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Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont film^s en commenpant par la premidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un des symboies suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de chuque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole -•► signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Les carteii, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre filmds d des taux de reduction diffdreii^ts. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est filmd d partir de Tangle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images nicessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. srrata to pelure, •n d □ 32X 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 /V^^/^^^.^V ^^r^XL^^ f l# 6 ' STATE EMIGRATION: AN p:ssAy. BY EDWARD JEIsMvTNS. llAKUieTKK-AT-T,AW. L O K D O X : EDWARD STANFORD, G .(ni, 7, CHARING CROSS. 1869. [Entered it Stationers' Hnll.] PREFACE. As good ^^lle needs no biish-a good book needs no dedication. A bud book shonld have none. This Essay is therefore thrown npon tlie balances of ])ublic judgment, without adding the feather-weight of a name, distinguished or indifferent, to affect the poise. It is issued with tho special object of explaining to the working classes the principles and advantages of an Emigration policy. May I hope that no class will view it with disregard ? Much that is new in it to some will be trite to others ; yet it has not been without benefit or high commendation that men have at certain times brought out of their treasury things old as well as new. STATE EMIGEATION AN ESSAY. If any one, as I have done, looks with his own eyes upon the state of things in our colonies and ut home, there will be forced on his attention with iiTcsistible emphasis the weightiness of the issuer wrapped up in the word Emigration. Beyond the sea endless tracts of wealthy loam waiting for the husbandman's toil to excite its fertility — forests of timber standing in useless though picturesque solitude, and hiding from the sun of heaven "n exuberant soil — rich prairies offering pasture \ ithout stint for innumerable cattle — rivers of volume and breadth sufficient to carry into the heart of the land fleets of freight-bearing ships — everywhere in profusion those advantages which are to be coveted for the nursing-places of new nations. B On this side of the vvatcr, we have a land, not without many scones of beanty and fertility, unable to provide from its own bosom sustenance for the numbers who dwell upon it — agriculture artificially carried on at graat expense, while the competition for the labour it requires keeps thousands in perpetual poverty and degradation — huge cities crowded by hungry artisans, who, in the fierce eagerness of bread- winning, use threats and violence towards each other and towards their employers — women in multitudes made prostitutes by want or over-crowding — starving hundreds of thousands daily knocking at workhouse-doors — vagrants in nearly every street, lane, and road — crime grown desperate, becoming more rapacious and ter:ible in its outbreaks — death reaping his gloomy harvest in vast fields where disease and hunger have matured the grain. Can I be wrong when I say that he who has really looked upon these things with open eyes will havu the weightiness of the question I am about to discuss forced upon his conviction with an emphasis he cannot resist ? Still let me be careful not to over-value the interest of the subject. For the startling con- ditions of society I have so rapidly outlined, I shall not insist upon Emigration as a panacea. Vast as may be the changes that can be wrought by its agency, that agency must not displace or obstruct other social improvements, but must go hand-in -hand with them. The question of the relations of Capital and Labour is not to be settled by Emigration, though the way to & settle- ment will be smoothed by it. The question of the revision of the Poor Law system is not to be avoided by Emigration, though that will in every way facilitate its solution. The question of the condition of the agricultaral labourer is not to be set aside by Emigration, though everyone can see how greatly Emigration will assist in the removal of the chief difficulties. The questions of vagrancy, prostitution, the distribution of land, and many others, cannot be solved, though they can be argued with far more hope of a favourable issue by the aid of Emigration. In the spirit thus indicated I propose to examine the subject. In Mr. Wakefield's "View of the Art of Coloni- " zation," the person to whom the pseudonym of " Statesman" is therein given, says — " There is a '' good deal of pretty and seemingly earnest talking '^ and writing about Colonization, but what else I " know not. Colonization, I take it, is something " to be done, not something to be merely known, like geography or astronomy. Who is there who B 2 u u can tell us what they would have Parliament do ? "Who proposes any plan? Who is seriously " looking to important practical results ? " These questions, put twenty years ago, are hecom- ing every day more eager in the necessity for reply, more serious in their interest. Unless they are practically answered soon, what will be the solution of the difficulties that prompted them ? For brevity's sake, I do not mtend to examine the history of this question. I shall not investi- gate the system of ancient Colonization, nor even give an outline of the facts and discussions of past yearp in this country. Reports of Committees of 1826, 1827, 1884 ; of Mi. Ward'?} Committee of 1836 ; of the Devon Commission ; the Eeport of Her Majesty's Commissioners of Emigration ; the history of the Colonization Society of 1830, by which the Colonies of South Australia and New Zealand were founded; debates, discussions, books, pamphlets, reviews, form a literature upon this single subject astonishing to a novice, and in which really almost every point of importance has been discussed. Not professing, therefore, to offer a series of original propositions in this essay, I shall, for the sake of rapidity and convenience, adopt such principles and arguments as appear to me to be sound, without reference to authorities, and without hesitating. 5 when the subject demands it, to state, in my own way, matters that are familiar, or even what is elementary. Nor shall I observe any nice distinctions between terms, such as " Colonization " and " Emigration — " systematic " and " systematised." My meaning when I use the word Emigration, is the exportation of the redundant population from this country, to some other, where their strength and skill are needed to develope its capabilities. As to system, I only wish to eiect such a system as naturally rises into shape from certain facts and principles which I am going to propound. Let me first glance at the conditions of Emigration as it now exists. Of late years Emigration to the colonies has been carried on through arrangements made by the various colonies in conjunction with the Imperial Commissioners of Emigration. The latter have exercised supervision over the vessels in which emigrants were carried, have provided information at various agencies, have been themselves, to some extent, agents of different colonies for the purpose of managing theii' Emigration schemes, in selecting colonists or providing free passages, and have m^ade elaborate reports to the Home Government. Their assistance has stopped here. They have had no 6 power to inaugurate any scheme of Emigration, or to use public funds to promote the settlement of colonists. The Colonial Governments naturally take great practical interest in the subject. Some of them, as the Australian colonies, have offered free passages upon warrants granted here by the Emigration Commissioners, or issued at half-price to persons in the colony desirous of importing their relatives or friends. In other colonies, as recently in provinces of the I^ew Dominion of Canada, free grants of 100 acres of good land, uncleared, are offered to able- bodied male settlers of eighteen years of age and upwards, but no assistance in the way of passages or funds is offered to emigrants. Nova Scotia has attracted many persons to her shores by sending agents to select families and provide means for their transit, but a number of these persons have taken advantage of their proximity to the United States to disappoint the intentions of their patrons. The Queensland Government, by a recent Homestead law, offers lands at very moderate prices on easy terms, and free passages to women servants who are single. These are the general features of assisted Emi- gration as it is. There is little uniformity, no organisation. As the colonies begin to feel the want of labourers, they send for them, and so long as there is a pretty steady advance in colonial prosperity they are not careful to use extraordinary efforts to quicken the progression. The number of assisted Emigrants in 1866-1867 was as follows : — 1865-1866-1867 New South Wales „ „ „ Queensland. 1866-1867 Victoria „ South Australia . „ Western Australia „ Cape of Good Hope „ Natal . „ Falkland Islands . 3417 2027 735 3097 114 2 32 27 T^otal 9451 Out of an Emigration of a little over 200,000. Private Emigration, therefore, is very consider- able, and Ireland continues to be the source from which it flows in greatest volume. There its principal aid is derived from the United States, whither famines, our course of policy, and other influences have transferred nearly half a nation. It is very essential to observe the difference be- tween Emigration to America and to our colonies. In the latter the labour-market is limited, in the former it is large and constantly increasing. In the colonies there are few great cities and a moderate comm(3rce; in the United States there are communities and a trade vieing with those of the old world. The consequences are natural. The great field for pauper emigrants, who can u£ford to pay their passages and no more, must be one in which they will find instant occupation at a re- muneration. The vast engineering works projected and executed in America, caused that great demand for labour in the United States which supported the unparalleled exodus from our shores. As some of the emigrants improved theii- fortunes, they pushed further West, to settle on the rich lands of Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, and the territories. Others occupied their places in the midway States, and for these again substi- tutes were required from the Atlantic border. So the great waves of population which took their impulse from Ireland finally broke and scattered themselves upon the base of the Eocky Mountains. When the first emigrants succeeded, moved by that faithfulness and affection whereby the Celtic race is ennobled, they sent home money to take out their friends; these, again, transmitted funds to their relations, and thus :he .^reat circle has been moving, money home, and people out, until there is needed in Ireland no artificial action to keep the movement at a pacr sufticijnt even to alarm a political economist. The amounts remitted since ^^ 1848 are thus stated in the last Report of the Emigration Commissioners :— 1848 1849 1850 Ibol 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 18[^ 1858 ' 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 From North America, . £460,000 . 540,000 . 957,000 . 990,000 . 1,404,000 . 1,439,000 . 1,730,000 . 873,000 . 951,00(> . 593,165 . 472,610 . 520,019 . 534,476 . 374,061 . 360,578 . 383,286, and £44, 1 23 from America and Australia. . 332,172 . 481,580 . 498,028 £13,893,975 sterling. Let it be remembered that Irish Emigration has been chiefly that of a redundant pauper population; that it took place under peculiar circumstances with peculiar people; that a field of singular appositeness was ready to receive it; and that, once I:! J;i' 10 begun and attended with success, it continues by a natural impulse. No movement like the Irish Emigration could take place from* England and Scotland. The poli- tical reasons for it do not exist. Warm-hearted political discontent at home gives it no impulse. The United States is a congenial sphere to the Irish- man, where he finds a people ready to sympathise with whatever he alleges to be wrongs. Moreover he is of constitution different from an Englishman, more pliant, more submissive to hardships, less care- ful about circumstances, and every way more likely to succeed. I have seen Irish men and women in the United States who had grown to wealth from the pickaxe and washtub, while Englishmen worked on heavily at some trade, either because they were always at sword-point with the people among whom they had settled, or carried their English notions of comfort into practice at the expense of their savings, or insisted on their old- world prejudices where they should have forgotten them. A tanner in a large way in Philadelphia told me he never cared to employ an Englishman. " They are so pig-headed. Nothing is right unless '' it is done in the English way. Now our leather " does not require the same sort of treatment as " English leather. English leather does not wear 11 ' 80 well in our climate, on brick pavements. ' Wo do not keep the skins so long in the ' pits as they do in England. Yet I have an ' Englishman at work for me who is always cry- * ing out against our methods and insisting on ' his own. It is disagreeable to work with him, ' and he gets into difficulties with the other ' Lien.' The principal manufacturer of locomo- tive engines in the United States gave similar testimony to a friend of mine. " An Englishman *' in a factory is a nuisance. T never employ one " if I can help it.'^ After having lived several years in the United States, my personal opinion is, that a large Emigration of English labourers to that country would not be successful. I have described the extent of Government assist- ance to Emigration. It may be said to bo an official dry-nursing of so indifferent a character as almost to approach to baby-farming. Even infor- mation is not as generally scattc^red as it ought to be. How differently the Government of the United States appreciates the advantages . of Emigration may be judged of from the anxiety they have shown to foster it. At home they offered lands on very low terms to settlers — abroad nearly every Consul is incidentally an Emigration agent. At Consulates in England and on the Continent, I have been told, c 2 : I 12 information as to lands, labour-markets, climates, prices, passages, can be had by any inquirer, how- ever poor he may be. This must contribute to the result, that from the Continent a steady tide of Emigration flows to America. A gentleman from Canada, one of the Commissioners to the Exhibition of 1851, who interested himself in promoting Emi- gration to that province, informs mo that he went to Germany with the object of tempting some of her thrifty sons to settle in Canada. He found that they knew nothing about the country, nor could they obtain information. He was told — '' If " a man goes to a British Consulate and asks what " sort of a place Canada is," the answer is likely to be somewhat in these terms, " Oh ! I don't know " much about it; but it's precious cold there in " winter." At the United States Consulate he would learn everything he ought to know, and be treated with a consideration that indicates how well the value of such additions to the population is understood by these practical Americans. We can- not wonder, therefore, that of 27,084 persons, who in 1866 took steamship to Canada, only 4303* remained in the provinces, the rest going directly through the country to the Western States. Here at least there seems to be a duty for our Govern- * Report of tlie Emigration Coinmissiou, 1867, p. 47. 13 mont. Sweden, Norway, Germany, Franco and Italy send out thousands of valuable colonists with- out an effort on our part to secure them. It might be an admirable utilisation of waste material to set the energies of our Cor suls, and even of subordinates in our Diplomatic Corps, at work upon disseminating information respecting the resources of our colonies. The United States offers to the struggler with poverty an attractive and promising arena : if wc wish to divert for our own benefit any of the wealth of ^abour which that country is acquiring at our expense, action and sacrifice are necessary. I have not yet alluded to the efforts to transfer distress from a hopeless to a promising field, of which the East-end Emigration Committee and Miss Eye are the conspicuous agents. The history of these movements is before the world, illuminated by success. Miss Eye's work it would be mere impertinence to endeavour to applaud. Many poor women, rejoicing in the life she has helped to uncloud, and many whose hope of life she has assisted them to regain, must be looking with affectionate grati- tude to the pioneer of their happiness. But a fair review of such movements, however successful in themselves, brings into prominence two facts. Pauper Emigration, assisted by charity, must in the main be that of labourers and 1 i 14 not settlors, whilo it affords no warrant that this class of emigrants will bo desirable to the colony, or will remain in it. I shall show directly, that to establish a family on a free grant of land oven, a sum of money is required, enough to put any ex- tensive aid to Emigration beyond the reach of charity. As to the character of emigrants, I am aware that both Miss Rye and the East-end Com- mittee have taken strict precautions to select proper persons. Yet complaints come from the colonies, that in the anxiety to get paupers off their hands, people have been too ready to recommend their departure from home. Many kind persons, and guardians of the poor, who are not generally con- sidered kind persons, may be unconscious of their their own willingness to get rid of troublesome poverty. To the colonies it is a matter of critical moment to have an industrious and well-behaved class of people settled on their waste lands. The colonial police is limited, and the population is scat- tered. A few bad men may ruin a whole township, or a batch of worthless persons become a charge upon the towns. Some guarantee is necessary that a proper class of persons shall be exported, and that they shall not become a burden upon the colonies. To accomplish this with a pauper Emigration is, 1 may safely say, impracticable, unless it is done with Vo the help and under the supervision of Oovernuieiit. The little labour the colonies are able to absorb could no doubt be easily supplied to them with private assistance ; but if large numbers arc to be sent out to settle, and not to compete for work, those communities will naturally exclaiTu against the im- propriety of scndiiig out settlers without the capital to give them a fair start in their new life. We must then distinguish between two classes of emigrants. Labourers, artisans, domestic servants, for whom work is waiting in the colonies, and who, therefore, if industrious, may expect to win a livelihood as soon as they are put ashore. For these, as we have already said, the demand is limited, and could by energetic charity be fully supplied without Government assistance. The effect of their extrusion on the mass of redundant labour in this country would, however, be nearly inappreciable. Another class of emigrants is necessary both to relieve us at home and to strengthen the colo- nies, those whom I term settlers, as distinguished from labourers. To schemes for promoting the ex- portation of this class, the Colonization Society, Mr. Wakefield, Lord Durham, Mr. Buller, and others devoted themselves. Their method may roughly be described as the transportation of com- NMI 16 ^\ i { m i! i l! : munities, instead of the emigration of individuals. Eut, though attended with some success, their schemes halted in consequence of the indisposition ol capital rank and intellij^ence to emigrate, and we have in fact now grown beyond them. The colonies are established, and have become societies, ,ind I think I may safely say that henceforth Emigration, as a policy, becomes a question of the removal of individuals who cannot remove them- selves. I hope I shall be forgiven — for I recognise all the good they did — if I say, looking back upon the history of Colonization since 1830, that the Colonization people embarrassed their propositions with too many crotchets. It tries one's gravity somewhat to think of exporting in one vessel a society containi :g the grades and classes of a home town, to settle in perfect order on a huge piece of land which is, when they set out, pervaded by kangaroos. Secondly, charitable Emigration can never be extensive enough to afford the requisite relief. The funds required for the removal of hundreds of thousands, the organisation, discipline, facilities, and conveniences of transport, the guarantee of good conduct and repayment of nionies advanced could only be secured with Governr..i3nt resuiu'ces and authority. At present the continued indiffor- 17 ence of Government to Emigration not only permits the evils of our situation to be exaggerated, but may directly contribute to augment them. In making some inquiries of an Emigration Agent at Truro, employed by Messrs. Allan Brothers, of Montreal, Glasgow, and Liverpool, whose enter- prise has, I believe, greatly assisted a process of Canadian immigration, he told me that with leave to grant free passages he could v/eekly ship from Cornwall large numbers of unemployed people, who were of the right stuff to found settlements. Even now the men manage to get away in hundreds, but the significant fact stated to me was one, in my sad belief, by no means uncommon in England. The agent told me of instances in which these manly Corn^^hmen sold nearly everything they had to procure enough money for their own passage, and left their wives and children to be provided for by the parish; moreover, he added, that not unfre- quently such emigrants were never heard from again. This must often be the result of an un- assisted Emigration, and thus the helpless and unproductive are thrown upon public support. I shall hereafter urge this as a reason for insisting that a Government Emigration should be an Emigra- tion of families. I assume that I need not in detail prove the 18 miu llil!! oxistence in England of circumstances that rendei* Emigration by some means or other imperative. The e:^.cess of agricultural labour is evidenced by the low rates of wages and the condition of the' labourers, to wh'ch reanimated attention has been lately directed. The agitation of the working classes, and the attempts to limit the supply of labour, or diffuse its rewards with fixed equality, indicate *hat there are more artisans in the field than opportunities of employment. The distress at the Ei:st-end arising oat of similar causes and out of the translation of work to cheaper labour- markets affords another proof. In Cornwall the failure of some mines, or the unremunerative condition of others, at the wages-rate insisted on by the miners, and the discovery of richer mines in new countries, has thrown masses of men into a condition of want and starvation. And the statis- tics of the Poor Law Board complete, with unmitigated sternness, the tale of evidence that unless some plan is devised to relieve our over-stocked country inconceivable disaster threatens its future. So strongly does this excite anxiety in some minds that we have had public meetings, at which the doctrines of Malthus were insisted on with extreme energy and gravity, and a crusade is to bo preached 19 against generation by persons who have themselves been born. Out of all these things two points are brought into clear notice. The first is that there is, in this country, an excess of working labour. The second is that there is an enormous mass of inert labour. The proposition is irrefutable that if a number of men are engaged in doing what fewer could do the excess of possible work over that actually done is a loss. But it has also been urged with some assurance that the amount an quality of the work done by the more does not equal in amount or quality the work that would be done by the fewer in the case supposed. The Committee of 1827 quote with emphasis the statement of Mr. Cosway, a proprietor in Romney Marsh and the Weald of Kent, "that " in the case of eight labourers being employed only seven -eighths of the working time throughout the year, there was one redundant labourer, but " that the aggregate work executed by these eight " men did not represent the work which ought to " have been effected by sevon Libourers under the *' satisfactory adjustment of the supply of labour " and demand." I may state the proposition in this way : — If work is distributed amongst more labourers than are actually necessai^ to do it, and the aggregate wages for the amount of work done D 2 ii, u 20 is the same, each labourer is not only required to do less in consequence of the larger distribution of employment, but will do that less in an inferior manner. Perhaps this may be accoimted for by the suggestion that, getting less work, he is deprived of a proportion of earnings, is therefore less animated by the encouragement of larger pay, and is not so well provided with the nourishment to enable him to support greater exertion. His energies are kept in imperfect play, and reserve of strength becomes a habit of indolence. I noticed in the United States that mechanics there who, in consequence of the scarcity of labour and high wages, are kept working to their utmost capabili- ties, lived better than some persons accustomed in England to consider themselves of good station. Meat, or poultry, and various vegetables, constitute a Philadelphia mechanic's every-day meal, and owing to the admirable, system of working men's dwellings in that city, he is able to enjoy it in his own tenement. The independence and spirit engendered by these favourable circumstances, however distasteful to notions of subordination in rank, are very welcome to the employer, since he views their results in more energetic and faithful work. "When, therefore, we look at the actual number 21 of persons employed in England, we may accept it as a fact that the aggregate of work done could be done by fewer persons in a better manner. For example, if in an agricultural parish the number of men seeking employment could be reduced, the rest, upon the higher wages they could then obtain, would do the same amount of work that was done before the reduction more satisfactorily. Hence, a large fraction of working labour could be removed from this country, to the benefit of that which is left, without diminishing the aggregate of work done, or increasing the whole sum to be paid for that aggregate. Unhappily there is not only diffuseness of em- ployment in comparison with the capabilities of what I have termed working labour, we must contemplate an inert mass of possible workers, or what are called in Poor-law statistics " able-bodied paupers," who not only produce nothing, but are a direct tax upon the community. On the 1st of January, 1868, from a statement generally familiar, 1.040,103 paupers received relief at the public expense throughout the United Kingdom. Seven millions a-year is required to keep up the flow of this relief. In these statistics are not included the considerable numbers assisted or supported by private charity, and the numbers on any single day liliHi . 22 in the ycai* can scarcely represent the real number of paupers in the kingdom. Now, allowing that amongst these people there are hundreds of thou- sands of sick, infirm, incapables and incurables, an enormous residue ol able-bodied persons, or as I have designated it, inert labour^ must still remain. Besides these, there are the criminal classes who are usually able to work if they were willing to do it honestly. I am one, who, as the result of my observation among the poor, and specially in places where labour is scarce, believe that if an ample supply of work exists, and men and women can earn a livelihood by it, they will labour instead of being paupers, and prefer honest labour to being criminals. Where there is a sufficient demand for labourers, nearly every able-bodied man, woman and child will be found striving to earn a living. Of course a certain percentage of pauperism and criminality exists everywhere. Indolence and vice are epi- demic : but these will decrease in the inverse ratio of the prosperity of the labour market. Confii-ma- tory of this is a curious fact stated some time since in the Statistical Journal. In five unions in Wilts and Dorset, where the wages were 9s. 6d. a week, the poor-rate was 8s. 2d. per head. In five unions in Cumberland and Northumberland, where the 23 rate of wages was 14s. Gd. per week, the poor rate per head was 5s. 5d., that is to say, where wages were 53 per cent, higher, the poor relief cost 35 per cent. less. In this country, unfortunately, the excess of labour-supply over employment has tended to clog the enterprise and warp the independent spirit of portions of the populace. It is possible, therefore, that to produce the effect just described, time and education will be necessary, even should we suc- ceed soon in relieving the labour market of its excess. But persons whom habit has made hope- lessly indolent will become the fit subjects of discipline, when it can be proved that the state of society does not palliate their conduct. The argument lately advanced appears to me to supply an answer to the objection frequently made that Emigration is apt to take away from the community some of its most hard-working and valuable members, without relieving it of those who sap its resources. Is not the objection very short-sighted ? That inert mass of labour, of which I have spoken, is to be moved in one way — by creating a vacuum near it. As surely as motion- less air will quicken into movement, and rush with lightning speed to fill a void in nature, so certainly will the inactive energies of human beings be set ■m 24 in motion by an opening for thoir exercise. Hence the philanthropist in promoting Emigration is not bound, though he might legitimately do so, to hold out a promise of instant improvement in the general condition of the poorer classes. He may urge that the next and succeeding generations will profit by his policy ; that paupers will give place to workers ; that the process of transmutation is simple, and the principles of his alchemy are sure. Another fact relating to the circumstances by which Emigration is prompted comes in here with cumulative effect. Notw^ithstanding a large exodus, the population of the United Kingdom continues to increase. The addition to the population in the ten years, 1851- 1860, was 1,575,339, although in about the same period 2,054,823 persons left our shores. The actual natural increase, therefore, allowing for foreign emigrants passsing through the kingdom, would be more than 3,000,000. As, however, the greater number of our own emigrants were of a character likely to add to the population, the rate of increase will not perhaps be sustained in the present decennial period. The increase of popula- tion obviously tends to exaggerate the injurious conditions already reviewed. With labouring labour in excess, an immense incubus of inert labour, continuous additions to 26 both, accumulation of capital in a restricted field of employment, not to speak of an enervated trade, we arc driven to face the question— TF/^a/ can Emigration do to mitigate both the evils and the perils of our situation ? For the situation is perilous. No superhuman vision is needed to see that labour, lately endued with new political force in the community, looks with jealous eyes at capitalists and landholders whose vast aggregations so conspicuously contrast with its own want. The questions the labouring classes will put to themselves are dangerous questions : ^'Can the laws be just," they will say, or rather, I observe they are saying, by resolutions in public meetings, "which allow of this massing "of wealth in single hands? Can the fact "be right that all those riches are enjoyed by " a few while we are poor ? " It is to me significant that the communist doctrines do not more widely pervade the work- ing classes. May I suggest that in this they not only evince surprising moderation and intelli- gence ? The fact seems indicative of a deeper policy. They appear to know theii- power, to foresee +heir opportunity, and to be willing to wait for the time when they can use it most decisively. E 20 (( u II. — The principles and process of an Emigration policy are clear and easily illustrated. By Emigration the superabundance which at home hampers labour is removed to a new and wider arena for exertion. Working labour im- mediately experiences relief. Said Mr. Malthus, in his answers to the Committee of 1827 : "A " comparatively small excess of labour occasions a " deterioration of the condition of the labourers in '' the particular district where such excess exists : " or supposing the excess to be general the conse- quences are equally general, and so is the conse- quent improvement of the whole body of laboui'ers " by the abstraction and removal of any super- " abundant portion." I have already shown that, supposing the field of employment not to be enlarged, the depletion of the labour market will act beneficially on the residue, by sending up wages, and this without diminishing the amount of work done. A fortiori the relief afforded by the exportation of inert labour would be very great. That is a millstone hanged about the neck of society. The rates imposed to sustain it reduce the profits of the landholder and capitalist, and so far disable them from paying as much for the labour they employ, or competing with foreign mar}:ets as they other- tPli 27 wise could do. Thus, as wo incidentally note, inert labour as well as superabundant working labour, press hardly on the actual working man — more hardly on him than on any class of the community. The benefits accruing from the re- moval of pauper non-labourers are cumulative. An actual tax is suppressed — the general prosperity is increased. Hence, Mr. Malthus and others asserted that English parishes would be solidly benefitted if they taxed themselves to provide an Emigration Fund for their redundant and inert labour. The reciprocal effects of a depletion of both working and inert labour would be remarkable. While the exportation of inert labour would take off the weight of an actual tax, the diminution of working labour would partially open a field to inert labourers — so lessening their numbers and the poor-rates together. Were these the only advantages resulting from Emigration, they would amply repay the sacrifice required to secure them. They are not, however, yet numbered. The labourer's conditici may be improved, not only by increasing his wages, but by diminishing the prices of the articles he consumes. To illustrate this I take at random an authentic statement of the wages of a Suffolk labourer, whose earnings in 1843, with the assistance of four E 2 28 iiiombors of his family, amounted to 13s. 9d. per week. This was expended as follows : — d. d. Bread 9 Potatoes 10 Cheeao 8 Butter . . . . . 4J Tea 2 Sugar 3i Salt Oj Soap 3 Candles 3 Blue 0| Thread, &c 2 Coal and Wood . . . ,09 Rent 12 Total . . . . 13 9 Now, if the price of the articles specified were reduced in consequence of a larger general supply of any of them, this family, without any increase of wages, would be benefitted proportionately with the reduction. For instance, let us suppose corn to be at a price that enabled them to buy the same quantity of bread for 6s. which they now purchase for 9s. That is their staple. They will have 3s. a week more to spend either in meat, more bread, more coal, or more house-room, with corresponding improvements in health and comfort and ability to work. .Ill 29 Tho lossening of prices of consumable crticles may bo effected by increasing tho supply of raw material. To do this rapidly and effectually nothing could so well contribute as tho development of uncultivated portions of our colonial empire. Every emigrant clearing wild lands and transforming them into crop-bearing fields, adds to tho general supply of tho world, and helps, by tho extent of his production, to decrease prices. Eichness of soil, inexpensive culture, low taxation and larger returns, enable him to compete successfully at diminished prices with agriculturists even across an ocean. No small advantage, therefore, is likely to accrue to the worldng classes in this country from a large emigration of settlers or developers of tho soil. In proportion to their numbers and success, articles of consumption at home may be expected to decrease in price. Then the labourer here being able to live more cheaply would be better off as the result of his labour. Collaterally with this, and out of it, a new benefit springs into notice. At home we have described the emigrant as an impediment to enterprise gene- rally, sometimes a positive tax on the community. He is a small consumer — he creates little demand. But so soon as he traverses the seas and begins to be a producer, he becomes also a consumer. In PWWW 30 proportion to the success of his production will be his want of manufactured articles. His products sent home come back to him in forms which home labour has given them. The illustration of Mr. Wakefield, therefore, is no hyperbole: "When a *' Hampshire peasant emigrates to Australia he " very likely enables an operative to live in " Lancashire." The enormous gain resulting to English manu- factures from Colonization, even where our oifspring have been made hostile from blundering policy, will at once occur to anyone considering the question, as illustrated by the case of the United States. In 1866 our exports to the United States were £28,484,000. our imports £46,858,000. In 1867 our exports and imports thither and thence respectively were £21,822,000 and £41,048,000. I take at hap-hazard the statistics of our trade with British North America : — In 1865. Imports . 6,350,000 „ Exports , 4,705,000 1866. Imports . 6,869,000 „ Exports . 6,830,000 1867. Imports . 6,807,000 „ Exports . 5,853,000 II! 1 But the courtesy of Mr. Wheeler, the agent of the Colony of Queensland, in London, has fur- 31 nished me with a most interesting and conclusive illustration of the relation between immigration, production, and importation. Tear. Population. 1869 25,146 1860 28,887 1861 34,885 1862 46,300 1863 61,640 1864 74,036 1865 87,775 1866 96,172 No. of Acres Unla- precede capital '? The capitalist cannot bo seduced from a known field whence the returns are regular though scanty, to unknown and doubtful trans- pontine adventures. In the colonies where land is cheap and wages are high, labourers are apt to save enough to purchase land for themselves, and to abandon capital in the midst of its undertakings. To settle labour and develope production first appears to be the proper course, and capital will follow. Wealthy men cannot be induced to turn Crusoes on a large scale, to leave a civilised and luxurious society for backwoodi' and contact with the roughest nature, human and materip^ Food and instruments precede settlement. That is all that labour requires — the strong arm and sturdy energy of the settler will do the rest. By-and-by as development succeeds, as production increases and wealth flows from production, machinery, railroae intended good as rapidly and successfully as might otherwise be done ; and besides, by settling a man on a gratuitous system is helping at the outset of his colonial career to destroy his independence and his respect for the advantages he has obtained. Again, the free settler is only bound to his land by the slim thread of its value to hin; If it costs him nothing a rich labour-market within reach may tempt him away. Bind him to settle with his family and make good to the colony the price of his allotment, and he will be tied to the place by obligations both social and selfish. The land that no one can get for nothing, the land that is sold to him on advantageous terms as to price and pay- ment, will be worth freeing for a heritage to his family. Mr. Wakefield, in his "Art of Colonization," successfully exposed the errors of the free-grant system. 'When the acquisition of land is easy, as he urges, labourers soon become landholders, and .will 37 capital is dissuaded from investing in farms, for which there is likely to be a stint of labour-supply. But Mr. Wakefield does not appear to have considered the instance of grants of land limited to the capa- bilities of an ordinary family, where of course extra labour is unnecessary ; while, moreover, the " bee " system — a plan of mutual help or co- operation prevailing in new settlements — serves to moderate the rc^quirement for labourers. I should not therefore be so anxious to guard against the difficulties which embarrassed Mr. Wakefield as, First, to encourage in the emigrant an independent spirit ; Secondly, to make him responsible for his own fortunes ; Thirdly, to secure for the Govern- ments, Home and Colonial, a guarantee of his per- severance, good conduct, and a return of the expenses to which they are put. An elaborate scheme for securing the latter is to be found in the Eeport of the Parliamentary Committee of 1827. I suggest this repayment because it seems to be feasible, but do not withdraw an inch from the position justified by the former parts of this essay — that a national expenditure for this purpose without direct pro- spective return would be a gain to the country. One or two of the ample millions annually sunk in fortifications and experimental iron-clads would save more than d(juble the money, and erect for 38 England better bulwarks than stone or iron can compose. The amount required for the transport of an emigrant to Canada, which is the nearest and most expedient of all the colonies, is about six guineas, including food; to the Australian colonies about £14: or .£15. Children are taken at a reduction. It has been ascertained, by careful calculation, and is officially stated by the Canadian Emigration Department, that the amount either in money — or in food and utensils — sufficient to support a family of five, consisting of parents and three children, for the first eighteen months, until their land begins to yield crops enough to sustain them, is £47 sterling, or say £50. From the same authority we have a pre- cise statement of the result of a settlement with less resources which it will be well to quote in connec- tion with that estimate. The Government Emi- gration agent stated from actual personal inspection and inquiry on the spot in 1860 : " There are ninety- " five Prussian families settled in the Upper Ottawa " country within the last eighteen months. Forty of '^ these during that time have progressed in the " cultivation and settlement of their wild farms, " so far as to prove what any industrious and " persevering family, possessed of only seventy-five " dollars — say £15 sterling — capital can accom- 39 " pUsh. The result of the industry " settlers he gives in this way :— of these forty Payment of first instalment on 4,000 acres (100 to each family) .... Forty log-houses, stables, and bams, at 40 dois, Forty-eight cows, at 25 dels. Six yoke of oxen, at 80 dols. Fifteen steers, at 15 dols. Forty-five sheep, at 2 dols. Seventy-two pigs, at 10 dols. 260 fowls, at 15c. per pair. 1400 bushels of wheat, at 1-20 dol. 422 „ peas, rye, and barley, at GO c 642 „ oats, at 40 c. . 9060 „ potatoes and turnips, at 30 c. 330 lbs. of flax and tobacco, at 10 c. 40 toys of hay," at 7 dols 334 acres cleared, at 10 dols. . Capital of forty settlers, at 75 dols. each. acres Dollars. 700 00 1000 00 1200 00 480 00 225 00 90 00 720 00 39 00 1G80 00 253 20 256 80 2718 00 33 00 280 00 3340 00 13,615 00 3,000 00 Net balance in favour of settlement, being 220-60 dols. to each settler " 10,615 00 Mr. Sinn also stated that the average produce of wheat that year (1860) was about thirty bushels per acre, and the whole forty settlers furnished him with a certificate of their progress for the guid- ance of their countrymen who might contemplate removing to Canada, using these words :— " After 40 " onh/ eighteen months' settlement we are m possess mi '* of homesteads which secwr, to us and our families " the means of a comparative^/ independent livelihood. " We are all satisfied toith the land tve have bought ^'' from the Canadian Government. It produces " abundant crops ; and although we possess but little " means, tve can, by the aid of remunerative emptloij- " ment procured from the old settlers, obtain the neces- ^' saries we require, until v^e shall have cleared sufficient " land on our oivn lots to support us. We can, there- *'' fore, upon our own experience, recommend Canada *' to our friends and acquaintances in the old country '' tvho are desirous to emigrate.'''' Such instances as these I could easily multiply. Peter Eobinson's settlers were similarly prosperous. A less successful progress than this would prove how safely Government may count on security and return for their advances. Seventy pounds sterling would transfer a family to Canada, and make them not only self-supporting, but producers. The amount of land to be sold to them can easily be adjusted. Suppose 100 acres, charged to them at one dollar an acre, or about £20 for the whole. Ninety pounds sterling would be the entire sum of the emigrant's indebtedness to the Home and Colo- nial Governments. Every tree he fells, and each foot of earth he sows, enhances the value of the 41 security. A few struggling yc^ars and he is free, an independent man, with a happier heart, with broader views, with higher hopes : a pillar to the colony, a patron of homo manufactures, a provider of cheaper food to his former fellow- workers. Some outlines of a plan may now fairly be demanded by the reader, and although the aim of this essay is rather to direct popular attention to the exigency of the subject than to insist on any peculiar scheme, I 'venture to add some suggestions as to the mode in which the previously-stated propositions may be made practically efficient. Whatever plan is adopted should, I think, be moulded for these objects, namely : — 1. To procure as emigrants fathers of families (with families of at least average healthiness) or young married men — able-bodied and of good character. In this the Colonial Governments would be principally interested, and agents^ of these Governments should therefore be engaged to exa- mine individuals and satisfy themselves of the value of their testimonials. Much discretion must necessarily be accorded to agents in this matter. There are many men living under a cloud in England who would in the colonies become re- spectable citizens. Fewer and less constant temp- tations, the hope of better things, an almost com- 42 pulsory attention to family duties, and the emula- tion excited by the view of succoBsful efforts made by others who are in precisely similar circumstances, will combine to reform many a generous nature that has been warped from integrity by poverty at home. A short time since a friend asked me to interest myself in the Emigration of a labourer with a family whom he was desirous to benefit. He told me the man was clever, a capital woodman, everyway fitted for backwoods life, but " not " steady," the well-known euphemism for habits of drunkenness. From what ho knew of this person's character and circumstances he thought that, re- moved from the depress* '^n of a sullied name, his transfer to a new scene "e he could start freely and be separated from frequent temptation would lead to his reform. A few months after this case was mentioned to me, I wrote to my friend pointing out a way of sending the man to a certain colony. The reply was: '* I have lost my interest " in him. He was unfortunately detected in dis- " honesty," &c. Let no one say that if this poor fellow could have been translated from what seemed to be the path of an inevitable destiny at home he would not in fresh circumstances have reformed the tenor of his life. Such cases cannot be uncommon, and the management of them should be left to the 48 agents. It is tho utter hopelessness of extrication from social depression that often changes tho falt(Ting steps of men in the direction of crime into a confirmed and steady tramp towards destruction. The qualifications to be insisted upon by the colonies in candidates for settlements I shall not attempt to direct. Whether artisans are likely to make good agricultural settlers is a point to which experience must long ere this have afforded a solution. No materials are at hand to afford me determinating information upon this matter. I judge from such personal observation as I have made, 'Vom the fact that large numbers of artisans unquestionably become prosperous agriculturists, and from the further fact that the cultivation of land is simpler and easier, as well as more cheap in the colonies, that no objection coiild be taken to a large artisan Emigration on the ground of inex- perience in agriculture. In Canada, I believe, tho local Emigration agents are practical men, who give advice to emigrants upon the best methods of cultivation, an arrangement which must, to a great extent, obviate the suggested difficulty. 2. To secure bona fide settlers. I have mentioned that in !N'ova Scotia many emigrants availed them- selves of the assistance of the Government, simply to obtain a free passage across the Atlantic, and <; 2 44 afterwards, instead of settling on their allotments, deserted to the labour-markets of the United States. Probubly some legislative action, on the part of both Home and Colonial Governments, will be necessary to meet this difficulty, esnecially on the part of the dominion of Canada, the neighbourhood of which to the United States, makes easy the abandonment of their settlements by the emigrants. A bond would be requii*ed from each colonist, taken on behalf of the Home Government and that of the colony to which he was going, subject- ing him to certain penalties in case of his deser- tion. This might be Jn the alternative of a fine if he was able to pay it, or of imprisonment for attempted desertion, with a discretion to any justice of the locality to take bail for the release of the offender to secure his return and continuance in the settlement. Indeed, bail might be made demandable in all cases of suspicion. The apparent harshness of this suggestion dwindles into insignificance when all the circum- stances are considered. The emigrant is oftered a great boon at some risk and expense. It is volun- tary with him to accept it. He has nothing but his person to offer as security for it. If his inten- tion is honest he can scarcely be unwilling, and it can scarcely be unfair for him to pledge his own 46 liberty for the execution of that part of his agree- ment which concerns his personal presence at the settlement. This should, however, only be insisted on for a limited period, say two years, sufficient to evince the honesty of his intentions. The agree- ment should be carefully modified to leave an opening for cases of sickness and disability. It may be safely said that no one would object to accept such a condition if he meant to use the benevolence of Government in accordance with its object. The suggested bond would require also to embody another consideration, namely :— 3. To secui-e the return, by easy and regular instalments, of the amount advanced for emigration and settlement, and of the value of the land. To this end the ordinary penal provisions of a bond might be sufficient. The land will become more valuable from year to year, as it is cleared and cropped. Supposing the colonies, which in some cases, have oifered land gratuitously, to be willing, as I hereafter suggest, to postpone their claims for a return of the price of the land, until the money a-lvances have been repaid, this improved land will be ample security for those advances. Tl ) statistics above, given from an emigration agent's report, give an idea of the rate at which improve- ment goes on, and show how certainly in the 46 case of indiistrioiis settlers, returns may be counted upon. And the mere aggregation of considerable numbers in any district will tend to enhance the value of the lands, so that in cases of desertion or ejectment, the vacated plots might be sold to old or new settlers at an improved price. 4. To secure the clearing and cropping of the lands. No objection can be urged against the justice of a covenant that the settler should do his best to work out the objects of his immigration, and to increase the s^alue of the land, until it is in itself a security for his debt to Government He should be obliged to agree that a certain proportion of the acreage shall be cleared and cultivated within a certain period, say ten acres a year for three or four years, at the end of which time he may be left to exercise his own discretion as to the area of his improvements. This is not a new or unpractical suggestion. Government lands have been sou- in the Colonies as well as in the United States, subject to covenants for habitation and cultivation within stated periods. 5. To hold out to the settlers inducements to energetic prosecution of their labour by offering to those Avho, within short periods, have cleared and cultivated the largest proportion of their allotments 47 counted siderable ance the ertion or to old or ^ of the ustice of best to and to 1 itself a 3 should Q of the vithin a ) or four left to I of his tactical 50 u- m subject 1 within lents to 3ring to :ed and otments prizes of additional patents. This is merely a suggestion of detaH, which bears on its face its own argument. I propose, therefore, that an attempt should be made to gain security for the presence of the settler upon his allotment during a certain time, for the repayment of money advanced to transport him to the settlement and establish him there, and for the execution by him of the object of his emigration. The practical suggestions are made more with the view of indicating the difficulties to be faced than as a dogmatic statement of the way in which they are to be solved. I hope I have, at least, been able to prove that those difficulties are not too serious to be overcome. That a number of cases will occur in which there will be loss without redress, is certain ; but that th. • general result will be infinitely beyond deprc ■ fion by any occasional circumstances is, let me assu.ae, vouched by the e coiu-se of my argument. The main practical quesfu.. arising upon this project I have as yet not .uchcu. How and whence are the necessary funds lu be supplied ? Some— who may not have been convi k. ' that as a matter of large and beneficent Sta .licy—like that of free trade— it would in the event actually pay either England or any one of her colonies as an investment 48 eil 11 to export emigrants gratuitously — may be ready so far to recognise the attractiveness of such an enter- prise, as to be willing that a ministry should run the risk of expending funds for the purpose, upon a reasonable prospect of recovery. Neither of the Colonial Governments is in a position to advance the money requisite for an extensive Emigration. The rate of interest in new countries, owing to the scarcity of capital would, moreover, subject them to undue liabilities. No hope can therefore be enter- tained that Colonial Governments will directly pro- vide Emigration expenses. To the Im.perial ex- chequer alone, if this policy is worth pursuing, can we look for help. Our Government can borrow the redimdant capital of Great Britain at the minimmn of interest ; and surely no patriot will deny that the wealth of the country were better risked in this pro- ject than in the hazardous barks of foreign enterprise. Indeed, overlooking the comparatively unimportant expenses atta-^hing to an Emigration Commission, and agencies co-operating with those of the colonies, there is no other way in which Great Britain can contribute to obtain the advantages of a large Colonization. The reader will have seen that the whole drift of my proposals is in the direction of combined action on the part of the Imperial and Colonial 49 Governments, and a loan by the Imperial Govern- ment, either immediately to the settler upon the security of his person and the land allotted to him by the colony, or to the Colonial Government itself, leaving to the latter the enforcement of every claim against him. In the second case it would be fair to lend the money to the colony at the rate of three per cent, per annum, or without interest, to be re- paid within a term of years. Thus the British tax- payer might be called upon simply to pay three per cent, per annum for his confidence in the results of State Emigration, and to run a slight risk of losing two or three millions. To the emigrant it was pro posed in 1837 to charge five per cent, on advances. This rate might be adopted, and the difference should be left to the colony for the expenses of collection. The method of advances, whether they should be made in money or materials — the means of trans- port, whether in Government or private ships — the relative duties of home and colcnipl agents — are matters of subordinate detail that require no elabo- ration for the purpose of conclud "ng the expediency of a policy. These I willingly leave till time de- mands their solution. Will it not do so ? The main lines of the subject have been rapidly grouped in this essay, with the earnest desire of demonstrating at once the seriousness of the position, and the Kx 60 necessity of action. To legislators and patriots who are not legislators, in Great Britain, and in the colonies— to capitalists who are embarrassed by the urgency of labour— to labourers who cry out against the tyranny of capital, and are enclosed within iron walls of employment, with no expanding field for enterprise,— I somewhat anxiously commend a con- sideration of this question. Moreover I lu-ge that Emigration ought not to be regarded as a scheme for a philanthropist, it should be the policy of statesmen—not as a work of charity, but as the business of Government. Far-reaching in its effects, and, like all good policies, involving present sacrifice and risk for the attainment of worthy aims, it will set in motion forces for whose wonderful manifestations we may patiently watch, as the husbandman waits for the slow and silent-springing grain. We are asked in this, as in every measure of golden promise for mankind to exercise that statesmanlike faith which is akin to political sagacity — to " Find in loss a gain to match, To reach a hand thro' time to catch The far-off interest of tears." i'luUtU IivKankh.n fe Co., Urury House, St. Miu'y-lc-btriuiil iho the the nst "on for m- lat me of he its int IS, 111 lie ig re at al