidence was es- tablished, and they followed the English to their own tent, five feet high and twelve in circumference, composed of wood and whalebone. Their aspect and conformations, their boats and implements, ex- actly corresponded to those observed by Captains Parry and Lyon in Hudson's Bay. A child, after being diligently cleared of its thick coating of dirt and oil, was found to have a tawny copper-coloured skin. The natives were astonished and alarmed be- yond measure by the effect of firearms. A seal being shot, one of them was sent to fetch it. He examined it all over till he found the hole made by the ball, when, thrusting his finger into it, he set up a shout of astonishment, dancing and capering in the most extravagant manner. Another was p>re- vailed upon to fire a pistol ; but instantly on hearing the renort, '^•^•^'•♦p^ nnd ran back into the tent. ,% RECENT POLAK VOYAGES. 383 The observations were not completed till the be- ginning of September, when ilic season was too late to allow Captain C/lavering to gratify his wish of making a run to the northward. Nor did he extri- cate himself from the ice without some severe shocks; yet, after spending six weeks at Dron- theim, he entered the Thames in the middle of De- cember. We have departed somewhat from the regular order of time, for the purpose of giving in a con- nected view the observations and discoveries of Mr. Scoresby, and the additions to them by Captain Cla- vering. Meantime, however, another grand attempt had been made to explore the depths of the Polar sea. Combined with Captain Ross's mission in search of the north-west passage, the Dorothea and Trent were placed under the command of Captain Buchan, with the view ot pushing direct to the Pole, and endeavouring not only to reach that grand bomi- dary, but to pass across it to India, — a voyage which, from the relative position of these t#o parts of the globe, would have been much shorter by this route than by any other. It was contended by the sup- porters of this undertaking, that the failures of Hud- son, Fotherby, and Phipps had occurred in conse- quence of their being entangled in the winding shores and bays of the northern coast of Spitzbergen ; that the production of ice took place chiefly in the neigh- bourhood of land : and that, by keeping decidedly in the midst of the ocean-channel, navigators would, instead of a boundless and unbroken field, find an open and navigable sea. Captain Buchan having set out early in the season of 1818, came on the 27th May in view of Cherie Island. Without pausing there, he stretched along the western coast of Spitzbergen, to the eightieth degree of north latitude, where he encountered a se- vere storm, which separated his vessels for a time, and obhged them to seek slielter in Magdalena Bay. 284 RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. On the 10th June lie met several Greenland ships, and was informed by the masters, that in the great sea to the westward, to which he had looked with the greatest hope, the ice was completely impene- trable. He determined, therefore, to turn Hakluyt's Headland, and proceed north-eastward in the track ultimately followed by Lord Mulgrave. On his way he was soon completely beset, being hemmed in by fields of ice ten or twelve miles in circumference, amid which icebergs rose in the rudest and most fan- tastic forms, appearing like specks in a boundless plain of alabaster. On the 26th June the navigatoi^ reached Fair Haven, situated between Vogel Sang and Cloven Cliff. Being detained here for some time, they found numerous herds of the walrus and the deer, and killed, after hard combats, several of the former, one weighing a ton ; while of the latter they despatched with ease from forty-five to fifty, the average weight of which was 1201bs. Being at length unable to move forward, they reached the la- titude of 80° 132', where they were beset for three weeks. On the 29th July, the Dorothea was again brought into open water ; but on the 30th she was exposed to a tremendous gale, which blew her upon the main body of the ice, with a force which she was unable to resist. In this awful situation, the crew, having no time to deliberate, determined to turn the helm so that the wind might drive the ship's head into the ice, where, it was possible, they might find a secure lodgement even amid this fearful tem- pest. The helm was so placed ; and a solemn awe impressed the mariners during the few moments which were to decide, whether the Dorothea was to be safely moored, or to be dashed to pieces. She struck with a terrible shock, which was repeated frequently in the course of half an hour. By that time she had forced her way more than twice her own length into the body of the ice, where she remained immoveably fixed. Bj^-and-by the gaj^ \ n d RECENT POLATl VOYAOES. 285 moderated, and she was again brought into an open sea ; but she had been so shattered, and the water entered by such numerous leaks, that scarcely any effort could preserve her from sinking. Next morning, however, being fine, the crew with much difficulty worked her round to the harbour of Smee- renberg. There she was so far refitted as to be able, in the beginning of September, to take the sea, and on the 10th October came in view of the coast of England, near Flamborough Head. No farther attempt was made to reach the Pole in ships ; but, after a certain interval, a plan was de- vised to push towards that grand boundaiy in vehicles wafted over the frozen surface of the ocean. It was Mr. Scoresby by whom this scheme was first sug- gested. In a memoir read to the Wernerian Society, he endeavoured to prove that such a journey was neither so visionary nor so very perilous as it might appear to those who were unacquainted with the Arctic regions. The Polar Sea in some meridians would, he doubted not, present one continued sheet of ice ; the inequalities of which, if tolerably smooth, would oppose no insurmountable barrier. Intervals of open water would be more troul^lesome ; yet the vehicle, being made capable of serving as a boat, might either sail across, or make a circuit round them. This conveyance, he remarked, ought to be a sledge formed of those light materials used by the Esquimaux in the construction of their boats, and drawn either by reindeer or dogs. The former ani- mals are so fleet, that, in favourable circumstances, they might go and return in a fortnight, while the best dog-team would require five or six weeks ; the latter, however, would be more tractable, and better fitted for skimming over thin or broken ice. Though the cold would be very severe, yet as no very alarming increase occurred between the seventieth and eightieth degrees of latitude, there was little ground to apprehend that in the other ten degrees, 280 nrCENT POLAR VOYAOFjS. reaching to the Polo, it should become insupportable?. For provisions were rec^ommended portable soups, potted meats, and other substances, which, with little weight, contained much nourishment. These suggestions did not for a considerable time attract attention ; but at length Captain Parry, after his three brilliant voyages to the north-west, finding reason to suspect that his farther progress in that direction was hopeless, turned his enterprising views elsewhere, and conceived the ambition of penetrating over the frozen sea to tlie Pole. Combining Mr. Scoresby's ideas with his own observations, and with a series of reflections derived by Captain Franklin from his extensive experience, Captain Parry formed and submitted to the Lords of the Admiralty the plan of an expedition over the Polar ice. Their Lord- ships, having referred this proposal to the council and committee of the Royal Society, and received a favour- able report as to the advantages which science might derive from such a journey, applied themselves with their usual alacrity to supply the Captain with every thing which could assist him m this bold undertaking. The Hecla was employed to carry him as far as a ship could go, and with her were sent two boats, to be dragged or navigated, according to circumstances, along the unknown and desolate expanse between Spitzbergen and the Pole. These boats, being built of successive thin planks of ash,»fir, and oak, with sheets of water-proof canvass and stout felt inter- posed, united the greatest possible degree of strength and elasticity. The interior was made capacious and flat-floored, somewhat as in troop-boats, and a runner attached to each side of the keel fitted them to be drawn along the ice like a sledge. Wheels were also taken on board, in case their use should be found practicable. * The adventurers started early. On the 27th March, 1827, they were towed down the river by the Comet steamboat, and on the 4th April weighed from the RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. 287 Nore« On the 19th they entered the fine harbour of Hammerfest in Noi-way, where they remamed two or three weeks, and took on board eight reindeer, with a quantity of picked moss for their provender. Quitting Norway on the Uth May, they soon found themselves among the ice, and met a number of whale-ships. On the 13th they were in view of Hakluyt's Headland, when the Captain endeavoured to push his way to the north-east in the track of Phipps. The vessel, however, was soon completely beset, and even enclosed in a large floe, which carried her slowly eastward along with it. As every day was now an irretrievable loss. Captain Parry became impatient in the extreme, and formed a plan to push off northward, leaving the ship to find a har- bour for herself, where he trusted on his return to trace her out. But the survey of the route in the proposed direction was most discouraging. In con- yequence of some violent agitation in the preceding season, the ice had been piled up in innumerable hummocks, causing the sea to resemble a stone-ma- son's yard, except that it contained masses six times larger. This state of the surface, which would have rendered it impossible to drag the boats more than a mile in the day, was found to prevail for a considera- ble space with little interruption. The current mean- time continued to carry the ship, with the floe to which it was attached, slowly to the eastward, till it brought her into shoals in the vicinity of ice, where she grounded in six fathoms ; after which Captain Parry felt it quite out of the question to leave her till she was lodged in a secure harbour. He worked on gradually, however, to the east and north, passing Walden Island, and obtaining a full view of the Seven Islands ; but here the sea was covered with one unbroken land floe attached to all the shores, which destroyed every hope of finding a harbour among these islands. No choice was then left but to steer back for the coast of Spitzbergen, where he 288 KECLNT raLAU VUVAULS. unexpectedly lijrhUMl on a very (^xcx'llent hiiibuur, named by him Ilecla Cuvc, and which proved lo ho part of the bay to which an old Dutch chart had given the name of Treurenberjj. It was now the 20th of June, and the best of the season had been spent in beating backwards and forwards on these ice-bound shores ; he therefore resolved, without farther delay, to prosecute the main object of his enterprise. Scarcely hoping to reach the Pole, he determined, at all events, to push as far north as possible. lie took with hhn seventy one days' pro- vision, consisting of pemmican, (beef dried and poimded), biscuit, cocoa, and rum. Spirits of wuie, as the most portable and concentrated fuel, was alone used for that purpose. There were provided changes of warm clothing, thick fur-dresses for sleep- ing in, and strong Esquimaux boots. The reindeer and also the wheels were given up at once as altogether useless in the present rugged state of the ice ; but four sledges, constructed out of the Esquimaux snow-shoes, proved very convenient for (fragging along the baggage. On the 22d June the expeditionary party quitted the ship, and betook themselves to the boats amid the cheers of their associates. Although all the shores were still frozen, they had an open sea, calm and smooth as a mirror, through which they sailed slowly but agreeably with their loaded vessels. After preceeding thus for about eighty miles, they reached, not as they had hoped, the main body of the ice, but a surface intermediate between ice and water. This could neither be walked nor sailed over, but was to be passed by the two methods alternately. However, on such a strange and perilous plan it be- hooved them to land, in order to commence their laborious and monotonous journey towards the Pole. Captain Parry describes in an interesting manner the singular mode of travelling to which they were compelled to adhere. The first step was to convert RECENT POLAR VOYAGES 289 night into day ; to bcffin their journey in the evoninp itnd end it in the morninp. Tlius, while they had quite enou|?h of lifjht, they avui '«vl the snow-glare and the blindness which it usually produces ; they had the ice drier and harder iHwiojitn thejii { nndthey enjoyed the greatest warnit^i, wlun if was most wanted, during the period of sk rn : they were only a little annoyed by frequent and dvuHfT fogs. Thus their notions of night and day b(H*ame inverted. They rose in what they called the morning, but which was really late in tlie evening, and having performed their devotions, breakfasted on warm co- coa and biscuit. They then drew on their boots, usually either v/ct or hard frozen ; and which, thougli perfectly dried, would have been equally soaked in fifteen minutes. The party then travelled five or six liours, and a little after midnight stopped to dine. They now performed an equal journey in what was (tailed the afternoon ; and in the evening, that is, at an advanced morning hour, halted as for the night. 'J'hey then applied themselves to obtain rest and comfort, put on diy stockings and fur-boots, cooked something warm for supper, smoked their pipes, told over their exploits, and, forgetting the toils of Iho day, enjoyed an interval of ease and gayety. Then, wrapping themselves in their fur-cloaks, they lay down in the boat, rather too close together perhaps, but with very tolerable comfort. The sound of a bugle roused them at night to their breakfast of cocoa, and to a repetition of the same round. The progress for several days was most slow and laborious. The floes were small, exceedingly rough, and with interposed lanes of water, which could not be crossed without unloading the boats. It was commonly necessary to convey these and the stores by two stages, when the sailors, being obliged to re- turn for the second portion, had to go three times over the same ground ; sometimes they were obliged to make three stages, and thus to pass over it five Bb 290 RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. times. There fell as imicli rain as they had expe- rienced during the whole course of seven years in a lower latitude. A great deal of the ice over which they travelled was formed into numberless irregular needle-like crystals, standing upwards, and pointed at both ends. The horizontal surface of this part had sometimes the appearance of greenish velvet, while the vertical sections, when in a com- pact state, resembled the most beautiful satin-spar, and asbestos when going to pieces. These peculiar wedges, it was supposed, were produced by the drops of rain piercing through the superficial ice» The needles at first afforded tolerably firm footing ; but becoming always more loose and moveable as the summer advanced, they at last cut the boots and feet as if they had been penknives. Sometimes, too, there arose hummocks so elevated and rugged that the boats could only be borne over them, in a di- rection almost perpendicular, by those formidable operations called "a standing pull and a bowline haul." The result of all this was, that a severe ex- ertion of five or six hours did not usually produce a progress of above a mile and a half or two miles, and that in a winding direction ; so that, after having entered upon the ice on the 24th June, in latitude 81 degrees 13 minutes, they found themselves on the 29th only in 81 degrees 23 minutes, having thus made only about eight miles of direct northing. Captain Parry soon relinquished all hope of reaching the Pole ; however it was resolved to push on as far as possible. The party came at length to somewhat smoother ice and larger floes, and made rather better progress. While the boats were landing on one of these, the commander and Lieutenant Ross usually pushed on to the other end to ascertain the best course. On reaching the extremity, they commonly mounted the largest hummock, whence they beheld a scene of which nothing could exceed the dreariness. The eye rested oniy upon ice, and a sky hid in dense and dis. RECENT rOLAU VOYAGES. 291 111 a com- mal fogs. Amid this scene of inanimate desolation, the view of a passing bird, or of ice in any peculiar shape, excited an intense interest, which they smiled to recollect ; but they were principally cheered by viewing the two boats in the distance, the moving figmes of the men winding with their sledges among the hummocks, and by hearing the sound of human voices, which broke the silence of tliis fio- ztii wilderness. The rain, and the increasing warmth of the season, indeed gradually softened the ice and snow, but this only caused the travellers to sink deep at every step. At one place they sunk repeatedly three feet, and required three hours to make a hundred yards. As they halted on the eve- ning of the 5th July, the margin of the floe broke, nnd a bag of cocoa fell into the sea, but luckily alighted on a tongue of ice and was taken up.* At the same time pools and even lakes were formed on the frozen surface ; and though the peculiar blue of these superglacial lakes formed one of the most beautiful tints in nature, this w^as a poor compensa- tion for being obliged to make a great detour in order to avoid them. Still, amid all these diffi- culties, the floes became on the whole larger, the lanes of water longer, and the day's journey was gradually extended. Having attained 82 degrees 40 minutes, they began to hold it as a fixed point that their efforts would be crowned with success so far as to reach the eighty-third parallel. This hope seemed converted into certainty, when, on the 22d they had travelled seventeen miles, the greater pro- portion of which was directly north. But there now occurred an unfavourable change, which baffled all their toils and hopes. Down to the 19th the wind had * blown steadily from the south, and, without aiding * It may be mentiorud , that llift contents ot' the package here alluded to were found to be quile uninjured after this rude immersion, a pro- tt^ction ascribed to •' Mackintoshes water proof canvass," — a manufac- ture which, as a security for sea-stort'sJ, is mentitmed by Captain Parry in terms of the liighe:>t cutnincndation. 292 RKCENT POLAR VOYAGES. * them much, had at least checked the usual move- ment of the ice in that direction. On this last day, however, a steady breeze sprung up from the north, which opened, indeed, a few lanes of water ; but this it was feared could not compensate for the de- gree in which it could not fail to cause the loos- ened masses of ice, with the travellers upon them, to drift to the southward. This effect was soon found to take place to an extent still more alarming than had been at first anticipated. Instead of ten or twelve miles, which they reckoned themselves to have tra- velled northward on the 22d, they were found not to have made quite four. This most discouraging fact was at first concealed from the sailors, who only re- marked, that they were very long of getting to this 83d degree. The expedition was now fast approach- ing the utmost limits of animal life. During their long journey of the 22d they saw only two seals, a fish, and a bird. On the 24th only one solitary roige was heard; and it might be presumed that, from thence to the Pole, all would be a mighty scene of si- lence and solitude. The adventurers pushed on with- out hesitation beyond the realms of life ; but now, after three days of bad travelling, when their reckon- ing gave them ten or eleven miles of progress, observa- tion showed them to be four miles south of the posi- tion which they occupied on the evening of the 22d. The drifting of the snow-fields had in that time car- ried them fourteen miles backward. This was too much. To reach even the eighty-third degree, though only twenty miles distant, was now beyond the limits of hope. To ask the men to undergo such un- paralleled toil and hardship, with the danger of their means being exhausted, while an invisible power undid what their most strenuous daily labours achieved, was contrary to the views of their consi- derate commander. In short, he determined that they should take a day of rest, and then set out on their return. This resolution was communicated to the h RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. 293 rrew, who, though deeply disappointed at having achieved so little, acquiesced in the necessity, and consoled themselves with the idea of having gone farther north tlian any previous expedition of which there was a well-authenticated record. The return was equally laborious as the going out, and in some respects more unpleasant, from the in- creasing softness of the ice and snow; depriving til em of confidence in any spot on which they could place their boats or persons, and often sinking two or three feet in an instant. However, the drift southward made no longer any deduction from their progress, but added to it, every observation giving them several miles beyond their reckoning. There was more open water, and it was a relief to them that the sun in their nightly journeying was lower in the horizon ; while, being to the northward, he did not as, formerly, glare in their faces. They met several bears, and killed one, which was eagerly de- voured by the hungry crew ; but the meal was fol- lowed by such severe symptoms of indigestion as inspired an unfavourable opinion regarding the flesh of this animal. Captain Parry attributed the bad effects to the enormous quantity eaten. At length, on the 11th August, they heard the sound of the surge breaking against the exterior margin of the great icy field. They were soon launched on the open sea, and reached Table Island, where a supply of bread had been deposited ; but Bi-uin had discovered it, and devoured the whole. They found, however, some accommodations ; while the stores left at Wal- den's Island were still quite undisturbed. On the 2 1 st the navigators arrived in Hecla Cove, from whence, soon afterward, they sailed for England. Such was the result of the first and only attempt to penetrate to the Pole over the frozen surface of the deep. All the prowess, energy, and hardihood of British seamen were nxoi-tod to the utmost, with- out making even an approach towards the fulfil- '*^i 294 RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. I I I -Me I *«► inent of tlieii object. A failure so complete has suspended for the present every idea of resuming the project ; yet there seems nothing in the details just given to deter from the enterprise as impossible, or even to render it very unfeasible. The unfavour- able issue seems evidently owing to the advanced season of the year, when the thaw and consequent dissolution of the ice had made great progress, and all the materials of the great northern floor were broken up. The water, in its progressive conver- sion ftom solid into fluid, presented only a trea- cherous quicksand, in which the travellers sunk at every step, with the peril of being finally swallowed up. The ice in these intermediate stages of its tran- sition into water, and in tlic breaches and pressures to which this gave rise, assumed a variety of much more rugged forms, than when it was spread and fast bound over the surface of the ocean. Its ten- dency also when loosened to float to the southward, carrying witli it wliatcver is moving along its sur- face, inevitably defeats every attempt to proceed over it in a contrary direction. We entirely concur, therefore, in Mr. Scoiesby's opinion, that a depaiture much earlier in the season would be quite indis- pensable to give any chance of success. We would even go farther than he, and advise to start at the first dawn of the Polar day, when there would be a probable chance of returning by the end of June. The great plain of ice would be much smoother and much firmer at that than at any other season. It would be deeply covered with snow, which would fill various interstices, convert rugged steeps into sloping ridges, and produce a surface generally more level and uniform. This coating, too, would then be much harder, perhaps sufliicient to sustain the weight both of the men and boats, and afford every where sure and solid footing. Wheels, it is probable, might be employed with advantage, though wholly unfit for that rugged and sinking surface over which RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. 295 Captain PaiTy was obliged to tread. We are even inclined to ask, whether other machinery might not be beneficially introduced ] Could there not be con- structed a light portable bridge, to be thrown across chasms and from hummock to hummock, over which the keel of the boats by due adaptation might slide as on a railway, and the evils of friction be avoided? — The cold, doubtless, would be most extreme and intense ; but Captain Parry's experience and manage- ment during his four winterings seem to have re- moved every apprehension that it would prove fatal. The boats might be hermetically closed, with wind- ing entrances, like the winter-huts of the Esquimaux; and it was clearly established, that, even in the dark- est depth of the Polar winter, provided tempests did not fill the sky, it was possible and even most salu- tary, to perform brisk movements in the open air. The travellers would indeed require an addition to their spirituous fuel, not a weighty article ; also a larger stock of clothes; but these last it would be every way expedient to wear on their persons. The only circumstance which seems seriously alarming, is an observation made by Captain Parry, that the daily allowance of provision, amounting to ten ounces of biscuit and nine of pemmican, was not found suffi- cient to maintain the men in full vigour ; and truly, when contrasted with their severe toils, it does ap- pear an inadequate supply. It were dreadful indeed to think of sending a party to the Pole on short allow- ance. The quantity could not well be increased without making the drag too severe ; but we cannot help thinking that the victuals selected, fulfilled very imperfectly the obvious condition of being such as to comprise the greatest possible nutriment in the least possible bulk. Thus it seems unaccountable that the greater part of the food should have been farina- ceous, in the form of dry biscuit, which contains surely much less nourishment than the same weight of animal food. We pretend not to be at all versant **•- 290 RECENT POLAR VOYAGES. •~«., ill the mysteries of cookery; yet portjtble soup, for instance, might certainly have been so prepared us to inibody a much greater amount of nutritive sub- stance than mere dried and pounded beef; and, if duly seasoned, might have formed a most comfortable mess under the snows of the Pole. The addition of some rich cakes, cheese, and butter might seem likely to compose a store which, without exceeding in weight that of Captain Parry, would yield a much larger proportion of nourishment and strength. — We shoidd hesitate to recommend Mr. Scoresby's plan of being drawn to the Pole by reindeer, or even of trusting to a team of any description. These ani- mals would be liable to many casualties, and, should they break down at an advanced period of the route, the result might be disastrous in the extreme. This project would require, of course, that the ship should winter on the northern coast of Spitzbergen ; an arrangement, we conceive, indispensable to avoid that delay which had such an influence in frustrating the late expedition. We are surprised to find, that even Captain Parry, after so many successful winter- ings, considers this as a serious objection. In fact, on seeing it admitted, that before the close of autumn a ship might penetrate to 82°, and perhaps to 83°, we are tempted to ask whether a discovery-vessel might not, in the first season, push forward to that latitude, and find a station either in an island, if such should be found, as has been done before ; or, if not, whether it might not enclose itself within one of the great fields of ice, and there await the arrival of spring 1 A very considerable and probably the roughest por- tion of the Polar route would thus be avoided. A different principle from that above suggested has been proceeded upon by Captain Ross, in the Arctic expedition in which he is now engaged. By the power of steam, which has produced such wonders in modern navigation, he hopes to vanquish « NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. 297 the obstacles which have arrested in this career all former navigators. Steam, indeed, has no power against ice ; but if at any period of the season there should be found an open sea reaching to the Pole, a vessel thus propelled might in a week perform the voyage to and nrom that great boundary. The doubt whether the waters will ever open to such an extent, and the fear that, having opened and allowed the na- vigators to pass, the ice may close in behind them, cannot fail to suggest themselves to the reader's mind ; but we do not wish at present to indulge in unfavourable augury. Captain Ross makes this bold attempt solely upon his own resources, and doubtless with the view of effacing the error by which he relinquished to Cap- tain Parry the glory of penetrating by Lancaster Sound into the Polar ocean. He took his departure in the Spring of 1829. His vessel, it appears, suf- fered some damage in the Greenland sea, which 4ie was enabled to repair by the aid of a ship employed in whale-fishing. He proposed, it was understood, to v/inter in Spitzbergen, and in the course of the present summer to attempt the execution of his grand design. The issue, however, is not likely to be known in this country till a very advanced period of the season. CHAPTER IX. The Northern Whale-Fishery. We have formerly had occasion to notice the great number and stupendous magnitude of those animal forms with which nature has filled the abysses of the \rctic ocean. The cetaceous orders, whieli include the mightiest o'' living beings, belong peculiarly, and liiiiiwi^iuiBi' jii|i I uui«i»!*imiP^iin|i«i- .' -, 4. Gun Harpoon. i. *• - '■ •■ . ?.»C .': 3. Blubber Spade. 5. Lance, .**. A: *aio NOUTIIKUN WIIAMMISIIMIY. it, tlu; several parts Ikmii^ spliced together, so as lo form a continued line, nsually exceedinj^ foin tliou- sand foct in length, 'i'o the eratious. The first step is to form round the fish, between the neck and the fins, a circle called the keAt, around w^ch all proceedings are to be con- ducted. To it is fastened a machinery of blocks, im ■m- NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. 319 the i)oint sily read I (lis befoH! or a few iittack is ;k as deep ital parts. from his the sea to ometimes imal now it, at the kes a con- 8 tail high ;h is heard i^th, quite lelf on his hen taken (I the sur- ng the tail rtj passed, he fish to ed to the It ofjlens- ne. This, on it, may 1 a miicli )tain goes ith double the kings 56 office it nd stow it called the He cutting d the fish, called the o be con- of blocks, called the kent-pur(;]iase, by wliicli, witli the aid of a windlass, the body of the whale can be turned on all sides. The harpooncrs then, under the speck- sioneer's direction, begin with a kind of spade (fig. 3), and with huge knives, to make long parallel cuts from end to end, whicli are divided by cross-cuts into pieces of about half a toi; ' "lese are conveyed on deck, and, being reduced into smaller portions, are received by two kings, who stow them in the hold. Finally, being by other processes still farther divided, it is received into casks, and the packing completed by the instrument No. 2. As soon as the cutting officers have cleared the whole surface lying above water, which does not exceed a fourth oi" a fifth of the animal, the kent machineiy is applied, and turns the carcass round, till another part, yet untouched, is presented. This being also cleared, the mass is again turned, and so on, till the whole has been ex- posed, and the blubber removed. The kent itself is then stripped, and the bones of the head being con- veyed on board, there remains only the kreng, a huge heap of fleshy and muscular substance, which is abandoned, either to sink, or be devoured by the flocks of ravenous birds and sharks which duly attend on this high occasion. The blubber, now deposited in the hold, is by various processes cleared of its impurities, cut into small pieces, and deposited in casks. While the Dutcli establishment of Smee- renberg flourished, they extracted the oil in immense boilers, constructed there for this purpose ; but when the fishery was transferred to the icy banks iti the open sea, this operation was necessarily deferred till the cargoes were deposited in the Dutch or British ports. The success of the fishery varies with the spot in which whales are found. The most advantageous that the Greenland seas affi)rd has been considered to be on the border of those immense fields of ice, with which a great extent of them is covered. In 320 NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY the open sea, when a wliale is struck, and phinges beneath the waters, he may rise in any part of a wide circuit, and at any distance from the boats ; so that, before a second harpoon can be struck, he may plunge again, and by continued struggles effect his extrication. But in descending beneath these im- mense fields, he is hemmed in by the icy floor above, and can only find an atmosphere to breathe by returning to their outer boundary. The space in which he can rise is thus contracted from a large circle to a semicircle, or even smaller segment. Hence a whale in this position is attacked with much better chance of success ; even two may be pursued at the same moment, — a measure which, in the open sea, often involves the loss of both. In the flourish- ing state of the Dutch fishery, a hundred of their vessels have been seen at once ranged on the margin of one of those immense fields, along which the boats ^ formed so continuous a line that no whale could rise * without being immediately struck. This situation, at the same time, is attended with considerable danger from the disruptions and concussions to which these plains are liable. When the ship is surrounded with floating frag- ments of ice, the fishery, though difllcult, is usually productive. But the case is very different when these pieces are packed together into a mass im- pervious to ships or boats, yet leaving numerous holes or openings, through which the whale can mount and respire, without coming to the open margin, or within reach of his assailants. The fish- ers, when they see the whale blowing through one of these apertures, must aUght on the ice, and run full speed to the spot with lance and harpoon. At- tack in such circumstances, however, is both difll- cult and perilous ; and even when the whale is killed, the dragging of his body either under or over the ice to the ship is a most tedious and laborious task, which sometimes cannot be effected without cutting the carcass in pieces. NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. 321 When the great fields, in the progress of the sea- son, become open at various points, the fishery be- comes liable to thc'same evils as occur among packed ice. Still worse is the case when the sea is over- spread with that thin newly-formed crust called bay- ice. The whale easily finds or beats a hole through this covering, while neither can the boats penetrate, nor the men walk over it, without the most immi- nent danger. Yet Mr. Scoresby mentions a |4an by which he continued to carry on his movements, even over a very slender surface of bay-ice. He tied to- gether his whole crew, and made them thus walk in a long line one behind another. There never fell in above four or five at a time, who were easily helped out by the rest. The sufferers had a dram to tronsole them after their cold plunge ; and the com- pensation was considered so ample, that Jack was suspected of sometimes allowing himself to drop in with the view of being thus indemnified. Another grand distinction respects, first, the Green- land fishery, which, generally speaking, is that al- ready described, and is chiefly distinguished by the immense fields of ice which cover the ocean ; and, secondly, the Davis's Strait fishery, where that ele- ment appears chiefly in the form of moving moun- tains, tossing through the deep. This last is arduous and dangerous, but usually productive. It com- menced at a comparatively late period, since it is not mentioned by the Dutch writers prior to 1719 ; and Mr. Scoresby has been unable to ascertain the date when it was begun by the British. Within these few years it has experienced a remarkable ex- tension, of which a full account will be given in the course of this chapter. The dangers of the whale-fishery, in spite of the utmost care, and under the direction even of the most experienced mariners, ai» imminent and ma- nifold. < . U . M f The most obvious peril is that of the ship being 322 NORTHERN WHALE-FISHfeRY. beset and sometimes dashed to pieces by the approach and collision of those mighty fields and mountains of ice with which those seas are continually filled. The Dutch writers mention many of these ship- wrecks, among which the following are the most re- markable. -• ' " f Didier Albert Raven, in 1639, when on the bor- der of the Spitzbergen ice, was assailed by a furious tempest. Though the ship was violently agitated, he succeeded in steering her clear of the great bank, and thought himself in comparative safety, when there appeared before him two immense bergs, upon which the wind was violently driving his vessel. He endeavoured, by spreading all his sails, to penetrate between them; but in this attempt the ship was borne against one with so terrible a shock, that it was soon felt to be sinking. By cutting the masts the mariners enabled her to proceed ; yet, as she con- tinued to take in water, several boats were lamiched, which, being over-crowded, sunk, and all on board perished. Those left in the ship found their condi- tion more and more desperate. The forepart of the vessel being deep in the water, and the keel rising almost perpendicular, made it extremely diffi- cult to avoid falling into the sea ; while a mast, to which a number had clung, broke, plunged down, and involved them in the fate of their unfortunate companions. At length, the stern separated from the rest of the vessel, carrying with it several more of the sailors. The survivors still clung to the wretched fragments, but one after another was washed off by the fury of the waves, while some, half dead with cold, and unable to retain their grasp of the ropes and anchors, dropped in. The crew of eighty-six was thus reduced to twenty-nine, when the sliip suddenly changed its position, and assumed one in which they c#|ild more easily keep their foot- ing on board. The sea then calmed, and during the respite thus afforded they felt an irresistible pi\/- NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. proacli mtains filled. e ship- lost re- ^e bor- furious gitated, It bank, ^, when rs, upon el. He enetrate [lip was , that it e masts she con- lunched, m board ir condi- epart of he keel ely diffi- last, to down, rtunate d from lal more to the er was |me, half ;rasp of irew of , when ssumed ir foot- dming [bio \n\>* 323 pensity to sleep ; but to some it was the fatal sleep of extreme cold, from which they never awoke. One man suggested the construction of a raft, which was accordingly framed, contrary to the captain's advice ; happily, no sooner was it launched than the waves swallowed it up. The remnant of the vessel encountered next night another severe gale ; and the sufferings of the crew, from cold, hunger, and burn- ing thirst,' were so extreme, that death in every form seemed now to have encompassed them. In the morning, however, a sail was descried, their signals were understood, and being taken on board, twenty survivors, after forty-eight hours of this extreme distress, were restored to safety. In 1670 the Blecker (Bleacher), Captain Pit, was driven against the ice with such violence, that in an instant all her rigging was dashed in pieces. Soon after, twenty-nine of the crew quitted the vessel, and, leaping by the help of poles and perches from one fragment of ice to another, contrived to reach the main field. The captain with seven men re- mained on board, and endeavoured to open a pas- sage ; but soon after the ship again struck, when they were obliged to go into a boat, and commit them- selves to chance, the snow falling so thick that they could scarcely see each other. As the weather cleared, they discovered their companions on the ice, who threw a whale-line, and dragged them to the same spot. There, the party having waited twelve hours in hopes of relief, at length trusted themselves to the boats, and in twelve hours were taken up by a Dutch vessel. Captain Bille, in 1675, lost ii ship richly laden, which went down suddenly ; after which the crew wandered in boats over the sea for fourteen days before they were taken up. THirteen other vessels perished that year in the Spitzbergen seas. Three seasons afterward Captain Bille lost a second ship by the violent concussion of the ice, the crew having 324 NORTHEUN WHALE -FISHERY. just time to save thomselvt s on a frozen field. At the moment of their disaster they were moored to a large floe, along with another, a brig called the Red Fox; which last shortly afterward imderwent a similar fate, being struck* with such violence, that the whole, hull and masts together, disappeared almost in an instant, — the sailors, like Captain Bille's com- pany, having had merely time to leap on the ice. The united crews now adopted various plans ; some keeping their station, others setting out in boats in diiferenft directions ; but all, in one way or other, reached home. The same year the Concord went down in an equally sudden manner ; but the crew were happily taken up by n neighbouring ship. The whale-fishery is not more distinguished for examples of sudden peril and besetment than for unexpected deliverance from the most alarmhig situations. ^ Three Dutch ships, in 167G, after having completed a rich cargo on the northern coast of Spitzbergon, were at once so completely beset, that the crews in general urged the necessity of proceeding over the ice, and endeavouring to reach some other vessel. Ouvekees, however, captain of one of tlie three, strongly urged the obligation of doing all in their power to preserve such valuable property, and they agreed to make a farther trial ; when, in twenty days, ihe ice opened, and they had a happy voyage home- wards The Dame Maria Elizabeth, in 17C9, had set out early for the fishery, and was so fortunate as, by the 30th of May, to have taken fourteen whales. Then, however, a violent gale from the south blew in the ice with such violence, that the captain found him- self completely beset, and saw two Dutch vessels and one English go t#pieces at a little distance. At length a brisk gale from the north gave him the hope of being extricated ; when presently he was involved ill a dense fog, which froze so thick upon the sails NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. 325 At tOH Red nt a ,tthe most corn- ice. somt3 its in >thei% went crew 3d for m for rming . pleted lergjen, ws in er the three, their they days, ome- jt out )y the ^hen, In the him- !ssels At hope lolved sails and rigging, that the ship ypeared a mere floating^ ^ceberg. As the atmosphere cleared, the faint light, and the birds winging their way to the southward, announced the closing in of winter. Unable to make any progress, the seamen looked forward in despair to the prospect of spending the season in that frozen latitude. They had nearly come to the end of their provisions, and famine was already^faring them in the face, when they thought of broiling the whales' tails, which proved very eatable, and even salutary against the scurvj^ Thus they hoped to exist till the middle of February, beyond which the prospect was very dismal ; but on the 12th November there arose a violent north wind, which dispersed the ice. Their hopes being now awakened, every effort was strained ; and on the 18th a north-wester brought on so heavy a rain, that next day they were entirely clear of the ice, and had a prosperous voyage homeward. The year 1777 was one which exhibited, on the greatest scale, all the vicissitudes of this occupation. Captain Broerties, in the Guillamine, arrived that year on the 22d June at the great bank of northern Ice, where he found fifty vessels moored and busied in the fishery. He began it prosperously : the very next day indeed he killed a large whale. The day after, a tempest drove in the ice with such violence that twenty-seven of the ships were beset, of which ten were lost. Broerties, on the 25th July, seeing some appearance of an opening, caused the Guilla- mine to be warped through by the boats ; but, after four days' labour, she found herself, with four other ships, in a narrow basin, enclosed by icy barriers on every side. The captain, foreseeing the danger of permanent besetment, obliged the crew to submit to a diminution of their rations. On the 1st August the ice began to gather thick, and a violent storm driving it against the vessels, placed thein in the greatest peril for a number of days. On the 20th a dreadful gale arose from the north- £e * -^ -*.-, -T-»- ii-ii jyjp.u f'.vLi^nv^vW 326 NORTHERN WIIALE-FISHERV. east, in which the Guillamine suffered very conside- rable damage. In thr» awTul tempest, out of the five ships two went down, while a third had spnmg a number of leaks. The crews were taken on board of the two remaining barks, which they greatly in commoded. On the 36th all the three were com pletely frozen in, when it was resolved to send a party of twelvfe^en to seek aid from four vessels which a few dayl^ before had been driven into a sta- tion at a little distance ; but by the time of their arrival two of these had been dashed to pieces, and the other two were in the most deplorable condition. Two Hamburgh ships, somewhat farther removed, had perished in a similar manner. Meantime the former came in sight of Gale Hamkes' Land, in Greenland, and the tempest still pushing them gra- dually to the southward, Iceland at length appeared on their left. The two more distant ones, com- ^ manded by Dirk Broer and Roel of Meyer, found a little opening, through which they contrived to escape. The crews of the three others were beginning to hope that they might at last be equally fortunate, when, on the 13th September, a whole mountain of ice fell upon the Guillamine. The men, half naked, leaped out upon the frozen surface, saving with difficulty a small portion 6f their provisions. The broken remnants of the vessel were soon buried under enormous piles of ice. Of the two other ships, one commanded by Jeldert Janz had just met a similar fate, and there remained only that of Jans Castricum, to which all now looked for refuge. By leaping from one fragment of ice to another, the men, not without danger, contrived to reach this vessel, which, though in extreme distress, received 'them on board. Shattered and overcrowded, she was obliged immediately after to accommodate fifty other seamen, the crew of the Janz Christiaanz of Ham- burgh, which had just gone down, the chief har- pooner and twelve of the mariners having perished NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. 327 [)uside- the five ►rimg a I board ally in e com send a vessels o a sta- of their ces, and jndition. emoved, time the Land, in lem gra- appeared les, com- ', found a ;o escape. inning to brtunate, ntain of f naked, ng with ns. The buried wo other just met of Jans nge. By ther, the 3ach this received , she was fty other of Ham- jhief har- , perished These numerous companies, squeezed into the crazy bark of Castricum, suffer^ every kind of distress. Famine, in its most direful forms, began to stare them in the face. All remoter fears, however, gave wa)', when on the 11th October, the vessel went to pieces in the same sudden manner as the others, leaving to the unfortunate sailors scarcely time enough to leap upon the ice with their remaining stores. With great difficulty they reached a field of A>me extent, and contrived with their torn sails to rear a sort of co- vering ; but, sensible that, by remaining on this deso- late spot, they must certainly perish, they saw no safety except in scrambling over the frozen surface to the coast of Greenland, which was in view. With infinite toil they effected their object, and happily met some inhabitants, who received them hospitably, find regaled them with dried fish and seals' flesh. Thence they pushed across that dreary region, treated sometimes well, sometimes churlishly ; but by one means or other they succeeded at length, on the 13th March, in reaching the Danish settlement of Frede- rikshaab. Here they were received with the utmost kindness , and, being recruited from their fatigues, took the first opportunity of embarking for Denmark, whence they afterward sailed to their native country. The Davis's Strait fishery has also been marked with very frequent and fatal shipwrecks. In 1811 the Royalist, Captain Edmonds, perished with all her crew; and in 1817, the London, Captain Mathews, shared the same fate. The only account of either of these ships ever received was from Captain Ben- net of the Venerable, who, on the I5th April, saw the London in a tremendous storm, lying to wind- ward of an extensive chain of icebergs, among which, it is probable she was dashed to pieces that very evening. Large contributions were raised at Hull for the widows and families of the seamen who had suffered on these melancholy occasions. Among accidents on a smaller scale, one of the 328 NORTHERN WIIALE-FISHERV. most frequent i.s, that of boats employed in pursuit of the whale being overtaken by deep fogs or storms of snow, which separate them from the ship, and never allow tliem to regain it. A fatal instance of this kind occurred to the Ipswich, Captain Gordon ; four of whose boats, after a whale had been caught, and even brought to the ship's side, were employed on a piece of ice hauling in the line, when a storm suddenly arose,iiaused the vessel to drift away, anrl prevented her, notwithstanding the utmost efforts, from ever coming within reach of the unfortunate crews who composed the greater part of her esta- blishment. Mr. Scoresby mentions several casual- ties of the same nature which occuiTcd to his boats' companies, all of whom, however, in the end, hap pily found their way back. One of the most alarm ing cases was that of fourteen men who were left on a small piece of floating ice, with a boat wholly unable to withstand the surrounding tempest ; but amid their utmost despair they fell in with the Lively of Whitby, and were most cordially received on board. The source, however, of the most constant alarm to the whale-fisher is connected with the movements of that powerful animal, against which, with most unequal strength, he ventures to contend. Gene- rally, indeed, the whale, notwithstanding his im- mense strength, is gentle, and even passive ; seeking, even when he is most hotly pursued, to escape from his assailants, by plunging into the lowest depths of the ocean. Sometimes, however, he exerts his utmost force in violent and convulsive struggles; and every thing with which, when thus enraged, he comes into collision, is dissipated or destroyed in an instant. The Dutch writers mention Jacquez Vienkes of the Gort Moolen (Barley Mill), who, after a whale had been struck, was hastening with a second boat to the support of the first. The fish, however, rose, and with its head stnick the boat so furiously, that In NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. 32i) it was shivered to pieces, and Vieiikes was thrown with its fragments on the back of the hwge animal. Even then this bohl mariner darted a second har- poon into the body of his victim ; but unfortunately he got entangled in the line aiid could not extricate himself, while the other party were unable to ap- proach near enough to save him. At last, however, the harpoon was disengaged, and he swam to the boat. m^ ' ' ' •' Mr. Scoresby, in one of his earliest voyages, saw a boat thrown several yards into the air, from which it fell on its side, plunging the crew into the sea. They were happily taken up, when only one was found to have received a severe contusion. Captafn Lyons of the Raith of Leith, on the Labrador coast, in 1803, had a boat thrown fifteen feet into the air; it came down into the water with its keel upwards, yet all the men except one were saved. The crew of Mr. Scoresby the elder, in 1807, had struck a whale, which soon reappeared, but in a state of such violent agitation that no one durst ap- proach it. The captain courageously undertook to encounter it in a boat by himself, and succeeded in striking a second harpoon ; but another boat having advanced too close, the animal brandished its tail with so much fury, that the harpooner, who was di- rectly under, judged it most prudent to leap into the sea. The tail then struck the very place that he had left, and cut the boat entirely asunder, with the exception of two planks, which were saved by hav- ing a coil of ropes laid over them ; so that had he remained, he must have been dashed to pieces. Happily all the others escaped injury. The issues, however, were not always so fortunate. The Aim- well of Whitby in 1810, lost three men out of seven, and, in 1813, the Henrietta of the same port lost four oijt of six, by the boats being upset, and the crews thrown into the sea. In IS09, one of tlie men belonging to the Resolu- 330 NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. tion of Whitby, struck a sucking whale ; after whidi the mother, being seen wheehng rapidly round the spot, was eagerly watched. Mr. Scoresby, being on this occasion in the capacity of harpooner in another boat, was selecting a situation for the probable re- appearance of the parent fish, when suddenly an in- visible blow stove in fifteen feet of the bottom of his barge, which filled with water and instantly sunk. The crew wore saved. Entanglement in the line, while the retreating whale is drawing it off with rapidity, is often pro- ductive of great disaster. A sailor belonging to the John of Greenock, in 1818, having happened to step into the centre of a coil of running rope, had a foot entirely carried off, and was obliged to have the lower )art of the leg amputated. A harpooner, be- longing to the Henrietta of Whitby, had incautiously cast some part of the line under his feet ; when a sudden dart of the fish made it twist round his body. He had just time to cry out, — " Clear away the line ! O dear !" when he was cut almost asunder, dragged overboard, and never more seen. A whale sometimes causes danger by proving to be alive after having exhibited every symptom of death. Mr. Scoresby mentions the instance of one which appeared so decidedly dead, that he himself had leaped on the tail, and was busy putting a rope , through it, when he suddenly felt the animal sink- ing from beneath him. He made a spring towards a boat that was some yards distant, and, grasping the gunwale, was assisted on board. The fish then moved forwards, reared his tail aloft, and shook it with such prodigious violence, that it resounded to the distance of several miles. After two or three minutes of this violent exertion, he rolled on his side and exr>ired. Even alter life is extinct, all danger is not over. In the operation of flensing, the harpooners some- times fall into the whale's mouth, with the immi- NORTHERN WIIALE-FISIIF.RY. 3dl ;cr which ound the being on n another bable re- ily an in- lottom of itly sunk. retreating )ften pro- ^ng to the led to step had a foot have the )Ooner, be- cautiously t; when a i his body. ly the line ! ;r, dragged proving to mptom of Ince of one le himself ing a rope limal sink- er towards , grasping fish then id shook it iounded to o or three led on his not over. Lers some- the immi- nent danger of being drowned. In tlie case of a heavy swell they are drenched, and sometimes washed over by the surge. Occasionally they have their ropes broken, and are wounded by each other's knives. Mr. Scoresby mentions a harpooncr who, after the flensing was completed, happened to havo liis foot attached by a hook to the kreng or carcass, when the latter was inadvertently cut awaj\ The man caught hold of the gunwale of the boat ; but the whole immense mass was now suspended by his body, occasioning the most excruciating torture, and even exposing him to the danger of being torn asun- der, when his companions contrived to hook the kreng with a giapnel, and bring it back to the sur- face. The whale, in attempting to escape, sometimes exerts prodigious strength, and inflicts upon its pur- suers not only danger, but the loss of their property. In 1812, a boat's crew belonging to the Resolution of Whitby struck a whale on the margin of a floe. Supported by a second boat, they felt much at their ease, there being scarcely an instance in which the assistance of a third was required in such circum- f^tances. Soon, however, a signal was made for more line, and as Mr. Scoresby was pushing with his utmost speed, four oars were raised in signal of the utmost distress. The boat was now seen with its bow on a level with the water, while the liarpooner, from the friction of the line, was enve- loped in smoke. At length, when the relief was within a hundred yards, the crew were seen to throw their jackets upon the nearest ice, and then leap into the sea; after which the boat rose into the air, and, making a majestic curve, disappeared beneath the waters, with all the line attached to it. The crew were saved. A vigorous pursuit was im- mediately commenced ; and the whale, being traced througli narrow and intricate channels, was disco- vered considerably to the eastward, when three har- 332 NORTHflRN WH ALE-FISHER V. poons were darted at him. The line of two otK*^r boats was tlien run out, when, by an accidental en- tanglement, it broke, and enabled the whale to carry oft* in all about four miles of rope, which, with the boat, were valued at 150/. The daring fishers again gave chase; the whale was seen, but missed. A third time it appeared, and was reached ; two more har- poons were struck, and the animal being plied with lances, became entirely exhausted, and yielded to its fate. It had by that time drawn out 10,440 yards, or about six miles of line. Unluckily, through the disengagement of a harpoon, a boat and thirteen lines, nearly two miles in length, were detached and never recovered. ' Whale-fishers sometimes meet with agreeable surprises. The crew of the ship Nautilus had cap- tured a fish, which being disentangled and drawn to the ship, some of them were employed to haul in the line. Suddenly they felt it pulled away as if by another whale, and having made signals for more line, were soon satisfied, by the continued movements, that this was the case. At length a large one rose up close to them, and was quickly killed. It then proved, that the animal, while moring through the waters, had received the rope into its open mouth, and, struck by the unusual sensation, held it fast between its jaws, and thus became the prey of his enemy. — The Prince of Brazils of Hull had struck a small fish, which sunk apparently dead. The crew applied all their strength to heave it up ; but sudden and violent jerks on the line convinced them that it was still alive. They persevered, and at length brought up two fishes in succession, one of ivhich had many turns of the rope wound round its body. Having been entangled under water, it had, in its attempt to escape, been more and more impli- cated, till, in the end, it shared the fate of its com- panion. NORTHERN WHALE-I JSHEUY. 333 carry h tho again . third 3 har- 1 with led to yards, rh the lirteen edand •eeable id cap- drawn haul in ' as if als for ntinued 3ngth a pickly it up; Evinced ftd, and one of lund its lit had, imph- com- ' - .A ■ ' A view of the whale-fishery, as it existed prior to 1920, has thus been drawn from ample and authen- tic materials afforded by the Dutch and other ear- lier writers, as well as by the valuable work of the younger Mr. Scoresby. Having understood, how- ever, that within the last few years the trade has been turned into several new channels, we applied to certain intelligent individuals in the principal ports, from whom we have obtained such valuable infor- mation as enables us to bring down the history of its operations to the very latest period. A remarkable change has lately taken place as to the waters in which the fishery is carried on. For more than a century it was confined to the space be- tween Spitzbergen and Cfreenland, commonly called the Greenland Sea. Early in the eighteenth century Davis's Strait began to be frequented, and the ships sent thither gradually increased in number. A somewhat more ample return, in fact, was drawn from those western seas, though Mr. Scoresby con- ceives that the longer and more expensive voyage, and the increased hazards, fully counterbalanced this advantage. When he wrote, the Greenland fishery was still the most considerable, and the ships pro- ceeding thither were in the proportion of three to two of those sent to Davis's Strait. Since that time its produce has sustained a remarkable diminution ; the whales which, during the course of two centuries, had been gradually retiring from place to place, have at last sought refuge in the remote and inaccessible depths of the icy sea. Hence this fishery has been almost abandoned ; having employed, in 1829, only one vessel, though in 1830 the number has been in- creased to four. For this almost entire loss of their original ground, the whalers have been compensated by the new and more extensive field opened up to them on the western coast. The important expedi- tions sent out by government under Ross and Pany 'ive made them acquainted with a number of ad- 334 NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERV. mirable stations on the farther side of Davis's Strait and in the higher latitudes of Baffin's Bay, which were before little known, and scarcely ever fre- quented. They now, therefore, prosecute their fishery almost exclusively in those seas, and follow a method which is in many respects different. The vessels destined for that quarter sail usually in March, though some delay their departure till the middle or even the end of April. They proceed first to the northern parts of the coast of Labrador, or to the mouth of Cumberland Strait, carrying on what is called the South-west fishery. After remain- ing there till about the beginning of May, they cross to the eastern shore of the Strait, and fish upwards along the coast, particufarly in South-east Bay, North-east Bay, Kingston Bay or Horn Sound. About the month of July, they usually cross Baffin's Bay to Lancaster Sound, which they sometimes enter, and occasionally even ascend Barrow's Strait twenty or thirty miles. In returning, they fish down the western shore, where their favourite stations arc Pond's Bay, Agnes's Monument, Home Bay, and Cape Searie. If the ships be not previously filled, they commonly remain till the end of September, and in some instances persevere till late in October. Our informant at Poterhead mentions a vessel from that port which was clean on the last day of Septem- ber; yet the captain proceeded with such spirit and resolution, that after this date he caughi five whales, making his cargo equal to the average of the year, and reached home by the 27th October. The vessels for Greenland sail about the beginning of April, and return frequently in July, seldom re- maining on the fishing-ground beyond the end of August. The Davis's Strait fishery has always been sub- ject to remarkable casualties, which have been still farther increased since the vessels took a wider range, and vpntured into the higher and morn frozen NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. 335 Strait which jr fre- their follow isually till the iroceed brador, ing on 'emaiu- y cross pwards St Bay, Sound. Baffin's netimes s Strait h down ly Hons arc , and filled, ember, )ctober. el from septem- i spirit ht five e of the iginnins lom re- end of en sub- ;en still wider frozen latitudes. Our correspondent at Aberdeen states, that, — ,'' In 1819, out of 63 ships there were lost 10 . . 1821, ... .79 11 . . 1822, .... 60 7 These wrecks have generally occurred in conse- quence of the ships being beset in their attempt to pass from the eastern coast to Lancaster Sound, across that great barrier of ice which fills the centre of Baflfin's Bay. The sides of the vessels have sometimes been pressed together ; at other times they have been squeezed out of the water and laid upon the ice. But experience seems to have enabled the mariners to guard, in some degree, against these dangers. Last year, of eighty-nine ships sent out to this fishery, only four were lost ; namely, the Dauntless, Bramham, of Hull ; the Rookwood, Law- son, of London ; the Jane, Bruce, of Aberdeen ; the Home Castle, Stewart, of Leith. Several of these shipwrecks have been attended with very peculiar circumstances. In 1825, the Active, Captain Gray, of Peterhead, was so com- pletely beset in Exeter Sound, that- on the 1st October, the crew were obliged to abandon her and take a passage in other ships. Next year a vessel, sent out to ascertain her fate, found her on the beach, at a little distance from the place of beset- ment, completely uninjured. She was got o%in a few days, and brought home with her cargo to Pe- terhead, where she arrived on the 12th September. In 1826, the Dundee, Captain Dawson, of London, having ventured into the higher parallels of Baffin's Bay, was, in 74° 30' north latitude, so completely beset and enclosed within impenetrable barriers, that the crew could obtain no assistance from the other ships. To add to their distress, a Dutch vessel near them was completely wrecked ; and the men, to the 336 NORTHKKN WIIALE-FISHKRV. number of forty-six, came on- board entirely desti- tute. They were supported from tlic 23d August to the 6th October, when they set out in their boats to endeavour to reach the Danish settlement of Levely ; but as this was 350 miles distant, much doubt was r'.tc^rtained if they would ever arrive at their des- tination. The crew of the Dundee, reduced to extreme distress by the want of provisions, succeeded in killing some seals and bears, on whose coarse flesh they were thankful to sustain life. On the 1st February tliey caught a whale, and on the 16th a second, whicli afforded great relief, especially as other fishes were attracted by the desire to feed on the (carcass of this huge animal. Unfortunately for their repose, the sea was not so completely frozen but that enormous icebergs were still tossing through it with thundering noise, tearing up the fields by which the ship was surrounded. On the 82d Feb- ruary, one of uncommon magnitude was seen bear- ing directly upon their stem, its collision with which appeared inevitable ; whereupon the seamen snatch- ing their clothes, leaped out upon the ice, and ran to some distance. The iceberg rolled on with a tremendous crash, breaking the field into fragments, and hiding from tlieir view the ship, which they ex- pected never to see again ; but happily it passed by, and the Dundee appeared from behind it uninjured ; a spectacle that was hailed with three enthusiastic cheers. The mariners lost sight of the sun for sevej||iy-five days, during which they suffered such severe cold, that they could not walk the deck for five minutes without being frost-bitten. Luckily, they were able to pick up a quantity of spars and staves belonging to the Dutch wreck, which afforded a supply of fuel, otherwise they must have perished from the intensity of the frost. By great good for- tune, too, the body of ice in which they were enclosed drifted to the southward more than eleven degrees (from 74° 30', down to 63°), or about 800 miles, and vva Sti Le( ere dee ter€ pro rea( on 1 She spre O OCCl of P acco mine calai Iiavii at Le Shetl by ci From ship ( succe; those most 1 4th, i prospe seals, exceet f'onten The s€ fearles attemp blow oj of himc the hur and the distress NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERV. 337 iesti- List to ats to 5vely ; t was r des- eed to jeeded coarse the 1st 16th a Lily as :eed on ely for frozen lirougU elds by Jd Feb- n bear- 1 which snatch- ,nd ran with a ments, |hey ex- ised by, njured ; isiastic un for d such ieck for lUckily, TS and .fforded fcrished od for- [closed legrees les, and s was thus brought nearly to the mouth of Davis's Strait. On the 1st April, when the Lee, Captain Lee, of Hull, had just commenced her fishing, the crew were agreeably surprised by meeting the Dun- dee, whose catastrophe had excited the greatest in- terest at home; they supplied her liberally with provisions, and every necessary for enabling her to reach Britain. The vessel was accordingly hberated on the 16th April, and on the 2d June arrived off Shetland, whence intelligence was immediately pre ad of this happy deliverance. One of the most affecting shipwrecks which ever occurred in the northern seas was that of the Jean, of Peterhead, in 1826. Of this we can give a full account from an interesting narrative by Mr. Gum- ming, the surgeon, an eye-witness and sharer of the calamity. This vessel sailed on the 15th March, having on board only twenty-eight men, but received at Lerwick a complement of twenty-three natives of Shetland ; owing to which arrangement, as well as by contrary winds, she was detained till the 28th. From the evening of that day to the 1st April, the ship encountered very stormy weather, which she successfully withstood, and was then steered into those western tracts of the G r'^-enland sea which are the most favourable for the capture of the seal. On the 14th, in the latitude of 68°, the fishery began most prosperously. In one day the seamen killed 1138 seals, and the entire number caught in five days exceeded 3070. This scene, however, could not be contemplated without some painful impressions. The seals attacked were only the young, as they lay fearlessly reposing on the ice, before they had yet attempted to plunge into the watery element. One blow of the club stunned them completely. The view of hundreds of creatures bearing some resemblance to the human form, writhing in tne agonies of death, and the deck streaming with their gore, was at once distressing and disgusting to a spectator of any feel- F I 338 NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. lllg. However, this evil soon gave way to others of a more serious nature. On the moniing of the 18th April the sailors had begun their fishery as usval ; but a breeze sprung up, and obliged them by eleven o'clock to suspend ope- rations. The gale continually freshened, and was the more unpleasant from their being surrounded with loose ice, which a dense and heavy fog made it im- possible to distinguish at any distance. The mariners took in all sail, but did not apprehend danger till six in the evening, when the wind, which had been con- tinually increasing, began to blow with tenfold fury. All that the narrator had ever heard, of the united sounds of thunder, tempest, and waves, seemed faint when compared with the stunning roar of this hurri- cane. At eight the ship was borne upon a stream of ice, from which she received several severe con- cussions ; the consequence of which was that at ten the water began to enter, and at twelve no exertion in pumping could prevent her from being gradually filled. At one in the morning she became completely waterlogged. She then fell over on her beam-ends, when the crew, giving themselves up for lost, clung to the nearest object for immediate safety. By judi- ciously cutting away the main and fore masts, they happily enabled the ship to right herself, when being drifted into a stream of ice, she was no longer in danger of immediate sinking. The whole hull, how- ever,' was inundated and indeed immersed in water, except a portion of the quarter-deck, upoi which the whole crew were now assembled. Here they threw up an awning of sails to shelter themselves from the cold, which had become so intense as to threaten the extinction of life. Those endowed with spirit and sense kept up the vital power by brisk movement ; but. the natives of Shetland, who arc accused on such occasions of sinking into a selfish despondency, piled themselves together in a heap, NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERV. 339 hers of )rs had ung up, id opc- id was ounded de it im- lariners • till six len con- ild fury, e united led faint is hurri- streani ere con- at at ten exertion radually ipletely im-ends, }t, clung |By judi- 5ts, they m being )nger in ill, how- [n water, whicli jie they kmselves 36 as to mdowed I by brisk ,'ho arc selfish a heap, with the view of deriving warmth from each other's bodies. Those in the interior of the mass obtained thus a considerable temperature, though accompanied with severe pressure ; and blows were given, and ' fiven knives drawn,, to gain and to preserve this ad- vantageous position. On the 19th, one Shetlander died of cold, another on the 20th, and a third on the 21st. — events felt by the others as peculiarly gloomy, f.hiefly, it is owned, as forming a presage of their own impending fate. On the 22d the sun began to appear amid showers of snow ; and the 23d was ushered in by fine weather and a clear sky. The opinions of the crew were now divided as to what course they should steer in Hearch of deliverance. Two plans were suggested. They could either stretch northward into the fishing stations, where they might expect, sooner or later, to meet some of their countrymen, by whom they would be received on board ; or they might sail southward towards Iceland, and throw themselves on the hospitality of its inhabitants. The fonner plan was in several respects the more promising, es- pecially as a vessel had been in sight when the storm arose. But its uncertainties were also very great. They might traverse for weeks those vast icy seas, amid cold always increasing, and with imminent danger of being swallowed up by the waves. Ice- land was distant, but it was a definite point ; and upon this course they at last wisely determined. Several days were spent in fitting out their two re- maining boats — all the others having been swept away—- and in fishing up from the interior of the vessel every article which could be turned to account. During this operation, the weather continuing fine, they could not forbear admiring the scene by which they were surrounded. The sea was formed as it were into a beautiful little frith, by the ice rising around in the most varied and fantastic forms, some- limes even assuming the appearance of cities adorne»l ^^^ 340 NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. with towers and forests of columns. Continual efforts were necessary, meantime, to keep the wreck on the icy field ; for had it slipped over into the sea, of which there appeared a strong probability, it would have gone down at once. 13y the 26th the boats were completely ready, having on board a small stock of provisions, and a single change of linen. Atlialf- past one in the morning of the 27th, the mariners took leave, with some sorrow, of the vessel, which *' seemed a home even in ruins," leaving the deck strewed with clothes, books, and provisions, to be swallowed up by the ocean as soon as the icy floor on which it rested should melt away. The two boats, having received forty-seven men on board, lay very deep in the water ; so that when a smart breeze arose, the men were obliged to throw away their spare clothing and every thing else which could be wanted, and soon saw their little wardrobe floating on the face of the sea. The leaky state of one of the barges entailed the necessity of hauling it on a piece of ice to be repaired. The seamen were frequently obliged also to drag them both over large fields, and again to launch them. However, a favourable wind in ten hours enabled them to make lorty-one miles, when they came to the utmost verge of the icy stream, and entered upon the open ocean. Their fears were not yet removed ; for if a heavy gale had arisen, their slender barks must soon have been overwhelmed. There blew in fact a stiff breeie, which threw in a good deal of water, and caused severe cold ; however, at seven in the evening, they saw, with inexpressible pleasure, though dim and distant, the lofty and snow-capped mountains of Ice- land. But these were still fifty miles off, and much might intervene ; so that the night, which soon closed in, passed with a mixture of joy and fear. Fortunately the morning was favourable ; and about four they saw a black speck on the ' urface of the ocean. It proved to be an island, na'ced, rocky, and seemingly unin- NOliTin.KN WKAI.K-riSIlKRY. 341 hal)itod ; ypt to set foot on any shore, however wild and desolate, promised a temporary relief. On turning a promontory, what was their joy to see a boat pushing out to meet them ! and they were re- ceived by the natives of Grimsey (the name of the little island) with every mark of kindness and com- passion. The seamen were distributed among the half-subterraneous abodes, and received a portion of the frugal and scanty fare on which tlie inha- bitants subsisted. They were long without any means of communication by speech ; but at length the clergyman appeared, who was able to converse in Latin with Mr. Gumming. The latter, inquiring how his countrymen could best reach the mainland, was informed, that the islanders woKd assist in con- veying them to Akureyri, a small town, the residence of the nearest Danish governor, though situated at the distance of sixty-eight miles. Accordingly, at seven in the morning of the 2d May, they set sail, and, after a tedious voyage, reached at nine in the evening the coast of Iceland. They rowed along the shore, touching at various points, where they were liospitably received ; till on Thursday, 4th May, they saw a cluster of irregular wooden structures, which, to their surprise, proved to be Akureyri, the capital of this quarter of the island. They were here also received with the most humane hospitality, and re- mained three months before they could obtain a pas- sage home ; during which delay unfortunately they lost nine of their number, chiefly from mortification and other morbid affections occasioned by extreme cold. In the middle of July, they procured a passage in a Danish vessel, which brought them and their boats near to the coast of Shetland. Having landed at Lerwick, they were conveyed by his Majesty's ship Investigator to Peterhead, where they arrived on the 5th August. The whale-fishery deserves finally to be consi- dered in its commercial relations, under which as- F f^2 342 NORTHERN WHALE-FISHEBY. pect it possesses considerable importance, whether we consider the capital invested, or the amount and value of the proceeds. The first and principal employnient of capital in this trade consists in the construction and fitting out of the vessels adapted for its various purposes. This expense greatly exceeds that of other ships of the same dimensions, owing to the manner in which th • timbers must be doubled and fortified, the necessity of having seven boats, a copious supply of line, nu- merous casks, and fisliiug implements. Mr. Scoresby states, that the Resolution of Whitby, of 291 tons, was built in 1803 with all these equipments, but without the outfit for a particular voyage, at 6321/. In 1813, the Esk of Whitby, of 354 tons, cost 14,000/. ; but this included the outlay for her first ad- venture, which, being supposed to amount to 1700/., would make the expense of building and equipment only 12,300/. The sum of 14,000/. is stated to us from Hull, as the estimate for building and furnishing at that port a ship of 350 tons, in the year 1812. Since this last period a great reduction has taken place. Mr. Cooper, in 1824, reported to the House of Com- mons, that the sum required was only 10,000/. Ac- cording to the information received in July, 1830, from the different ports, we find that such a ship may now be built and completely equipped for about 8000/. A Dundee correspondent calculates that half of this sum is expended in carpenter work, and the other half in sails, rigging, casks, lines, and other fishing apparatus. Besides this original cost, a large annual expen- ditm-e is incurred in the prosecution of the fishery. There is first the outfit, being the provisions and other supplies put on board before the ship goes to sea. Mr. Scoresby states the expense of fitting out the Resolution of Whitby in 1803, to have amounted to 1470/. — namely, provisions, coals, &c. 769/. ; in- surance, 413/. ; advance-money to seamen, 288/. NoriTiiKnx wiiAi.K-risiiF.RV. 3 43 ether it and tal in igout This of the ch th- jessity lie, nu- oresby I tons, ts, but , 6321/. s, cost first ad- 1700/., lipment 3d to us •nishing . Since II place, f Com- i. Ac- , 1830, a ship »r about fhathalf ,nd the id other expen- I fishery. ms and I goes to (ting out lounted 59/. ; in- 288/. The statements forwariLnl at the present date (July 1830), from i\w scn'oiril ports upon this subject, vary in a remarkable decree. At Lcith the estimate is from 700/. to 1200/. ; Aberdeen, 1 100/. ; Peterhead, from 1200/. to 1500/.; while at Hull this outfit is reckoned at 2000/., expressly stated as exclusive of seamen's wages. Probably there may have been some difference as to the articles included in these estimates. An English crew, besides, may expect to be more amply provisioned, while the voyage from Hull is undoubtedly somewhat longer. To this first outlay must be added the expenses incurred in pro- secuting the fishery, and in preparing the cargo for sale. The pay of the master and harpooners is very judiciously made to depend almost entirely upon their success. '^They receive a certain sum for every whale struck, and afterward for every ton of oil extracted. The seamen, also, though they must have their monthly wages, obtain additional allow- ances in the event of a prosperous voyage. At Pe- terhead, it is estimated, that if a ship comes home clean, the entire loss will exceed 2000/. ; while from Hull we have received a calculation, that the total expense of a voyage, which produces 200 tons of oil, will be 3500/., exclusive of insurance. From these data we may form some estimate of the entire capital invested in the trade. Although the number of ships annually sent out scarcely ex- ceeds ninety, it is probable that there may be at least a hundred in a state fit for sailing. The annual ex- penditure on each may be averaged at 3000/. The value of wharves, warehouses, machinery for ex- tracting the oil, &c. was stated by Mr. Cooper to the House of Commons as amounting at Hull to 60,000/. or 70,000/. ; and as that port enjoys about a third of the trade, these establishments may pro- bably amount altogether to 200,000/. We thus ob- tain .. 'M4 NORTIIKRX WHALE-FISHERY. 100 ships at £8000, £800,000 90 voyaj(es at £3000, 270,000 Warehouses, &c 200,000 Capital invested. £1,270,000 Tlio produce of the fishery consists of oil and of whalebone ; none of the other articles, in an esti- mattj of this kind, being worthy of much considera- tion. The prices of these two commodities vary greatly, both at different periods and from one year to another. . Whale-oil, in 1742, is stated to have sold for 18/. per ton; but in the following year it fell to 14/. In 1801, rt rose so high as 50/., but in 1802, was only 31/., and in 1807, had sunk so low as 21/. In 1813, it reached a h^^her price than ever, the finest quality being sold for 60/. ; but the prosperous fishery of 1814 brought it down to 32/. There has been smce, on the Avhole, a considerable reduction of price, (chiefly, it may be presumed, from the extensive use of coal gas. Mr. Scoresby reckons the average of the nineteen years, ending with 1818, at 34/., 16s. ; while an intelligent correspondent at Aberdeen states tliat of the last ten at 22/. 5s, The current price (July, 1830), is given in the Scotch ports at from 24/. to 26/.; in Hull at 24/. . Whalebone bore anciently a very high price, when the rigid stays and the expanded hoops of our grand- mothers produced an extensive demand for this com- modity. The Dutch have occasionally obtained 700/. per ton, and were -accustomed to draw 100,000/. an- nually from England for that one article. Even in 1763 it still brought 600/., but sooii fell, and has never risen again to the same value. Durinff the present century, the price has varied between 6o7. and 300/., seldom falling to the lowest rate, and rarely exceeding 150/. Mr. Scoresby reckons the price in the five yojirs ending 181R, at 00/., while at present NORTHERN WIIALE-FISHFRY. 315 100 id of esti- dera- vary 5 year )T 18/. I In 3 only . 1813, [uality jry of smcc, price, ire use age of 15s.; states price mS4/. com- 700/. )l, an- (July, 1830) it is stated from tlio different ports to Ix* from 160/. to 180/. This is for wliat is called the sirp- bone, or such pieces as measure six feet or upwards in length ; those below this standard are usually sold at half-price. It may appear singular that whah*- bone should rise while oil has been so decidedly lowered ; but the one change, it is obvious, causes the other. Oil, being the main product of the fishery, regulates its extent, which being diminished by the low price, the quantity of whalebone is lessened, while the demand for it continuing as great as before, the value consequently ribcs. The whale-fishery, for one ship and one season, is a complete lottery, the result of which, according to the skill and good fortune of the persons employed, fluctuates between a large profit and a severe loss. Sometimes a vessel is so unlucky as to return clean ; another brings only one fish ; while eight or nine, producing about nmety tons of oil, are considered necessary to make an average voyage. There are fortunate instances of a much larger produce. The greatest cargo ever known by Scoresby to have been brought from the northern seas was that of Captain Souter, of the Resolution of Peterhead, in 1814. It consisted of forty-four whales, yielding 299 tons of oil, which, even at the reduced rate of 32/., sold for 9568/., raised by the whalebone and bounty to about 11,000/. lu 1813, both the elder and younger Mr. Scoresby brought cargoes, less in Quantity, indeed, but which, from the oil selling at 60/. per ton, yield- ed a still greater return. The former, in the course of twenty-eight voyages, killed 498 whales, whence were extracted 4246 tons of oil, the value of wliich and of the whalebone exceeded 150,000/. ; all drawn by him out of the depths of the northern ocean. The Dutch have published tables, exhibiting the results of their fishery for the space of 107* years, be- nol included, the wnr with The years 1672, 1673, artd 1674, are not incl nee liaviiij* caused a suspension of the fisliery. 340 NORTHERN WHALE-ilSHERY. tween 16fi9 and 1778, both inclusive. During that period they sent to Greenland 14,167 ships, of which 5()l, or about four in the hundred, were lost. They took 57,590 wliales, yj^ldhig 3,105,596 quardeelen* of oil, and 93,179,860 pounds of bone, which yielded a value of 18,631, 292/. f The expense of fitting out tlie ships amounted to 11,879,619/. Value of ships lost 470,422/. Expense of preparing the oil, bone, &c., 2,567,109/. Total expenses, 14,917,150/. ; leav- ing a profit of 3,714,142/. The Davis's Strait fisher>% between 1719 and 1778, employed 3161 vessels, of which 62 were lost. The produce was 4,288,235/., which, deducting 3,410,987/. of expenses, left a profit of 877,248/. The Greenland fishery would thus have yielded a profit of about 25 per cent., and the Davis's Strait of al)0ut 26 per cent. ; but it may be observed, that the Dutch, in their estimate of expenses, have not included the original cost of the vessels. In the subsequent years, from 1785 down to 1794, the num- ber of ships was reduced to sixty, and the trade is said to have been carried on with absolute loss. The British fishery has lately yielded a pro'duce and value much exceeding that of the Dutch during the period of its greatest prosperity. In the five years ending with 1818, there were imported into England and Scotland 68,940 tuns of oil, and 3420 tons of whalebone ; which, valuing the oil at 36/., 10s., and the bone at 90/., with 10,000/. in skins, raised the entire produce to 2,834;110/. sterling, or 566,822/. per annum. The fishery of 1814, a year peculiarly fortunate, produced 1437 whales from Greenland, yielding 12,132 tuns of oil, which, even at . the lower rate of 32/., including the whalebone and bounty, and added to the produce from Davis's Strait, formed altogether a value of above 700,000/. * A quardeel of oil contains from 18 to 21 stekans, or from 77 to 9f imperial standard gallons ; and 100 Dutch pounds are equal to 109 lb. avoirdupois nearly. t In converting the Dutcli estimates into English money, the florin la valued ai 20J///i 357 Comet, Woodall 3] 1 Cumbrian, Mimroe. . . . 374 Dorton, Linskill 285 Dimcombe, Scoffm, . . . 275 Eaale, Wright 289 Ellison, Jackso7i 360 Everthorpe, Johnston. . 351 (Jildcr, M'Kentie 360 Kamiony, Bramham. . . 364 ^^[ariiiony, Parker 300 Ingria, Wilson 316 Isabella, Humphrey. . . 374 Tonnage. Jane, Maddison 359 Kiero, Martin 362 iJCirkclla, CarLill 410 liaurel. Manger 321 liCe, Lee 363 Lord Wellington, Harri- S071 354 Mary Frances, Coldray. 385 North Briton, Story. . 262 Oxenhope, M^hitosh. . . 286 Progress, Dannalt. . . . 307 €Bwan, Bring 320 Venerable, Bennett. . . . 328 Volunteer, Markham. . . 305 ^William, North 350 William Torr, Dannatt. 281 Zephyr, Ash 342 LONDON — 2. Margaret, Float 351 | Neptune, Wallace, ... 291 WHITBY — 2. Phoenix, Mills 324 | William and Ann, Terry. 362 NEWCASTLE 3. Cove, Palmer 373 Grenville Bay, Warham. 340 Lady Jane, Fleming. . . 390 ^» BERWICK 1. d^orfolk, Harrison 310 "^ KIRKCALDY 5. Caledonia, Todd 373 l^lambler, Watson 282 •Earl Percy, Steimrt. . . 319 Triad, Young 287- Egginton, Stodart 336 j BURNTISLAND — 1. Majestic, Davidson. NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. 351 LEITH 7. Tonnage. Baffin, Smith 321 «Juno, Lyali 345 North Pole, Smith. ... 312 tl'rince of Oran oe, Guthrie359 'J'onnnge. Rattler, Stodart 348 Ulverstoiie, Liston. . . . 354 William and Ann, Smith 388 ABERDEEN 10. Alexander, Allan 252 Bon Accord, Parker. . . 364 Dee, Cook 319 ^Hercules, Reid 252 liflDtitia, Clark 318 Middleton, James 298 Middleton, Mills 329 Neptune, Bruce 282 Princess of Wales, Gray 308 Saint Andrew, Reed. . . 313 PETERHEAD 13. Commerce, Cordmer. . 241 *Eclipse, Pe7mi/ 287 liResolution, Philip 400 ' Gleaner, Shand 262 Hannibal, Birnie 315 Hope, Volum 251 James, Hogg 346 \*MaTy, Stewart 157 Perseverance, Ogsion. 240 Resolution, Hogg 291 Superior, Manson 306 4l'raveller, Simpson. . . . 400 *Union, Mackie 224 DUNDEE — 9. Achilles, Thorns 367 Advice, Deuchars 324 Dorothy, Davidson. . , . 369 Fairy, Welch 247 Friendship, Chapmati. . 304 Horn, Stevenson. 370 Princess Charlotte, Adam- son 357 Thomas, Thorns 350 ThreeBrothers, Cameron 339 MONTROSE — 5. Eliza Swan, Fulton. . . 306 I^ondon, Burn 345 Monarch, Davidson. ... 311 Spencer, Robertson. . . . 340 John of Greenock, Camh'dlCt L ^ I- - In all, ninety-one ships, — four of which, marked thus *, were for Greenland, all the others for Davis's Strait. 1/, # k 352 ARCTIC OEOLOOY. CHAPTER X. • Arctic Geology. The Geolo^ of Spitzbergen, of East or Old Green- land, and the countries examined and discovered by Foss, Parry, Scoresby, and Clavering, although as* yet but imperfectly known, is far from being unin- teresting. It exhibits the same series of rocks, and the same general arrangements, as occur in other countries, the geognosticpl structure of which has been thoroughly explored: The fossil organic remains which, in all parts of the world, afford so much in- formation in regard to tjfe former condition of the climate, seas, animals, and vegetables of the globe, are not wanting in these remote and desolate regions ; and, lastly, the Arctic Geology has afforded to the mineralogist specimens of many of the rarer, and of some of the more precious minerals and ores : — • 1. JSTorth Cape, Cherie Island, Hope Island, Tlie Thousand Islands, Spitzbergen, and Rosses Islet » JVorth Cape, — The great primitive land of Scan- dinavia continues onward to the extreme point of Norway: but in this high latitude some new forma- tions make their appearance among the older. The sandstone-quartz of Alten has been known since the travels of the celebrated Baron Von Buch. On the cast, towards the Russian dominions, there is a con- siderable tract which deviates more from the primi- tive formation than the sandstone -quartz of Alten does. Sandstone and conglomerate extend across the subjacent gneiss in a horizontal position. Thes^^ evidently secondary rocks probably belong to the^|^k red sandstone formation of seme ayt^o^\ , M^^^m I HOPE ISLAND. 353 ill Finniark wo find ourselves on the edge of a great secondary hasiiu Chcrie. Island. — Tlie first land whi(;h rises above the level of the ocean in the Arctic; sea, beyond the North Cape, is the small Cherie Island (Bear Island), about 10 miles long, in north latitude 74° 30', long. *20° E.,whieli is entirely composed of secondary rocks horizontally stratified, and cut perpendicularly on the coast into cliflfs. The principal rocks are sandstone and limestone^ in which veins of leadglance or sul- phuret of lead, sometimes containing native silver, occur. The limestone abounds in shells in a fossil state ; but shells very different from those that at present inhabit these northern seas : the sandstone contains a bed of coal, from two to four feet thick, — a fact subversive of that opinion which maintains that coal is wanting in Arctic countries. In Scoresby's drawing of Cherie Island three conical hills are re- presented ; these, in all probability, are of igneous origin, probably secondary trap. • * - Hope Island and The Thousand Islands. — Farther towards the north the depth of the sea is so incon- siderable and unvarying, that seamen, after seeing the horizontal strata of Cherie Island, conclude that, in their course northward, they sail first over the horizontal basis of Cherie Island, and next over strata which are visible in Hope Island and the Archipelago of The Thousand Islands. The strata visible in Hope Island and the Archipelago of The Thousand Islands are said to be of blackish clay-slate. Hope Island, situate on the south coast of Edge's Island, Hes in N. lat. 76° 20', and longitude 20° E. It is nine leagues^ long, but scarcely a mile broad, and lies N.E. by E., and S.W. by W. It consists of five mountains ; the northernmost one is the highest; and those succeeding diminish gradually in size. The Thousand Islands is a large group of small isles in- terposed between Hope Island and the south coast -iljf^dge's Island. :' p' 'Z m y 354 ARCTIC GEOLOGV. Spilzbergen, — Tliis large island, altliough not tlie most nortliern known land, is nearly so. It lies between latitudes 7G° 30' and 80° 7' N., and between the longitudes 9° and 22° E. On taking a general view of this island, the principal object that strikes the eye are numberless mountain-peaks, ridges, and precipices, rising immediately from the sea often to a height from 3000 to 4500 feet above the sea-level. The various brown, green, and pmple tints of the land, as seen from a distance, are strikingly con- trasted with the snow-capped summits, ridges, and acclivities, and the valleys filled with snow or with glacier-ice ; which latter often extend downwards to the coast, forming splendid and lofty icy-cliffs, from 100 to 400 feet high. On the east coast are two large islands, viz. Edge's Island and Korih-east Land, On approaching towards the west oide of Sians- foreland, on the east coast of EJge^s Land or Island, between 77° and 78° north latitude, the lowest rock is a coarse granular trap, split by means of vertical rents into imperfect columns. This bed forms a flat extent of coast of about ten miles and a quarter broad, and forty-one miles long ; and is the base or funda- mental rock of an alternation oijine granular sand- stone, an arenaceous marl-slate, compact siliceous limestone, and frequent repetitions of the trap-rock. Organic remains were not met with either in the sandstone or limestone by Professor Keilhau ; but in some specimens collected at Cape Faneshaw, in that part of Spitzbergen named JVew Friesland, by the officers of Captain Parry's expedition, we noticed silicified mxidrepores, retepores, orthoceratites, tere- bralulites, and cardites. This same formation extends to north latitude 80°, and is conjectured by Kielhau to form the greater part of East Spitzbergen. It is true that some boulders of granite weie met with, but these may have come from the great primitive chain of West Spitzbergen. Professor Keilhau foBn(l SPITZBERGEN. 855 1 not tlu^ It lies between I general It strikes ]ges, and L often to sea-level, ts of the igly con- dges, and V or with iwards to iffs, from are two Vorih-east of Sians- or Island, ivest rock f vertical rms a flat ter broad, or funda- dar sand- siliceous rap-rock. IT in the ,u; but in kV, in that by the noticed ies, tere- ii extends Kielhai4 n. It is et with, irimitive au found an interesting deposite of shell-clay in Stansforeland, in which the same kinds of fossil-shells were found as in a similar clay on the southern coasts of Norway. This deposite extends onwards nine and a half miles from the shore, and rises 100 feet above the present level of the sea. Bones of whales have been seen in The Thousand Isles, at a considerable height above the level of the sea, and probably imbedded in this shell-clay. Are we to infer, from the situation of this modern clay, that Spitzbergen has risen from the bottom of the sea at a comparatively recent period 1 Limestone, like that at Cape Faneshaw, occurs in the island named the North-east Land, on the east coast of Spitzbergen. The officers of Cap- tain Parry's expedition also found granite there. The west and north coast of Spitzbergen are com- posed principally of oleter rocks, viz. primitive and sometimes transition rocks. The primitive rocks of West Spitzbergen appear at the South Cape in lati- tude 76^°. They are vertical strata of mica-slate, with numerous bt;ds of quartz, ranging from north-east to south-west. In Horn Sound and Bell Sound these rocks form the high** land ; and to judge from the form of the mountains, these or other primitive rocks ascend higher on the west coast. The primitive rocks near South Cape appear in part overlaid with the shell-clay. A new formation of red sandstone and gypsum occurs westward along the seacoast in fiords under the high chains, and also in small low islands which lie in front of the coast. In the year 1826, sea-horse fishers from Finmark brought sixty tons of coal from Ice Sound, in north latitude 78°, to Hammerfest in Norway; and we are informed by Scoresby, that the coal is so easily procured, that many of the Dutch fishers a few years ago, w^ere in the habit of laying in a stock of this useful mineral, for fuel on the passage homeward. The coal of Spitzbergen which extends beyond north latitude 79°, resembles in some places cannel coal ; in others MilO ARfTK fSFOLOOY. it is brown coul or lijrnito. Scoresby, ri lifilr to the north of north latitiu](! 79^, at Mitre Cape, observpri the liills to bo (•onif)Osc(l of frnciss, niica-slatr, and limestone, — and in Kin*j\s Hay, a little to the south of this cliH", on the coast, natnral andies of marble. On the north eoast of SpitzbcM-^ron, in some points, as at Ued Beaeli, secondary rocks of red sandstone, I)robably new red sandstone, occur; but the prevail- ing rocks are of an older date, being principally pri mitive, with less frequently rocks of the transition (dass. The primitive rocks mentioned in Parry's narrative are granite, gneiss, mica-slate, hornblende- slate, primitive limestone or marble, quartz-rock, dolomite marble, chlorite-slate, and clay-slate. In the mica-slate precious garnets ^vere frequently met with. The transition rocks were principally clay- slate, quartz-rock, and limestone. In some points alluvial deposites were met with, and brown coal or lignite, either of new, secondary, or of tertiary for- mation, was noticed. Moffcn Island, a small low island, lying on the north side of Spitzbergen, ii\, north latitude 80° 1', longitude 12° 4.3' east, was visited by Mulgrave, who says it had not been noticed by the older navigators. It may be of new formation, and, as Scoresby re- marks, has probably been thrown iij) by the currents from each side of Spitzbergen, meeting. It is of a roundish form, about two miles in diameter, and has a shallow lake in the middle. The lake, when Scores- by saw it, was frozen over, except thirty or forty yards round the edge, and this near the end of July. The whole island is covered with gravel, and with- out the least vegetation. It is but ajezvjeet above the level of the sea. The only piece of drift-wood found on it by Mulgrave, which was about three fathoms long, and as thick as the mizen-mast of a ship, had been thrown over the sea-beach and lay near the lake. Captain Parry landed on several islands on the north- f rn coast, viz. Low Island about seven miles long^. JAN MAVKN a ISLAND. 3r)7 to tiip ^, and south ijirblo. DoilltH, Istonr, revail- ly pri isition •arry'fi ilende- 5-rook, e. In ly met r clay- points :oal or ry for- Nvhic'h appeared composed of transition quartz-rock. Wooden hie, on wliich were found primitive granites, quart7-ro<'k, and gneiss; and Rosses Islet a remark- able ^i>ut, the most northern known land of the globe, being situated in north latitude SO*' 481', he found to be composed of gray and reddish gmniie-gneiss, which is very coarse, granular, occasionally porvhyritic, with imbedded precious garnets; also ajtesti-red variety of the same rock. Remarks. — From the preceding details, it appears that Spitzbergen and its neighbouring isles afford rocks belonging to five of the great classes admitted Ty geologists, — namely, primitive, transition, secon- dary, tertiary (?), and alluvial. No true volcanic rocks are mentioned by autliors. Ores are of rare occurrence, small portions of iron-pyrites and of clay iron-stone being the only metalliferous minerals tmumerated. The dolomite-marble of Hecla Cove, mentioned by Parry, agrees in colour, size of grain, and other characters, with the statuary marble of Italy. In these islands the precious garnet is met with. Its occurrence gn Ross's Islet, and its known distribution in other countiies, shows that the pre- cious garnet, of all the gems, has the widest geo- graphical range, extending, in the northern hemis- phere, from the equator to the high latitude 80° 48^ no7'th. Jon Mayen^s Island. — This island, according to Scoresby, is situated between the latitudes of 70*^ 49' north, and 71° 8' 20" north, and between the longitudes of 7° 26' and 8° 44' west. It is about ten leagues long from north-east to south-west, and is in no place above three leagues in breadth. The peak of Beerenberg, the highest summit in the island, Scoresby found to be 6870 feet above the sea, conse- quently higher than any of the summits in Spitzber- gen and Greenland. It was seen by Scoresby at the distance of 100 miles. The following account of the geognosy of the only part of the island hitherto _» ft 1(0, ^> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) fe V > /.,. ^St' A '^c? 1.0 1^ 11.25 ■f 1^ IIM Ao mil 2.0 IM 116 V] <^ /^ ^> /A ''w '/ Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 1 \ iV ■1>^ 'ck, sup- lay-slate, e certain the older s beauti- namely, umeroiis iichroite, on^fluor- iron ore, id irori' &c. &c. th. 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