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fliotographic

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1 2 3

4 5 6

THE

HISTORY OF CANADA,

l-ROM ITS

FIRST DISCOVERY TO THE PRESENT TIME.

JOHN Mac MULLEN, Esq.,

AUTHOR OF "the CAMP AND BARRACK ROOM," STC.

BROCKVILLE:
PUBLISHED BY MCMULLEN & CO.

FOR SALE nv '

DAWSON BROS., MONTREAL; CHEWETT & CO., TORONTO;

AND SAMPSOX, LOW, & CO., LONDCX.

iS68.

163228

o c^.

pj ^)}]UJ^^ i-fi oTm

PREFACE.

The present condition of Canada points to a future national
greatness of no ordinary magnitude. Her inland seas and
noble rivers have already become the highways of a vast and
rapidly-increasing commerce ; and the morning voice of a
new nation resounds over a scene as varied as it is beautiful.
In the foreground stand ihe populous cities and flourishing
towns, which stud the margins of her rivers and the shores ot
her lakes ; in the perspective, repose the free and happy
homes of her rural population. The farmer is the owner, in
fee-simple, of the soil he tills, and rejoices in an independence
of the most sturdy and complete character. In the various
industrial professions, enterprise, economy, and prudence
rarely fail to secure success, while in numberless instances
they have been the avenues to wealth. This country abounds
with merchants and manufacturers who have been eminently
successful ; and every-day experience presents to our notice
mechanics that have won their way to positions alike well-
merited and honourable.

The present of Canada supplies a kaleidoscope, brilliant
with promise, through which we may gaze at the future. The
philanthropist discerns all the essentials of the highest con-

Preface.

dition of social happiness ; the patriot, the solid basis of
national prosperity. There are, it is true, the difficulties
arising from a diversity of race to be overcome ; but these
have already been ameliorated by wise legislation, and now
present no insuperable difficulties to united national progress.
Past experience proves that identity of interests weakens the
antagonism of races as well as of individuals, and gradually
wears out their mutual prejudices and dislikes. The com-
mercial and agricultural interests of all the Canadian people
stand on the same basis, and produce similar political and
social resalts.

In these respects we occupy a much better position than
our relatives of the United States, aside from the additional
advantage of a total freedom from oppressive taxation. There,
despite the extinction of slavery, the interests of the South
still array themselves in almost continual conflict with those
of the North, while the West has separate and distinct in-
terests of its own. There, also, germs of sectional strife
and disunion continue to exist ; in Canada, on the contrary,
the body politic presents an almost unruffled surface, and a
comparative absence of injuriously opposing causes.

Thus happily circumstanced, a continued connexion with
the mother-country is the true policy of the Canadian people.
It involves no sacrifice of interests — no compromise injurious
to our welfare — while it secures to us an independent national
existence. Short-sighted, indeed, must that policy be which,
possibly to insure some temporary benefit, would involve this
country in the Maelstrom of American dissension, and crush
it beneath the burden of American taxation. Let us rather,
as a people, rest contented with our present happy condition ;
watch calmly and sensibly the inevitable current of events,
and be prepared, when the time comes, to take that position

Preface. -t

as a nation vvhich the keeping of the portals of the Great
West, and our other advantages, entitle us to fill.

To infuse a spirit of Canadian nationality into the people
generally — to mould the native-born citizen, the Scotch, the
I^lnglish, and the Irish emigrant into a compact whole, a purely
Canadian literature, aside from that supplied by the public
press, however excellent, is a most important clement. A
popular " History of Canada" is a step in this direction. To
this task has the author devoted himself ; and if he docs not
accomplish all that may be looked for, he will at least clear the
way and lighten the toil of some more able writer in time to
come, and meanwhile effect a modicum of national good, in
directing public attention to a source of information and in-
struction too long neglected.

To enable us to judge accurately of the present, and regard
our national future with confidence, a correct acquaintance
with the past is an absolute necessity. To the great mass of
the Canadian people such a study has hitherto been almost
an impossibility, from the fact that what might be properly
called a history of their country did not exist. The author
designs to supply, as far as possible, this great want in
Canadian literature, and faithfully to depict the past as an
aid to illuminate the present, and as an index to the future.
In carrying out this purpose he does not intend to restrict
himself to a mere detail of political occurrences, and would
also illustrate the social progress of the people.

It is true that many books have been published which
supply detached portions of Canadian history, that several
excellent statistical works have been compiled from time to
time, and that much valuable information relative to this
country may be gleaned from the writings of travellers and
residents ; but it is also equally true that these are not acces-

•r

!!!

• i

Preface.

siblc to the general reader. The author will endeavour to
arrange methodically whatever of value is to be gleaned from
those sources, and to present the people of Canada with a
useful and impartial history of their country, from its discovery
to the present time.

It need scarcely be said that the compilation of a work of
this kind entails a large amount of physical and mental
labour ; that its publication involves a large pecuniary risk.
But the author neither shrinks from the one, nor desires to
avoid the other, confident that a generous and enlightened
public will sustain him in his enterprise, and receive with
favour the first complete history of this magnificent heritage
of the Canadian people.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION

Social condition of the Canadian Aborigines,

Extent of their territory,

Tlicir want of historical records.

Their agricultural condition,

Their religious belief,

Political condition,

PAcn

xix

xxii
xxiii

XXV

xwiii

CHAPTER I.

Discovery of America by Columbus,

Cabot visits the Gulf of St Lawrence,

Verazzano, a Florentine navigator, explores the American

Cartier proceeds to Canada,

Visits Ilochelaga, .....

Cartier makes another voyage to Canada, .

Expedition of Roberval to the St Lawrence,

De la Roche proceeds to Canada, .

Champlain's first expedition to the St Lawrence, .

Forms a settlement at Quebec,

Assists the Canadian Indians against the Iroquois,

Ascends the Ottawa River,

Accompanies an Algonquin war party to Detroit, .

Illiberal policy of the Duke de Ventadour,

Cardinal Richelieu's Canadian policy — Formation of

"One Hundred Associates," .
War between England and France — Capture of Quebec
Death and character of Champlain,

coast,

the

company of
Kirk,

3
3

7
8

25
27

CHAPTER n.

Governor De Montmagny arrives in Canada, 1637 — Island of Montreal
settled, . ........

First peace with the Iroquois, ......

28
2y

Vlll

Contents.

M. de Ailleboust appointed Governor, 1647,

Conversion of the Indians to Christianity, ....

Incursions of the Iroquois — Massacre of Sillcry and St Louis — Flight of

the Huron Indians, ......

De Lauson appointed Governor, 1651, — Iroquois make fierce inroads into

Canada and attack the Eriez or Cat Tribe,
Jesuits establish themselves among the Onondaga Iroquois,
Iroquois make a descent on the isle of Orleans — Their haughty tone to De

Lauson, .......

Total destruction of the Eriez by the Iroquois,

Governor De Argenson arrives at Quebec, 1658— Fresh irruption of the

Iroquois, .......

De Avaugour appointed Governor, 1660 — Deplorable condition of the

colony, ........

Earthquake in Canada, 5th Feb., 1663, ....

3'
31

35
36

37
38

4«
43

; 1

CHAPTER in.

De Mezy appointed Governor, 1663 — The Crown assumes control of the

colony, ......

De Mezy quarrels with the Jesuits, and is recalled.

Governor De Courcelles arrives in Canada, 1664 — Leads an expedition

against the Mohawks, ....
The Mohawk villages destroyed by the Frer ^h,
The French West India Company receives Canada,
Small-pox appears among the Indians,
Count de Frontenac appointed Governor, 1672,
Discovery of the Mississippi;
Expedition of La Salle, ....
He is murdered by his followers, .

CHAPTER IV.

De Frontenac recalled and De la Barre appointed as his successor,

1682,

The Iroquois again commence hostilities, .

De la Barre makes a disgraceful peace with them, and is superseded in

the government by De Denonville,
Number of Iroquois warriors,
Governor Dongan of New York interferes between the Iroquois and the

French, .......

French retaliate by capturing the British posts on Hudson's Bay,

Invasion of the Seneca country by the French,

De Denonville makes a humiliating peace with the Iroquois,

Iroquois lay waste the Island of Montreal — De Frontenac again appointe

Governor, 1689, ......

I""rench and Indians destroy Schenectady and massacre the inhabitants.
Massacre of Salmon Falls, ......

The British colonies determine to invade Canada,

45
46

47
V)
50
SI
52
53
54
55

58
59

60
61
62

66
69
70
72

Contents.

Winthrop retreats from Lake Champlain, .....
Admiral IMiipps \i defcateil at Quebec, ami retreat.H down the St Lawrence

with \m fleet, ....
Iroquois renew their incursions,
Dc Frontcnac marches against the Iroquois, and attacks the < >nondaKa3

and the Oneidas,
Death of De Frontenac— His character, .

PAOB

75
77

79
8 1

CHAPTER V.

Chevalier de Callieres appointed Governor, 1699, .... 82

I'eace established with the Iroquois, ..... K2

Settlement of Detroit— Death of De Callieres, . . . . 8*

The Manpiis de Vaudreuil becomes Governor, 1 7o,v ... 85

Massacre of Haverhill, . . • . ■ . . 87

(jueen Anne determines on the contiuest of Canada, ... 87

Capture of I ort Royal in Nova Scotia, ..... 88

Admiral Walker and General Hill leave Kngland to capture Quebec, . 89
A part of the English fleet lost in the St Lawrence : the remainder returns

to England, ........ 90

Treaty of Utrecht — Newfoundland and Nova Scotia ceded to Great

Britain, ........ 92

Charlevoix comes to Canada — His account of the country, .' . 93

Death of Governor De Vaudreuil-De Beauharnois appointed Governor,

1726, ......... 94

Social condition of Canada, ...... 96

Capture of Louisburg by the militia of Massachusetts, led by William

Pepperell, ........ 99

CHAPTER VL

Count de la Galissoniere becomes Governor — His public measures, 1774,

De la Jonquiere assumes the Government of Canada,

The French encroachments in Nova Scotia,

Abuses in the Government, .....

The Marquis du Quesne appointed Governor — He prepares for war with
Great Britain, 1752, ......

Virginia claims the valley of the Ohio : is resisted by the French,
Washington proceeds to the Ohio valley to prevent French occupation o

He constructs Fort Necessity, where he is besieged by Contrecour and
compelled to surrender, .....

Measures of the British Government, ....

Marquis de Vaudreuil appointed Governor, 1755,

Degraded condition of the Inhabitants, ....

Braddock marches to attack Fort du Quesne : is attacked by the French
and defeated, .......

The British drive the French from the Acadian Isthmus,

Dieskau attacks Sir William Johnson at Lake George, and is defeated,

French and Indians harass the frontier settlements of Pennsylvania,

>03
105
105
108

109
no

1 1.-!

114

116

117

117
119
121
124

Contents.

CHAPTER VII.

France and England declare war against each other— Condition of
Canada, ......

Arrival in Canada of Montcalm — He prepares for war,

Dc Villier attacks Bradstreet near Oswego, and is defeatcil,

Montcalm besieges and takes Oswego,

Lord Loudon prepares to besiege Louisburg,

Montcalm invests Fort William Henry,

Colonel Munroe surrenders,

Massacre of the British garrison by the Indians,

Pitt appoints new general ofiicers, .

Amherst proceeds to capture Louisburg — Wolfe
his brigade, ....

Capture of Louisburg,

Abercromby moves against Ticonderoga, .

Defeat of the British by Montcalm : their retreat,

Bradstreet besieges and captures Fort Frontenac, .

Forbes marches against Fort du Quesne : and captures it,

Amherst appointed commander-in-chief in America by Pitt,

effects a landing with

•25

127
128

129

131
132
133
134

135

136

137

138

139

143
144

'45

CHAPTER Vm.

Plan of the campaign for 1759, .....

Deplorable condition of Canada — Its population, .

General Prideaux advances against Niagara. He is killed, and Sir

William Johnson assumes the command,
The French under De Aubrey attempt to raise the siege, and are defeated,
Amherst moves down Lake Champlain, ....
Pouchot surrenders Fort Niagara, .....
The French abandon Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and retreat to tli

Isle-aux-Noix, .......

Amherst places his army in winter quarters,

Wolfe arrives before Quebec :.....

Establishes his head-quarters at the Montmorency,

Endeavours to force Montcalm's lines below the town : is repulsed.

The British ascend to the Plains of Abraham,

Montcalm begins the battle, .....

The French are defeated, ......

Death of Wolfe, .......

Death of Montcalm, ......

Surrender of Quebec, 1759, . . . .

Great rejoicing in the British colonies, ....

146
147

150
•5'

154
155

155
«56
158
160
161
168
1-0

171

172

'74
175
'75

CHAPTER IX.

Condition of the French in Canada, . . . . • ' 77

De Levi moves from Montreal to besiege Quebec, . . . 1 78

The British, under Murray, are defeated, . . . . . i8o

De Levi commences the siege ; the arrival of reinforcements to the Britisli

compel his retreat, • . . . . . . .181

i
-III

Contents.

Amherst captures the French fort at Ogdensburg,

Capitulation of Montreal, and surrender of Canada to Great Britain,

The British nation arc divided with regard to retaining Canada, .

Death of George II. — George III. desires peace, .

Vast territory ceded to Great Britain, ....

183

184

187
1S8
190

CHAPTER X.

General Murray becomes Governor of Canada, 1763, . . . 192
Government of Canada settled by proclamation ; introduction of English

laws: colonial abuses, ....... 193

Sir Guy Carleton appointed Governor, 1768 — Great fire in Montreal, . 195

The British inhaliitants desire a House of Assembly, . . . 197

Passage of the Quebec Bill, ...... 198

Commencement of the American War of Independence, . . . 20i
The Inhabitants refuse to serve as militia — The Americans advance to-
wards Montreal, ....... 202

Montgomery captures Fort St John, ..... 203

Marches on Montreal : General Carleton retreats to Quebec, . . 204

Montgomery besieges Quebec : his death, . . . . . 205

Succour arrives and the Americans retreat, .... 206

They are driven out of Canada, ...... 209

CHAPTER XI.

General Ilaldimand becomes Governor : his administration is unpopular,

1778.

Settlement of Upper Canada. (1784.) ....

Mr Hamilton becomes Governor, 1785, ....

Lord Dorchester again appointed Governor, 1 786,

Canada at length gets a constitution and is divided into two provinces,

Condition of the country, ......

General Prescott appointed Governor, 1796,

Slavery abolished in Canada. (1803.) ....

Sir James H. Craig assumes the government, 1808,
The Canadian newspaper is suppressed and persons imprisoned, .
Disagreement between the Executive and the Assembly, .
Death of Governor Craig : his character : deceived by other.s,

211

213
214

215
216

220

222

223
226
229
230
230

CHAPTER XII.

Upper Canada from 1791 to 181 1 — Governor Simcoe's administration

begins, ......... 232

First House of Assembly meets : its acts, ..... 233

Simcoe's policy : selects Toronto for his capital, .... 236

Method taken to abolish slavery by the Assembly, . . . 237

Administration of Mr Hunter, 1800, ..... 239

Social and political condition of the province, .... 240

Construction of the Family Compact : poUtical parties in Upper Canada

in 1805, ........ 243

I H

Xll

Contents.

Administration of Mr Gore, l8o6— He attaches himself to the Family

Compact — Second newspaper established, .... 245

Light taxation — Population, &c., ...... 247

General Erock assumes temporary charge of the government, . . 248

. if

CIIArTER XIII.

Causes leading to the second American invasion of Canada, . . 249
Sir George Prevost becomes Governor-in-cliief, . . . .257

War declared by the United States : hostilities commence, . . 25S

Capture of Mackinaw, ....... 259

Hull is defeated and retires on Detroit, ..... 2C0

Surrenders to General Brock, ...... 261

The Americans carry Queenston Heights, ..... 264

Death of General Ikock, ....... 264

Defeat and surrender of Scott to Sheaffe, ..... 265

The Americans defeated : close of the campaign of 181 2, . . 26S

CHAPTER XIV.

War measures of the Canadian Legislatures, .... 270

Proctor defeats the Americans at Frenchtown, . . . .271

Ogdensburg captured by the British, . . . . .272

Toronto is captured for the first time by the Americans, . . .274

Fort George captured by the Americans — Proctor defeats the Americans

in Ohio, ........ 276

Exjcdition against Sackett's Harbour, . . . . .278

The American camp at Stony Creek attacked, .... 2S0

Operations on the Niagara Frontier : Boerstler's force is captured : Black

Rock captured, . . . . . . .281

Operations of the fleets on Lake Ontario, ..... 282

Plattsburg captured : events on Lake Champlain, .... 284

British fleet captured on Lake Erie by Perry, .... 286

Defeat of Proctor ; death of Tecumseh, ..... 2S7

Americans defeated at Chrysler's Farm, ..... 290

Americans defeated at Chateaugay by Canadians, .... 292

Americans burn the town of Niagara and retreat, .... 293

Indignation of the Canadian people, ..... 293

Americans defeated along the Niagara frontier : their towns burned, . 294
Close of the campaign of 1 813, ...... 296

CHAPTER XV.

Measures of the Canadian Legislatures, ..... 298

The Americans are defeated at La Colle Mill, .... 300

Naval operations on Lake Ontario : Oswego taken, . . . 302

England blockades the whole American seaboard, . . . 303

Battle of Chippewa : the British defeated, .... 304

Battle of Lundy's Lane : Americans defeated, .... 307
The British under Drummond besiege Fort Erie, . . .311

Abortive attempt of the Americans to re-capture Mackinaw, . 321

Co7itcnts.

• ••

Xllt

245
247
248

A large part of Maine captured by the Britisli,
Defeat of the British fleet on Lake Champlain,
Termination of the War, .
Depressed condition of the United States,

pAr.B
312

3'4
31S
3'6

249

257
258

259
2C0
261
264
264
265
26S

270
271
272
274

276
278
280

281
2S2
284
286
2S7
290
292
293
293
294
296

298
300
302
303
304
307

3"
321

CHAPTER XVI.

Lower Canada from 181 5 to 1828,
General Drummond's government,
Sir John Sherbroke becomes Governor-in-chief, i8i6,
Papineau is first chosen Speaker of the Assembly,
Government of the Duke of Richmond : his difficulties with the Assembly
1818, .......

Lord Dalhousie becomes Govcrnor-in-chief, 1S20,

Differences between the Houses of the Legislature,

Project of the Union causes public dissatisfaction,

Antagonism between the British and French inhabitants of Lower Canada

False colonial policy of British ministers, .

The French-Canadians petition the Crown,

Prayer of petition sustained by British Commons,

CHAPTER XVH.

Upper Canada from 181 5 to 1825,

General condition of the province,

First agitation against the Clergy Reserves, 181 7,

Robert Gourlay comes to Canada ; his character.

Arbitrary conduct of the Executive,

Sir Peregrine Maitland becomes Lieutenant Governor,

Robert Gourlay is tried for libel and acquitted,

He is driven out of the province, ....

Bishop Strachan enters political life,

I3lographical sketch of Bishop Strachan : .

His position as a clergyman and politician,

Barnabas Bidvvell elected for Lennox and Addington : his biogri

expelled the House, • « • . .

Plan of the Welland Canal by William H. Merritt,
First agitation against Orange processions,
Wm. L. Mackenzie enters public life — First Reform AssemLly,
Agitation on the Alien Bill, ....

Mackenzie's Printing Office wrecked,
Presbyterians claim a share of the Clergy Reserves,
Singular proceedings on the Forsyth petition,
Judge Willis is suspended bj the Lieutenant-Governor,

CHAPTER XVHL

aphy : is

318
3'9

320

321

323
324
326
328
328
333
334
335

337
338
339
340
343
344
345
346
348
348
350

352
356
357
358
361
363
364
364
366

Upper Canada from 1829 to 1S35-
commences, 1829 — Marshall
Assembly,

-Administration of Sir John Colbome
S. Bid well chosen Speaker of the

368

I ii

XIV

Contents.

First agitation for Responsible Government, . . . .

Reconstruction of the Reform Party — The Family Compact displaced

by the Conservative Party, 1 82b to 1 83 1,
Conservative Party have a majority in new Assembly,
Mackenzie is expelled the House, . . . .

Cholera afflicts the province — Emigration, 1832, .
Reformers obtain a majority at the elections — Bidwell again choser

Speaker, .......

Seventh Grievance Report published — Fifty-seven Rectories established.
Sir John Colborne resigns — Sir Francis Head appointed as his successor,

370

373
376
379
381

382
383
384

CHAPTER XIX.

Lower Canada from 1S28 to 1837. — Sir James Kempt becomes Govemor-
in-chief, 1828 — The financial disputes still continue between the

Assembly and the Executive, ..... 385

Lord Aylmer becomes Governor-in-chief, 1830, .... 3S7

Imperial Duties surrendered to the Assembly, .... 388

Lord Stanley refuses an elective Legislative Council, . . . 389
House of Commons' committee report unfavourably to the demands of the

Papineau Party, . . . .. . . .391

Disordered condition of the province, . ' . . . . 392

Lord Gosford becomes Governorin-chief — He opens Parliament with a

conciliatory speech — Proceedings of the Gosford commission, 1835, 393

The Papineau faction aim at total independence of Great Britain, . 395

Assembly grants a Supply Bill for six months, .... 396

State of public feeling — alarm, . .... 399

Coercive measures of British Commons, ..... 400

House of Assembly refuse to transact business — Conduct of the Roman

Catholic clergy, ...... 400

)

CHAPTER XX.

Causes leading to the Lower Canadian Rebellion, .... 402

Centralisation policy of English Parliament, .... 403

Errors of British colonial policy, ...... 404

Condition of Lower Canada before the Conquest, .... 405

Habitants unfit to exercise the franchise, ..... 407

Results of the difference of race, ...... 408

Non-progressive character of the Habitants, .... 410

Union the true policy of united Canada, ..... 413

If pursued, our nationality must become aggressive. — Character of

Papineau, ........ 413

Military condition of the Canadas before the rebellion, . . . 414

Affray with the Sons of Liberty in Montreal, .... 416

Rebellion commences in Lower Canada — Attack on cavalry by the

Habitants, . . . . . . . .417

Battle of St Denis — Gore defeated by Nelson — Murder of Lieutenant Weir, 418

Wetheral attacks St Charles — Rebels defeated, .... 420

Sir John Colborne attacks St Eustache, ..... 421

Contents.

Government of the Earl of Durham, i S38, ....
Lord Durham banishes principal rebels to Bermuda— Is censured by Ini

j)erial Parliament — Resigns, .....
Government of Sir John Colbome, 183S — The second rebellion begins,
The Insurgents are defeated at La Colle Mill,
Nelson (Robert) defeated at Odclltown, ....
The Glengary men move on Beauharnois — Rebellion ends in Lower

Canada, ........

rACB

424

42s
426

427
428

429

CHAPTER XXL

Upper Canada from 1836 to 1838 — Sir Francis Head becomes Lieutenant

Governor :,.,....
His own account of his governmental fitness ;
Results of interview with Bidwell and Mackenzie :
His singular administrative policy : .

He dissolves Parliament — Reform P.arty defeated at General Election,
Sir F. B. Head is directed to carry out responsible government — he refuses
Commercial crisis in the United States and Canada,
Troops withdrawn from Upper Canada, ,
Rebellion commences — Mackenzie threatens Toronto,
Mackenzie's narrative of attempt rgainst Toronto, .
Sir F. B. Head's statement of attack on Gallows Hill,
The loyal militia march to save Toronto, .
Van Rensselaer occupies Navy Island,
Destruction of the Steamer Caroline,
The Patriots under Sutherland threaten Amherstburg,
The Schooner Anne captured by militia.
Patriots driven from Point Pelee Island,
Administration of Sir George Arthur begins.
Burning and plunder of the Sir Robert Peel,
Affair with Patriot robbers at the Short Hills,
Patriots under Von Schultz move against Prescott,
Are defeated and captured, ....
Patriots are defeated at Sandwich — Prince orders prisoners to be shot.
End of rebellion in Upper Canada — Character of Mackenzie,

4.?'
432
433
434
440

442
443
445
447
448

452
453
455
456
457
458
461
461

463
464

465
466
467
469

CHAPTER XXII.

Military strength of the Canadas, .....

Depressed financial condition of Upper Canada,

Lord Sydenham becomes Governor-General : . . .

Hia manly and straightforward policy, . - . .

The Special Council of Lower Canada consents to the Union,

Lord Sydenham's letter to Lord Russell : .

His speech opening Upper Canada Legislature,

His difficulties — Message to the Legislature on the Union,

The Legislative Council agrees to the Union— Resolutions of the Assep^.bly,

The Assembly's address to the Queen, ....

Epitome of the Union Bill, ...,,.

471
t73

474
476

477
478

480

482

4S5
487

489

XVI

Contents.

CHAPTER XXIII.

Government of Lord Sydenham continued —Settlement of the Clergy

Reserves' question— Responsible Government established,
Brock's monument shattered by gunpowder : great meeting beside it,
With Sir George Arthur ends the Lieutenant-Governorship of Upper

Canada — The Legislature assembles at Kingston,
Death of Lord Sydenham : his character, ....
Sir Charles Bagot becomes Governor-General : .
He forms his ministry from the Reform Party,
Lord Metcalfe becomes Governor-General : he leans to the Conservative

Party : Reform ministry resign, ....

Lord Metcalfe forms a Conservative ministry — Great Fire at Quebec

Result of general election, . . . - .

Government of the Earl of Cathcart — Proceedings with regard to Rebellion

— Losses in Lower Canada, .....

Amount of claims made to commissioners — Lord Elgin becomes Governor-
General, .......

Reformers obtain a majority at general election,

Baldwin and Lafontaine form a ministry — Rebellion Losses Bill introduced

into the Assembly, ......

Great agitation regarding this Bill — Annexation to United States advo

cated — Bill passes Legislature, ....

Great riots in Montreal — destruction of the Parliament House — flightof the

members, .......

Mob attack several dwellings, .....

Lord Elgin is attacked — his carriage broken.

Seat of government removed to Toronto — Rebellion Losses Bill sustained

in England, .......

Agitation subsides — condition of the country,

492
493

494
495
497
497

499
500

SOI

502
505

505
506

507
510
511

512

513

CHAPTER XXIV.

Measures with regard to Reciprocity — Clergy Reserves' Agitation — Clear

Grits, . . . . . . . . .514

Constmction of Railroads — Postal improvements — Mr Baldwin resigns, 515
Prosperous condition of the Canadas — F6te to Canadians at Boston —

General election — Ministerial changes, .... 516

Great Fire at Montreal — The Legislature assembles at Quebec — Recipro-
city agitation, ........ 518

Period between 1852 and 1855 : all the great public questions settled, . 519

Termination of Lord Elgin's administration, .... 530

CHAPTER XXV.

The Government of Sir Edmund W. Head : .... 531
His origin, and the causes which led to his elevation, . . -53'

The Canadian contribution to the Patriotic Fund, . . . 532

State of affairs at the close of the Session of 1855, . . . 532
The adoption of the principle of Free Trade largely increases the commer-

mercial prosperity of the country, ..... 533

Contents.

xvii

Sketch of Mr George Brown ......

His favour witli the Reform Party, ....

Defeat of the Ministry on Mr Cameron's motion, .

Resi{,'nation of Sir Allan M 'Nab as Premier,

The Attorney-General, Mr John A. Macdonald, becomes leader of the

Conservatives, .......

The first railway accident in Canada, ....

Destruction of the ^W'/z/na/ steamer by fire, and loss of 250 lives,

Abandonment of the "double-majority" principle,

First appearance in Pariiatnent of Thomas D'Arcy M'Ghee,

Agitation produced by the abandonment of the "double-majority" prin

ciple, .......;

Ottawa selected as the seat of the Provincial Government,

The opposition oppose this, and defeat tiie Ministry on the subject,

Mr Brown forms a new administration, which is compelled to resign,

Mr John Gait rei[uestcd to form another, but declines,

A new Cabinet is formed by Mr Cartier, ....

Intense bitterness of party-spirit on the subject,

Death of Mr Robert Baldwin, the Nestor of Canadian reform,

State of Canada at the close of 1859, ....

Opening of the session of i860 — conduct of the opposition on the Union

question, .......

Vi.iit of ihe Prince of Wales : his entbusi.istic reception and progress,
Case of the fugitive slave Anderson, ....

Outbreak of the rebellion in the United States,

The census of i860 shows a large increase in the population.

Death of William Lyon Mackenzie, ....

Sir Edmund Head ceases to be Governor-General, . .

rAOi

534

535
536
537

537
S3«
539
540
54'

542
543
544
544
545
546
547
54»
549

550
552
553
554
555
556
557

CHAPTER XXVI.

The government of Lord Monck, ...... 558

The affair of the 7w/^— Canadian feeling towards the United Sia'^es, . 558

Opening of the session of 1862, ...... 559

The Macdonald-Carlier administration defeated on the Militia Bill, . 561

Deathof Sir AU.in M'Nab, ...... 562

Prosperous condition of the agricultural community, . . . 563

Opening of the session of 1S63 — defeat of the .Ministry — dissolution of

Parliament, ........ 564

Meeting of the new Parliament, ...... 566

Financial condition of the country, ..... 567

Faction fights and their results, ...... 568

Adoption of the "joint-authority" scheme, .... 570

F'ormation of a short coalition government, .... 571

Relations of the country with the United States, .... 572

Proposed confederation of the North American States, . . . 57J

CHAPTER XXVH.

Opening of the se.-sion of 1S65— debate on the subject of confedera-
tion. 575

XVIU

Contents.

Progress of the American Rebellion,

Great fire at Quebec, . , , •

General condition of the country, .

Termination of the Reciprocity Treaty, and its results,

Origin and rise of Fenianism,

Programme of the Fenian leaders :

They invade Canada : . . . .

Are baffled and driven out of it:

The American government issue a manifesto against them,

The Legislature assemble in the new buildings at Ottawa,

Mr Gait's new Tariff, .....

Another great fire at Quebec— Trials of the captured Fenians,

Completion of the great project of confederation,

576

579
580

581

582

5»4
586
5S6

587

588

589

CHAPTER XXVIII.

The dominion of Canada :
Its population and religious denominations.
Geographical extent.
Maritime resources,
Railway statistics.
Public debt,
Volunteer forces,
Educational statistics.
Commerce and trade.
Social condition,
Constitution of the dominion of Canada,
Provincial constitutions,
Distriljution of legislative powers.
Powers of tlie general Parliament,
Exclusive powers of provincial or local legislatures.

Education, . . . .

Uniformity of laws in Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New
wick, ....

Agriculture and immigration,

Judicature,

Revenues — debts — assets— taxation,

Admission of other colunie.s,

Eruns-

590
590

592
593
593
596
597
598

599
602
605
606
607
607
608
609

609
609
609
610

612

INTRODUCTION.

THE discovery of America revealed to the wondering
gaze of civilised humanity a people in the rudest and
most priyiitivc condition.* The annals of the Old World
had no corresponding spectacle to present. Even the earliest
philosophers of Greece and Rome have not left a single fact
on record as evidence of an acquaintance with any portion of
the human family in the primal stages of existence. In
every region within the sphere of their observation society
had already made considerable progress ; and the several
nations of their day had long before emerged from the social
dimness and historical uncertainties which belong to a first
condition. The Scythians and Germans, the barbarians of
antiquity, were acquainted with the useful metals ; possessed
flocks and herds, and other property of various descriptions ;
and when compared with the aborigines of this continent, had
already attained to a high degree of civilisation.

In some instances the red man appeared in the rudest state
in which it is possible for our species to exist. Accompanied
solely by his wife and children, he roamed, like a beast of
prey, through the forests and over the savannas of South

* In the New World the state of mankind was ruder and the aspect of nature
extremely different. Throughout all its vast regions there were only two mon-
archies remarkable for extent of territory, or distinguished by any progress in
improvement. The rest of this continent was possessed by small independent
tribes, destitute of arts and industry, and neither capable to correct the defects nor
desirous to meliorate the condition of that part of the earth allotted to them for
their habitation. Countries occupied by such people were almost in the same
state as if they had been without inhabitants.— AW'. Aiiier. vol. i. p. 126.

< V i

I I

;vl

\h\

Introduction.

America, subjected to no restraints but those imposed by the
imperious necessities of his condition, or the caprices of his
own will ; and revelling in that primeval simplicity which, in
the other continents, was known only by the imaginary de-
scriptions of the poet.* In other instances his wants were
compelling him to seek a closer union with his fellow-man,
and accordingly communities were beheld in the first process
of formation. In Brazil, \\\ Tierra Firme, and Paraguay,
many of the ruder tribes were unacquainted with every
description of cultivation. They neither sowed nor reaped ;
and lived upon the spontaneous productions of the soil, the
fruits and berries which they found in the woods, the pro-
ducts of their teeming rivers, and the lizards and other
reptiles so numerous in those warm and prolific regions.

The Iroquois, •}• the Algonquins, the Ilurons, and the other
principal North American tribes, occupied a point in social
progress as far in advance of these barbarous natives of the
South as it was inferior to the condition of the Mexicans and
Peruvians. They cultivated maize and a few vegetables,
lived in villages, had made some progress in two or three of
the more necessary arts of life, and recognised certain fixed
principles of public policy in their intercourse with other
tribes.

When Canada was first discovered by the French, the
Algonquins and the liuronsj held chief sway within its
limits. T\\& territory of the former extended along both
banks of the St Lawrence as high as Cornwall, and also
embraced the district watered by the Lower Ottawa. They

* Man, in some parts of America, appears in a form so rude that we can dis-
cover no effects of liis activity, and the principle of vnderstanding, which should
direct it, seems hardly to he unfolded. Like all other animals, he has no fixed
residence ; he has erected no habitation to shelter him from the inclemency of the
weather ; he has taken no measures' for securing certain subsistence ; he neither
sows nor reaps ; but roams about as led in search of the plants and fruits which
the earth brings forth in succession ; and in quest of game which he kills in the
forest, or of the fish which he catches in the rivers. — Rob. Amcr. vol. i. p. 152.

t The Iroquois or Five Nations occupied the greater part of the state of New
York, and were the bitterest enemies of the French, as well as of the Canadian
Indians.

:J: This tribe were frequently called Wyandots.

Introduction,

XXI

scd by the
ices of his
' which, in
ginary de-
cants were
jUow-man,
rst process
Paraguay,
vith every
Dr reaped ;
le soil, tlie
s, the pro-

and other
Tions.

d the other
it in social
:ives of the
:xicans and
vegetables,
or three of

tain fixed
with other

rench, the
within its
ong both
and also
wa. They

at we can dis-
which should
e has no fixed
emency of the
he neither
d fruits which
le kills in the

i. p. 152.
; state of New
the Canadian

were a bold and warlike race, subsisting principally by the
chase, for which the vast forests of the North afforded the
most ample scope, and were reputed to be more advanced in
their public policy and in general intelligence than any of the
neighbouring tribes.* The Iliu-ons occupied the left bank of
the Upper St Lawrence and the northern shore of Lake
Ontario. Their close alliance, however, with the Algonquins,
induced them frequently to establish themselves lower down
the river ; and in 1534 Cartier met with them at Anticosti
and the Bay of Chaleur.f At Ilochelaga he found them
occupying a well-defended and populous village. Regarding
the chase as a precarious mode of subsistence, they did not,
like the Algonquins, disdain the cultivation of the soil, and
partially devoted themselves to agricultural pursuits, from
which, imperfect as their mode of tillage was, the fertile glebe
and favourable climate of Western Canada usually enabled
them to reap a most abundant return. | A few unimportant

* Coldcn.

+ Wlien the tribes were all settled, the Wyaiulots were placed at the head.
'I'licy lived in the interior, at the niuuntains east, about the St Lawrence. They
were the first tribe of old, and had the first chieftainship. The chief said to their
nephew, the Lenapees, Go down to the sea-coast and look, and if you see any-
thinj^, bring me word. They had a village near the sea-side, and often looked,
but saw nothing except birds. At length they espied an object, which seemed to
grow, and conic nearer and nearer. When it came near the land it stopped, but
all the people were afraid, and fled to the woods. The next day two of their
number ventured out to look. It was lying (piietly on the water. A smaller
object of the same sort came out of it, and walked with long legs (oars) over the
water. When it came to land two men came out of it. They were different from
us, and made signs for the others to come out of the woods, A conference ensued.
Presents were exchanged. They gave presents to the Lenapees, and the latter
gave them their skin clothes as curiosities. — Schoolcraft, p. 199.

X As the country was thinly inhabited, and by a people of little industry, who
had none of the domestic animals which civilised nations rear in such vast numbers,
the earth was not exhausted by their consumption. The vegetable productions, to
which the fertility of the soil gave birth, often remained untouched, and being
suffered to corrupt on its surface, returned with increase into its bosom. As trees
and plants derive a great part of their nourishment from air and water, if they were
not destroyed by man or other animals, they would render to the earth more,
perhaps, than they take from it, and feed rather than impoverish it. Thus the
unoccupied soil of America may have gone on enriching for many ages. The vast
number, as well as enormous size, of the trees in America, indicate the extraor-
dinary vigour of the soil in its native state. When the Europeans first began to
cultivate the New World, they were astonished at the luxuriant power of vegeta-

Ill

xxii

Iniroduclion.

tribes, or rather clans, were scattered over the remaininn; por-
tions of the country ; but all these, like the Xipissings, were
merely off-shoots of the Algonquin and Huron races, and
spokx" their language. No data exist on which to base any-
thing approximating to a correct estimate of the population
of Canada at this period ; but it certainly did not exceed fifty
thousand souls. These were scattered here and there over
the vast area extending from Gaspe to Goderich, which could
easily sustain a population of twenty millions, and which is
now peopled by nearly three millions of inhabitants,*

The history of the Canadian Indians, prior to the arrival
of the French amongst them, is shrouded in the deepest
obscurity. In this respect they resembled the other Northern
tribes, whose numerous wars and frequent migrations hail
effectually neutralised whatever benefits, in a historical point
of view, they might have derived from their knowledge of
pictorial writing.f Unlike the Aztecs and Peruvians, who,
from memorials of this kind, could give a correct outline of

tion in its virgin mould ; and in several places the in<Tenuity of llie jilaiUor is still
employed in diminishing and wasting its superfluous fertility, in order to bring it
down to a fit state for profitable culture. — Rob. vol. i. p. 129. Charlevoix, History
Nno France, vol. iii. p. 405.

* While hunting is tlie chief source of subsistence, a vast extent of territory is
requisite for supporting a small number of people. In proportion as men multiply
and unite, the wild animals on which they depend for food diminish, cr fly to a
greater distance from the haunts of the enemy. The increase of a society in this
state is limited by its own nature, and the members of it must either disperse, like
the game which they pursue, or fall upon some better method of procuring food
than by hunting. Beasts of prey are by nature solitary and unsocial ; they go not
forth to the chase in herds, but delight in those recesses of the forest where they
can roam and destroy undisturbed. A nation of hunters resembles them both in
occupation and in genius. They cannot form into large communitii-s, because it
would be impossible to find subsistence ; and they must drive to a distance every
rival, who may encroach on those domains, which they consider as their own.
This was the state of all the American tribes ; the numbers in each were incon-
siderable, though scattered over countries of great extent ; they were far removed
from one another, and eng.aged in perpetual hostilities or rivalship. In America,
the word nation is not of the same import as in other parts of the globe. It is
applied to small societies, not exceeding, perhaps, two or three hundred persons,
but occupying provinces greater than some kingdoms in Europe. — Marcst's
Letters, vol. ii. p. 360.

t The Iroquois and Ilurons made hieroglyphic paintings on wood, which bear
a strong resemblance to th.ose of the Mexicans. — La Hinton, p. 193. Schoolcraft
also alludes to the pictorial writing of the Canadian Indians.

Introduction.

xxiu

their histories for several centuries, the Canadians possessed
only a few nieac;re traditions and crude reminiscences of the
past, equally unreliable, and unworthy of serious attention.
Their social condition was in accordance with the rude state
of mental culture which these facts bespeak. Their weapons
of war, and of the chase, were a hatchet of stone, a knife of
bone, the bow, and its flint-headed arrow. Their culinary
utensils were restricted to a coarse description of pottery, and
rou^h wooden vessels, which, on the arrival of the French
traders, were speedily superseded by the more portable and
convenient brass or iron kettle. Their agricultural imple-
ments were equally primitive. Patches of forest were occa-
sionally cleared by the united efforts of a tribe or clan, who
felled the trees with their light stone hatchets, at an enor-
mous sacrifice of time and labour;* and months passed over
in producing results, which are now exceeded by a single
backwoodsman in as many days. This duty devolved on the
men, who only performed it when absolutely necessary to
their subsistence, after they had exhausted the open glades
of the forest by continual cropping. To the women and chil-
dren the proud and indolent savage left the labour of slightly
loosening the rich loam with hoes roughly made of wood,
or stakes hardened in the fire ; of sowing the crop of maixe,
and the few vegetables with which they were acquainted ;

* All the savajjc tribes, scatteretl over the continent and islands, were totally
unacquainted with the metals, which their soil produces in great abundance, if we
except some triflinfr quantity of gold which they picked up in the torrents that
descended from their mountains, and formed into ornaments. Their devices to
supply this want of the serviceable metals were extremely rude and awkward.
The most simple operation was to them an undertaking of immense difficulty and
labour. To fell a tree with no other instruments than hatchets of stone was em-
ployment for a month. To form a canoe into shape, and to hollow it, consumed
years, and it frequently began to rot before they were able to finish it. 'J'heir
operations in ajjriculture were equally slow and defective. In a country covered
with woods of the hardest timber, the clearing of a small field destined for cul-
ture required the united efforts of a trilie, and was a work of much time and great
toil. This was the business of the men, and their indolence was satisfied with
performing it in a very slovenly manner. The labour of cultivation was left to
the women, who, after digging, or rather stirring the field with wooden mattocks,
and stakes hardened in the fire, sowed or planted it ; but they were more indebted
for the increase to the fertility of the soil than to their own rude industry. — Rob,
Avier. vol. i. p. i6o.

XXIV

Introduction.

of freeing these from weeds ; of harvesting and storing them
in pits dug in the earth, to protect them from the winter
frosts, the wild animals of the forest, and, not infrequently,
from their own improvident husbands or fathers.* With
wheat, and the other cereal grains, the American Indian was
wholly unacquainted ; and, aside from the products of the
chase, and the fruits of his fishing labours, maize constituted
his principal article of food. Although vast herds of buffa-
loes traversed lae prairies and forests of his native land, his
knowledge, unlike that of the aboriginal of Ilindostan, had
not taught him to use them for the purposes of the dairy,
nor subdue them to the labours of the field. Of the horse
he was wholly ignorant ; and not even the dog submitted to
his intelligence, or rendered him the smallest service in the
dangers of the chase, or in his frequent forays on the terri-
tories of his foes.

While in a primitive condition, the wants and desires of
mankind are few and simple in their character. Protection
from the weather, a sufficiency of food, and safety from ene-
mies, constitute the chief objects of existence. In summer,
the tough bark of the birch-tree enabled the Indian to erect,
entirely to his satisfaction, a dwelling by the side of some
pleasant stream or grateful forest glade. In winter this was
exchanged, by the more provident, for a hut substantially
constructed of earth and wood, and which was frequently

■ t

'I:

* Their houses arc smaller in the summer, when their families be dispersed liy
reason of heate and occasions. In winter they make some fiftie or tlireescore
foote long, fortie or fiflie men being inmates under one roofe ; and as is their
husband's occasion, these poor taconists are often troubled, like snails, to carrie
their houses on their backs, sometimes to fishing j)laces, other times to hunting
places, after that to a planting place, where it abides the longest ; another work
is their planting of corne, wherein they exceed our Euglish husbandmen, keeping
it so cleare with their clamme shell hoes, as if it were a garden rather than a
corne-field, not suffering a choaking wcede to advance his audacious head above
their infant corne, or an undemiining worme to spoile his spurnes. Their corne
being ripe, they gather it, and, drying it hard in the sunne, conveigh it to their
barnes, which be great holes digged in the ground in forme of a brass ]iot, sealed
with rinds of trees, wherein they put their corne, covering it from the inquisitive
search of their gurmandising husbands, who would eatc up both their allowed
portion and reserved seede, if they knew where to find it. — New England Pros-

'^*™p

Introduction.

XXV

:oring them
tlic winter
ifrequcntly,
rs.* With
Indian was
Licts of the
constitutcc'.
s of buffa-
'C land, his
iostan, had
the dairy,
'f the horse
ibmittcd to
"vice in the
!i the terri-

desires of
Protection
' from ene-
n summer,
m to erect,
e of some
}r this was
bstantially
frequently

: dispersed by
or tlirccscore
id as is their
lails, to Carrie
:s to IniiUing
anotlicr work
men, keeping
ratlier than a
s liead above
Their come
^di it to their
s pot, sealed
!ic inquisitive
heir allowed
'Inland Pros-

occupicd in common by several families. The skins of the
beaver, the fox, the marten, the bufQilo, and the deer, which
fell victims to his skill or courage in the chase, after under-
going a simple yet effectual process of tanning, were readily
converted into garments such as he required.* In ordinary
seasons his exertions as a hunter, and the labours of his wife
and children, supplied him with abundance of wholesome
and nutritious food ; but his improvident and indolent habits
usually prevented him from making provision for seasons of
deficiency in his patch of maize, or of an unusual scarcity of
game. Hence, he occasionally experienced periods of great
distress, and, after devouring the carcasses of the dead ani-
mals which cliance threw in his way, the skins he had accu-
mulated for clothing or traffic, and everything around him
capable of sustaining life, he became the victim of starvation
in its most protracted and direst form.

Like the other natives of North America, the peculiar con-
dition of the Canadian Indian gave a colouring to his religious
tenets. He believed indeed in a future state ; but did not,
like the Christian, regard it as a heaven of rest, or an eternity
of punishment. It was simply with him another experi-
mental world, peopled with the souls of animals as well as
men, in which the Great Spirit would be alike merciful to all,
irrespective of their conduct in this life.f After death the soul

* Their intercourse with Europeans soon tnuf,dit the Indians that il was more
profitable to exchange their furs for clothing, powder, (S:c.

t They believe, at least to some extent, in a duality of souls, one of which is
fleshly, or corporeal, the other is incorporeal or mental. The fleshly soul goes
immediately, at death, to the land of spirits or future bliss. The mental soul
abides with the body, and hovers round the place of sepulture. A future state is
regarded by them as a state of rewards, and not of future punishments. They
expect to inhabit a paradise filled with pleasures for the eye, and the ear, and the
taste. A strong and universal belief in divine mercies absorbs every other attri-
bute of the Great Spirit, except His power and ubiquity ; and they believe, so far
as we can gather it, that His mercy will be shown to all. There is not, in general,
a very discriminating sense of moral distinctions and responsibilities, and the faint
out-shadowings, which we sometimes hear among them, of a deep and sombre
stream to be crossed by the adventurous soul, in its way to the land of bliss, does
not exercise such a practical influence over their lives as to interfere with the be-
lief of universal acceptance after death. So firm is this belief, that their most
reverend term for the Great Spirit, is Gezba Monedo, that is to say. Merciful
Spirit. Gitchy Monedo, which is also employed, is often an equivocal phrase.

' I

XXVI

Introdztction.

ill

was still supposed to experience all the necessities of a cor-
poreal existence. It hungered, and food must be deposited
on the grave: it suffered from cold, and the body of the de-
parted must be wrapped in clothes : it was in darkness, and
a light must be kindled by its resting-place. The spirit
wandered over tedious plains, paddled its bark-canoe across
mighty rivers, and traversed the pathless forest in search of
the paradise of happy hunting grounds, where it arrived at
length to find game in abundance, and freedom from the
privations of hunger and cold, which had beset it in the
body.*

Although debased by superstition, a degrading deference
to his priest or medicine man, a mythological faith in his
manicou, and numerous other inferior deities,f the Indian

! \

The term Wazheaud, or Maker, is used to designate the Creator, when speaking
of His animated works. The compound phrase Waosemigoyan, or Universal
Father, is also heard. — School, p. 204.

* With respect to the other great doctrine of religion concerning the immor-
tality of the soul, the sentiments of the Americans were more united ; th. human
mind, even when least improved and invigorated by culture, shrinks from the
thoughts of annihilation, and looks forward with hope and expectation to a state
of future existence. This sentiment, resulting from a secret consciousness of its
own dignity, from an instinctive longing after immortality, is universal, and may
be deemed natural. Upon this are founded the most exalted hopes of man in his
highest state of improvement ; nor has nature withheld from him this soothing
consolation in the most early and rude period of his progress. We can trace this
opinion from one extremity of America to the other, in some regions more faint
and obscure, in others more perfectly developed, but nowhere unknown. The
most uncivilised of its savage tribes do not apprehend death as the extinction of
being. All entertain hopes of a future and more happy state, where they shall be
for ever exempt from the calamities which embitter human life in its present con-
dition. This future state they conceive to be a delightful country, blessed with
perpetual spring, whose forests abound with game, whose rivers swarm with fish,
where famine is never felt, and uninterrupted plenty shall be enjoyed without
labour or toil. But as men, in forming their first imperfect ideas concerning the
invisible world, suppose that there they shall continue to feel the same desires,
and to be engaged in the same occupations, as in the present world, they natur-
ally ascribe eminence and distinction in that state to the same qualities and
talents which are here objects of their esteem. — Rob. vol. i. p. 183.

+ Rob. Amer. vol. i. p. 184; Charl. N. F. vol. iii. p. 422.

Whenever men acknowledge the reality of supernatural power and discernment
in one instance, they have a propensity to admit it in others. The Americans did
not long suppose the efficacy of conjuration to be confined to one subject. They
had recourse to it in every situation of danger or distress. When the events of
war were peculiarly disastrous, when they met with unforeseen disappointment in

Introduction.

xxvu

firmly believed in the existence of a Supreme Being, or Great
Spirit, as he termed him, who made the heavens, and all
material things by the power of his will. He next created
animals and man out of the earth, and subsequently two
spirits, a good and evil one, who continually strove for
mastery. These, in the characters attributed to them by
the Indian, closely resembled the Ariman and Hormuzd of
the Guebre creed, as well as the Shiva and Vishnu of Hin-
duism. The idea embodied in this belief might be said, in
fact, to constitute the groundwork of his religion, his sacri-
fices, and his worship. He endeavoured continually to ap-
pease the evil spirit — to disarm its malignant tendencies. He
was persuaded that his good deities, prompted by the bene-
ficence of their natures, would bestow every blessing in their
gift without solicitation or acknowledgment. Hence, his
only anxiety was to soothe and deprecate the wrath of those
powers, whom he regarded as the enemies of mankind.* An-
tagonistic as a belief of this kind is to the pure genius of
Christianity, it merits nevertheless the closest attention of

hunting, when inundations or drouglit threatened their crops with destruction,
they called upon their conjurors to begin their incantations, in order to discover
the causes of those calamities, or to foretell what would be their issue. Their con-
fidence in this delusive art gradually increased, and manifested itself in all the
occurrences of life. When involved in any difficulty, or about to enter upon any
transaction of moment, every individual regularly consulted the sorcerer, and
depended upon his instructions to extricate him from the former, as well as to
direct his conduct in the latter. Even among the rudest tribes in America,
superstition appears in this form, and divination is an art in high esteem. Long
before man had acquired such knowledge of the Deity as inspires reverence and
leads to adoration, we observe him stretching out a presumptuous hand to draw
aside that veil with which Providence kindly conceals its purposes from human
knowledge ; and we find him labouring with fruitless anxiety to penetrate into
the mysteries of the divine administration. To discern and to worship a super-
intending power is an evidence of the enlargement and maturity of the human
understanding; a vain desire of prying into futurity is the error of its infancy,
and a proof of its weakness.

From this weakness likewise proceeded the faith of the Americans in dreams,
their observation of omens, their attention to the chirping of birds, and the cries
of animals, all which they suppose to be indications of future events; and if any
one of these prognostics is deemed unfavourable, they instantly abandon the pur-
suit of those measures on which they are most eagerly bent. — Rob, Amer. vol. i.
p. I8S.

* Ibid. p. 182.

XXVlll

Introduction.

'k-

' ii

fri I*

j I ifi;^

■'■'lifi'

II'.:

.■I f

!:i.'

the philosopher. Amid all his wars and wanderings the dim
traditions of a creation, and of a general deluge, were per-
petuated from generation to generation by the Indian, who,
separated from his fellow-man from remotest time, bears, like
the silent ruins of Nineveh, in this very knowledge, most im-
portant testimony to the truths of Holy Writ, and the folly
of the sceptic's theories and deductions.

The political condition of the North American Indians was
democratic in the extreme. Possessing their hunting grounds
in common, and accustomed to divide their stores of provi-
sions with one another when pressed for food, the distinctions
arising from inequality of possessions were unknown amongst
them. Their greatest chief and meanest warrior were on a
par in point of landed property. Their huts were con-
structed alike, and furnished in the same rude manner : their
weapons were precisely similar : to the river and the forest
they had equal claims. Exulting in their freedom, they ac-
knowledged no superiority but that arising from personal
prowess or superior intelligence. When they found it neces-
sary to attack an enemy, the warrior of the most approved
courage led them to the combat : in the chase, the hunter of
the greatest experience directed their motions : in the coun-
cil lodge, the most eloquent orator swayed their decisions.*
During periods of tranquillity, all superiority ceased : the
entire community occupied the same position, and scarcely
seemed to feel the ties of political union. Destitute of any
form of local government, they knew nothing of the duties of
the magistrate, and were left at liberty to follow the dictates
of individual inclination ; without questions of property to
decide, or suits to institute, they had no occasion for the
services of the lawyer. If any scheme of public utility was
fioposed, each member of the community adopted it, and
aided in its execution, or otherwise, as he deemed proper.
Nothing was compulsory with him : all his resolutions were
voluntary, and flowed from the impulse of his own mind.

It does not appear that even the first step had been taken,
among either the Algonquins or the Hurons, towards the
* War. Con. of Can. vol. i. p. 175.

.inn

Introduction.

XXIX

establishment of a public jurisdiction. In the extreme case
of murder, the right of vengeance belonged to the friends of
the party slain, and not to the community. Their resentment
was usually implacable, and not infrequently transmitted
from father to son for generations. The instinct of self-
defence, one of the first aroused in the human breast, evi-
dently was the great bond of union. They united in com-
munities, and obeyed the authority of a leader in time of war,
simply because such a course was necessary for personal
safety and the protection of their hunting grounds.*

Like the other aborigines of America, the Canadian, when
thoroughly aroused, displayed all the fierceness characteristic
of the savage. Cruel and unrelenting in warfare, the remem-
brance of his massacres still lingers over many a neighbour-
hood in the New England States. His murders alike of old
and young, his cruel treatment of his prisoners, his partial
cannibalism, are too generally known to require more than a
passing notice in this brief introductory sketch. But, if the
Canadian Indian possessed the vices of the savage, he also
inherited his virtues in an eminent degree. Bold in war, skil-
ful in the chase, eloquent at the council-fire, and thoroughly
independent, he was capable of acting on many occasions
with great force and dignity. At the same time he was
sincerely attached to his tribe : the Algonquins especially
evinced the most chivalric spirit touching the preservation of
its honour, and frequently braved the greatest dangers, and

* Hunting on their grounds without leave, robbery, and personal violence, are
the motives to an Indian war. Bufore they set out on their expeditions, a feast
on dogs' flesh is generally prepared, wliicli is invariably followed by the war
dance. Then the chiefs recite the glorious achievements of the forefathers of the
young warriors, to excite their valour, after which they paint themselves with
Vermillion in the most frightful manner. The route they are to pursue is usually
traced on a piece of the bark of a tree. Tiieir conduct of their wars is certainly
not calculated to admit of their taking many prisoners, for instead of marching
in strong parties, they often go out singly and surprise the foe, whom they kill
and scalp. If the prisoners are unable to march, or dangerous by their numbers,
they are destroyed. Such as are brought into a state of safety, they generally
adopt as their own children. They are almost universally brave, and meet death
with heroic firmness. Intolerable contempt is the sure consequence of jjusilla-
nimity.— .S'w////,f His. Can. vol. i. p. 47; Char. N. F. vol. iii. p. 266, 467,
469.

XXX

Introduction,

endured the most excruciating torments without a groan,
that it might not be disgraced.

The gentler affections, too, exercised a much more power-
ful influence among the Indians of Canada than has beeii
generally supposed. They were strongly attached to their
children, treated their parents in many instances with tender-
ness,* and had a profound veneration for their dead. The
ties of relationship were respected and acknowledged, and in
some cases accurately traced for generations. The relation
of husband and wife was clearly understood and well defined,
and polygamy, although permitted by custom, was rarely
practised.

Such were the prominent characteristics of the tribes who
once held possession of this country. But a few generations
have since passed away, and flourishing cities, and towns
and villages, and thousands of happy homesteads occupy
those districts where they chr.sed the deer and trapped the
beaver in the silent depths of the primeval forest. Instead
of the war-whoop of the Algonquin or the Huron, the church
bell now swells out on the vesper breeze, and the silence of
the wilderness has given place to the matin song of the milk-
maid and the blithesome whistle of the ploughman. A poor
and thinly-scattered community of improvident savages has
been succeeded by an orderly, industrious, and enterprising
people, whose genius and resources embody all the germs of
a great nation. With a commercial credit as sound as the

a ',.

* There lived a noted chief at Michilimackinac, in days past called Gitsli Nay-
gow, or the Great-Sand-Dune, a name, or rather a nickname, which he had,
probably, derived from his birth and early residence at a spot of very imposing
appearance, so called, on the southern shore of Lake Superior, which is east of the
range of the Pictured Rocks. He was a Chippewa, a warrior and a councillor of
that tribe, and had mingled freely in the stirring scenes of war and border foray,
which marked the closing years of French domination in the Canadas. They
-A'cre then inland on the Manistee river, which enters the northern shores of Lake
Michigan. It was his last winter on earth ; his heart was gladdened by once
)n( re feeling the genial rays of spring, and he desired to go with them, to behold,
for the last time, the expanded lake and inhale its pure breezes. He must needs
be conveyed by hand. This act of piety was perfonned by his daughter, then a
young woman. She carried him on her back from their camp to the lake shore,
where they erected their lodge and passed the spring, and where he eventually
died and was buried. — School, p. 191.

Iiitrodtiction.

XXXI

ut a groan,

more power-
in has bccii
hcd to their
with tender-
dead. The
dged, and in
The relation
well defined,
, was rarely

le tribes who

i^ generations

;, and towns

eads occupy

trapped the

est. Instead

n, the church

he silence of

of the milk-

lan. A poor

savages has

enterprising

le germs of

ound as the

[merchants of any country in the world can boast of, possessed

lof several good lines of railroad, and of a noble water com-

jmunication, blessed with great mineral and agricultural re-

[sources, Canada must ere long attain to a high position in the

scale of nations, and thus leave little room for regret that the

)osscssion of her soil has been transferred to the Anglo-

jaxon race, and that the rule of the fierce Indian has for ever

jassed away. -

;alled Gitsli Nay-
which he had,
very imposing
lich is east of the
id a councillor ot
nd border foray,
Canadas. They
n shores of Lake
ddened by once
them, to behold,
He must needs
daughter, then a
the lake shore,
re he eventually

!:^!l

I ,rl'

THE

HISTORY OF CANADA,

CHAPTER I.

MORE than three centuries and a half have elapsed since the
discovery of America constituted a new epoch in the annals
)f civilisation. The vague ideas of unknown climes indulged in by
5trabo,* the dim prophecies of Seneca,+ the romantic theories of
'lato,J the philosophic speculations of the middle ages,§ had all
jointed to an actual reality, however obscurely ; and the return of

" It is very possible that in the same temperate zone, and almost in vne same
ititude as Athens, there are inhabited worlds distinct from that in which wc
Iwell." — Stralio, lib. i., p. 65.

+ " Seneca held th.U a vast country was originally situated in the Atlantic

>cean, and rent asunder by a violent earthquake. The portion which still

remained unsubmerged by the ocean, would one day be discovered." — Malte

3 nut.

% " BufTon quoting Plato's Timoeus, relative to the destruction of Atalantis,

Isays, it is not devoid of probability. The land swallowed up by the waters were

Iperhaps those which united Ireland to the Azores, and the Azores to the con-

Itinent of America ; for in Ireland there are the same fossils, the same shells, and

Ithe same sea-bodies as appear in America : and some of which are found in no

lother part of Europe." — BuffotCs Natural History, vol. i., p. 306.

§ " In the middl" ages the prevalent opinion was, that the sea covered but one-
Iseventh of the globe, an opinion which Cardinal d'Ally founded on the book of
lEzra. Columbus, who always derived much of his cosmological knowledge from
Ithe cardinal's work, was much interested in supporting this opinion of the small-
Iness of the sex He also used to cite Aristotle, Seneca, and St Augustine m its
Isupport. "—Humboldt.

77/^? History of Canada.

Columbus to Spain on the 4th of January 1493, after an absence
of seven months, dispelled every doubt regarding the existence of
hitherto unknown regions, amid the waters of the Western Atlantic.

The wise and politic Henry VII., who then sat upon the throne of
England, was not a little moved by the intelligence which so pro-
foundly agitated the maritime nations of Europe. The mere accident
of the capture of the brother of Columbus by pirates, when on his
way to the English Court, had in all probability robbed that monarch
of the glory of the great navigator's discoveries being made under
his auspices, and deprived the nation at large of the vast commercial
benefits which he foresaw they must sooner or later produce. Henry,
however, was not discouraged. Wisely judging that other countries
were yet to be discovered, he fitted out a small llcc;; in 1497, ^"^^
placing it under the command of John Cabot, a celebrated Venetian
navigator, sent him forth in quest of new climes, as well as of a
North-West passage to the Indies nnd China, then sought after as
earnestly as it has been in our own times.

Cabot sailed from the port of Bristol about the middle of May
1497 ; and following very nearly the course now pursued
^"' ■ by vessels, making the voyage from Great Britain to North
America, discovered on the 26th of June, the Island of Newfound-
land, which he named St John's Island in honour of the day. After
a brief stay there he continued his westerly course, and arrived oft
the coast of Labrador on the 3d of July. He had, therefore, the
honour of being the first discoverer of the Continent of America,
which was not seen by Columbus until some thirteen months after-
wards. Having made a partial survey of Hudson's Bay, and the
Gulf of St Lawrence, he sailed south as far as Virginia : when, being
anxious to announce his success to Henry, he returned to Eng-
land; where, shortly after his arrival, he received the honour of
knighthood.

At this period Britain possessed no royal navy, and, in cases of
emergency, the crown had to arm merchant vessels. Encouraged by
the success of Cabot, Henry detennined that this condition of affairs
should no longer continue, and promptly applied himself to the con-
struction of a national fleet, on one large ship of which he expended
the immense sum, for those times, of fourteen thousand pounds.*
This, with some smaller vessels, he placed in the following year
under the command of Sebastian, one of Sir John Cabot's
sons, with instructions to search for a North-West passage.
Beyond the barren glory of mere discovery, Henry derived no result

* Hume, vol. iii., p. 7<5.

1498.

The History of Canada.

an absence
existence of
em Atlantic.
;he throne of
'hich so pro-
lere accident

when on his
:hat monarch

made under
t commercial
luce. Henry,
;her countries

in 1497, aiid
ited Venetian

well as of a
ought after as

iddle of May
now pursued
itain to North
of Newfound-
le day. After
nd arrived ofl
therefore, the
of America,
months after-
Bay, and the
when, being
•ned to Eng-
le honour of

d, in cases of
.ncouraged by
ition of affairs
f to the con-
he expended
and pounds.*
lUowing year
John Cabot's
West passage,
ived no result

from this or two subsequent expeditions. No settlements were

formed ; and his death in 1509 terminated for several years

all efforts, on the part of the British nation, to profit by a ^ ^*

more intimate connexion with this continent For the next fourteen

years Spain and Portugal were the only nations, who derived any

solid benefits from settlements in the New World. In 1^24

• I if 24.

the French Sovereign, Francis I., with a view to the partition *' "*'

of these benefits in his own favour, resolved to acquire a claim on a
portion at least of America by further discoveries. " What ! " said he,
to his courtiers, "shall the Kings of Spain and Portugal divide all
America between them, without suffering me to take a share as their
brother] I would fain see the article in Adam's will that bequeaths
that vast inheritance to them." Francis accordingly prepared a
squadron of four ships, which he placed under the command ot
(Jiovanna Verazzano, a Florentine navigator of great repute, who
explored the American coast from Carolina northward. He called
the entire region New France, (La Nouvelle France,) and, utterly
regardless of the prior claims of England, took formal possession ot
it in the name of his sovereign. Verazzano, like Cabot, returned
without gold or silver. He was in consequence unfavourably con-
trasted with the adventurers to Mexico and Peru ; met with a cold
reception; and died in obscurity. In 1527, Henry VIII.
resolved to make another attempt to discover a North-West ^ ' '
passage to the East Indies. One of his ships was lost : and the
remainder returned to England without any fresh discoveries being
made, or a settlement effected.

In 1534 the French King fitted out a second expedition, the con-
duct of which he entrusted to Jaques Carticr, a fearless and
skilful mariner, who had previously been engaged for several ^534-
years in the fisheries on the banks of Newfoundland ; which, even
as early as 1517, already gave employment to some fifty English,
French, Spanish, and Portuguese vessels. This expedition, consisting
of two vessels of sixty tons each, sailed from St Malo on the 20th of
April, and on the loth of May arrived at Newfoundland, where it
remained ten days. Proceeding northward, Cartier passed through
the straits of Belleisle, entered the Gulf of St Lawrence, and landed
at Gaspe ; where, on the 24th of July, he erected a cross, surmounted
by a fleur-de-lys, to commemorate his advent on the coast. A
friendly intercourse with the natives enabled him to kidnap two
men, with whom he sailed for France, where, on his arrival, he was
well received by his sovereign.

In the following year Cartier obtained a new commission from

4 Tfie History of Canada.

Francis, and sailed with three vessels* direct for the Gulf of St Law-
rence ; with instructions to explore its shores carefully ; to es-
tablish a settlement, if at all practicable ; and to open a traffic
for gold with the inhabitants. In the month of August, on the
festival day of the martyr Lawrence, this navigator entered the
great father of the northern waters, which he called after the saint.
Proceeding up its course he found himself, in a few days, opposite
the Indian village of Stadacona, then occupying a portion of the
ground on which the city of Quebec now stands. As the vessels
came to an anchor the terrified natives fled to the forest, whence
they gazed, with mingled feelings of awe and wonder, on the " winged
canoes " which had borne the pale-faced strangers to their shores.
These feelings were, however, much less intense than they must
have otherwise been, owing to the rumours which, from time to time,
had preceded Cartier's approach ; and to the fact, that they were
well acquainted with the circumstance of his visit to Gaspe the pre-
vious year, and the outrage he had there perpetrated on their
countrymen. This knowledge led the inhabitants of Stadacona to
resolve on a wary intercourse with the strangers. Their chief,
Donacona, approached the vessels with a fleet of twelve canoes, filled
with his armed followers. Ten of these canoes he directed to remain
at a short distance, while he proceeded with the other two to ascertain
the purport of the visit — whether it was for peace or war. With
this object in view he commenced an oration. Cartier heard the
chief patiently, and with the aid of the two Gaspe Indians, n( w
tolerable proficients in the French language, he was enabled to open
a conversation with him, and to allay his apprehensions. An amicable
understanding having thus been established, Cartier moored his ves-
sels safely in the river St Charles, where, shortly afterwards, he received
a second visit from Donacona, who this time came accompanied by
500 warriors of his tribe.

Having thoroughly rested and refreshed himself and his men,
Cartier determined to explore the river to Hochelaga, another Indian
town, which he learned was situated several days' journey up its
course. With the view of impressing the Indians with the superiority
of the white man he caused, prior to his departure, several cannon
shots to be discharged, which produced the desired result. Like
their countrymen of the South on the arrival of Columbus, the red
men of the St Lawrence were alarmed by the firing of artillery ;
and as its thunders reverberated among the surrounding hills, a

• These were the Ilermina of 1 10 tons, the Little Hirmina of 60 tons, and the
Htrmerillon o{ 40 tons burden.

The History of Canada.

f of St Law-
cfully ; to cs-
open a traffic
^ust, on the
entered the
er the saint,
ays, opposite
)rtion of the
s the vessels
)rcst, whence
the " winged

their shores.
n they must
time to time,
at they were
;aspe the pre-
ted on their
Stadacona to

Their chief,
; canoes, filled
:ted to remain

to ascertain
)r war. With
icr heard the

Indians, ni w

abled to open

An amicable

ored his ves-

s, he received

:ompanied by

^nd his men,
lother Indian
mrney up its
jlie superiority
Iveral cannon

1 result. Like
ibus, the red

of artillery ;
^ding hills, a

tons, and the

feeling of mingled terror and astonishment took complete possession
of their minds.

Leaving his other ships safely at anchor, Cartier, on the 19th of
September, proceeded up the river with the Jl'-rmf.illon (which owing
to the shallowness of the water he had to leave in Lake St Peter)
and two boats; and frequently came into contact with small parties
of the natives, who treated him in the most friendly manner. IJold,
and loving adventure for its own sake, and at the same time strongly
imbued with religious enthusiasm, Cartier watched the shifting land-
scape hour after hour, as he ascended tlie river, with feelings of
the deepest gratification, which were heightened by the refiection,
that he was the pioneer of civilisation and of Christianity in that un-
known clime. Nature presented itself in all its primitive grandeur
to his view. The noble river on whose broad bosom he floated
onwards day after day, disturbing vast fiocks of water-fowl; the
primeval forests of the north, which here and there presented, amid
the luxuriance of their foliage, the parasitical vine loaded with ripe
clusters of luscious grapes, and from whence the strange notes of the
whip-poor-will, and other birds of varied tone and plumage, such as
he had never before seen, were heard at intervals ; the bright sun-
sliine of a Canadian autumn ; the unclouded moonlight of its calm
and pleasant nights, with the other novel accessories of the occa-
sion, made a sublime and profound impression upon the mind of the
adventurer.

Delighted with his journey, Cartier arrived, on the 2d of October,
opposite the Huron village of Hochelaga, the inhabitants of which
lined the shore on his approach, and made the most friendly signs
for him to land. Supplies of fish and maize were freely tendered
by the Indians, in return for which they received knives and beads.
Despite this friendly conduct, however, Cartier and his companions
deemed it most prudent to pass the night on board their boats. On
the following day, headed by their leader dressed in the most im-
posing costume at his command, the exploring party went in pro-
cession to the village. At a short distance from its environs they
were met by a sachem, who received them with that solemn courtesy
peculiar to the aborigines of America. Cartier made him several
presents : among these was a cross, which he hung round his neck
and directed him to kiss. Patches of ripe corn encircled the village,
which consisted of fifty substantially-built huts, secured from attack
by three lines of stout palisades.* Like the natives of Mexico and

* There is no doubt that Cartier gave a most exaggerated description of Hoche-
laga, being desirous that his discoveries should bear some resemblance to those

flil!;l

The History of Canada.

' *'

Peru the Hochelagians regarded the white men as a superior race
of beings, who came among them as friends and benefactors.* Im-
pressed with this idea they conducted them in state to their Council
Lodge, and brought their sick to be healed. Cartier was at once
too completely in their power, and too politic to undeceive them.
It is recorded that he did everything he could to soothe their minds :
that he even prayed with these idolaters, and distributed crosses and
other symbols of the Catholic faith among them.

The introductory ceremony concluded, Cartier ascended the
mountain behind Hochelaga, to which he gave the name of Mont
Royal, subsequently corrupted into Montreal. From a point near
its summit a noble prosper,, met his view. Interminable forests
stretched on every side ; their deep gloom broken at harmonious
intervals by hills, and rivers, and island-studded lakes. Simple as
were the natives of Hochelaga, they appeared to have some know-
ledge of the geography of their country. From them Cartier learned
that it would take three months to sail in their canoes up the course
of the majestic river which flowed beneath them, and that it ran
through several great lakes, the farthest one of which was like a vast
sea. Beyond this lake was another large river, (the Mississippi,)
which pursued a southerly course through a region free from ice
and snow. With the precious metals they appeared but very par-
tially acquainted. Of copper they had a better knowledge, and
stated that it was found at the Saguenay.

Favourably as Cartier had been received, the lateness of the
season compelled his immediate return to Stadacona. The Indians
expressed their regret at the shortness of the visit, and accompanied
the French to their boats, which they followed for some time, making
signs of farewell. The expedition did not, however, find all the
natives equally friendly. While bivouacking one night on the bank
of the river, they would probably have all been massacred, but for a
timely retreat to their boats. Cartier had a narrow escape, and
owed his life to the intrepidity of his boatswain, an Englishman.

The adventurers wintered in the St Charles River, and continued
to be treated with apparent kindness and hospitality by the Stadaco-
nians, who had fortunately laid up abundant stores of provisions.
Unaccustomed, however, to the rigour of a Canadian winter, and
scantily supplied with warm clothing, Cartier and his companions

of Cortes and Pizarro. Hochelaga was simply an ordinary Indian village, sur-
rounded by wooden palisades, and containing, probably, a thousand or fifteen
hundred inhabitants.
* Jesuit's JournaL

upenor race
ctors.* Im-
;heir Council
was at once
eceive them,
their minds :
I crosses and

scended the
ime of Mont
a point near
nable forests
, harmonious
. Simple as

some know-
artier learned
p the course
d that it ran
ras like a vast

Mississippi,)
free from ice
DUt very par-
)wledge, and

eness of the
The Indians
accompanied
time, making

find all the
on the bank
ed, but for a

escape, and

lishman.

continued
the Stadaco-
f provisions.

winter, and

companions

m village, sur-
and or fifteen

:-|

T/ie History of Canada. f

ffuffered severely from the cold. To add to their other misfortunes,
fcurvy, the terror of the seaman in those days, made its ^

appearance, and in conjunction with a disease produced ^^
by a licentious intercourse with the natives, speedily carried off
<:wenty-five of their number. To a decoction from the bark of the
spruce-fir, taken on the recommendation of the Indians, the remain-
dor ascribed their restoration to health.

The long winter at length drew to a close ; the ice broke up, and
although the voyage had led to no gold discoveries, or profitable
returns in a mercantile point of view, the expedition prepared to re-
turn home. Like other adventurers of that age they requited the
kindness and hospitality of the aborigines with the basest ingratitude.
They compelled Donacona, with two other chiefs and eight warriors,
to bear them company to France, where the greater part of these
unfortunate men died soon after their arrival

Disappointed in their expectations of discovering the precious
metals in the regions explored by Cartier, the French nation for the
ensuing four years gave no adventurers to the New World. That
navigator's favourable representations of the valley of the St Law-
rence, however, still continued to attract a large portion of attention.
In 1540 a new expedition was organised under the direction
of the Sieur De Roberval, an opulent nobleman of Picardy, ^'^
to proceed to Canada, as it now began to be called from the Indian
word Kanata, (a collection of huts,) which had been mistaken fox
the native name of the country. In consideration of his bearing the
expenses of the expedition, and effecting a permanent settlement on
the St Lawrence, or in the adjacent districts, Roberval was created
a Lieutenant-General, and appointed viceroy of all the territories
claimed by the French in the New World. Circumstances having
arisen which prevented him from proceedin<j with the expedition,
which embraced five ships, he transferred its command to Cartier,
who accordingly sailed the third time to New France, and arrived
safely at his old anchorage in the neighbourhood of Stadacona.
He was at first received with every appearance of kindness by the
Indians, who expected that he had brought back their chief Dona-
cona, as well as the other chiefs and warriors who had been talen
lo France. On learning that some of these were dead, and that
none of them would return, they showed themselves averse to any
further intercourse, and to the formation of a settlement in their
neighbourhood.

Finding his position with the inhabitants of Stadacona becoming
daily more and more unpleasant, Cartier moved higher up the river

The History of Canada.

V.'l'

1542.

to Cape Rouge, where he laid up three of his vessels, and sent the
other two back to France, with letters to the king and Roberval,
stating the success of his voyage and asking for supplies. His next
proceeding was to erect a fort, which he called Charlesbourg. Here,
after an unsuccessful attempt to navigate the rapids above Hoche-
laga, he passed a most uncomfortable winter. During the ensuing
summer he occupied himself in examining the country in every
direction, and in searching for gold, but of which he only pro-
cured a few trifling specimens in the beds of some dried rivulets.
A few small diamonds were discovered in a headland near Stada-
cona, which was therefore called Cape Diamond, a name it still
retains.

The promised supplies not having arrived, another severe winter
completely disheartened Cartier, and he accordingly resolved to
return home. Putting into the harbour of St John, Newfoundland,
he encountered Roberval, who was now on his way to
Canada, with a new company of adventurers and an abund-
ance of stores and provisions. The viceroy endeavoured to per-
suade Cartier to return with him, but without effect. He and his
companions were alike disheartened with the extreme cold and pro-
longed duration of a Canadian winter, and this circumstance in
connexion with the other hardships to which they had been exposed,
caused them to long earnestly to return to their own sunny France.
To avoid further importunity, a possible quarrel, and forcible deten-
tion, Cartier caused his sailors to weigh anchor during the night.
After a tolerably quick passage he arrived safely in his native
country, where he died shortly after his return, having like many
others sacrificed health and fortune to a passion for discovery, and
a desire to acquire gold.

Roberval sailed up the St La^^Tence to Charlesbourg, which he
strengthened by additional fortifications. Here he passed the en-
suing winter. Leaving a garrison of thirty men behind, he returned
in the following spring to France, where he was detained by
^^^' his sovereign to assist in the war against Charles V. The
Peace of Cressy eventually terminated hostilities. Meanwhile Rober-
val had not forgotten Canada. In company with his brother Achille
and a numerous train of adventurers, he again proceeded to this
country wth several ships. This fleet was never heard of after it
put to sea, and was supposed to have foundered, to the regret of the
people of France, who greatly admired the Brothers Roberval for
the gallant manner in which they had borne themselves in the
war. Their loss completely discouraged Henry II., now king of

id sent the
1 Roberval,
. His next
urg. Here,
ove Hoche-
the ensuing
ry in every
e only pro-
ied rivulets,
near Stada-
lame it still

severe winter

resolved to
iwfoundland,

his way to
ad an abund-
•ured to per-

He and his
:old and pro-
:umstance in
een exposed,
unny France.
Drcible deten-

g the night,
his native

g like many
iscovery, and

rg, which he
.ssed the en-
he returned
detained by
es V. The
while Rober-
other Achille
eded to this
d of after it
regret of the
Roberval for
elves in the
now king of

The History of Canada. 9

France, who made no further attempts to effect a settlement in
Canada. The distracted state of France occasioned by the religious
wars tended likewise to withdraw, during the succeeding half cen-
tury, the attention of its government from projects of transatlantic
colonisation.

During the latter part of the sixteenth century, the idea of dis-
covering a North-VVest passage still occupied the attention of many
persons in Europe. England, now rapidly rising in maritime impor-
tance, sent out several expeditions to the northern coasts of America
to search for this passage. None of these, however, had any con-
nexion with Canada, the first colonisation of which was reserved for
France, and the private enterprise of whose merchants was already
accomplishing what the countenance and decrees of royalty had
failed to effect. The discovery that a lucrative trade in furs could
be prosecuted with the Indians, led to the formation of trading posts
on the St Lawrence, the principal of which was at Tadoussac near
the mouth of the river Saguenay.

The fact, thus established, that a profitable connexion with Canada
could be maintained, and tranquillity having been restored in France
by the accession of Henry IV. to the throne, the attention of the
French Government was again turned to founding a colony
in this country. In 1598 the Marquis de la Roche, a noble- ^^
man of Brittany, encouraged by Henry, fitted out a large expedition,
which convicts were permitted to join, as it was found difficult to
procure voluntary adventurers, owing to former disasters. Armed
with the most ample governmental powers, the Marquis departed for
the New World under the guidance of Chedotel, a pilot of Nor-
mandy. But he lacked the requisite qualities to insure success, and
little is recorded of his voyage, with the exception that he left forty
convicts on Sable Island, a barren spot off the coast of Nova Scotia.
Owing to the failure of this adventure, and his attempts to equip
another being thwarted at Court, the Marquis fell sick shortly after
his return home, and literally died of chagrin. The unfortunate
convicts whom he had left behind were completely forgotten for
several years, and suffered the most intense hardships. Their clothes
were soon worn out, their provisions exhausted. Clad in the skin of
the sea wolf, subsisting upon the precarious supplies afibrded by fish-
ing, and living in rude huts formed from the planks of a wrecked
vessel, famine and cold gradually reduced their number to twelve.
After a residence on the island of twelve years, these \vretched men
were found in the most deplorable condition, by a vessel sent out by
the Parliament of Rouen to ascertain their fate. On their return to

The History of Canada.

France they were brought before Henry, who pardoned their crimes
in consideration of the great hardships they had undergone, and gave
them a hberal donation in money.*

The unsatisfactory result of the expedition under De la Roche, had

not the effect of checking French enterprise very materially.
^"^' In the following year another expedition was resolved on by
Chauvin, of Rouen, a naval officer of reputation, and Pontgrave, a
sailor merchant of St Malo, who, in consideration of a monopoly of
the fur trade, granted them by Henry, undertook to establish a.
colony of five hundred persons in Canada, This monopoly once
secured, Chauvin displayed very little energy in fulfilling hij engage-

ments. To save appearances, however, he equipp'ed two

vessels in the spring of 1 600, and taking out a party of settlers
with him, arrived safely at Tadoussac. Here, contrary to the repre-
sentations of some of his companions, who stated that much more
desirable locations for a settlement might be found higher up the
river, he erected a small fort. During the summer he obtained a
considerable stock of very valuable furs, for the most trifling consider-
ation. Being anxious to dispose of these to advantage, he returned
to France on the approach of winter, leaving sixteen settlers behind.
These were slenderly provided with provisions and clothing, and in
the cold weather were reduced to such distress, that they had to
throw themselves completely on the hospitality of the natives. From
these they experienced much kindness, yet so great were the hard-
ships they endured, that several of them died before the arrival of
succour from France. Chauvin made a second voyage to Tadoussac,
and obtained another valuable cargo of furs, but failed to establish
a permanent settlement. During a third voyage he was taken ill
and died.

The death of Chauvin did not damp the spirit of enterprise which
had now taken firm hold of the more adventurous among the French.

The fur trade held out a certain and lucrative reward to per-

1603.

severance and courage, and in 1603 De Chaste, the Governor

of Dieppe, organised a company to conduct it. He prevailed upon
several wealthy merchants to second his views, and made a most
valuable auxiliary, at the sarj time, in Samuel Cham plain, who had
just returned from the West Indies, and was destined to be the
founder of the French Colony of Canada. Accompanied by Pont-
grave, the former associate of Chauvin, and who had made several
voyagej to the St Lawrence, Charnplain proceeded to that rivei,
with instructions from the French Court to ascend it as far as pos-

* Clumplain's Voyages.

The History of Canada.

their crimes
ne, and gave

i Roche, had
ry materially,
solved on by
Pontgrave, a
monopoly of
I establish a.
nopoly once
g hij engage-
quipp'ed two
,rty of settlers
to the repre-
t much more
igher up the
e obtained a
ling consider-
:, he returned
ttlers behind,
thing, and in
they had to
itives. From
;re the hard-
;hc arrival of
Tadoussac,
to establish
ivas taken ill

rprise which
the French,
ward to per-
le Governor
:vailed upon
lade a most
lin, who had
to be the
ed by Pont-
iiade several
that rivei,
,s far as pos-

1604.

sible, and make a survey of the country towards its source. He
traversed its couise to the Sault St Louis, but effectually stopped by
these rapids, had to content himself with an observation made from
the summit of Mont Royal*

On his return to France Champlain found De Chaste had died
during his absence, and that the company he had formed had been
broken up. Proceeding to Paris he laid before Henry a chart, with
a description of the district he had surveyed, and was graciously re-
ceived. Shortly after his return, De Chaste's scheme was taken up
by De Monts, a Calvinist gentleman of opulence, now very popular
at the French Court, who had already received substantial marks
of his sovereign's favour. He was instnicted by Henry to establish
the Roman Catholic religion among the natives, but he and his
friends were to be allowed the free exercise of the Calvinistic faith.
He also obtained many other valuable privileges, and an entire
monopoly of the fur trade.

De jNIonts put to sea, on the 7th of March, with a much larger
expedition than had ever before left France. Erroneously
supposing that the higher he ascended the St Lawrence the
colder the weather must become, he remained some months trading
with the natives of Nova Scotia, (where he seized an English vessel
for interfering with his privileges,) and afterwards wintered on an
island near the mouth of tlie river St John in New Bruns-
wick. In the following spring he formed a settlement on the ^'

coast of the Bay of Fundy, which was called Port Royal ; and shortly
afterwards returned to France, where, owing to complaints made
against him, he w-as deprived of his commission, notwithstanding it
had been granted for ten years. De Monts had not, however,
wholly lost his influence with Henry, and obtained in 1607
another commission for one year. Owing to the representa-
tions of Champlain he now resolved to establish a settlement on the
St Lawrence. Fitting out two vessels, he placed them under the
command of that experienced navigator, and with whom he asso-
ciated Pontgrave as lieutenant. The expedition sailed from HarHeur
on the 13th of April 1608, and arrived at Tadoussac on the
3d of June. Here Pontgrave remained to trade with the
natives while Champlain proceeded up the river to examine its banks,
and determine upon a suitable site for the settlement he was to found.
After a careful scrutiny he fixed upon a promontory distinguished by
a luxuriant growth of vines, and shaded by some noble walnut trees,

* Champlain makes no mention of Hochelaga. The village had no doubt been
abandoned owing to the incursions of the Iroquois.

1007.

1608.

The History of Canada.

\ m

\ 1.
ill I

called by the natives, (very few of whom now resided in the neigh-
bourhood,) Quebio, or Quebec ;* which was situated a short dis-
tance from the spot where Cartier had erected a fort, and passed
a winter sixty-seven years before. Here, on the 3d July, he
laid the foundation of the present city of Quebec. Rude buildings
of wood were first erected on the high grounds to afford shelter to
his men. "'' en these were completed an embankment was formed,
above i.ie rea .11 of the tide, where Mountain Street now stands, on
vi^hich the houses and battery were built. With the exception of
Jamestown, in Virginia, this was the first permanent settlement
established in North America.

Champl.:''- ind '.is companions passed the winter at Quebec with-
out suffv.-ii.. .. .; • I .lose extreme hardships which, during the same
period of the y^ra - ' .lissinguished the residence of former adven-
turers in Canauc'. 'ihtir dwellings being better protected from the
cold, ihcir per onr mor-. \ "t.-';' clothed, more abundantly supplied
with prrvisicoi, ^i.J '''ith ;• , er aniount of experience than their
predecessors possessed, . > ■ n.xred that a winter existence
among the snows of the Noitii was not only possible, but even had
its pleasures.

While providing for the present comfort of himself and his com-
panions, Champlain was not forgetful of the future. Already had he
devoted his attention to the agricultural capabilities of the country.
The land in the neighbourhood was discovered to be fertile, and in
the autumn he planted the first wheat crop on the banks of the St
Lawrence. Winter gradually merged towards spring with-
out producing any incidents of very great importance to the
infant colony. Meanwhile everything had been done to preserve a
good understanding with the Indians who visited the Fort ; Cham-
plain wisely perceiving that the success of the settlement chiefly
depended on their friendship. Nor were the Indians themselves,
who belonged to the Algonquin nation, averse to the cultivation of
a friendly understanding with the French. A fierce war was then
waged between them and the Iroquois, or Five Nations, over whom
they anticipated an easy victory, were they but aided by the white
men. To secure this aid a son of one of their principal chiefs had
already visited the fort, and as an inducement to the alliance he pro-
posed, promised that his nation should assist Champlain in exploring
the country of their enemy.

About the middle of February a scarcity of food began to prevail
among the Indians. Some of these people on the opposite side of
* Champlain, Book III. chap. iii.

1609.

The History of Cafiada.

in the neigh-
a short dis-
t, and passed
3d July, he
ude buildings
ord shelter to
t was formed,
o\v stands, on
exception of
nt settlement

Quebec with-
iring the same
former adven-
:cted from the
mtly supplied
ice than their
iter existence
but even had

■ and his com-

Llready had he

f the country.

"ertile, and in

inks of the St

s spring with-

Drtance to the

to preserve a

Tort ; Cham-

ement chiefly

themselves,

cultivation of

war was then

3, over whom

by the white

al chiefs had

iance he pro-

in exploring

in to prevail
)osite side of

the river were reduced to great extremities, and resolved to cross it at
all hazards, in the expectation of receiving assistance at the fort.
Death stared them in the face on eitlier hand, and they had only to
choose the mildest alternative. The huge floes of ice that crashed
against each other, as they drove hither and thither with the tide,
threatened instant destruction to their frail canoes,which, neverthe-
less, were boldly launched in succession, death by drowning being
preferable to that by lingering starvation. Presently mid-channel is
gained. Vast fields of ice encircle the canoes which are speedily
crushed to pieces. The Indians seek to save themselves by jumping
on the ice, which fortunately floats to the shore. But Champlain
could only spare them a very scanty supply of food, and the unfor-
tunate people were obliged to subsist for a time on the putrid
carcasses found in the neighbourhood.

The spring appears to have been an early one ; and no sooner
had the weather become sufficiently warm to make travelling agree-
able, than Champlain prepared to ascend the river, and explore it
above Mont Royal. When twenty-five leagues from Quebec, ha
was met by a war party of the Algonquins on their way to attack the
Iroquois, who now without much difficulty induced him to promise
his aid. He accordingly retraced his steps to the fort, procured a
reinforcement from Tadoussac, where another settlement had been
formed, and niatle the other necessary arrangements for the expedi-
tion. On the 28th of I^Iay, in company with his Indian allies, he
again ascended the St Lawrence, diverged into the Richelieu river,
after traversing Lake St Peter, and proceeded along its course till he
encountered rapids which prevented the further passage of his boats.
Finding it useless to attempt cutting a road through the woods, he
resolved to commit himself and his companions to the canoes of the
natives, and to share their fate. Only two of his men had sufficient
courage to accompany him : the hearts of the remainder failed them
Avhen they perceived the dangers of their position, and he permitted
them to return. The bark canoes of the Algonquins were easily
carried past the rapids, and Champlain soon found himself on the
waters of the beautiful lake which still bears his name. The party
saw nothing of the Iroquois until they had entered Lake George, on
the shores of which a pitched battle took place, which with the aid
of firearms resulted in their favour. A number of the Iroquois were
killed, and twelve taken prisoners were subsequently tortured and
put to death.

On Champlain's return from this expedition, he was greeted with
unfavourable tidings from France. Its merchants had again made

(SI"'

I6I0.

The History of Canada.

loud complaints of the injury they sustained by the fur trade being
confined to a single individual. De Monts' commission had in con-
sequence been revoked, and Champlain was obliged to return home
to give an account of his conduct, which the king listened to with
apparent satisfaction. All attempts, however, to procure a renewal
of the monopoly proved abortive. Still De Monts determined, even
without royal patronage, to continue the settlement. To lighten the
expense, he made an arrangement with some traders at Rochelle to
give them the use of his buildings in Quebec, as a depot for their
goods, while they, in return, engaged to assist him in his plans of
colonisation. He was thus enabled to fit out another ex-
pedition for his lieutenant, and to furnish him with con-
siderable supplies and a respectable reinforcement.

On Champlain's return to the St Lawrence, he received a fresh
application from the Algonquins to aid them in another war. Un-
deterred alike by fear or principle he accepted the proposal ; but
upon his arrival at the mouth of the Richelieu, found affairs more
urgent than he had anticipated. An Indian brought the intelligence
that one hundred of the enemy were so strongly intrenched in the
neighbourhood, that without the aid of the French it would be im-
possible to dislodge them. The Algonquins imprudently advancing
to the attack unsupported had been repulsed with loss, and com-
pelled to fall back and await the assistance of their less impetuous
allies. As soon as Champlain came up he proceeded to reconnoitre
the Iroquois' position. He found it very strong, and formed of large
trees placed close together in a circle. Thus protected, the enemy
continued to pour forth sliowers of arrows, one of which wounded
him in the neck. His ammunition soon began to fail, and he urged
the Algonquins to greater exertions in forcing a way ir^to the barri-
cade. He made them fasten ropes round the trunks of single trees,
and apply all their strength to drag them out, while he undertook to
protect them with his fire. Fortunately at this crisis a party of
French traders, instigated by martial ardour, made their appearance.
Under cover of their fire the Algonquins pulled so stoutly, that a
Bufficient opening was soon eftected, when they leaped in and com-
pletely routed the enemy, most of whom were either killed, drowned,
or taken prisoners. Of the assailants three were killed and fifty
wounded. Champlain before taking leave of his allies, who were
too well pleased to refuse his request, readily prevailed on them to
allow one of his people to remain among their tribe to learn their
language ; while he, at their desire, took a native youth with him to
France, whither he went soon after.

The History of Canada.

ir trade being
n had in con-
) return home
itened to with
lire a renewal
ermined, even
ro lighten the
It Rochelle to
lepot for their
a his plans of
ut another ex-
lim with con-

:eived a fresh
her war. Un-
proposal ; but
id affairs more
he intelligence
renched in the
t would be im-
ntly advancing
OSS, and com-
less impetuous
to reconnoitre
brmed of large
led, the enemy
[hich wounded
and he urged
ir.to the barri-
f single trees,
undertook to
,is a party ol
r appearance,
toutly, that a
in and com-
led, drowned,
[lied and fifty
les, who were
Id on them to
I to learn their
Ih with him to

In 1611 Champlain again returned to America, bringing the young
Algonquin with him ; and on the 28th of May, proceeded
in search of his allies, whom he was to meet by appoint-
ment. Not finding them he employed his time in choosing a site for
a new settlement, higher up the river than Quebec. After a careful
survey, he fixed upon an eligible spot in the vicinity of Mont Royal.
His choice has been amply justified by the great prosperity to which
this place, under the name of Montreal, has subsequently risen. •
Having cleared a considerable space of ground, he fenced it in by
an earthen ditch, and planted grain in the enclosure.

At length on the 13th of June, three weeks after the time ap-
pointed, a party of his Indian friends appeared. They evinced great
pleasure at meeting their countr)'nian, who gave a most favourable
report of the treatment he had received in France, and after a liberal
present to Champlain the cause of their long delay was unfolded.
They stated that it was altogether owing to a prisoner, who had
escaped the previous year, spreading a report that the French, having
resolved to espouse the cause of the Iroquois, were coming in great
force to destroy their nation. Champlain complained of their having
paid attention to such an idle rumour, the truth of which all his
actions belied. They protested that it had never been credited by
themselves, and was believed by those only of their tribe who never
had an opportunity of becoming personally acquainted with the
French. Having now received solemn protestations of friendship,
and being satisfied with Champlain's sincerity, they declared their
firm determination of adhering to his alliance ; and of promoting, to
the best of their ability, his projects of penetrating into the interior.
As an evidence of their good will they imparted much valuable in-
formation respecting the geography of this continent, with which they
seemed to be tolerably well acquainted as far south as the Gulf of
Mexico. They readily agreed to his proposal to return shortly with
forty or fifty of his people to prosecute discoveries, and form settle-
ments in their country if he thought proper. They even made a
request that a French youth should accompany them, and make
obser\'ations upon their territory and tribe.

Champlain again returned to France with a view of making ar-
rangements for more extensive operations ; but this object was now of
very difiicult accomplishment. De Monts, who had been appointed
governor of Saintonge, was no longer inclined to take the lead in
measures of this kind, and excused himself from going to court by
stating the urgency of his own affairs. He therefore committed the
whole conduct of the settlement to Champlain, advising him, at the

The History of Cattada.

\-: I

i6t2.

same time, to seek some powerful protector, whose influence would
overcome any opposition which might be made to his plans. The
latter was so fortunate as to win over, almost immediately, the Count
de Soissons to aid him in his designs. This nobleman obtained the
title of lieutenant-general of New France ; and, by a formal agree-
ment, transferred to Champlain all the functions of that high office.
The Count died soon after, but Champlain found a still
more influential friend in the Prince of Conde, who suc-
ceeded to all the privileges of the deceased, and transferred them to
him in a manner equally ample. These privileges, including a mo-
nopoly of the fur trade, gave great dissatisfaction to the merchants j
but Champlain endeavoured to remove their principal objection, by
permitting as many of them as chose to accompany him to the New
World, and to engage in this traffic. In consequence of this permis-
sion, three merchants from Normandy, one from RocheDe, and one
from St Malo, accompanied him. They were allowed the privileges
of a free trade on contributing six men each to assise in projects of
discovery, and giving one-twentieth of their profits towards defraying
the expenses of the settlement

In the beginning of March, the expedition sailed from Harfleur,
and on the 7th of May arrived at Quebec. Champlain now
engaged in a new project. A person named Vignau had
accompanied him on several visits to the Indians, and spent a winter
among them. He reported that the river of the Algonquins (the
Ottawa) issued from a lake connected with the North Sea, that he
had visited the shores of this sea, and there witnessed the wreck of an
English vessel. The crew, eighty in number, had reached the shore,
where they had all been killed and scalped by the inhabitants, except a
boy, whom they offered to give up to him, with other trophies of their
victory. Wishing to have this narrative as well authenticated as
possible, Champlain caused a declaration to be signed before two
notaries, warning Vignau that if it were false he would be exposing
himself to capital punishment. Finding that the man persevered,
and having learned that some English vessels had really been wrecked
on the coast of Labrador, his doubts were at length removed, and he
determined to devote a season to the prosecution of discoveries in
that part of North America.

Having this object in view he did not remain long at Quebec, and
on the 2ist of May arrived at the Lachine Rapids. With two
canoes, containing four of his countrymen and one Indian, he pro-
ceeded on his voyage up the Ottawa, during the continuance of
which he experienced much severe hardship, and encountered nu-

1613.

The History of Canada.

luence would
; plans. The
:ly, the Count

obtained the
formal agree-
at high office.

found a still
ide, who suc-
erred them to
eluding a mo-
le merchants ;

objection, by
m to the New
af this permis-
helle, and one

the privileges
in projects of
■ards defraying

rom Harfleur,
:haniplain now
d Vignau had
spent a winter
Igonquins (the
Sea, that he
le wreck of an
led the shore,
tants, except a
ophies of their
lenticated as
ed before two
1 be exposing
.n persevered,
Deen wrecked
noved, and he
discoveries in

merous difficulties. They met with a succession of cataracts and
rapids, which they could only avoid by carrying the canoes and stores
overland. In some instances, the woods were so dense that this
laborious plan could not be adopted ; and their only alternative then
was to drag them through a foaming current, exposed to the danger
of being themselves engulfed. Another danger arose from the wan-
dering bands of Iroquois, who, if they had the French in their power,
would doubtless have treated them in the same manner as they did
their Algonquin captives. The difficulties of the navigation increas-
ing as they ascended the river, they were obliged at length to leave
their corn behind, and trust entirely to their guns and nets for pro-
visions. At length the party reached the abode of Tessonant, a
friendly chief, whose country was eight days' journey from that of the
Nipissings, where the shipwreck was said to have occurred. He re-
ceived them courteously, and agreed to admit their leader to a solemn
council. Champlain being asked the object of his visit, after many
courteous expressions, requested four canoes to escort him into the
country of the Nipissings, which he earnestly desired to explore.
The Indians were averse to granting this request, and only complied
with it on the most earnest entreaty. The council having broken
up, he ascertained that his wishes were still regarded unfavourably,
and that none of the natives were willing to accompany him. He,
therefore, demanded another meeting, in which he reproached them
with their intended breach of faith ; and to convince them that the
fears which they expressed were groundless, referred to the fact of
Vignau having spent some time among the Nipissings without injury.
This person was then called upon to state whether he had made
such a voyage, and after some hesitation replied in the affirmative,
when the Indians declared in the strongest terms that he had uttered
a falsehood, having never passed the limits of their own country, and
that he deserved to be tortured for his dishonesty. After a close
examination of Vignau, Champlain was obliged to acknowledge that
they were right ; and that he had been egregiously deceived. He
had not only encountered a long series of labours and fatigues in
vain, but the whole season had been spent without promoting objects
which he had much at heart. Leaving Vignau with the Indians, as
a punishment, he returned to Quebec, whence he sailed afterwards
for France, where he arrived on the 26th of August, and
found that matters still continued favourable for the colony.
The Prince of Conde retained his influence at Court, and no diffi-
culty was consequently found in equipping a small fleet, to carry out
settlers and supplies from Rouen and St Malo. On board of this

1614.

The History of Canada.

•h\

.1!':

1615.

fleet came out four fathers of the order of tlic Rccollcts, whose
benevolence induced them to desire the conversion of the Indians
to Christianity. These were the first priests who settled in Canada.
Champlain arrived safely, on the 25th May, at Tadoussac, whence he
immediately pushed forward to Quebec, and subsequently to
the usual place of Indian rendezvous, at the Lachinc Rapids.
Here he found his Algonquin and Huron allies full of projects of
war against the Iroquois, whom they now proposed to assail among
the lakes to the westward, with a force of 2000 fighting men.
Always desirous to embark in any enterprise which promised to
make him better acquainted with the country, Champlain laid down
a plan of operations which he offered to aid the Algonquins in carry-
ing out, and at which they expressed the utmost satisfaction. He
accompanied them in a long march first up the Ottawa, and after-
wards over small lakes and portages, leading to Lake Nipissing.
The Nipissings, about 700 or 800 in number, who inhabited the
shores of this lake, received the party in a friendly manner. Having
remained with them two days, the Algonquins resumed their journey
along the course of Frencli River to Georgian Bay, which they
crossed near the Great Manitoulin Island, and entered Lake Huron,
which Champlain describes in his travels as a fresh-water sea 300
leagues in length, by 50 in breadth.* After coasting this lake for
several leagues, they turned a point near its extremity, and struck
into the interior with a view of reaching Cahiagua, where they were
to be reinforced by a detachment of the Algonquins, and some other
friendly Indians. On arrival at this place a large body were found
collected, who gave them a joyful welcome, and stated that they
expected 500 additional warriors of other tribes, who also considered
the Iroquois as their enemies, to join them. While awaiting the
arrival of these warriors, several days were spent in dancing and
festivity, the usual prelude to Indian expeditions. These over, and
the allies not arriving, they again set out, and occasionally employed
themselves in hunting, until they came to Lake St Clair, near the
present city of Detroit, where they at length descried the Iroquois
fort, which, in expectation of an attack, had been rendered unusually
strong. It was defended by four rows of wooden palisades, vvith
strong parapets at top, and enclosed a pond whence water was
conducted to the different quarters, to extinguish any fires which
might occur. The Iroquois advanced from this fort and skirmished
successfully against their assailants for some time, and until the
fire-arms were discharged, when they retreated precipitately. They
• Champlain, Book ix. chap. vi.

;ollcts, whose
>f the Indians
:d in Canada,
lac, whence he
ibsequently to
ichinc Rapids,
of projects of
> assail among
fighting men.
1 promised to
lain laid down
quins in carry-
isfaction. He
awa, and after-
,ake Nipissing.
inhabited the
nner. Having
d their journey
ly, which they
d Lake Huron,
i-water sea 300
|g this lake for
;ty, and struck
'here they were
xnd some other
Ddy were found
:ated that they
ilso considered
le awaiting the
1 dancing and
'hese over, and
nally employed
Clair, near the
:d the Iroquois
.ered unusually
palisades, with
\ice water was
[ny fires which
.nd skirmished
and until the
litately. They

T/ie History of Canada.

fought bravely, however, behind their cfcfenccs, and poured forth

showers of arrows and stones, which compelled the allies, in spite of

the exhortations and reproaches of Cham[)lain, to withdraw beyond

T reach. He now taught them to construct an enclosure of

..iks called a cavalier, which would command the enemy's en-
trenchment. The discharges from this machine were meant to drive
the latter from the parapet and afford the assailants an opportunity
of setting fire to the defences. The Indians showed the utmost
activity in constructing this work, which they finished in four hours,
when 200 of the strongest moved it close to the palisade. The shot
from it drove the Iroquois into the interior of their stronghold,
whence, however, they continued to discharge missiles of various
kinds. The fort might now, with the greatest ease, have been set on
fire, but Champlain found to his mortification that he had to deal
with men who would make war only as they pleased. Instead of
following his directions, they preferred to pour out execrations 11 on
the enemy, and shoot arrows against the strong wooden defences,
length they commenced throwing pieces of burning timber, but
arelessly, as to produce very little effect, while the voices of their
opean friends, instructing them how to proceed, were In l amid the
tumult. The Iroquois, meanwhile, drew water from th : reservoir
so copiously, that streams flowed through every part of the fortress,
and the fires were speedily quenched, when, taking advantage of the
disorder in the adverse ranks, they killed several of their assailants
Champlain himself was twice wounded in the leg, and his allies find-
ing the reduction of the fort likely to be attended with more loss
than they had anticipated, resolved to retire. They justified their
conduct by alleging the absence of the 500 auxiliaries, promising on
tlieir arrival to renew the assault. For two days a strong wind blew
most favourably for another attempt to fire the fort ; still, nothing
could induce them to advance. Several petty attacks were subse-
quently made, but with such little success, that the French were obliged
to come to the rescue. The enemy, in consequence, bitterly taunted
llie Algonquins as being unable to cope with them in a fair field, and
obliged to seek the aid of a strange and odious race.

The reinforcement not appearing, the Canadian Indians deter-
mined to abandon the enterprise altogether, and return home.
Their retreat was conducted with a much greater degree of skill
than had been displayed in their ofiensive operations. The wounded
were placed in the centre, while armed warriors guarded the front,
brought up the rear, and formed flanking parties. The Iroquois
followed them a short distance, but unable to make any impression

'ti'i

'■1:1';

i!*

7)5^ History of Canada.

1616.

on their ranks abandoned the pursuit. But, if the safety of the
disabled was well provided for, their comfort seemed to be a matter
of trifling consideration. Their bodies were bent in a circular form,
bound with cords, and thrown into baskets, where, unable to stir
hand or foot, they appeared like infants. Champlain suffered the
greatest agony while being carried twenty-five or thirty leagues in
this position, and at the termination of the journey, felt as if he had
been released from a dungeon.

Arrived in the country of the Hurons, Champlain claimed the ful-
filment of their promise to convey him to Quebec after Lhe campaign.
But they averred that guides and canoes could not be procured.
He soon discovered that this was a mere excuse, designed to con-
ceal their desire to retain him and his companions, with a view to
a more effectual defence in case of attack, and to aid them in
future forays on their foes. He was consequently compelled to pass
the winter with his faithlei.s allies, during which he derived his
principal amusement from accompanying them on their hunting ex-
cursions.

No sooner had the warm sun of April and May melted the ice on
the rivers and lakes, than Champlain, accompanied by some
friendly Hurons, secretly set out on his return to Quebec,
where he arrived in the eorlier part of July, and shortly afterwards
sailed for France.* On his arrival there, he found that the interests
of the colony were threatened with serious danger, owing to the
disgrace and imprisonment of his patron, the Prince of Conde, for
the part he had taken in the disturbances during the minoiity of
Louis Xni. Sone other powerful protector was necessary to enable
Champlain to carry out his plans ; and he accordingly induced the
Marquis De Themines to accept the office until the Prince should be
released, by agreeing to give him a share of the emoluments. The
influence of the Marquis was not sufficient, however, to pre-
vent his being involved in a serious controversy with
several merchants, desirous to participate in the profits of the fur
trade : and after a tedious negotiation of two years and a half,
matters still remained in a most unsatisfactory condition for the
colony. In this dilemma he sought the protection of the Duke De
Montmorency, high admiral of France, who purchased his viceroy-
alty from Conde for 11,000 crowns. The merchants, however, still
continued to make every effort to degrade Champlain from
^' the governorship of Canada ; but the protection of the new
viceroy enabled him to overcome all opposition. A hot dispute was

* Ileriot's His. Can. p. 29. Champlain's Voyages.

1618.

'. ! V

T/ie History of Canada.

safety of the
:o be a matter
circular form,
unable to stir
1 suffered the
rty leagues in
it as if he had

aimed the ful-
the campaign,
be procured,
signed to con-
ivith a view to
aid them in
ipelled to pass
e derived his
:ir hunting ex-
ted the ice on
mied by some
n to Quebec,
tly afterwards
t the interests
owing to the
of Conde, for
e minoilty of
sary to enable
induced the
nee should be
ments. The
vvever, to pre-
roversy with
ts of the fur
and a half,
ition for the
the Duke De
1 his viceroy-
however, still
am plain from
m of the new
t dispute was

1621.

also waged between the different commercial cities, as to the re-
spective shares they ought to have in the new expedition ; which
was still further delayed by the disputes between the Protestants
and Roman Catholics.

After a tedious voyage, Champlain arrived at Quebec in the month
of July, and found that his long absence had been of the ^
greatest injury to the colony ; which, after all he had done
for it, numbered on the approach of winter only sixty souls, ten of
whom were engaged in establishing a seminary. In the following
year the Iroquois* made a descent upon Quebec, and caused con-
siderable alarm, although they were easily repulsed. Owing to the
representations of Champlain that they had neglected to furnish
supplies, the associated merchants, who had fitted out the last ex-
pedition, were deprived of all their privileges by the Duke, \\ho
J ave the superintendence of the colony to William and Emeric De
Caen, uncle and nephew, both Huguenots. William proceeded to
Canada during the summer, and had an interview with
Champlain. He was disposed to act in a very arbitrary
manner ; and claimed the right of seizing the vessels of the asso-
ciated merchants, then in the river. This conduct had the effect of
further weakening the colony. Several quit it in disgust : and to-
wards the close of 162 1, the European population of Canada only
numbered forty-eight souls.t

The high-handed course pursued by De Caen, and the numerous
difficulties which otherwise beset the infant colony, must have
quickly disheartened an ordinary man. But Champlain was not
an ordinary man. Patient, self-denying, hopeful, and courageous ;
desirous to found a colony, and conscious that he possessed the
qualities necessary to accomplish the arduous task, he did not per-
mit himself to be turned aside from his object for a moment. No
sooner had the difficulties produced by De Caen been partially
arranged, than he gave his attention to settlement and discovery
in tlie interior ; and was so fortunate as to aid in the establishment
of peace between his allies, the Algonquins and Hurons, and the
Iroquois ; % but which as usual was only of very brief duration.

* Heiiot's His. Can. p. 29. Champlain's Voyages.

+ The first child of European parents was bom in Canada this year. lie was
the son of Abraham and Margaret Martin, and was named Eustache.— /'r/m/^
Register of Quebec.

J The Iroquois, or Five Nations, destined to act the most conspicuous part
among all the native tribes of North America, occupied a long range of territory,
extending from Lake Champlain and the Mohawk River to the western ex-
tremity of Lake Erie. This confederacy embraced the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onon-

The History of Canada.

Champlain's judicious policy soon led to the arrival of additional
r settlers, and in 1623 the settlement at Quebec alone had
fifty inhabitants. To afford these more effectual protection
in case of danger, he now commenced the construction of a stone
fort. The distressed state of the colony, however, compelled him
to depart for France before its completion to procure supplies. On
his arrival there he found that De Montmorency, disgusted with the
trouble his viceroyalty had given him, had transferred it to his
nephew, the Duke De Ventadour, for a very moderate considera-
tion. The new viceroy was a member of a religious order, and
had long retired from the noise and bustle of Parisian life. A
zealous promoter of the interests of his religion, he at once avowed
that his object in becoming connected with Canada was not so
much to advance its temporal as its spiritual interests. This
announcement was received with the utmost distaste by the French
Protestants, many of whom already looked for\vard to a secure re-
fuge in the colony from persecution.

The duke promptly applied himself to carry out his views, but
, coon found that his course was beset with numerous diffi-
culties, and was likely to cause him much more trouble
than he at first imagined. Apart from the opposition he received
from influential Huguenots, and from the De Caens, who secretly
traversed his plans, among the rest, he soon ascertained that the
most skilful and adventurous of the French mariners chiefly be-
longed to the reformed faith, and that few Roman Catholics were
willing to proceed to Canada either as settlers or as sailors. After
much searching he found captains of his own faith to command his
vessels \ but he could not prevent the major part of the crews being
Protestants. To satisfy his rehgious scruples, he directed that the
means of exercising their religion should be restricted as much as
possible ', and, in particular, that they should not sing psalms on
the St Lawrence. The mariners, who had freely been permitted
to perform this act of worship on the open sea, remonstrated in
the strongest terms against the illiberal restriction ; but the duke's

dagas, Senecas, and Cayugas. They were the most powerful of all the tribes east
of the Mississippi. They uniformly adhered to the British during the contests
that took place subsequently with the French. In 1714 they were joined by
the Tuscaroras, since which time the confederacy has been called the Six Nations.
Remnants of the once powerful Iroquois are still found in Canada East at Sault
St Louis, or Caughnawaga, the usual rendezvous of Champlain, at St Regis, and
at the Lake of the Two Mountains ; whilst a considerable body of the same
people, under the title of The Six Nation Indians, are settled on the Grand River
in Canada West.

%
.^

The History of Canada.

of additional
:c alone had
lal protection
m of a stone
mpelled him
upplies. On
ted with the
red it to his
te considera-
s order, and
sian life. A
•nee avowed
was not so
Tests. This
^ the French
a secure re-
is views, but
imerous diffi-
more trouble
he received
who secretly
led that the
s chiefly be-
itholics were
lilors. After
ommand his
crews being
ted that the
as much as
psalms on
n permitted
onstrated in
the duke's

orders had to be obeyed, and the captains, by way of compromise,
allowed them greater latitude in other parts of their ritual.*

The conversion of the Indians, as well as the establishment of his
own faith in Canada on a secure and dominant basis, was a favourite
project with the viceroy. It had already engaged his attention for
years, and armed as he was now with the most ample powers, and
possessed of the greatest possible facilities, he resolved to make
every exertion for its accomplishment. Like many others of the
French nobility at this period, the Jesuits had acquired a complete
control over him. The order supplied him with a confessor, and
were well acquainted with his views, which they readily entered into.
Three Jesuit fathers and two lay brothers, charged with the conver-
sion of the Indians, accordingly embarked for Canada;
and where, on their arrival, they were comfortably lodged ^'
by the Recollets, now ten years in the country, despite an attempt
by the Protestant settlers to create a prejudice against the order.

Considering Champlain sufficiently orthodox to carry out his views
as to religious matters ; and satisfied, also, that no person could better
direct the temporal affairs of the colony, the duke continued him in
all his powers as Governor of New France. From one cause
or another, however, over two years elapsed before Cham-
plain returned to Canada, where he found matters in an equally un-
satisfactory condition as after his former absence. The fort was in
the same unfinished state as he had left it, and the population of
Quebec numbered only 55 persons, of whom but 24 were fit for
labour. Shortly after his return he found that a hostile spirit was
brewing among the Indians ; and that a fresh war might soon be
looked for between the Iroquois on the one hand, and the Algon-
quins and Hurons on the other. Champlain made the most strenu-
ous efforts to preserve peace, and strongly advised that several cap-
tive Iroquois, about to be tortured, should be restored to their
nation, with presents to compensate them for the injuries they had
already sustained. This salutary counsel was so far adopted, that
one individual was sent back, accompanied by a chief and Magnan,
a Frenchman. Unfortunately for the colony this pacific course had
a most tragical termination. An Algonquin who sought to produce
a war, in which he expected that his nation, aided by the French,
would be completely victorious, persuaded the Iroquois that this

• Champlain, who was also a strict Roman Catholic, constantly expressed a
pious horror of the Huguenots, and granted them as few privileges as possible.
He states in his memoirs that two-thirds of the ships' crews were usually Pro-
testants.

ii'i;"!!

fA-r

T/te History of Canada. ^

mission, though professedly friendly, was devised with the mo^c
treacherous intent. Regarding the strangers accordingly as spifs,
the latter prepared to take the most horrible revenge. The unfortu-
nate men found a caldron boiling, as if to prepare a repast for
them, and were courteously invited to seat themselves. The chief
was asked, if after so long a journey he did not feel hungry? He
replied in the affirmative, when his assassins rushed on him, and cut
slices from his limbs, which they flung into the pot and soon after
presented to him half cooked. They aftenvards cut pieces from
other parts of his body, and continued their torture until he expired
in the greatest agony. The Frenchman was also tortured to death
in the usual manner. Another Indian, more fortunate, while at-
tempting to escape was shot dead on the spot : a third was made
prisoner.

When news reached the allies of this dreadful tragedy, the war cry
was immediately sounded, and their remaining captives put to death
with every refinement of cruelty. Champlain himself, deeply afflicted
by the intelligence, saw no longer any possibility of averting hos-
tilities ; and felt that, as a countryman had been deprived of life, the
power of his nation would be held in contempt if his death were not
avenged.

Nevertheless, he could effect but little in the way of punishing the
Iroquois, owing to the impoverished state of the colony, which still
continued to be known by the pompous title of New France, A
few small houses lodged the inhabitants of Quebec, not yet increased
to 60 souls ; while at Montreal, Tadoussac, Three Rivers, and two or
three other points along the St Lawrence, the settlements were in a
wretched condition.* To make matters still worse, religious dissen-
sions agitated the colony. Champlain, a sincere Romanist himself,
endeavoured to carry out the views of the viceroy, while the De
Caens, on the other hand, being equally sincere Huguenots, sought
to obtain liberty of conscience for those of their own faith, and an
equal participation in every civil privilege.

Cardinal Richelieu having by this time firmly established his in-
fluence with his sovereign, found leisure to turn his attention

1 62 7

'* to New France, and to listen to the representations of its
viceroy, whom Champlain had already acquainted with the condition
of affairs. Apart from the suggestions of the duke, the cardinal
had the desire of crushing the Huguenots too closely at heart, to
miss any opportunity of doing them an injury. He accordingly re-
voked the exclusive privileges which had been granted to the De
* Heriot's His. Can. p. 49. See also Charlevoix.

Tlie Hlitory of Canada.

[Cacns , and at the same time, with the view of placing the colony
{in a more prosperous condition, encouraged the formation of a new
|com])any composed of men of influence and wealth ; and to which
[a charter was granted under the title of "The Company of One
[Hundred Associates." To this company Louis XIII. made over
[the fort and settlement at Quebec, and all the territory of New
JFrance, including Florida ; with power to appoint judges, build for-
Itresses, cast cannon, confer titles, and take what steps they might
[think proper for the protection of the colony and the fostering of
Icommerce. He granted them at the same time a complete monopoly
)f the lur trade, and only reserved to himself and his heirs supre-
lacy in matters of faith, fealty, and homage, as sovereign of New
"ranee, and the presentation of a crown of gold at every new acces-
sion to the throne. He also reserved for the benefit of his subjects,
ithe cod and whale fisheries in the Gulf of St Lawrence. The com-
)any were also permitted to import and export French goods to and
(from New France free of all restrictions.

In return for these privileges this company engaged, first, to sup-
1 ply all their settlers with lodging, food, clothing, and farm implements
[for three years ; after which they would allow them suflScient land to
i support themselves, cleared to a certain extent, with the grain neces-
sary for sowing it; secondly, that the emigrants should be native
Frenchmen and Roman Catholics, and that no stranger or heretic
should be introduced into the country; and, thirdly, they agreed to
settle three priests in each settlement, whom they were bound to
provide with every article necessary for their personal comfort, and
\ to defray the expenses of their ministerial labours for fifteen years.
After which cleared lands were to be granted by the company to the
' clergy, " for maintaining the Roman Catholic Church in New France."
This scheme of Richelieu, if we except its religious illiberality,
was equally able and adapted to the necessities of New France ; and
had it been carried out as he proposed, would, no doubt, have placed
Canada at the head of the North American colonies. But a storm
was now brewing in Europe which threatened serious interruption, if
not total destruction, to his plans. The imprudent zeal of the
Catholic attendants of the Queen of Charles I., in connexion with
Richelieu's persecution of the Huguenots, had aroused the hostility
of the English people ; and the Duke of Buckingham, to gratify a
private pique against the Cardinal, involved them in a war with
France. The conquest of Canada was at once resolved ui)on at the
English Court ; and Charles granted a commission for that purpose
to Sir David Kirk, one of the numerous Huguenot refugees then in

The History of Canada.

\ m

J f ■

England. Aided by his two brothers, Lewis and Thomas, and the
younger De Caen, who vowed vengeance against his native country
for the loss of his exclusive privilege, he speedily equipped a squadron,
and sailed for the St Lawrence. On arrival at Tadoussac he sent a
formal summons to Quebec, demanding its surrender. Champlain
immediately called a meeting of the inhabitants to consult what was
best to be done. On learning their determination to support him, he
returned so spirited an answer, that Kirk, ignorant of the weak state
of the defences, gave up his intention of capturing the town, and
contented himself with seizing a convoy on its way thither with
settlers and stores of all kinds.

But Champlain and his companions gained only a brief respite of
a few months by their courage. The following summer, in
^' the month of July, the English fleet again ascended the St
Lawrence. A portion of it under the Admiral remained at Tadoussac,
while the vessels commanded by his brothers sailed up to Quebec to
demand its surrender. Champlain distressed by famine, owing to the
capture of his supplies, and the settlement being severely harassed
by the hostile incursions of the Iroquois, at once resolved to comply
with the summons of the Kirks, and accordingly surrendered the
town and fort on the next day. The terms granted him were of the
most honourable character. The inhabitants were allowed to march
out with their arms and baggage, and were to be conveyed to France
if they desired it ; but, owing to the kind treatment they experienced
from the English, very few of them left the country. Leaving his
brother Lewis in command of Quebec, Sir David Kirk, accompanied
by Champlain, sailed for England in September ; and arrived safely
at Plymouth on the 20th of October.

Shortly after his arrival Champlain proceeded to London, for the
purpose of obtaining an interview with the French ambassador, who
was now endeavouring to adjust the differences between the two
nations. The ambassador, like a numerous party in France, had no
very exalted opinion of Canada ; and seemed to regard its restora-
tion, as one of the conditions of the proposed peace, as a very unim-
portant matter. Champlain's representations, however, prevailed at
the French Court. He clearly proved the vast national importance
of the fur trade and the fisheries ; and that the latter formed an
admirable nursery for seamen. These facts, backed by his strong
solicitations, induced Richelieu to negotiate for the restoration ot
Canada, Acadia, and Cape Breton, which, by the treaty of St Germain
en Laye, again became appendages of the French crown. The estab-
lishment of peace placed the company of One Hundred Associates

The History of Canada.

brief respite of
ing summer, in
scended the St
\ at Tadoussac,
p to Quebec to
le, owing to the
verely harassed
)lved to comply
urrendered the
lim were of the
owed to march
eyed to France
ey experienced
Leaving his
accompanied
arrived safely

ondon, for the
Dassador, who
tween the two
ranee, had no
rd its restora-
s a very unim-
r, prevailed at
al importance
ter formed an
by his strong
restoration ot
of St Germain
1. The estab-
ed Associates

1635.

possession of all their former privileges. They promptly reinstated
lamplain as Governor of Canada, and commenced extensive pre-
rations for a fresh expedition, which several Protestants offered to
|m. This the company would not permit, and stringent measures
jre resolved on to prevent the spread of ^^ Heresy" in their trans-
lantic possessions.

From various causes Charaplain was detained in France until the
bing of 1633, when he arrived once more at Quebec with
>nsiderable supplies, and several new settlers. He found
[e colony in nearly the same state as he had left it, both as regarded
iimbers and poverty. His first care was to place its affairs in a more
lospcrous condition, and establish a better understanding with tlie
^dians, and was tolerably successful in both respects. He next
reeled his attention to the establishment of a college, or seminary,
the education of the youths of the colony, agreeable to a scheme
Ip'oposed by the Jesuits, and one of whom (a noble who had lately
fjatered the order) gave 6000 crowns in gold to aid in carry-
ipg it out. The foundation of the seminary was laid in the
j|utumn of 1635, to the great giatification of the inhabitants.
Iphamplain, however, was not destined to see its completion. Ho
,ped in the following December, deeply regretted by the colonists,
i^d by his numerous friends in France. At once possessed of great
ixperience of human nature ; of energy, perseverance, enterprise, and
courage, he was eminently fitted to be the founder of a prosperous
Colony. The tenacity with which he clung to his projects, and the
Earnestness with which he sought to carry them out, prove that he
Anticipated the future greatness of Canada, and that he was creating
for himself an imperishable place in its history. His memoirs afford
the most ample testimony of his extensive professional knowledge,
^Jnd prove him to have been a faithful historian, a most intelligent
Iraveller, an acute geometrician, and a skilful navigator. They also
Irove, that the errors of his early colonial policy were principally
Jwing to the novelty of his position, and his want of experience in
idian affairs. While the pen of the historian can record his chequered
)rtunes, he will never be forgotten. The flourishing cities and
)wns of this dominion are enduring monuments to his foresight;
id the waters of the beautiful lake that bears his name, chant the
lost fitting requiem to his memory as they break in perpetual mur-
lurings on their shores.

CHAPTER 11.

THE GOVERNMENT OF M. DE MONTMAGNY.

MDE MONTMAGNY, the successor of Champlain, and a
• Knight of Malta, arrived in Canada in 1637. He was
accompanied out by M. De Lisle, who had been appointed to the com-
mand of Three Rivers, then next in importance to Quebec,
^'' and who was also a Knight of Malta. The new Governor
found the affairs of the colony in a very unsatisfactory condition. The
" Company of One Hundred," after their first great efiort, speedily re-
laxed in their exertions, and neglected to supply the necessary troops
and stores. In other respects, also, the colony was in a very critical
condition. The Algonquins and Hurons, unaided by the French,
were utterly unable to resist the assaults of the Iroquois, who, from
their intercourse with the Dutch and English traders, were fast
becoming acquainted with the use of fire-arms, and had rapidly
ascended to supremacy of power among the northern tribes. They
had already completely humbled the pride of the Algonquins, and
now closely pressed the Hurons ; scarcely allowing them to pass up
or down the St Lawrence, and capturing their canoes, laden with
furs, as they descended to Quebec. They also threatened the
settlement at Three Rivers, and their scouting parties occasionally
appeared almost under the very guns of its fort. While matters
remained in this condition, De Montmagny very readily entered
into a plan for the settlement of the Island of Montreal by the
Sulpicians, and which promised to check the future encroachments
of the Iroquois from that direction. Accordingly, in 1638,
M. Maisonneuve was formally invested with the govern-
ment of the island on behalf of that order : and on the 17th of May,
in the following year, the site of the town and fort was solemnly
consecrated by the Jesuit fathers. Apart from this event, the zeal
and enterprise of the religious orders made up, to a very great extent,
for the supineness of the company. They organised a mission at

1638.

The History of Canada. 29

sillcry, four miles above Quebec, for the conversion of the Indians,
land where Brubart De Sillery, once the magnificent ambassador ot
[Marie De Medicis, and who subsequently assumed the friar's cowl,
jbuilt a fort, a church, and dwellings for the natives. The Jesuits
[founded, shortly afterwards, the Hotel Dicu at Quebec as an hospital
[for the sick, and also an Ursuline Convent with a view to the educa-
Ition of female children.

The audacity which the Iroquois had shown, in appearing in arms
[before Three Rivers, and the insolence of their conduct generally,
rendered it necessary for De Montmagny to guard against a sur-
prise. However desirous he might be to punish them for the injuries
Ithey had inflicted on the French and their allies, and to compel
jthcm to abate the arrogance of their pretensions, (their aim now
[being evidently to give law, either by policy or force, to the whole
[country,) the want of resources compelled him to act on the defen-
sive. In pursuance of this policy, he determined to erect a fort at
the entrance of the River Richelieu, by which the Iroquois usually
made their descents, after having first mustered their forces on Lai<e
Champlain. The latter quickly perceived the important advantages
this fort would give the French, and detached a body of seven
hundred warriors, rapidly drawn together, to prevent its erection.
These made repeated assaults to effect that object, but were always
gallantly repulsed. The Richelieu Fort was soon completed and sup-
plied with as strong a garrison as the means of the colony would permit.

The courage and address displayed by the Governor on this occa-
sion made a salutary impression on the Iroquois, who felt that they
were not yet sufficiently strong to cope effectually with the French.
Although apparently disposed to carry on the war with vigour, they
indicated at the same time an inclination for peace, now earnestly
desired by the colonists, who were in a poor condition to continue
hostilities, and from which they could not hope for any solid advan-
tages. The native allies of the French being equally solicitous for
peace, it was finally arranged that deputies to settle its conditions
should meet at Three Rivers ; and whither De Montmagny also
went to be present at their interview.

The Iroquois had provided themselves with seventeen belts of
wampum, (one for each proposition they proposed to discuss,) which
they arranged along a cord fastened between two stakes. On their
orator coming forward he addressed the Governor by the title of
Ononthio, (great mountain,) a name which they continued ever after
to apply to him and his successors. He declared the sincerity of
the peaceable professions of the confederated tribes, " their wish to

The History of Canada.

:t1*

m i

forget the war song, and to resume the voi'^e of cheerfulness." The
wampum belts were to mark the calming of the spirit of war, the
opening of the paths of peace, the mutual visits to be paid, tlie feasts
to be given, the restitution of the captives, and other friendly pro-
ceedings. In conformity with Indian etiquette, De Montmagny
delayed his answer for two days, when, at another general meeting,
he gave as many presents as he had received belts, and expressed,
through an interpreter, the most pacific sentiments. Piskaret, one
of the principal Algonquin chiefs, then said, " Behold a stone which
I place on the sepulchre of those of my people who were killed in
the war, that no one may attempt to remove their bones, and that
every desire of avenging their deaths may be laid aside." The treaty
was still further ratified, in- the opinion of the natives, by three dis-
charges of cannon. It was for some time faithfully observed ;
and unwonted tranquillity for ten years reigned along the St Law-
rence. The Iroquois, the Algonquins, the Hurons, and the few
smaller Canadian tribes who were parties to the treaty, forgot their
deadly fends for a time, and mingled in the chase as though they
were one nation.

While thus providing for the safety of the Colony, De Montmagny
was not insensible to its other necessities, and caused an accurate
account of its condition to be drawn up and forwarded to France.
But the connexion of the "Company of One Hundred" with Canada
had not, by any means, produced the golden returns they had antici-
pated. The powerful incentive of individual profit was wanting ; a
deaf ear was accordingly turned to the Governor's applications for
assistance, and the Company appeared desirous to give themselves as
little trouble in the premises as possible.

Like his predecessor, in whose steps he was desirous to follow as
closely as possible, and whose views, as expressed in his memoirs,
he laboured to carry out, De Montmagny administered the affairs of
the colony with singular ability, and won alike the respect of the
Indians and of his own people, as well as that of the French Court,
by which he was long held up as a model for governors of new
colonies.* Unfortunately, however, for Canada, the conduct of De
Poinci, Governor-General of the French West India Islands, who
attempted to retain his situation in opposition to the orders of his
sovereign, induced the latter to determine that in future three years
should limit the powers of his principal colonial servants.
In pursuance of this unwise policy, De Montmagny was
recalled, and his successor appointed.

* Charlevoix in Heriot, vol i. p 56.

1647.

The History of Canada.

THE GOVERNMENT OF M. DE AILLEBOUST.

M. De Ailleboust was the next Governor of Canada. He was a
man of probity and worth \ was well acquainted with the wants of
the Colony, having already been commandant at Three Rivers ; and
although said to have been deficient in energy and ability to his
predecessors, was perhaps the best choice the Company could have
made. He found matters in a tolerably prosperous condition, not-
withstanding the neglect of the authorities in the mother country.
Society was fast assuming an ordinary commercial appearance.
From the Jesuits' Journal we learn that wood for fuel was this year
publicly sold at Quebec for one and three-pence currency per cord,
and the price of bread fixed at seven-pence half-penny for the six-
pound loaf. Labourers received one shilling and three-pence (equal
10 two and sixpence at present) per day and their board : ser-
\ants' wages by the year averaged four pounds. Eels, continued
this journal, were sold in the market for one shilling per hundred,
forty thousand having been taken at Sillery from August to No-
vember.

The peace, now of nearly nine years' duration, had enabled tlie
missionaries to make considerable progress in the conversion of the
Indians. Among those they found the Hurons the most tractable
and docile. Previous habits had partially trained them to agricul-
tural pursuits ; and at the suggestion of the missionaries they readily
formed themselves into villages. At Sillery four hundred families,
embracing in all nearly two thousand souls, were congregated together,
and several of their other settlements were likewise very populous.
Of this people alone it was estimated that fully ten thousand had
jjlaced themselves under the guidance of the missionaries, who bap-
tized over two thousand of their number on one occasion."' The
Algonquins were found much less tractable, and less willing to receive
religious instruction. Yet even among these fierce hunters the
missionaries made considerable progress. Nor were they wholly
unsuccessful among the Iroquois, over many of whom they exercised
so great an influence as to induce them to settle within the limits of
Canada ; and even, at a subsequent period, to turn their arms against
their own relations.

* Charlevoix and the Jesuit records say three thousand : but probably two thou-
sand are nearer the mark. The French missionaries usually required only a simple
assent to the truths of Christianity to qualify for baptism. The same system was
pursued by Xavier in Hindostan. Hence the great number of converts baptized
in both cases. Protestanism requires that converts be more fully instructed before
baptism.

The History of Canada.

1648.

i'A

1-1

Uc Aillehoust, well aware, from personal experience of the miseries
attendant on Indian w.irfarc, and desirous to preserve the
existing comparatively happy state of things, sought to
strengthen the position of himself and his Indian allies, by forming
a perpetual alliance with the New England colonies. To effect this
object he despatched an agent to Boston \ but the Knglish authorities
refused to form an offensive alliance with the French against the Five
Nations, which was one of the prinicipal conditions of the proposed
treaty, and the negotiation was in consequence broken off. Thor-
oughly incensed at this attempt to crush them, looking upon it as an
instance of bad faith, and tantamount to a breach of existing treaties,
and desirous likewise of avenging some minor injuries, the Iroquois
determined, if possible, to extirpate the French and their principal
native allies, the Hurons and Algonquins. They commenced hos-
tilities by a rapid movement on Sillery, where they arrived on Sunday
while the inhabitants were engaged in the usual religious exercises.
The cry was suddenly raised," We are murdered." An indiscriminate
massacre of the unfortunate Hurons had already commenced. Old
and young, male and female, alike fell victims to the Iroquois' thirst
for blood. The village was soon enveloped in a general conflagration.
I^ast of all the priest was murdered and flung into the flames ; and
soon a smoking pile of ruins was all that remained of what had been
a populous village a few hours before, and whose inhabitants fancied
themselves in perfect security.

Notwithstanding this dreadful massacre, the Iroquois having dis-
appeared for six months, the villages relapsed into their former
security. Tlie tranquillity, however, was disturbed by a party
^^' of the enemy, a thousand strong, who made an attack on
the mission of St Ignace. Some resistance was offered and ten
assailants fell ; but ultimately all the inhabitants were killed or carried
off. St Louis was next attacked, and made a brave defence, which,
though it was finally stormed, enabled many of the women and
children to escape. The missionaries could have saved themselves,
but attaching a high importance to the administration of the sacra-
ment to the dying, they sacrificed their lives to the performance of
this sacred rite. They were not killed on the spot, tut reserved for
a dreadful series of torture and mutilation.

Deep and universal dismay now seized upon the Huron race.
Their country, lately so peaceable and flourishing, was become a land
of horror and of blood ; a vast sepulchre of the dead. Utterly bereft
of hope, the nation broke up and fled for refuge in every direction.
A few reluctantly offered to unite with their conquerors, who, accord-

The History of Canada.

ing to their usual policy, readily accepted them. The greater number
sought an asylum among the Cat, Ottawa, and other nations still n>ore
remote. The missionaries were at a loss how to deal with the rem-
nant of their converts, now nearly reduced to the single village of St
Mary. The Island of Manitoulin, in Lake Huron, was proposed as
a safe asylum from danger ; but although they wanted the means or
courage to defend their country, the Hurons felt a deep reluctance
to remove to such a distance from it. They preferred the insular
situation of Amherst Island, in Lake Ontario, which it was hoped would
secure them against their dreaded foe. They enjoyed repose for some
time, but were obliged by the difficulty of obtaining subsistence, a
terrible famine having appeared among them, to form stations on the
opposite coast at ditTcrent localities. It was hoped that on any
alarm the inhabitants might flee to the islar.d for safety ; but the
Iroquois, on learning the existence of these posts, came upon them
successively with such suddenness and fatal precision, that it seemed
as if a destroying angel had guided their steps. One after another
was surprisetl and destroyed, till of many hundreds only a single in-
dividual escaped to tell the story of their massacre.

The unhappy remnant of the Huron nation, now reduced to 300,
renounced all hope of remaining in their native country. One of
their chiefs addressed the missionary, representing the extremity to
which they were reduced, being ghosts rather than men, and hoping
to preserve tlicir wretched existence only by a speo<ly flight. " If
the Father chose to remain where he was," continued the chief " he
could only have trees and rocks to instruct, as the deplorable remnant
of his flock mu=t so':'n be scattered in every direction by famine and
the foe." He concluded by requesting the missionary to conduct
them to Quebec, and place them under the immediate protection of
its inhabitants. After mature consideration this course was con-
sidered the m X advisable, and every necessary preparation for de-
p"* vv oedily made.

the land where they had so long been sovereigns, the
^ pi (1 their way in silence, fearful of being intercepted by
son scouung party of Iroquois. Their path lay through scene
after scene of desolation, terrible even to the savage, although so
fa liliarised with rapine and ruin. As this famine-stricken band
occasionally emerged 1 n the gloom of the forest into the clearings

.id been so recently situated, the charred
c and slaughter mutely, yet forcibly, pro-
ral destruction of the Huron name,
in its wisdom swept the aboriginal races

where populous village
ruins and traces of '
claimed the almost ■^
And. thus Providen

The History of Canada.

from Canada, and left the unoccupied soil to be inherited by an-
other and a more fortunate people, who, therefore, have not the
crime of injustice to the Red Man to atone for.

Worn out with fatigue the fugitives linally arrived at Quebec,
where their reception presented a mortifying contrast to that which
they would have met with among the friendly tribes of their own
race. The latter would have welcomed them as countrymen and
equc^.. ■, and supplied their wants to the best of their ability ; but now
they were merely regarded as objects of charity. One hundred of
the most destitute found refuge among the different religious houses.
The remainder were thrown upon the compassion of the community
at large ; and although considerable exertions were made to sustain
them, they had well-nigh perished from cold and hunger, in the in-
terval of a station being formed for them, which was named Sillery
after their former chief settlement.*

But a more deadly foe thai; even the Iroquois began at this period
to decimate the unfortunate Ind'.ans of Canada. The French traders
had already discovered the fondness of the Red Man for fermented
liquors, and now introduced it as an article of commerce among the
Montagnez, a small tribe occupying the neighbourhood of Tadoussac,
and the other Indians who frequented that post.f D-unkenness, and
the malignant passions in its train, apart from the diseases it origin-
ated, soon produced the greatest disorders among the impulsive
natives. The chase was forgotten for the time : they had other ex-
citement. The lodge of the Indian drunkard was soon visited by
poverty and want, as well as the house of the white inebriate.
Society was disquieted, rude as were the restraints it imposed among
the aborigines of the St Lawrence, and the Montagnez chiefs
solicited the Governor to erect a prison to restrain the disorderly
and criminal. Much to their credit the clerical order steadily set
their faces against the introduction of liquor among the Indians ;
but the traffic soon became too lucrative to be seriously interrupted
by their endeavours. For the present, however, they saved Three
Rivers from the evil, and the converts there for a brief space longer
were spared the blighting 'nfluence of intoxicating drinks.

The closing event of this year, so fruitful of disaster to Canada,
was the accession of a new Governor. M. De Lauson, one

^ ^°* of the principal members of the " Company of One Hun-
dred," was appointed to succeed De Ailleboust, whose three years
had expired. The latter retired without regret from an office, which

* Murray's Bri. Amer. vol. i. pp. 167, 170, 171.
+ Heriot's Hist. Can. p. 71.

i i '- ..

',»!,■ ■(..

I-

The History of Canada. 35

the want of the necessary means prevented him from filling with
dignity to himself, or benefit to the colony.*

THE GOVERNMENT OF M. DE LAUSON.

The new Governor, who arrived in Canada in 165 1, must have
been previously well acquainted with the wants of the
colony. He had hitherto had the greatest share in the ^
management of the Company's aftairs in France, and negotiated in
England for the restitution of Quebec, jvhile in the possession of the
Kirks. He was a man of integrity, had always taken a great in-
terest in the welfare of " New France," departed thither with the
best intentions, and was expected to retrieve its affairs. But he
found its situation much worse than he had expected. Disorder
and distress everywhere prevailed, and the several settlements were
rapidly on the decline. Elated /by their recent victories, and the
l^ossession of fire-arms, of which they had procured several from the
Dutch at Albany, the Iroquois no longer feared the French, and
spread themselves over the colony in every direction,. plundering and
murdering the inhabitants without distinction of age or sex. The
remnant of the Huron and Algonquin nations had already fled to
the north and west, whither also most of the smaller Canadian tribes
retreated, leaving the Iroquois in full possession of their ancient
hunting-grounds. Even the French had to withdraw from all their
smalie;. settlements, and were virtually blockaded in Quebec, Three
Rivers, and Montreal, from under the very cannon of which they
and their allies were sometimes carried off by bands of the enemy,
who also frequently set fire to the crops in these neighbourhoods.
At Three Rivers they routed a party of French who went out to
attack them, and killed their officer ; and so severely did they
harass the settlement at Montreal, that Maisonneuve, its Governor,
was compelled to make a voyage to France, to solicit in person the
succours which his letters had been insufficient to procure. He
returned in the spring with a reinforcement of one hun-
dred men, and supplies of the more necessary descriptions.+ ^^'

Finding themselves unable to make any impression on the fortified
places of the French, and having inflicted upon them and their allies
all the injury possible, the Iroquois next turned their arms against
the Eriez or Cat Tribe, whose hunting-grounds embraced the prin-
cipal part of the Canadian peninsula, extending from Lake Ontario
westward. The Governor, with the view of making the most of this

* Ileriot's Ilist. Can. p. 72.

t Smith's Hist, of Can. vol. i. p. 29. Heriot's Hist. Can. p. 73.

The History of Canada.

tm.

circumstance, resolved to send an agent to the Onondaga Iroquois,
who had always been more favourably disposed towards the French
than the other confederated tribes, to ascertain whether it was
possible to effect a peace. He chose for this purpose the Jesuit
Father, Simon Le Moyne, who departed on his hazardous mission
the 2d July.* In his progress upwards to the Onondaga
^^' country, the Father was kindly entertained by the Christian
Iroquois, whom he states in his journal " to have enriched him from
their poverty," and likewise met many of the Huron captives, " who
received him with joy." On the loth of August he met the deputies
of the Cayugas, the Senecas, the Oneidas, and the Onondagas in
council, whom he astonished by the knowledge he had of their
language and of the principal men of their nation.

The council terminated satisfactorily, the various deputies ex-
pressing themselves disposed to form a lasting peace with the
French, and treating the Father with the greatest consideration.
The Mohawks, the most hostile of the confederates, and whose
country lay nearest to Lower Canada, had no representative at
this council, and consequently did not indorse the peaceable pro-
fessions it originated. Subsequent events proved that in making
these professions, the Onondagas alone were sincere, and that the
object of the other tribes was to amuse De Lauson, and to prevent
him from assisting the Cats, who were a brave people, and had
prepared for a most vigorous defence of their country. The
Mohawks, especially, never for a moment abated their hostility
to the French, and irritated by this attempt to separate the con-
federates, and divert the trade of the western tribes from passing
through their country to Albany and New York, they resolved upon
wreaking their vengeance upon Canada, the moment the destruction
of the Cats enabled them to turn their arms in that direction.

Father Le Moyne arrived safely at Quebec in the month of Sep-
tember, and influenced by the gratifying report he made of his
success, and the favourable report of the other missionaries, the Gover-
nor determined to comply with the solicitations of the Onondagas
to establish a settlement in their country. Fifty men were
^^' chosen for this purpose, the command of whom was en-
trusted to Dupuys, a clever officer of the Quebec garrison. Four
Jesuit Fathers, one of whom was the Canadian Superior, accom-
panied the expedition (which their order aided most liberally to
equip) to found the first Iroquois church.

* Vide Relation de la New Fiance, 1654, for the Father's own account of this
journey.

The History of Canada.

ount of this

On the 7th of May Dupuys put his little band in motion for their
destination. The Mohawks were fully apprised of the objects of
the expedition, and had already made preparations for its
destruction. Four hundred warriors of their tribe pro- ^
ceeded to intercept it, but failing in their object, they avenged
themselves by pillaging some canoes, which had dropped behind the
main body and were insufficiently guarded.

It was not deemed expedient by De Lauson to make this insult a
ground of quarrel, as hopes were entertained that the influence of
the western Iroquois would be sufficiently strong to compel the
Mohawks to make reparation. But the latter soon showed that no
concessions need be looked for at their hands. Presuming on the
vacillating conduct of the Governor, and whom no doubt they
despised for the impolitic course he had pursued in permitting their
war against the Cats, and leaving that tribe to their fate without
daring to aid them, they made a descent on the Isle of Orleans,
one morning before sunrise, fell upon a party Oi ninety Hurons of
both sexes who were in the fields, killed six of these helpless people,
and carried off the rest. As they returned homewards they boldly
passed up the river before Quebec, and compelled their prisoners to
sing psalms when opposite the fort, as if to challenge the Governor
to attempt their rescue.. On arrival in their country the Huron
chiefs were tortured, and the remainder of the prisoners held in
severe captivity.*

The remainder of the Hurons on the Isle of Orleans, very justly
considering themselves no longer in security there, took refuge in
Quebec. Having found the French unable to protect them, in a
moment of despondency they now secretly sent a proposal to the
Mohawks, offering to unite with them, and become one people. To
this arrangement the latter promptly acceded, and finding that the
Hurons after a while regretted their offer, they at once took measures
to compel them to fulfil it. Scouting parties were spread around
Quebec in every direction, which massacred or carried into captivity
every Huron whom they encountered ; and when they had, as they
supposed, sufficiently humbled this unfortunate people, they sent
thirty deputies to De Lauson, to demand the surrender of such as
still remained under his protection.

Nothing could equal the haughtiness with which these deputies

acquitted themselves. They demanded to be heard in an assembly

of the French and Hurons, to which the Governor pusillanimously

acceded, and was most deservedly punished by the insolence of

* Ileriot's Hist. Can. p. 75. Murray's Brit. Amer. vol. i. p. 174.

^Ur/M

'r ',1

;;• i

pi' 1

!■

III-'

T/ie History of Canada,

their language. " Lift up thy arm, Ononthio," said their spokesman,
" and allow thy children whom thou holdest pressed to thy boscm to
depart ; for, if they are guilty of any imprudence, have reason to
dread, lest in coming to chastise them, my blows may fall on thy
head. I know," continued he, after presenting a belt of wampum,
" that the Huron is fond of prayers : that he confesses and adores
the Author of all things, to whom in his distress he has recourse for
succour. It is my desire to do the same. Permit the missionary
therefore who quitted me to return with the Hurons; and as I have
not a sufficient number of canoes to carry so large a number of
people, do me the favour to lend me thine."

The council broke up, without the Hurons having come to any
definite conclusion as to their future course. One clan alone finally
determined to keep their promise to the Mohawks, and departed
with them to their country accompanied by Fatlier Le Moyne.
The Governor was severely censured by the public, for the want of
courage he had displayed throughout the entire transaction, and it
was generally supposed that had he pursued a contrary course the
Mohawks would not have dared, engaged as the confederacy were
in a war with the Cats, to press their demands m the insolent manner
they had done. De Lauson finding that his pacific policy was dis-
liked by the colonists, and tired of a government which he now felt
sensible required the energy of a military man to control it
with effect, quit his post without waiting to be recalled, and
returned to France in disgust, leaving M. De Ailleboust in temporary
charge of the Province.*

Meanwhile, the Iroquois had pursued the war against the Cats
with the utmost vigour, the possession of fire-arms giving them a
great superiority in the contest. Out-post after out-post was captured
and broken up, and 700 warriors of the confederates finally stormed
the principal stronghold of the enemy, although defended by 1500
fighting men. This success completely annihilated the Eriez, or
Cats, as a distinct tribe. Those who were not killed or taken into
their tribes by the victors fled westward and >rthward ; and were it
not that the great lake which washed the southern borders of their
country still retains their name, every memorial of their existence
would have passed into oblivion.

The Iroquois about this period likewise turned their arms against
the Outawas or Ottawas, a branch of the great Algonquin race, whose
hunting-grounds lay along the Ottawa from Ottawa City upwards.
This tribe did not make the slightest resistance, and sought shelter

* Heriot's Hist. Can. p. 38.

1657.

The History of Canada.

amid the marshes along their river, or fled to the islands of Lake
Huron, whence a portion of them subsequently penetrated to the
south-west, Avhere they joined the Sioux. A great part of Lower,
and all Upper Canada, were now completely in the possession of the
Five Nations. They had become the terror of all the Indian tribes of
the north, and even on the side of New England, the cry of "a Mohawk,"
echoed from hill to hill, caused general consternation and flight.*

The Iroquois having attained to this formidable position among the
native tribes, and esteeming the neutrality of the French as now no
longer of any value, the destruction of the settlement in the Onondaga
country was resolved upon. The Christian Hurons were first mas-
sacred, some of them in the very arms of the Jesuit missionaries, and
Dupuys, who still continued to command this post, saw at once that
unless he and his people made a timely flight, they must shortly ex-
pect to share the same fate, an opinion in which he was confirmed
by the secret warnings of some native converts. Day after day the
position of this little band became more and more critical. Luckily
for them, three Frenchmen had been scalped and murdered near
Montreal by the Oneidas, which was promptly revenged by De
Ailleboust seizing a dozen of Iroquois, and placing them in irons.
This proceeding, although it added to the irritation of the confeder-
ates, now compelled them to proceed moi-e cautiously, not wishing
to endanger the lives of the prisoners.

Dupuys was destitute of canoes and other means of transport, but
he remedied this want by having several light batteaux constructed in
the garret of the Jesuits' dwelling, which stood apart from the other
buildings. A day at length was appointed for departure, and every
preparation made so secretly that the Indians knew nothing of what
was going forward. To conceal the launching of the batteaux a
great feast was given to them. As much noise as possible was
made : the boats were speedily launched. Gorged with food and
drugged with brandy, the Iroquois slept heavily, and awoke to find
the dwellings of the Frenchmen tenantless, and their occupants
spirited away in a most mysterious manner.f

After a dangerous journey of fifteen days' duration, Dupuys con-
ducted his detachment in safety to Montreal. But his grati-
fication at this fortunate occurrence was diminished by the ^ '5 •
reflection, that his precipitate flight was highly discreditable to his

• Colden's Hist. Five Nations, vol. i. pp. 3, 4. Heriot's Hist. Can. p. 77.
Missions to New France in 1659, 1660, p. 34. Brit. Amer. vol. i. p. 174.

t Vide Father Paul Ragueneau's Report to the Jesuit Superior in France, for
full details.

The History of Canada.

country, and that had he been properly supported, he could have
'maintained his position among a people who only derived their
power from the weakness of the French. He found the inhabitants
of the Island of Montreal in a state of great alarm, owing to the
appearance of parties of Iroquois, who, although they did not openly
proclaim themselves enemies, were evidently there for some hostile
purpose.

Towards the end of May, the Mohawks, having conducted Father
Le Moyne to Montreal, agreeable to their promise to place him in a
place of safety in case of hostilities, which they thus honourably re-
deemed, threw off the mask in conjunction with the other confeder-
ated tribes, and openly declared their determination to drive the
French from the country ; a purpose their ignorance of siege opera-
tions alone prevented them from accomplishing.

THE GOVERNMENT OF M. DE ARGENSON.

Meanwhile, the Viscount De Argenson had been appointed
Governor of Canada, and landed at Quebec on the nth of July.
The morning after his arrival he was startled by the cry " To arms ! "
in consequence of the appearance of the Iroquois under the very
cannon of the fort, where they had massacred some Algonquins.
Two hundred French and Indians were promptly detached in pur-
suit, but the enemy fled without waiting to be attacked.*

Shortly after this occurrence a strong force of the Mohawks ap-
proached Three Rivers, designing to surprise that post if possible.
Under pretence of holding a conference with the commandant, they
sent eight men to ascertain the condition of the garrison ; but these,
instead of being treated as legitimate deputies, were promptly placed
in prison. Disappointed in their object they retreated from the
colony, which for a brief space enjoyed repose. Of this the mission-
aries promptly availed themselves to prosecute their labours among
the northern tribes, and now discovered several routes to Hudson's Bay.

The principal events of the following year were the arrival of the
. Abbd De Montigney, the first Canadian bishop, on the 27th
'' ^' of June ; and the establishment of a regular parish priest-
hood, entitled to one-thirteenth of all the natural and artificial pro-
ducts of the country as tithes. In the spring of 1660,. the Iroquois
made a fresh irruption into Canada ; and 700 of their war-
riors, having defeated a strong body of the French and
their Indian allies, sent to intercept them, advanced to Quebec,

* Smith's Hist. Can. vol. i. p. 29. Heriot's Hist. Can. p. 87.

1660.

The History of Canada.

which they held in a state of blockade for the greater part of the
summer. Their scouting parties during this period spread them-
selves over the country in every direction, and committed all the
mischief possible. No succours arriving from France, a feeling of
utter despondency now took possession of the colonists, many of
whom prepared to return thither.

The first half of the succeeding year proved equally fruitful of dis-
aster to the colony. The enemy swept like a sirocco over ,,
the open country in every direction. Towards midsummer,
however, they retired, satisfied for the present with the injuries they
had inflicted ; and, in the month of July, sent two canoes to Mon-
treal, with a flag of truce to demand an exchange of prisoners, as
well as to signify that they were not indisposed to peace. After
some consideration the governor acceded to the proposed ex-
change, which Father Le Moyne was deputed to arrange, as well
as to ascertain whether an honourable peace could not be effected.
With these objects in view the Father accompanied the deputies,
who belonged to the Onondaga and" Cayuga tribes, on their return
home.

THE GOVERNMENT OF M. DE AVAUGOUR.

The ill-health of De Argenson, added to the chagrin he had ex-
perienced at the supineness of the Company, and some private dis-
contents, had induced him during the past year to desire his recall,
when the government was committed to the Baron De Avaugour,
who arrived out in the latter part of the summer, and shortly after-
wards visited the several settlements throughout the country. The
Baron, a military man, who had served in Hungary with distinction,
was possessed alike of great integrity and resolution of purpose, and
entered upon his government with the intention to administer it to
the advantage of the colony. But he -as astonished at the deplor-
able condition of affairs, and despairing of relief from the " Company
of One Hundred," now reduced to forty-five members, he promptly
complied with the solicitations of many of the inhabitants to re-
quest the King to take Canada under his immediate protection, and
to present him with a petition to that effect from themselves.
Boucher, commandant of Three Rivers, was sent to France to
lay their memorial before Louis XIV., and was graciously received
by his sovereign, who was much surprised to learn the de^ lorable
state of matters in a country naturally so fruitful of resources. , ,
He proirptly ordered M. De Monts to proceed to Canada
as his commissioner to inquire into its condition, and whedier it

The History of Canada.

would be desirable to annul the Company's charter. He directed
at the same time, that four hundred soldiers should hold themselves
in readiness to reinforce the posts most exposed to the assaults of
the Iro(iuois. The subsequent arrival of these troops at
^' Quebec was productive of the greatest satisfaction to the
inhabitants, and begat the hope that the colony would soon attain
to its merited importance and prosperity.*

Although Father Le Moyne still remained in the Onondaga coun-
try, his mission, beyond the exchange of prisoners, had pro-
duced no results of importance. The Indians, it is true,
were greatly attached to him as an individual, and listened attentively
to his religious instructions, but this did not prevent the Onondagas
and Cayugas from making a fresh irruption into Canada. On the
Island of Montreal they attacked the inhabitants at work in the
fields, and killed the town-major and a party of twenty-six soldiers
sent out to protect them, after a sanguinary conflict which lasted an
entire day.

In the meantime the proud and unbending De Avaugour became
involved in a serious controversy with the clergy, whom he disliked
on account of the great influence they exercised in the aflfairs of
the colony, and which not unfrequently clashed with his own autho-
rity. Hitherto he had prohibited the sale of intoxicating liquors
to the Indians, A woman disobeyed his ordinance on that head,
but was screened from punishment by the interference of one of
the Jesuit Fathers. This occurrence, in connexion with the dislike
he had already conceived against the order, so piqued the Governor
that he declared, " that since the traffic of spirits was not deemed by
ecclesiastics a fault punishable in a woman, no man should in future
suffer for a similar ofience." This decision, which the resolute old gen-
eral refused to alter, was productive of the greatest disorders, and oper-
ated most unfavourably to the authority of the clergy. The lust of
gain proved stronger with the people than the admonitions of their
confessors, whom some persons even taunted with the heavy tithes they
collected and their own avarice. The bishop was finally under the ne-
cessity of going to France to put a stop to this state of things, and suc-
ceeded in procuring from the King an order prohibiting the sale of
liquor to the Indians. The bishop's success in this respect, and the
favour with which he was otherwise regarded at court, so disgusted
the Governor, that he requested permission to resign his post. The

* Her. Hist. Can. p. 97. Smith's Hist. Can. vol. i. p. 35. Char. vol. ii. p.
120. Con. of Can. vol. i. p. 285. ' ,

The History of Canada.

1663.

agitation, however, had one good effect. It ultimately led to the
tithes being reduced from a thirteenth to a twenty-sixth part of the
products of tlie country. But, under the new arrangement, the flir-
mers were compelled to pay their tithes in clean grain, instead of in
the slieaf as before.*

The earlier part of the ensuing year was distinguished by a memor-
able event in the annals of this country. On the 5th of
February, about half-past four in the evening, a great noise
was heard throughout the whole extent of Canada. It resembled the
crackling and rushing sound of a great fire, and the inliabitants im-
agining their dwellings were in flames ran out of doors to save them-
selves. But their terror was if possible increased when they saw the
buildings tottering backwards and forwards, the walls, in many
instances, suddenly parting one moment, and closing again the next.
The earthquake caused the bells in the churches to peal, the pickets
of fences to bound from their places, great trees to be torn up by the
roots, and dashed hither and thither against their fellows of the
forest. Dogs howled, terrified cattle ran here and there, dense clouds
of dust increased the prevailing darkness, while the cries and lament-
ations of women and children, who supposed their last hour had come,
added to the horrors of the hour. The ice on the different rivers
was broken into fragments and frequently thrown into the air, several
small rivers and springs were dried up, and the water of others
strongly impregnated with sulphur. In some instances hills were
torn from their places, their broken fragments damming up the
courses of rivers, and inundating the neighbouring districts. But
derangements of this kind could only have been of a temporary char-
acter, for at the present moment the physical features of this country
present the same general aspect as they did to Jacques Cartier. f The
St Lawrence, from Kingston to Quebec, bears no marks of having
had its channel changed. The rapids of Lachine, or the Sault St
Louis, remain in the same state as when first seen by Europeans.
There appears to be some grounds for the supposition that the St
Lawrence, at one period, diverged into two streams at Cape Rouge,
which again united at Quebec. But if this has ever been the case,
it must have happened long before the French visited this country.
I All the old writers on Canada are pretty unanimous upon this point,
I and there can be no doubt that had any important changes in the
physical appearance of the country taken place, they would be easily

^^ * Smith's Hist. Can. vol. i. p. 33. Heriot's Hist. Can. p. 160.
IChar. vol. ii. p. ^B f Heriot's Hist, Can. p. 102, Jesuits' Jour. 1663. Smith's Hist. Can,
,p. 34. Hist. Brit. Amer. vol. i. p. 175,

vol, i.

The History of Canada,

traced, even at the present day, as belonging to that period in which
it is supposed the coal beds originally lying in the limestone basins
of the valley of the St Lawrence were destroyed by subterranean
fires.

The first shock continued without intermission for half an hour.
Three hours afterwards another violent shock was felt, and during
the night no less than thirty shocks took place. Slighter shocks were
subsequently experienced at intervals till the month of August. This
earthquake extended throughout Canada, Nova Scotia, and New
England. There can be no doubt that its effects were much exagger-
ated, owing to the novelty of the occurrence, and the extreme terror
it produced. The Jesuits' Journal, which supplies very full details
of the event, does not state that any buildings were destroyed, and it
says that no person perished, a proof of itself that the danger was
not very imminent. The geological formations in many parts of
Canada, and paUicularly the islands of tl-e St Lawrence, prove tlie
occurrence of severe eartliquakes and volcanic eruptions at some very
remote period, but there is no just grounds to suppose that the
causes »vhich produced these now exist, or that this country will ever
again be subjected to severe visitations of this kind.

CHAPTER III.

THE GOVERNMENT OF M. DE MEZY.

THE representations of his commissioner, as well as those of the
Canadian Bishop, who strongly advocated the measure, deter-
mined Louis XIV. to demand their charter from "The
Company of One Hundred Associates," and to place the •^'
colony in immediate connexion with the crown. The profits of the
fur-trade having been much diminished by the hostility of the
Iroquois, the Company readily surrendered their privileges, an act
which inaugurated a new and better condition of things in Canada.
As soon as the transfer was fully completed, and the necessary
arrangements made for the conduct of the government, a new Gover-
nor, M. De Mezy, was appointed for three years, and an edict*
published, which defined the powers of the principal officers of the
colony.

Hitherto, with the exception of a tribunal for the decision of small
causes, no court of law or equity existed in Canada, and the Gover-
nors decided according to their pleasure,! but provision was now
made for the regular administration of justice, in conformity with
the laws of France, and a sovereign council or court of appeal
created. It consisted of the Governor, the Bishop of Quebec, and
the Intendant, together with four others to be named by them, one
of whom was to act as Attorney-General, and another as Clerk.

De Mezy, accompanied by the Bishop, to whom he owed his ap-
pointment, arrived at Quebec in the latter part of the summer, and
at once assumed the government of the colony. He brought witii
him M. De Gaudais, who came out as the King's Commissioner to
take possession of the colony, to report on its condition, and also to
investigate the charges against the Baron De Avaugour. The latter
willingly resigned his authority and returned to France, where he

* Smith's Hist. Can. vol. i. p. 36-39.

t Heriot's Hist. Can. p. 104. Smith's Hist. Can. vol. i. p. 36.

I'l:^

m •

|.i

I'!

Jir «; .3.

nil t:

77/i? History of Canada,

found no difficulty in satisfying his sovereign how little he was to
blame. He afterwards entered the service of the Emperor of Austria
and was killed in 1664, while gallantly defending the fortress of Serin
in Croatia against the Turks. De Me/y brought out with him the
four hundred troops already alluded to, and one hundred families of
emigrants, with cattle, horses, and every description of agricultural
implements.

As the Governor was indebted for his post to the Bishop, the
Jesuits supposed that he would prove much more tractable and more
favourably inclined to them than his predecessor had been. On this
point they soon found they had made a serious mistake. The Gov-
ernor, like De Avaugour, and a large party in France, viewed the
growing influence of the order with the utmost dislike, and promptly
applied himself to thwart its views in the colony.* But he speedily
discovered that the Jesuits exercised an influence and power superior
to his own. Owing to their representations, or to those of their crea.
tures, Colbert determined on his recall. On the other hand, the
statements of De Mezy in his own defence had considerable
^' weight at the French court, and led to suspicions that the
Jesuits had attained to greater influence in the colony, than was con-
sistent with the interests of the crown.*

While these events were in progress, Louis appointed the Marquis
De Tracy viceroy of all the French possessions in the New World
with instructions to proceed to Canada, after making a tour of in-
spection through St Domingo and the Windward Islands, and to pro-
vide for its future security by curbing the power of the
^* Iroquois. The Marquis had scarcely departed on his
mission, when M. De Courcelles was directed to proceed to Canada
to supersede De Mezy. In conjunction with De Tracy, and Talon,
the Intendant, he was also to form a commission to investigate the
complaints against his predecessor, and, if necessary, was instructed
to bring him to trial. But De Mezy died before even the intelligence
of his recall had arrived, and thus escaped the mortifications which
he must have otherwise been subjected to.t

THE GOVERNMENT OF M. DE COURCELLES.

The Marquis De Tracy arrived at Quebec in the month of June,
bringing with him from the West Indies a portion of the regiment of

* Conquest of Can. vol. i. p. 287. Heiiot's Hist. Can. p. iii.
t De Mezy died 5th May 1665, before he knew of his recall. — Jesuits' your.
The commission of his successor was dated 23d March 1665.

The History of Canada.

Carignan, and was soon afterwards joined by Governor Do Courccllos,
and the remaining companies of this corps. In the same fleet with the
Governor came out 130 adult male emigrants, and 82 women and
children. It likewise brought, for the use of the colonists, sheep and
horses, and a large supply of agricultural and other stores.

The viceroy promptly applied himself to fulfd his instructions with
respect to the Iroquois. The force at his command readily enabled
him to repel their usual summer forays, and the harvest was couse-
(juently gathered in security. To check their future inroads, as well
as to place troops in close proximity to their country, and aftbrd a
secure base for offensive oi)erations against them at any time, forts
were erected on the river Richelieu at Sorel, at Chambly, and at a
point above its rapids. The vigorous manner in which these forts
were constructed, as well as the bolder front now assumed by the
French and their allies, discouraged the Iroquois for the time. The
Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas sent deputies to Quebec,
to assure the Governor of their peaceable disposition, and of their
desire to maintain in future a good understanding with the French.
One of the deputies (Garahonthie) pronounced an eloquent eulogium
on Father Le Moyne, who had died in his country a short time pre-
vious, and declared the sorrow of his people for that event.

But the Mohawks and Oneida,s still kept haughtily aloof, and as
this conduct left no doubt of their hostility, a winter expedition into
their country was resolved upon to punish them for the numerous
injuries they had inflicted on the colony.* This expedition, com-
posed of 300 soldiers and 200 militia, left Quebec on the
9th January, under the command of De Courcelles. Each
man carried, besides his arms and the necessary warm clothing,
twenty-five pounds of biscuit. During the march to the Richelieu
the greatest hardships were encountered, owing to the severity of
the weather, and some men were lost, who had to be replaced from
the garrisons on that river. Still, De Courcelles resolutely perse-
vered in the enterprise, and after a long and toilsome journey, the
greater part of which his troops performed with snow-shoes, he
found himself in the vicinity of Schenectady on the 9th of Feb-
ruary. In the evening some Indians making their appearance he
detached sixty of his best marksmen in pursuit. These were le<l
into an ambuscade, and had an officer and ten men slain and seven
wounded.

Intelligence of the approach of the Canadians speedily reached

* For full details of this expedition see Relation, &c. la Nouvelle France, 1665,
1666.

1666.

The History of Canada.

(

Brir

All)any, three of whose principal inhabitants were despatched to
inquire tlie cause of the invasion of EngUsh territory. De Cour-
celies stated, that he was not aware of being on ground belonging
to England, that he had come solely to seek out and punish the
Mohawks for the numerous injuries they had done to the people of
Canada, declared himself willing to pay in money for provisions,
and requested that his wounded men might be taken to Albany
and attended to, which was done. Much to his chagrin, however,
he learned that he was still three days' march from the villages of
the Mohawks, which were well fortified after the usual Indian manner,
and would be resolutely defended. Under '•'-ese circumstances he
resolved upon a retreat, and on the 12th of February put his little
army in motion on their return. The Mohawks despatched a body
of warriors in pursuit, but so rapidly did the French retire, that these
had to rest satisfied with the capture of three stragglers from the
main body, and tl e scalps of five men who had perished from hunger
and cold.*

But, although this expedition failed in its object of surprising the
Mohawks, and of inflicting a severe chastisement on them while
unprepared to defend themselves, the hardihood and courage which
it displayed made a most salutary impression on the confederate
tribes. They no longer felt themselves safe from attack ; ai.a
feared that the evils of invasion and plunder, which they had so
often inflicted on the Canadians, would now be retaliated on them-
selves. The statements of the prisoners captured by the Mohawks
strengthened this supposition ; and in the following May deputies
.igain arrived from the three western tribes to demand the con-
tinuance of peace. The Oneidas speedily resolved to follow their
example, and used their influence with the Mohawks to send
deputies also to Quebec, to make peace with "Ononthio." But
these haughty warriors refused to become suitors in this way. The
Oneidas, they said, might represent thern, and they would be bound
by their acts, but this was aU they would concede. At the same
time, they took the most effectual method of preventing the con-
clusion of peace. One of their scouting parties massacred three
officers in the vicinity of Fort Anne, recently erected on an island
in Lake Champlain, and captured some prisoners. To punish :his
outrage, Captain De Sorel promptly collected a force of three
hundred men, and led them by forced marches towards the villages
of the Mohawks. The latter were speedily acquainted with this
movement, and feeling themselves unable singly to oppose the
* Doc. Hist. New York, vol. i. p. 71. Heriot's Hist. Can. p. 117.

The History of Canada.

French, resolved upon submission. Two deputies were despatched
to meet De Sorel. These took tlie prisoners with tliem, and were
instructed to offer reparation for the nuirdcr of the three officers.
The deputies met the French while still distant sixty miles from
their villages, and their protestations so appeased iJc '&oxq\, that he
returned and had them conducted to Quebec. Here they \.'ere treated
with no small consideration, and the second day after their arrival were
invited to dinner with the viceroy. The conversation chancing to
turn on one of the murdered officers, one of the Mohawks boasted
that it was he who had killed him. In a transport of rag'.' I)e
Tracy told him he should never kill another, and forgetful o£
liis character, as an ambassador, ordered him to be immediately
strangled.

There was no course now left open to the viceroy, but tliat of a
prompt and vigorous invasion of the Mohawks in their own country.
The death of their chief could only strengthen their enmity towards
the French, and his policy was, therefore, to extirpate them if
possible, or, at all events, to so weaken their power that their hostility
in future would not endanger the repose of the colony. Preparations
for an expedition into the Mohawk counii^, on a larger scale than
ever, were at once undertaken, and so vigorously were they pro-
secuted, that by the end of September a force of 1200
soldiers and militia, and 100 Indians, rendezvoused at Fort
Anne, on Lake Champlain.

Tlie main body of this force was commanded by De Tracy in per-
son, although he was now seventy yearr of age : De Courcelles led
the vanguard. During the march provisions fell so shor'; that the
troops were on the eve of mutiny ; but fortunately a chestnut grove
enabled them to appease their hunger, and the deserted villages
of the enemy, who fled at their approach, soon alter supplied them
with abundance of food.

Hitherto tiie IMohawks ^;ad waged war for years without havinj'; had
their homes desecrated by a foe, but they were now subjected to a mis-
fortune which they had so c !'ten inflicted on other.' . Overpowered
by a superior force, they were compelled to beiiold their homes, much
more comfortably constructed than those of die otiic; i^alive tribes,
given one after another to the flames; and the store; of corn, wliich
tiiey had pmdently collected, plundered or destroyed by their invaders.
One stronglvjld they resolved to defend. It was protected by a triple
hne of palisades twenty feet in height, flanked by ba .tions at the
angles, and contained large stores of provisions. Ikit, as the French
:ip;)roached with two fieldpieces to the assault, their courage faiL-d

1666.

The His/ory of Canada.

. iiiii "'

thcni, and they fled into tlic recesses of the forest, leaving a few old
men and women to the mercy of their foes.*

Famine was now the fiercest enemy which the Mohawks could have
to deal with. They must either await its destru. Uve ravages in their
own country, or scatter themselves among the other Iroquois to obtain
sustenance during the coming winter. In both cases they would be
powerless for offensive operations : so De Tracy, satisfied with the
success he had achieved, put his troops in motion on their return.
After suffering from a storm on Lake Champlain,in which eight men
were drowned, they arrived in Canada, where they were welcomed
by t)ie acclamations of a grateful people, and a Te Deum in the
Cathedral of (Quebec.

The viceroy now strengthened the settlements on the St Lawrence,
as the surest mode to repress the future incursions of the Iroquois.
At the same time an attemi)t was made to carry out a royal edict,
directing the inhabitants to collect as much as possible in villages,
so as to act in concert in case of attack. This was, however, found
to be impracticable, owing to the scattered manner in which
'■ the clearings had already been made. One of the last
acts of the viceroy, before 'iis departure, was to confirm the West
India Coni])any in all the privileges previously appertaining to the
Company of One Hundred iVssociates ; and thus Canada was
again subjected to a monopoly, wiiich operated most injuriously to
her r'-" ;perity.

The departure of De Tracy placed the chief authority of the colony
in the hands of De Courcelles under most favourable circumstances.
The Iroquois earnestly sued for peace, which was now
establisiied with bettei prospects of continuance than ever
before. In civil affairs the Governor had an able coadjutor in the
Intendant, or Finance Minister, Talon, who lost no opportunity to
.serve the cdlony, and develop its resources. This prosperous condi
titm of matters induced the greater part of the officers and
^' men of the regiment of Carignan to .settle in the country.
'I'o sujiply the latter with wives the Ciovernment sent out several
luiu'lred women from France. Many of these were not of the ])uresl
reputation, yet so great was the matrimonial demaiid, that the whole
cargo was di»f,<osed of in a fortnight after its arrival.

in 1670 tlu- peawc which had so happily been established was
sciioudy nieiii^ccd. i'lie robbery and murder of an Indian chiet.

1668,

Doc. Ilil. >'c\v N'i'rl, v-.l. 1 |.p, Cif), 70,
\\^. (an. vol. i. p. 5^.

Ikii'ir,- IIi>t. ','aii. !>. 121. .Smill:

The History of Canada.

while on his way to dispose of his furs, by three French soldiers,

and some quarrels between the Senecas and Ottawas,

1670.

threatened again to deluge the colony with all the horrors
of warfare. The Governor promptly proceeded to Montreal, and
there had the soldiers tried and executed for the murder in the pre-
sence of the assembled Indians, whom he declared he would punish
with the same severity if they disturbed the p iblic peace. By this
impartial conduct, and his prudent representa ions, he induced the
Ottawas and Senecas to send deputies to Quebec, where all their
disputes were satisfactorily arranged.

But a more destructive foe than even the Iroquois was now about
to afflict the hapless red men of Canada. The small-pox made its
appearance amongst them this year with the most fatal virulence.
Some of the small tribes resident north of Quebec were almost wholly
swept away. Tadoussac, where 1200 Indians annually assembled to
barter their rich furs, was completely deserted ; and Three Rivers,
once crowded ^he Algonquins, was now never visited by a red

man. Time - ' i r. i abate the ravages of this fatal disease. A few
years subsequcr.'..^, . attacked the Indians of Sillery, and out of 1500
scarcely one survived.

The salutary dread with which the French had inspired the Indians,
enabled De Courcelles, during the succeeding year, to inter-
pose effectually between the Senecas and the Poutcouatamis,
a western tribe, for the preservation of peace. At the same time,
the religious and political zeal of the Jesuit missionaries was fast
building up an influential French party among the Onondaga and
Cayuga Iroquois. Many of the converts had already come to reside
ill Canada. These were now separated from the Huron Christians,
and established in a distinct settlement of their own at Caughnawaga,
near the Lachine Rapids. French influence tvas also strengthened
among the distant tribes of the north-west by the mission of Nicholas
Perrot, an experienced traveller, wlio had embraced tlie service ci
the Jesuits from necessity. This bold adventurer penetrated among
the tribes dwelling on the borders of the upper lakes, took possession
of their country in the name of his sovereign, and speaking their
language fluently, he readily persuaded them to consider themselves
under the protection of the Governor of Canada, and to send de-
puties to the Falls of St Mary. Here they were met by the repre-
sentative of De Courcelles, acknowledged the sovereignty of hi.« Kinp^
and witnessed the erection of a cross bearing the royal arms of France,
as an evidence that he had taken possession of their soil.

Although tlie Iroquois were at peace with the French and th^r

1671.

.14.;

The History of Canada.

\\:^ M.-'y\

native allies, they ■were far too restless not to carry their arms in other
directions. On their southern borders they terminated a long and
fierce struggle with two tribes, by a final defeat and incorporation
with themselves. Of this event De Courcelles was duly made aware,
and he at once saw the necessity of imposing new barriers to their
future forays iiito Canada. A fort at Cataraqui, situated at the foot
of Lake Ontario, and at the head of the St Lawrence, would form an
excellent base foi operations at any time against the western Iroquois,
as well as a valuable trading post. Here he accordingly met the
deputies of those nations in person, explained that he wished to esta-
blish a trading ]■ >st in the neighbourhood, and obtained their consent
thereto. Gratified at the success of liis plans thus far, he returned
to Quebec to find his successor already arrived in the person of Louis
De Buade, Count De Frontenac.

His failing health had previously compelled De Courcelles to
solicit his recall, and he returned home followed by the regrets of the
majority of the inhabitants, to whom his chivalrous courage and
prosperous administration had endeared him. With the religious
orders, now becoming an important element in Canadian society, he
was far from popular ; and the Jesuits, whose views he especially
thwarted, regarded him with positivt dislike. Wisely leaving the
chief burden of the civil administration to Talon, whose greatest
fault was that he deferred too much to the clerical orders, the Colony
flourished greatly under his rule, taking the exactions of French
monoply into consideration. The Iroquois feared him for his courage,
and respected him for his love of justice and moderation, qualities
which also won for him the sincere respect of the Indian allies of the
French. He sincerely desired the prosperity of Canada, and prior
to i.is departure other cares did not prevent him from impressing
upon his successor the necessity of a fort at Cataraqui to insure its
continuance.*

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE COUNT DE FRONTENAC.

The Count De Frontenac was already a lieutenant-general, and

had frequently distinguished himself as a soldier. Brave, talented,

and possessed ot most of the virtues o^ tne old nobility ot

' ' France, he likewise inherited many of their vices. His

noble descent, as well as military ed- cation, made him haughty and

overber.ring in his manners. It was his nature to command: he

wished to rule alone. This circumstance of itself soon rendered him

unpopular with the Jesuit fathers, to whom his great personal influ-

* He-iot's Illbt Can. vol. i. i>. 293. Sniilli's Hist, Can, pp. 62, 63.

The History of Canada.

ence at the French Court and numerous friends made him very formid-
able. The free and easy manners of a colony, where comparative
equality of possessions had planted to some extent the incipient
seeds of democracy, was little suited to the count ; and those who
knew him best augured a new order of things on his arrival. To
Talon especially, this prospect was most unpleasant. The indolence
of De Courcelles in civil affairs, had hitherto given him a principal
share in the internal administration of the colony. Unwilling to
have his influence diminished he had some time before De Frontenac's
arrival applied for his recall, but had been prevailed upon by the King
to remain at his post until its affairs should be placed on a more
permament footing,

Flattered by the compliment his sovereign had paid him, the zeal
of Talon was stimulated to fresh exertions in his service.
In 1673 he despatched Father Marquette, a Jesuit, and '^'
Joliet, a geographer of Quebec, to search for the great river which
the Indians had so often described as flowing towards the south.
These adventurous men, accompanied by six voyageurs, boldly navi-
gated Lake Michigan in bark canoes, ascended Fox River, and
finally struck the Mississippi in 42, 30 north latitude. Descending
its stream till they satisfied themselves that it flowed inlu
the Gulf of Mexico, they retraced their course towards ''^'
Canada. Marquette subsequently decided to remain among the
Indians of the north-west, while Joliet descended to Quebec to in-
form Talon of the gratifying results of the expedition. He found
the intendant had already departed for France, his successor, Du
Chespeau, having arrived.

Canada now enjoyed a long repose from Indian warfare. Never-
theless, her prosperity was far less rapid than it might have been.
The despotic conduct of the Governor led to continual quarrels be-
tween him and the other principal officials. He imprisoned a priest
for inveighing against him from the altar, exiled, of his own autho-
rity, the attorney-general and all the councillors, came to an open
rupture with the intendant, filled the principal departments with
his own creatures, and thus became the sovereign arbiter of the
colony, which he ruled with a rod of iron. The surrender
of its charter by the West India Company, rather increased
than diminished his power, of the arbitrary exercise of which fre-
quent complaints were made to Louis XIV., whirh, however, owing
to the influence of his friends received but very liuie attention.*

* Heriot's Hist. Can. p. 149. Smith's Hist. Can. vol. i. p. 68. Brit. Amer. vol.
i. p. So.

1675-

The History of Canada.

ii" ■ I

1677,

The departure of Talon and the death of Father Marquette, pre-
vented for some time the prosecution of fresh discovery
' ' and settlement on the Mississippi. In 1676 this project
was again resumed by the Sieur De la Salle, a young man of family,
who had come to Canada to discover, if possible, some route to
Japan and China ; or, in other words, a north-west passage by land,
so long fruitlessly sought after at sea. Thus open to schemes of
adventure and profit, the representations of Joliet fired his imagina-
tion, and he resolved to descend the Mississippi to its mouth, which
he felt confident must be somewhere in the Gulf of Mexico. He
speedily won the favour of De Frontenac, who sent him
to France to lay his plans before the king, backed with
strong recommendations from himself La Salle met with the great-
est success. Louis XIV. granted him the seigniory of Cataraqui,
bestowed on him the government of the fort there, (Frontenac,) on
condidon that he should cause it to be rebuilt with stone, invested
him with the privilege of carrying on a free commerce, and autho-
rised him to resume the discoveries on the Mississippi.

Encouraged by the success of his mission. La Salle returned with
thirty workmen and pilots to Quebec, where he arrived on
the 15th of September. After a brief stay there he ascended
to Fort Frontenac, which he promptly rebuilt with stone. At the
same time he had a barque constructed in which he sailed to Niag-
ara, where he erected a small fort, and whence he vigorously pro-
secuted the fur-trade with the Senecas, whose country he traversed
on foot. Ably aided by De Tonti,his second in command, anodier
barque was const! ucted on Lake Erie during the following
'^* summer,* in w' 1 he embarked with forty men for ]\Iack-
inaw.f But a fierce storm by water and hardships on land dis-
heartened his followers, many of whom deserted him. Leaving
De Tonti in command of a fort he had built on the Illinois,
he returned to Frontenac for assistance and supplies, as he still,

1678.

li-:
sift

* Modern usage has abbreviated the long Indian name of Machilimakinac, given
to the strait or river connecting Lakes Huron and Michigan into Mackinaw. I
have used the latter phrase as much the more desirable. I likewise use the mo-
dern names of places, Indian tribes, &c., whenever it can be done with propriety.
Many recent writers on Canada persist in using obsolete names for places and
tribes, which only tend to confuse the reader. Even Warburton falls into this
error very frequently, and applies terms to the Iroquois and other Indians, which
were used by the old French writers and none others.

+ A census taken this year gave S41S souls as the number of French inhabitants
in the colony. — Char. vol. i. p. 467.

•!i;>

The History of Canada.

1680.

with unshaken resolution, determined to persevere. He retraced
his way westward with a reinforcement of twenty men,
traversed the great " Father of Rivers " to its mouth, and
after enduring hardships of the severest kind and encountering
many dangers, returned to Quebec in the spring of 1683.
He sailed soon afterwards for France, and found little diffi- ^ ^'
culty in equipping an expedition to proceed to the Mississippi, con-
sisting of four vessels and 290 men. Unfortunately the latitude of
the river's mouth had not been correctly asrertained. He
sailed one hundred leagues too far southward, formed a ^'
settlement in the Bay St Bernard, and was murdered by his mutinous
followers, while wandering in the interior in search of the
fabulous mines of St Barbe. His death broke up the settle- '"
nient. Some died by hunger, others were massacred by the Indians;
others again were encountered by the Spaniards, and sent to labour
in the mines. Seven men only returned to Canada to relate the
dreadful story of their misfortunes.*

* Smith's Hist. Can. vol. i. pp. 65, 66. Ileriot's Hist. Can. pp. 151 159. Con-
quest of Can. vol. i. p. 297. llaynal, vol. iii. p. 462.

nhabitants

CHAPTER IV.

THE GOVERNMENT OF M. DE I.A BARRE.

• '■■m:«i''

1682.

NEARLY ten years had now elapsed since the accession of De
Frontenac to the Government of the colony, yet he remained
haughty and unyielding as ever. The Inler.dant, Du Ches-
neau, a man almost as despotic as himself, still darkened the
pathway of his power, and time instead of diminishing had added to
their mutual dislike. Both had their partizans at the French Court,
and while the numerous complaints against the Governor had weak-
ened the hands of his friends, the intrigues of the Jesuits placed Du
Chesneau daily in a better position, till he came to be looked upon
as altogether the aggrieved party. But finally, to terminate the diffi-
culty and to gratify, in some measure, the Governor's friends, both
were recalled. The Count had M. De la Barre for his successor :
the Intendant, M. De Meules.

The new Governor entered upon his functions at a critical period
for Canada. The transfer of the Dutch settlements in the State of
New York to Great Britain, had placed a powerful and energetic
rival in immediate communication with the Iroquois and the other
Indian tribes. Trade had already taught the red man, who had
intercourse with Europeans, to discriminate between the relative
value of similar merchandise, and he soon discovered that the Eng-
lish traders sold much cheaper than the French. The Iroquois, who
still cordially disliked the latter, were not slow fo avail themselves of
this circumstance to their disadvantage, and endeavoured to divert
the current of trade from the St Lawrence to their own country. Nor
were these politic people, who scarcely merit the name of savages at
this period, by any means unsuccessful. They introduced the Eng-
lish traders among the western tribes, weakened French influence
with the Ottawas and others of the north-west Indian:, and thus
gave a serious blow to the Canadian fur- trade at its very source. The
murder of a missionary friar by the Senecas, isolated collisions with

The History of Canada.

French trappers, and occasional forays into the hunting-grounds of
triucs friendly to France, displayed additional ill-feeling on the part
of the Iroquois. Time had weakened their dread of " Ononthio,"
and although they were still unwilling to come to an open rupture,
but little provocation was necessary to rekindle the flame of savage
warfare along the St Lawrence.*

In pursuance of his instructions from the King,t De la Barre
promptly applied himself on his arrival to place public matters in a
better position. He summoned a council of the chief men of the
colony, which he instructed to report on the causes that had produced
the present condition of affairs, and to state the remedies necessary to
restore the country to prosperity. This report, after showing the
crafty and selfish policy of the Iroquois, provi the necessity of addi-
tional reinforcements of troops and emigranin l)efore offensive opera-
tions could be undertaken against them with any prospect of success;
and that money also was wanting to build boats to navigate Lake
Ontario, to erect magazines for provisions, and to cover the general
expenses of the war, to which the resources of the colony were
wholly inadequate.

The report met the approval of the Governor, who promptly for-
warded it to France. Louis, now aware of the critical condition of
his Canadian possessions, obtained an order from the licentious
Charles to Governor Dongan, of New York, to maintain a good under-
standing with De la Barre, of which order the latter was duly made
aware. A correspondence ensued between the two Governors, which,
apart from courteous professions of individual good will, did not
lead to very amicable results. Dongan was too desirous to retain
the western traffic, now very lucrative, at New York, to pay much
attention to the order of his sovereign. The Iroquois, knew well
they had nothing to fear from him, and while De la Barre's
courier was still on his return to Quebec, a scouting party ^'

of the Senecas attacked fourteen Canadian traders, seized their
merchandise, and subsequently invested the French post on the
Illinois river, which was gallantly defended by the Chevalier De
Bangy.

These outrages, as well as intelligence that the Iroquois were
secretly preparing for hostilities, and had already sent deputies to
the Virginian Indians to prevent an attack from that quarter, left De
la Barre no other alternative but war. He accordingly resolved to
strike the first blow, and to carry hostilities at once into the Seneca

* Doc. Hist. New York, vol. i. p. 96.

t Ueriot's Hist. Can. pp. 161, 162. Smith's Hist. Can, vol. i. pp. 93, 94.

The History of Canada.

»^!J-

I (')84.

country. At the same time he sought to weaken the confederate
Iroquois by endeavouring, although fruitlessly, to persuade the
Mohawks, the Oneidas, and the Onondagas to remain neuter in the
event of a war. Their mediation between the French and the
Senecas, in the present emergency, was all these tribes would concede.
If this was refused they avowed a determination to make common
cause with their confederates, and stated, that in this case they had
received assurance of ample support from New York."'

The trading posts established at different points among the Indians
of the north-west, gave the French so much influence in that direction
that a body of 500 warriors was speedily drawn together to co-operate
with the force, consisting of 700 militia, 130 soldiers, and
200 Indians, under the command of De la Barre, which
moved upwards from Montreal on the 21st of July, 01 route for
Niagara, where it was intended to penetrate into the Seneca country.
But sickness among his troops and the want of provisions detained
the Governor in the neighbourhood of Fort Frontenac, where he
patched up a humiliating peace with the Onondaga, Oneida, and
Cayuga Iroquois ; one condition of which was that he should
retire on tlie ensuing day. This he complied with, leaving the
north-west Indians, much to their disgust, to return home from
Niagara.

On the Governor's arrival at Quebec, he found that a reinforcement
of troops and supplies had arrived from France, as well as despatches
which placed him in an awkward predicament. The King supposed
he was waging a successful war against the Iroquois, and that the 300
additional troops he now sent out would enable him utterly to extir-
l)ate them : or, at the least, to punish them so severely, that they
would be glad to seek peace on whatever conditions he might think
proper to impose. At the same time he instructed the Governor,
" that as the Iroquois were stout and robust, and would be useful in
his galleys, to make a great many of them prisoners, and have them
shipped to France by every opportunity." Great, therefore, was the
surprise of Louis, when he learned the true state of affairs from the
account given by De la Barre himself, as well as from a lengthy
report supplied by the Intendant, who placed the Governor's conduct
in the most unfavourable light. De la Barre was immediately pro-
nounced unfit for his post, and the Marquis De Denonville, an active
officer, appointed to supersede him. At the same time, the Chevalier
De Callieres, a captain of the regiment of Navarre, was appointed
Governor of Montreal. His command was described as extending
* Doc. Ilisl.New York, vol, i. pp. 109-139, Conquest of Can. vol. i. p. 309.

The History of Canada.

to Lake St Peter.* He proved an able and jiulicious officer, and soon
came to be regarded by the colonists with very great respect.

THE GOVERNMENT OF M. DE DENONVII.LE.

A reinforcement of troops proceeded to Canada in the same fleet
whicli brought out the Governor. The voyage hafl been long and
boisterous, yet impressed with the urgency of affairs, Dc .
Denonville only allowed himself a few hours' repose at ^'

Quebec, till he departed for Fort Frontenac. On arrival there, he
sedulously applied himself to learn the true state of matters with
regard to the Iroquois, and the other Indian nations. The long and
lucid reports which he furnished to the French court on this head
display ecjual industry and ability, and possess much vaine as
liistorical documents. He faithfully depicted the condition of
affairs, and stated it would be more to the advantage of the colony
to maintain i)eaceable relations with the Iroquois ; but that their
recent insolence of tone rendered war a necessary evil. To enable
this to be carried on successfully, he strongly recommended the
strengthening of Fort Frontenac, as the point d appui of offensive
operations ; and the construction of another fort at Niagara to be
garrisoned by 500 men, which would give the French the complete
command of Lake Ontario, keep the Senecas, the most powerful of
the Five Nations, in check, and prevent the Indian and Canadian
trappers of the north-west from trading with the English. As the
cost of maintaining this post would possibly be an objection to its
construction, he proposed it should be rented. The merchants of
Quebec highly approved of the Marquis's plan, and offered to supply
the proposed fort with merchandise for nine years, and to pay an
annual rent therefor of 30,000 livres.

The extensive preparations for war proposed by the Governor, as
well as a demand for mlditional troops from France, would naturally
lead to the supposition that he was about to attack a very numerous
foe. Such was not the case. The population of a small Canadian
town at the present day would outnumber the whole Iroquois nation,
which scarcely amounted to 7000 souls. The Mohawk tribe could
muster only 200 warriors, the Oneida 150, the Onondaga 300, the
Cayuga 200, and the Seneca laoo.f But these were no ordinary
men. In intelligence they were far superior to the uneducated

* Heriot's Hist. Can. pp. 172-190. Colden, vol. i. p. 66. Hist. Brit. N. Amer.
vol. i. pp. 181-183.
t Doc. Hist. New York, vol. i. p. 196.

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The History of Canada.

1686.

peasantry of civilised Europe, while in their love of country, their
natural eloquence, and their indomitable courage, they rivalled the
chivalry of antiquity. If they wanted the discipline of the French,
and could neither march in column of echelon, nor deploy into line
with mathematical precision, they could use the musket far more
dexterously, were inl'.nitely better shots, and every way superior in
desultory warfare.*

As the plans of De Denonville met the approbation of his sovereign,
the following year saw him busily engaged in making the necessary
preparations to carry them out. Governor Dongan, of New
York, had already heard a rumour of the proposed fort at
Niagara, and this circumstance, in connexion with the collection of
extensive suppHes of provisions at Fort Frontenac, convinced him
that the Iroquois v>'ere about to be attacked, and the trade of his
people with the west seriously interrupted. He promptly remon-
strated with the Marquis, claimed the Iroquois as subjects of Great
Britain, and expressed a hope that nothing would be done to disturb
the amicable relations between their respective Governments. The
latter replied by denying the claim of Great Britain to the sove-
reignty of the Five Nations; asserting that the French had possession
of their country long before the British acquired New York. He
added that the provisions collected at Fort Frontenac were intended
for the supply of the garrison, without any view to a war with the
Iroquois.

Dongan was too well acquainted with the policy of the Canadian
Government, and saw too clearly its ambitious designs to, place
any dependence on De Denonville's pacific assurances. Although
obliged to act with extreme caution, owing to the new instructions of
James II. to preserve a good understanding with the French, he
resolved to maintain British supremacy, if possible, among the western
Indians, and to retain a firm grasp of the fur-trade, in which freedom
from monopoly had already given the New York and Albany mer-
chants an immense advantage. He accordingly assembled the
principal chiefs of the Five Nations at New York, and laid before
them the line of policy he desired them to pursue. They were to
cease all intercourse with the French; to make peace with the
Hurons, and other north-west tribes, and induce them to trade with
the British. They were further to aid him in establishing a post at
Mackinaw ; to recall the Christians of their people living at Caugh-
nawaga ; to compel the Jesuits to withdraw from amongst them ;
and to receive the missionaries he would send them. If they
* Doc. Hist. New York, vol. L p. 231.

The History of Canada.

complied with these demands, and were attacked by the French,
Dongan promised his assistance. The politic chiefs did not entirely
commit themselves to these measures. They were loath, as yet, to
break wholly with the French ; but, at the same time, they fully
satisfied the English Governor of their desire to aid him in the
greater part of his plans.

The return of the Onondaga chiefs from this council put Father
L*amberville, a Jesuit missionary to their tribe, in full possesr.ion of
the demands of Dongan, which he promptly communicated to De
Denonville. The latter was thoroughly incensed, and prosecuted
his preparations for war with additional vigour, being resolved to
prove to the British, that even their support would not prevent him
from punishing the Iroquois. By way of retaliation, one of his first
operations in the spring of 1687 was the capture of nearly
all the English trading posts at Hudson's Bay, with the ex- '*

ccption of Port Nelson.* This act of hostility was perpetrated in
open violation of a treaty, just then ent ^red into between the French
and EngUsh Governments, to the effect " that whatever might occur
between the mother countries the American colonies should always
remain at peace." Unfortunately, the force of national prejudices,
and the clashing of mutual interests, rendered this enHjhtened pro-
vision totally fruitless.!

Having received the expected reinforcements from France, and
made every necessary preparation for war, De Denonville was guilty
of an act of treachery v/hich places his character in a very unfavour-
able light. Availing himself of the influence of Father Lamberville
with the Onondagas, and that of the Jesuit missionary to the Oneidas,
he induced several chiefs of these tribes and their immediate followers,
amounting to fifty altogether, to meet him at Fort Frontenac to settle
all disputes by a peaceable conference. These, on their arrival, to
their utter astonishment, he caused to be seized, put in irons, and
forwarded to Quebec, with orders to the commandant there to
ship them at once to France to labour in the galleys, in obedience
to the wishes of his sovereign. The rage and indignation of the
Iroquois, when they heard of this outrage, were without bounds.
The Oneidas seized their missionary, and condemned him to expiate

• The English recovered their factories seven years afterwanls ; but the French
soon got possession of them again. In 1696, two English mcn-ofwar re-took
them. In Queen Anne's war they were again taken by the French ; but by
the peace of Utrecht were ceded to the British. — .Smith's Hist. Can., vol. i.

P.75-
t Her. Hist Can. p. 207. Conquest of Can. vol. i. p. 311.

The History of Canada.

his own presumed treachery, and that of his nation, in the flames. He
was saved at the last moment by a Christian matron, who adopted
him as her son. The chiefs of the Onondagas hastily assembled in
council, and summoned Lamberville before them. When he saw
the intense rage that was pictured in their faces, he thought his
doom was sealed. But these red men of the forest, rude and un-
cultivated as were their understandings, proved themselves superior
to the passions of the hour, and showed, by their conduct, how
much more nobly they could act than the courtly and polished De
Denonville. "There can be no question," said a chief, addressing
himself to the terrified missionary, " that we are now in every respect
authorised to treat thee as an enemy ; but we cannot resolve to do
so. We know thee too well not to be persuaded that thy heart had
no share in this treason, of which thou hast in some degree been
the cause ; and are not so unjust as to punish thee for a crime of
which we believe thee innocent" Apprehensive lest some of their
warriors, in a moment of excitement, might do him injury, they com-
pelled the Jesuit to depart immediately, directing the guides, which
they gave him, to conduct him by unfrequented paths, and not to
leave him till he was out of all danger.

Having collected his force, composed of 2000 regular troops and
militia and 600 Indians, at Montreal, De Denonville pursued his
march westward on the nth of June. His principal object was to
crush the power of the Senecas, and embarking his army in boats and
canoes, in two divisions, at Fort Frontenac, he safely arrived at the
Genesee River. Here, an intrenchment was hastily constructed to
protect the stores and provisions, and a detatchment of 440 men left
to garrison it. From this point the French and their Indian allies
marched forward on the 12th of July towards the Seneca villages,
with a supply of provisions for fifteen days. During the first day the
march was pursued without interruption through a comparatively
open country. On the succeeding day they were not so fortunate.
After being permitted to pass through two defiles in safety, the van-
guard was vigorously attacked while marching through a thiid by a
strong body of the Senecas. Three hundred of these boldy held the
French in check, and threw their best troops into disorder, while 200
others, after delivering their fire, took them rapidly in flank. The
Indian allies of the French, however, promptly checked this move-
ment, and the Senecas were finally repulsed with a loss of forty-five
killed and sixty wounded. On the side of the French six were killed
and twenty-five wounded. In this engagement the Iroquois Chris-
tians particularly distinguished themselves, and were it not for them

The History of Canada. 63

and the other Indians, who restored the battle in their fiivour, it
must liavc gone much harder with the French, as they were coni-
j)lctely taken by surprise. A few of the north-west Indians from
Mackinaw, who had effected a junction with the invading force,
]>rovcd themselves genuine savages by devouring, after the battle
the bodies of the slain Iroquois.

Finding themselves unable to offer further oppo.sition to the French,
the Senecas withdrew into the lecesses of the forest after destroying
their villages. The greatest injury that could now be inflicted on
them was the destruction of their crop of growing corn, and this De
Denonville caused to be done in the most effectual manner. lie
likewise directed the destruction of a large number of hogs which, it
appears, the Senecas possessed.

Having thus accomplished, as fur as possible, the objects of the
campaign, the Governor proceeded to Niagara, where he erected a
wooden fort, in which he left a garrison of 100 men, under the com-
mand of the Chevalier De la Troye. Scarcely, however, had the
army disappeared when this post was blockaded by the Senecas,
who, thoroughly enraged by the losses they had sustained, missed
no opportunity of revenge. Incessantly harassed by the enemy, the
garrison had to keep themselves behind their defences, or run tlie
risk of being murdered. Continual watching and fatigue produced
disease, to which was soon added the horrors of famine, with
abundance of fish in the waters near them, and the forests abound
ing with game. Ten men alone of the 100 survived : hunger and
sickness carried off the remainder in a few brief months. And thus
sadly terminated the second attempt at settling Niagara, which is
now one of the mosc delightful districts of Canada West*

Governor Dongan was soon made aware of the disasters suffered
by the Senecas, and an angry correspondence ensued between him
and De Denonville. He assured the latter that the Five Nations
would never make peace with the French, save on condition, that
the Indians sent to the galleys, and the Caughnawaga proselytes
were restored to their tribes, the forts at Niagara and Frontenac
demolished, and the Senecas compensated for the damage they liad
sustained. t Nor was Dongan content with simple remonstrances.
He clearly foresaw from the formal manner in which the French had
taken possession of the territory of the Senecas, that they sought to
establish a claim to its permanent sovereignty, while their ac^s

* Doc. Hist. New York, vol. i. \i\\ 237-277. Hcriot's Ili>l. Can. j>p. 213, ;i4.
Smilli's lii.sl. Cm. vol. i. ]>p. 79, So. Conqiie-l of ("an. vol. i. ]>. 312.
I Smilli's Hist. Can. vol. i. p. 80.

The History of Canada.

otherwise taught him that they only wanted the power, not the will,
to establish their supremacy throughout the whole country. He
felt that the time had now come for the British colonics in the north
to strike for their very existence. His assurances of support raised
the drooping spirit of the Iroquois ; and after supplying them abun
dantly with arms and ammunition, he incited them to revenge the
injuries they had sustained.

Meanwhile, a terrible malady swept over Canada, and carried
death and mourning in its train. It prevented the Governor from
making a second expedition the same summer against the Senecas,
which he contemplated ; and compelled him to remain nearly inactive,
while he felt that a dangerous crisis was rapidly approaching. In
November the Mohawks appeared before Fort Chambly ; and,
although the garrison beat them off, they could not prevent them
from burning the farm-houses in the neighbourhood, and carrying
the inmates into captivity. The French blamed Dongan for causing
this inroad. No sooner had the latter learned their suspicions than,
dreading reprisals, he caused Albany to be put in a better state of
defence, and retained a strong body of Indians in the neighbourhood,
during the winter, to cover it from an attack.

The following spring found the confederates thorough V united in
their hostility to the French. Still, they determined tha.: if peace
could be procured on the terms proposed by Governor
Dongan, of which they highly approved, they would not
reject it. The mistaken policy of James II. compelled Dongan
liimself, at this time, to seek a peaceable result to the quarrel, if at
all practicable; and, in obedience to the orders of his sovereign, he
now counselled the Iroquois to come to terms with the French,
p-ovided they could do so with justice to themselves. They
accordingly proceeded to Canada, prepared alike for peace or war.
One thousand warriors established themselves at Lake St Francis,
within two days' march of Montreal, whence they sent deputies to
demand an audience of De Denonville, and to offer peace on the
conditions proposed by Dongan, for the consideration of which
four days only were allowed.

The Iroc^uois backed this high-handed diplomacy by warlike
demonstrations of the most formidable description. Besides the
force at Lake St Francis, whose neighbourliood filled the colonists
with the direst apprehension, a body of 500 men swe])t the open
country around P'ort Frontenac, burned the farm-stores with llaniing
arrows, killed the cattle of the settlers, and finally closely blockadetl
the garrison. The Frencli boweil l)ijfore the storm they were unaMe

1688.

The History of Canada.

jnited in

|if peace

overnor

)ul(l not

)ongan
•rel, if at

ign, he

rench,
They

or war.

rancis,
uties to

on the
■which

warhke
ties the
olonisls
le open
ilaniing
•ckadcil
unable

to resist The humiliating terms offered by the Iroquois were
accepted, and De Denonville was under the necessity of expiating
his treachery, by requesting the authorities in France to return
the captives to Canada, sent to labour in the galleys, that they
might be restored to their friends. Deputies from all the Iroquois
tribes were to ratify this treaty, which, it was stipulated by De
Denonville, should also secure peace to the Indian allies of the
French.

A cessation of hostilities immediately took place, and the Iroquois
consented to leave five hostages at Montreal, to insure the safe
arrival of a convoy of provisions at Fort Frontenac, the garrison of
which were already threatened with famine. It was further agreed
upon, that if any hostile skirmishes should occur during the progress
of the pending negotiations, no change, nevertheless, should be made
in the conditions which had been stipulated.

The Abenaquis, who inhabited the present .State of Maine, and
were the most inveterate of all the enemies of the Iroquois, refused
to be a party to this truce. While the Governor was busy in his
pacific projects, they advanced to the River Richelieu, surprised and
defeated a body of Iroquois and their Mohigan allies, and pushed
on to the English settlements, where they killed and scalped several
of the inhabitants and burned their homesteads. But c^ all the
Indian aUies of the French, the Hurons were the most indisposed to
a peace with the Iroquois. They had engaged in the war on the con-
dition that it should not terminate until the total destruction of the
Five Nations had been effected ; and now when they found that a
peace was about being accomplished without even consulting them,
they were indignant in the extreme. Their principal chief, Kondi-
aronk, was not slow to perceive that his nation, left to themselves,
must feel the full vengeance of the Iroquois, and be thus sacrificed to
benefit French interests. He promptly resolved to interrupt the ne-
gotiations, and secure the continuance of the war, and took the most
effectual measures to accomplish his object About thirty miles
above Montreal, he awaited the arrival of the Iroquois deputies at a
point where the rapids would compel them to land. Here their
party, consisting of forty warriors, were either killed or captured on
disembarking from their canoes. When his prisoners were all
secured, Kondiaronk informed them that it was the French Gover-
nor who had ordered their attack. The Iroquois, shocked at this
supposed second act of perfidy on the part of De Denonville, stated
the object of their mission to the Huron, who then craftily expressed
his regret foi the act of turpitude of which he had been made the

The History of Canada.

1689.

instrument Releasing his prisoners, he supplied them with arms
and ammunition, and bade them return and inform their country-
men of the perfidy which had been committed. One prisoner alone
he retained to replace a Huron warrior who had been killed. This
man, on his return home, he handed over to the French commandant
at Mackinaw, who, ignorant of the truce, ordered him to be put to
death ; a fact of which the Huron chief caused the Iroquois to be
apprised, in order to inflame their hostility still more.

No sooner had De Denonville been informed of the manner in
which the deputies of the Iroquois had been treated, than he dis-
claimed all participation in the act, and assured these tribes that he
would hang the Huron chief the moment he laid hands upon him.
He expressed a hope, at the same time, that what had occurred
would not prevent the progress of negotiations, and that they would
send other deputies to conclude a peace. Meanwhile, the progress
of the revolution which placed William III. upon the throne of
England had released the Governor of New York from the unwise
restrictions imposed upon him by James, and he now instigated the
Iroquois, the majority of whom were only too willing of themselves
to avenge their injuries, to retaliate on the French. On the
26th of July, 1000 of their warriors landed on the Island of
Montreal, and dividing into small parties laid waste the country in
every direction. Men, women, and children were ruthlessly mas-
sacred ; a detachment of )ne hundred soldiers and fifty Indians, sent
to attack them, were nearly all killed or captured ; houses were
burned ; every possible injury perpretated ; and they finally quit
the island laden with plunder, and carrying away many captives,
having sustained in this irruption a loss of only three men.* This
terrible catastrophe filled the minds of the colonists with the greatest
terror, a feeling which extended itself to the garrison at Fort Fron-
tenac, who hastily deserted their post, (which was soon seized by
the Iroquois,) and lost several of their number in shooting the
rapids, their precipitate retreat preventing them from taking the
proper precautions.

Thus closed in disaster and disgrace the government of De
Denonville. Its commencement was signalised by an act of perfidy
and partial victory; its termination by misfortune and certain defeat.
His sovereign, who had looked for the complete subjection of the

* Bancroft, who is singularly incorrect occasionally, when he alludes to Canada,
says that at this time the Iroquois captured the town and fort of Montreal, and
that the settlement was broken up, neither of which was the case. — Vide Ban.
Hist. United States, London Edition, vol. ii. p. 825.

The History of Canada.

Iroquois, and expected to see his galleys manned by their chivalry,
chafed at his want of success, directed him to be recalled, and ap-
pointed Count De Frontenac to replace him.

THE SECOND GOVERNMENT OF THE COUNT DE FRONTENAC.

The increasing influence of the British colonists v/ith the Iroquois,
became at this period a source of considerable alarm to the C'ana-
dian authorities. The revolution in England, which placed that
country in a hostile position to France and her colonies, added not
a little to this feeling. The Chevalier De Callieres, who commanded
at Montreal, had long been convinced that the security and tran-
quillity of Canada could only be preserved by crushing the power of
the Five Nations ; and as the English of New York openly avowed
their alliance with them, he conceived the idea of first capturing their
settlements. The Chevalier departed for France in the fall of 1688,
to lay his plans before its Government, by whom they were approved,
and instructions given to De Frontenac to carry them out. De
Callieres proposed that he should have the command of 2000 regular
troops, with whom he would march into the country of the Iroquois
by the Richelieu River and Lake Champlain, with the apparent pur-
pose of attacking them, until he arrived in the neighbourhood of
Albany, when he would suddenly assault and capture that place.
He stated that Albany was about the same size as Montreal, and in
addition to a garrison of 150 men, had 300 inhabitants able to bear
arms. It contained about 150 houses, and was defended by an
earthen fort, mounting a few pieces of cannon, and wooden pali-
sading. After capturing Albany, the Chevalier proposed to descend
the Hudson and possess himself of New York, which he described
as an open town, defended by a fort, and containing about 200
houses, with 400 men capable of bearing arms. As an additional
inducement to the adoption of his plan, De Callieres urged that it
would put the French in possession of the finest harbour in America ;
that it would prevent the Iroquois from getting further supplies ot
arms and ammunition, and thus effectually cripple them ; and that,
although a treaty of neutrality as far as regarded the colonies existed,
the fact of the settlements in question being chiefly Dutch and Pro-
testant, would lead them to join the Prince pf Orange. He added,
that if the present favourable opportunity were neglected, the Iro-
(luois would soon destroy Canada, which must entail the loss of the
posts at Hudson's Bay, the beaver and peltry trade, Acadia, and the

Tlie History of Canada.

Gulf and Newfoundland fisheries, which produced several millions
of livres annually to France.*

The flight of James, and his subsequent determination to make a
final eflTort in Ireland for the throne he had so cowardly abandoned,
speedily involved England and France in a war, which removed
whatever scruples might have been entertained by Louis XIV. and
his ministers relative to the capture of Albany and New York. The
prospective control of these settlements was given to De Callieres,
to reward him for his plan of their capture and his meritorious ser-
vices otherwise. He was directed, when established in his new
government, to allow the English Roman Catholics to remain, and
to banish the other English and Dutch inhabitants to Pennsylvania
and New England, while the French refugee Huguenots were to be
sent to France. But, if Louis was all-powerful in France, and
alarmed Europe /or its liberties, like the Nicholas and Alexander
of our own times, a handful of half-naked savages in America set
his power at defiance, and marred the best laid plans of his generals
and himself. De Denonville had to crave the return of the kid-
napped Iroquois — they no longer graced the galleys of France, and
their countrymen had already retaliated a hundredfold the injuries
and indignities they had sustained.

The Count De Frontenac sailed in the month of July 1689, a
second time for Canada, in the fleet sent to operate against New
York by sea while a French army assaulted it by land. He carried
out with him troops and stores, and departed in high spirits to
establish French supremacy in North America, and to crush for ever
the power of the Iroquois. But De Frontenac was not insensible,
high as his hopes and those of his sovereign were, to the caprices
of fortune. Riper years had given him ripened wisdom, and he sedu-
lously cultivated the friendship of the chiefs of the captive Iroquois,
who returned in the same ship with him. One of these, Oureou-
hare, charmed by his manners, remained ever afterwards his steadfast
friend, and was of the greatest use to him in the negotiations with
his countrymen. His arrival at Quebec on the 12th of October
confirmed the wisdom of this course. The first intelligence he
received was the terrible irruption of the Iroquois on the Island of
Montreal, the loss of his favourite fort, named after himself, at
Cataraqui, and the abandonment of Niagara; reverses that were
only partially counterbalanced by the fierce inroads of the Abena-
quis in New England, and the success of Iberville in Hudson's Bay.

• Doc. Hist. New York, vol. i. pp. 285-291. Smith's Hist. Can. vol. i. pp. 84,
85. Heriot's Hist. Can. p. 227. Conquest of Can. vol. i. p. 318.

The History of Canada.

Offensive operations were now out of the question. Apart from
the lateness of the season, De Frontenac saw he must be con-
tent for a while to act on the defensive, and shortly after his arrival
departed for Montreal, where his presence was necessary to revive
the drooping spirits of the inhabitants, and regain the confidence of
the Indian allies of the French, many of whom were now sensibly
inclineci to attach themselves to the Iroquois and the English. The
Ottawas, one of the principal tribes of the north-west, even went so
far as to send ambassadors to the Senecas to proffer peace and amity,
and to restore the prisoners they had captured during the war. The
French agents and missionaries strongly remonstrated against these
proceedings, but without effect. The Ottawas replied, that they had
already placed too much reliance on the protection of *' Ononthio."
They taunted the French, at the same time, with the tame manner
in which they had borne their recent defeats; told them that instead
of avenging their injuries like true warriors, they craved a dishonour-
able peace, to gain which they would even sacrifice their Indian
allies ; that their commerce was far less beneficial than that of the
English ; and that they sought to secure benefits by a peace, which
they were unable to retain in war.

No sooner had De Frontenac become aware of this formidable
disaffection, than he boldly determined to strike a blow at the English
colonies that should restore the military reputation of the French
with the native tribes, lead the Iroquois to accept the peace which
he proffered them, and disturb the intrigues of the Ottawas
and others who wavered in their alliance. He accordingly ^
organised, in the month of January, expeditions at Montreal, Three
Rivers, and Quebec, to invade the British settlements at different
points ; and sent instructions at the same time to Durantaye, who
commanded at Mackinaw, to assure the Ottawas and Hurons, that
in a short time the French would recover their ancient supremacy,
and affairs be altered for the better.

The expedition organised at Montreal, consisting of about 200
men, half French and half Indians, under the command of De St
Helene, a Canadian born officer, was destined for the capture of
Albany. This force departed in the beginning of February, and after
marching for five days a council was called to determine on the plan
of operations. The Indians now ridiculed the idea of attacking
Albany with such a small body of men, and advised an assault on the
village of Schenectady, which was slenderly guarded in comparison.
They arrived close to this place on the night of the 8th February,
about eleven o'clock, without being discovered, and at first resolved to

The History of Canada,

defer the assault until two o'clock next morning. But the excessive
cold admitted of no further delay, and they entered the village
through the gateways, which the unfortunate inhabitants, in fancied
security, had left open and unguarded. Anxious fathers slept ; lov-
ing mothers had hushed their nestling babes to sleep, and slept also;
and the silence was undisturbed of happy homes save by the mono-
tonous breathings of peaceful repose. Presently the wild war-whoop
of hostile Indians ring through that recently peaceful hamlet, and
carries terror and dismay into its every dwelling. Startled mothers
grasp their little ones in despair, or fall upon their knees to ask the
protection of that Power who now alone could aid them ; agonised
fathers seize the first weapon at hand, and stan^l, like the lion rudely
aroused from his lair, at bay, to defend their families. But the
general defence was feeble in the extreme. A small fort at one
end of the village was speedily carried by storm, and sixty men,
women, and children were cruelly butchered in cold blood. Twenty-
eight were carried away into captivity, and the settlement, which had
eighty well-built houses, reduced to ashes. The French, laden with
plunder, rapidly retired the ensuing day, after releasing the more
helpless of their prisoners and twenty Mohawks, it being their policy
to convince this people that the expedition was made wholly against
the English. But the Mohawks were not so easily satisfied : they
promptly essayed to restore the drooping spirits and revive the
courage of their old neighbours. " We will avenge your wrongs,"
said they, "and not a man in Canada shall dare to go out to cut a stick."
Succour soon arrived from Albany, and inclement as the season was,
a body of Mohawks and a few troops were despatched in pursuit of
the retreating enemy, who cut off twenty-five of their stragglers, and
followed them almost to the gates of Montreal. The French and
their Indians suffered severely from want of food, and were it not
that they had captured some fifty horses at Schenectady, on which
they subsisted as they found need, many of them must have perished
from famine.*

The party from Three Rivers led by Hertel, and consisting of but
fifty-two men, of whom one-half were Indians, turned to the left from
Lake Champlain, and surprised the village of Salmon Falls, on the
Piscataqua. After a bloody engagement they defeated its inhabit-
ants, burned the houses and the cattle in the stalls, and retired with

• Doc. Hist. New York, vol. i. p. 297. Conquest of Can. vol. i. pp. 318, 319.
Ban. Hist. United States, London Edition, vol. ii, p. 827. Smith's Hist. Can.
vol. i. pp. 87, 88. Heriot's Hist. Can. p. 241. Hist Brit.N. Amer. vol. i. p. 188.

The History of Canada. 7 1

fifty-four prisoners, chiefly women and children, whom they carried
off dcsi)ite the people of a neighbouring settlement, who had gallantly
come to their rescue.

Returning from this expedition Hertel encountered a third party
from Quebec, and proceeded with them to attack a fortified Knglish
j)0st at Casco Bay, on the sea-shore of Maine, which they captured
after having drawn fifty men of its garrison into an ambush, nearly the
whole of whom they either killed or took prisoners.

I5ut Dc Frontenac, who was but little disturbed by the horrors of
the massacres at Schenectady and Salmon Falls,* was fully sensible
that something more must be done to regain the confidence of the
north-west Indians, than simply re-establishing the military reputation
of his nation in Canada. The great point was to render those In-
dians independent of English commerce, and to turn the current
of the fur-trade once more down the St Lawrence. On the 2 2d of
May a convoy of goods, guarded by 143 soldiers and a few Indians,
was forwarded from Montreal for Mackinaw. Louvigny, who com-
manded the detachment, was intrusted with presents for the Ottawas
and Hurons, and instructed to supersede Durantaye in command
of the frontier posts, who was recalled, it was said, for no other reason
than because he was too favourable to the Jesuit missionaries, against
whom the Governor still entertained his old grudge.

On the second day after leaving Montreal, the convoy was fiercely
attacked by a party of Iroquois in ambush, who were only repelled
with the greatest difficulty. It finally reached Mackinaw in safety,
just as the deputies of the Ottawas were about to depart to conclude
a treaty with the Iroquois. The strength of the detachment, the
large quantity of merchandise, the valuable presents to themselves,
and the account of the recent successes of the French, had a power-
ful influence on these politic savages, and they hastened to give
proofs of their renewed attachment to "Ononthio." One hundred
and ten canoes, bearing furs to the value of 100,000 crowns, and
manned by 300 Indians, were soon after despatched to Montreal to
propitiate the Governor in their favour. The latter, who chanced
to be there at the time, received the escort in the most gracious
manner, made them presents, and exhorted them and their nation to

• De Frontenac stands conspicuous among all his nation for deeds of cruelty
to the Indians. Nothing was more common than for his Indian prisoners to be
given up to his Indian al '"S to be tortured. One of the most horrible of these
scenes on record was perpetrated under his own eye at Montreal in 1691. — Col-
den, vol. i, p. 441.

Th:' History of Canada.

I l!^.

aid him in humbling their dreaded foe, the Iroquois. They departed
highly pleased with their reception, after renewing their former
professions of friendship and regard for the French.

Still, the terrible war-cry of the Iroquois was continually heard in
the Canadian settlements. Scouting parties of these fierce warriors
burst from the recesses of tlie forests when least expected, and fell
upon isolated posts and villages with destructive ferocity. The
growing crops were destroyed, the farmers murdered, and small
detachments of troops surrounded and cut off. This harassing,
mode of warfare, so well suited to the Iroquois, was a source of
much uneasiness to De Frontenac. " You must either not be a true
friend, or powerless in your nation," he said angrily to Oureouhare,
who still remained in Canada, " to permit them to wage this bitter
war on me."

But a still greater danger now menaced the French possessions
on the St Lawrence. The British settlements, thoroughly aroused
by the hostilities of the French and their allies during the past
winter, resolved on the conquest of Canada. In April a small
squadron sailed from Boston, which captured the greater part of the
French posts in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and after the
lapse of a month returned with sufficient plunder to repay the cost
of the expedition. This success encouraged the people of Massa-
chusetts, and their authorities issued circular letters to the nearest
colonies, inviting their Governments to send deputies to New York,
to deliberate on measures for the general safety. On the ist May
1690, this first American Congress assembled, and promptly deter-
mined on the invasion of Canada. Levies were ordered to be made,
the contingents of the several states fixed, and general rules appointed
for the organisation of the army. At the same time a fast-sailing
vessel was despatched to England, with strong representations of the
defenceless condition of the British colonies, and requesting aid in
the projected invasion of Canada. They desired that ammunition
and other warlike stores might be supplied to their militia, and that
a fleet of English frigates should co-operate with the colonial navy
in the St Lawrence.

But Britain was too intent at this period on her own domestic
struggles to heed the calls of help from her transatlantic offspring.
The bloody battle of the Boyne had still to be fought, Aughrim was
yet to be won, and Limerick surrendered, before William could turn
his attention to French ambition in the New World struggling for
possession of the hills of New England, the beautiful harbour of
Manhattan, and the fertile valley of the Genesee. The British

The History of Ca7iada.

colonists were thus thrown upon their own resources : still they were
not dismayed, and resolutely determined to carry out their intentions.
The plan of the campaign was simple, and carefully concealed from
the Canadians. General Winthrop wss to move upon Montreal with
a force of 800 militia and 500 Indians, at the same time that a fleet
of thirty-four vessels of various sizes, the largest of which carried
forty-four guns, was to sail from Nantucket Road, near Boston, for
the capture of Quebec. Nearly 1500 of the hardy sailors of New
England manned this fleet, which had also 1300 militia on board,
under the command of Major Walley. The chief conduct of the
expedition was intrusted to Sir William Phipps, a man of humble
birth, who had won his way to an exalted position among his fellow
colonists, and now contributed largely from his own private fortune
towards fitting out the fleet.

In the month of August De Frontenac first received the intelligence
of approaching danger. He was still at Montreal providing for the
safety of the settlement there, when an Algonquin announced that
an army of Iroquois and English were constructing canoes at Lake
George, which boded some enterprise against Canada. The Governor
immediately summoned the neighbouring Algonquins and Hurons,
and the Christian Iroquois to his assistance ; and with the tomahawk
in his own grasp, old as he was, chanted the war-song and danced
the war-dance in their company to animate their courage. But an
incompetent commissariat paralysed the advance of Winthrop's
army. Want of provisions compelled him to retire from Lake
Champlain to Albany, leaving Major Schuyler, who had pushed
on in advance to the attack of La Prairie, unsupported. The
fort at this point, defended by a few Canadian militia and
Indians, was speedily captured, and its garrison compelled to
retreat upon Chambly. Succour from this post meeting them on
tlie way, they halted and faced their pursuers, when Schuyler was
forced to retreat in turn with the loss of thirty men killed and
wounded.

The Indian spies of De Frontenac soon put him in possession
of the retreat of Winthrop's force. Thus assured of the safety of
Montreal he was about to return to Quebec, although still ignorant
of the danger with which it was menaced, when he learned that a
faithful Algonquin, hurrying through the forests in twelve days from
Piscataqua, had announced the approach of a hostile fleet from Bos-
ton. That fleet without pilots now sounded its way cautiously up the
St Lawrence, its officers and men, alike anxious for the result of the
expedition against Montreal, watching wistfully the course of the

The History of Canada.

winds, and hoping in the efficacy of the prayers for their success
that went up morning and evening from the Puritan hearths of New
England.

Had the land expedition succeeded in reaching Montreal, and
thus compelled the Governor to remain there for its defence, or, had
fair winds wafted the fleet a few days sooner up the St Lawrence,
Quebec must have been surprised and taken. But the inhabitants
were already alarmed, and its commandant, Major Provost, vigor-
ously applied himself to strengthen the defences against a sudden
assault. After a brief pause at Three Rivers to direct the regular
troops and militia to follow him as rapidly as possible, De Frontenac
arrived at Quebec on the 3d of October, two days in advance of the
fleet. The preparation for defence was now continued with unwearied
industry. The militia of the neighbouring districts were directed to
hold themselves in readiness to march as might be required ; a strong
detachment moved down the river to observe ^he approaching fleet,
and prevent a descent on the more exposed settlements ; and swift
canoes were despatched to warn any French vessels coming up of
the impending danger. Over 4000 regular troops, militia, and
Indians, soon manned the defences of Quebec or covered its weakest
points. There were nearly two to one against the men of New Eng-
land ; an assault was therefore out of the question ; while a regular
siege at that advanced period of the year was equally hopeless.

Early on the morning of the 5th October,* many an anxious look
was cast from the ramparts of Quebec on the white sails of the British
fleet, as vessel after vessel slowly rounded the headland of Point
Levi, and crowded towards the viflage of Beauport, on the northern
bank of the river. About ten o'clock the British took in sail, and
dropped their anchors, when their vessels swung round with the
receding tide. On the following day Admiral Phipps sent a haughty
summons to the French chief, demanding an unconditional surrender
of the town and garrison in the name of King William of England.
The messenger was conducted blindfolded into the presence of De
Frontenac, who awaited him in the council room, surrounded by the
Bishop, the Intendant, and all his principal officers. The English
officer read the summons, laid his watch upon the table, and told
the Count that he waited only one hour for a reply. The council
started from their seats, surprised out of their dignity at a burst of
sudden anger from their fierce old chief. " I do not acknowledge
King William," said De Frontenac the moment he could master his

* Hutchinson's Hist. Massachusetts vol. i. p. 399 ; and Major Walley'a Journal
of the Expedition.

The History of Canada.

rage sufficiently to speak, " and well know that the Prince of Orange
is a usurper, who has violated the most sacred rights of blood and
religion. I will answer your master by the mouth of my cannon."

It was now resolved to assault the town at once, and accordingly
at noon on the 8th. the troops were landed without opposition,
and advanced with spirit to the River St Charles, where they were
attacked by a body of 300 militia securely posted among the
rocks and bushes. A part of the British line, galled by this unex-
pected fire, fell back for a moment, but the officer giving the word to
charge, they again rushed forward, and speedily cleared the ground.

In the afternoon four of the largest vessels moved boldly up the
river and anchored within range of the town. They opened a spirited
but ineffectual fire, their shot being directed principally against the
lofty heights of the Upper Town, while a vigorous cannonade from
the guns of the garrison replied with overpowering effect. Although
his ships had suffered severely, Phipps, with pertinacious courage,
renewed the action at daybreak on the 9th, but with no better results.
About noon he saw it was useless to continue the contest longer, the
fire from the town being much superior to that of his fleet, and
directing the anchors to be weighed, the receding tide floated his
crippled ships beyond its reach. During the action his flag was shot
away, and floating towards the shore was borne triumphantly to
land by a Canadian, who boldy swam out into the current to se-
cure it. Hung up in the parish church of Quebec, this precious
trophy remained for many years a memento of Admiral Phipp's de-
feat.

Major Walley placed his troops in battle array at daylight, but
from some unaccountable cause, which he does not explain in his
journal, he did not move towards the town until the action with the
squadron had terminated. Some severe skirmishing occurred during
the day, which resulted generally to the disadvantage of the British,
and next morning, at a council held on board the Admiral's ship, it
was decided to abandon the enterprise altogether. On the night of
the nth, the army re-embarked in the greatest confusion, leaving
five guns and a quantity of ammunition and stores behind.

Defeated by land and water — damaged in fortune and reputation,
the British chief returned homewards. But disaster had not yet
ceased to follow him. The dangerous shoals of the St Lawrence
and the storms of the Gulf wrecked nine of his ships. With the re-
mainder shattered and weather-beaten, and his men almost mutinous
from want of pay, he arrived at Boston, on the 19th of November,

The History of Canada.

to find an empty public treasury, and to cause the first issue of
colonial paper money.*

Thus ended in disaster and defeat a well-planned scheme, which
only required energy, ability, and military discipline in its execution
to be successful. Had Winthrop's corps been led by a more skilful
officer, or had the force which appeared before Quebec been directed
by wiser heads and stouter hearts, the results must have been very
different, and Wolfe would never have created for himself an im-
perishable memorial on the heights of Abraham,

Great were the rejoicings at Quebec when the British fleet disap-
peared from before it. With a proud heart the haughty old Go-
vernor penned the despatch which told his sovereign of the victory
he had achieved, and of the gallant bearing of the colonial militia.
In the Lower Town a church was built by the inhabitants, and an
annual festival established, to celebrate their deliverance ; while in
France a medal commemorated the success of Louis XIV. in the
valley of the St Lawrence. To add to the rejoicing, vessels expected
from France reached Quebec on the 12th November, having ascended
the Saguenay and thus escaped the British fleet. Their arrival, how-
ever, with slender stores of provisions only tended to increase the
scarcity, then pressing upon the colony from an insufficient Ijarvest,
caused principally by the incursions of the Iroquois, and which ne-
cessitated the distribution of the troops in those districts where food
could be most easily procured. The inhabitants, grateful for the
valour which had saved them from the dominion of the hated Eng-
lish, met this new burden on their slender resources with the utmost
cheerfulness.

While the result of the movement against Canada was still unde-
cided, and a probability existed that the British would obtain posses-
sion of the French colonies, the Iroquois warily held aloof, or only
gave sufficient assistance to save appearances, which was one reason
why Winthrop had retreated, eighty of their warriors only having
joined him instead of 500. The politic Confederates, much as they
hated the French, did not desire to see their power entirely crushed,
as they began at this period to entertain apprehensions of the rapidly
increasing pojiulation and strength of the British colonies. But the
cowardly retreat of Winthrop. and the defeat of the expedition under
Sir William Phipps, convinced them that the French had really little

* Smith's Hist. Can. vol i. pp. 91-108. Conquest of Can. vol. i. pp. 321--327.
Ban. Hist. United States, London Edition, vol. ii. p. 831. Hist. Brit. Amer. voL
i. pp. 1S1-190. Heriot's Hist. Can. pp. 255-262;

The History of Canada.

1691.

to apprehend from the raw militia and ill-directed efforts of the pro-
vincials. Accordingly in May, several hundred of their
warriors again poured down upon the settlements near Mon-
treal, and marked their progress with devastation and massacre.
Smaller parties spread themselves along the fertile banks of the
River Richelieu, burning the homesteads, and murdering the inhabit-
ants. To repel these attacks the militia were hastily drawn to-
gether. One detachment of 120 men surprised a party of Iroquois
on the Richelieu, and slew them without mercy, with the exception
of twelve, who escaped into a farm-house. These defended them-
selves with the greatest courage, killed an officer, and wounded
several of the militia ; and for a time it seemed as if the latter would
be beaten by a few Indians posted in a ruinous dwelling. At length
the building was set on fire, and the Iroquois as a last resource
fiercely burst upon their enemies, and endeavoured to cut their way
with their tomahawks, which five of them succeeded in doing. Of
the remainder, two were killed, and five taken prisoners. The latter
were tortured after their own cruel manner to restrain the incursions
of their nation in future.

But this slight check only stayed the hostilities of the Iroquois for
a brief period. In the latter part of July a strong body of their
warriors, accompanied by some English militia and Mohigan Indians,
advanced upon Montreal with the intention of destroying the crops,
the loss of which must have inflicted famine upon the colony. After
capturing an important post at I.a Prairie, by a sudden and unex-
pected assault, and slaying several of the defenders, they fell back
into the forest, where they met and destroyed a small French detach-
ment, and shortly after boldly faced a strong force under the com-
mand of M. De Vairenes. For the full space of an hour and a half
did these formidable warriors withstand the fire, and repel the charges
of the Canadian troops, on whom, although ultimately compelled to
retire, they inflicted a loss of 120 men in killed and wounded.

No sooner had De Frontenac received intelligence of this alarming
inroad, than he promptly hastened to Montreal, where he found a
despatch from the Governor of New York, offering an exchange of
prisoners, and proposing a treaty of neutrality, notwithstanding tl.e
war between France and Great Britain. But the Governor mis-
trusting these proposals, they were not productive of any beneficial
results, and he shortly afterwards returned to Quebec, having first,
however, witnessed the gathering-in of the harvest in safety.

Although the Iroquois had been forced to retreat, yet fully sensible
of the heavy loss they had inflicted upon the French, they were not

The History of Canada.

by any means discouraged. Led by a favourite chief, iJlack Caldron,
they continued to make sudden inroads in every direction with
various results, and heavy losses to the French as well as

1B92.

to themselves. On the other hand, the Abenaquis and

1694.

French ravaged the frontiers of Massachusetts, and revenged upon
its hapless borderers the injuries suffered by the Canadians, while
detachments of troops swept the favourite hunting-grounds of the
Iroquois, along the beautiful Bay of Quinte, and an expedition from
Montreal, led by De Mantel, did considerable injury to the
^^' Mohawks in their own country, but was severely harassed
by the latter during its retreat.

This fierce and desultory contest rendered seed-time and harvest
in Canada alike unsafe. Stone walls and armed fortresses alone
gave security to the habitants, and the Iroquois' boast that " their
enemy should have no rest but in their graves," was almost
literally carried out. In the following year, however, these
warriors appeared to grow weary of the long contest and desire peace.
The Onondagas, as usual, appeared most prominently in this friendly
movement, and sent messengers to Montreal to ask De Callieres,
now commanding there, whether deputies from the Five Nations
bearing pacific overtures would be received. These messengers got
a favourable answer and returned home ; but the deputies did not
make their appearance until, the beginning of August, when little
was effected towards the establishment of peace, owing to the in-
trigues of the Abenaquis, and the desire of De Frontenac himself to
use his increasing power in crushing the Iroquois more effectually.
The latter were not slow to comprehend the turn matters were taking,
and endeavoured, by way of retaliation, to weaken French influence
among their Christian countrymen of Caughnawaga, and partially
succeeded.

Hostilities were again resumed. The Iroquois once more ravaged
the open country at every undefended point, and when
asked to renew their propositions for peace, haughtily re-
quired that the French, in turn, should now send deputies to treat at
their villages, and cease hostilities in the meantime, not only against
themselves, but with respect also to the English. De Frontenac
resolved to repair and garrison the fort at Cataraqui, as the best
means to curb the Iroquois of the Lake, and to form a secure base
for the offensive operations he had planned against them. He
adopted this course contrary to the express commands of his sove-
reign, and the advice of some of his principal officers, who repre-
sented the great expense this fort had formerly entailed upon the

1695.

The History of Canada.

Crown, and the disasters it had originated. But to these represen-
tations the obstinate old count paid very little attention, and in the
latter part of July despatched 600 men, one-third of whom were
Indians, under the command of the Chevalier Crisasy, to Cata-
raqui to rebuild the fort. They fulfilled his orders with energy and
skill, and Fort Frontenac once more menaced the Oneidas and
Onondagas. The Iroquois retaliated by a descent upon the Island
of Montreal, where, this time, they found the inhabitants fully pre-
pared to receive them, owing to a timely warning of their approach,
and were very roughly handled. Nor were they more successful
towards the west. Cadillac, the commandant at Mackinaw, had in-
duced the Ottawas and Hurons to make an irruption into the Seneca
country, whence they brought a number of prisoners. In that
direction, also, the Five Nations sustained a severe defeat from a
body of Miamis and French. On the other hand they formed a
peace with the Ottawas and Hurons, who had become much dis-
satisfied with the high prices of French merchandise, and desired to
participate in the benefits of English commerce.

This conduct on the part of his western allies was a source of con-
siderable uneasiness to De Frontenac, who used every endeavour to
detach them from the Iroquois. His efforts met with only very
questionable success, and to check this formidable disaffection he
now resolved to carry out his project of invading the territory of the
Five Nations, for which he directed immediate preparations to be
made. While these were in progress, during the winter, a
detachment was about to be marched into the Mohawks' ^
country ; but intelligence was received that this tribe, aided by their
European neighbours, had placed their villages in a thorough state
of defence, and the design was abandoned.

In the month of July, every preparation having been completed,
De Frontenac moved up the St Lawrence, from Montreal, with a
force of 1500 regular troops, militia, and Indians, en route for Cata-
raqui, where he arrived on the i8th. The army remained at this
place, to rest and refresh themselves, until the 26th, when they
departed for Oswego, which they reached on the 28th, Dragging
their canoes and batteaux, or light boats, up the Oswego river, they
finally launched them on the Onondaga Lake, on the shores of which
two bundles of cut rushes informed them that the Iroquois knew
their number to be 1434, so vigilant were their scouts. The army
landed on the southern side of the lake, and an intrenchment was
at once constructed of felled trees and earth, to protect the baggage
and provisions, which 140 men were left to guard. This duty

The History of Canada.

finished, the French proceeded cautiously towards the fortified
villages of the Onondagas and Oneidas, their centre led by De
Frontenac, now seventy-six years of age, who was carried in an
arm-chair, while De Callieres commanded the left wing, and De
Vaudreuil the right. But the Onondagas, satisfied that the invaders
could not make a permanent conquest of their country, pursued their
old policy of burning their villages on the approach of the enemy,
and retreated into the recesses of the forest, whither they could not
be pursued, leaving their crops of corn to be destroyed. A lame
girl, found concealed under a tree, and a feeble old chief, whose
infirmities prevented him from retreating with his tribe, were the
only Onondaga captives made by the French. This gray-haired
man, whom his own advanced years should have taught him to spare,
De Frontenac handed over to be tortured by his Indians, Bravely
did the withered sachem suffer, and fierce were the epithets he hurled
at his tormentors, whom he derided amid his sufferings, " as the slaves
of a contemptible race of foreigners." The French were more fortu-
nate among the Oneidas, of whom they captured thirty-five prisoners.
But beyond the destruction of their crops and dwellings, very little
injury was inflicted on either them or the Onondagas, Their loss
in men was trifling, and the Cayugas and Senecas remained wholly
undisturbed.

On the 1 2th of August the army returned to Oswego, and on the
15th arriveji at Fort Frontenac, whence they shortly after descended
to Montreal, while bands of the Iroquois hung on their rear, and cut
off stragglers whenever an opportunity presented itself. Nor did
these tribes afterwards cease their incursions into the French settle-
ments, till they found the frontier so strongly guarded that they
could not carry off any important plunder. Unlike former times,
they were now unable to make any serious impression upon

1697.

Canada; and in 1697 appeared disposed for peace, the

negotiations for which were opened through Oureouhare, still faithful
to De Frontenac, and whose death for a while interrupted them. But
the treaty of Ryswick terminated the war, in which Great Britain had
engaged without policy and came off without advantage, and removed
ever)' difficulty in the establishment of peace between the French and
English colonies and their allies. The English were the first who
received intelligence of the treaty, and at once sent a deputation to
Quebec, to propose an exchange of prisoners, both as regarded
themselves and the Iroquois. The Governor, however, preferred to
negotiate separately with the latter, and thus impugn their assumed
sovereignty by the British. Of this sovereignty he found the Iroquois

The History of Canada.

to be not a little jealous, and did everything in his power to improve
this feeling to the advantage of his countrymen.*

While busily engaged in these transactions, and in taking measures
otherwise for the benefit of the Colony, De Frontenac died in the
seventy-eighth year of his age, having to the last preserved
the great energy of character which had enabled him to ^
overcome the many difficulties and dangers of his most adventurous
career. He died, as he had lived, loved by some for his courage and
military virtues, hated by others for his cruel temper and proud and
overbearing manners, but respected and feared alike by friend and
foe, and with the credit of having, with trifling aid from France,
supported and increased the strength of a colony, which he had
found on his re-appointment at the brink of ruin.t

• Smith's Hist. Can. vol. i. pp. 125-145. Doc. Hist. New York, vol. i. pp. 325-
345. Heriot's Hist Can. pp. 313-344.

tHeriot's Hist. Can, p. 345. Conquest of Can. vol i. p. 331. Hist. Brit.
Amer. voL i. p. 198. La Potherye,VQL i. p. no.

CHAPTER V.

THE GOVERNMENT OF M. DE CALLIERES.

THE Chevalier De Callieres, Commandant of Montreal, who had
already distinguished himself by important services in the
colony, received his commission as Governor of Canada, to the joy

, of the inhabitants, by the first ship from France after navi-
^^' gation had opened. The negotiations with the Iroquois
were still incomplete, owing principally to the intrigues of his prede-
cessor to get them to acknowledge the French sovereignty of their
soil, and received the immediate attention of the new Governor.
The Earl of Bellamont, now Governor of New York, by insisting
that the Iroquois as well as the English prisoners should be exchanged
at Albany, sought to procure an admission from the French that
these tribes were subjects of Great Britain. "That the Five Nations,"
said Bellamont, " were always considered subjects of England, can
be manifested to all the world." But De Callieres proved more than
a match for the Earl in this game of diplomacy. He flattered the
pride of the Iroquois, by sending agents to the principal Onondaga
village to treat of an exchange of prisoners, to settle the preliminaries
of peace, and to induce them to send deputies to Canada for its
final ratification, a course they ultimately pursued, despite the ex-
postulations and threats of Lord Bellamont. During the summer
J the Onondagas and the Senecas sent envoys to Montreal

' ' " to weep for the French who had been slain in the war,"
and " to bury their hatchets, oVcr which should run a stream of water,
in/the earth." Their arrival created a jubilee in the town, which they
entered amid the pealing of artillery -, a reception which piqued a
Huron chief not a little, and who told the bystanders, " that fear
made the French show more respect to their enemies than love did
to their friends."

After rapid negotiations, peace was ratified by the Iroquois on one
side, and the French and their allies on the other. " I hold fast the

TJie History of Canada.

tree of peace you have planted," said the politic De Callieres, address-
ing the deputies in their own figurative style, " and will lose no time
in despatching an armourer to Fort Frontenac to repair your arms,
and will send merchandise there also suited to your wants." *' I
have always been obedient to my father," said Le Rat, a Huron
chief, " and I bury the hatchet at his feet." The deputies of the Otta-
was and the other north-western tribes echoed his words. " I have
no hatchet but that of my father, Ononthio," responded the envoy
of the Abenaquis, "and now he has buried it." The Christian
Iroquois, allies of France, also expressed their assent to the peace.
A written treaty was made, to which the deputies attached the sym-
bols of their tribe. The Senecas and Onondagas drew a spider ;
the Cayugas, a calumet ; the Oneidas, a forked stick ; the Mohawks,
a bear ; the Hurons, a beaver ; the Abenaquis, a deer ; and the
Ottawas, a hare. The numerous prisoners on both sides were
allowed to return. The Indians eagerly sought their homes, but to
this conduct the greater part of the French captives presented a
mortifying contrast. They had contracted such an attachment for
the unrestrained freedom of forest life, that neither the commands of
their King nor the tears and entreaties of their friends could per-
suade them to leave their savage associates.

The authorities of New York were highly indignant at the success
of De Callieres in thus weakening British influence with the Five
Nations. They correctly attributed the chief cause of this success
to the influence of the Jesuit missionaries, who had acquired a
strong hold on their religious sympathies, and never scrupled to use
it for political purposes. Their indignation found vent in a law of
their legislature, which directed the hanging of every " Popish priest"
who should come voluntarily into the province.

The Governor promptly informed the French ministry of the con-
clusion of this advantageous peace, and urged that it should be im-
proved to the ruin of British influence with the Five Nations. If a
favourable arrangement of the boundary disputes could not be
made, he urged that at least the country of the Iroquois should be
declared neutral ground, and that both nations should not make any
settlements among them. He likewise proposed that they should
be left to their own choice in spiritual affairs, being fully satisfied
they would prefer Romanist to Protestant missionaries.

Still, the sovereignty of the Iroquois remained undecided. The
British continued to penetrate through their country, and
share in the Indian commerce of the west. But Canada ' '
preserved the mastery of the great lakes, and De Callieres, to

The History of Canada,

strengthen French influence, resolved on establishing a fort and
trading post at Detroit. The Iroquois were soon apprised of this
design, and remonstrated against it in strong terms. The Governor
replied, " That as Detroit belonged to Canada, its settlement could
neither in justice be opposed by the Five Nations nor the English ;
that his object in building a fort there was to preserve peace and
tranquillity among all the western tribes ; " and added, " that he was
master in his own government, yet only with a view to the happi-
ness of hi? children." The Iroquois were fain to be content with
this answer, and in the month of June, De Cadillac, accompanied by
a Jesuit missionary and one hundred Frenchmen, was despatched to
commence a settlement at Detroit. Thus Michigan is the oldest
of all the inland American States, with the exception of Illinois,
whose colonisation had already been commenced by the unfortunate
La Salle.

But while France was thus grasping a firm hold of the west, and
establishing her supremacy more securely on the great lakes, events
were in progress in Europe which threatened to defeat her plans.
James II. had died at St Germans, and Louis XIV. raised the ire of
the British nation by recognising his son as the legitimate ruler of
the " three kingdoms." William III., although on his death-bed, was
still true to his ruling passion of hostility to France, and formed
new alliances, governed the policy of Europe, and shaped the terri-
torial destinies of America. His death in March 1702,

1702 •

' * did not interrupt the execution of his plans, which the
ministers of Anne ably carried out. From the pinnacle of power,
and with every prospect of giving law to all Europe, the exploits of
Marlborough and Eugene, the bloody fields of Blenheim and Ramil-
lies, reduced Louis to the lowest condition, and at one time even
seemed to place his very crown in peril.

But the gallant and prudent De Callieres was not fated to witness
the reverses of his royal master, nor to see French influence weak-
ened in America. He died on the 26th of May 1703, to

^ '°^' the great regret of the people of Canada. Their sorrow for
his loss was the best tribute they could pay to his worth. Although,
probably, inferior to his predecessor in brilliancy of talent, his
sound common sense, greater freedom from passion, honourable
conduct, and chivalric courage, gave him great influence with the
Indian tribes, as well as with his own people. While, far from being
their tool, he wisely preserved a good understanding with the reli-
gious orders, now becoming formidable in the colony from their
wealth and numbers. To him, however, they chiefly owed an edict

TJu History of Canada.

from the Crown, which limited their acquisition of real estate to a
certain amount. This measure was rendered necessary by the rapid
manner in which they were acquiring Janded property by purchase,
as well as by grants from private individuals.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE MARQUIS DE VAUDREUIL.

The Marquis Do Vaudrcuil, who had succeeded De Callieres as
Commandant of Montreal, became also his successor in the govern-
ment of the colony, agreeable to the earnest petition of its inhabit-
ants, with whom he had become a great favourite. He began his
government at a hazardous period, nor did he prove himself un-
worthy of the occasion. The authorities of New York had no sooner
learned the revival of hostilities in Europe, than they endeavoured
to persuade the Iroquois to resume their ravages in Canada. This
they flatly refused to do, and avowed their intention of respecting
the peace they had entered into. Dc Vaudreuil promptly met these
intrigues by despatching the Sicur Joncaire, long a resident among
the Senecas, who had adopted him into their tribe, and who was
much respected by the Iroquois, to the Onondagas, to confirm them
in their alliance. He succeeded so well in his mission, that this
tribe not only declared their intention of maintaining a strict neu-
trality and retaining the Josuit Fathers among them, but they also
conceded the sovereignty of their country to the French.

The English, on the other hand, were less successful in securing
the neutrality of the Abenaquis. This fierce tribe, instigated by the
Jesuit missionaries, who made no scruple of their hostility against
heretic Massachusetts, and aided by a detachment of French troops,
swept the more exposed frontier settlements, and carried death and
mourning into many a New England home. The whole country
from Casco Bay to Wells was ravaged in every direction, and its
inhabitants murdered without distinction. In the month of
February Hertel De Rouville, with two hundred French '
and one hundred and fifty Indians, burst upon the settlement at
Deerfield, crossed the palisades on the snow, which had rendered
them useless, and massacred or carried off the inhabitants into
captivity.

But while these terrible irruptions brought sorrow to the hearths
of New England, Canada enjoyed profound repose, and was left to
develop her resources as she best might. Freed from the appre-
hensions of Indian warfare, many of its inhabitants showed
a greater disposition to ruin themselves in law-suits, than ^'°5'
to enrich themselves by attending to their occupations. The Intend-

The History of Canada,

ant, M. Raudot, wisely applied himself to diminish this evil by
promoting amicable arbitrations between parties at variance, and
succeeded beyond his expectations. Nor was this the only benefit
he conferred upon the colonists. They grew annually considerable
quantities of flax and hemp, but were prevented by the most strin-
gent laws from engaging even in the coarsest manufactures, which
were jealously reserved to the mother country, and whither they
were also obliged to send even their wool, to be re-shipped to them
again in the shape of poor and costly fabrics. Raudot now proposed
to the French ministry, that the habitants should be per-

' ' mitted to manufacture coarse stuffs for their own consump-
tion. He stated the price of clothing had become so extravagant,
owing to the loss of a vessel laden with goods for Quebec, and the
risk of capture at sea, that the poor were utterly unable to provide
themselves with even the coarsest apparel, and were almost in a
state of nakedness. This appeal was irresistible, and from thence-
forth the people of Canada were allowed " to manufacture in their
houses home-made linens and druggets for their own use " — a liberty
they gladly availed themselves of.

Trouble was in the meantime brewing among the western Indians,
and hostilities at length broke out between the Illinois and

1707 • •

' '' Ottawas at Detroit, which occasioned De Vaudreuil consi-
derable trouble. A vigorous inroad into the country of the Illinois
by Cadillac at the head of 400 men, speedily brought those savages
to reason, and restored peace among the western tribes. During
these difficulties the Iroquois observed a strict neutrality, to which
the efforts of the Jesuit missionaries somewhat contributed. But to
Joncaire this desirable result was principally owing. His knowledge
of their language, which he spoke as well as themselves, his daring
courage, his liberality and affable manners, rendered him exceedingly
popular with the Iroquois, whom he gradually induced to regard the
French with favour. But if the British lost ground in this direction,
they succeeded in debauching the loyalty of the Christian Iroquois
in Canada, numbers of whom by this time had become confirmed
drunkards, the sale of spirituous liquors to the Indians having been
revived in the most shameless manner.

De Vaudreuil, to prevent the further spread of disaffection, deter-
mined to assail the British colonies. In the spring of 1708,
at a war council held at Montreal, an expedition was re-
solved on against New England, to be composed of Indians and
one hundred chosen Canadian militia volunteers. After numerous
delays these began their march, led by Des Chaillons and Hertel De

1708.

The History of Canada.

Rouville, the destroyer of Deerfield, who had not yet wearied of
slaying women and children. The Iroquois and Hurons soon de-
serted the expedition and returned home, and the Abenaquis failed
to join it at the appointed place. The design was to capture Ports-
mouth ; but Des Chaillons and De Rouville finding their force now
unequal to the enterprise, descended the Merrimac to Haverhill,
resolving to attack a remote village rather than return to Canada as
they came. At sunrise on the 29th of August, they moved forward ■
to storm the fort, garrisoned by a few soldiers, which was carried
after a fierce assault, while their Indians scattered themselves
among the houses, and commenced their horrid work of murder and
death. The sharp and constant ring of the musket and the smoke
of the burning village alarmed the surrounding country, and the
inhabitants boldly gathered to the rescue. The French now beat a
hasty retreat, but had scarcely proceeded a league when they fell
into an ambush. By a rapid charge they dispersed their antagonists,
yet with a loss to themselves of nearly thirty men. They left
Haverhill, so recently a peaceful and happy village, a mass of
smoking ruins, and its green-sward red with the blood of its pastor
and brave men, of women and mangled babes. New England be-
wailed this savage act; nor did it go unreproved. "My heart
swells with indignation," wrote honest Pel:°r Schuyler of Albany to
De Vaudreuil, "when I think that a war between Christian princes
is degenerating into a savage and boundless butchery."

During this season of trial and disaster to the people of New
England, many a wish was uttered for the conquest of
Canada, as the only means of removing the danger that
hovered perpetually over their more exposed settlements. Queen
Anne was not insensible to the sufferings of her colonial subjects,
and readily listened to a plan by Colonel Vetch, who was well
acquainted with the St Lawrence, for the capture of Montreal and
Quebec. Vetch landed in New York on the 3d of May, and at
once commenced preparations for an invasion of Canada by way of
the Richelieu, which invasion was to be supported by a fleet from
England in the St Lawrence.

De Vaudreuil received early intelligence of the threatened danger,
and resolved to dissipate it by a counter- movement against the
British colonies. On the 28th of July, De Ramsay, Governor of
Montreal, proceeded with a strong force towards the British encamp-
ment near Lake Champlain. The French scouts brought intelli-
gence that the enemy, amounting to 5000 men, was strongly in-
trenched. The Indians quailed at this news, refused to advance

The History of Canada.

farther, and the army retreated to Montreal. Nor were the prepara-
tions of the British colonies productive of more Important results.
Towards the end of September De Vaudreuil learned that their
forces had retired from the lake, owing to sickness and the non-
arrival from the mother country of the promised aid. The fleet
destined for the attack of Quebec never crossed the Atlantic ; it was
sent to Lisbon instead, to support the waning fortunes of Portugal
against the triumphant arms of Spain. The Iroquois also had
played their English allies false. No sooner had they joined the
British army, than perceiving it was sufficiently strong to take Mon-
treal, they resolved, with their usual cautious policy, to maintain the
strength of the European rivals, and thus preserve their own impor-
tance, and perhaps their very existence as a people. A small stream
trickled by the camp ; into this they flung the skins of the animals
they killed. These under a burning sun soon infected the water,
and many of the militia died from its use, while not the slightest
suspicion was er'-ertained of the true cause of the mortality.

But Britain had not abandoned the design of aiding weeping
Massachusetts, and humbling the pride of Louis the Magnificent in
the New World as well as in the Old. In September six
' * English men-of-war, and thirty armed vessels and transports
of New England, with four militia regiments under the command of
General Nicholson, sailed from Boston for the conquest of Nova
Scotia. In six days this fleet cast anchor in the noble harbour of
Port Royal. With a garrison suffering from famine, and reduced by
casualties and desertion to 156 men, Subercase, the French com-
mandant, was speedily forced to surrender, and marched out with all
the honours of war, to beg for food the next hour from his victors.
In honour of the Queen the captured settlement was -called Anna-
polis, a name it still retains.

Vaudreuil saw clearly the danger that threatened Canada, were
the British to advance their possessions towards the St Lawrence.
He accordingly appointed Castin, an energetic officer, to the govern-
ment of Nova Scotia, and during the winter sent messengers over the
snows, to press upon the Jesuit missionaries the necessity of pre-
serving the zeal and patriotism of the Indian allies and French
settlers in that region. But Castin was unable to restore the failing
fortunes of the French on the sea-board, and from that day to this
the Union Jack has floated over Annapolis.

Flushed with victory, Nicholson repaired to England to urge the
conquest of Canada, while, at the same time, the Onondagas sent
deputies to De Vaudreuil, to assure him that they remained faithful

The History of Canada.

to their treaty with the French, although their confederates were in-
clined to make common cause with the British. The legislature of
New York had already appealed to the Queen on the dangerous
progress of French dominion in America, and deputed Colonel
Schuyler of Albany to present their address. " The French pene-
trate," it argued, " through rivers and lakes at the back of all your
Majesty's plantations on this continent to Carolina, and in this large
tract of country live several nations of Indians who are vastly nume-
rous. Among these they constantly send agents and priests with
toys and trifles to insinuate themselves into their favour. Afterwards
they send traders, then soldiers, and at last build forts among them."
Schuyler carried five sachems of the Iroquois with him to London.
Dressed in black small clothes and scarlet mantles, coaches carried
them in state to an audience with Queen Anne, and giving her belts
of wampum, made of the most brilliant shells,* they avowed their
readiness to take up the hatchet, and aid in the reduction of
Canada.
Bolingbroke planned the campaign and expressed " a paternal

concern for its success." But while he could write brilliant

. . . 1711.

treatises on philosophy, and successfully originate taxation

of newspapers, he knew little of the colonies he proposed to succour,
and lacked the requisite soundness of judgment and powers of com-
bination to make that succour effectual.

At midsummer, Nicholson arrived in Boston with news that a fleet
might soon be expected from England to aid in the reduction of
Canada, and impressed upon the different colonies the necessity of
having their militia contingents in readiness as soon as possible.
On the 30th of July the whole armament sailed from Boston. The
English fleet, consisting of fifteen ships of war and forty-six trans-
ports and store-ships, was placed under the command of Sir Hoven-
den Walker. The land force, composed of five veteran regiments
from Marlborough's army, and two colonial regiments, was led by
Brigadier General Hill, brother to !Mrs Masham, the Queen's
favourite. This armament was nearly as strong as that which subse-
quently captured Quebec under the intrepid Wolfe, although its
works in the meantime had been rendered far more formidable, while
its defenders were much more numerous.f Upon the same day on

* Wampum belts were made of beads formed from shells of different colours.
These shells were also used as money by the Indians. The inhabitants of Hin-
dostan use shells called cowries in lieu of small coin at the present day.

t Smith's Hist. Can. vol. i. p. 171. Canada in 1 71 1 contained about 30,000
French inhabitants and 6000 Indians.

The History of Canada.

which the fleet sailed from Boston, General Nicholson proceeded to
Albany, where in a short time he found himself at the head of 4000
Provincial troops and 600 Indians, prepared to move upon Montreal.
In the west, the Foxes, desirous to expel the French from Michigan,
appeared as the allies of the EngUsh to effect a diversion in their
favour.

Intelligence of the intended expedition was seasonably received at
Quebec, and the measures of defence began by a renewal of friend-
ship with the Canadian and north-west Indians. Joncaire, at the
same time, was successful in retaining the Senecas in neutraHty, and
the Onondagas remained faithful to their promises j but the rest of
the confederates ranged themselves on the side of the British.
Leaving De Boncourt to strengthen the defences of Quebec, De
Vaudreuil proceeded to Montreal, where he rapidly organised a force
of 3000 soldiers, miHtia, and a few Indians, and placing it under
the command of De Longueil, directed him to encamp at Chambly,
and there await Nicholson.

Admiral Walker arrived in the St Lawrence on the 14th of August,
and after lingering a few days in the Bay of Gaspe, owing to an un-
favourable wind, proceeded up the river. Little was then known in
England with regard to the peculiarities of the St Lawrence, and
Walker, sharing the apprehensions of the vulgar, imagined that a
current, where vessels floated on water one hundred fathoms deep,
would be frozen to the bottom during winter, and puzzled his brains
to know how he would preserve his ships. " To secure them on the
dry ground in frames and cradles till the thaw," he sagely imagined
to be the true mode of procedure.

On the evening of the 22d of August a thick fog came on with an
easterly breeze. Next morning both the French and English pilots
thought it right to bring the vessels of the fleet to with their heads to
the southward, as the best course to keep the mid-channel and drive
clear of the north shore. The day passed safely over, but just as
Walker was going to bed, the captain of his ship came dv^.vn to say
that land could be seen, and without going on deck he wantonly
ordered the fleet to head to the north. Goddard, a captain in the
land service, at the instigation of the pilot, Paradis, rushed to the
cabin in great haste, and importuned the admiral at least to come on
deck ; but the self-willed man laughed at his fears and refused. A
second time Goddard returned; "For the Lord's sake come on
deck," cried he, " or we shall certainly be lost ; I see breakers all
around us." Walker came on deck and found he had spoken the
truth ; " But still," the admiral exclaimed, " I see no land to the

The History of Canada:

leeward." Just then the moon broke through the mist and showed
him his error. Now he beheved Paradis, and made sail for the
middle of the river, but not before eight ships had been wrecked
among the reefs of the Egg Islands, and 884 men drowned. As
soon as the scattered fleet was collected a council of war was held,
at which the craven-hearted leaders voted unanimously " that it was
impossible to proceed, and that it was for the interests of her
Majesty's service that the British troops do forthwith return to Eng-
land, and the colonial troops to Boston."*

The failure of the expedition against Quebec compelled Nicholson
to retreat. The French scouts soon brought intelligence of this
movement to the camp at Chambly. For the moment the news was
doubted ; " it was almost too good to be true," and Hertel de Rou-
ville was despatched with 200 men to procure more certain informa-
tion. He marched far on the way to Albany till he was joined by
three Frenchmen, set at liberty by Nicholson on his return, who
told him of the consternation of the British colonists when they
learned the misfortune which had befallen the fleet. Barques were
soon despatched down the river from Quebec. At the Egg Islands
the remains of eight large vessels were found, out of which the
cannon and stores had beeu taken, and the many dead bodies that
strewed the shores of the river told unmistakably the disaster which
had befallen the British fleet.

In the west, however, new dangers menaced French power. The
Foxes resolved to burn Detroit, and pitched their wigwams
near the fort, now defended only by a score of Frenchmen. ' '
But the Indian allies of the little garrison came to their relief, and
the warriors of the Fox nation, instead of destroying Detroit, were
themselves besieged, and at last compelled to surrender at discretion.
Those who were found in arms were ruthlessly massacred, and the
rest were distributed as slaves among the victors. Thus did the
fidelity of their allies preserve Detroit to the French. Cherished as
the loveliest spot in Canada, its possession secured the road to the
upper Indians. Its loss would have been the ruin of the Canadian
fur-trade, and shut out the French for ever from the great highway
to the Mississippi. Still, these successes did not alter the great cur-
rent of western commerce, which continued to flow steadily towards
Albany and New York. The Indian loved the Frenchman as a com-

* Admiral \V.ilker's Journal, pp. 122, 123. Smith's Hist. Can. vol. i. pp. 167-
177. Heriot's Hist. Can. pp. 399-404. Conquest of Can. vol. i. pp. 333-335.
Brit. N. Amer. vol. i. pp. 201-303. Ban. Hist. United States, London Edition,
pp. 853-858.

i
4

The History of Canada.

1713.

panion, but the British merchant paid a higher price for beaver,
and self-interest, that great motive -power of human nature among
the civilised and the savage, led him to prefer the traffic of the
latter.

Weakened by defeat — driven back from the banks of the Danube,
the Tagus, and the Po, Louis, now an old and feeble man, earnestly
desired peace even on humiliating terms. The debility of France
became its safety. England was satiated with costly continental
victories, and public opinion demanded a peace. Marlborough,
who hesitated not to say " that the enmity between France and
England was irreconcilable," was dismissed from power ; the Whigs
fell with him, and the Tories took their places to inaugurate a new
era of peace. A congress of ambassadors assembled at
Utrecht to regulate its conditions. Louis strove to preserve
his Canadian possessions intact, but the sufferings of Massachusetts
made Great Britain resolute to retain Nova Scotia, and finally it was
fully ceded to her, with the fisheries of Newfoundland, the vast un-
known regions of Hudson's Bay, and the nominal sovereignty of the
Iroquois.

The war had scarcely terminated when the active mind of the
Canadian Governor began to devise means for strengthen-
' '*' ing the defences and peopling the colony, which instead of
increasing, was actually decreasing in population. He stated to the
French ministry that Canada possessed only 4480 inhabitants, be-
tween fourteen and sixty years, able to carry arms, while the regular
soldiers barely amounted to 628. This small number of persons was
spread over a country 100 leagues in extent. He added, the English
colonies had 60,000 men able to bear arms, and that on the first
rupture they would make a powerful effort to get possession of
Canada. He proposed that additional troops should be sf nt out, and
that 150 convicts should be shipped annually to this country, to aid
in the labours of agriculture. Fortunately for Canada the latter
proposition was never carried out, and she escaped the indignity and
difficulty of becoming a penal settlement.

The bitter lesson which the Foxes had received at Detroit, instead
of making the remainder of their tribe more peacefully in-

*' ^' clined, thoroughly exasperated them against the French.
i-'X c^ly did they interrupt the trappers in Michigan, their native
country, Jut they infested the routes leading to the distant posts of
o.' j'lony, and inflicted all the injury possible upon the Indian allies
01 inc French. The Governor at length detached a strong force to
bring them to reason. Shut up in their fort, against which two field-

The History of Canada.

1718.

pieces were brought to bear, they finally offered favourable terms of
accommodation, which were accepted. But they soon
evinced little respect for the treaty they had been forced to '
enter into, and though greatly reduced in number?, rendered the
routes towards Louisiana unsafe, and ever after remained the dead-
liest enemies of the French.

The success of the expedition against the Foxes established peace
in all the borders of Canada, and for many years it presented few
events of importance to record. The attention of the Go-

1 7 1 7

vernorwas now turned to the careless and improper manner ' '*
in which notaries frequently performed their duties, and stringent
regulations were made to correct this abuse. In 17 18 con-
siderable excitement was caused in the colony by the dis-
covery of ginsing, a plant highly esteemed by the Chinese, in the
forests, which for a time promised to be a valuable article of com-
merce. But the Canadians were unacquainted with its proper mode
of preservation, and it soon became unsaleable.

The two succeeding years were alike barren of events. Charle-
voix, one of the early historians of Canada, came out from France
in 1720, remained here during the ensuing year, and visited
the principal settlements, which he describes in his journal. '
Quebec embraced even then an Upper and Lower Town, and con-
tained about 7000 inhabitants. Its best society, composed of mili-
tary officers and nobles, was extremely agreeable, and he states that
nowhere was the French language spoken in greater purity. Under
a gay exterior was concealed a very general poverty. " The Eng-
lish," the Canadians said, " knew better how to accumulate wealth,
but they alone were acquainted with the most agreeable way of
spending it." The only employment suited to their taste was the
fur-trade, the roving and adventurous habits of which they especially
liked. They made money by it occasionally, which was usually soon
squandered again in pleasure and display. Many who had made a
handsome figure in society were now suffering pecuniary distress ;
still, while they curtailed the luxuries of their tables, they continued
as long as possible to be richly dressed. Agriculture received very
little attention, and the timber trade was yet in its infancy.

The banks of the St Lawrence for some distance below Quebec
were already laid out in seigniories and partially cultivated. Some
of the farmers were in easy circumstances, and richer than their
landlords, whose necessities compelled them to let their land at low
quit-rents. At one point Charlevoix found a baron, holding the
office of inspector of highways, who lived in the forest, and derived

The History of Canada.

his support from a traffic with tae neighbouring Indians. Three
Rivers was an agreeable place, containing 800 inhabitants, and sur-
rounded by well-cultiVated fields. Its fur-trade had been in a great
measure transferred to Montreal, and the iron mines had not yet
been worked. He found the country thinly peopled as he ascended
the river, till he arrived at the Island of Montreal, the beauties of
which he describes in glowing terms. He does not state the popu-
lation of the town, but very probably it was about 4000.

After leaving Montreal, he only met with detached posts, established
solely for defence or trade. Passing up the river in bark canoes, he
reached Fort Frontenac, which he describes as merely a small mili-
tary station. After a tedious voyage along the shores of the lake, he
came to a log block-house on the Niagara river, occupied by Joncaire
and a few officers and troops, but saw neither a village nor cultivated
fields. Passing up Lake Erie he visited Detroit and several of the
stations on the upper lakes, but beyond small trading posts, en-
countered nothing worthy of the name of settlement. Such was
Canada West 135 years ago : it now presents a very different
aspect.

Hitherto the fortifications of Quebec had been very incomplete,

but the French ministry now resolved to strengthen and extend them,

agreeable to the plan of De Lery. Montreal was defended

' ■ by wooden works, which were in a most dilapidated condi-
tion. Orders were given to fortify it with stone. The King advanced
the money, but the town and seminaiy were to repay one

' ■ half in annual instalments of 6000 livres. Barracks were
likewise constructed for the regular troops. No provision was made,
however, for the militia, who only existed in the colony from its
necessities and the will of the Governor. As an institution in the
State, they had never been recognised by any French law or edict.*

Ten years' peace had added considerably to the trade and popu-
lation of Canada. Nineteen vessels sailed this year from

' ^' Quebec for the ocean. Six new ships were built for the
merchant service, and two men-of-war. The exports to France em-
braced furs, lumber, staves, tar, tobacco, flour, peas, and pork ; the
imports from thence were wines, brandies, and cotton and woollen
goods.

On the loth of October 1725, the Marquis De Vaudreuil closed
his useful career. The sorrow manifested by the people for

1725-

this event, was proportionate to the satisfaction they had

displayed when he was first appointed Governor. For the long
' * Smith's Hist. Can. vol. i. pp. 185, 186.

The History of Canada,

period of one-and-twenty years had he discharged his important
duties with great loyalty, ability, and courage. His vigilance, firm-
ness, and good conduct had preserved Canada to France through
a disastrous war, and he went to rest from his labours with the
blessings and regrets of a grateful people, who had enjoyed all the
peace and prosperity possible under his rule.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE MARQUIS DE BEAUHAKNOIS.

When the death of De Vaudreuil became known in France, the
Marquis De Beauharnois, a natural son of Louis XIV., received the
appointment of Governor. He arrived in Canada early in
May, and was almost immediately engaged in a warm con- '"
troversy with Governor Burnet of New York, relative to a fort
and trading establishment which the latter was constructing at
Oswego, with the view of diverting still more of the Indian trade to
New York. To prevent this result, the Governor despatched M.
De Longueil to the Onondagas to ask permission to erect a store-
house and fort at Niagara. The persuasions of the Jesuit mis-
sionaries readily induced them to give a favourable reply, and the
French promptly applied themselves to profit by the privilege.
Burnet, on the other hand, persuaded the Senecas to hinder the
proceedings of the French, and this tribe at once sent a messenger
to Niagara to require them immediately to desist, as the country
where they were belonged to them and not to the Onondagas.
Regardless of this demand, the works were pushed forward. Jon-
caire's great influence with the Senecas prevented their demolition,
and finally reconciled them to French occupation of their territory.

Burnet finding himself unable to dispossess the French at Niagara,
strengthened the fort at Oswego, which so enraged Beauharnois, that
in the month of July he sent a written summons to the officer in
command there to abandon it within fifteen days. He wrote to
Burnet six days afterwards, remonstrating with him on the erection
of this fort as being contrary to the treaty of Utrecht, which pro-
vided that the boundary lines of the British and French Colonies
should be settled by commissioners, and claiming the land on either
side of Lake Ontario as belonging to his nation. The English Go-
vernor replied in a polite but resolute manner, completely refuted
his arguments, and presented counter -remonstrances against the
proceedings at Niagara. Beauharnois retorted by a fresh summons
to the officer commanding at Oswego, and another message to Mr
Burnet, stating that hostile measures would be adopted if the fort
were not abandoned and destroyed. The latter upon this threat

iv.

T/ie History of Canada.

coolly reinforced the garrison, to secure it in the event of attack ;
and so the matter terminated for the time.

Four years elapsed without producing a single event of note, and
the Union Jack still floated at Oswego on the bracing
' ^ ' breezes of the lake. Beauharnois had not carried out his
threat of attack, but in order to repress the growing energies of the
British Colonies, he now resolved on the erection of a fort at Crown
Point, on Lake Champlain. Should a war again occur, he saw
clearly that a military post there would place the French troops in
such close proximity to the frontier settlements on the Hudson and
Connecticut rivers, that great injury could be easily inflicted on them.
At the same time itwas an important step towards carrying out the plan,
already conceived, of restricting the British Colonies to the sea-board.

The Government of Massachusetts speedily becam alarmed.
Belcher, who was now at its head, sent a letter to Vandam,
' ^ ' the Governor of New York, offering to bear one-half the
expense of an embassy to Canada to forbid the construction of this
fort, and pressing him to engage the opposition of the Iroquois, now
beginning to be known as the "Six iNations." Vandam laid the
letter before his council ; but a long peace had blunied its vigilance ;
no action was taken thereon, and the French retained peaceable
possession of Crown Point.

Enjoying profound repose, year after year now passed over the
colony, without producing scarcely a single event of importance.
The laws of France, with trifling modifications by royal decrees,
were the laws of Canada ; which, unlike the Canada of the present
day, was never disturbed by the quarrels of a local Parliament. The
torpid repose, which it gained in this way, repressed the energies of
its inhabitants, and perpetuated their natural easy and indolent man-
ners, which three-quarters of a century of British freedom has not
sufficed to remove.

An old writer* on Canada fills up the historical blank that now
intervenes, by detailing how the nuns of the General Hospi-

^'^^' tal of Quebec began to adopt the lax manners of the
colony, and mix in society contrary to their vows ; and how Louis
XV. reproved them therefor, and compelled them to pursue a more
decorous behaviour. There was, then, the difficulty about
'•^ ' the Bishop's Palace, which these nuns claimed as their pro-
perty ; but royalty discountenanced their pretensions, and they had

* William Smith, who was a Master in Chancery and Clerk of the Parliament
of Canada after the Conquest He narrates occurrences honestly, though not very
clearly nor methodically.

The History of Canada.

to succumb. Meanwhile, Beauhamois J.ligently applied himself to
forward the interests of the Colony, which now made rapid strides, in
proportion to its former progress, in population and wealth. Culti-
vated farms gradually appeared along the St Lawrence from Quebec
to Montreal, as well as upon the banks of several of its tributary
streams. The absence of roads prevented settlement in the interior,
and water was accordingly the only highway of the farmer. This
led to the system, the evils of which is still felt in Lower Canada, of
cutting up the farms into long narrow strips, having from one to
three acres' frontage on the rivers, and extending inland from forty
to eighty acres.

The French colonists during this prolonged interval of peace, ap-
pear to have entirely overcome the enmity against them, so long
treasured up by a few of the principal tribes. Their pliant and
courteous manners ; their cheerful disposition ; their frequent inter-
marriages with the natives ; and, in many instances, their actual
adoption of the wild and stirring life of the Indian, rendered them
far better fitted to secure his confidence than the staid British
colonist. A very favourable change took place also as regarded the
fur-trade in which the British merchants had so long had the advan-
tage. The Government adopted a more liberal and equitable system
of Indian traflfic, which was now released in a great measure from
the licensed monopolies, which had hitherto so injuriously affected it.
A large annual fair was opened at Montreal, to which the Indians
were invited to resort, and whither many of them came to dispose
of their furs in preference to going to Albany.

Still, the progress of Canada was far inferior to that of its self-
governed Anglo-Saxon neighbours. This was owing to a variety of
causes, among the chief of which may be reckoned the absence of a
local legislation, the seignorial tenure system, the want of schools,
the gay and indolent habits of the people themselves, their numer-
ous religious festivals, and the equal partition of lands among the
children of deceased parents, without regard to primogeniture. Not
only were the lands of the seigniors divided in this ^vay, but also the
farms of their tenants, which were usually barely large enough for
the support of a single family. This system, which did not even
permit of alteration by will, proved a most effectual bar to the clear-
ing of wild lands. The children, contented and indolent as their
parents, instead of going forth to provide for themselves in new
districts, settled down on the paternal farms, which were
divided and subdivided amongst them to no end. The ''*'**
King sought to correct these abuses, by directing the Bishop of

l!Y

77/i; History of Canada.

1738.

Quebec to suppress a number of holidays, which, instead of being
rehgiously observed, only led to drunkenness and disorder, and by
issuing an edict preventing in future the erection of dwelling-houses

on tracts less than one and a-half acres in front by forty in
'^^' depth, under the penalty of one hundred livres and the de-
molition of the buildings.*

In the meantime a storm had arisen in the political horizon of
Europe, which once more threatened the rival colonies of the New
World with the horrors of war. British commerce, now penetrating
every quarter of the globe, refused to brook any longer the restric-
tions imposed by Spanish jealousy in South America. The English

nation became clamorous for war, and the ministry giving

way to the popular cry, strengthened the forces by sea and
land, and prepared for hostilities. In 1739 war was declared in

due form against Spain. Vernon captured Porto Bello and
' ^^' destroyed its fortifications, with scarcely the loss of a man ;
Anson swept the coasts of the enemy in the South Seas, surprised,
with a few soldiers, Paita by night j and, after spending three days
in stripping it of treasure and merchandise, set it on fire. He after-
wards proceeded to Panama, and subsequently traversed the Pacific

Ocean till the long-looked-for Spanish galleon, the treasure
'^ ' and cargo of which were valued at ;^3 13,000 sterling, hove
in sight, which he carried a prize to England, and thus enriched him-
self and his officers.

These successes alarmed France, and Fleury, who, like Walpole,
desired to preserve peace, was, like him, also overruled by the
clamours of his rivals. France soon avowed herself the ally of
Spain, whom she promised to aid with fifty ships of the line. But
in taking this step all intentions of conquest were disclaimed. " I
do not propose to begin a war with England," said Louis XV., "or
to seize or annoy one British ship, or to take one foot of land
possessed by England in any part of the world. Yet I must prevent
England from accomplishing its great purpose of appropriating to
itself the entire commerce of the West Indies. France, though it
has no treaty with Spain, cannot consent that the Spanish colonies
should fall into English hands." " It is our object," said Cardinal
Fleury, " not to make war on England, but to induce it to consent
to a peace."

Such was the posture of affairs, when, by the death of Charles VI.,
the extinction of the male line of the house of Hapsburg, raised a
question on the Austrian succession. The treaty known as the

1 * Smith's Hist. Can., vol. i. pp. 199, 20a

The History of Canada.

" Pragmatic Sanction," to which France was a party, gxiaranteed the
Austrian dominions to Maria Theresa, the eldest daughter of the
late Emperor, but this did not now prevent the sovereigns of Spain,
Saxony, and Bavaria, from each laying clai ii to the empire. The
opportunity was too favourable to gratify his hereditary hatred of
Austria ; so Louis forgot his pledged faith, neglected the advice of
his minister, Fleury, and sought to place his creature, the l"]lector of
Bavaria, on the throne of Charles. Scarcely had the Empress closed
the eyes of her father, when the young king of Prussia, Frederick
II., seized Silesia. Saxony demanded another part of her domin-
ions, and presently Bavaria, backed by France, laid claim to her
crown. The latter powers were at first successful in the war that
speedily ensued, and Maria Theresa, driven from her capital, sought
refuge with her son in her Hungarian dominions. Her misfortunes
speedily produced a reaction in her favour. England, now ruled by
George II., (who sought to shield his Hanoverian domi-
nions,) avowed herself as the ally of the Empress. Sardinia ' ^'
and Holland soon after declared themselves in her favour, and her
misfortunes thawed even Russia into an acknowledgment
of her claims. France, in return, declared war against ^'
England, plotted already a change in its dynasty, and the establish-
ment of the Pretender, Charles, on its throne.

In North America, New England sustained the first shock of war.
While Canada and the central British provinces still reposed in tran-
quillity, and even in ignorance of the declaration of hostilities, a body
of French from Cape Breton* surprised the small English garrison
of Canseau, and carried eiglUy men as prisoners to Louisburg. An-
napolis, in Nova Scotia, was next assailed by a body of French
Indians, instigated by the Abbe Le Loutre, their Jesuit missionary,
and as the defences were in a most ruinous condition they were with
difficulty repelled.

New England was speedily alarmed for the safety of her frontier,
and resolved upon the capture of Louisburg, the great stronghold of
France on her borders, as the best measure of protection.
A majority of one vote, in the legislature of Massachusetts, ^ '45'
was cast in favour of the expedition. Governor Shirley had already
solicited aid from England, and the other colonies were now ap-
pealed to. New York sent a small supply of artillery, Pennsylvania

• The French had established themselves here after being driven from Nova
Scotia, and strongly fortified Louisburg, its principal settlement, situated on an
excellent harbour. The works were destroyed after it came into the acknow-
ledged possession of the British at the peace of 1 763.

100

The History of Canada,

gave provisions, Connecticut raised 516 militia, New Hampshire
304, wliile the forces levied by Massachusetts exceeded 3000 volun-
teers. Assistance was asked from Commodore Warren, then at
Antigua, but on a consultation with the captains of his squadron, it
was resolved, in the absence of orders from England, not to engage
in the expedition.

A merchant, William Pepperell, of Maine, was appointed to the
chief command, and counselled by Shirley to see that the fleet
arrived together at a precise hour, to land the troops in the dark,
and take the town and fort by surprise. The ice from Cape Breton
was drifting in such quantities as rendered further progress danger-
ous, and the fleet was detained many days at Canseau, where it was
joined by Warren, who had in the nicantime received orders from
England to render all the aid possible to Massachusetts.

An hour after sunrise, on the 29th of April, the armament, in a
hundred vessels of New England, large and small, came in sight of
Louisburg, defended by 163 guns and six mortars, and a garrison of
600 regular troops and 900 militia. On the other hand, the men of
New England had only eighteen cannon and three mortars ; but no
sooner did they come in oight of the town, than letting down their
whale boats they boldly pulled to the shore, and drove the French
who came to oppose their landing into the woods. That night the
garrison of a detached battery, struck with panic, spiked their guns
and retreated into the town. It was promptly seized by the be-
siegers, who soon drilled out the cannon, and turned them on the
French works. But this success was counterbalanced by the de-
feat of a night attack on a battery commanding the entrance of the
harbour.

To annoy this battery earthworks were thrown up, and guns placed
in position to play on it ; while, at the same time, trenches were
opened within two hundred yards of the town. Still no breach was
effected, and the labours of the garrison were making the works
stronger than ever. It was now agreed that the fleet should run in
and bombard the town, while the land force entered it by storm.
But Duchambon, the commandant, was ignorant of his duties, and
the garrison were discontented. A French man-of-war, laden with
stores, was decoyed into the English fleet, and captured in sight of
the beleaguered town. This occurrence completely disheartened its
defenders. The desponding Governor sent out a flag of truce, terms
of capitulation were signed, Louisburg was surrendered with all its
munitions of war on the 17th of June, and a New England minister
soon preached in the French chapel. With Louisburg the whole

The History of Canada.

lOI

island passed into the hands of the British. When intelligence
reached Boston that the strongest fortress in North America had
fallen before the undisciplined mechanics and farmers and fisher-
men of New England, the town bells rung out a merry peal, and the
people were almost beside themselves with joy.

The news of the capture of Louisburg created not a little annoy-
ance at the French court, which for the moment vented its
ppleen by the recall of Beauhamois, and the appointment '"*
of his successor in the Admiral La Jonquiere, an old man of sixty
years of age. Orders at the same time were given for the equip-
ment of an extensive armament to recapture Louisburg, and lay
waste the British colonies. This fleet, consisting of eleven ships of
the line and thirty smaller vessels, was ready for sea by the begin-
ning of May; but contrary winds detained it in the harbour ot
Rochelle till the 2 2d of June, when it sailed for Nova Scotia. It
was expected that the French inhabitants of that province, amount-
ing to 15,000, would declare for the expedition on its arrival, which
M. De Ramsay anxiously awaited on its borders with 1700 Cana-
dians.

The fleet was only a short timic at sea when it was separated by
storms, and only a few of the ships arrived together at Chebucto,
near Halifax, which had been appointed as the rendezvous. Here
the Admiral of the fleet, the Duke De Anville, died of apoplexy,
on the 1 6th of September, four days after his arrival. A council of
war was now called at which the Vice-Admiral proposed returning
to France, as only seven ships remained, and the greater part of the
troops were on board the missing vessels. Governor La Jonquiere,
who was with the fleet, on his way to Canada, opposed this course,
and proposed an attack on Annapolis, to which the majority of the
council agreed. The Vice-Admiral, whose health was already fail-
ing, was so disturbed by the determination of the council that he
was thrown into a fever attended with delirium, and run himself
through with his sword. Jonquiere succeeded to the command and
proceeded to attack Annapolis, but a violent storm separating his
ships, he was compelled to return to France.

These disasters did not, however, discourage the French Court,
and a fresh armament was directed to be equipped for the
attack of the British colonies, the command of which was
intrusted to Admiral La Jonquiere. With this fleet sailed another
from Brest, which was to act against the Biitish settlements in India.
The English ministry, apprised of these measures, despatched Ad-
mirals Anson and Warren to intercept both fleets. This they eftec-

1747-

I02

The History of Canada.

tually accomplished off Cape Finisterre, on the Gallician coast, where
they captured all the enemy's line-of-battle ships, and nine of the
convoy. A considerable quantity of bullion fell into the hands of
the victors, and the gratitude of their sovereign raised Anson to the
peerage, and decorated Warren with the ribbon of the Bath. As
Admiral La Jonquiere was among the numerous captives who graced
the victory of the British fleet, the Count De la Galissoniere was
appointed Governor of Canada, until his exchange could be effected.

CHAPTER VI.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE COUNT DE LA GALISSONIERE.

:!i

NATURE denied to Count De la Galissoniere a command-
ing stature, or a handsome person, but in lieu of these it had
given him abiUties of a high order. No sooner had he established
himself in his government, than his active mind led him to
acquire a just knowledge of the climate of the Colony — of '^''
its population, its agriculture, and its commerce. He quickly per-
ceived the advantages France must derive from the continued pos-
session and extension of Canada, and proposed the adoption of a
system, which, if properly carried out, must have prevented for many
years, at all events, its conquest by the British. He urged the French
Court to send out a good engineer to construct fortifications from
Detroit to the Mississippi, and to colonise the west with ten thousand
of the peasantry of France. This course would have effectually re-
stricted the British colonies to the sea-board eastward of the Alleg-
hany mountains. Its partial adoption only awakened their jealousy,
and paved the way for the conquest of Canada. The firm hold
which the French colonists and traders had acquired on the sym-
pathy of the western Indians, and the disaster which befell Braddock,
are evidences of the many dangers which must have threatened the
British, had the Count's plans been ably carried out.

De Galissoniere judging that a peace would soon be established,
and sensible of the importance, in the meantime, of giving well-de-
fined boundaries to Canada, to prevent future disputes and support
the pretensions of France, despatched an intelligent officer, with a
guard of three hundred men, to take possession of the vast country
west of the Alleghany mountains. These he desired to establish as
the boundary of the Anglo-American plantations, and beyond which
he denied their having any just claims. This officer was also directed
to use his influence with the western Indian allies of the French to
induce them to accompany him, in order to give a colour of justice,

104

The History of Canada.

so far as they were concerned, to his conduct ; and further, to get
them to promise, if possible, not to admit any EngUsh traders in
future into their country. Leaden plates, on which the arms of
France were stamped, were ordered to be buried at different points,
as evidence that the district had been duly taken possession of,
while notarial documents were to be drawn up on each occasion,
to record, beyond dispute, the priority of French sovereignty. The
Count sent a letter to Mr Hamilton, the Governor of Pennsylvania,
apprising him of these measures, and requesting him in future to
prevent his people from passing beyond the AUeghanies, as he had
received orders from his Court to seize any British merchants found
trading in a region incontestably belonging to France, and to confis-
cate their goods.

The " Treaty of Utrecht," which confirmed Nova Scotia to Great
Britain, contained a stipulation providing for the free exercise of
their religion by such of the French Roman Catholics as chose to
remain in that province. Many availed themselves of this indulgence,
took the oath of allegiance, and held quiet possession of their pro-
perty. De Galissoniere, disappointed in procuring an ex-

' ' tensive emigration from France, now conceived the design
of withdrawing these settlers from under British rule, and forming
them into a new colony on the isthmus connecting Nova Scotia with
New Brunswick. Knowing the attachment of many of these people
to their priests, he considered the latter the proper instruments to
effect his object, and readily induced the Jesuit, Le Loutre, and
several others, to persuade them to quit British territory. The
Governor had soon the satisfaction of learning the success of his
plans. Appealing to them as Frenchmen and Catholics, Le Loutre
speedily induced several families to qui^ *:heir Acadian homes, and
join a settlement near the Bay Verte, which his zeal had already
established.

France regarded with a jealous eye the British station at Halifax,
so rapidly increasing in military importance and population, and De
Galissoniere vainly hoped that the colony of Acadian refugees he
was forming would lessen the danger of its neighbourhood. He
laid his plans before the French ministry, who warmly indorsed
them, and readily responded to his demand for a fund to enable him
to carry them out, by an annual grant of eight hundred thousand
livres. But while busily engaged in the execution of these schemes,
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle restored De La Jonquiere to
'^^' liberty, when, by virtue of his commission, he proceeded
to Canada to take possession of its government Before the Count

The History of Canada.

105

sailed for France he furnished his successor with the fullest informa-
tion respecting the Colony, and minutely detailed the plans which
he conceived to be most beneficial for its advancement and pros-
perity. .

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE MARQUIS DE LA JONQUIERE.

La Jonquiere did not pursue the course adopted by his prede-
cessor, in reference to the Acadian French, as he considered it
would most conduce to the benefit of the Colony to avoid any act
which might lead to a new war. He supposed, too, that the limits
of Nova Scotia, left unsettled by the recent peace, and which were
already a source of dispute, would be duly arranged by the commis-
sioners to be appointed for that purpose. This moderate course, it
would naturally be presumed, ought to have met with general ap-
proval ; yet so little was it relished by the ministers of Louis, that
the Governor was reprimanded for not carrying out the plans of his
predecessor, which he was now directed to pursue forthwith. In
addition, he was instructed to take immediate possession of the
Acadian isthmus with a sufficient body of troops, to build forts at
the most favourable points, and to give every assistance to the Abbe
Le Loutre.

In consequence of these orders, the Chevalier De la Come was
despatched to Acadia to choose a site for a fort, and fixed on
Chediac as being advantageously situated for receiving supplies from
Canada, as well as from France. But the Governor and Le Loutre,
however, disapproved of this location as being too distant from the
Acadian settlements ; and it was resolved to erect one fort near the
mouth of the St John, and another on the north side of the
Messagouche, opposite the village of Chiegnecto, now Fort Law-
rence.

Colonel Cornwallis, the Governor of Nova Scotia, had made
repeated remonstrances respecting the course pursued by Le
Loutre towards the Acadians, ^nd his occupation of the isthmus,
to which very little attention was paid. Believing that the bound-
ariis would be amicably defined, he was loath to proceed to ex-
tremities, and the Abbe had accordingly been allowed to pursue
his insidious course without interruption. No sooner, however,
had La Corne appeared on the isthmus with a force of iioo French
and Indians, and avowed his intention of erecting a fort on the
Messagouche, than Cornwallis resolutely determined to maintain
the boundaries of Nova Scotia intact. The French occupied the
village of Chiegnecto, and compelled the inhabitants to take the

io6

The History of Canada.

1750-

oath of allegiance to Louis XV., in the beginning of winter, but
still nothing could be done towards expelling them till spring.
Cornwallis was not idle in the inter\'aL The home Government
was duly advised by him of what had occurred, and he solicited
Massachusetts for aid to expel the intruders, but met with
an unfavourable answer. Thrown upon his own resources,
he could only muster four hundred men to check French aggres-
sion on 'v'- .^ imcnt. These arrived off the Messagouche on
the evening of the 20th April. La Come had already withdrawn
to the north side of the river, after inducing as many as possible
of the Acadians by threats and promises to accompany him. Still,
several of the inhabitants of Chiegnecto clung to their homes, and
refused to qi:""^^ •■■' ie^tile farms. The French officer, the man
of blood, jnlica and ;; lowed Ihem to remain. Not so with the
Jesuit, Le Louire ^^ . ^ jox^tx had the British appeared in the
offing, than with his own in> ds he sacrilegiously applied the torch
to the vii'age ch'-:-:l\ end tr ■ T ;res ra7idly spreading from hoi;se
to house wiLii fie dd . ' h*..> j ".'-^v, diaries, the homeless and

desponding people had no ai'. na,.,., lut to proceed to the French
camp.*

Major Lawrence, who commanded the force from Halifax, had
an interview with La Corne as speedily as possible, and found him
resolutely resolved to retain possession of every post north of the
Messagouche, till the boundaries of the two countries shoi'd be
arranged by commissioners. The French held a strong position;
his force was far too weak to dislodge them ; so Lawrence had no
course open but to return. From Halifax news soon spread that
the French held possession of British soil, that they had burned a
British town, and incited the Acadians to acts of treason. The New
England colonies heard the news with little emotion, but in England
the Earl of Halifax insisted effectually that Cornwallis should receive
aid.

In August a second expedition left Halifax to retake Chiegnecto.
Le Loutre exerted his influence with the Indians and the Acadian
refugees to oppose its landing, and La Corne covertly supplied them
with arms and ammunition. Strongly intrenched they swept the
beach with a steady fire as the British landed, and six of the latter
killed, and twelve wounded, proved, although few in number, how
resolutely they fought. The French had erected forts at the Bay
Verte, at St John's River, and at Beau-Sejour. At the latter fort
was La Corne's head-quarters, and here he had a fresh interview

* Smith's Hist, Can., vol. i. p. 214. Bancroft's Hist. U. S. (Lon.) vol. iii. p. 48.

The History of Canada,

107

with Lawrence. " My orders," said the French officer, " do not
permit of my crossing the river, and there is plenty of room at the
other side for you." The Enghsh officer took the hint, and Fort
Lawrence arose on the opposite bank of the Messagouche, both
commanders remaining in peaceable possession of their resi)ective
posts till the next war.

But these were not the only events which bred bad blood between
the British and French in this part of the world. An armed sloop
was despatched from Quebec to St John's River, with stores for
the garrison there, the captain of which was ordered to avoid all
British vessels, but if attacked to defend himself to the last ex-
tremity. Rouse, in the Albany, encountered the French vessel
off Cape Sable, captured her after a short action, and took her
into Halifax, where she was condemned by the Admiralty Court,
on the ground that she was taking supplies to an unlawful military
post. French anger knew no bounds at this indignity, and the
small cloud of war, already dimming the horizon, began to ex-
pand.

In the far west occurrences were also transpiring, which threatened
the renewal of hostilities. Despite the claims so positively
asserted by De la Galissoniere, with respect to French ^'^ '
sovereignty beyond the Alleghanies, the Governors of the British
colonies continued to grant permission to their merchants to trade
with the Indians of the Ohio. This trade La Jonquiere was in-
structed to interrupt as far as possible, and he accordingly had
three of these merchants seized, and brought prisoners to Montreal,
whither also their goods were forwarded. They were examined by
a commission, r.nd closely questioned as to their commerce with the
western Indians, when they were discharged.

This high-handed exercise of authority created considerable sur-
prise and indignation among the British colonists, and was looked
upon by them as still more hostile, from the fact that commissioners
had already been appointed by the French and English Governments
to settle the boundary disputes. But these functionaries had scarcely
commenced their duties at Paris, when they perceived there was
little prospect of an amicable arrangement of the questions at issue,
and that the sword alone could decide them. The Canadian Gover-
nor saw clearly that if a new war occurred the principal struggle
would be in America, and he promptly represented to his Govern-
ment, that if it was desired to retain the French possessions on the
'^ Lawrence, troops and warlike stores must be speedily sent out.
Nor even with the means at his command was La Jonquiere entirely

I
I
!i

io8

The History of Canada,

negligent of placing the defences of the Colony in a better position.
A French schooner once more clave the waters of Ontario, and
he endeavoured, so far as his insatiable avarice would permit, to
have the forts at Frontenac, Toronto, and Niagara kept in repair.
He endeavoured, also, to weaken the attachment of the Iroquois to
the British \ and, through the Jesuit missionaries, tampered so suc-
cessfully with the Mohawks, that it required all the influence of Sir
William Johnson to prevent them from openly attaching themselves
to the French.

But while La Jonquiere was thus careful co provide for the mili-
tary protection of the Colony, he permitted the grossest abuses to
exist in its civil administration. Like the first servants of the Eng-
lish East India Company, the principal officials came to Canada, at
this period, to amass fortunes, if possible, and then return home to
enjoy them. This they could never accomplish from their salaries
alone, which were ridiculously small, and justified in some measure
the wholesale peculation so unblushingly practised. An extensive
mercantile firm of the present day would pay larger salaries to its
confidential assistants, than the nominal incomes of the dignitaries
of Canada at this period. The Governor received for his services
an annual stipend of some $1300 ; out of which he was expected to
clothe and pay a guard of twenty-seven soldiers \ while the salaries
of the whole civil hst did not amount to $20,000 per annum.* This
public parsimony paved the way for the grossest abuses. La Jon-
quiere himself, being of a narrow and excessively avaricious dis-
position, set the example of official peculation. He kept the nefarious
traffic of supplying the Indians with brandy principally in his own
hands, and belonged to a company, consisting chiefly of the principal
officials, which monopolised nearly the entire trade of the Colony.
Bigot, the Intendant, imitating the example of his superior, soon
became rich by farming out the principal posts in the Indian
country.

All the Government officials at this time appear to have been ac-
tuated by the same sordid motives, and we search in vain for purity
of public conduct, or honesty of intention. The corrupt morals of
the corrupt Court of Louis tainted Canadian society to the core, and
the condition of things generally offered the most fitting commen-
tary on the evils of unrestrained power, and the blessings of popular
constitutional liberty. The Jesuit Le Loutre even went so far in
his greedy thirst for gain, as to commit a cowardly murder to obtain
the contract for supplying the post at St John's River with provi-
* Heriot's Travels in Can., p. 78. Smith's Hist. Can., vol. i. p. 219.

The History of Canada.

109

1752.

sions ; a service he subsequently performed in such a manner as to
yield him an enormous percentage, while the supplies were far less
than they should be, and of the most inferior quality.*

Complaint after complaint was despatched to France touching the
peculations of the Governor and his creatures, and the ruinous state
of things they were fast producing in the province. These com-
plaints were at length so forcibly and pointedly pressed, that they
reached the dull ear of the sensual Louis, and La Jonquiere, dread-
ing an inquiry into his conduct, demanded his recall. Short as his
government had been, he amassed, from commerce alone, over a
million of livres ; and his wealth may be judged from the fact, that
for many years his salary, pensions, and perquisites had amounted to
sixty thousand livres annually. He was not fated long to enjoy the
riches he had so carefully hoarded up, and died at Quebec
in May 1752, before the arrival of his successor. During
his last illness his ruling passion of avarice was strong as ever. He
grudged himself the ordinary necessaries of life, and on one occasion
ordered the wax tapers burning in his bedroom to be changed for
tallow candles, " as they were less expensive, and would answer every
purpose equally as well." He was buried in the Recollet church,
where those of his predecessors who had died in the Colony likewise
reposed.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE MARQUIS DU QUESNE.

On the death of La Jonquiere, Baron De Longueil, as the senior
officer in the Colony, assumed the reins of government for a brief
space till the arrival of the Marquis Du Quesne, who had been ap-
pointed, on the ist March, Governor of Canada, Louisiana, Cape
Breton, St John's, and their dependencies. The Marquis was a
captain in the French navy, Major of Toulon, and possessed con-
siderable ability : but his manners were austere and haughty, and
promised little for his colonial popularity. The Count De la Galis-
soniere, who had procured his appointment, furnished him with the
fullest information relative to his duties and the territorial claims of
France ; and thus instructed he landed in August at Quebec, where
he was received with the usual honours.

Du Quesne's instructions with respect to the disputed boundaries,
were of so positive and aggressive a character, as to leave little room
to hope for the continuance of peace. One of his first measures,
therefore, was to prepare for war. He formed the militia of Mon-
treal and Quebec into companies, and had them carefully drilled.
* Smith's Hist. Can., vol. i. p. 217,

The History of Cajtada.

The militia of the country parishes were likewise organised in the
best possible manner, and the regular troops thoroughly disciplined.

While matters on the Nova Scotian frontier gradually assumed a
more peaceable appearance, they became more and more disturbed
in the west. Virginia assumed the right to appropriate to her juris-
diction the country extending from the Alleghanies to the Mississippi,
and the Ohio Company, with her express sanction, was already form-
ing a settlement beyond the mountains. The commandant of
Detroit promptly determined on the expulsion of the settlers, and
two hundred and forty ^ndians and thirty French soldiers pushed
up the Ohio to capture the Company's traders. Six of these had
taken refuge among the Indians of a Miami village, who resolutely
refused to give them up. An action at once ensued, in which one
Englishman and fourteen Miamis were killed.

Intelligence of this affair alarmed Virginia, and Dinwiddie, its
governor, made an elaborate report of the aggression to the British
Broad of Trade, and asked specific instructions to regulate his con-
duct in resisting the French. George II., now almost in his dotage,
thought more of Hanover than America, and the Prince of Wales
had not yet learned to value the colonies ; but the Lords of Trade
resolved to sustain the claims of Virginia to the valley of the Ohio,
and determined on the immediate occupation of the eastern bank of
its river. Influenced by their representations, the King, in council,
decided that the valley of the Ohio was in the western part of the
Colony of Virginia, and that the settlement of the French in that
quarter was to be resisted as an act of hostility. Still little or no-
thing was done to place the British colonies in a position to sustain
the war, in which it was plain this policy must speedily eventuate.
The mother country was unwilling to incur expenses in extending
the possessions of colonists, who, while they already resisted the
royal prerogative on many grounds, were perfectly disposed to throw
the burden of their defence upon the crown. Each colony, too, was
a distinct government, and if its own borders were safe from attack,
it gave itself as little trouble as possible about its neighbour. A few
guns from the English ordnance stores was all the aid that Virginia
received in her present emergency, and the English ministry, remind-
ing her Governor of the numerous militia of his province, left to her-
self the conquest of the west.

But there were many astute minds in the British colonies which
saw clearly the impending contest, and were desirous to prepare for
the emergency. Kennedy, the Receiver-General of New York, urged
through the press the necessity of an annual meeting of commis-

The History of Caiiada,

III

sioners from all the colonies at Albany or New York, to adopt
measures for the general welfare. From upwards of forty years'
observacion of the conduct of provincial assemblies, and the little
regard paid by them to instructions from their governors, he inferred
(hat the British Parliament must compel them to pursue this course,
and to contribute for the common defence. The clear-headed
Franklin, on the other hand, advocated a federal union, voluntarily
entered into by the colonists themselves, as preferable to one im-
posed by Parliament. " It will not be more difficult to bring about,"
said he, and " can be more easily altered and improved as circum-
stances may require and experience direct. It would be a strange
thing if six nations of ignorant savages should be capable of form-
ing a scheme for such a union, and be able to execute it in such a
manner that it has subsisted for ages, and appears indissoluble ; and
yet that a like union should be impracticable for ten or a dozen
English colonies, to whom it is more necessary and mujt be more
advantageous." *

Such was the posture of affairs in North America, when Du
Quesne entered upon his government, and whose promptitude in
carrying out his instructions speedily caused a hostile collision be-
tween the British and French in the west. In 1753 the
Ohio Company opened a road from Virginia into the Ohio '^^'
valley, and established a plantation on Shurtee's Creek, but left it
exposed to the wavering jealousy of the Red men, and without pro-
tection against French encroachment.

Du Quesne had already been informed of the designs of the
Ohio Company, and promptly resolved to anticipate and frustrate
them. Early in the spring a strong body of troops and Indians
passed upwards from Montreal, to reinforce the western posts, and
establish forts in the valley of Ohio. A hunting party of the
Iroquois on the St Lawrence speedily conveyed intelligence of this
occurrence to their grand council at Onondaga. The Six Nations
were opposed to the French occupation of Ohio, which this force
evidently was intended to effect. In eight-and-forty hours relays
of Indian runners conveyed the intelligence to Sir William Johnson,
and urged him to protect their western allies, the Miami and the
tribes of the Ohio. These were also speedily informed of the
approach of danger, and their envoy met the French in April at
Niagara, and warned them to turn back. At Erie a fresh mes-
senger desired them to withdraw, but the French commander

* The British Parliament subsequently rejected a union of this form, as tending
too much to increase the power of the colonies.

112

The History of Canada.

threw back his belt of wampum in contempt, and told the as-
tonished chief " that the land was his, and that he would have it,
let who would stand up against it." True to his word, fortified
posts were established at Erie, at Waterford, and at Venango, and
preparations made to occupy the banks of the Monongahela and the
Ohio.

Dinwiddie, of Virginia, now felt that the time had come for
decisive action, and he resolved to send " a person of distinction
to the commander of the French forces on the Ohio, to know his
reasons for invading the British dominions while a solid peace
subsisted." The envoy whom he selected for this mission was
George Washington, then just twenty-one years or age, who
promptly set out on his perilous winter's journey, guided by
Christopher Gist, the agent of the Ohio Company, and accom-
panied by an interpreter and four attendants. On the 29th of
November he was present at a council of the Delawares and
Shawnees, at which it was agreed to give a third warning to
the French to quit their country, and if they refused, to solicit the
aid of the Iroquois to expel them. Washington then proceeded
to Venango with the deputies of the Ohio Indians. The French
officers there made no secret of the intention to take possession of
the Ohio, and intimidated the envoys of the Delawares by boasting
of their forts at Waterford and Erie, at Niagara, at Toronto, and at
Cataraqui,

From Venango Washington proceeded to Waterford, where he
found Fort Le Bceuf defended by cannon. Around it stood rude
log cabins which served as barracks for the soldiers, and close
by were fifty bark canoes and one hundred and seventy boats
of pine, prepared for the expedition to the Ohio. The com-
mander, St Pierre, distinguished for his courage and resolution,
refused to discuss the question of the French right of posses-
sion. " I am here," said he, " by the orders of my general,
to which I shall conform with exactness and resolution. He has
ordered me to seize every Englishman in the Ohio valley, and I
will do it."

Washington now turned his face homewards towards Virginia.
Passing down French Creek, he reached Venango to find his
horses weak and unfit to travel. Heedless of a driving storm he
pressed forward on foot, and with gun in hand and a pack on his
back, quit the usual path the day after Christmas, and, with Gist
for his sole companion, by the aid of a compass, steered the
nearest way across the country for the Fork. An Indian who

The History of Canada.

113

had waylaid him fired at him from the distance of fifteen paces,
missed him, and became his prisoner. Gist would have killed the
assassin, but Washington spared and dismissed him. They travelled
all that night and the next day, and not till dark did they think
lelves safe enough to sleep. Clearing away the snow, the
.y wanderers now built a camp fire, and laid dowa to repose
with no shelter but the leafless forest tree. Arrived at the Alleghany
they endeavoured to cross its waters on a raft, the result of a day's
labour ; but before they were half way over, they were caught in the
running ice, and carried down the stream. Washington putting out
a setting pole to stop the raft, was jerked into the deep water, when
they were compelled to make for an island, where they built a
fire and dried themselves. The night was intensely cold : in the
morning they crossed the river on the ice : but not till they reached
the settlement on Shurtee's Creek were their hardships terminated.

Washington's report was followed by immediate action. The
Ohio Company made preparations to build a fort at the Fork, ond
he was sent to Alexandria to enlist recruits. Governor

widdie, in the meantime, applied to England and the '^'*'
• colonies for assistance, but received very little from either one
o. .ne other. He persevered in his plans, nevertheless and sent
Washington, now a lieutenant-colonel, to finish the fo begun at
the Fork of the Ohio, and to hold it to the last extremity. But
while Washington was still on his way thither, the French, led by
Contrecour, came down from Venango, drove thirty-three English-
men, who were working on the fort, away, finished what they had
begun, and named it Fort Du Quesne. The near forest trees were
felled and burned ; log cabins covered with bark were built to
shelter the troops \ and wheat and maize planted to supply them
with food.

An Indian scout of the Mingoes soon apprised Washington of
these occurrences, and implored his assistance to expel the French.
But his raw recruits had their few cannon to bring on, deep streams
to ford, and could only advance very slowly. On the 25th June
another scout brought the intelligence that a party of French were
advancing towards them, and advised them to beware. That night
this party concealed themselves among rocks, but the sharp eyes of
the Mingoes discovered their trail, and brought Washington upon
them. They saw the English approach, and sprang to their arms.
" Fire," said Washington j and he raised his own musket to his
shoulder and showed his men how to obey the order. An action
of about a quarter of an hour's duration ensued, in which ten of the

114

The History of Canada.

French were killed, and twenty-one taken prisoners. And thus
George Washington struck the first blow in a war which led to the
expulsion of France from North America, and paved the way to the
independence of the United States. From first to last he was the
most conspicuous actor in the drama, which altered the relations of
civilised humanity.

Contrecour, who still commanded at Fort Du Quesne, was no
sooner made aware of the fate which had befallen his detachment,
than he at once assembled his garrison and Indian allies, and in-
cited them to revenge. Washington had already constructed a
stockade at Great Meadows, which he called Fort Necf ssity, and
which he had unwisely placed between two eminences covered with
trees. Here he was besieged, on the 3d of July, by six hundred
French and one hundred Indians, who, posted securely behind the
trees on the heights, fired from their shelter on the troops beneath.
For nine hours, however, did Washington animate his raw recruits
to resistance ; nor did he surrender till he had thirty men killed and
several wounded, while the French had only lost three of their num-
ber. On the 4th of July the English garrison, retaining all dieir
effects, withdrew from the basin of the Ohio ; and westward of the
Alleghanies no flag floated but that of France.

Meanwhile, commissioners assembled at Albany from the colonies
north of the Potomac, to adopt measures for the general safety in
the approaching war. To this congress were admitted the deputies
of the Six Nations, who, indignant at the unseemly squabbles which
had so long prevailed, recommended union and action. "Look at
the French," bitterly said a Mohawk chief; " they are fortifying
everywhere. But we are ashamed to say you are like women with-
out any fortifications. It is but one step from Canada hither, and
the I'rench may easily come and turn you out of doors." The cau-
tious Iroquois strongly distrusted the result of the approaching
struggle, and fully one half of the Onondagas had already withdrawn
and joined a French settlement at Ogdensburg on the St Lawrence.
But the commissioners effected little or nothing towards the general
defence. Franklin proposed a federal union, which was strongly
opposed by other members of the congress, but finally adopted with
modifications ; yet nothing was done towards the establishment of
a general revenue ; and it was evident, that without the aid of Great
Britain, her American colonies would not be able to drive the French
from the Ohio, or share much longer in the commerce of the great
lakes. The mother country gave that aid ; and who will gainsay that
it was not repaid with ingratitude '?

The History of Canada.

115

When the English ministry were apprised of the capture of Fort
Necessity, and the occurrences which preceded it, they were ex-
tremely undecided what course to pursue. Newcastle, the Premier,
sent pacific assurances to the French ministers, who were now very
unwilling to enter into a new war, and left the entire conduct of
American affairs to the Duke of Cumberland, then commander-in-
chief of the British army."' Fond of war, and covetous of military
renown, the latter entered on his new career with eager ostentation.
One of his first measures was to appoint Edward Braddock to the
command of the American army. It proved an unfortunate choice.
A martinet in matters of discipline, Braddock was far from being a
skilful general ; and being of rough manners and despotic temper,
he was wholly unsuited to conciliate the colonists. Nor did the
Duke apply himself in the least to cultivate their good graces. The
idea was foreign to him of a people accustomed to wield fire-arms
frorr boyhood, and he committed the mistake of comparing the
backwoodsmen of Virginia and Pennsylvania with the peasantry of
England. " He had only confidence," he said, " in regular troops,"
and directed that the generals and field-officers of the Provincial
forces should be ranked beneath the royal subalterns. Disgusted at
being thus arrogantly spurned, Washington retired from the service,
and his regiment was broken up.f

General Braddock arrived in New York towards the end of Feb-
ruary, and one of his first measures was to summon the

• • • IT'S "i

governors of the di'"i' 'ent British colonies to meet him at '*'•'■
Alexandria, in Virginia, on the 14th of April, to concert a plan of
operations. Four expeditions were there determined on, yet not
with the view, it was alleged, of making war on France, but to estab-
lish the British interpretation of the boundary disputes. Lawrence,
the lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, was to drive the French from
the Isthmus and St John's River; William Johnson was to conduct
an army of provincial militia and Indians against Crown Point ;
Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts, proposed to win laurels by the
capture of Niagara, while Braddock himself Avas to recover the Ohio
valley and the north-west.

The departure of General Braddock from England, and that of
the two regiments of the line which accompanied him, alarmed the

* Lord Million's Hist, of England, vol. iv. p. 72.

+ From the positions subsequently held by many of the colonial officers, and
by Washington among the rest, it is evident that this order was never strictly
carried out. Even Braddock speedily saw its folly, and gave Washington a post
on his own staff.

Ii6

The History of Canada.

Y ii-

French Court, despite the pacific assurances of the English ministers,
and it was determined to send out additional troops to Canada. The
French fleet sailed from Brest in the month of April, and the Eng-
lish ministry, although no declaration of war had yet taken place,
resolved to have its motions watched by a competent force. For
this purpose Admiral Boscawen sailed from Plymouth with eleven
sail of the line, and encountered three of the French fleet off" the
Banks of Newfoundland, two of which, the Alcide and the Lys, were
captured ; the third, being a good sailer, made her escape. The re-
mainder of the French fleet, favoured by a fog, arrived in due time
at Quebec. It brought out a new governor to Canada, in the per-
son of the Marquis De Vaudreuil, the son of the former governor of
that name, and who had been born and served long in the Colony.
Du Quesne had already resigned, being desirous to resume his post
in the navy.

^ THE GOVERNMENT OF THE MARQUIS DE VAUDREUIL.

The arrival of De Vaudreuil was gladly hailed by the Canadian
people, who hoped to enjoy under his rule the same prosperity and
peace which had characterised his fatner's government. But in this
respect they were sadly deceived. The new Governor was too fami-
liar with the corrupt manners of the day, to resist the sinister in-
fluences by which he was speedily surrounded on his arrival. For
the preceding two years many of the inhabitants had been engaged
in expeditions in various quarters, their lands had, therefore, been
left uncultivated, and they were now threatened with famine. The
company which had monopolised the trade of the Colony during La
Jonquiere's government was still in existence, and De Vaudreuil
was speedily won over to wink at its extortions. Perceiving the
likelihood of a scarcity, this company had bought up large quantities
of flour, which they sold back to the people again at an immense
advance, and even sought to increase the prices of food, and con-
sequently their own profits, by procuring the shipments of wheat to
the West India Islands. Nor was this the only way in which the
people suffered. Bigot, the Intendant, who after being for some
time in France had again returned, connived at the robbery ot
the farmers in the most shameful manner. He issued an ordinance
to compel them to sell their grain at a low fixed price, under the pre-
tence that they had caused the scarcity, and then sent his creature.
Cadet, through the country to enforce it. The latter scoured the
settlements in every direction, and took the grain by force when the
inhabitants declined to sell it. Numerous complaints were made

■A.

The History of Canada,

117

against him ; but the Intendant refused to hear them, and referred
the parties to a member of the company, who threatened them with
imprisonment if they did not keep quiet ; which the helpless people
were thus compelled to do.*

Such was the degrading condition of the inhabitants of Canada at
this period. With famine already afflicting them, they were now
threatened with the miseries of war, and suffered, in addition, all the
evils of a most corrupt administration. Happy indeed is the pre-
sent condition of the Canadian habitant when compared with the
past. The conquest of Canada won true freedom for him, and gives
him a more genuine liberty than his race enjoys in any other part of
the world. Self-ruled, "he sits under his own vine and fig-tree,"
and no official, like the Bigot or Cadet of past times, dare lay an
illegal finger on his property.

On the 5th of May, Braddock joined the main body of his army
near Fort Cumberland, and found himself at the head of a force' of
two thousand three hundred men, which embraced the 44th and 48th
regiments of the line, with twelve pieces of artillery. Here, owing to
the want of carriages, horses, and provisions, he was detained till the
loth of June, when he pushed forward towards Fort Du Quesne.
Learning on the way that its garrison expected speedy reinforce-
ments, he selected twelve hundred men and ten guns, and pushed
boldly on through the solitudes of the AUeghanies. Colonel Dunbar,
with the rest of the army and the heavy baggage, followed as he best
might. Braddock's march was conducted in the most careless
manner, and the remonstrances of his officers only made him the
more obstinate. Washington, who commanded some companies of
Virginian militia, and acted as his aid-de-camp, pressed his objec-
tions to this course so warmly, that the irritated chief ordered him
and his men to undertake the inglorious duties of the rear-guard.

Contrecour, who still commanded at Fort Du Quesne, had received
early information of all Braddock's movements from his faithful
Indian scouts, and detached De Beaujeau, on the morning of the
9th July, with two hundred and fifty soldiers and six hundred Indians,
to occupy a defile six miles distant. Before, however, De Beaujeau
had fully completed the disposition of his force, the appearance of
the British vanguard brought on an engagement. Its flanking parties
were speedily driven in by a deadly fire from an almost unseen enemy.
Braddock promptly advanced the 44th regiment to succour the front,
and endeavoured to deploy that corps upon the open ground ; but
a deadly fire from the thick covert swept away the head of every
* Smith's Hist. Can., vol. i. p 235-239.

ii8

The History of Canada.

formation. Panic-struck by the wild war-whoop of the Indians, which
they had never before heard, and the disorder in their front, the 44th
staggered and hesitated. Its colonel. Sir Peter Halket, and his son,
a lieutenant, were now shot dead, side by side, while cheering them
on. Meantime, the artillery instinctively pushed forward without any
orders, and plied the thickets in front with grape and canister, but in
a few minutes all the officers and most of the gunners were lying killed
or wounded. The broken remnant of the advanced guard now fell
back upon the disordered line of the 44th, and threw it into utter
confusion. Again and again did Braddock, with useless courage,
endeavour to induce the 44th to present a firm front to the enemy ;
but this luckless corps, fated to be massacred at a subsequent period
in Affghanistan, were seized with uncontrollable terror, lost all order,
and fell back in a crowd on the 48th, now advancing to their aid
under Colonel Burton. With these fresh troops Braddock en-
deavoured to restore the battle, and made several desperate efforts
to get possession of a hill, from whence a body of French poured
down a most destructive fire ; but trees and rocks disordered his
well drilled ranks, which were also cut up repeatedly by the flanking
fire of the Indians. Lacking the" qualities of the general, his valour
was useless j the carnage increased, and after having five horses shot
under him, a bullet shattered his arm, and passed through his lungs.
He felt his defeat keenly, and desired to be left to perish on the
field ; but Colonel Gage placed him in a waggon, and hurried him
to the rear.

The remnant of the 44th and 48th now broke and fled in the ut-
most disorder, leaving the artillery and baggage in the hands of the
French, and, what was still worse, their wounded to be scalped and
murdered by the Indians. Washington, with his Virginian companies,
who had borne but little share in the action, held the banks of the
Monongahela till the fugitives had crossed over, and then retired
himself in tolerable order. All night did that panic-stricken army
fly, and the following evening joined the force which had been left
behind under Colonel Dunbar, full fifty miles from the scene of the
action. Still the retreat was continued, Braddock's sufferings hourly
increasing till his death, which took place on the third day from his
defeat. Shortly before he expired he dictated a despatch acquitting
his officers from all blame, and recommending them to the favour of
his country.

Full three-fourths of the small army Braddock had taken into action
were killed, wounded, or missing, including sixty-four officers. Fifty-
four women had accompanied the troops, and of these only four

the
him

The History of Canada.

119

escaped alive from the dangers and hardships of the expedition.
The French, on the other hand, only lost their commander, De
Ikaujeau, and sixty men in this astonishing victory, while the loss
of their Indian allies was still less in proportion.*

On Braddock's death Colonel Dunbar assumed the chief com-
mand, and continued the retreat in the most disgraceful haste upon
Fort Cumberland. Leaving two militia companies to strengthen its
garrison, he pursued his march to Philadelphia, despite the earnest
entreaties of the governors of Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania,
not to leave their western frontiers unprotected. From Philadelphia,
tlie remains of the army, sixteen hundred strong, were shipped to
Albany by the order of General Shirley, of Massachusetts, who was
now commander-in-chief.

While the disastrous events were occurring, which left the French
flag floating triumphantly in the valley of the Ohio, Governor Law-
rence, of Nova Scotia, was vigorously engaged in driving the enemy
from the Isthmus. De Vergor, now commanding at Beau-Sejour,
knew nothing of the preparations for war between Great Britain and
France till spring ; nor was he fully apprised of his danger, till, on
the 2d of June, he beheld the British fleet sailing fearlessly into the
bay, and anchoring before his eyes. On the 3d the militia and regular
troops, amounting to thirteen hundred in all, were landed without
(lifiiculty, as well as a train of artillery. De Vergor had been too
busy during the preceding winter, assisting the Abbe Le Loutre
in plundering the Acadian refugees of the allowances given them by
the crown, and in enriching himself by making fraudulent returns of
firewood, and other articles required for the garrison, to be now pre-
pared to defend his fort with resolution.f The British were suffered
to cross the Messagouche without opposition. Beau-Sejour, its
garrison weakened by discontent and fear, was surrendered after an
inglorious siege of four days' duration, and called Fort Cumberland
by its captors, in honour of the commander-in-chief. The little for-
tress at the Bay Verte, garrisoned by only twenty soldiers, was the
next to fall ; the French themselves burned the fort at St John's,
and retreated to Louisburg. These important successes were cheaply
purchased with the loss of twenty killed, and about the same num-
ber wounded. The unfortunate Acadian refugees having broken
their oath of allegiance to Great Britain, and now a second time

* Russell's Modern Europe, vol. ii. pp. 444, 445. Conquest of Can., vol. ii.
pp. 19-26. Bancroft's Mist. United States, vol. iii. pp. 129-136. Smith's Hist,
of Can., vol i. p. 233. Brit. North Amer., vol. i. p. 2H.

t Smith's Hist. Can., vol. i. p. 229.

I20

The History of Canada.

completely at its mercy, were treated with unwarrantable harsh-
ness.

General Shirley organised the third expedition determined on by
the council of Alexandria, and marched westward from Albany, in
the beginning of July, to capture the French fort at Niagara, But
the news of Braddock's defeat and death soon reached his troops,
and disheartened the Provincials, who deserted their colours by
squads. Shirley, nevertheless, vigorously pushed forward with all the
troops he could keep together, relying on the aid of the Iroquois.
But these had also heard of the French victory at Fort Du Quesne,
and hesitated to commit themselves to the doubtful fortunes of the
British. They even remonstrated against the passage of their terri-
tory by an army, alleging, at the same time, that the fort at Oswego
was only tolerated by them as a trading post. The middle of August
was past when the general, after a toilsome march, arrived at Lake
Ontario, and the want of supplies and lateness of the season pre-
vented him from attacking Niagara. Leaving seven hundred men
under Colonel Mercer to strengthen and occupy the defences at
Oswego, he commenced, on the 24th of October, to retrace his dif-
ficult route from Albany.

To William Johnson was due the honour of redeeming in some
measure the reputation of the British arms, so seriously tarnished by
the defeat of Braddock, and the fruitless marches of Shirley. An
Irishman by birth, he had followed when a youth the example of
numbers of his countrymen even at that early day, and sought to
better his fortunes in the New World.* Here, like Cobbett, and
Ledyard, and Coleridge, and East Indian Thompson, " who died a
Major-General," in the Old World, he began his career as a private
soldier. But Johnson was moulded in no ordinary stamp. Possessed
of a noble form, of strong perceptive powers, and influenced by an
honourable ambition, he gradually worked his way upwards to wealth
and public consideration. A settler for many years on the fertile
banks of the Mohawk, his manly bearing, social manners, and Irish
hospitality, had rendered him exceedingly popular with the abori-
gines of New York, and he might justly be termed the " Tribune of

* Even in the latter part of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth
century, the emigration from Ireland to the American plantations was very exten-
sive in proportion to its population. At one period this emigration was a source
of much alarm, as lands in many parts of Ireland were left untenanted. There is
not the smallest doubt, that at the present day Irishmen, or their descendants, form
the largest portion of the people of the United States. Vide Russell's Modern
Europe, voL iii. p. i.

The History of Canada,

121

e of

the Six Nations."* Not a single Iroquois had joined the ill-fated
Braddock, or the tedious Shirley: but the entire Mohawk tribe
attached themselves to the fortunes of Johnson ; and Hendrick,
their bravest sachem, led three hundred of their warriors to his
camp.t

Early in July the militia of Massachusetts and Connecticut, with a
few from the other New England states and New York, assembled
at Albany, to the number of five thousand men, preparatory to mov-
ing upon Crown Point. General Lyman led this force to the portage
between the Hudson and the head-springs of the Sorel, where they
constructed Fort Edward to serve as a safe depot for provisions, and
to secure a point of support in case of defeat. Here Johnson joined
the army the last days of August, and leaving a garrison of three
hundred men in the newly-built fort, conducted it to the southern
shore of the lake, which the French called the Lake of the Holy
Sacrament, but which he now named Lake George. " I found," he
said " a mere wilderness ; never was house or fort erected here be-
fore." Johnson had never seen a campaign, yet his position for his
camp was chosen with much more judgment than Washington had
displayed in the site for Fort Necessity. On the north lay Lake
George, his flanks were protected by wooded swamps, and behind
him was the secure post of Fort Exiward.

Tidings of the danger which threatened Crown Point speedily
reached De Vaudreuil, and abandoning the plan of an attack upon
Oswego he despatched Baron Dieskau, a brave and experienced
officer, with seven hundred veteran troops, fifteen hundred of the
militia of Montreal, and seven hundred Indians, to its succour.
Dividing his army at Crown Point, and eager for distinction, Dieskau,
taking twelve hundred Indians and Canadians and three hundred
regulars, pushed forward to assault Fort Edward. On the evening
of the 7th September, he found himself within four miles of this post;
but the Indians now refused to attack it, stating at the .same time
they were willing to go against the army on the lake, which was
thought to have neither artillery nor intrenchments.

Late that night it was told in the camp at Lake George that a
strong body of French and Indians had landed from South Bay, and
marched towards Fort Edward. Next morning one thousand men,
under Colonel Williams, and two hundred Mohawks, led by Hend-

* Memoirs of an American Lady, vol. ii. p. 61. Russell's Modem Europe, vol.
ii. p. 446.
t Conquest of Canada, vol. ii. p. 31.

122

The History of Canada.

rick, were despatched by a council of war to its relief. Dieskau's
scouts warned him of their approach, and posting his force among
the brushwood and rocks of a defile, he soon had the satisfaction of
seeing the enemy rashly advance. But at the critical moment the
Christian Iroquois of Caughnawaga hesitated to fire upon their kin-
dred, and showed themselves to apprise them of the ambush. This
movement saved the detachment from being entirely cut off. Put on
their guard they fought bravely, and, although Williams and Hendrick
were killed, made good their retreat to the camp, which was only
three miles from the defile.

The close roll of musketry rendered Johnson aware that a sharp
engagement was in progress, and as yet ignorant of the strength of
the enemy he resolved to prepare for the worst. His camp had still
no intrenchments. The New England militia were armed with rifles
and fowling-pieces, without a bayonet amongst them ; trees, therefore,
were now rapidly felled by the stalwart backwoodsmen, and waggons
and baggage placed along tlie front of their line to form a breastwork.
Behind this they could take deadly aim in comparative safety, and
were perfectly at home.

Dieskau designed to enter the camp with the fugitives, but John-
son had brought up three guns from the lake, and the moment the
Canadians and Indians found themselves under their fire, and in
front of an intrenched line, their courage failed and they inclined to
the right and left, contenting themselves with keeping up a harmless
fire on the flanks of the British. Dieskau, although surprised at the
strength of the position he had to assault, boldly pushed forward
Avith his regulars to break Johnson's line in the centre, which he
assailed at a distance of one hundred and fifty paces by a heavy
platoon firing. The action soon became general, and although the
French troops stood their ground stoutly, they melted rapidly away
under the well-directed and deadly fire of the New England men.
Dieskau finding, after the action had lasted four hours, that he could
make no impression on the centre of their line, directed a movement
against its right flank, and was now supported by the Canadian mihtia.
Johnson had been wounded in the beginning of the action, but Lyman
ably supplied his place, and soon checked the flank movement of
the French. They wavered and gave way, when the New England
men, leaping over their slight defences, drove them into rapid and
disordered flight. Nearly all the French regulars perished, and their
gallant leader, Dieskau, was wounded incurably and remained a
prisoner. The entire British loss, in the different actions during the
day, was two hundred and sixteen killed and ninety-six wounded.

The History of Canada.

123

The French loss has been variously estimated, but it could scarcely
be less than seven hundred in killed and wounded*

The Canadians and Indians, who had suffered comparatively little
in the engagement, finding themselves unpursued halted at the scene
of Williams' defeat to plunder and scalp the dead. Here they were
suddenly encountered by a body of New Hampshire militia, under
Captain Macginnis, who were marching to aid Johnson's force, and
a fresh engagement immediately ensued. It lasted two hours, and
resulted completely to the advantage of the New Hampshire men,
who lost their brave leader, however, in the moment of victory.
Thus defeated a second time the remnant of the French broke up
in disorder, and made the best of their way to Ticonderoga, where
a portion of the force left behind by Dieskau had intrenched them-
selves.

Johnson has been severely censured for not following up his vic-
tory by a movement on Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which was
recommended by his own council of war, and also by the New Eng-
land Governors. But his military experience, brief as it was, had
already taught him that however bravelv raw militia, armed with rifles
and fowling-pieces, might fight behind an intrenched position, where
they had no evolutions to perform, and where all that was necessary
was swift and well-aimed firing, they were, nevertheless, totally un-
equal to contend on a fair field against veteran French troops, armed
with musket and bayonet, and still less fitted to assault fortified
positions. Johnson, under these circumstances, felt that he had
done sufficient in saving the frontiers of the New England colonies,
and that his wisdom was not to risk a defeat by facing trained troops
behind intrenchments. He accordingly contented himself with erect-
ing Fort William Henry on the battle-field, and detaching Captain
Rogers, a daring and active officer, to obtain correct intelligence of
the enemy's movements. Rogers performed this duty in the most
satisfactory manner, cut off several of the detached parties of the
French, and ascertained that a body of two thousand men, with a
proportion of artillery, were securely posted at Ticonderoga.

Having strengthened Forts Edward and William Henry, which he
garrisoned with a regiment of militia, Johnson, on the 24th of
December, fell back to Albany with the remainder of his forces,
who from thence returned to their respective provinces. Although

* Bancroft says their loss was not much greater than that of the British ; but in
this estimate he is evidently mistaken. Smith rates their loss at one thousand
killed, wounded, and missing, and Warburton says eight hundred. Their entire
loss throughout the day was probably about seven tundred.

124

The History of Canada.

the victory he had won, with untrained and imperfectly armed troops,
was not productive of any brilliant results, England 'was grateful for
what he had accomplished, and rewarded him by a baronetcy, and a
parliamentary grant of ;^5ooo.*

While Johnson and the men of New England were winning
laurels at Lake George, the frontier settlements of Pennsylvania felt
the full effects of Braddock's defeat and the cowardly flight of Dun-
bar. The French of Fort Du Quesne and their Indians swept the
open country in every direction, plundering and murdering the inhabit-
ants. Its Quaker legislature refused assistance to repel these aggres-
sions, and not till the clamours of hundreds of fugitives proclaimed
that fifteen hundred French and Indians had mustered on the
Susquehanna only eighty miles from Philadelphia, did these men
of peace respond to the importunities of their Governor, by calling
out the militia and appropriating ;^62,ooo for the expenses of the
war. The other colonies, whose frontiers were also exposed, be-
came more and more alarmed, and, on the 12th of December, a
grand council-of-war was held at New York, composed of several
of the Governors and superior officers, to deliberate on measures
for the common safety. A splendid campaign was now planned
for the following year ; Quebec was to be menaced by the Ken-
nebec and the Chaudiere ; vessels were to be launched on Lake
Ontario from Oswego, and Frontenac and Niagara and Toronto
to be captured ; and then Fort Du Quesne and Detroit and
Mackinaw, deprived of their communications with Montreal, must
surrender. A strong force at the same time vas to carry Ticon-
deroga and Crown Point, and to threaten the settlements on the
St Lawrence by the Richelieu. The mother country was appealed
to for succour. This she determined to give, despite her fears
already of colonial independence when freed from French aggres-
sion, and Lord Loudon was appointed to direct her American
armies.

* Conquest of Can., vol. ii. p. 35. Smith's Hist. Can., vol. L p. 235.

CHAPTER VII.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE MARQUIS DE VAVVREVlLf—COflii/lUei/.

DESPITE the hostile conflicts in the New WorUl, France and
England were still nominally at peace. Contrary to all
political conjecture, France made no reprisals for the capture of the
A/d^e and the Zys, the two men-of-war taken off the St Lawrence
by Boscawen, and tamely saw three hundred of her trading vessels,
laden in many cases with valuable cargoes of West India produce,
and manned by eight thousand seamen, captured and carried into
the ports of England. France felt her inferiority at sea, and had
flattered herself that the anxiety of George II. for the safety of his
German dominions, would prevent him from adopting any vigorous
measures, notwithstanding her encroachments in America. But
the numerous captures of French vessels soon taught Louis XV.
that no dependence need be placed on the promises and peace-
able professions of the British ministry, and he unwillingly pre-
pared for war. Both Great Britain and France now sought to
strengthen themselves by new alliances, and to make preparation
otherwise for the approaching contest, which threatened
to involve all Europe. France began hostilities by the '^
invasion of Minorca, and war was soon after formally declared by
both countries.*

In the New World the campaign opened with far the best pros-
pects on the side of the French, in a military point of view. They
held undisputed possession of the valley of the Ohio and the great
west ; Niagara and Toronto had been strengthened, as well as Fort
Frontenac; and their flag floated over Lake Ontario in almost
undisputed sovereignty ; while Crown Point and Ticonderoga gave
them the supremacy on Lake Champlain. In addition to these ad-
vantages three thousand regular troops, a hardy militia already trained
to war, and numerous tribes of friendly Indians, ever ready to range
• Russell's Modem Europe, vol. ii. p. 447.

126

The History of Canada.

themselves on the side of the stronger party, constituted a much
more formidal)lc military power than the Uritish colonies, with
their jarring interests, and independent commanders, could pre-
sent.

But, while apparently formidable in military strength, Canada was
woefully deficient in all the genuine materials of warfare, when com-
pared with her Anglo-Saxon rivals. New England alone had more men
capable of bearing arms than her entire population, which now num-
bered scarcely eighty thousand souls, Avhile the united British colonies
boasted of nearly three million inhabitants. It is true that the British
settlers, like their descendants of the present day, were men of peace,
and much better fitted by choice and habit for the occupations of
commerce and agriculture than for the military life. Still, they pos-
sessed all the qualities which constitute the true soldier — energy,
courage, and endurance, and needed only union, discipline, and the
right kind of a leader, to drive their rivals single-handed from this
continent. On the other hand, the Canadians were poor in purse,
and suffering from a scarcity of food. Their union and military
training gave them the advantage in the beginning of the contest ;
their want of numerical strength and the necessary resources ruined
them in the end. The British colonies presented the aspect of a
free self-governed people, grown rich and populous by their intelli-
gence, their industry, and their love of justice. Canada exhibited
the spectacle of a military settlement, ground down by the exactions
of a feudal land tenure, dishonest public servants, and knavish com-
mercial monopolies.

The ice of winter had still firm hold of the rivers of Canada, when
De Vaudreuil opened the campaign, by detaching Lieutenant De Lery,
on the 17th of March, with two hundred and fifty-nine French and
eighty Indians, to capture some small forts, which he learned had been
constructed on the road to Oswego for the protection of convoys pro-
ceeding thither. One of these posts, garrisoned by twenty men, was
captured after a stout resistance and blown up. The obstinacy with
which the little garrison had defended themselves, and the loss of some
of their warriors, so exasperated the Indians that they scalped and
murdered them all, with the exception of two men, who were saved with
difiiculty by De Lery. Three hundred men were also despatched
from Fort Frontenac, under Captain De Villier, with instructions to
establish themselves at some favourable point in the vicinity of
Oswego, and inflict all the injury possible on stragglers from its
garrison, or on convoys proceeding there, and if possible to capture
the fort itself by a sudden assault. De Villier erected a small stock-

The History of Canada.

ii-j

adcd fort in a dense part of the forest, where he hoped to remain
unperccived. IJut it was soon detected by a scouting party of
Iroquois, who became not a httlc alarmed at this unauthorised
occupation of tlieir territory. By the advice of Sir William John-
son, they sent a deputation to remonstrate with l)c Vaudreuil at
Montreal, and to recpiest him to demolish the fort. This he re-
fused to do : but told them if they remained neutral, and would not
join the British, that he would protect them from every insult* After
promising to pursue this course, they departed homewards laden with
rich presents.

No sooner had De Vaudreuil dismissed the Iroquois deputies than
he took prompt measures to strengthen the detachment under IJe
Villier, and also for tlie capture of the British armed vessels, which
now began to appear on Lake Ontario. While thus engaged a large
body of troops arrived at Montreal under the command of Field-
Marshal Montcalm, the Chevalier De Levi, and Colonel De Bour-
lemaque, three brave and experienced officers. After remaining a
few days at Quebec, to make himself acquainted with the condition
of matters there, Montcalm directed three regiments of regular
troops to proceed to Montreal, whither he departed in advance to
confer with the Governor. He highly approvetl of the measures the
latter had taken with respect to Oswego, and directed Bourlemaque
to push forward to De Villier's camp with a reinforcement, and take
the chief command. Having completed these arrangements he pro-
ceeded to Ticonderoga, on the 27th of June. Here he remained
making preparations for the defence of the frontier, and endeavouring
to procure accurate intelligence of the movements of the British at
Albany, till the 15th of July, when he set out on his return to Mon-
treal. To De Levi and three thousand men he left the protection of
Crown Point and Ticonderoga, and the maintenance of French
supremacy on Lake Champlain and the Richelieu. From Montreal
'■"' tin'" led to Fort Frontenac to make preparations for the capture

.fi >go.
\ thus all was vigour and action on the side of the French,

lela ind indecision characterised the operations of the British.
Lord Loudon being detained by business in England, Major-General
Abercromby was ordered to precede him, and hold the chief com-
mand till his ar' ival. This officer brought out with him the 35th
and 42 d regin ,, and found himself at Albany towards the
latter end of c. Abercromby deemed the force under his
command tor jak to carry out the extensive plan of operations
which had bee sketched out by Shirley and the other colonial

128

The History of Canada.

li!

officers ; and, desirous to avoid responsibility, resolved to await
the arrival of the commander-in-chief before undertaking any im-
portant operations. Meantime, he marched the Provincial forces
upon Fort William Henry, under the '^ommand of General Win-
slow, preparatory to the proposed i.^.ovement on Crown Point and
Ticonderoga.

While the bulk ot the army thus remained in idle inaction, Lieu-
tenai 'i-Colonel Bradstreet, with a detachment of raw Irish recruits,
conducted a large convoy of provisions in safety to Oswego. De VilUer
pushed forward from Sackett's Harbour, with seven hundred French
and Indians, to intercept him, but losing his way in the forest he did
not reach the Onondaga River till after the convoy had safely passed
down its course. Bradstreet, fearing an attack on his return, divided
his canoes and boats into three divisions, with an easy interval be-
tween, so that if his advance was attacked the men behind might
push for the bank of the rivei, and meet the enemy on equal terms.
Gallantly posting himself in the first canoe, he left Oswego on the
3d of July, and had only advanced nine miles up the stream, when
suddenly a sharp volley, and the wild war-whoop of the savage, rang
through the forest. The first fire fell with dea dly effect upon the leading
division, yet Bradstreet did not lose his presence of . lind, and made
for an island, which twenty of the enemy, however, dashing through
the water, gained before him. He had not a dozen men with him,
stili he boldly faced his foes, and quickly drove them from the island.
The remainder of his first division speedily arriving, made his strength
up to twenty men, who bravely beat back a fresh attack by twice
their number. The enraged French now made a third onset with
seventy men, who, after a desperate hand-to-hand conflict on the
island, were repelled by Bradstreet and his gallant little band.
Meanwhile, the boatmen of the second and third divisions had
landed, formed in good order, and pushed forward to the assistance
of their hard-pressed comrades. After a desperate struggle the
French were completely routed, leaving a hundred of their number
dead ; and seventy prisoners, with a large quantity of fire-arms, in
the hands of their conquerors. On the other hand, the Irish boat-
men had sixty killed and wounded in this fiercely -contested
action.

Bradstreet arrived at Schenectady on the 4th of July, and the fol-
low'ng day proceeded to Albany, to warn Abercromby that Oswego
was menaced by a large French force. The general at once gave
orders for the 44th regiment to hasten to its relief, but owing to the
interference of soma of the Provincial governors its march was

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129

delayed. Lord Loudon joined the army on the 29th of July, and
still no active measures were taken.

Montcalm having completed all his arrangements for the siege of
Oswego, departed from Fort Frontennc on the 4th of August, and
arrived on the evening of the same day at Sackett's Harbour, the
general rendezvous of his army, which amounted to more than three
thousand men. On the 9th his vanguard arrived within a mile and a
half of Oswego ; on the night of the loth his first division also came
up. The second division followed shortly after, and at midnight on the
1 2th he opened his trenches against Fort Ontario, which crowned a
height on the opposite side of the river from Fort Oswego, and com-
pletely commanded the latter. From the following daybreak till
evening the fire of the garrison was well kept up, when their ammu-
nition becoming exhausted, they had no alternative but to spike their
guns, and retire across the river to Fort Oswego. The abandoned
fort, which contained eight guns and four mortars, was immediately
occupied by Montcalm, who now continued his parallel down the
river side, where a breaching battery was speedily erected, and next
morning, at six o'clock, nine guns poured a destructive fire at point
blank range against Fort Oswego. At eight o'clock, Colonel Mercer,
its commanding officer, was killed ; and at ten, although its fire was
still much superior to that of the French, the besieged hoisted a
white flag and offered to surrender, much to the astonishment of
Montcalm and his officers.

The garrison, consisting of Shirley's and Pepperell's regiments, and
a detachment of Schuyler's regiment of militia, was about seventeen
hundred strong, and lost one hundred and fifty in kiiled and wounded
during the brief siege, or shortly afterwards, when thirty men attempt-
ing to escape through the woods, were massacred by the Indians.
The French had eighty killed and wounded. Over sixteen hundred
prisoners of war, including one hundred and twenty women, were sent
down the St Lawrence, and the colours of the captured regiments for a
brief space decorated the walls of tlie churches of Montreal, Three
Rivers, and Quebec. One hundred and twenty cannon and mortars,
six sloops of war, two hundred boats, and large stores of ammunition
and provisions, with _;^i 8,000 in coin, fell to the conquerors.*

This was a most fortunate victory for Canada, and established the
already rising reputation of Montcalm; but he stained his triumph by
permitting his Indians to plunder many of his captives, and to slay

* Doc. Ilist. New York, vol. i. pp. 4SS-497. Conquest of Can., vol. ii. pp.
51-54. Bancroft's Hist. United States, Loudon Edition, vol. iii. p. 1C9. Smith'd
Hist. Can., vol. i. pp. 243, 244.

I.^O

The History of Canada.

and scalp the wounded who had been intrusted to his care* Instead
of occupying Oswego, he courted the favour of the Iroquois by raz-
ing it to the ground, and then retraced his way to Fort Frontenac.

The cowardly defence of Oswego imprinted a deep stain on the
reputation of the British troops, and its capture terminated the cam-
paign of 1756 completely in favour of the French. "Our trade,"
wrote an officer of Montcalm's army to a friend, " is now entirely
re-established. Lake Ontario is ours without any opposition. We can
hardly recover from astonishment at the victory we have achieved."
Webb, who had at length advanced with the 44th regiment to relieve
the garrison, when he heard of its capture turned and fled to Albany ;
Loudon expressed his fears of an attack while the enemy was flushed
with victory. When the danger had passed over he dismissed the
militia to their several localities, and quartered his regulars on the
people of Albany and New York. The hapless frontier settlers of
Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New York alone experienced the full evils
of the recent disasters. Parties of French and Indians, from the
Ohio, swept through the border counties of those colonies, and
marked their course by plunder and massacre. Maddened by these
injuries a body of three hundred Pennsylvanians hastily assembled,
pursued a party of Delaware marauders to their village, and
slaughtered them without mercy. On the side of New York, a
detachment of tliree hundred French and Indians from Fort Fron-
tenac, on the 28th of November, passing up the Black River pene-
trated into the Palatine settlement of the German Flats, in the valley
of the Mohawk, captured five small forts which protected the village,
killed forty men, and carried off one hundred and fifty prisoners. An
immense quantity of cattle and provisions was destroyed, and tlie
French and Indians returned to Frontenac laden with valuable plun-
der. The disasters which had befallen the British arms caused even
the Iroquois to waver in their neutrality, and incline to the French.
Their young men disdainfully trod the English medals under foot,
and it required all the address of Sir William Johnson to prevent
them from offering their services to Montcalm.

Emboldened by their numerous successes, the French did not per-
mit their energies to slumber during the winter months. Scouting
parties of Indians and the hardy habitants swept the frontiers of the
northern settlements, and brought IMontcalm the most accu-

' '' ' * rate intelligence of the condition of the enemy. Vast stores
of provisions and warlike munitions had been collected at Fort Wil-
liam Henry, on Lake George ; and Montcalm now resolved to cap-
• Doc. Hist. New York, vol. i. p. 498.

The History of Canada.

131

ture it by a sudden assault, and thus effectually cripple the future
operations of the British against Ticonderoga and Crown Point. At
midnight, on the 19th of March, eleven hundred French and four
hundred Indians, led by Rigeaud De Vaudreuil, approached this fort
to carry it by escalade ; but the vigilant sentries discovered them in
time, and alarmed the garrison, who speedily drove back their assail-
ants with a brisk fire of cannon and musketry. On the next day the
French invested the fort, and on the 21st summoned the command-
ant, Major Eyres, to surrender, which he promptly refused to do.
Finding himself unable to take the fort, De Vaudreuil destroyed the
storehouses and buildings around it, and returned to Montreal.
Shortly after his return, Colonel De Bourlemaque was despatched
with two battalions to strengthen the works at Crown Point and
Ticonderoga, while Captain Pouchot was sent to Niagara to fortify
it in the best possible manner, and assume the command.

While these events were in progresr on the Canadian frontier. Lord
Loudon was exerting himself to collect a sufficient force to strike a
decisive blow. For the present the attack on Crown Point had been
laid aside, and the reduction of Louisburg, in Cape Breton, deter-
mined on. Preparations for this enterprise were rapidly pushed
forward in England, and towards the end of June seven regiments
of infantry and a detachment of artillery, on board a fleet of fourteen
line-of-battle ships, arrived at Halifax, the port of rendezvous, and
were joined by Lord Loudon, on the 9th of July, with six additional
regiments and some militia. Here he remained inactive till August,
when inteUigence being received that a strong French fleet had
arrived at Cape Breton, the project of besieging Louisburg was
abandoned.

Lord Loudon's departure ^or Halifax had not left the colonies by
any means unprotected. Colonel Stanwyx, with two thousand militia
and a detachment of regular troops, guarded the western frontier ;
Colonel Bouquet, with nearly the same force, watched the borders of
Carolina ; towards Lake Champlain, General Webb defended New
York and the New England states ; while to Colonel Munro, with
two thousand men, the safety of Fort William Henry was intrusted.
In addition to these forces, the hardy militia of the neighbouring
states could be rapidly drawn together, in case of an emergency, and
would be more than sufficient for every purpose of self-defence.

No sooner had Lord Loudon put to sea for Halifax, than Mont-
calm promptly determined on the siege of Fort William Henry, for
which he speedily drev.' together an army of six thousand regular
troops and militia and seventeen hundred Indians. Among the

132

The History of Canada

\ t-

latter were a number of the Oneidas and Senecas, who had aban-
doned their promise of neutrality, and attached themselves to the
rising fortunes of the French. It was a season of scarcity in Canada,
the inhabitants of which now began to feel the full evils of continual
military service : and the difficulty of collecting supplies for Mont-
calm's army was increased by the peculations of its commissariat, and
the robberies of officials of every class. But all the obstacles to the
progress of his troops were soon overcome by the resolute spirit of
the French general, who proceeded himself to Ticonderoga, in the
latter part of June, to complete the necessary preparations. From
this point scouting parties were spread out towards Lake George.
One of these, led by Marin, surprised a body of British militia near
Fort Edward, and returned with fifty-five scalps : another attacked a
fleet of barges on Lake George, killed several of the boatmen, and
took one hundred and sixty prisoners. " To-morrow or next day,"
said some of the captives to Montcalm, " General Webb will be at
the fort with fresh troops." " No matter," answered the intrepid sol-
dier, " in less than twelve days I will have a good story to tell about
them." From Webb there was little to fear. He went, it is true, to
Fort Henry, but took good care to leave it again with a large escort
in sufficient time to avoid the siege.

Montcalm had not sufficient boats to carry his entire army by water,
and the Iroquois agreed to guide De Levi with two thousand five
hundred men by land. Next day, which was the ist of August, the
main body of the army embarked in two hundred and fifty boats,
in front of which advanced the Indians in their decorated canoes.
The rain fell in torrents, yet they rowed nearly all night, till at
length the three triangular signal fires of De Levi broke upon their
view, and the fleet pulled into North-west Bay. An hour after
midnight two English boats were descried upon the lake, which had
been despatched to reconnoitre. Two canoes of the Algonquins
boldly pushed out in pursuit, and with such celerity that one of the
boats was captured. Of its crew two prisoners alone were reserved,
the rest were massacred. The Algonquins had one of their principal
chiefs killed.

Next morning no eflbrt at concealment was attempted by the
French, and the Indians, forming their canoes in a single hne across
the water, made the bay resound with their war-cry. The British
were almost taken by surprise, and Montcalm disembarked without
interruption a mile and a half below the fort, towards which his
troops advanced in three columns. The Indians covered his flanks
•with vigilant skirmishers, or pushed on in advance to burn the

The History of Canada.

133

barracks of the British, to capture their cattle and horses, and to
cut off and scalp their stragglers. They speedily succeeded in
surprising a foraging party, forty of whom they slew and scalped,
and captured fifty head of cattle. During the day they occupied,
in connexion with a force under La Corne, the road leading to
Fort Edward, and interrupted all communication with the army of
Webb. To the north, De Levi was posted with his regulars and
Canadians, while Montcalm, with the main body of his army, estab-
lished himself on the west side of the lake. Fort William Henry
was defended by Lieutenant-Colonel Munro, of the 35th regiment of
the line, with less than five hundred men, but seventeen hundred
more lay intrenched at his side on the eminence to the south-east,
where now may be seen the ruins of Fort George.

Montcalm spent the 3d of August in reconnoitring the fort and
neighbourhood, and in erecting his batteries. Next day he sum-
moned Munro to surrender; but the gallant old soldier sent an
answer of defiance. " I will defend my trust," said he, " to the
last extremity." This bold reply hastened the preparations of the
French, whose scanty supply of provisions must speedily run
short. Montcalm felt, if he would conquer at all, it must be soon,
and pressed forward his approaches night and day. The zeal of
their general imparted itself to the men, who vigorously dragged the
artillery over rocks and through forests ; brought gabions and fas-
cines ; and laboured with untiring zeal in the trenches. The first
battery of nine guns and two mortars was speedily constructed, and
awoke a thousand echoes amid the surrounding hills as it opened
on the fort amid the wild war-whoop of the savages. In two days
more INIontcalm had constructed his second parallel ; and another
battery, at a shorter range, poured a destructive fire upon the fort,
while the Canadians and savages, swarming into the zig-zag of the
trenches, swept its ramparts with murderous aim. The odds were
great against him, still Munro held out with stubborn valour, in the
vain hope that Webb would advance to his aid. But the craven-
heart, who might speedily have collected a strong body of militia to
assist his four thousand men in raising the siege, sent nothing but a
letter, with an exaggerated account of the French army, and advising
him to surrender. Still the gallant old man held bravely out ; and
not till half his guns were burst, and his ammunition nigh exhausted,
did he unfurl a flag of truce.

Montcalm dreaded the excesses of the Indians, who thirsted for
massacre and plunder, and with the view of making the terms of
caoitulation inviolably binding on them, invited their chiefs to coun-

134

The History of Canada.

cil. It was stipulated the British were to depart with all the honours
of war, on condition of not serving against the French for eighteen
months. They were also to surrender everything but their private
effects, and the Canadians and French Indians taken captive during
the war were to be given up. On the other hand, Montcalm agreed
to supply a sufficient escort for their protection. The capitulation
was signed on the 9th of August, and on the evening of the same day
Munro delivered up the fort, and retired with his garrison to the in-
trenched camp.

Hitherto Montcalm had kept intoxicating liquors from the savages,
but now they obtained them from the English, who were desirous to
court their forbearance. But, unfortunately for the latter, this course
produced a wholly different result from what they had expected.
The Indians had been promised the liberty of plundering the British,
and the greater part of them were dissatisfied with the stipulation
which allowed them to carry off their private effects. Thus disap-
pointed, and maddened by liquor, they spent the night in revelry
and in recounting the wrongs they had sustained from the English.
As the day broke, the British soldiers began to march out of their
intrenchraents and were immediately surrounded by the Indians,
who at once began the work of plunder and massacre. Officers and
men, stript of everything, sought safety in the recesses of the forest,
in the fort, or in the tents of the French. De Levi rushed in among
the infuriated savages, and endeavoured to appease them, but with-
out effect. A spirit was now aroused which it was impossible to
allay. Many French officers were wounded in their endeavour to
shield the British troops. " Kill me," said Montcalm, " but spare
them, they are under my protection." But his prayers and menaces
were alike fruitless, and he urged the British to defend themselves.
The march to Fort Edward was a disordered flight ; not more than
six hundred reached it in a body. Four hundred more were col-
lected in the French camp, who were dismissed with a strong escort,
while Montcalm despatched an officer to ransom those who had
been made captives by the Indians. Such wns the terrible occur-
rence which Cooper has so eloquently depicted in his " Last of the
Mohicans."

The Indians speedily returned to their homes, leaving the French
busy in demolishing the fort, and in carrying off the vast stores that
had been collected there. Montcalm's loss was trifling ; only fifty-
three of his army had been killed and wounded. Still he forebore
to follow up his victory by attacking Fort Edward, and dismissed the
'Canadian militia to gather in their harvest. Webb expected to be

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135

ich

Ihat

fty

lore

Ithc

assailed every moment, sent his baggage accordingly to the rear, and
designed to retreat to the highland fastnesses of the Hudson. The alarm
spread in every direction. " For God's sake," wrote the officer com-
manding at Albany to Governor Pownall, of Massachusetts, " exert
yourself to save a province. New York itself may fall;" and the in-
habitants west of the Connecticut River were directed to destroy
their waggons, and drive in their cattle. Lord Loudon returned
from his bootless and costly expedition to Halifax, leaving Louis-
burg untouched; but he spent the remainder of the season in
quarrelling with the colonies about the quarters for his troops, and
the royal prerogative, and the French were left undisturbed. Driven
from the basin of the Ohio and the great lakes, the western trade
effectually checked, with the American frontiers beset by a vigilant
enemy, and hordes of treacherous savages, the false friends of pros-
perity, Britain and her colonies were sorely humiliated, and longed
to avenge themselves.

In England the return of the shattered fleet, which had conveyed
the troops to operate against Louisburg out to Halifax, and the in-
telligence of the fruitless operations of Lord Loudon, awoke a storm
of public indignation. The discarded ministry of the Duke of New-
castle shared the odium of failure with the incompetent general, and
all eyes were now turned on Pitt, who had again assumed the helm
of state, in the hope that his wisdom would soon alter matters for
the better. Nor were they disappointed. The "Great Commoner"
knew no party but the British nation, and sought its benefit with
honesty and singleness of purpose. The principal object with him
was to exalt the power and establish the prosperity of his country
on a sure basis, and to protect continental Protestantism, threatened
in the King of Prussia by the formidable coalition of the great Roman
Catholic sovereigns. No sooner was he firmly established in office
than, warned by their incapacity, he urged upon his sovereign the
necessity of removing the military and naval officers who had hither-
to conducted the operations against the French. The propriety of
this course was at once apparent to the King, who promptly gave
his consent ; and Pitt, with that keen perception which belongs to
superior genius, proceeded to select his generals. Casting aside
the formalities of military precedent, he elevated Colonel Amherst,
a man of solid judgment and respectable ability, to the rank of
major-general, and placed him at the head of the force which was
designed for the attack of Louisburg. Under Amherst, Whitmore,
Lawrence, and James Wolfe were appointed brigadier-generals.
The conquest of the Ohio valley was assigned to Forbes j while

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The History of Canada.

Abercromby was to operate against Ticonderoga and Crown Point,
with Lord Howe, on whom Pitt mainly relied for the success of the
expedition, for his second in command. Of Abercromby the minister
knew very little, and had soon reason to regret his appointment.

Among these officers, Howe and Wolfe, both young men, were
the favourites with the minister and the public. Howe, connected
with many of the best families of the nobility, was possessed of a
manly and humane disposition, and great quickness of perception in
discerning merit. Wolfe had only seen thirty-one summers, yet he
had already been eighteen years in the army, and served at Dettingen,
at Fontenoy, and at Laffeldt. At two-and-twenty, merit had elevated
him to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, in which capacity he had won
the respect of his officers, and the affection of his men, who, while
they experienced vct him a strict disciplinarian, found also a kind
and humane friend. Conscious of ability, like every man of sterling
talent, his aspirations for distinction had still nothing of egotism
about them, and were clad in the garb of genuine modesty. An
authoritative and firm commander, a brave soldier, he was not ashamed
to obey his widowed mother, whom he regarded with the utmost
affection j while his gentle nature, even while he kindled at the near
prospect of greater distinction, already saw visions of happiness in
the pure scenes of domestic love.

On the 19th of February a magnificent fleet sailed from Ports-
mouth, which carried out General Amherst, and an army
'^ of ten thousand men. It was long detained by contrary
winds, and after a stormy passage reached Halifax on the 28th of
May, where Boscawen's fleet was met coming out of the harbour,
the gallant Admiral being weary of inaction. At dawn, on the 2d
of June, the entire armament, embracing twenty-two ships of the
line, fifteen frigates, one hundred and twenty smaller vessels, and
eleven thousand six hundred troops, arrived off Louisburg. Amherst
indulged in the hope that he would be able to surprise its garrison,
and issued orders for the silent landing of the troops. But for six
days a rough sea, and the heavy surf which broke upon the rugged
beach, rendered a disembarkation impossible. During this interval
the French toiled night and day to strengthen their position, and
fired upon the ships at every opportunity.

On the evening of the 7th the wind lulled, the fog cleared off, and
the heavy sea gradually subsided, but a violent surf still continued
to break on the beach. On the following morning, just before day-
light, three divisions of boats received the troops ; at dawn Commo-
dore Durell examined the shore, and reported a landing to be prac-

The History of Canada.

137

ticable. Seven frigates now opened fire to cover the advance to
land. In a few minutes afterwards the left division, led by Brigadier
Wolfe, began to row in-shore, and was speedily followed by Whit-
more and Lawrence, with their brigades, while two small vessels
were sent past the mouth of the harbour to distract the attention of
the enemy, and induce them to divide their force.

The left division was the first to reach the beach at a point about
four miles from the town. Wolfe would not allow a shot to be fired,
stimulated the rowers to fresh exertions, and on coming to shoal
water boldly jumped out into the sea to lead on his men. The
French stood firm, and retained their fire till their assailants were
close to land. Then as the boats rose on the last swell, which
brought them into the surf, they poured in a close and deadly volley
from every gun and musket they could bring to bear. Wolfe's flag-
staff was shivered by a bar-shot ; many soldiers were killed ; several
boats were wrecked by the surf ; but still he cheered on his men,
who had not yet returned a shot, and in a few minutes, with fiery
valour, they had burst through the breastworks of the French, who
fled in disorder. The victors pressed rapidly on in pursuit, and
despite a rugged country inflicted a severe loss on the fugitives,
captured seventy prisoners, and invested Louisburg the same day.

For the succeeding two days a rough sea rendered it impossible to
land the siege artillery, and provisions were conveyed to the army
with the greatest difficulty. On the nth the weather moderated,
when tents were landed, and some progress made in the preparations
for the siege. On the 12th De Urucor, the French general, with-
drew all his outposts, and even destroyed a battery which com-
manded the entrance of the harbour, being desirous to reserve all
his force for the defence of the town. The garrison of Louisburg
was composed of three thousand regular troops and militia, with a few
Indians. In addition to this force, six line-of-battle ships and two
frigates guarded the harbour, at the entrance of which three other
frigates had been sunk, to prevent the passage of the British fleet.

Wolfe's light troops were speedily in possession of the different
posts deserted by the French, and on the 20th a battery opened
upon the ships and land defences. For many days the slow opera-
tions of the siege continued under great difticultics to the British,
owing to the marshy nature of the ground, and heavy rains which
flooded the trenches. But science, a sufficient force, union among
the principal officers, and courage and endurance in sailors and sol-
diers, overcame every obstacle, and promised speedy success. A
sortie on the 9th of July by the besieged was speedily repelled, and

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'■1

day and night the batteries thundered against the ramparts, the
citadel, and the shipping. On the 21st three of the French men-of-
war were set on fire by a shell, the following day the citadel was
in a blaze, the next the barracks were burned down, while Wolfe's
trenches were pushed close to the town, and the French driven from
their guns by the British sharp-shooters. On the night of the 25th
two captains of Boscawen's fleet swept into the harbour with a
squadron of boats under a furious fire, and burned one of the re-
maining men-of-war and carried off another. Boscawen prepared to
send in six ships of the line to attack the other French vessels ; but
the town was already a heap of ruins, the greater part of its guns
dismounted, its garrison without a safe place to rest in, so De Drucor
resolved to capitulate at discretion, such being the only terms he
could get.

Skilfully fortified, defended by a sufficient garrison and by a power-
ful fleet, Louisburg had been bravely won. Its capture shed fresh
lustre on the genius of Pitt, as well as on the gallant men he had wisely
chosen to effect it. It was indeed a triumph for British arms, so long
stained by sad reverses. Five thousand six hundred soldiers and sail-
ors were made prisoners, and eleven ships of war taken or destroyed.
Aboi't fifteen thousand stand of arms, and large quantities of military
stores and provisions, also fell into the hands of the victors ; as well
as eleven stand of captured colours, which were laid at the feet of
the British sovereign, and subsequently deposited with due solemnity
in St Paul's. With Louisburg fell Cape Breton and Prince Edward's
Island ; and thus terminated the power of France for ever on the
eastern seaboard of North America. Halifax being the British
naval station, Louisburg was deserted ; and although the harbour
still affords shelter from storms, a few hovels only mark the spot
which so much treasure was expended to fortify, so much courage
and endurance needed to conquer.

While Amherst and Wolfe were still busily engaged in the siege of
Louisburg, the largest army as yet seen on the American continent
assembled at Albany, under the command of Abercromby, the suc-
cessor of Lord Loudon as General-in-chief, for the attack of Ticon-
deroga and Crown Point. It was composed of a strong detachment
of the royal artillery, six thousand three hundred and fifty troops of
the line, and nine thousand provincial militia. In the latter end of
June this force marched to Lake George, and encamped by the ruins
of Fort William Henry till the 5th of July, when they struck their tents,
and embarking in one thousand and thirty-five boats, protected by
artillery mounted on rafts, proceeded towards Ticonderoga. All that

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139

day did this flotilla pull steadily forward, and when evening fell the
troops landed, and built large fires to deceive the French into the belief
that they would proceed no further till morning, and to distract their
attention. But in the dead of the night they were suddenly re-em-
barked, and hurried forward to the stream which connects the two
lakes. On the left bank of this stream, where it falls into Lake Cham-
plain, rises a bold headland, on which stood Ticonderoga, or Fort
Carillon, as it was named by the French. Protected by the lake and
river on the east and south, while to the north it was effectually covered
by marshes, it could only be approached from the west. The fort might
thus be said to be situated at the point of an acute angle, the base of
this angle presenting the only way by which it could be assailed by a
land force. Across this base, at the distance of half a mile fom Carillon,
Montcalm marked out his lines, which he fortified by felled trees and
intrenchments of earth.

At five o'clock on the morning of the 6th, the advanced guard of
the British, composed of two thousand men under the command of
the gallant Bradstreet, were safely landed, and meeting no opposition
were speedily followed by the entire army, which pushed forward in
four columns covered by skirmishers. Montcalm did not expect to
see Abercromby so soon in his immediate neighbourhood, and was
almost taken by surprise. "These people," said he, "march cautiously,
yet if they give me time to gain the position I have chosen on the
heights of Carillon I shall beat them."

The British columns, led by guides who knew little of the neighbour-
hood, broke and jostled each other repeatedly. So dense was the
forest and uneven the ground that an outlying detachment of three
hundred French troops, called in by their general, lost their way, and
were suddenly encountered by the right centre of the British army led
by Lord Howe. The worn-out stragglers, who had been wandering
twelve hours in the forest, fought bravely, but were soon over-
whelmed. Some were killed, others drowned in the stream, and
one hundred and fifty-nine surrendered. Lord Howe, foremost
in the skirmish, was the first to foil. Pierced by a bullet in the
breast, he expired almost instantly, to the great sorrow of his com-
panions in arms, by whom he was much beloved. His death was
fatal to the army, and infatuation and dismay took the place of the
cool conduct and courage which had hitherto marked its movements.

The British troops passed the ensuing night under arms in the
forest, and next morning Abercromby had no better plan than to
withdraw them to the landing-place, about two miles distant. An
hour before noon Bradstreet again pushed forward with a strong

140

The History of Canada.

detachment to rebuild the bridges which the French had thrown
down, and take possession of a strong position at some saw-mills,
less than two miles from Montcalm's lines, where he was speedily
joined by the entire army, v

At dawn on the morning of the 8th, Colonel Clark, the chief
engineer, was despatched with several of the principal officers to
reconnoitre the French lines. These Clark represented " to be
flimsy in construction and strong in appearance only ;" an opinion
from which several of the other officers dissented. I3ut Abercromby
leaned to the professional counsel of the engineer, and having
already learned from a prisoner, who deceived him however, that
Montcalm's force was six thousand strong, and that De Levi was
marching to support him with three thousand men, he determined to
carry the French lines by storm, without even waiting for his cannon.
De Levi had already joined Montcalm the previous evening, and
brought only eight hundred men to his assistance, but four hundred
of these were picked troops.

At an early hour the French drums beat to arms, and Montcalm
marched his force, which did not amount to four thousand men, into
the threatened intrenchments ; and having instructed them in the
positions they were to occupy, the strengthening of his works was
promptly proceeded with, despite the fire of the British light troops.
The French intrenchments were of the most formidable description
— a fact discovered too late. A solid earthen breastwork protected
the defenders from a hostile fire ; while the slope in front was covered
for nearly one hundred yards with an abatis of felled trees laid close
together, the pointed branches of which obstructed the movements of
an advancing force. Montcalm designed to jirotect his flanks, which
he had not time to intrench, by batteries, but the rapid advance of the
British prevented their construction, and accordingly both ends of his
line could have been turned without difficulty. This the French
general was well aware of, and gave orders that if either of his flanks
were turned, his troops were to abandon the field, and retreat to
their boats as they best might.

Totally ignorant of this circumstance, which could never have
escaped the sharp eyes of a skilful general, Abercromby rashly de-
termined to throw his best troops against the enemy's centre, and
cut their line in two, while his other troops assailed their right and
left. While the army was forming for the attack, Sir William Johnson
arrived with four hundred and forty Iroquois, who were pushed forward
into the woods to distract the attention of the enemy, but they took
no active part in the bloody action that ensued. The American

The History of Canada,

141

-lavc
de-
and
and
nson
ward
took
lean

rnngcrs, Uradstrect's boatmen, and some companies of light infantry,
formed Abcrcromhy's first line ; the second line was composed of the
Massachusetts militia ; in the third were the IJritish regiments of the
line, with Murray's Highlanders, the gallant 42(1. The reserve con-
sisted of the Connecticut and New Jersey militia. While the army
was forming, detachments of French came forward and skirmished,
but were speedily overpowered and driven back to the cover of their
intrenchments.

At one o'clock, having received orders not to fire till tliey had sur-
mounted the breastwork, the British moved forward in three heavy
columns, with skirmishers in the intervals, to force the French
defences. Montcalm, who stood just within the intrenchments,
while Abercromby occupied a secure post in the rear of his army,
threw off his great-coat, the heat of the July afternoon being ex-
dfessive, and ordered his men not to fire a shot till he commanded.
No sooner had the heads of the British columns become entangled
among the trees and logs in front of the breastwork, than the word
to fire was given, when a sudden and incessant discharge from swivels
and small arms mowed down brave officers and men by hundreds.

The light troops and militia were now moved aside, and the
grenadier companies of the line, followed by Murray's Highlanders,
pushed forward with quick but steady step, and despite the heavy
fire of the French, without one hesitating pause or random shot,
their column gallantly dashed against the abatis. Through this the
grenadiers with desperate valour endeavoured to force their way,
but the cool and well-aimed fire of the French smote them rapidly
down. Maddened by the delay, the Highlanders, who should have
remained in reserve, were not to be restrained, and rushed to the
front. For a moment they appeared more successful, but they
fiercely won their way through the abatis to die upon the summit
of the breastwork, till ere long half of these gallant men, and the
greater part of their officers, were slain or severely wounded. Then
fresh troops pressed on, and for nearly four hours the attack was re-
newed again and again by the British ; now fiercely rushing forward,
then broken and shattered by the murderous fire of the foe, they
sullenly retired to reform their ranks for another desperate effort.
But the valour of these brave men, thus sacrificed by an incom-
petent commander, was unavailing ; and against that rude barrier so
easily turned, and which one hour of well-plied artillery would have
swept away, the flower of British chivalry was crushed and broken.
At length, in the confusion, an English column lost their way, and
fired in mistake on their comrades. This event produced hopeless

142

The History of Catiada.

^^■'4

i- ?'

ri<

dejection ; the disorder in a few minutes becauie irretrievable, and
Highlanders and Provincials, rangers and grenadiers, joined in one
disgraceful flight.

During the confusion of battle, Abercromby cowered safely at
the saw-mills in the rear. When his presence was necessary to rally
the fugitives, he was nowhere to be found, and his second in com-
mand lost the opportunity of distinguishing himself, and gave no
orders. But the disordered troops, finding the French did not pur-
sue them, gradually recovered from their terror, and rallied of their own
accord on a few unbroken battalions whom the general had retained
in his vicinity, most probably with a view to his own safety. Yet
scarcely had confidence been partially resu>red, than an unaccount-
able order from Abercromby to retreat to the landing-place renewed
the panic. The soldiers concluding they Avere to embark immedi-
ately, to escape the pursuit of their victorious enemy, broke from all
order and control, and crowded towards the boats. Fortunately the
gallant Bralstreet still held together a small force, which he now
with prompt decision formed across the landing-place, and would
not suffer a man to embark. Had the disordered masses been
allowed to rush into the boat-s, numbers m jst have perished in th^
Lke ; and thus to the prudence of one man the salvation of many
lives may be justly attributed. Owing to Bradstreet's spirited con-
duct, order was in a little time restored, and the army remained on
the lake- shore for the night. It still exceeded the French force four-
fold, yet next morning Abercromby re-embarked, did not rest till he
was safe across the lake, and even then sent on his artilleiy and
ammunition to Albany, to prevent the possibili:y of their falling
into the hands of Montcalm.

In this sanguinary battle the British army lost nineteen hundred and
fifty men in killed, wounded, and missing, nearly the whole of whom
were regular troops, with a large proportion of officers. Of the French
force four hundred and fifty were killed and wounded, among whom
thcrewere no less than thirty-eight officers.* Had the French pursued,
the loss of the British must have been much greater ; and no doubt
had they been aware of the complete disorder of the enemy, they would
have done so. No sooner had tl.e firing ceased than Montcalm caused
refreshments to be distributed amongst his exhausted soldiers^ and
tha.jked every regiment for their incredible valour. Dreading a fresh
assault Avhen the British would bring up their guns, he employed the
night in strengthening hislines. But hehad nothing toapprehend from
Abercromby, who shared the fright and consternation of his meanest
* Smith's Hist. Can., .vol. i. p. 265.

The History of Canada.

143

sentinel. "Had I to besiege Fort Carillon," said Montcalm, "I
would ask but for six mortars and two pieces of artillery."* The
English general had still an army of fourteen thousand men, and
an amply sufficient siege train ; but he whiled away the season of
action near the site of Fort William Henry in lining out a new fort,
and thus signalised himself as one of the many incapables, whom
the purchase of commissions, and seniority syr^tem of the British
military service, have elevated to the rank of general officers.

But the brave Bradstrect still persisted in his purpose of attacking
Fort Frontenac, and was at length supported by a majority in the
council of war. At the Oneida portage. Brigadier Stanwyx placed
under his command nearly three thousand militia, and here he was
also joined by forty-two of the Onondagas led by their chief " Red
Head." Leading his men down the river past the scene of his bril-
liant victory in 1756, Bradstrect speedily found himself on Lake
Ontario, and landed on the 25th of August within a mile of Fort
Frontenac. This famed position he found to be a quadrangle,
defended by thirty guns and sixteen oi. 11 mortars; but the works
were weak, and the garrison small and dispirited.

Bradstrect opened his lines at five hundred yards from thr fort, but
finding the distance too great, and the fire of the enemy little to be
feared, he took possession of an old intrenchment near the defences,
whence his guns opened with efi^ect. The garrison, consisting of only
one hundred and twenty soldiers and forty Indians, were utterly in-
capable of defence, and surrendered on the morning of the 27 th, find-
ing there was no prospect of the succour which the commandant, De
Noyan, had already asked from the Governor. Sixtv pieces of cannon,
sixteen small mortars, an immense supply of provisions and ammuni-
tion, and all the shipping on the lake, among which were several ves-
sels laden with rich furs, fell into tlie hands of the victors, who had
not to lament the loss of a single man. Owing to the orders of Aber-
cromby, Bradstrect had no choice but to burn and destroy the artillery,
stores, and even the provisions he had so easily captured, and to return
by the route he had advanced. The shipping, with the exception of
two, retained to carry the furs across tlie lake, were also ciestroyec" .
and the fort blown up and abandoned. It was repaired, however,
during the summer by the French, who likew'se added to the works
at Niagara, and strengthened the garrison there. Still, the loss of the
large supplies of ammunition and provisions stored up at Frontenac
was a severe blow to the French, and seriously crippled, in connexion
with the destruction of the fleet, their operations westward. De
•Bancroft Hist. United Slates, vol. iii. p. 217.

144

The History of Canada.

Vaudreuil endeavoured to shift the blame attaching to himself, for
not strengthening the garrison, to De Noyan ; and compromised
that officer's position to sucli an extent, that he was compelled to
retire from the military service altogether.

While Bradstreet was engaged in the expedition against Fort
Frontenac, Montcalm, from his position at Ticonderoga, lost no op-
portunity of hc^rassing the outposts of Abercromby's army. On the
17th of July, a party of twenty Provincials and three officers were
destroyed by the French light troops near Fort Edward ; and, ten days
afterwards, one hundred and sixteen teamsters were surprised and
massacred about the same place. ISIajor Rogers was despatched, with
seven hundred men, to seek out and punish the enemy. Hardship
and desertion soon reduced his force to nearly five hundred men, who
encountered an equal number of French on the 8th of August, and
soundly beat them, killing and wounding one hundred and ninety of
the enemy, while their own loss was only forty.

The capture of Louisburg and Fort Frontenac, with the bloody
repulse of Abercromby by Montcalm, and the affair of outposts just
narrated, may be said to have closed the campaign of 1758 at the
north. Westward, the French power received a severe check in the
capture of Fort Du Quesne. On the 30th of June, Brigadier Forbes
marched from Philadelphia, en route {or the Ohio valley, at the head of
fifteen hundred regular troops and five thousand militia. Among the
L.vtcr were two Virginia', corps under the command of Washington.

The march over the Alleghanies was long and laborious, and com-
memorated by the construction of a new road to the Ohio. Sep-
tember had come before the army arrived at Raystown, within
ninety miles of Fort Du Quesne. Here Forbes, who had been car-
ried the greater part of the way in a litter, and whose life was fast
ebbing, lialtcd the main body of his force, and detached Colonel
Bouquet with two thousand men to take post at Loyal Hanna. This
officer, having learned tiiat Fort Du Quesne was weakly garrisoned,
conceived the idea of capturing it before the arrival of his chief, and
accordingly detached Major Grant, with eight hundred Highlanders
and a company of Virginian militia, to effect a reconnaissance of the
works. Insteail of fulfilling his instructions, and retiring on the main
body, Grant posted his men on a hill, and beat a march as a challenge
to the garrison. The combat was promptly accepted, and, after a
severe atlion, the Highlanders were completely rouied, with a loss of
nearly three hunv!red in killed, wounded, and prisoners. In this affair
the con^pany of Virginian militia rendered essential service, and were
publicly extolled by Forbf s.

The Histo}y of Canada,

145

The whole army now moved forward as rapidly as the rugged na-
ture of the country and the unfavourable weather would permit, the
advance led by Washington. Scouting parties of French and Indians
endeavoured to impede its march, but were always promptly repulsed.
Finding that resistance to the strong force, so cautiously and securely
moving against him, could not be made with any j^rospect of success,
the French commandant withdrew the garrison from Fort Du Quesne,
after springing a mine under one of it:, faces, and dropped down the
stream of the Ohio to the friendly settlements on the Mississippi. It
was now the 24th of November, and the hills were already white with
snow. On the following day the British took possession of the
deserted stronghold, at once proceeded to repair its works, and
changed its name to Pittsburg, in honour of the minister who planned
its capture, and of whose glory the city on its site remains the endur-
ing memorial.

The capture of Fort Du Quesne closed the campaign of 1758. It
was a'T f "-^nt of considerable importance to the British, and restored
their !.•!;:;!. military reputation with the western Indians, while it
effec. i:' .ricrrupted the communications of the French with their
settlements m Louisiana. Brigadier Forbes lived but a brief space
to enjoy the credit of its capture : his naturally weak constitution was
ruined altogether by the hardships he had undergone during the
expedition, and he died at Philadelphia soon after his return, much
regretted by his acquaintance. Although the campaign had been
chequered with disaster, still its general results were eminently favour-
able to Great Britain, and reflected additional lustre on the great
man who guided her coi.ncils. The capture of Louisburg left France
without a safe port neir the St Lawrence, and effectually closed
Canada in on the seaboard, while the reduction of Frontenac and
Du Quesne had given all the territory to Britain, for the possession
of which the war had arisen. Abercromby's defeat only debyed the
final catastrophe for a brief space. His ovt-rwhelming force still
menaced Canada from the side of Lake Champlain ; and Montcalm
was fully sensible that it only wanted a skilful general to lead it to
victory. T!iat leader, Pitt considered he gave it in the prudent
Amherst, who received his commission, appointing him Commander-
in-chief of the army in America, in December, and at once i)roceeded
to New York to supersede Abercromby, who returned in disgrace to
England. In the same vessel with the fallen general sailed tlw gal-
lant Wolfe on leave of absence.

|hi|

kill

|!i'

CHAPTER Vlir.

i€l

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE MARQUIS DE VAUDREUILj — COntillUCd.

THE vear 1759 opened with dangerous menace to the French
dominion in the New World. Pitt, with hands strengtlicned
by a vote from the grateful Commons of England, of twelve millions
sterling to carry on the war, sketched out with consummate

'•^^' t, JU the arrangements for the ensuing campaign in North
America. In appointing his general officers he entirely disregarded
seniority of rank, and selected the men he considered most capable
of larrying out his views. To Stanwyx he entrusted the conquest of
the French posts from Pittsburg to Lake Erie ; Prideaux was to re-
duce Niagara ; while Amherst was instructed to assault Canada by
Lake Champlain and the Richelieu, to capture Montreal, effect a junc-
tion with the expedition against Quebec, and thus teiminate French
power in North America by a single campaign. Put Wolfe was
Pitt's favourite general. In him he saw the same noble qualities
which were inherent in his own nature. With the intuitively sympa-
thecic love of genius for its fellow, he reposed implicit trust in the
gallant soldier, and felt that he was safely entrusting the honour of
their common country to his keeping. Wolfe, eager for glory, gladly
accepted the command of the expedition against Quebec. Still, he
could have found happiness in retirement. Gentle, yet courageous;
affectionate, though aspiring; of highly cultivated tastes, and with a
nature formed for the highest enjoyments of pure domestic love, he
could fully appreciate all the charms of a peaceful home. But tlie
noble passion for immortal distinction overcame his fondness for
repose, and the day before his departure to join his troops, as Pitt
detailed his wishes pnd his plans, he forgot everything but the ardent
desire to devote himself to the service of his country.

The large armies which had been set in motion by the British
during the campaign of 1758, convinced De Vaudreuil that the
total extinction of French power in North America was designed.

unr

The History of Canada.

147

De Bougainville was accordingly despatched to France to solicit
provisions and the aid of fresh troops, and preparations were promptly
commenced, under the viligant superintendence of Montcalm, for
the better defence of the colony. A proclamation was issued to the
officers of the militia to increase their zeal in preparations for resist-
ance, and directing that all the male inhabitants of the province,
from sixteen to sixty years of age, should be enrolled, and hold them-
selves ready to march at a moment's notice.

In addition to the approach of the fiercest war they had ever yet
encountered, the unfortunate habitants were now threatened with
all the horrors of famine. The recent harvest had been below the
average, owing principally to the absence of the farmers on military
duty, and the scarcity was still further increased by the peculations
and extortions of the civil officers. The rapacity of these men
caused the poor people to conceal their scanty stores of provisions,
and the troops were now quartered on them by the Intendant, who
found it otherwise impossible to procure the necessary supplies.
The scarcity gradually became so great, that horses had to be
killed for the use of the inhabitants and troops at Montreal and
Quebec.

Early in January a census was taken of all the inhabitants, who
were found to number about eighty-five thousand, of whom fifteen
thousand two hundred and twenty-nine men were capable of bearing
arms. Of these, however, a large proportion were unavailable in time
of war, owing to the necessities of agriculture, and the prospect of
a still more severe famine if the fields were left untilled. A detach-
ment of artillery, eight battalions of French regulars, and thirty-three
companies of the marine or colony troops, formed the real strength
of the Canadian army. On the other hand, the British had nearly
fifty thousand men under arms, or ready to take the field ; provisions
were abundant in all their colonies, and the people prosperous.

The gallant Montcalm saw the net with which fate was gradually
encircling him, still he never faltered in his duty. He could tell the
French minister plainly, " that Canada must be taken in this or the
next campaign, without unexpected good fortune or great fault in
the enemy," yet he acted with the same vigour as though he felt
secure of victor)^ He was indefati;^able in his preparations for the
impending struggle. Tlie several fortifications were strengthened,
vessels built to command Lake Champlain, and every exertion made
to collect provisions, now beconiing exec -dingly scarce.

On the 14th of May, M. De Bougiinivillc returned from France,
bringing out with him decorations and promotions in abundance for

The History of Canada.

the officers who had distinguished themselves in the last campaign,
and but a slender supply of food, needed much more. The Governor
was instructed to undertake all in his power for the defence of
Canada, for the conquest of which he was informed the British
were making vast preparations, and the P'rencii minister wrote to
Montcalm, "that the King relied upon his zeal and obstinacy of
courage."

De Vaudreuil now addressed a circular to the militia officers, re-
quiring them to be ready for marching in any direction at a moment's
warning ; and, at the same time, sought to excite their patriotism by
a stirring appeal.*

But the most remarkable document which appeared in Canada at
this period, was a pastoral letter from the Bishop, Henry De Pont
Briant, to the clergy of his diocese, which gives considerable insight
into the civil and religious condition of the people, and which he
represents as most deplorable.f

* "Tliis campaign," said he, "will afford tlie Canadians an opportunity of
signalising themselves, lli.s Majesty well knows the con'ldencc I have in thcni,
and I have not failed to inform him of ihcir services. Ilis IM.ajesty trusts they
will make those efforts that are to be looked for from the most faithful subjects,
more particularly as they have to defend their religion, their wives, and their pro-
perly, from the cruel treatment to be expected from the English.

" With respect to myself, I am resolved not to consent to any capitulation, in
hopes that this resolution may have the most ruinous consequences to the English.
It is most indubitable, that it would be more merciful for lite inhabitants, their
wives and children, to 1)e buried under the ruins of the Colony, than to fall into
the hands of the Engli-li.

" It being highly uccl ^ary that the most prudent precautious should be taken
to prevent a surprise, I ive established beacons from post to post, along the
south shorr-, below I'ouii. Levi, to be set fire to as soon as the en'jmy are dis-
covered.

" We promise every protection to the inhabitants, their wives, children, and
property, to prevent their falling into the hands of the English, who would make
liiem suffer the same hardships and miseries experienced by the Acadians. In
addition to which, we have the testimony of their late ill conduct, in their treat-
ment of the inhabitants of Cape Breton, notwilh.slanding the capitulation, as well
as those of the Island of St John.

"Their hatred is so well known towards everything that is Canadian, that they
even make them responiblc for the cruellies of a few Indians, still forgetting tlie
measures we Iiave taken to prevent a repetition of these actions, and the good
treatment whicli the nation has at all times shown to them when prisoners.

" We have a real satisfaction in declaring that we entertain no apprehensions
for the safety of the Colony, yet we shall adopt the most efficacious measures for
securing l > the inhabitants their rights and property."

t " You are not unacquainte-l, my dear brethren, with the immense preparations
of the enemy, the designs formed to Clack the Colony in four different parts, the

The History of Canada .

149

During the month of May, a council of war was held at Montrer.l,
which after several meetings decided that a strong body of troops
should be posted at Quebec under Montcalm; and that Bourlemaque
should take post at Ticondcroga, and blow up the works on the

number of their regular troops and militia, six times at least superior to ours.
Neither are you ignorant that they have sent emissaries to all the Indian nations
to incite them to forsake us, and rouse those to take up arms against us who are
willing to preserve a kind of neutrality. You are sensible, moreover, that they
occupy those harbours at the lower end of our river, which hitherto we have re-
garded as so many barriers ; you perceive e\ cry incitement to fear and terror, and
you are undoubtedly astonished thereat. The uncertainty of the affairs of Europe,
the many dangers to which the succours we expect are exposed, the numerous
tlcets destined for our destruction; the general scarcity that prevails of everything
necessary for our defence as well as our subsistence even in peace, ought naturally
to make the greatest impression on our minds. But what ought still to be the
cause of the greatest chagrin, is the little zeal for piety obseived everywhere, the
injurious and wicked speeches maintained against those in whom we ought to
place all our confidence ; and what may create still further fear in us, are the
profane diversions to which we are addicted with greater attachment than ever ;
llie insufferable excesses of the games of chance ; the impious hypocrisy in derision
or rather in contempt of religion ; the various crimes against Heaven, that have
been multiplied in the course of this winter ; all these, my brethren, ought to
make us dread everything, and oblige me to declare to you, that God himself is
enraged, that His arm is prepared to chastise us, and, in fact, that we deserve it.
Yea, my friends, we tell it, in the face of the altars and in bitterness of our heart,
that it is not the number ui" Llie enemy, nor their utmost efforts that affright us,
and make us reflect on the impending disasters both on the state and on religion,
but our manifold sins and wickednesses. Eighteen years have now elapsed since
the Lord called us, though unworthy, to watch over this extensive diocese ; we
have frequently seen you suffer by famine, and disease, and almost continual war.
Nevertheless, this year, it appears to us, is in all respects the most afflictive and de-
plorable, because in reality we are most criminal. Were there ever such open rob-
beries, so many heinous acts of injustice, such shameful rapines heard of? Who
has not seen, in this Colony, families devoted publicly, if I may so say, to crimes
of the most odious nature ? Who ever beheld so many abominations ? In almost
all ranks the contagion is nearly universal ; however, my brethren, matters are
not yet remediless, neither are our misfortunes irretrievable. The Christian faith
leaches us that a t'-ue and sincere conversion can stop the avenging hand of divine
justice, and that it even hath frequently stayed it. It is true the disease is great,
but the remedy is in our own power. faithless 'Jerusalem, return to your God ;
and God, according to His promise, will deign to relent I Atone, my dear brethren,
I say, atone speedily for the past by tears of a sincere repentance ; they vvfill be
acceptable to the merciful heart of God, who never punishes His cieatures but
with regret. Dear cliildren, be diligent therein, sympathise with the ministers of
the altar in weeping, wailing, and prayer. Implore the Lord with fervency to en-
lighten sinners with the misery of their souls, that He will affect and convert them ;
we mean those of our brethren who run to their own destruction ; dread, lest you
find yourselves involved in their calamities ; and ye, O sinners I we beseech you,
in the name of Jesus Christ, at least be no hindrance to the blessings we ask for

i=;o

The History of Canada.

,.„.

^I!i

Jf;-j

94? i

approach of the British, should he find himself unable to resist them.
Crown Point was to share the bame fate, and he was then to retire to
an island at the head of Lake Champlain, and there, aided by the
shii:)ping, to make the most stubborn resistance possible, and thus
prevent the junction of the armies under Amherst and Wolfe. To
withstand any force which might descend from Lake Ontario, the
Chevalier De la Cornc, with eight hundred regulars and militia, Avas
directed to intrench himself above Montreal, and there hold out to
the best of his power.

The campaign of 1759 opened with the advance of Brigadier Pri-
deaux, at the head of nearly four thousand regular troops and militia,
and a large body of Iroquois, led by Sir William Johnson, against the
fort at Niagara. Leaving a detachment under Colonel Haldimand to
construct a tenable post at Oswego, the army embarked on Lake
Ontario, the ist of July, and coasting its southern shore landed on

you ; come, rather, we conjure you by all that is capable of affecting you ; come
and solicit them of your own accord, with a spirit full of meekness and contrition.
For these purposes, after conferring with our respectable brethren the Canons of
our Cpthedral Church, having invoked the holy name of God, we have ordered,
and do hereby order, the due performances of the services herein directed. Im-
primis, In the country parislies, on the first Sunday of every month, shall be a
procession, witliout the host or sacrament, to the place and at the hour each of
the rectors shall appoint. In that procession sliall be sung the litanies of the
saints, then the psalm Miserere viei Dens ; and immediately after the ancient and
common prayers of salutation, the priest shall make an honourable atonement in
the name of sinners, which he may find in the ritual for Trinity Sunday. Secondly,
Every secular and regular priest shall add to the prayers of the mass the prayer of
the Deus Refitgium. Thirdly, In all the benedictions of the holy sacrament shall
be sung the tract Domine noii secundum, with the versicles and prayer for the
remission of sins. Fourthly, In the different churches of Quebec — namely, the
Cathedral, the Church of La Victoire in the Lower Town, the Seminary, the
College of the Jesuits, that of the Recollets and Ursulines — shall be performed
alternately a Nona or Ninth : the holy mass shall be celebrated at seven o'clock in
the morning, the litanies of the saints, and the psalm Miserere mei Deiis shall be
sung thereat, an honourable atonement shall be made for sinners, and the whole
concluded with the benediction of the sacrament, in the holy chalice only : on the
working days, the votive masses of the Holy Angels, of the Holy Trinity, of the
Holy Cross, of the Virgin Mary, for all necessities, for times of war and for pi ace,
shall be said reciprocally. The mass of the patron of the church or chapel sl.all
be said : first, at the Jesuits of Saint Fran9ois Xavier, in the Lower Town at Ste
Genevieve, at the Ursulines, and at the Seminary instituted for the co::""' jion
of the Indians. What is prescribed for Quebec shall be observed as much as
possible at Montreal and at Three Kivers ; the camps and forts shall also observe
what is appointed for the country parishes. This mandate shall be read after
the Gospel of the mass of the parish., on the fust Sunday immediately after the
receipt thereof."

The History of Canada.

151

the 7 th at one of its inlets six miles east of Niagara. Situated at the
apex of the angle formed by the junction of the river with the lake,
the fort was easily invested on the land side, while the numerous
armed boats of the British e.'.ectually intercepted all communication
by water,

Pouchot, the French commandant, had no sooner learned the
approach of the British than he despatched a courier eastward to
Frontenac to solicit aid, and another to Detroit and the other
western posts with orders to their commandants to hasten to his
assistance with all the men they could spare, and as many Indians
as could be collected. Confidently expecting succour, he deter-
mined to defend the fort to the last extremity, and returned a
prompt refusal to the demand of tl ■; British general requiring him
to surrender at discretion. " My post is strong," said he, " iry gar-
rison faithful ; and the longer I hold out the more I will win the
esteem of the enemy,"

Prideaux planned his approaches with skill, and rapidly advanced
them towards the defences, which soon began to crumble under a
well-aimed and vigorous fire. Encouraged by the arrival of a small
body of French and Indians, who succeeded at night in getting into
the fort unobserved, the besieged made a sally on the nth, but were
almost immediately repulsed and driven in under the shelter of their
guns. On the night of the 13th the British finished their parallels to
the lake, and the next day their fire became so heavy that the be-
sieged could only find safety in the covered way and behind their
ramparts. On the 19th the French schooner Iroquois arrived from
Frontenac, and lay oft" the fort, but dare not venture in, owing to the
British guns, which night and day kept up a harassing and destructive
fire. Still Pouchot held bravely out, and watched anxiously for the
aid which the summer breezes of Erie should bring to his assistance,
and which Prideaux, aware of its approach, had already taken mea-
sures to intercept. But the latter was not fated to see the successful
issue of his skill and courage. On the evening of the 19th he was
killed in the trenches, while issuing orders, when the command de-
volved on Sir William Johnson.

Meanwhile, De Aubrey rapidly descended from Detroit, at the head
of twelve hundred Frenchmen, collected from the different posts to-
wards the Ohio, and nearly fourteen hundred Indians. On the 23d
four savages made their way into the beleaguered fort with a letter to
Pouchot, informing him that succour was at hand, and that the British
lines would speedily be attacked. But Johnson's scouts had given him
ample intelligence of De Aubrey's approach, and he coolly prepared

m' i

15:

T/ic Ilislory of Canada.

for the combat. Leaving sufficient troops to guard tlic trenches, he
threw forward strong pickets, on the evening of the 23d, to occupy the
woods on either side of the rough forest road leading from Chip-
pewa to Niagara, and connected these by a chain of Indian skir-
mishers. These arrangements completed, and no enemy appearing,
the troops lay down to rest with their arms in their hands. It was
a warm July night, and the stars glimmered brightly down upon the
sombre forest, now unruffled by even the faintest breeze. To the
contemplative mind, the scene must have been one of peculiar
solemnity and grandeur. Close at liand, the stillness was unbroken
save by the monotonous breathings of the many sleepers, or the
sentinel's tread. A little further on there was a brief pause around
the beleaguered fort, and then its dark sides were suddenly illumi-
nated by its own guns, or revealed by the red light of a salvo from
the hostile trenches. From the distance, the dull boom of the cata-
ract fell upon the ear like the noontide roar of life in London, or
the rush of the approaching storm. The white tents of the besieg-
ing army, the watch-fires of the camp, the bright moon whose rays
peered softly down amidst the sprays of the forest tree to glance from
the polished muskets of the sleeping sentinel or the Indian's toma-
hawk, and the soft feathery cloud of spray that rose upwards from
the Horse-shoe Falls, all tended to complete a scene of surpassing
interest.

On the following morning, at daybreak, Johnson pushed forward
his grenadier comjxanies and part of the 46th regiment to strengthen
his front, while the 44th regiment was formed in reserve to preserve
the communication with the troops in the trenches, and to act
wherever its assistance might be needed. About eight o'clock the
head of the French column was perceived advancing through the
woods, with large bodies of Indians covering either tlank. As the
enemy came on, the British outposts fell steadily back on the main
body without firing, while the Iroquois pressed forward to parley
with the French Indians, with a view of inclining them to peace.
The latter refused to abandon their allies, and accordingly the
warriors of the Six Nations again resumed their post on the flanks
of the British.

De Aubrey now speedily formed his force, and advanced to the
attack. Shouting their appalling war-cry the Indians burst through
the woods, and fell furiously upon the British line, which coolly
awaited their approach, and swept them away with a {qw rolling
volleys. The close and steady fire with which they were received
completely astonished the western warriors, and so thorough was

The History of Canada.

h was

their discomfiture, that '.hey disappeared altogctlicr from tlic fieUl of
battle. Their Ihght left the flanks of the French completely exposed,
and they were soon boldly turned by the Iro(iuois, who pressed rapidly
forward through the woods, while the British hold their ground in
front with the utmost steadiness. Attacked on all sides by greatly
superior numbers, the French hesitated, gave way, and, after an
action of little more than half an hour, broke into utter rout. De
Aubrey and all his surviving officers, with a great part of his troops,
were taken prisoners, while the fugitives were rapidly pursued and
slain or driven into the wilderness, where the numerous dead lay un-
counted.

No sooner had Johnson withdrawn his forces from the battle-field,
than he sent an ofllccr with a flag of truce to inform Pouchot of the
victory he had won, and exhorted him to surrender without further
bloodshed. The French chief doubted the information, and re-
(juested that one of his oflicers might be allowed to see the pri-
soners, and hear the talc of their defeat from them. The request
was granted, and thus assured of the hopelessness of aid, Pouchot
surrendered up the fort and garrison. The terms were liberal. The
French were to march out with all the honours of war, and then to
lay down their arms on the lake-shore. The women and children
were to have safe conveyance to the nearest port of France, while the
garrison, six hundred strong, were to be conveyed to New York by
the most convenient route. All stores, jjrovisions, and arms, were to
be given up to the British general, who undertook, on his part, to pre-
serve his prisoners from every injury and insult, a promise which,
unlike Montcalm, he faithfully redeemed. And thus did prudence
and valour, with trifling loss of life, win the most important post on
the great highway of the west. So decisive, indeed, was the victory,
and so effectually did it weaken the western posts of the P'rench,
whose garrisons under De Aubrey had either been killed or cap-
tured, that the officer and troops sent from Pittsburg by Stanwyx
took possession of the forts as far as Erie without resistance. John-
son's modesty was equal to his merit. " I have only to regret,"
he writes in his despatch to Amherst, " the loss of General Prideaux
and Colonel Johnson. I endeavoured to pursue the late general's
vigorous measures, the good effects of which he deserved to en-

joy." ...

While the siege at Niagara was in progress, a strong body of
Canadians and Indians under La Corne, who had ascended to
Frontenac, made a demonstration against the detachment left at
Oswego by Brigadier Prideaux. On the 5th of July La Corne en-

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154

The History of Canada.

deavoured to carry that post by surprise, by rapidly advancing some
Indians and Canadians ; but these were speedily repulsed, although
their fanaticism was incited to the utmost by a Jesuit, the Abbe
Piquet The attack was renewed on the following day, but a few
discharges of grape and musketry speedily compelled the enemy to
retire, and La Corne was under the necessity of departing without a
single scalp, although, as some deserters stated, he had offered a
large sum for a trophy of this horrible description.

Meanwhile the Commander-in-chief assembled the main army at
Lake George, and had considerable difficulty in keeping the militia
together, owing to desertion to their homes. Threats and promises
and moderate punishments failed to keep them by their colours, till
at length a general court-martial sentenced four deserters to be shot \
and even this terrible example did not altogether abate the evil. On
the 22d of June, Amherst traced out the plan of Fort George, near
the spot where Fort William Henry formerly stood, and on the 21st
of July, every preparation being completed, his army, over eleven
thousand strong, one-half of whom were regulars, with fifty-four guns,
embarked and moved down the lake in four columns. Next day it
landed near the place where Abercromby had disepibarked the year
before. The British vanguard, composed principally of light troops,
pushed rapidly fciWard into the bush, and soon encountered a detach-
ment of French and Indians, who were overpowered and dispersed.
Amherst followed with his main body in good order, and halted for
the night at the Saw-mills, preparatory to an assault on the French
lines, which he learned from some deserters were guarded by De
Bourlemaque, with a body of three thousand four hundred men,
composed of regulars, Canadians, and Indians.

That night the British lay upon their arms, while every exertion
was made to bring up the artillery. But, although Amherst's force
was inferior to Abercromby's army, the French next morning with-
drew from the lines which had enabled them to gain their victory of
the preceding year, and fell back upon Fort Carillon. The British
grenadiers immediately occupied the deserted intrenchment, and the
rest of the army encamped a short distance to the rear. A sharp
fire was soon opened from the fort on the British camp, but no loss
was sustained owing to the great height and strength of the breast-
work, which now proved a most effectual shelter. De Bourlemaque
soon perceived that even the defence of the fort was impracticable,
and, in pursuance of his orders in that case, silently abandoned it on
the night of the 23d, leaving four hundred men behind to continue
such resistance as might conceal his retreat. These carried out their

The History of Canada,

155

orders in the most efiFectual manner by making an assault upon the
besiegers' trenches, where they killed and wounded sixteen men, and
caused considerable confusion in the darkness of the night. During
the 24th an * 25th they kept up a constant fire on the trenches, and
having got the range accurately, caused a good deal of trouble and
some loss of life. On the night of the 26th, deserters brought in-
telligence to Amherst that the garrison had abandoned the fort, but
left every gun loaded and pointed, mines charged to blow up the
defences, and a lighted fuse communicating with the powder maga-
zine. In a few moments a tremendous explosion confirmed their
statements, and the next minute the flames of the wooden breast-
work, barracks, and stores, fell far and near upon the lake and forest,
their yellow hue deepened at intervals by the flashes of the bursting
guns and exploding mines.

General Amherst promptly detached some light troops in pursuit:
of the retreating French, who captured several boats laden with
powder and sixteen prisoners. At daylight a sergeant volunteered
to strike the French flag, which still floated uninjured above the
ruined fort, and raise that of Britain in its place. A detachment
soon after succeeded in extinguishing the flames, when the work of
repairing the fort was speedily proceeded with, while Captain Loring
of the navy raised some French boats which had been sunk, and
commenced the construction of a brig, in order to strengthen the
British naval power, which was much inferior to that of the enemy on
the lake.

The capture of Crown Point was the next important step to be
accomplished, and Major Rogers was despatched with two hundred
rangers to examine the position, establish himself in some strong
post near the fort, and hold out, if attacked, till relieved by the ad-
vance of the army. But it was soon ascertained that the French
had also dismantled and abandoned Crown Point, which was ac-
cordingly taken possession of by a British detachment. On the 4th
of August, Amherst came up with his main body, encamped, and
traced out the lines of a new fort, as a protection against the scout-
ing parties of the French and Indians, who had so long been the
terror of the British frontier settlements.

De Bourlemaque had retreated to the Isle-aux-Noix, at the northern
extremity of the lake, where he strongly intrenched himself. Here,
with a force of three thousand five hundred men, one hundred pieces of
cannon, and four armed vessels commanded by naval officers, he de-
termined to defend the entrance of the Richelieu to the last extremity.
Amherst has been much censured for not carr)'ing this post, and effect-

156

The History of Canada,

ing a junction with Wolfe at Quebec, but when his position comes to
be fairly examined, it is at once evident that he has been unjustly con-
demned. The command of the Richelieu was then absolutely neces-
sary to the descent of an army from I ake Champlain on Canada, it
being the only open road, and a land force was utterly helpless be-
fore an enemy strongly intrenched on an island, and v/ho held com-
plete command of the surrounding waters with his fleet. Amherst
under these circumstances had only two courses to pursue. One
was to open a road through the forest, and push on to Montreal,
leaving De Bourlemaque in his rear ; the other to obtain command
of the lake, and drive him from his position. He wisely adopted
the last course. Before, however, it could be fully carried out, the
bleak Avinds of October swept the lake, and the main body of the
British invading army was compelled to waste its strength in inaction
on the very threshold of Canada. Nor was the force which Prideaux
had led against Niagara more fortunate. On learning the death of
that officer, Amherst had sent Brigadier Gage to assume the command,
and instructed him to descend from Oswego with a sufficient force to
capture Ogdensburg, or, as it was then called. La Presentation, where
a Jesuit Father, the Abbe Piquet, had founded a flourishing Indian
settlement in 1750. But Gage allowed his harvest-time of honour
to pass away, to Amherst's infinite chagrin, and this important opera-
tion was deferred till the ensuing year.

While the bulk of the army lay inactive at Crown Point, a detach-
ment of two hundred rangers under the indefatigable Rogers, already
so distinguished in border warfare, was despatch-^d to punish the In-
dians at Lake St Francis for detaining an officer and some men
who had been sent with a flag of truce to offer them peace on condition
of their remaining neutral. Rogers suffered the greatest hardships in
penetrating the untrodden wilderness. One-fourth of his men dropped
behind from fatigue, or perished in the march. Still he persevered,
arrived in the vicinity of his destination on the evening of the 2 2d
October, and pushed forward alone to reconnoitre. The Indians
were engaged in the war-dance, and exhausted by fatigue, as mid-
night approached, they sunk into a profound slumber. But a foe as
subtle as themselves, and infuriated by long years of injury, now
hovered near, prepared to inflict the punishment their numerous
massacres of women and children so justly merited. At two o'clock
in the morning the British burst upon the sleepers with a loud cry of
vengeance, and two hundred warriors were speedily slain, but the
women and children were spared. Meanwhile a French detachment
had captured Rogers's boats, and threatened to cut off" his retreat

Ths History of Canada.

'57

Breaking into small parties, the British sought the shelter of the
forest, and underwent the most extreme hardships before reaching
a friendly settlement.

Oii the loth of October a brig mounting eighteen guns arrived at
Crown Point from Ticonderoga, and a sloop of sixteen guns being
also ready, the army embarked in boats for Isle-aux-Noix, and pro-
ceeded up the lake in four divisions. But a severe storm and mis-
haps of various kinds retarded its progress, and although the greater
part of the French fleet was destroyed, the lateness of the season
rendered it useless to advance, and Amherst reluctantly retired to
place his troops in w-nter quarters : a measure the more necessary
as the Provincials had become unusually sickly. Thus closed the
campaign of the British forces, which menaced Canada towards the
west : it now remains for us to trace the operations in the St Law-
rence.

As soon as the weather permitted Wolfe assembled his army,
amounting to about eight thousand men, at Louisburg. It was divided
into three brigades, led by Brigadiers Monckton, Townshend, and
Murray, while its Adjutant-General was Isaac Barre, an Irishman of
humble birth, eloquent, ambitious, and fearless, to whom the author-
ship of the Letters of Junius has been attributed, and who subse-
(luently perished on his return from the East Indies. The fleet, con-
sisting of twenty-two men-of-war and as many frigates and armed
vessels, was under the command of Admiral Saunders, a brave, skil-
ful, and kind-hearted sailor. On board of one of its ships was
Jervis, afterwards Earl St Vincent, while James Cook, the celebrated
navigator, who subsequently traversed the unexplored v/aters of the
Pacific, and threaded his way amidst its many isles, was sailing-mas-
ter of another.

On the I St of June preparations were made to put to sea from
Louisburg, yet fully six days elapsed before the huge armament had
ontiiely cleared the land. While spreading sail the Admiral received
tilt; unwelcome intelligence, that his advanced squadron had suf-
fered three French frigates and several store-ships to pass up th'^ St
Lawrence. Two vessels only were captured, on board of which were
found charts of the river, which proved of the greatest service to the
British fleet.

On the 26th the armament arrived safely off the Isle of Orli;ans,
and preparations were promptly commenced for the disembarkation
of the troops. Great were now the confusion and distress at Quebec,
where the reverses of the preceding year's campaign had already pro-
duced the most dismal forebodings. To the clerical orders, especially,

158

The History of Canada.

the prospect of British rule was particularly unpalatable. This was
forcibly illustrated while the British fleet was still ascending the river.
The advance under Durell carried French colours till they arrived off
Bic Its inhabitants imagined in consequence that the expected
succours had arrived from France, and messengers were despatched
to Quebec with the intelligence. But when the white colours were
struck, and the Union Jack hoisted in their place, their consternation
and grief were inconceivable, and the occurrence so affected a priest,
who stood on the shore with telescope in hand, that he dropped
down and instantly expired.*

Early on the morning of the 27th, the troops landed on the island,
which the inhabitants had abandoned during tlie previous night, and
with the fertility and beauty of which the soldiers were delighted after
their wearisome voyage. The eye of genius has often sir^ce rested
upon the magnificent coup (Tceil which now burst upon the vision of
their young general, from the western end of the isle, but the scene
can hardly ever again awaken the emotions which then agitated his
bosom. In the foreground, the white tents of his camp glanced in
the sunshine; on his left lay the magnificent fleet at anchor; in his
front, the citadel of Quebec was seen in the distance risir if precipi-
tously against the horizon, in the midst of one of the grandtjt scenes
of nature, and apparently impregnable. For its defence the gallant
Montcalm had exhausted, with the means at his disposal, every plan
which ingenuity and skill could devise. Above Quebec the height
on which the Upper Town is built, spreads out into an elevated
table-land, suddenly terminated towards the river by steep declivities.
In this direction, for nine miles or more to Cape Rouge, every land-
ing-place was intrenched and guarded. Immediately below the city,
the River St Charles, its mouth then closed by a boom and defended
by stranded frigates, swept its rocky base, and expanded into marshes
which afforded additional security. From thence to the Montmor-
ency, a distance of eight miles, extended the position occupied by
the French army, protected by numerous redoubts and intrench-
ments, the shoals and rocks of the St Lawrence, and almost impreg-
nable. Behind lay the rich valley of the St Charles, and the pretty
villages of Charlesburg and Beauport, which, with a few other ham-
lets, gave shelter and hospitality in the rear. For the defence of
these formidable lines Montcalm had twelve tliousand French and
Canadian troops and about four hundred Indians.

As Wolfe gazed with intense interest on the prospect, to him at
once beautiful and appalling, a storm suddenly gathered, and soon
• Smith's Hist. Can., vol. i. p. 291.

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159

the teeming rain vailed the opposite shore, while a dangerous hurri-
cane swept over the river with destructive force. Transports were
driven from their moorings and cast ashore, smaller vessels were
dashed against each other and swamped, while the vessels of war
with difficulty held to their anchors. Wolfe retraced his steps
thoughtfully to the camp, somewhat discouraged by the great diffi-
culties which he now saw clearly beset the enterprise he had pro-
mised Pitt to accomplish if possible. The storm passed away;
evening soon merged into a night at once still and dark ; and now
Montcalm sent down six fire-ships on the receding tide towards the
British fleet. From these shot and shell crashed among the trees
and rocks, or left long seething furrows in the stream. Presently
lurid flames burst from their hulls, caught the sails, and ran along
the masts and spars in thin red lines, lighting up the river, the hos-
tile camps, and the city in the distance. As the blaze increased ex-
plosion after explosion tossed the burning vessels hither and thither,
the tide still carrying them steadily towards the fleet. The sentries
terrified at a sight so unusual, and believing that the French were
advancing in force, fell back upon their pickets, and these in turn on
the main body, when tlie drums beat to arms. Daylight alone re-
stored confidence and order. Meanwhile, a number of we'1-manned
boats had put off towards the fire-ships, and the sailors, waiting till
all the guns had exploded, fastened grappling irons to their hulls
and towed them leisurely ashore.

Finding the channel at the Island of Orleans was neither a safe
nor convenient anchorage in rough weather, Admiral Saunders de-
termined to pass up into the basin, or harbour of Quebec, and learn-
ing that the French occupied, with some troops and artillery, the
headland of Point Levi, from whence they could seriously annoy his
ships, he requested Wolfe to take possession of it. This duty was
assigned to Brigadier Monckton, who pushed forward one of his regi-
ments on the evening of the 29th, and following next morning at
daybreak with the rest of his brigade, soon occupied the point, despite
a stout resistance by a body of Canadians and Indians, some twelve
hundred strong.

In the possession of this post, Montcalm felt that the British had
gained a dangerous advantage. From the first he had seen its import-
ance, for although it was three-quarters of a mile from the city, heavy
guns could play from thence with destructive effi::ct. In a council of
war he had urged that four thousand men should be strongly in-
trenched at Point Levi, and hold it to the last extremity, but was
overruled by the Governor, and from that hour the general regarded

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the latter with dislike. He made a feeble attempt to dislodge the
British by attacking their position with three floating batteries, but
these were repulsed by a single broadside from a frigate, which a
fair wind speedily carried up to the scene of action.

Wolfe had already issued a proclamation to the inhabitants, offer-
ing safety in person and property if they remained neutral. But the
counter- proclamations and threats of Montcalm, and their own
national prejudices, held them fast in their allegiance. In company
with the Indians they hung upon the skirts of the British army, cut-
ting off and scalping stragglers whenever practicable, and Wolfe's
soldiers, some of whom had been at the massacre of Fort William
Henry and well trained in forest warfare, began to make reprisals of
the same description, and burn and plunder on every opportunity.
The British general endeavoured to restrain these excesses, but was
ultimately so enraged by the cruel massacre of several of his men,
that he allowed his light troops to retaliate on Indians, or on Cana-
dians disguised like them, but forbid them, under penalty of death,
to molest the peaceable inhabitants.

A battery at Point Levi, and another at the western point of the
Isle of Orleans, gave sufficient security to the fleet. These were
completed by the morning of the 9th of July, when three frigates of
light draught opened fire upon the French lines below Quebec.
Monckton, at the same tinn , marched his brigade along the oppo-
site side of the river, in order to distract Montcalm's attention while
Wolfe was taking post with the main body of his army on the east-
ern bank of the Montmorency. He was thus placed at an angle
with the French lines along the St Lawrence, and in their rear, but
the rapid current of the Montmorency, rushing over its rocky bed in
impassable eddies and rapids, still separated the hostile armies.
Three miles in the interior a ford was discovered, but the opposite
bank was steep, woody, and well intrenched, and its passage im-
practicable in the face of a superior force. Not a spot along the
Montmorency for miles into the interior, nor on the St Lawrence to
Quebec, was left unprotected by the vigilant Montcalm, and Wolfe
began to despair of forcing him to a battle on anything like equal
terms. The French once defeated, he felt assured that Quebec, in-
sufficiently supplied with military stores and threatened by famine,
must surrender ; but to compel them to fight with a fair prospect of
success to British arms was the great difficulty. Vainly did Wolfe
penetrate the dense bush and rugged country along the Montmor-
ency, in order to discover some favourable point to turn Mont-
calm's flank, and thus bring on a battle in rear of his lines. These

The History of Canada,

i6i

reconnaissances only led to the slaughter of his light infantry by the
Indians and Canadians lurking in the secret places of the forest, and
the British general soon saw that he must look for success in some
other direction.

No sooner had Wolfe established himself at the Montmorency,
than Montcalm, urged by the solicitations of the inhabitants of the
Lower Town, who dreaded the destruction of their houses, resolved
to hazard a night attack on Monckton's position at Point Levi. It
failed completely, the Canadians missing their way and firing upon
one another in the dark, with a loss to themselves of seventy killed
and wounded, while the British lines were left wholly undisturbed.
Next day a battery opened upon the town, the lower part of which
was soon much damaged, and on the i6th a shell set a house in the
Upper Town on fire. Fanned by a strong west-wind, the conflagra-
tion destroyed many buildings before it was arrested, and among
others the great cathearal, with all its paintings, images, and orna-
ments. But the defences still remained uninjured, and the destruc-
tion of property caused by the fire from Point Levi, only diminished
the value of the prize for which the British strove, without bringing
them nearer to its possession.

Completely foiled in his endeavours to force Montcalm's lines,
and bring on a battle below the city, Wolfe now determined to
reconnoitre the bank of the river above it, and ascertain whether
anything could be effected in that direction. To effect this recon-
naissance the protection of a sufficient force was necessar)', and ac-
cordingly towards midnight of the i8th, a small squadron under
Captain Rous, favoured by a fair wind and tide, run the gauntlet
of the enemy's batteries without being even discovered by the sen-
tinels, two of whom Montcalm hung on the following day for their
carelessness. The French speedily constructed a battery at Sil-
lery to annoy Rous's squadron, but its fire only had the effect of
causing him to weigh anchor, and to move a little farther up the
river.

The French artillerymen had scarcely ceased firing at Rous's
frigates, when a boat was observed skirting the southern shore, the
mast of which'they carried away by a shot. This boat bore Wolfe
and Admiral Saunders on their way to reconnoitre the river's bank
above. The keen eye of the general traced the outline of the pre-
cipitous hill on v/hich stands Quebec, and beheld a natural fastness
defended by cannon, boats, and floating batteries, at every assailable
point. Matters looked just as unpromising above the town as be-
low it ; the banks were everywhere high and precipitous \ at every

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The History of Canada.

weak point intrenchments had been thrown up, and each movement
of an enemy was jealously watched.

Wolfe was almost in despair ; yet he determined to persevere, in
the hope that some fortunate occurrence would aid him. To divide
and harass the enemy and obtain intelligence, he directed Colonel
Carleton, who commanded the troops with Rous's squadron, to make
a descent on the small town of Point-aux-Trembles, twenty-one miles
up the river from Quebec, and to which many of the inhabitants of
the city had retreated with their goods and valuables. A few Indians
made a feeble resistance, and a number of useless prisoners, some
plunder, and several packets of letters fell into the hands of the
British. The latter furnished important intelligence. " The Gover-
nor and Montcalm have disagreed," said one ; " But for our priests
and the dread of the savages we would submit," said another ; a
third stated, " We are without hope and food ; since the English
have passed the town, our communication with Montreal is cut off
— God hath forsaken us." To increase the misery of the besieged,
orders were now given to lay waste the surrounding country.

On the 2Sth, Wolfe proceeded up the eastern bank of the Mont-
morency, to examine some works which the French were erecting on
the opposite side. His escort was attacked, and for a time hardly
pressed by a strong body of Indians, who were only repulsed after a
loss had been sustained of fifty killed and wounded. Next morning
the 78th Highlanders surprised a French detachment, and slew nine
of them. Scarcely a day passed away without skirmishes taking place.
On the night of the 28th the French sent down a large fire-raft, but
it was towed ashore without doing any injury, and Wolfe threatened
that if any more such were made, they would be fastened to those
vessels in which v.rere the French prisoners. This threat had the
desired effect.

July was now almost gone, and the British general as yet had
effected little towards the capture of Quebec. It was true, he had
severely harassed the enemy, and that he occupied the most import-
ant points in the neighbourhood of the beleaguered fortress, but its
defences still remained untouched. Before leaving England Wolfe
had been taught that his force was merely auxiliary to Amherst's
army, and another man, with the formidable obstacles which every-
where encountered him, would have awaited its arrival. But with
dauntless resolution he hoped on almost against hope, and although
his constitution was rapidly breaking up, resolved to make every
effort to serve his country.

The Montmorency after falling over a perpendicular rock expands

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163

into shallows for a distance of three hundred yards, and flows into
the St Lawrence at an obtuse angle. Near the apex of this angle
Montcalm had placed a four-gun redoubt. The shallows of the
Montmorency were fordable at low tide, and Wolfe now arranged
with the Admiral, that one column should wade across the stream
and assault this redoubt, while another disembarking from the boats
of the fleet supported the movement from the St Lawrence. Mean-
while, the batteries from beyond the Montmorency were to sweep the
French lines, while that at Point Levi was to play vigorously on the
city. Could he possess himself of this redoubt and turn the right of
the French line, Montcalm must then either fight or retreat. In the
latter case the St Charles, defended by a boom and two stranded
frigates, would still be between Wolfe and the town; but one difficulty
overcome, he trusted to surmount the other.

On the 31st July, every preparation being made, three vessels of
light draught, two of which, however, grounded, run in-shore, and
opened fire upon the redoubt. The movements of the British warned
Montcalm of their true point of attack, and he promptly made dis-
position to baffle it by a flank movement across the ford of the Mont-
morency, to capture their batteries, while their main body wasted its
strength against his intrenchments. The British general, however,
saw his intention, and directed the 48th, left in the works at Point
Levi, to push up the river as if to attack the French position above
the city. This proceeding compelled Montcalm to relinquish his
flank movement, and detach the two battalions he intended should
accomplish it, to observe the 48th. Meanwhile, night was coming
on apace, and a storm already darkened the distant horizon ; but
Wolfe, observing disorder in the enemy's line, owing to new forma-
tions of troops, gave the signal to advance at five o'clock, and with
a loud cheer the sailors bent to their oars, and the long motionless
flotilla sprung into life. Some of the leading boats grounded on a
rock, others were swamped by the guns of the enemy, and for a brief
space it seemed as though the British would be beaten back. Wolfe
sprang into a cutter and soon discovered a safe passage to the shore,
to which a few pulls carried the flotilla. The next moment the eager
troops jumped upon land, when the French gave a parting volley,
abandoned the redoubt, and retreated to their intrenchments, crown-
ing the crest of the slope beyond.

Thirteen companies of grenadiers and some Royal Americans were
the first ashore. These had orders to form in four columns on the
beach, and wait the arrival of the remainder of the troops from the
boats, and Townshend's brigade already advancing across the Mont-

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The History of Canada.

morency. But proud of their post of preference, exasperated at their
long delay, and regardless of the orders of their officers, they rushed
forward to storm the French intrenchments. Wolfe saw that this
rash valour had ruined the fortunes of the day, and instead of sup-
porting the advance of his grenadiers, whom he strove ineffectually
to recall, formed the remainder of his troops in admirable order on
the beach to cover their inevitable retreat.

Meanwhile the storm burst, the ground became slippery, and the
teeming rain soon spoiled the ammunition of the grenadiers. Still
they pressed on, relying upon the bayonet, although they could
scarcely keep their feet. But one close and steady volley from the
French was sufficient to roll them back from the crest of the hill,
when they sullenly retired, leaving over two hundred of their killed and
wounded behind at the mercy of the Indians, who speedily swarmed
across the field. The evening was far advanced, the tide was begin-
ning to flow, the ammunition of the whole army had been damaged
by the rain, the French, who had suffered little or no injury, Avhile
the British were weakened by the loss of thirty-three officers and four
hundred and ten men, had concentrated their strength, and all that
Wolfe could now do was to effect an orderly retreat Such of the
wounded as could yet be saved were carried from the field, the
stranded ships were abandoned and burnt, and the flotilla embarked
and rowed away from the fatal shore, while Townshend's and Mur-
ray's brigades recrossed the ford without interruption, and resumed
their position on the heights east of the Montmorency.

In the meantime. Admiral Holmes had joined Rous's squadron
above the town, and twelve hundred men were now despatched, under
Brigadier Murray, to aid in the destruction of the French vessels which
had retired up the river. These avoided the danger of capture by
sending their guns and stores ashore and taking refuge in the shallows
towards Montreal, one brigantine excepted, and which having
grounded was abandoned and destroyed. Murray, as the fleet ad-
vanced up the river, found every landing-place fortified, and the
French on the alert. After two fruitless attempts to disembark, he
finally effected his purpose at the village of D'Eschambault, thirty-
nine miles from Quebec, which was defended by some invalid soldiers,
and carried without difficulty. A few prisoners of some importance
were taken, and letters fell into Murray's hands, from which he
learned the occupation of Ticonderoga and Crown Point by Amherst,
and the capture of Niagara by Johnson. Finding that he could effect
nothing of importance, the brigadier hastened down the river to con-
vey this glad intelligence to Wolfe. He found the general, chagrined

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165

ad-

the

irty-

;on-
led

by the failure at Montmorency, and worn out by his exertions,
stricken with fever, and unable to bear the presence of his officers.
Still the British batteries thundered vigorously from the heights of
Montmorency on the French lines, while the fire from Point Levi
laid waste the city. On the morning of the lotli of August, at one
o'clock, a shell pitched upon the vaulted roof of a cellar in the
Lower Town, and burst beneath, igniting a large quantity of brandy
which was stored there. The flames quickly spread, and nearly the
whole of the quarter was burned down, including the church erected
to commemorate Phipps's defeat. A fire broke out at tlie same time
in the Upper Town, but did not do much injury.

Amherst's and Johnson's successes, though gratifying in them-
selves, gave no hope to Wolfe of aid before the close of the cam-
paign. The difliculties which had hitherto impeded his own progress,
taught him what they had to encounter, and he saw that he must
depend solely on himself, and struggle on unaided. The numerous
body of armed men under Montcalm " could not," he said, " be
called an army j " but the French had probably the strongest country
in the world to cover the approaches to the only vulnerable points
of the town. The keen eye of the Indian scout prevented surprise,
the peasantry, so long as they could be kept together, being
thoroughly exasperated by the forays of the British troops, and in-
cited by their clergy, were zealous to defend their homes, their lan-
guage, and their religion. Every one able to bear arms was in the
field, and old men and boys fired upon the English detachments
from every position which gave them concealment — from the edges
of the woods, from behind rocks and houses. Nevertheless Wolfe
felt that every exertion must continue to be made, and while yet
disabled by sickness, laid a plan before his brigadiers, embracing
three different and equally desperate methods of attacking Montcalm
in his intrenchments below the town. They unanimously rejected
them all, and adopted instead Brigadier Townshend's plan of land-
ing an army above the town, and thus draw the French from their
impregnable position to an open action. " I have acquiesced in
their proposal," said Wolfe in his aduiirable despatch to Pitt of the
2d September, alluding to the course recommended by his brigadiers,
" and we are preparing to put it into execution. There is such a
choice of difficulties, that I am myself at a loss how to determine."
Attended by the Adm: "al he once more examined the citadel with
a view to a general assault. Although every one of the passages
from the Lower to the Upper Town was intrenched, the gallant
Saunders was willing to join in any hazard for the public service.

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The History of Canada.

But the general saw that the undertaking promised no success, and
while he had the main force of Canada to oppose, the magnificent
fleet could give him no assistance.

But if Wolfe's difficulties were great, so also were those which sur-
rounded Montcalm. He knew not where to turn for a ray of hope,
except to the now rapidly approaching winter. Danger menaced
him on every side. Gage threatened him from Lake Ontario, Am-
herst from Lake Champlain, while the stately fleet riding securely
at anchor below left no hope of succour from France. The pecu-
lation and misconduct of the civil officers wasted his resources, and
he hesitated not to tell even the Governor himself, that he had sold
his country ; " but while I live," exclaimed the intrepid soldier, " I
will not deliver it up." " Of one thing I can assure you," wrote he
to a friend, " I shall not survive the probable loss of the Colony.
There are times when a general's only resource is to die with honour ;
this is such a time ; no stain shall rest on my memory." But he
found consolation in the fact, that the conquest of Canada must
speedily lead to the independence of the British colonies. Provi-
sions and ammunition were becoming scarce in his camp, and the
unhappy peasants stole to their homes by dozens to gather in their
harvest. He scourged some offisnders, hanged others, and threatened
their villages with the vengeance of the savages ; yet he could not
keep them together, and was finally obliged to allow two thousand
of the militia to depart, to gather in their crops, at the most critical
period of the campaign.

The new plan of operations adopted by Wolfe, rendered the con-
centration of his troops at Point Levi necessary, and preparations
were at once made to evacuate the position at the Montmorency.
These were all completed by the 3d September, when the troops
safely crossed over the river. The vigilant eye of Montcalm had
anticipated this movement from the unusual stir among the British,
and he marched two strong columns to attack them while embark-
ing. Monckton, from the heights of Point Levi, discovered the danger
which menaced the retiring brigades, and embarking a strong detach-
menr in boats which were protected by some sloops and frigates,
rowed towards the Beauport shore, as if about to assault the French
lines. Montcalm was accordingly compelled to recall his battalions
for their defence, and to permit the British troops at Montmorency
to embark without molestation.

On the 7th, 8th, and 9th, Admiral Holmes constantly manoeuvred
his fleet above the town, and harassed the enemy by threatening
their different posts. Wolfe had partially recovered, and in company

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167

with his brigadiers now closely reconnoitred the bank of the river, in
the hope of discovering some point by which his army could ascend
to the Plains of Abraham. At length, about three miles above the
city, he discovered a narrow path winding up the steep precipice
from the water's edge, at a point where the bank curved slightly in-
ward, and which is now known as Wolfe's Cove. Two men could
scarcely ascend this path abreast, yet here he determined his army
should disembark, and take the guard at the summit, which he
knew by the number of tents could not exceed a hundred, by sur-
prise. Once on the plains above, the French must give him
battle.

Preparations were promptly commenced for the execution of this
plan; and in order to deceive Montcalm as to the true point of
attac :, Cook, the great mariner* and others, were sent to sound the
river at Beauport, and plant buoys along the shore, as if an assault
was intended in that quarter. But the real design was kept care-
fully secret, as otherwise the treachery of a single deserter would
have prevented its execution. On the morning of the 12th one of
the Royal Americans did go over to the enemy, but from the caution
obser\'ed was unable to warn them of their danger. At the same
time a French deserter brought most important intelligence to
Wolfe. " The main force," said he, " is still below the city, and our
general will not believe that you meditate an attack anywhere but
from the Montmorency side. The Canadians are alarmed by the
fall of Niagara, and in great distress for provisions. De Levi, with
a large detachment, has left us for Montreal to meet Amherst, and
De Bougainville, with fifteen hundred men, watches the motions of
your fleet in the upper river."

As evening approached the heavier ships of the line moved to-
wards the Beauport shore, and anchored as near it as the w.iter
would permit, when the boats were lowered and filled with sailors
and marines, as if to make a descent on the French intrench-
ments. While the enemy's attention was thus occupied, all the
smaller ships of the fleet suddenly .spread out their sails, and with
a fair breeze swept proudly past the batteries of Quebec, and
soon joined Holmes's squadron at Cape Rouge. At the same
time Monckton's and Murray's brigades pushed up along the
river from Point Levi, till they arrived opposite the fleet, on board
of which they embarked without being observed by the enemy.
At nine o'clock the first division of the army, sixteen hundred strong,
silently removed into flat-bottomed boats, and waited the orders of
their chief.

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The History of Canada,

It was a pleasant autumn night, and the full lustrous stars of a
northern firmament twinkled cheerfully down on the noble current
of the St Lawrence, as Wolfe quietly passed from ship to ship to
make his final inspection, and utter his last words of encourage-
ment. In a pure and gifted mind like his, the solemn hour could
scarcely fail of awakening befitting associations. He spoke of the
poet Gray, and the beautiful legacy he had given the world in
his "Elegy in a Country Churchyard." "I would prefer," said
he, "being the author of that poem to the glory of beating the
French to-morrow ; " and, while the cautious dip of the oars
into the rippling current alone broke the stillness of the night, he
repeated : —

"The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave.
Await alike the inexorable hour,
The paths of glory lead but to the grave."

About one o'clock, on the morning of the 13th, the order to
advance was given, and the flotilla dropped silently down with the
receding tide, Wolfe commanding in person. He still continued
his poetical musings, but his eye at the same time was keenly
bent on the outline of the dark heights, beneath which he floated
past. He recognised at length the appointed spot, and leaped
ashore. Meantime, the current had carried a few boats lower
down, which had on board the light company of the 78th High-
landers. These were the first troops to land : without a moment's
hesitation they scrambled up the face of the wooded precipice,
clinging to the roots and branches of trees. Half the ascent
was already won, when for the first time the " qui vive " of the
French sentry above was given. " La France',' promptly an-
swered M'Donald, the Highland captain, with ready selfposses-
sion, and the sentinel shouldered his musket and pursued his
rounds. In a few minutes, however, the unusual rustling among
the trees near at hand alarmed the sentinels, their guard was turned
out and fired one hurried volley at the Highlanders, then panic-
stricken turned and fled. By this time another body of troops
had pressed up the pathway, and possessed themselves of a four-
gun redoubt which commanded it. As day dawned Wolfe stood
with his invincible battalions on the Plains of Abraham, the
battle-field which gave a new empire to the Anglo-Saxon race.
Only one gun, however, could be got up the hill, so difi^icult was
the ascent.

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169

Meanwhile, Montcalm had been completely deceived by the de-
monstration against his lines below the town. All night long boats
plied off and on from the shore, while the ships of war swept the
beach with their fire, as if to keep it clear for the landing of troops.
Daylight at length • -.me on ; yet he knew nothing of the danger that
menaced him in another direction. Presently the morning breeze
bore along the boom of a distant gun, and the scattered roll of mus-
ketry, from above the beleaguered town. While he yet doubted as
to their cause, a horseman galloped up and told him the British had
ascended to the Plains of Abraham. " It can be but a small party
come to burn a few houses and retire," said Montcalm in amaze-
ment. The man persisted that the British were there in force.
" Then," said the general, " they have at last got to the weak side of
this miserable garrison ; we must give them battle and crush them
before mid-day."

Leaving Governor De Vaudreuil behind with fifteen hundred mi-
litia, and despatching a courier to recall De Bougainville, Montcalm
hurried his troops across the valley of the St Charles, over the bridge,
and along the northern face of the ramparts to the battle-ground,
where Wolfe, having already formed his line, calmly awaited his ap-
proach. The 3Sth regiment were posted on the extreme right near
the precipice. On their left stood the grenadiers of Louisburg ; the
28th, the 43d, the 58th, the 78th Highlanders, and the 47th, com-
pleted the front, led by Wolfe and Monckton on the right, and Mur-
ray on the left. The second line, composed of the 15th regiment
and two battalions of the 60th or Royal Americans, was led by
Townshend. The 48th regiment, in four columns, formed the re-
serve under Colonel Burton. Colonel Howe, with the light infantry
posted in houses, or scattered through the neighbouring coppices,
covered the left flank and rear. The right flank was effectually pro-
tected by the precipice. The entire British army was somewhat under
five thousand men, but they were all well-trained veterans.

About six o'clock, small bodies of the French troops deployed on
the slopes near the ramparts of the city ; by seven, they mustered
more numerously, and brought up two field guns, which caused some
annoyance to the British. Towards eight o'clock, Montcalm had
arrived with the bulk of his army, which he formed in three distinct
masses on a slope to the north-west of the city, where they were
sheltered from Wolfe's solitary but mischievous gun. At nine, he
pushed to the front, and began to form his line of battle, being
assured that De Bougainville was close at hand, and whose light
cavalry, of which he had three hundred and fifty, already threatened

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The History of Canada.

the British left. His centre was formed of seven hundred and twenty
regular troops and twelve hundred militia. The right was composed
of sixteen hundred veterans and four hundred militia : on the left
were thirteen hundred trained soldiers, supported by two thousand
three hundred of the Canadian levies. His total force thus amounted
to seven thousand five hundred and twenty men, besides Indians,
who were not less than four hundred. * Of this force scarcely one
half were regular troops, but the expected arrival of De Bougainville
would add fifteen hundred veterans to hir army, and, he trusted,
enable him to win the battle and save Quebec.

Montcalm designed to avail himself of his superior force, by out-
flanking the British left, and thus crowding them towards the landing-
place, where he would assail them again with his own left and centre,
while De Bougainville threatened their rear. Thus attacked on three
sides of a square at the same time, he considered that the stubborn
courage of the enemy must give way. The British position formed
two sides of a square, one of which was occupied by their line of
battle, the other by Colonel Howe's light infantry, who, as already
stated, thus covered the left flank and rear.

Agreeably to his plan of operations, Montcalm began the battle at
ten o'clock, by assailing Howe's position with a strong body of
Canadian and Indian skirmishers, who speedily drove in the British
pickets on their supports. Under cover of the cloud of smoke which
soon rose over this part of the battle-field, the veterans of the French
right wing passed swiftly at an angle with the British left, and fiercely
assaulted their light infantry. Howe felt the importance of his
post, and made a stout resistance. His men fell fast, but in a few
minutes Townshend, with the 15th regiment and two battalions of
the 60th, came to his aid, and the assailants were speedily beaten
back with heavy loss.

The attempt to out-flank the British left being thus completely de-
feated, Montcalm's only resource was to attack their right and centre.
Throwing forward a swarm of skirmishers, their fire speedily dis-
lodged the few light infantry with which Wolfe had covered bis front,
and drove them back in disorder on the main body. This occur-

ren
the

• Bancroft estimates the French army under five thousand, but quotes no autho-
rity in support of this statement. Smith, who wrote shortly after the battle, and
had access to the most accurate sources of information on this head, gives the num-
ber as above. He also furnishes the official return of the British army on the
morning of the battle, showing its strength to be exactly four thousand eight
hundred and twenty-eight on the field. Garneau is inaccurate and partial in this
as well as in numerous other cases.

The History of Canada.

171

itho-
and

light
this

rence somewhat alarmed the British troops, but Wolfe, hurrying along
the line, cheered them by his voice and presence, and directed them
on no account to fire without orders. He speedily succeeded in re-
storing confidence. Recalling his light troops, Montcalm now pushed
forward his whole centre and left, and which with loud cheers and
arms at the recover moved boldly on to the attack. As the smoke
of the skirmishers' fire cleared off from the battle-field, the long ranks
of the French were seen rapidly approaching the British position.
At the distance of one hundred and fifty yards an oblique movement
from the left ga\e their lines the appearance of columns, which
chiefly threatened Wolfe's right wing. Another moment passed,
the French paused, and from flank to flank poured a murderous
and rapid fire upon the British line. The 35th and grenadiers fell
fast. Still not a shot was returned. Wolfe was struck in the wrist,
but wrapping a handkerchief around the wound he hurried from
rank to rank, warning his men to reserve their fire for a shorter
and deadlier range. Not a single trigger was pulled. With arms
shouldered as if on parade, and motionless, save when they closed
upon the ghastly gaps made in their ranks by the French fire, these
gallant men waited the word" of command with that indomitable
endurance which has ever characterised the British soldier when
properly trained and led.

The French were still unharmed, their confidence increased, and
with a loud cheer they pressed forward against the British. A few
moments more and only forty paces separated the combatants. And
now the clear voice of Wolfe giving the word to fire rises over the
field. The order passes like an electric shot along the British line ;
its long row of muskets is swiftly levelled ; and the next instant a
well-aimed volley, almost as distinct as a single shot, rolls over the
battle-field. It fell with terrible effect upon the advancing foe. Num-
bers of the French soldiers reeled and fell at once, others staggered
for a moment, then dropped aside to die ; others, again, burst from
the ranks shrieking in agony. Presently the breeze which blew
gently across the battle-field, carried away the smoke of one of the
deadliest volleys that ever burst from British infantry, and the assail-
ing battalions were seen reduced to mere groups among the slain.

Scarcely fifteen minutes had elapsed since Montcalm had made
his principal attack, and already the battle was lost. The Brigadier
De St Ours was killed, and De Senezergues, the second in command,
mortally wounded, while the Canadian militia had already broken
and fled in confusion. Still the gallant Frenchman was not dis-
mayed. Riding through the shattered ranks he cheered the men

172

The History of Canada.

with his voice, and induced them to reform. Meantime the British
troops had reloaded, and Wolfe resolving to take advantage of the
disorder in the French ranks, ordered his whole line to advance,
placing himself at the head of the 28th and grenadiers. For a few
minutes they move forward steadily, then their pace increases to a
run, and with bayonets at the charge they rush upon the French.
Just then Wolfe was wounded a second time in the body, but still
pressing forward he received a ball in the breast. " Support me,"
he said to an officer near him, " let not my brave fellows see me
fall." He was carried to the rear, and water was brought him to
quench his thirst.

Still the British pressed forward with fiery valour. On the right,
the 35th swept all before them; in the centre, the .28th and Louis-
burg Grenadiers moved firmly on; on the left, the 58th and 78th
overcame a stubborn and bloody resistance, and the last corps with
its terrible claymore followed swiftly in pursuit, and supplied the
want of cavalry. The fierce struggle fell heavily on the British, but
was terribly destructive to the French. They wavered under the
carnage ; but Montcalm, galloping among his stubborn veterans,
called on them to reform, and again oppose the advancing foe.
His efforts were vain ; the head of every formation was mowed
down by the terrible fire of the British, who again rushing forward
at the charge compelled his troops to give way in every direction.
At this critical period he fell mortally wounded, and from that mo-
ment all was utter rout and confusion on the side of the French.

Wolfe's life ebbs fast away ; yet from time to time he essays to
look upon the battle, and clear away the death-mist that gathers on
his sight. Presently his spirit draws nearer " to that bourne whence
no traveller returneth ; " he sinks backward and gives no signs of
life beyond a heavy breathing, and the occasional groan of painful
dissolution. The French fly in all directions. " They run ! they
run ! " exclaimed some of the officers who stood by their dying
general. " Who runs?" eagerly asked Wolfe, like one aroused from
sleep. " The enemy, sir," answered the officer who supported him,
" they give way everywhere." " Go one of you to Colonel Burton,"
said Wolfe, " and tell him to march Webb's regiment (the 48th) with
all speed down to the St Charles River to cut off their retreat." His
voice grew fainter and fainter as he spoke, and he turned as if to
seek an easier position on his side. Four days before he had looked
/orward to an early death with dismay, but he now felt he would
brer.the his last breath on the field of victory, and that he had well
done his duty to his country. " Now God be praised ! I die happy,"

said
won
imm
oft
croM

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173

5y,

said the gallant soldier faintly, yet distinctly : and Wolfe, who had
won a new empire for his race, passed from this material world to
immortality. But while tongue can speak or pen record the annals
of the past, he will never be forgotten. In a few brief years he had
crowded actions that would have reflected lustre on the longest life.
The morning of his career had given promise of no ordinary great-
ness, that promise was more than realised at a period when other
men only appear prominently on the world's stage, and his day
closed as it reached its meridian in the blaze of one of the most
momentous victories that has ever marked the annals of the human
race.

Grape shot from the ramparts of Quebec, and the fire of the frigates
grounded in the St Charles, checked the pursuit of the British, whose
rear was already threatened by the near approach of De Bougainville's
formidable corps of veterans. Monckton had been shot through the
lungs, and Townshend, now the senior officer, hastened to recall his
disordered battalions to oppose this new enemy. His arrangements
were strictly defensive ; and while forming his line of battle he ad-
vanced the 35th and 48th, with two field-pieces, one of which had
just been captured from the French, to meet the advancing force,
and if possible to check its approach. But the news of Montcalm's
total defeat speedily reaching De Bougainville, he declined meeting
a victorious enemy, and hastily retreated to Cape Rouge. On the
same day De Vaudreuil, with his one thousand five hundred Cana-
dians, deserted the lines below Quebec, and leaving all his artillery,
tents, ammunition, and stores behind, made a hurried retreat towards
Jacques Cartier,

The loss of the British in the memorable battle of the Plains of
Abraham, amounted to fifty-nine killed, and five hundred and ninety-
seven wounded of all ranks ; that of the French to six hundred killed,
and over one thousand wounded and taken prisoners.* The militia
were completely disorganised by the defeat, and a large proportion
of them never rejoined their colours. As they ran away when they
saw victory inclining towards the British, they suffered much less
than the regular troops, who were almost destroyed.

* I have followed Smith and Russell in giving this estimate of the French loss.
Every probability is in favour of its correctness. Besides Wolfe, the British had
of officers, one captain, six lieutenants, and one ensign killed. One brigadier,
(Monckton,) the Quarter-master-General, (Barre,) three staff officers, fourteen cap-
tains, twenty-six lieutenants, and eleven ensigns were wounded. Vide War Office
Return of killed and wounded on 13th September 1759. Previous to the 13th,
Wolfe's army had lost one hundred and eighty-two killed, six hundred and fifty-five
wounded, and seventeen missing.

174

The History of Canada.

From the field of battle and its immediate results — from the last
moments of the immortal Wolfe, let us now turn aside for a brief
space and stand at the bedside of the gallant Montcalm. When his
wound A*as dressed, he asked the surgeons if it was mortal, and being
answered in the affirmative, calmly said, " I am glad of it ; how long
can I survive?" " Perhaps a dozen hours, and perhaps less," was
the reply. " So much the better," rejoined the general, " I shall not
live to see the surrender of Quebec." To a cotmcil of war which
hastily assembled, he showed that in twelve hours all the troops near
at hand might be concentrated, and the British attacked before they
had time to intrench themselves ; but his proposition was overruled.*
With him the hope of France in Canada was departing. De Ram-
say, who commanded the garrison, asked his orders about defending
the city. " To your keeping," he replied, " I commend the honour
of France. I wish you all comfort, and to be happily extricated
from your perplexities. As for me, my time is short, I shall pass the
night with God, and prepare myself for death." To another he said,
" Since it was my misfortune to be discomfited, and mortally wounded,
it is a great consolation to be vanquished by so noble and generous
an enemy." He sliortly afterwards called for his chaplain, who, with
the bishop, administered the last offices of his religion, and remained
with him till he died next day. Thus terminated the career of a
great general and a brave man. Trained from his youth in the art
of war ; laborious, just, and self-denying, he offered a remarkable
exception to the venality of the public men of Canada at this period,
and in the midst of universal corruption made the general good his
aim. Night, the nishing tide, veteran discipline, and more brilliant
genius, had given his rival the victory, yet he was not the less great;
and while the name of Wolfe will never be forgotten, that of Mont-
calm is also engraved by its side on the enduring scroll of human
fame. The latter has been censured for not abiding the chances of
a siege, rather than risking a battle. But with a town already in ruins,
a garrison deficient in provisions and ammunition, and an enemy to
contend with possessed of a formidable siege train, the fire of which
must speedily silence his guns, he acted wisely in staking the issue
on a battle, in which if he found defeat he met also an honourable
and glorious death.

No sooner had his men recruited themselves after the fatigues of
battle, and the wounded been cleared from the ground, than Town-
shend promptly proceeded to intrench himself, and secure his posi-
tion from assault by the construction of redoubts. The communica-
* Raynal's America, vol. ii. p. 128.

The History of Canada.

175

tions of the city with the country were next cut off as far as possible,
and the erection of breaching batteries rapidly pushed forward. By
the evening of the 1 7 th no less than sixty-one pieces of heavy artillery,
and fifty-seven of smaller calibre, had with the united labour of sol-
diers and sailors been dragged to the camp. To support the land-
force Admiral Saunders had already moved the whole of his fleet
into the basin, preparatory to an attack on the Lower Town. The
besieged had endeavoured to retard these operations by constantly
plying their guns, but their exertions were ineffectual, and to their
great dismay the trenches of the British rapidly rose up before
them.

Governor De Vaudreuil had retreated precipitately, without throw-
ing provisions into the city, and the small supply furnished by the
cavalry of De Bougainville, who had established himself at Beauport,
was of scarcely any importance. Reduced to a few ounces of bread
per diem, extreme famine now menaced the wretched garrison. The
unhappy citizens pressed De Ramsay to capitulate before they were
reduced to the last extremity. " We have cheerfully sacrificed our
houses and our fortunes," said they, "but we cannot expose our
wives and children to massacre." De Levi, at Montreal, had already
heard of the death of Montcalm, and by request of De Vaudreuil
hastened to Quebec to assume the chief command. He arrived at
the French head-quarters, in the neighbourhood of Jacques Cartier,
on the 16th, and immediately convened a council of war, at which
it was determined to raise the seige if possible. A message was de-
spatched to De Ramsay, to tell him to hold out to the last extremity,
as on the i8th the whole French army would be in motion, and a
disposition made to throw in a large supply of provisions, and re-
lieve the town. But this intelligence came too late. On the even-
ing of the 17th the terms of capitulation had been agreed on; early
next morning they were fully ratified and Quebec surrendered. In
the evening the keys of the city were delivered up, and the Louis-
burg Grenadiers marched in, while at the same time Captain Palliser,
of the navy, with a body of seamen, took possession of the Lower
Town. De Levi heard all this at Cape Rouge, whither he had ad-
vanced with his disposable force, and immediately retired to Jacques
Cartier, whence he shortly afterwards proceeded to Montreal, leaving
De Bougainville to watch the enemy.

Quebec had at length fallen. All the British colonies rung with
exultation ; towns were illuminated, bonfires flashed on the hills of
New England ; and legislative halls, the pulpit, and the press re-
echoed the tumultuous sounds of joy that arose over the land.

176

The History of Canada.

Wolfe's despatch of the 9th September had caused the British nation
to despond only for two brief days, when intelligence arrived of his
victory, his death, and the surrender of Quebec. A generous people
bewailed his untimely end while they rejoiced in his triumph. Par-
liament voted him a monument in Westminster Abbey, Lord Dal.
housie subsequently erected a pillar in honour of him and Montcalm
at Quebec, and Lord Aylmer placed a memorial where he fell.
His body was embalmed and conveyed to Greenwich, where it
was placed beside his father, who had died only a few months
before.

CHAPTER IX,

SURRENDER OF CANADA TO GREAT BRITAIN.

THE cold and stormy weather which threatened tlie British sol-
diers with sickness, and the fleet with accident, led Saunders
and Townshend to grant very favourable conditions to the garrison
of Quebec,* amounting to about one thousand troops of all ranks.
They were permitted to march out with all the honours of war, to be
afterwards conveyed to the nearest port in France. On laying down
their arms the inhabitants were to be protected in their persons and
property, and permitted the free exercise of their religion, while
churches and convents were to be shielded by guards from insult.
These conditions were faithfully fulfilled by the British ; and so grate-
ful were the people for the clemency shown them, that numbers came
of their own accord to take the oath of allegiance to King George II.
On the 1 8th of October the entire fleet, with the exception of the
Racehorse of twenty and the Porcupine of eighteen guns, departed for
Halifax or England. Brigadier Townshend at the same time pro-
ceeded home, while Monckton went to winter in the milder climate
of New York, where he soon recovered from his wound. To Murray
was intrusted the government of Quebec, with Colonel Burton as
his lieutenant-governor, and the troops of all ranks and arms, now
amounting to only some five thousand men, for his garrison.t The
sick and wounded, who were not likely to recover speedily, were taken
home in the fleet. Soon after its departure a French vessel, bearing
despatches from the Marquis De Vaudreuil and the Intendant, passed
secretly down by Quebec during a fog, and after escaping many
dangers arrived safely in France. These despatches were filled with
criminations and recriminations. De Vaudreuil bitterly censured
De Ramsay for his precipitate surrender of Quebec, while others

♦ General Townshend's Letter to Pitt, September 20tli, I7S9.
+ Smith's Canada, vol. i. p, 321.

178

The History of Canada.

held up his own flight from the lines at the Montmorency in no very
flattering tc^ms.

The condition of Canada, so recently the most important colony
of France, had been completely altered by one disastrous campaign.
Shut out from Lake Ciiamplain, by the loss of Ticonderoga and
Crown Point \ from the west, by the fall of Niagara, while the con-
quest of Quebec excluded her from the sea-board, all the posts of
importance that now remained in French hands were those of Three
Rivers, Montreal, Frontenac, Detroit, and Mackinaw. The strongest
positions had all passed into British hands, and many of the bravest
veterans of France had found graves in the land which their valour
had vainly striven to defend, or had been borne away as prisoners
across the Atlantic. The condition of the unfortunate habitants was
most deplorable. Every hamlet had its sick or wounded men. Pro-
visions became scarcer than ever as winter progressed, rose to famine
prices, and many people perished from want. At length the farmers
would scarcely part with their provisions at any price ; still. Bigot
and the commissary-general, Cadet, managed by force at one time,
by threats and promises at another, to procure a scanty subsistence
for the troops at Montreal. Even at Quebec, the British soldiers
suffered severely owing to the want of fresh provisions. Scurvy
broke out amongst them from the almost continual use of salt food
and biscuit, and carried off eight hundred men, while it rendered
nearly twice that number unfit for duty.

During the winter Murray made every exertion to strengthen the
defences of Quebec, and provide for the comfort of the garrison.
He erected eight timber redoubts outside the defences towards the
Plains of Abraham, and armed them with artillery, laid in eleven
months' provisions in the citadel, and repaired five hundred of the
injured houses as barracks for his troops. He likewise established
outposts at favourable points in the neighbourhood, which proved
of considerable advantage in concealing his movements from the
enemy, collecting provisions, and confirming the country people in
their allegiance, eleven parishes having already placed themselves
under the protection of the British.

Meanwhile the French troops at Jacques Cartier were not idle.
They harassed the British outposts whenever an opportunity pre-
sented itself, while De Levi, at Montreal, steadily pushed forward
preparations for the recapture of Quebec in the spring, before suc-
cour could arrive. The moment the weather permitted he
directed the French vessels, which had escaped up the river

1760.

from Saunders's^ fleet, to be refitted, the small craft to be repaired,

The History of Canada.

179

and galleys built, on board of which he placed stores and ammuni-
tion withdrawn from the forts at St John's and Charably, and such
other supplies as he could collect. De Vaudreuil seconded these
exertions by publishing an inflammatory address to the Canadian
people, in which the injuries and injustice inflicted by the British
governor of Quebec were painted in false and highly coloured
language.

On the 17th of April, De Levi, having completed his prepara-
tions, left Montreal with all his available force, and collecting on
his way downwards the several detached corps scattered at the
different posts, arrived at Cape Rouge with eight battalions of regular
troops, four thousand five hundred strong, six thousand Canadians,
of whom two hundred were cavalry and over two hundred In-
dians. De Vaudreuil had sent belts to several of the native tribes
to induce them to join the French army, but the wary savages
held aloof from its failing fortunes, and either allied themselves with
the British or remained neutral. De Levi's heavy artillery, ammu-
nition, and stores were conveyed down the river in boats and other
vessels.

On the morning of the 27th, before day, a French artilleryman
was rescued from the river off" a floating cake of ice, who gave
Murray the first intelligence of the approach of a hostile force. He
stated the French flotilla had been seriously injured by a storm, as
well as by the difficulty of navigation, owing to the river not being
free from ice, which still drifted in large quantities. The boat in
which he was had been swamped in the storm, and he had great
difficulty in saving himself by scrambling from one piece of ice to
another. He rated the French army at nearly twelve thousand men,
which was speedily to be supported by all the frigates and vessels of
war they could collect. The aid of a fleet from France was also
looked for, as well as the immediate arrival of a frigate, laden with
stores, which had wiptered at Gaspe.

Murray marched out during the day, with all the troops that could
be spared from garrison duty, to cover the retreat of his advanced
posts at Cape Rouge and elsewhere, a duty he performed with the
loss of only two men, and retired on the approach of evening, after
breaking down all the bridges. De Levi, however, pushed rapidly
forward down the St Foy road, and at nine o'clock on the morning
of the 28th was within three miles of Quebec. The British general,
with an army reduced by disease, desertion, and death, to less than
three thousand five hundred available men, had already formed the
unaccountable resolution of giving the enemy battle. In his sub-

iSo

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sequent report to the Secretary of State, he excused this unfortunate
determination.- " Having well weighed my peculiar position," said
he, " and well knowing that in shutting myself within the walls of the
city I should risk the whole stake on the chance of defending a
wretched fortification, which could not be lessened by an action in
the field."

Shortly after daybreak Murray formed his skeleton battalions on
the Plains of Abraham, supported by twenty pieces of artillery,
planted at the most fa. turable points. Having completed his order
of battle, he rode to the front to reconnoitre the enemy's position.
The previous night had been wet, so he found the French occupied
in putting their arms into order, and in other respects unprepared,
as he supposed, for action. Thinking this a favourable opportunity
to assail them, he gave orders for an immediate attack, which was
gladly cbeyed by his little army, who pushed forward in admir-
able order over the brow of the heights and into the plains be-
yond.

De Levi at first could scarcely believe that the British seriously
intended to attack his overwhelming force, and they had almost
advanced within gun-shot range before he called his troops to
arms. His line of battle, after a momentary confusion, was
speedily formed, and some companies of grenadiers thrown into
the woods on the right to cover his flank in that direction. These
almost immediately encountered the skirmishers and light troops
on the British left, who speedily drove them in on the main
body, and following too far in pursuit got in front of their own
artillery, and compelled its silence for a time. The advance
of tlie British light troops was soon checked, however, by the
steady front of the French supports, whose fire quickly compelled
them to retire.

De Levi's army was by this time formed in battle array, and the
action speedily became general. For an hour and three quarters did
the battle rage with the utmost fury ; but finally the numbers of the
French prevailed. The British left was thrown into disorder and
gave way ; the right was also hardly pressed, and Murray was finally
compelled to retreat, leaving nearly the whole of his guns in the
hands of the enemy, and three hundred dead upon the field. The
greater part of the wounded, amounting in all to seven hundred, he
succeeded, however, in carrying with him.

Nearly a third of the British army were either killed or wounded ;
but still the French had dearly purchased their victory by a loss,
according to their own admission, of fully eighteen hundred put hors

The History of Canada.

i8i

dc combat. So exasperated were they at the obstinacy of the contest
by so small a force, that they stained their triumph by refusing
quarter to several English officers,* and by giving up the British
wounded, left on the field, to the fury of the Indians. Out of nearly
one hundred of these unfortunate men, unavoidably abandoned by
Murray in his retreat, only twenty-eight were sent to hospital ; the
rest were massacred by the savages. f

But, if the British general had committed an error in hazarding a
battle with his inferior force, he amply atoned for it by the resolute
manner in which he prepared to defend the city. On the very even-
ing of the battle he issued a general order to his troops, in which he
sought to raise their spirits by stating, " that although the morning
had been unfortunate to the British arms, yet affairs were not desper-
ate ; that a fleet might soon be expected ; and it only remained for
officers and men patiently to bear the unavoidable fatigues of a
siege." The garrison was now reduced to two thousand two hun-
dred effective men, but these were animated by the best spirit,
and even the wounded men, who could not walk without crutches,
seating themselves on the ramparts, made sand-bags for the works,
and cartridges for the cannon. The soldiers' wives, of whom
there were nearly five hundred, and all of whom with scarcely
an exception had enjoyed excellent health during the winter,
were also active in attending the wounded and cooking for the
troops.

De Levi broke ground on the evening of the 28th, eig.it hundred
yards from the ramparts, but several days elapsed before his batteries,
consisting of thirteen guns and two mortars, opened upon the town.
Murray had in the meantime placed one hundred and thirty-two guns
in position on the walls, and as many of the infantry had been trained
to act as artillerymen during the preceding winter, he was enabled to
keep up a fire which completely overpowered that of the French. But
the hopes of the besieged rested cliiefly for deliverance on the arrival
of the fleet. The French army looked also for aid from an ejrpected
squadron. % On the '9th of May a frigate was seen rounding the
headland of Point Levi, and standing towards the city. For a brief
space an intense anxiety had complete possession of besiegers and
besieged. But presently a flag is run up to the mizen peak of the
strange ship, the Union Jack floats boldly out, and a boat puts off
for the Lower Town, when the garrison, officers and men, mounted

* Smith's Hist. Can., vol. i. p. 337. f Conquest of Can., vol. ii. p. 232.

X This, consisting of one frigate, two store-ships, and nineteen smaller vessels,
was captured in Chaleur Bay by a British squadron from Louicburg.

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the .ramparts in the face of the enemy, and made the welkin ring
with hearty British cheers. On the isth two other frigates arrived
under the command of Commodore Swainton. Next day, the French
shipping above the town, consisting of two frigates and several
armed vessels, were attacked and forced on shore or destroyed.

The following night the siege was raised, and De Levi precipi-
tately retreated, leaving his provisions, guns, tents, ammunition, and
intrenching tools behind. Murray had made preparations for a
vigorous sally on the morning ot the 17 th, and when informed of
the retreat of the besiegers, pushed rapidly out in pursuit with
his grenadiers and light infantry, but was only able to capture some
stragglers from their rear-guard. De Levi retreated to Jacques
Cartier, and afterwards proceeded to Montreal, where the last stand
was to be made against the efforts of the British.

The siege of Quebec, brief as it had been, furnished many oppor-
tunities to the officers of the different French departments to make
money. They felt their time was short ; and, resolving to make the
most use of it, indulged in shameful peculations and public robberies.
The people gradually became more and more dissatisfied, and several
began to look forward to English rule as a benefit instead of injury.
Murray increased this feeling by issuing a judicious proclamation on
the 2 2d May. He stated briefly that the peaceable inhabitants
would be fully protected, as well as those who at once laid down
their arms, and remained neutral. France, her fleets defeated and
her treasury exhausted, could give them no assistance. The bills of
exchange of the preceding year drawn upon the Government by the
Canadian officials were still undischarged, and the total depreciation
of the colonial paper-money,* in consequence, must entail a train

* In the early settlement of Canada, there had been but little specie in it, and
whatever sums of money that had been imported, were remitted to France, to
purchase goods and other articles wanted by the inhabitants. The Court of
France, with the view of increasing the quantity of money, issued, in the year
1670, a particular coin for all the French settlements in America, and directed
that its value should be one-fourth more than it passed current at in France.
This expedient had not the effect expected, which led the Government to substi-
tute la papier aux mctaux, which answered every purpose, both in paying the
troops and the other expenses of Government, until the year 1 720, when the
Government of France, not having made provision for the redemption of the stock,
they sunk into discredit, and became of little or no value. This circumstance again
introduced the use of gold and silver, but the merchants, finding remittances in cash
both hazardous and difficult, presented a memorial to the King of France, request-
ing the introduction of paper-money : card-money was then introduced. On each
card was stamped the arms of the King of France, and each was signed by the
Governor, Intendant, and Comptroller. These bills were of different denominations,

of
Bi

ini
th(
sh(

ava
it

The History of Canada.

183

and
to
of

the
the
ock,
gain
cash
lest-
;ach
the
ons,

of misfortunes they could alone escape by adhering to a nation like
Britain, abounding in riches and great prosperity. It concluded by
informing the inhabitants, that " if they withdrew themselves from
the army of M. De Levi, and gave it no assistance, further injury
should not be done their homes or growing crops, and that thus the
evils of another famine would be averted."

This proclamation, which was widely circulated, had a most ex-
cellent effect upon the habitants. Several copies were even sent to
Montreal, which so enraged the French general that he threatened
to hang any person found with one in his possession. But his anger
availed him little. The ardour of the peasantry visibly abated, and
it was evident from the progress of events that the reign of French
official oppression and extortion in Canada was rapidly drawing
towards its close.

By the 22d of July Amherst had assembled an army ten thousand
strong, and seven hundred Indians, at Oswego. On the loth of August
he embarked en route for Montreal, and arrived at Ogdensburg on the
19th. The French fort at this place was invested next day. On the
23d the British batteries opened their fire, which was vigorously replied
to by the garrison, who, however, surrendered at discretion on the 25 th.
Amherst learned that the Iroquois intended to massacre the French

from one thousand livres to fifteen sous, and were preferred by the inhabitants to
specie, and answered every purpose for which they were intended. In the month
of October of every year, the holder was at liberty to bring these cards to the In-
tendant's Office, and had a right to demand bills of exchange on old France in
payment. This right gave the paper-currency even a preference over ready cash,
for the Goveinment would not take cash for bills of exchange. Although the
inhabitants might have brought all their cards to the year 1759 for payment,
yet, being as current as cash, considerable quantities remained in circulation ; as
a proof of which it may be mentioned, that there were extant some of the cards
of the year 1729 in the year 1759. It was at this period that the Intendant, and
others concerned in the government of Canada, issued considerable quantities of
bills of exchange, which they pretended were for the use of the Government, but
as the French Court charged them with maladministration, this point continued
in dispute until judgment was passed in France on Bigot, and other peculators,
in the year 1763. Bigot was banished from France for life, the others for a
shorter period. They were, moreover, condemned to make restitution of several
sums in proportion to the frauds of which they had been found guilty. As the
Canadians had always had great confidence in Bigot, who they supposed had been
vested with full powers from the Court of France, they continued to take bills as
usual, and in general paid the full value for them. Upwards of four millions and
a half sterling of this paper remained at the conquest, unpaid. These bills, im-
mediately after that event, became of little or no value ; but by an arrangement
with the French Government, at the peace, Great Britain obtained for lier new
subjects three millions in contracts, and six hundred thousand livres in money. —
Smith's Hist. Can., vol. i. p. 344-346.

U M

184

TAe History of Canada.

soldiers as soon as they gained admission within the works. Th*s
he sternly forbade, and declared if they attempted such an outrage
that he would restrain them by force. They now sullenly threatened
to return home, to which course Amherst gave his consent ; but at
the same time stated, Miat if they committed any acts of violence on
their way, he would assuredly chastise them.

Passing down the St Lawrence, the Pritish army, after losing eighty-
four men and several boats in the Cedar Rapids, landed on the Island
of Montreal, about nine miles from the town, on the 6th of September.
Meantime Murray had left Quebec on the 14th of June, with a force
of two thousand four hundred men of all ranks, and ascended the river,
subduing some small posts on its banks, and compelling its inhabit-
ants, whenever practicable, to submit to the authority of Great Britain.
At Sorel he found De Bourlemaque posted with four thousand men,
and judged it prudent to await the arrival of an expected reinforce-
ment from Louisburg. This coming up he pursued his way. On
the 7th September his troops were disembarked, and posted to the
north-east of the town. On the following day, Colonel Haviland,
who had penetrated into Canada by Lake Champlain and the Riche-
lieu, also arrived at Montreal with a force of over three thousand
men ; and thus an army of nearly sixteen thousand men were as-
sembled under the walls of what might be deemed a defenceless
town. On the same day the Marquis De Vaudreuil signed the
capitulation,* which severed Canada from France for ever. This

* Extracts from Articles 0/ Capitulation. — 27. The free exercise of the Catholic,
Apostolic, and Roman Religion, shall subsist entire, in such manner that all
the states and the people of the towns and countries, places and distant posts,
shall continue to assemble in the churches, and to frequent the sacraments as
heretofore, without being molested in any manner, directly or indirectly. These
people shall be obliged, by the English Government, to pay their Priests the
tithes, and all the taxes they were used to pay under the Government of his Most
Gracious Majesty. — " Granted, as to the free exercise of their religion ; the obli-
gation of paying the tithes to the Priests will depend on the King's ple"-nre."

28. The Chapter, Priests, Curates, and Missionaries shall continue, with an
entire liberty, their exercise and functions of cures, in the parishes of the towns
and country. — " Granted."

29. The <jrand Vicars, named by the Chapter to administer to the diocese
_ during the vacancy of the episcopal see, shall have the liberty to dwell in the

towns and country parishes, as they shall think proper ; they shall at all times be
free to visit the different parishes of the diocese with the ordinary ceremonies,
and exercise all the jurisdiction they exercised under the French dominion. They
shall enjoy the same rights in case of the death of the future Bishop, of which
mention will be made in the following article. — " Granted, except what regards
the following article."

30. If by the treaty of peace, Canada should remain a British Colony, the French

The History of Canada.

185

capitulation included the vast country extending from the fishing
stations in the Gulf of St Lawrence to Michigan and Illinois, The
regular troops, amounting to four thousand, were to be permitted to
march out from their several posts with all the honours of war, and
afterwards conveyed to France. The militia, numbering over sixteen
thousand, were allowed to return unmolested to their homes. To
the inhabitants the free exercise of their religion was guaranteed,
as well as undisturbed possession of their properties and slaves,
and the same commercial privileges which other British colonists
enjoyed.

On the 13th, Major Rogers was detached, with two hundred
rangers and a few artillerymen, to take possession of the French
posts on the lakes. At Kingston an Indian hunting party brought
him wild fowl and venison. From thence he ascended to Niagara.
The lateness of the season terminated his journey at Detroit, which
was promptly surrendered by the French commandant. At the head
of Lake Erie, Rogers encountered the great Ottawa chief, Pontiac,
who had united the surrounding tribes in a confederacy, held
supreme sway over them, and subsequently caused much trouble to
the British.

Shortly after the capitulation of Montreal, General Amherst estab-

King shall continue to name the Bishop of the Colony, who shall always be of
the Roman Communion, and under whose authority the people shall exercise the
Roman Religion. — " Refused."

31. The Bishop shall, in case of need, establish new parishes, and provide for
the rebuilding of his cathredal and his episcopal palace ; and, in the meantime,
he shall have the liberty to dwell in the towns or parishes, as he shall judge proper.
He shall be at liberty to visit his diocese with the ordinary ceremonies, and exer-
cise all the jurisdiction which his predecessor exercised under the French dominion,
save that an oath of fidelity, or a promise to do nothing contrary to his Britannic
Majesty's service, may be requii-ed of him. — " This article is comprised under the
foregoing."

32. The communities of nuns shall be preserved in their constitutions and
privileges ; they shall continue to observe their rules ; they shall be exempted
from lodging any military ; and it shall be forbid to molest them in their reli-
gious exercises, or to enter their monasteries ; safeguards shall even be given them,
if they desire them. — •' Granted."

46. The inhabitants and merchants shall enjoy all the privileges of trade,
under the same favours and conditions granted to the subjects of his Britannic
Majesty, as well in the countries above, as the interior of the Colony. — " Granted."

47. The Negroes and Panis of both sexes shall remain in their quality of slaves,
in the possession of the French and Canadians to whom they belong ; they shall
be at liberty to keep them in their service in the Colony or to sell them ; and
they may also continue to bring them up in the Roman Religion. — "Granted,
except those who have been made prisoners."

1 86

The History of Canada,

lished a military government for the preservation of public tranquil-
lity, and the administration of justice. He divided the Colony into
three districts : the first was that of Quebec, over which Murray was
placed ; the second, Three Rivers, at the head of which was Colonel
Burton ; the third, Montreal, was intrusted to Brigadier Gage.
Within these districts were established several courts of justice, com-
posed of Canadian militia officers, who decided cases brought be-
fore them in a summary manner, with right of appeal, however, to
the Commandant. The British ministry approved of this procedure,
and decided that the military authority sliould remain in force until
the restoration of peace, when, in the event of Canada being relin-
quished by France, a proper form of government would be estab-
lished.*

At length this country, after years of warfare and bloodshed, was
about to enjoy the blessings of peace. Freed from the terrors of
Indian massacre on one hand, and the fears of British invasion on
the other, the inhabitants once more cultivated their fields in quiet,
and enjoyed their increase without fear of the extortions and oppres-
sions of a Bigot, a Cadet, or the host of inferior officials who had so
recently enriched themseives at their expense. Many of the upper
classes, it is true, disgusted at the prospect of British rule, returned
to France. A proud nobility, however, was little suited to Canada,
and the departure of persons whose idle habits, imperious manners,
and poverty of resources made them of little value to the community,
was a cause of no regret, but rather of congratulation.t The bulk of
the people had soon reason to bless the events which placed them
under the dominion of Great Britain. " To the impenetrably mys-
terious transactions of a cruel inquisition," said the French author,
Abbe Raynal, " succeeded a cool, rational, and public trial : and a
tribunal dreadful, and accustomed to shed blood, was replaced by
humane judges, more disposed to acknowledge innocence than to
suppose criminality. The conquered people have been still more
delighted, by finding the liberty of their persons secured for ever by
the famous law of Habeas Corpus. As they had too long been vic-
■mius of the arbitrary wills of those who governed them, they have
i.ksscd the beneficent hand that drew them from a state of slaver}',
.' pur them under the protection of just laws." %

" ''nitli's Hist. Can., vol. i. p. 375.

, :; '.ynul, /ol. ii. p. 132.

X Ibid., vol. ii. p. 133. In 1752 a soldier was subjected to the punishment of the
rack at Three Rivers, in order to make liim confess his accomplices in an attempt
to burn the town. The punishment of the rack was frequently applied to criminals,

The History of Canada.

187

Great Britain had begun the memorable war in which she was now
engaged, to establish her own interpretation of the boundary of
Nova Scotia, and her claims to the valley of the Ohio. She had
succeeded to her heart's content ; had won Canada and Guadaloupe
in addition, and now desired peace, " The desire of my heart," said
George II. to Parliament, shortly before his death, " is to see a stop
put to the effusion of blood." Pitt was also desirous to terminate a
contest which had already given him all he sought for : and the pub-
lic began to discuss which of their conquests should be retained, and
which surrendered. The majority of the British nation were in favour
of keeping Canada, yet many reflecting men doubted the wisdom of
this course. William Burke, the relative and friend of the great Irish-
man of that name, in a pamphlet at this time, found arguments for
retaining Guadaloupe, in the facilities it presented for profitable in-
vestment, the richness of its soil, the number of its slaves, and the
absence of all competition with England. " If the people of our
colonies," he added, to alarm the public mind, " found no check from
Canada, they will increase infinitely from all causes. What the con-
sequence will be to have a hardy, numerous, and independent people,
possessed of a strong country, communicating little or not at all with
England, I leave to your own reflections. A neighbour that keeps
us in some awe, is not always the worst of neighbours. There should
be a balance of power in America."

Even from Guadaloupe itself came a warning voice. "A country
of such vast resources," it said, "and so distant as North America,
could never remain long subject to Britain. The acquisition of
Canada would strengthen America to revolt. The islands from
their weakness can never revolt ; but if we acquire all Canada we
shall soon find North America itself too powerful and too populous
to be governed by us at a distance." " If Canada were annexed,"
objected British traders, " the Americans will be at leisure to manu-

and in one instance a female for having hidden the birth of an illegitimate child
was tortured by it. The rack was actually in use a very short period before the
conquest. — Christie^ s Canada, vol. i. p. Ii.

During the time that Canada was a Colony of France, a person suspected with,
or without, foundation, was seized, thrown into prison, and interrogated without
knowing the charge against him, and without being confronted with his accuser ;
and was deprived of the assistance of relations, friends, or counsel. He was sworn
to tell the truth, or rather to accuse himself, and was never confronted with the
person who had accused hi;-a, except at the moment before judgment was pro-
nounced, or when the torture was applied, or at his execution ; and judgment in
capital cases was invariably followed by confiscation of property. — SmitlCs Hist.
Can., vol. ii. p. 70.

V-ii'

i88

The History of Canada.

facture for themselves, and throw off their dependence on the mother
country."

Such were the momentous questions which agitated the minds of
the reflecting portion of the British public on the approacli of peace.
Franklin, then in England, strongly advocated the retention of Canada,
on the grounds that it would promote a perpetual peace in North
America, that the facilities for profitable agricultural labour would
prevent the colonists from engaging in manufactures, and that the
separate interests of the different governments would always hinder a
union against the mother country. Pitt leaned to the same opinions.
He delighted, with a truly lijjeral and generous mind, to foster Brit-
ish liberty in America, and made it his glory to extend the bound-
aries throughout which it was to be enjoyed. He desired to retain
both Guadaloupe and Canadc^; but, when overruled in the cabinet,
held fast to this country. And thus, unwittingly, did this great states-
man lay the foundation for the speedy independence of the United
States.

On the 25th of October 1760, George H. died suddenly of
apoplexy, after a long reign of over thirty-three years, and his
grandson, then but twenty-two years of age, ascended the British
throne. Although so young, George IH. was determined to rule
as a king. He was unfriendly to Pitt, whose influence dimmed
even monarchy, and the latter was soon made to feel that he had
forced himself into the highest place in the ministry over the
heads of an envious and unwilling aristocracy, and that his in-
fluence with the crown was on the wane. The minister was un-
willing to desert the King of Prussia in his extremity.
But George HI., caring little about Hanover and the
German policy of his predecessor, displayed small consideration
for Frederick, and desired to negotiate separately with France.
Other circumstances also conspired to weaken the influence of
the premier; and on the 5th of October, William Pitt, the greatest
minister of the age ; the profound orator — the rival of Demos-
thenes ; the man who without title or fortune had rescued Great
Britain from an abyss of weakness and disgrace \ who had con-
quered Guadaloupe, Canada, and the Great West ; who had pre-
served Prussia from annihilation, and sustained continental Protest-
antism ; who had humbled France, gained the supreme dominion

1761.

of the seas, won an empire,

greater

than that of the Mogul in

Hindostan, and had vanquished faction at home ; this man stood
in the presence of his young and inexperienced sovereign to resign
his power. A few weeks before, France and Spain had concluded

The History of Canada.

189

a convention, by which Spain bound itself to declare war against
England unless peace should be established, contrary to all ex-
pectation, before the ist of May 1762. Pitt, warned of this treaty,
would fain have crushed the whole race of the Bourbons, but a
majority of the Privy Council had decided against his purpose, and
thus compelled his resignation. Pious, and sincerely desirous to
stop the effusion of blood, George III. felt that the minister alone
stood in the way of the peace he desired, and received the seals
without requesting that Pitt should resume his office. Yet the King
was not ungrateful, and desired to bestc'.v some mark of favour on
the retiring minister. He was offered the government of Canada,
with a salary of .;;^Sooo per annum, but this was declined. His
wife was made a peeress, with a grant of ;!{^3ooo to be paid annually
during the lives of herself, her husband, and her eldest son. So
Pitt retired from office, having confirmed France and Spain in
implacable hostility to Great Britain, and destroyed the balance
of the European colonial system, by the naval preponderance he
had given to his country, and the conquest of Canada and Guada-
loupe.

But Pitt was the minister of the nation, and the public were
indignant at his retirement from the Government. This event was
attributed to the secret influence of the Earl of Bute, who was
grossly insulted on Lord Mayor's Day in London. At the same
time the King and Queen were received with coldness and silence,
when proceeding to dine in the city, while Pitt was welcomed with
the loudest acclamations. Yet a still greater triumph awaited him.
The force of circumstances soon compelled his successors to adopt
his policy, and war was declared against Spain.

All Europe was now arrayed against Great Britain, with the ex-
ception of Prussia and Portugal. The latter country was invaded
by the armies of the Spaniards. With the aid of English auxil-
iaries these were defeated intwo decisive engagements, and
driven back. But it was in her colonies and commerce '
that Spain suffered most severely. Havannah, with plunder to the
amount of three millions sterling, was taken by the Earl of Albemarle
and Admiral Pococke : Draper and Cornwallis captured the city of
Manilla : and while the cannon of the Horse Guards announced the
birth of a Princ i of Wales, waggons conveyed two millions of treasure
to the Tower, a prize to the captors of two Spanish vessels. While
the arms of Britain thus triumphed in various parts of the world, the
King of Prussia, after a series of brilliant exploits, was brought to
the brink of utter ruin by the junction of the Russians with his in-

190

The History of Canada.

veterate enemies. Fortunately the death of the Empress Elizabeth
released him from this new danger, and Frederick soon retrieved his
disasters.

The world had now enough of war, and the various Governments
of Europe were anxious for peace. France, deprived of her colonies,
found her commerce on the brink of ruin. Spain had sustained the
most severe reverses, and the Austrians and Prussians were wearied
of costly campaigns which produced no territorial additions. The
terms proposed to France were severe, but she yielded to neces-
sity. " What else can we do," said the French minister, Choisel ;
" the English are drunk with success, and we are not in a con-
dition to abase their pride." Accordingly, on the 3d of No-
vember, the preliminaries of peace were signed by France and
Spain, on one hand, and by Great Britain and Portugal, on the
other.

By this peace Britain, besides islands in the West Indies, gained
the Floridas, Louisiana to the Mississippi, all Canada, Cape Breton,
and the other islands in the Gulf of St Lawrence, and Senegal ; while
in Asia the victories of Clive and Coote by land, ai)d of Watson and
Pococke by sea, had given her the ascendancy in the East Indies,
and suddenly opened to her the promise of untold treasures and
endless territorial acquisitions.

" Never," said George III., " did England, nor I believe any other
power in Europe, sign such a peace before." Yet Pitt opposed the
treaty, on the ground that it did not give his country the advantages
it was entitled to by conquest. The nation at large sustained him in
this position ; yet in Parliament he was out-voted by a con-
siderable majority. On the loth day of February 1763,
the treaty was finally ratified j and peace was also restored, at the
same time, between Austria and Prussia. The map of Europe re-
mained exactly as before the war ; but in Asia, and on this continent,
everything was changed. In America the Anglo-Saxon element was
immeasurably in the ascendant.

1763.

CHAPTER X.

THE GOVERNMENT OF GENERAL MURRAY.

FOR the long period of one hundred and fifty-seven years — from
the first settlement of New France by Champlain, to its sur-
render to Great Britain by the Marquis De Vaudreuil at Montreal —
have we traced the fortunes of the French in this country as faith-
fully as possible. We are now about to enter on the annals of a new
era, in which Canada is presented under a totally different aspect :
that of a British Colony, Instead of painting the vicissitudes of a
military settlement, governed by arbitrary law-givers, a sanguinary
penal code, and oppressed by a proud and poor nobility,* we have
now to record the progress of a peaceful community, in the enjoy-
ment of an immeasurably larger liberty.

From 1760 to 1763 Canada scarcely presents a single event of note
to record. The peasantry had gladly laid aside the musket and
sword to devote themselves to agricultural employments, and were
soon in the enjoyment of abundance of food. These people had
been taught to look for every outrage at the hands of the British,
and were most agreeably surprised at the humane manner in which
they were treated. Their gratitude was also awakened by the gen-
erous way in which large sums of "money had been subscribed by
British officers and merchants, to alleviate their sufferings during the
famine. A disastrous war, the departure of French troops, and the
return of many persons to France, had reduced the population of
Canada to seventy thousand souls, and immediately after the con-
quest it was supposed a large portion of even these would quit the

• They are extremely vain, and have an utter contempt for the trading part of
the Colony. They were usually provided for in the Colony troops, consisting of
thirty companies. They are in general poor, except such as have command of
distant posts, when they usually made a fortune in three or four years, . . ,
They were great tyrants to their vassals, who seldom met with redress, let their
grievances be ever so just, — Governor Murray's Report on the State of Canada^
Quebec, 5th June 1 762.

192

The History of Canada.

country. But the daily instances of lenity they now experienced,
the cheap and impartial justice administered to them by the niihtary
tribunals, and the indulgence shown to their religion, soon reconciled
them to their new condition, and their only dread was lest they might
be torn from their country like the Acadians.*

No sooner had peace been established, than the attention of the
British ministry was turned to the formation of governments in the
countries conquered during the war, and which had been ceded at its
termination. In the month of October 1763, a proclamation was pub-
lished under the Great Seal for erecting four new civil governments in
America ; those of Quebec, East Florida, West Florida, and Granada.
In this proclamation, the King exhorted his subjects to avail themselves
of the advantages which must accrue from his recent acquisitions to
commerce, manufactures, and navigation. It was also stated, that as
soon as the circumstances of these colonies would permit, general
assemblies of the people would be convened in the same manner as
in the American provinces ; in the meantime the laws of England
were to be in force. Thus, all the laws, customs, and judicial forms
of a populous and ancient colony were in one hour overturned, and
English laws, even the penal statutes against Roman Catholics, in-
troduced in their stead. It was a most rash and unwise measure,
and history furnishes no instance of greater injustice to a conquered
people, nor less true wisdom on the part of conquerors. The dis-
orders it introduced produced a reaction, which has perpetuated the
French civil law in Lower Canada to the present day ; whereas had
changes been at first gradually and wisely introduced, as the altered
condition of the people permitted, the laws of England ere now
would have been the rule of decision in that province. Shortly after
the publication of this proclamation General Murray was appointed
to the Governorship of Canada, or the Province of Quebec, as it was
now styled, and proceeded, agreeably to his instructions, to nominate
a council of eight r.iembers to aid him in the administration of
government.

While the writings of Voltaire and Rousseau penetrated every
corner of France, and planted the germs of revolution throughout
Europe, — while newspapers and books were scattered broadcast
over Great Britain and America, Canada still remained without a
printing-press. This medium of intelligence had been jealously ex-
cluded by the French governors as unsuited to their despotic sway ;
but scarcely had the country been finally ceded to Britain, than
William Brown and Thomas Gilmore, of Philadelphia, determined

» Murray's Report.

The History of Canada.

I9i

every
hout
(least
out a
y ex-
way;
than
iiined

to publish a journal at Quebec. There was then no typerounder
ill America ; so (lilmore went to England to purchase the necessary
material ; and on the 21st of June, the firs*: number of the
Quebec Gazette made its appearance ; and '^Janaila had its ' ''"
newspaper, a new and potent element of civihsation. The Quebec
Gazette is still in existence, although it began with only one hundred
and fifty subscribers ; and it is to be hoped will long continue to en-
lighten the community.

On the 17th of September a proclamation, based on the presumed
introduction of English laws into the Colony, was issued by the
(lovcrnor in council, establishing a Court of King's Bench for the trial
of all criminal and civil causes agreeable to the laws of England and
the ordinances of the province. A Court of Common Pleas was also
instituted, in which the Erench laws were to be alone allowed in all
cases of action arising before its construction. The introduction of
the English civil law occasioned much dissatisfaction among the pub-
lic, and accordingly, in the month of November, the Governor in
council enacted " that in actions relative to the tenure of land and
the rights of inheritance, the Erench laws and usages should be ob-
served as the rule of decision." A Court of Chancery was erected
soon after, at the head of which presided the Governor as chancellor,
with two masters, two examiners, and one register.

The English-speaking inhabitants of the Colony were few in num-
ber, and the sudden introduction of the English language, as well as
English laws, into the courts of justice, was found to be productive
of the greatest disorder. Trial by jury was of little value to a people
who did not understand a word of the pleadings unless through an
interpreter, and it was soon evident that some change must be made
in this respect. All public offices, moreover, were conferred on
British born subjects, of which there were scarcely four hundred in the
country, exclusive of the military. Many of these came out expressly
from England, and as they neither knew the language nor customs
of the people they were sent to control, much disgust and dissatisfac-
tion were the result. Nor were officials always selected with the
sole view to the public good. The ignorant, the covetous, and the
bigoted were appointed to offices which required knowledge, in-
tegrity, and abilities. Several of the principal situations were given
away by patent to men of interest in England, who let them out to
the highest bidders. No salaries were attached to these patent
places, the value of which accordingly depended upon the fees,
which the Governor was directed to establish on the same scale as
in the richest colony. Much extortion and oppression were the

194

The History of Canada.

1765.

1766.

necessary consequences of this order of things, and which Governor
Murray found it most difficult to prevent. His endeavours to pro-
tect the people made him many enemies among the English of the
Colony, who were too apt to exhibit a contempt of the old inhabit-
ants, not even excepting the seigniors. The Governor, however,
continued to alleviate their condition to the best of his power, and
won their sincere gratitude.*

Complaints were soon sent to England relative to the establishment
of the courts, the harsh conduct of law-officers, and the enor-
mous fees exacted. These were laid, by the Board of
Trade, before the English Attorney and Solicitor Generals, who made
an elaborate report ther on. They gave it as their opinion,
that the introduction ol' the English language into the courts
of Canada was inadvisable, and that it was unwise and arbitrary at
once to abolish all the French usages and customs, especially those
relating to the titles of land, the law of descent, of alienation and
settlement. They likewise supported the view that Canadian advo-
cates, attorneys, and proctors should be permitted to practice in the
courts, t

During the summer several Canadians who had gone to France
returned. Bishop De Pont Briant had died in 1760, and a new
bishop also came out. On his arrival his friends received him with
all the ceremony and respect which they had ever paid to bishops.
These courtesies, however, he refused on the ground of altered
circumstances. In pursuance of this humble determination he wore
only a common black gown like the other priests for some time.
But the liberal manner in which he found himself treated by the
authorities, soon assured him he might adopt a higher tone with safety,
and he accordingly assumed all the insignia of episcopal dignity. %
In the following year, General Murray proceeded to England,
leaving Brigadier Carleton to act in his J^bsence. A more
'■ lucrative post prevented him from returning, and the
Brigadier was accordingly appointed Governor of Canada on the 12th
of April. His humanity had made him popular with the
' ■ public, who already regarded him as a protector, and looked
forward to his adminstration with confidence. Nor were they disap-
pointed. Sir Guy Carleton ever proved himself their friend.

* In a letter to Shelbume, 30th August 1766, General Murray, alluding to the
English officials, declared them to be the most immoral collection of men he ever
knew.

t Yorke and De Grey to the Lords of Trade, 14th April 1766,

X Smith's Hist. Can., vol. ii. pp. 38, 39.

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195

THE GOVERNMENT OF SIR GUY CARLETON.

Montreal, the population of which had now increased to seven
thousand souls, suffered severely this year by a most destractive fire,
which broke out on the evening of the i8th April, and consumed
nearly one hundred houses. The greatest sympathy was displayed
towards the sufferers. In England a considerable sum was raised for
their relief, but many were, nevertheless, reduced to poverty. Its
citizens suffered also from the arbitrary conduct and petty extortions
of the English justices of the peace, whose irregularities, however,
were speedily restrained by the action of the Goverhor. Hitherto,
these justices had been allowed a jurisdiction in civil cases to the
amount of five pounds currency. This was now taken away, and
they w'ire only permitted to decide in criminal matters.* Beyond
these events there is not a fact of moment to record at this period.
Although America was already heaving in the throes of revolution,
the people of Canada remained peaceable, and tolerably contented ;
while trade was reviving, and the population on the increase.

Governor Carleton having obtained the royal permission to proceed
to England on leave of absence, Mr Cramahe, as the oldest
member of the Executive Council, assumed direction of the
government. The Governor had always been desirous that the
French civil laws, or " Coutume de Paris^^ should be introduced
again into the Colony, and already had them compiled by several
Canadian advocates of acknowledged ability. This compilation he
took with him on his departure for England, and where, soon after
his arrival, it was revised by the principal law officers of the Crown,
and became the chief authority at once in the Canadian courts,t as
regarded questions affecting land and inheritance. In cases of per-
sonal contract, and debts of a commercial character, the English laws
remained the practical authorities. This arrangement was cheerfully
acquiesced in by the people generally : and although there was no
fixed standard of decision, and judgment was dealt out sometimes
agreeable to French legal authorities, and at other times according
to English law, still, as it was evident that justice was always intended,
the public were tolerably satisfied with matters as they stood, until
more permanent and better defined arrangements could be effected.
The criminal law of England, including uial by jury and the Habeas

* Debates on the Quebec Bill, p. 128. In one case the costs on suing for lis.
amounted to £\.
t Smith's Hist. Can., vol. ii. p. 60.

196

The History of Canada.

Corpus, had been fully introduced into Canada,* and appeared to
give general satisfaction among the bulk of the people, with the
exception that Canadian jurors grumbled a good deal about not
being paid for their loss of time.t The old French gentry, however,
did not like by any means that labourers and mechanics should sit
in judgment upon gentlemen, and wondered that the British people
should be so fond of trial by jury.;}:

The long peace had enabled the Canadian people to recover
fully from the effects of war. Trade had now become
''^' more prosperous than ever. Emigrants returned from
France ; numbers of the Acadians, scattered through the neigh-
bouring colonies, gladly proceeded to this country; and in the
space intervening between 1760 and 1773 it was estimated that
the population had increased a fourth. In May 1774, General
Carleton, in his evidence under oath before a committee of the
House of Commons, estimated the population of Canada at one
hundred thousand Roman Catholics and four hundred Protestants.
The latter were chiefly merchants, officers, and disbanded spldiers,
who resided principally at Quebec and Mont'-eal : in one hundred
and ten rural parishes there were only nineteen Protestants.§ With
the exception of the change in the laws, that there was less pecu-
lation on the part of public officials, and that the country was
more prosperous, matters remained much in the same state as
they were before the conquest. A Governor and Council, although
with limited oowers, still ruled the Colony, the common people
were as uneducated and as simple as ever,|| and the clergy received

* At the present day the old French Code is the basis of civil law in Lower
Canada, but the British system of criminal law has been fully in force there
since 1770.

t Under recent Canadian statutes jurors are now paid.

X General Carleton to the House of Commons, May 1774. The seigniors
actually petitioned the British Parliament on this head in 1773, and against the
general introduction of English law. See Debates on the Quebec Bill.

§ The royal proclamation of the 7th October 1763, which provided for the
government of Canada, granted to the officers and soldiers engaged in the war
in this country, lands in the following proportions — viz., To a field-officer, five
thousand acres ; captain, three thousand ; subaltern, two thousand ; sergeants and
other non-commissioned officers, two hundred ; and prix-ates, fifty acres. Very few,
however, claimed these grants, and soldiers preferred to keep public-houses, than
engage in agriculture. Strangers to Canadian customs and the language of tlie
people, British settlers disliked the colony, and did very poorly. Many left it
altogether in disgust.

II Volney, a distinguished French traveller, who visited Canada towards the
close of the last century, does not draw a very flattering picture of the habitants'

The History of Canada.

197

their parochial clues and tithes as punctually as during Trench
dominion. Still, the peasantry began to feel a stray glimmering of
independence, and to resist such exactions of the seigniors as they
considered were legally unjust.

As the country gradually became more and more prosperous,
and thinking people had leisure to look round them and reflect, a
good deal of anxiety began to prevail as to the future government
of the Colony, and whether the French or English laws would be
permanently established. As might naturally be expected, the
Eritish settlers were unanimous in favour of English law, and a
government based on popular representation. The inhabitants
of French origin, on the other hand, generally desired the estab-
lishment of their old civil law, but were divided with regard to a
House of Assembly. Some supposed that a representative con-
stitution would give the settlers of English origin, who were much
better acquainted with this mode of government than themselves,
a great preponderance in public affairs. Others leaned to a gover-
nor and council, as the mode of government they best understood ;
while a few of the better informed desired to be ruled by their own
representatives, like the other British colonies. Mr Lotbiniere,
described by one of the principal law officers'^ of Canada as a
very sensible and reflecting man, and a large Canadian landed
proprietor, gave it as his opinion before a committee of the
House of Commons on the Quebec Bill, in June 1774, that if
Roman Catholics were allowed to sit in a House of Assembly
there would be no objections made to its establishment. He also
stated, that if a Legislative Council were established, and composed
in part of the Canadian noblesse, it would have the best efFects.t

Such was the unsettled condition of this country, when, in the
month of October 1773, meetings were held at Quebec to petition

intelligence. After stating their easy and indolent habits, he observes : " Having
several times questioned the frontier Canadians respecting the distances of times
and places, I have found that in general they had no clear and precise ideas :
that they received sensations without reflecting on them ; in short, that they
knew not how to make any calculations that were ever so little complicated.
They would say to me, from this way to that is one or two pipes of tobacco ; you
can or you cannot reach it between sunrise or sunset, or the like." Education in
Canada before the conquest was entirely restricted to the upper classes and
clerical orders. Common schools were unknown, and few of the peasantry could
either read or write,

* Mr Maseres, Attorney-General, author of " The Canadian Freeholder," and
who was strongly opposed to the continuation of the French civil law in Canada.

t Debates on the Quebec Bill, pp. 160, 161.

198

The History of Canada.

I
1

the Deputy-Governor, General Carleton being still absent from the
province, to summon a House of Assembly in agreement with the
royal proclamation of 1763. The principal Canadians were invited
to attend these meetings and take part in the proceedings, but on
their declining to do so, the British inhabitants determined to pro-
ceed alone in the matter, and after some delays presented their
petition to the Deputy-Governor, on the 3d of December. He
replied to it a week after by stating *' that the matter was of too
great importance for the Council of the Province to decide upon,
and the more so, as the government appeared likely soon to be regu-
lated by Act of Parliament." A fresh draft of the petition was soon
after presented to the Secretary for the Colonies, the Earl
' ' of Dartmouth, but beyond hints that the Province was not
yet ripe for a General Assembly, no answer was returned.

In Great Britain the reflecting portion of the community were
gradually becoming more aware of the fact, that unless Parliament
receded from its assumed right to tax the American colonies, their
independence was very near. The hostile position assumed by their
Houses of Assembly was ill-calculated to make the British legislature
regard popular colonial representation very favourably, and it was
now determined to give Canada a different form of government.
On, the 2d of May a bill, usually known as the Quebec Act, was
brought into the House of Lords by the Earl of Dartmouth, which
passed without opposition, and was sent down to the Commons for
their concurrence.* This bill repealed all the provisions of the
royal proclamation of 1763, annulled all the acts of the Governor
and Council relative to the civil government and administration of
justice, revoked the commissions of judges and other existing officers,
and established new boundaries for «.hc province, which was now
declared to embrace all ancient Canada, Labrador, and the countries
west to the Ohio and Mississippi. The Quebec Act released the
Roman Catholic religion in Canada from all penal restrictions, re-
newed their dues and tithes to its regular clergy, but as regarded
members of their own church only, (Protestants being freed from
their payment,) and confirmed all classes, with the exception of the
religious orders and communicies,t in the full possession of their

• The King, on opening Parliament, recommended the question of a government
for Canada to its consideration. There can be Httle doubt that this bill owed its
origin principally to himself.

t With the exception of the Jesuits, whose order was suppressed by the Pope,
none of the religious orders or communities of Canada have ever been disturbed
in the possession of their property. Their right to this property was clearly left
an open question by the Quebec Act.

The History of Canada.

199

properties. The French laws were declared to be the rules for de-
cision relative to property and civil rights, while the English criminal
law was established in perpetuity. Both the civil and criminal codes,
however, were liable to be altered or modified by the ordinances of
the Governor and a Legislative Council. This Council was to be ap-
pointed by the Crown, and to consist of not more than twenty-three,
nor less than seventeen members. Its power was limited to levying
local or municipal taxes, and to making arrangements for the admin-
istration of the internal affairs of the province ; the British Parlia-
ment jealously reserving to itself the right of external taxation, or
levying duties on articles imported or exported. Every ordinance
passed by this Council was to be transmitted within six months, at
furthest, after enactment, for the approbation of the King, and if
disallowed, to be null and void on his pleasure becoming known in
Quebec.

Such were the principal provisions of the Quebec Act, under which
Canada was governed for a period of seventeen years. Taking into
consideration the want of education among the great bulk of the
Canadian people, as well as their ignorance of popular institutions,
and of the English laws and language, there can be no doubt that
this bill gave them the mode of government best suited to their con-
dition, and was a real boon so far as they were concerned. But to
the inhabitants of British origin, who had settled in Canada or the
valley of the Ohio,* and were subjected thereby to French laws, and
deprived of the right of a jury in civil causes, of the Habeas Corpus,
and of a constitutional government, the measure was oppressive in
the extreme, and at v^iance with all their ideas and experience of
popular liberty. The law was based on the supposition that the
French would remain the dominant race in Canada, as well as on a
desire to restrain the progress westward of the Anglo-American popu-
lation. The American revolution, and the rapid increase of a British-
Canadian population, ultimately placed it in error in both respects,
and compelled its repeal. It met with strenuous opposition in the
House of Commons, chiefly on the grounds of its being opposed to
the British constitution, and granting too extensive territorial limits
to Canada. " You have given up to Canada," said Thomas Town-
shend, " almost all the country which was the subject of dispute, and
for which we went to war ; extending, in the words of the bill, south-
ward to the Ohio, westward to the Mississippi, and northward to the
territory granted to the Hudson's Bay Company."

* It was estimated that over twenty thousand people had already settled in the
valley of the Ohio. They were chiefly from Pennsylvania and Virginia.

200

The History of Canada,

The bill, however, passed in the Commons by a majority of thirty-
six, and was returned, on the i8th of June, to the House of Lords,
whither Pitt, now Earl of Chatham, went to oppose it, although very
ill at the time. " It will involve this country," said he, " in a thousand
difficulties, and is subversive of that liberty which ought to be the
groundwork of every constitution." And he prophesied " that it
would shake iS\'^ affections and confidence of his Majesty's sub-
jects in '• -.j^u, . cind Ireland, and lose him the hearts of all the
x\mericans." Lut the bill passed, nevertheless, — only six siding
with Pitt, while twenty-six Peers voted against him.

The city of London, always in front of the battle for constitutional
liberty, became sneed'ly alarmed ; and, on the 22d of June, the Lord
Mayor, Aldev • Common Council petitioned the King not to

give his sanct' ju t'- "-b '^'il. He gave them an evasive answer, and
immediately after ; ruc^-.v^id to the House of Lords, and signified his
assent thereto ; observing '' tl.xt it was founded on the clearest prin-
ciples of ustice ..: " uu^anit.; ' wouIjj he doubted not, have the
best effect m quiotiug I it mu-ifi ■ , . . l-j loting the happiness of his
Canadian subjects."

As soon as the Act reached Quebec, the English settlers met in
the greatest alarm, and promptly petitioned the King, as well as both
Houses of Parliament, for its repeal or amendment. They complained
that it deprived them of the franchise they had inherited from their
ancestors, that they had lost the protection of English laws, the
Habeas Corpus, and the trial by jury in civil causes, which was dis-
graceful to them as Britons, and ruinous to their properties.

In the American colonies the passing of this Act awoke a storm of
indignation. All they had struggled for beyond the Alleghanies,
almost, was taken from them at one swoop. Their Congress, on the
24th of October, endeavoured by a forcible address to awaken the
people of Canada to a just sense of what it deemed their true in-
terests. They were now invited to elect delegates to represent their
province in the " Continental Congress," to be held in Philadelphia
on May loth of the following year.* But this document produced
no effect among the simple Canadians. Not one in a thousand ever
saw it, and even if they had, cared little for the privileges of English
freemen, and looked upon their own laws and customs as by far the
most desirable. These had now been secured to them, and they
were fully satisfied.

* This Congress enumerated the Quebec Act among its grievances. Its provi-
sions in favour of Roman Catholics gave great offence to the Protestant clergy of
the American colonies, and led the majority of them to support the Revolution.

The History of Canada.

20I

Sir Guy Carleton returned from England in the latter end of the
year, when a meeting of the new Council, into which several Roman
Catholic gentlemen had been admitted, was held, and such measures
taken under the Quebec Act as were deemed immediately necessary
for the public welfare. The Governor's return was gladly hailed by
the people, with whom his humane conduct and liberal sentiments
had rendered him deservedly popular. On all possible occasions he
had shown himself their friend, and had interfered in many instances
to protect them from the extortions and oppressions of the English
civil officers.

Meantime, the final struggle of America for independence was
rapidly approaching, owing to the arbitrary and vacillating conduct
of the British Parliament, and the firm determination of the colonies
to resist taxation without representation. Lord Chatham's bill for
composing all difficulties and disputes, was rejected ; and, as neither
Parliament would recede as a body from its assumption of the right
io tax the colonies, on the one hand, nor the latter, on the other,
give up the determination to preserve the privileges secured to
them by their charters, and their position as British freemen intact,
both parties now looked forward to a fearful contest. For a brief
space a calm, with presage of a terrible storm, settled darkly over
North America, and the crisis approached with the first days of
early spring. On the 19th of April the Americans began
the struggle for constitutional liberty by the battle of Lex- ' '^'
ington ; and, blood once shed, it was evident that the sword alone
could now decide the unnatural quarrel between the mother- country
and her offspring.

While the New England militia besieged General Gage, the British
commander, in Boston, a small force was promptly raised in Con-
necticut and elsewhere for the capture of Ticonderoga. Led by
Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allan, it crossed Lake Champlain on the
night of the 9th of May, and succeeded next morning in capturing
the fort, in which were only a few men, by surprise, without firing a
shot. Crown Point had only a garrison of a sergeant and twelve
men, and was immediately afterwards taken possession of. And thus
the Americans, at the first outset of the contest, acquired two strongly
fortified positions, and a large amount of military stores. The
speedy capture, also, of the only British sloop of war on Lake Cham-
plain, gave them complete command of its waters.

On receiving intelligence of these offensive operations. General
Carleton at once resolved to possess himself, if possible, of Ticon-
deroga and Crown Point, and regain the command of the lake. Con-

202

The History of Canada.

sidering that the French feudal law still prevailed in Canada, ar.d
that the seigniors, accordingly, as well as their tenants, owed military
service to the King, and would forfeit their lands by not rendering
it, he resolved to enroll the militia on these grounds. Many of
the seigniors took the same view as the Governor of this 'matter,
and showed great alacrity in assembling their tenants to explain
to them the situation of the province, the services expected from
them, and the absolute necessity of preparing for hostilities. But
the peasantry, who had not yet forgotten the hardships they had
suffered during the last war, and whose long absence from military
training had sunk them into inglorious and contented ease, stoutly
resisted the claims of their seigniors. They stated the latter had no
right to command their military services ; and, that when they had
paid them their quit-rent, and the other seigniorial dues, no further
claim on them could be established.

This determination of the habitants placed the Governor in an
awkward position. For the defence of the Colony and its numerous
frontier posts, he had only the 7th and 26th regiments, containing
together scarcely eight hundred effective men ; and he felt that un-
less aided by the Canadians he could only make a very ineffectual
resistance in case of attack. He accordingly endeavoured to call
out the militia of the province by proclamation, and declared martial
law to be in force, at the same time, in his government ; but even
these measures proved ineffectual. As a last resort the Governor
applied to Bishop De Briand for his aid and influence. The Bishop
promptly responded by a mandate to his clergy, to be read in their
churches, exhorting the people to take up arms in defence of their
country. Even this appeal failed. The British authorities had as
yet acquired no influence with the masses, who knew little of the
quarrel in progress, and wished to give themselves the least possible
trouble about it ; and while they had no leaning whatever towards
the Americans, they preferred to remain neutral as long as they
could. In short, they felt like a conquered people ; if their homes
were threatened with danger they would defend them, but they cared
little to take up arms in defence of their rulers.

The American Congress, however, believed the Canadian people
to be favourable to their cause, and resolved to anticipate the British
by striking a decided blow in the north. They accordingly despatched
a force of nearly two thousand men, under Schuyler and Montgomery,
to penetrate into Canada by the Richelieu. After taking the forts
along that river, they were next to possess themselves of Montreal ;
then descend to Quebec, and form a junction there with Colonel

The History of Canada.

203

and

Arnold, who was to proceed up the Kennebec with eleven hundred
men and surprise the capital of Canada if possible.

On the 5th of September the American army arrived at the Isle-
aux-Noix, whence Schuyler and Montgomery scattered a proclama-
tion among the Canadians, stating that they only came against the
British, and had no design whatever on the lives, the properties, or
the religion of the inhabitants. General Schuyler being unwell now
returned to Albany, and the chief command devolved on Mont-
gomery, who having received a reinforcement invested Fort St John
on the 17th, and sent some troops to attack the fort at Chambly,
while Ethan Allan was despatched with a reconnoitring party to-
wards Montreal. Allan proceeded to the St Lawrence, and being
informed that the town was weakly defended, and believing the
inhabitants were favourable to the Americans, he resolved to capture
it by surprise, although his force was under two hundred men.
General Carleton had already arrived at Montreal to make dispo-
sitions for the protection of the frontier. Learning, on the night of
the 24th, that a party of Americans had crossed the river, and were
marching on the town, he promptly drew together two hundred and
fifty of the local militia, chiefly English and Irish, and with thirty men
of the 26th regiment, in addition, prepared for its defence. Allan,
however, instead of at once proceeding to attack Montreal, took
possession of some houses and barns in the neighbourhood, where
he was surrounded next day, and compelled to surrender after a
loss of five killed and ten wounded. The British lost their com-
manding officer. Major Carsden, Alexander Paterson, a merchant
of Montreal, and two privates. Allan and his men were sent
prisoners to England, where they were confined in Pendennis
Castle.

While these occurrences were transpiring at Montreal, Mont-
gomery was vigorously pressing forward the siege of Fort St John,
which post was gallantly defended by Major Preston of the 26th
regiment. His conduct was not imitated by Major Stopford, of
the 7th, who commanded at Chambly, and who surrendered in a
cowardly manner on two hundred Americans appearing before the
works with two six-pounders. This was a fortunate event for Mont-
gomery, whose powder was nearly exhausted, and who now procured
a most seasonable supply from the captured fort. His fire was
again renewed, but was bravely replied to by the garrison, who
hoped that General Carleton would advance and raise the siege.
This the latter was earnestly desirous to do, and drew together all
the militia he could collect, and the few troops at his disposal, for

204

The Histo7'y of Canada.

that purpose, and puslied across the river towards Longueiul on one
of the last days of October. General Montgomery had foreseen tins
movement, and detached a force with two field-pieces to prevent
it. This force took post near the river and allowed the British to
approach within pistol-shot of the shore, when they opened such a
warm fire of musketry and cannon that General Carleton was com-
pelled to order a retreat on Montreal. Montgomery duly apprised
Major Preston of these occurrences, and the garrison being now
short of provisions and ammunition, and without any hope of succour,
surrendered on the 310C October and marched out with all the
honours of war.

With Fort St John and Chambly a large portion of the regular
troops in Canada was captured, and the Governor was in no con-
dition to resist the American army, the main body of which now
advanced upon Montreal, while a strong detachment proceeded to
Sorel to cut off the retreat of the British towards Quebec. General
Carleton with Brigadier Prescott and one hundred and twenty sol-
diers quitted Montreal, after destroying all the public stores pos-
sible, just as the American army was entering it. At Sorel, however,
their flight was effectually intercepted by an armed vessel and some
floating batteries, and Prescott, finding it impossible to force a
passage, was compelled to surrender. The night before General
Carleton had fortunately eluded the vigilance of the Americans, and
passed down the river in a boat with muffled oars. Montgomery
treated the people of Montreal with great consideration, and gained
their good-will by the affability of his manners, and the nobleness
and generosity of his disposition.

While the main body of the American invading force had been
completely successful thus far, Arnold sailed up the Kennebec and
proceeded through the vast forests lying between it and the St Law-
rence in the hope of surprising Quebec. The sufferings of his troops
from hunger and fatigue were of the most severe description. So
great were their necessities that they were obliged to eat dogs' flesh,
and even the leather of their cartouch boxes ; still, they pressed on
with unflagging zeal and wonderful endurance, and arrived at Point
Levi on the 9th of November. But their a^jproach was already
known at Quebec. Arnold had enclosed a letter for Schuyler to a
friend in that city, and imprudently intrusted its delivery to an In-
dian, who carried it to the Lieutenant-Governor. The latter imme-
diately began to make defensive preparations, and when the Ameri-
cans arrived on the opposite side of the river, they found all the
shipping and boats removed, and a surprise out of the question.

The History of Canada.

205

On the 1 2th, Colonel M'Lean, who had retreated from Sorel,
arrived at Quebec with a body of Fraser's Highlanders, who had
settled in the country,* were now re-embodied, and amounted to
one hundred and fifty men. In addition to these, there were four
hundred and eighty Canadian militia, five hundred British militia,
and some regular troops and seamen for the defence of the town.t
The Himter sloop of war gave the garrison the command of the
river, yet despite the vigilance exercised by her commander, Arnold
crossed over during the night of the 13th, landed at Wolfe's Cove,
and next morning appeared on the Plains of Abraham, where his
men gave three cheers, which were promptly responded to by the
besieged, who in addition complimented them with a few discharges
of grape-shot, which compelled them to retire. Finding he could
effect nothing against the city, Arnold retired up the river to Point-
aux-Trembles to await the arrival of Montgomery.

On the 19th, to the great joy of the garrison, General Carleton
arrived from Montreal, bringing down with him two armed schooners
which had been lying at Three Rivers. One of his first measures
was to strengthen the hands of the loyalists, by ordering those liable
to serve in the militia, and who refused to be enrolled, to quit the
city within four days. By this means several disaffected persons
were got rid of, and the garrison speedily raised to eighteen hundred
men, who had plenty of provisions for eight months.

On the ist of December Montgomery joined Arnold at Point-aux-
Trembles, when their united forces, amounting to about two thousand
men, proceeded to attack Quebec, in the neighbourhood of which
they arrived on the 4th, and soon after quartered their men in the
houses of the suburbs. Montgomery now sent a flag to summon the
besieged to surrender, but this was fired upon by order of General
Carleton, who refused to hold any intercourse with the American
officers. Highly indignant at this treatment, the besiegers proceeded
to construct their batteries, although the weather was intensely cold.
But their artillery was too light to make any impression on the fortifi-
cations, the fire from which cut their fascines to pieces and dis-
mounted their guns ; so Montgomery determined to carry the works
by escalade. He accordingly assembled his men on the 30th of
December, and made them an imprudent speech, in which he
avowed his resolution of attacking the city by storm. A deserter

* They settled at Murray Bay, about sixty miles below Quebec, orj the north
shore of the St Lawrence. Their descendants speak the French language only as
a rule, and are all Roman Catholics, still preserving, however, their Scotch names.

t Journal of an Officer of the garrison.

206

The History of Canada.

Ill

carried intelligence of his intention that very day to General Carleton,
who made the necessary preparations for defence. On the night of
the 31st the garrison pickets were on the alert. Nothing, however,
of importance occurred till next morning, when Captain Fraser, the
field-officer on duty, on going his rounds, perceived some suspicious
signals at St John's Gate, and immediately turned out the guard,
when a brisk fire was opened by a body of the enemy, concealed by
a snow-bank. This was a mere feint to draw off attention from the
true points of attack, at the southern and northern extremities of the
Lower Town. It had, however, the effect of putting the garrison
more completely on their guard, and thus was fatal to the plans of
the assailants.

Montgomery led a column of five hundred men towards the
southern side of the town, and halted to reconnoitre at a short
distance from the first battery, near the Pres de Ville, defended
chiefly by Canadian militia, with nine seamen to work the guns, the
whole under the command of Captain Barnsfair. The guard were
on the alert, and the sailors with lighted matches waited the order
to fire, while the strictest silence was preserved. Presently the
ofiicer, who had made the reconnaissance, returned and reported
everything still. The Americans now rushed forward to the attack
when Barnsfair gave the command to fire, and the head of the assail-
ing column went instantly down under the unexpected and fatal
discharge of guns and musketry. The survivors made a rapid
retreat, leaving thirteen of their dead behind to be shrouded in the
falling snow, among whom was the gallant Montgomery. Of a good
family in the north of Ireland, he had served under Wolfe with
credit, married an American lady, Miss Livingston, after the peace,
and had joined the cause of the United States with great en-
thusiasm.

At the other end of the Lower Town, Arnold at the head of six
hundred men had assaulted the first barrier with great impetuosity,
and met with little resistance. He was wounded in the first onset
and borne to the rear. But his place was ably supplied by Captain
Morgan, who forced the guard, and drove them back to a second
barrier two hundred yards nearer the centre of the town. Owing to
the prompt arrangements, however, of General Carleton, who soon
arrived on the ground, the Americans were speedily surrounded,
driven out of a strong building with the bayonet, and compelled to
surrender to the number of four hundred and twenty-six, including
twenty-eight officers.* In this action the garrison had ten men killed

* Journal of an Officer.

The II is to }y of Canada.

207

1776.

and thirteen wounded ; the American loss in killed and wounded
was about one hundred.

The besieging force was now reduced to a few hundred men, and

who were at a loss whether to retreat towards home or continue the

'"ge. As they were in expectation of soon receiving aid they at

.igth determined to remain in the neighbourhood, and
elected Arnold as their general, who contented himself with
a simple blockade of the besieged, at a considerable distance from
the works. Carleton would have now gladly proceeded to attack
him, but several of the Canadians outside the city were disaffected,
as well as many persons within the defences, and he considered, with
his motley force, his wisest course was to run no risk, and wait
patiently for the succour which the opening of navigation must bring
him.

During the month of February a small reinforcement from Massa-
chusetts, and some troops from Montreal, raised Arnold's force to
over one thousand men, and he now resumed the siege, but ' ould
make no impression on the works. His men had already cau-lit the
'Tiall-pox, and the country people becoming more and more unwilling
supply him with provisions, his difficulties increased rather than

uiinished. When the Americans first came into the country the
habitants were disposed to sell them what they required I a fair price,
and a few hundred of them even joined their army. Jiut they soon
provoked the hostility of the bulk of the people by a want of respect
for their clergy, by compelling them to furnish articles below the cur-
rent prices, and by giving them illegal certificates of payment, which
were rejected by the American Quartermaster-general. In this way the
Canadians began gradually to take a deeper interest in the struggle
in progress, and to regard the British as their true friends and pro-
tectors, while they came to look upon the Americans as a band of
armed plunderers, who made promises they had no intention of
performing, and refused to pay their just debts.*

All the Canadians now required was a proper leader, and a system
of military organisation, to cause them to act vigorously against
Arnold. Even in the absence of these requisites they determined to
raise the siege, and led by a gentleman of the name of Beaujeau a
force advanced towards Quebec, on the 25th of March, but was
defeated by the Americans and compelled to retreat. This check,
however, did not discourage the Canadians, who next resolved to
surprise a detachment of the enemy at Point Levi. By some means
their design became known, and they were very quickly repulsed.

* Frost's United States, p, 205. Journal of an Officer.

208

The History of Canada.

The month of April passed over without producing any events of
importance. The Americans had meanwhile been reinforced to over
two thousand men, and Major-General Thomas arrived to take the
command. The small-pox still continued to rage amongst them ; they
could make no impression on the fortifications, and the hostile
attitude of the Canadians disheartened them in addition. On the
5th of May Thomas called a council-of-war at which an immediate
retreat was determined on.

On the following morning, to the great joy of the besieged, the
Surprise frigate and a sloop arrived in the harbour with one hundred
and seventy men of the 29th regiment and some marine.., who were
speedily landed. General Carleton at once resolved on offensive
operations, and marched out at noon with one thousand men and a
few field-pieces to attack the Americans. But the latter did not await
his approach, and fled with the utmost precipitation, leaving all their
cannon, stores, ammunition, and even their sick behind. These were
treated with the utmost attention by General Carleton, whose
humanity won the esteem of all his prisoners, and who were loud in
his praise on returning home. For his services during the siege the
Governor was subsequently knighted by his sovereign.

The Americans retreated as rapidly as possible for a distance of
forty-five miles up the river, but finding they were not pursued they
halted for a few days to rest themselves. They eventually proceeded
in a very distressed condition to Sorel, where they were joined by
some reinforcements, and where, also, General Thomas died of the
small-pox, which still continued to afflict them. He was succeeded
in the chief command by General Sullivan.

Meantime, some companies of the 8th regiment, which had been
scattered through the frontier posts on the lakes, descended to
Ogdensburg. From thence Captain Forster was detached, on the
nth of May, with one hundred and twenty-six soldiers and an
equal number of Indians, to capture a stockade at the Cedars,
garrisoned by three hundred and ninety Americans under the
command of Colonel Bedell. The latter surrendered on the
19th, after sustaining only a few hours' fire of musketry, and the
following day one hundred men advancing to his assistance were
attacked by the Indians and a few Canadians. A smart action
ensued which lasted for ten minutes, when the Americans laid
down their arms, and were marched prisoners to the fort, where
they were with difficulty saved from being massacred by the
savages.

After providing for the safety of his numerous prisoners, Forster

The History of Canada,

209

brster

pushed down the river towards Lachine, but learning that Arnold
was advancing to attack him with a force trel-le his own number
he halted and prepared for action. Placing his men in an advan-
tageous position on the edge of the river, and spreading the Indians
out on his flanks, he made such a stout defence that the Americans
were compelled to retire to St Anne's. Forster, encumbered with
his prisoners, now proposed a cartel which Arnold at once assented
to, and an exchange was effected, on the 27th of May, for two
majors, nine captains, twenty subalterns, and four hundred and
forty-three privates. This cartel was broken by Congress, on
the ground that the prisoners had been cruelly used, which was
not the case. They had been treated with all the humanity
possible, when the difficulty of guarding so large a number with
less than three hundred men, is taken into consideration.*

While these events were in progress above Montreal, a large
body of troops arrived from England under the command of
Major-General Burgoyne, and Brigadier Fraser was at once sent
on by the Governor with the first division to Three Rivers. While
the troops still remained on board their transports off this place,
General Thompson advanced with eighteen hundred men to sur-
prise the town, and would have effected his object had not one
of his Canadian guides escaped and warned the British of his
approach. Fraser imme'Kately landed his troops, as well as several
field-pieces, and posted them so advantageously that the Americans
were speedily defeated, and their general and five hundred men
made prisoners, while the retreat of their rriain body being cut off",
it was compelled to take shelter in a wood full of swamps. Here
the enemy remained in great distress till the following day, when
General Carleton, who had meanwhile come up, humanely drew
the guard from the bridge over the River du Loup and allowed
them to escape towards Sorel. Finding themselves unable to
oppose the force advancing against them, the main body of the
Americans retreated to Crown Point, whither Arnold also retired
from Montreal on the 15th of June. Thus terminated the invasion
of Canada, which produced no advantage to the American cause,
hut on the contrary aroused the hostility of the inhabitants and drew
them closer to Great Britain.

The military operations in the United States during the Revolu-
tionary V/ar, do not properly coiue within the scope of a history of
Canada. We have, therefore, only to add that Sir Guy Carleton
followed up his successes by launching a fleet on Lake Champlain

* Smith's Hist. Can., vol. ii. i>p. 139, 140. Frost's United States, p. 207.

2IO

The History of Canada.

in October, which after several actions with the American naval
armament obtained complete command of its waters. He likewise
obtained possession of Crown Point, evacuated by the Americans,
who concentrated all their strength for the defence of Ticonderoga.
At the close of the campaign the troops were quartered along the
Richelieu and St Lawrence on the Canadians, who now willingly-
received them as protectors from invasion.

General Burgoyne visited England soon after the troops had

gone into winter quarters, and concerted with the ministry a plan

of operations against the Americans by way of Lake

'' '* Champlain. He returned the following spring to assume
the chief command of the army, much to the dissatisfaction of Sir
Guy Carleton, who at once demanded his own recall, on the ground
that he had been treated with injustice. Burgoyne opened the
campaign at the north by the capture of Ticonderoga ; and after
an advance at first distinguished by victory but afterwards by defeat,
he was compelled to surrender his entire army, amounting to six
thousand men, at Saratoga on the 17th of October.

The firrt regular sitting of the Legislative Council, constituted by
the Quebec Act, was held in the spring of 1777. At this session
sixteen acts were passed, which received the sanction of the Gov-
ernor and the approval of the Home Ministry. One of these acts
erected a Court of King's Be.ich, a Court of Common Pleas, and
a Court of Probates for testamentary and succession causes. The
whole Council were constituted a Court of Appeal, and any five of
their number, with the Governor or Chief Justice, were declared
competent to try all causes brought before them. Owing to the
ignorance, however, of the judges of these courts with regard to
French law much confusion was caused, and matters did not pro-
ceed as smootlily as they should. Towards the latter part of the
summer, ]\Lijor-General Haldimand arrived to take charge of the
Government

CHAPTER XI.

THE GOVERNMENT OF MAJOR-GENERAL HALDIMAND.

THAT the British ministry gave all their attention to the war
with the American colonies, is the only apparent reason which
presents itself for the appointment of General Haldimand to the
government of Canada. A military man by profession, a Swiss
foreigner by birth, he knew little of the laws or customs of either
the British or the Canadians, and was wholly unfitted to control the
Colony. His administration was distinguished by undue
severity, and many persons were imprisoned on improper ' '^'
pretences, some of whom afterwards instituted actions against him in
England for this violation of their liberty, and recovered damages,
which were paid by the British Government.

But few important events occurred during the government of
General Haldimand. The records of this period are of the
most meagre description, and chiefly distinguished by the '
many petitions to the Crown and its ministers from the British
colonists, praying for an alteration in the laws so as to make them
more in unison with the English constitution. The treaty of peace,
the preliminaries of which were arranged on the 30th
November, which acknowledged the independence of the
United States, strengthened the hands of the advocates of reform,
and made them more earnest in their demands for a House of
Assembly, and the other privileges they deemed necessary to their
welfare.

But the close of the Revolutionary War was destined to have a
still more important influence on the condition of this country, by
adding largely to the Anglo-Saxon portion of the population, a
circumstance which soon produced of itself the desired reforms.
During the progress of the contest several families had removed to
Canada ; and soon after the surrender of Burgoyne there was a con-

1782.

212

The History of Canada.

siderable emigration of loyalists from the State of New York. On

the close of the war a still larger number followed, and to

' ^' make proper provision for these devoted servants of the

Crown became a question of serious moment with the British

ministry.

Western Canada at this period was a mere wilderness, the
greater part being wholly uninhabited. A few military posts along
the St Lawrence, and the French settlements in the neighbourhood
of Detroit, embraced the entire European population, which scarcely
amounted to two thousand souls. The military post at Frontenac,
or Kingston, as it will in future be termed, had been abandoned
immediately before the conquest ; Toronto had also been long
deserted. There was still a small military post at Niagara, but with
the exception of an occasional trapper, or a few wandering Indians,
human being rarely trod the vast and fertile districts stretching
along the northern shore of Lake Ontario and the upper St Law-
rence.

The Home Government fancied it would not be at all politic to
bring the two dominant races in Canada closely together, being
desirous to preserve the French element as a safeguard to future
revolutionary tendencies. It now conceived the idea of establishing
a new colony farther westward, and at the same time of rewarding
the American loyalists, who might desire to join it, by liberal gifts
of land. With regard to those who had served in the army, the scale
of grants was the same as after the peace of 1763, with the exception
that all loyalists, under the rank of subaltern, now received two
hundred acres.* In pursuance of this determination Governor Haldi-
mand was instructed to grant patents for land, on applicants taking
the usual oath of allegiance, and subscribing a declaration acknow-
ledging the three estates of Great Britain as the supreme legislature
of the province. He was instructed, however, to state, tliat this
declaration had no reference to internal taxation, and that Parliament
only reserved to itself the right of legislating for the regulation of
trade and commerce. " By this they could not be afifected, or de-
prived of any indulgence or encouragement to which they were
entitled." t The grants to royalists and disbanded soldiers were
directed to be made free of every expense. J
- In the following year the Governor appointed commissioners to

* In 1798, owing to complaints of the profuse manner of granting lands, the
allowance was limited to a quantity from two hundred to twelve hundred acres.
+ Lord North to Governor Haldimand, 24th July 1783.
■^ Gourlay, vol. i. p. 1 1,

The History of Canada.

213

take a census of the population of Lower Canada. The districts
of Montreal, Three Rivers, and Quebec, were found to
contain one hundred and thirteen thousand and twelve
inhabitants ; twenty-eight thousand of whom were fit to bear arms,
and had been enrolled in the militia,* As this census, however,
only embraced the more populous districts, it may reasonably be
presumed that the entire population of Canada, at this period,
amounted to one hundred and twenty thousand souls. At the same
time, surveys continued to be made of the lands lying along the
banks of the St Lawrence, from the highest French settlement at
Lake St Francis upwards, and round the Bay of Quinte, which were
speedily divided into townships, and subdivided into concessions
and lots. These townships were numbered, but not named till
several years afterwards. The original settlers long continued the
habit, even after distinct names had been given them, of describing
them by first township, second township ; and so on.

The survey having been completed, the American royalists and
disbanded officers and soldiers of the 84th regiment, with a few other
German and English soldiers, took possession of their allotments in
the course of the summer. During the same season, also, a settle-
ment was formed on the Miagara River, and another at Amherstburg
by the royalists, who likewise had lands assigned them. This was
the first effective settlement of Upper Canada, and before the close
of the year its population amounted to about ten thousand souls.

The greater part of these settlers were poor and dependent. Some
had served in the army, and from the small pay of a British soldier,
amounting then to only sixpence sterling per diem, nothing had been
saved ; others again had lost their properties by the war ; so for the
first two years Government was obliged to assist nearly all with
provisions, farming utensils, and clothing, f Although cast thus

* Smith's Hist. Can., vol. ii. p. 168.

f " 'To put a mark of honour,' as it is expres!5ed in the Orders of Council,
'upon the families who had adhered to the unity of the empire, and joined the
royal standard in America, before the treaty of separation in the year 1783,' a
list of such persons was directed, in 1789, to be made out and returned, 'to the
end that their posterity might be discriminated from the then future settlers.'
From the initials of two emphatic words, the unity of the empire, it was styled the
U. E. list ; and they whose names were entered on it were distinguished as U. E.
loyalists, a distinction of some consequence ; for in addition to the provision of
such loyalists themselves, it was declared that their children, as well those born
thereafter as those already born, should upon arriving at the age of twenty-one
years, and females upon their marriage within that age, be entitled to grants of
two hundred acres each, free from all expense. In pursuance of that declaration
these gratuitous grants continue to be made. Thousands of acres are thus granted

214

The History of Canada.

destitute in the wilderness, these courageous people did not despond.
The greater part had been bred to agricultural pursuits, and now
speedily adapted themselves to circumstances, and resumed their
*brmer occupations. The axe of the backwoodsman was swung as
vigorously in the forests of Canada, as it had been in those of New
England and New York. Clearings were speedily made, log-houses
erected ; in a few years the wilderness blossomed as the rose, and
waving fields of grain bent to the summer winds along the ancient
hunting-grounds of the Wyandots and the Algonquins.

It being now deemed desirable by the Government to draw as
many emigrants to the province as possible, lots of two hundred acres
each were granted to settlers, oncondition of actual occupation, and
the payment of expenses of survey and fees of office, amounting to-
gether to about thirty-eight dollars. This soon led to an emigration
from Great Britain ; and when the passions excited by the recent
war had somewhat subsided, and royalists went back to their old
homes among the New England hills, or the more fertile districts
farther south, to visit the relations and friends they had left behind,
many of these were induced to settle in Canada.

The British Government having at length turned its attention to
Canadian affairs, it was soon perceived that General Haldimand was
not the proper person to rule the province. He was accordingly re-
called, and Henry Hamilton sent out to act as Lieutenant-Governor,
till a Governor should be appointed, the ministry being as yet un-
decided as to whom they would intrust that office.

1785.

THE GOVERNMENT OF HENRY HAMILTON, ESQ.

The new Governor, who arrived in this country in the spring, had
been an officer in the army, but had retired, like numbers
of others, on the establishment of peace. One of his first
measures was to assemble the Legislative Council ; and, pursuant
to his instructions, to recommend to their consideration the intro-
duction of the law of Habeas Corpus into the province. The Cana-
dians were now well acquainted with the objects of this law, and

every year. As the sons and daughters of those whose names are on the U. E.
list become of age, they petition the Lieutenant-Governor in council, stating the
facts, and verifying them by their own oath, and affidavit of one witness, and upon
such petitions obtain o'.ders for land, which they locz^te in some of the new town-
ships, and then take out their patents without cost.

*'To encourage the further population of the province, a lot of two hundred
acres was allowed to every settler, upon condition of actual settlement, and pay-
ment of the expense of surveying and fees of office, amounting in the whole to a
little less than thirty-eight dollars." — Gourlav, vol. i. pp. 14, 15.

The History of Canada.

215

evinced great satisfaction when it came up for consideration in the
Council ; the Roman Catholic clergy, in particular, expressed their
approbation. It was proposed to exclude the religious female com-
munities from its benefits, at which they expressed no small indig-
nation, on the ground that ill-disposed persons might suppose the
exception was necessary to retain them in their cloisters. The
bill was accordingly extended to embrace them, and speedily
passed.

Beyond the establishment of a public librarj', and a great darkness
which fell suddenly on Canada on the 9th of October, the introduc-
tion of the Habeas Corpus into the statute law of the Province was
the only event of importance which marked the government of Mr
Hamilton. He was recalled after a single year's adminis-
tration, and the direction of Canadian affairs again committed ^' '
to General Carleton, who had, in the meantime, been raised to the
peerage.

1787.

THE GOVERNMENT OF LORD DORCHESTER.

In the month of June, Lord Dorchester received his appointment
in England as Governor-General of all the British North American
Provinces, and arrived on the 23d of October at Quebec, where he
was cordially welcomed by the inhabitants. One of his first measures
was to assemble the Legislative Council, and forming them into
committees, directed them to inquire into the state of the laws, the
commerce, the police, and the education of the province. An in-
vestigation by the Chief Justice was also made, at the in-
stance of the Council, with regard to the administration of
the laws, when it was clearly sliown that English judges followed
English law, Canadian judges, French law, and some judges, no
particular law whatever, but decided according to what they deemed
the equity of the case. Commerce was also represented to
be far from in a flourishing condition, owing to the active
rivalry of the United States and other causes ; while education was
at the lowest ebb. The Jesuits had discontinued teaching,
and there was not a school in the province where the higher ' ^*
branches of learning were taught.*

This condition of things, in connexion with the rapid increase of
the English-speaking population, strengthened the hands of the re-
form party, who finally employed an agent, Mr Lymburnerj
to advocate their views in England. He was ultimately '9 •
successful in attracting the attention of ministers, and a bill was pre-
• Smith's Hist. Can., vol. i. p. 176.

1788.

2l6

The History of Canada.

pared by the Colonial Secretary, William Grenville, to give a new
constitution to Canada, which, after being sent to Lord
'^ ' Dorchester for correction, was laid before Parliament
shortly after it assembled in the spring.

Mr Pitt, in introducing the bill, briefly stated its provisions. The
Province of Quebec was to be divided into Upper and Lower
Canada, in order to prevent any dissensions between the French
Canadians and settlers of British origin. Each province was to have
its own legislature, composed of a Legislative Council, the members
of which were to be chosen for life, and a House of Assembly, to
be elected in the usual manner by the people. The Habeas Cor-
pus Act was to be a fundamental principle of the new constitu-
tion. Provision was likewise to be made for the maintenance of
the Protestant clergy in both provinces, by the allotment of lands,
(the Clergy Reserves ;) and, while Parliament reserved to itself the
right of regulating trade and commerce, the local legislatures were to
have the sole power of internal taxation.

Mr Fox warmly opposed the bill on several grounds. He argued
that it would be wiser rather to unite still more closely than to separ-
ate the British and French settlers ; and that the Legislative Council
should be also elective, with a higher qualification on the part of
elected and electors than was necessary for the Lower House. " By
this means," said he, " Canadians will have a real aristocracy, chosen
by persons of property, from among persons of the highest property,
who would thus have that weight and independence necessary to
guard against the innovations of the people, on the one part, or of
the Crown, on the other."

The Quebec reformers were also dissatisfied with the bill, and
instructed Mr Lymburner to oppose it, chiefly on the grounds that
the division of the province would interfere with commerce, and
would be really injurious to the inhabitants of Upper Canada. Mr
Lymburner was heard at the bar of the House of Commons against
the bill, on the 23d of March, and opposed its principles in a long
and lucid argument. But his efforts failed to prevent a separation of
the province. The bill passed into law,* and continued to be the
constitution of the Canadas until the Union.

• The Canadian Constitution of 1791. — The Constitutional Act repealed
so much of the Quebec Act as related to the appointment of a council for the affairs
of the province of Quebec, and the powers given to it to make ordinances for the
government thereof.

His Majesty's message expressive of his intention to divide the province of
Quebec into two separate provinces, as previously noticed, to be called Upper
Canada and Lower Canada, being recited, it was enacted that a Legislative Council

The History of Canada. 2 1 7

One of the first measures rendered necessary by the new order of
things, was the division of both provinces into electoral districts, and
giving to each a fair proportion of the number of representatives fixed

and Assembly should be established in each province, with power to make laws
for the peace, welfare, and good government thereof.

The members of the Legislative Council were to be ap[)ointed by the King for
life, and in Upper Canada to consist of not fewer than jitv;;, and in Lower Canada
not fewer ihaxi fifteen persons. No person, not being of the full age of twenty-one
years, and a natural born subject of his ALijesly, or naturalised by act of the British
Parliament, or a subject of his Majesty by the conquest and cession of Canada,
could be appointed to it. His Majesty was authorised to annex to hereditary titles
of honour the right of being summoned to the Legislative Council in either
province.

The Governor had the right of appointing a Speaker to the Legislative Council.
Each province was to be divided into districts or counties, or cities, or towns, or
townships, which were to return representatives to the Assemblies, the Governor
fixing the limits of such districts and the number of representatives to be returned
for each. The whole number of members of the Assembly in Upper Canada was
to be not less than sixteen, and in Lower Canada not less than fifty, and to be
chosen by a majority of votes. The county members were to be elected by owners
of land in freehold or in fief or roture, to the ^'^lue of forty shillings sterling a year,
over and above all rents and charges payable out of or in respect of the same.
Members for the town or township were elected by persons having a dwelling-
house and a lot of ground therein of the yearly value of five pounds sterling or
upwards, or who, having resided in the town for twelve calendar months, next
before date of the writ of election, shall bona fide have paid one year's rent for the
dwelling-house in which he shall have resided, at the i-ate of ten pounds sterling
per annum, or upwards.

No person being a Legislative Councillor, or a clergyman of the Church of
England or Rome, or a teacher of any other religious profession, was eligible to
the House of Assembly in either province, nor was any person under lawful age, to
vote at any election of a member to serve in the Assembly, nor eligible thereto ;
nor was any person eligible as such who was not a natural born subject, or
naturalised as aforesaid, or a subject of his ^Lijesty by the conquest.

Power was given the Governor to fix the times and places of holding the first
and every other session of the Legislative Council and Assembly in each province,
giving due notice thereof, and to prorogue the same from time to time, and to
dissolve it whenever he deemed such expedient. They were to be convoked once
at least in every twelve months, and each Assembly was to continue four years
from the day of the return of the writs for choosing the members ; subject, however,
to be sooner prorogued and dissolved, at the pleasure of the Governor.

The Governor was authorised to give or withhold his Majesty's assent to all bills,
passed by the two branches, and to reserve such as he might think fit, for the
signification of his Majesty's pleasure thereon. Copies of all bills he might assent
to, were also to be forwarded to the Secretary of State ; and his Majesty might, at
any time within two years after receipt by the Secretary, disallow them if he
thought fit.

Bills reserved by the Governor for his Majesty's pleasure, were not to have effect
till sanctioned, and notice thereof given by message to the two Houses of the Pro-

2l8

The History of Canada.

by the Act. In making this arrangement regard was had solely to the
number of the male population in each district, the superficial extent
of which was not taken into consideration. A careful census made

vinci.il Parliament, or by proclamation ; nor could the royal assent to bills so
reserved be given, unless within two years next after the day when presented to the
Governor for the royal assent.

All laws, statutes, and ordinances in force in either province, except as repealed
or altered by that Act, were to remain in force, as they might be at the time of its
coming into operation.

The Governor and Executive Council, which, by an ordinance of the province of
Quebec, had been constituted a court of appeals, were, in each province, to continue
.so ; liable, however, to such other provisions as might be deemed necessary by the
new Legislature.

It was enacted that an allotment of Crown lands, in each province, should be
made for the support and maintenance of a Protestant clergy within the same, and
such allotment was to be, as nearly as circumstances and the nature of the case
would permit, equal in value to a seventh part of the lands granted, and to be
granted. This provision of the Act became, and indeed still is, a source of much
agitation and discord in Canada. Far better for it had it been, if such enactment
had never taken place.

His Majesty was authorised to empower the Governors in each province to
erect parsonages and endow them, and to present incumbents or ministers of the
Church of England, subject and liable to all rights of institution and all other
spiritual and ecclesiastical jurisdiction and authority, lawfully granted to the Bishop
of Nova Scotia.

Power was given to the Provincial Legislature to vary and repeal the provisions
relating to such allotments for the support of a Protestant clergy, parsonages
and rectories, and presentation of incumbents or ministers ; but it was provided
that no bills in this behalf were to be assented to by his Majesty, until thirty days
after they had been laid before both Houses of Imperial Parliament, nor was his
Majesty to assent to any such bill in case of an address from either of the Houses
during that period, requesting him to withhold the royal assent from it. The
intent of these privileges was to preserve the rights and interests of the Established
Church of England in both provinces from invasion by their respective Legislatures.

All lands to be thereafter granted in Upper Canada, were to be in free and
common socage, and so in Lower Canada, when the grantee required it.

The British Parliament reserved to itself the right of providing regulations or
prohibitions, imposing, levying, and collecting duties, for the regulation of naviga-
tion, or for the regulation of commerce, to be carried on between the said two
provinces, or between either of them, and any other part of his Majesty's dominions
or any foreign country, or for appointing and directing the payment of duties so
imposed ; leaving, however, the exclusive appropriation of all moneys so levied, in
either province, to the Legislature thereof, and applicable to such public uses
therein, as it might think fit to apply them.

The Governor, pursuant to the King's instructions, was to fix upon and declare
the day when the Act should commence, which was not to be later than the 31st
December 1791 ; nor was the calling together of the Legislative Council and
Assembly, in erch province, to be later than the 31st December 1792.

The above are the principal provisions of the Act which conferred a constitution

The History of Catiada.

219

itution

the preceding year showed that the males in Canada, above sixteen,
amounted to thirty-seven thousand four hundred and eleven, while
the entire population numbered about one hundred and fifty thousand
souls,* being an increase of some thirty thousand in the preceding
six years.

Having obtained leave of absence, Lord Dorchester departed for
England on the 17th of August, leaving Major-General Clarke to act
as Lieutenant-Governor. The winter passed over without producing
any event of note. On the 14th May writs, returnable on
the 1 2th of July, were issued for the election of representa- '^
tives. The elections took place in June, and in several instances
were warmly contested. Among the members returned were some
of the principal merchants of Montreal and Quebec. On the 17th
of December General Clarke opened the first Parliament of Lower
Canada with a short and appropriate speech. William Smith, the
Chief Justice of the province, was appointed Speaker of the Legisla-
tive Council, while J. A. Panet, an eminent Quebec advocate, was
chosen to fill the same office in the Lower House.f

Shortly after the session commenced considerable discussion arose
as to the language in which the business of the House should be con-
ducted. It was finally decided that the Journals of the Proceedings
should be kept in both languages, that motions made in English

upon the new provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, respectively, or as much of
them at least as it is necessary to quote. By a proclamation dated at the Castle of
St Louis, Quebec, 1 8th November 1 791, of his Excellency the Lieutenant-Governor
Alured Clarke, Esq., it was declared that the Act should commence within the said
provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, respectively, on the 26th December 1 791.
The proclamation issued on the occasion stated, that by an order of the King in
Council, in August previous, the two provinces were separated by a division line,
"commencing at a stone boundary on the north bank of the Lake St Francis, at
the cove west of the Point au Baitdd, in the limit between the township of
Lancaster and seigniory of New Longucuil, running along the said limit in the
direction of north thirty-four degrees west to the westmost angle of the seigneurie
of New Longueuil, thence along the north-west boundary of the seigneurie of Vau-
flreuil, running north twenty-five degrees east, until it strikes the Ottawa river, to
ascend the said river into Lake Tomiscanning, and from the head of the said lake,
by a line drawn due north until it strikes the boundary line of Hudson's Bay,
including all the territory to the westward and southward of the said line, to the
utmost extent of the country commonly called or known by the name of Canada.
— Christies Hist. Can., vol. ii. pp. 118-124.

* Mr Smith gives a much larger number, but his estimate was evidently based
on no correct data. A census was only taken of the adult males at this period,
and the proportion of the rest of the population could not be much greater than
four to one.

t Christie, vol. i. pp. 126, 127.

220

The History of Canada.

should be translated into French, and vice versa, before being put,
and that each member should have the privilege of using his mother-
tongue when addressing the House. As the session progressed the
subject of education was taken up, and an address voted to

' ^^' the King praying for the establislunent of a Canadian
college, as well as another address of a loyal character, when intel-
ligence was received of the breaking out of war with the French
Republic. Beyond this, little business of importance was transacted,
and the members being weary of attendance, General Clarke, after
giving assent to eight bills, prorogued the House in the beginning of
May, when they all gladly returned to their respective avocations.

While constitutional liberty thus gradually developed itself in this
country, events were transpiring in the Old Workl of the deepest im-
portance to civilised humanity. The American colonies had largely
contributed to win Canada from France, and thus paved the way for
their own independence. To achieve that independence, France, in
revenge, gave most important assistance. Her conduct in this matter
precipitated the revolutionary crisis, originating in the national
poverty and distress, brought Louis XVI. to the scaffold, and drc^'e
the iniquitous House of Bourbon forth as fugitives. The French
soldiers, whilst fighting in the cause of American liberty, had gradually
imbibed the principles of their allies, and returned to their native
country to disseminate the arguments of Otis, of Franklin, and of
Jefferson, in flivour of the inherent rights of man. However much the
bulk of the British nation might have sympathised, at the commence-
ment of the French Revolution, with the struggles of a gallant people
for a larger measure of liberty, the horrid atrocities of the Jacobins
soon produced a most unfavourable impression on their minds. A
hostile feeling on both sides was engendered. France declared war
against England, and the latter stood forth as the champion of
legitimacy and aristocracy, and issued a counter-declaration of hos-
tilities against the new republic. From that period, till Bonaparte
became a prisoner at St Helena, Great Britain was destined to be
a stranger to the blessings of peace, and to spend countless treas
in forcing a sovereign on a people by whom he was afterwai
speedily rejected.

But although this long war militated seriously against the pros-
perity of Canada, and checked emigration thither from the mother-
country, she was happily exempt from its evils otherwise ; and in
the enjoyment of a greater degree of liberty, was left to develop
her resources as she best might. In the present age, when our
rivers and lakes are covered with floating palaces, which traverse

The History of Canada,

221

their waters at the rate frequently of twenty miles an hour ; when
railroads annihilate space, and the electric telegraph speaks with
the rapidity of the lightning's flash, it is difficult to form an accurate
idea of the condition of matters in Canada sixty years ago, or to
imagine what a " slow people " our Canadian ancestors were. It
took a month for the mail to travel from New York to Quebec ;
the same period was necessary for the transmission of letters to
Halifax ; and "four months must expire before an answer to a
communication could be looked for from England. A mail from
Montreal twice a month* to the New England States, was regarded
as quite a progressive event ; now the inhabitants of every little
hamlet in Canada would grumble if they did not receive their letters
and newspapers at least three times a week. Still, with all these
disadvantages, the commerce and prosperity of Canada were steadily
on the increase, and from ninety to one hundred vessels, from British
and foreign ports, annually visited Quebec,t while the net annual
revenue of the Lower Province, from lands, customs' duties, and
licences, was a little less than ;^5ooo sterling.^

The prudent legislators of Lower Canada in those days travelled
jally as slowly and cautiously through the public business as the
mail bags journeyed to Halifax or New York. Lord Dorchester
arrived from England on the 24th September, and assumed the
reins of government. On the nth of November he opened the
second session of Parliament ; it sat till the 23d May in
the ensuing year, when it was prorogued after the royal
assent had been given to five bills. One more bill had indeed been
passed, relative to a change in the judicature, which was reserved
for the royal pleasure. Emissaries from France had arrived in
Canada to propagate revolutionary principles, so the Assembly, in
the fulness of its loyalty, levelled one of its bills against aliens who
inculcated treason, and gave the Governor large powers to ferret out
' .ish such persons.

next session commenced in the January following, when
lu. first time the public accounts were laid before the

As ably. From these it appeared that the expenses of ' ^^'
the civil administration of the province amounted to ;^i 0,985
sterling annually. To defray this sum the revenue was wholly
inadequate ; j[ 000 sterling were all the Assembly could give, the
remainder had be supplied by the mother-country. In
the year endin anuary 1796, the revenue of the province
had largely jused, and amounted to ;^io,425 currency, while
* Quebec Gazeti ii December 1792. t Ibid. % Christie, vol. i. p. 152.

1794.

1796.

222

The History of Canada.

the public expenditure was ;^24,7ii, including ;^i205 paid to
Upper Canada, as the proportion of the duties levied on her imports
at the ports of Montreal and Quebec.

On the 7th of May the first Parlia'^ent of Lower Canada closed
its final session. Lord Dorchester declared himself highly satisfied
with the course it had pursued. "In expressing my approbation
of your proceedings," said he, addressing both Houses, "I must
fu ^.her observe that the unanimity, loyalty, and disinterestedness
manifested by this first Provincial Parliament of Lower Canada
have never been surpassed in any of his Majesty's colonies."

On the 9th of July Lord Dorchester took his final departure from
Quebec, greatly to the regret of the inhabitants, all classes of whom
presented him with addresses, couched in the warmest and most
respectful language. From the first he had been a true friend to
Canada ; and its people had been largely indebted to his humanity,
sound common sense, and love of constitutional liberty, for the
comparatively h'lppy condition in which they now found them-
selves.

THE GOVERNMENT OF MAJOR-GENERAL PRESCOTT.

On the departure of Lord Dorchester, Majc .'-General Prescott
assumed charge of the government of Lower Canada only, but was
soon after created Governor-General. Writs for the general elec-
tion had been already issued, and the new Parliament met

1 707

' ■"' 01. the 24th of January 1797. In his opening speech the
Governor alluded to the recent treaty of commerce and navigation
between Great Britain and the United States, as highly favourable
to the province. "From the flourishing state of commerce," he
observed, " amidst the hazards and obstructions of war, well founded
hopes may be entertained of the future prosperity of the colony,
when the blessings of peace shall be restored." The returns laid
before the House showed that the revenue for the preceding year
had risen to ;^i8,975, while the civil expenses of the province were
^^25,380 currency.

During this year the first execution for high treason took place in
Canada. David M'Lean, a bankrupt American, formed a chimerical
project of possessing himself of Quebec, and tampered with some of
the inhabitants. His designs were discovered, and he was accord-
ingly tried and sentenced to be hung as a traitor. With this ex-
ception no event of much moment characterised the admin-

'^^' istration of General Prescott, who, having obtained leave of
absence, departed for England, much regretted by the inhabitants,

The History of Canada.

223

1800.

with whom he had become deservedly popular. Sir Robert Shore
Milnes now assumed charge of the administration as Lieutenant-
Governor.

A contented community, blessed with peace and abundance in all
its borders, presents but few occurrences of importance for
the historian to record. In a community of this kind time
glides smootlily on, like the placid stream whose current is rarely
disturbed. Such was the state of things in Lower Canada at this
period. All classes of the community were contented. The in-
habitants of British origin felt they had all they could reasonably
expect in a House of Assembly and a Legislative Council, while the
population of French descent, in the full enjoyment of their language,
their customs, and their religion, lived on in an easy and good-
natured existence which nothing disturbed. Meantime, the pro-
vince was steadily progressing ir. population and wealth. Its civil
expenditure had increased to about ;^3o,ooo, but, at the same time,
its revenue had risen to nearly ;^26,ooo currency, so that the
deficit was small in proportion to what it had been a few years
before. The inhabitants showed their loyalty and devotion to Great
Britain by contributing liberal sums to carry on the war.

During this year died Father Casot, the last of the Jesuits in
Canada, and the large possessions of his order now devolved to
Government. For many years the Father had bestowed his revenues
in charitable purposes, and he was, therefore, bitterly regretted by
the poor. Down to the present time the " Jesuits' estates " produce
a separate government fund.

Slavery, although to a very limited extent, had hitherto existed in
Canada. It prevailed during the long period of French
dominion, and by Article 46 of the Capitulation of ^*
Montreal, in September 1760, it had been stipulated that the
Negroes of both sexes should remain in their quality of slaves,
and in the possession of their respective owners, with the privilege
of selling them when deemed proper. In the census of 1784 the
number of slaves in the districts of Montreal, Three Rivers, and
Quebec, had been returned as three hundred and four. There is
every reason to suppose that this number had decreased in the in-
terval between that period and 1803, when the decision of Chief-
Justice Osgoode, at Montreal, declared slavery inconsistent with the
laws of the country, and gave freedom to the persons in that con-
dition. From that day to this Canada has remained "free soil,"
untainted by slavery, and the sure place of refuge to the oppressed
man of colour.

224

The History of Canada.

1806,

From 1803, to the departure of the Lieutenant-Governor, who was
personally unpopular, for England in 1805, everything pro-
^' gressed in the province with the greatest harmony. Trade
continued to increase, and the revenue of the year ending in January
amounted to ;!^33,633 ; at the same time, the expenditure had risen
to about ;^40,ooo currency. One hundred and forty-six vessels, of an
aggregate tonnage of 25,136 tons, visited Quebec during the season.

Mr Dunn, being the senior executive councillor, assumed direc-
tion of the government on the departure of Sir Robert S. JMilnes.
His administration was distinguished for the first attempts to curb
the liberty of the press in Canada. During the month of March a
dinner was given by the merchants of Montreal to the representatives
of the town and county, at which Isaac Todd presided. The pro-
ceedings were reported in the Montreal Gazette of the ist April, and
the House of Assembly, considering themselves glanced at
by some of the toasts, voted at their ensuing session the
publication a breach of privilege. They accordingly directed
their sergeant-at-arms to proceed to [Montreal, and take Mr Todd
and the publisher of the Gazette, Mr Edwards, into custody.
Neither of these gentlemen, however, could be found, and so the
matter ended with respect to them. While these events were oc-
curring in tlie Assembly the Quebec Mercury, in an article headed
" French influence," criticised its illiberal proceedings in a manner
highly distasteful to the members. The publisher, Mr Gary, was
summoned to the bar of the House, and compelled to apologise " for
having presumed to render an account of its proceedings," when he
was released. In the present day, when the action of Parliament
is so narrowly watched and criticised by the public press, the course
pursued on this occasion must appear sufficiently despotic. Eut
Canada was only imitating the mother country, whero the jjress, at
that period, was shackled by the most odious restrirtiors, and where
the proceedings in Parliament dare not be published. F.ven in the
present day reporters for the press are admitted to the Houses of
Parliament in England, and also in Canada, by sufterance merely,
and not as a matter of right, and may be excluded at any time they
deem proper.

In those days the members of the Assembly were not paid for
their services, and tenacious as they were of their privileges they
could not be kept together for the transaction of business, which was
frequently retarded for tlie want of a quorum. The novelty of legis-
lation had evidently worn off; and, in the absence of excitement of
any kind, many of the members preferred staying at home to atleud

The History of Canada.

22!

to their own affairs than engage in the dull routine of public business.
When Mr Dunn prorogued the House, on the 19th of April, he
expressed his dissatisfaction with this state of things. " The neces-
sary business," said he, " has not been completed, which would not
be the case had not so many members declined giving their cus-
tomary attendance."

Hitherto the newspapers of Canada had been exclusively owned
and conducted by persons of British origin, who, as a mere matter
of course, were far from being friendly to French laws or customs.
However prudent the different editors might be, their articles were
undoubtedly biased by their feelings and their prejudices, and the
educated portion of the French-Canadian population felt the want
of an organ which would represent their own opinions, and repel
the aspersions of the other journals. This feeling led to the publica-
tion of a newspaper, Le Canadien, exclusively in the French language,
tlie first number of which was issued at Quebec in the month of
November. Had this journal restricted itself to a moderate and
sensible advocacy of French-Canadian interests and opinions, matters
would have gone on smoothly. But, instead of pursuing this course,
it appealed to national prejudices, and regarded the British emigrants
as strangers and intruders. Being conducted with ability it soon
became popular, and commenced the reign of agitation and discord
between the two races subsequently productive of so much injury to
the province.*

Sir Robert S. Milnes, the Lieutenant-Governor of the province,
and the Governor-General continuing absent, Mr Dunn
again convened the Legislature on the 21st of January, and
congratulated them on the capture of the Cape of Good Hope, and
the other successes which had distinguished the arms of Great Britain
in the war with France and her allies. In responding to this address
the Assembly expressed their appreciation of Mr Dunn's personal
worth, in very handsome and well-merited terms. The session was
chiefly distinguished by a motion to obtain an allowance for the
expenses of the members residing at a distance from Quebec, which
was negatived by a majority of two, sixteen voting against it and
fourteen in its favour ; and for the election of Mr Ezekiel Hart, a
Jew, by the people of Three Rivers. On the 19th of October,
Lieutenant-General Sir James H. Craig, who had been appointed to
succeed General Prescott as Governor-General of British North
America, arrived at Quebec, and immediately assumed charge of the
government.

• Christie, vol. i. p. 252.

1807.

! lii |!; r I

SNJi -ill

226

> t

The History of Canada.

1808.

THE GOVERNMENT OF SIR JAMES H. CRAIG.

On the 29th of January, the Governor proceeded in state to open
the Legislature, and was loudly cheered by the assembled
crowd.* His speech on the occasion contained little that
was remarkable, and was responded to in courteous termsby the House.

A feeling had gradually arisen in the province, and was now very
generally diffused, that the judges of the different courts should not
be eligible for election to the Assembly. A bill was accordingly
introduced to carry out this object, which was, however, negatived
by the Legislative Council. The next measure of the Commons was
to unseat Mr Hart, the member for Three Rivers, on the grounds of
his being a Jew, although there was nothing in the Constitution
to warrant such a course. He was again re-elected by that con-
stituency ; but only, however, to be unseated the second time. The
militia bill was continued till repealed ; and the alien act, and the
act for the better preservation of his Majesty's government, were
passed, for one year. On the whole this session, which terminated
the fourth Parliament, pleased the Governor, who signified his ap-
proval when proroguing the Legislature on the 14th of April.

The general election took place in May. Panet, the speaker of the
last Assembly, was rejected by one of the constituencies of Quebec,
in consequence of his connexion with the Canadien newspaper, but
was returned in another quarter. Matters progressed quietly the
remainder of the year, and during which Parliament was not called
together. An annual session was then deemed sufficient in both
provinces for the transaction of business.

On the 9th of April, in the following spring, the new Assembly was
convened. It was generally expected that Mr Panet would
again be elected speaker, an office he had filled during the
four preceding Parliaments, and considerable curiosity was excited
as to whether the Governor, in that case, would assent to the choice
of the Assembly. He wisely confirmed Panet's election, although,
as had been anticipated, not in very g -i.cious terms.

* Craig was slow, sedate, and solemn, and «. different person altogether from
Mr Gore, now Governor of Upper Canada, whose speeches to its Legislature were
alike short and slipshod. Gore was a bon vivant, and on one occasion while
making merry with his friends, the House passed a resolution he did not like, and
he vowed, " he would send the rascals about their business." A few hours' sleep
did not alter his determination ; and next morning he was proceeding alone, and
en deshabille, to prorogue the House, with a shoe on one foot and a boot on another.
Fortunately he was met by a friend, who persuaded him to return and proceed to
the Legislature in a more respectable trim.

1809.

The History of Canada.

21']

In his opening speech to the Legislature, General Craig allude^,
among other matters, to the prosperous condition of the province,
owing chiefly to the impetus given to the lumber trade by the Ameri-
can embargo on all intercourse with Great Britain. He regretted
being obliged to call the House together at that busy period of the
year, but excused himself on the ground of public expediency.
Some of his remarks implied as indirect censure on the members,
and were unfavourably received.

The question of the eligibility of judges for election to the
Assembly was again taken up, as well as the expulsion of Mr Hart,
who had been elected a third time. A bill was introduced to disqualify
Jews from a seat in the House, but five weeks had already clasped
when it underwent a second reading. General Craig's patience
became exhausted ; and regarding the Legislature as a refractory
body who had not a proper sense of their duty, he went down in state
from the castle of St Louis, on the 15th of May, and dissolved the
Assembly in terms of unmeasured censure. At the same time he
complimented the Legislative Council for their general good con-
duct.

In the ensuing month the Governor made a tour of the prinoipal
towns of the province, was well received, and presented with several
very complimentary addresses, which were criticised with consider
able asperity by the Canadien. The elections took place in October,
when the recent representatives, or others still more opposed to the
wishes of the executive, were returned. The Governor had gained
nothing by his arbitrary policy.

While the public mind was still disturbed by the disagreement
between the stern old general and the refractory Assembly, John
Molson, an enterprising and spirited merchant of Montreal, was
busily engaged in fitting out the first steamer that ever ploughed the
waters of the St Lawrence. On the 3d of November, this ever-to-
be-remembered little craft got up steam, shot out into the current,
and after a voyage of thirty-six hours' sailing arrived safely at Quebec,
where the whole city crowded to have a look at the nautical phe-
nomenon, " The steamboat Accommodation has arrived," said the
old Mercury, vci the fulness of its wonderment, "with ten passengers.

No wind or tide can stop her. The price of a passage is

nine dollars up, and eight down. The wheels are put, and kept, in
motion by steam operating within the vessel." Fulton's first steam-
boat navigated the Hudson, the Accommodation cleaved the more
magnificent waters of the St Lawrence. A new light had burst upon
the mind of Canada ; a fresh impetus had seized upon her prosperity.

228

Tlie History of Canada.

It was highly creditable to the province that the second steamer
built on this continent was launched at Montreal.

The new Assembly met on the 29th of January, when Panet was

Q again elected speaker, and confirmed in that office by the
Governor, whose opening speech was formal as usual. He
alluded to the probable war with the United States, to the necessity
of checking the forging of bills of exchange, touched upon the dis-
solution of the last Assembly, and declared himself prepared to give
assent "to any proper bill for rendering his Majesty's judges
of the Court of King's Bench ineligible in future to a seat in the
House."

The conciliatory tone of the speech gave fresh courage to the
Commons of Lower Canada. " The Governor had incurred the dis-
pleasure of the Home Ministry," it was said, " by his arbitrary con-
duct," so the Assembly now determined to become arbitrary in turn.
By a vote of twenty-four to eleven they decided by resolution, " that
the executive's approving the conduct of one part of the Legislature,
and censuring that of the other, was contrary to the spirit of the
Constitution, a breach of their privileges, and darigerous to the rights
and liberties of his Majesty's subjects in the province. At the same
time, an address was voted to the King, breathing the most ardent
and devoted loyalty. The Assembly likewise offered to defray the
expenses of the civil list, now amounting to some ;^5o,ooo annually.
This offer was coolly received by the Governor, and as Parliament
was dissolved before the estimates were laid before it, no action for
the present was taken thereon. The breaking out of war postponed
its subsequent consideration.

Meanwhile, a bill had been introduced in the Assembly to dis-
qualify judges from sitting there, and was transmitted to the Legis-
lative Council, who returned it with the amendment that it was not
to come into force during the present Parliament. The Assembly
now became indignant, and declared the seat of Mr De Bonne, a
judge, vacant by a vote of eighteen to six. This brought matters to
a crisis ; and down came the resolute old general to dissolve them
again. He was loudly cheered by the people, who were more amused
than otherwise by these novel occurrences, and the military prompti-
tude of their veteran Governor. The late members, however, aided
by their friends, soon took measures to arouse another feeling in
the minds of the multitude. Songs and pasquinades, suited to the
vulgar taste, were written and circulated ; while the Canadien
became more abusive than ever. The breach became wider and
wider every day. The colonists of British origin, almost to a man,

The History of Canada.

229

Tanged themselves on the side of the despotic Governor : those of
French descent stood up for the more constitutional Assembly.

Lower Canada at this period had five newspapers : four of these
favoured the Government and the British minority, while Le Cana-
dien, the smallest of the lot, was the sole advocate of the majority.
Its tongue cut keen, and it stoutly stood its ground, although there
were four to one. This will never do, thought the Governor and his
council, insubordination must not be permitted in the ranks, and an
election approaching. So, on the 17th of March, a party of soldiers,
headed by a magistrate and two constables, proceeded to the office
of Le Canadien, seized the press, and all the papers they could find,
and conveyed them to the vaults of the city court house. Lefran-
9ois, the unlucky printer, was also pounced upon; and after an
examination before the executive council, committed to prison. The
guards were strengthened, patrols scoured the streets, and a minia-
ture " Reign of Terror " had begun. Six French-Canadian gentle-
men were apprehended a few days afterwards on a charge of
treasonable practices, and the simple habitants looked for the
revelation of some terrible conspiracy. But nothing was discovered.
The presumed conspirators were released one after another without
trial as time progressed ; and although the Governor issued a pro-
clamation, as tedious as one of his parliamentary speeches, on the
2ist March, little ever came out of the business.

This despotic and unconstitutional conduct, on the part of the
executive, merely daunted the habitants for the moment. Time
had inoculated them with a portion, at least, of the spirit of British
freemen, and they determined on an independent exercise of their
franchise. The old members of the Assembly for the most part
were re-elected, Panet was again chosen speaker, and the Governor
once more submitted to stern necessity, and confirmed him in that
capacity.

A third dissolution w^ould scarcely have been orthodox parliamen-
tary usage, so the Governor met the new Assembly in a more
conciliatory spirit, and the members, disliking the idea of being
unceremoniously turned out of doors a third time, Cromwell fashion,
were disposed to conduct themselves more amiably. A sly war of
words took place between the belligerents, but the Assembly passed,
however, the measures recommended by the Governor, with unusual
speed, and among which was " the continuation of the act for the
better preservation of his Majesty's government," under which the
late arrests had been made, and under which, also, Mr Bedard, one
of their number, was still held in durance. The medicine was de-

230

The History of Canada.

1811.

cidedly bitter ; but the Assembly swallowed it, nevertheless, though
with a clause in favour of their own body ; but as this clause had
only a prospective effect, the executive still kept Bedard in prison.
The Assembly now passed a resolution declaring this course illegal,
and voted a humble address to his Excellency, praying that Pierre
Bedard, Esq., might be released, and allowed to take his seat in the
House. But the committee appointed to present it had not suf-
ficient moral courage to beard the old general in his castle
of St Louis, and the Assembly were fain to sympathise with
their want of nerve, and relieved them from this duty. The victory
was decidedly on the side of the Governor, so he released Mr Bedard
shortly after at his own pleasure.

The session of the Legislature assembled in the beginning of 181 1,
passed smoothly over. The bill to disqualify judges from becoming
members of the House was passed, and received the royal sanction
through the Governor. The health of the latter was very feeble ; he
was about to return to his native country ; and, after alluding to the
great prosperity of the province, he recommended the Legislature to
act unanimously for the public good. " I am earnest in this advice,
gentlemen," said he. " It is probably the last legacy of a very sin-
cere well-wisher ; who, if he lives to reach the presence of his sove-
reign, would be proud to be able to say that the people he had
found separated by mistrust and jealousy, he had left cordially
united, and rivalling each other only in the affectionate attachment
to his Majesty's government, and in generous exertions for the public
good."

This language bears every mark of sincerity ; and even if General
Craig, from previous habit, and a long training in the camp and
barrack-room, was arbitrary in his conduct, there can be no doubt
that his intentions were of the purest character. Although he had
overstepped the bounds of constitutional government, and thereby
caused some individual suffering, his firmness had a salutary effect :
it repressed the unwholesome spirit of dissension which had begun
to manifest itself in the Assembly, and tended on the whole to the
public good. Still, it must be admitted, he could have been equally
firm, without being equally arbitrary, and that he would have pro-
moted the public weal just as effectually, had he not imprisoned
innocent men, and violated the rights of private property. Having
obtained leave of absence, he quit Canada on the 19th of June, to
the great regret of the British population. His frame had long been
sinking under dropsy and other infirmities. The shadow of death
was already falling on him, and he died in England in the January

£ I. :

'S;

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231

of the next year, at the age of sixty-two, having served his country
forty-seven years in all parts of the world. Simple, earnest, and
honest, there can be little doubt that Sir James Craig was the victim
of circumstances, and that his confidence had been abused by the
oligarchy, who, as in Upper Canada, then held supreme sway in the
province. An irresponsible executive was at the root of most public
disorders, and as time progressed it became evident that Lower
Canada had to pass through the same revolutionary ordeal as its
western sister. In both provinces identical causes were producing
precisely similar results, and at nearly the same time.

ect;

CHAPTER XIT.

UPPER CANADA FROM 1791 TO 181I.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN GRAVES SIMCOE, ESQ.

WE have already seen that Upper Canada, or Ontario as it is
now termed, remained a mere wilderness, with the exception
of a few trifling settlements, till the termination of the American war
of Independence. From that period to its separation from Lower
Canada in 1791, it continued a portion of the Province of
' ^ ' Quebec, and was under the immediate control of its govern-
ment. Its population had in the meantime slowly increased, and when
erected into a separate province, with a legislature modelled on the
same principle as that of its sister government. Upper Canada con-
tained about twenty thousand souls. These were scattered along
the St Lawrence from Lake St Francis upwards to Kingston, thence
around the Bay of Quinte ; along the Niagara frontier, at Amherst-
burg, in the old French settlement on the Thames, and in the
Iroquois' settlement at Grand River.*

The' backwoodsman, whose fortunes are cast in the remote inland
settlements of the present day, far removed from churches, destitute

* The Mohawk tribe, ahnost to a man, qirtt their beaiiti(\il valley and retired
to Canada with the loyalists, under the leadership of their celebrated chief, John
Brant, on whom Campbell conferred an unenviable, though it would seem unjust,
immortality in his " Gertrude of Wyoming." Stone asserts, in his Life of Brant,
that he was not even present at the massacre of Wyoming, and with every appear-
ance of truth. Brant was a Christian, and a member of the Church of England.
In 1786 he built a church on the Grand River, for which he collected funds during
a visit to England, and there he placed the first "church-going bell" that ever
tolled in Upper Canada. Shortly before his death he built a commodious dwell-
ing-house, two stories high, for himself near Burlington Bay. Here he died on
the 24th November 1807, at the age of sixty-five years, after a painful illness borne
with Christian patience and resignation. He was succeeded in the chieftainship
of the Mohawks by his fourth son, John. — See Stone's Life of Brant, vol. ii. pp.
494-500.

The History of Canada,

of ministers of the gospel and medical men, without schools, or
roads, or the many conveniences that make life desirable, can alone
appreciate, or even understand, the numerous difllculties and hard-
ships that beset the first settler among the ague-swamps of Western
Canada. The clothes on his back, with a rifle or old musket and a
well-tempered axe, were not unfrequently the full extent of his worldly
])ossessions. Thus lightly equipped he took possession of his two
hundred acres of closely-timbered forest-land and commenced
operations. The welkin rings again with his vigorous strokes, as
huge tree after tree is assailed and tumbled to the earth ; and the
sun presently shines in upon the little clearing. The best of the
logs are partially squared, and serve to build a shanty ; the remainder
are given to the flames. Now the rich mould, the accumulation of
centuries of decayed vegetation, is gathered into little hillocks, into
which potatoes are dibbled. Indian corn is planted in another
direction, and perhaps a little wheat. If married, the lonely couple
struggle on in their forest oasis, like the solitary traveller over the
sands of Sahara, or a boat adrift in the Atlantic. The nearest
neighbour lives miles off, and when sickness comes they have to
travel far through the forest to claim human sympathy. But for-
tunately our nature, with elastic temperament, adapts itself to circum-
stance. By and by the potatoes peep up, and the corn-blades
modestly show themselves around the charred maple stumps and
girdled pines, and the prospect of sufficiency of food gives consola-
tion. As winter approaches a deer now and then adds to the
comforts of the solitary people. Such were the mass of the first
settlers in Western Canada. Within the brief space of seventy-six
years, how marvellous has been the change.
When Governor Simcoe arrived in Upper Canada, on the

• 1 70''

8th of July, beyond a small village at Kingston, and another ' ''*'■
at Newark, or Niagara, with an occasional cluster of log-cabins, there
was nothing in the country that was entitled to the name of town.
Newark being the most central, and at the same time the most populous
of these villages, he determined should be his capital for the present ;
and here he accordingly fixed his residence in a small frame house,
about half a mile from the village ; and here, also, he assembled the
first Provincial Parliament of Upper Canada on the 17th of Sep-
tember. The Lower House was composed of sixteen members,
plain farmers or merchants ; the Upper House of a still smaller
number. Yet the acts of the first session of the first Parliament
of Upper Canada displayed great common sense, and an intimate
acquaintance with the necessities of the country. They were eight

234

The History of Canada.

in number. One introduced the English civil law ; another estab-
lished trial by jury \ a third provided for the easier recovery of small
debts. There was an act to regulate the toll to be taken in mills ;
from which we may gather, that millers were as much disposed to
take more than their share in those days as at a later period. They
were now restricted to one-twelfth as their prop-^rtion for grinding
and bolting. Another act made provision for building a jail and
court-house in each of the four districts, into which the province had
been divided. These comprised the Eastern, or Johnstown district ;
the Middle, or Kingston district; the Home, or Niagara district;
and the Western, or Detroit district. These districts were again
subdivided into twelve counties.

Even in these rude times when men flung down the axe, left the
plough to repose, or ceased to swing the scythe to mature laws, in
what was little better than a log barn, at Niagara, there was more
of the spirit of real progress in Upper than in Lower Canada. It
took the courtly seigniors of the latter seven months, at their first
session of Parliament, to mature eight bills ; the home-spun farmers
of Upper Canada did precisely the same amount of work in five
weeks. They were evidently men after Governor Simcoe's own
heart, to judge from the speech with which he closed the session on
the 15th of October.*

• " It is with very great satisfaction that I have considered the acts which you
have found it expedient to frame, and to which, in consequence of the power
delegated to me, I have this day given my assent, that they shall become laws of
Upper Canada.

"As the division which his Majesty, in his wisdom, thought proper to make of
the late province of Quebec obviated all inconveniences, and laid the foundation
for an establishment of the English laws in the province, it is natural to presume
that you would seize the first opportunity to impart that benefit to your fellow-
subjects ; and by an act to establish trial by jury, and by that, which makes the
English law the rule of decision, in all matters of controversy, relative to property
and civil rights, you have fully justified the public expectation. Your other acts
seem calculated to promote the general welfare and convenience of the province.

"His Majesty, in his benevolence, having directed a seventh from such lands
as shall be granted to be reserved to the Crown, for the public benefit, it will
become my duty to take those measures which shall appear to be necessary to
fulfil his Majesty's gracious intentions ; and make no doubt but, as citizens and
magistrates, you will give every assistance in your power to carry into full effect a
system, from which the public and posterity must derive such peculiar advantages.

"I cannot dismiss you without earnestly desiring you to promote, by precept
and example, among your respective counties, the regular habits of piety and
morality, the surest foundations of all private and public felicity ; and, at this
juncture, I particularly recommend to you to explain, that this province is singu-
larly blest, not with a mutilated constitution, but with a constitution which has

The History of Canada.

235

His Excellency had served In the American war, still retained the
command of a regiment, and held besides the rank of brigadier. In
addition to his pay he owned extensive estates in England,'^ and it
is difhcult to conceive what could have induced him to bury himself
in the forests of Canada. The enlightened and liberal measures
he pursuetl lead to the supposition that he was actuated by j)atriotic
motives ; but very probably these were not unmixed with the belief
a war would ere long spring up between Britain and her revolted
colonies, in which as Governor of Upper Canada he must play an
important part, and thus gratify the dislike he had conceived against
Anierica.t As a member of the British House of Commons he
supported Mr Pitt's bill giving a new constitution to Canada, and
possibly he desired to carry out the measure he had advocated.
But, v.-hatever might have been his motives for accepting the
Governorship of Upper Canada, his designs were on a scale com-
mensurate to the vastness of the country, and were attended with the
most beneficial consequences.

When Mr Simco6 first came to Canada he supposed thp.t the
Home Government would retain possession of the fort on the
American side of the Niagara River,:}: and which was still strongly
garrisoned by British troops. When he found it was to be sur-
rendered, he abandoned the design of making Newark his
capital, as it would be too near the frontier. "The chief '^^'
town of a province must not be placed under the guns of an
enemy's fort," said the Goxernor, and he accordingly turned his
attention to procuring a more suitable site for the metropolis of
Upper Canada. In the summer he coasted along the upper shore
of Lake Ontario ; took a look into Welland River, and Twenty-mile
Creek ; surveyed Burlington Bay ; and finally halted near the ruins
of the old French fort, Toronto, so called after the Italian Tarento,
where the inmates of a solitary wigwam§ represented the Huron

stood the test of experience, and is the Vtry image and imnscript of that of Great
Britain;* by which she has long established and secured to her subjects as much
freedom and happiness as is possible to be enjoyed under the subordination
necessary to civilised society."

* Rochefoucault's Travels, 1795.
t Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 144.

J During Simcoe's government the construction of Fort George on the British
side of the river was commenced nearly opposite to Fort Niagara. Another fort
was soon after commenced at Amherstburg, to which the garrison from Detroit
was withdrawn.

§ Bouchette's Topography, p. 607.

* In making this statement Mr Simcoe evidently forgot the Irresponsible executive of CuuuUa.

i 'I

236

T/ie History of Canada.

nation on this their ancient hunting-ground. Here a neck of land
stretching boldly out into the l;.ke formed a secure harbour for
shipping. Lake Ontario rolled thirty-six miles of its waters between
it and t le American shore, thus lessening the dangers of invasion ;
and the vast forests of beech and maple, and other hard woods of
Canada, tho': stretched away along the old French track towards
Lake Simcoe, showed the land to be fertile. The geoj^raphical
situation of Toronto was excellent. To the east, and south, and
west, the broad lake gave easy access. To the north, thirty miles
gained the Holland River, then navigable for its short intervening
distance to the beautiful lake into v! '.oh it falls. From Lake
Simcoe it was easy to penetrate to Lake Huron, on the one hand,
and to the chain of small lakes lying towards the Upper Ottawa,
on the other. All these considerations no doubt presented them-
selves to the mind of Governor Simcoe, whose industry

' ^^' had already made him acquainted with the resources of
the country ] and he determined that Toronto should be his capital
city. The result has amply justified his choice. From a locality
where fifty years ago the Leaver gamboreu in solitary streams, rar ly
visited by human footsteps, and where fever and ague reigned
supreme, has arisen one of the most beautiful cities of the American
continent, with a population of fifty thousand souls. In

'^^' 1795 the infant city was described by the French traveller,
Rochefoucault, as containing twelve houses, besides the barracks in
which Simcoe's regiment were quartered. The inhabitants he stig-
matised as not possessing the fairest character.

The liberality with which land was granted to actual settlers,
quickly induced many persons to emigrate from the United States
to Ujjper Canada. Its population soon rose to thirty thousand souls,
and Governor Simcoe now began to diead that the country would
be chiefly settled by Americans ; who, despite their oath of allegiance,
might not always make the most loyal subjects. They were hard-
working peaceable citizens, nevertheless, and his desire to see the
country {prosper would not allow him to thwart their settlement
within his government. Here was a new difficulty. If Toronto, or
York, as he named it, should be chiefly settled by Americanc, he
migh*: just as well make Newark his capital. He now conceived
the idea of establishing the metropolis of Canada on a river, named
De la Trenche in old French maps, but which he re christened by
the name of Thames, and on which his London of the New World
was to arise. A belt of loyal settlers stretched along the coast of
Lake Erie was to give additional security to the future city, as

The History of Canada.

city,

regarded internal disaffection, and to form an efficient militia in time
of war.

Governor Simcoe's plans, however, were thwarted in a direction he
did not anticipate. In civil matters he was donr.inant in his province,
and with regard to them communicated directly with the British
ministry. But Upper Canada had little public revenue of its own ;
the Governor-General, Lord Dorchester, held the imperial purse-
strings, was, moreover. Commander-in-chief of British North America,
and had therefore the disposition of troops and vessels of war. He
directed that Kingston should be the principal naval and military
station of Lake Ontario ; such it accordingly became, and such it
remains to the present time. Forty-three years afterwards. Sir John
Colborne carried out Governor Simcoe's plan in part, by erecting
extensive barracks on the spot he had chosen for his metropolis.
Houses rapidly sprung up in their neighbourhood ; and the London
of Canada has already expanded into a flourishing city of eighteen
thousand inhabitants, the centre of a vast system of railroads,
and the capital of the most fertile d'"/rict of Britain in the New
World.

The second session of the Upper Canada Parliament commenced
at Niagara on the 31st of May, and tlurteen useful bills
were passed. One of these provided for the payment of '^^'
members at the rate of two dollars per day ; a very moderate allow-
ance for legislators at a time when ordinary farm-labourers received
half that sum for eleven hour^' work. But by far the most important
law passed at this session was one levelled against slavery, which,
although opposed to the spirit of the common law of England, had
nevertheless been permitted to exist in the Canadas by an act of the
Imperial Parliament. This act licensed the importation of slaves
into the " Province of Quebec," and under its authority a few negroes
had been already introduced into Upper Canada. But slavery was
fully as repugnai.'t to its rustic legislator as it was to the Magna
Charta of King j ohn, and he now declared that no more slaves were
to be imported into the colony under certain pains and penalties,
and that even voluntary contracts for pergonal services were to \>^
limited to nine years. But he did not think even this a sufficient
step in the cause of hum m freedom. While the act confirmed the
property of masters in slaves, imported under authorised hccnces,
pro\'ision was made that their future children should be manumitted
at the age of twenty-five years. Thus, ten years before slavery was
aboHshcd in Lower Canada, by the decision of its Chief-Justice, the
farmers of Upper Canada had struck a blow fatal to its existence, and

• -I'm

.i^?

? : (

II,

238

The History of Canada.

in the lapse of a few years every semblance of it nad disappeared
from the province.

The Parhament of Upper Canada, in those days, was elected
every four years, and the first Assembly accordingly termin-

'^^" ated with the session of 1795, ^'^^^'^ ^■t Niagara. The laws
enacted were all of a useful and eminently practical character, and
reflected considerable credit on their framers.

Beyond the information to be gleaned from the Statute Book and
the scant public records, little is known of the social condition of
Canada West at this period, although time stood on the chreshold of
the present generation. The public press of the province was limited
to a demy sheet, issued as a Government Gazette at Niagara, not the
fourth part of the expense of which was repaid by its circulation,
averaging from fifty to one hundred and fifty copies. It was pub-
lished weekly, and contained short abstracts from the New York and
Albany papers, as well as from the Quebec Gazette, of news usually
a month old. The little press on which it was thrown off served also
to print the acts of the Legislature, and the proclamations and circu-
lars issued by the Governor, which gave it the greatest share of
employment.

Owing to complaints made by the American Government with
regard to Governor Simcoe's exciting the hostilities of the Iroquois,
both in Canada and western New York, and his plans not '" ;ing
approved ' f by either Lord Dorchester or the British min-
'^ ■ istry, he was recalled in 1796, when Mr Russell, as senior
member of the Executive Council, assumed the direction of public
affairs.

No sooner had the Governor departed, than the principal designs
he had formed, many of which were most judicious, were abandoned,
and several of his engagements with settlers violated. Lands which
he designed should be given to actual occupants were seized upon by
the favourites of men in power for the purpose of speculation. Great
injury was thus inflicted upon settlers whose properties were insulated
by forest tracts, which shut them out from mutual intercourse and
holp, so necessary in a new country; while, at the same time, this
condition of things rendered their farms of lejs value.*

This year Niagara ceased to be the capital of Upper Canada. The
Government ofiices were removed to Toronto, where the

1707
> ■"' second Parhament ot the province assembled on the ist of

June, to hoIJ its second session, at which seventeen acts were passed

and confirmed by the President. '

* Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 310.

The History of Canada.

239

1798.
1799.

1800.

No Governor having arrived, Mr Russell still continued to direct
the administration. On the 5th of June, in the following
year, he again assembled the Legislature ; and likewise per-
formed the same office on the 12th of June, 1799. Mean-
while Major-General Peter Hunter had been appointed Lieutenant-
Governor of the province, and arrived out in the course of the year.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF 1 ETER HUNTER, ESQ.

Canada under French dominion, as we have already frequently
seen, was never able to compete with the British colonies
for the western trade. The rapids of the St Lawrence, and
the long portages they rendered necessary in its ascent, made the
communication tedious and difficult with the great lakes ; and, aside
from a restricted trade, placed a formidable barrier in the way of
inland commerce. The road to Lake Ontario was comparatively
easy from New York or Albany, and the greater rapidity with which
n'ierc^''T hse consequently traversed to and fro from the sea-board,
gavt ■■.;.] '.. chants of those cities an immense advantage over traders
froL. L. .- Canada. The same state of things precisely continued
long after tiie first settlement of Upper Canada, which became almost
immediately tributary to the trade of the State of New York, and so
continued till the construction of the St Lawrence canals removed
the unfavourable features in its geographical position. Western New
York dates its settlement from the same period as Western Canada,
But the former had much greater advantage? on its side, a^id its
progress at first was consequently more rapid. An international
commerce soon began to spring up across Lake Ontario, the upper
St Lawrence, and the Niagara River. This, the non-speechifying,
practical legislators of the province deemed it necessary to regulate,
and accordingly in their session convened by General Hunter, at
Toronto, on the 2d of June, an act was passed with that object
in view, and which gave the Governor in council power to establish
ports of entry, and adopt such otber measures as might be desirable.

Still, it was evident that the commercial intercourse which had
sprung up between the two countries had not removed the Canadian
jealousy of the presumed American desire for conquest; so,
in the ensuing year an act, about to expire, for the better
security of the province against the King's enemies was continued in
force. To help the Crown to defray the increased civil exp«'nses, the
duties collected on products brought from the United .States, which
were the same as those levied on English goods, were handed over
to his Majesty for a certain term, and Cornwall, Brockville, (J</lins-

1801,

P' ' <i

•miiiM

240

The History of Canada.

\ \ \\

town,) Newcastle, Toronto, (York,) Niagara, Queenstown, Fort Erie,
Turkey Point, Amherstburg, and Sandwich declared ports of entry.
The Governor had the privilege of appointing collectors, whose
salaries were not to exceed ;!^ioo currency; while below that sum,
they were paid with one-half the amount of all the duties they col-
lected ; from which it may be gathered, that this branch of revenue
was not in a very flourishing condition. Another act, passed at this
session, prohibited the sale of spirituous liquors and strong waters in
the Indian settlement on the Thames.

All this time English, Irish, Scotch, and American emigrants, 'the
latter , "ill the most numerous, came to seek a home in the new
province \ but the English, as at the present day, were the fewest of
all. From Ireland, where the troubles of " '98 " had left many a
hearth desolate, and many a heart seared and crushed with sorrow,
came most of the old country people. Better a free home, even
thou.i^h it were the rudest shanty of the backwoodsman in the sad
and sombre forests of Canada than the cottage in old Erin, where
any moment the White-boy might cruelly thrust the crackhng turf
into the thatch, or the minions of Castlereagh level its walls to the
ground. And thus settlements gradually spread on every side.
When the Legislature next sat, the new district of Newcastle
had been formed, and an act was passed providing for the
admmistration of justice therein. Another act opened new ports of
entry to meet the wants of the increasing population. A third granted
j^75o to encourage the growth of hemp, with a view to make
England independent of Russia, and voted j£,Z\ for stationery for
the House \ a very moderate sum for writing materials, when com-
pared with the present public expenditure of Canada in that way.
Aside from the proceedings of the Legislature there is very little
known of Mr Hunter's administration. Responsible govern-
^* ment did not then exist: there was no "opposiuon party"
in Parhament, nor an independent press to chronicle its sayings and
its doings, and comment on its measures, had the contrary been the
case. The farmers and store -keepers kept close to their farms or their
shops, and when they happened to be members of the Assembly, and
had legislated to their hearts' content, went home to look after their
business, leaving the irresponsible executive to take care of theirs, with-
out troubling themselves further about the conduct of affairs. At all
events, in a Commons of sixteen, or in a Legislative Council of eight
or ten members, some of whose literary acquirements barely extended
to a knowledge of reading and writing, a m.ajority against ministers
would not be a very terrible affair. There were neither reformers

1802.

The History of Canada.

241

party"
ngs and
jcea the

or their
bly, and
:er their
irs, with-
Atall

of eight
xtended
iiinisters

formers

nor conservatives in those days, and public questions were decided
solely on their merits : party had nothing to do with them one way
or the other. The Assembly made laws to guide the executive, and
the executive enforced them or not as they deemed proper ;
so matters up to 1804 had progressed harmoniously. While ^'

the country was very sparsely populated, and the people poor and
ill-informed, this might, after all, be the best possible state of things.
Canada had hitherto been too young to admit of a healthy political
opposition to any public measure, and faction among a race of
rough backwoodsmen must have seriously retarded the progress of the
country. The people had few tuxes to pay, and for years had been
too busy tumbling down the huge forests, getting out rails, planting
wheat and corn and potatoes, and making their homes more com-
fortable, to trouble themselves much about the affairs of government.
Over twenty years of hard and incessant toil and an average pros-
perity, at length gave leisure to the early pioneers of „
Canada to look around them, in order to see how matters
had progressed during their long and arduous struggle with the
forest. They now perceived that a new state of thii gs had gradually
arisen, and that while they had been improving their condition, and
the country slowly prospering in proportion to their individual
success, causes had been silently operating which laid the foundation
of serious public evils. Among the principal of these was an irre-
sponsible executive council, which had speedily gathered round
itself the whole administrative influence of the colony. This council
was composed of the Governor, and of five others removable at his
pleasure. It was, therefore, to all intents and purposes a one-man-
power, provided the Governor was a person of resolution and ability ;
but if he were weak or timid, then the rest of the council became
the supreme power, and acted as they deemed proper.

In a wealthy and populous community, a House of Assembly, and
an intelligent and independent press, might serve as a counterpoise
lO an absolute executive of this kind, but in Canada West, at this
period, the trifling public revenue, wholly inadequate to meet the
current expenses of the civil list, had already been handed over to
the Government, and no check could under these circumstances be
established by an annual vote of supplies. As for the public press
of the province, it was still composed of the solitary Gazette, which
was completely in the hands of the Government, and accordingly
supported every measure of the executive.

To understand the position of Canada at this period, it must be
remembered, that in Great Britain the Constitution had been the

tl;: 'J

242

The History of Canada.

product of ages, and happily was of so expansive a character as
gradually to adapt itself to the increased intelligence and necessities
of the people. Of this intelligence and these necessities Magna
Charta itself was the offspring. At a later period they produced the
revolution which drove the despotic James from the throne, and
inaugurated a new era of constitutional liberty with the accession of
William III. With him, also, came in responsible government, and
from thenceforth when ministers could not command a majority
they retired from office. It will, therefore, be seen at a glance that
the British ministry, in framing the Constitution of 1791 for Canada,
had evidently presumed that its social condition must resemble that
of England before the Revolution of 1C88, and gave it accordingly
very nearly the form of government existing there anterior to that
period. Canada had accordingly to go through the same revolu-
tionary ordeal, with the difference that its rapid increase in popu-
lation and wealth brought the crisis about in a few years, which in
England it had taken generations to mature.

Where electors do not exercise an indirect influence upon Govern-
ment through their representatives, the elective franchise is of little
comparative value. The executive is the only real governing power
in the state, and the people must be content to be ruled by the
King or his representative, if he is a despot like James II. or Oliver
Cromwell, or by an oligarchy. Thus, the Canadian Constitution of
1 79 1 only permitted of a single alternative. To be governed by an
oligarchy was the fate of both Upper and Lower Canada. Circum-
stances cast the balance in its favour, and even as early as 1805 its
reign had aire:; ^y commenced. A pure despotism wielded by a
conscientious man of talent would no doubt have been preferable to
this mode of government, had it not, fortunately, been a stepping-
stone to a better state of things. Had the Constitution of 1791
made due provision for a change to responsible government, when
the wealth and intelligence of the people warranted such a step,
much disorder and some misery would have been avoided. Still,
it had all the progressive qualities of its venerable ancestor ; time
corrected its errors; and as the English Constitution outlived the
Revolution of 1688, so did that of Canada exist after the union of the
two provinces. Its Constitution is now almost a perfect transcript
of that of the mother country, and promises to endure for ages.

The evils of an irresponsible government, of themselves sufficiently
opjiressive, were increased by causes of a local character, and which
could only exist in a ne.v country. As Canada West became more
prosperous, it also became the refuge of a host of poor gentlemen.

The History of Canada.

243

more
omen.

half-pay officers and others, who came thither to improve their for-
tunes. While under French dominion, this class of persons had
proved a serious drawback to the prosperity of Lower Canada \ and
as Canada West had no commissions to give in a corps of " Colony
Troops," matters were now worse with them than ever. Some had
sold their commissions ; their grants of lands were likewise soon dis-
posed of at a dollar or two an acre ; and they then became hangers-
on )f the administration, to be thrust into every petty office as it
became vacant, whether they were fit for it or otherwise. Others,
more prudent, retained at least as much of their land as they con-
sidered they could cultivate to advantage, and sought to preserve by
their exclusiveness the superiority which they supposed their advan-
tages of education, and the station they had occupied hitherto in
society, ought to entitle them to. But, in a country where even
Governor Simcoe could not retain a single male servant ; where
a man could acquire two hundred acres of fertile land by simple
occupation or three months' wages ; and where a number of small
proprietors in fee-simple created a conservative democracy, this
claim to superiority was somewhat difficult to be established. Hence
this class also came to regard government influence as the only way
of preserving their presumed respectability. So their necessities
gradually drew these poor gentlemen of Canada closer and closer,
till at length they became a distinct party in the country. Fostered
by an irresponsible Government, which leaned to the foundation of
a Canadian aristocracy, this party gradually acquired strength and
influence ; i.s members intermarried backwards and forwards among
themselves, and at length it emerged into the full-blown, famous
Family Compact,

But there was a third class of poor gentlemen who pursued a wiser
and more manly course. Acting on the truism, "that God helps
those who help themselves," they readily adapted themselves without
complaint to their altered condition. While they learned to wield
the axe and swing the cradle with the energy and skill of the roughest
backwoodsman, they retained their polished manners, their literary
tastes, their love for the beautiful and the elegant, and thus exercised
the most beneficial influence on their rustic neighbours. In the
absence of schools, of churches, of most of the refining influences of
civilised society, this class of the early settlers of Upper Canada were
foremost in usefulness. Their superior education, their well-bred
manners, their more refined habits, raised them in the estimation of
the rural population, who soon tacitly admitted a superiority, which
would never have been conceded were it more directly asserted.

■T

it-

244

The History of Canada.

Thus, as early as 1805, we find two distinct parties existing in
Canada West, which were very closely assimilated to the Tory and
Whig parties of Great Britian anterior to the Revolution. The first
clung to an irresponsible executive, as the source of their power and
even of their very existence ; the second desired a larger measure of
constitutional liberty. The advantages of government support, more
ample means, and more generally diffused intelligence, gave the Tory
party a long and decided superiority ; still the triumph of their oppo-
nents remained merely a matter of time.

A system of favouritism, and the constant desire of parties in power
to benefit their friends and supporters, speedily produced many
abuses under the easy sway of Governor Hunter. Patents were
refused to actual settlers for lands which were subsequently deeded
to non-occupants. Upwards of ;^6o,ooo* were annually expended
for the benefit of the Indian tribes, and presented a favourable
opportunity for peculation, of which many were not slow to avail
themselves. The provisions, clothing, and farming utensils granted
by the British Government for the benefit of poor loyalists, were in
many cases handed over to favourites ; in others, allowed to become
useless, from negligence, in the public stores.f

Nor was the administration of justice what it might be desired, or
what it most undoubtedly ought to have been. Judges did not hold
their commissions for life, if they conducted themselves with propriety,
as at the present day, and were removable at the pleasure of the
Crown. This circumstance weakened their personal influence, and
in some cases, possibly, swayed their decisions. Juries accordingly
disregarded the bench. On one occasion, in the presence of the
Chief- Justice, the people became tumultuous, and the stocks were
publicly broken. Shopkeepers were usually the justices of the peace,
and thus armed with the means of extortion, and the power of enforc-
ing payment, not unfrequently used both in their own favour. The
courts of appeal were badly constructed ; their practice arbitrary and
oppressive. Favourite attorneys were made deputy-clerks of the
peace, so that writs might be more readily obtained, while th i Crown
lawyer was "paid by the job," and allowed about ;^7 tor each
criminal prosecution, a temptation to frivolous indictments.

In one instance, an action was brought against a magistrate for
an illegal decision, and he was mulcted in ;^ioo. An attempt
was made to set this verdict aside in the King's Bench, but
that failing, the Crown lawyer ordered the clerk of the court not to

* Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 150.

t Jackson's Pamphlet on Canada, 1809.

The History of Canada.

!45

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1S09.

1806.

issue the execution, which was therefore refused. A sheriff, again,
dare not apply for his fees ; nor the printer sue for the money voteil
him by the Assembly for 'printing their journals ; nor the public
surveyors press their claims for services rendered in laying out new
townships. Such was the condition of matters when Mr Thorpe, a
respectable English lawyer, arrived in Canada West as one of the
judges of the Court of King's Bench, and whose upright conduct
tended to allay the irritation now beginning to spread itself among
the people.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANCIS GORE, ESQ.

Mr Hunter having been recalled, after a brief interregnum by
Alexander Grant as President, Mi tiore arrived from Eng-
land to take charge of the pro\ inre, as Lieutenant-Gover-
nor. This gentleman stood high in point of personal worth; was of
a manly and generous though easily influenced disposition ; and, no
doubt, desired to govern the province justly. The faults which subse-
quently distinguished his administration were evidently owing to his
ignorance of the country, in the first place ; to a subservient Legisla-
ture, and a too great proportion of arbitrary power, in the second, and
which power unfortunately he soon resigned into the hands of the
oligarchy. As might naturally be expected, he was almost immediately
surrounded, on his arrival, by the leaders of the Tory party, and was
speedily influenced in their favour. Compared with these courtly
gendemen, who composed, in a measure, the best society of the little
capital, and enlivened the soirees of the Governor by the wit and
polished manners they had acquired in refined circles in the mother
country, the frieze-coated farmers had not the remotest chance of
obtaining ministerial influence.

Still, the people did not stand the less sturdily up for their rights.
An impartial administration of justice had made Judge Thorpe
already popular, and when he went on circuit the several grand
juries intrusted their grievances to him, to be laid before the Gover-
nor. The latter soon became prejudiced against the judge, and
when a constituency almost unanimously invited him to represent
them in Parliament, (for in those days judges were eligible for the
oflice,) every Government engine was set at work to defeat him.
Thorpe never solicited a vote ; still he was elected. The solitary
riewspaper was now loud in its abuse, and denounced the people's
favourite in no measured terms. This led to the estab-
lishment of an independent journal, the Upper Cattada ''
Guardian; so the war between the rival parties had fairly com-

246

The Ilistoty of Canada,

menccd.* Thorpe, however, fell a victim to his popularity. The
representations of the Governor procured his recall by the Secretary
of State.f He subsequently sued Mr Gore in England for libel, got
a verdict in his favour, was discarded by the ministry on the fust
opportunity, and in old age anil infirmity consigned to poverty and

neglect.^

The first session of the Provincial Parliament convened by Mr
Gore, was distinguished by a very liberal appropriation of J[,'^oo for
the purpose of paying the salaries of masters of grammar schools, in
each of the eight districts into which Upper Canada had by this time
expanded. The [latronage was vested in the Government. The
sum of ;i^ioo a year was an object to a half-pay officer, or some
other reduced gentleman ; so the greater part of the masterships
were given to this class of persons, who, from their previous habits,
and ignorance of the principles of tuition, were every way unfit for
the office. Other acts passed this session continued laws about to
expire, the most important of which was that handing over the cus-
toms' duties to the Crown for a period of two years longer.

While we have been thus careful to trace, as accurately as possible,
the rise of political parties in Canada, and the origin of those causes
which subsequently led to serious evils in the state, we do not desire
to convey the impression for a moment that the people at this
period were dissatisfied with the fundamental principles of the Con-
stitution. Responsible government was a question of much later
origin. Whatever dissatisfaction at this time was felt by the public
was chiefly directed against the arbitrary conduct of the executive,
the extortions of law officers, and individual acts of oppression.
The great bulk of the people continued to be steadily attached to
Great Britain ; and although several desired to connect themselves

* Willcocks, the editor of this paper, was an Irishman of respectable parentage.
He had been sheriff of the Home District, but was deprived of his office in 1806,
for voting against the wishes of the Governor at Thorpe's election. He soon
became popular with the people, was elected to serve in the Assembly, which
speedily thrust him in the Toronto jail, then a miserable log-hut, for making too
free with their affairs. Released from this, he became still more popular, and for
awhile was at the head of the majority in the Assembly. The troubles of 1812
forced him to give up his paper, when he shouldered a musket and fought as a
volunteer against the Ameiicans at the battle of Queenstown. Still, Government
treated him harshly, and at length, thoroughly disheartened and disgusted, he
deserted to the enemy, taking a body of Canadian militia over with him. The
Americans rewarded his treason by making him a colonel. He was afterwards
killed at the siege of Fort Erie while planting a guard.

t Jackson's Pamphlet on Canada, 1809.

X Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 335. Bonnycastle's Canada as it Was, &c., vol. i. pp. 51, 52.

The History of Canada.

247

with the United States, and whose representations led in a mcasine
to the invasion of the i)rovince in 1812, this treasonable feeling was
by no means general. There was no desire, as a rule, to cure exist-
ing evils by superseding the monarchical institutions of the colony
with a rejiublic. A purer administration of justice, a milder and
more impartial sway on the part of the executive, were all that were
necessary to secure the loyalty of the great mass of the people.
Owing to the agitation connected with the election of Thorpe, the
exposures made by the opposition press, and other occurrences
favourable to liberty and free inquiry, concessions of this character
were made about this time, and pubhc matters progressed more
smoothly. During the course of the year, Judge Powell, who fig'ured
so prominently in the affairs of Canada West, became a member of
the Executive Council.*

Meanwhile, the province had continued to prosper steadily. New
settlements had spread themselves out in every direction

into the interior, and the population had increased to about

1809.

51. 52-

seventy thousand souls. The commerce of the country had pro-
gressed in proportion. By an arrangement with the lower province,
goods for Canada West were now entered at Couteau du Lac, and
the amount collected on these, for the year ending January 5th,
exceeded ;^4ooo currency. There was also a considerable importa-
tion by way of the United States, and the public revenue from
customs' duties alone was now nearly ^^7000. The tariff was very
low. The duty on liquors, exclusive of a small impost levied by the
Imperial Government, for the support of the civil administration of
the province, was sixpence per gallon ; on wine, ninepence ; on teas,
from twopence to fourpence per lb. The importations chiefly
embraced groceries, as the bulk of the inhabitants manufactured
their own wearing apparel.

No civilised country in the world was less burdened with taxes
than Canada West at this period. A small direct tax on property,
levied by the District Courts of Session, and not amounting to
;^35oo for the whole country, sufficed for all local expenses. There
was no poor-rate, no capitation tax, no tithes or ecclesiastical rates
of any kind. Instead of a road tax a few days of statute labour
annually sufficed. Nowhere did the working man find the produce
of his labour so little diminished by exactions of any kind. Canada
West literally teemed with abundance ; while its people, unlike the
early French and American settlers, had nothing to apprehend from
the red man, and enjoyed the increase of the earth in peace.f
* Sevenih Grievance Report, p. 303. t Gourlay, vol. i. pp. 217-223.

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248

The History of Canada,

The chief check to the greater prosperity of the country at this
period, was the want of a paper currency, there being no bank in
Canada. Gold and silver were the only circulating medium ; and as
the exports did not balance the imports, the little money brought
into the coloi y by settlers, or paid out by the Government, was
insufficient to meet the increasing wants of the comm unity. A
system of barter was thus originated between the merchant and
farmer, highly prejudicial to the latter, and which frequently led him
into debt. Nor were the public morals as much calculated to
advance the welfare of the country as could be desired. Intem-
perance was a very prevalent vice \ the rough backwoodsmen, too,
were often quarrelsome in their cups, and pugilistic encounters very
frequently took place. Murders, however, unlike a former period,
were now of rare occurrence. The mass of the people may be
described as a rough, home-spun generation ; with little religion,*
still less education ; but honest in their general demeanour, sturdy
yet simple in their manners, and exceedingly hospitable in their
homes.f

During this year little of moment occurred. The Legislature met
on the ist of February. To judge from the tenor of their
proceedings no apprehension was entertained of a war with
the neighbouring States, to which, however, events were now rapidly
tending. The sum of ;;^2ooo was granted for laying out new roads
and building bridges, by one act ; another was levelled against
forgers of bills of exchange and foreign notes and orders. These
were the most important acts out of thirteen. During the summer
of the ensuing year Mr Gore received leave of absence,
being desirous to vijit England. He proceeded thither
shortly after, leaving the gallant Major-General Brock in temporary
charge of the administration.

* In 1809 there were only four ministers of the Church of England in Canada
West, and comparatively few of other Protestant denominations,
t Gourlay, vol. i. pp. 247-256.

1810.

1811.

CHAPTER Xlir.

CAUSES LEADING TO THE SECOND AMERICAN INVASION OF CANADA.

NOTHING could be more natural than that the American
people, after the long and bloody struggle which won their
independence, should cherish a feeling of bitter animosity towards
the British nation, while they evinced a corresponding proportion of
gratitude with respect to their allies, the French. They totally lost
sight of the fact that the British Parliament were not by any means
the British people, the great majority of whom sympathised with the
struggle of their relatives in America for constitutional liberty, and
bitterly deplored the miseries it produced. This feeling intermingled
itself with the popular poetry of the country ; and many a mournful
ballad, set to the pathetic strains of Celtic melody, commemorated,
among the Highlands of Scotia and the vernal valleys of Erin, the
deplorable events of the American revolutionary war. But the
leaders of the Revolution were not actuated by the hostile feeling
which had taken such firm hold of the undiscerning masses. Their
aim was to overturn a pernicious system — to achieve their own
independence ; not to crush a people whose interests, laws, religion
and language were identical with their own. They felt America was
merely an elder daughter of the ancient British family ; and that,
although she had commenced housekeeping for herself, and had
considerable difficulty in escaping from parental tutelage, a vast
amount of mutual benefit must still result from friendly intercourse.
Hence, the student of American history will readily understand
why the whole efforts of the great Washington and his friends, up to
the period of his retirement from public life, in 1796, were directed
towards repressing the anti-British spirit which pervaded the de-
mocracy of their country, and laying the foundation of a lasting
peace with Great Britain. Yet, so strong were the sympathies of
the American people with France and revolution, that in 1793 it
appeared as if the current of popular opinion would sweep even

250

TJte History of Canada.

Washington from its path, and that a war with Britain must speedily
take place. That true patriot was accused, in this period of intem-
perate national folly, of being " like the traitor Arnold, a spy sold
to the English." But, still unmoved, he firmly pursued the course
he was satisfied would most conduce to the benefit of his country.
The horrors of the French Revolution soon cooled the ardour of
American democratic admiration; law-abiding citizens could have
no sympathy with red-republican cut-throats. Washington's pacific
policy triumphed, and he had at length the gratification to see a
commercial treaty estabhshed with Great Britain.

But, although the partiality of the American Democrats for
France had been successfully thwarted by the firm conservative
conduct of the President, and lessened by the horrors of the guil-
lotine, it had not by any means been wholly removed. As the war
between Great Britain and France progressed during the Presidency
of Mr Adams, it gradually acquired renewed strength, despite the
haughty tone of the French Directory. Nor was this feeling very
sensibly weakened by the hostilities which broke out between the
United States and France in 1798, and which terminated in a treaty
of peace with Bonaparte in 1800. The election of Jefferson to the
Presidency, in 1801, completely established the ascendancy of the
Democratic party in the Union, and no longer checked by the
counteracting influence of Government, the jealousy and dislike of
everything British began to show itself more unmistakably than
ever. The republican sympathy of America was about to exhibit
the anomalous spectacle of allying itself to the despotic sway of
Napoleon, thus spurning the constitutional liberty of Britain, just
as at the present day it palliates the tyrannical rule of a Nicholas 01
an Alexander.

While the fleets of Great Britain swept the seas, and completely
annihilated the naval power of France and Spain, the astonishing
successes of Bonaparte gave him an equal preponderance on land.
Victory after victory completely crushed the power of Austria ; the
Prussians were irretrievably ruined at the battle of Jena j and the
continent of Europe was completely at his mercy. England alone
now stood in Bonaparte's way, and he determined to execute the
long-cherished projects he had formed against her commerce, and
thus strike at her power in the most vital part. By the celebrated
Berlin and Milan decrees, all the continental ports were

1807 *-'°^^^ against English manufactures, the whole British

Islands declared in a state of blockade, and the seizure

authorised of all vessels bound from British harbours, as well, also,

The History of Canada.

251

as that of British goods, wherever such could be found. England
retaliated by the no less famous " Orders in Council," which declared
all the ports of France and her allies, from which the British flag
was excluded, in a state of rigorous blockade, and that all trade in
articles the pioduce or manufacture of the said countries, or colonies,
should be deemed unlawful, and all such articles declared good
prize. These Orders in Council were merely adopting Bonaparte's
own measures against himself, and with him the responsibility solely
rested. The state of things arising out of these proceedings pressed
heavily upon neutrals, especially on the Americans, whose adven-
turous spirit had, during this long war, enabled them to engross a
great part of the carrying trade of the globe. It might naturally be
supposed, that the anger of their Government would be directed
against Bonaparte as the first aggressor. But this course did not
suit Mr Jefferson, who now saw a favourable opportunity of stirring
up the national hostility against England, and thus gratifying the
Democratic party, of which he was the leading exponent. He accord-
ingly refused to ratify a treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation,
concluded by the American minister at London with the British
Government; and, on the 27th of October, communicated an angry
message to Congress, inveighing bitterly against the British Orders in
Council, but not breathing a single syllable of complaint against the
Berhn decree, to which they were merely a reply. The Democratic
majority responded to this message by decreeing an embargo or pro-
hibition to American vessels to leave their ports, which caused much
distress and many murmurs, especially in the New England States,
whose shipping interests were as yet the most important in the Union.
Meanwhile, the right of searching for British deserters in American
ships, insisted on by the English Government, and other unfavour-
able circumstances, continued to widen the breach between the two
countries. On the 23d of June the American frigate Chesapeake was
cruising off Virginia, and being known to have some British deserters
on board was hailed by an English man-of-war, the Leopard^ of
seventy-four guns, commanded by Captain Humphries, who made
a formal requisition for these men. The American captain denied
he had them in his crew, and refused to admit the right of search,
but was compelled to strike his colours by a broadside, when the
deserters, one of whom was afterwards hung at Halifax, were taken
out of his vessel. But the English Government disavowed this act,
and offered to make reparation, as the right of search, when applied
to vessels of war, extended only to a simple requisition, and should
not be carried into effect by actual force.

252

The History of Canada.

1808.

The state of things which now existed between England and
the United States, gave little hopes of an amicable arrangement of
differences. The distress, however, caused by the embargo
strengthened the hands of the Federalists, or peace party,
who in New England, especially, acquired a decided preponderance.
Massachusetts boldly protested against the edict establishing it, de-
manded its repeal, and it now appeared as if there was a prospect of
the satisfactory adjustment of the points at issue. This prospect was
still further advanced by the election of Mr Madison to the Presi-
dency, by the repeal of the embargo law in March 1809,
' °^' and the substitution of an act prohibiting all intercourse
with France and England, but which provided, at the same time, that
if either of the belligerents should repeal their hostile edicts, this act
should cease to be in force with respect to that nation.

The English ministry deeming this a favourable time for negotia-
tion, despatched Mr Erskine to the United States for that purpose.
Unfortunately he exceeded his instructions. Considering the suspen-
sion of the Non-intercourse Act a fair equivalent for that of the
Orders in Council, he stipulated that the latter should cease to be
in force at a certain period. The English ministry refused to ratify
this arrangement; so a storm of indignation was raised in the L -^ited
States, the hands of the war party strengthened, and the Non-inter-
course Act renewed.

During this period, it can easily be imagined what an immense
injury the commerce of both countries sustained. The Orders in
Council were not withdrawn, although Bonaparte offered to suspend
the Berlin and Milan decrees if they were, and the matter now
appeared to be reduced to a point of etiquette, as to which
nation should first give in.* During the following year,
matters became more gloomy, and more portentous of war between
England and the United States. The prospect grew still
darker in the early part of 181 1. Mr Pinkney, the American
envoy at the British Court, took formal leave of the Prince Regent
on the I St of March, and a rupture now appeared inevitable. So
entirely were the American people of this opinion, that the inter-
course with France was openly renewed. French vessels crowded
into their harbours, were in numerous cases fitted out as privateers,
and did considerable mischief to British commerce. The crisis was
hastened by an accidentally hostile collision, on the i6th of May,
between an English sloop of war, the Little Belt, of eighteen guns,
and the American frigate President, of forty-four guns, in which the
• Alison's Hist. Europe, New York, vol. iv. p. 455.

1810.

1811.

The History of Canada.

253

former had thirty-two men killed and wounded. In the following
January, Congress, by a vote of one hundred and nine to _
twenty-two, decided to increase the regular troops to twenty-
five thousand men, and raise an immediate loan of $10,000,000.

By hastening hostilities, the Americans hoped to secure the capture
of the British homeward-bound West India fleet, before their designs
would be discovered. With this view Congress laid a general embargo
on all vessels in the harbours of the United States. They thus hoped
to conceal the intelligence of their warlike preparations from spread-
ing; while, at the same time, their idle commercial marine would enable
them to man their fleet more easily. In order to work the indignation
of members of Congress more effectually up to the necessary point,
the President laid certain documents before them, which he had
purchased from a Captain Henry for $50,000,* out of the secret
service fund. This person had resided in Canada during the greater
part of Sir James H. Craig's administration, and was sent by the latter
to Boston, in 1809, without the knowledge of the Home Government,
to gain information of the condition of poUtical parties in the United
States.f The intelligence he supplied was of very little value, and
could have been acquired just as well from the journals of the day. J
He was recalled after a three months' absence, during which he
ftTOte fourteen letters to General Craig's secretary. Not thinking
himself sufficiently remunerated for his services, he went to England
in 181 1, and applied to the Foreign Office for an additional reward,
stating that he would be satisfied with the post of Judge Advocate of
Lower Canada, or a perpetual consulate in the United States. He
was referred back to the Canadian Government ; but having already
got all he could expect in that quarter, he proceeded to the United
States, and offered to sell his papers to Madison. The latter
expecting important disclosures would be made, which would
strengthen his party, and blacken the British ministry, closed with
the proposal, and paid him the enormous sum already stated. Henry,
however, completely outwitted him. Still, although the President
obtained no information of importance, he turned what he did get to
the best advantage he could ; but the excitement the affair produced
speedily subsided,§ and the peace party suffered no injury.

On the 19th of June, Congress passed an act declaring war against
Great Britain, and directing that hostilities be immediately com-

• Frost's United States, p. 349

t Christie, vol. ii. p. 9.

X AHson's Hist. Europe, New York, vol. iv. p. 456.

I Auchinleck's Hist, of the War of 1812, p. 36.

254

The History of Canada.

menced. About the same time, the Orders in Council were repealed,
an occurrence which was known in the United States in a few weeks.
But although the ostensible cause of war was thus removed. Congress
did not recede from the hostile position it had assumed. Wide as
were their geographical limits, the Democracy of America desired
additional territory, and would fain have gratified their hatred of
Great Britain by driving her from the valley of the St Lawrence, and
thus depriving her of the source whence she now derived her chief
supply of timber, as well as a most important addition to her bread-
stuffs. But a most influential party in the United States vigorously
opposed this unholy lust for conquest. Delegates from several
counties of New York protested at Albany against the war, on the
ground that the same injury had been sustained from France j that
hostilities with the latter would equally have satisfied national dignity,
without anything like an equal risk of injury; that England had re-
voked her Orders in Council ; and that it was repugnant to a free
people to ally themselves with the Emperor Napoleon, " every action
of whose life demonstrated a thirst for universal empire and the
extinction of human freedom."*

In Congress, Randolph, of Virginia, opposed the impolicy of the
war, in eloquent and forcible language. " It seems," he said, " this
is to be a holiday campaign — Canada is to conquer herself — she is
to be subdued by the principles of fraternity. The people of that
country are first to be seduced from their allegiance, and converted
into traitors as a preparation to the making them good American
citizens. He detested this subornation of treason. If we must have
them let them fall by the valour of our arms, by fair legitimate con-
quest, not as the victims of treacherous seduction. By this war," he
continued, "you abandon all claims for the unparalleled outrages,
insults, and injuries of the French Government. By our own unwise
measures, we have so increased the trade and wealth of Montreal and
Quebec, that at last we begin to cast a wistful eye on Canada." "You
will act absurdly," said another member of Congress, Mr Sheffey, " if
you expect the people of Canada to join you. Upper Canada is
chiefly inhabited by emigrants from the United States. They will
not come back to you; they will not, without reason, desert the
Government to which they have gone for protection. No, sir, you
must conquer it by force, not by sowing the seeds of sedition and
treason among the people."

Such were the sentiments of the more honourable, the more

* See proceedings of Convention on the 17U1 and i8ch .September 1812, at
Albany.

TIte History of Canada.

255

moderate, and, certainly, not the least patriotic, of the American
people. The Democratic faction, in its thirst for conquest, would
ally itself with the despotic Napoleon against Britain, then the last
stronghold of liberty in Europe, and avail itself of the most dis-
reputable methods to acquire Canada. Such, also, were the senti-
ments of most of the gallant men who had struggled for freedom
with Washington — of even the very States which had been the cradle
of American liberty, and whose revolutionary sacrifices had been the
greatest. The men of New England had striven too ardently for
freedom to ally themselves to despotism, or to visit the evils of
invasion upon the unoffending people of Canada. At Boston, on
the day war was declared, all the ships in the harbour displayed flags
half-mast high, in token of mourning ; and a meeting of the inhab-
itants passed resolutions stigmatising the course of the majority in
Congress as unnecessary, ruinous in its consequences, and leading
to a connexion with imperial France destructive to American liberty
and independence. While such were the calm sentiments of the free
and native-bom men of New England, the foreign population of
Baltimore — the refugees of the Irish rebellion, dreaming German
socialists, and French pupils of the " Reign of Terror " — violated the
freedom of speech, and the rights of person and property. The
editor of the Baltimore Federal Republican had rendered himself
obnoxious to the war-party, and a mob assembled to attack his house.
His friends collected to assist in its defence, and several times repulsed
the assailants. At length a body of military appeared to whom the
editor and his friends surrendered, upon assurance of safety, and were
conducted to prison as a measure of protection. Next day the mob
attacked the jail, and burst in the doors. Some of the prisoners
escaped, but many were severely wounded ; and General Lingan, a
man of seventy, once the personal friend of Washington, was cruelly
murdered in cold blood ; while General Lee, a distinguished soldier
of the revolution, and also an old gray-headed veteran, had his skull
fractured.

In rushing into the war the Democracy of the United States
calculated upon an easy conquest of Canada. The regular troops
in both provinces amounted to barely four thousand men, to which
if we add thirteen hundred fencibles and five hundred artillery, the
force for the protection of a vast frontier of some thousand miles in
extent was only five thousand eight hundred men. The population
of Upper Canada was less than eighty thousand souls,* while that of
Lower Canada did not exceed two hundred and twenty thousand. On

• Gouilay, vol. i. p. 6j2.

256

The History of Canada.

the other hand, the population of the United States had prodigiously
increased since the revolution, and was now eight million ; while
their resources were enormous, and gave them immense advantages
in carrying on a war against a comparatively poor and sparsely
populated country like Canada. In point of numbers the odds were
almost twenty seven to one against the latter — an enormous dispro-
portion. The United States had also the advantage, in the com-
mencement of the war, of being the assailing party ; and could thus
penetrate at leisure any part of our long frontier they pleased, while
we had to protect the whole. But, aside from all these favourable
circumstances, the American Democratic party relied upon the
people of Canada themselves, to aid in wresting this country from
Great Britain. The trifling political troubles in Upper and also in
Lower Canada led them to suppose that the inhabitants were weary
of British rule, and would readily ally themselves on the first oppor-
tunity to the United States. But they were fully as much mistaken
on this point, as they were in supposing they could conquer these
provinces by force of arms. If the Canadians were dissatisfied with
the too great power of the executive, a system of favouritism, and
the arbitrary conduct of judges and other public officials, they were
in no disposition to cure ills of this kind by a recourse to the
greater evil of unbridled republicanism. The bulk of the people
remained sincerely attached to constitutional monarchy, and a very
general feeling of loyalty pervaded both provinces. This feeling was
decidedly the rule \ a desire for an alliance with the United States
was the exception. But comparatively few Canadians joined the
American standard during the war, and throughout which none were
more gallant in rolling back the tide of unprincipled invasion, than
the emigrants from New England and New York who, aside from
the U. E. Loyalists, had settled in the country.

Apart from the monarchical predilections of the inhabitants them-
selves, Canada at this period possessed another element of strength
in the north-western Indian tribes, who had transferred, at length, the
feeling of regard they once entertained for the French to the British,
and cordially disliked the Americans, whom they termed Long-knives.
To the important aid these tribes rendered in the outset of the
contest, before the militia were properly organised, or reinforcements
had arrived from England, may in a great measure be attributed the
preservation of Western Canada. The famous confederacy of the
Iroquois had been broken up after the revolutionary war, the
Mohawks and part of the Onondagas and Tuscororas attaching
themselves to the fortunes of the British, while the rest of the con-

The History of Canada.

257

foilerates clung to their ancient hunting-groun.ii, although closely
licmnicd in by the advancing tide of civilisation. Under their
famous chief, Red Jacket, the latter gave most important aid to the
Americans during the war, in which the Seneca.j engaged in the fall
of 1813, after having issued a formal declaration of hostilities against
Upjier and Lower Canada,* Nor hp.d the Iroquois suffered much
diminution in point of numbers. Tiiey were very nearly as numerous
in 181 2, as they were when Count De Frontenac invaded their
country, one hundred and sixteen years before.t Thus we see tlwt
the United States had as little compunction in availing themselves
of Indian aid as Canada ; but it must be remembered that the latter
used it only in self-defence, while the former employed it in a war of
conquest and aggression. The hostile feeling against the Americans,
so sedulously fostered by tlie Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, and his
brother Elskwatawa, or the Proj^het, prevented any part of the north-
west Indians from joining their standard, and the Iroquois of New
York State were, therefore, their only important allies.

1811.

1812.

THE GOVERNMENT OF SIR GEORGE PREVOST.

On the 14th of September, Lieutenant-General Sir George Prevost,
recently the popular Governor of Nova Scotia, arrived at
Quebec, and assumed charge of the administration of
Lower Canada, with the supreme military command of both pro-
vinces. One of his first measures was to visit the different frontier
posts on the Richelieu, and to make himself acquainted with the
geographical features of a locality so likely to become soon the
theatre of war.

The Lower Canadian Parliament met on the 21st of February;
and although it refused to renew the " Alien Bill," or
the statute "for the better preservation of his Majesty's
government," it passed a very liberal militia act. ;^i 2,000 were
granted for drilling the local militia; _;^2o,ooo more for incidental
measures of defence ; while a further sum of ;^3o,ooo was placed

* Thatcher's Indian Biography, vol. ii. p. 2S7. See also Nile's Register, vol. iv.

t It is estimated that there are fourteen thousand Indians at present in Canada.
Tlicy are consequently more numerous than at the period of the conquest, some
ninety years ago. The Iroquois have still nourishing settlements in New York
State, especially the Senecas, who have become, like tbe Cherokees, quite civilised.
If we add the New York Iroquois to the Mohawks on the Grand River, and
the people of the same race in Lower Canada, they will no doubt be found
to be much more numerous now than ever. The great Indian tribes dwindle
away much less slowly than has been imagined, while a few are actually on the
increase.

258

The History of Canada.

at the Governor's disposal should ^^ar be declared between Great
liritain and the United States. The returns laid before the House
showed that the revenue for the year ending January 5th amounted
to ;^75,i62, the expenses of the civil list to ;^S9,667, currency.
Five hundred and thirty-two vessels had cleared during the year
from the port of Quebec, of which thirty-seven had been built there.
The Governor pursued a wise and conciliatory policy, and many of
the parties who had been deprived of their commissions in the militia
by his predecessor were now reinstated. The benefit of this course
was soon apparent On the 28th of May, a general order directed
the embodiment of four regiments of militia, which were filled up by
the habitants with the greatest alacrity. A regiment of Canadian
Voltigeurs was also raised, the command of which was given to Major
De Salaberry, a Canadian gentleman of French extraction.

On the 24th of June it became known at Quebec that Congress had
declared war, so all American citizens were warned by the Govern-
ment to quit the province by the 3d of July. On the 30th of June
a proclamation was issued imposing an embargo on all vessels in the
harbour, and convening the Legislature for the i6th July. Parlia-
ment acted with the greatest liberality. A statute to legalise the
issue of army bills to the amount of ;^2Po,ooo was passed, in order
to replenish the public exchequer; and an annual grant of ;^i 5,000
made for five years, to pay whatever interest might accrue. On the
6th of July the whole militia of the province had been directed
to hold themselves in readiness to be embodied, while the flank
companies of the Montreal militia were formed into a battalion and
armed.

Meanwhile, General Brock, in Upper Canada, had been busily
employed in making preparations for the contest, which he saw
clearly was approaching. He had some trouble with the Legislature,
which he called together on the 3d of February, and which refused
to pass two of his proposed measures, namely, the suspension of the
Habeas Corpus and a militia supplementary act, as they did not
think war would take place. No sooner, however, did they perceive
their error than a very effective militia bill was passed, and ;^5ooo
granted to defray training expenses. Still, Brock had considerable
difficulties to encounter. There were but few troops in the province,
and not sufficient muskets to arm half the militia ; while, at the same
time, the Governor-General informed him no aid need be looked for
from England for some months, as the idea prevailing there was, that
the Orders in Council being repealed, war would not be declared by
the United States.

The History of Canada.

259

Hostilities speedily commenced. On the surrender of Mackinaw
to the Americans, a small military post for the protection of the fur
trade had been established forty-five miles to the north-east, op the
Island of St Joseph, in Lake Huron. No sooner had General Hrock
learned, on the 26th of June, that war had been declared by the
United States, than he sent orders to Captain Roberts, commandant
of this post, to possess himself of Mackinaw if possible ; but i;
first attacked he was to defend himself to the last extremity, and
then retreat upon St Mary's, a station belonging to the North-West
Company. liy the 15th of July Roberts had prepared his little
armament, consisting of forty-two regulars, three artillerymen, one
hundred and sixty Canadian voyageurs, half of whom only were
armed with muskets or fowling-pieces, and two hundred and fifty
Indians. On the following morning he embarked, and landed
on the 17th near Mackinaw, garrisoned by sixty regular soldiers
under the command of Lieutenant Hancks. Roberts immediately
summoned him to surrender, which was complied with after a few
minutes' delay. And thus at the very outset of the war a most
important post, commanding the entrance into Lake Michigan, was
acquired without loss of blood. Apart from the value of the acqui-
sition in itself, the occurrence had an excellent effect in retaining the
north-west Indians in the British interest.

While these events were transpiring. General Hull, who had spent
several months in organising a force for the invasion of Western
Canada, crossed over the Detroit River, on the 12th July, with two
thousand five hundred men to Sandwicii, where he planted the
American standard, and published a most inflated proclamation,
calling on the inhabitants to surrender. " He did not come to
ask their assistance," he said ; " he had a force which would look
down all opposition, and that force was but the vanguard of a
much greater. The United States," he continued, " offer you peace,
liberty, and security; your choice lies between these and war,
slavery, and destruction." Very few, however, of the Canadians
joined his standard, or accepted his offers of protection. On the
2 2d of the same month. Brock issued a counter-proclamation at
Fort George, in which he showed the odious alliance of the Ameri-
cans with the despotic Napoleon, and taught the people the respon-
sibilities they had incurred by their oath of allegiance, and the duty
they owed to their country.

Eighteen miles from Hul"s camp stood the village of Amherstburg,
defended by Fort Maiden, now unfit to stand a siege, so imperfect
were the works, and garrisoned by three hundred regular troops,

26o

The History of Canada.

under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel St George. The sur-
rounding country was difficult to traverse, and the River Canard,
flowing a little distance behind the village, and falling into the
Detroit River some three miles above it, offered a favourable posi-
tion for checking the advance of an enemy. Off the mouth of
the Canard lay the British sloop of war Queen Charlotte, eighteen
guns, which effectually prevented the advance of an armament by
water.

On the 17th, Hull pushed forward a detachment towards Am-
herstburg to reconnoitre, which Avas speedily driven back by the
few troops and Indians St George had ambushed at the Canard.
Next day the Americans, in greater numbers, attempted to force a
passage, with no better success ; and on the 20th they were a third
time repulsed. On this occasion two hundred of their army,
attempting to ford the river higher up, were put to inglorious flight
by twenty-two Indians ; many, in , their hurry to escape, throwing
away their arms and accoutrements. Hull now began to be en-
cumbered with wounded, and the vessel in which were the hospital
stores of his army having been captured, his difficulties increased.
In his rear Mackinaw had falkn, while Colonel Proctor, who had
been sent on by Brock with a small reinforcement, pushed a force
across the river opposite Amherstburg, on the 5 th of August, which
routed two hundred and sixty of the enemy, captured a convoy of
provisions, and effectually interrupted his communication with Ohio.
Had Hull pushed forward at once after crossing the river, with
resolution and skill, Amherstburg must have fallen. But tlie right
time for action had been allowed to pass: the Indians were arriving
in considerable numbers to aid the British, the militia also began
to muster ; and, worst of all, Brock was advancing from Toronto.
On the 7th and 8th, Hull recrossed the river with the whole of
his army, except a garrison of two hundred and fifty men left in a
small fort he had erected at Sandwich, and established himself at
Detroit. From thence he despatched a body of seven hundred men
to re-open his communications with Ohio, — a duty effected with
heavy loss to themselves, while the British and their Indian allies,
although compelled to retreat, suffered very little. On the other
hand. Lieutenant Rochelle, with the boats of the Queen Charlotte
and Hunter, attacked and captured a boat-convoy of the Americans.
After a fatiguing journey by land and water. Brock arrived at
Amherstburg on the night of the 13th, and met the Indians in council
on the following morning. Among the cliiefs present was Tecumseh,
destined to appear so prominently in Canadian history. His general

The History of Canada,

261

'he sur-
Canard,
into the
jle posi-
louth of
sighteen
ment by

rds Am-
: by the
Canard.
) force a
e a third
ir army,
3US flight
throwing
D be en-
: hospital
ncreased.
who had
:d a force
St, which
;onvoy of
ith Oliio.
ver, with
the right
arrivin.sj

began
"oronto.
whole of

left in a
iniself at
red men
ted with
n allies,
le other
Charlolte
iiericans.
rrived at
n council

cumseh,
s general

appearance was prepossessing. Of average stature, his figure was
light, graceful, and finely proportioned ; while his hazel eye, and
sharp penetrating glance, showed him to be a man of energy and
decision.

In one of the recent skirmishes Hull's despatches to his Govern-
ment had been captured. These breathed so desponding a tone,
and painted his position in such unfavourable colours,* that Brock
determined to attack him before he received succour, a course most
amply justified by the result. By the isth a battery was constructed
on the bank of the river, opposite Detroit, and three guns and two
howitzers placed in position, when Brock summoned Hull to sur-
render. He refused to comply, when the battery opened fire. Next
morning the British, numbering in all seven hundred regulars and
militia and six hundred Indians, crossed the river three miles below
the town. I'orming his men in column, and throwing out the
Indians to cover his flanks, General Brock advanced steadily towards
the fort. When at the distance of a mile he halted to reconnoitre,
and observing that little or no precautions for defence had been
taken at the land side, resolved on an immediate assault. But Hull
prevented this movement by capitulating \ the garrison with troops
encamped in the vicinity, amounting altogether to two thousand five
hundred men, surrendering to little more than half their number.
With Detroit a large quantity of military stores and provisions were
given up, and the territory of Michigan also surrendered on the
simple condition that life and property should be respected. The
American militia were permitted to return to their homes, while the
regular troops and officers, over one thousand in number,t were sent
down to Quebec.

Thus disgracefully, on the part of the Americans, ended the first
attempt to conquer Upper Canada. Within the short space of five
weeks Mackinaw had fallen, Detroit had been captured, and the
chief part of their army of invasion compelled to surrender ; while
their whole north-western frontier was left exposed to hostile incur-
sions. The successes of British regular troops and militia, against a
force so much their superior in numbers, had a most excellent effect
in raising the spirits of the Canadian people, and securing the
fidelity of the Indians. Had Hull been a man of energy and
decision, matters must have been very different. Yet, in any event,
with the force at his disposal, he could scarcely have established
himself permanently in a hostile country difficult to traverse, and
which, as at the River Canard, presented many favourable positions
• Christie, vol. ii. p. aS. t Auchinleck, p. 59.

262

The History of Canada.

to check the progress of an invading force. But, aside from every
consideration, his surrender was one of the most cowardly and
humiliating occurrences which had ever taken place in North
America. Hull's timid and vacillating conduct appears in strange
contrast with the foresight, energy, and decision of the gallant Brock.
The rapid movement on Mackinaw; the expeditious advance to
Amherstburg, after he had dis.nissed the Legislature ; and the passage
of the Detroit River in the face of a superior force, when he had
learned the timidity of its leader, unquestionably stamp the latter
as a man of superior genius, and remind one of the most fortu-
nate days of the gallant Montcalm, The statement that Brock
committed a grave military error in assuming the aggressive at
Amherstburg, is simply nonsense. There was no rashness about
the movement. He understood his antagonist, acted as any gallant
man would, or should, have acted in the premises, and was accord-
ingly successful. The great error would have been, in not availing
himself of so favourable an opportunity to strike the important blow
he did.

On the same day on which Detroit surrendered, General Brock
issued a proclamation to the inhabitants of Michigan, confirming
them in the full enjoyment of their properties ; and stating, that
the existing laws would continue in force until the pleasure of the
Crown should be known. Having made such other arrangements
as he deemed necessary, he returned to Toronto, where, on the
17th, he was received by the heartfelt acclamations of a grateful
people. He would have followed up his successes by an immediate
attempt on Fort Niagara, but was prevented by his instructions from
Sir George Prevost.

The Home Government hitherto had been inclined to pursue a
policy of forbearance towards America, under the supposition that
the Orders in Council having been repealed, the quarrel would soon
be arranged. Aggressive measures, it was thought, would oniy tend
to exasperate the Americans, widen the breach, and hinder the
establishment of peace. In pursuance of this line of policy, Prevost
iiad proposed, in the latter part of July, an armistice to the Com-
mander- in-Chief of the United States' army, Major-General Dearborn,
in the hope that existing difterences might be speedily arranged. The
latttr agreed to this measure, excepting, however, Hull's army ; but
the American Secretary of War, General Armstrong, refused to ratify
the armistice, presuming it originated in a sense of weakness and
danger on the part of the British General,

The recent invasion of Canada had been based on the same

M".

The History of Canada.

263

l)rinciple of combined movement pursued by Amherst Hull was
to enter this country at Detroit, and Van Ransallaer at the Niagara
River, while Dearborn assailed it by way of Lake Champlain and
the Richelieu. In addition to the troops assembled at these points,
the Americans had establi'^^ied military posts at various favourable
positions along the frontier, whence harrassing incursions were
frequently made across the border, which inflicted serious injury
on the inhabitants. At Gananoque a party of one hundred and
fifty, led by Captain Forsythe, landed, defeated a small body of
militia, took possession of some public stores, and retired after
ill-treating the defenceless people of the neighbourhood. At Ogdens-
burg a considerable force was stationed, under Brigadier Brown,
which seriously interrupted the communication between Kingston
and Montreal. Lieutenant- Colonel Lethbridge, commanding at
Prescott, formed the design of capturing this position, and ad-
vanced across the river, on the 4th of October, under cover of the
guns of his own fort. When about mid-channel the enemy opened
a warm and well-directed fire upon the boats, which speedily
compelled him to retreat, with a loss of three men killed and four
wounded. On the 9th an affair of more importance occurred at
Fort Erie. An armed brig, as well as another vessel laden with
prisoners and furs, had arrived the preceding day, and were cut out
just before dawn by a strong party of Americans. Both vessels
drifted do\vn the current of the Niagara River, and grounded near
the opposite shore, where the crews after a shaq) contest were made
prisoners. During a fog a party of British from Fort Erie succeeded
in boarding and dismantling the armed brig. A few lives were lost
during these occurrences.

Owing to the infatuation of the Home Government, who still con-
fidently looked for the establishment of peace, and had no idea that
the conquest of Canada was really desired by the Americans, the
103d regiment and a weak battalion of the ist, or Royal Scots,
with a few recruits, were the only assistance despatched to Sir George
Prevost up to this period. Matters had in the meantime assumed a
more threatening appearance along the American frontier. Irritated
rather than discouraged by the surrender of Hull, preparations by
land and water were energetically pushed forward for the conquest
of Upper Canada before the winter set in. General Harrison had
collected a large army at the west to revenge the fall of Detroit,
while Dearborn instructed Van Ransallaer to penetrate Brock's line
of defence on the Niagara at Queenston, and establish himself
pen-nanently in the province. For this operation the force at his

264

The History of Canada.

disposal was amply sufficient, the British regulars and militia col-
lected for the defence of this entire frontier of thirty-six miles being
under two thousand men. But owing to iilie exertions of Brock, wlio
saw clearly the approaching storm, these troops were in the best
possible state of efficiency, and thoroughly on the alert

During the 12th Van Ransallaer completed his preparations for
attacking Queenston. The following morning was cold and storm)',
but nevertheless his troops embarked in boats at an early hour, and
everything made ready to push across the river with the first blush
of dawn. These movements were soon discovered by the British
sentries, who gave the alarm. Captain Dennis of the 49th, who
commanded at Queenston, immediately collected two companies of
his regiment and about one hundred of the militia at the landing-
place to oppose the enemy, whom he held in check for a consider-
able time, aided by the fire of an eighteen-pounder in position on
the heights above, an<l a masked gun about a mile lower down. A
portion of the Americans, however, landed higher up, and ascending
by an unguarded path, turned the British flank, captured the eighteen-
pounder, and speedily compelled Dennis to retreat, after having sus-
tained considerable loss, to the north end of the village. Here he
war met by General Brock, who hail heard the cannonade at Niagara,
and pushed forward in company with his aides-de-camp, Major Glegg
and Colonel M'Donnell, to ascertain its cause. Having learned how
matters stood, he dismounted from his horse, and resolving to carry
the heights now fully in possession of the Americans, placed him-
self at the head of a company of the 49th, and, waving his sword,
led them to the charge in double-quick time, under a heavy fire
from the enemy's riflemen. Ere long one of these singled out the
General, took deliberate aim, fired, and the gallant Brock, without
a word, sank down to rise no more. The 49th now raised a shout to
'■'• revenge the General ! " when regulars and militia madly rushed
forward, and drove the enemy, despite their superior numbers, from
the summit of the hill.

By this time the Americans had been strongly reinforced, and the
British, who had never exceeded three hundred altogether, finding
themselves nearly surrounded, were compelled to retire, having sus-
tained a loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, of about one hun-
dred men, including several officers. They reformed in front of the
one-gun battery, already stated as being a mile below Queenston, to
await the arrival of assistance. Van Ransallaer had, therefore,
made a solid lodgement on Canadian soil with nearly a thousand
men, and after giving orders to form an intrenched camp, recrossed

The History of Canada.

26 =

the river to send over reinforcements. But the American militia,
having now seen enough of hard fighting, were suddenly seized
with conscientious scruples about going out of their own territory.
Comparatively few crossed over to the assistance of their comrades
beyond the river, who were thus left to shift for themselves. Early
in the afternoon, a demonstration was made against the American
position in the most gallant manner by young Brant, at the head of
some fifty Mohawks. These after a sharp skirmish were compelled
to retire, owing to the steady front presented by Colonel, afterwards
General Scott, who had meanwhile arrived, and assumed the chief
command, Wadsworth, a militia general on the field, waiving his
right thereto.*

But the British had no intention of surrendering Queenston so
easily. Major General Sheaffe, an American by birth, assumed the
chief command on Brock's death, and having collected all the troops
at Niagara and Chippewa, moved forward in admirable order to drive
the enemy from their formidable position. His force, inclusive of one
hundred Indians, was under one thousand men, of whom only five
hundred and sixty were regulars, with avo small guns. After making
a long detour to the right, to gain the open ground in rear of the heights,
Sheaffe began the attack by an advance of his left, which, after de-
livering a volley, charged with the bayonet, and drove in Scott's right.
He then advanced his main body, and after a sharp conflict, a part
of the enemy were driven back over the first ridge of heights to the
road leading to the Falls, while another portion let themselves down
with the aid of the roots and bushes towards the river, hotly pursued
by the Indians, who were with difficulty withdrawn.

Resistance was now out of the question, and the Americans, to the
amount of nine hundred and fifty regulars and militia, surrendered.
So completely had they been scattered, that hardly three hundred
men remained with Scott when he gave himself up. Their loss in
killed and wounded was also severe, but has never been correctly
ascertained : it could scarcely, however, be under three hundred
men.

Thus ended in total discomfiture the second attempt of the
Americans to establish themselves permanendy in Upper Canada.
The British loss, in a numerical point of view, was comparatively
small, and did not in killed and wounded amount to one hundred
men ; but the death of the gallant Brock dimmed the lustre of
victory, and cast a gloom over the country. Descended from a
respectable family in Guernsey, he had embraced the profession of

* Stone's Life of Brant, vol. ii. p. 50S.

266

The History of Canada,

anus at an early age, and served with distinction in some of the
principal campaigns in Europe ; among the rest at Copenhagen with
Lord Nelson. As a civil governor he was firm, prudent, and just ;
as a soldier, brave, skilful, and humane, and the idol of his troops ;
while the Indians regarded him as their beau ideal of a gallant warrior.
He fell at the early age of forty -two, just as his harvest -time of
honour and distinction had begun, and his country had learned to
regard his opening career with pride. He was respected by all
classes — by friend and foe alike, and minute guns from the American
as well as from the British batteries bore honourable testimony to
his great personal worth, as he was buried at Fort George, on the
1 6th of October, side by side with Colonel M'Donnell, in a grave
watered with the tears of brave soldiers and sorrowing citizens.
Brock's name has not been forgotten ; the people of Canada West
still cherish his memory ; and while the current of the Niagara
speeds past the scene of his death, he will occupy an honourable
place in the pages of its history.

On the day after the battle of Queenston, Van Ransallaer
requested an armistice of three days, to enable him to take care
of his wounded and bury his dead, which was granted by Sheaffe, on
condition of destroying his boats, which was immediately complied
with. On the 15th Wadsworth and all the principal officers were
paroled, with the exception of Scott, who refused to be liberated, and
was sent down to Montreal with the other prisoners of the regular
army. The militia were all permitted to return to their homes, on
condition of not serving during the war. Among the prisoners were
twenty-three men who admitted themselves to have been British-born
subjects, and were sent to England to be tried as traitors. The
Americans subsequently retaliated, by threatening to hang an equal
number of their prisoners, if any ill befell these men. They were
ultimately released, so that the matter terminated. Scott had angry
words about them with the British General at Niagara, and refused
to be paroled on that account.*

On the 1 6th Van Ransallaer, disgusted, as he said, with the con-
duct of the militia, requested permission from Dearborn to resign
his command. The latter assented, and directed Brigadier-General
Smyth to assume control of the army on the Niagara frontier. This
officer immediately applied for an armistice of thirty days, which
Sheafte agreed to, though on what ground does not appear. Prob-
ably he anticipated the arrival of reinforcements, and considered

* fie was subsequently paroled by Sir George Prevost, and most dishonourably
broke it. Several other American officers did the same.

The History of Canada.

267

tnat any course which retarded hostihties against his command
would be beneficial to Canadian interests, slenderly guarded as
the frontier was. But the advantage was altogether on the enemy's
side, who was thus allowed breathing space to recruit after his
defeat, and to make preparations undisturbed for fresh operations.
Hostihties, however, still continued in other directions. A body of
Americans, four hundred strong, led by Major Young, surprised the
picket at St Regis, composed of Canadian voyageurs, killed their
officer and seven men, and carried off twenty-three prisoners. A
counter-attack by the British was soon after made in the same neigh-
bourhood, when three officers and forty-one privates of the Americans
were made prisoners.

The month of November had now set in, bleak, cold, and cheer-
less, yet the Americans persisted in their schemes of conquest.
Dearborn, at the head of an army of ten thousand men, hung upon
the confines of Lower Canada; Smyth, with five thousand men,
occupied the Niagara frontier; while Harrison, the bravest and most
formidable of them all, with his Kentucky forest-rangers and Ohio
sharp-shooters, threatened the weak British force under Proctor, in
the distant west. At the same time, Commodore Chauncey had by
enormous exertions equipped a fleet on Lake Ontario, which now
forced the Canadian shipping to remain under the guns of the forts
at Kingston, Toronto, and Niagara. Chauncey was generous as he
was brave. In his first cruise he captured two schooners. On board
of one of these he found the plate of General Brock, which he
restored to his brother, a captain of the 49th, who had it in charge,
ia testimony of the high respect in which he held the deceased
officer.

Dearborn had established his head-quarters at Plattsburg, and
despatched from thence a strong body of infantry and a troop of
dragoons to make a reconnaissance towards the British advanced
posts in the neighbourhood of Rouse's Point. On the morning of
the 20th, before day, these troops surrounded a guard-hut in which
were a few Canadians and Indians, who returned their fire, and
safely escaped in the confusion. The Americans fired upon each
other in the dark, and killed and wounded several of themselves.
On discovering their mistake they retired. Dreading an invasion in
force. General Prevost now directed the whole militia of the province
to hold themselves prepared for active service. The greatest enthu-
siasm was manifested, and the militia of the district of Montreal
moved en masse on the point of threatened invasion, to repel the
enemies of their country. Dearborn now saw the fruitlessness of

268

The Hisiory of Canada.

attempting a descent on Montreal, and began to withdraw his sickly
and enfeebled troops from the frontier, to place them in winter
quarters. All prospects of invasion being thus terminated from the
direction of Lake Champlain, the British General ordered the troops
and militia to return.

While these events were transpiring in Lower Canada, the
armistice between Smyth and Sheaffe, as regarded their respective
commands, had drawn to a close. Every preparation had mean-
while been made for another descent upon Canada, which, this time,
was to be effected between Chippewa and Fort Erie. For the
defence of this frontier, fully twenty-one miles in extent, there were
less than seven hundred regulars and militia, while the American
" army of the centre," as it was magniloquently styled, was at least
five thousand men. After a gasconading proclamation in the Napo-
leonic style, which would lead one to doubt Smyth's common sense,
a division of fourteen scows, with about four hundred men on board,
crossed the river at the upper end of Grand Isle, before day, on the
morning of the 28th. They succeeded in carrying a four-gun battery,
defended by sixty-five men of the 49th regiment and three officers.
Thirty of these were made prisoners, including Lieutenants King
and Lamont ; the remainder under Lieutenant Bartley made a stout
defence, but were ultimately compelled to retire. The bulk of the
American force then returned across the river, leaving a io.'ff officers
and forty men behind, who were all made prisoners, after a feeble
resistance, by a detachment from Fort Erie. At 7 A.M., eighteen
scows advanced across the river to effect a landing. A few rounds
from a six-pounder sunk two of these, and, with the aid of a steady
fire of musketry, threw the remainder into confusion, and compelled
the enemy to retire.

Smyth's failure and disgrace was complete. His inflated procla-
mations had raised the expectations of the American people to the
highest point, and his want of success depressed their spirits in
proportion. To see their " army of the centre " held effectually at
bay by a force scarcely one-sixth of its number, was a source of
bitter indignation to the Democracy of the United States. Smyth
was appropriately nicknamed General Van Bladder. His own
soldiers despised him, and he had finally to flee from the camp to
escape their indignation. He was universally denounced as a
traitor and coward, was hooted and shot at in the streets of Buffalo,
and the tavern-keepers shut their doors in his face. Government
meanly sharing the feehng of the populace, cashiered him without
trial, and was sustained in this arbitrary act by the Senate of the

The History of Canada,

269

United States. Yet Smyth was an officer of the regular American
army, which is cursed by the same seniority system prevailing in the
British service. Men, however, are advanced continually from the
ranks to the grade of commissioned officers in the latter, while in
the United States army no private can rise, as a rule, above the
position of a sergeant. The American military service is the most
aristocratic of any in the world ; all its officers must be favourites of
the executive, and graduates of West Point. Money buys commis-
sions in the English army, politics in the American ! The last
system is certainly the worst of the two.

The campaign of 181 2 against Canada terminated, as we have
seen, in most humiliating defeat and disgrace. Large armies had
been repelled by a few regular troops, aided by the Canadian militia,
whose patriotism and unflinching courage did them the greatest
honour. These results strengthened, in no small degree, the in-
fluence of the peace party in the United States. It was now
clearly seen that the Canadians, as a people, were sincerely attached
to their union with Great Britain ; and that the war, as it progressed,
had assumed more and more the character of an unprincipled inva-
sion of an unoffending people. Shortly after Smyth's defeat, the
Legislature of Maryland declared, by a series of resolutions, that the
war was incompatible with republican principles, opposed to their
interests, impolitic ; and that Massachusetts, Connecticut, and
Rhode Island had acted constitutionally in refusing their quota of
militia. In Congress, on the 2d of January, Mr Quincey
denounced the hostile course pursued by its majority. ^'

" We seized the first opportunity," said he, " to carry the war among
the harmless colonists. It was not owing to our Government that
the bones of the Canadians were not mixed with the ashes of their
habitations. Since the invasion of the buccaneers, there was nothing
in history more disgraceful than this war."

Such were the sentiments which actuated at this period the
right minded portion of the people of the United States. But
unfortunately for the cause of freedom, justice, and humanity, the
Democratic faction retained a small majority in Congress, and
resolved to inflict still further the evils of war on the hapless Cana-
dians, whom it was their interest to have regarded as friends and
neighbours.

I8I2.

I8I3.

CHAPTER XIV.

THE GOVERNMENT OF SIR GEORGE PREVOST, — continued.
THE CAMPAIGN OF 1813.

THE Legislature of Lower Canada assembled on the 29th of
December and at an early period of the session took mea-
sures to provide for the increased expenditure entailed by the war.
The Army Bill Act was renewed and extended; and in
agreement with its provisions, ;^5oo,ooo were authorised
to be put into circulation, ^^i 5,000 were granted to
equip the embodied militia, ;!^iooo to provide hospitals for their
use, and ;£^2 5,000 for general purposes of defence. In addition to
these sums, two and a half per cent, on all merchandise imported
into the province, except provisions, were also granted to the
Government for the support of the war, as well as the same per
centage, extra, on goods brought in by persons not resident for six
months in the country.

In Upper Canada the Legislature was convened by General Sheaffe
on the 25 th of February, and passed several necessary measures.
Among these was one to facilitate the circulation in the province of
the army bills issued in Lower Canada, and making them a legal
tender in all public offices. Another act authorised the Government
to prohibit the exportation of grain, and restrain distillation there-
from, owing to an apprehended scarcity of food. Pensions were
granted to widows and orphans of militiamen killed in the war;
the sale of liquor to the Indians was prohibited for a specific period;
and several other useful bills passed.

Meanwhile, the campaign had opened favourably for Canada in
the west. There General Harrison still hovered on the borders of
Michigan, prepared to strike a blow for its recovery on the first
opportunity. Colonel Proctor, who still commanded at Detroit, had
established several outposts in that neighbourhood, one of which at
Frenchtown, about twenty-six miles distant on the River Raisin,

The History of Canada,

271

was composed of thirty of the Essex militia, under Major Reynolds,
and two hundred Indians, Winchester, who commanded a brigade
of Harrison's army, detached Colonel Lewis with a strong body
of troops, on the i7ih of January, to drive the British and their
allies from this post. This purpose was effected after a sharp
action, in which the Americans had twelve killed and fifty wounded,
when Reynolds fell back upon Brownstown, sixteen miles in his
rear. Lewis maintained his position at Frenchtown undisturbed,
and was there joined by Winchester with the remainder of his
brigade, which numbered altogether nearly one thousand regular
troops.

Proctor's position was daily becoming more critical, and he now
resolved to attack Winchester before Harrison, who was three or
four days' march behind, came up, and beat the enemy in detail.
Collecting his disposable force, consisting of five hundred regulars,
seamen, and militia, and six hundred Indians, at Brownstown on the
2ist, he pushed forward to Swan Creek, a short distance from
Frenchtown, where he bivouacked for the night. Next morning
before day he made preparations for attacking the enemy, whom
he assailed at the first light of dawn by rapidly driving in his
pickets on the main body, when the action became general. Win-
chester's left flank was speedily turned by the Indians, his line of
battle broken, and he found himself so hardly pressed that he was
compelled to retreat. He was soon afterwards captured by the
Wyandot chief. Roundhead, who brought him to Proctor.* About
four hundred of his men had in the meantime thrown themselves
into the houses of the village, where they continued to make a
desperate defence till it was threatened to burn them out, when
they surrendered.t

In this action the enemy lost about two hundred and fifty men
in killed, including several officers; one brigadier-general, (Win-
chester,) three field-officers, nine captains, twenty subalterns, and
over five hundred privates were made prisoners. The loss of the
British was also severe, it being twenty-four killed, and one hundred
and fifty-eight wounded. J

The prompt and spirited conduct of Proctor completely checked,
for the time, any forward movement on the part of Harrison, who

•Proctor's Despatch to Sheaffe, 26lh January 1813.

t Winchester to the American Secretary of War, January 1813. Harrison to
Governor Shelby, 24th January 1813.

X Christie, vol. ii. p. 70. The greater part of the American wounded were
massacred by the Indians in revenge for their own loss.

272

T/ie History of Canada.

even considered it prudent to retire farther back till he received
reinforcements. Nor did the gallant conduct of Proctor go unre-
warded. The Legislature of Lower Canada, then in session, ten-
dered him a unanimous vote of thanks for his skill and intrepidity,
while General Prevost raised him to the rank of Brigadier-General,
a measure afterwards confirmed by the Prince Regent.

During winter the St Lawrence above the rapids is usually so
firmly frozen over, that the heaviest burdens may cross in safety.
The officer commanding the Americans at Ogdensburg availed
himself of this circumstance to despatch marauding parties into
Canada, who treated the peaceable inhabitants with cruelty on
several occasions. One of these forays, made by two companies
of riflemen commanded by Captain Forsythe, on the night of the
6th February, was directed against the village of Brockville, twelve
miles up the river. After wounding a sentry, and firing into several
houses, the enemy carried off fifty-two of the inhabitants as pri-
soners, the greater part of whom, however, they released in a few
days.

General Prevost, now on a tour through Upper Canada, arrived
at Prescott on the 21st, and directed Major M'Donnell to make
a demonstration against Ogdensburg on the following morning,
with the view of drawing out the garrison to ascertain its strength.
If he found the opportunity favourable, however, he was allowed
the discretionary power of converting the feigned into a real attack,
to punish the enemy for their wanton inroads on the frontier.* In
pursuance of these instructions Major M'Donnell, after dividing his
force, composed of four hundred and eighty regulars and militia,
into two columns, pushed across the ice on the following morning
at daybreak. Believing the opportunity favourable, he now deter-
mined to assail the American position at once. This he gallantly
accomplished under a heavy cross fire from their batteries, which he
captured with the bayonet, although the deep snow retarded his
advance, and caused greater loss than would have otherwise been
sustained. The enemy fled across the Oswegatchie River, or retired
into houses, whence they kept up a galling fire till M'Donnell
brought up his field-pieces, which speedily dislodged them.

While these successes were achieved by the main column, the
other, composed of one hundred and fifty men, and led by Captain
Jenkins, moved towards Fort La Presentation, and soon found
themselves under a battery of seven guns, which they gallantly
endeavoured to carry. Captain Jenkins, while leading the charge,
• Major M'Donnell's Despatch to General Prevost, 23d February 1813.

The History of Canada.

273

arrived

had his left arm broken to pieces by a prape-shot. Still he con-
tinued to advance with his men, till his right arm was also rendered
useless by a case-shot, when exhausted by pain and loss of blood he
was unable to move. At this crisis the main body of the British
advanced to the aid of their hard-pressed comrades, when the
battery was carried, and in a few minutes afterwards the old French
fort shared the same fate at the hands of a company of the Glen-
garry militia and another of regulars, both led by Captain Eustace.*
Thus, in less than an hour, the entire position of the enemy,
defended by five hundred men, was captured in the most gallant
manner.

In this action the British had seven men killed, and seven oflicers
and forty-one men wounded : the American loss, on the other hand,
was twenty killed, a proportionate number wounded, and some
jjrisoners. The greater part of the Americans ran away, however,
so nimbly, that they could not be overtaken. t Four brass field-
guns, seven guns of iron, several hundred stand of arms, and a
considerable quantity of stores fell into the hands of the victors ; as
well as two small schooners and two gunboats, which were burned.
This important success had tiie effect of preventing any forays upon
the frontier from Cornwall to Gananoqne during the remainder of
the winter.

As yet no assistance of importance had been received from the
mother-country, and the defence of Canada rested chiefly on the
militia; who, on every occasion, had acted with all the gallantry of
the best regular troops. On the part of the local authorities every
exertion continued to be made, with unabated courage, to place the
country in the best state of defence. The three Canadian regiments
(the Glengarries, Fencibles, and Voltigeurs) recruited with diligence
and success, and in the month of March most acceptable assistance
arrived in the 104th regiment of the line, which had made a rapid
and most extraordinary journey from New Brunswick through the
wilderness.

On the side of the Americans the most strenuous exertions were
made to ensure the conquest of Canada in the ensuing campaign.
Their plan of operations was again based on the same system of
combined movement, which had succeeded so badly with them the
preceding year. Harrison was to recover Michigan, and threaten
Canada at its western extremity; while Commodore Chauncey,
aided by a strong land force under General Pike, was to capture

* Major M'Donnell to General Prevost, 23d February 181 3.
\ Christie, vol. ii. p. 71.

2 74

The History of Canada.

Toronto, and invest Fort George at Niagara. Here Pike's force
was to form a junction with another army, then cross the river from
Buffalo and carry the British posts at Erie and Chippewa, Western
Canada completely subdued, the combined American armies were
to descend to Kingston, in the reduction of which they would be
aided by a third force under General Dearborn in person. This
import.' nt position captured, Montreal and Quebec were to be next
assailed, and the Union Jack for ever driven from the beautiful valley
of the St Lawrence.

Agreeable to this plan of operations Chauncey sailed from Sackett's
Harbour, on the 25 th of April, with fourteen armed vessels having
sixteen hundred troops on board, and on the evening of the follow-
ing day appeared off Toronto, then garrisoned by a force of only
six hundred regulars and militia. On the ensuing day the enemy
commenced to disembark about three miles to the west of the town,
a movement accomplished with some difficulty owing to the steady
resistance of the Canadians and regular troops. These, however, after
displaying great gallantry and suffering severe loss, were compelled
to retire on the town. General Dearborn, who remained on board
one of the vessels of the fleet, had intrusted the command of his
troops to Brigadier Pike, The latter now formed his men on the
beach, in order to take the British position in flank, while the fleet,
which had worked up into the harbour, should assail it in front.

It appears, from all that can be gathered on the subject, that the
defences of Toronto at this period were in a most wretched condition,
owing to the culpable negligence of Sheaffe. Chauncey's fire from
the shipping completely overpowered the batteries on shore, and
enabled Pike to carry the first line of defences with little difficulty.
When at the distance of two hundred yards from the principal western
battery its fire suddenly ceased, and the Americans at once halted,
being under the idea that the British were about to surrender. The
next moment the head of their column was literally blown into the
air, owing to an artillery sergeant, of the name of Marshall, firing the
powder magazine to prevent its falling into their hands. Had they
advanced a little nearer the greater part of the enemy must have
been destroyed ; as it was they had two hundred killed and wounded.
Among the latter was General Pike, who died in a few hours. Several
British soldiers were also killed by the explosion, which shook the
town and surrounding waters as though it had been an earthquake,
American writers censure Sheaffe for blowing up the magazine, and
denounce it as a piece of unparalleled barbarity ; but acts of this
kind are perfectly legitimate in warfare, and of frequent occurrence.

The History of Canada.

275

The Americans were there solely for the purposes of conquest and
aggrandisement ; and their invasion was accordingly of that odious
stamp, as to make it only a subject of regret that the whole column
was not blown up. In any case Sheaffe had nothing to do with it,
and with Marshall solely rested the responsibility.*

It now became evident that the few British troops and militia
would not be able to resist an enemy so vastly their superior in
numbers and artillery. The garrison was accordingly withdrawn
towards the town, the powder magazine blown up, and a ship on the
stocks as well as the naval stores destroyed. These operations
completed, General Sheaffe retired towards Kingston with his few
regular troops, leaving Lieutenant-Colonel Chewett of the militia to
treat with the enemy, who now gained possession of the town after
an obstinate contest with a force scarcely one-third his number, not
taking his navy into consideration, of seven hours' duration. Sheaffe,
however, suffered much in the public estimation, on account of his
failure in defending Toronto, and was shortly afterwards superseded
in the chief command of Upper Canada by Major-General De
Rottenberg. On his return to the Lower Province, he was appointed
to command the troops in the district of Montreal.f

The British loss in the action was severe, one hundred and thirty
having been killed and wounded ; that of the Americans was much
more serious, and swelled up to nearly three hundred and fifty.
The militia, to the number of two hundred and ninety-three, surren-
dered as prisoners of war. The regular troops, as we have aire .dy
seen, effected an orderly retreat, and it is a matter of surprise that
Sheaffe did not also take the militia with him, in which case the
Americans would have had no prisoners to boast of. As it was,
they got possession of the militia muster rolls, and endeavoured to
swell up the list of captives by including all the men enumerated,
but the greater part of whom were absent.

Having succeeded in his attack on Toronto, and destroyed such
public stores as he could not carry off, the enemy re-embarked on
the 2d of May and sailed for Niagara, the capture of Fort George
being the next part of his plan. Having landed the troops in a
favourable position in the neighbourhood, Chauncey returned to
Sackett's Harbour for reinforcements. These were speedily brought
up, and by the 25th his fleet, with the exception of two vessels left
cruising near Kingston, were again assembled off Niagara. For the
defence of Fort George, now so seriously menaced by a large fleet

* Auchinleck's War of 181 2, p. 152.

+ Shcaffe's Despatch to Gcaeial Trevost, Kingston, 5tli May 1S13.

276

The History of Canada.

11'^;

and army, General Vincent, commanding on the Niagara frontier,
had scarcely fourteen hundred men. But what was still worse, the
works of Fort George were not by any means strong ; the guns were
of smaller calibre than they should be, and the supply of powder
wholly insufficient, owing to the enemy having complete command
of the lake, and the great difficulty of transporting stores by land.

On the 26th, Fort Niagara, on the American bank of the river,
opened a heavy cannonade, by which Fort George was considerably
injured. Next morning this cannonade was resumed, and being
supported by several vessels of the fleet, the heavy cross fire soon
rendered the fort untenable. Chauncey posted the remainder of
his vessels in advantageous positions, to cover the landing of the
American troops, and swept the beach with a shower of shot and
shell. Still, the British gallantly held their ground, and repulsed
three attempts of the enemy to land. But Vincent, after a severe
struggle of three hours' duration, finding it useless longer to oppose
a force ten times his own in point of numbers, and supported by a
powerful fleet, directed the guns to be spiked, the magazine blown
up, and retreated in excellent order towards Queenston, leaving
the Americans to take possession of the ruins of P'ort George and
a few damaged houses.* On the following day, having withdrawn
the garrison from Fort Erie and all the posts downwards, Vincent,
whose force was thus increased to sixteen hundred men, continued
his retreat to Forty Mile Creek, on the road to Hamilton. The
British loss during the recent action was fifty-two killed and three
hundred wounded and taken prisoners. The loss of the enemy was
thirty-nine killed and one hundred and eleven wounded. t

Meanwhile, Harrison, notwithstanding the annihilation of Win-
chester's Brigade, still persevered in his determination to drive the
British across the Detroit River and recover Michigan. With this
view he established himself, in the first days of spring, at the foot
of the rapids of the Miami, where he constructed a block-house and
other works to form a safe depot for his stores, as well as a base
for offensive operations when his reinforcements came up. Proctor's
•plan was to beat the enemy in detail, and he now resolved to attack
Harrison while his force was yet comparatively weak. Collecting
five hundred and twenty regulars, four hundred and sixty militia,
and fifteen hundred Indians, with a few pieces of artillery, he
accordingly proceeded on the 23d of April to assail the enemy. As

* Vincent's Despatch to General Prevost, 28th May 1S13. Alison's Hist
Europe, New York, vol. iv. p. 465.
+ Christie, vol. ii. pp. 75, 76.

Tke History of Canada.

277

usual, at this season of the year, the roads were very heavy, and
presented a serious obstacle to the passage of cannon. By the ist
of May, however, Fort Meigs was invested and a heavy fire opened
on the works, which sustained very little damage, owing to the small
calibre of the besiegers' guns. On the morning of the 5th, two
American regiments, twelve hundred strong, under Brigadier Clay,
having come up, the besieged made a vigorous sally, carried the
British batteries, and pursued the Indians who fell back steadily
though rapidly. Proctor's main body being speedily under arms, he
succeeded in cutting off the retreat of his assailants by a rapid and
judicious movement, and after a sharp action a gi-eat part of the
enemy were either killed or captured. Upwards of five hundred
l)risoners were taken on this occasion, several of whom were after-
wards massacred by the Indians, who were restrained from further t'A-
cesses only with the greatest difficulty, and the personal influence of
Tecumseh. Several of the British soldiers on guard over the prisoners
were wounded in endeavouring to shield them from the fury of the
savages ; and one old veteran was shot through the heart.

Proctor's victory was most complete. The enemy had lost over
seven hundred men in killed, wounded, and prisoners; while the
casualties of the British were only fifteen killed and forty-five
wounded.* But, half his militia left soon after the battle, being
unwilling to undergo the fatigues of a siege, and a deputation of
chiefs waited upon him to counsel him to return, as their people
(as usual after an engagement of consequence) desired to go home,
to take care of their wounded, and dispose of their plunder, of which
they had taken a large quantity. Thus Proctor had no alternative
save to raise the siege and retire, which he did undisturbed, carrying
off his guns and stores.t Still, the offensive operations of Harrison
were completely paralysed for the time ; and he had to get fresh
reinforcements before he could resume the initiative in the campaign.

This victory raised in some measure the spirits of the Canadians,
considerably depressed by the capture of Toronto and Fort George,
the possession of the Niagara frontier by Dearborn's large army, and
the complete commanu of Lake Ontario obtained by Chauncey's
Heet. Matters, however, soon began to assume a better appearance
ill Central Canada. Sir James Yeo, a naval officer of distinction,
Quebec on tlie 5th of May, with several officers of

seamen for the lakes.

arnv(

)yal navy

fifty

* Alison's Hist. Europe, New York, vol. iv. p. 465.
t Proctor's Despatches to Governor Trevost, 14th May l8r3.
pp. 81, 82. Auchinleck's Hist, of the War of 1812, pp. 142-144.

■•■ if

Christie, vol. iu

-278

The History of Canada.

Captains Barclay, Pring, and Finnis had already come up overland
from Halifax, and were busily engaged at Kingston in putting the
fleet into a state of preparation to meet the enemy. The Governor-
General accompanied Yeo to Kingston, and the public began to
look forward to important offensive operations. Nor were they
disappointed. The enemy's fleet was still at the head of the lake,
and it was now determined to make a dash at Sackett's Harbour,
the great depot of the American naval and military stores.

On the 27th of May, the British fleet, consisting of seven armed
vessels, mounting altogether one hundred guns, left Kingston with
nearly one thousand troops on board led by Sir George Prevost in
person, for Sackett's Harbour, where it arrived at noon next day.
The troops were immediately placed in flat-bottomed boats, or
scows, preparatory to advancing against the enemy, while Prevost
proceeded two miles nearer in-shore to reconnoitre. Deen^ir-g the
works too strong to be captured by his force, he ordered the troops
to re-embark, and this being effected the ships wore round ind
stood for Kingston with a light wind. About forty Indians had
accompanied the fleet in their canoes ; who, not understanding why
the troops were prevented from landing, determined to effect some-
thing on their own responsibility. They accordingly rowed towards
the land, and their appearance so terrified sc.ne seventy dismounted
dragoons, that they hoisted a white flag as a signal to the British
shipping for protection, and were promptly taken on board.*

Prevost now finding that the Americans were not so formidable
after all changed his mind, and determined to attack them on the
following day. This indecision and delay were fatal to the objects
of the expedition. Had the troops pushed boldly on shore at once,
Sackett's Harbour must have been captured, and the immense stores
collected there destroyed, which would have effectually crippled the
enemy's operations on Lake Ontario. But, during the night the
militia collected from all quarters, and a sharp action ensued as the
British effected a landing. Led by Adjutant-General Baynes, the
latter soon dislodged the Americans with the bayonet, pursued
them to their fort and block-houses, and set fire to their barracks.
Their militia now scattered in all directions, leaving about four
hundred regular troops, under General Brown, to make the best
defence they could.f This officer, believing the post untenable,
ordered the naval store-houses, hospital, and marine barracks to be

* Auchinleck's Hist, of the War of 181 2, p. 162.
f Alison's Hist. Europe, New York, vol. iv. p. 465,
p. 364.

Frost's United States,

The History of Canada.

279

set on fire, and prepared to surrender. Unfortunately, at this crisis
the fleet had not yet come up ; there were, therefore, no guns to
batter the block-houses, and Prevost, deeming the dust raised by the
runaway militia to be caused by a column advancing to aid the
enemy, directed a retreat. This was immediately eftected, to the
great regret and mortification of the British troops, while not an
American soldier dared to show himself. Still, the enemy suffered
severe loss ; and all the plunder taken at Toronto was consumed in
the burned buildings. A frigate on the stocks had also been set fire
to ; but on discovering the retreat of their assailants, the Americans
returned and extinguished the flames.*

In this action the British lost one officer and forty-seven men
killed, and twelve officers and nearly two hundred men wounded
and missing ; the loss of the enemy was also heavy. But, severely
as they suffered, our troops had won a complete victory, and little
further loss, if indeed any, would have been entailed in capturing
the entire position, and destroying all the enemy's stores.f The
public were severely disappointed, and Prevost's military reputation
suffered a shock from which it never recovered.^

The capture of Toronto and Fort George, and the retreat of
General Vincent towards the head of Lake Ontario, had enabled
Dearborn to establish himself in a solid manner on the Niagara
frontier. But these successes effected little, after all, towards the
complete subjugation of Western Canada. Vincent, with a small
yet highly efficient force, occupied a good position on Burlington
Heights, and was a formidable foe, although almost destitute of
resources, and with only ninety rounds of ammunition per man.
Had Dearborn despatched a force in vigorous pursuit of Vincent
on his retreat from Fort George, he might have seriously embarrassed
and perhaps defeated him. But his efforts in this respect were
languid in the extreme, and the month of June had already set in
before he endeavoured to retrieve his error. He now despatched
two brigades of infantry, three thousand strong, and two hundred
and fifty cavalry, with nine field-pieces, to dislodge the British from
their position.

On the 5th of June Vincent first received intelligence of the
approach of this formidable force, by the retreat of his advanced
pickets from Stoney Creek, where the Americans formed their camp
for the night. The condition of the British General was now ex-

* Christie, vol. ii. pp. 79, 80.

+ Baynes's Report to General Prevost.

J Christie, vol. ii. p. 81,

28o

The History of Canada.

tremely critical. In his rear Toronto had fallen, the lake on his
left flank presented no prospect of succour, and an enemy twice his
strength, with a formidable train of artillery, threatened him in front.
Unfortunately as he was situated he saw that he must hazard a
battle. While still undecided what course to pursue, he despatched
Lieutenant-Colonel Harvey to reconnoitre the enemy's position.
This officer soon ascertained that the American pickets were few
and negligent, and their line of encampment long and broken. He
accordingly proposed a night-attack to Vincent, who at once gave his
consent, hoping to accomplish by surprise, what his small force and
want of ammunition must hinder him from effecting in the open field.

Towards midnight the British force, consisting of the 49th regi-
ment and a part of the 8th, and mustering altogether only seven
hundred and four bayonets, moved silently forward to attack the
American camp, distant about six miles. Arrived in its neighbour-
hood Vincent intrusted the command of the assault to Harvey, who
speedily succeeded in surprising and capturing the enemy's outlying
pickets, without alarming his main body. This duty performed, the
little band pushed swiftly yet regularly down upon the centre of the
hostile camp, where in a few minutes all was confusion and dismay.
The Americans were driven from their tents and scattered in all
directions by the charges of the British, who fearing, however, to
expose their small numbers to view retired ere the day dawned, with
Brigadiers Chandler and Winder, one hundred and twenty other
prisoners, and four captured guns.

The British did not, however, achieve this brilliant success with-
out loss. One officer and twenty-two men were killed, and twelve
officers and one hundred and eighty men wounded and missing.
But the loss of the enemy was also severe, aside from the injurious
effects a night attack, so well executed, had on the spirits of his
men. This was soon evinced by the rapid retreat he made the
same morning to Forty Mile Creek, ten miles from the scene of
action, where he halted on meeting General Lewis advancing to his
assistance with a stiong detachment.

Meantime, Commodore Yeo had exerted himself so effectually,
thjt iiie British fleet on Lake Ontario became stronger than the
'\ ■/ ic.i, and Chauncey had retired to Sackett's Harbour. This
,r.'/il '.ig event enabled a communication to be at once established
»'itli •^■pcciit J little army. On the 3d of June Yeo sailed with his
sr "3a.. ■ for the head of the lake, having two hundred and eighty
men of the 8th regiment on board, with some much-needed clothing
and provisions. At daylight on the 8th the fleet was off Forty Mile

The Histoid of Canada.

:8l

Creek, when the Commodore summoned Lewis to surrender. This
he refused to do, but shortly after hurriedly retreated to Fort George,
leaving his tents standing, and his provisions and wounded behind ;
all of which were soon taken possession of by the advanced guard
of Vincent's force. Twelve large boats, carrying baggage, were also
captured by one of the vessels of the fleet.

The tide of fortune had now completely turned against Dearborn,
who was soon cooped up in Fort George and its vicinity. Sickness,
battle, and desertion had wasted away the large force he had
brought into Canada to less than five thousand men. His own
health, also, became more and more feeble. Still, it was strange to
see his army hemmed in and intimidated by a force scarcely one-
third its number. Nor was this owing to the physical inferiority of
the men who composed it. Nearly all the defeats of the American
army may be traced to its want of discipline, and the incapacity of
its leaders.

But Dearborn's reverses had not yet terminated. On the 28th of
June he despatched Colonel Boerstler with a detachment of nearly
six hundred men, including fifty cavalry and two field-guns, to
dislodge a British picket posted at a stone house at Beaver Dam,
a place between Queen ston and the village of Thorold on the
Welland Canal. By some means, Mrs Secord, of Chippewa, whose
husband had been wounded at the battle of Queenston, and her house
plundered and destroyed by the Americans, learned the object of
this movement, and walked nineteen miles by a circuitous route, to
avoid the American posts, to Beaver Dam, to apprise the officer
commanding there of the danger which threatened him. Thus
warned, Lieutenant Fitzgibbon lost no time in communicating with
Captain Ker, who was at the head of two hundred Indians in the
neighbourhood, and also with Major De Haren, commanding a
body of troops to the rear. Boerstler's march was soon checked by
the Indians, aided by thirty-four men of the 104th, who lined the
woods along the road. After a smart skirmish of two hours' duration,
the Americans began to retreat, but were attacked in another
direction by twenty militia, who were accidently j^assing. At this
crisis Lieutenant Fitzgibbon summoned Boerstler to surrender, and
to his great astonishment the latter consented. The lieutenant was
quite at a loss to know what to do with his prisoners, who were
double the number of the British and Indians ; but luckily Major
De Haren came up in time to take charge of them. This affair
entirely ruined Dearborn's military reputation, and he was soon after
superseded in his command by Major-General Wilkinson.

W-- v|

282

The History of Canada.

Its want of success on this occasion still further dispirited the
American army, and enabled Vincent to establish his outposts closer
to its position. By the ist of July tne British pickets occupied a
line extending from Twelve Mile Creek to Queenston, thus restricting
the enemy to the small angle formed by the river and lake, at the
apex of which stood Fort George. The American army by sickness
and casualties had been reduced to four thousand men of all arms,
who were now so completely dispirited as to permit themselves to
be held in close blockade by a force barely half their number.

The favourable condition of the British army on the Niagara fron-
tier soon enabled it to resume offensive operations. From Chippewa
a descent was made at daybreak, 4th of July, on Fort Schlosser, at
the opposite side of the river, under the direction of Colonel Clark of
the militia, which resulted in the capture of the American guard, a
large quantity of provisions, one brass six-pounder, a gun-boat, fifty
stand of arms, and some stores* Seven days afterwards Colonel
Bishopp crossed over to Black Rock, three miles below Buffalo, with
two hundred and forty regulars and militia, took the enemy com-
pletely by surprise, and destroyed his barracks, dockyard, a vessel
lying there, and captured a considerable quantity of stores, seven
guns, and two hundred stand of arms. The alarm, however, rapidly
spread, and General Porter at once drew together a strong body of
American regulars, militia, and Seneca Indians, from whose fire the
British suffered severely in their retreat. The gallant Bishopp was
mortally wounded, thirteen men killed, and a considerable number
severely injured.

These surprises, alike rapidly and skilfully executed, alarmed the
Americans, and kept them so sharply on the alert, that nothing else
was accomplished against their positions, on the Niagara frontier,
during the remainder of July. For the greater part of August, also,
the two armies remained inactive within a short distance of each
other. Towards the latter part of the month Sir George Prevost
arrived from Kingston, and, on the 24th, made a demonstration
against the enemy at Fort George, in order to draw him out and
ascertain his strength. But the Americans kept under cover of their
intrenchments, and it was not deemed advisable to attack them
there, their number being yet superior by two to one to Vincent's
army. Still, the Canadians had become so accustomed to see
brilliant victories won against large odds, that they felt extremely
dissatisfied something was not done by Prevost on this occasion.
His popularity as a civil governor, however, remained unabated.
Meanwhile, Commodore Yeo was not idle, and sweeping the lake

The History of Canada,

283

with his fleet, supplied Vincent's army with abundance of stores and
provisions. All this time Chauncey remained at Sackett's Harbour
waiting the equipment of his new ship, the Pike. During the earlier
part of July, Yeo fitted out an expedition of boats to destroy this
vessel, and would probably have succeeded, but for the escape of two
deserters, who apprised the enemy of his purpose. Towards the end
of the month the American fleet, now much superior to the British,
again appeared on the lake, and with a body of troops on board
stood towards Burlington Heights, the principal depot of Vincent's
army, with the view of destroying the stores collected there. This
design was frustrated by a rapid movement of the Glengarry corps
from Toronto, which was thus left defenceless. Chauncey accord-
ingly proceeded thither, and on the 23d July landed there a body of
troops without opposition, who set fire to the barracks and public
store-houses, liberated the prisoners in jail, ill-treated some of
the inhabitants, and retired with the few stores they could find.
Chauncey then returned to Niagara, off which Yeo appeared on the
8th of August with his six ships. The American fleet, consisting of
fourteen vessels, and much superior to the British fleet also in guns
and men, stood out to attack him, but not being able to get the
weather gauge, retired under cover of the shore batteries after giving
a single broadside. During the night two of Chauncey's schooners
were lost in a squall. Next day the fleets again manoeuvred to get
the weather gauge. On the loth this advantage rested with Yeo,
wlio, aided by a good breeze, bore down to attack the enemy.
Chauncey declined the battle, however, and retired to Niagara,
leaving two fine schooners to be captured by the British Commodore,
who now returned to Kingston without having sustained the loss
of a man.

While these events were transpiring on Lake Ontario, Harrison
was steadily prosecuting his preparations in Ohio for the recovery
of Michigan, while Captain Perry exerted himself in fitting out a
fleet, in order to obtain the command of Lake Erie, of which the
Canadians as yet had the control. Proctor and Tecumseh endeav-
oured to capture Fort Meigs by surprise on one of the last days of
July, but withdrew on finding the garrison on the alert. The
British and their Indian allies next made a dash at Fort Stephenson,
on the Sandusky Ri\ er, which Proctor, after a brisk cannonade, en-
deavoured to carry by storm on the 2d of August, but was repulsed
with serious loss. Three oflicers and fifty-two men were killed or
captured, and forty-one wounded. Proctor, finding his guns were
not sufficiently heavy to overpower the fire of the garrison, and

: 1

284

TAe History of Canada,

dreading the advance of Harrison to its succour, retreated to
Amherstburg*

Whilst the tide of ruthless invasion thus broke with checkered
fortunes along the frontier of Upper Canada, important successes
were achieved against the enemy on the boundaries of the Lower
Province. The old fortifications on the Isle-aux-Noix, where Lake
Champlain narrows into the Richelieu River, had been repaired, a
garrison placed there under Major Taylor, and three gun-boats sent
thither from Quebec. On the 3d of June an armed vessel was ob-
served from this post, and her capture immediately resolved upon.
No sailors were to be had, so Taylor manned the gun-boats with his
soldiers, who promptly proceeded to attack the enemy, v, hile another
detachment was directed to push down on each side of the river,
and open a cross fire from land. Meanwhile, anoth»;r \essel hove
in sight, and bore up to assist her consort. Both were compelled
to strike their colours after a smart action, when they proved to be
the American vessels Growler and Eagle, of eleven guns and fifty
men each, under the command of Lieutenant Smith, as commodore.
In this action the British had only three men wounded ; the loss of
the Americans was also trifling. The Eagle had been so much
injured during the engagement as to make it necessary to run her
ashore to prevent her from sinking.f

This was a most important success, and it was immediately de
termined to follow it up, by striking a blow against the naval and
military depots of the enemy on Lake Champlain. The Eagle was
easily got off", refitted, and named the Broke, while the other cap-
tured vessel was named the Shannon, and also put in order, as well
as the three gun-boats, for an expedition up the lake. But the diffi-
culty was to man this little squadron, as no seaman could be spared
from the fleet on Lake Ontario. Fortunately, at this juncture Cap-
tain Everard, of the brig of war Wasp, lying at Quebec, volunteered
his services, and manned the Broke and Shannon with his crew.

Sufficient batteaux having been procured, and every preparation
completed, the little fleet, with nine hundred regular troops on
board under Colonel Murray, sailed from Isle-aux-Noix on the 29th
of July. On the 31st the expedition arrived at Plattsburg, where
a landing was eff"ected without opposition, a considerable body of
American militia, under Brigadier Moore, retiring without firing a
shot. A large quantity of military stores was promptly sent on

• Major Croghan's Despatch to Harrison, Sth August 1813. Christie, vol. ii.
pp. 89, 90. Prevost's General Order, Kingston, 3d September 1S13.
t Taylor's Despatch to Stovin, 3d June 1813.

The History of Canada.

285

board the shipping, and Colonel Murray then leisurely proceeded to
burn the arsenal, store-houses, and barracks recently built, capable
of accommodating four thousand men.* While the troops were
thus employed, Captain Everard, with his two schooners and one
gun-boat, stood across the lake to Burlington, where General
Hampton had drawn together a strong body of regulars and militia,
and where also the principal American naval force lay at anchor.
But the latter declined to leave the protection of the shore batteries,
and Everard, after destroying four vessels lying off the place, re-
turned to Plattsburg.f Detachments of troops next proceeded to
Swanton and Champlain villages to destroy the stores there ; when,
the objects of the expedition having been fully accompHshed, they
returned to Isle-aux-Noix on the 4th of August.J

In the St Lawrence, on the other hand, two gun-boats of the
enemy captured, on the 20th of July, a fiotilla of fifteen batteaux
laden with provisions, and one gun-boat convoying them, a little
below Kingston. A fruitless attempt was made to recover the
batteaux. The enemy took shelter in Goose Creek, interrupted its
passage by felling trees, and lining the woods with his riflemen,
compelled the British detachment to retire, after a smart action in
which the latter sustained some loss.

But, while the campaign thus far had been on the whole eminently
favourable to Canada, the enemy, irritated by frequent defeat, and
the negative and unproductive character of his successes, made
great exertions, as autumn approached, to turn the current of
events in his favour. Taught by repeated failure and misfortune,
his operations now assumed a more systematic and menacing
character. In the beginning of September, Hampton, with a
force of nearly five thousand men, crossed Lake Champlain and
established himself at Plattsburg, with the view of penetrating
to Montreal. At Sackett's Harbour, ten thousand men, under
Wilkinson, were preparing to assail Kingston, while Harrison,
with a formidable army, mustering nearly six thousand of all arms,
was ready to attack Proctor, the moment the fleet now fitting out
by Perry could establish its superiority on Lake Erie. Both
belligerents had made the most strenuous exertions to augment
their naval forces on this lake ; but the British laboured at a
great disadvantage when compared to the Americans. The sparse
population of Upper Canada at this period possessed few facilities

• Murray's Despatch to General Sheaffe, 3d August 1813.
+ Everaid's Despatch to General Prevost, 3d August 1S13.
+ Christie, vol. ii. p. 95.

\u'm

286

The History of Canada.

.»>••>

for ship-building; and all the necessary material, with the excep-
tion of wood alone, had to be brought from England up the long
portages of the St Lawrence and Niagara Rivers, at an amount
of cost and labour we can have very little idea of at the present
time. Captain Barclay, who had assumed command of the British
squadron on this lake in the month of May, laboured with untiring
zeal to fit out the Detroit, a larger vessel than any of the other five
composing his squadron hitherto, in order to enable himself to
meet the fleet Perry was equipping at Erie, on more equal terms.
But he could not even obtain the necessary guns from the arsenal
at Kingston, and had to take some of the cumbrous fort artillery
at Detroit and Amherstburg to supply the deficiency. His greatest
difficulty, however, was to man his fleet, as Commodore Yeo could
only spare him fifty seamen. The rest of his crews was made up
of two hundred and fifteen soldiers from Proctor's force and eighty
Canadians ; while, on the other hand, an idle commercial marine
enabled the enemy to man his fleet with picked seamen, to the
number of nearly six hundred. The Americans, too, although
their guns were fewer, had greatly the advantage in weight of
metal, besides having two vessels more than the British. But in
sailors their great superiority rested. For these, the wretched mix-
ture of six landsmen to one seaman on board of Barclay's fleet, even
were they equal in point of numbers, could be no match whatever.*
Proctor at this period found hiinself seriously embarrassed from
want of food and other supplies; and it was evident that if the
enemy obtained command of the lake, not only Michigan but
Western Canada must be abandoned. Barclay, under these cir-
cumstances, determined to do his best to succour the army, and
with his feeble force blockaded Perry in Erie harbour, which he
could do with safety, as the sand-bar in front must compel the
enemy to take his guns out to cross it. Towards the end of August,
however, he was obliged to proceed to Long Point for supplies, and
the American Commodore at once seized this opportunity to put
to sea. The British commander was now blockaded in turn in
Amherstburg, and endeavoured to improve his leisure to advantage,
by training the soldiers to work the guns, and the Canadians to
handle the ropes. But his provisions soon failed ; he must either
fight or starve ; no other alternative presented itself. He accord-

Comparative strength of the fleets : —

Americans. British.
Weight of metal, lbs. 928 459

Complement of men, 580 345

The History of Canada.

287

ingly put to sea on the loth of September, and soon met the
enemy, when a most obstinate battle ensued. For a while the
British had the advantage, and Perry's own ship, the La-iCraice^
was compelled to haul down its colours, amid the cheers of the
British squadron. But Barclay had not even a boat to take
possession of his prize, so defective was his equipment. The
firing now ceased for a few minutes, but a breeze springing up
behind the American fleet, Perry, who had meanwhile shifted his
flag to another vessel, skilfully gained the weather-gauge of the
principal British ships, while they, from the unskilfulness of their
crews, were unable to extricate themselves from their dangerous
condition. The result was, that after a desperate engagement
of three hours, during which the carnage was fearful, the entire
British fleet was taken. Still, it did not surrender till the vessels
had become wholly unmanageable, nor till all the officers were either
killed or wounded, and a third of their crews had shared the same
melancholy fate.* The American loss was twenty-seven killed and
ninety-six wounded.f

The effects of this severe reverse were speedily felt by Proctor.
With an enemy on his flank and front, and lacking provisions and
supplies of every kind, retreat was now his sole alternative. Am-
herstburg, Detroit, and the minor fortified posts in the west were
dismantled, stores of every kind destroyed, and the British, number-
ing eight hundred and thirty, commenced to retreat along the
Thames, towards Lake Ontario, accompanied by five hundred
Indians under Tecumseh, who showed an honourable fidelity in
misfortune. Harrison following rapidly in pursuit with an army
of three thousand five hundred men, including several hundred
cavalry, came up with Proctor's rear-guard on the 4th of October,
and succeeded in capturing all his stores and ammunition, and
over one hundred prisoners. The British general had now no
resource but to hazard a battle, and for this purpose he took up
a position, on the following day, at the Moravian Village on the
Thames. Proctor's usual prudence appears to have forsaken him.
The bridges in his rear had been left entire ; he made no effort
to strengthen his position by a breast-work ; and it is even said
that his field of battle was ill-chosen. J But in any case, his few

• Alison's Hist. Europe, New York, vol. iv. p. 467. Barclay's Despatch to
Yeo, 22d September 1813.

t Perry's Despatch to the Hon. W. Jones, American Naval Secretary.

X Proctor was subsequently tried by court-martial, and severely censured for
his conduct on this occasion.

mm.x

288

The History of Cajiada.

worn-out and harassed soldiers, now reduced by casualties to
nearly six hundred men, were wholly unequal to a contest with
Harrison's numerous and comparatively well-appointed army. The
result was what might naturally be expected. The British were
speedily beaten at all points, and Proctor fled from the field of
battle leaving the Indians to their fate. Led by their gallant chief-
tain they fought manfully against enormous odds, and only retired
when Tecumseh no longer lived to rally them. The few British
soldiers who escaped from captivity or death, fled through the
woods to re-assemole, to the number of two hundred and forty, at
Burlington Heights.

Nor did the reverses of the British terminate with this fresh dis-
aster. On the same day that Proctor fled before Harrison, six
schooners, having on board two hundred and fifty soldiers, proceed-
ing from Toronto to Kingston without convoy, were captured on
Lake Ontario. These losses, in addition to the alarming intelli-
gence that the enemy was making great preparations for the con-
quest of Lower Canada, and that Harrison was descending Lake
Erie to reinforce the American army on the Niagara frontier, com-
pelled Vincent, whose force was now reduced to twelve hundred
effective men, to raise the blockade of Fort George, and retreat
to his old position on Burlington Heights. This movement was
effected in most excellent order, although his rear was threatened
by Brigadier M'Clure, with a force fully as large as his own. At
Stoney Creek, his rear-guard took up a strong position, and checked
the further pursuit of the enemy. At Burlington Heights Vincent
was joined by the fugitives of Proctor's division, who made up his
strength to nearly fifteen hundred bayonets.

The Americans were greatly elated with these important suc-
cesses, and openly avowed their intention of invading Lower Canada,
and taking up their winter quarters at Montreal. As the first step
in this plan, Kingston, now slenderly garrisoned, was to be immedi-
ately captured by Wilkinson's army from Sackett's Harbour. Pres-
cott was next to fall; and then the road down the St Lawrence
would be perfectly open to Montreal, where a junction was to be
effected with Hampton's army. His successes in the west, and the
retreat of Vincent from Fort George, permitted the enemy to mass
his disposable troops at Sackett's Harbour, without danger to his
Niagara frontier; and Wilkinson's army, by the addition of large
bodies of regular troops, rapidly assumed a more imposing char-
acter. On the 24th of October this army, amounting to nine thou-
sand men, with a well-appointed train of artillery, rendezvoused at

The History of Canada.

289

Grenadier Island, near Kingston, a favourable point for operations
against that important position. But the British had correctly
divined the enemy's intention, and a force of two thousand men,
under Major-General De Rottenberg awaited Wilkinson's approach
at the menaced fortress. The latter perceiving that his prospect
of a successful assault on Kingston was now of the most slender
description, determined to shift his line of attack, descend the
St Lawrence at once, form a junction with Hampton's army, and
capture Montreal.

Agreeable to this fresh plan of operations, Wilkinson commenced
the passage down the river on the last days of October, his flotilla,
of over three hundred large boats and schooners, protected by
twelve heavy gun-boats. This movement having become speedily
known at Kingston, De Rottenberg took measures to annoy, and, if
possible, check the advance of the enemy. Two schooners and
several gun-boats were sent in pursuit, with orders to harass him as
much as possible, and a " corps of observation," composed of eight
hundred and fifty rank and file, was detached for the same purpose.

Wilkinson's progress was exceedingly slow, and spoke little for
his energy of character, a quality so necessary to success in a mili-
tary man. At French Creek, some twenty-five miles below King-
ston, he halted his army for several days, during which his flotilla
was much annoyed by the teasing fire of the British gun-boats. On
the 5th of November he again pushed down the river, and reached
a point six miles above Ogdensburg, where another halt was made,
and a proclamation issued to the Canadians. On the 7th the
advance of his army was resumed, and next day the flotilla was off
Matilda, where twelve hundred troops were landed under Colonel
Macomb, to clear the bank of some militia who had assembled to
annoy his progress down the river. Two days afterwards the
American general found himself at Williamsburg, where he rein-
forced the troops under Macomb by a second brigade, led by
General Brown, and a body of dragoons. On the following day
another force was landed under General Boyd.

During this time the British corps of observation continued to
advance steadily on the rear of the enemy. On the loth a descent
was made by Colonel Morrison on a post at the American side of
the river, where a considerable quantity of provisions and stores
and two guns were captured. Colonel Harvey in the meantime
followed up the enemy^ who towards eveninj^ endeavoured to
check his advance with some light troops and cavalry, which a few
rounds from three field-pieces compelled to retire. During the

290

The History of Canada.

nth Morrison pressed so close upon General Boyd's division, now
forming the enemy's rear-guard, while the fire of his gun-boats
severely harassed the flotilla, that Wilkinson determined to check
his further advance, and if possible capture his artillery. He accord-
ingly directed Boyd to give him battle, and the latter soon drew
together a body of fully two thousand regular troops for that purpose,
with several guns.*

The ground was open and perfectly clear, presenting no ine-
qualities to favour either the assailants or the assailed, and the
action, known as the battle of Chrysler's Farm, which now ensued,
was a "fair stand-up fight," with the single exception that the
Americans were exactly two to one ; but this advantage was coun-
terbalanced, in some measure, by their inferiority in discipline to
the British. The enemy began the action by attacking Morrison's
advanced guard, which gradually fell back on the main body in
admirable order. At half-past two, the battle became general ; and
an extremely sharp contest ensued, which lasted fully two hours, and
terminated entirely in favour of the British, who captured one of
the enemy's guns, compelled him to retreat, and moved forward
shortly after in pursuit. Our loss on this occasion was one officer
and twenty-one men killed, ten officers and one hundred and thirty-
seven men wounded, and twelve missing.+ The Americans, on the
other hand, had one hundred and two killed, and two hundred and
thirty-six wounded.J

Meanwhile, the advance of Hampton with a well-appointed army
of five thousand m(;n, including a body of cavalry, towards Montreal,
compelled the Governor to call out the militia of the district, en
tnasse, an order responded to with the utmost alacrity. At the
same time Colonel De Salaberry was detached with the Canadian
Voltigeurs to reconnoitre the enemy. This duty was very gallantly
performed, and De Salaberry, after a smart skirmish with the
American advanced guard, fell back to an excellent position on the
Chateaugay River. Hampton, however, not having yet learned of
Wilkinson's advance, hesitated to push forward to the St Lawrence,
and meanwhile, in order to distract the attention of the British,
detached Colonel Clarke to the Canadian settlement on Missoquoi

* At Wilkinson's court-martial it was sworn by Colonel Walback, that the
British numbered about eleven hundred men, including militia and a few Indians,
while Wilkinson admits in his despatches that the Americans engaged amounted
to over two thousand men.

t Morrison's Despatch to De Rottenberg.

J Wilkinson's Despatch to the American Secretary at War.

The History of Canada.

291

Bay, where the inhabitants were now plundered and ill-treated by
the American troops.*

The season for action wore rapidly away, and the American
general at length commenced a forward movement on the 21st of
October. On the 24th he arrived in the neighbourhood of the
position occupied by De Salaberry, and made preparations to dis-
lodge him. During the night of the 25th a brigade was accordingly
detached by a circuitous route to take the British post in the rear,
while the main body of the army assailed it in front. But Colonel
Purdy, who led this brigade, got bewildered in the woods, and did
not arrive in time to take part in the beginning of the battle that
ensued. Hampton, ignorant of this circumstance, pushed forward a
column three thousand five hundred strong, at ten o'clock, on the
morning of the 26th, under the command of Brigadier Izzard, to
carry the position held by De Salaberry with less than four hundred
Canadians. It was situated in a thick wood, the British left flank
resting on the river, its right on an extended abattis, while its front
was covered by a breast-work of logs. This position was penetrated
by a road, which had been broken up and rendered as difficult to
traverse as possible.

The action began by the enemy driving in De Salaberry's ad-
vanced picket, which retired on another a short distance in the rear,
and both uniting opened a smart fire upon the head of Izzard's
column. On hearing the firing De Salaberry placed his few troops
in extended order in front of the abattis, and directed them not to
fire till he gave the signal by discharging his own rifle. The engage-
ment speedily became general, and the enemy was effectually held
in check, till the retreat of a few skirmishers in the centre of the
British line encouraged him to advance. De Salaberry now dreaded
his small force would be surrounded, and by a clever ruse intimi-
dated the American troops. Placing his buglers as far apart as
possible he directed them to sound the advance, which effectually
cooled the ardour of the assailants, who imagined that the Canadians
were advancing in great numbers against them.

Meanwhile, Purdy, directed by the firing, advanced to cross the
river, and take De Salaberry in the rear. He was, however, com-
pletely defeated by two companies advantageously posted, and com-
pelled to retire in disorder. Finding his efforts ineff"ectual to force
the position in his front, disliking to resort to the bayonet, and
seeing Purdy's brigade unable to co-operate with him, Hampton
withdrew his forces at two o'clock in the afternoon, leaving the

* Christie, vol. ii. p. 123.

292

The History of Canada.

Canadians completely masters of the field, with very trifling loss to
thjmse'ves. After a short halt, the American army Commenced
its retreat on Plattsburg, its rear severely harassed by the Canadian
militia, who speedily collected in considerable numbers.

The intelligence, on the 12th of November, of Hampton's in-
glorious defeat by a mere handful of Canadians, completely dis-
concerted Wilkinson's plans. He at once abandoned all idea of
passing the winter at Montreal, agreeable to his first intention, and
next day his army crossed the St Lawrence, and proceeded to French
Mills, on the Salmon River, where wooden huts were rapidly con-
structed for its use. Thus terminated this invasion of Lower Canada,
formidable, however, only in the number of the invaders, who, to
the extent of nearly fifteen thousand men, had been foiled or beaten
back by fifteen hundred regulars and militia at Chrystler's Farm and
Chateaugay. Wilkinson's drunken* descent of the St Lawrence,
was a fit occurrence to take place in connexion with Hampton's five
thousand men held in check by De Salaberry's four hundred Spartans.

From Lower we have now to turn to Upper Canada, which
Prevost, on receiving intelligence of Proctor's defeat, had ordered
Vincent to abandon as far as Kingston, Fortunately, a council of
war, held at Burlington Heights, decided adversely to the instruc-
tions of the Commander-in-Chief, and determined to defend the
wester:" peninsula at all hazards. M'Clure had in the meantime
remained undisturbed at Twenty Mile Creek, from whence maraud-
ing parties of his troops scoured the surrounding country, plundered
the peaceable inhabitants of their cattle and provisions, and burned
their barns. The latter represented these occurrences to Vincent,
who, accordingly, in the beginning of December, detached Colonel
Murray with five hundred regulars and Iiu'ixns as far as Forty Mile
Creek, to drive in the foraging parties of the enemy. M'Clure,
dreading an advance against him in force, now retreated on Fort
George as rapidly as possible ; and having learned the disastrous
termination of Wilkinson's and Hampton's movements against
Lower Canada, determined to cross at once to the American side
of the river. Even in this movement his terrified imagination did
not see sufficient safety, if Vincc.c's army were permitted to find
shelter in Niagara. To prevent this effectually he determined to
destroy the town.

* At Wilkinson's court-martial it was proved by Major Birsdall of the
American army, and Owen Chatfield of Ogdensburg, that he was drunk in the
house of Daniel Thorpe, sung obscene songs there, and otherwise behaved him-
self most improperly.

The History of Canada.

293

The winter had set in unusually early : huge icicles festooned in
pendent clusters the rocks rising above the river up to the Falls,
where the spray, caught in its ascent by the biting north winds of
December, fell back in tiny showers of hail upon the dark seething
waters below. The fierce gusts of wind that traversed unchecked
over Lake Ontario, fell keen and cold upon the homes of Niagara,
whose unhappy people, although surrounded by the miseries of
warfare, and subjected to hostile invaders, still consoled themselves
with the thought that at least they had food and shelter ; and anxious
mothers thanked God that it was even so : and as the fierce Cana-
dian storm raged, and the snow beat thick and fast against door
and window, a feeling of gratitude swelled their hearts that their
babes had a warm home.

The Americans came to free the Canadian people from what they

termed the tyranny of Great Britain ; but found them, on the whole,

loyal, incorruptible, and satisfied with their condition. They talked

• o Canadians of the rights of humanity ; how all men were free and

equal ; while thousands of trembling slaves writhed under the lash

in the plantations of the South. They boasted of their respect for

the rights of property, yet they plundered the defenceless peasantry

of Canada, burned their fences, and visited their happy homes with

the dreadful horrors of invasion. But all this was not enough 3 they

had not yet sufficiently injured the hapless Canadians. On the loth

of December — the dark stormy December of 18 13, M'Clure, by

order of his Government — the Congress of the United States, as

expressed through James Madison, President, and John Armstrong,

Secretary at War, turned four hundred helpless women and children

into the streets at half an hour's notice, and burned their homes to

the ground. One house only in Niagara was left standing ; and the

unfortunate inmates of one hundred and fifty dwellings were driven

forth, in some cases without clothing to shield them from the

piercing wind, to find food and shelter where they best might.

Furniture, books, household utensils, everything, in short, that

could not be removed in the brief space of thirty minutes, were

given to the flames. In one instance a sick woman, whose

husband, Mr Dickson, was a prisoner in the enemy's territory,

was carried out, bed and all, and laid down in the snow at her

own door, where, shivering with cold, she beheld her house and

all that was in it consumed to ashes.

No wonder that the people of Canada felt indignant at this act
of wanton and unparalleled cruelty, and that the Americans were
soon made to feel the full effects of the barbarous system of warfare

294

The History of Canada.

they had thus inaugurated, in the conflagration of the towns along
their own frontier, and in the well-merited destruction of their
capitol at Washington. The weeping and wailing of the widows
and orphans and affrighted mothers of Niagara, as they watched the
lurid flames leap from rafter to rafter of their humble homes, were
portentous of dire disgrace to the American arms.

While M'Clnn' busy in applying the torch to the houses of

Niagara, he iitglecte^/ duties far more important, and more necessary
to the interests of his country. New barracks, recently erected on
the river, were left untouched ; the fort, which had been repaired
and strengthened, he bequeathed to Murray, without blowing up the
magazine, or sprir;p^''7 x : ngle mine; and tents for fifteen hundred
men were left bta:.v .j..

It was not alone in '. \r\c\\^ of Niagara that the people
suffered frorr'. marauuing parae^: of the enemy. Westward, on
Lake Erie, a I jdy ox mrricau-v ' ''^ ' y oome disaffected Canadians,
committed out-ngcs o i ihe "nl>a ■.. Ihe bulk of the militia

had been disarmed on Proctur'j .^xt ' .n order to prevent their
being made prisoners by the enemy ; a few, Uuwever, were permitted
to retain their muskets to protect themselves. Forty-five of these
were mustered towards the latter part of October — a marauding
band of the enemy pursued — overtaken near Dover — several of them
killed after a smart action, and eighteen taken prisoners. Fifteen
of the latter were disaffected Canadians ; eight of whom were now
executed for high treason and robbery, and seven transported.

A few days after the re-occupation of Fort George by Murray,
Lieutenant-General Drummond arrived at Toronto to assume the
military command and civil control of Upper Canada, Mr Gore,
the Lieutenant-Governor, still continuing absent in England. He
was accompanied by Major-General Riall to aid him in his military
capacity. Drummond lost no time in proceeding to Vincent's
head-quarters, now removed to the village of St David, in the neigh-
bourhood of Queenston. Shortly after his arrival Murray proposed
to capture Fort Niagara by surprise, to which he at once gave
consent.

Every preparation being completed for this important enterprise,
five hundred and fifty men, under Murray, silently crossed the
river, three miles above Niagara, on the night of the i8th Decem-
ber, without being discovered by the enemy. Next morning before
day this force moved forward to assault the fort, the garrison of
which was completely taken by surprise,, and surrendered after a
feeble resistance. The loss of the Americans on this occasion was

The History of Canada.

295

severe, and amounted to sixty-five men and two officers killed,
twelve wounded, and three hundred prisoners. On the other hand,
the British loss was only six killed and five wounded. A large
quantity of stores of every description was captured, three thousand
stand of arms, a number of rifles, and thirty-six guns.*

General Riall, who had crossed over with a detachment of five
hundred men to support Murray, in case of need, on learning his
complete success pushed up the river to Lewiston, where the enemy
had erected batteries for the destruction of Queenston, imme-
diately opposite. These were abandoned on his approach, and
Lewiston, in revenge for the burning of Niagara, was given to the
flames, as well as the villages of Youngstown, Manchester, and
Tuscarora. At the same time the auxiliary Indians and light
troops were scattered over the adjacent country, and took ample
vengeance for the numerous injuries which had been inflicted on
the Canadians. It was a sad sight to see the smoking ruins of a
whole district ; but the Americans themselves were alone to blame.
They had commenced this savage description of warfare, and de-
served to feel its full effects ; they had invaded the hippy homes of
a people of the same lineage and the same language as themselves,
and it was only fitting they should be taught the miseries which they
had inflicted upon others.

M'Clure now called out the militia of Genesee, Niagara, and
Chatauque counties to defend the frontier, and established his head-
quarters at Buffalo. Dreading, however, that the British would
carry every post along the Niagara river, and unwilling to face the
storm he had provoked, and incur the additional odium of defeat,
he resigned the command of the district to Major-General Hall.
The latter soon found himself at the head of two thousand men,
and proceeded to make the best dispositions he could for the
defence of Buffalo and its neighbourhood.

On the morning of the 28th of December the indefatigable
Drummond was at Chippewa ; next day within three miles of Fort
Erie, and now determined to assail the enemy's position at Black
Rock. Accordingly, on the night of the 30th, Riall, at the head of
five hundred and forty regulars, fifty militia volunteers, and one
hundred and twenty Indians, crossed the Niagara two miles below
the post he was to attack, and landed without opposition. Next
morning at daybreak this detachment pushed briskly forward against
Black Rock ; at the same time, the Royal Scots crossed the river

* Murray's Despatch to Drummond, 19th Dec. 1813. M'Clure's Despatch to
Armstrong, 22d Dec. 1813. Christie, vol. ii. pp. 138, 139.

t\-<\

296

The History of Cajiada.

above the village to effect a diversion in its favour, take the enemy
in the left flank, and cut off his retreat toward Buffalo. This corps
suffered severely from the guns in battery along the river, and was
not able to land in time to take part in the spirited action that
ensued. The troops already landed moved up to attack the enemy,
who was strongly posted, with great spirit, and after an obstinate
contest the Americans were driven through their batteries, and re-
treated towards Buffalo. The British followed closely in pursuit, and
although the enemy endeavoured to check their advance, by throw-
ing a body of cavalry and infantry with a field-gun across their front,
they pushed steadily forward. Buffalo, from which the affrighted
inhabitants had already fled, was given to the flames, as well as
three vessels of Perry's squadron lying in its harbour. Black Rock
shared the same fate, together with a vast quantity of stores ; and
from Lake Ontario to Erie the American frontier was one vast
scene of desolation. These important successes were not accom-
plished without loss : the British had thirty-one killed, seventy-two
wounded, and nine missing.* The American loss has never been
correctly ascertained, but was supposed to amount to nearly four
hundred killed and wounded, in addition to one hundred and thirty
prisoners.

With these acts of retribution, the justice of which was admitted
by the sufferers themselves, while they denounced the conduct of
their own army in commencing such a mode of warfare, closed the
campaign of 18 13, which terminated to the complete disgrace of
American arms. With exception of the extreme portion of Western
Canada, the enemy did not hold a single position on British soil,
and the possession of Amherstburg was more than counterbalanced
by the loss of Niagara. His large armies had been beaten back by
mere petty detachments ; and dispirited and discouraged were com-
pelled to retreat into their own territory, the laughing-stock of the
military men of Europe. Not only was the conduct of the British
regulars much better than that of the American, but the Canadian
militia, of French, British, and American extraction, had also
proved themselves infinitely superior, both for aggressive and defen-
sive warfare, to the militia of the enemy. This- circumstance goes
far to establish the fact, that the climate of Canada is more favour-
able to the growth of a hardy and military population, than the
milder and more luxurious regions farther south.

Nor were the American arms more successful, on the whole, at

* Riall's Despatch to Drummond, ist Jan. 1814. Hall's Despatch to Arm-
strong, 31st Dec. 1813. Christie, vol. ii. pp. 138-144.

The History of Canada.

297

the seaboard than in Canada. Despite the victories won at sea by
their well-manned and admirably-equipped frigates, they were un-
able to release their commerce from the close blockade established
by the fleets of Great Britain, and their vast merchant marine lay
idle in their harbours, while their decreased import revenue had to
be made good by other and more direct taxation, to meet the heavy
expenses of the war. The conquest of Canada was as remote as
ever, and the fact began to force itself on the attention of the
American people that they must emerge from the contest with little
honour and no profit whatever.

THAPTER XV.

THE GOVERNMENT OF SIR GEORGE PREVOST, — Continued,
THE CAMPAIGN OF 1814.

THE Legislature of Lower Canada was convened on the 13th of
January, and congratulated by the Governor, in his speech
opening the session, on the satisfactory results of the campaign of
the preceding year. One of the first measures of the House
^" was to pass an act increasing the issue of "Army Bills"
to ;^i>Soo,ooo. A bill to disqualify judges for seats in the Legis-
lative Council was next introduced and passed in the Assembly,
and sent to the Upper House, where it was thrown out, on the
grounds that it was unparliamentary, and interfered with the preroga-
tive of the Crown.

After passing a vote of thanks to Colonel De Salaberry for his
gallant conduct at the Chateaugay River, and to Colonel Morrison
for the defeat of Boyd at Chrj'stler's Farm, the Assembly proceeded
to take into consideration the authority exercised by the courts of
justice in the province. After some discussion they came to the
conclusion, that the " Rules of Court " adopted in the Court of
Appeals and King's Bench, during General Craig's administration,
were contrary to parliamentary enactment, and subversive of the
rights of liberty and property. For the adoption of these rules, and
other misdemeanors, Chief Justices Sewell and Monk were now
formally impeached by the Assembly, who employed Mr James
Stuart, an eminent lawyer, and member of the House, to prosecute
these judges in England. The Assembly soon after passed a supply
bill, which made provision for ;!^2ooo to defray Stuart's expenses in
England. This item was struck out by the Legislative Council ; and,
as the Commons refused to submit to the amendment, the bill was
lost. After agreeing to an address to the Prince Regent on the state
of the province, showing the urgent necessity of early assistance to
enable it to resist effectually the aggressive acts of the United States,

The History of Canada,

299

and the transaction of some minor business, the last session of the
seventh Parliament of Lower Canada terminated on the 17th of
March.

In Upper Canada the I-egislature met at Toronto on the 15th
February, and enacted several useful statutes. The principal of these
were a more effectual militia bill, an act to provide for the issuing and
circulation of government bills for one year, and another act appro-
priating ;;^6ooo to repair roads and build bridges.

Meanwhile, the most strenuous exertions were made to prepare
for the ensuing campaign, and stores of all descriptions forwarded by
sleighs, from Montreal and Quebec to Kingston, at enormous ex-
pense. In the month of February the second battalion of the 8th
regiment marched upwards from New Brunswick, and two hundred
and fifty seamen for the lakes came by the same route.

In the month of March, deputies, as in the old days of the French
governors, descended from the West to have a conference with the
representative of King George at the castle of St Louis. They repre-
sented their poverty, owing to the Americans having deprived them
of their lands, and desired that peace might not bo made till they had
recovered their ancient hunting-grounds. '* Father," said one chief,
" the Americans have no hearts — they have no pity on us. They
take our lands from us every day, and seek to drive us beyond the
setting sun. But we hope that our mighty father beyond the great
salt lake will not forsake us in our distress, and will continue to
remember his faithful Red Children." After some days' sojourn at
Quebec, they were loaded with presents, and sent back to prepare
their tribes for the approaching campaign.

The subjugation of the western extremity of Canada had by no
means been completed by the defeat of Proctor. The sturdy militia
of this district were not disposed to submit themselves slavishly to
American military despotism, and the appearance of a respectable
British force amongst them was alone required to rally them again
in defence of their country. The successes on the Niagara frontier
had enabled General Drummond to turn his attention in that direc-
tion, and detachments were pushed westward to drive in the American
scattered parties towards Detroit. The militia, now partially armed,
were immediately on the alert to second this movement, and twenty-
eight of them, under Lieutenant Metcalf, captured thirty-nine Ameri-
can regulars near Chatham. Another party, however, were not so
fortunate in an attack, near Lake Erie, on a body of American
rangers, made in connexion with a company of regulars, and some
Indians, on the 14th of January. The enemy secured themselves

300

The Ilisioiy of Canada.

by an intrenchment and bfeast-work, and defeated their assailants
with a loss of sixty-five killed and wounded, and only eight casual-
ties on their own side. Nevertheless, feeling satisfied that they owed
their safety solely to the strength of their position, they decamped
after the action as speedily as possible.

Two disastrous campaigns had not sufTiced to cool the ardour of
the American Democracy for war ; and with the first days of open-
ing spring, their generals began to develop their plans for another
attempt at the conquest of the Canadas. Great preparations were
made to retrieve their disasters of the preceding years : their troops
were better drilled, and better officered. Among the American
general officers Scott now appeared for the first time, having been
raised to the rank of brigadier.

The first movements of the campaign commenced in the neigh-
bourhood of Lower Canada. Wilkinson had descended from
Salmon River to Plattsburg, and anxious to strike an important blow
as early in the season as possible, crossed the Canadian frontier on
the 2 2d of March, and took possession of the village of Phillipsburg,
just within the lines, on the eastern side of Lake Champlain. From
this place he proceeded to the western side of the lake, on the 26th,
with the view of attacking a small British force stationed at La Colle
Mill, about ten miles distant from Rouse's Point. His army con-
sisted of over five thousand regular infantry, with one hundred
cavalry, and eleven guns.*

The mill about to be carried, as Wilkinson supposed by the large
force under his command, was an ordinary quadrangle, fifty feet
long by thirty-six wide, and two stories high, with a common shingle
roof. The walls, eighteen inches thick, were pierced by several
windows, now filled up with logs, in which loop-holes to fire through
had been cut. On the opposite bank of the La Colle River, crossed
at this point by a wooden bridge, was a small house at an angle
with the mill, which had been surrounded with a breast-work of logs.
For a distance of one hundred yards or so around this position,
which was far from being a strong one, the woods had been cleared.
The ordinary garrison of La Colle Mill was under two hundred men,
commanded by Major Handcock, while the few troops hastily drawn
together to support it, on the advance of the enemy becoming
known, did not exceed three hundred more. The latter consisted

♦ In the council of war held on the 20th of March, Wilkinson stated his force
to be three thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine combatants. This force was-
joined next day by Brigadier Macomb with his brigade, which made the entire
force fully up to five thousand men.

The Ilistoy of Canada.

301

of the two flank companies of the 13th regiment, a company of
Canadian Fcncibles, and another of Voltigeurs. With this slender
force of less than five hundred men, did Handcock resolve to hold
a post, which a few hours' fire of well-directed artillery would have
' ""d to the ground, against a well-appointed army.

one o'clock p.m., on the 30th of March, Wilkinson, after
having made a demonstration against the outpost at Burtonville,
occupied the woods close to La Colle Mill with his entire force,
which he deployed into line with the view of surrounding the British
position, and carrying it with the bayonet. His troops cheered
loudly as they advanced ; but the well-aimed and rapid fire with
which they were received, soon compelled them to waver, and re-
treat back into the wood for shelter. Three guns (an eighteen,
twelve, and six-pounder) were now brought to bear upon the mill,
within point-blank range. But these guns were badly served, and
did little injury, while the artillerymen suffered severely from the
British musketry, and the fire of their two guns. The enemy was
also held in check on the side of the Richelieu by the fire of two
f ^ps and two gun-boats, which had advanced towards the scene of
n from Isle-aux-Noix ; but these had to remain too far away to
V. luch service. Desperate as were the odds, the flank rompanies
of the 13th regiment, and the Canadian Voltigeurs and Fencibles.
made two gallant charges, in turn, to capture the enemy's guns, but
were repulsed by the sheer force of numbers, the fire of his artillery,
as well as of two brigades of infantry, being directed against them.*

For full four hours did these few hundred gallant men withstand
an army. As evening approached their ammunition began to run
short. Still they did not quail. Not a man spoke of surrender ;
and the daring front they had shown during the day deterred the
enemy from assaulting their position with the bayonet. At six o'clock
Wilkinson retreated from the Canadian grist-mill, completely foiled
and beaten, and retraced his steps to Plattsburg. His repulse was
infinitely more disgraceful than that sustained by Abercromby be-
fore the lines of Montcalm at Ticonderoga. There the British
bravely endeavoured to storm : the American army made no attempt
of the kind.t

In the defence of La Colle Mill the British loss was eleven killed,
forty-six wounded, and four missing. The American loss has never
been stated, but it must have been much greater.

The check sustained by Wilkinson led the American Government

* Colonel M'Pherson's evidence at Wilkinson's court-martial.

t Williams's Despatch to Prevost, 13th March 1814. Handcock to Williams.

I :• • 'I.J

302

The History of Canada.

to abandon the idea of subduing Lower Canada for the present, and
after leaving garrisons in the principal posts on Lake Champlain,
his army was moved to the neighbourhood of Lake Ontario, to
operate against the upper province. Here the campaign was
opened, under the most favourable auspices for Canada, by Com-
modore Yeo and General Drummond. On the 4th of May the
British squadron, which by the construction of two new ships had
obtained the ascendancy on the lake, with one thousand and eighty
troops on board, left Kingston for Oswego, where a landing was
effected on the morning of the 6th, after a smart action with the
enemy, who was completely put to flight. The troops then pro-
ceeded to destroy all stores which could not be carried off, dismantle
the fort, and burn the barracks and bridges.* Seven heavy guns,
two of smaller calibre, a quantity of shot and gunpowder, two
schooners and several small craft, and nineteen hundred barrels of
flour and salt, were brought away.f The British loss, on this occa-
sion, amounted to one officer and eighteen men killed, two officers
and sixty men wounded ; the Americans admit a loss of sixty-nine
killed and wounded, and sixty prisoners.

The next operation of Commodore Yeo's fleet was to blockade
Chauncey in Sackett's Harbour, and intercept the supplies forwarded
there from Oswego. On the morning of the 29th of May sixteen
boats of the enemy, laden with military and naval stores, were
discovered in-shore. One of these was captured, and the remainder
took refuge in Sandy Creek, whither Yeo despatched Captains
Popham and Spilsbury, with two gun-boats and five barges, to cut
them out. They entered the creek on the 31st, but were speedily
attacked in flank and front by a strong body of the enemy's riflemen,
militia, cavalry, and two hundred Iroquois, and overpowered after a
desperate defence. Their resistance so irritated the Indians, that
they were with difficulty withheld from massacring the entire party
on its surrender. The British loss on this occasion was eighteen
killed, fifty wounded, and one hundred and thirty-eight prisoners.

While these events transpired at the lower end of Lake Ontario,
the American forces were being concentrated along the Niagara
frontier for another invasion of that part of Canada. Their want of
success hitherto by land had taught the Americans experience, and
great exertions were made to have their troops better drilled and
better officered than ever. Major-General Brown, who now com-
manded, was an officer of much greater resolution and abiUty than

* DrummonJ's Despatch to Prevost, 7th May 1814.
t Yeo's Letter to Mr Croker.

The History of Canada.

30:

1813.

any of those who had preceded him, and the brigadiers under him
were of the same stamp. The Americans had seen by this time
that their invasion of Canada was a hopeless task ; still they per-
severed in endeavouring to force their yoke on an unwilling people ;
yet evidently more from a desire to restore their tarnished military
reputation, than the lust of conquest. But the close of the war in
Europe, by the abdication of Napoleon and his banishment to Elba,
left the British at liberty to give effectual assistance to the Canadian
people ; and there was now much more likelihood of the United
Gtates being invaded and assailed in all their borders, than that
their armies should retain possession of one acre of these provinces.
The unsatisfactory prospect now before them, as well as the long
continuance of a profitless and disastrous war, gave renewed strength
to the American peace party. The heavy taxes imposed to defray the
largely-inoi eased public expenditure, and the almost total stoppage of
commerce of every kind, added greatly to the popular discontent.
Even in the preceding year, the stern pressure of adversity
had already begun to teach the American Democracy wis-
dom j and their murmurs compelled their Government to recede, in
some measure, from its position of inveterate hostility towards Great
Britain and the Canadas. In the month of March a message from the
President to Congress recommended the repeal of the Non-importa-
tion Act. The American House of Representatives, high as their hopes
of conquest had been, now saw fit to lower their tone of defiance, and
adoptmg the pacific suggestions of Madison, repealed the Embargo
as well as the Non-importation Act. Sanguine hopes were thus
awakened throughout the Union that hostilities would speedily be
terminated. But the American people were soon undeceived on this
head. They had endeavoured to grasp Canada, when almost wholly
unprotected by regular troops, and as they supposed entirely at their
mercy, but had been repelled, principally by its gallant militia.
They had striven to drive Great Britain from her last foothold in
their neighbourhood, and the attempt had only produced defeat and
disgrace ; the hour of punishment had now arrived. Never did an
unrighteous invasion bring its curse more surely or swiftly with it,
than that which the unbridled Democracy of the United States
directed against the inhabitants of thea'' provinces. On the 2Sth
of April Great Britain replied to the pacific overtures of Congress
by declaring t'^e whole American sea-board in a state of blockade.
This declaration added largely to the existing discontent, and it
appeared for a time as if the New England States would secede
from the Union. The direct taxes had advanced fifty per cent.,

304

The History of Canada.

1 8 14.

various new imposts had been added, and so low had the credit
of the country fallen, that Government could not negotiate a loan,
and was compelled to issue treasury bills, to supply the want of a
circulating medium.

Under these circumstances it might naturally be supposed, that if
the American Democracy possessed that large portion of
humanity and forbearance they lay claim to, they would
leave the people of Canada to carry out in peace whatever mode of
government they deemed proper ; and the more especially as they
now saw clearly they could gain no advantage from further hos-
tilities.* But, although war promised only bloodshed and ruin, they
determined to persevere in their projects of invasion. Accordingly,
on the 3d of July, two strong brigades, under Brigadiers Scott and
Ripley, crossed the Niagara River from Buffalo to Fort Erie. Here
a small garrison of one hundred and seventy men had been left,
more with a view of giving a temporary check to the enemy, and
allowing time for troops to concentrate for the protection of the
frontier at any menaced point, than for the purpose of a protracted
resistance.

Unfortunately Major Buck, of the 8th regiment, who now com-
manded at Fort Erie, did not sufficiently weigh the importance ot
his post, and surrendered without firing a shot, thinking it would be
only a useless loss of life to oppose the large army, fully four thou-
sand strong, besides Indians, which had advanced against him. To
resist this formidable invasion, made too by almost all regular troops,
there were only seventeen hundred and eighty British regulars along
the entire Niagara frontier, including the garrisons at the different
forts. But Major-General Riall, now commanding at this point,
determined nevertheless to check the advance of the enemy ; who,
on the morning of the 4th, led by General Brown, pushed down the
river towards Chippewa, with the view of capturing that village, which
formed the extreme right of the British position extending downwards
to Niagara. During the day, however, Brown made no attempt to
carry this post, and contented himself with solidly establishing his
troops a short distance above it.

On the morning of the 5th, Riall, having been reinforced by the 3d
Buffs, six hundred strong, from Toronto, determined to become the

* The American troops had not yet wearied of burning the bams and destroy-
ing the homesteads of the people they desired to free. On the 13th of May
Colonel Campbell, with five hundred infantry, crossed from Erie to Port Dover in
Canada, and burned down the entire village. The inhabitants did not make the
slightest hostile demonstration of any kind.

The History of Canada.

305

assailant with fifteen hundred regulars, three hundred Indians, and
six hundred militia. Brown had taken up a good position; his
right rested on some buildings and orchards close on the river,
and was strongly supported by artillery ; his left extended to a wood,
with a strong body of riflemen and Indians thrown out on his flank
and in advance.

Riall began the battle shortly after four o'clock in the afternoon, by
pushing his main body in columns of echelon against the enemy's
line, with the view of breaking through, and turning it at three dif-
ferent points. At the same time a body of militia, with the entire
Indian force, were thrown to the right to dislodge his light troops
and savages from the wood. But the Kentucky riflemen fought
stoutly, while the Iroquois effectually held the Canadian Indians in
check, and neither were dislodged until assailed by the light com-
panies of the Royal Scots and looth regiment. Meanwhile, the
heads of the attacking columns were crushed again and again by
the discharges of the long and solid American line, which stood its
ground bravely, and fired with rapidity and precision. Riall at
length finding himself unable to penetrate it, was reluctantly obliged
to order a retreat, having sustained a loss of one hundred and fifty-
seven killed and three hundred and twenty wounded. The Ameri-
can loss was little more than half as severe.

This battle was the most considerable fought as yet during the
war, and the unusual steadiness and good conduct of the American
troops showed the advantage of better discipline and superior
general officers. Riall made a serious mistake in attacking an army
strongly posted and twice his own strength, but had doubtless been
induced to take this step from the supposition that the enemy would
be beaten as easily as usual. His defeat clearly proved that the
British had now to contend against abler commanders and better
troops, and that a nearer equality of numbers must be possessed to
insure success. Had Riall been content to act on the defensive,
and cover himself by intrenchments at the favourable ground on the
eastern side of the Chippewa Creek, his position would be very diffi-
cult to force, and the attempt could scarcely fail to result in the
defeat of the enemy. His desperate bravery, however, had one
good effect ; it showed the Americans, that if they established them-
selves in Canada, it would only be by very hard figliting.

Although the British army had been defeated, the enemy took
no active steps to improve the victory he had won, and seemed
as if he had got plenty of fighting for one day. Riall retreated in
admirable order, little disturbed by Brown's cavalry or light troops,

3o6

The History of Canada,

and not a gun did he lose, nor a prisoner except the wounded he
had been compelled to leave on the field.* A rapid and vigorous
pursuit must have seriously embarrassed him, but Brown attempted
nothing of the kind. Taking the smallness of the British force
into consideration, and the severe loss sustained in killed and
wounded, a retreat such as it now effected was almost equivalent
to a victory.

Dreading that the enemy by a flank march would cut him off from
Burlington Heights, and thus destroy his communications with
Toronto, Riall, after a short pause at Chippewa, continued his re-
treat to Twenty Mile Creek, throwing reinforcements into Forts
Mississaga, George, and Niagara as he passed by. Meeting, how-
ever, with the 103d regiment, and two companies of the 104th, he
returned towards Niagara, and established himself near the Twelve
Mile Creek.

Meanwhile, General Brown advanced leisurely down the frontier,
and occupied Queenston, from whence he made demonstrations
against Forts George, Niagara, and Mississaga. Here he remained
till the 23d, and during the interval his light troops and Indians
scattered themselves over the neighbourhood, and plundered and
burned dwellings and barns in every direction. On the 19th Colonel
Stone caused the village of St David, containing some thirty houses,
to be burned down j fences were next torn up, forage carried off
without payment wherever it could be laid hands on ; and, on every
occasion, the American outposts acted as if they had been in a
country, the inhabitants of which were their deadliest enemies. The
unfortunate Canadians, maddened by their losses, were driven to
desperation, and fired upon the invaders whenever an opportunity
presented itself. Scarce a foraging party of the enemy returned to
camp without leaving some of their number, who had been killed or
badly wounded, behind.t

Brown had expected to be supported in the sieges of Forts
George and Niagara, by Chauncey's fleet. The British squadron
having now the command of the lake, he was disappointed in this
respect, and finding the garrisons on the alert, and that nothing
could be effected by surprise, he retreated to Chippewa on the 24th,
followed by Riall, who established himself at Lundy's Lane, in his
immediate neighbourhood, on the 25th.

No sooner had General Drummond heard, at Kingston, of the
advance of a large American army across the Niagara frontier,

• Riall's Despatch to Drummond, 6tli July.

t Letter of Major M'Farland, an American officer of Brown's army.

The History of Canada.

307

and of the battle of Chippewa, than he hastened to Toronto, and
from thence immediately proceeded to Niagara, where he arrived
on the morning of the 2Sth. Here he learned of the retreat of
Brown on the preceding day, and of the advance of Riall, whom
he at once determined to support, on the enemy's rear. Direct-
ing Colonel Tucker to move up the American side of the river
from Fort Niagara, in order to disperse or capture a body of
the enemy assembled at Lewiston, he pushed forward to Queens-
ton.*

Brown was speedily informed of these threatening movements, and
dreading that Tucker intended to capture his baggage and stores at
Schlosser, if he were not forced to retreat by a counter-advance on
hw own part, determined to put his army in motion towards Queens-
ton. He accordingly directed General Scott, with the first brigade,
the cavalry, and a battery of artillery, to move in that direction, and
if he met the British in force, to report to that effect, when the
remainder of the army would march to assist him. In pursuance
of these instructions Scott advanced to the Falls, and finding the
British in larger numbers than had been anticipated, he despatched
an orderly with a request that Brown should at once push on to his
assistance.t

Meanwhile, the enemy at Lewiston having decamped, Drummond
directed Tucker to return to Nkigara, and moved forward himself
with eight hundred regulars to support Riall at Lundy's Lane, or
Bridgewater, as it is styled by American writers. He reached the
neighbourhood of this position at half-past five o'clock in the evening,
and found that Riall, instead of occupying the hill he had expected,
had already commenced a retreat, his advance, composed of eight
hundred regulars and militia, being a considerable distance away
on the upper road to Queenston. Despatching an aide-de-camp to
recall these troops, Drummond at once took possession of the little
eminence at Lundy's Lane, on the summit of which he placed five
field-guns in battery, with two brass twenty-four-pounders a little
in advance. His line of battle was formed with rapidity and skill.
The 89th regiment, a detachment of the Royal Scots, and the light
companies of the 41st, he posted in rear of the battery, the centre
and key of his position. To the right, the Glengarry Light Infantry
prolonged the line \ to the left were posted a body of incorporated
militia and a detachment of the 3d Buff's. On the road, in rear
of the left, were stationed a squadron of the 19th Light Dragoons.

* Drummond's Despatch to Prevost, 27th July 1814.
t Biown's Despatch to Armstrong.

3o8

The History of Canada,

Drummond's entire force, thus formed in battle array, amounted
to sixteen hundred men. Scott's brigade advancing against him
was two thousand strong, exclusive of cavalry and artillery ; the
second brigade under Ripley, soon rapidly pushing up to support
Scoti, was nearly of equal strength ; while the militia, under General
Porter, and his cavalry, made up Brown's army to fully five thousand
men.

When Drummond arrived on the ground, the enemy was already
within six hundred yards of the advantageous position of which he
at once so promptly and skilfully took possession. He had barely
time to complete his formation when the whole front was warmly
engaged. But the decision and skill of the British general had
already half won the battle. The battery, so judiciously placed,
was admirably served, and swept the field with terrible rapidity,
while the sharp rolling volleys of the infantry held Scott's superior
numbers effectually in check. For three quarters of an hour did the
battle rage on something like equal terms in point ot strength \ then
Ripley's brigade came on the ground, with another battery of
artillery, and Drummond's little army had now to contend against
three times its number. Brown at once availed himself of his
superior force to outflank his opponent's Hne. The 25th American
regiment swept round the British left, forced it back at an angle
with the centre, gained temporary possession of the road, and the
enemy's cavalry, following behind, made several prisoners, and
General Riall, who had been severely wounded and was passing
to the rear, among the rest. But the Canadian militiamen of the
left gave way no farther than the brow of the road; and there,
although pressed hard by immensely superior numbers, did they
gallantly hold their ground, and effectually covered the rear of the
centre and right.

Meanwhile, the battle raged furiously at the centre of the British
line, on which the Americans made fierce and repeated attacks, but
were repulsed again and again with steady valour, to be afterwards
smote down with terrible carnage by the fire of the artillery as they
fell back to reform. Presently, night drew its sable pall over the
battle-field ; still the combat raged with desperate obstinacy. The
assailants, maddened by their losses, pressed forward repeatedly to
capture the British guns, and even bayoneted the gunners in the
act of loading, but were as often repulsed. They next pushed up
their own guns within a few yards of Drummond's battery, and thus
maintained a combat of artillery. At one time, led by Colonel
Miller, they forced the 89th back and captured several of the

The History of Canada.

309

British cannon, but a vigorous bayonet charge recovered them
again, and took a gun in addition from the enemy, together with
several tumbrils.

About nine o'clock there was a brief lull in the battle, while Scott's
brigade, which had suffered severely, was being withdrawn by Brown
and placed in reserve, and Ripley's fresher troops pushed to the
front. I^uckily at this time the remainder of Riall's division, whose
retreat on Fort George, as already stated, had been countermanded
by Drummond, came up with two guns, and having been joined on
its way by four hundred militia, the hard-pressed British combatants
were now reinforced by twelve hundred fresh troops, with some of
whom their line was prolonged at the right, which it was appre-
hended the enemy might outflank ; the rest were placed in reserve.
The moon now rose dimly over the battle-field, and flung its un-
certain light from behind a mass of thin feathery cloud on the hos-
tile ranks, enabhng the eye to scan the slope in front of the British
position, strewed thickly with the dying and the dead, the plaintive
groans of the wounded mingling strangely and chillingly the while,
with the dull, yet terribly voluminous roar of the mighty cataract
close by.

The contest was again resumed. I^ong thin Hues of fire marked
the discharges of the hostile infantry, while ever and anon the
artillery shot out a red volume of flame, and then its thunders
reverberated across the bloody field, to waste themselves in fitful
echoes amid the continuous roll of the Niagara. A momentary
pause now and then succeeded, and the cries of the wounded for
water fell ominously on the ears of the still uninjured. Till
midnight did this terrible combat continue, when Brown, finding
all his efforts fruitless to force the British position, retreated to
Chippewa, leaving Drummond in full possession of the battle-
field.

Such was the battle of Lundy's Lane, the most fiercely contested,
and bloody in its results, of any fought in Canada during the war.
The Americans, as we have already seen, had largely the advantage
in point of numbers \ the British the best position. Still, it is diffi-
cult to imagine how sixteen hundred men could have resisted an
army of five thousand for nearly three hours, had the latter been
skilfully commanded. The field of battle was open, there was no
bush fighting, no breast-work of any kind, and the eminence held by
the British was only of trifling height and quite easy of ascent. The
Americans showed a desperate courage worthy of their British de-
scent, and had Brown wielded his large columns more skilfully,

- ji

310

The History of Canada.

Drummond could scarcely fail to have been beaten. He committed
a blunder in not knowing more of the British force in his front, and
Scott committed a still greater blunder in commencing the battle
before Ripley's brigade came up. Had the whole American army
been at once thrown skilfully against the British line, it must have
been outflanked and hemmed in, and Drummond compelled to
retreat, or have his small force destroyed. While their troops be-
haved admirably, neither Brown nor Scott displayed the genius of
the skilful military tactician, and literally fought the battle by de-
tachments,* to be repulsed in detail. They sought to win a victory
by the mere physical courage of their men, while their superior
numbers should have decided the contest in their favour with one-
half the loss they sustained in being beaten.

The Americans claim they won a victory at Lundy's Lane, but
on what grounds it is difficult to imagine. They did not drive the
British army from its position. If for a brief space they had its guns
in their possession, a bayonet charge compelled them to surrender
them again, besides losing one of their own in addition. Nor did
they remain in possession of the battle-field. That honour rested
with the British troops and the gallant Canadian militia. The latter
fought for their country with illustrious valour, and behaved with all
the coolness and courage of the best veteran soldiers. The loss of
the American army, also, was the most severe, being nine hundred
and thirty killed and wounded, and three hundred prisoners ; while
that of the British, prisoners included, only amounted to eight
hundred and seventy men.t Generals Brown and Scott had been
severely wounded during the battle. Drummond, also, was wounded
in the neck, but remained upon the ground nevertheless till the
enemy had retreated.

The active command of the American army now devolved upon
Ripley, who was directed by Brown to make a fresh demonstration
against the British position, at day-break on the following morning.
But a reconnaisance soon convinced Ripley that Drummond was
fully prepared to receive him on precisely the same ground, and he
therefore declined giving battle. Fearing to be attacked in turn,
Brown now determined on retreat ; and having, on the 27th, set fire
to Street's Mills, destroyed the bridge over the Chippewa Creek, to
check pursuit, and thrown his heavy baggage, tents, and provisions
into the river, retired on Fort Erie, while Drummond's light troops,
cavalry, and Indians followed rapidly in pursuit.

* Armstrong, vol. ii. pp. 93-95.

t Alison's Hist. Europe, New York, vol. iv. p. 473.

The History of Canada. -

311

The destruction of its heavy stores, and the retreat of the Ameri-
can army so soon after the battle of Lundy's Lane, are clear evi-
dences that it felt it had sustained a defeat. But if additional
proof on this point is required, it will be found in the fact, that
Brown's victorious troops were soon cooped up in Fort Erie, or in
intrenchments beside it, by a force little more than half their num-
ber. The curious spectacle was thus presented to the world of a
larger force besieged by the smaller, and rendered perfectly useless
for the remainder of the campaign.*

Ripley had made great exertions, during the brief interval of re-
pose allowed him by Drummond, to strengthen the works of Fort
Erie, while two vessels of war were placed so as to cover it towards
the lake by their fire. These were captured, however, by the British
in two boats brought overland for the purpose, on the night of the
1 2th of August. On the following morning Drummond's batteries
opened on the works, and which their fire damaged speedily, so
much that it was determined to carry them at once by assault.t

This daring attempt to storm a fort supported by an intrenched
camp, in which lay over three thousand men, by a force less than
two-thirds the number of the enemy, had very nearly succeeded.
The assailants were divided into three columns, two of which estab-
lished themselves before daylight, on the morning of the isth, in
a solid manner in a part of the Americans' works, and turned their
own guns upon them. Unfortunately the third column, under
Colonel Fischer, was unable to co-operate, owing to the vigorous
defence of the enemy. J Still, the troops already inside firmly
maintained their ground till a great part of them were killed by the
accidental explosion of a magazine close by, when the remainder
retreated in dismay.

In this gallant, but abortive attempt, the British loss was very
severe ; one hundred and fifty-seven were killed, three hundred and
eight wounded, and one hundred and eighty-six made prisoners. §
The American loss was trifling in comparison, and in killed and
wounded scarcely reached one hundred men. Nor was this the
only repulse sustained by Drummond's force at this time. A simul-
taneous attack made against the enemy's position at Black Rock,
with four hundred and sixty men, under Colonel Tucker, also failed.
But the American army, now commanded by Brigadier Gaines, had

• Alison's Hist. Europe, New York, vol. iv. p. 474.
t Drummond's Despatch to Prevost, 15th August 1814,
% Fischer's Report to Drummond, 14th August 1814.
§ Alison's Hist. Europe, New York, vol. iv. p. 474.

r?'

111

312

The History of Canada.

not the heart to follow up its success ; and Drummond being rein-
forced, on the 17th, by the 6th and 82d regiments from Lower
Canada, was enabled to retain his position.

While the tide of war thus rolled fiercely along the Niagara fron-
tier, hostile occurrences were also transpiring in the far west. Early
in the spring, Mackinaw had been reinforced by way of Natta-
wasaga, and from thence a force of six hundred and fifty Canadians
and Indians were detached, under Colonel M'Kay, for the capture of
the enemy's post at Prairie du Chien, on the Mississippi. This
duty M'Kay effectually accomplished without the loss of a man,
and thus completely established British influence with the western
Indian tribes.

Early in the season, Armstrong, the American Secretary at War,
had planned the recapture of Mackinaw, and towards the latter part
of July a force of one thousand men, under Colonel Croghan, pro-
ceeded to effect that object. With a part of this force Major
Holmes made a descent upon the stores belonging to the North-
West Company at St Mary's, and, after taking out all the furs and
goods, reduced the buildings to ashes. But Holmes was not con-
tent with this robbery and destruction of private property, at a post
where there was not a single military man. All the horses and
cattle were killed, and the provisions and garden stuff, which could
not be removed, destroyed.

On the 4th of August, Croghan arrived near the Fort of Mackinaw,
and Colonel M'Dowall, commanding that post, at once made disposi-
tions with one hundred and four men to check his advance, the
remainder of his little garrison being required to man the guns.
But the enemy landed in a direction different from that anticipated
by M'Dowall. His march, however, was gallantly checked by a
body of Indians, and Croghan was speedily compelled to retreat to
his shipping, having sustained a loss of sixty-four killed and wounded.
Among the killed was Holmes, the destroyer of St Mary's, who had
thus met a well-merited fate. No further attempt was made on
Mackinaw, which remained in undisturbed possession of the British
till the termination of the war. Its safety was further secured by
the capture, on the 5th of December, of two of the enemy's vessels,
left in the neighbourhood to intercept supplies for the garrison, by a
small party of seamen and soldiers.

While these events were transpiring in the west. Sir John Sher-
brooke, the Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia, was engaged in
subduing that portion of the State of Maine lying nearest to New
Brunswick. Early in July a small force was detached from Halifax,

The History of Canada.

313

under Colonel Pilkington, which took possession of Moose Island
in Passamaquoddy Bay ; the garrison of the fort there, consisting
of seven officers and eighty men, surrendering themselves prisoners
of war. On the 26th of August General Sherbrooke sailed from
Halifax, with all his disposable forces, established himself at
Castine, on the Penobscot River, on the ist September, without
opposition, the enemy having blown up his magazines and re-
treated ; and detached six hundred troops, with a body of sailors,
to capture or destroy the frigate Adams, which had run up to
Hampden for safety. The batteries at this place were gallantly
carried, and the enemy compelled to retreat, but not, however, till
he had set fire to the Adams. Bangor was next captured without
resistance; Machias also surrendered; and the whole country from
Penobscot to New Brunswick was formally taken possession of, and
remained under British rule till the end of the war.

Meanwhile, the arrival at Quebec of sixteen thousand men of
the Duke of Wellington's army, put it in Prevost's power to assume
the offensive. Major-General Kempt was accordingly despatched
with a portion of this force to Upper Canada, with a view to a
descent on Sackett's Harbour, while a body of eleven thousand
troops were concentrated on the Richelieu frontier, to operate
against the enemy's posts on Lake Champlain. But, unfortunately,
the naval part of this expedition, on which its success mainly de-
pended, was not by any means in the same state of efficiency as the
land force. It was composed of a frigate, the Cotifiavce of thirty-
seven guns, one brig, two sloops, and twelve gun-boats, wretchedly
equipped, not one-fifth of the crews being British sailors ; the
remainder were a strange medley of English soldiers and Canadian
militia.

On the Toth August the American General, Izzard, had moved
up Lake Ontario, with four thousand men, to reinforce the troops
besieged at Fort Erie, and enable them to assume the offensive,
leaving the posts on Lake Champlain very slenderly defended.
Prevost's advance, accordingly, met with no opposition ; and on
the 6th September his army appeared before Plattsburg, then pro-
tected by two block-houses and a chain of strongly-fortified field-
works, garrisoned by fifteen hundred troops and militia under
Brigadier Macomb. The three succeeding days were chiefly cm-
ployed in bringing up the heavy artillery. Prevost did not think it
proper to open fire on the enemy's works, covered by his fleet of
fourteen vessels, until supported by the British squadron. But so
backward was its state of preparation, that it only hove in sight on

The History of Canada.

the morning of the nth, and the shipwrights were still busily work-
ing on the hull of the Confiance, bearing the Commodore's (Captain
Downie) flag, as she moved through the water.

The squadron which the British vessels were now bearing down
to attack was much their superior in men, toniui^c, and weight of
metal,* besides being supported by powerful land-batteries. Still,
Downie relied upon Prevost's assurance that the enemy's position
would be assailed by land while he attacked his fleet, and bore
gallantly down to action. But instead of supporting this movement,
Prevost directed his men to cook their breakfasts. The result was
what might naturally be expected. After a desperate battle the
Confiance, Lmnet brig, and Chub sloop, were compelled to strike their
colours. The Finch struck on a reef, and was of no use during
the action, and nine of the gun-boats fled. Prevost at length put
his attacking columns in motion ; but, on finding that he could not
expect succour from the fleet, he immediately withdrew them and
resolved to retreat. The works would have been- easily carried ;
a success in this way would have been a set-off to the disaster of
the fleet ; and nothing could have equalled the indignation of the
troops when they were ordered to retreat. Many of the officers
indignantly broke their swords, declaring they would never serve
again ; and the army sullenly retraced its way to the Canadian
frontier, undisturbed by the enemy. The disgraceful course pur-
sued on this occasion effectually destroyed the military reputation
of the Governor-in-Chief ; and as he died before he could be tried
by court-martial, the stain still rests on his memory. On board the
fleet, the loss in killed and wounded was one hundred and twenty-
nine, while the land force lost about two hundred. The loss of the
American fleet was nearly as severe as that of the British. Among
the killed of the latter was the gallant Downie.

No sooner did the American force invested at Fort Erie learn the
disaster of the British at Lake Champlain, than they made a vigorous
sortie on the afternoon of the 17th of September. Owing to the rain
falling in torrents, they succeeded in turning the right of the b''
siegers' pickets, and after a sharp contest obtained possession of tv
batteries. But a reinforcement speedily coming up, they were a

* Comparative strength of vessels actually engaged : —

British. Americans.

Vessels, 8 ... 14

Broadside guns, 38 ... 52

Weight of metal, lbs., 765 ... 1194

Aggregate of crews, 537 ... 950

Tons, 1425 ... 2540

The History of Canada.

31S

once driven back, and pursued to the very glacis of the fort, whither
tliey retired with precipitation, having sustained a loss in killed,
wounded, and missing of five hundred and nine men. The British
loss amounted to six hundred, of whom one-half, however, had been
made prisoners in the trenches at the commencement of the sortie.
Finding his men becoming very sickly, and learning also the advance
of General Izzard's division, Drumniond raised the siege on the 21st,
and retired totally unmolested on Chippewa.

During the autumn months Chauncey had the advantage, both in
the number and size of his vessels, of the British scpiadron on Lake
Ontario. At length, on the loth of October, the St Laivrence, a
vessel of one hundred guns, was launched at Kingston, when the
American Commodore immediately withdrew, and was blockaded in
turn at Sackett's Harbour. The lake freed from the enemy's ships,
troops and stores were conveyed to the army on the Niagara fron-
tier ; and although Izzard had now a fine force of eight thousand
men at Fort Erie, he blew up its works, recrossed the river, and left
the harassed people of Upper Canada to repose. Beyond a foray
of mounted Kentucky brigands, who marked their course with
plunder and destruction, at the extreme west, the retreat of Izzard
was the last event of a war, which completely burst the bubble of
American invasion of Canada. The Treaty of Ghent, on the 24th
of December, put a final termination to hostilities, and restored
peace between two nations, whose language, laws, and religion were
identical, and who should, therefore, never have unsheathed the
sword against each other.

The ostensible grounds of the war, on the part of the United States,

were the Orders in Council and the right of search ; but its real

cause was the desire to acquire Canada. On each of these points

the American Democracy had been completely worsted. Peace was

concluded without a word being said about the flag covering the

' Jise, or the right of search — while Canada remained uncon-

iiu and far better prepared to defend herself at the close of

iOb; js than at the beginning.

F ii first to last the course pursued by the United States presents
i^yf grounds for justification. They had commenced an unrighteous
war by the invasion of an unoffending and harmless people. When they
found they coul(^ not seduce them from 'allegiance to their sovereign,
their generals L cd their villages and farm-houses, and plundered
them of their p' rties. But, by a righteous dispensation of Provi-
dence they most deservedly punished. Nothing had been
gained by all ii. ivish expenditure of American blood and treasure.

Ivih

it):

316

The History of Canada.

Not one solitary dollar had been added to tne wealth of the people
of the United States, nor one inch of land to their territory. On the
other hand, their export trade from twenty-two millions sterling had
dwindled down, in 1814, to less than one and a half millions; and
their imports, from twenty-eight million pounds sterling had been
reduced to three. Nearly three thousand of their merchant vessels
had been captured ; their entire sea-board insulted ; two-thirds of
the me cantile and trading classes of the whole nation had become
insolvent, and the Union itself was threatened with dissolution by
the secession of the New England States.* Then, if Canada suffered
much misery — if many of her gallant sons were laid low by the ruth-
less blow of the pitiless invader, and her soil steeped with the blood
of her brave militia fighting in defence of their homes, the war was,
nevertheless, a real benefit to her. The lavish expenditure of money
enriched, more or less, all classes of her small population ; and thus
gave a vast impulse to the general prosperity of the country. Nor
did this expenditure add much to the burdens of the people, being
chiefly borne by the mother-country, while the inhabitants of the
T''nited States were grievously oppressed by taxation, and thus
directly punished for tlieir eagerness to engage in war, and coveting
their neighbours' lands, while millions of acres of thei' own territory
lav waste.

But the most extraordinary feature of this war was the course pur-
sued by the great bulk of the Americans, who, aside from the U. E.
Loyalists, had emigrated to Canada. To their honour be it said,
they nobly adhered to their oath of allegiance, willingly enrolled
themselves in the militia, and gallantly aided to stem the tide of
invasion. It is true that a few Americans joined the armies of the
United States, but so also did persons of British origin. Fortunately,
the aggregate number of traitors of all descriptions was very small,
when compared with the patriotic portion of the population. At the
present day, the American settlers in Canada form a large and im-
portant class of the inhabitants. As a rule, they are sincerely attached
to the country of their adoption, and make worthy, useful, and law-
abiding citizens. Nor have they cause to blush for the land in which
their lot has been cast. Englishmen, Irishmen, Scotchmen, French-
men, or Americans should never hesitate to fuse themselves into a
Canadian people, and h sip to build up a young, vigorous, and gallant
nation in the valley of the St Lawrence, and along the borders of our
inland seas. Whether at the Crystal Palace of London, at the Paris
Exhibition, in the Stock Exchanges of the Old World, or in any
Alison's Hist. Europe, New York, vol. iv. pp. 482, 483.

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The History of Canada.

317

o^her part of the globe, no man need ever blush to be called a Cana-
dian. Gallant in war, honest in peace, enterprising in trade and
commerce, W2 tread "free soil " as a free people. If we have not the
wealth of England, neither have we its landed oligarchy to crush
down the industrial classes ; if we lack the population and cotton-
fields of the United States, we also lack its rabble and its slaves.
Not a single national stigma rests on Canada. The course of its
prosperity rolls on as steadily and as smoothly as the current of the
noble river that forms its great highway to the ocean.

Another war with the United States is a very improbable con-
tingency. If the Northern States sought to acquire Canada to
make half a dozen new free states, the South would never give its
consent. If the Southern States desired to make this a slave soil,
the people of Canada would scorn to submit to such a fate. An
independent nationality, or, what is still more probable, a con-
tinued connexion with the mother-country, on the present easy
and mutual advantageous relations, is evidently the destiny of
Canada. We would lose immensely by becoming a portion of
the United States. Our import revenue would go to the general
Government, instead of to purposes, of public improvement as at
present; our Legislature would dwinale into insignificance in the
shade of Congress; and our commercial system would be wholly
tributary to that of New York. Taxation, at the same time, would
increase, while we would be completely involved in the slavery
agitation, and in many other evils, from which we are now happily
exempt.*

* The reader must remember that this was written before the late war in the
United States gave freedom to its slave population. There is now less prospect
than ever of the annexation of Canada to the United States.

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i

CHAPTER XVI.

LOWER CANADA FROM 1815 TO 1828,
THE GOVERNMENT OF SIR GEORGE PKEVOST, — Continued.

THE Legislature of Lower Canada assembled on the 21st of
January, and Mr Panet having been called to the Upper
House, Louis J. Papineau was elected Speaker of the Assembly.
Among the measures of the Lower House was a grant
^' of ;^25,ooo for making the Lachine Canal ; another
of ;!^iooo per annum, as a salary to their Speaker; and a third
grant to Joseph Bouchette, Surveyor-General of the Province, to
assist him in publishing his maps and topography of Canada. The
question of having an agent in England was also taken up, and an
address voted to the Governor, requesting him to procure the Prince
Regent's sanction to the measure. It was also determined to pro-
secute their impeachment of Chief-Justices Sewell and Monk, and
as this could only be done in England, the appointment of judges
entirely resting with the Imperial Government, the necessity of having
an agent there became more pressing.

While the attention of the Assembly was thus occupied, a message
from the Governor, on the ist of March, officially announced the
conclusion of peace. Accordingly, the embodied militia were im-
mediately disbanded, officers receiving a gratuity of eight days' pay.
Provision was made, at the same time, for a pension of ;^6 per
annum to each militiaman rendered incapable by wounds of
earning a livelihood. A small gratuity was likewise given to the
widows and orphans of such as had been killed during the war, and
an address voted to the Crown, recommending that donations of
land should be made to the embodied and other militia who had
been engaged in actual service. The returns for the year ending
January 5th, showed that the public revenues of the preceding
twelve months amounted to ;^204,55o, the expenditure to ;^i97,25o
currency. Of the latter sum, ;^i 11,451 sterling had been absorbed

The History of Canada.

319

by military expenses, ;^5474 went to Upper Canada as its propor-
tion of the customs' duties ; while ;^339 defrayed the expenses of the
recent general election, and £^2fi^Z those of the Legislature.

The business of the session having been completed, the House
was prorogued by the Governor on the 25th of March. After
alluding to the liberality of the Assembly, and the fortunate estab-
lishment of peace, he stated briefly that he had received the
commands of the Prince Regent to return to England, "for the
purpose of repelling accusations affecting his military character,"
preferred by Commodore Yeo, with regard to the loss of the fleet on
Lake Champlain. He concluded by paying a well-merited compli-
ment to the people of Canada, for the zeal and loyalty they had
manifested during his administration.

Prior to his departure, on the 3d of April, Sir George Prevost
received addresses from the French citizens of Montreal and Quebec,
couched in the most flattering terms. Wita the British minority of
Lower Canada he was not, however, by any means popular. His
concessions to the French-Canadian majority had caused that
minority to regard him with the utmost dislike, and his want of
success at Sackett's Harbour and Plattsburg was eagerly seized
upon by the press to lower him in the public estimation. A calm
review of all the points at issue, while it leads to the conclusion that
Prevost was not a great military genius, must accord him the merit
of much political sagacity and wisdom. He eftectually united a
population of different origin and antagonistic feeling in defence of
their common country, and thus preserved Canadian nationality
through a period of the greatest danger. In his conduct towards
the habitants he pursued the same line of policy followed by
General Murray and Lord Dorchester, to both of whom the Lower
Province was largely indebted. His bodily health, naturally delicate,
was seriously injured by the hardships of his overland journey from
Quebec to the sea-board, part of which was performed on foot, and
the anxiety of mind consequent on his unpleasant position. He died
on the 1 2th of January 1S16, deeply regretted by his relatives and
his many friends.

'li J

'ij

I m

THE GOVERNMENT OF SIR GORDON DRUMMOND.

Lieutenant-General Drummond, with whom the reader is already
well acquainted, assumed charge of the government of Lower
Canada on the departure of Sir George Prevost. His first measure
of importance was the redemption of the Army Bills issued during
^he war. These had passed equally current with gold and silver.

320

The History of Canada.

1816.

and were now honourably paid oft. In the United States matters
were very different. Their paper-money, of the same nature, had
greatly depreciated in value, a circumstance which caused much
confusion and loss.

The Legislature of the province again met on the 26th of January.
In his opening speech the Governor, after alluding to his
own birth in Montreal, the indisposition of George III., the
battle of Waterloo, and the necessity of renewing the Militia Act
about to expire, recommended the House to revive the AUen Act.
The good feeling manifested by the address in reply, was of brief
duration. On the 2d of February the Assembly were completely
astounded by a message from the Governor, stating that the im-
peachment preferred against Chief-Justices Sewell and Monk had
been dismissed by the Prince Regent. But the Assembly were not
to be so easily foiled. On the 24th they decided, by resolution, to
petition the Crown for permission to be allowed to substantiate their
charges against them. But the Home Government, anticipating a
course of this kind, had instructed the Governor to dissolve the
Assembly, if they persisted in hostility to the judges. He accord-
ingly prorogued the House on the 26th, and writs were at once
issued for a new election. The old members were returned with a
few exceptions. Meanwhile, Sir John Sherbrooke had been ap-
pointed Governor-in-Chief of Canada General Drummond departed
for England on the ist of May; and on the 21st of the following
July the new Governor arrived at Quebec.

THE GOVERNMENT OF SIR JOHN COAPE SHEREROOKE.

General Sherbrooke was an English officer of reputation, and had
seen considerable military service. In India he had distinguished
himself at the taking of Senngapatam, and had subsequently served
with credit under Wellington in the Peninsula, He had already
exhibited capacity in civil affairs, had conducted the public business
of Nova Scotia with much tact and dexterity, and his Canadian
reign now opened with an augury of s' -^ess. Early frosts had
destroyed the preceding wheat crop, and lainine threatened several
parishes: but the Governor took jirompt and efficient measures to
avert the evil, and from thenceforth became a favourite with the
people.

The Home Government was still resolute in its determination to
support the Chief-Justices, although by this time aware that the
recent election had proved adverse to its wishes. But Lord
Bathurst, the Colonial Secretary, did not by any means find Sher-

The History of Canada.

321

brooke as pliant a tool as his predecessor. While he avowed
himself prepared to execute the strongest measures the ministers
of the Crown might deem proper, he plainly stated the hopelessness
of any attempt of this nature, owing to the great unpopularity of
Sewell with the majority of all classes, asked for specific instructions
in case the new Assembly should again take up the matter of the
judges, and broadly hinted the sounder policy of permitting the
impeachment to have been fairly tried, instead of covertly quashing
it in the Privy Council.

These representations convinced the Colonial Office that it could
no longer support the judges openly against the current of popular
opinion, and the Governor was instructed to pursue a temporising
course, and conciliate the Roman Catholic clergy. But he speedily
convinced Lord Bathurst of the hopelessness of this course, by
infonning him that the latter were fully as hostile to Sewell as the
other classes. To the Chief-Justice's influence in the Legislative
Council, was ascribed the frequent opposition it gave to the
measures of the Assembly. He was also regarded as an enemy
to projects of public improvement, and his arbitrary conduct in
refusing a writ of Habeas Corpus in the case of Redard had made
a most unfavourable impression against him in the public mind.
The Governor advised the Colonial Office to compromise the
dispute, by permitting the Assembly to appoint an agent in England;
or by detaching Mr Stuart, the principal enemy of the judges in the
House, from the opposition party, by giving him office. He also
recommended that the Speaker of the Assembly should be ex officio
a member of the Executive Council.

On the 15th of January the new House of Assembly commenced
their session, and chose for their Speaker Louis Joseph
Papineau, destined to figure so prominently in Canadian
affliirs. Descended from a respectable French family, his father had
long occupied a seat in the Assembly, and also filled the office of
notary-public at Montreal from the 19th July 17 So, the date of his
commission, for a number of years. The " elder Papineau " was
shicerely attached to the Government of Great Britain; and in his
address to the electors of Montreal in 18 10, strongly professed his
fidehty to King George, and his desire to perpetuate the "strict
union" of these provinces with the mother-country, which had already
produced so much happiness to his countrymen.

The Assembly courteously responded to the Governor's speech,
and, in pursuance of its recommendation, at once took measures
to release him from the responsibility he had incurred in making

1817.

322

The History of Canada.

advances to the extent of ;;^ 14,216 for the relief of the distressed
districts, A sum of ;^i 5,500 was appropriated in addition for the
same purpose, and ;^20,ooo were also voted for distribution in small
loans to industrious farmers, to enable thera to purchase seed for
the ensuing spring sowing. As the session progressed, Mr Stuart
was completely foiled, by Government intrigue, in his endeavour to
revive the impeachment of the judges. The Assembly decided to
postpone the consideration of the question by a vote of twenty-two
to ten. They also agreed to the proposition of the Governor, to pay
the Speakers of both Houses the very large salary of ;<{^iooo per
annum each during that Parliament. Chief-Justice Sewell was the
Speaker of the Legislative Council; and his friends thus dexterously
managed to reward him for the trouble his impeachment had caused
him. Mr Stuart was so disgusted by the course of the Assembly
that he retired to Montreal, and did not again appear in public life
till appointed Attorney-General towards the close of Lord Dalhousie's
administration.

In opening the ensuing session of the Legislature, the
Governor stated that the measures taken to avert the
threatened famine had been attended with the happiest conse-
quences. He also informed the Assembly that its former offer to
defray the expenses of the civil list had been accepted by the
Home Government.* This intelligence gave the greatest satisfac-
tion to the members, by whom the settlement of the provincial

* At this period the public income of Lower Canada arose from three sources :

1st, The Crown duties, levied under the British statute of the 14 Geo. III., or the
imperial act of 3 Geo. IV.

2d, Provincial duties, payable in virtue of local laws, proceeding immediately
from the Provincial Legislature, or rendered permanent without tlieir consent by
the last-mentioned imperial act.

3d, The Queen's casual and territorial revenue, which arises from her Majesty's
landed properly; namely, the Jesuits' estates, the Queen's posts, the forges of St
Maurice, the Queen's wharf, droit de quents, lods and vents, land fund, and timber
fund.

With respect to Crown duties levied under 14 Geo. III., until they were surren-
dered in 1831, they were, witli the territorial revenue, controlled and dispensed by
her Majesty's responsible servants ; while those levied under the imperial act nt
Geo. IV., and all provincial acts, have always been under the disposal of tlie
Legislature. As the Crown duties levied under 14 Geo. III. had generally, if not
always, been inadequate to the sujjport of the civil government and the adminis-
tration of justice, Sir John Sherbrookc was instructed, in pursuance of the general
system of retrenchment adopted tliroughout the empire, to call upon the Legis-
lature to appropriate, out of the provincial duties, a sum equal to the annunl
deficiency. — Bubbles of Canada, pp. 75, 76.

The History of Canada,

323

civil list, and the control of the public expenditure, had long been
desired.

The duties levied by the Imperial Government, on imports into
Canada, had been found wholly inadequate to defray the necessary
civil expenditure, and prior to 1812 the deficiency had usually to be
made up from the military chest. Subsequent to that period, the
unappropriated revenues of the province had been taken for this
purpose, and as their expenditure was unauthorised by the Assembly,
the Imperial Government was in its debt for the sum of ;^i 20,000
sterling. This condition of things was fully explained to the
Colonial Office by the Governor,* and as it was desirable to release
the mother-country from this burden, consent was now given that
the Assembly of Lower Canada should provide, in the same way as
Nova Scotia, for the civil expenditure by an annual vote of supplies. t
In conceding this privilege, however. Lord Bathurst pressed it espe-
cially on the Governor's attention, that the concurrence of the Legis-
lative Council should be necessary to the validity of all money bills ;
and that in all grants for the payment of clergymen's salaries, the
Protestant Church should be first considered.:}:

The estimates for the civil list, sent down at a late period of the
session, amounted to ;2^7 6,646 currency, while the revenue derived
from the imperial duties, sale of Crown lands, and other sources, was
only ;£iZZi'h^Zi leaving a balance to be provided for by the Assembly
for the current year of ;^43,263. This sum was voted after a long
debate ; but it was resolved that next session a fuller estimate should
be given in under detailed heads, and not in total, and provided for
by bill, in order to place it on a more constitutional footing.§

Governor Sherbrooke's colonial experience made him dislike re-
maining in Canada, where he saw that the shuffling policy of the
imperial ministers must sooner or later cause difficulties. His fail-
ing health, also, had tended to make him request his recall. He left
Canada on the 12th of August, after having received the most grati-
fying addresses from all parties.

■ft.,

:' II

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE DUKE OF RICHMOND.

The rank of the Duke of Richmond, as well as the fact that he
had already administered the Lord-Lieutenancy of Ireland with
much satisfaction to its people, caused his arrival in Canada, on

* Sherbrooke's letter to Bathm-st, 1 8th March 181 7.
+ Bathurst to Sherbrooke, 31st August I Si 7.
% Bathurst's letter to Sherbrooke, 8th September 181 7.
g Christie, vol. ii. p. 301.

324

The History of Canada.

the 29th of July, to be hailed with gratification by the public.
He was accompanied by his son-in-law, Major-General Sir Peregrine
Maitland, who had been appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Upper
Canada.

But the duke's popularity was destined to be of very brief dura-
tion. The fact that the annual estimate embraced a provision of
;^8ooo sterling, to be granted in perpetuity as a pension
^' fund, and was besides ;!^i 5,000 larger than that of the
preceding year, brought him speedily into unpleasant collision with
the Assembly. In a committee of the whole they fixed the salaries
of all public functionaries, from the Governor downwards, with the
exception of those for what were deemed useless offices, which were
struck off altogether. A bill was next introduced specifying the
items of public expenditure, and making provision for them in
detail. This bill was duly passed, but rejected by the Upper
House, on the ground that the Assembly by specifying salaries in
detail, trenched on the prerogative of the Crown. In other words,
the monstrous and unconstitutional principle was sought to be
established, that the executive had a right to appoint what officers
it pleased, at such salaries as it pleased, and that it was the duty
of the Assembly to pay the estimates without inquiry. If this
procedure of the Legislative Council were tamely acquiesced in, it
was plain that the executive would be freed from all constitutional
control, and that public economy need not be looked for.

Beyond voting ^^3000 to enable the Government to survey lands
to be granted to the militia who had served actively during the war,
little business of importance was transacted during the remainder
of the session. The House was prorogued by the Governor on the
24th of April in terms of censure, in consequence ot Its not having
made provision for the civil list, nor reformed the judicature act,
which it was considered allowed too much latitude to judges, and
thus gave rise to great public dissatisfaction. In addition to Sewell
and Monk, two other judges, Bedard and Foucher, had recently been
impeached for malpractices. But, owing chiefly to the difficulty of
a prosecution, nothing further was effected in either case. Shortly
after the session had terminated, the duke drew upon the Receiver-
General, on his own responsibility, for the sum necessary to defray
the civil list.

The decrease in the value of agricultural produce, and the almost
complete destruction of the Irish linen trade, owing to the jealous
enactments of the British Parliament and the general introduction
of spinning and weaving machinery into England, reduced the now

The History of Canada.

32J

rapidly increasing poor population of Ireland to a deplorable con-
dition. A large emigration to Canada accordingly took place during
the summer of this year. A considerable number of persons came
also from England and Scotland, swelling up the total to twelve
thousand four hundred and thirty-four, many of whom were in a
state of destitution, and drew largely upon the charity of the be-
nevolent.

Owing to the sudden death of the Duke of Richmond,* on the
27th of August, while on a tour of inspection through Upper
Canada, the administration of government devolved upon Mr
Monk, who thought proper to dissolve the Assembly on
the 9th of February, in consequence of their refusal to
vote the amount necessary for the civil list. The election as usual
resulted unfavourably for the executive. Papineau was again
chosen Speaker, but the Assembly refused to do business, on the
ground that the member for Gaspe had not yet been returned, and
that their body was therefore incomplete. Matters remained in
this state till the 24th of April, when official intelligence arrived of
the death of George III., and Sir Peregrine Maitland, who had
meanwhile been appointed to the temporary charge of the province,
accordingly dissolved the House.

Mil

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE EARL OF DALHOUSIE.

On the 1 8th of June, George, ninth Earl of Dalhousie, and a lieu-
tenant-general in the army, promoted from the Lieutenant-Governor-
ship of Nova Scotia to be Governor-in-Chief of Canada and the rest
of British North America, arrived at Quebec to assume charge of the
administration. His military career had been a most distinguished
one. In 1787, at the early age of seventeen, he had succeeded to
the title and estates of his father, and the same year became a cornet
in the 3d Dragoon Guards. He served in Ireland during the Rebel-
lion of '98, and with Sir Ralph Abercrombie during his campaign in
Egypt. In 1809, he took part in the unfortunate expedition to the
Scheldt. The Duke of Wellington made honourable mention of him
in his despatches for good conduct at Vittoria and the Pyrenees, and
he received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament for his distin-
guished services, particularly at Waterloo.

The general election took place immediately after Lord Dalhousie's
arrival, and was particularly distinguished by an able speech from

* The duke's death was caused by the bite of a tame fox, not suspected to be
in a rabid state, with which he was amusing himself. This event occurred at
Richmond, on the Ottawa, where the duke also died.

326

The History of Catiada.

Mr Papineau, at the hustings, to the voters of the west ward of
Montreal, in which he contrasted, in forcible and appropriate
language, *the happy condition of the inhabitants under British
sovereignty with what it had been in the old days of French do-
minion. "Then," said he, "trade was monopolised by privileged
companies, public and private property often pillaged, personal
liberty daily violated, and the inhabitants dragged, year after year,
from their homes and families, to shed their blood — from the shores
of the great lakes, from the banks of the Mississippi and the Ohio,
to Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson's Bay. Now religious
toleration, trial by jury, the Act of Habeas Corpus, afford legal and
equal security to all, and we need submit to no other laws but those
of our own making. All these advantages have becon\e our birth-
right, and shall, I hope, be the lasting inheritance of our posterity.
To secure them, let us only act as British subjects and free men."

The new Parliament met on the 14th of December, and was
immediately disturbed by a quarrel between its two branches, owing
to the manner in which the supply bill was voted by the Lower
House, which now made voluntary provision for the pension list,
though not embraced in the estimates. The Legislative Council
contended that this list had already been permanently provided for,
and not being included by the executive in the amount required for
• the public service, the Assembly had no right to assume its control.
In support of this position, the Upper House agreed to a series of
standing orders, to the effect that they would not entertain any supply
bill which should not be applied for, and recommended by the
King's representative ; nor proceed upon any bill of appropriation
for the civil list specifying the expenditure by chapters or items,
unless such appropriation extended during the life of the reigning
sovereign.

Thus the breach widened continually between the two branches
of the Legislature. The Upper House, chiefly composed of mem-
bers of British origin and a majority Government dependents, took
a position more and more in favour of centralising all real power in
the executive, and so secure for its members place and pension ;
while the popular branch, from the very nature of its formation,
leaned to a greater constitutional freedom, a purer administration,
and an economical use of the public resources.

Hitherto, the Crown lands of the province had been granted to
favourites of Government in the most prodigal manner.
During the ensuing session of the Legislature, this circum-
stance was made the subject of investigation, and enormous abuses

1821.

The History of Canada.

327

brought to light. Inquiry was also made into the conduct of the
Receiver-General of the province, an officer appointed by the Crown,
and who was suspected to be largely a defaulter. He was ex-
tensively concerned in the lumber trade, and the possession of the
provincial moneys by a person engaged in commerce was a source
of much dissatisfaction to the mercantile community. The sessional
payment of members of the House was again discussed, and nega-
tived in committee. An attempt was likewise made to do away with
several useless offices, and to compel the Lieutenant-Go\ crnor of
the province, who drew a salary from it of ;^i5oo sterhng, to reside
in Canada instead of in England. Appropriations were granted for
several public purposes ; among the rest, one to construct the Lachine
Canal at the expense of the province, the incorporated company
surrendering its privilege. As the disagreement still existed between
the two Houses, no provision was made for the payment of the civil
list. Government, finding itself in an unpleasant predicament, had
in the earlier part of the session made a concession to the Lower
House by calling Papineau to the Executive Council j but was,
nevertheless, unable to carry out its views.

Meanwhile, the province had been steadily progressing. The
introduction of steamers on the St Lawrence and the great lakes,
had given a vast impetus to trade. Emigrants had rapidly crowded
in, and the eastern townships alone now contained a population as
large as that of all Canada at the Conquest. The revenue had
increased to ;^i 50,000; the Lachine and Rideau Canals, great
public works, were in progress, and the general condition of the
country on the whole prosperous. At the same time, party spirit
had taken firm hold of the community, owing to the difference of
origin, the arbitrary conduct of the executive, and the quarrels
which originated in the Legislature. Confident in their increasing
numbers and influence, a desire for a distinct nationality began to
take firm hold of the minds of many among the French population,
owing to the intrigues chiefly of the popular leaders who saw in
'■'•La Nation Canadienne" an accession to the place and power denied
them under existing circumstances. On the other hand, the British
minority could not divest themselves of the idea that the French
Canadians were a conquered people, that they alone had the right
to govern, and chafed at their want of legislative influence. This
feeling, as time progressed, became more and more intense, and
displayed itself in a variety of ways, nearly all equally offensive to
the other party, and tending to unite them still more closely in their
dislike to everything British. The bulk of the habitants were wholly

•'111

328

The History of Canada.

uneducated — several members even of the Assembly could not write ;
they thus became the mere tools of the better informed and de-
signing, who found it their interest to foster their national prejudices,
and make the mass of the people more completely French every day.
The truth of Mr Fox's statement, " that it would be wiser to unite
still more closely the two races than separate them," became more
and more apparent as time progressed. As things now stood, if an
Englishman, or Irishman, or Scotchman aspired to a seat in the
Assembly, he had to divest himself of his national prejudices, learn
the French language, and become a Frenchman to all intents and
purposes.

While matters remained in this unsatisfactory condition, a financial
dispute arose with Upper Canada, which now claimed a
■ larger portion of the import duties than it had hitherto
received. This dispute, in connexion with the quarrels of the
Lower Canadian Legislature, and the tendency to independence
now manifesting itself, determined the Imperial Parliament to
interfere. A bill was brought in there which provided for tlie union
of the two provinces ; conceded all that Upper Canada had asked
for ; and made the executive, to a certain extent, independent of
the Assembly, as regarded an annual vote of supplies. This bill
prevented the Legislature of Lower Canada from imposing new
duties on imported goods, unless with the consent of the Parliament
of the Upper Province or the Sovereign, and also contained the
very important provision of permitting parties to commute, by
transaction with the Crown, the seignorial tenure into free and
common socage. With exception of the clause providing for the
union of the provinces, omitted till the sense of the inhabitants
should be ascertained, it passed into law, and became known as the
" Canada Trade Act."

When the project of a union was published in this country, it
caused very great excitement. The inhabitants of British origin
were generally strongly in favour of the proposal, while those of
French descent were as decidedly opposed to it. Public meetings
were held by both parties at which resolutions for and against the
measure were adopted, and petitions were drafted, accordingly, and
forwarded to the Imperial Parliament. The French dreaded the
total loss of their ascendency in the province, and deprecated the
project as one of bad faith; while the Anglo-Canadians, on the
other hand, denounced this very ascendency as retarding the
prosperity of the country, as productive of anti-British feeling, and
as tending to check the growth of international commerce. The

The History of Canada,

329

signatures and crosses appended to the anti-union petition, taken to
England by John Neilson and Louis J. Papincau, amounted to sixty
thousand. James Stuart carried home the petitions of the unionists.
From this agitation the Governor wisely held wholly aloof.

Thoroughly alarmed by the projected union, which was generally
regarded as a coercive measure, the Assembly came to-
gether, on the loth of January, in a much more tractable ' ^^'
spirit. After electing Mr Villicrs as their Speaker in room of Papi-
ncau, who still remained in England, the proposed union of the
provinces was taken into consideration, and resolutions passed
against it by a majority of fifteen to five. On these resolutions
were based petitions to the Imperial Parliament and the Crown,
which were transmitted to Papineau and Neilson for presentation.
Sir Francis N. Burton, the Lieutenant-Governor, having arrived in
the meantime, his salary was increased from ^^1500 to ;i{^30oo
sterling. The claims of the eastern townships to a more equal re-
presentation, and the establishment of convenient courts of justice
therein, were taken into consideration. The new district of St Francis
was accordingly erected, and a judge appointed to it with an inferior
jurisdiction. A Court of Quarter Sessions was also established in
these townships. The great difficulty of the Assembly was the
question of a representation in their own body. The eastern
townships were nearly all settled by persons of British origin, and
if formed into counties their representatives must necessarily be op-
posed in opinion and feeling to French influence. By way of com-
promise a bill was introduced giving six members to these townships,
but which, at the same time, increased the representation of the rest
of the province so as to preserve a large anti-British majority. This
bill was very properly rejected by the Upper House.

The estimates for the civil list were laid before the Assembly on
the 5th of February, eventually agreed to, and the necessary sums
voted. Agreeable to instructions from the Home Government, these
estimates were of two kinds. One was for the fund over which
Government claimed the entire and independent control ; the other
specified the more popular expenditure, for which the Assembly was
to make appropriation. Botli estimates were given in detail.
Several appropriations were also made for public works ; pensions
were granted to Judges Monk and Ogden ; and sums voted to the
General Hospital at Montreal, and the Hotel Dieu at Quebec. On
the whole, the session, which terminated on the 2 2d of March,
passed off satisfactorily. " It only remains for me," said the Gover-
nor, in the closing paragraph of his speech, when proroguing the

' ■!.

'■]ff^-t

330

The History of Canada,

House, " to offer my warmest thanks for your assuiuous and labori-
ous attendarce. I esteem the result of the session to be at once
honourable to yourselves and useful to your country." Shortly
auerwards it was officially promulgated that his Majesty's Govern-
ment had relinquished the project of a union for the present.

Owing to the total failure of the Receiver-General, John Caldwell,
for ;^96,ii7 sterling of the public money, the executive found itself
so embarrassed for funds, that the Legislature was called together
on the 25th of November, to devise some measure for its relief.
Caldwell proposed to surrender his private property, which he valued
at ;^3 2,000, in liquidation in part of h's debt ; and, if he were con-
tinued in office, to pay ;^icoo per annum until tuat portion of it which
he considered due, amounting to about ;!£'45,ooo, was discharged.
The balance he asserted ought to be placed to hie credit, as it
amounted to only three per cent, on the whole moneys passing
through his l;ands, the Receiver-General of Upper Canada having
that allowan-.-;;. No promise of this nature, however, had ever
been held out to him ; and his offer could only be regarded as an
emanation of bankrupt official impudence. In this light it was
evidently viewed by the Assembly ; who, very justly, were averse
to allowing such an enorm.ous compensation for services so dis-
honestly performed. Alarmed at the additional burthen this failure
must impose upon the country, they sought to shift its responsibility
to the Imperial Government, whose immediate servant Caldwell
was ; and establish the sum deficient as a debt due from it to the
province. As they had no control whatever over the Receiver-
General, who never accounted to them directly or indirectly, the
correctness of their position can scarcely be doubted. It had long
been known that Caldwell was likely to prove a defaulter ; and in
allowing him to retain office under those circum<;tances, the Govern-
ment had been guilty of a gross dereliction of duty, and was promptly
punished by the manner in which ♦•he occurrence strengthened the
hands of the Assembly.

The estimates for the civil list were not laid before the House till
a late period of the session. In going through its details

^ ^^' twenty-five per cent, were deducted from the salaries of all
public officials, beginning with the Governor, and other measures
adopted e^'.ally unsatisfactory to the Legislative Council, who at
once rejected the bill. The Governor now called upon the Assembly
to refund the advances he had made, from the military chest, to the
Receiver-General in 1822-3. This they refused to do, on the
ground that it was merely a loan of accommodation to the latter,

ouse till
s details
les of all
measures

who at
\ssembly
St, to the

on the
le latter,

The History of Canada.

-l -> T

then known to be a defaulter, and whom, instead of thus sustaining,
it was the duty of the executive to have at once removed. As the
session progressed, some discussion took place on the claim put for-
ward by the United States to the free navigation of 'Jie St Lawrence,
which was steadily resisted. An offer from Upper Canada to raise
the tariff on importations was also taken into consideration, and
rejected on che ground that, owing to the unfavourable state of com-
merce, it would not be advisable to levy new taxes. An address was
voted to the Crown praying the division of the Clergy Reserves of
the province among all Protestant denominations ; which, emanating
entirely from Roman Catholics, gave great offence to members of the
Church of England, who regarded the step as an improper interference
with their concerns. After the transaction of some other business, the
Legislature was prorogued on the 9th of March. No provision had
been made for the civil list, and several important matters otherwise
were left in a very unsatisfactory state.

On the 6th of June, Lord Dalhousie, having received leave of
absence, departed for England, leaving Sir Francis Burton, the
Lieutenant-Governor, to conduct the administration. The general
election took place in July and August, and increased rather than
diminished the Government opposition in the Assembly. Very few
members of British origin were returned, and of these some were
opposed to the extreme monarchical views of the executive. In the
Legislative Council, Caldwell, the defaulter, was still permitted to
retain his seat, a very questionable policy, and clearly showing how
lightly the Government regarded the enormous peculation of which
he had been convicted.

The new Assembly met on the Stn of January, and after choosing
Mr Papineau as '.Ls Speaker, proceeded to take into con-

sideration the expediency of having judges rendered more

1825.

independent, by appointing them for life, instead of during the plea-
sure of the Crown, and preventing their sitting in the Legislative or
Executive Council, a measure which would wholly remove them from
the influence of Government. But no decided measures on this head
were adopted. The estimates were this time laid before the Assem-
bly without any distinction being made between the appropriated
funds of the Crown, and the snm required from the House to make
up the deficiency. This seemed to be a tacit surrender of the
Crown revenues to the control of the Assembly, an advantage
it had long desired to acquire, and which placed the executive
completely at its mercy. It subsequently appeared, however, tliat
the Lieutenant-Governor v,as neither authorised nor intended to

I -w

00-

Tlie History of Canada.

1826.

make any concession of tne kind. Postponing the use of the new
power they supposed themselves to have acquired, the Assembly
voted the entire sum necessary for the civil list without specifying
details, and in this shape, also, the bill passed the Upper House.
There, two members, however, strongly opposed it, on the ground
that the practice of the British Commons should be followed, namely,
to fix the amour . of the civil list at the beginning of each reign, and
then to grant the same for the life of the sovereign j new items of
expenditure only to be made the subject of a yearly vote. Placing
jjublic servants annually, they also urged, at the mercy of the Assem-
bly, had a direct tendency to republicanism. The bill was likewise
disapproved of by Lord Bathurst, the Colonial Secretary. In Canada,
however, the results of the session gave very general satisfaction.

Lord Dalhousie, having returned from England, opened the next
session of Parliament on the 21st of January; and, pursuant
to his instructions, laid the estimates before the Assembly
in two classes, as had been the practice before his departure. This
produced a good deal of indignation among the members, who
persisted in their determination to vote the supply bill as they had
done the preceding sess'on, and which, in this form, was now re-
jected by 'che Upper House. The usual grants, however, were
made ^r public works and schools, and accepted by the other
House and the Governor. A census made during the preceding
year, by vote of the Legislature, and of which the returns were now
fully made, gave the population of the province as four hundred and
twenty-three thousand six hundred and thirty souls.

The next session of the Legislature was still more stormy. The
Home Government adhered to its determination to retain
the disposal of the imperial revenues, while the Assembly
were equally resolute in their purpose to obtain their control. Both
parties had gone too far to recede ; and the French-Canadian
leaders, having obtained a firm hold on the minds of the simple
habitants, now plainly desired the establishment of an independent
nationality for their country, and to favour that object sought to
push the Government to an extreme position, and render it as odious
as possible. In this they were eminently successful. The unedu-
cated and unreflecting peasantry were only too prone to regard all
who did not profess their own religion, or speak the same language
as themselves, with dislike, and this feeling was 'lOW sedulously
directed by demagogues against everything British. The generation
of the Conquest had passed away, and the existing one knew little of
the evils their fathers had been rescued from.

The History of Canada.

333

and

were
other

The lapse of time had furnished unmistakable evidence how un-
fitted British statesmen were to legislate for a French population
whom they did not understand. In the first place, a great error had
been committed in not securing the ultimate extinction of the French
laws and language by the gradual introduction of those of England.
Failing in this respect, a second mistake was made in altering the
administration of Lower Canada from a Governor and Council, with
which the people were well satisfied, to a popular legislature. In
making that change, a third and still greate." blunder was committed,
ill not uniting both provinces, and thus fusing the British and French
populations of the Canadas into one complete whole. The fourth
error consisted in the unconstitutional, and in many instances
arbitrary, conduct of the executive, and the endeavour to make the
Upper House represent the British population, and act as a check
on the Lower House, which was almost exclusively French. The
antagonism of the two races might, therefore, be said to begin in
the very ^ *" 'slature itself, the last place it should have made its
appearani-.'. . he Assembly regarded the Upper House as the
embodiniv ■■ iritish intolerance, pride, and exclusiveness — as the
standing evidence of their national subjugation. The Upper House
looked upon the Assembly as the representatives of a conquered
people, always prepared for revolution, and desirous to free them-
selves from a dominion they detested. Both parties, to a certain
extent, were correct in their opinions.

The system of government adopted by the Colonial Department
led to the almost total exclusion of the French-Canadians of talent
from office, and thus made the very men whose support was most
desirable the bitterest enemies of the executive. The mass of the
people had literally no mind whatever of their own. They knew
little of ordinary politics, absolutely nothing of abstract theories of
government, and were completely at the beck of the designing and
better educated professional men of their several neighbourhoods,
who were again swayed in turn by the crafty and visionary men of
talent of the Papineau school. The administration of Sir James
Prevost showed clearly what could be done by admitting the Franco-
Canadian leaders to the confidence of the administration, and treating
them as British subjects, not as conquered Frenchmen.

In short, the government of Canada was one continued blunder
from the day in which Amherst signed the capitulation of Montreal
to the union of the provinces. At the present moment, we are
paying the penalty of British legislative folly, in having to anglicise
a French population of three quarters of a million ; whereas at th«

-.a

p I

334

The History of Canada.

time of the conquest the operation had only to be performed on
seventy thousand souls. How much more sensibly did the Ameri-
cans act when they acquired Louisiana, and where their laws and
language were immediately introduced into the courts. Had the
English laws and language been gradually and wisely introduced
into Lower Canada after the conquest, instead of the bungling
manner in which the measure was attempted to be effected,
that province would now wear a very different aspect from what
it does.

Finding the Assembly thoroughly intractable, the Governor for
the first tip'-e resorted, in the month of July, to a dissolution. But,
in pursuing this course, he fared no better than his predecessors.
The Ronan Cai'iolic clergy held wholly aloof from the existing
agitation, and their influence alone could hav^e effectually served the
executive, and enabled them to stem the current of popular opinion,
now so deservedly running counter to their views, their places, and
their pockets.

When the Legislature was convened in November, the Assembly
once more chose Mr Papineau for their Speaker. But the latter had
recently spoken disrespectfully of the Governor, who accordingly
refused to ratify their choice. Here was a new difficulty for which
there was no Canadian precedent, so the House was literally non-
plussed. A remonstrance to the Governor was voted, but he would
not listen to any communication from the Assembly, until it should
be legally organised by the appointment of a Speaker. For three
days did matters remain in this unusual condition, when the Governor
released the members from their embarrassmer t, by sending them
home for the present.

The great brlk of the British population approved of the course
pursued by Lord Dalhousie on this occasion, and addresses to that
effect were presented to him from Montreal, Quebec, and the eastern
townships. On the other hand, he was violently abused by the
opposition prints, which led to the commencement of several libel
suits. These were not afterwards prosecuted, however, owing to the
departure of the Governor. The close of the year was distinguished
by the endeavours of the Presbyterian Church to obtain a share of
the Clergy Reserves of the province.

Finding there was little prospect of the Governor making any

concessions to their demands, the anti-executive party

determined to lay their grievances, by petition, before the

Imperial Parliament and the Crown. These grievances were chieny

based on the unconstitutional course of the Legislative Council, in

The History of Canada.

335

throwing out useful bills passed by the Lower House, on the arbi-
trary acts of the Governor, and his expenditure of the public moneys
without authority from the Assembly. To the petijtion were affixed
the names of eighty-seven thousand persons, of whom, however, only
nine thousand could write : the remainder, like the red men of old
times when they descended to hold council at Montreal or Quebec,
made their marks ; a fact which forcibly proclaimed the want of
common schools in Lower Canada at this period. Their complaints,
however, affected Lord Dalhousie very little. His appointment to
the government of India shortly after his return to England was not
invalidated thereby, and in his imperial palace at Calcutta, sur-
rounded by princes of Mohammedan and Hindoo dynasties, shorn
of their power and splendour by the servants of a commercial
company, he swayed the destinies of one hundred millions of
human beings, from the Deccan to the Sudej. There, a greater
sovereign than any European potentate, he possibly forgot, for the
time, his Canadian difficulties.

The increasing embarrassment of the administration of Lower
Canada determined the British ministry to release itself from all re-
sponsibility in the premises, by submitting the matter to Parliament.
On the 2d of May, Mr Huskisson, now Colonial Secretary, moved
in the House of Commons that a Felect committee of twenty-one
members be appointed to inquire into the civil condition of Canada.
" The Assembly," said he, in introducing his motion, "in order to
enforce their unreasonable pretensions, have refused to appropriate
any part of the large revenue of wliich tliey have the command,
unless also the appropriation of the Crown revenue be given up to
them."

But despite the smooth glozing over of the members of the
ministry or their supporters, the committee, on the 2 2d of July,
reported in favour of the Canadian petition. They recommended
the abolition of the seignorial rights of the Crown, the establishment
of new electoral districts, more in accordance with the progress of
population, and the surrender of the whole of the public revenue to
the Assembly ; measures to be taken, at the same time, to render
the Governor, Executive Council, and the judges independent of an
annual vote of supply. They also reported in favour of allowing the
Canadians to have an agent in England, and generally indorsed the
prayer of the petitioners. The report of this committee of the
Imperial Parliament gave great satisfaction in Lower Canada, and
the Assembly ordered four hundred copies to be printed und dis-
tributed among their constituents.

336

The History of Catiada.

The success which thus met the anti-executive party was not
known in Canada till the 15th of September, a week after the
departure of Lord Dalhousie, and who was, therefore, spared the
mortification of seeing his policy so unequivocally condemned in
presence of the people of his government. In England he subse-
quently endeavoured to defend the course he had pursued, but was
not very successful in the attempt. A coercive policy having so
far completely failed, a conciliatory one was now determined
on, and Lieutenant-General Sir James Kempt, promoted from the
Government of Nova Scotia, deputed to carry it out.

CHAPTER XVII.

UPPER CANADA FROM 1S15 TO 1828.
THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANCIS GORE, ESQ., COnthuicd.

SIR GORDON DRUMMOND having been appointed Governor
in-Chief of the Canadas, the pubHc affairs of tlie Upper Pro-
vince were directed, for a brief space, by Generals ISIiirray
and Robinson, till the return of the Lieutenant-Governor, ^ ^^'
Mr Gore, in the latter part of 1815. Three years of warfare had
taught the people the blessings of peace, and many gladly laid aside
the sword to devote themselves assiduously to their former occupa-
tions, and repair the losses they had sustained during the progress
of hostilities. But the recent war had inflicted numerous injuries
which the gently soothing hand of time alone could alleviate.
Many a brave man had gone to his last account ; and widows and
orphans watered with their tears the graves of fathers, who would
still have protected and supported them, but for the invasion of
their country by the pitiless Democracy of the United States.
Canada has now little to fear, with her increased population and
resources, from a second attempt of this kind. We sincerely trust,
however, it will never be made, and that the rivalry between two
nations of the same lineage and language — children of the same
great Anglo-Saxon family — will be for ever restricted to the peaceful
walks of commerce and agriculture.

During the early part of this year, a strong effort was made by
the Home Government to direct the current of British em.igration to
Canada, On the 2 2d of February a proclamation was issued at
Edinburgh, offering a free passage to emigrants of good character, a
grant of one hundred acres of land to themselves, and a Kke grant
to their sons on coming of age. They were also to receive pro-
visions till their crops were harvested, and the necessary farming
utensils at half of prime cost. To prevent any abuse of these
advantages, intending emigrants were obliged to deposit ;^i6 in the

,«
i t

i
U

338

77ie History of Canada.

Government agent's hands as security, but which were to be returned
when they had settled permanently on their grants of land. A
large number of persons who came out from Scotland on these con-
ditions were located in the county of Lanark.

But the emigration was of too partial a character to be of much
solid benefit to the country, and it soon became a source of regret
to many that Government now steadily set its face against the
admission of settlers from the United States, refusing altogether to
grant them lands. As an additional measure of precaution, they
were not permitted to take the oath of allegiance, and were thus,
under authority of a sedition act of the Legislature, liable to be at
any time turned out of the province by the Government.

A single year of peace gave sufficient repose to the public mind
of Canada West, and attention was now turned to the
better development of its resources, and the improvement
of its facilities for education. The Legislature was convened on the
6th of February, and passed a number of necessary bills. One
appropriated ;^8oo for the purchase of a library for the use of
members of both Houses ; another gave a salary of ;^2oo per
annum to their Speakers. A grant ot ;^iooo was made to encourage
the cultivation of hemp by bounties; and an act, to continue till
repealed, gave ;^2 5oo per annum to help to defray the expenses
of the civil list, still a burden on the Crown, in gratitude, as the
preamble stated, for the aid given by his Majesty in defending
the country. But the most important act by far, passed at this
session, was that founding the common-school system of the pro-
vince, and granting the sum of ;^6oo per annum to aid in paying
the teachers' salaries and to purchase books. It was based on the
general principles of the present School Act ; but its provisions
were simpler and more direct.

The recent war had produced a considerable change in the social
condition of the people. During its continuance a large amount of
money had been expended in the country, and many pc ons thus
contracted habits of expense little suited to an agricultural com-
munity. Several had acquired a fondness for the military life, and
returned discontented to the drudgery of their farms. Government,
too, had neglected to give the promised grants of land to the
volunteers and embodied militia, which also created dissatisfaction.
Thus circumstanced, numbers were disposed to quarrel more
pointedly with anything which they supposed interfered with their
individual prosperity, and to investigate more narrowly into causes
tending to check the general progress of the country. Then again

The History of Canada,

339

1817.

the people desired to revive, by some means, the current of money
into the province, so completely checked by the termination of the
war, and did not at all like the idea of returning to the same
degree of comparative poverty in which they were before its com-
mencement. The war, which in one way or another drew almost
the entire male population of Upper Canada into its vortex, had of
itself comjoletely unsettled the habits of the people by its novelty
and excitement, and the absence of these mental stimulants, aside
from the greater scarcity of money, produced a very general irrita-
tion. Insufficiently philosophical to analyse the true source of this
feeling, it naturally found vent against whatever were deemed
abuses, and formed the microscopic medium through which the
injuries they entailed, whether real 01 .ciful, were regarded.

Such was the state of feeling in lJ|)per Canada, when its Legis-
lature met on the 4th of Februnry. The members of
Assembly were evidently imbued with the dissatisfied
spirit of the masses, and went into committee of the whole on
the 3d of April, to take into consideration the state of the province,
as embraced under four heads. These were the impolicy of check-
ing emigration from the United States, the insufficiency of postal
facilities, the injuries sustained by the Crown and Clergy Reserves
interfering with a more complete settlement of the province, and
the propriety of the King granting lands to the embodied militia
who had served during the war.

It was diametrically opposed to the policy of the executive, how-
ever, to permit an investigation of this description. Scarcely had
the Assembly adopted three resolutions, preliminary to the discus-
sion of the questions at issue, than it was suddenly prorogued by
the Governor, without any previous notice, in a short speech of
three paragraphs in length. In the first of these paragraphs he
informed them the session had been sufficiently protracted, and that
no important business demanded their further attention ; in the
second, he told them he came to close the session ; and in the
third, he declared his acceptance of the supplies voted to meet
the deficiency in the fund which had hitherto served to pay the
civil list.

This contemptuous treatment of the Assembly astonished its mem-
bers fully as much as it did the public generally, and caused a good
deal of dissatisfaction and discussion. The three resolutions adopted
by tlie House merely affirmed the fact, that two acts had been passed
by the Imperial Parliament, for encouraging emigration to the pro-
vince, and for the naturalisation of foreign Protestants. Part of the

if '■

•i

■.!^»

';m

340

T/ie History of Canada.

resolutions to be proposed were based on these admissions, and
went to show that emigrants from the United States might still
lawfully settle in the country, and that any prohibition to the con-
trary ought to be rescinded. A ninth resolution averred that the
large tracts of Crown and Clergy Reserve lands throughout the pro-
vince prevented the formation of connected settlements, so neces-
sary for opening and keeping the roads in repair, and offered a
temptation to future wars with the United States, by presenting the
means of indemnifying themselves, and rewarding their soldiers, in
the event of conquest. The tenth resolution recommended the sale
of the Crown Reserves, instead of leasing them, as was then the
practice; while the eleventh condemned the appropriating one-
seventh of all the lands in the province for the support of a
Protestant clergy, as altogether too lavish, i)roposed that the Im-
perial Parliament should be petitioned to sell a part of the lands
already reserved, and that a less quantity should be retained in
future.

These resolutions embodied the opinions of 'the bulk of the
people at this period, who accordingly denounced the conduct of
the Governor, in preventing their discussion, as arbitrary and un-
constitutional. While in this disposition the question of responsible
government began gradually to present itself, though as yet very
dimly, to the public mind. As time progressed its achievement
was regarded as the only mode of getting rid of an arbitrary
oligarchy, who seriously retarded the prosperity of the country.

While the incipient seeds of discontent and agitation were thus
being firmly planted in the community, Robert Gourlay, destined
to figure somewhat prominently in the affairs of this country for a
short time, came out in the month of July, attracted hither by the
Government proclamation inviting respectable emigrants to settle
in Canada West ; he had formed, however, no definite plan as to his
future course, and was desirous, in the first place, merely to examine
the capabilities of the country, with a view to a general system of
emigration.

Mr Gourlay was descended from an old and respectable Scottish
family. His father, at one time an Edinburgh lawyer of some repute,
had purchased a considerable quantity of landed property, and foi
several years was regarded as a person of wealth. The close of the
war with Bonaparte reduced the value of land in Great Britain very
materially, and from this circumstance, and some other unexplained
causes, the elder Mr Gourlay became bankrupt. His son, Robert,
was fated to be equally, if not still more, unfortunate. In 1809 he

a / '

The History of Canada.

341

leased the Deptford farm in Wiltsliire, England, for twenty-one years,
and expended a large sum of money in making improvements. But
he speedily quarrelled with his landlord, got involved in lawsuits,
became distinguished for a litigious and dissatisfied, though benevo-
lent disposition, and finally, to escape the troubles his imprudence
had gathered round himself, came out to Canada, leaving his friends
to arrange his embarrassed afiliirs with his creditors, which office, to
judge from his own account of the matter, they performed very little
to his satisfaction.

Robert Gourlay possessed very respectable natural abilities ; was
energetic, restless, ambitious, desirous to distinguish himself and
advance his fortunes, but lacked that prudence necessary to com-
mand success. His genius was of a flighty and erratic, rather than
a sober stamp ; he belonged to a class, existing more or less in
every age, fated to injure themselves, while they benefited humanity
at large. His father's estimate of him was singularly correct.
" Robert," said he, " will hurt himself, but do good to others."

While in a moral point of view Mr Gourlay did not occupy by
any means a high position, he was very far from being a bad man.
As one wades through the three ponderous octavos, of all manner
of odds and ends, which he bequeathed to Canada, his coarse abuse
of individuals, intemperate language, thirst for personal revenge, and
selfconceit, must lower him seriously in the estimation of the im-
partial reader. Still, he was evidently more sinned against than
sinning ; and honest criticism must make due allowance for his
difficulties and misfortunes. Indefatigably industrious, enterprising,
shrewd, fearless and honest in dealing with public questions and
abuses, he struck boldly out for the welfare of Canada after his own
odd fashion, and had its leading men sufficient patriotism to turn
his abilities to account, he must have effected some good. But it
is evident they were all more desirous to benefit themselves in-
dividually than the province generally. Upper Canada was too
young a country as yet to have its patriots ; and the public wel-
fare was lightly considered when balanced against personal profit.

While in England, Mr Gourlay had engaged in an agitation for
the revisal of the poor-laws ; wrote letters to the newspapers and
pamphlets supporting his views, which were in some cases of an
enthusiastic and visionary character ; and leaned undoubtedly to the
extreme opinions advocated by the celebrated William Cobbett, the
great stickler for royalty and aristocracy in republican America, for
the people and democracy in monarchical England. Like him,
Gourlay was indefatigable in hunting up abuses. Circumstances

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342

The Hisiory of Cafiada.

had tended to produce a plentiful harvest of these in Canada ; and,
without stopping to consider the wisest mode of procedure, he ran
full tilt against them, offended the prejudices of men in power by the
unceremonious manner in which he spoke of their conduct, and by
other imprudence, likewise, speedily made himself a host of bitter
enemies, who destroyed whatever prospects of usefulness he might
have had. A little more tact would have enabled him to steer
clear of the difficulties he met with in this country. But the
morbid passion for hasty notoriety which had distinguished him
in England, and a disposition to treat the authorities with con-
tempt, as his inferiors in intelligence, made speedy shipwreck of his
hopes.

After a residence of a few months in this country, during which
he sedulously applied himself to acquire a knowledge of its natural
resources, and the social and political condition of its people, Mr
Gourlay conceived the idea of becoming a land-agent, and by the
compilation of a statistical account of Canada West, to acquire the
requisite information. This information, in the first place, he pro-
posed to procure by addressing ihirty-one queries to the principal
inhabitants of each township, the answers to which must supply pre-
cisely what he sought Thirty of these queries related merely to
agricultural matters, or to that description of information usually
embodied in census returns, and were perfectly innocent of them-
selves. Owing to the agitation already commenced in the province,
the 31st query, however, possessed a pointed political meaning, and
created an immediate alarm among the Family Compact people.
" What," it asked, " in your opinion, retards the improvement of
your township in particular, or of the province in general ; and what
would most contribute to the samel"

This question at once aroused a serious opposition to Mr Gour-
lay's plans. Government favourites who had got grants of valuable
land, and held it in reserve, wild lands being then untaxed, till the
labours of the surrounding settlers made it doubly valuable, as well
as all those interested in the preservation of land monopolies of
every kind, disliked that any light whatever should be thrown on a
system so largely advantageous to themselves. By these parties a
feeling hostile to Mr Gourlay was immediately excited. He was
accused of sinister motives, stigmatised as a democrat and disloyal
person, and in several instances the people were dissuaded from
furnishing the information he sought. In the Home District, where
large blocks of land were held by Government favourites, no return
whatever was made to his queries, owing to the interference of

TJie History of Canada.

343

members of the executive. In other quarters, all his queries were
answered but the 31st In a majority of cases, however, this was
broadly replied to, and the Crown, Clergy Reserves, and wild lands
held by speculators, very generally stigmatised as interfering with
local prosperity.

Mr Gourlay was not by any means disposed to allow his plans to
be thwarted in silence, and his letters to the newspapers, of which
seven were now published in the province, added to the
growing discontent of the people. When the Legislature
next met, a vote of inquiry into the condition of affairs was carried
in the Assembly. But before any further action could be taken in
the matter, Government seized upon the pretext of a difference with
the Legislative Council, and suddenly prorogued Parliament, leaving
a large amount of public business unfinished.

Finding there was little prospect of anything being done by the
Legislature to remove the evils they complained of, the people
readily caught at a scheme, proposed by Mr Gourlay, of petition-
ing the Imperial Parliament to investigate the affairs of the pro-
vince, and of employing an agent in England to support their
views. He further proposed that deputies should be selected by
the different townships, to meet at Toronto, and there decide on
the draft of a petition, and the other necessary measures. This
convention met during summer, and wholly unconscious of doing
anything wrong or disloyal, had concluded its deliberations before
the Legislature assembled. Owing to the opposition of Govern-
ment, however, no decisive action was taken upon its resolutions.
The agitation, nevertheless, had one good effect. The Colonial
Office now determined that the promised grants of land should be
made to the militia embodied during the war.

The executive now became seriously alarmed, and as 'it was
found exceedingly inconvenient to have a person of such a curious
and prying disposition as Gourlay in the country, it was determined
to get rid of him on the first opportunity. He had already pub-
lished the draft of a petition to the Crown, to be adopted by the
people as far as they thought proper, and a passage in this was
now fastened on as affording grounds for a criminal prosecution
for libel. This passage, couched in the strongest language, alluded
lo the ignorance of the Colonial Minister of the wants of the
country, the system of patronage and favouritism, and the universal
corruption of the Canadian authorities. " Corruption, indeed, has
reached such a height in this province," said the obnoxious passage
of the proposed petition, " that it is thought no other part of the

344

The History of Canada.

British empire witnesses the like. It matters not what characters
fill situations of public trust at present \ all sink beneath the dignity
of men, and have become vitiated and weak."

THi; ADMINISTRATION OF SIR PEREGRINE MAITLAND.

Meanwhile, Mr Gore had been recalled, and Sir Peregrine Mait-
land appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada. In the
interim of the general's arrival the government was administered
by Samuel Smith, a U. E. loyalist, who, while entirely unconnected
with the Family Compact, had raised himself, by integrity and
ability, to the highest positions in the country. Sir Peregrine had
possibly never heard in his life of Mr Gourlay till he arrived in his
government in August, but that gentleman lost very little time in
attracting his notice. He wrote a letter to him stating, " that he
was under a charge of libelling the Government, that he was a year
in the country, and would have no objection to wait upon him at
any time, and give him the benefit of his experience."* The
Governor, however, had no disposition to avail himself of the one
year's experience of the egotistical Mr Gourlay, who four days after
making what he no doubt supposed to be a very liberal offer, was
shut up a close prisoner in Kingston jail. Here he remained for
six days until brought to trial on the 20th of August, when he
succeeded in beating the Government, and was acquitted. The
sympathy of the community ran high in his favour. Ten days
afterwards he was tried a second time at Brockville for another
libel in the same petition, but was again honourably acquitted ; and
having now twice defeated the Government, was apparently in a fair
way of becoming quite a popular personage. But his elevation had
been too rapid to be lasting.

On the 12th of October, the Legislature was opened by the
Governor with a short speech, one paragraph of which was levelled
at Mr Gourlay. "In the course of your investigation," said Sir
Peregrine, "you will, I doubt not, feel a just indignation at the
attempts which have been made to excite discontent, and to organise
sedition. Should it appear to you that a convention of delegates
cannot exist without danger to the constitution, in framing a law of
prevention, your dispassionate wisdom will be careful that it shall
not unwarily trespass on the sacred right of the subject to seek a
redress of his grievances by petition."

The Assembly were now as thoroughly alarmed by the convention
as the Government, and regarded the movement as an infringe-

* Gourlay, vol. iii. p, 502.

The History of Canada.

345

ment on the rights of parliamentary representation, and a censure
on their body. The term convention, too, was an American
phrase, which smacked of repubHcanism, and of itself alarmed
the members. "We remember," said they, in an address to the
Governor, on the 19th of October, "that this favoured land was
assigned to our fathers as a retreat for suffering loyalty, and not
OS a sanctuary for sedition. We lament that the designs of one
factious individual (Gourlay) should have succeeded in drawing
into the support of his vile machinations, so many honest men
and loyal subjects of his Majesty." Not a word, however, was
breathed about grievances, or the condition of the province; the
convention had all that business to itself. The Assembly were
now prepared to pass any measure the executive might recommend,
and to put their ban, if necessary, upon the unlucky Gourlay. On
the 28th of October, Jonas Jones, of Brockville, introduced a bill
to prevent the future assemblage of conventions, under the head of
"An act for preventing certain meetings within this province," which
was duly passed into law, twelve out of a House of thirteen voting
for it.*

The extreme position taken by the Legislature, and the efforts of
the Family Compact, produced a reaction against Mr Gourlay in
several parts of the countr}', and many persons were led to believe
that he was really a seditious and disloyal person. Still, considering
himself perfectly safe, and not a little elated at the sudden import-
ance he had acquired, he resolved to settle permanently in the
province as a land-agent. But the executive determined they
should not be so easily foiled. An Assembly man, of the name of
Isaac Swaize, was base enough to swear that Mr Gourlay had not
been a resident of the province for six months, and was a seditious
person. He thus came under the ban of a statute passed in 1804, and
levelled against foreigners, and was served with an order, on the 21st
of December, to quit the country before the new year. He disobeyed
this order, was arrested, and incarcerated in Niagara jail, to the great
indignation of his friends, still very numerous. By a writ
of Habeas Corpus, he was brought before Chief-Justice ^'
Powell at Toronto, in February ; but the latter refused to permit his
enlargement by bail, and remanded him to prison.

In June the Legislature again assembled. In his openmg speech,
the Governor stated he had received instructions from the Crown to
grant lands to the militia j but that he would take the responsibility

* This law was repealed two years afterwards. Chief-Justice Robinson alone
voted against its repeal.

346

The History of Canada,

on himself of refusing them to the members of the recent convention.
It was anxiously expected that the Assembly would evince its disap-
probation of this part of the address. After a long debate it was
endorsed by the casting vote of the Speaker, and the Upper House
concurred in language the most direct and submissive.

This conduct afforded a fresh grievance-text to Mr Gourtay, and
he hurled anathemas from his cell against the executive, through the
columns of the Niagara Spectator. This led to his being refused
every indulgence for some time, till his health had completely failed.
His long confinement, there being then only one jail delivery in the
year, had almost rendered him insane ; and when brought to trial at
the Niagara Court of Queen's Bench, he was nearly unconscious of
the entire proceedings. He was indicted for merely refusing to
obey the order to quit the province, which the act already alluded
to made a misdemeanour, and not for sedition ; was found guilty
as a matter of course, and compelled to retire immediately into
the United States, whence he shortly afterwards proceeded to
England.*

Such was the termination of Mr Gourlay's connexion with
Canada. Whatever may have been his faults, his intentions were
unquestionably good ; and, at the present day, there ca be only
one opinion of the treatment he met with, to wit, that it was most
unjust, unconstitutional, and despotic, and reflects indelible disgrace
on the public men who gave it the sanction of their authority.
The people of Canada have reason to thank Providence such an
occurrence cannot again disgrace their country, and that the sway
of the oligarchy, who permitted it, has long since passed away,
never to return.

The arbitrary conduct of the Government with respect to Mr
Gourlay, excited a very general feeling of indignation
throughout the province, and a determination to send a
different class of members to the Assembly next time, who would

1820.

• Mr Gourlay published Ws wdrk on Canada In London in 1822. It contains a
large amount of very useful niatter touching this province ; but the bad arrange-
ment renders it much less valuable than it should be. In 1824 he became
temporarily insane. Mr Gourlay was in Canada a few years since, but returned
again to S«.otland, While in prison in Canada he proposed a tax on wild land as
a check to speculators — a plan soon after carried into effect — and advocated the
improvement of the navigation of the St Lawrence. — Vide Niagara Spectator, 24th
June 1 819.

In Englanu he was subsequently imprisoned for striking Lord Brougham in the
lobby of the House of Commons, and on the ground of insanity. He again
returned to Canada in 1854,

The History of Canada.

347

be more disposed to advocate the measures of reform desired by the
people. The Governor was already becoming unpopular. He
surrendered himself completely into the hands of the Family Compact,
the more dexterous and politic members of which, while they
pandered to his desire for flattery, and apparently yielded to his love
of power,* took good care to hold the reins of government firmly in
their own hands. Of cold, haughty, and overbearing manners, with
much more of the military man about him than the civil governor, he
was not adapted by nature for a popular ruler, and leaned, from
habit and constitutional temperament, to a system of arbitrary
government The fact, too, of his having eloped with the Duke of
Richmond's daughter at Paris, while the allied armies lay there after
Waterloo, and that he was merely sent out by the Home Ministrj',
by way of making provision for him in deference to his father-in-law,
and not in consequence of his fitness for the office, gradually leaked
out, and tended to make him still more unpopular.f

The population of the province had now increased to nearly one
hundred and twenty thousand souls. New settlements had been
formed in various districts ; and as the country was on the eve of a
general election, it was deemed advisable to increase the represent.)
tion. The Legislature was accordingly convened on the 21st of Feb-
ruary, when an act was passed which nearly doubled the number of
members. Another act regulated the commercial intercourse with
the United States, and a third embodied a new School Bill. As
the act prohibiting meetings by deputy in conventions had caused a
good deal of bitter feeling among the people, it was thought prudent
by members to repeal it, before they again asked support from their
respective constituencies. One voice alone was raised against the
measure, that of John Beverly Robinson, afterwards Chief-Justice,
and who, at a subsequent period, protested still more forcibly against
the union of the Canadas, a course which showed how little he
understood the true interests of the country of his birth, and how
personal feeling and party prejudice can influence for error the
wisest and the best. Agitation had also effected another benefit.
Gourlay's suggestion had already been adopted, and a tax laid upon
wild lands to the infinite chagrin of speculators. On the 7 th of
March the House was dissolved, and writs were soon after issued for
a new election.

Beyond the establisliment of the Bank of Montreal, with branches
or agencies in the principal towns of the sister provinces, and the
labours of the commission for settling the boundary line between

* Wells's Sketches of Canada, p. 157. \ Gourlay, vol. iii. p. 493.

lil

348

The History of Canada.

the United States and Canada, little of note occurred during the
Q summer. In December the new Parliament was summoned
to meet, for the despatch of business, on the 31st of January
following. Before it assembled, a notice in the Upper Canada
Gazette informed the public that five new members had been called
by his Majesty, King George, to the Honourable Legislative Coun-
cil of the province. Four of these were ordinary and everyday
men ; the other, first on the list, was a man of mark, the late Bishop
Strachan of Toronto, who was thus promoted from being chaplain
to the honourable councillors, to be an honourable councillor him-
self. His rise had been equally rapid and extraordinary, and pre-
sents an apt illustration of what shrewdness, tact, and political
sagacity, in connexion with even average abilities, can do for a man
in a new country, such as Canada then was, and where society was
as yet rough and unformed.

The story of Bishop Strachan's fortunes reminds one of the fortu-
nate heroes of romance. Descended from a poor peasant family of
Scotland, he was thrown at an early period of life upon his own re-
sources for subsistence. After picking up a little classical learning
at Aberdeen, he became, in 1796, and at the age of eighteen, teacher
to the children of a farmer in Angusshire. He subsequently taught
the parish schools of Duninno and Kettle, in Fifeshire, at a salary
of some J[,2>^ per annum. On this ^mall stipend he eked out an
existence for some time, whi' i attending St Andrew's College, as an
irregular student, with the view of being admitted into the ministry
of the Presbyterian Church, of the Anti-Burgher branch of which
Church he was, or had been, a member. His ancestors, also, had
all belonged to the Kirk j and possibly some of them too, in the old
persecuting times of Laud and Claverhouse, had struck boldly for
the Covenant at Drumclog and Bothwell Bridge.

Richard Cartwright, of Kingston, being desirous to have the ben-
efit of a good education for his children, solicited his friend, Dr
Hamilton, of Gladsmuir, in East Lothian, to send him out a young
man qualified for a family tutor, to whom he would give £,t^o
currency per annum by way of salary. Dr Hamilton offered the
situation to Mr Strachan, who gladly closed with the proposal, and
accordingly came out to Canada in 1799 during Mr Hunter's admin-
istration. After teaching in Mr Cartwright's family for a time, he
became master of the district school at Cornwall, then a small and
very poor village of about four hundred inhabitants. While filling
this situation he married a widow with some property, and as he
was a person of saving and economical habits, his condition, in

The History of Canada.

349

point of money matters, was now materially improved. He still
continued a member of the Presbyterian Church ; and at this period
we find him in treaty, at his own instance, with a congregation * in
Montreal to become their minister, he proposing, if they paid him a
sufficient salary, (;^3oo a year,) to return to Scotland for ordination.
The congregation, however, being either too poor or unwilling to
meet Mr Strachan's views in point of remuneration, the matter ter-
minated.

Travel usually serves to make one more a man of the world, and
not unfrequently brushes away many preconceived notions. Such
appears to have been the case with Mr Strachan. His experience
in the backwoods of Canada had materially diminished his venera-
tion for John Knox, and he had now by no means the dread of
" black prelacy '' and the *' Book of Common Prayer," so common
to strict Scottish Presbyterians of the olden time. The prospects of
the Presbyterian Church in Canada were poorer then than they are
now — it had no portion of the Clergy Reserves ; while the post of a
schoolmaster in a little village presented scarcely a hope of prefer-
ment. On the other handj one-seventh of the broad acres of
Canada belonged, as it was then supposed, to the Church of Eng-
land for ever, and as time rolled on it must become the wealthiest
religious corporation the world ever saw. Then it was also the State
Church of the land ; its ministry gave a ready passport into the best
society ; and to a man like Mr Strachan, poor, friendless, and
buried in an obscure little village, three hundred miles away from
the seat of government, it presented the only secure road to fortune.
The shrewd Scotch schoolmaster marked out his course, struck into
it vigorously, and on the 2d May 1803 was ordained a deacon by
Bishop Mountain of Quebec, was'priested in the following year, and
appointed to the mission of Cornwall He was subsequently pro-
moted to be rector of Toronto, and his course was now steadily on-
ward, until we find him, as already stated, a member of the Legisla-
tive Council of Upper Canada.

And yet, this very remarkable success was arhieved without any
exhibition of brilliant talent or learning. Dr Strachan's oppor-
tunities could not have sufficed to make him a profound scholar,
nor did he attain to celebrity in any of the other walks of literature.
He was neither a Tillotson, a Jeremy Taylor, nor a Whately. The

* This was the St Gabriel Street Presbyterian congregation. Before they
erected their own church, they were permitted to meet for worsliip in a French
Roman Catholic church, belonging to one of the lay orders, which, in return,
they presented with a pipe of wine.

350

The History of Canada.

" Sketches of Canada," which he is said to have written, had such
slender success, that, we believe, he never afterwards attempted any-
thing in the way of authorship. Nor were his pulpit discourses dis-
tinguished for their elegance of diction. His sermons, whatever may
have been their intrinsic merits, were delivered with so broad an
accent as to make them particularly unpleasant to the natives of other
countries beside his own. His success, therefore, must be sought
in the facts, that he was a clever man of the world, a shrewd judge
of human nature, and possessed sufficient tact to turn these qualities
to the best account.

With Bishop Strachan's career subsequent to 182 1, most people
in Canada are acquainted. Further biographical detail is conse-
quently unnecessary. At once a minister of religion and an active
politician, he filled a prominent position in the public affairs of this
province, as a legislative and executive councillor, till the final
overthrow of the Family Compact, of which he continued to be one
of the most active members.

Now that the effervescence of Canadian politics before the union
has settled down, and past occurrences can be calmly and impar-
tially investigated, it is evident that whatever temporal benefit the
Church of England in Canada West acquired for a time, in having
its most distinguished member an active politician, this very circum-
stance, of itself, has inflicted a deep and lasting injury on its weal.
The original agitation against the Clergy Reserves did not commence
on religious grounds ; there was at first no dislike on the part of other
Protestant Churches to the Church of England. The people simply
complained that the Clergy Reserves, as well as the Crown Reserves
and the wild lands of speculators, interfered with local and individual
prosperity ; but there was nothing said about a State Church, nor
the impolicy of endowing it so richly to the detriment of other
churches, till Dr Strachan engaged in politics in 18 17. But, as the
dignitaries of the English Church allied themselves more and more
closely with the members of the Family Compact, and were thus drawn
deeper into the vortex of political squabbles, from which as ministers
of the gospel they should have kept wholly aloof, an unreasonable
feeling arose against the Church itself, as being aristocratic in its
tendencies, and opposed to popular rights. Thus, to the course
pursued by Dr Strachan as a politician may, undoubtedly, in a great
measure be traced the fact, that in no part of the British empire,
nor in any other country, is the Church of England regarded with
such hostile feelings by other Protestant denominations as in Canada
West, and nowhere, certainly, has she lost the hearts of so many of

The History of Canada.

her own members, who have gone to swell the ranks of contemporary
creeds. The Church of England in Canada, as well as elsewhere,
has secured to itself the advantages of a refined and well-educated
ministry. Hitherto, unfortunately, its Canadian antecedents and
political position have seriously militated against its usefulness.
Now that the settlement of the Clergy Reserve question gives that
ministry perfect fair play, it is to be hoped it will assume that
position in the affections of the masses, which, had it been truly
wise, it would never have forfeited. The very education of Bishop
Strachan precluded him from understanding the true temporal
policy of the Church of England. He knew nothing originally
of its literature. From the time that he attached himself to its
ministry, his life was that of the bustling politician, rather than
the scholastic divine, or the distinguished savant. He was felt
in his own generation, to be forgotten by posterity. In an old and
settled form of society he would never have emerged from the
average mass of humanity. Sharp, practical, and clever, Canada
was his true element. Everybody was beginning life, there was
nothing to keep him down ; where learning was a scarce article, a
little went a long way. From the poor family tutor, he rose to be
the district schoolmaster; another step, and he was enveloped in
the surplice of tiie Episcopal minister. By being a clergyman he
became a politician, by being a politician he became a bishop.
His elevation did not take place because he was a distinguished
author, or an illustrious divine. Yet even as a politician he was
neither original nor profound. He did not create a system, nor
originate a new era. He attached himself to a body already formed,
and can only be regarded as an active partisan. As a partisan his
influence was secret and secure, rather than open and exposed — of
a depressing, rather than of an elevating character. Half a century
must at least elapse before the Episcopal Church can have recovered
from the evils of his impolitic sway. Whatever advantages it may
have derived by his worldly shrewdness, or business sagacity, have
been more than counterbalanced by the fact of its bishop having
been a politician, and lacking that distinguished position in scholar-
ship and literature, which its principal divines have almost invariably
arrived at.*

The eighth Parliament of Upper Canada met, pursuant to pro-
clamation, on the 31st of January, for the first time, and the Assembly
chose Levius P. Sherwood, of Brockville, for its Speaker. The

* Bishop Strachan died at Toronto on the 2d November 1867, i"! the eighty-
ninth year of his age.

353

The History of Canada.

riovemor opened the session with a precise and formal speech.
He spoke of the accession of George IV., of the happy constitution
of the province, advised the Legislature to take measures to pro-
mote the interests of true religion, and alluded to the current of
immigration now setting steadily into the Canadas. Within the pre-
ceding two years he stated that forty new townships had been
surveyed, and in a great measure granted on condition of actual
settlement. But it appeared that the public finances of the province
were in a depressed condition, the militia pensions had been allowed
to fall into arrear, and money was not forthcoming for various neces-
sary purposes.

The debate on the ** address," showed clearly the complexion of
the House. It was evident that the majority sided with the execu-
tive. The people, whatever might have been their hopes, had
chosen the wrong men, as a rule, to carry out their views. It was
plain that during the ensuing four years no inquiry of much moment
would be made into the condition of the j)rovince, and that the
executive might be as arbitrary as it thought proper. Still, there
were many good business men in the House, and several useful
acts were passed during the session. Among the principal of these
were an act to establish a uniform currency throughout the province;
another act, granting a sum of money to aid the construction of the
Rideau Canal ; and a third, specifying that no tithes or ecclesiastical
rate of any kind should ever be levied in Upper Canada.

The Legislature was prorogued on the 14th of April, and beyond
a tour of the Governor through several districts of the province,
the summer produced little of importance. Money continued scarce,
despite the establishment of the Bank of Upper Canada ; business
was dull ; and the prices of agricultural produce very low. Flour
only rated from sixteen to twenty shillings currency per barrel, and
wheat was almost unsaleable.* The Legislature again assembled
on the 2ist of November. The opening speech of the Governor
referred to the difference with the lower province, as to the amount
of duties it should refund to Upper Canada, and regretted that the
principal source of revenue should thus be interrupted, to the detri-
ment of the public works then in progress.

A vacancy having occurred in the representation of Lennox and
Addington during the recess, Barnabas Bidwell was returned. He
had originally resided in Massachusetts, remained there after the
termination of the War of Independence, took the oath of allegiance
to the American Government, became Attorney-General of the State,
• '^XQ^\\Xiii Recorder^ loth July 1821

The History of Canada.

353

Treasurer of the County of Buckshire, and was returned to Congress.
Uiihvcll, however, was poor, and jjossibly temptation proved too
strong for him. We find him accused in 1810 of misappHcation of
the pubUc moneys, making false entries to conceal the deed, and
flying to Canada to escape a trial — a fact of itself which goes a long
way to prove the truth of the charges preferred against him. He
settled in the Midland District, where he taught school for some
time in the village of Ikith, took the oath of allegiance in 1H12, and
prepared the clever "Sketches of Canada" which ajipear in Courlay's
work, and form its most valuable portion. He was the fast friend
of the latter, became popular as a Reformer, a name by which the
anti-executive party now began to be characterised, and believing
that his Massachusetts antecedents were not generally known, or •
partially forgotten, offered himself to the electors of Lennox and
Addington, and was returned.

]>ut IJidwell was mistaken in supposing that his past conduct was
not remembered. His election was immediately petitioned against,
on the grounds of his being a person of immoral character — a fugi-
tive from justice, and having taken the oath of allegiance to the
Government of the United States. An agent was now despatched
to Massachusetts, who easily obtained copies of his indictment, and
positive proofs of his flight on a warrant having been issued for his
apprehension. Bidwell defended himself with great tact and skill.
He contended that the charges against him in Massachusetts origi-
nated solely with his political enemies ; at all events, as tiiere had
been no conviction, the House should not assume the fact of his
guilt without a trial. With regard to the oath of allegiance, he
maintained that it only embraced the period of his residence in the
United States, and did not disqualify him from taking a like oath
in this country. He was expelled the House very properly, however,
after a long debate, but by a majority of only one, seventeen voting
for the motion of expulsion, and si.xteen against it.* A new writ
was accordingly issued for Lennox and Addington, and a Mr Clark
elected this time by a majority of one hundred and thirteen. Mr
Bidwell's son, Marshall Spring Bidwell, who offered himself as a
candidate, was objected to on the ground of his being an alien.
He was subsequently returned, however, and became a prominent
personage in the arena of Canadian politics.

The case of Bidwell was a novel one, and to prevent a recurrence
of anything of the kind, an act was passed, on the 17th of January,

♦ See Debates in Provincial Parliament of Upper Canada, and Journals of the
House, for 1821. . ,. :

354

The History of Canada,

1822.

making persons in his position ineligible to a seat in the Assembly,
This act, however, being too oppressive on American
emigrants, it was subsequently repealed in 1824, and a
new act passed making a residence of seven years the condition of
eligibility to membership in the Assembly on the part of foreigners
who had taken the oath of allegiance to their former governments.
At the same time, it continued the disqualification of persons who
had held any of the principal public offices of the United States. It
has since been repealed by the 12 Vict. chap. 27.

Owing to the statement in the Governor's speech, with regard to
the differences with Lower Canada on the matter of revenue, the
Legislature determined to send the Attorney-General, Peter Robin-
son, as their agent to England, to press their claims on the attention
of the Crown and Imperial Parliament, and voted ;^2ooo to defray
his expenses and remunerate him for the service. After the trans-
action of some general business the House was prorogued on the
17 th of January,

This year was an uneventful one as regarded Upper Canada. De-
spite the continued scarcity of money, the country was steadily pro-
gressing in population and in agricultural and commercial prosperity.
Steamboats were now in general use on the rivers and principal
lakes, and gave a vast impetus to commerce ; but down the rapids
of the St Lawrence, below Prescott to Montreal, the old Durham, or
flat-bottomed, boat alone continued to descend, to be frequently
abandoned at the end of the voyage, or sold for whatever it would
bring, as the expense of dragging it back against the current would
exceed its value. A high tariff and a lax revenue department led, as
hitherto, to a vast amount of smuggling from the adjoining districts
of the United States, which had a most baneful effect on the morals
of many of the trading community, and produced considerable dis-
order in the province otherwise. Among other commodities, large
quantities of lumber were in this way introduced into the Quebec and
Montreal markets for shipment to England, to the detriment of the
Canadian lumbermen, who were loud in their denunciations. Banks
had now been established in all the principal towns, but the ben-
efit derived from them was neutralised in no small degree by the
number of bad bills put into circulation by American counterfeiters.
Farm produce of every kind continued to bring unremunerative
prices, so the growth of hemp remained a matter of attention with
the agricultural community ; and the advantages of the culture of
tobacco, in the western peninsula, began to be considered. Agricul-
tural societies had been already established in some districts, and

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155

aided in no small degree in improving the modes of tillage, still in
a very imperfect state. Even in well-cleared districts, the rudest
description of bush-larming was yet adhered to ; and the ploughs and
otiier agricultural implements were entirely unequal to the necessities
of the farmer. Labour-saving machines v.ere still unknown, and the
products of the fertile glebe continued to be won by the sturdy efforts
of unskilled manual toil.

Towards the close of this year, the proposed union with Lower
Canada created a good deal of agitation, and public meetings were
held at which resolutions were passed for and against it. The
general feeling, however, was decidedly in favour of the measure, as
a whole ; but some of its provisions were strongly objected to, par-
ticularly that making the property qualification for members ;!£"5oo,
and which was then only ;^8o. This clause, it was said, would
disqualify one-fourth of the sitting members.*

The Legislature assembled on the 15th of January. The Gover-
nor's speech on the occasion, beyond congratulating the
House of Assembly on the success of their agent in Eng- ^'
land, in procuring the passage of the " Canada Trade Act," presents
no features of importance. The addresses from both Houses, in
reply, were mere re-echoes of the speech itself.

During the session a petition was presented from a large body of
the freeholders of Lennox and Addington, praying that the recent
election might be set aside, in consequence of the younger Mr
Bidwell having been illegally prevented from contesting it. The
petition assumed the ground that Marshall Spring Bidwell was a
British subject by birth, having been bora in Massachusetts while
still a colony of Great Britain, and never having taken the oath of
allegiance to any other Government. Bidwell was heard at the
bar of the House as counsel for the petitioners ; and the matter was
brought up for final consideration on the 17th of February, when it
was decided by a considerable majority that the election was void
and a new writ should be issued. Bidwell was subsequently de-
feated, after a sharply-contested election, in which the whole weight
of the Family Compact was brought to bear in favour of his
opponent, a Mr G. Ham, whose return, however, was said to be
illegal, on the ground that the poll was closed too soon. With the
exception that provision was made for an assizes twice a year in
the more populous districts, there is little remarkable to distinguish
the legislation of this session, and which terminated on the 19th of
March.

• See resolutions passed at a meeting in Brockville in October 1822.

356

The History of Canada.

During summer the project of the Welland Canal was brought
before the public in a tangible shape, principally through the exer-
tions of William Hamilton Merritt, of the Niagara district, who, from
first to last, occupied a prominent position in connexion with this
great national work, which has done so much for the prosperity of
Canada. The son of a U. E. Loyalist, Mr Merritt served in the
militia during the war of 1812-1814, and thus aided to preserve his
country from the grasp of covetous American Democracy. But he
ardently desired to serve his country in peaceful as well as warlike
pursuits, and all its great projects of internal improvement found in
him a firm supporter. The Welland Canal forms a lasting monu-
ment to his memory, and if he never had accomplished anything
else, its inception would alone suffice to give him an honourable
place in the annals of his country.

Beyond the agitation of this project, the journals of Upper Can-
ada at this period record little domestic news of importance.
Among their items we find that the Governor amused himself by
excursions through the province, and drew for his travelling expenses
on the Receiver-General ; and that the presence of distress in Ire-
land sent many settlers hither, who were mostly located on free
lands in the new townships on the Ottawa.

As winter approached, the public mind was a good deal moved
by the prospect of an approaching election, in which it was evident
that the Reform party would make a strong effiort to obtain a
majority in the House of Assembly. A decided feeling was setting
in against the Family Compact. As time progressed, it became
more and more plain that the Governor was the mere tool of this
party, who now monopolised every post of honour and profit in the
country. The opposition press, however, was remarkably quiet,
having evidently the fear of Government prosecutions before its eyes,
and there being no editor of sufficient talent and courage belonging
to it to take the lead.

The Legislature assembled on the nth of November. From the
usual speech of the Governor it would appear that a spirit of con-
tentment and obedience to the laws was now the characteristic of
Upper Canadian society, and that the country was slowly recover-
ing from the reaction caused by the termination of the war.
But the revenue was still very far from being in a flourishing con-
dition. He concluded by alluding to the cordial intercourse sub-
sisting between the two Houses. The addresses in reply were
couched in the customary complimentary strain. That from
the Legislative Council was signed by its Speaker, William

The History of Canada.

357

Dummer Powell, then a prominent member of the Family Com-
pact.

This session of the Legislature was distinguished by the effort,
now made for the first time, to allow ministers of the Methodist
persuasion to solemnise marriage. A bill to that effect was passed
in the Assembly, buc rejected in the Upper House. A most effec-
tive step was also taken towards securing a portion of the Clergy
Reserves for the Presbyterian body, on the ground that these lands
having been set apart for Protestants, and the Church of Scotland
being acknowledged as such by the Statute Book of England, it had
therefore a legal claim to its just proportion. An address based
upon this principle was voted to the Imperial Parliament, alone
competent to decide the issue thus raised, the Reserves provision
being a part of the Constitutional Charter itself, which the local
Legislature had no power to alter.

In the course of the session the election for Lennox and Adding-
ton was again declared void, and Mr Ham unseated. The Welland
Canal Company was incorporated, and provision made for
taking the first census of Upper Canada. The House was ^^'
prorogued on the 19th of January, and the country entered upon
vigorous preparation for a general election.

About this period a strong feeling against Orange processions, now
becoming common in many parts of the province, began to spring
into existence, and a fruitless endeavour was made to jjrocure their
suppression by legal enactment. As yet, however, these processions
had been conducted with order and decorum, gave little room for
complaint, and even Dr Strachan did not hesitate to act as their
chaplain. A good deal of loss and inconvenience at this time was
experienced by the failure of the Kingston Bank, which had been
most fraudulently managed.

Parliament was dissolved on the 24th of June, and the writs for
a new election made returnable on the 19th of August following.
To the usual proclamation on this occasion the signature of John
Beverly Robinson was appended, he being now Attorney-General.

The summer was distmguished by the formation of the Canada
Land Company, a corporation at first productive of benefit, but sub-
sequently of injury to the province, under an Imperial charter. It
commenced its operations by buying up vast tracts of the Clergy
Reserve and Crown lands at low prices, which it sold again in small
lots at a large advance. It was, in short, a huge land monopoly ;
and, like all monopolies, has proved an injury to this country pre-
cisely in proportion to its extent Thus, without once asking the

358

The History of Canada.

1825.

consent of the Canadian Parliament, a vast quantity of our soil was
withdrawn from public purposes, and passed into the hands of pri-
vate speculators of the London Stock Exchange.

The new year opened with public disaster. On one of
the first days of January the Parliament House at Toronto
KiZ.% burned down, but fortunately the library and furniture were
saved. The loss to the province was estimated at ;^2ooo, a modest
sum, which would be entirely insufficient for the erection of many
buildings for school purposes now existing in Canada.

Parliament was convened on the nth of January, and a good
deal of interest was excited as to the composition of the Assembly.
The election of Speaker tested the strength of the respective parties.
John Wilson, of Wentworth, was chosen by a Reform majority of two,
the vote standing twenty-one to nineteen. A plain farmer, but a. man
of sound common sense, calm, temperate, and dispassionate, his
election was a popular one with his party. On his side voted, among
others, sly and subtle John Rolph, burly Peter Perry, and the secret
republican, Marshall Spring Bidwell. The Family Compact were
at length in a minority. The Reformers, however, proceeded warily.
The address in reply to the Governor's speech was agreed to unani-
mously, and couched in as complimentary language as he could
desire. Still it was evident Sir Peregrine felt an apprehension of
approaching trouble. He forgot to make his usual gracious reply,
an honour vouchsafed to the Upper House. The long shadows of
Canadian Radicalism were already settling down on his administra-
tion, and the Colonial Advocate, controlled by William Lyon Mac-
kenzie, sadly disturbed his prospects of dignified repose 'with
pungent diatribes on packed juries and government abuses, though
as yet warily expressed. Even then the clouds were gathering for
the storm of 1838.

Mackenzie had only been a short time in the country, where
he arrived in 1820, just at the close of the Gourlay agitation. He
was destined to exercise no small influence on the political future of
Canada, and was indirectly one of its most important stepping-stones
to the large measure of liberty and self-government which i..s people
now enjoy. Descended from a poor Highland family of Perthshire,
who, like the rest of their clan, cherished a strong affection for the
Stuart dynasty, his paternal grandfather, Colin Mackenzie, joined the
standard of the Pretender in 1745, and after the fatal battle of Cul-
loden fled with him to the Continent. His mother was also a Mac-
kenzie of the same clan ; and tiie old family Bible records that she
was married to Daniel, on the 8th of May 1794, at Dundee. Their

The History of Canada.

359

circumstances were of the most humble kind, and Daniel earned his
daily bread as a weaver. William Lyon, their only child, was born
in March 1795, and twenty -seven days afterwards lost his father in
consequence of a severe cold contracted at a dancing party. Be-
longing to the strict Seceder Presbyterians, the widow, a woman of.
strong nerve and resolute w ill, sought to imbue her son's mind, as he
grew up, with her own fervid religious impressions, and to give him
the best education that her poverty, and which at times extended to
a want of the actual necessaries of life, would permit. If she failed
in a religious point of view, she succeeded in storing his mind with
a vast mass of general information, and an ardent love of liberty.
But the latitude allowed him as an only child, by his widowed mother,
gave Mackenzie an erratic and restless turn of mind, which seriously
militated against him in after-life. After leaving school we find him,
for a short time, an apprentice in a draper's shop in Dundee ; next
an articled clerk in the counting-room of a timber merchant of the
name of Gray ; and at the early age of nineteen, he appears in the
small town of Alyth as the proprietor of a little shop of odds and
ends and a circulating library, to become a bankrupt in the brief
period of three years. In the ^pring of 1817, he crossed the Tweed
into England, became clerk for a brief space for the Kennett and
Avon Canal Company, then filled a similar office for a while in Lon-
don, and finally emigrated to Canada in April 1820. His course in
this country was equally as erratic and uncertain as it had been in
Scotland. Of slender frame, and only five feet six inches in stature,
his massive head, bald from early fever, and high and broad in the
frot^tal region, looked far too large for the small body it surmounted.
His eye clear and piercing, his firm set Scotch mouth, his chin long
and broad, and the general contour of his features, made up a coun-
tenance indicative of strong will and great resolution, while the
ceaseless activity of his fingers, and the perpetual twitching of the
lower part of his face, betrayed that restlessness and nervousness ot
disposition which so darkly clouded his existence.

For a brief period Mackenzie was employed in some subordinate
capacity in connexion with the survey of the Lachine Canal. We
next find him keeping a small drug store in Toronto, and after a short
stay there he removed to Dundas, where he and John Leslie entered
into partnership to carry on the drug business, to which was added
hardware, groceries, paints, and dye-stufis, as well as a circulating
library. This partnership only lasted, from some cause, for fifteen
months, when he removed to Niagara. At this place he opened a
general store on his own account, but, still unstable as water, he abau-

360

The History of Canada,

doned this enterprise within a year, became a public journalist, and
on the i8th May 1824 issued the first number of the Colonial Advo-
cate, containing thirty-two octavo pages. In it he describes himself
as an independent editor, neither rich nor in want ; and gave an
amusing exhibition of his eccentricity of mind by publishmg twelve
hundred copies without having as yet obtained a single subscriber.
Its topics were varied, widely dissimilar, as might naturally be ex-
pected, and tinged with no small portion of egotism. He declared
himself a Calvinist in religion, and his adherence to the Westminster
Confession ; approved the wisdom of the British Legislature in
setting apart the Clergy Reserves for the support of the Protestant
religion, but demurred to their being monopolised by the Church of
England. The Executive, the Bench, the Bar, the Church, were criti-
cised in turn, and in some cases most unfavourably. Sir Peregrine
Maitland was unpleasantly contrasted with De Witt Clinton, Gover-
nor of New York State ; the Legislative Council were designated as
the "tools of a servile power;" and the Church and the Bar were
not in the satisfactory state they should be. Finally, he averred that
the Imperial Union Bill of 18 18 had been rightly rejected, and the
union of all the British-American provinces the only desirable one.

The very first issue of the Advocate awoke the greatest alarni in
the minds of the Family Compact. Another prying Scotchman of the
Gourlay stamp had come to disturb their repose, and their organ
suggested that he should forthwith be banished the province, and
the whole edition of his paper confiscated. To the charge of dis-
loyalty Mackenzie responded, by publishing an amusing autobiography
of himself, after the fashion of Cobbett, soundly berating, at the same
time, Fothergill, editor of the York Observer, and a member of the
Assembly, and John Beverly Robinson, and declaring that he would
rather work for his bread than submit to the official fungi of the
country, more numerous and pestilential than the marshes and quag-
mires that encircled Toronto.

But the storm of censure which had met the executive for its
arbitrary conduct in the case of Gourlay, was too recent, and too
keenly remembered, to permit of a similar course being pursued
towards Mackenzie. Beyond threats and abuse from the Family
Compact organ, no other attempts were made to injure him for the
time being. After issuing his Advocate two or three times, he
adopted the broadsheet as the most convenient form for a public
journal, and in the November following removed to Toronto, where
he speedily became noted as a grievance-monger, and a keen hunter-
up of abuses in the various public departments. The Assembly

The History of Canada.

;6i

were bnly a few weeks in session when his petition on the subject
of disorders in the Post-Office department was brought up by
Matthews and McCall. His allegations were supported by the in-
vestigations of a committee. It was proved that the mail bags were
often filled with goods, letters opened and mis-sent, and that it
would be advisable the Provincial instead of the Imperial Govern-
ment should have control of this department.

This session of Parliament was decidedly a talking one. After
sitting till the 13th of April only seven bills had been passed, and,
to make matters yet more uncomfortable, the annual Supply Bill,
not coming up to the estimate, shared the fate of similar bills in
Lower Canada, being thrown out by the Upper House. Although
the finances of the province were still in a depressed condition, their
•* Honours " saw no necessity for retrenchment.

The first Reform Assembly did not bid fair by any means for popu-
larity. The people's bill for legislation was even heavier than
usual, and less value had been given in return. So said they of
the Family Compact. This accusation aroused discussion, and it
was shown that the estimates had been cut down most properly.
The Attorney-General, for instance, was not content with his regular
stipend, and swelled up his income by charging the public with the
rent of his private office, travelling expenses, legal advice to the
Lieutenant-Governor, and so forth. All of which charges, and many
more like them, had been included in the estimate, although having
no lawful business whatever to be there.

Summer passed rapidly away without producing disaster to dim
its pleasant sunshine, or matter for the pen of the annalist. The
Legislature was again convened on the 7th of November. The
opening speech and the addresses in reply were longer than usual,
more carefully prepared, and appeared to give satisfaction to all
parties. The Lieutenant-Governor now made a courteous response
to the address of the Assembly, and soon after sent them a message,
pursuant to instructions from the Colonial Office, recommending
that a more liberal provision be made for the naturalisation of
foreigners of every description. A bill was accordingly passed for
this purpose, but rejected in the Legislative Council. Resolutions
were also agreed to on the expediency of excluding judges from the
Executive Council, and rendering them independent of the Crown,
by appointment during good conduct, as in England. An address
founded on these resolutions was voted to the King.

During this session thirty-one acts were passed, one of which
made provision for a bounty of ;^i2S to every person establishing

362

The History of Canada.

1826.

a paper mill. But eighteen other bills were thrown out by the
Legislative Council, among which was one repealing the Sedition
Act, under which Gourlay had been turned out of the country. This
caused a very unpleasant feeling to spread abroad. The
Family Compact still held firm possession of the Legisla-
tive Council ; it also continued to grasp the entire executive control,
although defeated on every important division in the Assembly.

The estimates laid before the House showed that the expenses
for the current year would amount to ^^^30,353, the revenue to
^33,560 currency. Upper Canada was now in a condition to
support its own civil list, and to release the Crown from all burdens
on its account, presuming that due economy were exercised.

The Legislature was prorogued on the 30th of January, the usual
appropriations having been first granted for the public service. In a
few weeks afterwards, the Governor made a tour through a portion
of the province, and was met in every direction with very flattering
addresses, chiefly concocted, however, by friends of the executive.
In several instances these addresses were reprobated by the opposi-
tion prints, as not correctly conveying the sentiments of the com-
munity, and for dishonestly censuring the House of Assembly.

Steamers had now become numerous on the lakes and rivers of
Upper Canada; the construction of the Welland Canal was being
rapidly pushed forward ; and the building of the St Lawrence
Canals had begun to be seriously agitated. Despite the very
general depression in financial matters, the province was steadily
progressing. The population had increased to nearly one hundred
and seventy thousand souls ; while the continued stream of immigra-
tion was fast filling up the new townships.

Beyond the discussion caused by the rejection of tbe Alien Bill in
the Legislative Council, which refused to pass it without amend-
ments destroying its most important features, there seems to have
been very little political agitation of any description at this period.
Although disliked for his reserved manners, and for surrendering
himself completely to the influence of the Family Compact, the
Governor was generally respected. The public mind, as a rule, was
contented, and the desire was to obtain redress of any existing evils
solely by constitutional methods. As yet the idea of responsible
government had not resolved itself into a precise form, as a public
question, although, doubtless, it was already entertained by many
individuals.

In those days comparatively few of the people read newspapers,
which did not, therefore, by any means exercise the influence on

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363

the public mind they do at the present day. The postage on a
weekly newspaper amounted to four shillings a year, payable quar-
terly in advance. Post-offices were few and far between, and post-
masters exceedingly lax in the performance of their duties. The
pungent editorials of Mackenzie, owing to these causes, and to
their being regarded as too caustic and violent, were very little felt
in the community. His affairs, consequently, were far from being in
a flourishing condition, and he had made up his mind to discon-
tinue the publication of the Advocate, and was seriously meditating
a removal to Montreal or the United States,* when, during a tem-
porary absence from home, his printing office was broken into by
parties of respectable standing, who had taken offence at his writings,
and completely wrecked, two magistrates looking coolly on. This
event at once gave him a most opportune notoriety ; and had the
Governor countenanced the act in any way, his popularity would
have been still greater. But the latter, who chanced to be absent
from Toronto at the time, did nothing of the kind. On his return
he promptly expressed his disapproval of the outrage, and at once
dismissed one of the clerks of hia own office who had acted as a
sort of leader on the occasion : with the remainder of the rioters
the law was quietly allowed to take its course. The Governor's
conduct in this matter gave general satisfaction to the public.
For the moment he became decidedly popular j and Mackenzie had
not as yet the opportunity of becoming a political martyr. He sued
the aggressors for damages, and on the 30th of October, despite all
the eloquence of Hagerman, obtained from a special jury at Toronto
a verdict in his favour for £,(i2^ damages and costs.f The suit,
however, was brought for ;j^2ooo, on the ground that the stoppage
of his printing business occasioned him additional loss. A subscrip-
tion was set on foot to pay the verdict against the rioters, and the
greater part of the necessary sum was raised by this means. The
parties thus escaped all punishment for the offence, a circumstance
which produced a good deal of public indignation, and increased
the hostile feeling against the Family Compact. Towards the close
of the year the publication of the Advocate was resumed.

The Legislature again assembled on the 5th of December. In
his speech the Governor alluded to the satisfactory progress of the
province, the advanced state of its great public works, and the pros-

• Canada as it Was, &c., vol. i. p. 121. Life and Times of Mackenzie, p. 74.

t Mackenzie subsequently admitted that the actual damage to his office was
not vei-y great, and that he had overestimated it. Vide life and Times of
Mackenzie, p. lOI.

The History of Canada.

1827.

perous and contented condition of the people, all which he had
personally witnessed during his recent tour. The address from the
Assembly for the first time directly censured his conduct, in re-
ceiving and replying to addresses during that very tour, which
reflected on their body. The Governor retorted by declaring, that
in this procedure they had departed from the courtesy usual on
such occasions, and stoutly maintained he had acted correctly in
the premises. Trouble was evidently brewing. A Commons with
sufficient courage to censure a Governor was a new thing in Upper
Canada. While the Family Compact retained a majority in the
House, such an occurrence had never been known.

Apart from this squabble the session passed smoothly over.
Several bills were enacted. Among the rest the Naturalisa-
tion Act, which was reserved, however, by the Governor
for the pleasure of the King, by whom it was rejected, much to the
gratification of the bulk of the people of Canada, who thoroughly
disliked it, owing to its illiberal provisions. Among others who
denounced this bill was Robert Gourlay, still confined in a house
of correction in London, for having assaulted Mr Brougham in
the lobby of the House of Commons, and being also insane, and
who continued at lucid intervals to correspond with the Upper
Canadian press.

As the year progressed, owing to the exclusive claims to the Clergy
Reserves put forward on behalf of the Church of England, consider-
able discussion was excited, and the right of the Presbyterians to a
share therein very strongly urged by the friends of the Kirk, led by
William Morris, member of Assembly for Lanark. The naturalisa-
tion question, also, was very actively discussed at public meetings
and by the press ; and it was evident that the agitation on this
matter must speedily compel its settlement.

In May an occurrence took place at Niagara Falls, whicn created
a good deal of public feeling. A reserve of one chain in breadth,
along the bank of the river, had been retained by Government for
military purposes. This reservation was expressly stated in the deeds
to parties holding the adjoining lands.* A person of the name of
Forsyth, however, who then owned the principal inn at the Falls,
and considerable landed property in the neighbourhood, enclosed
the Crown reservation. This act was immediately protested against
by many of the neighbouring residents, who petitioned the Governor
against the encroachment on the public domain, and particularly as
it left no passage open to see a part of the Falls, but one through
• Chief-Justice Robinson to Colonel Rowan, 31st Dec 1832,

The History of Canada.

365

Forsyth's own house. Captain Phillpots, the engineer officer who
had the district in charge, was accordingly ordered to see that this
space was kept open ; and as Forsytii refused several times to
remove the fence, he directed it to be pulled down.

This conduct was loudly protested against by the Reform press,
eager to seize upon anything to the prejudice of a Governor they
disliked. If Forsyth, it was urged, had taken improper possession ol
the ground, he should be ejected by due course of law, and not by
military violence. This would most undoubtedly have been the
wisest course, as Forsyth was subsequently beaten in two suits,
brought to recover damages from Phillpots and another person for
trespass. His pretensions to the ground in dispute were likewise
set aside by an action against him for intrusion, which resulted in
favour of the Crown, and chiefly on the evidence of a Mr Jones, who
had made the original survey. The course pursued by the Governor
on this occasion was censured by the Home Government.*

The Legislature assembled on the 15th of January; and the
Governor made his speech to on unusually thin House. In
the Assembly some difficulty was experienced in collecting
a quorum for the despatch of business, and which was not accom-
phshed till the i8th. It was the last session of the eighth Parlia-
ment of the province, and members appeared to be very indifferent
whether they attended or not. To judge from the newspapers of
the day, many of them were too busy in canvassing for the next
general election to pay much attention to legislative matters.

As the session progressed, the ill feeling towards the Governor
evidently increased. His appointment of a clerk to the Assembly
was regarded by that body as an interference with their privileges.
Forsyth had petitioned the House for redress, and the committee
selected to investigate his case thought proper to summon the Adju-
tant-General, Coffin, and Colonel Givens, superintendent of Indian
affairs, to give evidence. The Governor directed them not to obey
the mandate, on the ground that the application for their attend-
ance should have been made in the first place to him as their supe-
rior military officer. A warrant was accordingly issued by the
Assembly for their apprehension for contempt. Coffin denied ad-
mission to the Sergeant-at-arms, but the latter finally broke open the
door with an axe, made him a prisoner, as well as Givens, and both,
persisting in their refusal to give evidence, were committed to the
common jail, where they remained till the House was prorogued.
The committee reported in favour of Forsyth's petition, recom-
* Sir G. Murray's Despatch to Sir John Colbome, 20th of Oct. 1828.

366

Tfu History of Canada,

mended that he should be remunerated for the loss of his crops
caused by the destruction of his fences, and denounced the conduct ot
the Governor as altogether too arbitrary.

A good deal of bitter discussion took place with regard to the
Clergy Reserves, and a more decided opposition was shown to the
admission of the Church of England's claims to their sole possession.
A Naturalisation Bill was at length passed of a more liberal and
satisfactory character, especially as regarded Canadian-born children
of American aliens, which was reserved, nevertheless, for the con-
sideration of the Home Government, and subsequently, on the 8th
of May, assented to by the King in Council. A cause of prolonged
agitation was thus finally removed. The annual Supply Bill having
been voted, the Legislature was prorogued on the 25th of March.

Party spirit was now becoming more and more intense. A libel
suit was commenced by the Governor, at the spring term, against
Mr Collins, editor of a Toronto paper termed the Canadian Freeman,
which was not prosecuted, however, owing to the former quitting the
province on his appointment to the government of Nova Scotia.
Mackenzie was also indicted for a like offence, growing out of the
Forsyth petition, but his trial, as well as that of Collins, was put off
to the fall term, the Attorney-General not being willing or pre-
pared to prosecute, and finally abandoned altogether.

Collins was a man of a warm and imprudent temper, and shortly
after attacked Attorney-General Robinson, on grounds connected
with this pending libel suit. The latter prosecuted him for defama-
tion at the fall term, and obtained a verdict in his favour. Collins
was sentenced to one year's imprisonment, a fine of jQ^o, and to
find security for future good behaviour.

The feeling of animosity against the executive was increased by
the course pursued with regard to Mr Willis, an English lawyer
of eminence, recently appointed one of the judges of the Upper
Canadian Court of King's Bench by the Home Government. Like
Thorp, he was unwilling to identify himself with the Family Com-
pact, and a strong feeling was soon excited against him among its
members. It was consequently determined to sacrifice him on the
first opportunity. His refusal to sit in term at Toronto in June, the
court not being legally constituted without the Chief -Justice,
(Campbell,) then absent i-.i England, being present, offering the
desired occasion, he was suspended from his office by the Governor.
Mr Hagerman was temporarily appointed to the vacant post, an
arrangement, however, which did not meet the approval of the
Home Authorities, and Mr Macauley received the vacant judgeship.

TJie History of Canada.

367

The Colonial Ofike subsequently sustained Mr Willis in the course
he had pursued, but admitted at the same time the Governor had
not acted beyond his authority. He was not sent back to Canada,
however, and a situation was provided for him in another colony.

This occurrence had a considerable influence on the elections,
which again resulted in the return of a Reform majority, among
whom was William Lyon Mackenzie, returned for the county of York.
Sir Peregrine Maitland had now become decidedly unpopular with
the Refoiin party, who gladly hailed his departure for the govern-
ment of Nova Scotia, to which he had been appointed, and welcomed
the accession of Sir John Colborne as a be-on. The latter assumed
direction of the administration in November, and as he was said to
have received instructions to govern agreeably to a liberal policy,
much was expected from him.

CHAPTER XVIII.

UPPER CANADA FROM 1 829 TO 1 835.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF SIR JOHN COLP>ORNE.

THE new Parliament was convened on the 9th of January,
and Marshall Spring Bidwell chosen Speaker of the Assembly,
by a majority of three over Wilson, the Speaker of the
^' former House. The speech of Sir John Colborne on the
occasion was guarded in the extreme, and presents few features of
importance. The division on the address showed that the House
was almost entirely a Reform one. Its language was a direct censure
on the executive, apart from the Governor. " We, his Majesty's
faithful Commons," it urged, " confiding in the candour of your
Excellency, and in your readiness to recognise us as constitutional
advisers of the Crown, do humbly pray your Excellency against the
injurious policy hitherto pursued by the Provincial Administration ;
and although we at present see your Excellency unhappily sur-
rounded by the same advisers as have so deeply wounded the
feelings and injured the best interests of the country, yet in the
interval of any necessary change, we entertain an anxious belief,
that under the auspices of your Excellency the administration of
justice will rise above suspicion ; the wishes and interests of the
people be properly respected ; and the revenues of the colony be
hereafter devoted to objects of public improvement, after making
provision for the public service on a basis of economy suited to
the exigencies of the country." " It is less difficult," said the
Governor in reply, " to discover the traces of political dissensions
and local jealousies in this colony, than to efface them. I anticipate
that the principles of the Constitution being kept steadily in view,
and the good sense of the people, will neutralise the efforts of any
interested faction."

The Governor's answer like the Delphian Oracle could be in-
terpreted either way. The Reformers fancied it favoured themselves:

The History of Canada.

;69

tliey were soon undeceived. He refused the petition of the
Assembly to extend the royal clemency to Collins, who was still
incarcerated. " I regret exceedingly," said he, " that the House of
Assembly should have made an application to me, which the obliga-
tion I am under to support the laws, and my duty to society, forbid
uie, I think, to comply with." The House retorted by a resolution
to the effect, '' that they had not merited the imputation conveyed
in his Excellency's message, and that their request was not incon-
sistent with the due support of the laws, and their duty to so :iety."

Its beginning seemed to augur a stormy reign for Sir John.
Mackenzie was already busy making motions for all sorts of in-
formation, as if he had even then conceived the plan of his
" Grievance Report." The Family Compact chuckled over the
refusal to release Collins, who had a young and helpless family to
j^rovide for; but a general feeling of indignation spread through
the country, and in the town of Hamilton the Governor was hung
in effigy. The exercise of clemency on this occasion would have
done much to satisfy the people, and made Sir John Colborne
popular ; but the stern old veteran preferred what he deemed to
be the path of duty to the acclamations of the crowd.

In Upper as well as in Lower Canada, Government still retained
the casual and territorial revenues ; and these, in addition to a
permanent grant of ;!^25oo made several years previously, had now
increased sufficiently to make the executive completely independ-
ent of the Assembly, as regarded an annual vote for the civil list.
Strong resolutions were passed against this condition o2 things in
the House, and a firm determination evinced to acquire control
of all the provincial revenues.*

An address Vvas voted to the Crown, setting forth the impure
administration of justice in the province, and praying that judges
should be made independent of the executive, and Mr Willis
restored. With very trifling difference the reformers of Upper
Canada and the anti-executive party of the lower province now
sought the attainment of the same objects, but for very difterent
ulterior ends. One desired social j^rogress and greater constitu-
tional liberty in the movement; the other embarked in it with a
view to acquire power in order to make their province more ex-
clusively a French colony.

During this session of Parliament, which terminated on the 20th of

* The public revenue of Upper Canada at this period amounted to ^112,166,
13s. 4d. Of this amount ;^75,ooo had been contracted for the buiklinfj of the
Wei land Canal.

a A

370

The History of Canada,

March, twenty-one of the bills passed in the Assembly were thrown
out in the Upper House, which showed the little cordiality subsist-
ing between the two bodies. Among those rejected in this way was
an act repealing that granting the ;^25oo in aid of the civil list.
The province now presented the unconstitutional spectacle of a
Government requiring no moneys from the Assembly, and a Legisla-
tive Council of a totally different political complexion from the
popular branch of the Legislature. No restraint could now be
imposed on the executive by an annual vote of supplies. It was
completely independent of the people.

The British House of Commons had scarcely recovered from the
excitement consequent on passing the Emancipation Bill, when we
find Mr Stanley, afterwards Earl of Derby, presenting a petition there,
from three thousand one hundred- and ten inhabitants of Toronto,
praying that judges in Upper Canada might be placed on the same
permanent footing as in the mother-country. "The petitioners went
on to hope," said he, " that they might have a local and responsible
administration." And thus, for the first time, the question of
" Responsible Government " in Upper Canada loomed distinctly on
the public view, as the great panacea for its many evils. In Lower
Canada, the popular party sought to carry out their purposes by
having an elective Legislative Council, which they knew very well
they could construct as they pleased. In Upper Canada the same
party felt that if they had the executive power in their hands, they
could very readily coerce the Upper House into their measures.
Unlike the French, they sought the triumph of constitutional prin-
ciples, and not of a race.

Towards the latter end of July, the elevation of the Attorney-
General, John Beverly Robinson, to be Chief-Justice, created a
vacancy in the representation of Toronto ; and, for the first time,
Robert Baldwin, now thirty-five years of age, appeared prominently
before the public as a candidate for the suff'rages of the electors.
Destined to fill a conspicuous position in the annals of his native
country, he merits more than a passing notice. Descended from a
respectable Irish family, the Baldwins of Summer Hill, county of
Cork, his fiither, a medical man, immigrated to this country in 1798,
while the rebellion still raged, and settled in the township of Clarke
on Lake Ontario. The family subsequently removed to Toronto,
where Robert, named after his paternal grandfather, was born in 1804.
Here Dr Baldwin discarded the practice of medicine for that of law.
Of respectable abilities, and great integrity of purpose, he soon came
to be regarded witii much respect by the public, especially that part

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371

of it attached to popular liberty, and was chosen to represent the
county of Norfolk in the Assembly. He died in 1844, six months
after he had been called to the Legislative Council by his sovereign ;
and the eloquent pen of Francis Hincks paid a fitting tribute to his
memory. " Our country has lost a friend," he wrote, " and will
follow him as mourners to the grave. By the removal of one so
worthy, so disinterested, so excellent, we have sustained a loss the
magnitude of which it is difficult to appreciate, much more in this
community to repair." And the son was eminently like the father.
No public man in Canada has ever commanded more general respect
than Robert Baldwin ; and his opponents, while combating his
opinions or traversing his policy, bowed to his integrity and personal
worth. Nor did he owe his great reputation to his popular manners,
or the easiness with which he could move the multitude. Naturally
of a mild and affable disposition, he rather shunned than courted the
popular applause, and ever disdained to bend to those petty arts
which inferior men find so indispensable to success in dealing with
the public. To Robert Baldwin, Canada owes a perpetual debt of
gratitude. An able lawyer, well acquainted with precedent, possessed
of wealth which placed him alike above all temptation to profit by
his position, and the breath of calumny ; of sterling honesty and
singleness of purpose, he was the man precisely to lead his country
safely through a great constitutional crisis into an era of larger
and more matured liberty. Eschewing the licence of extreme de-
mocracy on one hand, and opposed to unconstitutional executive
pretension on the other, he persevered in his efforts for responsible
government — for a ministry based on a Parliamentary majority —
until he met with the most ample success. Toronto did not hesitate
to respond to his appeal, and elected him as its representative, in the
room of John Beverly Robinson, the leading mind of the Family
Compact, ninety-two votes being recorded for him, against fifty-one
given to his opponent, a clever lawyer of the name of Small. Mac-
kenzie supported Robert Baldwin, attacked the professional character
of his opponent, and so got himself into a libel suit.

As the summer progressed, the Governor made a tour of the
province in order to become better acquainted with its people and
physical resources. Numerous addresses were presented to him, as
he progressed from town to town, and settlement to settlement ; but
the honest old soldier was no courtier, did not evidently understand
those kind of things, and his invariable blunt reply was, " I receive
your address with much satisfaction, and I thank you for your con-
gratulations." A censorious Assembly would find it a difficult matter

372

The History of Canada.

to quarrel with a speech of this stamp. He had scarcely returned
from his tour, when the hearts of the people were gladdened by the'
news that George IV. had not only directed the release of Collins,
but also remitted the fine and bail imposed by the court, in response
to a petition from the House of Assembly, who found more grace
with the King than in the eyes of his Governor. Shortly after this
event, we find Egcrton Ryerson issuing the prospectus of the
Christian Guardian, a religious jouriial in the interests of the
Wesleyan Methodists. It made the fourteenth newspaper then
published in Upper Canada, and still progresses in an honourable
and useful existence.

On the 30th of November the Welland Canal was formally opened
for navigation, and sloops could now descend from the waters of
Erie to those of Ontario. It was a gigantic work, undertaken when
the province was thinly populated and its people ponr. and gave
a great impetus to the progress of the country. It benefited
northern New York equally with Canada, and gave a new impulse
to the commercial prosperity of Oswego and Ogdensbuig. The
Rideau Canal, a work undertaken by the Imperial Government to
connect the Ottawa River with Lake Ontario, and so form a safe
military route from Montreal to Kingston, was now being pushed
rapidly forward towards completion, and steamers would soon be
able to ascend from tide water to the great lakes.

When the Legislature assembled on the 8th of January, the
Governor informed the House that not only had the
^ ' revenue at the disposal of the Crown been sufficient to pay
the civil list, but a considerable balance was now at their disposal.
The Assembly, in their reply, asserted their right to tlie control of the
imperial duties levied under the 14th Geo. III., and to the disposal
also of the other resources of the province. They likewise expressed
a solicitude for the pure administration of justice, and did not hesitate
to ask for the dismissal of the ministry. " Gentlemen of the House
of Assembly," said the General in answer, " I thank you for your
address."

The legislation during this session was of a common-place
description, and if the fact is excepted that forty bills passed in the
Assembly were thrown out in the Upper House, there was little to
distinguish it. Still some useful bills were placed on the statute-
book. Among these was one for tlie long-expected remuneration of
war losses ; another for the repair of roads ; and a third granting
a loan for the completion of the Welland Canal, not yet entirely
finished, some of the locks having given way.

The History of Canada.

373

During the earlier part of the summer there were few subjects
broached to agitate the pubhc mind, and the bulk of the people in
the rural districts turned their attention to the formation of agricul-
tural societies, and the furtherance of their welfare, aside from
politics. The death of George IV., and the consequent dissolution
of the Assembly, again produced political excitement, and the
country prepared for a general election, which took place in the
month of October. Its result showed that a new epoch had arisen
in Upper Canada.

Prior to the war of i8 12, what might properly be called political
parties did not exist in the province. The existence of a Reform
party proper cannot be traced further back than 1820, when it had
its origin in the endeavour to remove existing abuses, the desire to
procure the promised grants of lands for the militia, and the
agitation aroused by the advent of the eccentric Gourlay. During
the next ten years, the line of demarcation between the Family
Compact and the Reform party was distinctly and broadly drawn.
From the close of Simcoe's administration to 1820, the Compact
held a firm and almost unquestioned grasp of the administrative
power of the province. Receiving at times fresh accessions to their
numbers, they established themselves in nearly all the highest public
offices, maintained a decided influence in the Executive Council,
and by wielding the whole powers of government, and thus having
the patronage of all the petty posts throughout the province, they long
preserved their influence in both branches of the Legislature, but
particularly in the Upper House, and where until the Union they
continued to hold supreme sway. From Hunter to Colborne,
successive Governors in their turn either at once submitted to their
influence, or were compelled to do so, after a short and unavailing
struggle. The Bench, tlie Magistracy, the high offices of the Church
of England, were filled by their adherents, who were also numerous
among the members of the Bar. By grants or purchase this party
had likewise acquired the bulk of the best-located wild lands, and
were all-powerful in the chartered banks, in which they shared
among themselves nearly all the offices of trust and profit.*

For a period of over thirty years, the prominent characteristics of
the Family Compact had varied very little, if at all. Originally
formed by the majority of the leading men of the U. E. Loyalist
emigration, by half-pay British officers, and by other settlers of the
same aristocratic pretensions, they continued to admit fresh acces-
sions to their number of this description of persons only, and thus
* Lord Durham's Report, p. 56.

374

TJie History of Canada.

preserved their exclusive character. While they desired to acquire
adherents among what they deemed the common people, they did
so merely for the purpose of strengthening and perpetuating their
own position, and carefully excluded them from their inner circle,
and from participation in all real power. Devotedly loyal to the
Crown, attached to monarchical institutions as the source from
whence sprung their own oligarchical position, originally better
educated, and possessed of more talent and more wealth than the
rest of the community, they presented the aspect of an exclusive
Tory school, long scouted in Great Britain for its illiberality, and
consigned to merited political oblivion.

On the other hand, the Reform party was at first composed of a
part of the U. E. Loyalists, and the bulk of the immigrants from the
United States who had settled in the province before the war of
1812 to escape high taxation and improve their fortunes. Many of
the latter were shrewd practical men, familiar with the disputes which
led to the American War of Independence, and soon desired a larger
measure of constitutional liberty than existed in the land of their
adoption. Few, if indeed any, of these had quit the United States
because they dislilced their constitution ; and not finding political
matters suited to their wishes in this country, they naturally con-
sidered that a monarchical form of government must be necessarily
arbitrary, regarded republican institutions as the only liberal ones, and
desired to see them established in Canada. Up to 1826 this class of
persons formed fully one-third of the Reform party, and consequently
in many of its movements a covert though very guarded leaning to
republicanism can distinctly be traced. Like the Family Compact, it
also betrayed in its political conduct a jealousy of the new immigrants,
and a wish to maintain the powers of office, and the emoluments of
the professions, in the hands of persons born or long resident in the
colony.*

Subsequent to 1826 the large British immigration which poured
continuously into Upper Canada, and which, in 183 1, had swelled
its population to over a quarter of a million, produced a complete
chance in political parties. While the recent immigrants took different
:;;des in politics — while one class, among whom was a large propor-
tK "^ jf th*^ Irish Roman Catholics, arranged themselves on the side
A R* "orm ; and another class, which embraced the great bulk of
Jiish Protestants, stood up in partial opposition — all, as a rule,
■ \.re decidedly British in their feelings and predilections, and had
little sympathy with the republican institutions of the United States.

* Lord Durham's Report, p. 59.

The History of Canada.

<7 M •*

This immigration did not strengthen the Reform party as speedily
as it did their opponents. They had a more decided disHke to
strangers, and as they considered they had still a majority of votes
in the different electoral districts, they were unwilling to unite them-
selves closely to, or avail thfemselves of the aid of, Irish Reformers.
On the other hand, the sturdy and independent conduct of Sir John
Colborne made the members of the Family Compact tremble foi
their influence -, and they saw that unless they obtained a majority
in the Assembly, and thus showed they were popular with the people,
they could not long hope to preserve their influence in the Legisla-
tive and Executive Councils. They accordingly disguised their dis-
like of immigrants, and courted their support. But Irish and English
Protestants were a well-informed body of persons ; few who could
not read and write ; they loved constitutional liberty as a general
principle, while they eschewed republicanism in the abstract ; were
not opposed by any means to rational reform; and had not for-
gotten the revolution of 1688, which freed them from Toryism of the
extreme school. Hence, they did not now feel very much disposed
to support the undue pretensions of the Family Compact. They
had leaders of their own, too, who declined to be the tools of the
men in power, and sought place and power for themselves, by the
sufi"rages of immigrants like themselves \ and who, if they served the
old Tory party of Canada, expected that the old Tory party should
serve them in turn. From these causes gradually arose the Con-
servative party of Canada West, and which soon absorbed the entire
Family Compact in its ranks, or pushed it out of the way.

Thus, we see that during the period between 1826 and 183 1 the
two great political parties of this country were completely recon-
structed, and the republican element in the Reform party reduced tp
a mere fractional proportion. From that day to this, the causes which
produced this change have been constantly at work. Immigration
has steadily continued to flow into Canada from the mother country,
and the great mass of its people are now sincerely attached to con-
stitutional monarchy. Settlers from the United States find every
liberty they can desire, soon learn to pray for the Queen and con-
stituted authorities, are fused into the great mass of the people, and,
as a rule, become excellent citizens. After 1826 Reformers and
Conservatives of talent and education poured into the province from
all directions. The press grew able and enlightened ; both parties
became more national, more patriotic, and more conducive to the
•development of rational liberty. The full force of progress and
intelligence swept away monopolies and abuses one after another,

ZT^

The History of Canada.

1831.

and made Canada what she is to-day, one of the freest and most
contented countries in the world.

From the circumstances just noticed, as well as from the fact
that several of the constituencies were desirous to try what a Tory
Assembly (the Conservative party not yet taking the lead) would
accomplish for the countrj', the Reform party, onthe close of the
general election of 1830, found itself in a decided minority. Toronto
returned a member of the Family Compact in William B. Jarvis,
and the elder Baldwin no longer sat for Norfolk. When the Legis-
lature assembled on the 8th of January, their opponents
were able to appoint a Speaker, Archibald M'Lean of Stor-
mont, from their own body by a vote of twenty-seven to fifteen.

There is little upon the statute-book to distinguish this session,
beyond an act granting ;^65oo sterling in perpetuity to the Govern-
ment, to pay the salaries of the Lieutenant-Governor, the three
judges, the Attorney and Solicitor-Generals, and the five executive
councillors, in return for the Crown ceding to the Legislature the
control of the imperial duties of the province, now amounting
annually to about ;^i 1,000 sterling. Thus one cause of public
dissatisfaction was removed. The opposition press grumbled a
good deal about not making the grant an annual one. But Parlia-
ment acted wisely in meeting the liberal action of the Crown in a
corresponding spirit.

Mackenzie had been excessively busy during the session, and was
a thorn deep in the flesh of the majority. The House had scarcely
well settled itself to business, when he moved a resolution denying
the right of the executive to appoint its chaplain. But three-fourths
of the Assembly decided " that the question be not put ; " and a
subsequent resolution, that the various ministers of Toronto be re-
quested to say prayers in turn during the session, met with no better
success. In the course of the debate, Solicitor-General Hagerman
threatened the House with confusion if they ventured to oppose tlie
wishes of the Governor, while Attorney-General Boulton likened its
assumption to appoint its own chaplain to the assassin who gave
exercise to the brutal forces of his nature in shooting down a man in '
the street ; and the majority tamely accepted the illogical argument,
and bowed like cravens before the menace. It was quite evident,
however, that the Reform party had lost its influence in the House,
and that Mackenzie could not sway the latter as in the preced-
ing Parliament. He speedily sought to take his revenge, by moving
for a committee of inquiry on the state of the legislative represen- ■
tation in the province. It could not well be worse. When he rose

The History of Canada.

to address the House in support of his motion, a collector of customs
sat at his elbow ; the speaker held the office of Clerk of the Crown
in the town of Cornwall ; six postmasters occupied seats in the
Assembly, and which also embraced a sheriff, inspectors of tavern
and distillery licences, county registrars, and a revenue commissioner.
Mackenzie forcibly urged that his colleague and himself, with the
member for Lanark, represented a larger number of persons than
fifteen other members ; that the P^ouse had more than one member
whose whole constituency did not number thirty votes all told ; and
that the county of York (for half of which he sat) contained more
inhabitants than Hastings, Dundas, Haldimand, Niagara, and
Brockville. A majority of the whole House represented less than
a third of the entire population, and if property were considered
as an electoral basis, the matter would be still worse. His argu-
ments so alarmed the Assembly, that they finally agreed to grant
the committee asked for, on a vote of twenty-eight to eleven, and
even allowed him to nominate its members, amid the applause of
the spectators in the gallery — no unusual occurrence in those days.
Nor was Mackenzie satisfied with this success, and now applied him-
self resolutely to harass the majority at every opportunity. Pension
hsts, fees, official salaries and rewards, were one and all assailed, and
a stinging attack made on the management of the Bank of Upper
Canada, even then in incipient preparation for its ultimate failure.
Mackenzie insisted on regular returns of its condition being made
public, and ultimately carried his point, despite the strenuous op-
position of its solicitor, Attorney-General Boulton.

There was no repose for the Family Compact ; and the j)olicy of
"Responsible Government," now clearly limned out by Mackenzie,
began to settle its unpleasant shadows upon them. As the session
progressed they became more and more furious, and determined to
get rid in some way of the man who gave them so much trouble.
The fact of his having circulated some copies of the journals of the
House, was seized upon as constituting a breach of privilege, although
reports of the proceedings were now constantly published in the
Toronto newspapers. A select committee of inquiry, composed of
the Attorney-General, Allan MacNab, and three others, reported
that William Lyon Mackenzie, printer, employed to print the journals
of the House, had abused the trust reposed in him, by distributmg
part cf the same among individuals not entitled to receive copies
thereof, for political purposes. On this report MacNab founded
a motion of breach of privileges, with a view to Mackenzie's expul-
sion. But the discreditable plot failed, the vote standing twenty

378

The History of Canada.

against the motion, to fifteen for it, although the names of the
Attorney and Solicitor-Generals figured in the minority.

During the recess of the Legislature, Mackenzie was particularly
active in the agitation for reform. In the middle of July he issued,
in temperate language, a call for a series of public meetings through-
out the country, to petition King William and the imperial Parlia-
ment against the abuses of power by the authorities of the province.
He attended many of those meetings in person, and did not hesitate
to assail the Family Compact even in their great strongholds of
Brockville and Cornwall. The success of his mode of agitation was
very great. The petition adopted in Toronto became the basis of
all the others memorials and in which a well-defined demand for
responsible government found a place. In addition, the King was
asked to give the Legislative Assembly the full controi of all the
revenues of the province, and the disposal of the public lands ; to
permit the secularisation of the Clergy Reserves ; the establishment
of municipal councils, law reform, the power to impeach public ser-
vants, the exclusion of judges and clergymen from Parliament, and
the abolition of the right of primogeniture. Each and all of those
prayers have long since become the law of the land, to be trans-
mitted as the heir-loom of freedom to posterity. The aggregate
signatures appended to those petitions were nearly twenty-five
thousand, a prodigious number, considering the sparse population
of the province, and the hostility of the Family Compact.*

The Legislature was again convened on the 17th of November,
and matters proceeded somewhat peaceably for a brief space ; but
the majority had not abated their intense dislike towards Mackenzie,
and merely awaited a favourable opportunity to wreak their ven-
geance upon him. The occasion sought for soon presented itself.
A caustic article in the Colonial Advocate of the 24th November,
relative to the cavalier manner in which the people's petitions for
reform were treated by the House, and another article in the issue
of the succeeding week, reflecting, in severe and injudicious terms, on
the characterof its majority, on motion of James H. Samson, member
for Hastings, and Hugh C. Thomson, proprietor of the Kuii^stoJi
Herald, were voted " gross, scandalous, and malicious libels, a
breach of privilege ; and that Mackenzie, having avowed their author-
ship, be called on for his defence." But, in the present temper of
the majority, no defence could avail their victim ; so, on the 9th of
December, the House, acting as accuser, judge, and jury, declared
him guilty of libel, by a vote of twenty-seven to fifteen. Three days
* Life and Times of Mackenzie, vol. i. p. 203.

The History of Canada.

379

afterwards they followed up this action by declaring that his defence
aggravated his original misconduct, and expelled him from the
House, on a vote of twenty-four to fifteen, four of the official party
purposely absenting themselves. During the debate Attorney-
General Boulton, who acted as a sort of prosecuting counsel against
Mackenzie, truculently described him as a reptile, while Solicitor-
General Hagerman facetiously varied the description to a spaniel
dog. Short-sighted majority ! they were unwittingly digging their
own graves, and converting the imprudent and erratic Highlander
into a popular martyr, and the idol of the people. While the House
still debated his case, public indignation arose to fever heat, and
several petitions, numerously signed, were presented to the Governor,
asking him to dissolve a body tainte .with the worst vices of judicial
partiality. On the day of his expulsion nine hundred and thirty of
the petitioners proceeded in a body to Government House, to get his
Excellency's reply. It was curt in the extreme, and was — " Gentle-
men, I have received the petition of the inhabitants." But he was
prepared to answer them in a still more stern manner, if their number
and excitement should have led them into a riot. Artillerymen
stood at the moment to their loaded guns, and the troops had been
served with a double allowance of ball cartridge, and held ready for
service at a moment's notice. But the crowd departed peaceably,
and on their way to do homage to Mackenzie at his dwelling, they
stopped to hoot at the Parliament House, and to cheer opposite the
office of the Guardian newspaper, in which the pen of its editor,
Egerton Ryerson, had warmly espoused the cause of their idol. The
Family Compact quailed at these popular demonstrations in behalf
of a man they dreaded so much ; and in the House sought to make
some amends for his expulsion, by voting an address to the Crown,
praying that the Clergy Reserves might be sold, and the proceeds
applied to the purposes of education. This was a large bid for
popularity, and in the hope that it might not pass without effect, a
new writ for the county of York was directed to be issued.

The new election took place on the 2d of January. Two thousand
persons crowded to the polling place, the Red Lion Inn,
to witness the proceedings. Forty sleighs escorted Mac-
kenzie thither, and in an hour and a half after the poll opened, he
had received one hundred and nineteen votes, while one only had
been recorded for his opponent. Street, and who now abandoned
the hopeless contest. And then came the presentation of a gold
medal, value sixty pounds. On one side were the rose, the thistle,
and the shamrock, encircled by the words, " His Majesty King

38o

The History of Canada.

William, the People's Friend :" on the reverse, " Presented to Wil-
liam L. Mackenzie, Esq., by his constituents of York, U. C, as a
token of their approbation of his political career, Jan. 2d, 1832."

Put the majority of the Assembly had as yet learned nothing from
experience. A vast crowd accompanied Mackenzie to the Parlia-
ment building, into which not a few forced their way, to hear a motion
made for the second expulsion of Mackenzie, while he still waited
below the bar of the House to be sworn in. Put the motion was
lost by a majority of four. New cause for expulsion was found,
three days afterwards, in an article in the Colonial Advocate, and
this cause was simply an almost naked recital of facts. After a
hurried and scandalous trial, Mackenzie was now expelled a second
time, and declared ineligible to sit in the existing Assembly. The
excitement increased, and the Legislative Council also declared it-
self libelled by the Advocate^ and prayed the protection of the Lower
House.

Public meetings were now held in every direction, at which re-
solutions were passed favourable to the liberty of the press, and
condemning the course of the majority in the Assembly. The
Reform party were thoroughly aroused, became willing to acquire
all the support they could, and exhibited a decided inclination
to incorporate as many of the recent emigrants into their ranks as
possible.

Towards the close of the session, a message from the Governor
stated that the Home Ministry admitted the Church of Scotland in
Canada had a right to share in the Clergy Reserve lands. Put no
action was taken upon it, and the Legislature was prorogued on the
28th of January. Seven days afterwards Mackenzie was again
elected for the county of York, by an immense majority over two
other candidates. He was now decidedly the most popular man in
the province, and was chosen to act as agent by a large meeting
held at Toronto to support the petitions for the redress of grievances
to be laid before the King. Some of these prayed that a new Pro-
vincial Parliament might be called, as the present members did not
represent the people, that the Legislative Council might be made
elective, the Lieutenant-Governor removed, the Bank of Upper
Canada prevented from becoming a moneyed monopoly dangerous to
popular liberty, and that a favour-able answer might be returned to
previous petitions asking for a more equal representation, many of
the borough towns being very small. The promotion of education
was also requested, the proper expenditure of the public revenue,
find the regulation of the land-granting department. All these evils

The History of Canada,

381

complained of were capa1)lc of constitutional settlement, and afforded
slender pretext for revolution. Unlike the Papineau faction, the
Reform party of Upper Canaila had no disposition to hunt up new
grievances as old ones were removed ; and had no desire, as a
j;cneral rule, to push matters to an extreme point, with an idterior
aim to a total independence of the mother-country. Mackenzie,
after a narrow escape from being murdered, sailed for luigland in the
month of April, and arrived there safely on the ist of May.

Tlie summer of this year was not di.stinguished by much political
agitation. A numerous immigration crowded up the St Lawrence to
establish itself in the new townships, and swell the population of
the province. It was a sad season for the poor fugitive from father-
land. The Asiatic Cliolera was sweeping with its deadly ])lague-
breath over affrighted Europe, and decimating the terror-stricken
passengers of the crowded and ill-ventilated emigrant ships. With
the first sunny days of spring it established itself in Quebec and
Montreal, the great outlets of Canadian commerce, and from thence
passed up the St Lawrence, and round the shores of Ontario and
Erie, carrying death and dismay into all the frontier towns and
hamlets of the country. Until the scourge passed almost entirely
away with the cool days ot October, the terrible word "cholera"
stared at one continually from all the public prints, and mingled with
the matin and vesper orisons of the prayerful.

The Legislature assembled on the 31st of October. In his open-
ing address, the Governor alluded to the rapid increase of population
by immigration,* the comi)lotion of the Rideau canal, and the almost
complete disappearance of cholera. Mr Mackenzie still continued
absent in England, and was busily engaged in attracting the attention
of the Colonial Office, now controlled by I^ord Goderich, to the
affairs of the province. One of the first measures of the session
was his third expulsion from the Assembly. But he was again re-
elected by acclamation, no other candidate presenting himself, and
the same day the first political Reform union of Upper Canada was
organised, on a basis proposed by Dr Morrison.

Five times, altogether, was i\Iackenzie expelled by the Family
Compact majority of the Assembly, to be as often re-elected. The
Home Government disapproved of their conduct in this
respect. It was decidedly opposed to its Whig policy, to ^^'
the principles of Reform i:)rofessed by the Imperial Parliament, and

* As a proof of the respectability of this immiy;iatioii 300,000 sovereigns were
deposited during the summer in the Bank of Upper Canada. — Alw York Albion,
October 18 ''3.

382

The History of Canada.

1834.

although averse to complying with all the prayers of the petitions,
for which Mackenzie acted as agent, the latter had the satisfaction
of seeing Attorney-General Boulton and Solicitor-General Hagerman
deprived of their situations for aiding prominently in his frequent
expulsion. Hagerman, however, proceeding promptly to England,
soon procured his own restoration to office, while Boulton
got a judgeship in Newfoundland, where he soon em-
broiled himself witli a large section of the population, and was finally
dismissed from all employment by the Imperial Government.*

These occurrences added largely to the intensity of party spirit,
and the agination which they aroused reacted to some extent on the
Legislature, which this year passed the long and much desired act
making the judges independent .^f the Crown, and enabling them to
hold their office for life, provided they behaved themselves properly.
This act also declared both branches of the Legislature a competent
court to try impeachments against judges, giving, however, a right of
appeal to the King in Council. Thus one serious and long-standing
abuse was removed, and the flagrant case of a Thorp or a Willis
could never again occur in Upper Canada. In the November of
this year Mackenzie discontinued the publication of his Colonial
Advocate.

The approaching election was productive of a larger amount of
political excitement, than any similar event had hitherto produced
in the province. The almost unlooked-for majority which the
Family Compact had acquired in the late Assembly, led them to
make great exertions to secure the same preponderance in the en-
suing one. But their arbitrary course with regard to Mackenzie had
lost them many friends. Nor did their conduct otherwise satisfy
many of the new immigrant electors, and it was evident, as the struggle
drew near, that their prospects of success were extremely slight.
Taught by experience, the Reform party sedulously courted the
support of the Irish PvOman Catholics, as well as of all those whom
they imagined were most likely to assist them, and exerted them-
selves so effectually that they secured a majority of ten in a House
of fifty-eight members. Mackenzie was again returned triumphantly
for the county of York, and Marshall S. Bidwell, when the
Legislature assembled on the 14th of January, was a second
time elected Speaker of the Assembly. The result of this election
may be regarded as the last knell of the Family Compact. A new
party, who disclaimed its extreme political doctrines, denied its ex-
clusive right to office, maintained that preferment should be open to
• Seventh Grievance Report, p. 31.

1835-

The History oj Canada.

3B.

all men of talent, and was not opposed to measures of necessary
Reform, while, at the same time, it was sincerely attached to British
connexion, was now rapidly springing into political importance.
This party disclaimed alike the name of Family Compact or Tory,
and called itself Conservative. Its principles differed as widely from
those of the Family Compact as the principles of the Reform party
of the present day, and whose existence commenced in 183 1, differ
from the extreme Radical and revolutionary theories of the Rolph
and Bidwell school of 1837-8.

The first session of the twelfth Parliament ot Upper Canada is
particularly distinguished for its famous " Seventh Grievance Report,"
concocted chiefly by Mackenzie and Dr Morrison. This report is
a temperate and truthful document, in which the impartial reader
can find very little to quarrel with. After making due allowance for
the natural desire to reduce political foes in public estimation, all
lovers of rational liberty will admit that many grievances are therein
set forth, which required constitutional remedy ; and a feeling of
regret must arise, that any other than constitutional means were ever
resorted to by way of obtaining redress. Twenty-one out of its
forty-eight pages* were devoted to the question of responsible
government, to procure which the members of the Reform party
were now concentrating all their exertions, sensible that if they once
could control the Executive Council the Legislative Council must
speedily adapt itself to their views.

The great change in the political opinions of Great Britain, and
the moderate and more rational tone which now began to pervade
parties there, led to the supposition in Upper Canada, that the High
Church party could not much longer maintain its exclusive claims to
the Clergy Reserve lands ; and that, agreeable to the original statute
setting them apart, they must be soon divided among other Pro-
testant denominations, or diverted to the purposes of education.
The executive accordingly determined, while they had yet the power,
to make provision for the maintenance of the Church of England.
Fifty-seven rectories were set apart from the Clergy Reserves, and
put in possession of ministers, with the view of giving them a per-
sonal interest in the lands, and thus, as it was supposed, preventing
them from being ousted by legal enactmcnuf

* This is the extent of the report projicr. It is .iccompanietl, however, by a
larc^e mass of other and very useful information of some 450 pages.

t The Trinity Episcopal Corporation of New Vork acquired their property also
from the Crown before the American Revolution, and still retain possession of it
owing to the decision of the Supreme Court of the United States.

384

The History of Canada,

This procedure produced a large amount of ill feeling towards the
executive among the opposition, and a very violent spirit mani-
fested itself onMlifferent occasions. In Toronto, which had now-
expanded into a city, of which Mackenzie moreover was mayor,
quarrels took place between the military and the refuse of the Re-
form party, which created a good deal of unpleasantness. The
soldiers, too, were tampered with,* but evidently more with the view
of annoying the Governor, than with any ulterior design to rebellion.

Such was the unpleasant condition of Upper Canada, when the
Colonial Office, now pledged to a policy of conciliation, and satisfied
that Sir John Colborne would hot compromise himsel'f by carrying it
out, determined to recall him, agreeable to his own request, and ap-
point Sir Francis Bond Head as his successor.

* Canada as it Was, &c., vol. i. p. 1SS-190.

the

CHAPTER XIX.

LOWER CANADA FROM 1 828 TO 1 837.

THE GOVERNMENT OF SIR JAMES KEMPT.

1828.

LIEUTENANT-GENERAL SIR JAMES KEMPT, selected
^ by Mr Huskisson to succeed Lord Dalhousie in
the government of Lower Canada, was already well ac-
quainted with that province. During Sir James H. Craig's admin-
istration he had been Quarter-Master General of the army in this
country, and came out hither again in 1814 as a general of
brigade. His recent direction of the government of Nova Scotia
had given him, in addition, considerable experience in colonial
affairs. Great reliance was accordingly placed on his tact and
pnidence by the Colonial Office, which confidently anticipated his
administration would relieve it from the embarrassing position in
which it was now placed by the unsatisfactory condition of things
in Lower Canada.

In pursuance of the conciliatory policy now proposed to be
adopted, Papineau, on the Legislature assembHng in November,
was confirmed in the Speakership of the Assembly. Nothing was
effected, however, towards arranging the financial disputes between
the Crown and the Lower House, who again voted a supply bill
in a manner which asserted their claim to the entire control of all
provincial moneys. The supply bill for 1829 was also
voted in the same way, and botli narrowly escaped being ^'

lost in the Legislative Council. Complaints continued to be made
against judges, and Wolfred Nelson, returned for William Henry,
protested against the conduct of Attorney-General James Stuart,
his opponent at the recent election, as wholly unbecoming an
officer of the Crown. Robert Christie, the member for Gaspe,
and chairman of the Quarter Sessions for the District of Quebec,
was expelled the House, principally on the ground of his having
procured the dismissal from the magistracy of members of the

2 B

386

The History of Canada.

Assembly who had voted contrary to the wishes of the executive.
He was also accused of abusing his position as a member of the
House, by making Government aware of the votes and conduct
generally of the leading men of the opposition, a system of
espionage which was voted to be a gross breach of privilege. He
was subsequently re-elected and expelled several times for similar
causes.

During the session grievance-petitions poured in from various
quarters, which were referred to a committee appointed for their
investigation. The report of this committee, adopted by the
Assembly, recommended the settlement of the financial question
on a permanent and economical basis, the independence of judges,
and their removal from political business, the proper accountability
of public officers, a reconstruction of the Legislative Council to
make it act more harmoniously with the popular House, the
application of the Jesuits' Estates to educational purposes, and
the removal of all obstructions to the settlement of the country,
particularly the Crown and Clergy Reserve lands remaining un-
occupied in the neighbourhood of roads and settlements, and
exempt from the common burthens. This session was also dis-
tinguished by an act increasing the representation of the province
to eighty-four members.

During the ensuing session of the Legislature, financial matters
remained in the same condition. The Governor informed the
Assembly, that an act of the Imperial Parliament was
^ ■ necessary to give it the control of the casual and terri-
torial revenues of the Crown, and until that right was conceded,
no permanent arrangements for the civil list could be made
with constitutional propriety. He i;ius ignored the position, on
this point, assumed by his predecessors. The supply bill voted
for the year amounted to ^^62,250 sterling, but was nevertheless
;^75oo short of the estimates, the Assembly cutting off several
items, and among others the salaries of the chairmen of the
Quarter Sessions for the Districts of Montreal, Three Rivers, and
Quebec. The bill had a narrow escape in the Upper House, seven
voting for it and seven aga' .st it, among whom was the Speaker,
Chief-Justice Sewell. He insisted he had a right to one vote as
speaker, end to another vote as councillor, and thus managed to
carry the measure. The legality of his procedure was very pro-
perly questioned. Several liberal appropriations were made for
public purposes.

Although dissatisfied with the conduct of the Assembly, in not

The History of Canada.

3^7

voting the entire amount of the estimates, Sir James Kempt steadily
pursued his poUcy of conciliation. The magistrates dismissed by
his predecessor were restored to office, as well as the cashiered
officers of militia. He added new and more popular members to
the Executive Council, and requested the judges to retire from the
Legislative Council.* This the latter refused to do, although they
promised to take no part in its deliberations. With the carrying out
of these measures terminated Sir James Kempt's administration, to
the great regret of a large majority of the people, Lord Aylmer
having been appointed as his successor by the Whigs.

THE GOVERNMENT OF GENERAL LORD AYLMER.

The new Governor-in-Chief arrived out in October, and imme-
diately assumed charge of the administration of affairs. The
general election, consequent on the death of George IV.,
had made no change in the condition of parties in the ^
Afsembly, and Papineau was again elected Speaker, and confirmed
in that office by the Governor.

Shortly after the commencement of the session. Lord Aylmer
announced in a message to the Assembly that a bill would be intro-
duced into the Imperial Parliament by the British ministry, securing
to the Colonial Legislature the control of the Crown duties and
other revenue, amounting to ;^38,ooo sterling per annum, provided
it guaranteed a civil list during the King's life, as had been done
in England, of ;^i9,ooo a year. The timber duties, and other
casual and territorial revenue, creating an annual fund of ;^ii,23i
a year, were to remain, however, at the disposal of the Crown. This
offer was rejected by the Assembly, who, on every fresh concession
being made, appeared only more determined to obtain control over
every branch of the public revenue, and now passed a strong resolu-
tion to that effect. They next agreed to a series of resolutions
detailing the several public grievances complained of On these,
petitions to the Crown and Imperial ParHament for redress were
based, which the Governor was requested, by a deputation of the
House, to transmit to England. This he promised to do, express-
ing a hope, at the same time, that they contained all the grievances
to be redressed, and that nothing of the kind would be afterwards
brought forward. During this session provision was made, for the
first time, to pay members of Assembly the expenses incurred in
attending the Legislature.

As the year progressed, the newspaper, Za Canadien^ which had

* Martin's British North America, p. 25.

388

The History of Canada.

given so much trouble to Sir James H. Craig, was again established ;
the Chambly Canal was commenced ; and a vast immigration, chiefly
from Ireland, of over fifty thousand souls, passed up the St Law-
rence, like a disorganised army, leaving the inhabitants to provide
for the sick and wounded, and to bury the dead.* During the
season of navigation one thousand and sixteen vessels arrived at
Quebec, tr?.(!f ind commerce continued to increase, the province
had no /, i ia^t,' -arplus revenue, and the population of what was once
Champlain's liitle colony of fifty souls, had, as regarded Lower Canada
alone, swelled up to over five hundred thousand human beings.

Despite the unfavourable action of the Assembly on the question
of a permanent civil list, a bill was introduced by Lord Howick,
Under Seer o ■ 'j Colonies, into the British Parliament, hand-

ing over to the ro '^' of the Lower Canadian Legislature the
imperial duties ' "\cl, ig ■ee:..bJe to 14th Geo. III., chap. 88, under
the be''ef that this course v/, -uld i-till be met by the latter in a corres-
ponding^ spirit o'''-en,)ity, vCt ]: issed both Houses of Pailia-

ment, and v/a? Esseiixj tc i

In its passage through

the Lords it was protested ugainsi by the Duke of Wellington. In
addition to this important concession the grievance-petitions were
replied to in the most conciliator}' spirit, the control of the Jesuits'
Estates handed over to the Assembly, who might now devote them
to purposes of education, and the assent of the Crown given to the
appointment of judges for life, and to removing them altogether
from the political arena. It was, therefore, confidently hoped
that the long-pending disputes would now be fully and satisfactorily
settled.

The House of Assembly, in its first moments of surprise at these
important and beneficial concessions, evinced a feeling of gratitude,
which they embodied in several resolutions. This feeling,
^ * however, speedily disappeared, and in the act making
judges independent of the Government, it was declared their
salaries should be drawn from the timber duties and territorial
revenue, amounting as already stated to ^11,231, retained chiefly
for the payment of the pension list, the support of the Church of
England, and the control of which had not yet been surrendered by
the Crown. The permanent civil list had been fixed in the esti-
mate at the very low sum of ;^59oo, which included ^^45 00 for the
Governor's salary, ;^5oo for that of his Secretary, ;^4oo for Pro-
vincial Secretary, ;^3oo for the Attorney-General, and ;^2oo for the
salary of the SoUcitor- General. Still, small as this sum was, the
• Quebec Gazette, nth November 1831.

The History of Canada.

389

Assemby refused to grant it, a most illiberal and unwise course
It brought them directly into contact with the Home Ministry,
who now began to discover that fresh concessions only led to fresh
demands.

Party spirit was rapidly on the mcrease. The British portion of
the population, satisfied that every reasonable concession had been
made, very generally sided with the executive ; the French-Cana-
dians with the Assemby. An election riot at Montreal, in which
three men were killed and two wounded, by the fire of the military
in self-defence, added to this antagonistic feeling, scarcely checked
by the cholera, now decimating the principal towns and villages.
On the 30th of July a meeting was held in the parish of St Charles,
at which England was denounced for permitting emigration at such
a sickly time, and thus desolating the province. It was likewise de-
clared at this meeting that the Legislative Council ought to be elective,
and that the conduct of Lord Aylmer, ir "-ensuring the Assembly for
not voting a supply bill as he desired, was an insult to that body. A
very hostile feeling was also evinced tvy»vards British immigrants of
every description. They were stigmatised as foreigners, and the
conduct of the Government in selling them lands denounced as
an injury to the French population, to whom the soil of the
country of right belonged, and for whose sole use it should be
reserved.

The Whigs, still resolving to carry out their policy of concilia-
tion, conceded to the Legislature the right to vote the supply bill
by items, which at once terminated the long dispute on this point.
At the same time the Colonial Secretary pressed upon the Assembly
the propriety of permitting Mr ChrisHe, whom they had so frequently
expelled, and who was as frequently returned by the electors of
Gaspe, to take his seat. This they refused, however, to do. The
session of 1832-3 was particularly distinguished by a peti-
tion to the Crown, praying that the Legislative Council
should be made elective ; and for an increasing ill feeling towards
the executive. The supply bill also was ;^7ooo short of the
amount required, leaving the difference to be made up, at the plea-
sure of the Government, from the small Crown revenue still retained.
The Bill was lost in the Upper House, now deeply incensed by the
conduct of the Assembly in endeavouring to alter their constitution.
They had already memorialised the Crown in strong language against
the prayer of the grievance-petitions on that head.

Lord Stanley, now Secretary of State for the Colonies, was
decidedly opposed to making the Legislative Council elective, and

1833.

390

The History of Canada.

stated that he deemed such a measure opposed to monarchical insti-
tutions, and, therefore, could never advise his Majesty to assent
thereto. He also hinted that the existing dissensions in Lower
Canada might lead to a modification of its charter.

When the Legislature again met, it was evident that little cordiality

g might be looked for between its two branches. The
^^' Assembly, incensed at the threat held out by Lord Stanley,
principally occupied itself in preparing " Ninety-two Resolutions,"
chiefly drawn up by Papineau, embodying their real or supposed
grievances, on which petitions to the King, Lords, and Commons of
the United Kingdom were founded. The address to the King was
presented to the Governor for transmission. Mr Morin, one of
their body, was deputed to convey the addresses for the Lords and
Commons to England, and hand them to Mr Viger, still there as
their agent. No supply bill whatever was voted, and the Governor,
there not being a quorum to transact business, unwillingly prorogued
the House on the i8th of March.

The appeal to the Imperial Parliament by the Assembly of Lower
Canada, caused Mr Roebuck, on the 15 th of April, to move in the
House of Commons for the appointment of a committee to inquire
into the means of remedying the evils which existed in the form of
government of. these provinces. This motion, however, he withdrew
on another being made in amendment by Lord Stanley for " a select
committee to inquire into, and report to the House, how far the
grievances complained of in the year 1828, on the part of certain
inhabitants of Lower Canada, had been redressed, and whether the
recommendation of the committee which sat thereupon had been
complied with." To this committee the subsequent grievances, as
embodied in the ninety-two resolutions, were also to be referred.
In order that everything might be done that was reasonable, the
committee was so formed as to include all the members then in the
House of the Canada committee of 1828, and which had reported
so favourably for the petitioners. Among the members of the new
committee was Bulwer, the celebrated novelist, and the still more
celebrated liberal, Daniel O'Connell. Mr Hume, who shrewdly saw
that its report would hardly go to sustain the ultra position he had
assumed on Canadian affairs, and not wishing to be under the
necessity of censuring his own conduct, managed to have his name
withdrawn

The committee sat until the 3d of the following July, examined
the various petitions and documents connected with Canadian griev-
ances, as well as several witnesses, and spared no pains to acquire a

The History of Canada.

391

just knowledge of the questions at issue. The result of the investi-
gation was a report, which declared, in the most unequivocal lan-
guage, " that the Governors of Lower Canada had been unremitting
in their endeavours to carry out the suggestions of the select com-
mittee of 1828, and that any want of success, on their part, was
entirely owing to the quarrels between the two branches of the
Canadian Legislature, and other local causes." The report further
stated, " that it would be inexpedient to make the documents
public, which had been submitted to the committee, and that the
interests of the empire would be best subserved by leaving practical
measures for the future administration of Lower Canada entirely in
the hands of the Imperial Government." In other words, the
committee had come to the conclusion, that every reasonable
concession had been made to the French majority of Lower Canada,
and that no further measures of conciliation could be adopted with
regard to them, without serious injury to the British portion of the
inhabitants, now more than a fourth of the entire population, and
representing all its great commercial and monetary interests. They
could not fail to see from their minute inquiry, and the tenor of the
ninety-two resolutions, the extreme views of the Assembly, and the
latent desire for a total independence which pervaded all their
movements, as well as their thinly concealed hostility to Great
Britain.

While these events were transpiring in England, a very general
feeling began to prevail in Lower Canada, that a struggle, which
would probably terminate in bloodshed, was near at hand. The dif-
ferences between the French and British inhabitants became every
day more marked and distinct. Societies were formed by the latter
in Quebec and Montreal to support the Constitution ; while, on the
other hand, the French-Canadians organised associations for purposes
evidently hostile to the Government. The menacing and revolution-
ary tone adopted by the French press added greatly to the alarm
of the British population, while the general feeling of despondency
was increased by the second appearance of cholera, which this time
afflicted Quebec and Montreal with even greater severity than in
1832.

The first session of the last Parliament of Lower Canada was con-
vened on the 2ist of February, and Papineau again elected
Speaker, by a vote of seventy in his favour against six for ^^'
Lafontaine. In his speech the Governor stated, that the late period
at which he had called the House together, was owing to his having
waited for instructions from the Imperial Ministry. The latter, he

392

The History of Canada.

added, had directed the advance of ^^31,000 from the military
chest, for the payment of the salaries of the judges and other
officers of the Crown, who had been suffering extreme distress
owing to no supply bill having been passed for two sessions, and
he trusted this amount would be cheerfully refunded by the Legis-
lature.

The first act of the Assembly showed an uncompromising spirit of
hostility to the executive. It directed that the Governor's speech
censuring their proceedings when proroguing the last session, be
expunged from their jr-irnals. The usual addresses asserted their
right to control all the revenues of the province, censured the
advance made from the military chest as interfering with their privi-
leges, declared that the great body of the people desired an elective
Legislative Council, and requested the Governor to inform his
Majesty that they continued to seek the redress of all grievances
and abuses. As several new grievances had arisen in the province
since the passage of the ninety-two resolutions, a petition to the
King was prepared, specifying them and praying for their removal.

The refusal of the Governor to advance money for the contingent
expenses of the House both in this and the former session, a respon-
sibility he declined in consequence of their not voting a supply bill,
I^roduced a very angry feeling among the members. This was
increased by an official communication from Mr Spring Rice, stating
the adverse decision of the Canada committee to their petitions, and
the intention of the Imperial Parliament to adopt coercive measures,
if the existing unsatisfactory condition of alitairs should much longer
continue. No supply bill, however, was voted, and only one act
passed during the session, which was prorogued for the want of a
quorum on the i8th of March.

These occurrences increased the general alarm ; and, while the
unthinking masses of the French-Canadians blindly and rashly fol-
lowed their ambitious leaders towards revolution, the " Constitutional
Associations " of Quebec and Montreal were actively preparing for
the crisis, now evidently near at hand. Branch associations were
formed in every direction, where the inhabitants of English, Irish,
and Scotch origin were sufficiently numerous to warrant such a course,
and circulars explanatory of their views and of the condition of the
province, scattered in all quarters.

Such was the condition of matters in Lower Canada on Sir Robert
Peel's accession to office in 1835. He at once determined on send-
ing out a special commission for the examination of existing griev-
ances, and felt disposed to yield up the casual and territorial revenue,

The History of Canada.

393

if the Assembly would vote a civil list for at least seven years. Be-
fore this arrangement could be matured, Peel's administration was
succeeded by that of Lord Melbourne. His plan was nevertheless
carried out, and the Earl of Gosford, Sir Charles Grey, and Sir George
(Jipps, were appointed commissioners to proceed to Lower Canada.
I'esides being a commissioner, the Earl of Gosford was to succeed
Lord Aylmer as Governor-in-Chief.

Lord Glenelg, now Colonial Secretary, determined to continue a
policy of conciliation, and stated his readiness to concede the con-
trol of tlie entire revenue to the Lower Canadian Legislature, if an
independent provision was made for the judges, and the salaries of
the civil officers fixed for ten years. He likewise professed his
readiness to yield up the proceeds of the sale of wild lands, conceded
the principle that the Imperial Parliament, unless in very extreme
cases, had no constitutional right to interfere with the internal affairs
of the province ; but declared, at the same time, in general terms, that
the King was opposed to an elective Legislative Council, yet willing
nevertheless to have its expediency inquired into. Lord Aylmer
received numerous addresses, on his departure, from the British
inhabitants, who deemed him unfairly dealt by in being recalled.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE EARL OF GOSFORD.

The new Governor, accompanied by the other commissioners,
arrived at Quebec on the 23d of August, at once assumed direction
of the administration, and summoned the Legislature to meet, for
despatch of business, on the 27th of October. In the interval he
sedulously courted the good opinion of the leading members of the
Assembly, invited them to his table, and declared " that, he con-
sidered, to be acceptable to the great body of the people was one
of the most essential elements of fitness for public station."

Lord Gosford, on the day appointed, opened the Legislature with
the most important speech ever made to that body by a Governor.
Its tone was eminently conciliatory, and showed every disposition to
meet the wishes of the French majority, even to the detriment of
the British population. He declared himself the head of a commis-
sion to inquire, upon the spot, into all grievances, and to offer to
his Majesty and his Ministers advice thereupon. " Some of their
grievances," he said, " could be redressed by the executive alone,
others by the aid of one or both branches of the Legislature ; but
some of their demands could only be complied with by the act of
the Imperial Parliament." He declared himself prepared to act
impartially in every respect, plurality of offices should no longer

394

The History of Canada.

exist, and French-Canadians of talent and standing would have the
path of official preferment opened to them equally with their British
fellow-citizens. In future, every information with regard to public
accounts, and all other public matters, should be rendered to the
Assembly, and copies of the Blue Book, or general annual financial
and statistical return, which he invited the aid of both Houses to
make in future as complete as jiossible, would be presented to each
branch of the Legislature. Bills should not, unless on the gravest
grounds, be reserved for the decision of the Crown, nor would any
undue partiality be given to the English language over the French.
Whatever abuses might exist in the Law Courts, the members of the
Legislature were themselves invited to remedy, as well as to regulate
by enactment the matter of the Clergy Reserves. In addition, the
Governor offered his warrant to both Houses, without any condition
attached, for the payment of their contingent expenses. " The Home
Government was prepared," he said, " to surrender the control of
all public revenue arising from any Canadian source, on condition of
a moderate provision being made for the civil list. He trusted,
therefore, that a proper supply bill would be voted, and the ;^3i,ooo,
advanced from the military chest, repaid." He informed them that
the suit instituted against Caldwell, the former Receiver-General, had
been brought to a favourable termination for the province, and the
large property of the defendant, who was about to relinquish his seat
in the Upper House, thus made liable for the debt. In conclusion,
he recommended the passage of several useful bills ; and endeav-
oured to soothe the asperities of the two races. As regarded the
inhabitants of British descent, he urged " they had nothing to fear
on the score of commerce, the main support of the empire ; " while
to those of French origin he repeated, " that there was no design to
disturb the form of society under which they had so long been con-
tented and prosperous."

In this liberal manner all real grievances were offered to be re-
dressed, and every point in dispute, consistent with the retention of
Lower Canada as a liritish province, conceded. This was the view
of the matter taken by the more moderate portion of the educated
French-Canadians themselves, and could the intentions of the British
Government have been placed before the several constituencies, so
that they could fully understand them, the influence of their leaders
must have been seriously affected. But the mass of the people were
as illiterate, as unreflecting, and as little capable of judging for
themselves in 1835, as they were when Amherst descended the St
Lawrence for the final subjugation of Canada. The clerical order

The History of Canada.

395

alone could have counteracted effectually the extraordinary influence
wielded by the ambitious, talented, yet visionary and imprudent
Papineau ; but they shared in the anti-British prejudices of the
masses, and either held aloof altogether from the existing agitation,
■overtly aided in establishing the ascendency of their race. Not

.obellion had raised its head, and matters assumed a threatening
aspect with regard to themselves, did they discover how little they
could be profited by revolution, or by a closer connexion with the
United States. Then their great moral power was decidedly and
cfiectually exercised against Papineau and his friends, whose real
influence from that moment rapidly dwindled away. The same
cause precisely which made Smith O'Brien's rebellion in Ireland, in
1848, alike impotent and ridiculous, paralysed the Lower Canadian
rebellion of 1837-8, to wit, the opposition of the Roman Catholic
clergy.*

However satisfactory to all moderate men and true patriots might
have been the conciliatory tone of Lord Gosford's speech, it w is
soon evident that Papineau and his immediate friends had ulterior

YS, which no concession could possibly affect. Their hatred of
"h ascendency had already reached the culminating' point, and
I. ^ now aimed at total independence. Papineau, intoxi' ated with
long continuance of arbitrary moral power, allowed himsel lo indulge
in visions of his prospective presidency of La Nation Caiiadicime,
while his needy followers, the briefless French lawyers and patient-
less young physicians, exulted in the hope they would soon grasp
every place of emolument and honour in the country, to the exclu-
sion of the much-disliked English, Irish, and Scotch. Accordingly,
one of the first measures of the House was to pass a bill appointing
Mr Roebuck their agent in England, with instructions to press their
grievances on the attention of the Imperial Parliament. In this way
they utterly ignored the mission of the commissioners ; and whom,
in fact, on the score of their not having been appointed by the Lords
and Commons of Great Britain, they had already determined not to
acknowledge, although fully sensible that the report of the special
committee had left Canadian matters completely in the hands of the
British ministry. In their usual address all mention of the commis-
sion was consequently avoided.

Mr Roebuck had declared the Legislative Council a nuisance.
His appointment as Canadian agent was, in consequence, particularly
unpalatable to them, and the bill for that purpose was accordingly

* A few only of the French-Canadian clergy sided openly with the insurgents
during the rebellion, one of whom was executed at Montreal

396

The History of Canada.

1836.

thrown out. This event increased the hostility of the Assembly to-
wards the Upper House ; and Papineau, in the heat of debate, forgot
his ordinary prudence, and avowed himself a republican in principle.
"The time has gone by," said he, "when Europe could give mon-
archies to America ; on the contrary, an epoch is now approaching
when America will give republics to Europe." Other members used
equally violent language, the loyal population became alarmed,
deemed the Government criminally supine, and determined to organise
for their own defence. At Montreal a volunteer Rifle Corps was
formed, but suppressed by the Governor's proclamation, although it
was now notorious that bodies of the French-Canadians were beino
drilled by their leaders.

The unsatisfactory condition of matters in the Assembly was
presently increased by the course pursued by IVtr Bidwell,
Speaker of the Lower House of Upper Canada. Lord
Glenelg had given instructions to Sir Francis B. Head which were
decidedly opposed to the project of an elective Legislative Council.
These instructions the latter had communicated to the Legislature of
his province, and seeing how unfavourable the policy of the Colonial
Office was to the wishes of the Lower Canadians, Bidwell forwarded
extracts from them to Papineau. An elective Legislative Council
would have enabled the latter to fill both Houses with his adherents,
and thus remove the antagonism from between them to the united
Legislature and the Crown, a course which must have practically
resulted in French-Canadian independence. The firm position
assumed by the British ministry on this point, left him no hopes of
accomplishing his purpose unless by revolution, and thus forcibly
wresting the country from Great Britain. Fancying that the United
States would fly to his assistance, he determined on this course. It
soon became evident, therefore, that Lord Gosford's mission was a
complete failure.

On the 2 2d of February, the Assembly resolved themselves into
committee of the whole on the public accounts and state of the pro-
vince, and speedily determined to vote a supply bill for six months
only, Avithout refunding the moneys to the military chest, or granting
supplies for the preceding years. They next proceeded to vote ad-
dresses to the Crown and Imperial Parliament, in which they reiterated
their old grievances, and urged several new ones in addition. The
concession pf an elective Legislative Council was particularly insisted
on, as well as the abolition of the North American Land Company,
established by imperial charter, and which was already buying up
the Crown lands. The appointment of Mr Gale to a judgeship by

The History of Canada,

397

Lord Aylmer was next strongly condemned, chiefly on the ground
of his having in 1822 advocated a union of tiie two provinces, a
measure still particularly unpalatable, and his dismissal required, as
well as that also of Judge Fletcher and several other officials, who
had likewise become obnoxious to the Assembly. The administra-
tion of Lord Aylmer they censured in the strongest language.

The supply bill, as a matter of course, was rejected by the Upper
House, and the Government again left without funds to pay its civil
servants, while matters were now in point of fact in a more unsettled
condition than ever. The Governor was completely at fault, and
when he prorogued the House on the 21st of March, his speech
evinced how deeply his failure mortified him. " It is to me," said
he, "a matter of sincere regret, that the offers of peace and concilia-
tion of which I was the bearer to this country, have not led to the
reialt which I had hoped for. The consequences of their rejection,
aid of the demands which have been made to his Majesty, I will
not venture to predict." Lord Gosford, in his subsequent despatches
to the Colonial Office, ascribed his failure to the disclosures made
by Sir Francis Head. He was completely in error. Anything he
could have done would merely stave off the crisis to a later period,
without removing the chief causes which had produced it.

The British portion of the population were now thoroughly aroused,
and defensive associations formed by them in various parts of the
province. The tone of the Governor's speech on opening the
Legislature had alarmed them for their liberties, and they feared
that French influence would speedily be paramount in the province,
to the detriment of its other inhabitants. The close of the session,
in a measure, relieved them from apprehensions on this score, antl
this feeling speedily gave way to one of anxiety for the safety of per-
son and property. An intelligent and influential public press fear-
lessly discussed the questions at issue, and completely showed the
anti-British spirit which actuated the leaders of the French majority,
and that it was not in reality the amelioration of their condition as
British subjects they desired, but total independence and a distinct
nationality.

The Legislature was again convened on the 2 2d of September,
The Governor's speech on this occasion was brief, and he did not
b)' any means show the same disposition to court the good opinion
of the Assembly, as when opening the preceding session. He stated
that his Majesty desired to give them another opportunity to re-
consider the course they had pursued, and trusted that this time a
proper supply bill would be voted, and the money borrowed from

I' >

398

T/te History of Canada.

V
li ;

the military chest repaid. " The course I have hitherto pursued,"
he said, " has been approved by my sovereign, and I have never
ceased to remember that the two first objects of my government
were the removal of abuses, and the reconcilement of opposing
parties. By caution, by forbearance, and by the exercise of what I
believe to be a liberal policy, I have sought to promote the welfare
of the country, and to gain your confidence. If I succeed in this
latter object I shall rejoice at it principally because it will afford me
the means of doing the greater good, and if I fail of success, I shall
always be consoled by the consciousness of having laboured earnestly
to deserve it." The address of the Assembly in reply to this speech,
urged the necessity of an elective Legislative Council, as all
measures of reform must be abortive under the existing constitution.
But it neither alluded to the commission of inquiry, nor to a supply
bill.

Despatches from the Colonial Secretary were laid before the
House at an early period of the session. These, while they ex-
pressed a strong desire to redress all reasonable abuses, repudiated
the principle of an elective Legislative Council, and the right of in-
terference with the British North American Land Company, unless
its claims of a corporate character and to its lands, should be de-
clared invalid by due course of law. As its charter had been granted
by the Imperial Parliament, a procedure of this nature would in-
volve the question, whether it or the Canadian Legislature had the
right to incorporate such a company ? " No single complaint had
been alleged," added these despatches, " which has not been either
promptly removed, or made the subject of impartial inquiry. Yet
the House declined a compliance with the proposition to provide
for the arrears and supplies, pending such inquiry." These de-
spatches drew from the Assembly a long address to the Governor,
in whicli they endeavoured to sustain the extreme position they had
assumed on all the points at issue. The Legislative Council was
again denounced in the strongest language, and the executive and
judicial authorities stigmatised as " a faction combined against the
liberties of the country, and its public property." At the same time,
they avowed their determination not to transact any business till the
Legislative Council had been made elective. A dissolution was out
of the question, altogether, under existing circumstances, as it would
only end in the return of the same members ; so Lower Canada was
now virtually without a House of Assembly. The Legislature was
prorogued on the 5th of October, the Governor expressing his regret
at the embarrassing position in which the country must remain,

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adopt€
1832
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nieasui
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Canad
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The History of Canada.

399

«* until a remedy was applied by the supreme authority of the
empire."

The commissioners, having fully investigated the matters re-
ferred to them, returned to England, with the exception of „
Lord Gosford, who remained in his capacity of Governor- ^
in-Chief Their report, at once elaborate and comprehensive, con-
vinced the Home Ministry of the necessity of immediate action, if
Lower Canada was to be retained as a British province. Resolu-
tions, on which were to be based the future imperial policy, were
introduced in the House of Commons on the 6th of March, and
adopted by a large majority. These resolutions declared that since
1832 no provision had been made by the Legislature of Lower
Canada for the civil list ; and, after adverting to the policy of the
Assembly, stated " that it was unadvisable to make the Legislative
Council of the province elective : but, that it was expedient that
measures be adopted for securing to that branch of the Legislature
a greater degree of public confidence." Authority was given soon
after to the executive to use the public moneys of the province for
the necessary expenditure, by the Imperial Parliament.

This unqualified rejection of their demands aroused a storm of
indignation on the part of Papineau and his party. The Fre.nch-
Canadians, wiih few exceptions, were loud in their execrations of
the British Government, and the Vindicator, a paper published in the
English language at Montreal, was still more hostile in its denuncia-
tions. Indignation meetings were speedily held in various parts of
the province, at which violent resolutions were passed, and Papineau,
the chief orator and actor on these occasions, was escorted by crowds
of his countr}'men from one district to another. The Governor en-
deavoured to stop these meetings by a proclamation pointing out
their seditious character, and directing their suppression. But they
were still continued, and the cry of '■^Vive Papincai^ ! vive la liberie!
point de despotismef' was shouted by the simple peasantry with as
inuch eager enthusiasm, as though they had been Blouses of the
Parisian Boulevards.

While the popularity of Papineau was thus at its zenith in the
country, the better informed of the habitants in the towns did not
share altogether the feeling of the peasantry. Their closer inter-
course with the British had given them juster views of the questions
at issue, and of the fierce struggle which must ensue before French-
Canadian nationality was established, if that event indeed should
ever take place. Many, therefore, held wholly aloof from the
quarrel in progress, and some, startled by the near and tangible

400

The History of Canada.

approach of civil war, and sensible, possibly, of the privileges they
enjoyed, attached themselves openly to the Government. Nor were
the British supporters of the Constitution inactive. Loyal meetings
of an imposing character took place at Quebec and Montreal, at
which resolutions were passed avowing devoted attachment to the
Crown, and a determination to support the Constitution at all hazards.

In the midst of this excitement died William IV., the amiable
citizen King of England ; and, after the lapse of a century and a
quarter, a female sovereign again sat on the British throne. But the
accession of Victoria I. awoke no feelings of gallantry or forbearance
in the bosoms of the Papineau faction, and they ;)lotted against her
crown as earnestly as they had done against that of her predecessor.
More violent language than ever was uttered at public meetings,
and in various parts of the district of Montreal, the focus of sedition,
magistrates were compelled to resign their commissions, and the
laws otherwise violated with impunity. In consequence of these
proceedings Papineau and several other militia officers were dis-
missed.

The Home Government, very unwilling at the commencement ot
a new reign to adopt coercive measures, instructed Lord Gosford to
convoke the Legislature once more, and give it an opportunity to
rescind its resolves, and pursue a wiser and more constitutional
course. On the i8th of August it accordingly assembled for the
last time at Quebec, many members of the Assembly, pursuant to a
determination, recently agreed upon, to discountenance the use of
British manufactures, appearing in homespun clothing. The Gover-
nor's speech was most conciliatory in its tone, but the Assembly
doggedly persisting in their determination to vote no supply bill, nor
transact any other business till their demands were complied with,
the Legislature was prorogued by proclamation on the 26th.

These occurrences increased the prevailing excitement. Military
associations were organised by the Patriots, as the disaffected
thought proper to term themselves, and the detennination to estab-
lish a " North-West Republic of Lower Canada " openly avowed.
Under existing circumstances legal prosecutions would be of no
avail. The bench, the bar, the people, were alike tainted with the
spirit of hostility to Great Britain, and no jury would dare, if they
even desired it, to convict a political criminal. The military power
alone could effectually grapple with the existing order of things.
But positive rebellion only would excuse its intervention. That had
not as yet raised its head, so matters in the meantime were per-
mitted to take their course.

The History of Canada.

401

The project of a republic at length effectually aroused the French
Roman Catholic clergy to a sense of their true position, and they
now vigorously applied themselves to check the progress of the
storm, which they had so long quietly allowed to gather strength, or
covertly fomented. Bishop Lartigue addressed a circular letter to
his clergy, directing them to oppose the revolutionary spirit, and to
inculcate obedience to the laws of their country. At the same time
he painted in forcible language the horrors and misery of civil war.
In the excitement of the moment his address had little apparent
effect : still, from the hour cf its publication, a moral influence was
steadily at work at the altars and confessionals of the many churches
of the province, which gradually, but surely, effected a powerful
reaction. Papineau was soon made to feel that the "Church"
exercised a mastery over the unlettered habitants which he had not
yet attained to.

e per-

3 C

CHAPTER XX.

CAUSES LEADING TO THE LOWER CANADIAN REBELLION.

UNEVENTFUL indeed must the pages of that history be, which
conveys no profound lesson of instruction to the poHtician.
the philanthropist, or the philosopher. Brief as the existence of
Canada has been, her annals are pregnaut with import, and their
careful and philosophical analysis eminently necessary to wise legis-
lation. By accurately tracing effect to cause, and by a disposition
on our part to profit by past experience, much ill-digested and un-
wise legislation may be avoided.

The history of Canada solves, in a great measure, if not altogether,
two important problems in political economy. On one hand, it
tends to establish the fact that the colonial policy of England is
revolutionary in its effects, and founds communities on a basis which
invariably leads to political independence of the parent state; on
the other, it proves that the natural temperament of a French com-
munity is not favourable to the sober and rational exercise of con-
stitutional liberty.

I. Generations ago the sages of England discovered that the unity
of the empire could only be preserved, and its power consolidated,
by fusing the Legislatures of the three kingdoms into one. The
Act of Union effected this object with regard to Scotland, the re-
bellion of " '98 " accomplished the same purpose in Ireland. From
1798 the British Parliament has assumed an imperial aspect, and
steadily pursued its mission of a united metropolitan power. While
the astute O'Connell desired a national existence for Ireland, he saw
clearly that his project was utterly hopeless so long as his country
continued to send members to a British Legislature. Hence, he
agitated the " Repeal of the Union " as the first grand step towards
Irish nationality ; but, opposed alike by Whig, and Tory, and Con-
servative, he sank to rest with his fathers, leaving his purpose un-
accomplished, and every prospect of its attainment blotted out for

The History of Canada.

403

ever by the political insanity of Smith O'Brien and John Mitchell,
the latter the pseudo-advocate of liberty in Ireland, the apologist for
slavery in the United States.

When the eloquence of Grattan was transplanted from the College
Green of Dublin to the Westminister of London — from an Irish to
a British Parliament, there were over a million of persons in Ire-
land who could scarcely speak a word of English. Numbers beside,
while they spoke a little English, could only think in Irish, and all
regarded the Anglo-Saxons as a race of odious foreigners, who
neither understood the language, nor appreciated the religion of the
Celt.

Here, then, was a clear and tangible basis for an Irish nationality ;
and O'Connell long struggled to preserve it as a distinct social ele-
ment. But the imperial policy triumphed. The English language
broke roughly and continually over that of the Celt, invaded
the bogs of Connaught, and the rude cabins of Connemara, per-
vaded the bench, the bar, the national schoolroom, and effectually
performed its mission of breaking down the "wall of partition"
between the two races. A few generations more, and the tongue
in which Carolan sang, Curran apostrophised, and the learned
"Four Masters" indited their Annals, will have passed into oblivion,
to be only acquired by the studious.

It must create a feeling of surprise in the mind of the philosophical
inquirer, that the policy of a united power, so successful in fusing the
Celtic elements of Ireland and Scotland into the great Anglo-Saxon
family, was not followed out in the colonial system of Great Britain.
Had an imperial representation been interwoven in the constitutions
of the American colonies, they would still, in all probability, have
remained an integral portion of the British Empire. The indignant
feelings consequent on the secondary positions their legislatures
occupied, could not have been excited ; and, secure in every privilege
of the citizen of the parent state, their inhabitants would never have
felt themselves oppressed by colonial inferiority, and the circumstance
of their being no longer entitled to the rights of British freemen when
they ceased to inhabit immediate British soil.

Had the principles of an imperial federal union been established
fiom the first, as the prominent characteristic of the colonial policy
of Great Britain, her power would be alike splendid and enduring,
instead of being broken into several fragments, in some cases held
together by the most slender ties. But, unfortunately for the unity
of the race, a narrow commercial prejudice influenced the colonial
legislation of the mother-country, meanly looking to mercantile

404

The History of Canada

•I

monopoly and present profit, rather than to the future founding of
what must be almost a universal empire.

The American revolution produced no change in the fundamental
principles of British colonial policy. The surrender of the right of
internal taxation by the Imperial Parliament was merely an abstract
measure, and involved only a slight modification of the general
system. The erroneous position was assumed by British statesmen
that taxation without representation was the chief cause of American
independence, and that by relinquishing such a right, no event ot
the kind could ever happen again. The result has proved how
fallacious was the supposition. It never occurred to British legisla-
tors of the last century that their whole colonial system was utterly
at fault, and required to be entirely remodelled, in order to secure
a lasting union with the vigorous young nations Anglo-Saxon
immigration was planting amid the gentle tides of the Pacific, along
the pleasant valley of the St Lawrence, and in the gorgeous regions
towards the rising sun. The political events in all the principal
British dependencies for the last fifty years present unmistakable
evidence how imperfect is our colonial system, and how slightly has
it been modified for the better by the lapse of time. Seventy-two
years ago it led to the independence of the United States, and in
our own day it has all but severed the Cape of Good Hope, Canada,
and Australia from British dominion. To all intents and purposes,
these provinces are now practically as independent of the mother-
country, as the American Union. Every British colony, as it arrives
at a certain position of population and wealth, must occupy the same
position. This result is the necessity of a system, which, while it
concedes the principle of local colonial legislation, would check the
full development of constitutional liberty, (which the very concession
itself involves,) and arrogates to itself an imperial dictation. Hence,
so long as this system prevails. Great Britain must be content to see
her colonies become practically independent, one by one, as they
arrive at an age to take care of themselves; whereas, a more enlight-
ened course would have enabled her to found an empire, such as the
world has never seen. It would seem that the time for establishing
such an empire has gone by, and that the union of opinion and
natural affection is the only one which now can subsist between
Great Britain and her principal colonies.

2. While a correct knowledge of this subject is necessary to the
student of Canadian history to enable him to understand a great
many points which otherwise might appear enigmatical, it must not
be forgotten, that the future colonial policy of Great Britain can

The History of Canada.

405

exercise only a negative, and very partial influence, on the condition
of this country. Its destinies rest principally with its own citizens.
Hence, the inquiry how far the French element in our social and
political system is favourable to the progress of rational constitutional
liberty, becomes eminently important. Its reply necessarily involves
an investigation into the causes which produced the Lower Canadian
rebellion, and of which that in Upper Canada may be regarded as a
consequence.

Before the Conquest, Canada was purely a military colony, and
subjected, like France, to a despotism of the most exacting and
imperious character. While the customs of the Parisian tribunals,
and the edicts of the French monarch, were the statute law of the
country, its administration was confided to the Governor and an
Intendant, who, unchecked by a public i)ress, and having the
])atronage of the whole colony completely at their disposal, usually
acted on the caprice of the moment, and were generally able to set
public opinion completely at defiance. Having thus the means to
provide for the more educated, they either silenced or enlisted on
their side every person of influence. The common people, steeped
in the grossest ignorance, and oppressed by feudal exactions, sub-
mitted without a murmur, from long habit, to the arrogant claims
and pretensions of their seigniors and the public officials." The
meanest officer of the Government was regarded with the most
slavish fear, and his mandates promptly obeyed ; while their superiors
generally were looked upon as almost beings of a higher order in
creation to themselves. By these they were treated with the greatest
severity. In the law courts the torture was frequently applied ;
while, by the military authorities, they were compelled to serve as
soldiers without pay, and in every condition of life taught that the
one cardinal virtue was a blind and implicit obedience to those in
power. This doctrine was continually rung in their ears from
generation to generation, by the ministers of religion, by the
judicial authorities, and by officials of every grade. On the other
hand, there was no one to expose its fallacies or abuses — no news-
paper to criticise the actions of the superior class. The writings
of Montesquieu could not reach the inert mass, and awaken them to
a juster appreciation of human liberty, nor the impassioned eloquence
of a Mirabeau penetrate to the fireside of the habitant. The people,
ignorant, and, what was worse, contented in their ignorance, looked
upon their own laws and customs as equally admirable and excellent ;
and, like the Chinese, regarded the rest of the world, France alone
excepted, as " outside barbarians."

406

The History of Canada.

A despotism of this nature was eminently calculated to debase the
human mind, render a people frivolous and dissipated in their habits,
and careless of the future. " In winter," said the French writer Abbe
Raynal, speaking of the habitants, " with the exception of a few mo-
ments given to their ilocks, their time was chiefly passed at public-
houses, or in driving about to see their friends. In spring, they
ploughed their ground superficially, without ever manuring it, sowed
it carelessly, and then returned to their former indolent manner of
life till the harvest time. The numerous festivals prescribed by their
religion interfered with the progress of industry, and a passion for war,
purposely encouraged amongst them, rendered them adverse to the
labours of husbandry. Their minds were so entirely captivated with
military glory, that they thought only of war, although they engaged
in it without pay. In the capital, especially, the inhabitants spent
summer as well as winter in a constant scene of dissipation. They
had no taste for arts or science, for reading or instruction. Their
only passion was amusement."

Such was the social condition of the Canadian habitant imme-
diately before the Conquest, and more than forty years afterwards it
had undergone no change, if we may believe the testimony of a
most intelligent French traveller, the Duke de Rochefoucault. " No
Canadian," said he, " has just grounds of complaint against the
British Government. They acknowledge they are better treated now
than ever ; but they love the French — forget them not, long after
them, hope for their arrival, and will always love them. In their
estimation a Frenchman is a being much superior to a native of
Great Britain. The farmers are a frugal set of people, but ignorant
and lazy. In order to succeed in enlarging and improving agricul-
ture in this province, the English Government must proceed with
great prudence and perseverance, for, in addition to the unhappy
prejudices which the farmers of Canada entertain in common with
those of all other countries, they also foster a strong mistrust
against everything they receive from the British. This mistrust is
grounded on the idea, that the latter are their conquerors and the
French their brethren." " It is questionable," declares Mr Silliman,
a distinguished American scholar, " whether any conquered country
was ever better treated by its conquerors than Canada : the people
were left in complete possession of their religion, and the revenues
for its support, as well as of their property, laws, customs, and
manners, and even the defence of their country is no expense to
them."

No people in the world were more decidedly Tory, or ever clung

The History of Canada.

407

more tenaciously to old customs and abuses, than the Lower Cana-
dians. They desired no innovation — no improvement of any kind,
and all they asked from their concjuerors was to leave them their pro-
perties, their religion, their laws and customs. Never have they been
more oppressed under British rule than immediately after the Con-
quest. Yet, whatever little feeling was then evinced in consequence
was easily soothed by the introduction of the French language and
civil law into the courts, and permitting the Canadian attorneys, the
party who gave most trouble, to practise in them. The Quebec Act of
1774, which separated them completely from the other British colo-
nies, and consigned the province to the authority of a governor and
council, as when under French dominion, was hailed as the greatest
possible boon. It continued in force for seventeen years, and
although during that time the British minority monopolised all the
princii)al posts in the country, as well as its commerce, the mass of
the people remaiiied as quiet as ever. However much they disliked
the dominant race, we hear nothing at this period of grievance-peti-
tions. The Canadians still remained thoroughly French. Nothing
had been done to educate the peasantry, or fit them for a greater
degree of constitutional liberty, and the English language had made
no progress whatever among them. They were as fond of pleasure,
as unreflecting, as indolent, and as superstitious as at any previous
period.

Such was the condition of things in Lower Canada, when the
British inhabitants agitated the question of reform in the govern-
ment, and the establishment of a Legislature in accordance with the
constitutional institutions of the parent state. The French popula-
tion, as a rule, deprecated any change of this kind. But obedience
was a part of their national characteristics, and they submitted ; satis-
fied, however, that neither their language nor their usages would be
affected by the alteration.

Never before was the elective franchise intrusted to any people less
fitted to use it. Nine-tenths of the male inhabitants could neither
read nor write, were wholly incapable of political discrimination, and
thus completely at the mercy of any designing demagogue, who had
suflRcient talents to excite their passions or arouse their prejudices.
They knew nothing of that sober steady love of constitutional liberty
that animates every true Briton, and which upheld the spirits of the
American people during their long and desperate struggle for inde-
pendence. They neither understood the privileges with which they
were invested, nor desired to understand them ; and followed their
leaders, under the new system, with the same blind and clannish

408

The History of Canada.

devotion, as they had exhibited towards their officers in the days of
Frontenac and Montcalm.

Never was a greater mistake made, than in supposing that the
Constitution of 1791 would remove all tendency to revolution in
Lower Canada. It brought the two races more closely together in
legislative matters alone, and more widely separated them on all
others. It revived, in the squabbles it produced, the national ani-
mosities and antagonism, which, unhappily for mankind, had so long
existed between the French and British nations. Then, the sunny
P'rance of their fathers was still the cherished country of the Cana-
dians' memory. Thither their young men who sought distinction
made summer pilgrimages, and there they drew inspiration or in-
struction from the pages of its literature. The dull, inert mass of
the habitants took their mental impress from their priests or their
leaders ; but all the intellect of Lower Canada was French exclu-
sively.

Had the introduction of the English language into the courts of
law, and a system of common school education prepared the people
for the measure, the British ministry would have been fully justified
in its adoption. But no common education, as in Ireland and
Scotland, removed or softened the differences of origin and language.
These differences sundered the races from the cradle to the grave ;
in childhood, riper youth, and sober manhood. Their language war,
not more different than their literature. While one sought wisdom
or amusement in the pages of a Bacon, a Newton, or a Scott, the
other studied the productions of the French school, so generally
unfavourable to British interests. Thus, the distinction between
the two races continued to be almost as strongly drawn, as though
the channel of the sea that washes the shores of Dover and Calais
had still rolled between them.

When the reformers of Lower Canada agitated the question of a
constitutional government, they had no idea whatever of the division
of the province, and expected that the increase of a British popula-
tion would give them a fair amount of influence in the Legislatur
The impolitic desire of the Home Government to preserve th
French element distinct from the British, as a safeguard againsi
revolution, completely destroyed this prospect, and precipitated the
very consequence it was desired to avoid, aside from preventing the
gradual amalgamation of the two races.

For a brief space, however, the British inhabitants were lulled into
security by the unexpected moderation of the French. The latter
knew very little of the power with which they had been so suddenly

invcs

tcndi.

they

Britis

first

The History of Canada.

409

invested, and it required a more intimate acquaintance witli its
tendency to enable them to exercise it with effect. That knowledge
they dexterously managed to acciuire through the incdium of the
Jlritish themselves, a larger proportion of whom were returned to the
first House of Assembly, than at any subsequent period. l>ut no
sooner had the French-Canadian leaders become fully aware of the
nature of the power with which they had been invested, than they
gradually excluded persons of British origin from the House, until
only some three or four remained. The French, instead of the
English, now became the dominant language, and assumed the
aggressive in the most decided manner. If a person of British
origin aspired to political influence, he had to cast aside every
predilection of birth and education, connect himself wholly with the
French-Canadian party, and also learn their language.* Very few
would submit to this, and as time progressed nearly all those persons
of British descent who had originally acted with the anti-executive
party attached themselves to the Government.

Prior to the formation of the Papineau party, no systematic
attemi)t had been made to excite the prejudices of the masses
against the natives of British origin. The latter were too few in the
rural parishes to awaken the jealousy of the peasantry, and whose
leaders in the towns were effectually held in check by the arbitrary
administration of Sir James H. Craig. Prevost's policy was decidedly
French. He soothed the wounded vanity of their leaders, flattered
their national prejudices, and thus, while he saved the country from
the Americans, excited hopes of a future nationality. Nor is there
any ground whatever for the supposition that the conduct of the habit-
ants during the war arose from a feeling of loyalty to Great Britain.
No such feeling had ever any very general existence among them,
nor has it now. They had not forgotten Arnold and Montgomery's
^ T^' ol Canada, nor the manner in which the Americans then
>ed them, and had no desire to submit a second time to their
)n. They disliked the Americans infinitely more than they
dia British, and the clergy then, even more than they are now,
the great lever of popular opinion, were in favour of a monarchy, and
detested republicanism. To understand the habitant correctly, we
must always descend to the under-current: the surface is no criterion
whatever.
Shortly after e war, Lower Canada presented a very extraordi-

* The Nelsr
Papineau party
among the habit.

A most of the other persons of British origin who joined the

■e rebellion, spoke French fluently, and from long residence

had no doubt acquired much of their feeling and prejudice.

4IO

The History of Canada.

'*!

nary and unusual political spectacle. On one hand was a conquered
people, rapidly regaining their original nationality, with the consti-
tutional means placed in their hands by the very race which had
subdued them : on the other, the latter vainly striving to preserve
their ascendency by what nust unquestionably be regarded as
unconstitutional methods. The experiment of giving an English
constitution to a French population, to prevent it from being
Anglicised, was a novel feature in imperial legislation, and failed
completely in all its leading objects. The lapse of thirty years from
the passage of the Constitutional Act of 1791 fully established this
fact, and the Colonial Ofhce vainly strove to preserve British ascend-
ency, by making the Executive and Legislative Councils almost
wholly English, and by excluding the iTrench majority from all posts
of real influence. The proceeding was perfectly natural. No one
could possibly be so unreasonable as to suppose that the British
nation would surrender the vantage-ground it had acquired, at the
cost of so much blood and treasure, in the valley of the St Lawrence,
and consent that a French colony should monopolise this great outlet
of north-western commerce, to the prejudice of the inhabitants of
their own origin in Upper Canada, as well as to the injury of ihe
whole empire. Nevertheless this was precise!" what was desired by
Papineau's party.

The very necessities of their condition placed the British minority
in a false and anomalous position. In seeking a constitutional mode
of government, they had literally, in vulgar phrase, " plucked a rod
to whip cliemselves," and were now smarting under its application.
They had placed a power in the hands of the majority, at first un-
willing to receive it, .vhich they had no constitutional means of
resisting, and in resorting to unconstitutional means they only added
to the existing evils of their position, and placed the French-Canadian
party completely on the vantage-ground. Had the latter been more
rational in their views, pursued a more moderate course, and abstained
from rebellion, their ascendency must have rather increased than
diminished.

And yet, although the French -Canadians were apparently the
liberal party of Lower Canada, owing to the manner in which they
advocated refonis in questions of purely a British character, while
at the same time they ching tenaciously to almost every abuse of
French origin, the citizens of the other race were the real reforuiers.
The very Constitution itself, the first great measure of reform, was
the result of their solicitations, and the fact of the two provinces
being divided was not owing to them, as the able protest of Mr

uti

spi

the

The History of Canada.

411

Lymburner clearly shows, but to the blind infatuation of the Imperial
Government. They were foremost in all great public measures of
utility, in the building of steamboats, in commerce, in agricultural
improvement, in liberal educational measures, in the social elevation
of the industrial classes, and thus kept full pace with the progressive
spirit of the age. The French population, on the other hand, clung
to ancient prejudices, to ancient customs, and to ancient laws, with
the unreasoning tenacity of an uneducated and unprogressive
people. They remained an old and stationary society, in the
midst of a new and progressive world, the French of the old regime,
and very different from the enlightened people of France at the
present day.

In these facts lie the solution of the enigmatical and paradoxical
question, arising from the political and social condition of Lower
Canada before the rebellion ; while they prove, at the same time,
how little real similarity of feeling there was between French agita-
tion in one provmce and British in the other. The Lower Canadians
desired to acquire the legislative and administrative power to enable
them to preserve their French nationality — their old laws and old
customs more effectually, by shutting out British immigration, enter-
prise, and competition, anc by retaining the soil completely in their
own hands. Hence, had they succeeded in their views, . the result
must have been the establishment of a system fraught with tenfold
more abuses than any which could possibly exist under British
dominion.

In Upper Canada, on the other hand, five-sixths of the Reform
party desired to acquire administrative influence, with the view of
placing the Constitution on a more secure and permanent basis, and
not to overturn it altogether. With the exception of occasional
individual feelings of jealousy, they desired to see their new town-
ships settled by immigration, local improvements of every description
pushed forward, international policy i)laced on a more liberal basis,
and to keep fully up with the progress of the age. The French-
Canadians, on the contrary, made immigration a standing grievance,
maintained they alone had the sole right to the soil, continued their
wretched mode of agriculture, disliked all nations but France, and
desired to surround themselves with the most rigid circle of exclu-
siveness. They detested the Americans even more than they did
the British, and courted the former merely to escape from the
dominion of the latter, and not from any feeling of fraternity.
Once independent, Jonathan, if possible, would be held fully as
carefully at arm's-length as John Bull. Thus, in fact, the only real

412

T/ie History of Canada.

III

democrats in Lower Canada, if any class of persons there merited
the term, were the recent settlers of British origin.*

Such was the condition of matters in the sister province prior to
1837 ; and the question naturally arises, whether, or how far, the
'• Union" has altered it for the better? The fact is indisputable that
very important ameliorating changes have, in many respects, been
introduced. The English language has decidedly assumed the
aggressive, and is gradually drawing the more educated and commer-
cial of the French population within its influence.

But, although the surface of Canadian society wears a uniform
aspect of contentment at the present time, the antagonism of race
merely slumbers beneath to burst out afresh at any moment of great
excitement. Yet nothing can be more absurd than this lurking
desire for a French-Canadian national existence. Even were the
desire accomplished, no exclusively French nation would long be
permitted to exist by the Anglo-Saxon nations surrounding it on all

* " Nor did I find the spirit which animated each party at all more coincident
with the representations current in this country, than their objects appeared, when
tried by English, or, rather, European ideas of reforming legislation. An utterly
uneducated and singularly inert population, implicitly obeying leaders who
ruled them by the influence of a blind confidence and narrow national prejudices,
accorded very little with the resemblance which had been discovered to that high-
spirited democracy which effected the American revolution. Still less could I
discover in the English population those slavish tools of a narrow official clique,
or a few purse-proud merchants, which their opponents had described them as
being. I have found the main body of the English population, consisting of
hardy farmers and humble mechanics, composing a very independent, not very
manageable, and, sometimes, a rather turbulent democracy. Though constantly
professing a somewhat extravagant loyalty and high prerogative doctrines, I found
them ve'-y determined in maintaining, in their own persons, a great respect for
popular rights, and singularly ready to enforce their wishes by the strongest
means of constitutional pressure on the Government. Between them and the
Canadians I found the strongest hostility; and that hostility was, as might be
expected, most strongly developed among the humblest and rudest of the body.
Between them and the small knot of officials, whose influence has been repre-
sented as formidable, I found no sympathy whatever ; and it must be said, in
justice to the body of officials, who have been so much assailed as the enemies of
the Canadian people, that, however little I can excuse the injurious influence of
that system of administration which they were called upon to carry into execu-
tion, the members of the oldest and most powerful official families were, of all the
English in the country, those in whom I generally found most sympathy with, and
kindly feeling towards, the French population. I could not therefore believe that
the animosity was only that subsisting between an official oligarchy and a people ;
and again, I was brought to a conviction that the contest which had been repre-
sented as a contest of classes, was, in fact, a contest of lacss."— Lord Durhains
Report, p. 10.

The History of Canada.

413-

sides. The true policy of the Lower Canadians is to form an
influencial nation in connexion with the people of the Upper
Province — to fuse the population of both Canadas into one compact
whole. The interests of all the inhabitants of the valley of the St
Lawrence are identical. Their wisdom should always be shown in
the surrender of mutual prejudices, in the general adoption of they^.
English language, and in their efforts to perpetuate the national inde-
pendence, which, in their connexion with Great Britain, they now so
happily possess. In any case, the British inhabitants of Upper
should never desert those of Lower Canada. Their true policy is
union if possible of all our North American provinces : if otherwise,
at least of the Canadas, and representation on the basis of popula-
tion. In their case, union is strength, national influence, and
national credit : while disunion must always lead to dissension,
weakness, and the absence of national importance. Two miUions
of people have more weight in the family of nations, than one could
possibly possess. The true Canadian patriot, instead of weakening
the influence of his country by breaking '•*■. into fragments, should
sedulously apply himself to consolidate its strength, to increase its
population, and consequently its moral and physical power, and, by
the cohesion of all its parts, to give it due importance in the great
family of nations. If this policy is steadily and vigorously pursued,
our nationality must continue to be of a positive and aggressive-
character, and absorb at least all the colonies of British North
America.

THE LOWER CANADIAN REBELLION OF 1 83 7-3 8.
THE GOVERNMENT OF LORD GOSFORD, — continued.

" Madam," said the eminent Irish lawyer, Curran, to a lady client,
" to succeed in a law-suit you must have a good cause, a
good counsel, and plenty of money." The same requisites ^*'
are essential to successful rebellion. The prudent merchant, before
he embarks in any new speculation, will maturely calculate the
prospect of profit ; the statesman, before he adopts a novel line of
policy, will sagely scrutinise its bearings, and weigh well its probable
results, otherwise neither can look for success.

In driving his simple and impulsive countrymen into a contest
with Great Britain and a hardy Anglo-Canadian population, it is
evident that Louis Joseph Papineau, the great master spirit of the
crisis, had never counted the cost. He had neither a good cause,
a good counsel, nor money to reward his friends. He was a

414

The History of Canada,

brilliant orator, but no statesman; a clever partisan leader, but
a miserable general officer; a braggart in the forum — a coward in the
field. He excited a storm which he neither knew how to allay nor
direct.

As the Canadian rebellion differed in all respects from the
American war of independence, so was the impassioned, prejudiced,
and imprudent Louis J. Papineau, the antipodes of the sober,
impartial, and prudent George Washington. One loved himself,
the other loved his country. The Canadian advocate, whose battles
had ever been one of words, regardless of his countrymen, desired to
raise himself to supreme power in the state ; the American soldier,
who had faced many a danger by flood and field, sought only the
happiness of his fellow-citizens.

Nor had Papineau the excuse of youth to plead in extenuation
of his folly. In 1837 he was forty-eight years of age, a period of
life when the intellect stands at its meridian. He appeared to be
formed by nature for the eloquent agitator, but not for the Avise or
prudent legislator — to act upon the passions and prejudices of his
ignorant and unreflecting countrymen, not to make them happier,
wiser, or better. In height he was of the middle size, with features
of a Hebrew cast ; while his large dark eyebrows, shaded, in a higher
arch than common, a keen lustrous eye, quick and penetrating.
Deeply read in general literature, familiar with the old Canadian lore
of Hennepin and Charlevoix, and the other learned Jesuit Fathers
who had written of La Noiivelle France in bygone days, he appealed
to all the feelings and prejudices of his countrymen with irresistible
effect, and carried them captive by the force of his oratorical and
conversational powers.

Yet Papineau knew little of the people of Upper Canada after all,
a knowledge essential to his schemes, and was ignorant of the feel-
ing of loyalty to the Queen and Constitution which ran like a deep
under-current beneath their political squabbles. In organising
insurrection, he only saw that the military force in both pro-
vinces was very weak, and invited rebellion. In Upper Canada,
thirteen hundred regular troops, xluding artillerymen, were
scattered here and there from Kingston to Penetanguishene : in
Lower Canada, about two thuusand soldiers garrisoned Quebec, or,
at other points, awed nearly half a million of partially or wholly
disaffected habitants. Nor was the Government better off in other
respects, as regarded defensive or offensive military operations.
Twenty-two years of profound peace had made sacl havoc with
gun-carriages, limber wheels, and all manner of warlike munitions.

The Histoiy of Canada.

415

The powder in the musty magazines was damp ; muskets, swords,
and bayonets had long rusted in inglorious ease \ and bedding and
blankets had disappeared before successive generations of moths.
Not a royal ship, nor boat, nor oar was at Kingston, where Yeo had
fitted out his squadron, and the Government dockyard had been
converted into a pasture.

The appointment, however, of Sir John Colborne to the military
command of the provinces, made up for many deficiencies. This
appoinLn.v^uL was received, when, after surrendering the administra-
tion of Upper Canada to Sir Francis Head, he had arrived at New
York on his way to England. In July he proceeded from Quebec
to William Henry, that he might be nearer the centre of sedition,
should necessity for military interference arise during the fall or
winter.

As summer progressed, the dark shadows of coming civil war
were falling more plainly on the province. Lord Gosford saw the
gathering storm ; and desirous to avoid the grave responsibilities it
must entail, requested his recall. " It is evident," said he, in his
letter on the 2d September to Lord Glenelg, "that the Papineau
faction are not to be satisfied with any concession that does not
I)lace them in a more favourable position to carry into effect their
ulterior objects, namely, the separation of this country from England,
and the establishment of a republican form of government. The
executive requires more power, and under my present impression,
I am disposed to think that you will be under the necessity of
suspending the Constitution. It is with deep feelings of regret I
state this, but duty compels me to communicate it to you."

During September the Patriots continued to hold their meetings,
at which Papineau laboured to increase their animosity. On some
of these occasions a Frenchified Englishman, Wolfred Nelson, was
also an orator, and warned his adherents to be ready to arm. The
dismissed militia officers were elected by the peasantry to command
them again : at St Hyacinthe the tri-coloured flag was displayed :
tavern-keepers in St Denis and St Charles substituted eagles for
their former signs : and mobs paraded the streets of Montreal, (now
without a police, its act of incorporation for a limited term having
been allowed to expire,) singing revolutionary songs. Still, the firm
attitude now assumed by the Pv.oman Catholic clergy in favour of
the Government and of obedience to the laws, retained the great
mass of the habitants in sullen neutrality, and reduced Papineau's
real supporters to a very small minority. These became more and
more restive as they felt clerical influence setting decidedly against

ill

416

T/ie History of Cajiada.

them. Priests were insulted in the churches, and on one occasion
in the presence of Papineau himself. Law and religion were on the
side of the Government, rebellion and infidelity on that of the
Patriots. The rebellion might be said to be extinguished ere it had
begun, and the military had only to trample out the smouldering
flame, which had exhausted its strength in the vitals of the building
ere it burst forth.

On the 6th of November a riot in Montreal brought matters
rapidly to a crisis. A few Constitutionalists were attacked by a
French-Canadian association, called Les Fils de la Liberie^ (the Sons
of Liberty,) some two hundred and fifty strong, led by a Thomas
Storrow Brown, an American resident for some time in the city.
Stones were thrown, two or three pistol shots fired, the Constitution-
alists compelled to retreat, owing to the number of their antagonists,
and windows of obnoxious parties broken. Tidings of the affray
speedily spread, the Loyalists gathered to the rescue ; but the Sons
of Liberty had disappeared. The Loyalists captured their banner,
however, in a house, where also were found several guns, which
were handed over to the authorities. The ofiice of the Vindicator
was next assailed, and its printing material thrown into the street.

On the 1 2th of November a proclamation was published by the
Governor, directing the suppression of all unlawful meetings ; and,
on the 2ist, a new "commission of the peace" for the District of
Montreal was issued, weeding the magistracy of about sixty persons
supposed to be disaffected. Bodies of armed peasantry now began
to assemble near the Richelieu River, particularly at St John's and
Chambly ; and Sir John Colborne, perceiving that the crisis was
near at hand, moved to Montreal, where he had gradually been
concentrating the troops withdrawn from Upper Canada, and all
that could be spared from Quebec. At the same time volunteer
companies of infantry, artillery, and cavalry were formed, and
rapidly filled up by the loyal inhabitants, while addresses and offers
of assistance poured in from the militia of the sister province. In
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick the same loyal spirit prevailed.

Meanwhile warrants had been issued, on the i6th of the month,
for the apprehension of Papineau, Brown, O'Callaghan, the editor
of the defunct Vindicator, and some others, on charges of high
treason. The three first managed to evade the officers charged
with their apprehension, and fled to the Richelieu, where the in-
surgents were now fully prepared to rise at the bidding of their
chiefs. At the same time, a party of eighteen volunteer cavalry
were detached to St John's to capture two persons there, accused

The History of Canada.

417

of treasonable practices. They quietly effected their purpose, but
as they returned next day were attacked by a body of armed habit-
ants, securely posted behind a fence, who, after wounding four ot
their number and several horses, compelled them to retreat, and
rescued the prisoners.

This success greatly elated the insurgents, and the flight of
Papineau and several of their other chiefs from Montreal becoming
known, they collected in considerable numbers at the village of
Debartzch, in the parish of St Charles, where Brown commanded ;
and at St Denis, on the Richelieu, where Dr Wolfred Nelson,
who had thrown by the scalpel and taken to the sword, directed
their movements. Descended from a respectable English family by
his father's side, while his mother was the daughter of a U. E. Loyalist,
Nelson was born at Montreal in 1792. At the early age of fourteen
he was apprenticed to a surgeon of the military medical staff, and in
181 1 became a duly licensed practitioner. He shortly after settled
at St Denis, on the Richelieu River, became thoroughly identified
with the French population, and as a medical man in large practice,
and the proprietor of an extensive brewery and distillery, he ac-
quired great influence with the simple habitants. Having repre-
sented the district in Parliament, he was brought into immediate
contact with Papineau, imbibed completely his republican principles,
and now used his authority and influence to carry them into treason-
able practice.

The disputes touching the Maine boundary line, and the number
of persons thrown out of their ordinary mode of living in the
United States, by the late commercial disasters there, led the rebel
leaders to be very sanguine of succour from that direction. Both
St Charles and St Denis were favourably situated for keeping open
their communication with the frontier, and General Colborne, being
aware of this advantage, determined to check the movement ere it
became more formidable, desnite the wretched state of the roads
and bad weather. Colonel Gore was accordingly detached from
Montreal with two hundred infantry, a party of volunteer cavalry,
and three guns to attack St Denis; while Lieutenant-Colonel
Wetherall, recently stationed at Chambly, was directed to move
down the Richelieu against St Charles. The positions to be at-
tacked were about seven miles apart.

A steamboat conveyed Gore's detachment to William Henry, on
the afternoon of the 2 2d. At this point it was reinforced by a
company of infantry stationed there, and at ten o'clock at night,
amid stormy showers of sleet and rain, which froze as they fell,

2 D

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^\%

proceeded along a wretched clay by-road to St Denis, distant
sixteen miles. This route was taken in order to avoid the inter-
mediate village of St Ours, where a body of insurgents were strongly
posted, and several bridges along the principal road, which were
supposed to have been broken down. During all that night did
the troops march through mud and half-frozen slush, at the rate of
a mile and a half an hour, and next morning, at half-past nine
o'clock, found themselves in the neighbourhood of St Denis.

Meanwhile, Wolfred Nelson had been apprised of the simul-
taneous movement against his post and St Charles, and threw out
scouting parties before day, on the morning of the 23d, to watch
the approach of the troops, and break down the wooden bridges
to retard their advance. About two o'clock on the preceding
niglit, Lieutenant Weir, charged with despatches for Wetherall,
had been captured by the insurgent guards, and taken to Nelson's
house. He was dressed in coloured clothes, stated his name and
rank with considerable reluctance, and after declining to partake
either of refreshment or retire to rest, was given in charge by
the Doctor to ^^ three trust-worthy habitants" to be retained as a
prisoner.*

Shortly before day the alarm spread far and near, and bodies
of insurgent peasantry pushed rapidly in from the surrounding
country to support their comrades already in the village, where
a force of three or four hundred menf was soon collected, and
posted with great judgment in buildings flanking and covering one
another. In reconnoitring the advancing troops, breaking down
bridges, and taking up defensive positions. Nelson showed con-
siderable military skill, and was evidently better adapted by nature
for a partisan leader, than for a physician or a distiller. The
courage of the Doctor appeared in strange contrast with the
cowardice of Papineau, who since his flight from Montreal had
lurked at St Denis. Here he remained as Nelson's guest till the
appearance of the troops, when, instead of heading his misguided
followers like a brave man, and showing them that he could fight
as well as talk, he abandoned them in the moment of danger, and
fled to Yamaska on the St Hyacinthe river, whence he subsequently
made his way into the United States. No excuses — no sophistry
can palliate this act. No consideration should have made him
desert his friends at such a time. Had he gallantly stood his

* Wolfred Nelson's Narrative.

+ It does not appear that at any period of the attack there was a larger number
than five hundred habitants in the villaiie.

The History of Canada

419

ground, and borne himself like a man, the circumstance would
have atoned, in the opinion of posterity, for much of his folly;
whereas, the fact of his cowardly flight must stamp him with en-
during ignominy.

A strong loop-holed or many-windowed dwelling-house, or build-
ing of any kind surrounded by others affording positions for a flank-
ing or cross-fire, is always an admirable defensive position, when an
assailing force lacks heavy artillery. Colonel Gore found this to be
the case to his cost in the attack on St Denis. The single field
gun he had been able to bring on, made little impression on the
buildings of the village, and although he attempted again and again,
from ten o'clock in the forenoon, till four in the afternoon, to turn
the insurgents' position, he was completely foiled, and thought it
prudent to retreat as the peasantry were now rapidly collecting, and he
had already sustained a loss of six killed, and one officer, (Captain
Markham,) and sixteen men wounded. Five of the latter were left
behind, and treated with the utmost humanity by Nelson. After en-
deavouring for several hours to drag it tlirough the horrible roads,
the gun, a brass one, was spiked and abandoned.

The loss of the insurgents was much greater than that of the
troops, being thirteen killed and several wounded. Still, the victory
was decidedly on their side, and they had effectually prevented the
sheriff from executing the warrants for the apprehension of Nelson
and others. But they stained their triumph by the cowardly and
cruel murder of the unfortunate Weir. When the firing commenced,
his guard pinioned his arms with a rope, and put him into a cart,
with the view of taking him to the rebel head-quarters at St Charles.
Possibly disliking his uncomfortable position, or fancying he might
be able to make his escape, he jumped from the cart ere it had quit
the village, and, as it is said in defence of the barbarous act of his
murder, struck at his guards, though how, unless with his feet, it is
difficult to imagine, as his arms were still bound. In the scuffle he
was mercilessly shot, sabred, hacked and stabbed, as though he had
been a mad dog, and not a pinioned and defenceless human being \
and when the wretched man, maimed and bleeding from numerous
wounds, sought shelter beneath tlie cart, he was dragged forth and
foully murdered in the presence of a crowd of spectators. No more
savage act marks the whole annals of Canada. And yet, one of the
barbarous villains who perpetrated it was subsequently acquitted, at
Montreal, by a perjured jury of his countrymen.

Their victory at St Denis raised the courage of the insurgents,
and their scouting parties swept the country in every direction. The

420

The History of Canada.

I ' u

steamer Varenncs, laden with supplies for Gore's harassed force, was
fired at from St Ours, and compelled to put back ; and the com-
munication with Montreal rendered extremely difficult and irregular.
But the insurgents had achieved their last success in this ill-advised
and wretchedly organised rebellion. Wctherall, pursuant to his in-
structions, moved down the Richelieu from Chambly, with some three
hundred infantry, a small body of cavalry, and two guns, to assail the
intrenched position of the enemy at St Charles. At St Hiliare he
learned of the repulse of Gore before St Denis, and halted to await
the arrival of some other troops, whom he now directed to join him,
and fresh instructions from Montreal. But receiving no new orders
from head-quarters, and the additional troops having arrived, he
pushed forward to attack the insurgents. Desirous to avoid the shed-
ding of blood, he sent them word that if they dispersed peaceably
they should not be injured. Their general. Brown, sent a message
in return to the effect, that if Wetherall's troops laid down their
arms they should be permitted to pass unmolested.* Brown's con-
duct immediately afterwards did not correspond with this piece of
braggadocio. He fled ere the action had almost begun, leaving his
followers, who might number one thousand,! to take care of them-
selves.

A few rounds from Wetherall's guns breached the poorly con-
structed intrenchment, when his troops swept rapidly through, and
scattered the wretchedly-armed insurgents with the bayonet. Fifty-
six of their dead were counted on the ground, and several others
died miserably in the burned houses. Their wounded and i^risoners
were few in comparison. The troops gave little quarter, and bit-
terly revenged the murdered Weir : their loss was three killed and
eighteen wounded.

On the following day Wetherall dispersed a body of armed habit-
ants at Point Olivier, and captured two small guns. On the 2d of
December Gore paid another visit to St Denis with a stronger
force than before. He found it abandoned. Nelson had fled, and
his buildings, as well as the others from which the troops had been
fired at, were given to the flames, and sacked by the enraged soldiers
and volunteers. The abandoned gun was now recovered, as well
as the body of the unfortunate Weir, which had been thrown into
the river, and kept down by large stones.

* Narrative of Thomas Storrow Brown.

+ Brown appears to say in his statement that the number was much smaller.
But as he endeavours to conceal his own cowardice, it is difficult to believe him .
Tiie number seems to have been as above.

The History of Canada.

421

On the sth of December the Governor issued a proclamation,
declaring martial law in force in the district of Montreal. Large
rewards had been already offered for the capture of Papineau, and
divers others charged with the crime of high treason. ;^5oo were
now offered for the apprehension of the murderers of Weir, and
^2>^o for the capture of the persons who had barbarously killed
Joseph Chartrand, a volunteer private of the parish of St John.

The prompt measures taken by Sir John Colborne (rushed out
rebellion in the counties along the Richelieu, and before it could
receive aid from the United States. Meanwhile, a body of sym-
pathisers from Swanton in Vermont, composed principally of refugee
Canadians, had taken post at St Armands, under tlr^ command of
liouchette and Gagnon. Lieutenant-Colonel Hughes, of the 24th,
vv'as directed to dislodge these with six hundred troops ; but the
loyal volunteers of the frontier townships had already defeated and
dispersed them, and captured a few prisoners, among whom was
Bouchette, before he could march from St John's. The disaffected
counties were now swept in every direction by the military and
volunteers, and the jail of Montreal soon crowded with insurgent
prisoners. Among these was Wolfred Nelson, who, after traversing
by-roads and woods for ten days, swimming rivers and sleeping in
the snow, was captured in the eastern townships, the militia of which,
having obtained arms from the Government, were now thoroughly
on the alert.

In Quebec the British inhabitants had come forward unanimously
to offer their services to the Government, and were promptly formed
into volunteer companies. A portion of these companies were
embodied in a battalion one thousand strong, which with the other
volunteers were soon able to perform the garrison duties of the city,
and allow the troops to be withdrawn to Montreal. Aided by this
reinforcement, and the insurgent gatherings on the Richelieu having
been effectually suppressed. General Colborne now resolved to make
a movement against St Eustache, lying nineteen miles to the north-
west of Montreal, where a considerable body of the disaffected had
established themselves, under the leadership of Amury Girod, ap-
pointed by Papineau to command north of the St Lawrence. A
large number of the loyal inhabitants in this direction had been
plundered by the insurgents, still ignorant of the disasters on the
Richelieu, threatened in many cases with massacre, and compelled
to take refuge in Montreal.

Every preparation having been completed, Sir John Colborne, on
the 13th December, quitted Montreal amid the cheers of its loyal

422

The History of Canada.

citizens, at the head of two thousand n^cn, induding a body of
cavalry and artillery. The ensuing night was passed at St Martin's,
and next morning the troops crossed the Ottawa on the ice to St
Eustache. The principal position of the rebels, who numbered
about one thousand, was at the village church, now surrounded by
a strong barricade, which was soon breached, however, by the fire
of the artillery, when it was promptly carried by storm, and its
defenders slain, captured, or driven out. The parsonage and manor
houses, also occupied by the enemy, shared the same fate, and all
these were soon wrapt in flames. A fresh wind blew at the time, and
sixty adjoining buildings were speedily enveloped in one general
conflagration. Some of the insurgents had taken refuge in tlie
steeple of the church, and perished miserably in the flames, to the
horror and distress of the spectators, who were unable to rescue
them. Their entire loss was upwards of one hundred killed, nearly
the same number wounded, and one hundred and eighteen prisoners.
Their leader, Girod, like Brown at St Charles, deserted them soon
after the firing commenced, under the pretence of bringing up
reinforcements ; but finding it impossible to escape, so narrowly was
he pursued, he shot himself in the head, four days afterwards, a short
distance below Montreal.

General Colborne next moved upon St Benoit, which had been
the hotbed of sedition in that quarter, where two hundred and fifty
men, drawn up in line, with white flags, surrendered and implored
clemency. With exception of their leaders they were all humanely
dismissed. Detachments of regulars and volunteers were also sent
to other parts of the district, to disperse any bodies of insurgents
which might still keep together. Several of the volunteers had been
injured in their properties by the insurgents, and now took ven-
geance on the latter by burning their dwellings. Having completely
dispersed the armed assemblages, and awed the disaffected. Sir John
Colborne returned on the 17th to Montreal.

The firm attitude assumed by the Government, and the success
which now so invariably attended the military movements, made a
salutary impression on the habitants ; and, in several quarters, meet-
ings were held at which loyal resolutions were passed. In Vermont
a proclamation was issued by Governor Jemison enjoining strict
neutrality on the population; but it had very httle effect in subse-
quentij' restraining the turbulent and ungovernable brigands, who
had now collected on the frontier, and were ready for anything which
promised plunder or unpunished robbery.

In accordance with his wishes, the Colonial Secretary, while fully

The History of Canada.

423

indorsing the course he had pursued, recalled Lord Gosford, of
which measure intelligence reached Quebec on tlie 13th of
January. He left for liosiow, m route io J'-ngland, on the ^
26th of February, receiving several addresses prior to his departure,
and Sir John Colborne assumed the reins of civil power till another
Governor siiould be appointed.

Martial law was still continued in the district of Montreal. On
the 22d of February a general order was issued, directing the habit-
ants of the counties of La Prairie, Chambly, and L'Acadie to deliver
up their arms to the nearest justices of the peace or militia officers,
within one month.

On the 28th, a body of six hundred refugees, who had fled the
province in December, recrossed the frontier under the leadership of
Robert Nelson, a brother of Wolfred, and a Dr Cote, with fifteen
hundred stand of arms and three field-pieces, to organise another
outbreak. But finding the gallant frontier militia and some troops
gatliering to oppose them, they returned into the United States, were
met by General Wool, who had pursued them from Plattsburg, (the
American Government being at length shamed into active interfer-
ence,) and compelled to surrender their arms and warlike munitions.
Nelson and Cote were arrested, and delivered over to the authorities
of the State, but were soon again at liberty. " A declaration of in-
dependence" was issued during this brief inroad by Nelson, to which
he appended his name as " President of the Provisional Government."

Meanwhile, an act had been passed by the Imperial I'arliament,
in the beginning of February, suspending the Constitution of Lower
Canada, and making temporary provision for its government by the
creation of a Special Council, whose decrees were to have the same
force as the acte of a Legislature. At the same time, the Earl of
Durham was appointed Governor-General, and her Majesty's High
Commissioner, "for the adjustment of certain important affairs
affecting the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada." On the 29th
of March, the " Act suspending the Constitution " was proclaimed in
t!ie Quebec Gazettehy authority, and, on the 5th of April, the Special
Council, composed of an equal number of persons of French and
Uiitish origin, were summoned to meet at Montreal on the i8th.
This council at once decreed that their ordinances should take
effect immediately on being passed : their next step was to suspend
the Habeas Corpus Act until the 14th of the following August, in
order to allow Lord Durham to adopt more summary measures with
regard to the insurgents in prison.

Matters having by this time assumed a more peaceable aspect, the

424

The History of Canada.

!'!

volunteer militia were permitted to return to their homes, and on the
3d of Ivlay a proclamation discontinuing martial law was published.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE EARL OF DURHAM,

Tlu: Earl of Durliam arrived at Quebec on the 27th of May, as-
sumed charge of the government, and two days afterwards issued a
proclamatic n, briefly stating the policy he proposed to pursue.
"The honest and conscientious advocate of reform, and of the
amelioration of defective institutions, will receive from me," he said,
"without distinction of party, races, or politics, that assistance and
encouragement which their patriotism ha^ 1. right to command ; but
the disturbers of the public peace will hnd in me an uncompromising
opponent. People of ]'.ritish America, I beg you to consider me as
a friend and an arbitrator, ready at all times to h.stcn 10 your wishes,
complaints, and grievances, and fully determined to act with the
strictcr-L impartiality. If you, on your side, will abjure all party and
sectarian animosities, and unite with me in the blessed work of peace
and harmony, I feel assured that I can lay the foundation of such
a system of government as will protect the rights and interests of
all classes, allay all dissensions, and permanently establish, under
Divme Providence, the wealth, greatness, and prosperity, of which
such inexhaustible elements are to be found in these fertile countries."
He amply redeemed his promise. Never did any public man act
more disinterestedly than Lord Durham. His celebrated report is
a lasting monument of elaborate research, impartial scrutiny, and
historical worth.

Considerable reinforcements had i<,lready arrived from England
and Halifax, as well as several vessels of war, and the prospect of
successful revolt was now more slender than ever. Still, disaffection
had not yet ceased to exist, and Papincau's partisans were already
organising another armed force with a view to the establishment of
the Republic of Lower Canada.

One of Lord Durham's first measures was to procure an accurate
return of the prisoners in the several jails of the province, with the
depositions against each, and a list of the unexecuted warrants
against parties who had fled the country. The old Executive
Council was next dissolved, as well as the Special Council recently
conouiuted under the Suspension Act. A new Plxecutive Council
Avas, however, soon appointed. A commission formed to inquire
into the mode of disposing of Crown lands brought many abuses to
light. Its report was favourable to the squatters, and recommended
that they should be allowed the right of pre-emption.

.V m^

The History of Catiacia.

425

Up to the present, no persons had been tried for high treason,
and large numbers still remained in tlie Montreal jail to be disposed
of. Ill the excited state of the public mind, it would be difficult to
find an impartial jury, should they be brought to trial, and Lord
Durham's mission being one of peace he vas unwilling to resort to
court-martial. In this dilemma he had recourse to an expedient
which, being at variance with all established precedent and law,
created a large amount of criticism both in Canada and England.
It was determined to release the minor offenders, and the principal
ones were induced to place themselves at ihe disposal of the
Governor-General, waiving all right to a trial. A new Special Council
was accordingly summoned, in order to give its sanction to the line
of policy Lord Durham now determined to pursue. On the 28th of
June, the day in which this council assembled, they issued an edict
banishing Wolfred Nelson, Bouchette, Gauvin, Viger, and five others
of the leading insurgents, then in prison at Montreal, to Bermuda,
and threatening the penalty of death on Papineau and others, if
they returned to Canada without permission. This was certainly
a high-handed procedure ; but, at the same time, it released the
Governor-General from a serious dilemma, leaned to mercy's side,
and, although it established an arbitrary and dangerous precedent,
was, therefore, to a great extent excusable.

The Home Ministry approved of these measures. Not so with
the British Parliament, which subsequently annulled the ordinance,
while, at the same time, it passed an act of indemnity to shield t ;
Governor and his Special Council from any future proceedings
which might arise out of tl.eir illegal course. In Canada, the general
feeling was that the act exiling the principal offenders, and releasing
the others, on giving security for good behaviour, was one of
clemency, and necessitated by the condition of the country. The
trial of the murderers of Chartrand, and their acquittal in the face
of clear evidence against them, in the course of the summer, went
far to exoneiate the Governor, as did also the acqiv' ..al of one of the
murderers of Weir at the following term.

The censure passed upon his conduct by the Iniperial Parliament
led Lord Durham to determine on his immediate resignation. After
elevating Mr Stuart to the position of Chief-Justice of the province,
vacated by the retirement of Mr SewcU, he departed for luig'and
OP liie 3d November, leaving Sir John Colborne, who was soon
afterwards appointed Governor-General, in charge of the. govern-
ment.
Princely in his style of living, indefatigable in busincs.s, enorget'c

|i ir

426

The Histoiy of Canada.

and decided thougn haughty in manner, and sincerely desirous to
benefit the Canadas, Lord Durham's departure was deeply regretted
by a large proportion of the inhabitants, wlio looked upon him as
the man adapted for the crisis. Yet, sliort as his administration had
been, no individual ever benefited Canada more. His admirable
leport paved the way to a great extent to the subsequent union of
these pro\ inces, by which both have gained so largely, commenced
the fusion of the two races, which should have begun at the Con-
quest, and led to responsible government and a general ameliora-
tion of the colonial policy of Great Britain. The present prosperous
condition of this country affords the best commentary on his wisdom
and disinterested patriotism ; and the almost total absence of
political excitement, and the contented condition of the people at
large, constitute the most durable monument to his memory. He
did not long survive his mission to Canada. His health was
naturally delicate. The voyages to and from England, and the
censure on his administration by the Imperial Parliament, increased
the irritation of his system, and he died on. the 28th of July 1840,
regretted by many friends.

THE GOVERNMENT OF SIR JOHN COLBORNE.

Countenanced by the unprincipled portion of the American border
population, secret associations had been formed along the fro^'ier
of bo'.h Canadas, an 1 a combined system of insurrection organised.
The departure of Lord Durham would appear to liave been the
signal for a second outbreak, which this time was headed in Lower
Canada by Dr Robert Nelson, who was to be president of the pro-
posed new republic. It commenced at Beauharnois, on the evening
of the 3d of November, with an attack on the Henry Brougham
steamer, which had put into that place as usual, by four huiidrcJ
insurgents, who made prisoners of her passengers, and injured Iier
machinery to prevent her from proceeding. They next surrounded
the house of the seignior, Mr Ellis, made prisoners also of it?
inmates, and captured sixteen stand of arms. The rising was general
throughout the whole district of Montreal, owing to preconcerted
arrangement, and from all directions the British inhabitants flocked
into the city for protection. Near La Prairie a man of the name of
Walker, who had become particularly obnoxious to the rebels, was
murdered in his huuse, but his wife and fanv.ly were enabled to
escape owing to the sudden appearance of a party of the 7th Hussars.
Tiie rails on the St John's railroad were torn up for some distance
to prevent the passage of the cars, mail carriers were stopped, and

1 4

The History of Canada.

427

bodies of men assembled at different points on the Richelieu,
expecting to be there supplied with arms. Being disappointed in
this respect the greater part returned home ; but a few pushed on to
Napierville, a short distance within the Canadian frontier, where
Robert Nelson had established his head-quarters. On the following
day (Sunday) a well-armed body of insurgents moved from Chateau-
gay against the Indian village of Caughnawaga, with the view of
seizing the arms and stores there. Fortunately their approach was
discovered by a squaw, who returntd swiftly to apprise the warriors,
then at church, of the approach of a hostile force. These promptly
rushed out, seized the muskets, tomakawks, axes, and pitchforks
next to hand, and raising their terrible Iroquois war-whoop charged
the invaders, put them to flight, and disarmed and captured sixty-
fjDr of their number. This gallant action materially damped the
ardour of the insurgents, and inspired the loyal with renewed confi-
dence and courage.

M vtial law was now put in force a second time in the district
ci i o ! eal, and a number of parties arrested on suspicion of dis-
^ 'e ■!„'. On the 9th the Special Council again assembled, and
pasred an ordinance suspending the Habeas Corpus Law throughout
the province, while the rebeUion continued ; giving a discretionary
power to the Governor, however, to restore it in any of the districts
when he deemed proper.

Meanwhile, General Colborne, having previously directed the
movement of troops against Napierville, where Nelson had now
collected a large body of insurgents, and also issued a second
declaration of independence, which caused a run on the Montreal
banks, proceeded on the 6th to take the command in i)erson. On
the St Lawrence the rebels still retained possession of Beauharnois ;
but this post the General left to be disposed of by the gallant
Glengarry militia, two regiments of whom, under Colonels M-Donald
and Fraser, were already moving down against it, together with a
detachment of the 71st regiment.

While these prompt measures were being taken for the immediate
suppression of this second rebellion, the brave militia of Odelkown
had organised themselves, with the view of interrupting the com-
munication of Nelson witli Rouse's Point in his rear, and frora
whence he expected to receive both reinforcements and supplies.
Cote and Gagnon, two of the rebel leaders, collected here a con-
siderable body of American sympathisers and liabita**^ insurgents,
and resolved to dislodge a body of the OdcUtown niihtia wlio had
taken post at La CoUe Mill, the scene of Wilkinson's defeat in 18 14,

TviJ

^i";^

: ! ■■!'.

428

The History of Canada.

and thus open a communication with Nelson. They accordmgly
advanced af,^ainst the mill at nine o'clock on the morning of the
6th, with a force five hundred strong and one small gun, and speedily
drove in an outlying picket of the militia. But, a reinforcement of
the Hemmingford militia soon coming up to aid their comrades,
the insurgents were gallantly charged, their gun, four hundred stand
of arms, and a quantity of ammunition captured, and their whole
body driven into rapid and inglorious flight across the lines, leaving
eleven dead and eight prisoners behind. On the side of the loyalists
two were killed, and two wounded.

Nehon's position at Napierville now became extremely critical.
In his rear was the victorious frontier militia; while Sir John
Collorne was steadily advancing against his front, with an over-
whelming fo :e of regular infantry and cavalry. He accordingly
determined to fall back upon Odelltown with part of his forces,
disperse the militia, two hundred in number, posted there, and thus
open his line of communication with the United States, so as to
se"ure a safe retreat in case of necessity. In pursuance of this
resolution he moved against Odelltown, on the morning of the 9th,
with eight hundred men armed with muskets and fowling-pieces,
and two hundred more carrying pikes and swords. Fortunately, as
this formidable force was about to enter the village, Lieutenant-
Colonel Taylor, an officer sent out expressly from England to
organise the militia, arrived on the ground, assumed command of
the two hundred loyalists, and posted them in the Methodist church,
or in good positions close by.

Nelson began the battle at eleven o'clo ;k by driving in Taylor's
advanced picket, and then moved his force in solid column against
the church. The gun captured at L,a CoUe now did good service.
Loaded with grape, its first discharge raked the advancing enemy
with deadly effect, and opened a long lane through his ranks. Two
other discharges were also given with success ; but the insurgents
pushed boldly on, and soon compelled the gunners to abandon it,
and retire to the church, on the road immediately by which it was
posted. Again and again did the enemy endeavour to capture this
gun ; but the milida, although harassed and fatigued by long and
arduous duty, fought stoutly, swept thom back with close and well-
aimed volleys, and even sallied out and made repeated charges with
the bayonet. For two hours and a half did the action continue,
and then, re])ulsed in every attempt to carry the church, the appear-
ance of a body of one hundred militia advancing to aid their com-
rades, on their flank, completely disheartened the insurgents, who

The History of Canada.

429

fled in every direction— part back to Napierville, and part across the
lines into the United States. Among the latter was Robert Nelson,
who soon procuring a horse rode full speed to Plattsburg. Previous
to the battle some of the insurgents suspected he was about to desert
them, and were with difficulty prevented from giving him up to Sir
John Colborne. He gladly seized the first opportunity, therefore,
to escape from his Patriot associates and leave them to their fate.
In this action, the loss of the rebels was nearly sixty killed, besides
a large number wounded. The loyalists had one captain (M'Allister)
and four men killed, and one lieutenant and nine men wounded.
A considerable body of insurgents still remained at Napierville ; but
on the approach of General Colborne they betook themselves to
flight, witii the British cavalry, who made several prisoners, rapidly
in jjursuit, which was continued from daylight till the evening of
the Toth.

On the same day on which these occurrences took place, one
thousand Glengarry men and a detachment of the 71st landed
early in the morning near the village of Beauharnois^ upon whicli
they immediately marched. The rebels after a brief resistance
abandoned the position and fled. A small body of insurgents
assembled near Chambly was next dispersed by two com[)anies ot
the 6th regiment ; and thus, in the brief space of seven days, ended
the second Lower Canadian rebellion. Yet, short icS had been its
existence, it produced a full harvest of misery and crime. At its
commencement the habitants had abused their temporary power by
driving the loyalists from their homes, burning their barns and
houses, and plundering them of their cattle and provisions. The
latter bitterly retaliated towards its close, and the fire-charred ruins
of many once happy homes throughout the county of La Prairie long
bore witness to the miseries of civil war. Nothing but the sharpest
injuries can justify an appeal to tlie sword. Posterity nmst stig-
matise the Canadian rebellion as a causeless one. All the injuries
sought to be redressed could have been removed by constitutional
agitation. Civil war should never be resorted to in order to
remedy political evils, save in the last and direst extremity.

But the bloody and misery-inflicting drama had not yet been
hrought 10 a close. The lenity sl.own during the previous rebellion
hat! been decidely abused, and was attributed, by even those who
had benefited the most by it, to the weakness of the Government.
Trial by jury was out of the question. Martial law, the code of the
sword, still prevailed ; so a court martial was now directed by a
t;eneral order to assemble for the trial of the captive insurgents.

430

The History of Canada.

It is an impartial tribunal, however, and only admits of the most
positive and direct proof. The unfortunate insurgents had a fair
trial. Twelve suffered the extreme penalty of the law, and a num-
ber of others were sentenced to transportation. Subsequently,
during the winter, bands of insurgent marauders occasionally
crossed the frontier into Lower Canada, and committed depreda-
tions upon the loyal inhabitants ; but every semblance of rebellion
had now disappeared in that province. On each occasion it was
trampled out almost as soon as it had reared its head.

CHAPTER XXI.

UPPER CANADA FROM 1 83 6 TO 1 838.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF SIR FRANCIS BOND HEAD.

GENERAL officers, in the persons of Sir Peregrine IMaitlantl
and Sir Jolin Colborne, had not made popular Canadian
Governors by any means. Their stern mihtary habits — their stiff
and unbending manners, were httle adapted to win favour with a
community verging towards democracy ; and the Home Government
were nearly at their wits' end as to who should be the pacificator
of Upper Canada, and carry out there the same line of policy to
be pursued in the other province by Lord Gosford. At length
their choice fell upon a man wholly unknown in the arena of politics,
a half-pay major in the army, and the Assistant Poor- Law Commis-
sioner for the District of Kent, at a salary of ^^500 per annum,
whose public reputation rested solely on his authorship of the
" Rough Notes of a Ride over the Pampas," and " The Bubbles
from the Nassau Brunnen," In November 1835, this individual,
destined to be suddenly elevated to the governorship of an im-
portant province of the empire, and to achieve a large measure
of public notoriety, was suddenly awakened one night in a little
village inn, on the confines of Romney Marsh, by a King's mes-
senger. To his great surprise. Major Sir Francis Head was pre-
sented with a despatch offering him the government of Upper
Canada, on the strength, no doubt, of his presumed Liberal Whig
principles, and his being the most pliant individual within reach
at the time. If any one could possibly conciliate the indwells,
the Mackenzies, and the Rolphs of Upper Canada, a iioot half-
pay major, a dashing superficial author, and an outside hanger-on
of the ministry, must be the man. It was an equally strange and
imprudent appointment, and had a fitting counterpart in the comic
mistake the Colonial Minister had made, in taking an inconsistent
Toiy for a consistent Liberal Whig.

432

The History of Canada.

Sir Francis Head knew as much about the inhabitants of Canada,
their past condition and present wants, as the bulk of the KngHsh
people, and that was almost nothing whatever. But, then, from the
moment he had consented to accept of the government of Upper
Canada, (for at first he shrank from the proffered honour,) he had
studied Mackenzie's Grievance Look with great attention, and had
the benefit besides of Lord Glenelg's information and instructions.
Thus posted up in Canadian literature, politics, and history, the
clever half-pay major, with a sharp eye no doubt to another book
and a light purse, set out, via Liverpool and New York, to super-
sede Sir John Colborne in the Lieutenant-Governorship of Upper
Canada. He arrived in his province the last days of January,
having crossed the river at Niagara. Posting to Toronto, he found
the Legislature, which had been convened by his predecessor on
the 14th of the month, in full session, and was thus brought into
immediate and direct collision with political parties he knew very
little about. His appointment had been highly acceptable to the
Reform party. Its press was loud in his praise, and fully disposed
to give him a good reception, pursuant to the suggestion of Joseph
Hume in a letter to Mackenzie. He was accordingly elevated by
the public voice to the position of a distinguished politician, who
must, as a mere matter of course, renovate and remodel the whole
social and political system of the province.

Sir Francis's own narrative of his gubernatorial fitness, supplies a
curious commentary on the sagacity of Mackenzie and his friends.
" As 1 was no more connected with human politics," said he, speak-
ing of his first entrance into Toronto, " than the horses that were
drawing me — as I never had joined any political party, had never
attended a political discussion, had never even voted at an election,
nor taken any part in one — it was with no little surprise I observed
the walls placarded with large letters which designated me as Sir
Francis Head, a tried Reformer." On the other hand, the Conser-
vative party, which at this period was tolerably well organised,
regarded his advent with considerable apprehension, and all looked
forward to coming events with the deepest interest.

The political struggle in Lower Canada, and the extreme position
assumed by the majority of its Assembly, had undoubtedly tainted
the ultra section of the Reform party of the upper province, with a
desire for republican independence. Sir Francis Head consequently
soon found that he was completely astray in supposing he had all
the grievances of Upper Canada in the " Seventh Report," and that
Lord Glenelg's remedies were the genuine nostrums for the occasion.

!::ii

The History of Canada^

4^-

whole

Mr Biclvvell's language to him during a private interview, shortly after
his arrival, completely undeceived him on this head. He stated
"that there were many grievances not detailed in that book, which
the peojile had long endured with paticncj ; that there icas no desire
to rebel, but a morbid feeling of dissatisfaction was daily increasing.
The fact that Sir Francis Head was the bearer of new instructions,
had alone induced him and his ^'••'ends to alter their determination
never to meet in the Assembly again." Mackenzie was e([ual!y
indisposed to abide by his own report,* and it was plainly evident
that his and Bidwell's immediate party, like I'apineau in Lower
Canada, had already caught at the idea of a total independence of
(Ireat Britain,

Sir Francis Head was a tolcral ' urewd judge of human nature,
and thus let completely behind the scenes by BidwcU and Mackenzie,
he had little difficulty in discovering they had an ulterior object in
view. It was unfortunate for the credit of the Reform party, and
for his own reputation, that he was thus immediately brought into
contact with the leaders of its extreme section. With respect to
Canadian questions, the Governor's mind was little better than a
mere blank. Naturally superficial, imprudent, and impulsive, he
was consequently, to a great extent, completely at the mercy of first
impressions, which he frequently carried out with that dogged per-
sistence so peculiar to Englishmen in general. Circumstances at
the time unfortunately tended to elevate men like Bidwell and Mac-
kenzie into the post of popular leaders, and to throw such rational
and constitutional lovers of liberty, as Robert Baldwin, and others of
the same moderate school, into the shade. Sir Francis Head com-
mitted a grave error in supposing that the bulk of the Reform j)arty
was tainted with the same spirit of disloyalty to the Crown which he
had so quickly detected in its ostensible leaders. The conclusion
which he thus jumped at, so rapidly and inconsiderately, materially
contributed to shape his future policy. His first concessions to the
Reform party may, therefore, be safely regarded as being made more
with the view to cloak and justify his course, in a seeming desire for
moderation, than with a sincere purpose to conciliate the dissatisfied,
or ameliorate the evils complained of.

One of Sir Francis Head's first public acts was as singular as his
appointment to the government, and was evidently the result of his
Mackenzie and Bidwell impressions. Instead of making known the
authority with which he had been invested in the usual manner by
message to the Legislature, he went down to the Council Chamber,

* Sir Francis Head's Narrative, pp. 33-35'

8 E

434

T/ic History of Canada,

summoned the Assembly before him, and made them a second
''opening speech" during the same session. The speech itself was
almost equally singular with the course pursued in making it. After
announcing his accession to the government of the province, he
informed the House that he had a communication (alluding to
Lord Glenelg's instructions to himself) to make to them. " This
communication I shall submit to you in a message," said he,
" which will at once inform you of the difficult and most im-
portant duties about to devolve upon me as well as yourselves.
As regards myself, I have nothing either to promise or profess,
but I trust I shall not call in vain upon you to give me that
loyal, constitutional, unbiased, and fearless assistance, which your
King expects, and which the rising interests of your country re-
quire."

The singularity of this speech caused some merriment, and a good
deal of doubt among both parties. The Conservatives wavered in
their preconceived notions of the Governor ; but they, as well as the
Reformers, were puzzled by the contradictory and singularly uncer-
tain tone of his instructions. One thing, however, was clear, neither
the principle of responsible government nor that of an elective Legis-
lative Council had been conceded. On all other points Lord Glenelg
professed the disposition of the Crown to redress the grievances
complained of. The Reform majority in the Assembly were dis-
satisfied with the policy of the Colonial Office, a feeUng evinced by
their instituting an inquiry as to whether a breach of their privileges
had been committed by the Governor, in coming down to make
them a speech instead of sending a message. One precedent was
found in the whole experience of the English House of Commons, and
so the matter ended.

From the tone of his speech, and tlie general tenor of the Cover
nor's conduct, the astute members of the almost extinct Family
Compact, who still continued in public Ufe, and now aimed at the
leadership of the Conservative party, speedily saw they had gained
some advantage. With its nature, however, they were as yet wholly
unacquainted, not being aware how effectually Bidwell and Macken-
zie had been seconding their views, by alarming Sir Francis with
the possible contingency of rebellion. They industriously endeav-
oured, nevertheless, to improve their presumed, though indistinct,
advantage, by presenting the action of the Assembly touching their
inquiry whether his speech was not a breach of privilege, in the
most unfavourable light. That this movement met with some suc-
cess, was evident by their endeavouring, shortly afterwards, to induce

The History of Canada.

435

the Governor to strengthen the Executive Council from their ranks,
three of the old members having been dismissed*

Although there can be little doubt that the Mackenzie party had
already frightened Sir l'"rancis from presumed Whiggism into old-
fashioned Toryism, tho latter shrank from the indecency of at once
running counter to every principle of his appointment, and allying
himself with the remnant of the Family Compact. Little as he ad-
mitted he knew about politics, he instinctively disliked such a course,
until, at least, he could conceal its more repulsive features, by a
show of seeming moderation, and an apparent desire to conciliate
the majority of the Assembly. He accordingly offered the vacant
places in the Executive Council to Robert Baldwin, John Rolph, and
John Henry Dunn, the Receiver-General. Mr Baldwin was emi-
nently popular with Reformers of all grades — moderate, middle, and
extreme — and Messrs Rolph and Dunn were also high in the con-
fidence of their party.

These gentlemen at first refused to take office unless the old Tory
councillors, viz., Peter Robinson, Commissioner of Crown Lands,
G. H. Markland, Inspector-General, and Joseph Wells, Bursar of
King's College, who were also Legislative Councillors, should be
dismissed. This, however, was no part of Sir Francis's plan, who,
aside from other considerations, fancied that by pitting three Tories
against three Reformers in the council he would effectually retain
all real power in his own hands. In defence of his refusal to dis-
miss the old councillors, he urged that he had other interests besides
those of the Assembly to consider, that they already possessed
their own legitimate power, and that to impart to them in addition
an exclusive influence in the council, would be unconstitutional and
unjust. " The step," he said, " would also have a tendency to con-
nect him with party feeling, from which, as the representative ot
Majesty, he should stand wholly aloof." After maturely weighing
their position, Mr Baldwin and his friends decided to take office, and
were duly sworn in.

But Sir Francis Head's policy was a superficial one at best, and
the attempt to acquire the arbitrary control of the executive power
speedily recoiled upon himself The old members of the council
had too long ruled governors to be now ruled by a governor in
turn, and the new ones had no disposition, for the sake of the mere
emoluments of office, to make themselves odious with their party
by ostensibly giving their countenance to unpopular measures, with
wliich they had in reality nothing to do. The attempt showed a
* Lord iHirliam's Report, p. Tio.

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436

The History of Canada.

thorough ignorance of his men, was a blunder of the shallowest
kind, and tended to draw him into a position which at once com-
promised him with the people of Upper Canada, as well as with the
Home Ministry.

Fancying that the Executive Council would retain place at any
price, Sir Francis began to develop his poucy, by appointing, on his
own responsibility, some members of the Family Compact to vacant
offices. These appointments were censured by the Assembly ;
while the council, finding their duties were restricted to land
matters, and that they were apparently to be kept in ignorance of
all those public measures, which popular opinion, nevertheless, attri-
buted to their advice, remonstrated privately on the subject with the
Governor. He requested them to make a formal representation of
their views. This they accordingly did, on the 4th of March, in a
firm and temperate manner, and the reply thereto left them no choice
but to resign.* Four other councillors t were immediately ap-
pointed, who were more tractable, and took office on the terms of the
Governor, whom, however, they managed in a short time to subject
to their views a very considerable extent.

The arbitrary course pursued by the Governor was apparently as
unpalatable to the Conservative minority, as to the Reform majority
of th^ Assembly. On the 14th of March, a resolution was passed
by fifty-one in a House of fifty-three members, censuring the dis-
missal of the council, and asserting the principle of responsible
government in the strongest and most unequivocal terms. On this
resolution, an address to the Governor was based, on the 24th of
the same month, regretting the dismissal of the old council, and
declaring a waut of confidence in the recent executive appointments
he had made.

The excitement now became very great, and a recriminatory war of
words took place between Sir Francis and the Assembly. But, in
this contest the former proved an overmatch for his opponents. He
bored them with long speeches in reply to addresses, appealed to the
sympathy of the public by proclamation, and skilfully created a false
and specious issue of the questions at stake.

Never was an imaginative author in such a congenial element
before. The Lieutenant-Governor proved himself an adept at

• Executive Council to Sir F. Head, 4th March 1836, Lord Durham's Report,
p. 60. Sir F. Head's Narrative, pp. 50-60. Canada as it Was, &c., pp. 182-
186.

t These were Robert B. Sullivan, John Elmsley, Augustus Baldwin, and Wil-
liam Allan.

The History of Canada.

437

agitation, fairly beat Mackenzie at public meetings, by means of his
numerous partisans, and the agitator defeated at his own profession,
by another man fully as rash and impulsive as himself, was ulti-
mately ilriven to shelter his dignity in rebellion, and thus justified
the singular gyrations of his shallow antagonist. The people were
really made to believe that the Constitution was threatened with
imminent danger, that the Crown was menaced in the person of the
Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada : so, forgetful of every other
consideration, they determined to stand by him to the last extremity.

Sir Francis Head proved an excellent actor, and found his hands
so strengthened by his growing popularity, that he felt himself in a
position to regard with cool indifference an address from the
Assembly to the Crown, praying to be relieved of their despotic
Governor, and whom they now impeached of sundry misdemeanours,
as well as statements in the House, which stigmatised him as a
tyrant, and impugned his veracity. Having so far been successful
in acquiring the sympathy and confidence of the people of Upper
Canada, he laboured to produce the same results at the Colonial
Office. " It is out of my power," he writes to Lord Glenelg, " to
describe the joy and gladness expressed to me by all parties at the
constitutional resistance I have made. But there is one question in
everybody's mouth. Will the Lieutenant-Governor be supported by
the Home Government? On your lordship's decision rests our
possession of Canada."

The ostensible leaders of the Reform party, while they felt their
position becoming more and more weakened, owing to the clever
slashing demagoguism of Sir Francis, appeared to be quite unequal
to the crisis in which they now found themselves. The more pru-
dent, alarmed by the gathering storm, kept in the background, while
the conduct of Bidwell, Mackenzie, and some others of the same
school, placed them daily in a worse and more embarrassing posi-
tion. Had they assumed a sound constitutional stand, refrained
from all overt acts which could possibly be construed into a ten-
dency to physical violence or rebellion— m short, had they rested
solely upon moral suasion, they must in the end have succeeded in
defeating the Lieutenant-Governor and driven him from tiie field,
to "bubble" in some other part of the world. Nothing, certainly,
could have been more impolitic than Mr Bidwcll's art in laying
Papineau's seditious letter before the House of Assembly, and in the
endeavour to identify the progressive British Reform party of Upper
Canada, with the non-progressive French Anti-British jjarty of the
other province. It showed clearly, as the sequel proved, how little

438

The History of Canada,

he understood the party of which he was ostensibly the leader, and
that he lacked the rare powers of mind, the tact, and physical
courage, necessary to direct successfully a great social and political
movement.

The people of Upper had no real sympathy with the anti-executive
party of Lower Canada, and however they might have sexual )blod
among themselves, did not desire the interference of I'apineau.
Hence, the impolicy of Mr Bidwell in making his letter public. Sir
Francis instinctively seized upon the occurrence, as most favourable
for his purpose, and skilfully dovetailed this letter into one of his ad
dresses with considerable dramatic effect. " The people of Canada,"
said he, " detest democracy, revere their constitutional charter, and
are consequently stanch in their allegiance to their King.' Allud-
ing to Papineau's threat, that the people of the United States would
assist a republican movement in Canada, he added, " In the name
of every regiment of militia in Upper Canada, I publicly promulgate.
Let them come if they dare." This was a clever climax, certainly,
and so the curtain dropped on the first act of what may in a great
measure unquestionably be called Sir Francis Head's rebellion.

Had this dramatic outburst — this skilful acting, for such it un-
doubtedly was — been constitutionally met, tlie excited loyalty of the
stalwart yeomanry of Upper Canada, unused to such strange and
stirring appeals, would have settled down into its wonted sober and
steady love of liberty, and the people would have taken care equally
well of themselves. Unfortunately, however, for the country, the
majority of the Assembly completely lost their temper, thus giving
the executive the vantage-ground, hurled anathemas at the head of
the clever little Governor, and stopped the supplies, the last resort
of an indignant Commons, unless they buckle on the sword. But
if they stopped the supplies of the Government, the Government
retorted by stopping theirs. Sir Francis refused his assent to every
money bill passed during the .session, — even to that for their own
contingencies, so they had no wages to get this time. He followed
up his recent advantages by proceeding in state to the House, on the
20th of April, and proroguing Parliament in a speech which severely
animadverted upon the course pursued by the Assembly, and still
further reduced them in the estimation of the public.

Sir Francis Head had been only a few weeks in the country, still
he had created more political excitement than all his predecessors
put together. For a man who admitted he knew liitle of politics,
still less of the science of government, and nothing whatever of
Canada, till he set foot on its soil, his progress in statesmanship

The History of Canada,

439

was, nevertheless, alarmingly rapid. He never reflected that great
popular (like individual) excitement never lasts long, and that the
period of reaction comes sooner or later, when the calmer judgment
again acquires full scope.

In short, he sowed the wind, in exciting the passions of the masses,
and reaped the whirlwind in the petty rebellion, of which he must
ever stand convicted as the chief promoter. Had he taken time to
acquire a just knowledge of the condition of the country — hud he
acted with calm and impartial wisdom, presuming that knowledge to
have been acquired, Upper Canada would not have known the
stigma of even partial rebellion. In dealing with the present, he lost
sight of the future; and in endeavouring to acquire a temporary
advantage, he rashly neglected a solid and secure success. The calm
and temperate conduct of Lord Gosford forms a striking contrast to
the course pursued by Sir Francis Hcatl. That conduct made re-
bellion tenfold more odious and unnatural, while the singular acting
of the latter, in a very great measure, produced and justified insur-
rection. His essay in government was decidedly of the "galloping
and bubbling" school, and failed so completely that no British
ministry has since allowed him to repeat it.

While almost every step taken by Sir Francis Head tended to
complicate the public questions at issue, between the Reform party
and the Colonial Office, more and more, he considered his adminis-
tration had completely succeeded — that he had knocked the hydra
of responsible government on the head at last — chuckled over his
success, and vainly fancied he was about to become the pacificator
of the province, and thus win golden opinions for himself in Downing
Street. " I earnestly entreat you," he writes to Lord Glenelg, " to
put confidence in me, for I pledge my character to the result ; I
have overcome every difficulty, the game is won, the battle is gained
as far as relates to this country. I would therefore request your
lordship to send me no orders on the subject, but to allow me to let
the thing work by itself." Tliis confident language could only be
used by a superficial man, and was very unlike the sober and
common-sense despatches of his predecessors.

The stormy termination of the recent session of the Legislature,
the stoppage of the road and common-school moneys, the disaflfec-
tion in Lower Canada, and his own exciting proclamations, produced
such a ferment of loyalty throughout the jirovince, that Sir Francis
Head considered he might safely appeal to the people to rid the
Assembly of those persons whose views he considered were opposed
to British connexion. Numerous addresses were at this crisis pre-

440

The History of Canada.

sented to him, expressing confidence in his administration, and re^
questing him to dissolve the House.

It seems as if he had taken measures to secure the presentation
of addresses of this character ; for, some time before, he wrote to
Lord Glenelg that he anticipated such a course would be adopted.
" I fully expect," said he, " that before a month has elapsed, the
country will petition me to dissolve the present House of Assembly ;
but until the feeling is quite ripe I shall not attend to it." In
pursuance of this policy the Provincial Parliament was dissolved on
the 28th of May, and writs issued for a new election, in which the
whole influence of the executive was brought to bear against the
Reform party. The result was that nearly all its principal leaders,
including Mackenzie, Bidwell, and Perry, were beaten at the polls,
and thus excluded from the House.* It was the first election after
the County of York had been divided, and Mackenzie stood for the

* The following extract from Lord Durham's Report gives an excellent picture
of the state of political feeling in Upper Canada at this period : —

"The contest which appeared to be thus commenced on the question of the
responsibility of the Executive Council, was really decided on very different
grounds. Sir F. Head, who appears to have thought that the maintenance of the
connexion with Great Britain depended upon his triumph over tlie majority of the
Assembly, embarked in the contest with a determination t^. "ise every influence in
his power in order to bring it to a successful issue. lie succeeded, in fact, in
putting the issue in such a light before the province, that a great portion of the
people really imagined that they were called upon to decide tiie question of separ-
ation by their votes. The dissolution, on which he ventured, when he thought
the public mind sufficiently ripe, completely answered his expectations. Tiie
British, in particular, were roused by the proclaimed danger to the coimcxion with
the mother-country ; they were indignant at some portions of the conduct and
speeches of certain members of the late majority which seemed to mark a deter-
mined preference to American over British institutions. They were irritated by
indications of hostility to British immigration which they saw, or fancied they saw,
in some recent proceedings of the Assembly. Above all, not only they, but a
great many others, had marked with envy the stupendous public works which
were at that period producing their effect in the almost marvellous growth of the
wealth and population of the neighbouring state of New York ; and they re-
proached the Assembly with what they considered an unwise economy, in pre-
venting the undertaking or even completion of similar works, that might, as they
fancied, have produced a similar development of the resources of Upper Canada.
The general support of the British determined the elections in favour of the
Government ; and though very large and close minorities, which in many cases
supported the defeated candidates, marked the force which the Reformers could
bring into tne field, even in spite of the disadvantages under which they laboured
from the momentary prejudices against them, and the unusual manner in wiiich
the Crown, by its representative, appeared to make itself a party in an electioneer-
ing contest, the result was the return of a very large majority hostile in politics to
that of the late Assembly."

The History of Canada.

441

Second Riding. His opponent v.as Edward Thompson, a man
without decided opinions of any kind, and, as a medium course,
many of the more timid Reformers, alarmed by the cry of revolution
raised by the Lieutenant-Governor, voted for him, swelling his majority
to one hundred, out of a total of eight hundred and seventy-eight
votes polled. Mackenzie's mortification was extreme, and at the
dose of the poll he retired to the house of a friend, and wept like
a child over his defeat, and the apparent loss of his popularity.
From this time, it would appear that he gave up all hopes of redress
of existing evils, by constitutional means, and secretly resolved to
have recourse to illegal measures to carry out his views. On the
4th of July following the election, he issued the first number of a
newspaper termed The Constitution. It continued to be published
until the November of the following year, and did much to inflame
the public mind, and pave the way for rebellion.

The Reform party was not a little surprised at the unexpected
position in which it found itself placed by the recent election, and
the executive was speedily accused of using undue influence to
procure the return of an Assembly favourable to its views. It was
stated that patents for land had been issued to make voters for the
occasion, and other measures taken of an equally improper character
to secure a majority at the polls. Dr Duncombe proceeded to Eng-
land, in order to press these facts upon the notice of the Colonial
Minister, but without success. Sir Francis Head's representations
continued to be received with considerable confidence by Lord
Glenelg ; and it would appear from statements subsequently made
(1839) in the British Commons by Charles liuUer, chief secretary to
Lord Durham's mission, that the charges maile against him on this
point could not be, and had never been substantiated.

The pleasant sunshine of the Canadian summer tempted the Lieu-
tenant-Governor to make a tour of the most interesting portions of
the province. He descended the tranquil current of the magnifi-
cent St Lawrence, where it meanders amidst its thousand islards ;
sped along its rapids ; shot down the timber slides of the Ottawa ;
bivouacked on the islands of Lake Huron ; and held solemn con-
clave with Indian sachems at the grand council fire in the Great
Manitoulin Island, and there procured the cession of a large tract
of fertile land,* much of which has since been settled.

The triumph which Sir Francis Head had won at the recent
election was speedily clouded by the conduct of the Colonial Office,
which, even ignorant as it was of Canadian matters, began gradually
• The Emigrant, by Sir F. B. Head, pp. 121-153.

442

The History of Canada.

to arrive at the conclusion that he had not pursued the wisest
course. This was owing in some measure, if not altogetlier, to the
representations of the Gosford commission, which recommended a
responsible executive, a political doctrine distinctly repudiated by
Sir Francis, who finding himself in this contradictory position
offered to resign.* His apparent success, however, puzzled Lord
Glenelg, and it was resolved to retain him in his post for the pres-
ent. Still, it soon became evident that the principle of responsible
government must erelong be conceded. The Liberal party of New
Brunswick was taking the same ground, to a very great extent, as
the Reform party of Upper Canada, and in the course of summer,
instructions were sent to the Governor, Sir Archibald Campbell, to
surrender the casual and territorial revenues to its Assembly, and to
form a responsible executive. ProccecUng on the ground that a
concession to one North American province must necessarily be
made to all, the Colonial Office on the 20th September forwarded
a despatch to Sir Francis Head, instructing him to consider the
directions to the Governor of New Brunswick as also applicable
to Upper Canada.t Sir Archibald Campbell resigned sooner than
carry out these measures, and Sir Francis Head being equally un-
willing to adopt them for his guidance, the Colonial Office had not
sufficient nerve to insist strongly on the execution of its resolves,
which were permitted to remain in abeyance for a time.

The new Pari' iment assembled on tiie 8th of November. One of
its first measures was to pass a supply bill. A number of other bills
were also enacted during the session, among which was tliat erecting
the first Court of Chancery in Upper Canada. Many of the bills
passed were of a very liberal and progressive character, and highly
creditable to the industry and talents of the Legislature.
Still, owing to the violent agitation kept up by Mackenzie
and others of the same extreme school, the Reform party continued
indignant and dissatisfied, and the majority of the Assembly soon
found their popularity was rapidly on the wane, and that tlie Con-
servative party, should another election shortly occur, could scarcely
hope for a majority. The rapidly declining health of the King
rendered a dissolution, before the four years' term of the existing
Assembly had expired, a very probable contingency. Accordingly,
the novel expedient was resorted to, of passing an act to prevent
the dissolution of Parliament, in the event of his death. The only
precedent of the kind on record, is that of the Parliament which

• Sir F. B. Head's Narrative, pp. 105, 106.
* + London Quarterly Review, April 1S39.

1837-

The History of Canada.

443

King
existing
)rdingly,
prevent
'he only
it which

brought Charles I. to the scafTold. The session terminated on the
4th of March. The Governor's speech, when proroguing the House,
contained little that was remarkable.

The close proximity of Canada to the United States led to very
intimate commercial relations between the two countries; and, ac-
cordingly, the severe blow which the moneyed interests of the latter
country sustained, in the earlier part of 1837, reacted unfavourably
upon these provinces. While Canadians jealously contemplated
the rapid progress of the United States, and drew conclusions un-
favourable to a monarchical form of government, as not presenting
equal facilities with a republic for the development of national jjros-
perity, they had little idea of the unsound foundation on which a
portion, at least, of their neighbours' success was based. They
accordingly beheld with astonishment their commercial system
completely prostrated, banks refusing to redeem their own notes,
states rei)udialing their sovereign monetary engagements, hundreds
of mercantile houses becoming bankrupt, and distrust, disorder,
and ruin spreading in every direction, like a black cloud, over the
much-vaunted prosperity of the Union.

In Lower Canada the banks imitated the example of similar in-
stitutions in the United States, and suspended payments in specie.
The result was that their stocks decreased in value, and public con-
fidence in their solvency was somewhat shaken. In Ui)per Canada,
however, a contrary course was pursued. The banks continued to
redeem their notes with sjjccie, contracted their discounts, and boldly
and honestly confronted the gathering storm.

Their course, in this respect, led to much dissatisfaction on the
part of the mercantile community, and the general feeling was that
payment in specie should be susjicnded, and discounting resumed.
To his great credit. Sir Francis Head was opposed to a procedure
of this kind, as a rotten system of bank accommodation, which must
sooner or later prove injurious to the community, and produce a
reaction of the same disastrous character as that in progress in the
United States. Still, he deemed it advisable to summon Parliament,
to take the modification of the charters of the banks into considera-
tion, so as to allow them to suspend specie payments. The Legisla-
ture was accordingly convened on the 19th of June, and the matter
at issue placed fully and fairly before it in the opening speech of the
Governor, which was distinguished by much practical sense, although
mixed up, it is true, with not a little of its opposite. One of the
first measures of the Assembly was to elect Sir Allan Napier M'Nab
as their Speaker, in room of Archibald M'Lean, who had accepted

444

The History of Canada.

a public situation and resigned his seat. They then proceeded to
take the banking question into consideration, and were at first dis-
posed to chime in with tlie popular humour, and, in many instances,
with their own necessities. Fortunately, however, for the credit and
good name of the province, the Governor's policy triumphed. Specie
jjayment was continued, the banks safely weathered the storm, re-
deemed their bills when presented, and thus preserved the credit of
the province untarnished.* The result of this bold and honest
policy was for a short space very trying to the banks. Their notes
were eagerly purchased in the United States at from two to five per
cent, premium, and sent into the province to be cashed. Still, the
small agricultural community of Upper Canada, composed of some
four hundred and fifty thousand souls, withstood the whole money
power of the Union, continued calmly and honestly to meet the
heavy drain upon its industry and its purse, and came out from the
ordeal comparatively unscathed.

As the summer progressed, Mackenzie, like Papineau, sought to
increase the existing excitement by treasonable articles in his news-
paper, by holding meetings, and making inflammatory speeches, in
various parts of the province, but more especially in the Home
District, where his i)artisans were most numerous. He was far, how-
ever, from being as successful in this way as the poi)ular leader
of Lower Canada. At some of the meetings his resolutions were
even negatived by majorities.

But very few even as yet suspected that the province was on the
eve of rebellion, or supposed that the endeavours of Mackenzie
and his immediate supporters to create a sympathy in favour of the
Papineau party were to result in violence and bloodshed. The
great bulk of the Reform party imagined that the leading agitators
still desired the redress of grievances by constitutional means alone,
a circumstance which accounts for the support its press gave them
up to the latest moment. Fully three-fourths of that party were
sincerely attached to continued connexion with the mother-country,
and had no idea that Mackenzie, Rolph, and others of their leaders,
had formed the design of establishing a republic by recourse to
rebellion, and thus abandon the constitutional and legal position
they had hitherto occupied for an illegal and treasonable one.

Many persons at the present time erroneously suppose that the
principles contended for in that rebellion have been conceded. But

• During the subsequent disordered condition of the province and commercial
depression, produced liy the rebellion, the banks were allowed to discontinue pay-
ments in specie, but diiefly on political grounds.

The History of Canada,

445

such has not been the case. The leaders of the extreme section
of the Reform party, in resorting to violence, no longer sought
the removal of abuses by constitutional agitation, but aimed at the
establishment of an indej)cndcnt republic, and completely failed in
the attempt. The real Reformers, however, continued to adhere
to legal measures for the removal of grievances ; and to their efforts,
aided by many favourable circumstances, when the storm had passed
over, and not to the insane attempts at rebellion of Mackenzie and
others equally wicked and mischievous, may, in a great measure, be
ascribed the enviable political condition in which Upper Canada
now finds itself

The months of September and October passed ofT quietly, so far
as outward appearances were concerned ; but, nevertheless, the
crisis rapidly approached. A constant secret correspondence was
kept up by the republican leaders of Upper with those of Lower
Canada, and a line of operations agreed upon ;* whil* vigilance com-
mittees were organised, and other incipient measures of rebellion
quietly taken.

The Lieutenant-Governor was now completely at issue with the
Colonial Oflice on different points. The principal of these was his
refusal to place Mr Bidwell on the bench, and to restore Mr Ridout,
the district judge of Niagara, to his post, of which Sir Francis had
recently deprived him, owing to his having used violent and disre-
spectful language towards himself at public meetings. His P^xecutive
Council likewise proved refractory, and the report of the Lower
Canada Commissioners, now published, placing his position com-
Ijletely at fault with the public, he was induced, a second time, to
tender his resignation.

Such was the condition of affairs in Upper Canada, when, in the
month of October, Sir John Colborne withdrew the troop^ from
Toronto to Kingston, in order to be more fully prepared to make
head against the insurrection which the Papineau faction was rapidly
fomenting. He offered to leave two companies, as a guard, with Sir
Francis Head, but the latter, believing the province to be perfectly
safe from rebellion, and that the " moral power " he jjossessed was
sufficient to prevent any overt act, requested these also to be with-
drawn, and the troops likewise removed from Kingston, t

In consequence of these measures, nearly four thousand stand of
arms and accoutrements had been left unprotected at Toronto, and
were handed over for safe keeping to the corporation of the city,

* See Mackenzie's Narrative.

t Head's Letter to Colborni;, 31st Oct. 1837. The Emigrant, p. 159.

446

The History of Canada.

■

who had them transferred to the Town Hall, and guarded there by
a few volunteers. This step was certainly well designed for effect,
and a clever piece of dramatic acting ; but at the same time very un-
like the cautious prudence which marked the proceedings of Sir John
Colborne. Had Sir Francis Head at once supplied the place of the
troops, by embodying a regiment or two of militia for the protection
of these arms and of the capital of the province, no charge could be
brought against him on the score of imprudence. As matters re-
mained he was wholly unprepared for the coming storm, and con-
tinued in blind security to the last moment.*

The withdrawal of the troops was the signal for more prompt re-
bellious action on the part of Mackenzie and his immediate associates.
During the month of November, rumours prevailed that bodies of
men assembled for the puqiose of military drill and target practice,
in the vicinity of Loydtown, and at other places along Yonge Street,
the focus of sedition in the Upper Province, as the counties along
the Richelieu were in the Lower. Rifles were brought in secretly
from the United States, pikes made, and other measures taken for
the organisation of a revolutionary force.

The rumours of approaching insurrection in its neighbourhood
caused a very general feeling oi alarm at Toronto, and the Governor
was solicited to nip it in the bud by the arrest of Mackenzie, the
prime mover in the matter ; Bid well, t Rolph, and others of the same
timid character, retiring into the background as the moment of real
danger approached. Mackenzie as yet, however, had committed

* See his speech to the Legislature on the 28th December 1837. Sir F Head's
account of his position at this period is very contradictory. In the above speech
he states he was taken wholly unawares, as was evidently the case ; while in his
" Emigrant " he asserts that he knew of the approaching rebellion, although un-
acquainted with its details.

t Many persons suppose that Mr Bidwell knew nothing of the violent purposes
of Mackenzie, and whose extreme principles and practices he repudiated, through
the public press, on his arrival in the United States. There can be little doubt,
however, that he was fully conscious of the extreme views entertained by the
republican section of the Reform party, and that he would have been gratified
had this province been wrested from Great Britain. An innocent man could
scarcely have pronounced a voluntary sentence of expatriation on himself, as he
did ; and, however timid he might naturally be, he well knew that the guilty
only had anything to dread from British law and British justice. Mr Bidwell's
father, as well as himself, most certainly became Canadian citizens from necessity,
and not from choice, and still continued republican at heart. There can be little
doubt, on the other hand, that Sir Francis Head desired to force him into exile,
to sustain the course he had pursued in refusing to raise him to the bench ; but,
there seems, at the same time, to have been a secret consciousness of guilt on the
part of Mr Bidwell.

The History of Canada.

447

no open act of treason j and consequently it was not deemed pru-
dent to cause his arrest. Sir Francis still persisted in supposing
that no insurrection would break out ; took, therefore, no active
measures for its suppression, nor to acquire any correct knowledge
of the treasonable measures in progress. His conduct in this
respect lacked the appearance of even ordinary common sense, and
showed how unfit he was for the post he filled. It was not, most
decidedly, owing to his prudence or good management that the
rebellion was suppressed. Had he bestirred himself, he could
scarcely have failed to get proof positive of Mackenzie's treason-
able intentions, and had this mischievous and most impulsive person
been arrested, there is every reason to suppose no insurrection would
have taken place, and the province would thus have been spared
much bloodshed, trouble, and expense.

At length, finding himself embarrassed by the representations of
many persons, and by the general feeling of alarm, which he seems
now to have shared in himself, the Lieutenant-Governor directed
that colonels of militia should hold themselves in readiness for any
emergency. He was still, however, in utter ignorance of the
insurrection already organised,* and of the hostile preparations
making in various parts of the Home District.

The calling out of the militia quickened Mackenzie's movements.
Boldly pulling off the mask, he published a list of nineteen successful
strikes for freedom, on record in the history of the world, and in
plain language called upon his followers to imitate these glorious
examples. The Attorney-General now informed the Governor that
Mackenzie was within reach of the law, and it was determined to arrest
him on a charge of treason. But he fled ere he could be appre-
hended, and at the head of a band of armed followers, was speedily
advancing to attack Toronto.

On the 1 8th of November, Mackenzie, Rolph, Morrison, and
several others, had decided, at a secret meeting held in Toronto,
on a plan of operations in unison with the expected rising in Lower
Canada, being well aware of the progress of events there, from infor-
mation obtained from Papin^au and his friends. The organised
bands distributed over the country were to be drawn secretly together,
and marched upon Toronto by the main road leading into the
interior, and known as Yonge Street, on Thursday, the 7th of the
ensuing December. Montgomery's tavern, about four miles from
the city, was fixed upon as the point of rendezvous ; the time of
assembly to be between six and ten o'clock at night. A single hour's

• Emigrant, p. 164.

448

The History of Canada.

h "'■'
'■'%'■

■A

march would bring the insurgent force, expected to be at least four
thousand strong, to Toronto, where the arms, weakly guarded in the
City Mall, were to be seized, the garrison taken possession of, and
the Lieutenant-Governor and his chief advisers captured and placed
in safe custody. In the event of success, a popular convention was
to be summoned, and a constitution which had already been drafted
submitted thereto for adoption. In carrj^ing out these plans, Dr
Rolph was to be the sole executive authority, while Mackenzie was
to arrange the details. Rumours of the intended rising had already
been conveyed to the Lieutenant-Governor ; and Egerton Ryerson
and John Lever, two loyal Methodist ministers, fresh from a
pastoral tour, told Attorney-General Hagerman of the treasonable
gatherings in the interior. But Hagerman was equally incredulous
with his chief, and declared he did not believe there were fifty men
in the province who would agree to make a descent on Toronto.
So November passed away, and the executive had, as yet, made no
real preparation to suppress insurrection. On the 2d of December
a resident of the township of Markham informed Captain Fitzgibbon,
of the Governor's staff, that quantities of pikes had been collected
in his neighbourhood, and that he had observed all the signs of a
rapidly ripening revolt. Sir Francis Head was duly made aware
of the fact, but nothing was done ; and Judge Jones pettishly ex-
claimed that the over-zeal of the captain was giving him a great
deal of trouble.

By some means the plan of insurrection had partially leaked out,
and was known to persons from whom Mackenzie desired to keep
it secret. It came to the ears of the elder Baldwin ; Bidwell
certainly knew about it ; and other leaders of the Reform party, who
kept in the background, were well aware that insurrection was at
hand.* Yet it does not appear that any one of these gave definite
information to the authorities of the danger which menaced them.

Owing to the extraordinary supineness of the Government, the
insurgents would have in all probability captured Toronto, had not
Dr Rolph deranged Mackenzie's plans by altering the date of the
attack from the 7th to the 4th. With the greatest entrgy and
industry Mackenzie had traversed the surrounding country, com-
pleting the final arrangements for the rising on the 7th, and notified
Van Egmond, who had been a colonel in the French army of
Napoleon I., and now appointed Generalissimo of the insurgent
army, to be present at Montgomery's tavern ori that day, to direct
the attack on Toronto. On the night of the 3d December, Mac-

* Life and Times oi Mackenzie, vol. ii. p. 64.

The History of Canada.

449

kenzie arrived at Gibson's house, three miles from the city, and
there learned, to his great dismay, that Rolph had altered the day
of attack, under the idea tliat the Government had learned all
about it, and were making preparations to repel it, which it is need-
less to say was not the case. He further learned that Lount and
other insurgent officers were already advancing to the point of
assembly from the north.

Although greatly chagrined at the alteration in the time of attack,
Mackenzie resolutely apjjlied himself to put matters in the best
position existing circumstances would permit of. Lount arrived
in the morning, after a long march of some thirty miles, with ninety
men ; and some other insurgents having also reached Montgomery's,
Mackenzie advised an immediate advance on the city, but was
overruled by the other leaders, who determined to wait for further
reinforcements. And thus the golden opportunity of a surprise was
lost. Mackenzie and four others now proceeded forward to recon-
noitre, and speedily encountered two citizens. Alderman John
Powell and Archibald M'Donald, who were acting as a sort of
mounted patrol. He informed them of the rising, that they must
consider themselves prisoners, go to Montgomery's hotel, where
they would be well treated ; and directing two of his men, Ander-
son and Siiepherd, to conduct them thither, went on towards the
city. The prisoners, however, had not proceeded very far when
Powell shot Anderson dead and' escaped, Shepherd's horse fortunately
stumbling at the n)omenL Mackenzie, as his late prisoner passed,
unavailingly directed him to return, then fired at him over his horse's
head, but missed him. Powell now jjulled up, and coming along-
side Mackenzie, placed the muzzle of his pistol close to his heart,
but a flash in the pan saved the life of the insurgent chief.

Powell hurriedly proceeded to the Government House, and Sir
Francis Head, who had gone to bed, suffering from a sick headache,
was at once made acquainted with the imminent danger that threat-
ened the city. The winter was unusually mild, navigation was still
open, and a friendly steamer in the harbour gave refuge to the
family of his Excellency. Alarm spread on every side , the armed
guard of the city were hastily assembled to protect its twelve
thousand inhabitants; and volunteers, among whom were the five
judges, armed themselves with the muskets which were hastily un-
packed and distributed. By and by pickets were posted, other
measures of defence taken, and wearied watchers lay down to sleep
with their arms at hand, and ready for immediate use.

Already, Anderson was not the only victim in this unhappy

2 F

450

The History of Canada.

rising. At an early period the old Indian track leading northward
to Lake Simcoe had been widened into a road, and the fine roll-
ing country on either side taken up for settlement. Retired army
and naval officers made their homes here, and in the cultivation of
the fertile glebe essayed to forget the stirring scenes of their earlier
life. Among these was I.ieutenant-Colonel IMoodie, a native of
Fifeshire in Scotland, who had campaigned in the Peninsula during
its hardest fighting, was present at the battle of Queenslon Heights,
and rose to the command of the 104th regiment of the line. This
gallant gentleman saw Lount's force pass by his dwelling at four
o'clock in the afternoon, at once instinctively divined the cause
of the insurgent gathering, and determined, at all hazards, to warn
the authorities at Toronto of their danger. A messenger was first
despatched with a letter, but learning that he had been taken pris-
oner, the Colonel, accompanied by Captain Stewart of tlie Royal
Navy, proceeded to Toronto on horseback, and on tlie way thither
was joined by three other friends. At jSIontgomery's tavern he
was stopped by a strong guard of insurgents drawn up across the
road, rashly fired his pistol when they opi)osed his further progress,
was mortally wounded by a gunshot, and died within two hours.
An Irishman of the name of Ryan fired the fatal shot, and the
wretched man, after the dispersion of the rebel force, took refuge
in the dense forest on the shores of Lake Huron, and from whence,
after sustaining the greatest hardships, he esca})ed to the United
States in the ensuing spring.

Failing to obtain any information of the correct state of matters
in the city, Mackenzie had returned to the insurgent head-quarters.
Anderson's death threw a gloom over Lount and his men, increased
by the intense fatigue they had undergone, the want of food, and
the pealing of the city alarm-bells, which told them that the
inhabitants were now fully apprised of their danger. But as the
night passed away reinforcements came up, and Mackenzie again
proposed an advance on the city, to be a second time overruled.
As Tuesday progressed, the insurgent gathering swelled to eight
hundred men, armed with rifles, fowhng-pieces, and pikes, and if
they had boldly advanced on the city, the weak force of three or
four hundred men, which the authorities had gathered for its defence,
with the aid of the disaffected citizens, must have been overpowered

Alarmed at the prospect of an immediate attack, and desirous to
gain time, the Governor at mid-day sent the secret traitor Rolph and
Robert Baldwin to the insurgents with a flag of truce, ostensibly to
learn what they demanded. Mackenzie replied that they wanted

The History of Canada.

45'

again
crruled.
eight

and if
hree or

efence,
owered.
irous to

l)h and
sibly to

wanted

independence ; and added that, as they liad no confidence in the
Governor's word, he would have to put his messages in writing, and
within one hour. As two o'clock approached, the insurgents ad-
vanced towards the city, and were met at its immediate borders by
a second f ._, of truce, bringing answer that their demand could not
be complied with. But their further advance was now stayed by the
secret advice of Rolph to wait till six o'clock, and enter the city
under cover of night, when the disaffected there, to the number of
six hundred, would be prepared to join them. At the appointed hour
they again moved forward, and when within half a mile of the city
were fired upon by a picket of loyalists, concealed behind a fence,
and who immediately afterwards retreated. This unlooked-for attack
produced the greatest confusion among the insurgents, and who,
after firing a few shots in return, were soon speeding away in dis-
orderly flight, leaving one of their number killed, and two wounded
behind. Mackenzie endeavoured to rally the flying mob, but they
absolutely refused to renew the attack, the majority throwing away
their arms and returning to their homes. During the night, a few
fresh bodies of insurgents came uj), but on the following day Mac-
kenzie's force, all told, had dwindled down to about five hundred
men. Despairing of success, Rolph had fled to the United States
during the preceding night, and was speedily followed by a number
of others, who had effectually compromised themselves.

Meanwhile, intelligence had spread far and wide that the rebels
had advanced against Toronto. At two o'clock on Tuesday after-
noon. Sir Allan M'Nab learned the news at Hamilton, and im-
mediately mounting his horse, he rode to the wharf, seized a steam-
boat lying there, put a guard on board, and despatched messengers
in various directions to summon loyal men to the rescue. In three
hours' time, that steamer was under weigh, freighted with stout
hearts and stalwart arms, to be received at Toronto with cheers,
that, reverberating to Government House, told the anxious Sir
Francis Head that the " men of Gore " had first arrived to aid him.
Next day the loyal militia crowded in to his assistance from all
directions, and were armed and organised as well as circumstances
would permit.

Early on Thursday morning, Van Egmond arrived to take com-
mand of the insurgents, and detached a force of sixty men to cut oft
communication with Toronto to the eastward, burn the Don bridge,
capture the mail from Montreal, and draw out the force of the
enemy in that direction. They succeeded in capturing the mail
and setting the bridge on fire ; but the flames were shortly after-

fii

m I'

452

T/ie History of Canada,

wards extinguished, and no intelligence of consequence was acquired
by the insurgents. Meanwhile, it having been determined to attack
their main body at Montgomery's tavern, or (iallows' Hill, every
preparation was fully made by eleven o'clock. Six hundred men,
with two field-pieces, formed the main column of attack, under
Sir Allan M'Nab, while another force of three hundred and
twenty men were detached to take the insurgent position in flank.
It was situated at a small wood near the road, which afforded
partial cover to some four hun Ired badly-armed men, who still
clung to the desperate fortunes of their leaders. Their defence
was of the weakest kind. The fire of the artillery speedily drove
them from their first position, when a few volleys of musketry and
a bayonet charge put them into rapid flight, hotly pursued by the
enraged militia. The loss of the insurgents waj thirty-six killed
and fourteen wounded, while the loyalist force only sustained a loss
of three slightly wounded. Little mercy was shown to the defeated,
and two trembling prisoners were alone brought in, to be imme-
diately discharged by the Governor, and who subsequently directed
Montgomery's tavern, and the dwelling of Gibson, a member of
the Assembly, and who had a command under Mackenzie, to be
burned down. During their stay at Gallows' Hill, the insurgents
made prisoners of fifty-four loyalists, but who were treated as well as
circumstances admitted of, and were not subjected to any cruelty
whatever. And thus terminated the attempt to capture Toronto.
Had the insurgents been led by men of resolution and skill, there
can be little doubt their object would have been successful.*

Toronto once captured, insurrection would have raised its head
in every direction, and a large amount of injury inflicted on the
whole country, although about the ultimate issue of the struggle
there could be no question. Upper Canada alone at this period
contained a population of four hundred and fifty thousand souls,
and the Home district, the focus of sedition, sixty thousand. Fully
three-fourths of the whole people were loyal to the British Crown.

Immediately after the action at Gallows' Hill, J^Tackenzie fled to-
wards the Niagara frontier, which, after several hairbreadth escapes,
he succeeded in reaching, and was soon safely housed in Buffalo. A
reward of ;^iooo had been offered for his apprehension, and ;^5oo
each for the capture of David Gibson, Samuel Lount, Silas Fletcher,
and Jesse Loyd, the other principal rebel leaders. Rolph had
already fled the province, and a few days afterwards was haranguing

* Mackenzie's Life and Times, vol. ii. p. 90-99 ; Bonnycastlc's Canada as it
Was, &c., vol. i. p. 288 ; The Emigrant, p. l8l.

The History of Canada.

453

jin audience at Lewiston, and inciting them to aid in the rebellion ;*
while Bidwell voluntarily exiled himself, became a citizen of the
United States, and an eminent lawyer of New York city, having
been admitted to the New York bar by courtesy.

The country was now in a complete ferment. Although it was
the middle of winter, ten thousand gallant militia crowded from all
quarters towards Toronto, animated with the most loyal and devoted
zeal. The want of transport, in numerous cases, of bedding, and of
even warm clothing, was unheeded by these brave men, who thus
showed themselves to be animated by the same indomitable spirit
which had sustained the Canadian militia during the trying campaign
of the three years' war with the United States. The loyal feeling so
generally manifested alike by Conservatives and Moderate Reformers
soon freed Sir Francis Head from all ai^prehensions with regard to
the safety of Toronto, and he directed tiie militia of Glengarry, and
of the other districts next to the lower province, to hold themselves
in readiness to march to the aid of Sir John Colborne, should he
require their services. Kingston, as well as Toronto, was speedily
placed in a condition of perfect safety, by the arrival of several
militia corps, which under the command of Sir Richard Bonnycastlc,
the principal military officer there, soon constituted a gallant and
most efficient force. Never, in short, was a better spirit evinced.
Under existing circumstances, successful rebellion was an impos-
sibility in Upper Canada. Even the cai)ture of Toronto could only
have made the struggle more bloody ; the result, in the end, mus<-
have been the same

In the London district, Dr Buncombe, recently returned from
England, was extremely active in spreading disaffection, and got up
a farcical rebellion. Sir Allan M'Nab was accordingly directed to
march upon this point, with five hundred militiamen and volunteers,
and suppress whatever armed treason he might encounter. This
duty was performed in the most gallant and effectual manner. Dun-
combe, like Papineau, Rolph, and others of the same stamp, fled
when he found danger approaching, leaving his deluded followers to
take care of themselves. The bulk of these were dis; rmed and
pardoned, but the leaders were sent prisoners to Hamilton. Large
numbers joined the loyalists, and Sir Allan M'Nab declared that he
had soon ten times the force he required.

The city of Buffalo, standing as it does at the termination of the
great canal traversing the state of New York, and at the foot of the
upper lake navigation, has always been characterised by a transient
* Upper Canada Herald, nth Decemljer 1838.

454

The History of Canada,

population of boatmen, sailors, and persons of very questionable
reputation. Mackenzie had little difficulty, accordingly, in soon
enlisting there a body of American sympathisers and Canadian
refugees under his standard. The wretched attempt against Toronto
— the ill-planned commencement of a miserably-organised rebellion,
had not yet cured him of his folly, and in conjunction with Rolph
and some others, he now concocted another invasion of Canada
from the United States. Land and other inducements were pro-
mised to his followers, which a Buffalo newspaper described as a
" wretched rabble, ready to cut any man's throat for a dollar ; " while
Mackenzie put the climax on his folly, by offering ^500 for the
apprehension of Sir F. 13. Head. To the command of the force
thus raised, Dr Rolph, Mackenzie, and the other persons who
formed the Canadian " executive committee " at Buffilo, elevated a
clever though worthless scamp of the name of Van Rensselaer.

Some two miles above the Falls of Niagara, and oi)posite Chip-
pewa, is a small island belonging to Canada, which at tliis period
was densely wooded. Here it was determined that Van Rensselaer
should take post with his force, prejiaratory to a descent upon Canada.
Being without the territory of the United States, nothing need be
apprehended from any interference on the part of their authorities,
while it was most conveniently situated for receiving reinforcements
and supplies from Buffalo. At the same time, as no force had been
assembled for the protection of the Canadian frontier, little re-
sistance to their schemes was feared from that direction

The position was judiciously chosen, and numbers of the frontier
vagabonds speedily flocked to Van Rensselaer's standard, and were
supplied by American citizens of wealth, interested in the movement,
with provisions and military stores. To furnish this force, which
was soon one thousand strong,"' with the necessary artillery, the guns
were taken out of the State arsenals in some of the frontier towns,
and thirteen were speedily in position oa different parts of the island,
which was likewise further secured by intrenchments and log breast
works. Very few Canadians joined Van Rensselaer, although he
had been led to suppose that he would be strongly supported by
them.t

No sooner did Sir Francis Head (who at length appeared to under-
stand his position more correctly) become aware of these occur-
rences, than a body of militia was hastily collected at Chippewa, under
the command of Colonel Cameron, to prevent a hostile descent in

' United States' Marshal to President Van Bnren, 28th December 183S.
t See Vail Rensselaer's narrative in Albany Advertiser of jotii March 1838.

tha
col

thn

wit

me:

pew

The History of Canada.

455

that direction. At the same time measures were promptly taken to
collect reinforcements of volunteers and militia at the point of
threatened attack, where Sir Allan M'Nab, who presently arrived
with his corps, assumed the chief command, and found himself
at the head of two thousand five hundred men. One of his first
measures was to form an intrenched camp in the vicinity of Chip-
pewa, and to provide the necessary shelter for the militia; his next
was to remonstrate with the American authorities, with respect to
their permitting supplies to be furnished to the lawless force on Navy
Island. He urged, that if it received no succour of this kind, the
affair would be closed without bloodshed ; but his humane remon-
strances were wholly ineffectual. Open aid continued to be furnished
to the Patriots ; and in broad daylight a small steamboat, the Caro-
line, was cut out of the ice at Buffalo, and proceeded down the river,
to convey men and stores from the mainland to Navy Island.
Seventeen American citizens openly and publicly signed a bond to
indemnify her owner in case she should be captured ; and the
collector of the Buffalo customs, pandering to the mob, gave her the
necessary clearance licence.*

Meanwhile, Van Rensselaer's artillery had opened upon the
opposite Canadian shore, which was thickly settled ; but beyond
putting several shot through a hou.,e occupied by militia, and killing
a horse on which a man, who fortunately escaped injury, was riding
at the time, its fire was perfectly harmless. A fire was likewise
opened on the boats sent from time to time by Sir Allan M'Nab to
reconnoitre the enemy's position, without, however, inflicting any
loss of life.

The gathering at Navy Island produced considerable alarm at
Toronto, and the Governor, by advice of his council, proceeded to
Chippewa. Here he found the militia, the Mohawk Indians from
the Grard River, and a body of coloured men come to fight for the
true land of liberty, in the best possible spirits, and was earnestly
pressed to allow them to clear the island at the point of the bayonet.
He was unwilling to adopt this course ; but gave his consent for the
capture of the Caroline, now openly employed in the service of the
Patriots. Up to this period not a shot had been fired by the
Canadian militia, who had remained strictly on the defensive.t At
the same time, not only had they been fired upon from Navy Island,
but also from Grand Island, belonging to the United States, where a

• The Emigrant, p. 234.

t Sir Francis Head's Despatch to the British minister at Washington, 8th
January 1838.

45^

The History of Canada.

body of the American militia was posted to preserve neutrality.
They were likewise fired upon from Schlosser on the American
mainland.*

On the 28th of December Colonel M'Nab directed preparations
to be made for the capture of the Caroline, and intrusted the com-
mand of the party detailed for that purpose to Lieutenant Drew, of
the Royal Navy, who most gallantly performed his duty. The Caro-
line was boarded, despite the fire of her guard, at Fort Schlosser,
where she was moored for the night, and gallantly captured after a
smart action, in which five of the Patriot pirates were killed and
several wounded. On the side of the Canadians only two or three
were badly wounded, and none were killed. It was attempted to
tow the steamer across the river; but owing to the strength of the
current it was found necessary to abandon her. She was accordingly
set on fire and permitted to rush over the Falls in a sheet of flame, a
most magnificent spectacle.f The Americans were loud in their
condemnation of the violation of their soil, committed in cutting out
the Caroline, although every circumstance in connexion with that
event was of the most extenuating character. A person of the name
of M'l cod, who falsely avowed himself to have been one of Lieu-
tenant Drew's party, was subsequently tried in the United States
for being concerned in the affair, but was acquitted. In 1842 the
dispute arising out of the destruction of the Caroline was finally
settled by the British Ministry apologising for the act.

On the 28th December the Legislature was convened, in order
that proper measures should be taken in the present emergency.
The opening address of the Governor was a long one, and of a
more sober and sensible description than the speeches he had
previously made on similar occasions. Alluding to the recent
interference of American foreigners in Canadian politics, he de-
clared " that it was not to be endured by the people of a free
country. I entertain," he added, " no feeling of anxiety for the
result. The peaceful inhabitants of Upper Canada will not be left
to defend their country alone, for they belong to an empire which
does not suffer its subjects to be injured with impunity; and if a
national war, which it rests with the American Government to avert,
should be the unhappy consequences of an intolerant invasion of our
freedom, the civilised world, while it sympathises with our just cause,
will view with feelings of astonishment and abhorrence, this attempt

* Christian Guardian, 2d Jan.
Colonel M'Nab.

t Toronto Patriot, 2d Jan. 1838.

1838. Report of Lieutenant Elmsley to

The History of Canada.

457

of a body of American citizens, treacherously to attack and plunder,
in a moment of profound peace, their oldest, most intimate, and
their most natural ally." One of the first measures of the session
was the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act.

Meanwhile, the prudent Sir John Colborne perceived that the
Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada had not formed a puper
estimate of matters there, and that he had better attend to the
preservation of that province himself. He accordingly directed the
march of troops up the St Lawrence to occupy the more exposed
frontier posts, while he still, however, relied upon the local militia as
the chief force for the defence of their several districts. Fortunately
the season was most unusually mild. The river St Lawrence re-
mained open till the middle of January. The upper lakes
and rivers also continued free from ice, and thus presented ^
the necessary facilities for moving troops to every threatened point
of attack, it being the plan of the American sympathisers to assail
the country at different places at the same time, as had been done
in all the former invasions of Canada. A strong force of artillery
was soon assembled at Chippewa, as well as a body of troops ; and
General Van Rensselaer finding Navy Island becoming more difficult
of occupation, when a fire of heavy guns and mortars was directed
against it, evacuated it on the 14th of January, and retired with his
force to the American mainland. The loss of the Canadians
during its siege was only one man killed and one wounded.

While these occurrences were transpiring on the Niagara frontier,
,1 Scotchman of the name of Sutherland, who had become an
American citizen, proceeded from Bufllilo to Cleveland, at the
upper end of Lake Erie, to organise a descent upon Amherstburg.
Opposite this town is the Canadian island of Bois Blanc, in the
Detroit River, which presented a favourable rendezvous for the
sympathisers, and to which a body of them moved from Cleveland,
the 7th of January, under the leadership of a person of the name
of Dodge. At Gibraltar village they were joined by Sutherland
with several boats and scows, on board of which were three field-
pieces, two hundred and fifty stand of arms, and a very large
supply of provisions. A fine schooner, the Anne, which had
been without any attempt at concealment loaded at Detroit with
cannon and several hundred muskets, taken from the State arsenals
of Michigan, brought down another detachment of Canadian refugees
and American sympathisers. So great was the feeling manifested
in favour of these men, that the United States' Marshal was
utterly unable to prevent their proceedings, now plainly in violation

458

The History of Canada,

> .. . -

of the treaty of peace and amity of his Government with Great
Britain.

There were no troops of any arm at Amherstburg at this period,
and the militia, hastily drawn together for its defence, were indiscrimi-
nately armed with rifles, fowling-pieces, and pitchforks. After this
motley force had been dismissed from parade at three o'clock, on the
8th, the alarm spread that Sutherland's band was advancing from
Sugar Island, belonging to the United States, and where it had
temporarily taken post, with the view of immediately obtaining
possession of Bois Blanc. This it was resolved to prevent, and
three hundred militia, among whom were a troop of dismounted
cavalry from the London district, hurried into boats and on board
a schooner then lying at the town, took possession of the island,
and promptly adopted measures to prevent the landing of an enemy
Sutherland's flotilla, now consisting of the Atiiie^ a sloop, the Gcori^e
Strong, and several boats and scows, having some six hundred men on
board, when it was discovered that preparations were made to repel
a landing, sheered off after firing two guns at the militia. It was
next supposed from his movements that the enemy would attempt
to land on the main shore and capture Amherstburg, now defended
by only a hundred men. It was accordingly determined to quit the
island, and return to defend the town. But Sutherland's courage
failed him when the moment for action came, and instead of making
a descent either against Bois Blanc or Amherstburg, he directed
his boat flotilla to pull for one of the American islands.* He sent
a message to Theller, now commanding the Atine, acquainting him
with this movement, and directing him to join him.

Instead of sailing round Bois Blanc, which would have involved
a considerable loss of time, Theller boldly determined to run up
the channel between that island and Amherstburg, there being a
good breeze in his favour. He was repeatedly fired upon by the
militia with rifles ; but the distance was too great to do much in-
jury with small arms, and only one of his crew was killed and a
few wounded. The Canadians had no artillery, or he would have
suffered much more severely. The Attne replied to their fire by a
few discharges of grape and round shot, without, however, doing
any mischief. She also fired upon the United, a small steam ferry-
boat, which usually ran between Detroit and Windsor. On the
following morning, the George Strong, which continued to lie under
Bois Blanc, was captured, and shortly after the Amie again made
her appearance, and opened fire upon the heart of the town of
• Theller's Canada in 1837-8, vol. i. p. 130.

The History of Canada.

459

Great

Aniherstburg, with round shot and grape ; but providentially without
injury to the inhabitants, although several buildings were struck.

Meanwhile, Sutherland had taken possession of Dois JJlanc ; so
during the day the movements of tlie Anne were narrowly watched
by tile militia. As night approached, the wind freshened, and blew
directly on the Canadian shore. Theller determined to run past
the town, being now above it, and cast anchor at the foot of the
island. But sharp and repeated V0II17S were poured into the Anne
by the militia. Her ropes and sails were cut up by their fire, her
helmsman shot down, and she soon drifted helplessly on the lee-
shoio. Her crew, however, still continued to keep up a discharge
of cannon and musketry ; but the volunteers of the militia, after
giving them another volley, plunged into the water, boarded, and
carried her in the most gallant manner. Twenty-one prisoners
were captured, three pieces of cannon, ujjwards of three Iiundreil
stand of arms, a large quantity of ammunition, with some money,
stores, and i^rovisions. The crew had three men killed antl twelve
wounded, some severely. The capture of the Anne convinced
Sutherland how little impression he was likely to make on the
Canadian frontier, and he accordingly retired to Sugar Island.
Here he was visited by Governor Mason, of Michigan, ami in-
duced to conduct his men to the mainland, where they were dis-
persed, while he was arrested, but soon again set at liberty, after
the farce of bringing him to trial had been gone through with.

Thus terminated the attempt of Sutherland to obtain possession
of Amherstburg. The conduct of the gallant militia was beyonil
all praise ; and the exertions of several wealthy citizens of the
neighbourhood to provision and furnish them with arms and
ammunition, merit the warmest gratitude of posterity. Among
these citizens was a Mr Dougall of Windsor, who loaned 810,000
to the commissariat : while several others came forward to indorse
notes to pay the merchants of Detroit for the pork and Hour, which
this portion of Canada was then unable to furnish.

The capture of the Anne supplied the guns and muskets so much
needed. Two of her cannon were mounted on Fort Maiden, which
was, however, in a wretched condition, having been permitted to
go to ruin ; the other was placed on board a schooner, fitted up by
Captain Vidal, a retired naval officer, resident in the district. The
militia crowded to protect the frontier in expectation of another in-
vasion, and nearly four thousand were soon posted at various points
along the Detroit River. Among these were two hundred Indians
from Delaware, and a body of coloured men, settled in the western

1 J i ".

i;..ii

460

T/ic History of Canada,

part of the province, the poor hunted fugitives from American
slavery, who had at length found liberty and security under the
British flag.*

Their ill success hitherto had not taught the Patriots wisdom, and
although the jails of both provinces were crowded with prisoners,
waiting their doom, others were not warned by their unhappy con-
dition. Secret societies, termed Hunters' Lodges, were formed along
the American border in order to revolutionise Canada, and main-
tained an active corresiiondence with the rei)ublicans at this side
of the line. Mackenzie, who had moved eastward to Watertown,
and who did not yet consider he had done sufficient mischief, and
the other principal refugees, were active in organising another com-
bined invasion of their country — a fresh drama of blood and misery ;
and so certain were some of their deluded followers of success, tliat
farms in Canada were played for as stakes, and outline maps i)re-
pared of the townships they imagined they were about to receivc.t

Early in the month of February, the Patriots determined to
make four simultaneous movements against Canada from Detroit,
Sandusky, Watertown, and Vermont. The last of these has
already been described in the narrative of the rebellion in Lower
Canada. The expedition from Watertown rendezvoused at French
Creek on the St Lawrence River, to the number of some two
thousand men, under the command of the same Van Rensselaer
who had figured at Navy Island, and of " IJill " Johnson, a most
notorious border vagabond. Finding, however, that the militia
garrison of Kingston was fully prepared for their reception, the
courage of these brigands failed them completely, and they speedily
dispersed.

The movement from Detroit, led by a Canadian refugee of the
name of M'Leod, was also unsuccessful. He took possession ot"
a small island in the Detroit River, from whence, on the 24th of
February, he was dislodged by the fire of artillery, and returned to
the United States, where his force was dispersed and disarmed by
the authorities, now beginning to exert themselves effectually.

The Patriot force from Sandusky, under the direction of Sutherland
and others, established itself on Point Pele, a Canadian island, eight
miles long and four wide, situated some forty miles from Amherst-
burg and twenty from the mainland. Troops had meanwhile reached
the Detroit frontier, and measures were promptly taken by Colonel
Maitland, of the 3 2d regiment, to dislodge the enemy. Finding that

* Radclift's Despatch, loth January 1838.
t Canada as it Was, &c., vol. ii. p. 69.

TJic History of Canada.

461

the ice was sufllcienlly strong, he crossed from the mainland to
Point Pele, with a force of regulars and mlHtia, ami placed detach-
ments at differL-nt points to cut off the Patriots' retreat. 'I'hcir main
l)oi!y. however, after being chased througii the woods, succeeiled in
figiiting their way to the American mainland ; but with severe loss
to themselves, thirteen being killed and forty wounded. Several of
them also were taken prisoners. On the side of the Canadians, two
soldiers of the 3 2d were killed and twenty-eight woundetl. The
Pdtriots, numbering some five hundred men, were well armeil, and
fought desperately for their lives, when they found their retreat cut
off by a detachment ( f the 3 2d and some militia under Captain
Hrown. A day or two ivfter this affair Sutherland was accidentally
met on the ice by Colonel John Prince, and brought a prisoner to
the shore.*

Meanwhile, the Home Ministry had recalled Sir Francis \\. Head,
and appointed Sir George Arthur as his successor. The former
prorogued the Legislature on the Cth of March, in a long and
intlated speech, in which he reviewed the recent occurrences, justi-
fied his course, and so dropped the curtain on his exceedingly un-
fortunate administration. On the 23d the new Lieutenant-Covernor,
who had arrived out from England by way of New York, was sworn
in at Toronto, and Sir Francis K Head was relieved of his adminis-
trative cares for ever. He immediately prepared for his departure
to England, and being informed that parties had determined to
assassinate him, should he travel overland to Halifax, he resolved to
proceed to New York, 7iia Kingston and Watertown, and embark at
that city. He succeeded in safely accomplishing his journey, though
not without considerable personal risk, having been recognised at
Watertown, and pursued from thence towards Utica. Being a good
horseman, however, he soon distanced his pursuers. Once at New
York he was perfectly safe, although an object of considerable public
curiosity, a very large body of its citizens assembling to sec him
embark.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF SIR GEORGE ARTHUR.

The jails of Hamilton and Toronto were now crowded with
prisoners. In the former town a Special Commission was sitting for
the trial of political offenders ; in the latter a court-martial had
assembled for the same purpose. The " Constitutional Reformers"

* Maitland's Despatches, 4th and 5th March 1838. Kingston Chronicle, March
183S.

462

The History of Cattada.

of Toronto presented a numerously signed address to Sir George
Arthur, congratulating him on his accession to the government, and
asking mercy for the five hundred political prisoners held in durance.
His answer embodied a sharp rebuke. He stated reform had been
made the cloak of the crimes committed by these prisoners ; and
that, at the present crisis, it was imprudent to adopt such an appella-
tion. At the same time, he avowed his determination to let impartial
justice take its course.

Having been completely foiled in their combined movement to
revolutionise the Canadas, the Patriots adopted no further offensive
measures during the months of March and April. Secret associations,
however, continued in full operation along the American frontier.
Hunters' Lodges were organised in every direction, by which covert
steps were taken for another attempt against this country. Mean-
while, Sir John Colborne made prompt preparations to meet every
emergency — even a war with the United States, now a possible
contingency, owing to the ill feeling excited by the destruction of the
Caroline and the Maine boundary disputes, on the one hand, and
the numerous acts of aggression against Canada committed by Ameri-
can citizens, on the other. Engineer officers were sent to every
point where troops or fortifications were required. At Amherstburg,
in the course of the ensuing summer, Fort Maiden was repaired and
strengthened ; extensive barracks were commenced at London ; Fort
Mississaga, at Niagara, was put into a good position for defence; the
works at Kingston were strengthened ; additional barracks begun at
Toronto ; and Fort Wellington, at Prescott, rendered impregnable to
sudden attack.

No sooner had navigation opened than a large fleet of men-of-
war and transports, which had brought troops up the St Law-
rence, crowded the spacious harbour of Quebec. These troops
were soon distributed along the frontier, and being supported by
forty thousand of |,he most efficient militia probably in the world,
Canada was in a better position to repel hostile invasion than at
any former period.

Up to the month of May, Lount and Matthews, two leaders of
Mackenzie's attack upon Toronto, had alone been executed for
treason. Several others had been sentenced to death at Hamilton
and Toronto ; but Sir George Arthur, blending mercy with justice,
transferred the greater part of them to the penitentiary at Kingston.
Several political prisoners were acquitted as being innocent, or for
want of proof; and many of the lesser actors in the drama of
rebellion were released on giving security for their future good

The History of Cajiada^

463

men-of-
St Law-
troops
orted by
world,
than at

conduct. In Lower Canada, martial law had been abolished ; and
matters generally, in both provinces, bore every appearance of re-
turning tranquillity.

But, as the month of May progressed, nimours prevailed that the
Patriots were about to undertake another attempt against the
province, for which Mackenzie, Duncombe, and M'Leod were
actively engaged in making preparations. The more secure con-
dition of the frontier, however, left them not the slightest chance of
success, and very little apprehension of the result was entertained.
While matters were in this state, a most atrocious act was committed,
in the burning of the Sir Robert Peel, one of the finest steamboats
plying on the St Lawrence, by the notorious Bill Johnson, at the
head of a gang of some fifty men, who boarded her before day on
the 29th, while taking in wood at Wells Island at the American side
of the river, and seven miles from French Creek.

The passengers were compelled to rise from their beds ; and after
dressing hastily, several females among them were put on shore
and left to shift for themselves on a most inclement night, while the
men were confined in the cabin, through the skylights of which
muskets were pointed to prevent them from interfering. At length,
when the pirates had satisfied themselves no danger was to be
apprehended, a panel was broken in the cabin door, through which
their prisoners were allowed to pass, one by one, and go ashore.
The vessel was then rifled and set on fire, when Johnson and his
gang, betaking themselves to their whale-boats, m^de their escape.
The crew of the Sir Robert Peel lost all their baggage, and the
passengers were able to save very little of their effects.

Governor Murcy, of New York State, on receiving intelligence at
Albany of this barbarous outrage, immediately departed for the
frontier, and took active measures to discover the perpetrators, some
of whom were apprehended and lodged in jail, but afterwards
escaped punishment for the want of sufficient proof against them. A
reward was offered for the apprehension of Johnson ; but the
labyrinth of the Thousand Islands afforded him and his gang a
secure refuge, and enabled him to elude every step taken for his
capture. On the 7th of June a descent was made by him oa
Amherst Island near Kingston, and three farm-houses plundered of
money and valuables. On the loth he issued a most impudent
proclamation, avowing that he had commanded the expedition
which destroyed the Sir Robert Peel. His opportunities to do
further mischief were, however, restricted by Sir John Colborne,
who directed a body of sailors and marines to scour the Thousand

464

The History of Canada.

Islands, and strengthened the various military posts along the
Upper St Lawrence with soldiers and picked militia. The Ameri-
can Government also sent troops to their frontier to preserve the
peace, and prevent the further organisation of armed expeditions
against the Canadas.

Despite all these precautionary measures, a body of sympathisers
crossed over the Niagara frontier, overpowered some Lancers, and
plundered a house at the Short Hills of a large sum of money and
some valuable property. Thirty of these ruffians, who had concealed
themselves in a swamp, were afterwards taken, as well as Morrow,
their leader, who was subsequently executed for the crime. In
consequence of these occurrences. Sir George Arthur issued a
proclamation, forbidding all persons from travelling in the province
without proper passports. At the same time, it was also determined
that persons found unlawfully armed, or aiding in or abetting acts of
treason, should be deemed prisoners of war, and treated accordingly.
Simultaneously with the affair at the Short Hills, bodies of Patriots
penetrated into the London district, where a number of state
prisoners were rescued from durance, and the store of a French
trader at Delaware plundered. From this point they wer- pursued
by the Indians, who overtook, routed them, and captured several of
their number. At Goderich a body of these pirates made their
appearance in a sloop, and after committing some robberies in the
shops there, escaped in a Dnited States' steamer. Such were the
ruffians sent to liberate Canada by Mackenzie and his refugee
confederates.

The remainder of the summer passed quietly away, and was
chiefly distinguished by Lord Durham's tour through the province.
Some attempts were made to get up hostile expeditions in the
adjoining States ; but these were suppressed by the American mili-
tary authorities, now exerting themselves most efficiently. With
respect to the numerous political prisoners, the same lenient policy
was pursued as in Lower Canada; the leaders alone were to be
punished, the rest were released. The Reform press again began
to agitate the constitutional redress of grievances ; and the old
machinery of party was gradually coming into full play, i" the belief
that rebellious and " sympathising " troubles had terminated. To-
wards the end of summer, some excitement was caused by the escape
of several prisoners confined at Kingston. Theller and Dodge,
captured in the Anne, likewise effected their escape from prison at
Quebec. On the 22d of October a proclamation offering amnesty
to certain political offenders was published by Sir George Arthur.

The History of Canada.

46;

^leanwhile, Hunters' Lodges continued to exist along the border ;
and preparations were made for another Patriot invasion of the
Canadas. Sir John Colborne had received minute information of
these proceedings, and the necessary defensive preparations were
accordingly made. In Upper Canada, Sir George Arthur called out
a portion of the militia, on the 23d of October, by proclamation.
At the same time, the armed vessels now on Lakes Erie and Ontario
were put into the most efficient condition for active service.

The final Patriot invasion of Canada, like all the preceding ones,
was based on the principle of combined movement. In Lower
Canada, Robert Nelson established himself at Napierville ; while in
Upper Canada, an attempt was n">ade to obtain possession of Fort
Wellington, at Prescott, on the St Lawrence, and of Fort Maiden,
at Amherstburg.

On the loth of November a body of armed men embarked at
Oswego on board the United States, a large steamer plying from
Ogdensburg westward. At the same time, two schooners conveyed
a detachment of Patriots down the St Lawrence, which were taken
in tow by this steamer, as she descended the river. On the night
of the nth they were off Brockville, and considerable alarm was
felt lest the enemy might land and attack that town. This, however,
formed no part of their plan, and they proceeded to Prescott, mid-
way between which town and Ogdensburg the schooners cast
anchor. Here next morning they were attacked by a small British
armed steamer, the Experiment, mounting two guns, and compelled
to nove nearer the American shore. The Experiment likewise fired
upon the United States, which came out from Ogdensburg harbour,
apparently with the object of taking the schooners again in tow and
of landing the sympathisers she had on board at Prescott, and com-
pelled her to sheer off". Having injured one of her guns, the Ex-
periment was under the necessity of running into Prescott to refit,
when the Patriots promptly landed a body of some two hundred and
fifty men, led by Von Schultz, a Polish adventurer, a little further
down the river at Windmill Point, wliich was beyond the range of
the guns of Fort Wellington. This was an excellent defensive
position. The Windmill, a building of great strength, was Hanked
by several stone dwelling-houses and walls, the latter forming good
breast-works ; and as the road ran close by this post it commanded
both the land and water approaches. Having thus made a solid
lodgment on Canadian soil, the Patriots expected to be joined by
many of the inhabitants, but were completely disappointed.
Scarcely any one aided them openly, while the militia of the

2 G

466

The History of Canada.

neighbouring counties were soon swarming towards Prescott, from
all directions, to drive the pirate invaders from their country.

By the morning of the 13th, a force of over four hundred militia
and eighty regulars had been drawn together, and supported by the
Victoria and Coboiirg zc^vat^ steamers, moved forward at seven o'clock
under the command of Major Young, one of the military officers
sent out from England to organise the militia, to dislodge the enemy
from the breast-work he hail formed, by connecting the stone walls
around the mill with intrenchments of earth. The Patriots fought
desperately, but were gradually driven from point to point, and
finally compelled to take shelter in the stone buildings within their
position, where, as the attacking force had no artillery, and the guns
of the steamers made no impression on the mill, they were permitted
for the present to remain. Strong pickets, however, were posted
so as to prevent their escape during the ensuing night. The loss of
the Canadians during this action was severe. Two officers and six
men were killed ; and three officers and thirty-nine men wounded.
The Patriots suffered still more severely. Two of their officers
and eleven men had been killed, a large number wounded, and
thirty-two taken prisoners. During the battle, several boats filled
with men had attempted to cross from the opposite side, but were
prevented by the armed steamers. The American shore was crowded
with spectators, who cheered vigorously whenever they supposed
their countrymen had the advantage of the Canadians. Meanwhile,
the schooners, which had sought shelter near the American shore,
were taken possession of by a United States' Marshal, aided by
some troops. The steamer United States was also seized, and the
unhappy adventurers at AV'indmill Point left to their fate,* although
they repeatedly begged to be taken ofi'.t

During the 14th the enemy was permitted to retain his position
undisturbed, the Experiment keeping a sharp watch to prevent his
escape. On the following day lieavy artillery was forwarded from
Kingston, as well as a body of troops, under Lieutenant-Colonel
Dundas; but owing to some delays these did not reach Prescott
till the afternoon of the i6th. As night approached the troops and
militia moved forward to the assault, and being well supported by
the fire of their guns, the Patriots were soon driven from the dwell-
ing-houses, and compelled to retreat to the mill. This efiectualiy
resisted the fire of the artillery, but its destruction being appre-

♦ Major Young's Despatch, 14th Nov. 1S38. Brockville Recorder^ 15th Nov.
1838.
+ See Von Schultz's Statement.

The History of Canada,

467

hended by the Patriots, who still numbered over one hundred, they
surrendered at discretion. Several others were afterwards captured,
who had hidden in the vicinity, so that one hundred and thirty
were taken altogether, of whom several were wounded ; their loss
ill killed was probably about fifty, there being no certainty on this
point, many of the dead being burned in the buildings. On the
side of the Canadians, only one soldier was killed, and a few
wounded in the final assault.

The attempt to obtain possession of Amherstburg terminated equally
unsuccessful for the Patriots with the movement against Prescott.
On the 4th of December, a body of about four hundred and fifty
strong crossed over from Detroit to the Canadian shore, marched
upon the village of Windsor, captured the few militia guarding it,
burned the steamer Thames, lying at the wharf, and two buildings,
murdered a negro who refused to join them, and then prepared to
move against Sandwich, a village two miles distant on the road to
Amherstburg. But the captured militia soon managed to effect
their escape, after shooting the leader of the enemy.

During their march towards Sandwich, the advanced guard of the
Patriots brutally murdered Surgeon Hume, of the regular army,
who happened to meet them and offered his medical aid. His
(lead body was shockingly mutilated. But his melancholy fate
was speedily avenged by a detachment of one hundred and seventy
militia from Sandwich, acting under the orders of Colonel Prince,
which attacked this portion of the enemy, who had meanwhile
established themselves in an orchard, completely routed them, and
killed twenty-one of their number. But Colonel Prince stained
his victory by ordering four prisoners, brought in immediately after
the action, to be shot. Twenty-six prisoners were shortly afterwards
taken ; but these were reserved for disposal by the proper tribunal.
The loss of the militia in this action was trifling ; only one man was
killed and two wounded.

The Patriots, however, still retained possession of Windsor, from
which Prince did not think proper to dislodge them, as a part of
tlieir force, which had meanwhile made a Hank movement towards
Sandwich, threatened his rear. He accordingly retired upon the
Litter village, where he was soon after joined by a detachment of
regulars with a field-piece, and again proceeded to seek the enemy.
But finding that none of the inhabitants would aid them, and having
already had enough of fighting, the Patriots had in the meantime
either recrossed the river to Detroit, or concealed themselves in
the surrounding woods. Nineteen of the latter, destitute of food,

468

The History of Canada.

r--^^

^'i.'^

^"'X

and unable to cross to the opposite shore, were shortly after found
frozen to death, around the remains of a fire they had kindled.

Thus terminated the last Patriot invasion of Canada. Like the
inhabitants of Ogdensburg, those of Detroit lined the bank of the
river during the action at Windsor, and cheered the robber band
vk'ho had crossed to assail our gallant militia with such disastrous
results to themselves. Cut the horrid drama of blood had not yet
terminated. Mercy had been too long shown to the citizens of a
friendly country, with which we were at peace, who had invaded
our soil for purposes of rapine and bloodshed. Courts-martial were
accordingy assembled at Kingston and London, for the trial of the
prisoners taken in arms at Prescott and Windsor. Of the former,
Von Schultz and nine others, chiefly Americans, were executed at
Kingston. Three were executed at London for the Windsor outrage,
several were also executed in Lower Canada, and a large number
from both provinces transported to the penal settlements at New
Holland. More than halt the prisoners taken at Prescott, being
youths under age, were pardoned by Sir George Arthur, and per-
mitted to return home.

Like all rebellions, that oi' Canada hud produced its full harvest
of disorder, caused a large outlay to the state, and checked the
progress of the country, aside from arousing men's evil passions,
and drawing a gallant militia from their homes to the injury of their
business.

Every true lover of liberty will admit that rebellion is necessary
and justifiable in certain circumstances. When a nation has not
security for life and property, when the rights of person are violated
arbitrarily and unjustly by the powers that be, when men suffer
sharp wrongs, and their liberties are trampled on daily by the iron
heel of oppression, when taxation is imposed without legislative
representation, then rebellion is a virtue, and not a crime. It is far
preferable to die the death of the brave man than to live the life
of the slave. Thus, the Swiss rebellion against Austrian tyranny
was justifiable, as was also that of tin.' States of Holland, and of the
United States of America. VivX tliere was no analogy whatever
between the condition of these countries, prior to their rebellions,
and that of Canada. Here trial by jury existed, the law of Habeas
Corpus protected personal rights, and the levying of internal taxation
was vested in the local Parliament. In Lower Canada, the French
inhabitants enjoyed a larger liberty than their race possessed in
any other part of the world ; whi]e, in Upper Canada, the few
political evils which existed must soon have disappeared before

The History of Canada,

469

the pressure of constitutional agitation, the progress of national
intelligence, and the increase of national population and wealth.

There can be very little doubt entertained, by any impartial or
unprejudiced person, that the singular and very imprudent conduct
of Sir Francis B. Head produced in a great measure the wretchedly
organised rebellious outbreak in Upper Canada. His injudicious ad-
ministration, in the first place, created a large amount of political agita-
tion; in the second, the absence of all military preparation to repress
armed riots of any kind, invited the rebellion of a small minority of dis-
affected persons, such as must always exist even in the best-governed
countries. But these circumstances, nevertheless, do not lessen the
criminality of the course pursued by William Lyon Mackenzie, who
was decidedly the leading evil spirit of the crisis, and who must
ever be held morally responsible for much of the bloodshed in
Upper Canada at this period. The progress of time has mellowed
much of the asperity with which his conduct has been regarded,
and enabled us to form more just conclusions as to his principles
and his objects. As one traces his checkered existence, which pre-
sents such a strange admixture of upright intentions and dangerous
errors, a doubt of his perfect sanity cannot fail to be evoked, to
receive additional colour from the softening of the brain, that finally
resulted in death. Ever unstable as water, he flits changefully
before the eye as the Dundee shop-boy, the uneasy clerk, the bank-
rupt shopman, the newspaper editor, the bookseller, the druggist, the
member of Parliament, the agitator, the political agent to England,
the fomentor of rebellion, and the rebel general. As a refugee in
the United States, he shifted his occupation with the same chame-
leon rapidity as in Scotland and Canada ; his peculiar faculty of
getting into difficulties of one kind or another being in no way
diminished, until, at length, fully as tired of the people as they were
of him, he was glad to shelter once more his fortunes under the
IJritish flag, which he had so impotently essayed to trample in
the dust. Scotchmen, as a rule, invariably exhibit great tenacity of
purpose and steadiness of application, but to that rule Canada
])resents two notable exceptions in the persons of Gourlay and
Mackenzie. Both were wonderfully alike in their failures and their
misfortunes, and both supplied the most ample evidence that method
and perseverance are ever the solid essentials of success. Mac-
kenzie was much the more clever of the two ; but he lacked the
sterling talent a.id the sober judgment which constitute the truly
eminent man, and his once great popularity rested solely on the
passions and prejudices of the hour. He was alike an indiflferent

470

T/ie History of Canada.

writer and a common-place speaker, and the very prominent posi-
tion to which he attained was owing to the excitement of the times,
and the paucity of talent in a comparatively new country. His
subsequent return to Canada was fatal to his previous reputation for
ability, and plainly stamped his mediocrity. A weekly newspaper
termed Mackenzie's Message, published by him, had a brief exist-
ence ; and while alive was not distinguished for ably written edi-
torials, such as appeared in contemporary journals, but, on the
contrary, for snappish and ill-natured articles, querulous complain-
ings, and for being the receptacle of all manner of fantastic odds and
ends, the fungi of an energetic and acute, yet diseased and ill-
balanced intellect

CHAPTER XXII.

THE UNION OF UPP'^R AND LOWER CANADA.

INTERNAL rebellion and piratical invasion had been alike re-
pressed by the gallant militia of the Canadas, and the
firm attitude assumed by its civil government and military '^■^'
authorities. Open violence, and the warlike strength of eight
millions of people in the United States, had failed to sever this
country from Great Britain in the Three Years' War beginning
with 1812: secret treason and partial internal disaffection had
proved equally impotent in that direction. The people of the
American border, who hoped to see Canada, in being connected
with their country, a fruitful source of speculation and profit to
themselves, had at length discovered their mistake in expecting that
connexion, and saw how egregiously they had been deceived by
the representations of the visionary Mackenzie and others of the
same stamp. Their eager thirst for gain had blinded them to the
true condition of this country, and led them to twaddle about
Canadian freedom, with the shackles of three millions of their own
slaves — their human chattels, clanking in their eai.s. The result of
all their secret border associations to revolutionise the Canadas, and
annex them to the United States, had their finale in the wretched
attempts on Sandwich and Prescott. They now sought to cover
their defeat, and remove the stigma their improper conduct had
cast upon their government, by organising public meetings to
prevent further aggression on Canada, as if such a result could
be accompUshed by the frothy declamations of place-hunting dema-
gogues.

But Canada needed no questionable aid of this stamp, and was
just as independent of the public opinion of the United States in
1839, as she was of their military prowess in the Three Year-' War.
During the course of this year the various military works in pro*
gress were completed. All the important defensive positions were
re-established; and the entire Canadian frontier, from Maine to

472

The History of Canada.

Michigan, thus placed in a state of security. A re-organisation of the
militia substituted permanent corps, and a certain number of years'
service, for those hitherto established for a few months' service, or
a particular emergency. The militia army list for Upper Canada
alone showed one hundred and six complete regiments, with the full
complement of officers and staff, the names of the two latter grades
filling eighty-three closely printed octavo pages. There were four
battalions of incorporated militia, organised and clothed like the
troops of the line ; twelve battalions of provincial militia, on duty
for a stated period ; thirty-one corps of artillery, cavalry, coloured
companies, and riflemen ; while most of the militia corps had a
troop of cavalry attached to them. Thus, with a population of
four hundred and fifty thousand souls, Upper Canada could easily
assemble forty thousand men in arms withou!; seriously distressing
the country. She has now about one million two hundred and fifty
thousand inhabitants, and a militia force, one hundred thousand
strong, could at any emergency be readily raised for defensive pur-
poses.* Never was this country in a better position to resist foreign
aggression than at the present moment, presuming that resistance was
based upon righteous principles.

The regular army in Canada, in 1839, consisted of seventeen
regiments of the line, one regiment of cavalry, and a proper propor-
tion of the Royal Artillery, Sappers, Miners, and Royal Engineers.t
On Lakes Ontario and Erie a naval force had been established,
under the orders of Captain Sandom, R.N., to man which seamen
and marines were sent out from England. The attitude thus
assumed by Canada checked further organised invasion ; and
beyond isolated burnings of the dwellings of loyalists and out-
rages on their persons, nothing occurred further to disturb the
public peace, the disputes about the Maine boundary excepted.
Eut our neighbours' blustering, even on this point, was gradually
overborne by their good common sense ; the matter was left to
be settled by arbitration ; and international commerce was again
commenced between these provinces and the United States, two
countries whose true policy should ever be to remain on the most
friendly terms, while such a course is consistent with national honour
and independence.

On the 27th of February, the Legislature of Upper Canada was

• This was in 1855, when the first edition of this work was pubHshed. The
population of Upper Canada (Ontario) now (1868) must be nearly five hundred
thousand more.

t Canada as it Was, &c., vol. ii. pp. 187, 189.

The History of Canada.

473

again convened. The opening speech of Sir George Arthur was a
long one : it reviewed the recent painful occurrences, and pointed
out the measures which he deemed necessary for the welfare of the
country. He recommended the settlement of the Clergy Reserve
question, on which there was still much bitter agitation, and the
promotion of education by an improvement in the common-school
system. The Government, he stated, looked for speedy resumption
of specie payment by the banks, which had suspended during the
more recent troubles, at an early period, and trusted no difficulties
on that head would be experienced. He also alluded to the de-
jiressed condition of the finances of the province, and the necessity,
nevertheless, of sustaining him in the large disbursements, not pro-
vided for by act of Parliament, which he had been compelled to
make in connexion with the defence of the country. There were
other claims, he said, also to be provided for ; intelligence which
was unfavourably received by the House.

The finances of the upper province at this period were far from
being in a flourishing condition. The construction of the great
works undertaken in various directions had increased the public
debt so largely, that the annual interest thereon amounted to
£,(i2i,ooo. The civil expenditure of the preceding year was
;,^2o,ooo larger than the usual amount ; and the deficiency in the
resources of the province, (now annually about ^80,000,) to meet
the expenditure for the current year, would amount to over ;^9o,ooo
or §360,000.* Unless some means were devised to remedy this
state of things, it was evident that sooner or later there must be a
rational bankruptcy.

The publication of Lord Durham's report during the spring led
tliinking men to look forward to the union of the sister provinces, as
the panacea for many of the evils under which both were labouring.
Resolutions approving of this union were introduced into the
Assembly and passed there, but thrown out in the Upper House
by a majority of two. The session of Parliament, which terminated
on the 14th of May, was chiefly distinguished for these resolutions;
the assumption of the Welland Canal by the Government, and an
abortive attempt to settle the Clergy Reserve question.

Meanwhile, Mackenzie, who had made an unsuccessful attempt to
establish a newspaper in New York, had removed to Rochester,
where he speedily became so unpopular with the community, that
he was finally arrested, indicted, and tried for promoting armed
expeditions against Upper Canada to overturn its Government.
* Christian Guardian, 27th March 1839.

Is '♦'.

474

T/ic History of Canada.

He grounded his defence in part on the presumption, that this
province was in a state of anarchy at the time of the outbreak at
Toronto, and that no Government, consequently, existed. Alluding,'
during his trial to the present Queen, he said, " I affirm that the girl
has forfeited all right to rule over any part of what slie claims as
her dominions, I was born in the reign of her uncle, and have loni^'
been tired of their usurped tyranny." Despite all his quibbles, and
all his endeavours to pander to the anti-lWitish i)rejudices of his
audience, the jury found him guilty, and he was sentenced to
eighteen months' imi)risonment in the jail of Monroe County, and
to pay a fine often dollars.* It was a tardy piece of justice, brought
about chielly by himself, and was deemed the easiest way to get rid
of him by his former admirers. Poor, and comparatively friendless,
they made him the scapegoat of the sins of others as well as his
own.

Lord Durham's report had immensely strengthened the hands of
the friends of responsible government in Upper Canada. Meetings
were held at which resolutions were passed in favour of its establish-
ment, and it was evident that in future no Canadian administration
need look for much public support, unless it was based on that
principle. Matters in the meantime were ,L,Tadually assuming
their wonted appearance of quiet; while, in adilition to this bless-
ing, a most abundant harvest gladdened the hearts of the com-
munity.

Meanwhile, Sir John Colborne had been appointed Governor-
General of the Canadas, and continued to take the necessary stejjs
for their pacification. But his long and arduous exertions for the
benefit of this country, and in the service of his sovereign, led him to
desire repose, and he accordingly requested his recall. On the 17th
of October, Mr Poulett Thompson, his successor, arrived at Quebec,
and relieved him of the cares of government. On the 23d he sailed
for England, where, for his eminent services, he was raised to the
peerage by the title of Lord Seaton. But prior to his departure he
received the most fiattering addresses from all parts of Canada.

cipa
the
trica
were

The

THE GOVERNMENT OF LORD SYDENHAM.

The appointment of a plain untitled civilian to be Governor-
General of these provinces, was unpalatable to many of its inhabit-
ants. Mr Thompson, too, had long been concerned in the timber
trade of the Baltic, the great rival commerce of the Canadas, and
this made him unpopular for the moment with some of their prin-
* Rochester Democrat, 26th June 1839.

The IJisiofy of Canada,

475

cipal lumber merchants. And yet, he was the very man suited to
the emergency; and, as it subsequently proved, fully equal to ex-
tricating these provinces from the critical condition in which they
were now situated. Gifted with talents of a high order, deeply
versed in matters of finance, and well read in the subtle pages of
human nature, it was fortunate for the Canadas that he accepted
their government, instead of the chancellorship of the Mxcheciuer,
offered him by the Melbourne Administration.

The union of the two provinces had now been definitely determined
on by the Home Ministry, as well as the concession of responsible
government to the i3ritish majority which that union must create.
The recent rebellion had shown clearly the attachment of that
majority to the mother-country, and how safely it could be trusted
with every privilege which could be regarded as the birthright of
British freemen.*

• The following extract from Lord John Russell's Despatch, of the 14th Octo-
ber 1839, illustrates clearly the views of the Uritish ministry on this head : —

"The Queen's Government have no desire to thwart the representative assem-
blies of British North America in their measures of reform and improvement.
They have no wish to make those provinces the resource for patronajjc at home.
They are earnestly intent on giving to the talent and character of leading persons
in the colonies, advantages similar to those which talent and character, employed
in the public service of the United Kingdom, obtain. Her Majesty has no desire
to maintain any system in policy among her North American subjects which
opinion condemns. In receiving the Queen's commands, therefore, to protest
against any declaration at variance with the honour of the Crown, and the unity
of the empire, I am at the same time instructed to announce her Majesty's gra-
cious intention to look to the affectionate attachment of her people in North
America, as the best security for permanent dominion.

"It is necessary *br this purpose that no official misconduct should be screened
by her Majesty's representative in the provinces ; and that no private interests
should be allowed to compete with the general good.

" Your Excellency is fully in possession of the principles whicli have guided her
Majesty's advisers on this subject ; anil you must be aware that there is no surer
way of earning the approbation of the Queen, than by maintaining the harmony
of the executive with the legislative authorities.

" While I have thus cautioned you against any declaration from which dangerous
consequences might hereafter flow, and instructed you as to the general line of
your conduct, it may be said that I have not drawn any specific line beyond which
the power of the Governor on the one hand, and the privileges of the Assembly
on the other, ought not to extend. But this must be the case in any mixed
government. Every political constitution in which different bodies share the
supreme power, is only enabled to exist by the forbearance of those among whom
this power is distributed. In this respect the example of England may well be
imitated. The Sovereign using the prerogative of the Crown to the utmost extent,
and the House of Commons exerting its power of the purse, to carry all its reso-
lutions into immediate effect, would produce confusion in the country in lesa than

476

Ihe History q/ Canada.

In these views Mr Thompson fully concurred. He saw clearly as
a consequence the necessity of making the Executive Council har-
monise with the House of Assembly, by rendering its principal
members dependent for their position, as in England, on the majority
in the latter. In this way the Canadian ministry would be directly
responsible to the people, who in their choice of representatives,
pledged to support the ministry or otherwise, could declare at the
polls whether they placed confidence in or distrusted the executive.
That he had a most difficult task to accomplish will readily be pc"-
ctived. There was no party in the country on whom he could con-
fidently rely for support. The Family Compact majority in the
Legislative Council ha 1 already shown by their vote that they were
opposed to the union ; an alteration in that council must lead to
unfavourable comment in England and Canada, while he was unable
to ascertain how flir the Reform party might be disposed to second
his views. !Many of the latter were opposed to a union, and there
was, accordingly, no settled party in the country on which he could
rely to support the policy of his administration. He, therefore, went
to work with the means already at his disposal, and made no altera-
tion either i.i the Special Council of Lower Canada, or in the Legis-
lative Council of the sister province. This course sheltered him from
all imputations of using sinister or improper means to carry out his
policy, and gave additional weight to the decision of the Canadian
legislative bodies in England. His policy was a manly and straight-
forward one, and deserved the great success which it ultimately met
with.

On the Governor-General's arrival at Quebec, he was presented
with several addresses from the inhabitants, one of which urged upon
his notice the propriety of making that city the seat of government.
He made no stay there, however, and immediately proceeded to
^Montreal, where he convened the Special Council on the nth of
November, and shortly after directed their attention to her Majesty's
message, of the preceding 3d of May, to both Houses of the British
Parliament, relative to the legislative reunion of Upper and Lc^er
Canada. He explained, at the same time, the views entertarned by

a twelvemonth. So in a colony : the Governor thwarting every legitimate pro-
position of the Assembly, and the Assembly continually recurring to its power
of refusing supplies, can but disturb all political relations, embarrass trade, and
retard the prosperity of the people. Each must exercise a wise moderation.
The Governor must only oppose the wishes of the Assembly where the honour of
the Crown, or the interests of the empire, are deeply concerned ; and the Assem-
bly must be ready to modify some of its measures for the sake of harmony, and
from a reverent attachment to the authority of Great Britain."

The Histoiy of Canada.

477

the Home Government on this head, and their desire to have the
existing suspension of the Constitution put an end to, that the re-
sources of the country might be more fully developed, and the peace
and happiness of all classes of its inhabitants effectually secured.
" Mutual sacrifices," said his Excellency, " were undoubtedly required,
mutual concessions would be demanded ; but I entertain no doubt
that the terms of the union would be finally adjusted by the Imperial
Parliament, with fairness to both provinces, and with the utmost
advantage to their inhabitants."

The Governor-General met with little difficulty in inducing the
Special Council to second his views, by their favourable action on
the union question. On the 13th, a scries of six resolutions were
agreed to by the majority of that body, as the basis on which they
were willing to unite the lower with the upper province. *

* " I. That under existing circumstances, in order to provide adequately tor
the peace and tranquillity, and the good, constitutional, and efficient government
of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, the reunion of these provinces
under one legislature, in the opinion of this council, has become of indispensable
and urgent necessity.

"2. That the declared determination of her Majesty, conveyed in her gracious
message to Parliament, to reunite the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, is
in accordance with the opinion entertained by this council, and receives their
ready acquiescence.

"3. That among the principal enactments which, in the opinion of this council,
ought to make part of the Luperial Act for reuniting the provinces, it is expedient
and desirable that a suitable civil list should be provided for, securing the inde-
pendence of judges, and maintaining tlie Executive Government in the exercise of
its necessary and indispensable functions.

"4. That regard being had to the nature of the public debt of Upper Canadi,
and the objects ior which princijially it was contracted, namely, the improvement
of internal communications, alike useful and beneficial for both province.s, it would
he just and reasonable, in the opinion of ihis council, that such part of said debt
as has been contracted for this object, and not for defraying expenses of a loc.il
nature, should be chargeable on the revenues of both provinces.

"5. That the acljustnierit and setllcnicnt of the terms of the reunion of the
two provinces may, in tlie ojunion of this council, with all confidence l)e suh-
mitted to the wisdom and justice of the Imperial Parliament, under the full assur-
ance that provision of the nature of tliose already mentioned, as well as such others
as the measure of reunion may re(piire, will receive due cun^idcrati jU.

"6. That, in the opinion of this council, it is most expedient, with a view to
the security of her Majesty's North American provinces, and the speedy cessation
of the enormous expense now incurred by the parent state for the defence of Upper
and Lower Canada, that the present temporary Legislature of this province should,
as soon as practicable, be succeeded by a permanent Legislature, in which the
people of these two provinces may be adequately represented, and their constitu-
tional rights exercised and maintained

478

The History of Canada.

■Lii-

This important question being thus disposed of, so far as regarded
Lower Canada, the Special Council were discharged from further
attendance for the present. In this settlement of the question at
issue, so agreeable to persons of British birth and origin in Lower
Canada, the wishes of the French population were not consulted.
They were still, so far as the great majority were concerned, as
much opposed to a union with Upper Canada as ever; but, by
their recent disaffection, they had forfeited every just right to be
consulted in the matter. The feelings of the loyal inhabitants
were, therefore, alone taken into consideration, and how the in-
terests of the Canadas, and of the empire at large, could be best
subserved. Yet there can be no doubt that this policy was fully
as beneficial to the French population, as to any other class of the
community. The benefits and privileges it secured, belong to them
equally with Canadians of British origin, and ni the sober exercise
of constitutional liberty, they are for happier and better every way
than they could possibly be as a province of France, an independent
republic, like Mexico, or a State of the American Union. The
course pursued hitherto by the majority of the French-Canadians
clearly showed they were unfitted 'jr the sober exercise of constitu-
tional government, and that the peace and prosperity of these
provinces could alone be effectually secured by uniting that ma-
jority more intimately with the inhabitants of British descent. The
governmental hypothesis assumed by Mr Pitt in 1791 had been
found by experience to be completely in error, and the policy of
union advocated by his great rival Fox was at length about to
triumph.*

* The following letter from Mr Thompson to I-ord John Russell, under d.ite
18th Nov. 1S39, presents a correct picture of how matters stood at this period : —

" My Lord, — I have the honour to inform your lordship, that h.aving summoned
the Special Council by proclamation, to meet on Monday, the nth instant, I then
submitted to them the question of the reunion of the two provinces of Upper
and Lower Canada, and solicited their opinion respecting it.

" On Thursday, the 14th inst., I received from that body the address, of which,
and my answer, I have the lionour to enclose copies ; and I likewise transmit an
extract from the journals, from wliich your loidsliip will learn their proceedings.

" I beg your lordship to remaik, that the members composing the Special
Council remain the same as during the administration of my predecessor. It may
be necessary hereafter, in the exercise of my discretion, to make some alterations,
with a view to increase the efficiency of that body; but I felt that, as the opinions
of her Majesty's Government in regard to the union are well known, it was
extremely desirable that I should, if possible, submit the consideration of that
imj'iortant cpiestion to a council in whose selection I had myself had no voice.

*' It appeared to me that to secure the due weight in the mother-country to the

The History of Canada.

479

The preliminary steps towards the union having been fully a.ccom-
[)lished in Lower Canada, the Governor-General proceeded to the
Upper Province, and arrived at Toronto on the 21st of November.
On the following day he assumed temporary charge of the adminis-

jutlgment of a body so constituted, it was indispensable to avoid even the possi-
bility of an imputation that I had selected for its members those only whose
opinions coincided with my own.

" I had moreover every reason to believe, from the motives which guided my
predecessor in his choice, that the council contains a very fair representation of
the state of feeling in the different districts of the province.

"P^ortliese reasons I determined on making no alteration whatever ; and it is
with great satisfaction that I can now refer to the opinions of this body, adopted
almost unanimously. Their views as to the urgency of the union, and the advan-
tages likely to result from it to the province, are set forth in their address in
terms so forcible, as to leave me nothing to say with reference to their opinion.
But I must add, that it is my decided conviction, grounded upon such other
opportunities as I have enjoyed since my arrival in this country of ascertaining
the state of public feeling, the speedy adoption of that measure by Parliament is
indispensable to the future peace and prosperity of this province.

" All parties look with extreme dissatisfaction at the present state of govern-
ment. Those of British origin, attached by feeling and education to a con-
stitutional form of government, although they acquiesced at the time in the
establishment of arbitrary power, as a refuge from a yet worse despotism, submit
with impatience to its continuance, and regret the loss, through no fault of their
own, of what they consider as their birthright. Those of the French-Canadians
who remained loyal to their Sovereign and true to the British connexion, share
the same feeling ; whilst among those who are less well affected or more easily
deceived, the suspension of all constitutional rights affords to reckless and un-
principled agitators a constant topic of excitement.

"All parties, therefore, without exception, demand a change ; on the nature of
that change, there undoubtedly exists some difference of opinion.

" In a country so lately convulsed, and where passions are still so much
excited, extreme opinions cannot but exist ; and accordingly, while some per-
sons advocate an immediate return to the former constitution of the province,
others propose either the exclusion from political privileges of all of French
origin, or the partial dismemberment of the province, with the view of conferring
nn one portion a representative system, while maintaining in the other a
despotism.

" I have observed, however, that the advocates of these widely different
ojiinions have generally admitted them to be their aspirations, rather than
measures which could practically be adopted, and have been unable to suggest
any course except the union by which that at which they aim, namely, con-
stitutional government for ihtmstlves, could be permanently and safely cstal>
lished.

" There exists, too, even amongst these persons, a strong and prevailing desire
that the Imperial Legislature should take the settlement of Canadian affairs at
once into its own hands, rather than that it should be delayed by reference to
individual opinions, or to those put forward by different sections of local parties.

'• The large majority, however, of those whose opinions I have had the oppor-

It!

'■ ,■)■

i!!r

480

The History of Canada.

tration, and was sworn in at the Council Chamber, in presence cf
the heads of departments and several of the principal inhabitants,
when the Lieutenant-Governor, Sir George Arthur, still the decided
enemy of responsible government, placed the great seal of the pro-
vince in liis hands. The Legislature of Upper Canada had already
been summoned to meet for the despatch of business on the 3d of
December. On that day, the last session of the last Parliament of
this province was opened by the Governor-General with a lucid
speech, wliich showed the intimate knowledge he had already
acquired of the condition of affairs.*

! .-,1!"

tunily of learning, both of the Britisn and French origin, and of those, too, who>e
character and station entitle them to the greatest autliority, advocate warmly
the establishment of the union, and that upon terms of jierfect fairness, not
merely to the two provinces, but to the two races within these provinces. Of the
extent to which this feeling with regard to the upper province is carried, your
lordship will find a most conclusive proof in the resolution ol" the Special Council
respecting tlie debt of Upper Canada. I3y this resolution a large sum, owing l)y
that province on account of public works of a general nature, is proposed to be
charged on the joint revenues of the united provinces. Upon other details of the
arrangement, the same feeling prevails. It would be, however, useless for me to
trouble your lordship with respect to them, until 1 have had the opinions enter-
tained by the people of Upper Canada. If, however, as I trust, the principle of
reunion should meet with their assent, I ana of opinion that it can only be in
consequence of demands of an unwarrantable character upon their part, that
difliculty will arise in settling principal terms "

* "In discharge of the duties of Governor-General of British North America,
confided to me by our gracious Sovereign, I have deemed it advisable to taka
the earliest opportunity of visiting this province, and of assembling Parliament.

" I am commanded by the Queen ;o assure you of her Majesty's fixed deter,
minatifiii to maintain the connexion now subaisting between her North American
possessions and the United K,' ;dom, and to exercise the high authority with
which she has been invested, by the favour of Divine Providence, for the promo-
tion of their happiness, and the security of her dominions.

"It is with great satisfaction I can inform you that I have no grounds for
apprehending a recurrence of those aggressions upon our frontier which we had
lately to deplore, and which afllx an indelible disgrace on their authors.

" If, however, unforeseen circumstances should again call for exertion, I
know from the past, that in the zeal and loyalty of the people of Upper Canada,
and in the protection of the parent state, we possess ample means of defence, and
to those I should conlidently appeal.

"I earnestly hope, that this state of tranquillity will prove favourable to the
consideration of the important matters to which your attention must be called
during the present session.

" It will be my duty to bring under your consideration, at the earliest possible
moment, the subject of the legislative reunion of this province with Lower
Canada — recommended by her M.ijesty to the Imperial Parliament. I shall do
Bo in the full confidence that vou will see, in the measure which I shall have to

The History of Canada.

481

The Governor-General had speedily discovered, on his arrival in
Upper Canada, that considerable difficulty would be experienced in
procuring the assent of its Legislature to the union. However favour-
ably disposed the Assembly might be to that measure, the majority
of the Upper House were decidedly opposed to it. Responsible

submit, a fresh proof of the deep interest felt by the Queen in the welfare of her
subjects in Upper Canada, and that it will receive from you that calm and de-
liberate consideration which its importance demands.

"The condition of the public departments in the province will require your
best attention. In compliance with the address of the House of Assembly of last
session, the Lieutenanant-Governor appointed a commission to invesiiyate and
report upon the manner in which the duties of those departments are performed.
The commissioners have already conducted their inquiries to an advanced stage ;
and the result of them will be communicated to you as soon as they shall be
completed.

"1 am happy to inform you that her Majesty's Government have concluded
an arrangement for opening a communication by steam between Great Britain
and the British possessions in North America. In the completion of this arrange-
ment, her Majesty's Government have allowed no consideration to interfere with
the paramount object of promoting the public advantage and convenience. I
feel confident that the liberality with which the parent state has assumed the
whole expense of the undertaking will be duly appreciated by you.

' ' The answers of her Majesty to various addresses, adopted by you during your
last session, and her Majesty's decisions on the bills passed by you, but reserved
for the signification of her royal pleasure, will be made known to you without
loss of time.

"The financial condition of the province will claim your early and most atten-
tive consideration. To preserve public credit is at all times a sacred obligation ;
but in a country so essentially dependent upon it for the means of future improve-
ment, it is a matter no less of policy than of duty. It is indispensable, then, that
measures should be at once adopted for enabling the provincial revenue to
fulfil its obligations, and to defray the necessary expenses of the Government. It
will be my anxious desire to co-operate with you in effecting' this object ; and I
teel confident that, by the adoption of measures calculated to promote the full
development of the resources ot tiiis tine country, the difficulty may be overcome.
The officer by whom, under your authority, these obligations have been contracted,
will be able to afford you every information ; and I shall direct a statement of
your financial condition to be immediately submitted to you.

" The estimates for the ensuing year will be prej)ared with every regard for
economy, compatible with the due execution of the service of the province.

"It is with great satisfaction I find that notwithstanding commercial difficulties
which prevail in the neighbouring States, the banks of this province have re-
sumed specie payments ; and I congratulate you upon the guarantee thus aftbrded
of the greater security and stability of our pecuniary transactions — a circumstance
which cannot fail to be attended with the most beneficial results.

" I am commanded again to submit to you the surrender of the casual and
territorial revenues of the Crown, in exchange for a civil list ; and 1 shall take
an early opportunity of explaining the grounds on which her Majesty's Govern-
ment felt precluded from aseenting to the settlement which you lately proposed-

2 H

,:v ^ I

■I

482

The History of Canada.

''.If: ■

government must follow in its wake, and in the re-organisation of
the Council, the Family Compact saw that the last remnant of their
power must for ever disappear. Hitherto, the principal offices of
Government and the seats in the Legislative Council were regarded
almost as the hereditary rights of a few leading families. Members
of the executive who happened to belong to the Legislature, had
Uf .! ■!' spoken and acted in their individual capacity, without the
sligbtust reference to the views or wishes of the Governor. All this
would be changed by the system now proposed to be adopted, which
must improve the position of the representatives of the Crown, as
well as elevate the people. The oligarchy alone would suffer by the
chcJT „? ,). d they, accordingly, now felt indisposed to submi. to the
lOi ^ij>c-v,r it must entail. The Governor-General saw at once
the crii I \ Ion of matters, and with great tact published at the

right tune a desprtch, which plainly indorsed his views, from Lord
John ','.u«3ell, *.>>' ■i '••' it placed the majority of the Legislative
Couiica 111 "'^po.'.. io the Crown, must necessarily, in conse-

quence of theii 1 J .X . ^n,;tnt thereto, compel their submission.
Agreeable to the tenor of this despatch, also, such of the members
of the executive as belonged to the Legislature were under the
necessity of supporting the union or of resigning their places. The
majority of them preferred the former course, and the Union Bill
was accordingly introduced as a Government measure. Having
smoothed the way thus far, his Excellency transmitted a message to
the Legislature on the 7th of December, which clearly set forth the
policy he desired it to pursue. *

They are of a nature which lead me to anticipate your ready assent to their re-
moval, and to the final settlement of the question.

" In assuming the administration of the government of these provinces, at the
present time, 1 have not disguised from myself the arduous task which I have
undertaken. The affairs of the Canadas have, for some years back, occupied
much of the attention of the Imperial Parliament, and of the Government ;
and their settlement upon a firm and comprehensive basis admits of no further
delay.

" To effect that settlement, upon terms satisfactory to the people of these pro-
vinces, and affording security for their continued connexion with the British Em-
pire, will be my endeavour ; and I confidently appeal to your wisdom and to the
loyalty and good sense of the people of this province, to co-operate with me for
the preparation and adoption of such measures as may, under Divine Providence,
restore to this country peace, concord, and prosperity."

• The following is the Governor-General's message : —

" In pursuance of the intention expressed in his speech from the throne, the
Governor- General desires now to bring under the consideration of the House
of Assembly the subject of the reunion of this province with Lower Canada,

The History of Canada, 483

The question of the union of the provinces of Upper and Lower

recommended by her Majesty in her gracious message to both Houses of Parlia-
ment on the 3d of May last.

" For several years the condition of the Canadas has occupied a large portion
of the attention of Parliament. That they should be contented and prosperous ;
that the ties which bind them to the parent state should be strengthened ; that
their administration should be conducted in accordance with the wishes of the
people, is the ardent desire of every British statesman ; and the experience of the
last few years amply testifies that Parliament has been sparing neither of the time
it has devoted to the investigation of their affairs, nor of the expenditure it has
sanctioned for their protection.

"The events which have marked the recent history of Lower Canada are so
familiar to the House of Assembly, that it is unnecessary for the Governor-General
further to allude to them. There, the Constitution is suspended, but the powers
of the Government are inadequate to permit of the enactment of such permanent
laws as are required for the benefit of the people.

" Within this province the finances are deranged ; public improvements are
suspended ; private enterprise is checked ; the tide of immigration, so essential to
the prosperity of the country and to the British connexion, has ceased to flow ;
while by many the general system of government is declared to be unsatisfactory.

" After the most attentive and anxious consideration of the state of these pro-
vinces, and the difficulties under which they respectively labour, her Majesty's
advisers came to the conclusion, that by their reunion alone could these difficulties
be removed. During the last session of the Imperial Legislature they indeed
refrained from pressing immediate legislation, but their hesitation proceeded from
no doubt as to the measure or its necessity. It arose solely from a desire to ascer-
tain more fully the opinions of the Legislature of Upper Canada, and to collect
information from which the details might be rendered more satisfactory to the
people of both provinces.

"The time then is now arrived beyond which a settlement cannot be post-
poned. In Lower Canada it is indispensable to afford a safe and practicable
return to a constitutional government, and so far as the feelings of the inhabitants
can be there ascertained, the measure of the reunion meets with approbation.

" In Upper Canada it is no less necessary, to enable the province to meet her
financial embarrassments, and to proceed in the development of her natural
resources. There are evidently no means in this province of fulfilling the
pecuniary obligations which have been contracted, but by a great increase in the
local revenues. But so long as Lower Canada remains under her present form of
government, neither province possesses any power over the only source from
which that increase can be drawn. Nor even, were it possible to restore a repre-
sentative constitution to Lower Canada, unaccompanied by the union, would the
position of this province be much improved, since past experience has shown the
difficulty of procuring assent to any alteration of the customs laws suggested from
hence.

"This province has engaged in undertakings which reflect the highest honour
on the enterprise and industry of her inhabitants. The public works which she
has completed or commenced, have been conceived in a spirit worthy of a success-
ful result. But additional means are indispensable to avert the ruin of some, and
secure the completion of others. Nor will that alone suffice ; Lower Canada holds

484 The History of Cajiada.

Canada, having been satisfactorily disposed of in the Upper House,

the key to all those improvements. Without her co-operation, the navigation for
which nature has done so much, and for which this province has so deeply
burthened itself, must remain incomplete, and a barrier be opposed to the
development of those great natural resources which the hand of Providence has so
lavishly bestowed on this country.

" With a view to remove all those difficulties ; to relieve the financial embar-
rassments of Upper Canada ; to enable her to complete her public works and to
develop her agricultural capabilities ; to restore constitutional government to
Lower Canada; to establish a firm, impartial, and vigorous government for both ;
and to unite the people within them in one common feeling of attachment to
British institutions and British connexion, the union is desired by her Majesty's
Government; and that measure alone, if based upon just principles, appears
adequate to the occasion.

" Those principles, in the opinion of her Majesty's advisers, are, a just regard to
the claims of either province in adjusting the terms of the union, the maintenance
of the three estates of the Provincial Legislature, the settlement of a permanent
civil list for securing the independence of the judges and to the executive govern-
ment that freedom of action which is necessary for the public good, and the
establishment of a system of local government adapted to the wants of the
people.

" It was with great satisfaction then that her Majesty's Government learnt, that
upon the question of the union itself the House of Assembly had pronounced their
decided judgment during their last session ; and it will only remain for the
Governor-General now to invite their assent to the terms upon which it is sought
to be effected. Their decision was indeed accompanied by recommendations to
which the Government could not agree ; but the Governor-General entertains no
doubt that, under the altered circumstances, they will no more be renewed. It
will be for the Imperial Parliament, guided by their intimate knowledge of consti-
tutional law, and free from the bias of local feelings and interests, to arrange the
details of the measure.

" The first of the terms of reunion, to which the Governor-General desires the
assent of the House of Assembly, is equal representation of each province in a
united legislature. Considering the amount of the population of Lower Canada,
this proposition might seem to place that province in a less favourable position
than Upper Canada ; but, under the circumstances in which this province is placed,
with the increasing population to be expected from immigration, and having regard
to the commercial and agricultural enterprise of its inhabitants, an equal appor-
tionment of representation appears desirable.

" The second stipulation to be made is the grant of a sufficient civil list. The
propriety of rendering the judicial bench independent alike of the Executive and
the Legislature, and of the furnishing the means of carrying on the indispensable
services of the Government, admits of no question, and has been affimied by the
Parliament of Upper Canada in the acts passed by them for effecting those objects.
In determining the amount of the civil list, the House of Assembly may be assured
that the salaries and expenses to be paid from it will be calculated by her
Majesty's Government with a strict regird to economy and the state of the pro-
vincial finances.

"Thirdly, the Governor-General is prepared to recommend to Parliament,

The History of Canada.

485

there was no further difficulty to be apprehended. The House of
Assembly had already favourably considered the measure, and at

that so much of the existing debt of Upper Canada as has been contracted for
jmblic works of a general nature, should, after the union, be charged on the
joint revenue of the united provinces. Adverting to the nature of the works for
which this debt was contracted, and the advantage which must result from them
to Lower Canada, it is not unjust that that province should bear a proportion of
their expenses.

" On these principles, the Governor-General is of opinion that a reunion of the
two provinces may be effected — equitable and satisfactory in its terms, and bene-
ficial in its results to all classes. He submits them to the consideration of the
House of Assembly, in the full conviction of their importance, and in the hope
that they will receive the assent of that House. Fortified by the expression of
their opinion, her Majesty's Government and Parliament will be able at once to
apply themselves to the full development of the scheme, and to the consideration
of the provision by which it may be carried into effect with the greatest advantage
to the people of both provinces.

*' If, in the course of their proceedings, the House of Assembly should desire
any information \vhich it is in the power of the Governor-General to afford, they
will find him ready and anxious to communicate with them frankly and fully,
and to aid, by all the means in his power, that settlement on which he firmly
believes that the future prosperity and advancement of these colonies mainly
depend."

This message led to the passage of the following resolutions in the Legislative
Council by a large majority : —

" Resolved, i, — That the events which have lately marked the history of Lower
Canada — the consequent necessity for a suspension of her constitution, and inade-
quacy of the powers of the Government existing there for the enactment of per-
manent laws, such as are required for the benefit of the people, present a state of
public affairs in the sister province deeply to be deplored by this House, as well
from a disinterested anxiety for the welfare of a people so nearly connected with
Upper Canada, as in consideration of the injurious consequences resulting to this
community from a continuance of the unsettled political condition of the lower
province.

" Resolved, 2,— That the present derangement of the finances of Upper Canada
— the total suspension of her public improvements — the paralysed condition of
private enterprise — the cessation of immigration, and the apparent impossibility of
tlie removal of these evils, without the united efforts of both the Canadian pro-
vinces — make the adoption of some great measure necessary, which will restore
prosperity to the Canadas, and renew confidence at home and abroad in the
stability of their political institutions.

" Resolved, 3, — That considering the hopelessness arising from past experience,
and from a view of the political condition of Lower Canada, of ever realising in
separate legislatures the unity of feeling or action in measures affecting equally
the interests of both provinces, on which the prosperity or safety of either may
essentially depend, a reunion of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada has,
in the opinion of this House, become indispensable for the restoration of good
government within these colonies, and for the preservation of institutions in con-
nexion with the parent state.

486

The History of Canada.

once proceeded to pass resolutions, four in number, in accordance
with the recommendation in the Governor-General's message.*

"Resolved, 4, — That for these urgent reasons, the assent of this Mouse be
expressed to the enactment of the important measure of reunion of the provinces
of Upper and Lowrer Canada, recommended by her Majesty to both Houses of
Parliament, and to the Houses of the Provincial Legislature by his Excellency
the Governor-General ; and that such assent, on the part of this House, be given
on the following terms ; —

"First, That ♦here be an equal representation of each province in the united
Legislature.

" Secondly, That a sufficient permanent civil list be granted to her Majesty, to
enable her Majesty to render the judicial bench independent alike of executive
power and popular influence, and to carry on the indispensable services of govern-
ment.

"Thirdly, That the public debt of this province, contracted for public works
of a general nature, shall, after the union, be charged on the joint revenue of the
united province.

" Resolved, 5, — That in yielding this ready concurrence to the measure of the
reunion of the provinces, strongly recommended by her Majesty, the Legislative
Council of Upper Canada rely upon the wisdom and justice of their most gracious
Sovereign, and of her Majesty's Parliament, for devising the details of the plan of
reunion, and for the establishment of such a system of government in the united
province, as will tend to the development of its natural resources, and enable it,
with the blessing ot Divine Providence, to pursue steadily, and free from the
distractions by which the country has IpLely been divided, the course of prosperity
and happiness, which the best interests of the people of Canada, and of the
empire, alike require not to be longer impeded."

* " Resolved, — That the House of Assembly, at its last session, declared that,
in their opinion, a united legislature for the Canadas, on certain terms, was in-
dispensable, and that further delay must prove ruinous to their best interests,
and that his Excellency, the Governor- General, by his message to this House, has
announced, that with a view to remove the difficulties of these provinces, to
relieve the financial embarrassment of Upper Canada, to enable her to complete
her public works, and develop her agricultural capabilities, to restore constitu-
tional government to Lower Canada, to establish a firm, impartial, and vigorous
government for both, and to unite the people within them in one common feeling
of attachment to British institutions and British connexion ; the legislative union
of Upper and Lower Canada has been recommended by her Majesty to the Im-
perial Parliament j and his Excellency the Governor-General has invited the assent
of this House to certain specified terms, upon which that union may be established.
It, therefore, becomes the duty of the representatives of the people of this province
carefully to consider the provisions by which this measure may be carried into
effect, with the greatest security to their future peace, welfare, and good govern-
ment, and the permanent connexion of these colonies with the British Empire."
— Yeas, forty-seven. Nays, six.

" Resolved, — That this House concur in the proposition that there be an equal
representation of each province in the united Legislature." — Yeas, thirty-three.
Nays, twenty.

" Resolved, — That this House concur in the proposition, that a sufficient civil list

The History of Canada^ 48 7

Thus satisfactorily terminated in Canada the important proceedings

be granted to her Majesty, for securing the independence of the judges, and to the
Executive Government that freedom of action which is necessary for the public
good. The grant for the person administering the government, and for the judges
of the several superior courts, to be permanent ; and for the officers conducting the
other departments of the public service, to be for the life of the Sovereign, and
for a period of not less than ten years." — Yeas, forty-three. Nays, eight.

" Resolved, — That the public debt of this province shall, after the union, be
charged on the joint revenue of the united province." — Unanimous.

In accordance with these resolutions the following address was voted to her
Majesty, and transmitted to England through the Governor-General : —

"We, your Majesty's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Commons of Upper
Canada, in Provincial Parliament assembled, beg permission to approach your
Majesty with renewed expression of our unwavering attachment to your Majesty's
royal person and government.

" During the present session of your Provincial Parliament, a subject more im-
portant than any that has ever engaged the attention of the representatives of the
people, has been brought under their consideration, in pursuance of the commands
of your Majesty, by your Majesty's Governor-General of these provinces, namely,
the legislative reunion of Upper and Lower Canada. In the message of his Ex-
cellency to the two branches of the Legislature, they are informed that ' after the
most attentive and anxious consideration of the state of these provinces, and of the
difficulties under which they respectively labour, your Majesty's advisers came to
the conclusion that by their reunion alone could these difficulties be removed ;
that during the last session of the Imperial Legislature they refrained from press-
ing immediate legislation, but their hesitation proceeded from no doubt as to the
principle of the measure, or its necessity ; it arose solely from the desire to ascer-
tain more fully the opinions of the Legislature of Upper Canada, and to collect
information from which the details might be rendered more satisfactory to the
people of both provinces.'

••The House of Assembly deeply feel this additional proof of your Majesty's
solicitude for their happiness and prosperity ; and it will ever be held by them in
grateful remembrance.

•' In pursuance of the message referred to, the House of Assembly lost no time
in taking into consideration three distinct propositions submitted by your Majesty's
Governor-General as the basis on which the reunion might be established, namely,
first, equal representations of each province in the united legislature ; — secondly,
the grant of a sufficient civil list ; and, thirdly, that the public debt of this pro-
vince be charged on the joint revenue of the united province.

•• In the discussion of these propositions, it happened that some of the mem-
bers of this House, apprehending the greatest danger to our civil and political
institutions, and even to our connexion with the parent state, were opposed to the
union on any terms, while of those who supported the measure, there were many
who were not wholly free from apprehensions as to the result, and who regarded
it as a hazardous experiment, unless in addition to terms submitted by the Governor-
General, certain details calculated to secure their connexion with the Imperial
Crown should accompany their concurrence with the terms proposed. A majority,
however, gave their unconditional assent to the propositions above mentioned, in
the fullest confidence that your Majesty, in calling the attention of the Imperial

488

The History of Canada.

relative to a union of the provinces. Tlie action of the Imperial
Parliament was now alone necessary for its final accomplish-
ment, and the Governor-General lost no time in transmit-

1840.

ting to England an account of his success, and a draft of a Union

Parliament to tlie union, wouUl at llie same time recommend the adoption of
every necessary safeguard to the maintenance of British interests and British
supremacy. It is in this confidence that we now humbly submit to your Majesty's
most gracious consideration the following propositions which, in the opinion of this
House, are calculated to secure the great end, in expectation whereof the assent to
the union was given : —

" And first, we respectfully entreat your Majesty, that the use of the Englisli
language in all judicial and legislative records be forthwith introduced ; and that
at the end of a space of a given number of years, after the union, all debates in
the Legislature shall be in English. And as a matter of justice to your Majesty's
subjects in Upper Canada, we earnestly and confidently appeal to your Majesty
to admit their right to have the seat of the Provincial Government established
within this province. It cannot be denied to the people of this colony, that if
favour is to be shown to either Upper or Lower Canada, their claim stands pre-
eminent ; independent of which, the moral and political advantages of the conces-
sion are too obvious and undeniable to admit of dispute.

" It is with the most sincere satisfaction that this House has received from your
Majesty's representative the assurance that the bill introduced into the House of
Commons during the last session of the Imperial Legislature, is not to be ' con-
sidered as embodying the provisions which may hereafter be adopted by the
Imperial Parliament.' And, • that it is his Excellency's intention to recommend
to her Majesty's Government, in the new measure that must be introduced, to
adhere as much as possible to existing territorial divisions for electoral purposes,
and to maintain the principle of the Constitutional Act of 1 791, with regard to the
tenure of seats in the Legislative Council.'

"We would further respectfully submit the necessity of providing that the
members of the Legislature should possess a slake in the country equal to that
now required by the laws of this province, that to the call of public duty that of
private interest may be added, as an inducement to wise and careful legislation ;
and for this purpose we trust that a sufiicient qualification in real estate will be
required from any person holding a seat in the Legislature,

•' We would also respectfully suggest to your Majesty the paramount subject of
immigration from the British Isles, which we consider the best calculated to render
the united province British in fact as well as in name. No time, in our humble
opinion, should be lost in the establishment and vigorous prosecution of a well-
organised system of immigration, calculated to afford every possible facility to the
settlement of that extensive domain, the proceeds of which have been proposed
to be surrendered to the control of the Provincial Legislature, upon certain terms
and conditions, which in Upper and Lower Canada is at present, in right of the
Crown, at your Majesty's disposal.

" We have no desire to interfere unnecessarily in questions of detail, which
more immediately affect the sister province ; but we cannot omit respectfully
soliciting your Majesty's attention to the introduction of a system of municipal
government into Lower Canada, in order to provide for local taxation, and

The History of Canada.

489

Bill* principally prepared by Sir James Stuart. The Imperial
Parliament vras then in session, and Lord John Russell, on receiving
intelligence of the proceedings in the Legislature of Upi)er Canada,

under local manafjcment, on the same principles as have obtained in Upper
Canada, wiiere the system e.stal)!ished by the Provincial I-cfjislature, after
repeated and careful revision, has in its operation proved highly satisfactory to
the people.

" We would, lastly, desire humbly to assure your Majesty, that to the principles
on which our Constitution has been established, to the representative mode of
government under a monarchy, and to a permanent connexion with the British
Empire, and a dutiful allegiance to our Sovereign, the people of Upper Canada
most faithfully and firmly adhere.

"It is only from apprehensions of danger on these most important matters,
that doubt or difficulty has been felt in assenting to the union ; and we therefore
now humbly trust that your Majesty, fully acquainted with our situation, will not
confine your royal consideration to the claims that are referred to in this address,
or in any other proceeding of this House, but that, continuing to us that gracious
and generous protection we have hitherto experienced from your Majesty and the
British nation, your Majesty will add such future safeguards in your wisdom
maybe thought necessary and desirable to protect your faitlilul subjects in the
peaceful enjoyment of their laws and liberties, and to perpetuate their connexion
with your Majesty's Crown and Empire."

* It provides for the union under the name of The I'RdViNCE of Canada.

For the constitution of one Legislative Council an one House of Assembly,
under the title of "The Legislative Council and Assei..)ly of Canada.

The Council not to be composed of fewer than twenty natural born or natu-
ralised subjects of the Queen, the tenure of such office being for life, excepting
the member chooses to resign, is absent from his duties without cause or permission
for two successive sessions, shall become a citizen or subject of any foreign power,
or become bankrupt, an insolvent debtor, public defaulter, or attainted of treason,
or be convicted of felony, or of any infamous crime.

The Speaker of the Legislative Council to be appointed by the Governor, who
may remove him and appoint another. Ten members to constitute a quorum,
including the Speaker.

The Houses of Assembly to consist of members chosen from the same places
as heretofore divided into counties and ridings in Upper Canada ; but that the
counties of Halton, Northumberland, and Lincoln shall each be divided into two
ridings, and return one member for each riding.

That the city of Toronto shall have two members ; and the towns of Kingston,
Brockville, Hamilton, Cornwall, Niagara, London, and Bytown, one each.

That in Lower Canada every county heretofore represented by one member,
shall continue to be so represented, excepting Montmorency, Orleans, L'Assomp-
tion. La Chesnaye, L'Acadia, La Prairie, Dorchester, and Beauce. These to be
conjoined as follows : Montmorency and Orleans into the county of Montmo.
rency ; L'Assomption and La Chesnaye to be the county of Leinster ; L'Acadia
and La Prairie, that of Huntingdon ; and Dorchester and Beauce, that of Dor-
chester ; and each of these four new counties to return one member.

The cities of Quebec and Montreal to return two members each ; and the
towns of Tluee Rivers and Sherbrooke, one each.

490

The History of Canada.

■'¥A

laid the bill before the Commons ; which, with the exception of
clauses for the creation of municipal councils, which were most
properly left for local legislation, passed both Houses, and received

The qualifications of a member to be those of botia fide possession of landed
estate Avorth ;^5CX) sterling.

The English language is to be only used in all written or printed proceedings of
the Legislature.

The passing of any bill to repeal the provision of the r4th George III., or in
the acts of 31st of the same reign relating to the government of the Province of
Quebec, and the dues and rights of the clergy of the Church of Rome ; the allot-
ment or appropriation of lands for the support of a Pre ;estant clergy ; the endow-
ments of the Church of England, or its internal discipline or establishment, or
affecting the enjoyment or exercise of any form or mode of religious worship in
any way whatever ; or which may affect her Majesty's prerogative touching the
waste lands of the Crown, must be first submitted to the Imperial Parliament
previous to the declaration of the Sovereign's assent, and that if the Imperial
Legislature shall petition the Queen to withhold her assent within thirty days
after such act shall have been received, it shall not be lawful to affix the Royal
assent thereto.

The levying of imperial and colonial duties ; the appointment of a court of
appeal ; the administration of the civil and criminal laws ; the fixation of the
Court of Queen'" Bench within the late Province of Upper Canada ; the regulation
of trade ; the consolidation of all the revenues derivable from the coloiy into one
fund, to be apprvipriated for the public service of Canada.

Out of this fund;^45,cxx) to be payable to her Majesty, her heirs and successors,
for the purpose of defraying the expenses for the administration of the government
and the laws on the Civil List, as follows : —

Governor, ;^ 7000 ; Lieutenant-Governor, ;^icx)0.

Upper or Western Canada.
One Chiv?'"-Justice, j^i5cx) ; Four Puisne Judges, £,<y^o each, ;^36oo; One
Vice-Chancellor, £,\\2i.

Lower or Eastern Canada.

One Chief-Justice, ;^i 500 ; Three Puisne Judges, Quebec, /'900 each, ;^27oo ;
One Chief-Justice, Montreal, ;^noo ; Three Puisne Judges, Montreal, ;^90O each,
;^2700 ; One Resident Judge at Three Rivers, ;^900 ; One Judge of the Inferior
District of Gaspe.^soo ; One Judge of the Inferior District of St Francis, ;^500 ;
Pensions to Judges, Salaries of the Attorneys and Solicitors-General, and Con-
tingent and Miscellaneous Expenses of the administration of justice throughout
the Province of Canada, £20,%"}%,,

And a further sum of ;^3o,ooo out of the said Consolidated Revenue Fund for
defraying the under-mentioned expenses of the Government : —

Civil Secretaries and their Offices, ;^8ooo ; Provincial Secretaries and their
Offices, ;^3ooo ; Receiver-General and his Office, ;^300o ; Inspector-General and
his Office, £,2000 \ Executive Council, ;^30oo ; Board of Works, £,2000 ; Emigrant
Agent, £100; Pensions, ;^5ooo ; Contingent Expenses of Public Offices, ;^3300.

Both sums to be paid by the Receiver-General, upon the Governor's warrants,
and the Receiver-General to account to the Lords of the Treasury; and all the

the
18

The History of Canada.

491

the royal assent on the 23d July. Owing to a suspending clause it
did not take effect, however, till the loth of February 1841,

1841.

when it was declared in force by proclamation.

expenditure thereon to be laid before the Provincial Parliament .vilhin thirty days
after the commencement of each session.

The total sum of ;^75,ooo thus raised and paid for the civil list, to be accepted
and taken by her Majesty by way of civil list, instead of all territorial and oilier
revenues then at the disposal of the Crown.

The first charge upon the consolidated revenue fund to be its collection,
management, and receipt ; the second, the public debt of the two provinces at the
time of the union ; the tliird, the payment of the clergy of the Church of England,
Church of Scotland, and the ministers of other Christian denominations, agreeably
to previous laws and usages ; the foui th charge to be the civil list of ;^45,ooo ;
and the fifth, that of/'jo.ooo, payable during the lifetime of her Majesty, and
for five years after her demise. The sixth charge to be that of the expenses and
charges before levied and reserved by former acts of the two provinces, as lon^
as they are payable.

All bills for appropriating any part of the revenues of the united province to
originate with the Governor, who shall have the right of initiating the same, as
well as of recommending the appropriation of any new tax or impost, and that,
having thus been recommended, the Legislative Assembly shall first discuss the
same.

The formation of new townships to originate with the Governor, as well as the
appointment of township officers. The power vested in the Queen to annex the
Magdalen Islands to the Government of the Island of Prince Edward, in the Gulf
of St Lawrence ; and the appointment of Governor of the Province of Canada, to
be understood as meaning Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, or person authorised
by her Majesty, her heirs and successors, to execvte the office of Governor of that
province.

til

(

!! 'I'

CHAPTER XXIII.

GOVERNMENT OF LORD SYDENHAM, — COIlt'mUCd.

THE most important and pressing Canadian question after tlie
Union, was that of the Clergy Reserves, and it was, there-
fore, determined to dispose of it, if possible. A bill was accordingly
introduced by Mr Draper, now Solicitor-General, early in
' January, empowering the Governor to sell these Reserves ;
part of the proceeds to be applied for payment of the salaries of the
existing clergymen of the Church of England, to whom the faith of
the Crown had been pledged. One-half of the remainder was to
go to the Churches of England and Scotland, in proportion to
their respective numbers ; the other half, to all other denominations
of Christians recognised by the existing laws, in a ratio to their
annual private contributions for the support of their ministers.
This bill passed the Assembly by a majority of eight. The
measure, however, did not satisfy the Reform party, and the
Clergy Reserve question continued to be a fruitful source of
agitation.

Meanwhile, an address had been presented by the Assembly to
the Governor-General, in order to elicit a distinct expression of his
views on the question of responsible government. On the 14th of
January he sent down a message in reply, which declared " that he
had been commanded by her Majesty to administer the government
in accordance with the well-understood wishes of the people; and to
pay to their feelings, as expressed through their representatives, the
deference that was justly due to them."

Thus, at last, was the principle of responsible government inter-
woven with the Constitution of Canada, a consummation so long
struggled for by the Reform party. The Governor-General's message
on this head was followed by the removal of Mr Hagerman, the
Attorney-General, who had voted against the union in the Assembly.
Mr Draper was appointed to the vacant post, while Robert Baldwin,

The History of Canada.

493

the principal leader of the constitutional Reformers, was made
Solicitor-General. Mr Hagerman for his long services was raised
to the Bench. The business of the session having been satisfactorily-
concluded, the House was prorogued on the loth of February. The
Governor-General shortly after proceeded to Montreal, where he
summoned the Special Council, not yet dissolved, to meet, and in-
duced it to pass several useful laws.

On Queenston Heights, near where the gallant Brock had fallen
in 1 812, the gratitude of the Canadian people had raised a beautiful
hollow column to his memory, in the base of which his remains, and
those of his aide-de-camp, Colonel M'Donald, had been deposited,
having been removed thither from Niagara. This column was
ascended by one hundred and seventy spiral steps. Its summit
commanded a prospect of the noblest character, stretching over the
blue expanse of Lake Ontario in one direction — in others, over an
interminable succession of cultivated fields and magnificent woods.
On the 17th of April, as day dawned, some ruffian, lost to every
principle of honour, and influenced only with diabolical hatred to
Canada, endeavoured to blow up this column witb gunpowder.
The explosion seriously injured the building. Although a large
reward was offered at the time, no clue to the perpetrator i.as ever
been discovered. But the people of Canada West would not con-
sent that Brock should be without a memorial. A grand and ii."*-
posing meeting, presided over by Sir George Arthur, was held by the
militia and others, to the number of five thousand persons, beneath
the shattered column on the 30th of July, and a subscription entered
into to rebuild it.*

The return of peace ind order had again directed the current
of immigration up the Sl Lawrence, to add to the population and
wealth of the country. During the summer Mr Thompson made
a protracted tour through the several British provinces, and was
very favourably received. While popular with the majority of the
Canadians, his measures had also given entire satisfaction to the
Home Government, and the Queen was accordingly pleased to raise
him to the peerage, by the title of Baron Sydenham of Kent and of
Toronto.

Towards the close of the year, the imprisonment in the United
States of Alexander M'Leod, who had been Deputy Sheriff of the
Niagara District, for his presumed share in the destruc-
tion of the Caroline, threatened to involve this country in
war. His acquittal, however, although by a court which had no
• Another noble column has been erected after many delays.

1841.

!4'
i

,,*H

F ::,.,'

494

T/ie History of Canada.

jurisdiction in his case, released Great Britain from a most
unpleasant dilemma, and terminated the excitement on this head.
As the new year progressed the Conservative and Reform parties
began to prepare for the general election, expected to take place
immediately on the union of the two provinces being officially
proclaimed.

This important event took place on the loth of February, and
as Kingston was now to be the seat of Government, preparations
accordingly were promptly made there for the residence of the
Governor-General and accommodation of the Legislature, On the
13th, writs, returnable on the 8th of April, were issued for a new
election. An Executive Council for United Canada* were also
summoned, and other appointments made at the same time. With
the new order of things ended the Lieutenant-Governorship 01
Upper Canada. Sir George Arthur's rule accordingly terminated.
The administration of the Canadas has since been directed by one
individual, in the person of a Governor-General or his representative.

The elections, at which considerable excitement took place, re-
sulted in the return of a small Reform majority in Upper Canada.
The Conservatives returned a large proportion of members, and it
was evident that these two parties were of very nearly equal strength.
The Family Compact were only able to elect seven members. The
French members, numbering twenty-four, held the balance of power
completely in their hands, and thus occupied a position somewhat
analogous to that held at one time by the O'Connell party in the
British House of Commons.

The Legislature was convened at Kingston on the 13th of June.
The Assembly chose Mr Cuvillier, a French-Canadian Reformer, as
their Speaker. The session was opened by the Governor-General
in a clever and practical speech, alike distinguished for its modera-
tion and good sense. It stated, with regard to M'Leod, whose case
was still undecided, that her Majesty was fully determined to protect
her Canadian subjects to the utmost of her power j it recommended
a new arrangement for the post-office department, the completion of
the public works of the province, for which purpose Great Britain
was prepared to pledge her credit for ;^i, 500,000 sterling, the en-

• This council was composed of Messrs Sullivan, (President,) Dunn, Daly,
Harrison, Ogden, Draper, Baldwin, and Day ; all holding the higher offices of
the state apart from their position of executive councillors. Under the system of
responsible government members of Assembly accepting office are obliged to go
back to their constituencies for re-election. If rejected, as a matter of course they
cannot hold office.

The History of Canada.

495

couragemcnt of immigration on an extended scale, the creation of
municipal councils, and a better provision for education. It also
stated, that a large sum would be annually expended by the Home
Government for the military defences of the country, and declared
the fixed determination of the Queen to maintain, at all hazards,
the existing British provinces of North America as part of the empire.
It concluded with a prayer that Providence might so direct their
councils as to ensure to the Queen attached and loyal subjects,
and to United Canada a prosperous and happy people.

But the fiery political ordeal througli which Canada had so
recently passed, rendered the wisdom and moderation of Lord
Sydenham unavailing in at once removing every trace of dissension.
He had to contend against lingering Tory prejudice, on one hand,
and extreme Reform expectation, on the other, looking at once for
sweeping ultra measures. Mr Baldwin, finding himself at issue on
matters with the rest of the ministry, resigned, and joined himself to
the opposition, formed by some twenty French members and fifteen
Upper Canadian Reformers. Lord Sydenham had another difficulty
to contend with, in the composition of the Legislative Council, into
which many new members were now introduced, whose public repu-
tation had yet to be formed, whilst others were excluded who had
long been members of former councils. Some gentlemen, accord-
ingly, refused to sit in the new council altogether, and others delayed
being sworn in.

But Lord Sydenham was not a man to be deterred by the difficulties
which met him m every direction, and sedulously appHed himself to
release Canada from its depressed condition. He procured the
transfer of the Welland Canal stock from the private holders to the
Government, introduced into the Legislature, during the session,
through the executive members, bills for revising the customs laws,
regulating the currency, promoting education, creating an efficient
Board of Works, and erecting municipal corporations or district
councils. In addition, he did much to heal the soreness of party
feeling, and to cause the Assembly to unite on measures for the
public good. But this benefactor of Canada, and of the empire at
large, was not fated to witness the triumphant results of his labours
in the great prosperity they were destined to produce. Incessant
toil for the preceding two years had undermined a naturally delicate
constitution, and most unfortunately the fall of his horse under him,
while out riding on the 4th of September, fractured his leg, and
caused a severe wound above the knee. His weak frame was unable
to bear up against these injuries, and Canada, on the 19th '-f that

496

The History of Canada.

guided

Its

:.f:.

rnonth, lost the ablest Governor which had hitherto
councils.

Short as his administration had been, his wise and vigorous policy
had effected an immense improvement in the condition of these
provinces. He found them suffering from recent intestine rebellion
and foreign lawless aggression, their exchequer empty, their inhabit-
ants mistrusting one another; and left them in the enjoyment of
peace, mutual confidence in a measure re-established, restored credit,
and the possession of a system of government which promised the
most beneficial results; while the union with the mother-country
was placed on the broad and secure basis of mutual interest and
natural affection. The r .me of Wolfe is a great one in Canadian
annals — that of Brock will never be forgotten by its people — the
memory of Sydenham, the merchant pacificator of Canada, is equally
worthy of reverence and honour. His reputation was a Canadian
and not an English one, and when he desired to be buried at
Kingston, he felt he was about to lay his ashes amid a people,
with whose history he must be for ever associated. No column as
yet has arisen to honour him ; but the Union itself is a fitting
monument to his memory ; and the national peace and prosperity
which it has produced, should teach every true patriot to cherish that
memory with gratitude and respect.

On the 1 8th, the Legislature was prorogued by General Clitherow,
appointed by the dying Governor-General for that purpose. " All
is finished !'\said the Kingston Herald three days afterwards. " Parlia-
ment is prorogued, and the Governor-General is no more. Sic
transit gloria mundi ! Let us now be calm and reflect on these
occurrences, as men and Christians. The first Parliament of United
Canada has ended well — well beyond all expectation, and much
good has been achieved. The main positions of the new Govern-
ment have been sustained, and some of the most essential measures
of reform effected. Conflicting opinions have not been carried out
to an injurious extent in any way, and the members have all parted
in good humour."

It appears as if Providence had decreed that the pact of Union
should be solemnly sealed by the death of him who had so triumphantly
effected it. No sooner had his hand subscribed the instruments of
the first Legislature of United Canada, than it speedily stiffened in
the cold grasp of inexorable death. It seems like sacrilege to sunder
a union thus so strikingly accomplished. Men should pause ere
they rashly make the attempt, and seek lessons of wisdom in the
past.

ill!

sg J

The History of Canada.

497

THE GOVERNMENT OF SIR CHARLES BAGOT.

In England the Whigs had been recently driven from office by
their political opponents, and the latter selected Sir Charles Bagot,
descended from an ancient family, and a High Churchman and
Tory, to be Governor-General of Canada. He arrived at
Kingston on the loth of January, and was very favourably ^ -+2.
received by the inhabitants. The Government had meanwhile been
administered by Sir Richard Jackson, the commander of the forces.

The new Governor-General's antecedents led the Conservative
leaders to imagine that he would speedily lend himself to their views,
and aid, as far as his position would permit him, in establishing their
ascendency in the ministry. Instead, however, of throwing himself
at once into the hands of either party, he passed the winter and
spring in making himself acquainted with the condition of the
country generally, and of its political affairs in particular. Lord
Sydenham, the Reform Governor- General, had been unwilling to
admit any persons at all connected, unfavourably to the Crown, with
the recent rebellion, to his councils. But Sir Charles Bagot, the old
fashioned Tory, had no scruples whatever on this head. He
determined to use whatever party he found capable of supporting
a ministry, and accordingly made overtures to the French-Canadians
and that section of the Reform party of Upper Canada, led by Mr
Baldwin, who then formed the opposition in the Assembly.

There can be no question that this was the wisest line of policy
he could adopt, and that it tended to remove the differences between
the two races, and unite them more cordially for the common weal.
The French-Canadian element was no longer in the ascendant — the
English language had decidedly assumed the aggressive, and true
wisdom consisted in forgetting the past, and opening- the door of
preferment to men of talent of French, as well as to those of British
origin. The necessity of this line of policy was interwoven with the
Union Act ; and, after that, was the first great step towards the
amalgamation of the races. A different policy would have nullified
the principle of responsible government, and must have proved
suicidal to any ministry seeking to carry it out. Sir Charles Bagot
went on the broad principle, that the constitutional majority had
the right to rule under the Constitution.

The course adopted by the Governor-General necessarily caused
some changes in the ministry. Mr Draper resigned the Attorney-
Generalship for Canada West ; Mr Henry Shenvood, Solicitor-
General for the same province, made way for Mr Aylwin. Mr

m A

49S

The History of Canada.

!,.«■

i^n

Hincks was created Inspector-General of Public Accounts ; Mr
Lafontaine became Attorney-General for Canada East ; Mr Baldwin,
for Canada West ; and Mr Morin, Commissioner for Crown Lands.
The decided supporters of the new ministry in the Assembly
amounted to sixty members, the opposition to only twenty-four.
The members of Assembly who accepted office, agreeable to the
practice of the British House of Commons, went back to their
constituents for re-election.

The new Inspector-General, Francis Hincks, and who now appeared
prominently before the public for the first time, was unquestionably
a man of no ordinary stamp. His father, the Rev. Dr Hincks, was a
distinguished minister of the Irish Presbyterian Church, and whose
five sons appear to have all inherited his great abilities. His youngest
son, Francis, was born at Cork about 1806, commenced his educa-
tion at Fermoy, in his fathers grammar school, and eventually com-
pleted it in the classical and mathematical department of the
Belfast Institution. After four months' initiation into business
matters, in the office of a notary, he was articled for five years to
a mercantile firm with whom he duly fulfilled his term in 1828. But
he still remained in Martin & Co.'s employment, continued to
retain their confidence, and sailed as the supercargo of one of their
ships to the West Indies in the spring of 1830. In the same year
he visited the United States and Canada, and determined to settle
in the latter country. In 1832 he married, removed to Toronto, and
commenced mercantile business, in which he did not meet with
much success. His financial abilities, however, soon brought him
into notice, and he was appointed secretary to an insurance company,
cashier to a new banking concern, and was chosen, in 1835, ^0
examine into the affairs of the Welland Canal Company, then in
no small disorder. In the spring of 1838, he commenced the
Exa7)iiner newspaper at Toronto, in the Reform interest, and
speedily became so distinguished as a public journalist, that he was
invited to become a candidate for the representation of the county
of Oxford, in the new Union Parliament. He was returned by a
majority of thirty-one over Carroll, his opponent ; and, after his ap-
pointment as Inspector-General, was again elected for the same
constituency by a much larger vote.

The Legislature was convened on the 8th of September, and
opened by the Governor-General with a satisfactory speech. He
alluded to the great change for the better which had taken place
in the country, stated the very improved condition of the revenue,
the advancement of the public works, the progress of educational

The History of Canada.

499

flicilities, and the spirit of peace and contentment which pervaded
society. After a short session the House was prorogued on the 2 2d
of October. During its continuarice thirty acts were passed, only
a few of which were of much importance. Among the latter was
an act making the law uniform, as regarded the vacation of seats
!)y mem])ers of the Legislative Assembly accepting office ; another
to authorise the raising of a loan in E^ngland of ;^i, 500,000 sterling,
for the construction and comi)letion of public works in the pro-
vince ; and a third granting the sum of £fiz^2)^2> currency, for the
expenses of the civil government of 1842, not otherwise provided
for, and the additional sum of £,2"]. 111 currency, for the same
class of expenditure, from ist January to 31st Alarch 1843. An
account in detail of the expentliture of these sums was to be laid
before the Houses of Parliament fifteen days after the opening ot
the ensuing session.

Towards the close of the year, Sir Charles Bagot's failing health
induced him to request his recall. After a long and severe
illness, iie died on the 19th of May in the following year. '*^*

' GOVERNMENT OF LORD METCALFE.

On the Plome Ministry receiving Sir Charles Bagot's resignation,
Sir Charles !Metcalfe was appointed Governor-General of Canada,
and arrived at Kingston on the 25th of March. Like Lord Syden-
ham, he had worked his way upwards by the force of his natural
abilities and business tact, and not by the influence of great family
connexions. In 1800 he began the world as a writer in the civil
service of the East Lidia Company, and rose step by step from this
humble position, till he became, in 1S34, Acting Governor-General
of India, a post he filled for two years. In 1839 he became Governor
of Jamaica, which he relinquished in 1842, owing to his ill health
and the appearance of a cancer in his face. His partial recovery,
however, induced him, soon after his return to England, to accept the
government of Canada.

Little of importance occurred during the summer. It gradually
drew towards its close, and nothing was as yet known of the course
Sir Charles Metcalfe might ultimately pursue — whetlier he would
support or repudiate the policy of his predecessor. On the 28th
of September, he opened the Legislature with a speech, which was
received very generally with favour, and responded to in courteous
terms by both Houses. As the session progressed, he began gradu-
ally to develop his future policy, and exhibited a decided inclination
to attach himself to the Conservative party, of whom Sir Allan

500

The History of Canada.

\i»

M'Nab was now the acknowledged leader. Some official appoint-
ments from the ranks of that party led to an open rupture with the
ministry in November, and they accordingly tendered their resigna-
tions.

In this condition matters remained till after the termination of the
session, on the 9th December; when tjie Governor-General, while he
declared that he recognised the just power and privileges of the
people to influence their rulers, and to regulate, through their repre-
sentatives, the administration of government, maintained he had the
right to select the executive officers of the Crown. He accordingly
now received the resignations of the ministry, and sought to form a
provisional, or irresponsible, Cabinet for the present. Even this he
soon found to be a most difficult task, as in the present composition
of the House of Assembly all the Conservative leaders were unwill-
ing to take office. Finally, on the i-?th. his Provisional Government
was formed, and was composed of Messrs Viger, Daly, and Draper,
the latter now a member of the Upper House. But his conduct
created much political excitement, and was vigorously denounced by
the Reform press, as well as by the leaders of the Reform party.

The determination having been come to, during the recent session
of the Legislature, to remove the seat of government to
^^' Montreal, that event accordingly took place after the open-
ing of navigation. Monklands was fitted up as the residence of the
Governor-General, and he removed thither in the month of June.

After considerable difficulty, a ministry, under the leadership of
Mr Draper, was at length formed of a Conservative complexion, to
suit Sir Charles Metcalfe, and it was determined to resort to a dis-
solution of Parliament, and appeal to the people for support, of
which there was not the most remote chance as the Assembly were
then constituted. Writs were accordingly issued for a new election
on the 24th of September, and made returnable on the loth of
November following. The election resulted in the return of a small
Conservative majority.

On the 28th of November, the Legislature was convened at Mon-
treal, when Sir Allan M'Nab was chosen Speaker of the Assembly
by a majority of three votes. The speech of the Governor-General
was very moderate in its tone, and chiefly distinguished for its allu-
sions to the continual improvement in the finances of the country,
and in its affairs otherwise. The debate on the address was a very
warm one ; but the opposition, led by Mr Baldwin, were finally de-
feated, on a motion to amend it, by a Conservative majority of six.
About this period the Governor-General was raised to the peerai^t ,

The History of Canada.

501

1845.

by the title of Baron Metcalfe, in consideration of his long and
meritorious services. At the same time, the course he had pursued
was fully sustained by the Home Government.

The following year was chiefly distinguished by two most disas-
trous fires in Quebec, which took place successively on the
28th of May, and on the night of the 28th of June. Several
lives were lost during these conflagrations, and the dwellings of
twenty-four thousand inhabitants destroyed. Many of the sufferers
were reduced to the greatest destitution. To relieve these unfor-
tunate people, many of whom had been reduced from affluence to the
most extreme poverty, ;j^ioo,ooo sterling were raised by subscription
in Great Britain, and ;^35,ooo collected in Canada and elsewhere.
Sheds were promptly erected to shelter the houseless citizens, who
gradually took courage, and before the close of summer the city
again began to rise from its ashes.

The progress of this year produced no change in the Conservative
character of the ministry, which still continued to conduct the govern-
ment, although supported by a very feeble majority in the Assembly.
Lord Metcalfe saw that his line of policy had completely failed, and
now, bitterly assailed by the Reform press, very possibly did not
regret that the circumstance of illness covered his retreat to Eng-
land in the month of November. The cancer on his cheek had
again reappeared, and of which he died shortly after his return
home, universally regretted. Although his governmental policy in
this country was not a successful one, his kindness of disposition
and private liberality had rendered him generally respected.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE EARL OF CATHCART.

On Lord Metcalfe's resignation, Lieutenant-General Earl Cathcart,
commanding the forces in Canada, was appointed administrator of
the government. He took no part in the disputes between the
rival political parties, and whatever might be liis own predilections,
left them to settle their quarrels themselves. His adminis-

tration was chiefly distinguished by an agitation with

1846.

regard to the payment of losses caused by destruction of property
in Lower Canada during the rebellion. In the preceding „
year, the Conservative ministry had recommended the
payment of these losses, and proposed that the special funtl
arising from tavern and other licences should be handed over to
the different county municipalities, which, as regarded Upper
Canada, should be charged, in the first place, with their liquidation.
The French-Canadian party in the Legislature had accordingly

•i; f|

502

The History of Canada,

1846.

supported a measure which put the question at rest in the Upper
Province,* but on condition that steps should be taicen to pay just
losses also in Lower Canada.

To this course the ministry agreed ; and, accordingly, on the
24th of November, six commissioners were appointed by Lord
Metcalfe to inquire into the losses sustained by her Majesty's loyal
subjects in Lower Canada. Lord Cathcart, subsequently, on the
lath of December, renewed this commission to the same persons,
who were now instructed to " classify carefully the cases of those
who may have joined in the said rebellion, or who may have been
aiding or abetting therein, from the cases of those who did not ;
stating particularly, but succinctly, the nature of the loss sustained
in each case, its amount and character, and as far as possible its
cause." In the course of their investigation, a difficulty arose in
the minds of the commissioners as to the mode of procuring the
necessary evidence. On the 27th of February, the ministry
decided " they were to be guided solely by the sentences
of the courts of law, and that they had no powers to call for either
persons or papers." Under these circumstances it would seem, that
unless parties had been legally convicted of participation in the
rebellion, their innocence was to be presumed, and their losses,
where any had been sustained, taken into consideration.

On the i8th of April, the report of the commissioners was made.
It stated that they had recognised two thousand one hundred and
seventy-six claims, amounting in the aggregate to ;^24i,965. These
claims were classified under three heads, viz., personal property,
£,\\\,\2'} ; real property, j[,(^%<)(>\ ', and damages, not comprised
in either of these classes, ;^6 1,876. In the last class were included
;^90oo for interest, ;^2ooo for quartering troops, and ^^30,000
for imprisonment, temporary banishment, interruption of business,
loss of goods, account-books, and so forth. The commissioners,
however, were of opinion that the sum of ;^ioo,ooo would be suf'
cient to pay all real losses. Some of the claims they deemc. I l<
altogether inadmissible, and others again as entirely too
Their want of legal authority to investigate methodically strictly

the losses in question, had left them wholly dependent on me state-
ments of the claimants themselves.

This report presented a very unsatisfactory basis for legislation,
being altogether of too indefinite and uncertain a character. Never-
theless, the Conservative ministry, with Mr Draper for its leader,

• This bill provided for the payment of losses in Canada to the extent of
;{'40,ooo. — r/«'tf Stat. 8th Vic. chap. 72.

The History of Canada.

503

feeling the necessity of French-Canadian support, introduced a bill
into the Legislature for the payment of the rebellion losses in Lower
Canada sustaineil by " certain loyal inhabitants of that province,"
and \vhi( h empowered the issue of jQ^y^'^d in debentures, to be
chargeable against its " Marriage Licence Fund," for that purpose.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE EARL OK ELGIN.

On the ist of October, the Earl of Klgin, the successor of Lo/d
Metcalfe in the governn)ent of Jamaica, as well as in that of Canada
also, received the appointment of Covernor-Ceneral. Like his father,
who was so distinguished in the matter of the Klgin marbles, I,ord
Klgin was a person of high educational attainments, and a natural
aptitude for public affairs. When member of Parliament for Soutii-
ampton, an eflective speech on the address gave promise of political
success, and opened the door of office to him while in Kngland. The
death of his father, and his consequent accession to the earldom,
removed him from the House of Commons. Still, a slender and em-
barrassed patrimony for a person of his rank rendered him desirous
to obtain political employment, and the liberal salary of the Governor-
Generalship of British North America led him to accept that post
very readily.

Lord Klgin arrived at Montreal on the 30th of January, was met
at the outside of the city by a numerous cortege headed by the
niayor.and presented with the usual complimentaryaddresses. ^''
The violent i)arty spirit exhibited during the municipal elections of
I^Iontreal, in February, showed him clearly the fierce social elements
he had to soothe and reconcile, and the difficulties which beset the
governmental task he had assumed. The Draper administration,
too, narrowly watched by the Reform press, led on by the Pilot, now
ably edited by Mr Hincks, was tottering towards its fidl, and vainly
■ndeavoured to derive support from one section or another of the
opposition. About this period, also, the Reform party showed a
strong disposition to ignore Lord Sydenham's settlement of the
Clergy Reserves question, and to agitate for their appropriation to
secular purposes.

But if the people of Canada Avere divided on political questions,
they were unanimous on one of philanthropy — in a desire to
'leir suffering fellow-creatures. From amitl the Scottish
— from Ireland's Connemara and Skibbereen, and even
more fertile districts, arose the appalling cry of famine
prayer for succour. Canada did not shut her ear to the
.V " Relief Fund " was opened, and from every direction

relieve
Highla
from ^
and
appea.

504

The History of Canada.

1 1

— from old-fashioned Tories and modern Radicals, from Conseiva-
tives and Reformers, from the Iroquois Indians of Caughnawaga,
and the Huron and Delaware of Western Canada, and from hr,-
coloured citizens, came cc.tributions in money or in food.

On the 2d of June, the Legislature was convened at Montreal, and
the session opened by Lord Ellgin in a short, practical, and clever
non-committal speech. He stated that the Imperial Government
was prepared to surrender to the colonial authorities the control of
the Post-office department ; and that the House was now empowered
by imperial statute to repeal the differential duties in favour of
iiritish manufactures. He alluded to the necessity of providing
increased warehouse facilities at inland ports , to the imperial
survey of the intended railroad from Quebec to Halifax ; to the
proposed alteration with respect to the British copyright question ;
and to the measures which had been adopted to provide for the
large immigration expected to take place to this country.

The immigration thus alluded to had already commenced, and was
throwing a large number of destitute persons upon the charity of the
citizens and the humanity of the authorities. Army after army ot
sick and suffering people, fleeing from famine in their native land
to be stricken down by death in the valley of the St Lawrence,
stopped in rapid succession at Gross Isle, and there leaving numbers
of their dead behind, pushed upwards towards the lakes in over-
crowded steamers, to burthen the inhabitants of the western towns
and villages. Up to the 7th of August, seventy thousand immigrants
had landed at Quebec.

The session of the Legislature terminated on the 28th of July,
after the transaction of a large amount of business, one hundred and
ten acts having been passed. The ministry still continued to hold
office, though defeated on some important measures ; and it was
evident they could scarcely hope to carry on the government much
longer. The leaders of the Reformers saw clearly they would hardly
dar eto meet another session of the Legislature, with a " no confidence
vote " staring them in the face, and warned their party to be ready for a
new election, now evidently near at hand. Reform conventions were
accordingly held in every direction, candidates decided upon, news-
papers b«-arted in their interest, and every measure taken necessary

to SiICCPCo.

In tliis active state of preparation did the Reform party meet the

dissolution of Parliament on the 6th of December. The

^ ' writs for the election were made returnable on the 24th

of the following January. From the general tone of the public mind,

The History of Canada.

505

it was confidently expected by Reformers that the Conservative
ministry had exhausted its popularity, and would scarcely be sus-
tained at the polls. The result justified this expectation. The
Conservative party was so completely defeated, that it was evident
the Reformers were in for a long continuance of place and power.
All their principal leaders were returned : Hincks for Oxford,
Baldwin for the Fourth Riding of York, Price and Blake for the
first and second Ridings, and Malcolm Cameron for Kent. Wol-
fred Nelson was returned for the County of Richelieu, the scene ot
his exploits during the rebellion ; and Papineau, who had meanwhile
with Rolph and other pardoned refugees come back to Canada, was
chosen as their representative by the habitants of St Maurice. Pap-
ineau had better have remained in privacy. He soon found that he
had outlived his once great popularity, and was bearded even as a
coward by his former associate in rebellion, Wolfred Nelson, infinitely
the better man of the two ; and who had lived sufficiently long to
regret his folly, and to honour the same Victoria against whose troops
he so stoutly contended at St Denis.

Parliament was convened on the 25th of February, and Mr Morin,
a Lower Canadian, was chosen Speaker by the Assembly, on the
motion of Mr Bald win, seconded by Mr Lafontaine who had
effectually supplanted Papineau in the consideration of the French
population. The speech of the Governor-General was .again of a
brief and non-committal character.

Immediately on the opening of Parliament, the old ministry,
whose principal member, Mr Draper, had meanwhile been elevated
to the Bench, resigned, and the task of forming a new one was
intrusted by Lord Elgin to Messrs Baldwin and Lafontaine, who
found little difficulty in accomplishing it. Mr Hincks again became
Inspector-General, Mr Cameron was selected to fill the post of
Assistant-Commissioner for Public Works, and Mr Blake, afterwards
Chancellor, became Solicitor-General of Canada West. The entire
cabinet was composed of eight members of British origin and four
of French. The latter were Messrs Lafontaine, Caron, Viger, and
Tache. Thus calmly and constitutionally, under the principle of
responsible government, was formed one of the most able cabinets
which has ever directed Canadian affairs. After a short session the
House was prorogued on the 23d of March.

While Canada was thus peacefully and prosperously pursuing her
onward and upward destiny, the continent of Europe was agitated
by revolution. Louis Philip was driven from France into exile j
while a rebellion broke out in Ireland under the leadership of Smith

III

I; I

i' >■!

i'"'ri

506

7/^^ History of Canada.

1849.

O'Brien, John Mitchell, and others of the " Young Ireland party,"
to be ingloriously suppressed by forty policemen at Ballingary. In
watching the course of these stirring events, party feeling in Canada
was forgotten for the moment. Towards the close of the year, how-
ever, the repeal of the Imperial Navigation Laws created some
discussion and public excitement. %

Parliament was again convened on the i8th of January. The open-
ing speech of the Governor-General alluded to the tranquil
condition of the country, the speedy completion of the St
Lawrence Canals, and the transfer of the Post-office department to
the provincial authorities, as soon as the preliminary arrangements
should be completed.

Up to this session of the Legislature, no action had been taken
by the new ministry with regard to the report of the commissioners
appointed to inquire into the losses sustained in Lower Canada
during the rebellion. Resolutions were now introduced by Mr
Lafontaine, on which to base a bill for the payment of these losses,
which were passed with some amendments. The bill itself was sub-
sequently brought in, and on a motion for its second reading on the
13th of February, a stormy debate ensued. It was contended by
tiie opposition, that parties implicated in the rebellion must receive
payment for losses under its provisions ; and that it was unjust to
churge this payment on the consolidated fund of the country, thus
making Upper Canada liable for its proport'on. On the other hand,
it was urged, that it was not the intention to pay one shilling to
parties concerned in the rebellion, but only to reimburse those
whose properties had been wantonly destroyed ; that the present
ministry were merely carrying out the views of their Conservative
predecessors in office ; and that, as the payment of the Upper
Canada losses had been drawn from licences forming part of the
consolidated fund, it was no injustice to make that fund also liable
for the same purpose in the sister province.

However correct these representations may have been, they had
little effect in allaying the excitement, which rapidly spread from
Montreal westward. Meetings were held in every direction, at
which ministers and their adherents were denounced in unsparing
terms. " No pay to rebels" became the watchword of the Conserva-
tive, and of a portion of the Reform party, and the old antagonism
of races burst out with extraordinary virulence. To escape from
French domination, as it was termed, the more violent Tory
members of the Conservative party declared they were prepared
to go to any lengths — even to annexation with the United States, a

The History of Canada.

507

measure which in the passionate excitement of the moment was
openly advocated. Thus parties who had long made boast of their
loyalty to the British Crown — of their hatred of republican licence
and extreme democracy, were now seen supporting the same
treasonable measures precisely for which so many in 1838 had
perished on the scaffold. It was a rash procedure, and forms a
mortifying epoch in the history of Canadian parties. When the
excitement died away, and reason and reflection again resumed their
sway, this annexation position was abandoned ; but not, however,
till the Reform party had retorted the accusation of treason and dis-
loyalty on their political foes.

But, fierce as the storm was, the ministry, sustained by a majority
of both Houses, determined to face it and put the matter finally
at rest. The passage of the bill was the condition of support from
French members to Upper Canada reformers ; and if it were
abandoned, aside from the moral cowardice this course would
involve, that support could not be any longer looked for, and the
loss of office must consequently follow. The bill was accordingly
pushed through its several stages, and finally carried in the Lower
House by forty-eight votes to thirty-two, and likewise passed the
Legislative Council.

The preamble of this bill recited the different measures already
taken by the Legislature, during preceding sessions, to pay the
losses in question, and authorised the issue of debentures chargeable
on the consolidated fund, to the amount of ^100,000, for their
final liquidation. Alluding to the loose and unsatisfactory report of
the commissioners, the preamble furthei declared, " It is necessary
and just that the particulars of such losses, not yet paid and satisfied,
should form the subject of more minute itujniry under lci:;islative
authority, and that the same, so far only as they may have arisen
from the total or partial, unjust, unnecessary, or wanton destruction
of the dwellings, buildings, property, and effects of the said inhabit-
ants, and from the seizure, taking, or carrying away of their pro-
perty and effects, should be paid and satisfied, provided that none
of the persons who have been convicted of hiyji treason, alleged to
have been committed in that part of this province formerly the
province of Lower Canada, since the first day of November 1837,
or who, having been charged icith high treason or other offences of a
treasonable nature, and having been committed to the custody of the
sheriff in the jail of Montreal, submitted thanselves to the ii>ill and
pleasure of her Majesty, and were thereupon transported to her
Majesty's Island of Bermuda, shall be entitled, to an indemnity for

%
1

,^i

<!U

508

TAe History of Canada.

losses sustained during or after the said rebellion, or In consequence
thereof."

The passage of the bill was the signal for rioting and confusion
through the upper province. In Toronto, scenes of this description
were coupled, by some of the city authorities,* with the recent return
of Mackenzie to Canada, and excused on that ground. Baldwin,
Blake, and Mackenzie were burned in effigy, and the windows of the
house in which the lattter was .stopping were broken by an infuriated
mob. The dwellings of Dr Rolph and Mr Brown, (editor of the
Globe newspaper.) were also damaged.

The belief that Lord Elgin would either refuse his assent to this
bill altogether, or reserve it for the consideration of the Home
Government, which would no doubt have been tlie wisest course, as
the public mind would have time to cool in the interval, tended
considerably to allay the popular excitement. In this respect,
however, those who inveighed against the measure were completely
disappointed. Navigation had opened very early, and it was
deemed advisable that the royal assent should be given at once to
a customs bill, finally passed on the 26th of April. Lord Elgin
accordingly proceeded to t^j Parliament House, formerly St Ann's
market, on that day, escorted by some cavalry, and gave his assent
to the bill in question, and also to the Rebellion Losses Bill at the
same time.

Intelligence of this procedure was speedily circulated, and as Lord
Elgin left the House, he was received by a crowd with hootings
and groans, while a knot of well-dressed individuals pelted his
carriage with the missiles next to hand. Notwithstanding all this
outside excitement, the Assembly still continued in session, the
majority supposing that no violence would be offered to themselves.
But Sir Allan M'Nab held a different opinion, declared a riot might
be looked for, and stated that it was advisable to call for military
assistance.

Matters remained in this state till evening, no measures having
been taking in the meanwhile to suppress a riot, presuming it shoukl
occur, owing to the impi ; ent ^.onfidence of Government. Towards
eight o'clock the fire-bells were rung to create an excitement, and a
large number of persons speedily assembled at the Champ de Mars,
where several inflammatory speeches were made. Presently aery was
suddenly raised : " To the Parliament House ! " Thither the crowd
immediately proceeded in a state of great excitement, and encounter-
ing neither police nor military to check their progress, their loud
* See Proceedings of Toronto City Council, 28th March 1849.

The History of Canada.

509

shouts and yells gave the first information to members, now dis-
cussing the judicature bill for Lower Canada, of the commencement
of what was evidently a formidable riot. A few moments more, and
a shower of stones dashed in at the windows, when the strangers'
gallery was immediately deserted. Some of the members made
their escape by this gallery, while others took refuge behind the
Speaker's chair.

Mearnvhile, stones continued to be thrown, till nearly all the win-
dows were broken. Presently, this mode of attack was discontinued,
and the mob began to force their way into the building. A few soon
after made their appearance armed with sticks in the hall of
Assembly, at the opposite end of which the remaining members
and clerks now disappeared as rapidly as possible. One of the
rioters then seated himself in the Speaker's chair, and waving his
hand said, '• I dissolve this House." The work of destruction was
tlien rapidly proceeded with. I'enches were pulled to pieces, and
piled in the middle of the floor with papers from the members'
desks. Chandeliers and globe-lights were next broken, and the
Speaker's mace seized and carried off, despite the exertions of the
sergeant-at-arms, who had the courage to remain.

Messrs Robinson and Gugy did their best to expel the rioters ; and
Sir Allan M'Nab employed himself in saving the Queen's picture,
painted by Partridge, and for which ^500 had been paid. Pres-
ently, the cry was raised "that the Parliament House was on fire !"
and a lurid glare from the basement story bore painful truth to its
correctness. Several gentlemen now exerted themselves to save
some of the valuable books in the library of the Assembly ; but the
flames spread so rapidly that they were soon compelled to seek
safety in flight. Some of them, however, remained so long in the
burning building, that they were injured by the fire, and had to be
rescued with ladders.

The military, who had at length been sent for, were available in
keeping back the dense crowd ; but nothing could be done to arrest
the conflagration, or save the valuable librarits and public records,
the destri r tion of which inflicted a lasting disgrace and irreparable
injury on the country. The Paris mobs, in the midst of revolution
and anarchy, respected public buildings, the libraries, and works of
an; and it remained for the vandalism of Montreal rioters to inflict
a public injury on themselves, of a character adopted by the
Saracens and Huns, and other barbarians of the middle ages, to
punish their enemies. Some fire engines made a useless attempt to
suppress the flames, which speedily illuminated the whole city, and

(.Mf-'i

ii!

IfSi

m' ■ ■

510

T/ie History of Canada.

threw jut dense volumes of smoke, borne by the breeze towards the
dark mountain, dimly visible in the background of the magnificent
though painful spectacle. When the morning sun arose, the fire-
charred and still smoking ruins of the Parliament House were all
that remained of a vast amount of public property, equal in value,
it was estimated, to the sum about to be expended under the
Rebellion Losses Dill.

Having thus wreaked their vengeance in this quarter, a part of
the mob conveyed the mace to Donegani's hotel, where it was
finally deposited, after some quarrelling among themselves, in the
room occupied by Sir Allan M'Nab. The Pilot office, where the
ministerial paper was printed, was also visited by the mob, and the
windows demolished, when the work of destruction terminated for
the night.

Next day, the Commander-in-Chief, Sir Benjamin D'Urban, came
into the city from his country-seat, and made arrangements for the
suppression of further riot. Several arrests were made of parties
accused of inciting the mob to violence. The latter threatened to
rescue them, and insulted and beat several Reform members, who
were so unfortunate as to come in their way. The mob next beset
the old Government House, where the members of the ministry had
assembled in council, but were forced back by the bayonets of the
military

After nightfall the mob received large accessions to their number,
and presently a numerous body moved towards the St Antoine
suburb, where they completely wrecked the dwelling of the Premier,
Mr Lafontaine, and burned down his stables. The windows of
Messrs Baldwin's and Cameron's boarding-houses were next broken.
Dr Wolfred Nelson's house shared the same fate, as well as the
houses of Messrs Hincks, Holmes, and Charles Wilson. Objections
being made next day to the military doing police duty, a body of
French and Irish constables were sworn in, and the rumour that
these were being armed and drilled at the Bonsecours Market,
threatened for a while to produce a fresh riot.

The arrival of a deputation from Quebec (the inhabitants of which
had a keen eye to the removal of the seat of Government to their
own city) to offer protection to the Governor-General, renewed the
excitement, and loud threats were made of violence to its members.
But during the day they prudently remained in the French suburb,
and entered the city in the evening without exciting observation.
The loyal inhabitants of Montreal now held a public meeting, and
circulated an address, signed by two hundred respectable names,

The History of Canada,

511

inviting the citizens to co-operate in the preservation of peace and
order, which had a tranquiUising effect.

But a new source of pubhc uneasiness speedily arose. During the
28th, the Assembly had agreed upon an address to the Governor-
General in connexion with the recent riots, and it was arranged that
he should receive it at the Government House, instead of at Monck-
lands. Escorted by a troop of volunteer dragoons, and accompanied
by several of his suite, Lord Elgin, accordingly, drove into the city
on the 30th. He was greeted with showers of stones in the Hay-
market, and in Great St James and Notre Dame Streets, and with
difficulty preserved his face from being injured. When he entered
the Government House, he took a two pound stone with him, which
he had picked up in his carriage, as evidence of the most unusual
and sorrowful treatment her Majesty's representative had received.
Captain Weatheral, a magistrate, read the Riot Act, and ordered the
infantry on guard to charge. But the crowd had no ill feeling
towards the military, and cheered them as they ran out of their way.
They waited patiently, expecting the reappearance of the Governor-
General, in order to renew their assault upon him. But instead of
turning round up Notre Dame Street, he doubled on the mob, and
passed rapidly along in the direction of Sherbrooke Street. Cabs,
caleches, and everything that would run, were at once launched in
pursuit, and crossmg his route, the Governor-General's carriage was
bitterly assailed in the main street of the St Lawrence suburbs.
The good and rapid driving of his postillions, enabled him to clear
the desperate mob, but not until the head of his brother, Colonel
Bruce, had been cut, injuries inflicted on the chief of police. Colonel
Ermatinger, and on Captain Jones, commanding the escort, and every
panel of the carriage driven in. It was the old war of races putting
itself into a new shape , and British feeling was now venting its
indignation in this riotous fashion for the imaginary triumph of the
rebellious foe that had been so thoroughly crushed eleven years before.
Nor did the excitement terminate with the assault on the Governor
General. A deputation from Toronto was made the occasion of a
ministerial dinner, at Tetu's hotel, when the cheering of toasts was
met by groans from the mob outside. Presently, missiles were
thrown, pistol shots fired, men wounded, and the arrival of a strong
body of military alone prevented a serious loss of life. Next day,
Lafontaine's house was again attacked, but this time a volley of
musketry compelled the mob to retreat; not, however, till one man
had been killed. At the inquest, an attempt was made to fire the
hottl where it was being held, and to do violence to Mr Lafontaine

512

The History of Canada,

during the confusion, but he was saved by a party of the 71st
Highlanders.

The riots, which had so rapidly followed in succession, and the
insecurity of hfe and property at Montreal, induced the Legislature
to determine on the removal of the seat of Government to Toronto
for the next two years, and for the subsequent four years to Quebec.
Thus, Montreal was most deservedly punished for the insane folly
of its mob, instigated by a portion of its press ; and at present
there is very little prospect of a Canadian Parliament ever again
being convened in a city which, from its natural advantages, should
be the capital of the State. The remainder of the session was held
in a building temporarily fitted up for the purpose, and on the 3otli
of May a most eventful sitting, during which a large number of
measures were passed, was closed by the Deputy-Governor, Lieu-
tenant-General Rowan.

The disgraceful riots in Montreal, and the personal insults to
which he had been subjected, led Lord Elgin to tender his resigna-
tion to the Home Government. But the Queen and her ministers
promptly expressed their entire approval of his conduct, and urgently
requested his retention of the position he filled.* Their course in
this respect was approved and ratified by the Lords and Commons
of Great Britain, and by whom the Rebellion Losses Bill was
sustained. Sir Robert Peel's ministry, also, subsequently signified
their approbation of his conduct, and continued Lord Elgin as
Governor-General, and who received additional consolation in his
most trying position from the large number of sympathetic addresses
which were presented to him.

The action of the British ministry and Parliament placed those
who opposed the Rebellion Losses Bill completely at fault, and
immensely strengthened the hands of the Reform party. The feeble
cry for annexation, speedily raised, had the same tendency. In
these occurrences the Conservative party of this country received a
blow, both in Canada and in England, from which, up to the present
time,t it has not recovered. But under a constitudonal form of govern-
ment one party cannot retain power for a very lengthened period ; and
some public question may yet possibly restore its forfeited popularity,
and place it again in the ascendant.

The occurrences connected with the Rebellion Losses Bill were
the great Canadian events of 1849. Parliament did not again

• See Despatch from Secretary of the Colonies, 18th May 1849.
t Written in 1855. For several ycarr, since, the Conservative party has been in
power, and the Union Act of 1867 has fully restored its prestige.

The History of Canada.

513

assemble during the year, and towards its close the country was
rapidly recovering from the injurious results of the violent political
ordeal it had undergone. Much bitter feeling it is true remained.
Magistrates were dismissed for undue opposition to Government,
some rioting occurred at public meetings got up to vote addresses
to Lord Elgin, and a Conservative League was organised to give a
systematic opposition to ministers. Yet, as the new year approached,
time was gently laying its Lethean finger on political asperities, and
the sound common sense of the Canadian people, so practical in their
disposition, was gradually reconciling them to the new epoch which
had evidently opened on their country.

2 K

CHAPTER XXIV.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE EARL OF ELGIN, — Continued.

THE final step having been taken for the settlement of the long
quarrel of races, in passing the " Indemnity Bill," the ministry
applied themselves to develop the resources of the country. An agent
was despatched to Washington to "press Reciprocity," or
^ ■ the free interciiange of agricultural and other products be-
tween Canada and the United States, on the notice of the American
authorities, and measures Avere also taken to establish our credit
on a broader basis in the London Stock Exchange. Mr Hincks's
exertions in the latter direction met with considerable success, and
Canadian securities began to be quoted in the English market. The
Montreal riots as yet, however, prevented the extensive investment
of foreign capital in these securities.

The Legislature assembled at Toronto on the 14th of May, The
opening speech presented no very remarkable features ; exciting
political topics were wisely avoided, and a prudent desire to let the
past be forgotten was apparent. During the progress of the session,
Mr Papineau again renewed his advocacy of an elective Legislative
Council ; while a disposition was shown by members to succumb to
the cry of retrenchment in the public expenditure, now raised out-
side of the House. The agitation on the Clergy Reserves question
was again revived, and a strong inclination shown to set Lord
Sydenham's settlement of the matter aside, and to devote the Re-
serves to secular purposes. Mr Lafontaine, Mr Baldwin, and others
of the older Reformers, opposed the revival of this agitation, and
maintained that things ought to be left as they were. But the press
of their party, led on by the Globe, the Examiner, and other able
journals, persisted in their discussion of the question. This state
of things speedily produced a split among Reformers, and a new
party arose into influence, which had already been denominated, in

The History of Canada.

51,

American party phraseology, " Clear Grits," who declared themselves
to be the unadulterated political commodity.

Still, although the Reformers had quarrelled among themselves,
ministers were sufficiently supported to enable them to hold the
reins of power firmly in their hands during the session, which after
much useful legislation terminated on the loth of August. The
remainder of the year was not distinguished by any important local
events. The question of a Federal Union of all the British North
American Provinces was revived by the Conservatives ; and as
January approached, the prospect of an approaching general election
began to create some excitement. Among the candidates already
in the field was William Lyon Mackenzie, whose residence in the
United States had cured him of a great many republican notions,
and fully reconciled him to the sway of Queen Victoria, touching
which he was whilom so indignant, and to the lesser political evils
of constitutional monarchy.

The earlier part of the ensuing year was chiefly distinguished by
the efforts of the Roman Catholic population to procure
separate common schools, under a recent statute, wherever ^
their numbers were sufficiently large to warrant such a procedure.
A very general movement was also taking place in favour of the
construction of railways in various parts of the sister provinces.
Hitherto, Canada had been too young a country to provide these
costly modes of locomotion. Her noble canals and vast water
frontage had also rendered them to a great extent unnecessary ; but
the great increase in the inland population within the preceding few
years, and the difficulty of conveying farm produce and lumber to
the navigable rivers and the lakes, now rendered railways necessary
to develop the resources of the interior. The Post-office had at
length been transferred to the Colonial Government, and great im-
provements had been made in that department. Letter rates had
been reduced, and a single, or half-ounce, letter was now conveyed
to any part of Canada for threepence currency. In the spring, pre-
payment letter stamps were issued, as in England and the United
States. Thus, the country was steadily progressing, and from the
numerous improvements observable in every direction, it was evi-
dent that the Canadas were rapidly recovering from the effects of
partial rebellion and violent political agitation ; and that a long vista
of national prosperity was now indeed gradually opening on the
view.

Parliament assembled on the 20th of May. The occurrences of
the session showed that the " Clear Grit " agitation was beginning

5i6

The History of Canada.

to tell upon the House, and that, to satisfy it, more radical changes
must be made. Mr Baldwin fell the first victim to this state of
things. Outvoted on a measure connected with the Court of
Chancery by the Reform members of the Upper Province, he re-
signed his seat in the Cabinet as Attorney-CicmTal for (Janada West.
The Clergy Reserves (luestion still continueil to be tlie cause of much
discussion and ill-feeling. As the session progressed, the project of
a Grand Trunk Railway was fully developed, by Mr Hincks, in a
series of resolutions.

The fourth session of the third Parliament of United Canada
terminated on the 30th of August. Lord Elgin's speech, when he
prorogued the Plouse, reflected the general condition of the country.
He alluded to the grants which had been made for the erection of
lighthouses, improvements in the navigation of the St Lawrence,
reduction of the immigrant tax, and the favourable state of the revenue
which had permitted the adoption of these and other measures of a
kindred nature. He congratulated both branches of the Legislature
on the steps they had taken for fostering railway enterprise, on the
creditable appearance of Canadian industrial productions at the
London Crystal Palace Exhibition, on the harmony which had
characterised their own proceedings, and on the removal of pre-
judices and misgivings engendered by years of disquiet. At the
same time, he declared his own determination to continue to admin-
ister the government in conformity with the wishes of the people, as
expressed through their representatives.

The increased prosperity of Canada was now attracting a large
measure of attention from other countries, and several of which
evinced their desire to add to the volume of their commerce up the
St Lawrence. With the United States a large international traffic
had sprung up ; and Canadian imports and exports, passing in bond
over the New York and New England railways, formed an important
item of their business. This close community of interests led to the
interchange of mutual national civilities. In the month of Septem-
ber, Boston distinguished itself by giving a grand fete to many of the
principal Canadian merchants and public men, at which Lord Elgin
was present, and made a most happy speech tending to augment the
mutual good feeling engendered by the occasion, as well as by the
more enduring bond of identity of interests. But these occurrences,
however satisfactory in themselves, did not diminish the dissensions
within the Reform party. In October, the Clear Grit element in
politics pressed so embarrassingly on the ministerial leaders of that
party, that it led to the reconstruction of the Cabinet, into which

The History of Canada,

517

the whilom rebel refugee, Dr Rolph, and Malcolm Cimeron, wore
row received as the leading exponents of the new jjoiitiral faith.
Into the hands of Mr Mincks, as the most able member of the
ministry, these changes threw a large amount of additional influence.
He now became Premier, and speedily developed a financial i)olicy,
wliich subsequently shaped, in an eminent degree, the fiscal relations
of this country. The reconstruction of the Cabinet was immediately
followed by a general election, which introduced many new men into
jniblic life, while several of their old servants were rejected by the
electors. Among the latter was Robert ]5aldwin, who was now most
ungratefully discarded by the Fourth Riding of York, for a Mr Hart-
man. William Lyon Mackenzie, who had returned to Canada in
the preceding year, again re-entered public life, and was elected for
the county of Haldimand, although his principal opponent was Mr
(Jeorge Brown, of the Toronto Globe. The elections resulted in the
return of a Reform majority in United Canada ; but in the upper
province parties were almost equally balanced.

The lapse of time had gradually assuaged the bitter asperities
engendered by events which arose out of the rebellion, and
the public mind now exhibited a desire to turn aside from ^
exciting political topics, and apply itself instead to questions
of social and physical progress. Hitherto, Canada had lagged far
behind the United States in many respects ; and English and other
tourists not infrequently made most unfavourable comments on the
backward condition of public improvements in this country. But
a visible change for the better was now rapidly taking place. An
act favourable to the formation of joint-stock companies had already
given a great impetus to the construction of plank and macadam-
ised roads, and in many other ways the industrial resources of the
country were now being developed. The cause of education, as
regarded the masses, had also been materially advanced by im-
provements in the common-school law, and the introduction of a
uniform system of text-books ; while an excellent normal school at
Toronto afforded the requisite facilities for the training of competent
teachers for Upper Canada. The public mind of the country was
evidently becoming eminently utilitarian, and readily applied itself
to the development of railway projects of various kinds, as well as
to the consideration of the best methods to promote more intimate
reciprocal commercial relations with the United States. In the
earlier part of the year, Mr Hincks had gone to England to push
forward the scheme of a Grand Trunk Railway, and the precise
location of which continued to be a source of the most fruitful

mh'

518

T/ic History of Canada.

contention, owing to conflicting interests. From the discussion of
these matters, the public, in the month of July, turned aside to regard
the catastrophe of a terrible fire in Montreal, which laid a large part
of that city waste, and rendered ten thousand people homeless.
Great exertions were nmde to relieve the sufferers.

The seat of government had now been removed to Quebec ; and
thjre, accordingly, the new Parliament assembled on the i6th of
Aus'ist, and chose Mr John vSandfield Macdonald as Speaker of the
Lower J louse. The Governor-General's opening speech alluded to
the necessity of a change in the seignorial tenure system, the
expediency of having a line of i.eamers to sail from Canada to
England, the advisability of an alteration in the currency, so as to
permit of accounts being kept in dollars and cents, and the pro-
priety of increasmg the parliamentary representation, — measures
which were all subsequently adopted.

During the session, Mr Hincks introduced a series of resolutions
relative to the setdement of thy Clergy Reserves question, .vhich
passed ; and declared, at the same time, that he felt confident the
Home Government would shorth" bring a bill into the Imperial Par-
liament, permitting the Canadian Legislature to dispose finally of a
matter which had been such a source of prolonged agitation. The
House, also, unanimously agreed to an address, requesting the im-
perial authorities to make no concession to the American Government
in the matter of the fishery dispute, unless in connexion with the
concession of reciprocity. Mr Hincks exhibited a desire to re-
taliate on the United States for not conceding more intimate
commercial relations, by adopting differential duties in favour of
British commerce, and by shutting the Canadian canals to American
shipping. The public voice, however, was at once raised against
a narrow and suicidal policy of this kind, and the ministry had to
abandon it altogether. But the great feature of this session was
its large amount of railway legislation, and >vhich placed no less
tl'kan fifteen bills on the statute-book. Among these, the ace
relating to the incorporation of the Grand Trunk Railway was the
most important. By its twenty-eighth section, the bonds of this
company received the provincial guarantee to the extent of ^?3ooo
sterling per mile. The same section further set forth, th.at for
every ^^^ 100,000 actually expended on this railway by the company,
^40,000 should be guaranteed by the province. By this act, a
sum exceeding !ii> 16,000,000 was in a few yean; added to the per-
manent liabilities of the country; and in 1866, the total debt of
the Grand Trunk Railway to the Government, principal and interest,

The History of Canada.

519

had swelled to the enormous sum of $23,000,000, of which there is
no likelihood that any portion will ever be repaid.

But the inception of the Grand Trunk and other railway projects
was not sufficient to satisfy the speculative mind of Mr Hincks. In
this session, also, was passed an act to establish a Consolidated
Municipal Loan I'^und for Upper Canada. This fund was to be
under the management of the Provincial Government, and designed
to enable municipalities to borrow money on the credit of the pro-
vince for the construction of railways, macadamised roads, bridges,
and other public works. Availing then.selves of tlie provisions of
this act, several municipalities rashly incurred liabilities wliich they
were utterly unable to meet, and much unwise speculation was in-
dulged in. Subsequently, in 1854, it was found necessary to amend
this act, to extend its provisions to Lower Canada, and to limit the
"fund" to ;^i, 500,000 sterling for each province. The full amount
of the loan was soon absorbed by Upper Canada, but tlie lower
province actctl much more prudently. Yet the entire public debt
contracted in this way speedily reached the sum of about 89,500,000 ;
and as most of the borrowing municipalities were utterly unable to
pay the interest, the greater portion of it had to be met from the
public exchequer, while Parliament was subsequently obliged to pass
measures for their relief. Most of the works constructed were, how-
ever, of great benefit to the community, and aided in no small degree
to develop its resources.

It will thus be sjen that the legislation of the session of , ^52 laid
the foundation of a large addition to the liabilities of this country,
and paved the way for the annual deficit whicn subsequently existed
in the provincial revenue for so many years. At the close of 1852
die whole debt of Canada, direct and indirect, was 822,355,413 ;
the nett revenue for the year amounted to $3,976,706; while the
expenditure was only $3,059,081. This prosperous state of the
finances placed the credit of the country on the soundest basis ; and
Canadian Government securities, bearing s'x per cent, interest, were
now quoted at a premium of sixteen per ctnt. in the Englibh money
market.

This satisfactory condition of financial affairs very naturally led,
a'; this juncture, to much unwise siicculation, and to a rage for
railway improvements beyond the immediate necessities or monetary
ability of the country. Nor was the ample railway legislation of the
Parliamentary Session of 1852 deemed sufficient to meet the wants
of the public in that direction. On the loth of November, after a
session of nearly three months' duration, the Legislature aujourncd

-^1

520

T/ic Hhtory of Canada.

until the r4th of the following February; and on this occasion no
less than one hundred and ninety-three bills were duly as-
^^' sented to by the Crown. Twenty-eight of these bills had
reference to railway matters, and reflected the mania which had now
seized possession so completely of the public mind. But, aside
from legislation of this stamp, a large number of useful measures
./ere passed, giving evidence of the energy and industry of the
ministry, .ind the desire of both Houses to further beneficial legisla-
tion. The Parliamentary Representation Act mcreased the members
of the Assembly from eighty-four to one hundred and thirty, sixty-
five for each province, and more C(iually re-distributed the different
constituencies. Montreal and Quebec were now to return three
members each, and Toronto two ; while some of the smaller towns
in Upper Canada had adjoining townships attached to them, for the
purpose of parliamentary representation. This act was not to take
effect, however, until the termination of the existing Parliament.
The statute-book of this session also contains a new municipal act,
a school act, an act to regulate the practice of the superior courts
of common law, and several other measures of an elaborate character,
which necessitated the greatest care in their i')reparation, — matters
all alluded to by Lord Elgin when he closed the Legislature, on the
14th of June, in a brief yet pertinent speech.

Meanwhile, the Home Government had procured t^- 3 passage of
a short bil' in the Imperial Parliament, conceding to the Canadian
Legislature the power to alter the appropriation of the Clergy
Reserves, and to make such provision with regard to their future
proceeds, as might be deemed advisable. But existing interests, in
connexion with these reserves, were not to be interfered with ; and
the annual stipends paid to the clergy of the Churches of England and
Scotland, and of other creeds, were to be continued during the lives
of the incumbents. This bill received the assent of the Queen on
the 9th of May, was at once forwarded to the Canadian Government;
and there was nothing now to prevent the settlement of a question,
hitherto so productive of bitter r.nd persistent agitation in Upper
Canada.

While the Canadian Legislature was still in session, no small ex-
citement was caused at Quebec by the lectures of Eather Gavazzi,
an Italian priest, who had become a convert to Protestantism, On
the 6th of June, the Free Presbyterian Church, where he was lectur-
ing, was assailed by a riotous mob, the audience dispersed, and
several of them seriously injured, while Gavazzi made his escape with
no small difficulty. The rioters subsequently proceeded in search of

■^

The History of Canada.

521

Mr George Brown, the member for Kent, and who was at this time
regarded as the advocate of extreme Protestant views in the
Assembly, with the object of wreaking their vengeance on him also,
but fortunately were unable to find him. On the following day, this
riot led to an informal discussion in the Lower House, but which was
ruled out of order by the Speaker when Mr Brown arose to address
it. Gavazzi at once proceeded to Montreal, and where his lectures
were the cause of renewed i nd more extensive rioting, which eventu-
ally terminated in a deplorable loss of life. On the 9th, while
speaking in the Zion Congregational Church, an immense mob,
chiefly composed of the lower orders of the Irish city population,
assailed the building, despite the presence in its vicinity of a strong
force of police and military. Stones were thrown, and some pistol
shots fired by the rioters, as well as by parties inside the church at
those outside, and the greatest confusion prevailed. The congrega-
tion at once dispersed, and while peaceably proceeding homewards
as best they could, were fired into by the militarj', acting under the
rders of Mr Charles Wilson, the mayor of the city, who appears
o have wholly lost his presence of mind on this unfortunate
occasion. Some five persons were killed outright, and many
wounded, but the correct number of the Litter was never ascer-
tained. The respectable citizens of Montreal were greatly shocked
by this lamental)]e occurrence, and which also produced the
deepest feeling and excitement throughout the whole country. As
Mr Wilson was a Roman Catholic, and the Govirnment did net
})roceed rigorously into the inquiry touching his conduct, the Pro-
testant population became greatly indignant, and denounced the
Hincks administration in the most unsparing terms. These circum-
stances added very materially to the rising popularity of Mr Brown,
and strengthened his hands, in no small degree, in the active opposi-
tion he had already commenced, in conjunction with William Lyon
Mackenzie, against the ministry.

Although the Cabinet had tided safely through the recent session
of Parliament, with good majorities on all its measures, it was now
quite evitlent that Mr Brown's influence was steadily on the increase
with the Reform party of Ipper Canada, and that his ojnj-jsition
must sooner or later be of a very embaiTassing character. With the
exception of Mr Hincks, the ministry was composed of very average
men, and was, accordingly, weakened by the elevation hi July of
Attorney-General Richards to the judgeship, tvl-.irh had beeome
vacant by the death of Mr Sullivan. The Solicitor-(jeneral, West,
John Ross, now became Attorney-General, while Joseph C. Morrison

522

The History of Canada.

succeeded Mr Ross. Rumours that the ministry would not take
immediate steps to secularise the Clergy Reserves, which received
additional colour from remarks of the Postmaster-General, Malcolm
Cameron, at a public dinner in the town of Perth, and from letters
written by Mr Hincks and Dr Rolph, to some of their leading
Reform friends, tended also to seriously damage it with the public.
I'owards the close of the year it fell still further in general estima-
tion, by charges of corruption, and of using his exalted position for
his personal profit, which were brought against Mr Hincks. A suit
in the Court of Chancery, nn which Mr Bowes, the Mayor of
Toronto, was the defendant, developed the fact that he and Mr
Hincks had purchased ^50,000 M'orthoflhe debentures of that city,
at a discount of twenty per cent., and that the Premier had a bill
subsequently passed in Parliament, which raised the value of these
securities to par. Other charges of improper conduct, in connexion
with the purchase of some public lands at Point Levi, opposite
Quebec, and elsewhere, and designed to be re-sold to railway cor-
porations, were also made against Mr Hincks and other members of
the Government, and had au additional damaging effect on its
reputation. We may here state, that in 1855 a parliamentary com-
mittee was appointed to inquire into the truth of tliese charges,
and which exposed a condition of things not at all flattering to the
morality of the Hincks administration, and further developed the
corrupting tendency of railway speculations.

Meanwhile Lord Elgin and Mr Hincks had proceeded to Eng-
land, to take part in the negotiations now pending re-
^^' lative to the Reciprocity Treaty with the United States'
Government, and for other purposes qonnected witli Canada. They
were well received by the Home Government, and met with great
success as regarded the furtherance of reciprocity, a matter now-
regarded with deep interest by the people of Canada, as well as by
the leading merchants of the American sea and lake coast cities,
and who must largely benefit by a liberal system of international
traffic. All preliminary matters hr.ving been dis{)osed of, Lord
Elgin, as the special envoy of the Imnerial Government, pro-
ceeded to V/ashingLon, and where, after long and protracted negotia-
tions with the United States' administration, the final details of
reciprocity were concluded, and the treaty signed, on the 5th of
June. Its ratifi< ations were speedily exchanged, and the action of
the several Legislatures concerned was now alone necessary to give
it practical effect. It was to continue ten years from the date of
its going into operation, at the end of which term it could be

The History of Canada.

523

terminated, on either of tlie parties thereto giving twelve months'
notice to that effect. This treaty provided for the free admission
from the British North-American colonies into the United States,
and vice versa, of the products of the farm, the forest, and the mine ;
opened the in-shore sea fisheries of the Anglo-American waters to the
fishermen of New England ; and conceded the free navigation of
the River St Lawrence and the Canadian canals to United States'
shipping, while the British craft acquired, on the other hand, the
right to sail through Lake Michigan. It came into active operation
in March 1855, and gave a vast impulse to the commerce and pros-
perity of ail the North American colonies ; but Canada was im-
measurably the largest gainer by its provisions.

LT^nder ordinary circumstances, Canadian Parliaments have usually
been summoned to meet in the latter part of winter. It is the
season, in this country, of greatest leisure, and when long speeches
and late hours may be most easily indulged in. But the desire to
let the pubHc mind cool down, after the excitement ])roduced by
the recent charges against them, and the I'.ope that it would be
fully soothed by the satisfactory termination of the Reciprocity
question, induced ministers to defer the assembling of Parliament
until the treaty had been first completed. The 13th of June was at
length fixed upon as the day when it should meet for the despatch
of business. It was duly opened by th,; Governor-( leu oral in a
brief speech, in which he alluded to the recent destruction of the
old parliament buildings by fire, to the war with Russia, to the con-
clusion of the Reciprocity Treaty, and to the necessity of bringing
an act passed at the previous session, for the extension of the
elective franchise, into early operation. To the Legislative As-
sembly he talked about the prosperous condition of the revenue,
and the consequent propriety of making a reduction in the customs
tariff", and sought to propitiate that body by speaking of the proofs
he had received in England of the great interest taken Uiere in the
affairs of Canada, and of its high standing in jjoint of public credit.
But there was nothirg in his Excellency's speech about the settle-
ment of the Seignorial Tenure question, now eagerly desired by
Lower Canadians, nor the final disposition of the Cleigy Reserves,
so anxiously looked for by the people of Upper Canada. Deep,
therefore, were the murmurs of dissatisfaction from all sides of the
House ; and the Conservative party, now led by Sir Allan M'N.ib
and John A, Macdonald, drew closer its ranks, and eagerly
watched for an opportunity to defeat the min.stry on the address in
response to his Excellency's speech. That opportunity speedily

''m

ml
m

■i i

: 1

<;- 111

524

The History of Canada.

iiii'

If ■;.

came. Cauchon, a French-Canadian, moved an amendment to tlie
address, censuring ministers for not intending to bring in a bill
for the immediate settlement of the Scignorial Tenure question.
To this, after a most acrimonious debate, extending over several
days, Sicotte tacked another amendment relative to the disposal of
the Clergy Reserves, which was accepted by Cauchon, and, on the
2ist, ministers were beaten by a majority of thirteen, in a House of
seventy-one members. On the following day, at three o'clock, the
Governor-General went down in state to the Chamber of the Legis-
lative Council, and, summoning the Assembly to his presence,
abruptly prorogued Parliament, although not a single bill had been
passed, with a view as he stated to its immediate dissolution. The
opposition were astonished in no small degree at this procedure, at
once so unusual and so arbitrary. At the eleventh hour, Sir Allan
IM'Nab, on behalf of the Conservatives, had offered to return a
respectful answer to the address ; but it was evidently part of Mr
Hincks' policy to force an adverse vote, with a view to a dissolution,
and his vantage-ground once taken, he declined to recede from it.
The proclamation dissolving Parliament speedily followed, and to-
wards the close of July the country was deep in the turmoil and
excitement of a general election. The personal standing of Mr
Hincks was still good. He was returned for two ridings, Renfrew
and South Oxford ; but his colleague in the ministry, Malcolm
Cameron, was soundly beaten in Lambton by George Brown, and
soon after shrank into the obscurity of private life, from which he
again emerged m iS6o, as an elected legislative councillor, to
possess himself ultimately of the lucrative office of Queen's printer,
and tl ' extravagance and impropriety of which, in his day of ram-
jjani aittism, he had so often and so violently denounced.

Secure of a majority from Lower Canada, the ministry had ex-
pected that a dissolution would strengthen their hands in the Upper
Province. But the Globe newspaper, which had supported Sir
Allan M'Nab against Mr Buchanan in Hamilton, was now more
firm in its opposition than ever, and the North American, the
Examiner, Moikenzie's Message, and other extreme Reform journals,
regarded it also with no friendly spirit ; while the whole Conserva-
tive press was exceedingly hostile. The Toronto Leader, a new yet
ably-conducted journal, continued to stand firmly by the ministry,
as well as the more moderate Reform journals generally. The news-
paper press was, at this juncture, the true reflex of the public mind,
and it v/as now quite evident that a deep schism was riving asunder
the hitherto solid ranks ol the Reform party of Upper Canada.

The History of Canada.

525

Sucli was the condition of affairs when the new Parliament assem-
bled on the 5th of September. Defeat awaited the ministry on its
threshold. George E. Cartier, the member for Vercheres, was the
ministerial candidate for the Speakership of the Assembly, and was
duly moved by Robert Spence, of North Wentwortl., and seconded
by Franrois Lemieux, a Lower Canadian. On the part of the op-
])osition, Antoine A. Dorion proposed Louis Victor Sicotte, as the
Speaker, and had for his seconder Joseph Hartman, who sat for the
extreme Reform Riding of North York. Cartier was defeated by a
majority of three. The Lower Canadians gave the ministerial can-
didate a majority of nine, but he was in a minority of twelve as
regarded the representatives of Upper Canada. Although this vote
clearly indicateil the hostile spirit of the Liouse, the ministry still
clung to the hope that the liberal character of their sessional pro-
gramme would rally some at least of the dissatisfied Reformers to
their ranks. On the 6th, the Governor-General formally opened the
Legislature with a speech designed to be of a satisfactory nature.
He announced that the Imperial Parliament, in response to their
address, had empowered them to make the Upper House elective,
commended to their attention the settlement of the Clergy Reserves
and Seignorial Tenure questions, and urged the desirability of re-
modelling the tariff, so as to permit of the Reciprocity Treaty being
carried into effect.

But it soon became evident, that even the satisfactory tone of his
Excellency's speech had not strengthened the hands of the ministry,
and that it was the determination of the section of the Upper Canada
Reformers led by Mr Brown, to drive it altogether from office, and to
unite, if necessary, withti'.e Conservatives for that purpose. On the
7th, great efforts were made by the opposition to weaken the ministry
still further ; and so alarmed did one of its members, Dr Rolph, now
become, that he expressed his determination to resign. That even-
ing a question of privilege having come up, a demand for twenty-
four hours' delay by the Attorney-General for Lower Canada to
consider the matter was refused by the House. Ur Rolph voted
with the opposition, a circumstance which made the situation still
more embarrassing, and the Hincks administration had now no
course left but to resign.

Although the ministry had been driven from power by the union
of the Brown party with the legitimate Conservative opposition, the
followers of Mr Hmcks in the Assembly were still a strong and
solid body, who bitterly resented his fall, and stood ready to avenge
it at the first opportunity. There were now in point of fact three

K'l-
I

526

The Histoiy of Canada.

distinct parties in the House — the old Reform party, led by Mr
Hincks ; the Brownite party, composed of the extreme Reformers of
Upper Canada and the Rouges, or Liberal party of Lower Canada ;
and the Conservative party. Of these the Hincks party was much
the more numerous, and with which neither the Brownite nor Con-
servative party could singly expect to cope. Sir Allan M'Nab,
who had been sent for by the Governor-General, on the resignation
of Mr Hincks, to form a new Cabinet, measured shrewdly the correct
situation of affairs, and at once proceeded to profit by it. His first
step was to open negotiations with Mr Morin, the leader of the
Lower Canadian Conservative party, and which had hitherto sup-
ported the Hincks administration, with the view of forming a
(jovcrnment on the basis of carrying out the measures of the late
Cabinet. Morin and his friends disliked the section of the Reform
party led by Mr Ikown infinitely more than they did the Conserva-
tive party of Upper Canada, and readily entered into the proposed
alliance. Overtures were next made to Mr Hincks to secure the
support of his party, and which was speedily conceded on the con-
sideration that two gentlemen, having the full confidence of himself
and his friends, should be included in the new administration.
After consulting with John A. Macdonald, and other Conservative
leaders, Sir Allan M'Nab agreed to the terms proposed by Mr
Hincks, and the first Coalition Government of Canada forthwith
sprang into existence. As President of the Council, and Minister
of Agriculture, Sir Allan stood at its head. Robert Spence became
Postmaster-General ; John A. Macdonald, Attorney-General West ;
WiUiam Cayley, Finance Minister ; and Chaveau, Provincial Secre-
tary. This coalition, however, was not approved by all the Hmcks-
ite party, and several of whom at once went into opposition. Still
the new administration had a large majority to sustain them, and
the Reform opposition stood for the present in a hopeless minority.
Mr Brown had been completely outwitted by the coup (Vctat of Sir
Allan M'Nab, and found himself utterly unable to reap any benefit
from the important victory he had, after so much exertion, achieved.
At the same time, the destruction of the Hincks Cabinet, and the
consequent union of the Conservative parties of Upper and Lower
Canada, may be regarded as the death-knell of the old Reform party
of this country, so long cohesive hitherto, and so formidable under
the leadership of Robert Baldwin. And from that day to this that
party has never recovered its ancient prestige.

The new administration promptly proceeded to redeem its pledges,
with regard to carrying out the policy of the late Cabinet, as an-

TJic History of Canada.

527

nounced in the Governor-General's speech at the opening of the
session. Such of its members as belonged to the Assembly, and
had to go back, therefore, to their constituencies for re-election, had
been aliice violently opposed by extreme Tories and extreme Re-
formers, but were all, nevertheless, elected. When they again took
their seats, they found that an opposition to their government had
been fully organised. It was composed of the Jioiiy^cs, led by Mr
Dorion,ofthe extreme Reformers, or, as they were termed, Clear Grits,
under the leadership of Mr Brown, and of several moderate Reformers,
who regarded John Sandfield Macdonald as their chief, and aiming
to be consistent with party traditions, now refused to aid a Coalition
Government in passing most important Reform measures. 13ut
ministers, nevertheless, did not hesitate to pursue the line of action
they had determined upu.- ; and, on the 17th of October, a bill was
introduced for the secular! 'iation of the Clergy Reserves. The bitter
hostility to the Church of F'.ngland, mainly produced by the course
of Bishop Strachan as a politician, in so thoroughly identifying that
Church with the obnoxious rule of the Family Compact, had at
length culminated to its meridian, and nothing would now assuage
the sectarian and political agitation but the utter alienation of the
endowment. Regarded at first as the exclusive i)roperty of the
Church of England, the claim of the Church of Scotland to a share
of the Clergy Reserves had to be admitted, after much agitation and
a decision of the bench of English judges in its favour. At a later
period, still less exclusiveness had been shown in the distribution of
the proceeds of the lands, a large portion of which, under the pro-
vision of an imperial act, had been placed at the disposal of the
Governor-General, for the benefit of the clergy of any denomination
willing to receive public aid. Yet even this liberal arrangement was
not deemed satisfactory ; and the agitation caused by the exclusive
claim of the Church of England had scarcely ceased, when it was
succeeded by another, which had for its object the entire alienation
of the Reserves from religious uses. The Free Church movement,
which led to the Scottish secession in 1843, produced, in the ensuing
year, a corresponding action in the Canadian Presbyterian body.
It being a cardinal principle with the nev/ly-organised Church, that
public aid, however unconditionally granted, was injurious to the
cause of religion, its members at once united with the party who
had from the first advocated the appropriation of the endowment
to secular objects, and the agitation was again bitterly renewed.
Robert Baldwin, a member of the Church of England, was opposed
to secularisation ; and, despite his great public services, this circum-

■' i

*il!;i'.f
if" V'

5=3

T/ie History of Canada.

I hi

Stance had lost liiin the hearts of the Reform i)arty. Francis Mincks
unquestionably had a covert dislike to the measure; and although
lie eventually turned with the current it swept him to the bottom.
The Conservative i)arty, mainly composed of members of the Churches
of I'lngland and Scotland, clung to non-secularisation as the i^reat
mainstay of their political faith, and yet its leaders had now to bend
to the storm. The (lovernment measure speedily became the law
of the land, the Clergy Reserves under its provisions were handed
over to the various municipal corporations for secular jjurposes, and
a noble provision made for the sustentation of reli^don frittered
away so as to protluce but very few beneficial results. The Churches
of England and Scotland were violently dragged down to the level
of other religious bodies, could no longer arrogate to themselves a
state supremacy of any kind, and the democratic features of the
country presented an evenness of religious surface which had hitherto
been wanting. IJishop Strachan had led the Church of England in
Canada to bitter and humiliating defeat ; and while the wise policy
of the same Church preserved its Trinity and other endowments \\\
rep iblican America, unwise assumption and clerical politics in
monai-chical Canada had raised up against it the most bitter and
persistent foes, who had never ceased their efforts till they swept
every royal acre from its possession. But, a slender provision for the
future was saved from the wreck of its Canadian fortunes. Tiie
permissory act of the Imperial Parliament had reserved the life
interests of incumbents. These interests were now conmiuted by the
Canadian act of secularisation, with the consent of the clergymen
themselves ; the foundation of a small permanent endowment was
thus laid, to the great disgust of the opposition, and the Clergy
Reserves question was fully and finally settled for ever.

But, while every semblance of a State Church was being vigorously
swept away in Protestant and Democratic Upper Canada, the
Roman Catholic community of the Lower Province bowed con-
tentedly to the government of their clergy, regular and monastic,
who quietly collected their tithes, took care of their princely city
endowments, erected splendid temples for their worship, and swayed
the political aspirations of their flocks. No country in the world,
not even excepting Spain, is such a paradise for the Papal clergy as
Lower Canada. Secured in their broad possessions by the terms of
the old French capitulation, they repose in peace under the solid
and safe protection of the British flag ; and revolution or annexation
as regards them can only mean deprivation and misfortune. The
simple and unlettered Habitant bends willingly to clerical rule, as

TJic llislo)')' of Canada.

529

the best, not only for liis spiritual, but even temporal welfare ; while
the more educatcil and rcfincil, wiio aspire to political position, or
social influence, find it a paramount necessity to bow to priestly
domination. So comi)lcte, indeed, is its sway, that it passes onwards
almost wholly unquestioned, and scarcely a murmur against its des-
potic authority escapes from within its portals to the world outside.
In Montreal, its religious and educational foundations are wealthy
and imposing ; there its real estate constantly assumes grander
architectural forms, whilst its Jesuit and other churches are cither
marvels of size or of splendid interior decoration. In Quebec, its
huge temples tower upwards in a solidity of construction which
promises perpetual duration, while all around is touched with the
finger of decay and departing prosperity. In the rural districts its
churches are the great features of the level landscape, and their
spires even glance in the far-off nortiiern sunshine, which lights so
coldly the rii)plcs of the romantic and rock-bound Sagucnay. And
yet this Church, so massive in its foundations, so repressive in its
tendencies, so fatal to freedom of thought, so crippling to national
progress, was so politic in its general course, that it excited none of
the indignation which had rolled so constantly and persistently
against the Church of England ; and the agitation against State en-
dowment in Upper Canada did not make even a solitary rent in its
armour. Whatever uneasiness might have possibly been produced
by the agitation against the Clergy Reserves in the minds of its flocks,
was skilfully turned by the clerical order against the abuses of the
Seignorial Tenure, and the public voice of Lower Canada, under its
direction, now loudly demanded the abolition of this residue of the
feudal ages. Anxious to establish an aristocracy in Canada, as the
basis at once of religious and regal influence, the French Crown,
from time to time, had granted large tracts of land to younger
members of ancient families ; and the patents on which these were
held confirmed to them in addition many of the privileges accorded
to the noblesse of old France. Years elapsed, even after the Con-
quest, before these privileges were found to be very oi)pressive. But
although the charges on the lands were never high, the heavy i:)ay-
ments accruing to the seigniors on the transfer of property, and
the repression of industry caused by milling and other vexatious
monopolies, led to a very general desire for the abolition of tlie
system. The bill to effect this object passed through the Assembly
in conjunction with that to secularise the Clergy Reserves, and made
provision to have the claims of the seigniors, as defined by a
commutation commission, paid from the public chest. Five years

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530

The History of Canada.

aftenvards, the expenditure under this act had reached to about
$1,000,000; not a large sum, certainly, for the valuable results
achieved. Several other important measures were also passed during
this session. The Grand Trunk Railway Act was amended, a new
Cu>toms Tariff adopted, the Canada Ocean Steamship Company in-
corporated, and effect given to the Reciprocity Treaty. On the i8th
of December, the necessary legislation having all been completed,
Parliament was adjourned with the usual formalities to the 23d of
the ensuing February. On the following day, Lord Elgin, who had
committed the fatal mistake of identifying himself too closely with
one of the political parties of the country, resigned a government so
fruitful of personal humiliation to himself, and at once proceeded
home. The tide of public opinion had again set strongly in his
favour, but his memories of Canada were laden with too many in-
dignities to render a longer residence in it either pleasant or desirable.
No doubt, also, he anticipated other employment from the Imperial
Government. After his subsequent mission to Japan and China, he
closed a great and useful existence in the Governor-Generalship of
India, the highest post in the gift of the British Crown, and became
another distinguished victim to a climate so fatal to European life.
Mr Hincks remained in Canada but a few months after the depar-
ture of J ord Elgin. He had already outlived his once great popu-
larity ; and the union of his immediate followers with the Conserva-
tives, and the charges of corruption against himself, so thoroughly
alienated the bulk of the Reform party of Upper Canada, that his
political influence must have been destroyed for all time to come.
In England, Lord Elgin no doubt stood his friend ; and the Palmer-
ston administratic, not unmindful of his ser*^ices, appointed him to
the Governorship of tne Windward West India Islands ; and, in
addition, solaced him for the loss of his Canadian influence by the
honour of knighthood.

CHAPTER XXV.

THE GOVERNMENT OF SIR EDMUND W. HEAD.

SIR EDMUND W. HEAD, appointed at the ripe age of fifty
years as the successor of Lord Elgin, was descended from an
ancient and honourable English family of Kent. As a
gentleman-commoner of Oriel College, Oxford, he had ^^'
distinguished himself for a close application to philosophy and
rhetoric, passed finally a brilliant examination, was almost imme-
diately afterwards elected to a fellowship, and received the appoint-
ment of tutor to Mereton College. A clever article from his pen
in the Foreign Quarterly Review introduced him to the notice of the
Marquis of Lansdowne ; and by whom, shortly afterwards, he was
created an assistant poor-law commissioner, at a salary of ;^iooo
a year. In this office Sir Edmund acquitted himself so well, that
a change in the administration only tended to advance his interests ;
and Sir James Graham promoted him to be chief commissioner, and
doubled his remuneration. But the assaults of a portion of the
London press, and the dissatisfaction of the public with the new
Poor-Law Act, which he had mainly framed, compelled his retire-
ment from office, to be appointed Governor of New Brunswick, and
to be elevated, subsequently, to the more important position of
Governor-General of British North America. Such, then, was the
man, under whose auspices the adjourned session of Parliament
was opened on the 23d of February, Doring the recess, several
changes had taken place in the Lower Canadian section of the
ministry. Morin had resigned the commissionership of Crown
Lands, to be succeeded by Joseph Cauchon, George E. Cartier had
replaced Chaveau as Provincial Secretary, and Chabot made way
for Lemieux in the department of Public Works. But the Coalition
Cabinet, nevertheless, still held the reins of power firmly in their
hands ; and throughout the session the opposition continued in a
large minority on all important questions.

532

The History of Canada.

On the 27th, a despatch from the Colonial Secretary to the
Governor-General, which gave evidence of the kindly spirit that
now subsisted between the mother-country and her cis-Atlantic
daughter, was laid before the House. It acknowledged the receipt
of the cordial congratulations of the Parliament of Canada on the
victory gained by British and French arms on the heights of the
Alma, and of two drafts of ;^i 0,000 sterling each, voted towards
the relief of the widows of the soldiers and sailors of both nations
slain in the war. Nor was this spirit of sympathy with the mother-
land in her difficulty restricted to the Parliament of this country.
It produced the subscriptions, for the same benevolent purpose, of
the cities and towns throughout the land, and otherwise evoked the
deepened feelings of natural affection in the hearts of its people.

The session terminated on the 30th of May, after the unusual
number of two hundred and fifty-one bills had been enacted. A
large and solid majority had enabled the ministry to transact a very
great amount of business. The opposition, still led by Mr Brown,
had not improved its position by the occurrences of the session ;
and, intensely disliked as its leader was by the majority of the French
Canadians, it would now seem as if the Coalition Cabinet was
destined to have a long lease of power. The Governor-General's
closing speech supplied a historical retrospect of I'alue. He alluded
to the Clergy Reserves Act of the preceding session, as being based on
liberal principles, and respecting individual rights ; to the Seignorial
Tenure Act, as effecting great changes, with some individual hardship,
but establishing Canada as the only country in the world where the
feudal system had expired without violence and revolution, and to
the benefits already arising from the operations of the Reciprocity
Treaty. Great issues had, indeed, been for ever disposed of; his
Excellency liad no public evils of magnitude to dilate upon ; and,
secure in the most ample guarantees of their rights, the people of
Canada could now apply themselves, without let or hindrance, to
the full development of their material prosperity. A brief paragraph
in the speech set forth, that a measure, passed during the session,
had provided for the improved organisation of the militia and
volunteers, and this was the first step taken towards the creation
of a volunteer force in Canada. Hitherto, in time of peace, the
militia was simply a paper organisation, and the regular troops were
alone available in the event of any sudden emergency. But the
new Militia Act produced a most important change for the better
in this respect, and ultimately led to the formation of well-drilled
and efficiently-equipped volunteer corps throughout the whole of

The History of Canada.

533

Canada ; an clement of additional security in time of peace, and an
admirable nucleus for a militia army in the event of war.

The year 1855 may be regarded as constituting a fresh landmark
in the commercial annals of Canada. The general policy of the
Peel administration, which culminated in the repeal of the Corn
Laws, had terminated the protective and discriminative Home and
Colonial system of trade. Up to that period the commercial legisla-
tion of Canada had been made to harmonise, as far as possible, with
the imperial practice. But, left to shift for herself as best she could,
the Legislature abolished in 1848 the differential duties in favour of
direct trade with Great Britain ; and the repeal of the imperial Navi-
gation Laws, in 1849, still further loosened the commercial bonds
between Canada and the mother-country. As a necessary conse-
quence, the trade policy of the colony again became the reflex of
that of the parent land ; and the Reciprocity Treaty was the coping-
stone of a system, inaugurated six years before, which opened
wide the portals of the Canadian market on equal terms to all the
world, and commenced a new and more enlightened era of com-
mercial intercourse. With the close of 1854, the old trade period
may be said to have finally terminated. During that year the
imports into Canada had amounted to $40,529,325, on which, at an
average rate of twelve per cent., the duty collected was $4,900,769,
while the exports were only $23,019,190. The total public revenue
from all sources was $6,088, no, against an expenditure of $4,171,941,
thus leaving a large surplus, which led, in 1855, to the reduction
of the Customs Tariff to ten per cent. On the other hand, the
legislation of the three preceding years had increased the public
debt by $21,000,000, and this debt, at the beginning of 1855, had
swelled to $38,851,833. The greater portion of the new debt had
been contracted for the Grand Trunk and other railways, of which
three hundred and thirty miles had now been opened, despite the
severe monetary pressure mainly resulting from tlie Crimean war.
Towards the close of the summer the Grand Trunk Railway had
been completed to Brockville, one hundred and twenty miles above
Montreal, and some of the piers of the Victoria Bridge had also been
constructed. The rejoicings for the railway opening followed close
upon those for the Fall of Sebastopol — an occurrence which illu-
mmated almost every city and town from Gaspe to Goderich.

The commencement of the new year brought with it no event of
importance to record. Railway matters had not yet begun
to seriously vex the public mind ; and beyond a very slight
agitation relative to making the Legislative Council elective, and the

1856.

534

The History of Canada,

seat of government question, no political excitement whatever
existed. From the general tone of the Reform press, however, it
^as quite evident that the feeling of antagonism to Sir Allan
M'Nab's government was on the increase. It was too liberal and
progressive to suit the Family Compact wing of the Conservative
party, but not sufficiently extreme to meet the views of that portion
of the Reform party which acknowledged the leadership of Mr George
Brown. This gentleman, destined at a more recent period to fill a
very prominent position in this country, was born in Scotland, at the
city of Edinburgh, in 1821. In 1838 his family emigrated to New
York, where his father, Mr Peter Brown, a man of large general
information and excellent abilities, commenced the mercantile
business. But his success not being commensurate with his expecta-
tions, he entered, in 1842, upon the career of a public journalist, and
issued a weekly newspaper, intensely Anglo-Saxon in every respect,
called the British Chronicle. Its proposed field of operations was
already, however, too completely filled by the Albion; so the
Chronicle only lived for the brief space of eighteen months. In
1843 the family removed to Toronto, and there Mr George Brown
became the publisher, in the interests of the Free Church Presby-
terians, of a weekly newspaper termed the Bann:. \ In 1844 the
publication of this journal was relinquished for that of the Globe, a
newspaper devoted to Reform, politics, general news, and literature,
which very speedily attained to a most influential position. In
1849 he was appointed, by the Baldwin-Lafontaine ministry, as a
commissioner to investigate certain alleged abuses in the Provincial
Penitentiary, a trust he discharged with much ability and benefit to
the country. In December 185 1, he was first elected to the Legis.
lature as a member for the county of Kent, and his unquestionably
great abilities soon raised him to a conspicuous position.

A man of this stamp, whose personal exertions in behalf of
his party were aided by the great influence of the leading Reform
journal of Upper Canada, could not be otherwise than a most
formidable opponent. Gifted with a clear and vigorous intellect,
possessed of habits of great industry, and of the most indomitable
perseverance, his information extended over every branch of the
pi'blic service, and eminently fitted him for the position of a parti-
san leader and successful agitator. It is a somewhat singular cir-
cumstance tliat as regards the latter capacity, this country should be
so much indebted to natives o." Scotland, instead of to its more
mercurial citizens of Irish origin. The eccentric Gourlay effected,
indirectly, no small amount of good for Canada; his mantle fell

The History of Canada,

535

upon the shoulders of William Lyon Mackenzie, to produce, indeed,
the miseries of rash and partial rebellion, but, at the same time,
to hasten the advent of " Responsible Government," the redress of
numerous abuses, and the dawn of a new, more enlightened, and
more healthy epoch. Of a far superior stamp to his two prede-
cessors, Mr Brown's intellectual standard is commensurate with the
modern and more advanced period of Canadian progress; and if
the want of tact, and an inaccurate perception of the true idiosyn-
crasy of this country, have led him occasionally into fatal errors of
statesmanship, posterity, nevertheless, must confess itself deeply in-
debted to him for a manly exposure of public abuses, and for restrain-
ing the current of corruption, which railway and other kindred
speculations turned at one time so strongly upon Canada.

Early in 1856, Mr Brown's peculiar views, as well as his public
policy, were rising rapidly into favour with the Reform party of Upper
Canada. His sturdy Protestantism not only rallied to his side the
Free Church and Methodist denominations, which had hitherto
entered largely into the composition of that party, but was also
awakening a profound sympathy in the Orange element of the Con-
servative ranks. The agitation against the influence of the Roman
Catholic priesthood, now unquestionably very great, and against
Lower Canadian domination, was already becoming popular in the
Upper province ; and the Baldwin and Hincks policy of a union
with the French Conservative or Church party, was almost entirely
abandoned by the Western Reformers.

Such was the condition of affairs when Parliament, on the 15th of
February, assembled at Toronto, whither the seat of government
had now been removed. The Governor-General's opening speech
set forth that there was a large balance of Clergy Reserves money
awaiting distribution among the several municipalities, that the
subject of an elective Legislative Council (the old French dream of
the visionary Papineau) would again be brought before Parliament,
recommended reforms in the Legislature, in the police system, and
in prison discipline, stated that a contract for a St Lawrence line of
ocean steamers had been completed, and congratulated the country
on the inestimable blessing of profound peace, while other parts of
the world were suffering the privations and miseries of war. A bitter
debate on the address ensued, and ministers were most violently
assailed, not only by Mr Brown and his friends, but also by several
Conservatives, who disliked their secularisation of the Clergy Re-
serves, or were tainted by the extreme Protestant views propagated
by the Globe newspaper, and by other journals of a kindred stamp.

536

The History of Canada,

The Cabinet ultimately carried the address by a good majority, yet
it was quite evident that its position was not by any means a secure
one, and that the desertion of many of its supporters might now
take place at any inauspicious moment On the loth of March,
John Hillyard Cameron, subsequently Grand Master of the Orange
Association for many years, moved for a copy of the charge delivered
to the jury by Judge Duval, on the trial of several men at Quebec
for the murder of a Protestant, Robert Corrigan, in the neighbouring
township of St Sylvester. The judge and jury were all Roman
Catholics, and the acquittal of the accused, in the face of evidence
generally deemed conclusive, gave a partial aspect to the proceed-
ings, which awoke a storm of indignation on the part of the Pro-
testant population of the country. No previous trial had ever so
dee[)ly moved the public mind of Canada, or caused such bitter
feeling on the part of the Western press ; and for a time it seemed
as if the Orange element would ally itself permanently with the
Reform party. The formation of a new and exclusively Protestant
party was now advocated by the Globe and its immediate partisan
contemporaries, while several Conservative journals leaned strongly
in the same direction. Under those circumstances, Mr Cameron's
motion placed ministers in the most serious dilemma. If they
agreed to its passage, and so permitted Judge Duval's cliarge to be
reviewed by the House, their French-Canadian supporters would be
seriously offended . nd alienated ; while if they jjursued the opposite
course, they must expect to lose the votes of some Protestant Con-
servatives. Skilfully covering their procedure by constitutional
pleas, ministers reiused to agree to the motion, and were defeated
by a majority of four. They declined, however, to regard this as a
vote of " want of confidence," on the ground chiefly that a subse-
quent division, the same evening, showed they had still the support
of the majority of the House.

These occurrences, in addition to the bitter sectional conflict
caused by the " seat of government question," still undecided,
materially weakened the ministry ; and it now became evident, that
some changes must be made in its composition, or it would ere long
be compelled to surrender the reins of power into the hands of the
opposition. Its Hincksite section cavilled at the premiership of Sir
Allan M'Nab, on the score of his past Family Compact proclivities,
and imagined, that if he were compelled to retire altogether from the
Cabinet, it would strengthen their hands with the Reform party, and
disarm the hostility of its press. Born at the town of Niagara in
1798, Sir Allan had soldiered to stoutly during the three years' war

The History of Canada,

537

with the United States, was long a member of the Canadian Legisla-
ture, and, as we have already seen, rendered important services
during the dark period of the rebellion. Solid, loyal, and respect-
able, his past excellent and consistent record, and not his brilliancy
of intellect, had raised him to the position of a party leader. But .
ambition could no longer endure even respectable mediocrity, and
his colleagues now determined to sacrifice Sir Allan M'Nab, with
the double object of propitiating the opposition, and of making
way for the more able leadership of the Attorney-General, John A.
Macdonald. The intrigue was successful, and on the 23rd of May
the Premier resigned, to be succeeded by Mr Tache, a member of
the Legislative Council, and a Lower Canadian of respectable repu-
tation and abilities. But Mr Macdonald, as the ministerial leader in
the Assembly, was the real head of the administration ; and from
that day to this has occupied a foremost place in the public councils
of his country. Like many other political notabilities of Canada, he
had been the architect of his own fortunes, and his biographical story
may briefly be told. The son of Scottish parents, who established
themselves at the city of Kingston, he applied himself in 1829 to the
study of the law, although then but fifteen years of age, and had
barely attained his majority when admitted to the bar, a matter at
that day of even less difficulty than it is now. A brilliant defence of
the unfortunate Pole, Von Schultz, captured at the battle of the Wind-
mill in 1839, brought the young lawyer into prominent notice ; and
his great tact, genial nature, and affable manners made him a favourite
with the public, and added to his rising reputation. In 1844 he was
elected for Kingston, and has since continued to be the member
for his native city, despite various attempts to unseat him. Attach-
ing himself to the Conservative party, he was appointed in 1847
Receiver-General in the Draper administration, but had only a brief
term of office, owing to its defeat in 1848. For the ensuing six
years, Mr Macdonald remained in opposition, and on the resignation
of Mr Hincks, his counsel and assistance led in no small degree to
the formation of the coalition ministry. A ready and fluent speaker,
tenacious of purpose, possessed of great tact and sterling administra-
tive ability, he has filled a most prominent position as a public man,
through a long, and at times most critical, period for this country ;
and has tided it safely over difficulties of the most serious kind.

Such was the person who became the Conservative leader of
Upper Canada in 1856, and whose elevation speedily produced are-
action in favour of the Cabinet. Under his auspices it passed safely
through a stormy session, which terminated on the ist July, and

538

The History of Canada.

placed several important measures on the statute-book. Foremost
among these was the Common Law Procedure Act, which greatly
simplified and expedited the proceedings in the Courts of Queen's
Bench and Common Pleas in Upper Canada, and another act which
effected the same results as regarded its county courts, — both much-
needed measures of law reform. An act was also passed during the
session, making the Legislative Council elective, and which permitted
the existing incumbents to hold their seats during life, but adding
twelve elected members to their number every two years, and whose
term of office was eight years. The lapse of time demonstrated
this measure to be a failure. It neither tended to make the Upper
House more popular, nor the elected members superior to those
hitherto appointed by the Crown. The elective system, as regards
the chamber of the same character, has accordingly been abandoned
under the Confederation Act, and the old and more constitutional
mode of appointment again resorted to.

Aside from Parliamentary matters, but few events of note, inti-
mately affecting this country, transpired during the year. A terrible
railway accident, the first of the kind which had occurred in Canada,
on the 1 2th of March, awoke a general feeling of the most painful
description. A passenger train from Toronto to Hamilton broke
through the bridge over the Desjardins Canal, leading to Dundas,
crashed through the solid ice beneath, and seventy people were
killed. The Treaty of Paris, signed on the ist of April, which ter-
minated the war with Russia, was gladly hailed throughout Canada
as an assurance of peace and prosperity to the parent land. But
the year had not yet terminated when war broke out between Great
Britain and China, and the progress of hostilities, although so re-
mote, had a depressing4nfluence on the commerce of this country.
The mutiny of the hitherto pampered and caressed Sepoys of the
Bengal army, in British India, in the earlier part of the ensuing
year, tended still further to produce a stringency in the
^'' money market, and a consequent derangement in trade,
which seriously checked the progress of Canada, and paved the way
for the commercial crisis which soon after ensued.

The Legislature assembled at Toronto on the 26th of February,
and on this occasion its proceedings were not characterised by that
bitterness of party debate which had prevailed during the preceding
session. A fair majority still continued to support the ministry,
and enabled it to secure the passage of several measures of law
reform, now much needed, as well as an act for the codification of
the statutes of Lower Canada. Much useful legislation otherwise

The History of Canada.

539

resulted from the labours of this session, which terminateo on the
loth of June, and its proceedings generally were satisfactory to
the public.

On the 26th of June, a terrible catastrophe occurred in Canadian
waters. A large steamboat, plying between Montreal and Quebec,
took fire off Cape Rouge when on her way upwards, and speedily
burned to the water's edge. Of two hundred and fifty-eight immi-
grants, mostly from the Scottish Highlands, who had embarked in
the Montreal^ only fifty-eight were saved, although the river at this
point is scarcley a mile wide, and the total loss was estimated at two
hundred and fifty souls. In the month of August, much public in-
terest was excited by the effort, now being made for the first time,
to lay an electric cable between Ireland and Newfoundland. After
four hundred miles had been submerged, the cable broke, and the
project was abandoned for the time. In September a serious mone-
tary and commercial crisis arose in the United Slates, which produced
numerous bank and mercantile failures there, and reacted very un-
favourably on Canada. This circumstance, in connexion with the
collapse of commercial credit which followed shortly afterwards in
England, a poor harvest, and the almost total cessation of railway
expenditure in this country, produced a great stagnation of trade,
and caused a considerable falling off in the public revenue. This
state of things, coupled with the fact that, with the single exception
of the Great Western line, Government had now to assume the pay-
ment of interest, amounting to $800,000 per annum, on all the rail-
way advances, as well as the interest on the Municipal Loan Fund
debt, now reaching annually to about 8400,000, caused a serious
deficit in the public exchequer. At the close of 1857 the entire in-
come of Canada was $5,352,794, while the total expenditure
summed up to 85,692,942. Too many costly public works had
been undertaken, in the fever of excitement produced by the Rail-
way and Loan Fund legislation of the Hincks administration ; more
railways had been built than were required by the necessities of the
country, or than its legitimate traffic could sustain ; and the reaction
which commenced this year was in part the inevitable result of un-
due speculation. Public improvements had been made in advance
of the population, the wealth, and the commerce of the country ; and
the increase, in the progress of time, of these elements of national
greatness could alone restore the healthy equilibrium of the financial
condition of the body politic.

As the year drew towards its close, Mr Tache resigned the
Premiership, and Mr John A. Macdonald became his successor.

540

The History of Canada.

A dissolution of Parliament was now determined on, and the
country was speedily wrapt in the excitement of a general election.
The most strenuous exertions were made by ministers and their
friends, to secure a majority in the new Assembly ; while the Reform
party, vigorously led by the Globe newspaper, used every effort in
the opposite direction. Every possible cry was raised in order to
defeat the Government, and even religious issues were had recourse
to during the contest. The Hincks element in the Reform party
of Upper Canada now completely disappeared, while in the Lower
Province, on the other hand, the Rouge party, which had allied
itself with Mr Brown, met with almost total defeat. The latter
result had been chiefly produced by the hostility of the French
Roman Catholic clergy, who regarded the avowed republicanism
of the Rouges, and the outspoken Protestantism of Mr Brown,
with almost equal dislike. Nor were the religious issues raised in
Upper Canada barren of results. On the contrary, they produced
a complete revolution in public sentiment in several electoral
districts \ and in the city of Toronto, the union of the numerous
Orange body with the Reformers secured the return of Mr Brown,
and who, now at the zenith of his popularity, was also elected for
the North Riding of Oxforc But the principal result of this
election was the creation of a new and most embarrassing public
issue. The preponderance, although small in extent, secured by
the Reform party in Upper Canada, must render it necessary for
ministers, if they desired to retain their portfolios, to abandon the
" double-majority " principle, that is, a majority in their favour from
both Upper and Lower Canada separately, as well as collectively,
and deemed necessary hitherto, in order to prevent unpalatable
legislation from being forced by one province on another. This
principle had been adhered to since the union in 1840, by the
various administrations ; and its recognition had led Mr Baldwin
to resign, in consequence of the adverse vote of Upper Canadians
on his Court of Chancery policy for their province, although sus-
tained by a large majority of the whole House. A principle of this
kind has never been entertained for a single moment by the Imperial
Parliament, and in which it has not at anytime been deemed necessary
that ministers should have a majority of Scotch members on Scotch
questions, nor of Irish members on Irish measures. Yet, however
untenable the double-majority principle might be on the score of
sound constitutional politics, the antagonism of race, and even of
interest, rendered its exercise necessary hitherto to harmonious
legislation. While the criminal laws of the country had gradually

The llistoy of Canada.

541

1858.

assumed a uniform condition, the civil law had one statute-hook
for Upper and another for Lower Canada ; ami it became necessary,
therefore, to exercise the utmost care to avoid exciting the pre-
judices of race, and, we might also add, of creed. Hence arose the
adoption of the double-majority principle, and its abandonment by
the administration of Mr John A. Macdonald led immediately to
the cry of French domination on the part of the Reform party, to
the agitation for representation by population, and jiaved the way
for the governmental dead-lock which ultimately ensued, and the
only remedy for which was the Imperial Act of Confederation ol
1866.

Parliament met on the 28th of February, at Toronto, and was
found to be largely composed of new members, of whom
sixty-five had been returned. Among these was John
Sheridan Hogan, whose cle .er essay on Canada has been so gener-
ally read, and whose subsequent murder by a band of thieves and
prostitutes at the Don Bridge, Toronto, created such a profound
sensation at the time. Rut the most notable of the legislative
novelties was unquestionably Thomas D'Arcy M'Ghee, elected by
the Irishmen of Montreal West, and whose publicly-expressed
desire " to have half an hour on the floor of the House with
George Brown," had at length been gratified. A newspaper cor-
respondent quaintly narrates, "that Mr M'Ghee took the oath of
allegiance without hesitation, and subscribed it with a firm hand."
The whilom compatriot of the truculent vitriol-throwing John
Mitchell, and of the brilliant, though mistaken, Thomas Francis
Meagher, who had moreover written such daring refrains as the
" Felon flag of England," had indeed settled down into a respectable
and law-abiding Canadian citizen, and now sat in its Legislature as
the advocate of Roman Catholicism, and the antidote of the Puritan
Mr Brown, but whose general policy he was speedily found support-
ing, thus verifying the old adage that extremes sometimes meet.

The election of Speaker at once developed the weakness of the
opposition, and who had declined to put forward a candidate ot
their own. Henry Smith, of Kingston, the ministerial candidate for
the speakership, was elected by seventy-nine against forty-two votes ;
and this fact having been duly notified to the Governor-General, he
came down in state, on the following day, to open the House. As
befitted the occasion of a new Parliament, his speech was more
lengthy than , iual. It alluded to the progress of the rebellion in
India, to the disturbance of commercial relations, which had dis-
tinguished the latter part of the preceding year, to the necessity of

542

The History of Canada.

sundry improvements in the law, and to the fact " that the country
had gone to the utmost limit of pecuniary aid to the Grand Trunk
Railway," and against further assistance to which a great outcry had
already been raised outside, as well as in, the Legislative Assembly.

The debate on the address was at once stormy and protracted.
The opposition, led most ably by Mr Brown, assailed the policy of
the ministry at all points, and exultingly pointed to their majority
from Upper Canada as evidence of the soundness of their views,
and the popularity of their position. As the session progressed,
the question of representation by population, without regard to a
dividing line between Upper and Lower Canada, was strongly
pressed on the attention of the House, but negatived by a vote of
sixty-four to fifty-two. The minority was composed of the whole
Reform representatives of Upper Canada, with the single exception
of John S. Macdonald, of Cornwall. Thus the abandonment of
the double-majority principle had already produced an agitation of
a new and formidable character.

Foiled, however, at every other point by the skilful fencing of
ministers, the opposition at length determined to avail themselves
of the seat of government question in order to defeat them. And
here it may be necessary to remind the reader, in order to understand
more fully the nature of this question, that after the destruction by a
mob of the parHament building in Montreal, it had been determined
to hold the seat of government alternately at Toronto and Quebec,
in order to propitiate the representatives of both sections. This
perambulating system had proved to be alike most expensive and
inconvenient, and during the session of the preceding year, both
branches of the Legislature had agreed to a resolution asking the
Queen to decide the question of a permanent seat of government,
and which, owing to their local interests and sectional jealousies,
they could not themselves agree on. Parliament iiad supplemented
this request by passing an act appropriating the sum of $900,000
for the erection of public buildings at such place as her Majesty
might be graciously pleased to designate. And thus the matter
stood at the close of 1857.

The three years' war with the United States had taught the
Imperial Government the necessity of some safe mode of com-
munication from tide water to the Great Lakes. After various ex-
plorations, the inland route up the Ottawa was selected, to a point
where an affluent of that river, the Rideau, leaps down in a foaming
cascade upon its turbid waters ; and from thence a ship canal,
connecting lakes and rivers, was to extend navigation, by a circuit-

The History of Canada.

ous route, to the fortified post of Kingston, the Frontenac of French
dominion, at the foot of Lake Ontario. In May 1826, Lieutenant-
Colonel John By, of the Royal Engineers, arrived in Canada to
carry out this project, (completed in 1834,) and made his head-
quarters where the proposed canal was to descend, by eight locks,
a deep declivity of some ninety feet in perpendicular height to the
Ottawa River. The romantic beauty of this sequestered woodland
spot had no counterpart in all Canada. Less than a mile above, the
noble current of the Ottawa, speeding on its way from the north-
west oceanwards, narrows into picturesque rapids, and then plunges
down the Falls of the Chaudiere, in a cloud of spray and mist, to
chafe against its steep rocky boundaries below. Grassy dells where
the parasitical wild vine clung to the umbrageous forest tree, and hills
covered by the stately and solemn white pine, along which the wild
deer bounded, and where the notes of the wliip-poor-will re-echoed
plaintively through the solitude, at intervals varied the landscape.
And here it was that, under the fostering care of Colonel By, and
stimulated by the expenditure of English gold, gradually arose a
town, mainly peopled at first by the rough diggers of the canal, and
the stalwart lumbermen, Habitant and Anglo-Saxon, who so merci-
lessly hewed down the magnificent pine forests of the Ottawa, and
whose carelessness so frequently produced conflagrations in the
woods, still more destructive than themselves. Genuine rough
" shiners " were all these sturdy backwoodsmen, and many years
elapsed before their rude impress made way for a more refined
civiHsation. But they were not the less its solid precursors there as
well as elsewhere. Bytown, the centre of a vast lumber trade, and
spreading out its settlements on every side, gradually expanded
into a city of some fourteen thousand inhabitants, two parts Eng-
lish and one part French, and when it ungratefully cast from it tlie
appropriate name derived from its founder, and selected ihe more
euphonious Indian one of Ottawa. And this was the site wisely
selected by the Queen for the permanent seat of Provincial Govern-
ment. The current of the River of the Outawas,* here not (|uite halt
a mile wide, separated the straggling little city from Lower Canada ;
and thus situated on the borders of both sections, in a locality, too,
with a mixed population, the selection was a triumph to neither,
while its easy accessibility by steamboat and railway, and its inland
central situation, made it, of itself, a desirable point for the seat of
government. Thanks to the provident foresight of Colonel By, the
Crown had reserved a bold headland rising over the river, and on
* Its correct Indian name corrupted into Ottawa.

544

The History of Canada,

this the Parliament buildings of the Dominion of Canada, the finest
structures of the kind on this continent, have been erected at an
expense many times greater than was at ?rst intended.

Nothing, certainly, could have been more judicious, from every
point of view, than her Majesty's gracious decision. Yet it met
with little favour from those parties, who, influenced by motives of
personal or local benefit, desired to set the advantage of the seat of
Government at Toronto or Quebec, above their Sovereign's selec-
tion, or the necessities of the country. It was a weak and imwise
stand-point from which to assail a ministry, and exhibited an utter
want of tact, and a recklessness of ulterior consequences. A motion,
that it was a cause of deep regret that her Majesty had been advised
to select Ottawa as the capital of the country was carried, on the 28th
of July, by a majority of fourteen. Ministers shrewdly saw the advan-
tage they must derive from this vote, and altliough it was ostensibly a
censure on the Queen's judgment and decision, and not on them, at
once determined to resign. Thus they completely identified them-
selves with their Sovereign, and that Sovereign, too, a woman ; and in
becoming her defenders were covered by the shadow of the public
sympathy which at once encircled her. Nor were their shrewdness
and tact without their prompt reward. Vexed with themselves that
selfish motives had led them into a false position, the Conservatives
from Upper and Lower Canada, who voted for the motion, took the
first opportunity to act hostilely to the opposition, in order to redeem
their own reputation.

As the leader of the opposition, Mr Brown was immediately
written to by the Governor-General, offered a seat in the Executive
Council, as the premier of a new administration, and requested to
signify his acceptance of this offer in writing. On the following;
evening, his Excellency informed Mr Brown that he would give him
no pledge in reference to a dissolution of Parliament, but that any
advice tendered him on this subject would at once receive his
serious consideration. To a prorogation, however, he would pledge
himself, provided two or three bills, which he deemed necessary for
the public welfare, should be passed, and the necessary supplies
secured by a vote of credit. Mr Brown accepted these conditions,
and at once proceeded to form the Cabinet.

On the ensuing evening, Mr Patrick, of Prescott, announced the
names of the new ministry.* It met with scant favour at the hands

* The new ministry was composed as follows : —

UPPER CANADA.

Inspector-General, Premier, George Brown; Speaker Legislative Council,

The History of Canada.

545

of the House of Assembly. On the motion of Mr Langevin seconded
by Mr Robinson, this body declared, by a vote of seventy-one to
thirty-one, that they had no confidence in Mr Brown's administra-
tion ; while the Upper Chamber made a similar declaration on a
division of sixteen to eight. The ostensible reasons alleged for this
action were, that the members of the new Cabinet already stood
pledged to opposite principles, and had not publicly announced a
programme of their ministerial policy; but the true causes were the
strong dislike entertained towards Mr Brown by the great majority
of the members from Lower Canada, and the desire of others to
retrace their course, as regarded their opposition to the Queen's de-
cision on the seat of government question. This adverse vote led
the Cabinet to demand a dissolution, on the ground that the House
of Assembly did not command the confidence of the country, aside
from the circumstance, that it was entitled to all the support which
the Governor-General could give it. But his Excellency, whose
political leanings were quite evidently in another direction, declined
to take this step on several constitutional grounds. He urged that
a newly-elected House must represent the people, that the business
of Parliament had not been completed, that the corruption alleged
to have been practised at the recent elections would only be re-
peated in a new one, unless legislative enactments interposed, and
that the law of election should first be altered. And a calm and
dispassionate view of the case must lead to the conclusion that Sir
Edmund Head had strong grounds for the policy he avowed.
The Brown Cabinet had now no course left but to resign, and which
course it accordingly pursued, after it had remained in power for the
brief period of two days. Sir Edmund Head was never forgiven for
his conduct at this crisis. He was accused of partiality, of leaning un-
constitutionally to the Conservative party, and from that day forward
his acts were most unfavourably criticised by the Reform press, and
his position rendered exceedingly unpleasant. Like so many of his
predecessors, he had deeply offended one of the political parties of
the country, by apparently supporting another, and had accordingly
to pay the penalty of partial unpopularity.

Very few readers of classical English literature, who have not

James Morris; Postmaster-General, M. Foley; Attorney-General, West, J. S.
Macdonald ; Provincial Secretary, Oliver Mowat ; Solicitor-General, Dr Connor.

LOWER CANADA.

Attorney-General, East, L. T. Drummond ; Com. of Crown Lands, A. A.
Dorion ; Bureau of Agriculture, M. Thibaudcau; Receiver-General, M. Lemieux;
Public Works, L. H. Holton, Solicitor-General, Eabt, M. Laberge.

3 U

546

The History of Canada.

made the acquaintance, in some way or another, of John Gait, the
friend and biographer of the poet Byron. This gentleman came to
this country in 1826, as a commissioner of the Canada Land Com-
pany, and remained here for a period of three years. He left a
pleasant record behind him, and founded Guelph, while the town of
Gait continues to perpetuate his memory. In 1833, his son Alex-
ander, then only a youth of seventeen summers, commenced life in
the eastern townships, as a junior clerk, in the service of the British
America Land Company. His careful Scotch habits, natural ability,
and attention to his duties, won for Mr Gait the confidence of the
company, and the lapse of twenty-two 'years found him the chief
manager of its estates. In 1849, this self-made man was elected for
the county cf Sherbrooke, and in 1853 for the town of the same
name, and for which he has constantly been returned from that
day to this. Of liberal and progressive views, of mild and unassum-
ing manners, an excellent speaker, and profoundly versed in matters
of trade and finance, Mr Gait had gradually risen to a foremost place
in the House, and, in the present exigency, the Governor-General
turned to him, on the resignation of the Brown Cabinet, as the per-
son best fitted to form an administration. But, at once a Protestant
and a representative of an English-speaking Lower Canadian con-
stituency, Mr Gait's position was one of isolation as regarded the
French element in the Legislature, while his opinions were of too
moderate a stamp to command the confidence of either of the politi-
cal parties now struggling for supremacy in the western province.
Well aware that these causes precluded him from becoming a suc-
cessful ministerial leader, and must always compel him to occupy a
subordinate position in any Government, he promptly and wisely
declined the proffered honour. Mr Cartier, as the leader of the
Lower Canadian majority, was next applied to by his Excellency,
and this gentleman, with the aid of Mr John A. Macdonald, speedily
succeeded in forming a new Cabinet,* and in which Mr Gait became
Finance Minister.

* This Cabinet was composed of the following gentlemen : —

UPPER CANADA.

Attorney-General, West, J. A. Macdonald ; President of Council, John Ross ;
Commissioner Crown Lands, P. Vankoughnet ; Receiver-General, G. Sherwood ;
Postmaster-General, Sidney Smith.

LOWER CANADA.
Attorney-General, Mr Cartier; Inspector-General, Mr Gait ; Solicitor-General,
Mr Rose ; Speaker Legislative Council, Mr Belleau ; Commissioner Public Works,
Mr Sicotte; Provincial Secretar)', C. Alleyn.

The History of Canada.

547

the

Out of the formation of this administration a circumstance arose,
which produced unmeasured censure from the Reform party. The
Independence of Parliament Act of 1857 provided, in its seventh
section, that if any member of a Cabinet elected to serve in the
Legislative Assembly, or Legislative Council, resigned his office, and
within one month after his resignation accepted another office in the
Government, he should not thereby vacate his seat. Accordingly,
those members of the former Macdonald Cabinet, who now accepted
office, did not go back to their constituents for re-election, and
sought to comply with this law, soon after repealed, and which should
never have been enacted, by a simple exchange of positions. But
whatever might have been the intention of the law, subsequent
events proved that the ministry had complied with its provisions in
a legal point of view. Actions were brought against such of them
as had exchanged their offices, in the Courts of Queen's Bench and
Common Pleas, and which under the ruling of the judges resulted in
their favour. And while the legality of their conduct was thus estab-
lished, its constitutionality was also asserted by a solemn vote of
Parliament. At the s^.ne time, the members of the new adminis-
tration, who had to return to their constituents for approval, were
all re-elected. Not so, however, with Mr Dorion, the Attorney-
General (East) of the Brown Cabinet, who was defeated in Shefford
by a large majority.

But, despite the intense bitterness of party spirit which now pre-
vailed, the Parliamentaiy session of 1858 produced many useful
measures. Among these were a municipal act, an act providing for
the more perfect registration of electors, and defining the right of
franchise, and a new customs act, which placed the rate of duty on
the great majority of importations at fifteen per cent, a step rendered
necessary by the deficit in the revenue. The session was closed on
the 1 8th of August by the Governor-General, in a speech guarded in
the extreme, and permitting of little adverse comment. It was quite
evident that he realised his position precisely, and that his popu-
larity, never very great, had been entombed in the same gra^'e with
that of so many of his predecessors.

But, whatever little excitement might have attended the closing of
Parliament was, on the following day, wholly dimmed by the news
that the Atlantic cable had been successfully laid. Such was indeed
the case, but its infant life hardly sufficed for the transmission of
her Majesty's brief message of congratulation to President Buchanan
ere it flickered to a close, and it still remained for science to bring
the Old and New Worlds within speaking distance, and to enable

548

The History of Canada.

the wonderful electric spark to travel with the thoughts of two hemi-
spheres through the deep abyss of the Atlantic Ocean. As the year
drew towards its close, the country was called upon to mourn the
death of Robert Baldwin, the Nestor of genuine Canadian Reform,
the victim of ingratitude and contumely. Two days afterwards,
his brethren of the bar met at Osgoode Hall, Toronto, to pay
their fitting tribute to his memory, and where the two great Mac-
donalds, John A. and John S., bitter opponents in political life,
united to honour a man whose remembrance should always be green
in the memories and hearts of the Canadian people.

Parliament met at the early date of the 29th of January, and the
g Governor-General's speech was more than usually sugges-
^"' tive. It declared that it was now necessary to carry out
the statute and the Queen's decision, relative to a permanent seat
of government, that the Seignorial Tenure Commission would shortly
close its labours, and that a moderate outlay beyond the appropria-
tion of 1854 would satisfy all claims. It further stated that the pro-
ject of a union of all British North America had formed the subject
of a correspondence with the Home Government, which would be
laid before the House, that the commercial and financial depres-
sion had not wholly disappeared, and that it was to be hoped the
exercise of a sound and rigid economy would enable Parliament to
bring the expenses within the limits of the public revenue. The
address, in response to this speech, was permitted to pass without
much acrimonious debate. But a question, however, speedily arose
which tested the position of ministers. Mr Brown's name was
designedly left off the Committee of Public Accounts ; and a motion
to have it placed thereon was accepted by the Cabinet as expressing
a want of confidence in its members, and was lost by a majority of
seventeen. This vote had a tranquillising effect on the House, and
the public business was now proceeded with in comparative quiet.
The most notable measures of this session were a new customs act,
which, owing to a continued deficiency in the revenue, advanced
the rate of duty on the bulk of staple importations to twenty per
cent, but, at the same time, wisely made provision for a large free
list of raw products, to stimulate local manufactures, and the acts
respecting the consolidated statutes of Canada and Upper Canada
respectively. The work of consolidation had at length been most
carefully completed, and at once proved of the greatest value to
the bench, the bar, and the magistracy of the country. The seat of
government question was fully set at rest, and the public buildings
at Ottawa were to be at once proceeded with, while a loyally

The History of Canada.

549

couched and most pressing invitation was given to her Majesty, and
any member of the Royal Family, to visit Canada, and open the
Victoria Railway Bridge at Montreal, now on the point of comple-
tion. Towards the close of the session, some trouble was caused by
the Upper Chamber refusing to adopt the supply bill, in conse-
quence of its containing an item to defray the expenses of removing
the Government to Quebec, and where it was to remain until the
buildings at Ottawa were completed. But this exhibition of unusual
independence in the Legislative Council was of very brief duration.
More mature consideration of the matter led to calmer resolves, the
supply bill was eventually passed as sent up by the Assembly, and
the session closed in peace on the 4th of May.

While the United States were convulsed by the shock of Northern
abolitionism with Southern slavery, caused by the insane attempt of
John Brown, the small cloud like a man's hand which presaged the
advancing storm, the summer sunshine of Canada remained un-
dimmed by a single untoward event. In November, a great gather-
ing of the leaders of the Reform party took place at Toronto. The
abandonment of the double-majority principle by ministers, and
the fact that they were in a parliamentary minority as regarded
Upper Canada votes, naturally led, at this convention, to a loud cry
of Lower Canadian domination, and to a demand for representa-
tion by population. The conclusion was arrived at, that the union
of Upper and Lower Canada had failed to realise the intentions
of its promoters, that the Constitution itself was defective, and that
the formation of two or more local governments, with some joint
authority over all, had now become a paramount necessity. The
resolutions which embodied these opinions were inspired by Mr
Brown, and thus was laid the tangible basis of an agitation which
ultimately led to confederation. The only other event of note which
the remainder of the year produced was the actual commencement
of the Parliament buildings. On the 22d of December, ground was
broken for the foundations, and the prospect of their town becoming
the seat of government, gave additional zest to the Christmas fes-
tivities of the citizens of Ottawa. The prize for which Quebec and
Toronto had so fiercely contested had fallen most unexpectedly into

their hands.

As the result of the new tariff, and also of an abundant harvest,
which stimulated the commerce of the country, the public revenue
for 1859 had increased to $6,248,679, while the expenditure was only
$6,099,570. The imports for the year amounted to $33, 555,161,
and the exports to $24,766,981, there being thus as usual a large

550

The History of Canada.

i860.

trade balance against this country, to be made good by the expendi-
ture in one way or another of foreign capital. Nearly all the great
railway enterprises were completed, and a total of two thousand and
ninety-three miles had now been constructed and put in operation.
The public debt had largely increased, and amounted to $54,142,044,
of which the sum of $28,607,013 was an indirect liability, representing
advances on the security of the province to railway companies, and
also, under the provisions of the Loan Fund Act, to municipalities.
But none of the public debt had been contracted for the support of
fleets and armies, and owed its origin almost wholly to the prose-
cution of great works for the development of the agricultural, mineral,
and other resources of the country.

On the 28th of February, the Legislature assembled at Quebec,
whither the seat of government had, in the preceding sum-
mer, been removed. After the usual routine proceedings,
which embraced no feature worthy of notice, had terminated, the
Governor-General laid before the Lower House a despatch from the
Colonial Secretary, the Duke of Newcastle. It announced the re-
ceipt of the joint address of both chambers to the Queen, inviting
her to visit this country, and the expression of her regret, that
owing to her presence being required at the seat of empire, she was
unable to comply with their request. Impressed, however, with an
earnest desire to testify, to the utmost of her power, her warm appre-
ciation of the affectionate loyalty of her Canadian subjects, the
Queen expressed, through her minister, the hope that his Royal
Highness the Prince of Wales would be able to attend the cere-
mony of opening the Victoria Bridge in her name.

The Legislature had only been a brief period in session, when
the opposition proceeded to develop the policy determined on at
the Toronto Reform convention of the preceding November. Mr
Brown gave notice that he would move two resolutions ; the first
being to the effect, that the existing Legislative Union of Upper and
Lower Canada had failed to reahse the anticipations of its promoters,
had resulted in a heavy debt, great political abuses, and universal
dissatisfaction ; and that from the antagonism developed through
difference of origin, local interest, and other causes, the union in
its present form could no longer be continued with advantage to
the people. The second resolution set forth, that the true remedy
for those evils would be found in the formation of two or more
local governments, to which should be committed all matters of a
sectional character, and the erection of some joint authority to dis-
pose of the affairs common to all. Three weeks afterwards, Mr

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551

cere-

Foley moved a direct vote of want of confidence in ministers, and
Mr Ouiniet an amendment thereto of a directly opposite character.
An amendment to the amendment was moved by another member
of the opposition, Mr Laberge, which struck at the Cabinet in-
directly. On this being put, it was negatived by sixty-eight to
forty-four votes. A new amendment was then presented, censuring
ministers, because one of them (Mr Macdonald) belonged to the
Orange body, and which was lost by one hundred and five to nine
votes. Its bad result, however, did not deter another member
from moving that the House did not repose confidence in the
administration, because it had deserted Roman Catholic interests,
and especially as regarded separate school reform in Upper
Canada. But this motion met with even worse success than its
predecessors, and was sustained by only six votes. Mr Ouimet's
amendment, expressing confidence in ministers, was then put to the
House, when the yeas were seventy, and the nays forty-four. This
vote convinced the opposition of the uselessness of further attempts
to compel the resignation of the Cabinet, the public business was
now quietly pushed forward, and towards the close of April the
" Estimates," among which was one item of $20,000 to defray the
expenses of the anticipated visit of the Prince of Wales, were
well advanced. Meanwhile a serious division had arisen in the
ranks of the opposition, many of whom were now most unwilling to
follow any longer the leadership of Mr Brown. This feeling pro-
duced a public quarrel in the House, between the latter and some of
his political friends ; and Mr Campbell, the member for Rouville,
implored him to retire from the leadership of a party, with
which, so long as he remained at the head of it, the French-
Canadians could never unite.

On the 8th of May, Mr Brown's resolutions in reference to the
constitutional relations of Upper and Lower Canada were taken up
and finally disposed of. The first was negatived by a vote of sixty-
seven to twenty-six, and the second, meeting no better fate, was lost
on a division of seventy-four to thirty-two. This result evinced in
the most emphatic manner that only a small minority of the Assembly
were in favour of a federal union, on the basis propounded by Mr
Brown. Yet, subsequent events have plainly demonstrated that his
only error lay in being in advance of his contemporaries, and also of
general pubHc opinion. His "joint authority" scheme was the one
ultimately adopted, despite the censure it met with at this time from
the leaders of the ministerial party. On the 19th of May, after a
loyal address of welcome to the Prince of Wales had been agreed to.

v-'\

552

The History of Canada.

a session which had been productive of no very remarkable legislation
was brought to a close, and Parliament prorogued in a brief and
appropriate speech by the Governor-General, to assemble again
some three months afterwards, in order to greet the arrival of the
heir to the British throne.

No prospective event in Canada had ever cast such a joyous
shadow before it as the now looked-for advent of the Prince of
Wales. From one end of the country to the other it evoked a feel-
ing of the most loyal enthusiasm, and people of all classes, and of all
shades of politics, now united most cordially to do honour to the
Imperial representative of their good Queen. From every direction
along the proposed route of progress, arose the din of preparation ;
and city, and town, and village corporations, voted money to decorate
their localities, and make fitting arrangements otherwise. At
Quebec, a portion of the Parliament buildings had been handsomely
fitted up for the reception of the Prince and his suite, and here, on
the 2 1 St of August, he was received in state by b^*^ Houses of the
Legislature, headed by their Speakers, Narcisseau Belleau of the
Council, and Henry Smith, of the Assembly ; and both of whom
received the honour of knighthood. The festivities all terminated
at Quebec, progress westward was resumed to Montreal, and where
a grand ovation awaited his Royal Highness. As the steamer Kings-
toft, which carried him and his suite, entered the harbour, the
batteries of St Helen's Island thundered out a royal salute, the
sailors of the vessels of war manned the yards and made the welkin
ring with cheers, taken up by the vast multitude who lined the sub-
stantial wharves, while the city bells reverberated far and wide their
sonorous tones of welcome. A little farther on, the current of the
noble river, still chafing angrily from its descent of the Lachine
Rapids, was spanned by the Victoria Bridge, the idea of which first
assumed tangible shape in the mind of a talented Canadian engineer,
Thomas C. Keefer, to be elaborated and perfected by the genius of a
Stephenson. Stretching ten thousand feet from shore to shore, with
pier openings two hundred feet in width, and rising in the centre one
hundred feet above high-water mark, to permit lake steamers to pass
beneath, this colossal structure stood, the eighth wonder of the world.
And this was the bridge now formally opened for traffic by the Prince
of Wales, in the name of his august mother, and after whom it was
most fitly called. Next day Montreal literally ran riot with joy. A
grand ball collected all that was bright and beautiful in the city to greet
the heir-apparent of their Sovereign, and night was turned into day by
the blaze of illuminations and fireworks, that lit up the dark mountain

TIu History of Canada.

553

side in the background, or flashed over the broad current of the St
Lawrence as it sped murmuringly oceanward.

From Montreal the Prince of Wales proceeded to Ottawa, and
where, on the ist of September, in the presence of the Duke of
Newcastle, the Governor-General, many of the notabilities of Canada,
and a most brilliant suite, he laid the foundation-stone of the new
Parliament buildings, and subsequently shot the timber slides of the
Chaudiere on the usual lumberman's crib. Proceeding up the
Ottawa, to Arnprior, he crossed the country by carriage and railway
to Brockville, where he arrived at night, and a most brilliant recep-
tion awaited him. This loyal little town greeted him with a grand
firemen's torchlight procession, with triumphal arches, fireworks, an
illumination, and bonfires among the islands in the river. Embark-
ing on board the Kingston, the royal party proceeded next day west-
wards through the beautiful lake of the Thousand Islands. But no
landing was made either at Kingston or Belleville in consequence
of the Orange societies of those neighbourhoods, insisting on
receiving his Royal Highness with party flags, processions, and
music. Further unpleasantness, in connexion with the Orange
body, awaited him at Toronto, where a triumphal arch on his pro-
posed route was decorated Avith its flags and emblems, and beneath
which he declined to pass. This raised a storm of Orange indigna-
tion against his advisers, and the Duke of Newcastle and the
Governor-General were burned in effigy on Colbome Street. His
progress through the Western Peninsula evoked no additional de-
monstrations of this nature, and the most joyous welcome everywhere
awaited him. His Royal Highness finally passed, at Windsor, out
of Canada into the United States, to be exceedingly well received in
all the great Northern cities visited by him, and particularly at
Boston, but to have his passage southward stopped at Richmond, the
gateway of the slave states, by insulting demonstrations on the part
of its mob.

In December, the case of a fugitive slave of the name of Anderson,
who, in making his escape from bondage in Missouri, seven years
before, had killed a man who sought to arrest him, created much
excitement. The hunted fugitive succeeded in reaching Canada,
and where, after a long residence, he was recognised by a slave-
catcher from Missouri, charged with murder, and his extradition
demanded under the provisions of the Ashburton Treaty. The
magistrate who examined the case decided that the charge was sus-
tained, and the Government was now applied to for Anderson's sur-
render. Brought before the Court of Error and Appeal at Toronto,

554

The History of Canada.

on a writ of Habeas Corpus, Chief-Justice Robinson delivered its
decision, Judge M'Lean alone dissenting, that Anderson should be
given up. This decision created the greatest excitement thoughout
the country, and raised the question whether murder could have been
committed by Anderson in his endeavour to escape from a state of
slavery, and whether the killing of his Missouri assailant, Digges,
was not an act of purely self-defence. Steps were speedily taken to
bring the matter before the English Court of Queen's Bench, and
where a new writ of Habeas Corpus was sued out. But before this
writ could be acted upon, Anderson was set free by the Court of
Common Pleas at Toronto, Chief-Justice Draper presiding, on the
ground of informality in his warrant of committal. This decision
terminated the proceedings against Anderson j but his case led to a
revision of the Canadian act, enforcing the Ashburton Treaty, and
primary jurisdiction, as regarded foreign fugitives from justice, was
taken from the control of ordinary magistrates, and left with judges
of county courts and police justices.

Meanwhile a dark storm-cloud had been gathering over the United
States, and the ultimate breaking of which exercised no small in-
fluence on the progress of Canada. Wearied at length with the
domination of the slave states, the masses of the North broke away
from the Democratic party, always Southern in its instincts, and
elected Abraham Lincoln, an abolitionist lawyer of Illinois, to the
presidency of the Union. Great, accordingly, was the ferment at
the South, and the politicians of which had virtually governed the
country for a long period of time. But the loss of power and emolu-
ments of place was even of less consequence with them than the
danger to slavery, which they supposed resulted from the election of
Lincoln. South Carolina was the first to secede from the Union, and
at Charleston a small federal force in Fort Sumpter was virtually
besieged as the new year came on, and an attempt to relieve it with
troops and stores, by the steamship Star of the West, was repelled by
the cannon of the insurgent state. Wild was the alarm that now
spread through the Northern states, and in Maine a strong move-
ment was made for annexation to Canada. The government of the
Confederate States was speedily organised, and as spring approached.
North and South were alike busily preparing for the coming struggle.
Parliament assembled at Quebec on the i6th of March. The
Governor-General's speech alluded to the abundant harvest
of the preceding year, the acknowledgment by the Queen'of
the loyal manner in which her son had been mainly received in this
country, and to the fact that he had been advised to represent to Her

1861.

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555

ed its

Majesty's Government, that a writ issued by the KngUsh Court of
Queen's Bench had been served in this province, and the expediency
of preventing by legislation any conflict of judicial jurisdiction.
Canada was jealous of its privileges and authority. The debate on
the address developed a good deal of ill feeling, relative to the uii-
jileasant occurrences which had taken place during the visit of the
Prince of Wales. It was stated that the Orangemen had been insulted
in not being permitted to give a loyal welcome to his Royal High-
ness after their own fashion ; that the Freemasons had been treated
with disrespect, in not being allowed to lay the corner-stone of the
jtublic buildings at Ottawa, after having been invited to do so; and
.that indignities had also been offered to the Presbyterian and
Methodist bodies, in connexion with the presentation of their ad-
dresses. Amendments to the address, embodying these complainings,
were, however, voted down by large majorities ; and a motion by Mr
John Sandfield Macdonald, asserting that ministers should adhere to
the double-majority principle, a favourite idea with him, was lost on
a division of sixty-five to forty-six. A direct motion of " want of con-
fidence" in the Cabinet was also lost by a vote of sixty-two to
forty-nine ; and on the 2 2d terminated six days of weary and profit-
less debating on the address. Still, it was quite evident that the
position of ministers was becoming weaker.

After the Easter recess, a portion of the returns of the census,
taken at the close of the past year, was laid before the House.
These documents showed a large increase in the population of the
country. In 1841 the population of Upper Canada was 465,375 ; in
1851,952,061; while in 1861 it had reached 1,396,091. On the
other hand, the population of Lower Canada in 1841 was 690,782 ;
in 1851, 890,261 ; and in 1861 it stood at 1,110,444. It will thus
be seen that the population of all Canada, at the beginning of 1861,
was 2,506,755. But the rate of increase had been much more rapid
in the Upper than in the Lower Provmce, and the number of its
inhabitants was now 285,427 in excess of that of the latter. This
circumstance gave new hope to the members of the Reform party in
the House, and they eagerly turned to the question of representation
by population, as the sure panacea for the evils of French domina-
tion. They were strongly opposed by the ministerial party, the Pre-
mier making, on the 19th of April, a forcible speech in opposition to
the motion embodying their views, and were again beaten. But the
principle they now advocated was subsequently interwoven with the
Imperial Act of Confederation, and which gave nineteen new mem-
bers to Upper Canada. The long debates had consumed much cf

556

The History of Canada.

the time of the Assembly, and this session drew towards its close
without having added any noticeable legislation to the statute-book.
On the 8lh of May, Parliament was prorogued, and in a few weeks
afterwards was dissolved, and the writs issued for a new election.
The contest throughout Upper Canada was most vigorously conducted
on both sides, and resulted in favour of the Reform party. But its
leader, Mr Brown, lost much of his prestige, being beaten in Toronto
by a majority of 191, owing to the union of the Orangemen and
Roman Catholics against him ; while at the same time Cartier de-
feated Dorion, the Rouge leader, in Montreal East.

Meanwhile, the troops of the belligerent states were marshalling
themselves on the banks of the Potomac, for the conflict which
could not now be very long deferred. Westward, at the fork of the
Ohio and Mississippi rivers, a body of Federal troops prevented sup-
plies from reaching the Confederate States, while, at the same time,
preparations were made to blockade their ports, and so narrow their
resources seaward. This course was a virtual concession of the
sovereign authority of these states to levy war, and led to the decla-
ration of Lord John Russell, that the South must now be regarded as
a de facto power, and be accorded belligerent rights. On the 13th
of May the Queen's proclamation was issued, warning all her sub-
jects to maintain a strict neutrality, and afford aid to neither of the
contending parties. On the 21st of July the battle of Bull's Run
took place, and the first deep torrent of blood shed in a fratricidal war,
during the progress of which fully fifty thousand Canadians, despite
the Queen's proclamation, entered the Northern army as volunteers,
v/hile comparatively few in number attached themselves to the forces
of the Confederate States.

But, while the attention of the people of Canada was eagerly
turned to the progress of the bitter civil conflict now waged in a
neighbouring nation, so intimately connected with them by commer-
cial relations, and a common language and lineage, their country
peacefully reposed in the shadow of the British flag, and presented,
after its election contests had terminated, but few domestic events
to record. On the 28th of August, William Lyon Mackenzie's weari-
some life came to a close, and the troubled spirit sank to rest.
Pecuniary embarrassment had thrown a gloom over the last days of
his existence. Destitute of income, with failing health, and deeply
in debt, he had been living on credit, and his bills matured witli-
out time bringing the means to pay them. The confidence in the
future which had lit up his path during the darkest periods of his
life failed him at last, and he ceased even to hope. There remained

The History of Canada.

557

for the erring, though honest patriot, but one course now open — to
lay down and die, to quit a world which had no longer a solitary
ray of genial sunshine for him. During his last illness, he refused
all medicine, would comply with no physician's directions, and the
grave soon closed over all his troubles.

In October, Sir Edmund Head ceased to be Governor-General ot
Canada. On the 23d of that month, his successor. Lord Monck,
arrived at Quebec, and on the following day was duly sworn in.
On the same day. Sir Edmund departed for Boston, en route for
England. As already seen, he also had become unpopular with a
portion of the community, and had recently been made the sub-
ject of a large amount of censure. Like his predecessor. Lord
Elgin, he hastened to leave, without regret, a country which had
been fatal to the reputations of so many Governors-General, and
who had unwisely identified themselves with one or the otlier of
its political parties.

CHAPTER XXVI.

THE GOVERNMENT OF LORD MONCK.

CHARLES STANI-EY MONCK was born at Templemoie, in
the county of Tipperary, Ireland, in 1819. Educated at
Trinity College, Dublin, he was called to the Irish bar in 1841. In
1849 he succeeded to the family title and estates, and in 1852 first
entered the Imperial Parliament as the member for Portsmouth, an
English constituency. In 1858 he was appointed a Lord of the
Treasury by the Palmerston administration, and held that office for
two years.

Such was the brief record of a man whose prudent career as a
Governor-General has made him many friends and very few enemies,
and who has stood well with all its political parties throughout his
long term of office, and during which this country passed through a
most critical period of its history. He had scarcely taken the reins
of government firmly in his hands, when what was known as the
Trent difficulty arose between Great Britain and the United States,
and which, for a time, threatened to involve them in a war, in which
Canada, had it occurred, must have acted a most important part.
Captain Wilkes, of the United States steamship Jacinto, took by
force on the 9th of November the Confederate Commissioners,
Mason and Slidell, from the British mail steamer Trent, plying be-
tween Vera Cruz and Southampton, in utter defiance of the law of
nations, and the rights of a neutral power.

Hitherto, a .strong sympathy for the United States had existed in
Canada, and the secession of the South was regarded with little
favour by tlie great bulk of its people ; but the Trent difficuL^,, and
the idle boastings and threats of the more unscrupulous porUon
of the American press, now rapidly changed the current of public
sentiment, and turned it largely into indifference, or in the direction
of the weaker party — the South. As the year drew towards its close,
the whole country was rapidly springing to arms, in expectation of

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559

1862.

immediate hostilities. Volunteer companies were being formed in
every direction, steps were taken to organise the militia force, and
steamship after steamship, freighted with troops and munitions of
war, arrived from the mother-country. While the excitement pro-
duced by these occurrences culminated to its meridian, Canada was
thrown into the saddest mourning by the intelligence that Prince
Albert, the amiable and high-minded consort of the Queen, had, on
the 15th of December, expired of gastric fever. Deep indeed was
the sympathy of the people of Canada for their bereaved Sovereign,
who had long since won their hearts by her virtuous and prudent
conduct, and by the true womanly instincts of her nature. While
this country still mourned the irreparable loss which the empire had
sustained, the war-cloud passed away : Mason and Slidell were sur-
rendered to the British Government, and were speedily on their way
to Europe.

The beginning of the new year was not distinguished by any
domestic events of importance. Parliament met at Quebec
on the 2ist of March, and Lord Monck came down in no
small state to open its proceedings. A large portion of the in-
habitants were out of doors to witness his progress, and fifteen
hundred volunteers and a force of regular troops lined both sides
of the streets through which he passed. The garrison guns, manned
by the Royal Artillery, thundered forth their salute from Durham
Terrace, far and wide, over land and water ; a battery of volunteer
artillery repeated the welcome elsewhere ; while the hearty cheers of
the dense masses of spectators hailed, in a still more acceptable
fashion, the appearance of their new Governor-General. At the
chamber of the Legislative Council a brilliant assemblage of military
and civil dignitaries greeted his arrival, and gave additional lustre to
the ancient ceremonies of the occasion.

Parliament having been opened with the due formalities, the
Assembly proceeded to elect Joseph E. Turcotte as their Speaker,
by a majority of thirteen over the opposition candidate, Mr Sicotte j
and that duty performed, his Excellency made a second visit to the
House to deliver his "opening" speech. It paid a fitting tribute
to the memory of the deceased Prince Consort ; stated how the
feeling of loyalty exhibited by the Canadian people during the
recent Trent difficulty had been graciously recognised in the
Queen's Speech on the opening of the Imperial Parliament \ and
congratulated the Legislature on the abundant harvest of the pre-
ceding year, and the satisfactory condition of trade, notwithstanding
the partial derangement to which it had been subjected by the

iHI

i' 1

56o

The History of Canada.

civil war still raging in the United States. It further set forth
that papers would be laid before it showing that the Imperial
Government entertained no objection to the establishment of a
system of free commercial intercourse between the different pro-
vinces of British North America, and that during the recess a
commission had sat to consider the present condition of the militia
force, with a view to improving its organisation and efficiency, and
the report of which would be submitted for its approval.

On Monday, the 24th, when the question of the order of the
day came up in the Legislative Council, the Postmaster-General,
Sidney Smith, said it was not the intention of the Government to pro-
ceed at once to the consideration of the Governor-General's speech.
This course had been determined on in consequence of the Com-
missioner of Crown Lands, Mr Vankoughnet, having been appointed
Chancellor of the Court of Chancery ; Mr. J, C. Morrison, Solicitor-
General, West, created a Judge of the Court of Common Pleas ; and
Mr John Ross, President of the Council, having resigned his office.
Early in April, the vacancies in the Cabinet were filled up by Mr
Patton, member of the Upper House for the Saugeen District,
John Beverly Robinson, of Toronto, and John Carhng, of London.

The debate on the address was of that lengthy character, now
so common in the Canadiau Legislature, and displayed the dis-
coj dant elements of which the two great parties in the House were
composed. Reformers declared for and against representation by
population, the prominent feature of the wearisome debate; and Sidney
Smith voted against his colleagues of the Government on the same
question. But ministers tided it safely through the prolonged
discussion, which terminated on the 5th of April, defeated the
opposition on a test vote by a majority of seventeen, and the public
business was at length proceeded with. On the 7th, an address of
condolence to the Queen, on the death of the Prince Consort, was
agreed to in the Upper Chamber, of which Sir Allan M'Nab was now
the Speaker, and sent down to the Assembly ibr us concurrence. It
was at once adopted, and a joint-committee of both Houses pre-
sented it to Lord Monck, for transmission to her Majesty.

As the session progressed, it became more and more evident that
the position of the Cabinet was daily becoming weaker. Mr Patton
had been defeated on returning to his constituents for re-election, a
circumstance which damaged ministers to some extent. A long term
of place and power, in a constitutional system of government, of itself
naturally weakens a ministry ; and not a few gross abuses, which had
arisen in some of the public departments, relative to supplies of

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561

stationery and other matters, were now used by the opposition to
enfeeble still further the position of the Cabinet. Added to these
causes of dissatisfaction, the constant annual deficiency in the
revenue was ascribed to the financial policy of ministers, the cry
raised against whom received, as the session progressed, additional
volume from the fiscal changes proposed by Mr Gait, and which
found as little favour with the Conservative, as they did with the
Reform press. On the 30th of May, when the second reading of the
Militia Bill, a government measure, was moved, ministers were aban-
doned by several of their Lower Canadian supporters, and defeated
on a vote of sixty-one to fifty-four. Their resignation speedily fol-
lowed, and the Assembly adjourned on the 23d, to permit of the
formation of a new administration. Three days afterwards it again
assembled to learn, from Lewis Wallbridge, of Belleville, that a
Cabinet* had been formed under the leadership of John Sandfield
Macdonald and L. V. Sicotte. The same gentleman briefly an-
nounced the policy of the new administration to be, the restoration
of the double-majority principle, in all matters locally affecting either
section of the province ; the readjustment of the representation of
Upper and Lower Canada respectively ; an amended Militia Law ;
and a revision of the tariff, so as to produce increased revenue, and
afford protection to manufacturing industries ; an Insolvent Debtors
Act ) a system of retrenchment in the public expenditure ; the
maintenance of her Majesty's decision on the seat of government
question ; and an investigation into certain alleged abuses in con-
nexion with the construction of the parliamentary buildings at
Ottawa. This announcement of their proposed policy was received
with a good deal of favour by all classes of the community, and the
leaders of the late Cabinet now declared their intention to give
ministers a fair trial, and throw no obstacles in the way of useful
legislation. On the other hand, the Upper Canada section of the
new administration was fiercely assailed by Mr Brown, in the Globe^
for not making representation by population, without any regard to

• This Cabinet was composed as follows : — •

UPPKR CANADA.

Attorney-General, J. S. Macrlonald; Solicitor-General, Adam Wilson; Post-
master-General, Mr Foley; Receiver-General, James Morris; Minister of Finance,
Mr Howland; Commissioner of Crown Lands, William M'Dougall,

LOWER CANADA.

Attorney-General, Mr Sicotte; Solicitor-General, Mr Abbot; President of the
Council, Mr M'Gee; Provincial Secretary, Mr A. Dorion ; Commissioner of Public
Works, Mr Tessier; Minister of Agriculture, Mr Evanturel.

2 N

r ■ f

562

The History of Canada.

a dividing line between Upper and Lower Canada, a Cabinet ques-
tion, and for having, like their predecessors, surrendered themselves
to French domination.

Such was the condition of public affairs when the session termi-
nated on the 9th of June, after the transaction of only a very limited
amount of business. A short amendment to the Militia Act had
rendered it much more efficient, and showed that the country was
prepared to incur a larger amount of expenditure for preparation
against foreign attack. The closing speech of the Governor-Gen-
eral was brief but courteous; and he still stood well with both
parties.

The defeat of the Macdonald-Cartier administration on its Militia
Bill awoke a most unpleasant feeling in England ; and the cry was
raised there that the Canadian people were unwilling to defend
themselves, and desired to throw the burden on the mother-country.
And Lord Palmerston angrily declared, in the Imperial Parliament,
that the Home Government had done as much to defend the
Canadians as it intended to do, and that it rested with themselves
to do the remainder, or disgrace the race from whence they sprung.
At a public dinner in Montreal, Lord Merck re-echoed, in a sub-
dued form, the warning tones of the British Premier, tol^ his hearers
plainly that England alone could not protect them in the event of
war with the United States, and that from among themselves must
arise the great armies of defence in the event of attack. But the
Imperial Premier and the Governor-General erred alike in accepting
the circumstances of the downfall of an unpopular administration as
the act of the people of Canada, and who, in every time of peril, have
invariably proved that they are not the degenerate offspring of a
gallant ancestry.

The second week in August witnessed the death of Sir Allan
M'Nab, at his residence near Hamilton, and who had survived his
Reform contemporary, William Hamilton Merritt, but a brief space.
And thus the links, which bound the present to the past generation
of Canada, were being sundered one by one, by the inexorable hand
of time. In September the Governor-General paid his first visit to
Upper Canada, to open the Provincial Exhibition at Toronto, and
increased his prestige, in no small degree, by his frank bearing and
popular manners. His return to the seat of government was distin-
guished by the resignation of Mr Dorion, the Provincial Secretary,
on the ground that he could not support the Intercolonial Railway
policy of his colleagues.

The imposition of a high rate of duty by the Canadian Parliament,

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563

had already produced, in the United States, a good deal of agitation
adverse to the Reciprocity Treaty. The Legislature of the State of
New York had adopted a long series of resolutions unfavourable to
its renewal, which were transmitted to Congress, and there referred
to the Committee on Commerce ; and, as time progressed, this
agitation received additional force from the heavy internal taxation
entailed by the war. Towards the close of the year, Canada began
to gain enormously by the operations of this treaty. The progress
of hostilities was already narrowing down the resources of the
Northern States, and farm stock rose to an unusually high value.
As the cheapest market, Canada was now inundated with American
speculators ; and horse-dealers, especially, spread themselves in
every direction over the country, to secure remounts for the United
States cavalry and artillery. Never had the agricultural community
such a market before, and they eagerly availed themselves of the
opportunity to dispose of their surplus stocks to the best advantage.
In this way a very large amount of money came into their posses-
sion, which the great majority of the recipients prudently used to
discharge claims against their properties, and release themselves
otherwise from debt. The frugal and simple habits of a rough
backwoods population had long since disappeared in most parts of
the country, ox-teams and homespun clothing were no longer prized as
heretofore, and a fondness for dress, expensive carriages, and luxurious
living had deeply plunged a large portion of the rural population into
debt. To discharge obligations incurred to store-keepers, money was
borrowed on mortgage, and many unfortunate and imprudent people,
in this way, lost properties which it had cost a long period of hard toil
to create. But, having acquired wisdom by the most bitter experience,
farmers now eagerly availed themselves of this season of great pros-
perity to discharge every claim against them, and to bring their
transactions much nearer to a general cash basis than was possible with
them at any former period. The prosperous years which now followed
were distinguished by an unusually small amount of litigation, and in
every direction lawyers of even superior abilities could hardly make
a living by their profession ; while money-lenders no longer reaped
the abundant harvest they had hitherto enjoyed. This gratifying
condition of affairs tended also to a diminution of crime, but the
volume of which had always been very limited in this country. The
war had already absorbed the more unquiet spirits of the population,
and the ample employment and high wages which prevailed led, in
addition, to light calendars in the courts of justice.
Parliament assembled at Quebec on the 13th of February, and the

V. <

564

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Legislative Council, having elected Alexander Campbell as their
Speaker, in the room of the late Sir Allan M'Nab, the Gov-
^' emor-General delivered his speech. He congratulated the
chambers on the loyal spirit evinced throughout the country in the
enrolment of numerous volunteer companies, and the formation of
drill associations, and submitted a programme for legislation, based
on the previously-announced policy of the Cabinet. He added that
commissioners had been appointed to inquire into the state of evety
branch of the public service, with a view to retrenchment and
economy ; and gracefully alluded to the spontaneous contributions
•which had flowed so freely from the province to relieve the distress
in the manufacturing districts of Great Britain, caused by the great
advance in the value of raw cotton, and by the other disturbances to
the usual currents of trade resulting from the American civil war.

But the policy of the ministry, as avowed in his Excellency's
speech, was by no means satisfactoiy to all the Reform members of
the House, and Matthew Crooks Cameron moved an amendment to
the address, asserting the principle of representation by population ;
while, from the Conservative benches, John Hillyard Cameron gave
notice of a motion, which, without disturbing the existing number of
members, would increase the representation of Upper Canada. The
great bulk of the western Reformers, and some Conservatives, de-
clared for the amendment, but the French Canadians to a man voted
with the miiiistr}', as well as John A. Macdonald, and it was lost on
a vote of sixty-four to forty-two, while John Hillyard Cameron's
motion fared still worse, and was negatived by a division of eighty-
one to thirty-three. Ministers were safe for the time being, but
now stood on dangerous ground, and might at any adverse moment
be defeated. It was quite evident that public opinion in Upper
Canada was already far in advance of the double-majority expedient,
and a large section of the Reform press loudly demanded the re-
presentative position which its greatly-increased population and
wealth entitled that province to fill. The lapse of time and the
progress of the country had thus created a political difficulty of
constantly-increasing magnitude, and which a new constitutional
revolution could alone remedy. Nor did Mr Brown long remain
without an opportunity to again advocate his views on this point
in the Assembly. The elevation of Dr Connor, a member of the
Cabinet, to a judgeship in the Court of Queen's Bench, created a
vacancy in the representation of the South Riding of Oxford, and
for which, early in March, Mr Brown was returned ; but for some
unexplained cause a month elapsed before he took his seat in the

The History of Canada.

565

House. Most probably he felt disinclined to embarrass ministers
by pressing his peculiar views on their notice at this juncture.

The intelligence of the approaching marriage of the Prince of
Wales to the beautiful daughter of the King of Denmark, softened,
for a brief space, the asperities of party; and the loth of March,
announced as the wedding-day, witnessed the adjournment of the
Legislative Council as a mark of respect for his Royal Highness.
But this auspicious event produced only a temporary suspension of
the political storm in the Assembly. Scott's separate school bill,
which conceded some privilege: to Roman Catholics, awoke anew
the hostility of western Reformers, and thirty of whom now voted
against it, a circumstance which increased still further the dislike of
the Lower Canadians to co-operate with them. Nor was the state-
ment of the Finance Minister, Mr Howland, calculated to raise the
confidence of the House in the administration. Despite the large
increase of revenue taxation in the preceding session, the deficit in
the public exchequer was still quite serious, and showed that on this
most important point ministers had proved unequal to the redemp-
tion of their promises. Mr John A. Macdonald now saw, with his
accustomed shrewdness, that the correct time had come for adverse
action, and on the ist of May moved a direct vote of want of con-
fidence in the administration. A vigorous debate ensued which
lasted for four days, and when a division took place the Government
was defeated by a majority of five, the vote standing sixty-four for
the motion, and fifty-nine against it. Ministers had now either to
resign, or appeal to the country. They chose the latter course, and
on the 1 2th of May the Governor-General, in a brief speech, pro-
rogued Parliament, with a view, as he said, to its immediate dis-
solution.

As a preparation for the approaching election, the Premier recon-
structed the Cabinet to suit himself, retaining only three of his
former colleagues,* This was done with the view of gathering round
him a larger support from the Brown section of the western Reform
party, and of propitiating the Lower Canadian Rouges. The Pre-
mier's reconstruction policy was loudly denounced as unconstitu-

* The reconstructed Cabinet stood as follows : —

Attorney-General, West, J. S. Macdonald ; Attorney-General, East, Antoine
A. Dcrion ; Receiver-General, William P. Howland ; Provincial So retary,
Adam J. F. Blair ; Postmaster-General, Oliver Mowat ; Commissioner of Crown
Lands, William M'Dougall ; Minister of Finance, Luther H. Holton ; Com-
missioner of Public Works, M. Laframboise ; President of the Council, Isidore
Thibaudeau ; Minister of Agriculture and Statistics, Luc L. de Saint Just ; So-
licitor-General, West, vacant ; Solicitor-General, East, \,. S. Huntingdon.

\ 'm

566

The History of Canada.

tional by the Conservative press, inasmuch as a dissolution had been
granted in favour of the Macdonald-Sicotte Cabinet, and not in
behalf of its successor, the Macdonald - Dorion administration.
These changes, however, proved of no great advantage to Mr
Macdonald, for if he gained slightly in one direction he lost ground
in another, Mr M'Gee and some others of his former supporters now
going into opposition.

Aside from the excitement caused by a general election, mid-
summer produced no domestic events of importance. In the
United States the army conscription, now being relentlessly en-
forced, caused the greatest alarm among their people, many of
whom fled across the borders into Canada, while in the city of
New York the dissatisfaction broke out into furious riots, which
produced robberies, burnings, and much bloodshed, and were only
suppressed with the utmost difficulty. The refugees from the
conscription did not prove themselves by any means a desirable
addition to our population. Some of them engaged in the illegal
occupation of procuring Canadians to swell the ranks of the very
army they had themselves declined to join ; while others had
recourse to still more questionable methods to acquire a living.
But while the progress of the war added to the intensity of the
cotton famine in the mother-country, and produced the greatest
suffering among its patient operatives, it deepened the current of
Canadian prosperity, and continued to create a large market for our
surplus produce.

The new Parliament assembled on the 13th of August. Ulric J.
Tessier was chosen Speaker of the Legislative Council ; and Lewis
Wallbridge, Government candidate. Speaker of the Assembly, on a
vote of sixty-six to fifty-eight. The Governor-General's speech was
exceedingly non-committal, and did not develop any new ideas of
public policy. When the address came up for discussion, ministers
were hotly assailed on the score of the recent changes in the
Cabinet. In the course of the debate, the Premier stated that the
policy of the reconstructed Cabinet was not the same as that of its
immediate predecessor. The double -majority principle was not
now to be insisted on, and representation by population should
be left an open question. His former colleague, Mr Sicotte,
bitterly assailed him for having thus shifted his ground, and
charged him with unfair dealing towards himself in the formation
of his present Cabinet \ while the explanations of Mr Foley and Mr
M'Gee, as to the causes of their compelled icslguutions, were also
very hostile. For full fourteen days did the debate on the address

The History of Canada.

567

drag its tedious length alo.jg; and on the 28th, when the final
division was taken, sixty-three voted for ministers and sixty against
them. Foley, Sicotte, and M'Gee, all late colleagues of the Premier,
voted with the opposition ; and it was now evident that the position
of the Cabinet was an excessively weak one. A discussion which
ensued, on the expediency of having another removal of the seat of
government to Toronto, in the interval of the completion of the
public buildings at Ottawa, still further damaged ministers (who
opposed the change very properly) with western members. Nor
was the annual budget submitted by Mr Rowland, now Finance
Minister, very reassuring. He stated that the total expenditure
for the year would be $15,119,200 including $4,294,000 for the
redemption of the seignorial tenure bonds, and leaving $10,911,090
as the ordinary outlay. The gross debt of Canada, funded and
floating, was estimated by the minister at $70,000,000, and the
annual interest, which the country had to pay, at $5,563,263. The
total deficit in the revenue since 1857, amounted to 1 12,000,000,
and he stated that some means must now be devised to produce an
additional sum of $2,000,000 annually, in order to make the public
income equal to the expenditure. The financial difficulties thus
developed, were not a little increased by the eagerness of the public
men and press of England, to have Canada place itself in a still
better position for defence.

But small as the Government majority was, it held solidly to-
gether, and carried it safely through the session, which terminated
on the 15th of October. To accomplish this object, however,
ministers had to trim their course with the greatest care, and in-
troduce no important measures which might provoke defeat. With
a war-cloud lining the horizon, which might at any time break with
disastrous force, the Southern confederacy giving evidence of exhaus-
tion, which must erelong leave the victors at leisure to turn their
arms in this direction, and Congress authorising the President of the
United States to give the necessary notice to terminate the Recipro-
city Treaty, never was a strong Government more recjuired in
Canada than at this juncture. The constitution was now fairly on
its trial, a crisis was approaching in the affairs of this country, and
how the difficulties of the situation were to be met and overcome,
became a matter of no small anxiety with many thinking people.

The new year did not open at all brightly for Canada, and politi-
cal matters still continued in a most unsatisfactory state.
At a public dinner, given to ministers at Ottawa, Mr ^

M'Dougall, now Commissioner of Crown Lands, stated that he had

568

The History of Canada.

abandoned representation by population, because he had found it
to be impracticable, and was taken to bitter task by the Globe for
the expression. Mr Brown still clung tenaciously to his opinions
on this point, and had continued to hope that ministers might be
induced to take the cjuestion up, until Mr M'Dougairs language
undeceived him, and he now made no secret of his dissatisfaction
and hostility. This circumstance had a damaging effect on the
Cabinet, .and the position of which was still further weakened by an
occurrence which now took place. The office of Solicitor-Cleneral
West had been kept vacant, and towards the close of 1863 was
accepted by Albert N. Richards, a barrister of reputation, and
member for the South Riding of Leeds, who had been previously
returned by a majority of one hundred and thirty-five. Karly in
January the writ for his presumed re-election was issued ; but great
exertions being made by the opposition, he was defeated by a
majority of seventy-five, out of a total vote of two thousand six
hundred and twenty-nine polled, and a Conservative returned in
his stead. This was a severe blow to ministers, reduced their actual
majority in the House of Assembly to one, and much speculation
was now indulged in as to what course they would pursue.

The Legislature assembled at Quebec on the 19th of February.
The Governor-General's speech informed the pul)lic that he had
taken steps for the better organisation of the militia force and volun-
teers, under the act of the preceding session ; that the period was
approaching when notice might be given to terminate the Recipro-
city Treaty, by either party thereto ; and that he had devoted his
best attention to the great interests involved. He further stated
that the Ottawa buildings had been prosecuted with much diligence
during the preceding summer, and a fresh contract entered into for
ocean steamship mail service. The debate on the address weakened
the confidence in the ministry of several of its supporters. The
opposition, however, did not think it advisable to move any amend-
ment, and waited for a more flivourable opportunity to assail the
Cabinet. A motion made by Mr Brown on the 14th, having re-
ference to representation by population, still further embarrassed
ministers. Mr S. Macdonald now vainly essayed to strengthen his
Cabinet, and with that view made overtures to leaders of the
Lower Canada opposition. But these being rejeqted, and Mr
Brown having openly stated in the House that, circumstanced as
ministers were, they had better resign, they succumbed to the force
of adverse circumstances, and surrendered their portfolios into the
hands of the Governor-General. Mr Blair, a member of the Upper

The History of Canada,

569

House, and Provincial Secretary in the late administration, was now
sent for by his Kxccllency to form a new Clovcrnment. But this
gentleman failing to succeed, Sir E. P. Tachc, a Lower Canadian
Conservative, was next re(iucste(l to undertake the dillicult task.
He at first declined the proffered honour, but finally, at the solicita-
tions of Mr Cartier and other friends, consented to form a new
administration. He succeeded, and when the House assembled on
the 30th of March, MrCauchon informed it that a Cabinet had been
completed, with Sir K. P. Tache, as Receiver-General and Minister
of Militia, at its head.* Its proposed policy was announced to be
the placing of the militia force on the best possible footing, without
increasing the existing expense, the maintenance of the Reciprocity
Treaty, a commercial union with the lower or seaboard provinces,
the readjustment of the canal tolls so as to secure western trade,
the permanent establishment of the seat of government at Ottawa,
departmental and fiscal reform, and the question of representation
to remain an open one. The House adjourned until the 3d of May,
to enable the members of the new Cabinet to complete their ar-
rangements, and to go to their constituents for reelection. They
were all again returned, with the exception of Mr Foley, who was
beaten in the North Riding of Waterloo by a Mr Bowman.

But ministers, on resuming their seats, soon found that the House
was not disposed to treat either them or their policy with much for-
bearance. The factious spirit of the Assembly was now thoroughly
aroused ; and wholly forgetful of the great public interests at stake,
it appeared to be the sole aim of each of the rival parties to defeat
their opponents, and secure themselves in power.

Accordingly, on the 13th of May, a motion of non- confidence in
ministers, in consequence of their having advised the issuing of an
order in council reducing the canal tolls, was moved by the opposi-
tion. The vote stood sixty-four to sixty-two, the narrow majority of
two being on the side of ministers. On the 14th of June a fresh
adverse motion, based on a Government loan of $100,000 to Mon-
treal in 1859 was made, and Messrs Rankin and Dunkin now de-

* The Ministry was composed as follows : —

Receiver-General and Minister of Militia, Sir E. P. Tachc ; Attorney-General,
East, Mr Cartier; Minister of Finance, Mr Gait ; Commissioner of Public Works,
Mr Chapais ; Minister of Agriculture, Mr M'Gee ; Solicitor-General, Kast, Mr
Langevin ; Attorney-General, West, Mr John A. Macdonakl ; Commissioner of
Crown Lands, Mr Campbell ; President of the Council, Mr Buchanan ; Post-
master-General, Mr Foley; Provincial Secretary, Mr Simpson; Solicitor-General,
West, Mr Cockburn.

ibugi I

570

The History of Canada.

serting the Cabinet, it was defeated by a majority of two, the vote
standing sixty to fifty-eight.

Faction had now Uterally exhausted itself, the public affairs of
the country were completely at a stand-still, and for the moment it
seemed as if constitutional government had finally ended in a total
failure. Repeated changes of Cabinets had been tried, dissolutions
of Parliament had been resorted to, every constitutional specific had
been tested, but all aHke had failed to unravel the Gordian knot
which party spirit had tied so firmly round the destinies of this
pro.'ince. And the public stood aghast at this state of things; while
the lovers of British constitutional government regarded the extra-
ordinary situation with \mlimited dismay. Lord Sydenham's Act of
Union had already fulfilled its mission, and from the progress of the
country had arisen a condition of affairs which imperatively pointed
to a fresh constitutional revolution, as the only solution of the diffi-
culties that surrounded it. Nor could the double-majority principle
be now resorted to, as even a temporary specific ; while, on the
other hand, the Lower Canadians would never agree, under existing
circumstances, to concede a representative preponderance to the
sister province. The leading minds of the country naturally applied
themselves, at this juncture, to discover some mode of escape from
the dangerous difficulties of the public situation. One course, and
one course only, promised relief; and that was the adoption of the
"joint authority" scheme of Mr Brown, so frequently voted down
in Parliament, so long opposed, and so mercilessly ridiculed by
friend and foe alike. The night had passed away, and the morning
dawn of success at length lit up an agitation based upon correct
political principles, and which at one time seemed as if it never could
be successful, and only worthy of being classed as the idle dream of
an impracticable theorist.

Fortunately for the country, ministers now proved themselves
equal to the grave occasion which had arisen. No time was lost in
communicating with Mr Brown, and who had already expressed him-
self in favour of a settlement by compromises, of the constitutional
difficulty which existed, with a view to some arrangement and
mutual understanding, which would permit the business of the
country to be carried on. That gentleman had now his revenge
in the most ample manner. Mr John A. Macdonald, the man who
had snatched the falling sceptre of Francis Hincks from his hand
ten years before ; who had so constantly traversed all his plans, and
neutralised his policy; who had been his perpetual opponent, at
every point, and the shafts of whose keen wit had so frequently trans-

The History of Canada,_

fixed his "joint authority" idea; that man was now prepared to
adopt the views he had so often covered with sarcasm, and to aid
in carrying them into practical effect. And Mr Brown's Reform
friends, so restive under his leadership, (hitherto one of agitation,)
and which had never led them into power, or secured to them the
emoluments of place, so intensely sighed for by the Canadian pro-
fessional politician, who had so recently tried to stand without him
and failed ; these friends must now bend to him as the true master
of the situation after all, and virtually admit his policy to have been
all along that which the country really required.

The negotiations, which now ensued between the rival political
leaders, speedily resulted in a satisfactory understanding, based
upon a project of confederation of all the British North-American
provinces, on the federal principle, and leaving to each province the
settlement, by local legislation, of its own municipal and peculiar
affairs. In order to insure the satisfactory arrangement of all the
details of the project, Mr Brown was to have three seats in the
Cabinet placed at his disposal. He accordingl)^ became President
of the Council ; William M'Dougall, Provincial Secretary ; and
Oliver Mowatt, Postmaster-General. Thus a strong coalition
government was formed to carry out the newly-accepted policy of
confederation, and although extreme parties, here and there, grum-
bled at these arrangements, the great body of the people, of all shades
of opinion, thankful that the dangerous crisis had been safely passed,
gladly accepted the situation, and calmly and confidently awaited
the progress of events. Never before had a coalition been more
opportune. It rendered the government of the country again re-
spectable, elevated it above the accidents of faction, and enabled it
to wield the administrative power with that firmness and decision,
so requisite during the trying and critical period which speedily
ensued. It would indeed seem, as if a special Providence was con-
trolling matters for its own wise purposes, and evoking results from
the ambitions and passions of partisan leaders, directly tending to
elevate this country to a position of greater eminence, and to
increased usefulness among the nations. The curtain fell on the
parliamentary drama on the 30th of June. But faction, even yet,
was not wholly extinct, and soon found a prominent exponent in
Matthew Crooks Cameron, who now contested North Ontario with
Secretary M'Dougall, and beat him by one hundred votes. The
latter was not, however, left without a seat in the Legislature. He
was subsequently returned by the thoughtful Scotch settlers ot North
Lanark, who gave him a large majority over a Mr Rosamond, and

i«i

572

The History of Canada.

whose father, an Irish Conservative of the straitest school, showed
his appreciation of the coahtion, by voting for the Secretary, and
against his own son.

Very speedily did the progress of events develop the necessity of
a strong government. Hitherto the long frontier of Canada had
been wrapt in the most profound quiet ; and while this country
afforded a ready and safe asylum to Southern refugees, no obstacles
were thrown in the way of the North in the purchase of remounts
for its cavalry, and of other supplies. Nor unless in very glaring
cases, which could not possibly be overlooked, were any active steps
taken to prevent recruits for its armies from passing out of Canada
in no inconsiderable numbers. But this condition of affairs was
now about to be very materially altered. Sorely pressed in all their
coasts, without the remotest prospect of European intervention in
their behalf, the Confederate authorities essayed, in the month of
September, to effect a diversion in their favour from the Canadian
frontier — to menace the defenceless borders of the Northern States,
and thus, if possible, to cause a war between them and Great
Britain. In pursuance of this policy, two American steamboats, the
Philo Parsons and Island Queen were seized on Lake Erie by Con-
federate desperadoes, some of whom had been refugees in this
country, with the immediate design of releasing a number of
Southern prisoners, confined on Johnson's Island, and of destroying
the lake shipping. But beyond the seizure of these steamboats,
their partial plunder, and the great alarm occasioned for the
moment, no other injury was inflicted. Scarcely, however, had the
excitement which these acts produced died away when, on the 19th
of October, a body of twenty-three Southern refugees made a raid on
the little Vermont town of St Alban's, close to the Canadian frontier ;
shot an American citizen there, robbed its banks of $233,000 in
current funds, and then hastily retreated across the border. The
Canadian authorities promptly arrested fourteen of these marauders,
and who were committed for safe keeping to the Montreal jail.
Nevertheless, our relations with the United States were now much dis-
turbed, and it became necessary to incur a large outlay, in policing the
frontier with thirty volunteer companies, to prevent the recurrence of
further raids of a similar character. It was also deemed expedient
to pass a stringent act for the prevention of outrages on the borders,
and to enable the Governor-General to order disorderly aliens to leave
the province, or, in case of their refusal to do so, to commit them
to prison during pleasure.

These unpleasant circumstances, and others of a kindred charac-

The History of Canada.

573

ence of
jedient
)orders,
to leave
it them

ter, caused the Ccinadian people to long earnestly for the conclusion
of the war. But the re-election of Lincoln to the Presidency in
November plainly established that the Northern people had deter-
mined to prolong the struggle, until the total subjugation of the
South ensued. A great change had taken place in the sentiments
of the Northern States, during the progress of the war. At first the
preservation of the Union, without any reference to slavery, was the
sole object aimed at. But rendered desperate by repeated defeat
and disaster, and coming to regard slavery as the true cause of all
their difficulties, its total extinction was finally aimed at; and to this
task, by the re-election of Lincoln, did the Northern people apply
themselves. On the other hand, the South was equally resolute in
the preservation of slavery, and |in founding an empire having that
institution for its basis. So the struggle must be prolonged until the
total defeat of one or the other of the belligerents, and it only
remained for Canadians to fold their arms and look patiently on.
Meanwhile the bitter feelings, provoked by the Lake Erie outrage,
and the St Alban's raid, as well as by the expression of sympathy
for the South on the part of many of the Canadian journals, reacted
most unfavourably on this country, and materially tended, in con-
junction with other adverse causes, to the speedy abrogation of the
Reciprocity Treaty. The hurried and indecent discharge of the St
Alban's raiders, by Judge Coursol, of Montreal, in December, and
the illegal surrender to them of 890,000 of the stolen money, (wliich
the Government had subsequently to repay,) by the police-chief of
that city, still further complicated matters, and intensified the un-
pleasant relations now subsisting with the United States.

While these events were transpiring in this country, the project of
a confederation of the North American provinces had attracted the
attention of many of the leading minds of England, and was very
generally regarded as the true mode of escape from the difficulties
which now enveloped Canada, both as regarded the question of
defence, looming up at this juncture into great importance, and the
legislative situation. The idea of a union between themselves
had already been agitated in the maritime provinces, and a meeting
held during the summer to arrange the preliminaries, was informally
attended by a portion of the Canadian Cabinet. At their suggestion
an enlarged project of confederation, which, under the pressure
of circumstances, speedily assumed a tangible shape, was readily
entertained. The Governor-General opened the preliminary nego
tiations with the several Lieutenant-Governors, and on the 4th of
October thirty-three representatives, of all shades of politics, from

574

The History of Canada.

the various British North- American provinces, assembled in council
at Quebec, to arrange the terms of the proposed union. They pro-
ceeded to business methodically and cautiously, the representatives
of each province having a close eye to its local benefits, and seeking
to place its peculiar advantages in the best possible light. Canadians
pointed to their vast territorial area, their national wealth, and their
important population, as their contributions to the proposed state ;
while the maritime provinces plumed themselves on their noble
harbours, their great merchant fleets, and their foreign commerce.
In addition, Newfoundlanders set forth the value of their fisheries
and their mines ; New Brunswickers pointed to the vigorous and
growing trade they would bring into the partnership ; Nova Scotians
alluded complacently to their vast coal fields ; while Prince Edward
Islanders coquettishly asserted their claims to consideration, as re-
presenting the Isle of Wight of British North America. Gradually
difficulties were smoothed down, local pretensions regulated, a har-
monious basis of action settled upon;, and resolutions adopted, on
which subsequently the Imperial Act of Confederation was based.

CHAPTER XXVII.

GOVERNMENT OF LORD MONCK, — COfltinued.

1865.

PARLIAMENT met at Quebec on the 19th of January. The
Governor-General's speech congratulated the chambers on
the " general contentment and prosperity of the people of
the province, and the continuance of the inestimable bless-
ings of peace." He aliuded also to the outrages on the American
frontier, the perpetrators of which had sought refuge in Canada,
rendering a detective police system necessary ; to the calling out a
portion of the volunteer force and its prompt response ; and asked
for larger powers to deal with persons who violated the right of
asylum in this country. The progress of confederation was briefly
yet pointedly limned out, and the Legislature informed that her
Majesty's Secretary of State was prepared to introduce a measure
into the Imperial Parliament, to give effect to the Acts of Union
which might be passed by the different local legislatures. It re-
mained with the public men of British North America to say, whether
the vast tract of country which they inhabited should be consolidated
into a state, combining within its area all the element ; of national
greatness, providing for the security of its component parts, and
contributing to the strength and stability of the empire ; or whether
the several provinces of which it was constituted, should remain in
their present fragmentary and isolated condition, comparatively
powerless for mutual aid, and incapable of undertaking their proper
share of imperial responsibility. His Excellency closed his speech
by fervently praying, that in the discussion of an issue of such
moment, their minds might be guided to such conclusions as would
redound to the honour of their Sovereign, the welfare of her subjects,
and their own reputation as patriots and statesmen.

On the 23d, the Assembly proceeded to take into consideration
the address in reply, when two Lower Canadians, Dorion, of
Hochelaga, and Laframboise, moved in amendment thereto, that

576

The History of Canada.

the House did not desire to disturb existing political relations, nor to
create a new nationality. Only four Upper Canadians supported
this amendment, and the number in favour of which was twenty-five
in all, while sixty-four voted against it. On the 12th paragraph of
the address, asserting the feasibility and desirability of union, being
put to vote, there were seventy yeas and only seventeen nays, not
ember of British origin being among the latter. Another
divi'jion followed with like result ; and the same day the address
was fully concurred in. What a profound relief was this from the
wearisome partisan debates, which had of late years characterised
the moving of addresses ! So far as Canada was concerned, con-
fp,i : - ,y^3 j^Q^y 2J-J accomplished fact ; and the subsequent long
debate Ui"- iiis qncbtion, which distinguished this session, were mere
iTiatt-jT': -•; ■ / ill, and designed to give members an opportunity
of expressing ti:?-;. individual opinions relative thereto, to be recorded
in a ' .1 .e booi* •' -o thousand and thirty-two octavo pages, of
littl", v.'.iue ;. 'C:-.'. ■ ---: ^nd no small expense to the country.
The question was nal>, ....-pooed of by a motion asking an imperial
measure of confederation, and which the House endorsed by a vote
of ninety-one to thirty- three. On the i8th of March, the necessary
business having all been completed. Parliament was prorogued, and
ministers hastened to put themselves into communication with the
Home Government, by a deputation, on the matter of confederation.
While a revolution, rendered necessary by the course of events and
national progress, was thus being peacefully accomplislied in Canada,
in accordance with the expansive character of the umvritteti British
constitution, the dark drama of blood destined to reconstruct the
written constitution of the United States, with slavery for ever blotted
out from their escutcheon, was rapidly drawing to a close. Before
Petersburg the silent and inflexible Grant still patiently marshalled
his legions waiting for the long-looked-for opportunity to crush the
gallant army of Lee, and whose distant rear was already threatened
by the victorious forces of Sherman, sweeping down in a desolating
current, forty miles in width, through the very heart of the South. In
the last days of March, the western army of invasion was not two
hundred miles from Richmond, and the dark shadow of final defeat
was already settling down on the slave empire of the Confederate
States. The sunshine of spring had no ray of hope for the Southern
oligarchs, and the people of Canada watched with the most intense
interest for the final catastrophe. The city of Washington now no
longer feared invasion, and while the South grew weaker and weaker
in the final struggle, and the perspiration of blood coursed down her

The History of Canada.

Ill

limbs, as she saw the sword suspended above her head about to
descend, a briUiant audience assembled in the capital, on the 14th of
April, at Ford's theatre, to witness a comedy, as if in very mockery of
her woe. Flags gaily decorated the President's box, brilliant gasaliers
flashed their lights on the beauty of the licentious metropolis, and a
sea of delighted upturned faces in the pit met the eye from the
glittering dress circle above. The curtain rises for the third act, the
play pauses for a moment, there is a pistol shot, the assassin Booth
leaps upon the stage with a long dagger in his hand, and shouting
Sic semper /j'/a/im's, the motto of the state of Virginia, disappeared at
the back of the stage. A woman's wailing cry now fell painfully on
the ears of the vast audience, and it was speedily ascertained that her
husband, the honest and genial Abraham Lincoln, had been foully
murdered, and that the second term of his presidency had already
terminated. A profound thrill of horror coursed through the veins
of the Canadian people, as the telegraph flashed the news of the
dark deed throughout the length and breadth of the land. And
public meetings were held in every direction, at which motions were
passed deprecating the assassination, and expressing the most pro-
found sympathy for the people of the Northern States. Lincoln dead ;
Lee defeated, crushed ; Johnston surrendered ; the empire of the
South lay in broken fragments in the dust. Cotton was no longer
king, and the fetters had fallen from the slave. What a commentary
on human hopes and expectations ! History had again repeated it-
self, and in our own times demonstrated, that national sins beget
national punishments, a lesson it had already so frequently taught.
The Upas tree of slavery, planted by British cupidity in the early days
of the old thirteen colonies, and so lovingly watered at a later period
by the United States themselves, had blossomed and grown, until its
prodigious size extended over millions of human chattels, and in-
volved commercial and political interests of the most gigantic pro-
portions. Its branches spread over the South in all directions, while
its odour permeated every corner of the North, floated heavily through
the warehouses and along the massive quays of Liverpool, and tainted
the atmosphere of the cotton mills of Manchester. No wonder, then,
that the slave nobles fancied that cotton was indeed king, and that
their cause was invincible. Spurning the numerical supremacy of the
North, which had at last dared to assert itself politically, in the elec-
tion of the obscure Illinois lawyer, Lincoln, to the presidential chair,
they rushed into war in 186 1 to found a slave empire, and thus pre
sented, of themselves, the solution of that question of perpetual
invohmtary servitude, which men had so long regarded as utterly

2 o

578

The History of Canada,

hopeless. And thus did the Wise Disposer of human events " make
even the wrath of man to praise Him." The national sin had
indeed brought down the national punishment. It has hopelessly
ruined the South, it has placed a huge burden of national debt on a
hitherto almost untaxed people, and Liverpool and Manchester,
the great marts of its products, partook of its bitter tribulation.
Nor has the fierce struggle it produced been wholly terminated as we
write. It has been transferred from the battle-field to the forum — from
the sword to the pen, and intensely bitter are the passions and the
animosities it still evokes. The South is conquered, but not pacified.
From the imposing historical events transpiring in a neighbouring
country, we now turn to contemplate the comparatively quiet current
of Canadian affairs. Midsummer brought with it sad misfortune
for the ancient city of Quebec. Its narrow streets and frequently
recurring wooden buildings, had repeatedly made it the scene of
terrible fires, and on the 23d of June a new conflagration rendered
three thousand people homeless, and destroyed property to the extent
of $1,000,000. For the last time the Legislature of United Canada
assembled there, on the 8th of August, to hear the report of the
deputation to England relative to confederation, and to complete
the important business left unfinished at its last session. The
Premier, Sir E. P. Tache, had died a few days before, and Sir
Narcisse Belleau, a member of the Upper House, became his
successor ; so the public business moved tranquilly forward. The
session was an unusually short one, the large majority now wielded
by ministers enabling them to push their measures through the
House very quickly. Beyond the act imposing a stamp-duty on
notes and bills, it developed no very novel feature in legislation, and
was chiefly distinguished for the large number of private measures
that was enacted. The despatches and papers laid before the
Chamber stated the willingness of the Home Government to aid in
forwarding confederation, and that it had already instructed the
British Mmister at Washington, Sir Frederick Bruce, to give all
practicable assistance to the Canadian Cabinet to procure the
renewal of the Reciprocity Treaty, which must expire in the en-
suing month of March. The death of the Imperial Premier, Lord
Palmerston, in October, produced no alteration as regarded Cana-
dian affairs, and the policy of his Cabinet touching them was fully
adopted by its successor. Towards the latter part of the year, the
removal at length of the seat of government to Ottawa, and the
rumours of a Fenian invasion from the United States, were the only
events of note.

The History of Canada.

579

1866.

In the beginning of January, Mr Brown resigned his seat in the
Cabinet, in consequence of a disagreement between his
colleagues and himself, on the mode of procuring a contin-
uance of the Reciprocity Treaty. In order to secure that certainly
most desirable result, the whole of the Cabinet, with one exception,
were in favour of making a good many concessions to the United
States, and of accepting legislative, if treaty reciprocity could not be
procured. Mr Brown, on the other hand, would not agree to accept
legislative reciprocity, which might be terminated at any moment by
a vote of Congress ; and was opposed to the making, in the pre-
mises, what he deemed to be unnecessary concessions. Finding
himself thus at issue with all his colleagues, he accordingly resigned;
and Ferguson Blair, a Reform member of the Upper House, for the
Brock Division, became his successor. But, as it soon became
perfectly plain, that neither the American Government nor Congress
would agree to a renewal of the treaty in any shape in which it
could at all be accepted by Canada, many persons, among whom
were the great majority of his own political friends, doubted the
wisdom of Mr Brown's resignation, and considered that he should
have remained in the Cabinet until confederation, the purpose for
which he had entered it, had been fully accomplished.

As the period drew near for the termination of the Reciprocity
Treaty, Canada presented a most unusual spectacle. American
dealers in farm stock and produce spread themselves in every direc-
tion over the country, already largely denuded of saleable articles,
and purchased everything buyable. The various international ferries
were choked up continually with vast droves of cattle, sheep, and
horses, as though a hostile army had harried all Canada ; while the
conveying capacity of the railways, in every direction, was taxed to
its utmost limits to meet the needs of produce buyers at this junc-
ture. Under the provisions of the Reciprocity Treaty, the interna-
tional commerce between the United States and this country had
swelled to the enormous sum of $70,000,000 per annum. Its ter-
mination produced a great disturbance of trade, and the New Eng-
land States, now so accustomed to the cheap markets of Canada,
lying almost at their doors, were largely the sufferers, and had to
look elsewhere for supplies for their manufacturing population. The
brewers of New York and Pennsylvania experienced the greatest
inconvenience in having their supplies of Canadian barley cut off,
while woollen and worsted manufacturers found it utterly impossible
to replace the long staple they had hitherto drawn so abundantly
from this country ; and railway companies and produce merchants

58o

The History of Canada.

bewailed the loss of a profitable and growing tributary commerce.
Never before were the calculations of American politicians so
thoroughly at fault. They had vainly supposed that Canada could
not possibly survive the loss of reciprocity, that its abrogation must
hasten annexation to the United States, hoped in this way to rid
themselves of an independent and lightly- taxed country, lying con-
terminous with their northern frontier for many hundreds of miles,
and never once imagined they were about to seriously injure them-
selves. And, yet, it so turned out that the termination of the Re-
ciprocity Treaty was much more detrimental to the United States
than to Canada. Here its loss was much less sensiby felt than
could have been supposed possible even by the most sanguine, and
scarcely raised an adverse ripple on the current of our prosperity.
Its operations had already swept away all surplus farm stock, trenched
largely even upon necessary animals, enriched the country, and
placed it in an admirable position to start forward on its own ac-
count. Instead of being tributaries and customers of the United
States, the Canadians would henceforth be competitors; and the
loss of reciprocity, while it greatly tended to stimulate confederation,
led the commercial men of this country to push their trade far out-
side its accustomed limits, and rendered the prospect of annexation
infinitely more remote than it ever was before. Nor did its loss
diminish very materially, if at all, the demand for the products of the
forest, one of the great staples of this country ; and the immediate
advance in the price of sawn timber was quite equal to the duty im-
posed by the United States' tariff.

The calmness with which the people of Canada regarded the
abrogation of the Reciprocity Treaty, puzzled not a little some of
the leading politicians of the United States, who had so vainly fancied
that it- must lead them to clamour for a union with themselves.
But, having so totally failed in this direction, they did not hesitate
to resort to more questionable means to accomplish their purpose ;
and to this policy, as well as to the desire to secure the Irish vote, may
now be traced the countenance so openly given to the Fenian
associations in many of the principal towns in the Northern States.
The readiness with which military supplies of all descriptions were
procured, and the large numbers of this society, which made no
secret of its hostile intentions, led many Americans to indulge in the
chimerical idea that it was equal to the conquest of this country, or
at least to so harass its people, that they would hasten to seek repose
under the flag of the United States. Early in March the plan of
Sweeny, the Fenian generalissimo, was published. It was based on

a series of combined n

day, designated as th

mence. The Canadiai

of invasion by callin

soldiers, and never wr

twenty-four hours four

their country. It was

to the sneers of those

Canada, and raised it

But the 17th of March

and the proposed inva?

a silly demonstration .

faction, against the Ne\

all danger having appa

corps, called out for act

As summer advancec

tion in the United Stat

been deemed possible.

these, led by O'Mahon)

tive point of its prepai

midable, led by Robert

in the first place, and

against Great Britain.

it found no small favour

both the Republican am

son downwards, coquet

secure the Irish electora

variably gone with the

Republican leaders nov

hoped, by a quasi count

object. An indistinct i(

sibly this course might 11

of Canada with the Ur

and gratify their dislike

sympathy extended by s

the war. Under these (

mitted, almost without

Fenian circles, or socie

towns of the United St;

arms and munitions of ^\

were collected. Aspirin

tributed large sums to th

The History of Canada.

5Si

a series of combined movements, and the 17th of March, St Patrick's
rlay, designated as the time when hostile operations would com-
mence. The Canadian Government at once responded to the threat
of invasion by calling out ten thousand volunteers, our citizen
soldiers, and never was a call more promptly met. In less than
twenty-four hours fourteen thousand men sprang to arms to defend
their country. It was a gallant spectacle, the best possible answer
to the sneers of those who would depreciate the military spirit of
Canada, and raised it greatly in the estimation of the mother-land.
But the 17th of March passed away, no Fenian advance took place,
and the proposed invasion exhausted itself in the month of April, in
a silly demonstration by a few badly-armed men, of the O'Mahony
faction, against the New Brunswick frontier. In the middle of May,
all danger having apparently passed away, several of the volunteer
corps, called out for active duty, were permitted to return home.

As summer advanced, it became evident that the Fenian organisa-
tion in the United States was of much larger proportions than had
been deemed possible. It was divided into two sections. One of
these, led by O'Mahony and Stephens, made Ireland the sole objec-
tive point of its preparations ; the other, and much the more for-
midable, led by Roberts and Sweeny, proposed to conquer Canada
n the first place, and make it the base of subsequent operations
igainst Great Britain. However chimerical this project might be,
t found no small favour among public men in the United States, and
DOth the Republican and Democratic parties, from President John-
ion downwards, coquetted with the Fenian leaders, in order to
lecure the Irish electoral vote. Hitherto that vote had almost in-
variably gone with the Democratic or pro-slavery party ; but the
Republican leaders now boldly and shamelessly bid for it, and
loped, by a qttasi countenance of Fenian operations, to effect their
•bject. An indistinct idea was also entertained by them, that pos-
ibly this course might ultimately promote, in some way, the union
f Canada with the United States, obliterate the Alabama claims,
nd gratify their dislike of Great Britain, intensified by the aid and
ympathy extended by so many of its subjects to the South during
le war. Under these circumstances, the Fenian leaders were per-
litted, almost without restraint, to make hostile preparations,
enian circles, or societies, were numerous in all the cities and
)wns of the United States, and formed the media through which
•ms and munitions of war, now so cheap and abundant, and money
ere collected. Aspiring politicians, and other sympathisers, con-
ibuted large sums to the invasion fund, while a number of discip-

582

The History of Canada.

lined men, discharged from the American army, without settled
employment, and unfitted for the ordinary routine of civil life by
their military antecedents, were only too ready to engage in any
enterprise that presented a prospect of pay and plunder. Nor were
experienced leaders wanting to direct this dangerous class of men
in their designs upon Canada. Sweeny, an officer of some skill, had
resigned his commission in the American regular service to take the
supreme control, and with him were associated a number of well-
trained military men, who had held commands, either at the North
or South, during the late war.

About the middle of May, and with the expectation of being joined
by many presumed disaffected Canadians, the Fenian leaders com-
menced to make preparations, on a large scale, for a descent on this
country. Three lines of operations had been determined on : one
from Chicago and other western cities, on the Lake Huron coast ;
another from Buffalo and Rochester, across the Niagara frontier; and
a third, and the most formidable of all, from the cities of the Atlantic
sea-board, to organise in tlie vicinity of Ogdensburg. The force to
assemble at the latter point was destined to menace Ottawa, only
fifty miles distant, to capture Prescott, and operate along the exposed
frontier in the direction of the eastern townships. But this system
of combined attack was beyond the capacity of the Fenian resources.
It rendered necessary a simultaneous movement of their different
columns of invasion, and a failure in this respect must largely tend
to neutralise every prospect of ultimate success. A iQ.\f gunboats on
the lakes and rivers would have been invaluable at this juncture ;
but, through the remissness of the Home and Colonial authorities,
these had not been provided. Nor for some cause were adequate
preparations adopted to resist the attack which, during the last week
in May, it was quite evident would shortly be made. The city of
Buffalo, situated at the foot of Lake Erie, now swarmed with Fenian
bands, which had collected from all quarters. Before daylight on
Friday the ist of June, a body of these, about twelve hundred strong,
under the command of General O'Neil, crossed at Blackrock, three
miles down the Niagara River, at this point about half a mile wide,
and established themselves unopposed on Canadian soil. Their
first step was to take possession of the ruins of Fort Erie, a short
distance above their point of landing, and of the depot of the
Buffalo and Lake Huron Railway close by, but fortunately not be-
fore all the rolling stock had been safely removed. Beyond taking
all the provisions and horses they could lay hands on, no violence
was offered to the inhabitants, and in some instances guards were

The History of Canada.

583

ut settled
i\\ life by
5c in any
Nor were
iS of men
: skill, had

take the
;r of well-
the North

ing joined
iders coni-
nit on this

1 on : one
•on coast ;
)ntier; and
ic Atlantic
e force to
tawa, only
ie exposed
his system

resources,
r different
rgely tend
mboats on
uncture ;
.uthorities,
adequate
last week
c city of
th Fenian
ylight on
ed strong,
ock, three
mile wide,
Tlieir
ie, a short
of the
y not be-
nd taking
violence
rds were

furnished by order of O'Neil for their special protection. During
the day an American war vessel, the Mic/ii}:;an, patrolled the river
with the ostensible object of preventing the crossing of reinforce-
ments. Small boats, nevertheless, plied back and forth continually,
conveying not only supplies, but recruits to the Fenian camp, no
hindrance of any consequence being attempted. But whatever
might have been the expectations of the Fenians as to a Canadian
rising in their favour, they were almost wholly disappointed. Not
half a dozen of the inhabitants joined them altogether ; and their
only hope of aid lay in reinforcements from the American side of the
river, which reached them during the day to the extent of some
three hundred men. On Saturday morning, O'Neil made a re-
connaisance, in force, down the Niagara, to conceal his true objective
point. Then, rapidly retracing his steps, he left a guard at Fort
Erie, to preserve his communication with Buffalo, and moving in
the direction of the Welland Canal, for about ten miles, took up a
position in an elevated woodland, termed Limeridg , where a tem-
porary breastwork was at once constructed.

Meanwhile, the Canadian military authorities had been actively
engaged in making preparations to drive this dangerous band of
marauders from our soil. Volunteer corps w e called out in every
direction, and General Napier, commanding ti Western District, in-
structed to adopt any measures he deemed necessary. During Friday
the Queen's Own, a Toronto volunteer corps, composed of college
students and other patriotic young men of that city, the 13th Hamil-
ton Volunteers, and the York and Caledonia Volunteer companies,
in all not quite nine hundred strong, and commanded by Lieutenant-
Colonel Booker, a volunteer officer of no experience, were de-
spatched to Port Colborne, at the Lake Erie entrance of the
Welland Canal, to cover that important work. Late on Friday
evening, a column of eighteen hundred troops, composed of
seven hundred and fifty regulars, and the rest of volunteers,
with a battery of artillery, all under the command of Colonel Pea-
cock, took post two miles above Niagara Falls, at the classic village
of Chippewa. On Saturday morning very little was known about
the whereabouts of the enemy, no proper system of scouts having
been organised. O'Neil was still supposed to be in the vicinity of
Fort Erie, and the design was that Booker's force should unite with
that under Peacock, and attack him the."e. In pursuance of this
plan, Booker moved downwards from Port Colborne, at an early
hour, six miles by railway and three on foot, and at nine a.m. unex-
pectedly encountered O'Neil's outposts at Limeridge. Had he

584

The History of Canada.

been an officer of experience, he would have now withdrawn his
force leisurely, and communicated with Peacock; but instead of
doing this, the Queen's Own were thrown forward in skirmishing
order, and very quickly and gallantly drove back the advanced line
of O'Neil on his main body. Had this advance been properly sup-
ported, and the whole force, new to the battle-field as it was, been
handled with skill, the enemy would unquestionably have been
beaten ; but, just at the critical moment, an improper order to form
square, produced by the sight of a few mounted Fenians, led to im-
mediate confusion, increased by some of the advanced skirmish line
getting out of ammunition, and retiring on their supports. The
panic so common to raw and badly-led troops now ensued, and the
whole force was speedily in full retreat. The loss of the volunteers
in this action was one officer and six men killed, and four officers and
nineteen men wounded, some quite dangerously. The Fenian loss has
never been correctly ascertained, as the possession of tlie battle-field
enabled them to bury their dead without notice, but it was certainly
larger than that of the volunteers.

O'Neil had not the heart to pursue this temporary advantage, and
commenced, soon after the action, a retreat on Fort Erie. He
arrived there, about two p.m., to find the post in possession of a force
of seventy volunteers, under the command of Lieutenent-Colonel
Dennis, who had meanwhile arrived in a tug- boat from Port Colborne,
and captured sixty prisoners, whom he stowed away in the hold of the
vessel. The tug-boat had also rendered efficient service in patrolling
the river. A brief action immediately ensued, which necessarily
ended disastrously for the little body of volunteers, thirteen of whom
were woundt 1, some badly, and forty made prisoners. But they
fought stoutly, and inflicted a loss on the enemy of five killed, and
quite a number wounded.

Worn out with marching and fighting, the Fenians began to under-
stand that campaigning in Canada was not the holiday affliir they
had anticipated ; and after night had set in, many of them stole
down to the river, and crossed to the American shore in small
])oats. Meanwhile, their friends in Buffalo were making the most
strenuous exertions to reinforce them ; and towards midnight a tug
towing two canal boats, laden with four hundred well-armed men,
and abundant supplies, left the harbour for Fort Erie, while the
lower part of the city swarmed with armed sympatliisers, and the
American authorities were powerless to interfere. But O'Neil and
his officers had already given up every hope of success, and all
they now desired was to escape in safety from the attack wliich

a tug

men,

lie the

Id the

til and

id all

I which

The History of Canada.

585

daylight must bring with it from Peacock's column, lying on its arms
a few miles distant. A small boat carried the order from O'Neil to
the officer commanding the reinforcements, to return to Buffalo,
and to send the tug and canal-boats to take off his force from
Fort Erie. This order reached the reinforcing party when about
midway in the river, was obeyed, and shortly after one o'clock on
the morning of Sunday the 3d, the bulk of the Fenian force, to the
number of fully nine hundred, without even drawing in their pickets,
stole on board the boats sent for them, and were speedily on their
way to the American shore. Before they could land, however, they
were intercepted by the United States' armed propeller Harrison,
compelled to surrender, and were soon anchored under the guns of
the war-steamer Michigan. The rest of the Fenians endeavoured to
cross as best they could, some even, in their extremity, pulling the
planks from the wharves, and pushing out into the current upon
them. Many also escaped in small boats sent over by their friends,
while the remainder, who were probably about two hundred in
number, hid themselves in the vicinity, or skulked off into the bush.
The prisoners they had captured were all abandoned at Fort Erie,
as well as most of their dead and wounded ; and when Colonel Pea-
cock came up on Sunday morning, he found he had nothing to do
beyond arresting the straggling Fenians still lingering in the neigh-
bourhood, and who were sent to Toronto Jail. And thus ingloriously
terminated the Fenian invasion of the Niagara frontier. Their New
York leaders sought to conceal their chagrin at its ill success by
describing it as a mere feint, designed to cover a more important
attack to be made elsewhere.

During the earlier part of the ensuing week, the American rail-
ways leading to Ogdensburg, were freighted with large bodies of
men for the attack on Prescott and subsequent advance to Ottawa.
But the rapid massing of over two thousand volunteers and regulars
at the point menaced, and the placing of a British gunboat in the
river, completely frustrated their projects. The Fenians now moved
downwards to Malone, as if an attack on Cornwall was contem-"
plated ; but a garrison there of three thousand troops and volunteers,
led them to abandon their designs against this point also. On the
5th, fully five thousand Fenians had congregated on the borders
of the eastern townships, — a flourishing section of country, with
nothing but a surveyed line between it and the United States. But
their period of unrestricted action had now passed away. The
President could no longer ignore the representations of the British
minister at Washington, nor shut his eyes to the fact that war was

536

The History of Canada.

being made on a friendly country from the United States, and issued
a proclamation calling on the Fenians to disperse, and commit no
overt acts ; while General Meade, an honest and capable officer,
was ordered to arrest their leaders and seize their supplies. In
pursuance of this order, he speedily captured a large amount of
arms and ammunition, which arrived by railway at Ogdensburg, and
prevented the passage north of further reinforcements. On the 8th,
however, a body of Fenians, two thousand strong, under the com-
mand of General Spear, crossed the frontier near St Albans, and
marched three miles into the interior. There they formed a sort of
camp, and from whence they spread out over the country, plunder-
ing every description of property wliich could possibly be of any use
to them. But the advance of troops against them caused them to
retreat across the border, where Spear and other leaders were
arrested by General Meade, and the masses of mischievous men
rapidly dispersed, the American government granting them free
conveyance home on the different railway lines. Thus terminated
the Fenian invasion of the Canadian frontier. The actual injury
to property it produced was not of much account, but the indirect
loss sustained ' by this country — forty thousand volunteers being
at one period under arms — was very considerable. No new Fenian
attempts were made against Canada. During the summer, gun-
boats guarded the lake and river approaches; and troops and
volunteers stationed at every assailable point, demonstrated the
folly of further efforts at invasion. Canada bewailed the death of
her college youths and young men of Toronto. But their blood was
not shed in vain. It speedily bore fruit ; and, in connexion with
the gallant manner in whick a great volunteer force had sprung to
arms, raised this country in the opinion of the world, and greatly
stimulated the project of confederation. Deeply were the Canadians
incensed at the wanton invasion of their borders, and the expense
and annoyance they had been put to ; and the public voice now
loudly demanded that the captured Fenians should receive the most
extreme punishment the law could award them.

Meanwhile, on the 8th of June, the Legislature had assembled
at Ottawa in the new parliament buildings. In his opening speech,
the Governor-General set forth, that immediately after the termina-
tion of the last session he had, under instructions from the Home
Government, convened a Council of Trade, which included repre-
sentatives from the different provinces of British North America, and
the proceedings of which would be laid before them. He urged
that the termination of the Reciprocity Treaty with the United States

The History of Canada.

587

was
with
g to
atly
ians
iDense
now
most

rged
tates

rendered it necessary to seek new avenues of trade ; and stated that,
with the consent of the imperial authorities, he had sent a deputation
to the West Indies and Brazil, to ascertain the best mode of develop-
ing and extending commercial relations with those countries. The
Fenian attack was also alluded to by his Excellency, and while he
deplored the loss of life it caused, he paid a well-merited tribute to
the prompt and gallant spirit evinced by the volunteers of the
country. To repress further outrages, and to enable improper
persons to be summarily dealt with, he asked that the writ of
Habeas Corpus be temporarily suspended. And while he congratu-
lated the Chambers on the prosperity of the country, he informed
them that the revenue of the past year had been largely in excess
of the estimates, and had enabled him, without inconvenience, to
provide for the heavy and unlooked-for expenditure entailed by the
Fenian outrages.

The abrogation of the Reciprocity Treaty rendered a new tariff a
necessity, and Mr Gait now introduced a bill into the Assembly
em]Dodying the desired alterations. It reduced the duty on the great
bulk of imported goods five per cent., leaving the maximum rate
fifteen per cent., admitted articles which entered largely into the
manufactures of the country free, and provided for the deficiency
thus produced by increasing the impost on whisky thirty cents a
gallon. While this tariff was a sensible relief to importers of foreign
goods, it largely stimulated the manufactures of the country ; and,
with a few isolated interests excepted, gave very general satisfaction.
Several other important measures became law during this session.
The writ of Habeas Corpus was suspended for one year, the assess-
ment law of Upper Canada amended, and its municipal law subjected
to very important modifications, which raised the franchise in towns,
and effected other improvements well received by all classes. On
the 3d of July, ministers introduced resolutions into the Legislature
defining the Constitutions of Upper and Lower Canada, respectively,
under the proposed measure of confederation, and Avhich were all
subsequently embodied in the imperial bill. These proceedings were
uneasily regarded by some of the leading politicians of the United
States, who strongly deprecated the creation of a united power on
their northern frontier, and an attempt was now made to sow the
seeds of discord by the introduction of a bill into Congress, which
provided for the admission of British North America into tlie
American Union as four separate states, and the assumption of their
public debt by the general Government. This bill was read twice
and referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs. It totally failed.

i88

The History of Canada.

however, of its object. The day for annexation had for ever ^c^
parted, and Mr Banks' congressional bill, already described, was
regarded by the Canadian people with the most supreme indifference
and contempt, and as an insolent interference with the affairs of an
independent country. Early in August Mr Gait resigned, owing to
complications which arose in connexion with a school bill, giving
larger privileges to the Protestant minority of Lower Canada, It
failed to pass, and Mr Gait, as representing that minority, deeming
it treated with injustice, unexpectedly resigned, although avowing
himself still prepared to support the general policy of the Govern-
ment. On the 15th of August, the Cabinet having carried all its
measures with large majorities, and the public business having been
fully completed, Parliament was prorogued.

Towards the close of summer a most disastrous fire occurred
at Quebec, by which all of the St Roch suburb and also much of the
St Saveur were burned down. Only a few buildings were left stand-
ing in a district a mile long by about half a mile wide, two thousand
one hundred and nineteen houses, mostly belonging to the poorer
classes, were destroyed, and over twenty thousand people left home-
less. Great exertions were made for the relief of the sufferers in
Canada, and large contributions were also made for the same object
by the benevolent in the mother-country. But Quebec is not at all
likely to recover from this disaster. Its commerce had already largely
declined, and the scattering of its population, which now ensued,
accelerated the decay which had so surely seized upon this ancient
city. The Fenian trials took place at the October term at Toronto,
when many of the prisoners were discharged, the grand jury ignoring
the bills against them. True bills, however, were found against a
large number, several of whom were convicted and sentenced to
death, but had their sentences afterwards commuted by the Queen to
a period of imprisonment in the provincial penitentiary. The calm
and firm attitude of our courts of justice during these trials, and
the punctilious observance of every form of civil law, constituted
the best rebuke to the American politicians, from Seward down-
wards, who, by an indecent sympathy or interference on behalf of
the criminals, pandered to their partizans with the view of securing
their electoral support.

Meanwhile, the great project of confederation continued to
progress towards final consummation. The Legislatures of New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia had already passed resolutions adopt-
ing the scheme, as did also the Legislature of Newfoundland. But,
as regarded the latter, no steps were taken subsequently to carry

The History of Canada.

589

1867.

them into practical effect ; while the little Island of Prince Edward
repudiated the action of its delegates at Quebec, and wholly declined
to become a part of the proposed confederacy All the necessary
preliminaries having been disposed of, delegates from the provinces
of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick assembled at London,
on the 4th of December, to arrange the final terms of the Act of Union
to be submitted to the Imperial Parliament. Every question at issue
having been satisfactorily adjusted, the Colonial Secretary,
the Earl of Caernarvon, introduced, on the 7th of February,
the Confederation Bill into the House of Lords. On the 19th, it had
its second reading; on the 22d, it passed through committee; and
on the 26th, was read a third time, and sent down to the Commons.
It was read a second time there on the 28th of February, and after
a brief yet interesting debate, the measure was agreed to without a
division. It passed through committee of the whole on the 4th
of March, the proposed guarantee for an intercolonial railway loan
being alone objected to, but not pressed to a vote. On the 8th,
it was read a third time, and finally passed without debate. On
the 1 2th, a few judicious amendments, made by the Commons, were
agreed to by the Lords ; and on the 28th, it received the royal
assent, and became the law of the empire. On the following day,
Mr Adderley introduced a bill into the Commons, to guarantee a
loan of ;^3,ooo,ooo sterling for the intercolonial railway, which was
accepted by an overwhelming majority, and also duly passed in the
House of Lords. On the 22d of May, the work of legislation
having been fully completed, and all the other arrangements made,
her Majesty was pleased to issue her royal proclamation, appointing
the ist of July as the day on which the Dominion of Canada should
commence its existence, and nominating its seventy-two senators.
The great project of confederation was at length finally and happily
completed, and the morning voice of a new people was heard among
the nations of the earth.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

THE DOMINION OF CANADA.

THE life of a single man will fully bridge the existence of
Upper Canada, or, as it is now termed under the Confedera-
tion Act, the Province of Ontario. Eighty-three years ago its broad
expanse was one interminable wilderness, covered in every direction
with dense forests, which sheltered the rich glebe from the hot sun-
''~°ams of summer, and the biting Avinter winds that swept southwards
irom the frozen deserts towards the pole. At that period the entire
European inhabitants of Ontario did not number two thousand
souls, and who grouped themselves around the few military and
trading posts, and in the French settlement on the Thames, in the
Western Peninsula. Oppressed by military rule and feudal laws,
the progress of Lower Canada had been slow and painful, and in
1783, after one hundred and eighty years of settlement, its popula-
tion stood only at one hundred and thirteen thousand. The same
causes, to a great extent, prevented the progress of Nova Scotia ;
while New Brunswick may be regarded as no older than Ontario.
At present these four provinces constitute the New Dominion, the
progress in population of which may be seen from the following
table : —

IN LOWER CANADA—

IN UPPER CANADA —

1676,

9,000

1782, . .

10,000

1763,

65,000

lyoo, .

50,000

1783.

113,000

1811, .

77,000

1825,

450,000

1825, . .

158,027

I83I,

511,920

1835. • .

336,469

1844,

690,782

1840, .

427,441

1851,

890,261

1851, .

952,004

1861,

1,111,566

1861, .

1,396,091

The History of Canada.

591

IN NOVA SCOTIA

»7SS.
1764,

1784,
1818,

1837,
1851, .

1861, .

S,ooo

13,000

32,000

82,053

199,906

276,117

330,857

IN NEW BRUNSWICK-

1785.
1800,
1824,

J 834.
1840,

185I,
1861,

The Census Returns for 1861, for the four provinces,
several creeds of the population as follows : —

Church of Rome, .... 1,372,913

Presbyterians,

Church of England,

Methodists,

Baptists,

Lutherans,

Congregationalists,

All others,

Total,

471,946
465.572

4JI.924

189,080

29,651

17,757
111,718

6,000
10,000
74.176
'19.457
154,000
193,800
252,047

classify the

44-42

15-27

1506

I3'98

6' 12

•96

•58

361

3,090,561 loo-

The adherents of the Church of Rome were about 85 per cent.
of the whole population in Lower Canada ; 34 per cent, in New
Brunswick; 26 per cent, in Nova Scotia j and 18 per cent, in
Upper Canada.

The Presbyterians formed about 27 per cent, of the whole popu-
lation in Nova Scotia; 22 per cent, in Upper Canada; 14 per cent,
in New Brunswick ; and 4 per cent, in Lower Canada.

The adherents of the Church of England were about 22 per cent, of
the whole population in Upper Canada ; 17 per cent, in New Bruns-
wick ; 14 per cent, in Nova Scotia ; and 6 per cent, in Lower Canada.

The Wesleyan and other Methodists constituted about 25 per
cent, of the whole population in Upper Canada; 10 per cent, in
Nova Scotia ; 10 per cent, in New Brunswick ; and 3 per cent, in
Lower Canada.

Classified according to occupation, the adult male population of
the New Dominion in 1861 stood thus : —

Farmers,

320,952

Labourers, including lumbermen,

209,909

Mechanics,

115,272

Trade and commerce.

32,619

Mariners and fishermen,

25,009

Professional men,

10,119

Miners,

1,207

Miscellaneous,

30,543

Total, .

745.630

592

The History of Canada.

While each of the provinces furnishes a fair proportion of the
members in all the other classes above enumerated, the Province
of Nova Scotia has a very marked pre-eminence under the head of
"Mariners and Fishermen." Nova Scotia returns 12,977 of that
class, or more than one-half of the total number. Lower Canada
returns 8,110; New Brunswick, 2,765 ; and Upper Canada, 1,157.

In Upper Canada in i86r, there were — Natives of the Provinces,
911,963; of England and Wales, 114,914 ; of Ireland, 191,431 ; of
Scotland, 98,892; of Foreign Countries, 78,891. Total, 1,396,091.

In Lower Canada, there were — Natives of the Provinces,
1,017,925 ; of England and Wales, 13,821 ; of Ireland, 50,337 ;
of Scotland, 13,204 ; of Foreign Countries, 16,279. 'I'otal, 1,1 1 1,566.

In New Brunswick, there were — Natives of the Provinces,
208,166; of England and Wales, 4,909; of Ireland, 30,179; oi
Scotland, 5,199 ; of Foreign Countries, 3,594. Total, 252,047.

In Nova Scotia, there were — Natives of the Provinces, 299,335 5
of England and Wales, 3,188; of Ireland, 9,313; of Scotland^
16,395; of Foreign Countries, 2,626. Total, 330,857.

Summing up these returns, the result is arrived at, that the pro-
portion of different origins is as follows : —

Natives of Britisli America,
,, Irelanil,
„ England and Wales,
„ Scotland,
„ Foreign Countries,

79 per cent.

9 :•

4V ,,
4^ .,

100

It will thus be seen that according to the Census Returns of 1 861,
the population of the four provinces now forming the Dominion of
Canada was : —

Upper Canada,
Lower Canada,
New Brunswick,
Nova Scotia,

1,396,091

1,111,566

252,047

330,857

Total, 3.090,561

Since i86r there can be no doubt that the rate of increase has
been fully maintained, and that its entire population is now over
3,750,000 souls.

GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT.

The area of the four provinces, constituting the New Dominion,
may be stated as follows : —

The History of Cajiada. 593

Square Miles.

Ontario 121,260

Quebec, 210,020

New Brunswick, 27,105

Nova Scotia, i8,66o

Total 377.045

The province of Ontario exceeds, in its dimensions, those of Great .
Britain and Ireland, which are 119,924 square miles. The province
of Quebec has an area almost equal to that of France, which is
211,852 square miles. Nova Scotia is as large as the kingdom of
Greece, and New Brunswick is equal in extent to Denmark and
Switzerland combined.

If we add the area of Prince Edward Island, 2,100 square miles ;
that of Newfoundland, 40,000 square miles ; that of British Co-
lumbia, 200,000 square miles; and that of the Hudson's Bay and
North-West Territories, 2,750,000 square miles — we will have
as the total area of the countries, which will probably at no
distant day be included in the dominion of Canada, the enormous
extent of 3,369,345 square miles — nearly three times the extent of
territory embraced in the empire of China, with its four hundred
millions of inhabitants, and greater by 400,000 square miles than the
whole territory of the United States.

MARITIME RESOURCES.

As regards shipping, the dominion of Canada takes a fourth place
among the maritime nations of the world. In 1865 the total value
of its shipping was estimated at $11,000,000, the number of vessels
and their tonnage are shown by the following table : —

Upper Canada, .
Lower Canada, .
Nova Scotia,
New Brunswick, .

Total, .... 6,575 943,533

Altogether a navy of 6,575 steam and sailing vessels, 943,533 tons,
and a total value of $32,844,069.

No.

Tons.

522

85,440

1,136

144,989

3,898

103,409

1,019

309,69s

RAILWAY STATISTICS.

Upper and Lower Canada have 2,150 miles of railway — not in-
cluding length of side tracks, double tracks, &c. The first railway
constructed in Canada was from La Prairie on the St Lawrence to
St John's on the RicheHeu River. This was sixteen miles in length,

2 p

594

The History of Canada.

was opened as a horse-railway in July 1836, and was first worked
with locomotives in 1837. In Upper Canada, in 1834, charters
were obtained for a railway from Cobourg to Rice Lake, and for
another from London to Hamilton ; but the first railway actually
built in Upper Canada, was between Queenston and Chippewa, being
opened as a horse-railway in 1839. In 1846, the Montreal and
Lachine Railway was commenced, and in November 1857 it was
opened for traffic.

The Grand Trunk has now a total length of roads constructed
under its charter, with those obtained by amalgamation, of 1,377 miles.
In 1845, the St Lawrence and Atlantic Company was chartered to con-
struct a railway to connect with the " Atlantic and St Lawrence," an
American line from Portland. The St Lawrence and Atlantic road,
commencing at Montreal, was opened as far as St Hyacinthe, early in
1847 ; as far as Sherbrooke in August 1852, and from Sherbrooke to
the Province Line, in July 1853. A connecting line from Richmond
to Quebec was opened in November 1854, and an extension eastward
from Quebec to St Thomas in December 1855. A further exten-
sion eastward, as far as Riviere du Loup, was not opened till July
i860. The line from Toronto to Montreal was opened in October
1856, and the extension westward to Sarnia was completed in
November 1859. These roads form the Grand Trunk property,
which, with the Victoria Bridge and its approaches, has a total
length of 872 miles, but, by an extension from Sarnia to Detriot,
through the State of Michigan, and the amalgamation of the Buffalo
and Goderich, the Montreal and Lake Champlain, and the Montreal
and Hemmingford lines, it has now reached the colossal dimensions
we have stated.

The first railway in Upper Canada, on which locomotives were
used, was the Northern, opened from Toronto to Bradford, in June
1853. In October of the same year, the Northern was opened as
far as Barrie, and in January 1855 as far as Collingwood, its north-
ern terminus on Georgian Bay — a distance from Toronto of 96 miles.

The Great Western was opened from Suspension Bridge to
Hamilton, in November 1853, and from Hamilton to Windsor,
opposite Detroit, in January 1854, with branches to Toronto,
Guelph, and Sarnia, subsequently constructed, and has now a total
length of 345 miles.

The Province of Canada owns no railroads, but it has made large
advances of money on their account, especially to the Grand Trunk.
The amounts due by railways to the Government are stated in the
public accounts as follows : —

The History of Canada,

595

Grand Trunk,
Great Western, ,
Northern,

Total,

$23,902,403
3.727.083
3.S04.527

131,134,013

The official reports issued by the Jiyditor give the following par-
ticulars with reference to the length 6f Canadian railways, the cost
of their construction and equipment, and their receipts in 1866 : —

Length

Cost

Receipts

ill

in 1866.

miles.

dols.

Great Western,

345

23,855.881

3,264,402

Grand Trunk,

1,377

80,704,095

6,639,260

Northern,

S.457.789

512,872

Brockville and Ottawa,

86i

2,602,024

111,086

Prescott and Ottawa,

2,ooS,994

104,420

Port Hope, Lindsay, and Beaverton,

1,593.536

108,947

Port Hope and Peterboro,

400,000

69,565

Cobourg and Peterboro,

900,000

London and Port Stanley,

244

1,032,850

35.490

Wglland,

2Si

1,622,843

106,944

Carillon and Grenville,

95.077

9,969

St Lawrence and Lidustrie, .

S4.IOO

6,008

Stanstead, Shefford, and Chambly,

1,216,000

Total,

2,148^

121,543,189

10,968,963

The Victoria Bridge, which is an essential part of the railway
system of Canada, crosses the St Lawrence at Montreal. It was
opened for traffic on the 17th December 1859. Its total length is
9,184 feet. The number of spans is 25 ; 24 of 242 feet; one of
330 feet. The height from the surface of the water to the under
side of the centre tube is 60 feet ; the height from the bed of the
river to the top of the centre tube is 108 feet. There are 3,000,000
cubic feet of masonry in the bridge ; and the total cost was about
$7,000,000.

The Nova Scotia railways have been built and are owned by that
province. They consist of a trunk line from Halifax, on the Atlantic,
by way of Truro, to Pictou, on the Gulf of St Lawrence, with a
branch line to Windsor, on the Bay of Fundy. The distance from
Halifax to Truro is 60 miles, and from the main line to Windsor,
33 miles. The railways to Truro and Windsor were com-
pleted in 1858. The extension to Pictou, built by a Canadian
engineer, Mr Sanford Fleming, and 40 miles in length, was
opened in June 1866. The contract price for its construction was

* No returns.

596

The History of Canada,

$2,216,500. The earnings of the lines to Windsor and Truro
increased from $102,877 •" ^859, to $183,954 in 1865. The total
cost of their construction was $4,319,507. Tlie Halifax and Pictou
Road will connect with the Intercolonial.

In New Brunswick, the St Andrews and Woodstock, or " New
Brunswick and Canada" Railroad, was commenced in 1844, but was
not completed till 1862. It is 88 miles in length, and was built
at a cost of $2,750,000. The province owns stock in it, to the
amount of $240,000. The "European and North American" Rail-
way is a public work, owned by the province. It connects the city
of St John's, on the Bay of Fundy, with Shediac, on the (lulf of St
Lawrence, and has been in operation since i860. It is 108 miles in
length, and cost $4,747,713. The St Stephens' Branch Railway, 18
miles in length, has also been recently opened.*

PUBLIC DEBT.

No Canadian Blue Book having been issued as yet for the fiscal
year ending June 1867, the author cannot give, in the precise figujfs,
the debt of Canada. But, deducting all the proper credits, it could
not be less than $80,000,000. On the ist July 1866, accordingly,
the debt of the Dominion of Canada would approximate to the fol-
lowing figures : —

Canada,
Nova Scotia,
New Brunswick,

$80,000,000
4.858,547
S.702,991

$90,561,538

The " British America Act " provides that the Dominion of Canada
shall be liable for the debts and liabilities of each province existing
at the Union; that Ontario and Quebec conjointly shall be liable
for the amount by which the debt of Canada exceeds $62,500,00-^
and shall pay five per cent, interest thereon ; and that New Ti' sw
and Nova Scotia, on the other hand, shall receive five per c
on the amounts by which their debts fall short of $8,0 jo anu
$7,000,000 respectively. The total debt, therefore, of v.nich the
Dominion of Canada assumes the liability, in commencing its (
istence, may be stated at $77,500,000 — the sura of the foregouig
three amounts.

The' following table shows the ordinary revenue and expenditure
of each province, during the year 1865 : —

* Toronto Globe, ist July 1867. Eighty years' progress, B. N. A. p. 99.

The History of Canada.

597

Cnnada, .
Nova Scotia,
New Brunswick,

Rev.

tio.43S.2S9
i,5«7,3o<>
1 ,070,604

$13,023,169

Ex.

111,534,691
1,470,306
1,168,074

$14,173,071 •

THE VOLUNTEi; R FORCES.

A few years since there was not a single volunteer corps in British
North America, while the militia system mainly existed on paper,
and the only available force in the event of any necessity, were the
regular troops at the various garrison town.s. But during tlie past
six years the Canadian volunteer force has swelled to most im-
po. tant dimensions, while statutes have been enacted, which render
the organisation of the "Service" Militia a matter of slight difficulty
whenever such a step should be recjuired. Several excellent mili-
tary schools exist, at which cadets are thoroughly instiucted in the
principles of their profession, and fitted for command in the volun-
teer force. Every village of any importance in Ontario has its
drill-shed, where the youths of the neighbourhood are trained to
aims; and in the province of Quebec the military spirit has also
been largely developed during the past few years. The returns
sapplied in 1866, state that the volunteer force of Lower Canada
consists of 2 squadrons of cavalry and 4 separate trooj^s ; 2 field
batteries of artillery; i battery and 3 battalions of garrison artillery;
3 companies of engineers; 6 battalions of infantry, and 52 separate
companies, now organised into administrative battaUons; 7 battalions
rifles and 14 separate companies — a force altogether of 10,620 men.

Of the Service Militia, there have been balloted 51 battalions,
giving 40,545 men. The whole militia force of Lower Canada is
about 170,000.

The volunteer force of Upper Canada consists of 2 squadrons of

* It may be interesting to place in comparison with the above, a statement of

the annual revenue and expenJiture of the United States, at different periods in
their early history : —

Rev. Ex.

1792 . . . $8,740,766 $9,141,569

1795 . • • 9,419,802 10,435,069

1800 . . . 12,451,184 11.989,739

1S02 . . . 15.001,391 13,176,084

I.*- 4 . . . 11,835,840 12,614,646

\^ \ . . . 13,689,508 13,727,124

in one year, jircvious to 1S05 — nearly a generation after the year of in-

depcu • -did the ijublic revenue of the United Stales exceed the amount of

annual uuc with which the Dominion of Canada starts upon its career.

,1
•1

598

The History of Canada.

cavalry and 8 separate troops ; 6 field batteries ol artillery ; 2 bat-
talions garrison artillery and 13 batteries; 3 naval companies; 14
battalions infantry and 157 separate companies; 4 battalions rifles
and 46 separate companies- a force altogether of 19,380 men. Of
the Service Militia, there have been balloted in Upper Canada 6i
battalions, giving 48,496 men. The whole militia force of Upper
Canada is estimated at 280,000.

In New Brunswick, the volunteer force consists of 4 troops of
cavalry ; 7 batteries of artillery ; i company of engineers ; and 2 1
companies of infantry— numbering altogether 1,791 men. The
Service Militia number 35,412 men, and the "Sedentary," 7,184.

In Nova Scotia, there are 898 volunteers, and 59,379 " First
Class" Militia, which includes all ranks between 16 and 45 years ot

By the census of 186 r, it appeared that the number of men
capable of bearing arms in the several provinces, between the ages

of 20 and 60, was :-

Upper Canada,
Lower Canada,
Nova Scotia, .
New Brunswick,

Total,

3o8,9",5

225/20

67,367
51,625

653.567

EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS.

But while Canada and the maritime provinces have made prodigious
strides in other respects, their educational progress also has been
very great. In 1865, there were in Upper Canada 4,303 Common
Schools, attended by 383,652 pupils, of whom 204,320 were boys,
and 179,332 were girls. The number of children reported as not
attending any school was 42,141. Of the 4,303 Common Schools
3,595 were entirely free, and in the remaining 708 the highest fee
charged was 25 cents a month. The total expenditure for Common
Schools, in 1865, was $1,355,879. There were also 152 Roman
Catholic Separate Schools, with an average attendance of 8,518.
There were 104 Grammar Schools, with 5,754 pupils, and a Nor-
mal School, with two Model Schools attached, for the training of
teachers. There were 260 private schools and academic ', attended
■)y 5,966 pupils, and deriving an income of $50,899. Finally, Upper
Canada, in 1865, had 16 colleges, attended by 1,820 students, and
receiving an income from legislative and other sources of $150,000,
And a further sum of f.44,000 in fee;-:.

The History of Canada,

599

The number of schools, and pupils,

Lower Canada, in 1865,

IS as follows : —

Schools.

Pupils.

Primary, ....

3,479

» 72,733

Special, ....

26s

Normal, ....

219

Secondary, . « . .

. 210

2S,6i3

Superior, . . o ,

318

Total,

3,716 202,148

The numbers given under the head of " Primary," include also the
Protestant Dissentient Schools, of which, in 1865, there were 146,
with 4,763 pupils. The "Superior" Schools, comprise the Univer-
sities and the Schools of Theology, Law, and Medicine. The
amount raised by the municipalities in Lower Canada, in 1865,
for the support of Primary Schools, was $597,448, In 1855 — ten
years previously — the amount was only $249,136.

In Nova Scotia, in 1866, there were 989 Common Schools in
operation, attended by 43,771 pupils. The provincial grant for
Common School education was $67,068, and the amount raised by
the people for salaries. $124,673. Besides the Common Schools,
there are 5 County Academies in operation, attended by 1,200
pupils; 10 other Academies, with 680 pupils; and 7 Colleges; in
five of these, which sent in returns, there were 24 profcbbors and 207
students. The total amount voted by the Legislature of Nova
Scotia for educational purposes, in 1865, was $93,263.

In New Brunswick, in 1865, the number of teachers of public
schools was 826, and the number of pupils enrolled, 29,975. The
amount expended by the Government on Common and Superior
Schools, for the year ending 31st October 1865, was $91,373 ; and,
by local districts, $101,114. The University of New Brunswick has
five professors, and an income of about $13,000 per annum, of which
the Government pays about $9,000. The whole amount expended
by the Government for education, in 1865, was $112,940.

COMMERCE AND TRADE.

Shortly after the union of Upper and Lower Canada, the trade and
commerce of these provinces commenced to increase. Owing,
however, to the unsettled state of the country caused by the rebel-
lion, and the absence of railway communication, their volume was
not very noticeable until after 185 1. The following table will give
the best idea of the progress made from that year : —

6oo

The History of Canada.

Import Duty collected. Imports.

Exports.

I85I

$2,955,727

$21,434,791

. $12,964,721

1852

2,956,633

20,286,493

15,307,607

1853

4.ii9,i3i

31,981,436

.' 23,801,303

1854

4,900,769

40,529,325

23,019,190

I8SS

3,527,098

36,086,169

28,188,461

1856

4,510,128

43.584.387

32,047,017

1857

3,927,208

39,430,598

27,006,624

1858

3,368,157

29,078,527

23,472,609

1859

4.456,326 ■

33.555.161

24,766,981

i860

4.756,724

34,441,621

34,631,890

i86r

• • .

39,750,161

36,369,682

1862

* •

45,980,939

33,417,128

1863

41,312,206

40,146,129

\ of '64 to J

une 30 5,660,740* .

21,406,712

13,179,342

1864-5

do.

6,142,796

39.851.991

40,792,960

1865-6

do.

7,328,146

53,802,319

56,328,380

1866-7

do.

7,023,327

59,048,987

48,486,143

The classification of the imports anrl exports of Canada, for the
year ending 30th June 1866, stands as follows : —

stan(

IMPORTS.

From Great Britain,

. $28,994,530

B. N. A. Colonies,

857,922

Britisli West Indies,

105,660

United States,

. 20,424,692

France,

1,215,090

Germany,

393,Sio

Other foreign countries,

1,810,615

Total, .

EXPORTS.

• $53,802,319

Great Britain, .

. $12,981,641

B. N. A. Colonies,

1,571,116

»»

British West Indies,

63,993

».

United States,

. 34,770,261

France,

"6.332

.»

Germany,

52,79s

Other foreign counties.
Total,

700,714

. $50,256,852

Th
and tl
value
officia

In
four y

• For the twelve preceding months, Toronto Globe, ist J"ly 1867.

It is worthy of notice that the external trade of the United States, ten years
after their independence was acknowledged by the mother-country, was little
more than a third of the external trade of the Dominion of Canada at this
moment. In 1792, tlie imports into the United States were $31,500,000, and the
exports $20,750,000; together, $52,250,000.

The History of Canada:

60 1

CLASSIFIED THUS :

Produce of the Mine,

•

$422,570

„ Fisheries,

•

980,311

Forest,

•

. 13,846,986

Animals and their products,

•

. • 12,682,683

Agricultural products,

•

16,651,074

Manufactures,

• •

989,936

Coin and Bullion,

•

2,397,591