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These in teach i tion of 1 brother, College, been cor in some It will duty thai possible being ba in the a parse fail a note c immedia The C( the Abst Subjunct teachers, purposes rapidly c are dispe PREFACE. year one thousand T, LiMiTRD, Toronto, These notes are the outcome of my own experience in teaching English Grammar, of the invaluable instruc- tion of Professor Arber, and of the observations of my brother, Mr. W. A. Brockington, M.A., of the Mason College, Birmingham, England. They would not have been compiled, had it not been thought that they were in some measure needed. It will be noticed that attention is paid always to the duty that a word performs — what a word c/ogs. As far as possible the method is inductive, rules and definitions being based upon foregoing examples. A chief object in the arrangement of the book is to enable pupils to parse fairly completely at an early stage. Accordingly, a note on the relation of words in sentences is placed immediately after the definitions of the Parts of Speech. The compiler hopes that the suggested omission of the Abstract Noun, and the slight consideration of the Subjunctive Mood will meet with the approval of teachers. The Abstract Noun is unnecessary for the purposes of grammar, while the Subjunctive mood is rapidly disappearing from English. Sub-classifications are dispen.sed with, wherever it is convenient or iieces- iv. PREFACE. sary. The philological part has been subordinated to other more rudimentary matter, but it is believed to be accurate and up to date. Exercises have been added where it was thought they would meet the wants of teachers and pujiils. In addition to the gentlemen mentioned, I am in- debted to Professor Sonnenschein, whose method deeply impressed me when I attended his classes, and to my friend and colleague, Mr. Bertram Auden, whose sugges- tions have been of great assistance to me. Principal Adams, D.C.L., of the University of Bishop's College, and Mr. H. J. Hamilton Petry, M.A., Headmaster of the Bishop's College School, have kindly read the proof sheets. My pupils, Mr. F. N. Smith and Mr. H. M. Daly, have helped me to prepare an Index. A. A. B, Bishop's College School. ubordinated to ; believed to be ve been added : the wants of ned, I am in- method deeply ies, and to my whose sugges- me. Principal chop's College, fiead master ofi read the proof] Ir. H. M. Daly, A. A, B, CONTENTS. Parsing : ^**"*- I. On Parts of Speech ' Exercises 1 5 II. On the Relation of Words in SciUciucj 6 Exercises II 7 III. On Parsing 8 Exercises III '7 AccmENCE : Noun. IV. On Common Nouns j8 V. On Gender of Noims '9 VI. On Number of Nouns 22 VII. On Case of Nouns 25 Verb. VIII. On the Conjugation of the Verb 29 IX. On the Connection of the Verb and Object 33 X. On Strong and Weak Verbs 35 XI. On Verbal- Nouns and Verba'.- Adjectives 40 XII. On Anomalous Verbs 42 Adjective. XIII. On Kinds of Adjectives 44 XIV. On Comparison of Adjectives 47 Pronoun. XV. On Pronouns and the Adjectives connected with them, '5° XVI. On some Identify iui; Words $7 Iv.l ! f "• CONTKN rS. Adverb. XVII. On Adverbs.... 60 Preposition. XVIIl. i)n I'repositions oa Conjunction. XIX. On Conjunctions Syn lAX : ^ XX. On Syntax fc-xcrcises 70 ANAr.vsis OF Sentencks : XXI. On the Simple Sentence XXII. On Kqiiivalents ^^ XXIII. On the Cumplex .Sentence ''*'* ^f XXIV. On Co-ordinate Sentences and Clauses. . .* .' .' ." . . .' . g, Exercises 83 Appkndicks : I. On the Development of English g. II. On the Alphabet in. On Some Laws of I .anguage IV. On Word-Building ^^ j F40I. . 6o . 62 .63 . 65 . 70 73 75 78 81 85 87 89 92 95 NOTES ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I.— On Parts of Speech. We may define Langiiajre for our purposes as the expression of thoughts by words. Grammar is the science of the use of hmguage. Grammar deals then with words, their changes in form and their arrangements together. We group words into Parts of Speech, but strictly speaking there are no such things. They are merely varieties of logical duty. Just as the same man may at different times perform different duties and be known by different names, so the same word may at different times perform different duties and be known by different t.ames. For example, in the following sentence the word back performs four different duties, and is accordingly known by four different names. ^ Back the cart into the back yard, .so that its back cannot go any farther back!' Similarly the word that in the sentence : " He said that that that, that he had just parsed, was a Pronoun." After we have fixed upon our names and what they are to signify, we must carefully inquire what a word does, before we give it one of those names. [1] NOTES ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR. i ■ I < i i I I. 3- 4- Examples. A well-bred child does not think it can teach its parents. I know that none of this wrong is done with delib- erate purpose. It is possible. The shrilly whinnying^s of the team of hell. 5. Such hearts of oak as they be ! 6. The kings rode two and two yesterday. 7. The man completely surpassed himself. 8. Ah ! my classifying friend, where will your classes be? 9. Running is a healthy exercise. 10. I see three men. 11. He was an exceedingly good tactician. 12. The lark sings at heaven's gate. 13 The kings were at peace with one another. (i.) Child, parents, team, hell, running, are called Nouns. We notice that all these words are names, and we obtain the definition : A Noun is a name. (Latin : nomen, a name) (ii.) Does (not) think, know, is, rode, surpassed, sings, will be are called Verbs. They all tell or ask something about somebody or something. A Verb is a telling or asking word. (Latin : verbum zvord.) ' (iii.) Deliberate, possible, shrilly, three, your, are called Adjeciives. From an examination of the examples in which these words occur we define : \R. can teach its ne with delib- iell. your classes ler. ailed Nouns, imes, and we '.me.) ed, sings, will )k something tin: verbum, r, are called he examples PARTS OF SPEECH. 3 Adjectives describe, enumerate, or identify what is named. (I^atin : adjicere, to put to.) It will be noticed that deliberate is an attribute (Latin : ad, to ; tribuere, to give), but that possible is a necessary part of the assertion, "It is possible." The Adjective possible is called predicative. (Latin: praedicatum, xvhat is said) (iv.) //, none, they, himself arc called Pronouns. They stand instead of names; they identic without naming. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun. (L-atin : pro, instead of; nomen, name.) (v.) Yesterday, completely, exceedingly are called Adverbs. It will be seen that the attribute of " riding " is given to the " kings " (the kings rode), and to this attribute is added another, " yesterday " (the kings rode yesterday). Also in the eleventh example the tactician is given the attribute "good," and this attribute has another, " exceedingly." An Adverb is an attribute of an attribute. (Latin : ad, to ; verbum, zvord.) (vi.) With, of, at are called Prepositions: with shows the relationship between " the doing of the wrong " and the " purpose." of shows the relationship between " the whinnyings" and " the team." at shows the relationship between " the singing of the lark " and " the gate of heaven." Again observe that 7vith deliberate purpose tells us how, and is adverbial. 4 NOTES ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR. at heaven's gate tells us where, and is adverbial. at peace is the same as peaceful, and is adjectival. Prepositions show the relationship of things, or Prepositions are used with Nouns or Pronouns \c^ for« groups of words equivalent to Adverbs orrdeet^^ (Latin : praeponere, to place before.) J«cuves. {^n) That, and, are called conjunctions: that connects the two parts of the sentence • " I know" and "none of this wrong is done with deliberate purpose " ; and connects the two words « two" and " two " sinrffwort,"'./'^'' *'^'**^'' ^°"P' «f ^ords and single words. (Latin: conjungere. to join together) (viii) Ah! is called an Interjection. It marks an excla- mation outside the expression of the thought. Interjections are extra-grammatical utterances (Latin : interj.cere, to throw out in betzveen.) '^'^^''°®'- to "^t^^^::!^ ^'' '' -'-' ^-"-^^'-' A^'-. and ^'^'\l~f:J^^^^^^ r*' «^«^^^» ^^'^^- Some of tne arguments for and against the consideration of the Article as a separate Part of Speech wil! be mentioned later! EXERCISKS— -I. yi/^cst/s. AR. PARTS OF SPEECH. 5 < adverbial, is adjectival. thing's, or inouns to form or Adjectives. sentence: "I ? is done with id " two." words and together) rks an excla- thought. Utterances. il Axioms, and ties. Some of of the Article iter. we do now, 2. The name of the kiny was Admetos. His wife was the gentlest, sweetest and most loving woman in Greece. Her name was Alkestis. Now the time had come for Admetos to die, but the noble Apollo besought the chief of the gods to allow some one else to die in his place. 3. The chief of the gods consented. Thereupon Admetos gath.ered together those, who were dear to him, to see if one among them was willing to do this great thing for him. No one, except Alkestis, had the love and courage to face the dreadful being, Death. 4. She, after the most sorrowful leave- taking of her children and her husband, fell dead and was carried to the tomb. Presently the great Herakles entered the house of mourning. 5. Admetos at first deceived him. concealing from him the fact that the dead woman was his wife, and Herakles passed some time in feasting and drinking. At last he learned the truth, that the wife of his kind host was no more. 6. He determined to go down to the tomb and wrestle with Ueath for the precious life. This, without the knowledge of Admetos he did, and so mightily he struggled, that he won the woman back. 7. He brought her, veiled, to her husband, and, pretending that she was a stranger in his care, asked Admetos to receive her into his house. When Admetos refused to take her, Herakles drew the veil from the woman's face and revealed Alkestis. 1. Name the Part of Speech of every word in sections i, 2, 3, 4, 5> 6, 7. 2. Find all the Nouns in the above story, and class them as names of (i) persons, (2) places, (3) things. 3. Write out sections 3, 5, 7, with Nouns substituted for the Pronouns. 4. Class the Adjectives as descriptive, enumerating, and identi- fying. 5. Give the attribute of which each Adverb is the attribute. 6. Write down the groups of words, of which a Preposition is the first word, and class thorn as (i) Adjective-equivalents, (2) Adverb- equivalents, e.g.^ "in (ireece" — Adverb-equivalent. 7. Find all the Conjunctions, and show the words or groups of words they connect together. 1 beloved by : God, but in >st powerful, light of day. e as much as NOTES ON KNGLISn GRAMMAR. II.— On the Relation of Words in Sentences. Our thoughts are conveyed to one another by means of sentences. A sentence makes a statement, a command, an (Expression of wish, a question, or an exclamation. A single word may sometimes be used : " Did he come ? " " No " (meaning " He did not come"). But the general rule is that every sentence contains a Verb. Examining the sentence, " The hero faced the danger bravely," we see the Verb (^/le vvord) to be " faced." " Who faced ? " The Aero. *' What did he face ? " The dan^-er. " How did he face the danger ? " Bravely. We have, as it were, hung the sentence on the pe? of the Verb. ^ ^ When we have once ascertained the Verb, we may, by the following (or some modification of the ''ollowing) method, determine its relation to the other words : (i.) Ask the question "who?" or "what?" before the Verb. The answer will be a Noun (Pronoun) or its equivalent This IS called the subject of the sentence. The Noun (Pronoun) is said to be in the nominative case. (ii.) Where the action of the Verb passes over to some- body, or something, ask the question "whom?" or " what ?" after the Verb. RELATION OF WORDS IN SENTENCES. The answer will be a Noun (Pronoun) or its equi\'alent. This is called the object of the sentence. The Noun (Pronoun) is said to be in the objt.ctive case. Observe: In the sentence, "He became king," the word "king" is required to make a distinct assertion, and the action of the Verb does not pass over to an object. (iii.) Ask the question "how?" "when?" "where?" or "why ?" after the Verb. The answer will be an Adverb or its equivalent. This is called the adjunct of the predicate- ■prcdxc^it iccvhat is saiit) being the name given to the Verb or its equivalent. In the answers to the first and second questions there will appear with the subject or object those Adjectives, or Adjective-equivalents, which describe, enumerate, or identify the subject or object. These Adjectives, or Adjective-equivalents, are called the attributes of the sub- ject or the attributes of the object. The following is a scheme of relations (= stands for equivalent) : Prkdicatk. An.iUNCT. SCIMKCT. ATTRIBITK. OrIECT. ATTRIBUTE. Noun or = Verb Adverb Noun (Pro- noun) gaid to or = or = bein the Nom- inative Cane (faced) (l)ravely) (hero). Adjective (the) Noun or = A'oun (Pro- novn)saidto be in the Ob- jective Case (danger). Adjective (tlie) Exercises— II. Endymion. I In a far country lived the shepherd Endymion. He tended his "sheep all day. His beautiful face charmed Selene, the Moon. Slle loved Endymion, too, because of his dreams. In his dreams 8 NOTES ON KNrJLTsir ORAmmaR. he imagined himself a l-jH In Mc ^ ■ . Endymion could not ee Selene in fJT""' '^^ ''^^"^^ '"^^''^ne- 2- long summer-day he lay ckZ Th^ '^"'""^- ^^^ '^^ ^"d of a hills in the west. The^k^w;s Tnln,'"". '^^.^'^^^y behind the ^reen, gold 3. EndymS Z no" e'e jt^'^'^H'^'""^^"' .y^"^^' Presently the colours of the skv fi ori tk u ^^ ''■'''' sleeping, up the hills. Selene then looked nfo v / ' -^^."^^ '^'^P' ^'^wly his sleep he smiled. Perh ns 1 t u ^"^^'P'O" « grove. 4. I^ loved him ^ery much Shet'^fHiH . ^'"'''"«^ "^ Selene. She She did not mLe the twh ifl'tmS" 0/ T' '^' ^'^^P'"^ ^^eep into the sleeping-place of he'r beloved VVifh'"'- ^^ .^'^^ came gazed upon him. Endymion stil smneH i l^ ^^^ "^ '"^^ she Selene stood near him.^ Sbwly she 1 en'f hJ [''''P,' !" ^'^ ^^^^^s tresses of her hair floated round his face nJ^'"^^ ''!^^- ^- ^he quest^nt^^ ^^^' °' ^'^^ ^'^^^-"^^ - sections t, 3,' 4, 5 into III.— On Parsing, thought. To^othls unC„Kl::;™°;^ °f (^) ....-.-the .. :^::ir„xs - r::r^° ' fAR. ^ARSINC,. loved Selene. 2. At the end of a slowly behind the crimson, yellow, ^e was sleeping, dows crept slowly n's grove. 4. In of Selene. She le sleeping sheep, le. 5. She came eyes of love she 's in his dreams ly head. 6. The and nearer the ast her lips met > sections i, 2, 3, above. '> 2, 4, 5 into accounts of cpressions of knowledge of ds undergo ; " words. B a thorough imar, before ire of com- Jferring this »ns are here I. -The Noun. A Noun may be a name peculiar to a particular person, or it may not. In the former case it is called a proper (Latin : proprius, one's own) Noun, in the latter, a com- mon Noun ; e.g., " Henry is the tall boy." Henry is a proper Noun ; boy is a common Noun. The initial letter of proper names is always a capital. A Noun is the name of a male, of a female, or of a sexless thing. The names of males {e.g., man) are said to be masculine gender. The names of females {e.g., woman) are said to be feminine gender. The names of sexless things {e.g., home) a^-e said to be neuter (or neither) gender. If a Noun is the name of one person or thing it is said to be singuuir number {e.g., man), if of more than one, plural number {e.g., men). Nouns also have case. The nominative and objective rases have been partially explained. The objective case also follows prepositions ; e.g., " Render unto Caesar." Caesar is objective c^se. If a Noun denotes the possessor by the addition of an s with an apostrophe ('), the s being sometimes omitted if the Noun terminates with s, it is said to be in the posses- sive case ; e.g., "St. Paul's Epistles," "Jesus' sake," "Boys' games." Paul's, Jesus', Boys' are possessive case. 10 NOTES ON KNflMSII GRANTMAk. Example: In the sentence, "The hero faced the danger bravely," hero is not a name pecuh'ar to a particular person, It IS, therefore, a common Noun ; hero is the name of a male. It is, therefore, masculine gender ; hero is the name of one person, it is, therefore, singular number ; hero is the subject of the sentence, " The hero faced the danger brav».ly," It is, therefore, nominative case. II.— The Verb. ^ Jhe^subject of a sentence may denote the doer of the e-g; " The hero >«/^/>/^ bird, withered tree. Note that identifying Adjectives are connected with Pronouns, and verbal Adjectives with Verbs. If an Adjective indicates a comparison between two S^gr^; °' '"■"^^" ' '" "'' '^ '^ ^' ^^- --/-^^" e.g., " He is a werrier fellow than I." If it indicates the highest degree, it is said to be super- lattve degree ; «>«/' country, luxuriantly green. delighted us, as we rode alon^ us stands directly for a personal name It IS therefore a personal Pronoun • us stands for the name of the person or persons speaking It IS therefore /a-j/ person ; ^peakmg, us may refer either to males or to females, It .s therefore masculine or feminine gender. sa^ to br:::t:'^r """^ ^^ '^^^^ ^-^- - --^i-s us refers to more than one person. It is therefore //«,-«/ number • ' us answe^^the question "whomr' after the Verb *. it is therefore objective case V.-The Adverb. e-g-^ "Th2 vaL ys, luxuriantly green." PAUSING. iS lien to, the may have and person r, their rt«/^. 'S of the )cJe alony," speaking, sometimes Verb de- 5wer one "why?" Green is the attribute of valleys. " How green ?" — luvnriantly, " When ?" of coiiL^c refers to time. "Where?" '• " place. "How?" « " manner. "Why?" •• " cause. Adverbs admit of comparative and superlative degree. Example: In the sentence, "The valleys, luxuriantly green, . . ." luxuriantly answers the question "how?" with the attri- bute green, it is therefore an Adverb of manner; luxuriantly is the simple form of the Adverb, it is therefore positive degree. VI.— The Preposition. Example: In the sentence, " The valleys of the coun- try .. . " of shows the relationship between "valleys" and "coun- try " ; it is also joined u ith the words " the country " to form an Adjectival gmup. VII.— The Conjunction. Conjunctions may link together sentences, parts of sentences or single words of equal rank and importance: andy but, or, nor, and sometimes /<;;•. e.g., "Alien and Mary are a romantic couple." These Conjunctions are called co-ordinating (Latin ; CO, togetli:r; ordo, rank). 16 NOTES ON KNGI.ISH GRAMMAR. 1 : I : j • i Conjunctions, other than those mentioned, introduce parts of sentences, which are of under rank. e.^., " T/touo-/i the breath of these flowers is sweet to me, I will give them all back ajrain." These Conjunctions are called sub-ordinating (Latin: sub, under; ordo, rank). Example : In the above sentence, Though introduces a part of the sentence, which is of I' under rank " to tiie other or principal part, it is therefore a sitb-ordinating Conjunction. VIII.— The Interjection. We may, if possible, indicate the emotion the Inter- jection expresses. Summary. A^^««— Proper or Common, Gender, Number, Case, Relation to other words. Verb— VoicQ, Transitive or Intransitive, Tense, Strong, Weak, or Mixed, Mood, Person, Number,' Relation to other words. ^^• which became gander. (For the principles of C/n^aui, on whi, some of these changes are based, see Appendix III., i.) Anglo-Saxon Suffixes, (i) en— preserved in one word vixen. A.S., fox, fern, fixen, which became vixe/i. (2) ster— preserved in one word spinster. A.S. sangcl singer, sangestre songstress; baccere baker, ba cestre a xvonian wko bakes. Because a certain set of men performed that work, which wj ongmally done by females, baccestre came to mean a lakerVX baxter, preserved m proper names). ^ ' (0 trix (Latin) Modern Suffixes. Masailine. executor testator. Feminine, executrix testatrix. ess. 1 ited -St {a) Si e-g {b) SU] OENDER OF NOUNS. 21 ine (Greek;, Masculine hero margrave. a (It. or Sp.) Masculine. signor infant. Fetnintne. heroine margravin'' Feminine. signora infanta. 'o^ver., which becaJ ess. This suffix, the great modern suffix, sup- iiited -ster in the 14th century. {a) Simply added to masculine, e.g., baron, baroness ; giant, giantess ; {li) supplanting the masculine, sorcer^A-, sorcer^jj; murderi?/-, murder^jj/ if) contracting the masculine, actor, actress ; hunter, huntress. iNotice the forms duchess, marchioness (A.S., mearc— lundary), mistress. JA combination of the two suffixes, -ster and -esse, Icurs in songstress. III.-By Word-Building. iThe following are examples of this formation : Masculine. Feminine. man-servant maid-servant he-goat she-goat buck-rabbit. doe-rabbit. i ■ ! 32 NOTKS ON KNCLISH f:kA^f^fAU. VI.— On Number of Nouns. In English we h;ive only two numbers, the Singuli Number and the Plural Number. In Anglo-Saxon dual form existed in the first and second Personal Pr nouns, but with the tendency to throw away speci forms of inflexion these dual forms have' disappearec We still retain the dual idea in certain words {e.g., sci sors, spectacles, nuptials). The Plural of Nouns is formed in two ways. I. -By Use of Suffixes, en— Survives commonly only in oxen; chicken no used in singular is really the plural of chick. This sufii is still in use in some dialects, e.g., hosen, housen (Suffolk ru + en— The old plurals of A.S. «/^— child an ^^/-^V/f^r— brother were cildm and brothru. To the> plurals was added the sufifix -en to form children ai brethren. Note.— A.S., cji\ Plural cy\ English kine, S or -es— This is the great modern suffix. The A.S. suffix -as, weakened to -es, which was at one with th Norman suffix. (i.) -es is added to sibilants : e.g., glasses, wishes, foxes (ii.) Many words of English origin in/or >change/o fe into ve before the Plural -s ; e.g., leaf, leaves ; lil( lives; loaf, loaves ; shelf, shelves ; wharf, wharves o wharfs ; wife, wives. i.) Won chan citiet^ This is The foil Obs.: The cts these e.g., A. a s coi see Notice chiefs, gulfs, safes (of French origin), dwarfs ^nour. \ hoofs Foreign matised, er, such 'ta, radii ndits, ba. Compou: the pr '., black- tth forms \fAU. ins. NlJMJU'lk OK NOUNS. 23 ers, the Singula 1 Anglo-Saxon nd Personal Pn Dw away speci ave' disappears I words {e.g., sci ) ways. n; chicken noi 'lick. This sufii housen (Suffolk cild — child at thru. To the rm children ai ne. Tfix. as at one with th , wishes, foxe^ r /^change/ saf, leaves ; lilt liarf, wharves i.) Words terminating in y, preceded by a Consonant, change J into ie before Plural s ; e.g., fly, flies ; city, cities. This is merely a peculiarity of spelling, not of sound. II.— By Vowel Change. The following are examples of this formation : Singular. Plural. foot feet mouse mice louse lice woman women tooth teeth man men goose. geese. Obs.: The operation of the law of Umlaut, previously referred to, bets these changes. ^.^., A.S., go's^tfojif. Nom. Plur. was originally ^wV. Here a strong vowel is followed by a weaker vowel ij o ac- cordingly weakens to e, and we obtain ge's, and thence geese. Foreign Words, when borrowed, tend to become ac- matised, and to form plurals in j or es. We have, bow- er, such entirely unacolimatised words as axes, crises, ita, radii, and such partially acclimatised words as ndits, banditti ; indexes, indices ; cherubs, cherubim. Compound Words. The sign of the Pluial is added the principal word, irrespective of its position, '., \A?^Qk-birds, ast. e.g., ' We all charged and cleared the streets.' ' Men were not so magnanimous then.' (2) to describe an action as recurring continually in the past. e.g., ' I worked six hours a day.' > r. 0; < 1 ■A > < 2 ! > 1 a 8 > s 1 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 31 od i.= rapidly iictive. lird Persons Singular is intercourse, the Indica- l frequency. dency. It a way." )e an action ally now. m action as the past, ets.' in.' ually in the = u w ►* a K H < v. POAOJ ? c c = = S S s § ^ $ 1 aj ^ *** u i> ij > w X > > > ci 3 rt c3 rt rf p3A0l c s c c c oj * 0) a> o oj '** a; Qj i; 'X rf TO rt c5 C3 i ..1AO[ ' ^ ■i 5 cj IWAOI X X 'A 1.. b. :« US? 1- ^■Z p.1A0[ ^ — |i S ES g — a.=.- ^Si ^ ■^^ V ? V V ^i^ii -='CT:.srT3 s 5 s 5 ■5; :s S~ is i! pOAOI t c _ _ = ^' ^ a V x: SJ '- ^z-^ ^^-^ > ?' i > ca D u S S > rt > > > 1 f-Sjfii i- "^ ^ ^ rn — i:^ a "x ? s "x s is b II o ^ IWAOl S-= 0) S » 0) 3 3 H S 3 I p p £ p p I O I pavoi j ■3_ o p.1A0l a> w u oj u > ai 'Ji > > > c8 S cS « cS rt I- pOAOl x:^ j= j: j: 03 CD 0) OJ V 4J 4J (U >>>>>> 000000 5& t,.^ .4-) A > ^i*-* O 4) OJ ^ 0) £ o c o c c o 1^ ilAOl c 5 ? 5 5 g X P F* 03 > > 3A0I 4l. '1 J 11 "S c3 > > c o .25 C - oi: 11 = o 0£ 1 2»'i-<»yl a; O 3 IvqMA 32 NOTES ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (3) to describe an action as simply occurring in the past. e.g., * He defeated me.' The Future Tense is used to describe an action or state as m prospect. e.g., ' We s/iii// all de changed* The Present Tense is used for both Past and Future. ^■'^■' ^ ., . ' ^"°"' ^^ finds ( = found) him striking too short at Greeks.' e.g., • He comes ( = will come) to-morrow.' J^^ "fl°;;.^he Perfect and Continuous Tenses are sufficiently mdicated in their names. The Secondary Future describes an action as in pros- pect m the past. ^ e.g., I said that I should soon come back. The Future Tense. In A. S. there was 'no Future Tense, and, as strictly speaking, there can be no Tense without inflection, the Future Tense does not ex st in Modern English We express the future idea by h fp the auxiliaries shall, wzll (must, ought), partly in writ^nJ and partly by stress of voice. There are three deg e"! of emphasis : (i) Simple futurity, (2) purpose or vLon (3) compulsion. ' I, we You He, she, they Futurity. Purpose. Compulsion. shall die shall asts. It is to be noticeu at al houK the word need is not in origin a Past, the A.S. word llu.nl (neoci) ,s to be classed with aouuu,, sculan, and the other so- called preterite-present Verbs. I. Ought [A.S., a'o-an, to possess, of vvliich the Indie. Past, a'hte (M.F.., oughte\ is tlie orit^rinal of ought]. Shakespeare uses tlic word owe (M.E., Pres. a gnu) with the sense of oxvn (A.s!,' a'gnian). Ought now denotes obh'-ation or compulsion. ^•^•. ''Ought I to stay?" 2. Can (A.S., cunuan, to know) is followed by the Infinitive without the sign to. "T cam^o\ {couhi not) ao it." 3- Date (AS., ic dearr, I dare), i. followed by the Infinitive without the si-,, to. It mu.st be dis- tinguished from the we.ik Verb dare, e.g., " I le dares not fight." 1 dared him to fight." 4. May (A.S., tc uueg) is fol lowed by the Infinitive with- out the sign to. e.g., " It way ( = can) be attempted." " You may not (= are not permitted to) try." In such a sentence as "We ate that we might live" might live is sometimes considered as a subjunctiv'e equivalent. Compare : ^^ May he find a fit companion." " I might do it, if I tried." 44 NOTES ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. Must (AS. mo tan, to be able, of which the Indie. Past moste is the original of must). Must is followed by the Infinitive without the sign to. 6. Shall (A.S., ic sceal). 7. Will (A.S., zvillan) •I We have already seen the uses of shall and will {should and 7vould) as auxiliaries of Tense. They also have independent meaning : e.g., " Shall we share the profits?" (Are we per- mitted ?) " I will not go." (I am resolved.) In such a sentence as " It would be wrong to do so,' would be is sometimes considered as a Subjunctive equivalent. 8. Wot (A.S., witan, to know). From the same Verb are derived " to wit," and " wittingly." 9. Need — e.g., He need not go= He is not obliged to go. Need is followed by the Infinitive without the sign to. It must be distinguished from the Verb «^^^ (Weak) = to be in want of w XIII.— On Kinds of Adjectives. The following classes of Adjectives are usually given : (i) of Quality, (2) of Quantity, (3) Demon- strative (or of Distinction). This classification of Adjectives for purposes of syntax {i.e., considering words arranged together in sentences) is open to n the Indie. ). Must is the sign to. I and will They also \re we per- l to do so,' Jubjunctive same Verb hliged to go. the sign to. Weak) = to KINDS OF AI)JECTIVI':S. 45 re usually ) Demon- ication of :onsidering open to objection. If we say " He is a good boy," wc may mean that the attribute of goodness distinguishes him from other boys. Or we may intend merely to imply that he has the quality of goodness. In the former case ^^^^ may be justly considered as an Adjective of Dis- tinction, and still preserve its character as an Adjective of Quality. Again, " My brother is a splendid fellow," may mean that he is "tall and well-proportioned in body, intellectual, and morally upright." The attribute or at- tributes implied by the word jr//^«^//^ may also serve to distinguish him from others. In such a case the Adjec- tive is of Quality, Quantity (as applied to Measure) and Distinction. The question of the consideration of the Article as a separate part of speech is of some interest, (i) The Article is Adjectival in origin. (2) It is used as an attributive Adjective. (3) We derive our formal Gram- mar from Latin, and in that language no Article exists. These are three reasons why the Article should not be considered as a separate part of speech. On the other hand: (i) The Article cannot be used predicatively. We cannot say " He is a " or " You are the'' The Articles have no meaning in themselves. (2) The Article existed in both forms in Anglo-Saxon. (3) The Articles have distinct logical uses. The ab- sence of the Article denotes universcdity ; e.g., " Man is a rational animal." The use of the Indefinite Article denotes generality ; e.g., " A man's a man for a' that." The use of the Definite Article denotes partiadarity; e^„ " The man is rational." 46 NOTES ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR I Counting Words. I. Cardinals (Latin : cardo, a hinge). Numbers alone, e.g., one, two, three. (i) One, pronounced wun (West of England). Contrast : dXone, only. (2) Two, derived from the Feminine and Neuter forms of A.S. twegen, the original of twain. Notice as connected with this' derivation that twain refers to men, two to things, when " twain " is used. (3) Four, A.S. feower ; cf. eozver = your. (4) Eleven, A.S. endlufon — en — an = one ; /u/on = Latin : decern ; c/. lingua = tongue (Liquid-Dental). Similarly twe/ve. (5) Anglo-Saxon has no counting words above "thousand." Million is derived from Italian. n. Ordinals express relation ; e.g.. First, Second, Third, (i) First, A.S.fyrrest, superiative oi forma. (2) Second, French seconde, Latin secundus (favourable, following after). (3) Fourth. The suffix /// is to be compared with the suffix /// in wealth. It denotes state or condition and is equivalent to Latin tas (sani^^j, state of being healthy). Ill Distributives, answering the question "I low many at a time ?" e.g.. By fours. Four and four, Foiir each, Every four. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 47 IV. Multiplicatives, answering the question " How many fold?" Examples.— (rt) Three thousand fold, {b) Once, twice [Genitive Forms : ones], {c) Double, triple [Romance Adjectives], {d) Three times one. V. Both, derived from the Feminine and Neuter forms of A.S. begen, bd. The origin of th is obscure. XIV.— On Compi»,iison of Acyectives. Adjectives are not inflected, except to mark compari- son. Some Adjectives do not admit of comparison ; e.g., solar, two, right. Adjectives used in the sense of perfection or complete- ness do sometimes approximately or popularly admit of comparison ; eg., " The chiefest among ten thousand." A similar remark applies to Mathematical and even National Adjectives ; e.g., rounder, more English. I. The Comparative is formed by adding ~er ; e.g., .<:ofter. The Superlative is formed b^'' adding -est • ^vf-. softest, {a) Adjectives of one syllable are usually so compared. 4^ NOTES ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (d) Some Adjectives of two syllables, with the accent on the last s' liable, or in which the last syllable is eHded before the suffix ; e.^., gente'eler, abler. (c) Adjectives of two syllables ending in j/ or er, pre- ceded by a Consonant ; e.£^., happier, tenderer. II. The Comparative is formed by putting more before *.he Positive ; e.g.^ more positive. The Superlative is formed by putting most before the Positive ; e.g., most positive. {a) Adjectives of two syllables other than those in I. (^), if), are so compared. {b) Adjectives of more than two syllables are so com- pared. This method is of Romance origin. Both methods, I and II., were once combined ; e.g., most fairest. Notice that the Comparative and Superlative may both be used when no comparison is implied ; eg., This is suitable for iveaker (=. somewhat weak) pupils; Most wort/if gentlemen I I^I- Irregular or Defective Compailson. ffood better best (A.S. ^.V; (A.S. Comp. (A.S. detest) Adj. det) I the accent t syllable is ' or er, pre- lore before before the those in I. e so com- 3:in. Both ative may )lied ; lat weak) COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 'bad (Celtic) evil(A.S.j/>/) worse worst ill iScandinavian)^^"''^ """^ ^^'^^ ''^'^''''^ 49 more (AS. md\ cf Lat. mag-nw?,) old nigh most least (A.S. l(^sest) oldest eldest (much [many little less (A.S. lyt) (A.S. Ic^ssa) Notice the by-form lesser. folder (elder Elder than is not now used. (^nighest (next An old Comp. of nigh is near forming Double Comp. nearer. Jfarther Jfarthest |ftirther(A.S./ " vvho-nol P a- iR. PRON(JUNS AND ADJKCTIVKS. 55 eclinableX used as Inter- hever, ivhethcr. as Adjectives, hat have refer- >. They may ly?" f the Mas. and I Case of hwa', v-like. jaiative ending, that, ) be used as oever, zvliuh- ever, ivIuUever, xvhichsoever, xvluxtsoever. The four last mentioned may be used as Adjectives. Who refers to persons, which to sexless things or ,'inirnals, that to persons, thinj^^s without sex, or animals. That is correctly used when what it introduces serves to define the antecedent ; e.g., " We left behind the painted inioy That tosses at the harbour mouth." Contrast : " There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune." Here ''which . . .fortune" does more ihan define the ante- cedent. That [rel.] can never immediately follow a Preposition. What is equivalent to that which, and therefore is generally used without antecedent. e.g., " He did what he desired." As is derived from the A.S. ealswa' = also, and is used as a Relative Pronoun after sf/ch and saiue ; e.g., " Its beauties were such as defy description." But, A.S. b2itnn {be, by ; utan, out) is equivalent to "who-not " (Latin : qui non) ; e.g., "There is none of us, but has his faults." VI.— Demonstrative Pronouns. SlNQILAR. ThlB That Yon Plural. These Those Yon 56 NOTES ON KNrjMSH (JKAMMAR. ill if ^M m 1^ These words may also be - id as Demonstrative Ad- jectives: Such, so (wlien it is the equivalent of suck), same, have sometimes the force of Demonstrative Pronouns. Th>' (A.S., thy') before a Comparative is a Demon. Pron. in origin ; e.g., The more the merrier." Yon did not exist in A.S. In Anglo-Saxon there were two Demonstratives: 1. Mas. se' (Ace. Sing, t/tone), Fern, se'o, Neut. that. Plur. Norn, tha', Plur. Gen. ihce^re, Plur. Dat. thafm, whicli weakened into ttta'', tha're, thcu'm. 2. Mas. thes, Fem the'os, Neut. tin's; Plur. Nom. thds, which weakened into thce's. The derivations from these forms are many and interesting. 1. From se' (by form the') the Article or Demon. Adj. the. 2. From se'o the Personal Pronoun she. V From thcet the Relative and i emonstrative Pronoun that. 4. From thee' the Personal Pronoun they. 5. From thce're the Possessive Pronoun and Adjective their. 6. From this the Demonstrative Pronoun and Adjective this. 7. From thus, thce's, the Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives these, those. 8. From thone, than and then. VII.— Indefinite Pronouns. Who may be used indefinitely ; e.g., •' As who should say, ' I am Sir Oracle.' " See Notes III. and XVI. R. nstrative Ad- \\ same, have )nouns. The non. Pron. in IDKNTII VINr; WORDS. cet. . thafm, whicli ID. tha's^ which teresting. Vdj. the. noun Ma/. live their. ective //4ij. and Adjectives cle."' 57 XVI. On some Identifying Words. The followinj,^ Identifying^ Word.s are here discussed : one, any, some, other, another, many, few, each, either, neither, such, same. Each of them may at one time per- form the duty of a Pronoun, and at some other time the duty of an Adjective. (i) One is derived from the A.S. an, and is tlie sanu in origin as the numeral. Used pDn^ninai' .', when it stands for a single thing aIio;<.av' nici- tioned ; e.g., " Give me another gun ; I have one:' One forms a Plural ; e.g., " These are bad ones" In " One would imagine," one has the sense of the French on (Latin : homo). The corresponding word in A.S. is man, different from mann, a human being. This form man is used in Zech., xiii., 5 : "I am an husbandman ; for man taught me to keep cattle from my youth." None, A.S., na'n {ne, not ; a'n, one). Not one is more emphatic than none. (2) Any., A.S., a'n + ig = cs'nig. Used pronominally any is the correlative of none, e.g. Brutus. Who is here, so vile, that will not love his country? \{ any, speak, for him have I offended. I pause for a reply. Citizens. None, Brutus, none. Brutus. Then none have I offended. Julius Caesar, Act ill., So. i. 5« N()TES ON i:\(;i,ISII CkAMiMAR. Aj/j', as ail Adjective, has three eonstructions : (i) Onahfying Nouns in Singular, it often iniphes quantity. (2) Oualifyinf,^ Nouns in Plural, it always refers to number. (3) With words of negation, it is exclusive. e.^'-. (i) Is there n/zj' ink here? (2) Are there n/ij' books in the room ? (3) I ha\e not rcccix cd tr/n' letters. Notice the instructive derivation of ^^ tight and Naught: Aught, A.S. a\ Qvev; iviht,-Auy created living thing (Eng. ztnght). Naught, A.S. lie, not; a\ ever; zviht. Not is a short- ened form. Cf. iMig. naughty (originall)- zvorth/ess). (3) Some, A.S. sutii, a certain one (different from ".some" in ivinsouic). some — not none = some at least = one or more. any = some, no matter which. (4) Other, A.S. o'der, the ultimate mcam'ng of which is '' beyond this." Notice the constructions : the other day = some one day, bit not this day ; the other 7i(Ft/ier, whether: (i.) =one of two; e.g., "Either will serve my pur- pose." (ii.) =both ; e.g., "On either side the efforts were praiseworthy." (10) Neither, A.S., nd ^ge^hun^ther. Neither is th.e negative of Either. (11) Such, A.S., sivd, so; //'V= like, formed sivy'le, whence such; H'c [modern -ly], which is the ending of so many Adverbs, means in A.S., A. body [living or dead]; the word remains with this meaning in //ru- gate, /j//^^-wake (7^ Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Hos- worth-Toller, 1882). Such is commonly used as an Adjective ; e.g., "Stick harmony is in immortal souls." It is also u.sed pronominally ; eg., " Mere strength of understanding would have made him such in any age." The word so is often used for such. eg., " We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow; Our wiser sons no doubt will think us so." 6n NOTES ON ENGUSir GRAMMAR, m (12) Sa;m'. Same in A. S. occurs always in combination witii j-wv/^- similarly, in the same way. ♦ Sa7?ie is used pronominally in : "that they might teach their children the same." Our word safne is believed to be of Scandinavian oriffin. XVII.— On Adverbs. Adverbs mqy be classified (i) according to their indi- vidual meamnjr, (2) as regards their ori^m, (3) into ^at sectional and phrasal. ' (I) To the Adverbs of Time, Place, Manner, Cause (See Note III., 5), we may add Numeral Adverbs ; e.g.^ once, t7vice. Adverbs used interrogatively may be called hiter- rogattve Adverbs ; e.g., " Where have you been ? " Notice the use of these words in introducing parts of sentences which would be questions in their independent form ; e.g., " Tell me where you have been," Some Ad-verbs are in use Ad-sentences ; /. .., what the Ad- verb ordinarily is to a word, these are to sentences ; e.g., " This is assuredly true." (2) Adverbs are derived (i.) From Nouns ; e.g., needs (Genitives), cf, dnights, o'clock, ahvay, meanwhile (Accusative). whilom (Dat. PI. hwi'lum). abed, ashore, betimes (with Prepositions). ADVERBS. 5 J (Ji.) From Adjectives ; e.g., once, twice (Gen.\ seldom (Dat.), afa- (Prep ) ^^^//y( = deep-like), (iii.) From Prepositions ; e.g., on, beneath, througk. (iv.) From Pronouns ; tvhere, whither, whence (who A.S. hv'a) • thence there^ thither (that A.S. thc^t) ; here, hence, hither (he A.S. ///). Compound Adverbs are formed ; e.g, hereunto, here- after, therein, ivherexvith. (3) The third classification is Prof. Earle's. A Jlct Adverb has the form of an Adjective ; ^.^., " He walks /tfj/," " We speak /tf«^./." Needs, upwards are examples of sectional Adverbs ; oj a iruth is an example of a ///rrtja/ Adverb. Comparison of Adverbs. Adverbs admit of comparison ; eg., sincerely, more sincerely, mo5t sincerely. The following are irregularly compared: well ill much late little far forth better worse more later less farther further best worst most last least farthest furthest 62 NOTFs ON p:nglisii grammar. 1 1 I f I XVIII,— On Prepositions. Relationships that in Anglo-Saxon used to be shown by case-endings are now shown by Prepositions. This is the result of the tendency of our language towards analytical expression. Where, in Anglo-Saxon speech and writing, fo'tuni was used, we now say and write, to feet ox for feet ; for scipes, we say and wnie, of a ship ; for t/iy's we -^ay and write zvith this or by this. Modern English Prepositions also correspond to ancient Prepo- sitions, with more or less change through cor.stant usage. The Anglo-Saxon to is the Modern English to, the A.S.fnmt our frow, but the A.S. 7i>ith had the mean- ing of our against. We have already seen that some verbs are constructed with Prepositions, the particular Preposition used determining the meaning of the Verbal Phrase. We eonfer a benefit on a man, but we confer ivith him about a matter of business. A company of soldiers may fall in, or fall upon the enemy, or, after they \\7K\e fallen to, may/?// off because their command- ers \\-6ve fallen out. Prepositions are of two kinds : Simple and Compound. 1. The Simple Prepositions of English origin are: at, '''. ffo/n, m, of, on, out, to, up, with. Two Latin Prepositions are commonly used, per (e.g., six per cent.), and versus (e.g., P. 7V7-.i7/.s- W.). II. Compound Prepositions are formed by the use of comparative suffixes; e.g., alter, over, under; or by compounding simple Prepositions ; e.g., into, upon, before; or from Nouns; eg., abreast, atop, ahead, astride; ox from Adjectives; eg., along, amid; or from Verbs ; e.g., notwithstanding, oimmj^ to. CONJUNCTIONS. 63 be shown IS. This i towards m speech 1 write, to 7/ a ship ; Modern nt Prepo- cor.stant ^ngh'sh to, he mean- liat some ^articular le Verbal we confer npany of or, after jmmand- otnpound. are : at, ivo Latin , six per e use of '/ or by fOy upon, >, ahead, mid ; or Prepositions not of pure Englisl, on,i„ clcli^■cd froni Nouns, Adjectives and Verbs are : across (F., croix), l,ecausc fLntin: causa), hy means of {Uum Nouns); .,>....^/,/,, ,,,/,,„•,,,, ,,^ ;..,.,.-„ .;v.,../ (froni Adjec- tives) ; during, pending, excepting ^lx,,m Verbs). XIX.— On Conjunctions. Subordinating Conjunctions intiuduce groups of words that play the part of Noun or Adverb. (0 Noun. e.g., I feared lest he should come. I know that you arc not mv' friend. If after the Verb of the principal part of the sentence we ask the question " What } " we obtain as answer the other part of the sentence. Q. I feared " What ? " A. Lest he should come. We have already noticed that the object of a Verb is a Noun or its equivalent. We conclude that the group of words, ''lest he should comer is the equivalent of a Noun. y. , Adverb. These Conjunctions may express Time, Place, Cause, Knd (or Purpose), Conse- quence fResult), Condition, Concession, Comparison, 64 NOTES ON ENCILISII GRAMMAR. ;t- ill 1. Time: when, while, till, until, after, since, beiore, ere. 2. Place : where, whence, whither. 3. Cause : because, since. 4. End : that (in order that), lest. 5. Consequence: that (so that). 6. Condition ; if, unie ^s, except (but). 7. Concession: althoui;h, tl out^h. 8. Comparison : as, thari. (i.) But may be (r) Co-ordinating Conjnnction, eg., " He is here to-day, /mt he departs to-morrow," (2) Sub-ordinating Conjunction, eg., "I cannot be condemned, but (unless) I be tried." (3) Adverb, e.g., "I am but (only) a poor old man," (4) Preposition, e.g., " All but him were lost." (ii) The before a Comparative, in origin a Demonstra- tive Pronoun, may be considered as a Conjunc- tion ; e.g., " The more, the merrier." A comparison is instituted between the increase in number, and the increase in merriment. I inative This 1 ce, beiore, ction, eg., -morrow," 'I cannot 'ied." (3) old man," lost." 2monstra- Conjunc- crease in SYNTAX. SYNTAX. 65 XX.— On Syntax. Syntax \^yn together, taxis arrangement] deals with the arrangement of words for the expression of thoughts. The chie^ rL 66 NOTES ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR. !L k Rule II. The Verb (finite) agrees with its Subject in Person and Number. Examples. " The opinion of several lawyers, who held the highest positions in their profession, zms (not were) in his favour " (i.) " The multitude were on our side." " The multitude tans szvayed like one man." (ii.) " William and Mary were English sovereigns." "The Bishop, the Earl and the Sheriff hold the shire-moot." (iii.) " Her heart, her mind, her love is his alone." " A laggard in love and a dastard in war Was to wed . . . . " " Slow and sure out-lravcls haste." (iv.) " The Secretary or the Treasurer drazvs up the report." (v.) " My poverty, not my wishes, consents." " My wishes, not my poverty, consent." " Not a loud voice but strong proofs bring convic- tion." (vi.) " Now abideth Faith, Hope and Charity." " I'or Thine is the Kingdom, the Power and the Glory." (vii.) " Every bo\' and girl is to have a prize." " Each thought and each desire is to be pure." " No part of the nation and no party in the Church thinks as you do." (viii.) The whole book, and every part of it, is on a laro-e scale {parenthesis). (iv.) SYNTAX. 67 in Person thehighesf lis favour" an." cigns." f hold the one." ir ws up the ig convic- r and the pure. he Church an a large The conclusions (i.) to (viii.) on this page refer to the PIxamples (i.) to (viii.) respectively on page 66. .A similar remark applies to the other Rules. (i.) A Noun of Multitude takes a Plural Verb, and a Collective Noun a Singular Verb. (ii.) When the subject is compound., i.e., when it consists of two or more Nouns or their equivalents unittd by and, expressed or understood, the Verb is Plural. (iii.) When the words that make up the Subject can be regarded as Jcrtning one idea the Verb may be Singular. (iv.) Two or more Singular Nouns or their equivalents united by or {nor, cither, neither), expressed or understood, take a Singular Verb. Caution I. -Avoid connecting Nouns or Pronouns of different numbers by or {nor. . . .). Say : " He was or his .servants were to blame." Uaution II. — Avoid connecting Pronouns of different persons by or {nor. . . .). Say : " Neither is she to blame nor am I." (v.) When an affirmative Noun and a negative Noun occur in the same sense, the Verb agrees with the affirmative Noun. (vi.) Sometimes when several Subjectsyr a Predicate- generally re- lack of justi- lly. Chaucer an impression , stating in each o be demanded, ades. his courage — in or I? SYNTAX. 4- Nonr of those, otir trusted friend i>?;.' ^i^'"??!:'*^"^";' "">"V»K about tlie.iiseases of cattle; f h; s, are here. 71 ve only Mudied tiieni in human beings. 6. Tlie derivation of the Noim is the Latin fwmen. 7. I lieard of l,ni> Ixmum do,,,, to death by savages. 8. Nou know my father hath no ciiild but I. 9- My soul hati's nothing more than he. lo. Those that slie makes honest she makes very ili-favourediy umei,tThere'rw-'in' ''"•'''•''"i^;". ;lecuu dij^nitied Ceren.oniaiisn, •ippcand heie facmj. one another for the tir^t time. 12. lie was awfully sorry that so awful a calamity had occurred 13- Verse and prose run into one anotliei like light and shade. 14- I will be Ignorant, because no one shall teach me. .15. Tiiis handkerchief was found in the house, which was out in evidence with the pistol, and this is the p.int in ^juestion. ^ 16. He of all others is the most remarkable. trial of\it!'"'' '"'''''"'' '"' "''^" ''^•^''"^ another's "she" in a 18. How funny that sounds ! '9- What he is indeed More suits you to conceive than I to speak of. 20. He says he shall do so with great pleasure. 21. Why did you not report the matter to myself. > 22. The boy wants his hair cutting. cenuiry."'"''" '' ""^ "'^ ^''' ^'^^^^''^ '""'"'' ^'^^^ ^""^ appeared in this compared.''^'''''"'^ '' '""^"■'"' *° ^^'"^^ ' '''^''' ^^''''"^^ ^"''""'>' ^'^ 25. Who on earth is the craven waiting for— you or I .' 26. Neither he nor 1 am going to market to-day. 27. How are you t Nicely, thank you. 28. That's me he means. ville.' ^^^^ ^^"•'^•'^'^ '''icitic Railway runs straight through Lennox- 30. .Smith looks diflferent to-day. _^^3'. If you write me down an exercise, do not write me down an 32. These kind of things always annoys me. 72 NOTES ON KNfiTJsrt ORAMMAR. seiied.^''^ ''''''' °^ ^^^''^ ^^'Preme, us dispossessed, he trusted to have 34- It will make you sleep like Juliet's drug. 35- I know a man than whom none is more honourable. 36. Vou cannot see as well as I ? 37- He can see you as well as I. 38. The Miss Browns called this afternoon, and found us out 39- Players are only allowed on the grass. 40. Adam the goodliest man of men since born His sons, the fairest of her daughters Eve. 41. I am one, that have found it so. doie it '''' '"^"^"^^•«" '^^ ^^"^^ t'^e man a thing, which had 43- Who injures me my father will punish. guiUy. '''''"" ^^'^ ^''''^"'' ''^'"'"'^ "^ "'^ ^^°^'''> f'"""k the prisoner sai'd'" Wn.K'"''' "of"^''.^ dissatisfied disposition that he always tnt we^ ""'' ' ' '^ " ''"'■' "''^' ''^"^ " ^^'°"ld it were not > ^ 46. The house of Baal was full from one end to another. 47- The cy^y stood on the burning deck Whence all but he had fled. 48. Prize me no prizes, for my prize is death ! 49- The jury were agreed upon a verdict street.""' "^^''''"^^ '""'" '"■''^^^" ^"^' P«"*^« ''^' whirling down the Example: (14) 1 will be ignorant, because no one shall teach me; Correa/orm: I sAa// be ignorant, because no one 7«7/ teach me ; /Reason: /^// with the first person signifies purpose, with the third person, s/,,p/e futurity; shall with the first person signifies simple futurity, with the third person compulsion. ' trusted to havi irable. )und us out ng, which had k the prisoner that he always I it were not ! ", lother. rling down the hall teach me ; mil teach me ; pose, with the >vith the first i third person, ANALYSIS OF SEN'TKNCEs. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 71 XXI.— On the Simple Sentence. The Analysis [cvm up. lysis breaking] of a Sentence is the breahng of it up into its parts. This process is not new to us; we found it (Note II.) an essential preh-miti- ary to 1 arsing. The relations of the Predicate, Subject and Object, with their attributes and adjuncts were briefly d,scus.sed. We dealt there with Sentences, containing only one group of words having Subject and Predicate Such sentences are called Simple or one-fold. The Predicate may consist of 1. The Verb alone. e.g., "1 avHc:' 2. The Verb (Of Incomplete Predication) together with a Predicate Adjective, x\oun or Pronoun ; e.g., *' He is misemhUr " My brother turned out a vagalwnd, I (i)n !u" The Predicate may be followed by 1. One Object ; eg., " He killed his enemy:' " We are planning a yacktr " He dreamed a dreamt 2. One Object and a word describing the person or thing of which the Object is the name {Complement) • e.g., " That stamps _^w^ a fooir " We think him proud!' 74 NOTKS ON KNGTJSTT CRAMMAR. 3. An Object and an Indirect Object ; ^S-> " J S'ive Jiim (Iiid.) money r " I told j'on (Ind.) A; come." N.B.— The word it .sometimes does the duty of a Formal Subject; e./;-., " It is pleasant to ride through the country" = To ride through the country is pleasant. Predicate " is pleasant," Subject " To ride through the country.'"' " It is my opinion that he did it " = " That he did it is my opinion." Predicate " is my opinion," Subject " That he did it." " To ride throut,di the country " and " That he did it " are both Equivalents of a J'art of Speech (Noun), but while the former contains no Subject and Predicate of its own, the latter contains both Subject and Predicate. The former Equivalent is called a Phrase, the latter l^quivalent is called a Subordinate Clause, It is evi- dent that the group of words " That he did it is m}- opinion " is not a Simple Sentence. Obs. : Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between the Subject and the i'rcdicate Noun or Pronoun ; e.g., " Clematis is Travellers' Joy." " M\- father is a Doctor." " That is he." It will be noticed that Travellers Joy might be some- thing else besides Clematis; that " ^^ Doctor" is the name of other people as well as of luy father; that lie might refer to others besides that, the particular person we are pointing out. None of these words (Travellers' Joy, Doctor, he) is used distributivcly. Each of them is a Predicate Noun or Pronoun. ANALYSIS OF SENTP:ncES. XXII.— On Equivalents. n duty of a 3untiy " sant. J rough the he did it." he did it " Moun), but 'edicate of Freth'cate. the latter It is evi- l it is m}' h between in ; be some- '^'" is the '•; tiiat he ar person Fravellcrs' )f them is The Subject or Object is a Noun or a Noun-Equiva- lent ; the Attribute of the Subject or Object is an Adjec- tive or an Adjective-Equivalent ; the Adjunct of -he Predicate ,s an Adverb or an Adverb- Equivalent. Such Equivalents may be words, phrases- or clauses. In the latter ca.se the clause itself must be in its turn analysed ; e.g., " That he did it is my opinion." Sentence. -/>^^. "is my opinion, Subj. "that he did it." Q\B?l%%.-Pred. " did," Subj. " he," Obi. " it " f" That " Conjunction]. AdT.mr^'^^'"'i'? ^'■' ^"'"^^""^^ <^^"«'l Enlar^anents, and the Adjunct the Extension. When a Verbal-Noun or a Verbal- Adjective is used as an Equivalent, it retains, of course, the constructions of the Verb with which it is connected ; e.g, "To write clearly is an accomplishment." " To become a king pleased him." " Knowing Churchill educated me." '• Giving beggars money is dangerous charity." In each of these cases the Adverb, Predicate-Noun Object, or Two Oh^tci^ forms part of the Subject Noun-Equivalents. (i.) A Verbal-Noun : " Fishing (To Jish) is my favourite sport." (ii.) A Pronoun : "//^is here" 76 NOTES ON KNCLISII GRAMMAR. (iii.) An A'^ljecli ve: " The good are happy." (iv.) A Quoted Word : "Your 'If is the only peacemaker." (v.) A Quoted Phrase : " ' Mark's ivayl said Mark." (vi.) A Clause : " That thou art a villain shall be proven straight." (vii.) A Quoted Clause : " ' England expects every man to do his duty ' was the signal." (viii.) An Accusative and Infinitive Phrase Kquivalent to a Clause : I know htm to be a fool ( = that he is a fool). Adjective-Equivalents. (i.) A Noun in the Possessive Case: " Harry's hat flew off." (ii.) A Verbal-Adjective: " A running deer is a difficult mark." " A well xvritten pamphlet is good reading." (iii.) Words in Apposition : " The very strong man, Kwasind." (iv.) A Prepositional I'hrase ; " The fear of man:' " Horses in stalls." " Men with beards." " Bread to eat" ( = Bread for eating). ANALYSIS OF SENTtNCKS. 17 Straight." hity' was valent to fool). ng. (v.) A Noun or Gerund forming part of a Compound Noun : A mt7^-pa\l A tva/hn£--stkk ( = a stick for walking). (vi.) A Clause : The man, 7vAo is conscious of right, fears nothing. Adverb-Equivalents. (i.) A Noun, usually equivalent to a Prepositional Phrase : I stayed mont/is ( = for months). He wentjfester^aj'{ = on the day before this day). We wa/ked home ( = towards home), (ii.) A Prepositional Phrase : •'The king has gone into the xuoods:' A sower went forth to sow {= for sowing). (iii.) A Pronoun, equivalent to a Preposition and a Pro- noun : " Make me that " (me = for me). " Knock me at the gate " (me = for me). (iv.) A Nominative Absolute Phrase, equivalent to a Clause : " This being so, we set to work" ( = Since this was so); "Winter over, our friends rejo,ce" (=VVhen winter is over). (v.) A Clause: After Will had gone, we i.ireathed niore freely. 78 NOTES ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The following sentence illustrates the use of Adjective- Equivalents. The Subject, Predicate and Object are in italics: " William the Conqueror, Harold's old enemy, a man of great ambition and capable of great achievements having carefully prepared for the enterprise and attracted adventurers from all parts of Europe to share in h, crossed the Uianne/, resolved on the conquest of England." The following sentence illustrates the use of Adverb- Equivalents: " Winter over, day after day, when it was fine,^^ zvent out into the lanes to cut me a stick." XXIII.— On the Complex Sentence. A Complex Sentence is one that contains at least two groups of words, each containing a Subject and Predicate of Its own, standing in the relation to one another of Principal to Subordinate. The Principal group of words which ,s of the nature of a Simple Sentence, is called the Principal Clause, and the subordinate group of words which IS an Equivalent, is called the Subordinate Clause.' Subordinate Clauses are called Noun Clauses, Adiec- tive Clauses or Adverb Clauses, according as thev are Noun-Equivalents, Adjective-Equivalents or Adverb Equivalents. I.-Noun Clauses. e.g. (i.) " I found out t/urt he did not love me." ** T/iat he had iL'ronged vie was apparent" m. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 79 (ii.) " I command that you do so." (iii) " He asked me ^^chether I was goingr (iv.) " The woman pointed out hoxv just her cause 7c>as." (I) Depe.ident Statement, (ii.) Dependent Command (Mi.) Depe,ident Question, (iv.) Dependent Exclamation.' II.— Adjective Clauses. " He is not the man, 7vho met me." "Within the hollow crown That rounds the mortal temples of a king Keeps death his court." " All I hear is a faint tapping sound " = All that I hear is a faint tapping sound. " Who steals my purse steals trash " -= He, who steals my purse, steals trash. '' What you stated was proved false " = That, which you .stated, was proved false. " I know the place xvhere the ghost is seen " = I know the place, in which the ghost is seen. Obs.: An Adjective Clause usually begins with a Relative Pronoun, expressed or understood. Words hke where, zvhy, which sometime intr. as (av ski^uldltave been) [Subordinate of Comparison] (^) if a thnnderiaoiakad fallen rr>rr«rv,lu;^.. )him (End). o( attend to n tains so or Condition), imcs intro- ed, he was a heathen ire mental ;t >) [Principal] i {is good) lunderbolt :ipal] ordinate of ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 8l XXIV.-On Co-ordinate Sentences and Clauses. Sentences and Clause, may be joined together hy the Co-ordmatmg Conjunctions and^ but. or, nor, for Such sentences and clauses are called Co-ordinate Sentences and Co-ordinal.. Clauses. Co-ordinate Clauses are sub- ordmate to the same clause ; e.g., Co-ordinate Sentences : " The boy has spoken correctly but I cannot decide the cause" " / am not right nor is he {right)." " For thither too I w nt and much people (tvent) zvith me" Co-ordinate Clauses : " It must be, methinks, that I am near men of human speech and l shall fnd shelter." " When the moon is up and the plain is visible, \ will make ready." Obs. : " / have no resources and if you can help me, / hope you tvill." Here a simple sentence is co-ordinate,! with a complex. {a) I have no resources [Simple Sentence]. {b) If you can help me [Adverb Clause of Condition Subordinate to {d)]. {c) 1 hope [Principal Clause, co-ordinate with the sen- tence (a)]. id) (that) you will {help me) [Noun Clause, subordinate to {c)]. 82 NOTES ON ENGLISH CRAM MAR. In the example of Analysis that follows the column for the Predicate may stand before that for the Subject Indeed it is suggested that this should be done, until familiarity with the prc.cess is acquired. Some prefer to have the last column reserved for the adjunct. " Dare I say No spirit ever brake the band That stays him from the native land Where first he walk'd when claspt in clay?" Obs. : r/uit is omitted before ''No spirit " ; ivhere-in u'/iuh; he 7i'as is elided before c/as/t in day. I. Tal patient cc 2. 3. To 1 4- So 5- The with you, 6. 1 7. And A B C D C'l-AIKE. Kind. ■ .3 I-* 0} - like, belongs to the sa.no Cass 6. The great Intelligences fair / hat range above our mortal state K. J" T\ '"'""^ ''>^^ blessed gate ' ^^'^^'ve.l and gave him welcome^Jh^e. ^«ei^hty,t^d'"hugrt'i^^stn"nf IV'^^'''\^^ ^''^^ ^"-P ^-n.e n.roes with whoLoe.er he is%TothX ,.''', ^"'"^ 'he'ranksS sire. *= ^"^oth, the daughter o[ the mighty «• If you can be merry then, I'll say V) man may weep upon his wedding day 9. The worst of it is, we are both clever fellows IJh. rhey carved at the meal 4«^.u J V'th gloves of steel, .^..d ,hey dra„K. ,he red wi„e ,h,.„',„h .„, ,,„„^, ,^_^ |ii«ike you, ' " """"" V"" I"""' perfectly well I cannot !'■ hA'" '"",' '" "'"^ "^' ''"<' '"^ be^" "here 1^^;. He keeps ,he,„, Hk. an ape doth „„,, i„ „, „„„ „, ^.^ '4- Sitting by a river's side, Where a silent stream did glide Muse I did of many things^ ' ihat the mmd in quiet brings. I said, "I toil beneath the curse, «ut, knowmg not the universe I ^-=»- to slide from bad to worse " 'S. A. -"em"i;;\L"^cJiiVii''i,^"^ ,•'>-.>-. .«" hi.n p.-.io„ i„ which ,v^;vii;.i-'i,rpi°cS ..<^%^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 I.I 2.5 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 « (," ^ V] <^ /2 / I *c^l ^''V'^ # Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WELSTER.N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 V «;■ iV 4" <^ V^\ ^ U.A 84 NOTES UN i;N(iLISII GRAMMAR. 17' I did look, sharp as a lynx, "^ (And yet the memory rankles) When models anived, some minx Tripped up stairs, she and hei ankles. i8. Sooner or later I, too, may passively take the print of tin golden age. 19. And now to that same spot in the south of Spain are thirty similar French .irtizans, from a French Dumdrudge, in like maniK V wending, till at length, after infinite effort, the two parties conio into actual juxtaposition. 20. Wliat is fair conquers what is near. 2'- The old mist again Blinds me as then it did. 22. I read and seem as if I heard thee speak, 7'. Note XXIII., III. (viii.), p. 80. 23- Never morning wore To evening, but some heari did break. V. Note XIX. (i.), p. 64. 24. Now he kept watch for the space of a year, lest Agamemnon should pass by h m when he looked not, and mind him of his wild prowess. 25. He did not discover the fair lady, Truth, though he sought her night and day, because he wanderxl through the lofty places. 26. I hold it true, whateer befall ; 1 feel it, when I sorrow most ; 'Tis better to have loved and lost Than never to have loved at .ill. V. Note XXIII., III. (viii.), p. 80. 27. Let us, then, enquire together what sort of games the plaviiii; class in Knyland spend their lives in playing at. ^ ■ '^ 28. The purple from the distance dies, My prospect and horizon gone. 7A Note .XXII., Adverb-Equivalents (iv.), p. 77. 29. It gives me wonder great as my content, To see you here before me. v. Note XXI., N.B., p. 74. 30. Remember who commended thy yellow stockings and wished to see thee cross gartered. [AR. es. the print of tlii >f Spain are tliirty ge, in like inaniK r two parties conic II. (viii.), p. 80. ai<. XIX. (i.), p. 64. , lest Agamemnon nd him of his wild APPENDICES. hough he sought the lofty places. II. (viii.), p, 80. games the playing ents (iv.), p. 77. ^I., N.B., p. 74. :king8 and wished "V iiand espec begin 'Babj the S( mono from guage was a words by the for ex wyrcat were t were i whom to lear com pre and chi Men di tion ; e settled East, w APPHNDICFS. What I- On the Development of English. s.fdy on Cliiiuci-rs /'ro/,>i^ue.] [/ix/nn/ from an I: tll( was iiand? It is pertinent to ask this" of every UTiter but especially of one, uho lived at a time when lan^^uage was begmninj,. to emerge from what Mr. Marsh calls a Babylonish co,. fusion.' This confusion was the result of the separate mcomincrs of various races contending for monopoly in power a.id speech. The first races ?ame from the North of Germany, brinj^ing with them a lan- guage, now called A.iglo-Saxon or First English which was an mflected language. Thev- changed the form of ./ords to express those relations which ue now express by the aid of helping words, to, for, of, etc. They said for example, stdnes, where we say of a stone ; they said wyrcan, where we say to work. The next races to arrive were the neighbours of the Saxons, the Danes Thev were unwilling to learn the language of those amon^ whom they settled : the Saxons were equally- disinclined to learn the iJanish tongue. ConsequentK', by way of compromise, many of the inflexions were m'ade impier and changes took place in the construction of sentences' Men did not learn these new things in a day nor a genera " tion ; even after a hundred and fifty years there was no settled speech for the people, especially in the North and East, where the Danes had made their home. [87] 88 AI'I'IADrcKS. " Hut a i^rcatcr chaii^^c was to conic. In 1066 VVilliiirn the Norman, whose ancestors were not far remote frotn the ancestf)rs of the Knijlish, conquered Harold tiie son of the Good-Fi:.:air;^;: Jwm SL'm^tlnt;^^^^^^^^ - — ^- -- language of children r„dntn« :;;"'''' -"-"^ '" "- 94 AI'I'KNhrcKS. 3. Grimm's Law relates lo the change of consonants in laii},Hiii,!^e.s, Mipposcd to be derived from the same stock. The Greek, Latin [Classical] ; Ant^lo-Saxon, English [Low (JermanJ, and Flij^di (ierman lauj^rua^^es are related, and may be considered once to have been one lan^UH{;e. The consonants in the words of these lanuua'^cs have under^^one certain chanj^es, owinj,^ to differences in climate, desire of men for easy speech, mixin^^ of nations and other obscurer causes. Grimm formulated a law of tliese corrcsiKMidin-; chan^^es. This law may be repre- sented by the following dia^nam : LOW GERMAN H Hard (Voiceless) A — Aspirate S- Soft (Voiced) This signifies that a Hard (Voiceless) Consonant in Classical corresponds to an Aspirate in Low German, a Soft in High German ; and so on, going round the circle with the letters and the names. Examples. Greek Latin Anglo-Saxon English //. German duo duo twa' two zwei kardia cor heorte heart herz pater pater faeder father vater CO W()KI»-HUIM)IN(;. 95 msonants in IV. On Word-Building. What a word Is ultimately dcrivecl from is called its d^fficultv . '""T .°' ^""'^ " ^"^" ''' considerable d fhcu ty. examples have been ^^iven in the coniuK^.tion o 1- Verb /v. The forms. /,, /.... etc., are derived fron, ""Ki; ; ..;;.. ^a-/. c-tc., are derived from ES. What we can cTh':i 'V^"""'" " '^''' "^'^^'"^^^^ '^'^^ «^the Root called the Stem, to wliich we add i-.flexions for the varjs purposes of Accide.ice ; e.^., love is the stem of We build up words in two ways : (1) By joining words of independent meaninjr; e^ lion- hunter, break-^vater. '^" (2) By the use of prefixes (Latin: praefigere, fo fasten ^^>-.). and suffixes (Latin: suffigere. to fasten on), which may or may not have separate existence. (I) Several examples of words formed by joining to gether two independent words have already been given. It will be noticed that in some cases both words are equally significant, ..,.,, sn.bea,;,, do,^star, freeman; that in others the first qualifies the sec ond e.g., finger-ring ^^r\r^^ for the finger), wa/hn^r. stick ( = stick for walking); that in others a change of accent alters the significance, e.g., madhouse, black- bird. (2) Prefixes and suffixes are of English. Latin and Greek origin. Those who study the clas ical languages will be able to identify those of classical origin while, to students, who are not acquainted with these languages, committing the prefixes and suffixes to o6 ^ APPENDICES. memory will be a work of much labour, and of compara.,ve,y Ht.le value. The English prefixes and suffixes are oite,, more difficult to identify as hey have naturally undergone greater changes than those not native. The following are inseparable prefixes: (i.) A (=on), as~abed, aloft, away. («.) Bye ( = hamlet),as-byelaw (the law of a hamlet) c.f Whitby. (iii.) Mis ( = wrong), as-misbehave. Obs^: The words misapply, misinterpret are hybrids fh.„ formed from two different languages. ^y«>nds-they are (iv.)Ne( = not). as-naught, none. (V.) Wan (^wanting), as-wanton {wantogen^nn^^^, (vi.) With ( = against, back), as-withstand. withhold and^Jof Verbf "^ ''' " ^°"-' ^^i-^-s. Adverb, (i.) D. t, th, as-seed (sow), flight (fly), death (die) ^"■^ w'dom:^'""''""^'' ''"^^' "''^^^' as-dukedom, (iii.) Lock(A.S. la'c,^.//),as-wedlock. Obs. : Lock becomes ledge in knowledi^e. ^"•^ wfdr^r"''"'"'"^ counsel-mode), as-Ethe,red. (V.) Ric (A.S. ri'ce,/„et.^^;, as-bishopric. ibour, and of glish prefixes to identify, as changes than f of a hamlet) (rids— they are ^^« — unedu- WORD-BUILDING. (vi.) Ship (A.S. sci'pe. form) as-fel Ik- ^^ ship. "^ ^ ^^' ^-^-'ellowship, workman- (vii.) Ward( = keeDPr^ ac u (-•■■oisMAsrcw r •"""■^"•'''=^"^- I ■''•"'^ ''""=. ^s-childi.sh, boorish. (2) a little like, as-blackish (-oMeaMA.s.^i!:::::;--'^-'- ■auce.s.o„„a.eai,I:Xi::7~'(-. Obs.:i,Us„„,e,i„,«dimi„„,ive,as_dribbIe '"' ct:;:^"'''''^^^--- force, ..-broaden, I. withhold, es, Adverbs, ith (die), —dukedom, — Ethelred, 98 APPENDICKS. [Note Dr. Adams nm\ the Rev. Dr. Allnatt, Dean of the of the proof-sheets, have, in addition to making many valuable s^suons, incorporated in the text, offered t'he folLrn^!^ true (p. 60) IS related ad7>crhi 01 Complex Sentences, 78 Compoun.i Propositions, 62 Conjugations, u, 35^ ^5 Conjunction, 4, 63 ;p,,,i^^f Consonants, 89 and foil. Consonant-Sounds, yo and foil Co-ordinating Co„i„„,.,ions, ,c Co-ordinate Clauses, 8, and foil • 'Sentences, 81 and foil. " Counting Words, 46 Article, 4, 44 Axioms grammatical, 4 Be, 39 Both, 47 But, 64 Can, 43 Cardinals, 46 Case of Nouns, 9, 25 and foil. Change, of Vowels CI sonant laucei 94 92; of Con- Demonstrative Adjectives, c6 Demonstrative Pronouns, 13, „ Dentals, 91 ' •» >i Development of English 87 Diagram of (J.inmr's Law. 94 Diphthongs, 90 ^-^<'. V:, s I Cognate Object, 34 nfluence. 87 and foil. Each. Eiik. '.er. 59 59 Kqiiivalent 7' 74, 75 [99] lixclamation. 6 ; dependent 79 100 Few, 59 First Person, 50 Formal Subject, 74 Future Tense, 11, 32 Gender, of Nouns, 9, 19 ; of per- sonification, 19 ; ways of distin- guishnig, 19 and foil. Gerund, 41 tiranimar, i Grimm's Law, 94 Gutturals, 91 Identifying Words, 57 Imperative Mood, ii Impersonal Verbs, 55 Incomplete Predication, 34 Indefinite Pronouns, 13, 56 Indicative Mood, 11 Indirect Object, 27, 28 Infinitive, 40 ; the sign of the, 40 Interjection, 4 ; parsing of, 16 Interrogative Adjectives, 54 Interrogative Pronouns, 13, 54 Intransitive Verb, 9, 33 Labials, 91 Labio-Dentals, 91 Language, i ; some laws of, 92 and foil. Law of Consonantal Affinity, 93 Linguals, 91 Liquids, go Many, 59 Majf, 43 Mixed Verbs, II, 36 Mood, II, 29 Multiplicatives, 47 Multitude, Noun of, 18 A/usf, 43 Mutation, 92 Mutes, 90 INDKX. Nasals, 91 J\rfe,/, 45 Neither, 59 Neuter Possessive, 53 Nominative Case, 6, 26; of address, I 20; Absolute, 26. Noun, 2 ; parsing of, 9 Noun-Clauses, 78 and foil. Noun-Equivalents, 75 Number of Nouns, 9, 22 ; woys of tormmg Plural, 2?, 23 Object, 7, II, 73 Objective Case, 7, 27 One, 57 Ordinals, 46 Other, 58 Ought, 43 Palatals, 91 Paradigm of Analysis, 82 Paradigm of Consonants, 91 ^^of'"f6 ^ '''"'' '^"•' **""""afy Parts of .Speech, 1 and f jlj. Past Tense, 11, 30 Perfect Participle, 41 Person, of Verbs, 11 ; of Pro- nouns, 14 Personal Pronouns, 13, 50 Phrase, 74 Possessive Adjectives, 52 Possessive Case, 9, 28 Possessive Pronouns, 13, 52 Predicate, 7, 73 Predicate, Adjective, Noun and 1 ronoun, 34 Prefixes, 95 and foil, Py;t'on. 3. 4, 62; parsing Present Participle. 41 Present Tense, 11, 30 INDEX. 53 5, 26 ; of address. 6. of, 9 md foil. 75 , 9. 22 ; woys of \7, 23 !7 is, 82 ants, 91 all. ; summary nd fjll. " ; of Pro- 3, 50 . 52 8 »3, 52 I Noun and Principal Clause, 78 I'lonoun, 3; parsing of, 13 I'roper Noun, 9 Question. 6; dependent, 79 Reflexiva Pronouns, 13, 51 Kelation of Words, 6 Relative Adjectives, 54 Relative Pronouns, 13, 54 Root, 95 Rougii Breathings, 92 Same, 60 Scheme of Relations, 7 SAa//, 43 Second Person, 51 .Sentences, 6 Sibilants, 91 Simple Prepositions, 62 Simple Sentences, 73 Some, 58 Spirants, 90 Statement, 6 ; dependent, 79 Stem, 95 Strong Verhs, 11,35,36; principal parts of some, 37, 38 ^ lOI Subject of Sentence, 6 Subjunctive Mood, 11, 29 Subordinate Clause, 74, 78 and foil. Subordinating Conjunctions, 16, 63 SucA, 59 Suffixes, 95 and foil. Syntax, 8, 65 and foil. Tense, lo, 30 and foil. i'hird Person, 51 Transitive Verb, 9, 33 Umlaut, 20, 23, 92 Verb, 2 ; parsing of, 10 ; conju- gallon of, 29 and foil.; paradigm of conjugation of, 31 Verbal- Adjectives, 40, 75 Verbal- Nouns, 40, 75 Voice, 9 Vowels, 89 Vowel-Sounds, 90 Weak Verbs, II, 35, 36 fVi//, 43 Word-Building, 21, 95 and foil. IVoi, 43 62 ; parsing