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This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est film* au taux de reduction indiqui ci-dessous. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X 30X y 12X 16X 20X 24X 28X 32X Tb« copy filmatf htm hM bwin rcpredueatf ttianht 19 tff9 gantrosity of: Art* and Cultural Library St John's, Nawfbundland L'Mamplairs film* fut rtproduit grica i la fl«nir3«it* da: « Arts and Cultural Library St John's, Nawfoundland Tha imagaa appaaring hara ara tha baat quality poaalbia eonaidaring tha condition and lagibillty of tha original copy and in kaoping with tha filming contract tpacificationa. Original eoplaa In printad papar eovara ara filmad baginning with tha front covar and anding on tha laat paga with a printad or illuatratad impraa* ■ion, or tha bacic covar whan appropriata. All othar original copiaa ara filmad baginning on tha finit paga with a printad or illuatratad impraa* aion. and ending on tha laat paga with a printad or illuatratad impraaaion. 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Toua lea autrea •xampiairas originaux sont filmte en common^ ant par la premiere paga qui comporta une empreinte dlmpreasion ou d'Uluatration et en terminant par la damiire paga qui comporta une telle emprainta. Un daa symbolaa sulvanta apparaltra sur la damlAra image da cheque microfiche, selon le caa: la symbola — » signifie "A SUIVRE". le symbola ▼ sjgnifia "PIN". Laa cartea, planchaa. tableaux, etc.. peuvent itre fiimia i daa taux da rMuction diffArants. Loraqua la document aet trop grand pour itre raproduit en un saul cliehA. il eat filmA A partir da I'angla sup4riaur gauche, da gauche i droita. et da haut en baa, en prenant le nombre d'imagaa n^caasaira. Laa diagrammaa suivants iiluatrant la m^thoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 •U- IC 6 — ■ — H- / ICE & ICE -WORK IN NEWFOUNDLAND. lUxtracted from tht Geological Magazine, July, August, September, 1876.] Trubn£R & Co., 57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London. Kx ICE AND ICE-WORK IN NEWFOUNDLAND. BT JOHN MILNE F.G.S., ^ :. •■■■■■■IB.^F TOKEI, .'AI'AN. ^/ IMIOPESSOH 01^ GEOLOO\ IN THE IMPBIIIAL Kttractod from the Geological Magazine, Decade II. Vol. III., Niw. 7, 8, 't, July, August, and September, 1876.] ICE AND ICE-WORK IN NEWFOUNDLAND. " And now there came both mist and snow, And it grew wondrous cokl ; And ice, mast high, came floating by, As green as emerald. And through the drift the snowy cliffs Did send a dismal sheen ; Nor shape of men, nor beasts we ken — The ice was all between. The ice was here, the ice was there. The ice was all arotind ; It cracked and growled and roared and howled, Like noises in a swound." — Coleridge's Ancient Mariner. The rough MS. of this Article was placed in the Editor's hands by his friend Mr. Milne early in 1875, but, owing to pro-occupation on th( part of Editor and Author, was never put in type until this month, June, 1876. The author departed in August last for Japan, and has therefore been prevented from again seeing or re- vising his notes. The Editor trusts that this apology will be uccopted by the reader should he find that the author has omitted to notice any papers on ice as a geological agent, which may have been published since that date. — Euit. Geol. Mag. J. Milne — Ice and Ice-work in Newfoundland, We often see a certain cause at work, and then its effect ; — and the effect may be and is, doubtless, in many instances, peculiar to the cause. In Switzerland glaciers are known to have rounded and converted into " hummock "-shaped forma the rocks over which they have passed ; whilst the rocks which were imprisoned in the ice, and used as tools to scour the rocky bed over which they moved, liave in their turn also received a definite impression. Hummocky tracts of land like those in Switzerland are to be seen in Scotland, Newfoundland, and other countries. Mounds of debris, filled with scratched stones like those produced by a modern glacier, are to be found in many places. These and other appearances, which are peculiar to ice-action, are ascribed to it as their originators ; for, whether they be of Permian or Pleistocene age, their origin would seem to be identical. By studying the effects of modem volcanic outbursts, similar paroxysms can be shown to have occurred in bygone ages, — and it is only by having a knowledge of the present, that any true knowledge of the past can be obtained. The action of ice upon the surface of the earth has been spoken of in al> "Manuals and Text-books of Geology. De la Beche, Lyell, Ramsi , 'kes, Geikie, and others, all discuss it in its various forms. The tact that existing glaciers had once a wide extension was not however observed earlier than 1821, when M. Venetz advanced the opinion with regard to those of the Alps. In 183G these ideas were strengthened by the observations of M. Charpentier ; but it was not until the distinguished naturalist Agassiz — fresh from the same Alpine school, where so many geological truths have been demon- strated — visited Scotland in 1840, that the curious rcik-markings in that country wore successfully shown to be identical with those produced by the glaciers of Switzerland. Glaciers have been regarded from many points of view, and have been studied both mathematically and physically. Their effects have been noted, and they are now universally admitted to have been great tools in the modelling if not in the actual formation of the surface configuration of the earth. They were first suggested and shown to be a means of solving the puzzles of drift, rounded rocks, strange scratchiugs, and boulders, and ever since take the precedence of all other ice. Their offspring, the Icebergs, have also been studied, and their work has been duly chronicled. The manner in which they bear rocks to warmer seas, and strew them broad-cast over the bed of the ocean, and oven the way in which they may have aided in modelling a rising area, has long been dwelt on ; but, being less important tools in Nature's workshop than their parents the Glaciers, de- servedly without such emphasis. There is, however, another form of ice, which, from its unassuming appearance, although touched on by a few, has apparently taken too low a place in the role of actors with which it plays. This is the Coast-ice. J. Milne — Ice and Ice-work in Newfoundland, 5 My first sight of large masses of floating ice was on my arrival at St. John's, Newfoundland, in the spring of 1872. On the morning of tho IGth of May, we found ourselves wrapped in a fog, through wliich a high bold coast was dimly visible. At length it lifted, and we saw ourselves in a cliff-bound bay, at the head of which a narrow entrance showed us a harbour filled with ice and ships. Near us floated two great icebergs, whilst the sea around was covered with smaller lumps jostling against each other as they rose and sank upon tiiC swell. This Arctic scone is depicted as occurring at the same place, but on a grander scale, in iho frontispiece of " Frost and Fire," by J. F. Campbell, F.G.S. This mass, consisting of floe-ice surrounding icebergs, was travel- ling southwards under the influence of the cold Arctic current, which, coming from the northern regions, after coasting along by Labrador, sweeps onward past Newfoundland, to sink beneath the warmer waters of the Gulf-stream in more southern latitudes. On the coast of Newfoundland Icebergs generally make their appearance about the 1st ef January. Their approach is heralded by a number of smaller pieces. When we reflect upon the origin of these bergs, it would appear that the greater number of them ought to be disengaged from their parent mass, the glacier, in summer- time. The semifluid mass, of which the glacier is made up, creeping slowly, like a frozen river, down the valley by the aid of heat, gravity, etc., has in summer-time its pace augmented by the incre- ment it receives at this season of the year.* It then pushes itself rapidly forward into the ocean, and there by the buoyancy of the water the projecting ice-mass is detached and floated off. Why, there- fore, is it that the bergs are not seen off the Coast of Newfoundland at the close of summer, or at the latest in the " fall " of the year ? The answer to this may be obtained from the inference of Sir Edward Belcher, and other Arctic navigators, who tell us that in very high latitudes the ice appears to be in motion much earlier than it is farther to the South. On the 20th of May the western side of Smith's Sound has been found to be quite open for navi- gators in a boat, whilst Barrow Strait is not navigable till late in August, The consequence of this would appear to be that whatever ice may be set free far north early in the year is detained in more southern latitudes until the fall. Another cause also operating in keeping the ice off the coast until the spring of the year may be the wind. Although icebergs, with regard to their motion, and the direction of the wind, often present curious anomalies, yet this must to a slight degree be influential on their wanderings. In the "fall" of the year the prevalent winds on the North American side of the Atlantic are generally speaking from the west, which tend to keep all bergs out at sea, and thus, ' Sir James Ross, from his observations in the Antarctic Seas, infers from the greater diit'erence between the temperatures of the sea and air in winter-time than in summer, that it is at the former season of the year that the greater number of bergs are detached. 6 J. Milne — Ice and Ice-work in Newfoundland. to obsorvora on tlio land, thoy would be lost sight of; but in the spring of tho yonr the winds aro nioro or less northerly, which woiild only aid the current in bringing tho ico along shore. The most ap[)arcnt suggestion for tho detention of the ice before reaching the shores of Labrador and Newfoundland is of course the distance it has to travel ; but connidoring tho steady rate at which this is carried on in tho stream which bears thorn, the eifocts of wind, and the delay in tho breaking up of tho Southern Arctic barrier must have the precedence. I'heoreticnl considcrationa on tlie Flotation of Icebergs. — The ice- bergs 1 had the opportunity of seeing daily for several weeks whilst in the neighbourhood of St. John's, although irregular in their outlines, were by no means of such varied form*? as many that were seen afterwards. Several apparently very small pieces, projecting perhaps not more than a foot out of water, when api)roached showed themselves as considerable masses, their magnitude being hidden by their submergence. In the " offing" "islands of ice," as tho bergs are here called, wore to bo seen moving southwai'ds, whilst in the bay several of them were always to be seen aground. These latter, as they slowly roso and fell with the ever-varying swell caused by the wind and tide, were deranging and grinding away the beds on which they rested, ^he enormous power that one of these islands of ico must possess to do such work may faintly be conceived by approaching one of them in a boat, and then considering that, although there is a mountain above water, there is from seven to nine times its mass beneath the surface. The depth of water in which one of these ponderous masses of ice can ground may often be more limited than has generally been expressed. When the berg first leaves its parent the glacier, its sides may be more or less parallel to each other, and we may sometimes get a near approach to a prismatic form. In this case not only would there be about eight times tho bulk of ice beneath the water as there is above, but also there will bo about eight times the depth, and we might conceive, as Jukes and Gcikie tell us in their " Geology" (p. 41G), that if the mass rises " 300 feet above the waves," we may imagine that it " has its bottom 2,400 feet below them." In the Arctic and Antarctic regions we may therefore imderstand the immense depths at which an iceberg can ground, and there disturb the strata. As bergs travel towards lower latitudes, as towards Newfoundland, what with the beating of the waves and the changing of temper- ature they of necessity lose a great deal of tho regularity of character they may previously have possessed. Tho greatest loss appears to be upon the portion exposed to the atmosphere, but, perhaps, more noticeable " between wind and waters." As this waste goes on, the berg must rise, and the ratio of the height of tho exposed portion to tlio depth of that which is hidden grows greater. Tho result of this is that the exposed portion be- comes less and less in difimcter than tl.ut which is protected beno'jth the surface of the water, which at last may be looked upon as x l> 'ud of foot or pedestal. J, Milnc-^Tcc and Ice-tcork in NewfoundlamL Y Tlmt borgs, instead of descending in parallel sides beneath tho surface of the water, rather extend outwards in tho form of a broad base, depends on the assumption that the disintegration is carried on at a greater rate above water than below. Apart from these theoretical considerations, it world seem from actual observations, that although iceljergs have occasionally been Seen in low latitudes to ground in deep water, as mentioned by De la Becho in his " Geological Observer," where one is recorded as being stranded in 720 feet of water on tho Banks of Newfoundland, the bulk of them is only to bo seen upon the shoals. In fact the grounding of icebergs is used by both tho lishermen of Newfound- land and Labrador as a means of finding out shallows which may bo used as fishing-grounds. If a berg is seen to ground some distance out at 3'^", its bearings from the land are at once observed, and it is in this way that many of tho banks have been discovered. If, instead of taking such an extreme case as the one to which I have been referring, where the generally peaked appearance of a berg, as seer above water, might be imagined as standing on a wide- spread flat base beneath the water, we consider the portion of the berg beneath the water as being a general contintuvtion of that above, even in this case it will be seen to be very improbable that the ice extends to the great depth which is usually assigned to it. /< i\ rM '\ V V J XT \ A ^ r H ^ B For example, in the accompanying figure let A B be the surface of water in which we see a piece of ice floating as indicated by the black line, tho general direction of that beneath the water corre- sponding to that which is above. Approximating to such a figure, draw on the " give-and-take " system a many-sided pyramid, or in the limiting case a cone approximately equal in volume to that of the supposed berg. This is shown by the dotted line. We have given that the position of the cone beneath the surface of the water to that which is exposed are to each olhor in the ratio of 8 to 1. 8 J. Milne — Ice and Ice- Work in Newfoundland. Therefore the vc'ame of the whole cone, which we will call V, is to that which is exposed, which we will call v, as 9 is to 1, i.e. V _ 9 • ~r. But also, as similar solids are to each other in yolume as the cubes of their corresponding dimensions, I _i_ (^ + H)' where h equals the height of the small cone of ice above water, and H equals the depth of ice below the surface, whence MlE = V^ 9 = 2-080 h :, H = ^ X 1-080 which is equivalent to saying that in a floating cone of ice the depth below the surface of the water is but very little greater than that V 8 which is exposed above. If the ratio of — had been equal to r, then H would equal h, or the depth helow equal that which is exposed above. That the cone would tend to float with the apex upwards rather than downwards, may be inferred from the fact that this latter position, where the base would be upwards, would raise the centre of gravity nearer to the surface of the water, and thus bring about a condition of equilibrium not so stable as if the apex had been upwards. These considerations, it must be borne in mind, are purely theo- retical, and are onlj' used as a means of giving a clearer idea of some of the conditions under which ice may bo found floating, and esjjeci- ally such ice as has suffered disintegration in its wanderings. Aspect of Newfoundland. — It has been suggested that the so-called glacial effects which are universally seen in temperate, and even in tropical regions, may in many cases have been due to an ocean on which great icebergs floated. These, as they moved from point to point (like huge pepper-castors), strewed broadcast boulders and detrital matter, such as are now to be seen over an area like that of Kussia and parts of North America. The effect of the force of impact of these tremendous masses has also been dwelt on, and the way in which they could grind, smooth down, or rub up the surface of a submerged area, has also often been referred to. Should the aro