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1 2 3

^cto ^ntttstDtcfe School §mte.

A HISTORY OF CANADA.

Jor the E0e of cSfhoole.

BY ANDRFW ARCHER.

PRT!]SCRIBED BY THE BOARD OP EDUCATION FOR
NEW BRUNSWICK.

LONDON:

T. NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW.
J. & A. MCMILLAN, SAINT JOHN, N B.

J875.

EDUCATION OFFICE,
Pkovinck of New Biiunswick

The Board of Education, under the Authority of The Common-School Act
1871, has prescribed this edition of Archer's School Hiatory of Canada, as a Text-
Book for use in the Schools of this Province.

THEODORE H. RAND,

Chief Superintendent of Education.

PREFATORY NOTE.

KHKAJA

fpxJ'*'^'^"*''^ mi8cnrrl8gt> of son^cot tht roviscd prooi shoots, a fow om)r« appear In il.p

r. 189, par. 9, for "2nd of July," read aisx of Junb.

P. 27.J, I'nd line, for •' Chodiibucto Harbour," r3ad Chervcto Harbolr.

P. 3.W, I St line, for " William Balloj," kw! Thom*s Hui.mf ; and for " Frederick
A. Uobinson," read FREDEaicK P. Robtnso.n. rreaencK

P 390. par. 18, for "Sectarian Schools," read oENOMiNATicvAr, coileges; and for

'• a flree common school system," read A PnoYiNXMilJHivKRgrrT.
P. 41«, for " Winacke," road J. U.via(k);.
P. 487, par :59, for " 1866," i-ead 1867.

Hon. Adams G. Arculbiild. slioiiid also appear in the list of the first Privy

For-'Frcderickton.' read FREorRit-i-ON; for Maxaquudaric." wad Maoaoiaua-
tic; for "MIssignash,' road MissmiAsa

lie jj I CO. tea o opctuCj unc cuuioc \Ji cvciito lu. x^kjvcl Kjouna. -x.^cw

Brunswick, and the other Provinces, is in this book treated in
he order of their relative importance. The writer, in dealing
i^ith a long series of eventi:^, has made it his aim to be as clear
nd concise as possible ; but he has not thought it necessary to
onfine himself to a bare outline. The greater interest given
a narrative by dwelling a little at length on some of the
Qore important incidents, and the desirableness of pkcing a
>ietty comprehensive history in the hands of teachei-s, will, it
s hoped, successfully meet objections to fulness of detail, should
■ny be raised.

■ A V r .

b> ■ ■ -l

PREFATORY NOTE.

IfcJiNCE Confederation, a new interest haa been awakened in the
Elistory of Canada. The different Provinces comprised in the
)ominion have been intimately connected in the past ; a study
)f their records shows that the same course of events abroad, and
^iniilar causes of political dissatisfaction within, have helped to
^lould their destiny. Separate Histories of the British North
Lnierican Provinces Ih-ve, from time to time, been written for
he use of schools ; but these, viewed from the stand-point of
lie Dominion under Confederation, are incomplete. In the
resent book an endeavour has been made to give a general
[ew of the history of the country now known as Canada, from
^e earliest to the latest times. That history ceatres in the
L'ovinces now called Quebec and Ontario, which long alone
be the name of Canada ; but, though these necessarily occupy
le greatest space, the course of events in Nova Scotia, -New
Brunswick, and the other Provinces, is in this book treated in
pie order of their relative importance. The writer, in dealing
rith. a long series of events, has made it his aim to be as clear
md concise as possible ; but he has not thought it necessary to
confine himself to a bare outline. The greater interest given
to a narrative by dwelling a little at length on some of the
lore important incidents, and the desirableness of placing a
)retty comprehensive history in the hands of teachera, will, it
Is hoped, successfully meet objections to fulness of detail, should
luy be raised.

.,U.il-U!il4U' tlW

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER 1.— INTRODUCTORY. 1604 to 1867 A.D.

A Glance at the History of Canada from its earliest settlement by the French to
the consummation of Confederation 13

CHAPTER II.— DISCOVERY. 982, 1492, 1583 A.D.

The Northmen— Christopher Columbus — John and Sebastian Cabot — Amerigo
Vespucci — The Banks of Newfoundland — John Verazzani — Jacques Car-
tier's first Voyage — His second and third Voyages — Sieur de Roberval,
Viceroy of Canada — Disastrous issue of liit, Expedition — Martin Frobisher
— Sir Humphrey Gilbert — Origin of the name " Canada" 23

CHAPTER III.— THE INDIAN TRIBES.

The first peopling of America — The three Indian "Families" — The Esquimaux
and Savannois — Location of the Algonquin Tribes — The Hurons or Wyan-
dots — The Iroquois — Indian Characteristics — Their constructiva skill —
Dress — Wampum — Occupations and Amusements — Position of the Women
• -Form of Government — Superstitions ; Religious Belief — Their present
state 87

CHAPTER IV.— FIRST SETTLEMENTS IN NEW FRANCE.

1588 TO 1608 A.D.

The Fur-trade at Anticosti — Sieur de la Roche, Viceroy of Canada — Convicts
on Sable Island — M. Pontgrav6 at Tadoussac — Samuel de Champlain — He
ascends the St. Lawrence — M. de Monts, Lieutenant-General of Acadie —
Settlement on the St. Croix — Port Royal — Baron de Poutrincourt and Marc
Lescarbot — The Order of tlie Good Time — Break-up of the establishment
at Port Royal 48

CHAPTER v. — QUEBEC. 1608 TO 1614 A.D.

Renewal of De Monts' Monopoly — Foundation of Quebec — Plot to murder
Champlain — He goes to war against the Iroquois — Disorders caused by
French fur-traders — Poutrincourt returns to Port Royal — Baptism of Mem-
bertou and family — The Society of Jesus — Discord at Port Royal — Settle-
ment at St. Sauveur — Destroyed by Samuel Argall — Destruction of Port
Royal ,. 69tt.

Vi CONTENTS.

CIIArXEll VI.— CIIAMPLAIN. 1612 to 1610 A.D.

Tieutcnant-Oencrals of New France — Comte de Soissons — Prince de Con<l«< —
Vignan the impostor— Champlain ascends the Ottawa — His disappointment
— His troubles in France — He visits the Huron country — CJoea to war
against the Senecas — Repulie of the allied Indians— Cliamplain detained a
jirisoner — Lost in the woods 63

CHAPTER VII.— DIFFICULTIES OF FIRST SETTLEMENT.

1017 TO 1020 A.D.

Precarious existence of Canada — Due de Montmorency — Intrigues of the Asso-
ciated Merchants — Champlain victorious — Dismal state of Quebec —
Madame de Champlain — Guillaume and Emery de Caen— Due de Venta-
dour, Viceroy — The Jesuit Fathers— -Acadie — Sir William Alexander—
Knights-Baronets of Nova Scotia 72

CHAPTER VIII.— FIRST CAPTURE OF QUEBEC. 1027 to 1635 A.D.

Unsatisfactory state of affairs — Cardinal Richelieu — New Company of 'e One
Hundred Associates — War between France and England — Admiio,* Kirkt
seizes Port Royal — Champlain refuses to surrender Quebec— French fleet
captured by that of Great Britain — Quebec taken — Treaty of St. Oermain-
en-Laye — Restoration of Canada and Acadie — The last labours of Cham-
plain — His death 78

CHAPTER TX.— THE RULE OF THE CHURCH. 1636 to 1049 A.D.

M. de Montmagny- The Jesuit Fathers — Colleges, Seminaries, Hospitals —
The Huron Mission — Founding of Ville-Marie de Montreal — Incursions of
the Iroquois — Dangers incurred by missionaries — Maisonneuve at La Place
d'Armes — New Company fails to perform obligations — Deceptive truce with
Iroquois — Continued prosperity of the Huron Mission — Its total destruc-
tion 84

•

CHAPTER X.— TIME OP TRIAL. 1648 to 1663 A.D.

The New England Colonies — Proposed treaty of perpetual peace — Its faihxre —
M. de Lauscn — State of Canada — Jesuit Mission in Onondaga — Viscomto
d'Argenson — Insolence of the Mohawks — Portents and signs in the skies—
The liquor traffic — The great earthquake — New Company sxirrenders its
charter 95

CHAPTER XL— ACADIE. 1632 To 1670 A.D.

D'Aulnay and La Tour, lieutenants under RaKilli — Thdr fends — la Tour dis-
obeys the royal command to appear in France — D'Aulnay's Fleet at Part-
ridge Island — La Tour and wife visit Boston — D'Aulnay makes Treaty with
New England — Madame La Tour's heroism and death — Death of D'Aulnay
— His widow marries La Tour — Emmanuel le Borgue — The English seize
Acadie — Grant to La Tour, Temple, and Crowne — Acadie restored to the
French 102

CONTENTS. vil

CHArTER XII.— CANADA A SOVEREIGN COLONY. 1663 AD.

M. Gaudois, Royal Commissioner — The Sovereign Council — Governor-General,
Bishop, Intendunt — Courts— -Character of the French Canadians — The
West India Company — The FeudJ System — The Fur-trade — Commerce —
The English at New York — Theh Alliance with the Iro(iuois — Rivalries
between French and English 110

CHAPTER XIII. —DOMINION OF FRANCE EXTENDED.

1G65 TO 1G72 A.D.

M. de Mesy — Marquis de Tracy, Viceroy— Joy in Quebec — The Forts on the
Richelieu — Defiant attitude of the Moliawks — Campaign against them — M.
de Courcellcs-- Peace — Missions at Sto. Marie and Mic^illlimackinac — The
labours of M. Talon — The 1 bes of the west, and the Crown of France — The
Mississippi— Hudson Bay — Newfoundland 110

CL PTER XIV,— THE MISSISSIPPI. 1673 to 1085 A.D.

Firm rule of M. de Courcelles — The Fort at Cataracoul — Count Frontenac — M.
Duchesneaii, Intcndant — Sieur la Salle — The Griffin on Lake Huron — La
Salle reaches the mouth of the Mississippi — His sad fate — Frontenac in
disgrace — Governor Dongan of New York — M. de la Barre — The Bay of
Famine 131

CHAPTER XV.— THE AGONY OF CANADA. 1684 to 1C89 A.D.

Marquis de DenonviHe — Treaty of Neutrality — Seizure of Iroquois Chiefs — The
Senecas punished — Pestilence — Intrigues of Governor Dongan — Cataracoul
besieged — Kondiaronk "the Rat" — The Peace killed — M. de Calli6res in
France— The Massacre of Lachine — Hudson Bay 140

CHAPTER XVI.— THE STRUGGLE COMMENCED. 1690 A.D.

Canada in extremity — The *.hree war parties — Schenectady — The first Conpre.is
— Acadie — Capture of Port Royal — Montreal threatened — New England
Fleet off Point Levi — The rage of Frontenac — Kebeca liberata 149

CHAPTER XVIL— THE BATTLE DRAWN. 1691 to 1698 A.D.

The Iroquois Chiefs — Frontenac's policy — Expedition against the Onondagas —
Naval fight in the Bay of Fundy — Baron St. Castine — Fort William-Henry
captured — The Nachouac — Newfoundland and Hudson Bay — Peace of Rys-
wick — Death of Frontonac — M. de Calli6res— Marquis de Vaudreuil.. 167

CHAPTER XVIII.— PEACE AND WAR. 1703 to 1740 A.D.

Canada and New England — Port Royal — The Bostonlans enraged — The French
destroy Haverhill — Invasion of Canada checked — Nova Scotia — Annapolis
Royal — Canada again threatened — The English Fleet shattered on the Egg
Islands — The Treaty of Utrecht — Internal condition of Canada — Father
Charlevoix — Miiquis ie Beauharnois 167

• • «

VIU CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIX. — J.OUISBUEG. 1744 to 1748 A.D.

The "War of the Austrian Succession — The Acadians — Du Vivier'g stratagem—
The siege of Louisburg — The great French Fleet — Due d'Anvillc — A series
of casualties — The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 179

CHAPTER XX.— CONTEST APPROACHING. 1749 to 1764 A.D.

Territorial pretensions of France — Count de la Galissonnifire — Boundary Com-
mission of Paris — M. de la Jonquidre— Official corruption — Halifax — Abb^
de lioutre — Fort Beaus^jour — Preparation for the coming struggle — Colli-
sion in the Valley of the Ohio 186

CHAPTER XXL— WAR DECLARED. 1755 to 1757 A.D.

The Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnac — Capture of Fort BeausSjour — Braddock
at Monongahela — Battle of Lake George — Expulsion of the Acadians — War
declared — Loudoun Commander-in-Chief — Marquis de Montcalm — Fort
Oswego taken — Massacre at Fort William-Henry 195

CHAPTER XXIL— THE CONQUEST. 1758 to 1760 A.D.

Internal state of Canada. — William Pitt — Louisburg captured — The Island of
St. John — Ticonderoga — The last struggle — Bourlamaque bars the gate —
Fort Niagara taken — Wolfe before Quebec — Battle of the Plains — Surren-
der of Quebec — Pattle of Ste. Foye — M. de Levi's blockade raised — End of
French Rule in Canada 206

CHAPTER XXIII. —PONTIAC. 1760 TO 1763 A.D.

Military Government — Canada left bankrupt by the French — Close of the Seven
Years' War — The Treaty of Paris — Influence of the Noblesse — The Royal
Proclamation— The Boundaries of the Province of Quebec — Civil Govern-
ment — Surrender of the western forts — The rise and defeat of Pontiac's
Conspiracy 222

CHAPTER XXIV.— THE CONFLICT OF LAWS. 1766 to 1774 A.D.

The "New" and the "Old" Subjects— English and French Law — Governor Guy
Carleton — The Remedies for the conflict of laws — The Feudal Terure —
Marriage and Mortgage — The discontents in the English Colonies — The
Quebec Act — The dissatisfaction in Quebec— The first Assembly of Nova
Scotia — The French on the Miramichi — The Loyalist Refugees — Mauger-
ville— The Island of St. John 235

CHAPTER XXV.— THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 1776 to 1800 A.D.

The Philadelphia Congress — The "Gates of Canada" secured — The Invasion- -
General Montgomery — Benedict Arnold threatens Quebec — Montreal Aban-
doned — Death of Montgomery at Quebec — Naval fight on Lake Champlain
— Burgoyne's Surrender at Saratoga— Sir Frederick Haldimand — Fort
Cumberland — The last Rising of the Indians 248

CONTENTS. IX

CHAPTER XXVI.— NEW BRUNSWICK. 1782 to 1790 A.D.

Close of the Revolutionary War — The United Empire Loyalists — The Treaty of
1783 — Boundaries — Landing of the Loyalists — New Brunswick — Governor
Thomas Carleton — Frederickton — Lord Dorchester, Governor-General —
State of Canada 256

CHAPTER XXVII.— THE CONSTITUTIONAL ACT. 1791 to 1798 AD.

The French Revolution — Fox and Burke — Earl Grenville's Act — Upper and
Lower Canada — The Constitution — The Meeting of the two Legislatures —
Governor Simcoe at York — Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation —
Affairs in Lower Canada 265

CHAPTER XXVIII.— THE SISTER PROVINCES. 1783 TO 1800 A.D.
SIGNS OF WAR. 1807 to 1811 A.D.

Nova Scotia — Impeachment of the Judges — Sir John Wentworth — Edward,
Duke of Kent — Prince Edward Island — Legislative Disputes in New Bruns-
wick — Members' pay— Governor T. Carleton's Administration — Hostile feel-
ing in the United States — The Right of Search — Change of Governors —
Reign of Terror in Lower Canada 273

CHAPTER XXIX— THE ANGLO-AMERICAN WAR. 1812-1813 A.D.

The Feeling in the United States — President Madison declares War — Defeat of
the American General Hull — Death of Brock — Queenston Heights — III suc-
cess of American War operations — Preparations for Campaign of 1813 — ■
Ogdensburg burned — General Proctor victorious in the West — York c^ip-
tured by Americans — Fort George taken — Sackett's Harbour — Midni§;ht
Attack at Stoney Creek — Naval Fight on Lake Erie — Cliateauguay — •
Newark burned by the Americans — Buffalo burned by the British .... 2al

CHAPTER XXX.— WAR ENDED. 1814-1815 A.D.

Mediation of the Czar — Impeachment of the Lower Canada Judges — Position of
the combatants — U.S. General Brown crosses the Niagara — General Riall
retreats — Battle of Lundy's Lane — HalifAx — The Chesapeake and the
Shannon — Washington burned — Sir George Prevost at Plattsburg —
Fort Erie— Close of the War 300

CHAPTER XXXI.— THE FAMILY COMPACT. 1816 to 1827 A.D.

State of Canada after the War — The Feeling of the French Canadians — The
Revenues — Disputes in the Legislature — Death of the Duke of Richmond
— The Earl of Dalhousie — Upper Canada — Aliens — Clergy Reserves —
Customs Dispute between the two Provinces 310

CHAPTER XXXIL— THE FIRST APPEAL TO ENGLAND.

1822 to 1827 A.D.

The Union Scheme— Canada Trade Act— Failure of S?r John Caldwell— The
Canada Tenures Act — The Earl of Dalhousie's unpopular acts — The Crown

It COXTKN'Tf?.

Lan 1s —State of Nova Scotia — Cape Breton — Legislative troubles in New
Brunswick — Death of Governor G. Tracey Smythe — Sir Howard Douglas —
The Great Fire at Miramichi — The Disputed Territory — The Duties on
Baltic timber 320

CHAPTER XXXIII.— RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT— LOWER
CANADA. 1828 to 1836 A. D.

An age of Political Reform — Report of the Canada Committee — Recall of the
Earl of Dalhousic — The Concessions made by the British Government —
Renewed discontents — Lord Aylmer — Rebellious tendencies — The Ninety-
two Resolutions — Lord Gosford — The Commission of Inquiry — A dead-
lock 329

CHAPTER XXXIV.— RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT— UPPER
CANADA. 1828 to 1836 A.D.

William Lyon M'Kenzie — The Family Compact — William IV., the People's
Friend — M'K!enzie expelled from the Assembly — The People's Agent in
Downing Street — The Result of the Mission — M'Kenzie dragged from his
seat — Lord Goderich — The Fifty-six Rectories — Sir Francis B. Head— The
Reformers deceived — The Tories triumphunt 339

CHAPTER XXXV. -RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT— THE LOWER
PROVINCES. 1832 to 1837 A.D.

The Family Compact of Nova Scotia — Joseph Howe and L. A. Wilmot — Divi-
sion of the Council of New Brunswick — Crown Land Department — Mission
of Messrs. Simonds and Chandler — Surrender of Casual and Territorial
Revenue — Mission of Messrs. Crane and Wilmot — Sir Archibald Campbell
— Hon. G. F. Street in Downing Street^— The Civil List BiU passed — Harvey
and the Reign of Harmony — Joseph Howe — The closed doors — The Twelve
Resolutions — The doors opened-^ The King's gracious intentions de-
feated 348

CHAPTER XX .S:VL— REBELLION. 1837 A.D.

Lord John Russell's Resolutions — Opinions regarding Responsible Government
— Final Dissolution of the Legislature of Lower Canada — Sir Francis Head
tranquilly awaits rebellion — The Meeting of the Five Counties — The
" Dorics " and the " Sons of Liberty" — Affair at St. Denis and St. Charles —
Flight of Papineau — M'Kenzie threatens Toronto — The Rebels defeated at
Montgomery Farm — Loyal enthusiasm of Militia of Upper Cana^'a —
Insurrection in the Two Mountains crushed 367

V CHAPTER XXXVIL— TROUBLOUS TIMES. 183&-1839 A.D.

Loyal Feeling in the Maritime Provinces — M'Kenzie on Navy Island — The
burning of the steamer Caroliv^ — American sympathizers invade Canada
— Suspension of the Constitution of Lower Canada — Sir Francis B. Head
resigns — Execution of Lount and Matthews — Earl Durham, High Com-
missioner — Amnesty to Political Prisoners — The Earl abruptly leaves
Canada — Fresh outbreak — Affairs at Napierville and Odell-town — The
"Hunters" invade Canada — The Disputed Territory — Warlike excitement
in Maine and New Brunswick — The Ashburton Treaty 369

CONTENTS. xi

CHAPTER XXXVIII.— RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED.

1839 TO 1849 A. D.

Lord Durham's Report — Charles Poulett Thompson — The Union Act of 1841 —
Meeting of First Parliament of United Canada— Death of Lord Sydenham
—Sir Charles Bagot and Sir Charles Metcalfe — The riglit of Appointment
to Office — Lord Elgin and the Reform Ministry — Nova Scotia — Reconstruc-
tion of the Executive Council — Lord Falkland — Responsible Government
carried — New Brunswick — The Provincial Secretaryship — Charles Fisher's
Resolution — Rebellion Losses Bill — Lord Elgin mobbed — The Parliament
Buildings burned— Seat of Government question 381

CHAPTER XXXIX.— MEASURES OF PROGRESS. 1850 TO 1858 A.D.

Commercial independence — Measures of Progress — Municipal Institutions —
The Intercolonial Railway — Delegations and Conferences — The Reciprocity
Treaty — The Clergy Reserves question settled — Feudal Tenure Abolished
— Emigration — The Hudson Bay Company— The North-West Territory — •
Selkirk Settlement— Feuds of Rival Traders — British Columbia 400

CHAPTER XL.— CONFEDERATION. 1857 to 1867 A.D.

State of the Union Question — Increased Representation — Elective Legislative
Council — Representation by Population — First Proposal of Union — The
Canadian Tariffs — Prince of Wales' Visit — The United States Defence
question — Crisis in Parliament of Canada — Parties coalesce to carry Con-
federation — Prince Edward Island Conference — Quebec Conference — The
Scheme of Union — Delegation of Canadian Ministry to LondcJh — New
Brunswick Anti-confederate— Mr. Cardwell's Despatch — The Fenian Broth-
erhood — The Session of 1866 in New Brunswick — M?eting of Delegates in
London — British North America Act — First Meeting of Confederate Par-
liament 417

APPENDIXES.

Notes of Pkincipal Events since Confederation 439

The Constitution 444

Internal Progress of Canada — 1492-1867 447

Chronological Table 458

Pronunciation of Proper Names 460

INDEX 470

MAPS.

The Known World in the Fifteenth and Nineteenth Cen-
turies 24

Early Discoveries and Explorations 84

Location of Indian Families (Province of Quebec in 1774) 36

ACADIE 61

ChaMPLAIN's E '^iORATION OF THE OTTAWA 65

Nova Scotia, 162i a.d 76

The Huron Mission 92

i(ouisburg 182

Lake Champlain 198

Siege op Quebec 214

The Lake Country and the Western Forts 226

The Disputed Territory 258

Upper and Lower Canada 266

Niagara Frontier 285

Lake Erie 289

Sackett's Harbour and Chrysler's Farm 297

St. Denis and St. Charles 364

British Columbia 4i4

HISTORY OF CANADA.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

1604 to 1867 A.D.

A Glance at the History of Canada from its earliest Settlement by the French,
to the Consummation of Confederation.

1. Within three ceDturies a band of Frenchmen — nobles
and adventurers, soldiers and fur-traders, Catholic priest and
Protestant cur^ — attempted to settle on a small island in "".he
mouth of a river that flowed into Passamaquoddy Bay, and
which they named the St. Croix. Exposed to the bitter blasts
of winter, they struggled against cold, disease, and despair.
Many sank before tlie balmy breath of spring inspired vigour
and revived hope. In all the country now c?Ued the Dominion
of Canada there was not, except those forlorn adventurers, a
single European or white man. From ocean to ocean, and
north to the region of perpetual snow and ice, stretched a vast
unknown wilderness ; boundless prairies, deep valleys, and lofty
mountains ; dense and trackless forests, in whose gloomy deptlis
inland seas, great lakes, reposed in calm and raged in storm,
and through which mighty rivers with many tributaries flowed,
to empty themselves into ocean, gulf, and bay. Tribes of un-
tamable savages pitched their wigwams by the shores of the
lakes, and by the banks of the streams. War and hunting were
their avocations ; they were sunk in a state of cruel barbarism •

SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN.

/^ /3 1612

A.D.

but even amidst th jir degradation they showed some sig^8 or
greatness, goodness, and generosity.

2. Among the adventurers of the St. Croix there was one
:aan of noble mind and disinterested purpose, who looked be
yond the immediate profit of the hour. Samuel dc Champlaiu,^
to the courag'e of a soldier, and the zeal of a missionary, added the
daring curiosity of a discoverer. He had a strong desire to see
strange land^i. He had skill to note and map out their features.
He was not discouraged by the utter failure of the first attempt
at settlement on the St. Croix, or by the misfortunes that befell
the colony at Port Eoyal in Acadie.^ He followed in the tiack
of his predecessor, Jacques Cartier.^ He was haunted by the
idea of finding his way to the rich and glowing East by pene-
trating the western wilds until he reached a great northern sea.
Eagerly he listened to the hints given by the Huron and Ottawa
Indians, whom he met on the banks of the St. Lawrence ; and
intently he studied the rude charts, drawn on birch bark, of
the rivers and lakes in the west and north. He persuaded
himself that great discoveries awaited him if he ascended the
St. Lawrence and the grand northern river — the Ottawa — to
their sources.

3. One autumn day he stood by the Falls of the Chaudiere,
while his Indian companions threw votive offerings of
tobacco into the seething caldron to propitiate the spirit
— the Manitou of the waters. He was discomfited,

and, for the time, discouraged. He had been made the
dupe of an impostor, who had falsely told him that the great
northern sea was to be found by ascending the Ottawa to its
source in Lake Nipissing, and by following the river that
flowed into it. With excessive toil he had made his way to the
Isle d'Allumette, only to find that he had been deceived;
and he was then returning to the banks of the St. Lawrence.
But (and not unconsciously to himself) he stood on the ground
of his predestined labour. The riches of the glowing East were

* Samuel de Champlain. — A French
naval officer, born at Le Brouage (a vil-
lage in the west of France), 1570 ; died
1(535. Lake Champlaio was named

ftfter him-

' Acadie. — The ancient name of Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick.

* Jacques Cartier. — Born at bt. Male
(in the north-west of France), 1494;
died after 162g,

found;..tion of Quebec. 16

a mere delusion of the imagiration — his work lay among the
wiJds and the ravages of Canada. Already, in the rtide fort
and palisades of Quebec he had laid the fouudytion of a colony.
He was not gifted with the vision of a seer, and could not fore-
tell the events that would come to pass. He was obliged to
work on, often in doubt and in sickness and with perpetual
difficulties, sustained by his trust in God and the strength of
his purpose. "Within sight of the sjjot on which he stood, two
centuries and a half afterwards rose a noble pile of buildings,
worthy of his own regal Paris. The solitary, savage spot on the
Ottawa, had become the centre, the capital, of a vast Dominion,
aspiring to the rank of a nation. His dream of finding a
way to the East across the Western Continent had become an
every-day fact. By the agency of the wondrous power. Steam,
travellers were whirled from great cities on the Atlantic sea-
board, through a richly-settled country, out through the forest
and over the prairie and the mountain, to the great ocean
across which lay the islands and the far Cathay,^ which the old
discoverers had longed to reach by this route.

4. Two centuries and a lialf ago the rude fortress at Quebec,
the fort at Port Royal, the trading station at Tadoussac on the
Saguenay, an4 the.^fisheries at Canceau and La H^ve on the
southern and weatem coasts of Acadie, were the only occupied
posts in the country, held by the French under the name of
New France. Along the iron-bound and fog-enshrouded east-
ern coast of Newfoundland were scattered a few English fishing-
stations ; and, in the season, vessels from every maritime nation
in Europe congregated to fish on "the banks." Eude and
feeble were the beginnings of our Dominion. The difiiculties
iu the way of making a settlement, and 1 <?eping up communi-
cation between the different posts, were .. imense, so vast were
fche distances between them : through the intervening forests
roamed fierce and hostile savages ; and when the adverse winds
arose, the little sail-ships were blown from their course across
stormy gulf and bay. Where Toronto, Halifax, and St. John^ —
the capitals of three flourishing Provinces — now stand, solitude
and barbaiism reigned two hundred and fifty years ago. On the

' Cathay. — An old name for China ; j '^ St. John. — The commercial capitfil
ROW iiaed chiefly hj the poet§. ) of N?w Brnnswic)^.

THE JESUIT MISSIONARIES.

nortlieru nhore of Lake Ontario the forest descended to the
shore, and tho trees g^issed themselves in the waters ; across the
noble Bay of Chebiicto a few Indians in their canoes sometimes
darted ; beneath the western height y> ithin the sheltered har-
bour of St. John a family of the Micmac tribe pitched their
wigwams. A century and a half afier the foundation of the
colonies of Canada and Acadie, the primeval quietness was
scarce broken, in places which are now the seats of intelligence
and the centres of industry. So recent has been the rise of the
modern Provinces of Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick,
and of all that constitutes the chief strength of the present
Dominion of Canada.

5. Canada has attained her present position with infinite
pain and difficulty. There have been many obstacles in the
path of her progress. The first settlers possessed their souls in
fear and trembling, exposed to the constant onslaughts of wily
and blood-thirsty savages. Deeds of pious zeal and adventu-
rous courage cast a lustre over that period of trial and suffering.
j.ne efforts of the Jesuit missionaries to carry the Cross of
Christ among the distant Indian tribes, and the discoveries of
explorers, extended the power of the Crown of France over the
wilderness, and made it known to the world. For a hundred
years there were commercial rivalry and perpetual war between
the French in Canada and Acadie and the British colonists of
New England and New York, until the struggle was decided
by the taking of Port Royal and Acadie, the capture of
Quebec, and the conquest of Canada. Not until the final relin-
quishment by the Crown of France of all claim to territory, by
the Treaty of Paris,^ did Nova Scotia (the ancient Acadie) enter
fairly on the path of internal peace and progress. Peculiar
olistructions, from the first, were met with in carrying on the
government of Canada. The difficulty of reconciling the pre-
tensions of French Canadians and the claims of the new British
population was very great. Though but a small minority, the

' The Treaty of Paris. — Between
England, France, and Spain, concluded
February 10, 17C3. One of the principal
articles was that France should resign
kII claim to Nova SQOtia, Canada, an4

Cape Breton, but should retain a share
in the fisheries of Newfoundland, with
the islea of St. Pierre and Miquelon ;
which, however, were not to be fortl-
flea

■■J^'l

TITE UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS. 17

British, as the conquerors, and possessing the greatest amount of
cajjital, intelligence, and eiiterprise, r.38unicd that the language
and laws of the Province should be altered to suit their views
anu prejudices. But the British Governmeat, in imposing a
constitution on Canada, took into consideration the interests of
the large majority. For several years it remained a French
Provmce under British sovereignty. Deeply attached as the
French Canadians were to France, and to their own language,
laws, customs, and institutions, they were well satisfied with
the benignity of British rule, under which they enjoyed a peace,
a happiness, and a prosperity unknown in the times of the French
government. Daring the trying pcxiod of the American llevo-
lutionary War they remained loyal to the British Crown.

6. After that war, and the acknowledgmeut of the indepeii-
(lence of the American Colonies, a new era opened for
Canada. Bands of Loyalists, who had lost all in fight- 1783
ing for their King and country, fled tliither to seek a.d.
safety and sustenance. The two new Provinces of Upper
Canada and New Brunswick were created. The Loyalists
brought with them a love for monarchical institutions. Separate
governments ^were granted to Upper Canada, Lower Canada, and
New Brunswick, like that which, since 1750, Nova Scotia had
enjoyed. In each Province there was a Legislature of three
branches. The two upper branches' — the Governor, assisted
by an Executive Council, and the Legislative Council — had
control over the making of the laws and the expenditure of all
moneys. They acknowledged no responsibility to the third
branch, the Assembly, which represented the people. They })re-
sumedly were actuated by the highest motives, and were in-
terested in promoting the happiness and prosperity of the Prov-
inces ; but if the Acts of the Councils excited the censure of
the Assembly, the representatives of the people had no redress,
for the members of the upper branches held their offices for
life. The Imperial Government protected the commerce of the
Provinces between the mother country and her other colonial
dependencies, and regulated the trade between them and foreign
countries by discriminative duties in favour of the home mer-
chant and manufacturer.

7. Under this system of oligarchical government and comraer-

(473) ' 2

18 RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT ESTARLISIIET).

cial protection and restriction the Provinces made considerable
advances in wealth and population. Tliey stood
1812-14 the shock of, war unshaken in their loyalty, and
A.D. fouyht bravely to preserve their dearly-prized con-

nection with the motlier country. But in the course
of time a number of causes conspired to bring about a change
in the form of government, and in the relations between the
mother country and the Provinces. The people could not see
unmoved the marvellous prosperity of the United States under
free institutions, and they were influenced by the agitation of
liberal political oj)inions at home. Immigration from the
British Isles set in, and the Provinces received large accessions
in poj)ulation from classes more or less imbued with those
ouinions. But above all, the composition of the Executive and
Legislative Councils excited popular discontent.

8. For twenty years there was political strife ; and in Lower
Canada the antagonism between the races grew in intensity.

The discontent exploded in a brief rebellion. Upper

1848 '"^iid Lower Canada were tlien united. Responsible

A.D. Government was established in all the Provinces.

Political power was transferred from the upper to the
lower branch of the Legislature. No Government that could
not command the support of a majority ui the members of the
Assembly in carrying out its policy, could thenceforth remain
in office. At the same time that the Imperial Government
granted to the Provinces the right to manage their own affairs,
it withdrew all protection from their commerce — they were
placed on the same footing as foreigners.

9. Under the system of free government and free trade the
Provinces grew enterprising. In Canada abuses were reformed,
and improvements were made in internal communication by
means of canals and railways. The system of common schools
was inaugurated. Efforts were made to establish free commercial
intercourse between the Canadas, Nova Scotia, and New Bruns
wick, and to construct a railway to connect them. A Confede-
ration of the Provinces had long been declared, by eminent

11 statesmen, to be the best remedy for the political discords that

rent the Canadas, and a means of advancing the prosperity of
all. A wonderful conjuncture of circumstances made it possible

CONFEDERATION CONSUMMATED. 10

to turn those suggestions to practical accoimt. The Con-
federation of the Provinces was cousummateil. Two
liimdred and fifty years from the time wlieii Cham- 1867
]>laiii stood near the t'alls of the Chaiidiere, in the wiUls a.u.
of the Ottawa, the Dominion of Canada was erected.
Wonderful changes had taken place in the condition of the
country.

10. What is now the state of this Dominion ? Quebec — gi-own
up from being a rude wooden fort with a gariison of fifty
people, to be a venerable city of 60,00') inhabitants^ — gives its
name to a well settled Province (tluit once comj)rised all Canada),
having a popuLition of 1,192,000 souls. Montreal — the Hoche-
laga of the Indians, the Ville-Marie of Maisonneuve and the
religious enthusiasts of 1642 — is a flourishing and beautiful city,
the commercial centre of the Dominion. It has a population of
107,000. Time has worked many changes in Lower Canada.
The Feudal Tenure,^ which held the mass of French Canadian
inhabitants in a state of semi-bondage, has been swept away.
Universities, colleges, superior and conmion schools are estab-
lished in the cities, towns, villages, and districts. But the
attachment of the French Canadians to their language, laws,
customs, and institutions has not been shaken. The evidence
of the French origin of Canada is as strong as ever, amidst the
l)roofs of the wonderful growth of British power. This double
nationality ought to widen the sympathies of the young
Cana^'ian. It gives him an interest in the history of two great
nations — France and Great Britain.

11. By the shores of Lake Ontario-^ where, eighty years pgo,
the Indian pitched his wigwam beneath the shade of over-
hanging boughs, and myriads of wild-fowl giithered in the bay
and surrounding marshes — the city of Toronto, the capital of the
leading Province of the Dominion, has arisen. On the site where
it stands, Governor Simcoe'^ had encamped with his regiment,

' Inhabitants. — The figures referring
to population are taken from the Cen-
sus of 1871.

'■* Feudal Tenure. —Tenure of land,

Graves Simcoe, appointed Governor of
Upper Canadaj when the new Consti-
tution dividing Canada into Lower and
Jpper Provinces was inaugurated in

not by virtue of rent paid, but of mill- 1792. He had commanded the Boyal
tary service rendered to a superior. Virginian Rangers during the Revolu-

* Oovemor Simcoe. — Colonel John l tionary War. Sep p. 370.

20 • PRESENT STATE vm' TIIK DOMINION.

the Royal Rangers, in 1793. Not a house was then erecte<l.
Within the years of an old man's life Upper Canada, now called
Ontario, from being a few settlements, scattered between the
Bay of Quintd and Toronto and along the Niagara frontier, witli-
out towns, roads, or schools, luia grown up to be a well-order h1,
self-governing, prosperous Proviiice, with an established system
of education scarce to be surpassed, and magnificent means of
internal comnmnication by roads, cjinals, and railways. Toronto
has a population of 58,000. It lacks nothing that a rising city
should have — gieat docks, broad streets, fine buildings, churches,
universities, colleges, schools, halls, a busy population, and grow-
ing manufactures, aor uired wealth, enterprise, and a free and
powerful press. Other cities and towns have arisen by the
shores of Lakes Ontario and Erie — Kingston (the ancient Cata-
racoui), Hamilton, London, Brantford, Guelph,ieeday Chatham,
and others — while numberless villages are spread over the vast
extent of the Province. The country between the St. Lawrence,
the Ottawa, and Georgian Bay is being filled up. Railways
have been made ; more are being constructed, and soon the
whole Province will be intersected by ramifying lines. The
great source of its wealth is its fertile wheat-growing soil ; agri-
culture is its chief pursuit. In the ancient capitals of Europe
— London, Paris, Vienna — the excellence of its products ^as
won distinction. Its manufactures are growing in importanoe.
Its population numbers 1,700,000.
12. By the incorporation of Hudson Bay and North-Wesl

Territories into the Dominion, an addition has been

1870 made to Canada vastly more extensive than all the

A.D. country claimed by the French, and called by them New

France. The extension of the Dominion to the Pacific
coast took place in 1870, and in all probability consequences of
the utmost importance will result from it. Many years may
not elapse before a line of railway will connect the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans. Across the Dominion will be the shortest route
from England to China. Traffic generally seeks the shortest
route. Then the commerce between Europe and Asia will pass
over the American Continent, realizing in a strange manner the
dream of the first explorers — of finding a way to the East by
the west. A tide of emigration may pour into the vast and

NOVA SCOTIA AND NEW imUN>i\VICK. 21

fertile valley of the SaHkatchowaii, and other VioviiicoH beMules
Manitoba may spring ii{). In the far west of the Dominion there
are illimitfible means of expansion.

13. Acadie is now no more. What it was is a matter of
history. Cattle graze in the ruined ditches and on the mounds
(»f the ancient Port Eoyal. Few and faint are the vestiges of
French domination in Acadie. Two British Provinces occuj)y
its ground — N ova Scotia and New Brunswick. Lying along .the
Gulf shore, and abutting on the Atlaj^ic, they show an exten-
sive sea-board, with si)acious harbours and ports, without which
the Dominion of Canada could never attain a commanding
]>()sition in the Empire. By Chebucto Bay and the harbour of
St. John stand two cities of nearly equal population — Halifax
and St. John, the centres of extensive commerce. The sister
maritime Provinces bring to the Dominion a great accession of
strength ; a joint population of 677,000 souls ; a revenue of over
$2,500,000 ; in their extensive forests and tisheries, ar 1 in their
mines of coal and iron, great sources of wealth ; a great com-
mercial fleet, and a hardy sea-going class of people.

14. The fertile Island of St. John, now Prince Edward
Island,^ joined the Confederation in 1873. It was very long
neglected, and its existence as a Province dates back only to
1758. It brings to the Dominion a population of 94,000, and a
revenue of $400,000 ; both gi-eater than those of Canada in the
best days of French rule. With the entry of Newfound \i,\d
the Confederation of the British North American Provinces
will be completed.

■ 15. The Dominion of Canada has come of age. Its people
have reached the stage of free action, and can either make or
mar their future. Many of the worst obstacles in their }>ath of
progress have been overcome, and they have acquired strength
to proceed with accelerated speed. The future is hid from all,
but the prospect seems full of promise. The Dominion has now
a population close on 4,000,000 of peop!'^ Its flag is now car-
ried by its marine to every quarter of the globe. Its com-
merce, in the aggregate, amounts to $200,000,000. The rudi-
ments of a sound education are within the reach of every

' PHnce Edwc^d Island. — So named I the father of Queen Victoria; died
In 1800, after Edward, Duke of Kent, 1 1820.

MEANS OF ENLIGHTENMENT.

(tr

cliikl The meaus of enlightenment are freely spread abroad.
The Church, the Scliool, the University, the Press unite in main-
taining the religious, moral, and intellectual advancement of
the people. In their hands is the control of the government.
It is in their power, ultimately, to put an end to the sectional
strifes, the bitter party political contests, that have caused great
diflficultieg in the past, and to determine that the admiuistratiou
of affairs shall be pure.

Questions. — 1. When was the first
attempt made to settle in Canada?
Where? What was the fate of many
of the adventurers ? Describe the
country as it then was.

2. Wlio was the most remarkable c*
the St. Croix settlers? What was his
character? What idea haunted him?

3. What great imposture was prac-
tised on him ? Where did he really lay
the foiindation of a colony? How has
his dream been realized?

4. Describe the state of what is now
the Dominion of Canada, two centuries
and a half ago. What shows how
recent has been the rise of all that con-
stitutes its strength ?

5. Mention some of the difficulties
which Canada has had to encounter.
From what does the rise of Nova Scotia
date? What obstrTictions in carrying
on the governme.'??; of Canada were met
with from the first? What made the
Frencli Canadians loyal to the British
Crown? When was their loyalty piit
to a severe test?

6. How did the independence of the
United States open a new era for Can-
ada? Describe the new Constitution
then conferred on the latter.

7. How did the country prosper un-
der the new government? What were

the chief causes which led to the intro-
duction of change ?

8. How long did the political strife
last? In what did it result? What
change took place in the position of
commerce?

9. What improvements followed these
changes ? What remedy was suggested
for the political discords that pre-
vailed? When was confederation son-
summated ?

10. What changes have occurred in
Lower Canada? What is meant by the
"double nationality" of Canadians?
What effect ought it to have?

11. Describe the present state of
Toronto and the cities of Ontario.

'hat is the population of the capital?
v/hat is the chief source of the wealtli
of the Province ?

12. When was the Dominion extended
to the Pacific? Whr.t effects may be
anticipated from thai extension ?

13. What Provinces: now occupy the
ground of Acadie ? Describe their pres-
ent condition.

14. W hen did Prince Edward Island
join the Confederation? What was its
former name? What Province is stlU
outside the Dominion?

15. What considerations seem to fill
the future of Canada with i>romise?

;! '"■*;

THE NORTILMEN.

CHAPTER II.

DISCOVERY.

982 A.D.— 1492 A.D.— 1583 A.D.

The Northmen.

Christopher Columbna.

John and Sebastian Cabot.

Amerigo Vespucci.

The lianks of 1> ev foiincUand.

John Ver-^zzani.

Jacques Cartier's first Voyage.

His second and third Voyngas.
Sieur de Roberval, Viceroy of

Canada.
Disastrous issue of liis Expedition.
Martin Frobisher.
Sir Humphrey Gilbert.
Origin of the name " C'anada."

1. The name of Christoplier Columbus^ is inseparably con-
nected with the first discovery of America. But in the old
records of Iceland, it is recorded that the Western Continent
was known to the Northmen in the tenth century. Eric
Eaude (the Eed) discovered the coasts of Greenland 982
and Labrador. Following up those discoveries, Biarni a.d.
Heriuf ulson ^ passed through the straits between New-
foundland and Labrador, and, entering the Gulf, sailed until he
gained the ocean. Keeping a south-westerly course, he saw
from his vessel'' deck the low-lying and wood-covered shores of
Nova Scotia ; he passed the headland of Cape Cod, and steer-
ing his way among the beu,:''tiful islands of Narragansett Bay,
landed on the point on which the town of Newport now stands.
To the Northmen, Newfoundland was Helhcoland, "the land
of broad stones ;" Nova Scotia, Markland, " the land of woods ;"
Massachusetts and Rhode Island, Vinland, " the land of vines,"
because, according to the legend, some of Biarni's crew gathere<l
grapes in Martha's Vineyard.

2. The prior discovery of America by the Northmen does not
detract from the fame of Columbus. Long before their time

' Christopher Columbus. — Bom at
frenoa, 1445. He was of humble origin.
In 1470 he joined his brother Bartholo-
mew, who was a maker of charts at
Lisbon. After soliciting assistance in
vain from the Oouris of England,
Genoa, and Portugal, he obtained three

vessels from Ferdinand and Isabel of
Spain. He discovered San Salvador in
149^., and the mainland of South Amer-
ica in 1498. He died at Valladolid
poor and neglected in 1506.

' Biarni Heriufulsoji. — By soma
simply tailed BiOrn.

A CONTRAST.

Mi;

!it

THIS KNOWN \VOKLU IN Tilt! NINKf EENTII CENTUKY.

THE KNOWN WORLD IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTUUY.

* Such. figures were used by old geographers to denote unknown regions.

THE CABOTS.

ilie existeuce of another continent was deemed very probable.
Tlie great glory of the Genoese mariner was that he pi'oved
practically the truth of theories, and clearly established a fact
that, before his time, had rested in the shadowy realm of
tiaditiou. His exploit filled all Europe with wonder
and admiration. It was believed that sailing from the 1493
west by a way never before attempted, he had found a.u.
the East Indies ; a mistake that caused the natives of
the new continent to be ever afterwards called Indians.

3. The discovery awakened a wonderful spirit of enterprise.
It filled men's minds with wild dreams of glorious countries
across the main ; of lands of gold and precious stones, and of
fragrant spices, through which flowed rivers of miraculous
waters, that cured all diseases, and renewed in the old the
spring-time of youth. When it was noised abroad, Henry VII.
of England, cold and cautious {is he was, regretted that he
had let slip the opportunity of linking his name with the great
discovery of the age, when he refused to aid the Genoese
adventurer.

4. The success of Columbus excited the envy of John Cabot,
a mercliant of Venice, then carrying on business in Bristol. His
80U Sebastian,^ an ambitious youth, was stirred by tlie event,
and gi'ew impatient to distinguish himself by some extraor-
dinary enterprise. Father and son found favour with Henry.
They received the royal permission to take six vessels

of about 200 tons each, from any port in England. At 1496
their own charges they equipped this little fleet, and a.d.
the King stipulated that he should receive one-fift^ of
the profits of the venture. The Cabots left Bristol, hoping, by
sailing west, to reach Cathay.

5. On the 24th of June they first saw land, the coast 1497
of Newfoundland, which they named Prima Vista. a.d.
Turning in a northerly direction, they kept the line of

the coast of Labrador, sailing as far as the 56^h degree of north

' Sebdstian Cabot. — Born at Bristol
1477, — son of John Cabot, or Gabotto,
a merchant of Venice. It is, however,
believed by many that Cabot's "Prima
Vista" was not Newfoundland, but
Labrador. Sebastian Cabot spent many

years in the service of Spain, exploring
tlie coasts of Brazil and La Plata. In
lo53 he was at the head of the enterpris-
int; merchant adventurers who formed
the " Russia Company " of traders. lie
died in 1557.

AMlUniGO VESPUCCI.

latitude, meeting great islands of ice, and experiencing intense
cold. Much troubled at finding that the land still extended
north without showing any entrance or gulf, they changed their
course, and after passing through the Straits of Belle Isle, and
exploring the Gulf, sailed south as far as Florida. The hard-
ships of the voyage, and the scarcity of provisions, raising a
mutiny among their crews, they returned to England. The
Cabots saw the mainland of the new continent fourteen

1498 nionths before Columbus, who reached the coasts of
A.D. Paria^ the next year. By right of this discovery from

1499 their vessels' decks, Henry VII. claimed possession of
A.D. the North American Continent from Labrador to

Florida.

6. A Florentine, Amerigo Vespucci,^ followed in the track

of Columbus. An account of what he had seen was

1507 published. When the book ai)peared Columbus was dead,

A.D. and the discoveries of the Cabots were then little known

to the world. No one at first refuted the false assertion

that he had reached the mainland before the great Genoese ;

so the new continent was called America after him.

7. Sebastian Cabot made another voyage of discovery.
1517 He found by the Banks of Newfoundland and the coasts
A.D. of Cape Breton a fleet of French, Italian, Spanish, antl
Portuguese fishing- vessels. These islands were then
called BaccalaoSj which in the Basque^ language signifies "cod-
fish."

8. England and France at this time met in the field of
American discovery. Both ignored the right of the natives to
the soil of the new continent, and claimed vast territories, whose
boundaries were vague and undefined. Hence arose confusion
and conflict when they asserted their right to the same tract of

' Paria. — North-oast of Vonezuela.
It gives name to the gulf between
Trinidad and the mainland.

^ Amerigo Vespucci. — Born at Flor-
ence 1451. In the first account of his
voyage, published in 1507, his discovery
was placed in 1497. Humboldt, the
great (rerman philosopher and traveller
(1709-1850), showed that he did not visit

South America till 1499 —one yearlator
than Columbus — and maintained that
the application of his name to the New
World was made in ignorance.

^ Basque. — The language spoken in
the Basque provinces (Biscay, Guipus-
coa, and Alava) of the north-west of
Spain. It is supposed to be of Tartar
origin.

"■^

iOtltJ VEttAZZAKt.

country. French adventurers from Harfleur^ and Dieppe-
had takeii possession of some islands in the Gulf
of St. Lawrence. Seven years afterwards, Baron de 1518
Lery attempted a settlement on that little barren out- a.d.
post, Sable Island, and left cattle upon it.

9. The claim of the French to the possession of the North
American Continent rested on the discoveries of John Veraz-
zani, an Italian mariner of ancient Florentine lineage.

He entered the employ of Francis I. of France, and 1524
explored the American coast from the 34th to the 50th a.d.
degree of north latitude. In the account of his voyage,
it is said that he vas the first man who saw the shores of North
Carolina, and see.. ted the fragrance of their forests, which was
borne far out to sea ; that the natives of Virginia and Mary-
laud, when they descried his vessels, crowded on the beach and
made signs of welcome ; that he entered the Bay of New York,
and saw the harbour crowd '^'^ with canoes ; that he was most
hospitably receiv(}d by the natives of Narragausett Bay ; and
that as he passed the irregular coasts of Massachusetts and the
surf-beaten rocks of Maine, he viewed the scenes " ill pleased."
This voyage terminated after he had explored, for many miles,
the coasts of Terre-Neuve, or New-Foundland. Fearful that
his provisions would fail, he returned to France, where the
report of his discoveries raised the hopes of the merchants that
in th( se new countries would be found mines of gold. Little
is known with certainty of the after life of Verazzani.

10. Ten years afterwards Jac(iues Cartier, a famous mariner
of the sea-port of St. Malo,^ followed in the course

of the Florentine explorer. The expedition was under- 1534
taken under the patronage of - Philli pe-de Brian Chabot, a.dA^''-^\
the favourite and boon companion of Francis I.* On
the 30th of April the Breton Master Pilot sailed from St. Malo,

' Harfleur. — A sea-port of France, at
the moiith of the Seine, 3 miles east of
Le Havre.

^ Dieppe. — A sea-port of France, on
the English Channel, 50 miles north-
east of Le Havre.

^ St. Malo. — A fortified sea-port in
the north-west of France ; on the north
coast of the old province of Bretagno.

* Francis I. — King of France from
1515 till 1547. He was the great rival
of Charles I. of Spain for the dignity
of Emperor, which the latter obtained
in 1519. His famous interview with
Henry VIII. of England on "the Field
of the Cloth of Gold" took place in
1620. He was taken prisoner at Pavia
iu 1525.

JACQUES CARTIER.

liiii

with two siuall, quaintly-shaped vessels. By the eiul of Jime
he had crossed the ocean. He saw enormous islands of ice
floating down from the Northern Sea. Passing thiough the
Straits of Belle Isle into the Gulf, he sailed past islands white
with fowl, and luxuriant with wild fruits and verdurous woods.
On a resplendent day in July he entered a sheltered, shining
sheet of water, called since that day Bay Chaleur ; for, coming
from ihe icy air off Labrador and out of the fogs of the Gulf,
they felt the heat intensely. Passing out, Cartier steered his
course norih-west till he saw white and rugged cliffs rise high
and straight from the water. He cast anchor at the entrance
of Gaspe Bay. But a furious storm having caused his ships
to drag, he was compelled to haul up his anchor and seek
shelter in the Bay of Penouih

11. The weather continuing stormy and foggy, he remained
there several days. A crowd of Souriquois, Salt-water Indians,
tishing for mackerel, held communication by signs with the
Frenchmen. On the 24th of July Cartier caused a large white
cross, thirty feet high, bearing an escutcheon, on which were
graven three Jleurs-de-lis,^ and the words " Yive le Eoi," to be
planted at a point at the entrance of the bay. When the cross
stood firm and erect, he knelt on the sands with his companions,
and prayed with clasped hands. The Indians viewed these
proceedings with mingled wonder and alarm. An old chief,
accompanied by his two sons, went on board Cartier's vessel,
and, by signs, testified displeasure. He w^ould not have been
easily pacified if he had understood that the act he had
witnessed transferred to a distant potentate all the rights of
his people to their country. The Frenchmen set themselves
to amuse the old man and his boys. They made the youths
doff" their foul furs, and arrayed them in white shirts and
coloured woollen jackets. Placing red bonnets on their heads,
and throwing brass chains around their necks, they pronounced
their civilized attire complete. Proud of their gorgeous array,
the simple boys were easily induced to remain on board with
their kind friends, while their father went on shore. Next

' Fleurs-de-lis. — Flowers of the lily, or
iris — the ancient royal insignia of
France. Some, however, have sup-

posed it to represent the head of a
javelin. At the Revolution (1789) it
was superseded by the tricolor flag.

THE ST. LAWRENCE. 29

day Cartier sailed off with the two young "savages," as the
French always called the natives. He reached an island, whose
whiti.sh cliffs reminded him of a familiar i)ort in France, and
named it L'Assomption. Along its dangerous and forbidding
south-west coast he found no safe shelter for liis ships. The
clouds l)eginning to gather and the winds to rise, he debated
with his company whether, in the face of the threatening weather,
they should proceed further. They returned to France.

1 2. Next spring Cartier was ready to cross the Atlantic again.
The report of what he had seen induced several gentlemen

to accompany liim as volunteers. The Church gave her 1535
blessing, and on the 16th of May, with three vessels, a.d.
small as river schooners, he set sail, full of expectation.
He was still buoyed up with the hope of finding a way to the
East, and of bringing back gold, rubies, and spices, and every-
thing to delight the senses of man. A furious storm overtook
and sepaiated the vessels as they approached the Labrador
coast. Uninjured by the buffeting of the storm, the tiny
barques were gathered together again. Cartier sailed for the
mouth of the great river. On the 10th of August he cast
anchor in a bay on the north-western shore of L'Assomptioii
Isle. It was the day of St. Lawrence, and this name was
given to the gulf and the river.

13. The adventurers sailed past the precipitous and barren
rocks through whose chasm rolled the deep and gloomy waters
of the Saguenay ; past bold coasts that now rose steep from the
water's edge, then receding, enclosed wooded plain and meadow
lands within an amphitheatre of hills. They left behind the
lofty promontory of Cape Tourment and the difficult channel
between the mainland and the richly-wooded " Isle de Coudres."
Another island, whose vines and clustered grapes suggested the
name "Isle of Bacchus," which divided the river into two
channels, was soon seen. The red Indians, darting in their
canoes from the north shore of the river, surrounded the vessels.
They swarmed on board whooping and yelling, but with no
hostile intent. Dunnaconna, the chief lord of that country,
harangued the Frenchmen, and invited them to visit his town.
With bread and wine the " pale faces " regaled their red
brothers, pleased with their welcome to Canada. Accompanied

30 QUEBEC.

by tlie flotilla of canoes, the French vessels, threading the
northern channel, passed into the broad basin. A lofty prom-
im'Mvy of bare and weather-beaten rock thrust itself into the
river, standing like a fortress raised by the hand of Nature to
bar all hostile approach. When the scene in its grandeur burst
npon the Frenchmen, some writers pretend that a Breton
mariner exclaimed ** Quel bee " — how beautiful ! But others
are content to derive the time-honoured name Quebec from the
Indian Kebec, which means a strait.

14. Stadacoii^, Dunnaconna's town, was approached by
crossing a river that Cartier called the St. Croix, and clambei'-
ing up rocks until the height on which it was situated was
attained. While Jiere, Cartier heard of Hochelaga, the
chief town of the tribe. The Indians tried hard to dissuade
him from visiting it, and even sent three devils, messen-
gers of their god Codougey, to threaten him with inevitable
destruction if he persisted. But, in spite of the well-acted play,
Cartier, with his volunteers and fifty sailors in the smallest of
his vessels, ascended the river. Missing the clip'inel into Lake
St. Peter, they were compelled to take to their boats. It was
evening when they approached the island on which Hochelaga
stood. They encamped on shore, and when the darkness came
the Indians lighted fires and danced around them in glee
through all the night. The town was surrounded by a circle
of high palisades, constructed of trunks of trees set in a triple
row.

15. In the morning, Cartier and his baud (the leaders in
plumed helmets, shining breastplates, and cuisses on their
thighs) in military pomp, with trumpets sounding and colours
flying, entered the gateway. As they took position in the
square around which rows of long cabins were placed, women
and children swarmed out in loud amazement. Those noisy
welcomers were thrust into the back-ground, and the warriors
squatted themselves on their haunches. Mats having been
brought out, the chief Frenchmen sat down in the centre of a
grave and reverent throng. Those untutored savages looked
up to Cartier as a divine being, a touch of whose hand could
cure all mortal disease. Their old chief, paralytic and helpless,
was brought out to be restored to pristine health and strength ;

MOUNT ROYAL. 31

from the cabins came forth the blind, the halt, and the palsied ;
the fevered and the sick were carried out by their friends, and
laid down before the Frenchmen. Looking compassionately
u])ou the afflicted throng, C^artier read aloud a portion of the
Gospel of St. John, and made the sign of the cross. This j)ain-
ful scene ended, gifts were distributed — to the men hatcliets
and knives, to the women beads. Handfuls of pewter rings
imd little images of Agnus Dei were thrown into the stpiare to
be scrambled for by the children. As the Frenchmen lepassed
tlie g.ateway, the women crowded round and tried to force on
them unsavoury articles of food, which were courteously de-
clined.

16. Before leaving t!ie island, Gartier ascended to the top of
the mountain on the noith-west. From its height he saw the
l)lue glistening waters of the St. Lawrence, encircling isle and
islet, flowing between lofty verdurous heights, and the forest
si)readiug like a billowy ocean all around. He called it Mount
Koyal. It was late in autumn when Cartier returned to
Quebec. In his absence a rude fort had been built, and he
determined to winter there. A terrible time was passed.
The scurvy attacked nearly the whole company, and killed
seventy-five. Fearful iliat the Indians would discover their
weakness, the men v/ere kept immured within the fort, and
were told to beat on its wooden walls with sticks as if hard at
work. From a poor Indian, Cartier learned that a decoction of
a certain evergreen was a sovereign remedy for the disease.
This ameda, as the natives called it, was the common spruce.
The Frenchmen drank so copiously that they used up a whole
tree ; and with the best effect, for when the spring came they
were in health and spirits.

17. Cartier resolved to return to France. Before leaving he
took formal possession of the country. Instead of

gold and rubies he had gathered mica only, and rock 1536
crystals from the slate ledges of Cape Diamond. Such a.d.
dross was a poor return for all the expense and suffer-
iug of his voyage. He wished to have some living witnesses
that he had visited a glorious land, worth many a sacrifice to
convert and bring to the knowledge of the true faith. He de-
termined to take back with him some of the natives. Dunua-

32 SIEUR DE ROBERVAL.

couna and four chiefs, luretl on board his vessel, were borne
away to Fiance.

IS. Five years elapsed before Cartier again saw the })roniou-
tory of Quebec. Francis I. wjis dissatisfied at not re-

1540 ceiving treasures of gold and precious stones. Evil
A.D. reports of an unhealthy, inclement climate got abroail.

For a time exploration of the Western Continent wjia dis-
couraged ; but soon the K ing's interest revived. By letters patent,
dated 15th of January, Jean Fran9ois de la Roche, Sieur de
Boberval, a nobleman of Picardy, was created Viceroy and
Lieutenant-General of Canada, Hochelaga, Saguenay, New-
foundland, Belle Isle, Carpent, Labrador, and Baccalaos,and Lord
of Noremb^gue.^ Cartier was appointed Cai)tain-General and
Master Pilot. He was thus placed in a secondary position over
an enterprise which he had claims to lead. In his commission
of the 17th of October, it was set forth that the King had caused
certain natives to be brought to France to be instructed, so
that on their return they might be able to induce their country-
men to embrace the true faith. This declaration reads like
Cartier's justification for carrying ott' the chiefs, as it gives a
command and a reason for the act. Unfortunately, Dunna-
conna and his biothers died before the expedition sailed. The
prisons were scoured to man the ships, and fifty convicts were
hauled on board.

19. There was some de^ay at St. Malo. The King, growing

impatient, commanded Cartier to sail with the five

1541 ships that were ready. He departed on the 23rd of
A.D. May. When the French fleet appeared off the Isle

of Bacchus no canoes, filled with gleeful Indians,
darted out from the shores to welcome them. The savages
of Stadacond had learned to distrust their kidnapping visitors.
They did not show open hostility. They listened quietly
when told that Dunnaconna was dead, but that the other
chiefs had married and were living in state in France. The
whole truth was too harsh to be told. The old feeling of
trust and cordiality had vanished. Cartier determined to
move up the river and make a settlement on the height at

' NorevxMgue. — Lands on the PentagoSt or Penobscot, and near its mouth.

CARTIEU S LAST DAYS.

Cap Rouge. Two foi-ts were built, one at tlie auniniit, another
at tlie foot. A gully ran down the face of the rock, and up
it a road of communication was cut. This place was called
Charlesbourg Royal. The cold weather came upon the in-
habitants soon after the work was completed. Tho gloom of
the darkening days fell upon their spirits. Their experience
of the winter must have been bitter. On the return of spring
they abandoned their forts and left the country.

20. Sieur de Roberval did not leave Rochelle^ until the 16th
of April. He put into a harbour, Saint Jean, on the
eastern coast of Newfoundland. Soon after, to his 1542
utter amazeme'it, his Master Pilot entered with his a.d.
live vessels. He commanded him to return to Canada ;

but Cartier, quietly disobeying the order, sailed away under
cover of night to France. Thus ended the last known
voyage of the Breton mariner, in disgust, dimppointment, and
(lisatfection. He had failed to discover a route to the rich
East; but he had found Canada on his way. He lived for
many years in his seignorial mansion at Limoilu. There he
wrote an account of his voyages, which kept alive the knowledge
of the countries he had visited, and the spirit of adventure
in kindred minds. A cloud of doubt rests over his last voy-
age. It is said that the King sent him out to endeavour
to ascertain the fate of De Roberval. Whatever else is doubt-
ful, it is certain that the enterprise of that nobleman failed
disastrously. He built a spacious fort above the site of
Charlesbourg, but could not defend it against cold, famine, and
disease. His convict settlers grew mutinous. Terrible scenes
were enacted throughout the winter of 1542 within that fort
by the frozen St. Lawrence, over which the xjurtain of oblivion
had better be dropped.

21. The spirit of discovery grew languid in France. 1576
The mania of finding a north-west passage to India a.d.
spread in England. Martin Frobisher^ explored the

' Rochelle. — A fortified sea-port on
the west coast of France, 95 miles north
of Bordeaux.

'^Martin Frohisher. — A famous ex-
plorer and naval hero of Elizabeth's
reign. The object of his first expedi-

(473) 8

tion was to search for a north-west
passage. He took part in the action
with the Spanish Armada, 1588 ; and
was killed in assaulting a fort near
Brest (in France) in 1594. He was a
native of Yorkshire.

MARTIN FROniSIIER.

! i

iiil^

ill:

Hill!

|j| i

Ifi

co.'iats of Labradfii" and Gieenljuid ; disooverod the ca])e
■which he called Elizabeth's Foreland, .nn<^ +he straits which
hear liis name; and gathered a (jnantity of mica, under the
impression that it was the precious metal. Two years later,

Frobisher, commanding an expedition of fifteen ships,

1578 «''til<'<l af^ain to find the north-west i)assa^'e, but bronf,'iit

A.D. back ruin only on the heads of those who had adveii-

tared their Means to fit it out. Strange, chimerical
ideas, filled the in, agination of the first exi)lorer8. The imnu'di-
ate I'esuUs of tlujir voyages ai)})ear to have been miserable, but
mighty consequences followed u])on them.

IS76

!,'.'.T-';,:;.*

<p^§a}V Salvador

KAKLY niSCOVERERH AND EXPLORATIONS.

^ _oo 22. Five years later Sir Humphrey Gilbert^ took
possession, by authority of Queen Elizabeth, of the
Island of Newfoundland, and formed a settlement ou

' Sir Humphrey Gilbert. — Born at had accompanied him in an earlier
Dartmouth (Devonshire), 1539. He was voyage to America Gilbert published a
)i^lf-brotlier of Sir "Walter T?f legli, who Discourse on the North-W^st pj^sgag^,

SIR HUMPHREY CJILRERT.

llie li.'ubour of St. JoIiu'h. But lie fuiltMl to reach any part of
the luainland of America. On his return to Euglaml he was
canglit in a furioua Htorm. As Ins consort vessel scudded past
liiin, Sir Humphrey cried out, " Be not afraid ; Heaven is as
near hy water as by land." At midnight his little uarque
foundered with all on board. The English never ascended
the groat river St. Lawrence in the course of any of their
voyages of exploration. To the French belongs the honour of
discv)vering and founding " Canada."

23. There has been considerable controversy over the deriva-
tion of that name. Some writers pretend thav. the Spaniards
l>rece(led the French, and disappointed at finding no gold in
tlie country, exclaimed contemptuously, " Aca nada " — here is
nothing. Others hold that Canada is a modification of the
Algonquin word Kanata, " a cluster of cabins," a town. What-
ever its derivation, Canada sounds grandly to the ear, nnd is
a nnme that suggests to the mind the idea of a great country.

QiTKSTioNS. — 1. Who are said to have
discovered America long before Colum-
bus? Give some account of the dis-
coveries of Biarni. What names did
tlie Northmen give to these districts?

2. What was the great glory of Colum-
bus? What islands was he supposed
to have reached ? What mistake thence
arose ?

3. What effects did his discovery
produce? Whom did it fill with re-
gret?

4. Who obtained Henry's permission
to fit out an expedition ? What country
did the Cabots hope to reacli ?

5. Give an account of tlieir voyage.
On what ground did Henry VII. claim
possession of North America?

G. After whom was America named ?
Through what error ?

7. When did Sebastian Cabot make
another voyage of discovery? What
did he find near Newfoundland and
Cape Breton ? What were these islands
then called?

8. What were the consequences of
England and France meeting in the
field of American discovery? Who
took possession of islands in the Gulf of
St, l^awrence?

9. On what did the f'rench claim to
the possession of tlie North American
Continent rest? Whose service did
Verazzanl enter? What is said in the
accoimt of his voyage? Describe the
ternlination of his voyage.

10. When did Cartier cross the
ocean? Where did lie sail after making
the coast of Labrador? Wliere did he
first cast anclior ?

11. What ceremony was performed
at the Bay of Penouil? What trick
was played on the sons of an old chief
who visited tlie ship?

12. W'lio accompanied Cartier on his
second voyage? What liope buoyed
him up ? What was the origin of the
name of the St. Lawrence?

13. Where did the adventurers next
sail ? What chief invited them to visit
his town? What different accounts
are given of the origin of the name
"Quebec"?

14. How was Stadacong reached?
From what did the Indians try to dis-
suade the adventurers ? What occurred
when they landed at Hochelaga?

15. How was Cartier regarded by the
Indians? What painful scene occurred
in the scjuare of the towp '

QUESTIONS.

16. Wliere did Cartier go before
leaving the island? What was resolved
on when he returned to Quebec? From
what did the men siiffer severely?
How were they cured?

17. When did Cartier return to
Prance ? What expectations were dis-
appointed? Whom did he take with
him? Why?

18. Whei; «ras the next expedition
undertaken ? U"''3r whose command ?
In what position was Cartier? What
was the fate of the Indians taken to
France? How were the ships for the
new expedition manned?

19. How were the Frenchmen received
on their return to the St. Lawrence?
^Vhat had destroyed the feeling of

cordiality? Where did the French-
men spend tht winter? What did they
do on the return of spring ?

20. Where did Cartier meet De
Roberval? How did his expedition
end ? How did he occupy the remainder
of his days ? What was the fate of De
Roberval's enterprise ?

21. Who was the next to explore the
Labrador coast ? What led Frobisher
thither? How many voyages did he
make to the west ? With what results ?

22. What did Gilbert accomplish?
What was his fate ? What did none of
the English explorers do ?

23. What different explanations are
given of the origin of the name
"Canada"?

HAP SHOWXNO LOCATION OS* INDIAN FAMILIES.

The dotted li .e shows the extent of the Province of Quebec in t77U.

THE FIRST PEOPLING OF AMERICA.

CHAPTER III.

THE DvDIAN TBIBES.

The first peopling oi America.

The three Indian " Families."

The Ksqmtraux and Savannois.

Location of the Algonquin Tribes.

Tlie Hurons or Wyandots.

The Iroquois.

Indian Characteristics.

Their constructive skill.
Dross — Wampum.
Occupations and Amusements.
Position of the Women.
Form of Government.
Superstitions ; religious Belief.
Their present state.

1. There has been a great deal of speculation over the quea-
tiou, "How was the New World peopled?" Ingenious
tlieories liave been raised only to be refuted. Bold authoi
have maintained that Peru was identical with Ophir,^ "the
laud of gold ; " that the Antilles were the ancient isles of
the Hesperides.2 It is a disputed point whether Americ^i
was found by accident, by ships having been driven on its
coasts by violent w ads, or by free emigration from Europe and
Asia. The learned men of many countries in Europe have
claimed for their countrymen the honour of having beea the
tii-st who passed over to the Western Continent. Theorists
have given free rein to their imagination in answering the
question, " How was the New World peopled V Theophiiistus
Paracelsus,"'^ a philosopher of Zurich, solved it to his own satis-
faction by asserting that each hemisphere had an Adam and
Eve. Such speculations, however, need not detain us.

2. At the time when the French began to settle in Canada
(using that name in its present wide geographical sense), there
were several distinct Indian "families,"* who were sparsely

' Ophir. — A country, repeatedly men-
tioned in the Old Testament, to which
the ships of Solomon traded- It was
famous for its gold. The "gold of
Ophir" was prov bially the finest gold
(sea Ps. xlv. 9). Various conclusions
have been arrived at regarding its
locality. Some interpreters have placed
it in the East Indies, others in Africa,
and others in Arabia.

^ Hesperides. — A poetical name for
the islands of the West ; just as first
Italy and then Spain were called Hes-
peria.

' Paracelsus. — A famous physician
and chemist. He was the first to make
use of mercury and opium as medicines
Born 1493, died 1541.

* Indian "families." — For their loca-
tion, see Map, p. 36.

THE THREE INDIAN FAMILIE8.

spread over its vast extent. The chief were the Sioux, the
Algonquin, and the Huron or Wyandot. The Indians of
Newfoundland were a race distinct from those of Canada ;
they were Esquimaux — eaters of raw flesh — from the desolate
and sterile regions of Labrador. They were ferocious and
inhospitable. Many had white complexions and flaxen hair.

3. Several tribes, also of distinct origin, called collectively by
the French Savannois, from the low, marshy, ill-w6oded
country they inhabited, dwelt along the southern shores of
Hudson Bay. The}' adored the Sun, and devoured humau
flesh, and lived in squalid misery. On the western shore of the
bay lived a tribe to whom the sobriquet " Plats cotez de chien"
— Dogribs — was given.

4. Each of these great families was divided into numerous
tribes and sub-tribes. The Sioux, eastern and western, dwelt
south-west of Lake Superior, in the region between the
Mississippi and the Missouri, by tlie River Assiniboine, and
Lake Winnipeg. They were less warlike than the other two
families.

5. The Algonquins were spread along the northern shores of
the St. Lawrence, along the coasts of the Gulf, and of the Bay
of Fundy, and from Maine to Virginia. They were found also
along the course of the Kiver Ottawa, from its mouth to its
source, and on the western shores of Lake Huron.

6. From the mountainous region of the Saguenay to Quebec
were scattered several tribe::; of Algonquin blood, — the Bersia-
mites, Papinachois, Montagnais, and Neskapees. The Atti-

, camigues, or White Fish, dwelt about the sources of the -^Pferee
|jjiij|;f'//i2/t V^!^CJ^8)i¥e^?«. The Ottawas claimed to be lords of the grand
northern river ; and various tribes of Beavers, Bullheads, and
Sorcerers pitched their wigwams by lakes Temiscaming and
Nipissing, and on the islands AUuruoue and Calumet. The
Cristinilaux, or Crees, noted for their volubility of tongue and
vivacity of manner, dwelt in the region between the south-
western shores of Hudson Bay and Lake Winnipeg. At Saiilt
de Ste. Marie, on the neck of country between lakes Superior
and Huron, dwelt the Ojibaways and Chippewas, called
Salteurs by the French. In the regions around Lake Michigan
there were many tribes, the chief being the Pottawattaniies, the

TttF HUROIf FAMILY.

Sacs, the Ottigamies or Foxes, the Kickapoos, aud Mascoutins.
The Abenaquis, of Algonquin lineage, occupied the territory
south of the St. Lawrence, between the rivers St. Francis and
Cliaudiere and the northern part of Maine. Under the general
name Abenaquis, or St. John Indians, some writers include the
Milicetes (or Etcheniins), whose wigwams were pitched along
tlie rivers Trois Pistoles, Restigouche, Miramichi, and St. John ;
the Micmacs (Souriquois or Salt-water Men), who were spread
along the southern shores of the St. Lawrence to Gaspe, and
who were found on the isles and the coasts of the Gulf, on the
shores of the Bay of Fundy to the St. Croix River, and all over
the peninsula of Nova Scotia ; also the Canibas, wl o dwelt in
the country watered by the Penobscot River. There were
several Algonquin tribes in the New England States — the
Pequods, Narragausetts, and others — who sorely plagued the
Puritan Fathers.^

7. The Hurons of Canada occupied the teiTitory between the
lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario. The principal tribe lived in
what is now called Simcoe County. They were a settled,
agricultural people, unlike the Algonquins, who were hunters j
and fishers, who were continually shifting their camps as the
game grew scarce, and who were often reduced to the direst
distress. At the south-eastern extremity of Lake Huron lived
the Tionnates or Tobacco Indians ; on the isthmus between
lakes Onta^'io and Erie, the Attinanchrons or the Neutral
Nations ; alcisr the southern shores of Lake Erie, the Eries or
Cats.

8. The most powerful members of the Huron family were the
IroQtUois ; a name given to them by the French, and derived
from +he word "hiro," — I have sjiid, — with which they invariably
finished their speeches. Among the Indian tribes they were
known as the Hodenosaunee, "the people of the long house ;"
they proudly termed themselves Ougonhonse, "the men sur-
passing all others." Of all the savages of North America they

' The Picritan Fathers. — The name
"Puritan" was first given, about the
middle of the sixteenth century, to dis-
senters from the Established Church of
England, who aimed at greater piirity
of doctrine, of worship, and of life,

than prevailed within the Church.
The " Pilgrim Fathers," who founded
the first of the New England States in
1620, were Puritans who had been
driven from England by persecution in
the reign of James I,

THE IROQUOIS.

were the most warlike and astute. They were divided into live
tribes or cantons ; whence they were called the Five Nations.^
Their bourgades or villages were situated between the Mohawk
River in the east a'ld the Genessee in the we.st, in the following
order : — Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas.
Tliey claimed the territory which is now the northern part of
the State of New York. The position of the long house of the
Iroquois enabled them to command the entrance to the west by
the Great Lakes, and to Canada by Lake Champlain and the
Eiver Richelieu. They were placed between the French and
the English. The Five Nations were united into one con-
federacy ; but each nation was in a great measi -e independent,
and made war and peace on its own account. The Iroquois
were thus a very difficult people to deal with. The French
might conclude a treaty with the Senecas on the west, while
the Mohawks on the east carried on war from Montreal to
Quebec.

9. The Iroquois were divided into eight clans — the Wolf,
Bear, Beaver, Tortoise, Snipe, Deer, Heron, Hawk. The tie of
clanship ran through the whole Five Nations ; thus, a Mohawk
wolf was connected with the wolves of all the other tribes. The
lii;ure of a wolf, or bear, and so on, was the emblem or totem of
the clan. It was tattooed on every clansman's body ; it was the
signp.lure of a chief to a treaty. The relat^'on of clanship existed
among other Indian tribes, but among -Jie Iroquois the bond
was strongest.

10. Early French voyagers said that to see one Indian was to
see all ; but close observers among the Jesuit missionaries said
that there were great distinctions between the people of the
different families. They called the Hurons the "noblemen,"
the Algonquinsthe " burghers," and the tribes of the Saguenay
the " peasants " of the wilderness. The reddish tawny skin,
the coarse black hair, the smooth, beardless face, the high cheek
bones, were common to all. They were, o » the whole, a race of
robust men, often of tall stature, sometimes flf majestic propor-
tions. Their carriage was easy and dignified. Notwithstand-

' The Ficc Nations.— 'When the Tus-
caroras joined the Iroquois (which they

did in 1717), they were called " The Six
Nations."

INDIAN CHARACTERISTICS. 41

iiig uuclean living and filthy personal habits, they had sound
constitutions, and were free from many of the diseases incident
to civilization. They had no idea of restraining their animal
appetites ; while food lasted they ate voraciously, then they
tightened their belts and fasted. Experience of dire distress
never taught them to husband their stores.

11. Their intellectual powers were good ; their perception
was keen, their memory ex'^eedingly retentive, their judgment
just, their wit and imagination lively. They made their
way through the trackless forest as easily as a denizen of a
city walks its streets. They had no written language, no
books ; the traditions of the past were hande ' town orally.
Their best orators displayed true eloquence : -xon they spoke
they seemed absorbed in their subject, they went direct to the
point, and used just and striking imagery. The Indians paid
willing homage to superior merit. They could be faithful and
devoted friends to those who commanded their esteem, but they
were not easily deceived by mere professions.

12. In the Indian character there were some strange contra-
dictions. Vicious as wild beasts, they yet displayed qualities
that did honour to human nature. Fierce in war, pitiless and
atrociously cruel to the prisoners whom they doomed to death,
they were in social life very free from hatred, envy, jealousy.
No one, while food lasted, was allowed to want ; and their
adopted prisoners were treated like their own people. In an
ludian community every one did pretty much what seemed
good in one's own eyes ; there was a great deal of good humour
and forbearance shown. But discord entered the cabins of this
Ciireless people when the traders introduced the fell "fire-
Water." Under their many afflictions they were very patient ;
the most dreadful tortures they often bore calmly.

13. The Indians displayed little constructive skill. Tlie
wigwams of the wandering tribes were mere sticks driven into
the ground and covered with sheets of bark. The cabins of
the stationary tribes were sometimes a hundred feet long and
thirty feet high. They were formed by driving two parallel
rows of saplings into the ground, and bending them until they
formed an arch overhead ; the outside was covered with thick
sheets of bark. Sometimes a low nmd wall was built around

42 l)ll£SS, WAMPUM.

the cabin. Several families lived in one house, which was
divided into compartments like a stable. The fires were lighted
in a line in the centre. A number of houses of this description
formed a bourgade, which was generally situated on a rising
ground by the side of a lake or river. It was surrounded by
lofty palisades, often set in a triple row. The outer rows were
l)lanted in the ground in a sloping direction till they met and
crossed at the top ; the middle row was set upright ; and the
whole were firmly braced together. Galleries, supplied at
different points with magazines of stones, ran along the pali-
sades on the inside and near the top. There was also a gutter,
by means of which the waters of the adjacent river or lake were
poured down on the fires that a foe might enkindle without.

14. The dress of the Indians was suitable to a climate of
alternate cold and heat. In winter they wore the skins of wild
animals, which they had the art of making pliable and soft.
lu summer the warriors generally dispensed with clothing
altogether, and rubbed their bodies with malodorous oil as a
preservative against mosquito bites. They tattooed on their
faces the forms of beasts, birds, and plants. On their war
excursions they painted themselves in startling colours, in order
to strike terror into the foe, and sometimes to hide their own
fear.

15. The Indians wore their hair in many fantastic fashions.
Sometimes they dressed it so that it bristled up on one side and
remained flattened down in plaits on the other, or they left it
to hang straight down to their ears and eyebrows, or gathered
it up in the form of a crown. Sometimes they shaved their
heads, leaving only the long scalp-lock. The warriors often
oiled it and powdered it with swan-down. On their heads they
placed the plumes of rare birds and tufts of dyed hair. Around
their necks they wore collars of bears' claws, eagles' talons, I'oe-
bucks' hoofs, and the paws and teeth of other wild animals.
The women neither adorned their heads nor dressed their hair.

16. Wampum was an article of immense value to an Indian.
It was made of fine, beautifully tinted sea-shells, which were
formed into beads. Strung upon threads, these beads were
worked into necklaces, collars, and belts. Wampum was the
chief ornament and all the riches of the women. It was the

OCCUPATIONS AKD AMUSEMENTS. ic

only money of the country. No important speech was made
no treaty was ratified, without the presentation of wampun:
belts. These belts, worked into various mnemonic designs, wen
the only records of war and treaties.

17. War, hunting, and fishing were the chief occupations
of the Indian men. They built the cabins and fortifications
they made the implements of battle and the chase. Befon
European traders supplied them with the rifle, their principal
weapons were the bow and arrows, spears tipped with points oi
various designs, the round-headed club of hard wood, the toma-
hawk, hatchet, and scalping-knife, made of stone and shel
Hharpened with infinite labour, and easily dulled. The intro-
duction of steel weapons saved them much work, and put mort
deadly arms into their hands. They framed the light and
elegant birch canoe ; they made threads and cords, and wove
tlie fishing nets ; they carved in curious fashion the heads oi
the calumets or pipes, and ornamented the stems with coloured
plumes of various designs.

18. Among the Huiun nations the women were, in theory
the fountain of all authority. The chiefs were their representa-
tives. But, in practice, they were not consulted on public
att'aii-s. When a woman entered the marriage state, her life was
a course of perpetual drudgery. The squaw was the slave oi
her husband. She performed all the hard work, tilling the
soil and bringing in the fire-wood. When the harvest was
ripe, the warriors condescended to bestir themselves, and aided
the women in gathering it in. The mothers nursed theii
children with tenderest care. Through infancy and youth tht
parents bestowed the gi^eatest affection on their offspring.

19. The Indians had some amusements. They were inveterate
gamblers. They played matches with bat and ball. Baggiat-
way, "la crosse," is now a national game among Canadians.
They held numerous festivals, both for ceremony and pleasure.
The sound of the drum and the monotonous notes of the chicka-
houe (a gourd filled with pebbles) were continually heard in an
Indian village.

20. The medicine men and conjurors were persons of the
greatest importance. They pretended to the possession of
supernatural powers. They had some knowledge of the virtue

ll'ilill I'

■

liiiii!

I li I '

l!t

jllilil jjlj

lilt!

44 porai of government.

of siii:ples,^ and cured woimds by the applicution of the juice of
certaiu herbs. They ofteu set fractured limbs with success.
For colds, fevei-s, and inflammation they jnescribed sweating
baths. But they joined to their medical and surgical practice
the most ridiculous mummeries, and sanctioned the most revolt-
ing and indecent customs.

21. The Indians had a defined form of government. They
held the republican doctrine that all men are equal ; but they
were aristocratic so far that th<'y chose the best men to be their
leaders. The Algonquins elected their chief. Among the
Hurons the dignity was hereditary, but its descent was by the
woman's side. When a chief died his eldest son did not succeed
him, but, it might be, a brother of his mother, or a son of his
sister. Among the Five Nations the chief bore the name of
Alilatho, and the dignity was hereditary in one family of the
Ouondagas. The great council-house of the confederacy was
situated in the chief bourgade of that nation. Among the
Micmacs the chief was elective, and they generally chose the
warrior who had the largest family, and to him they paid
tribute.

22. The power of the chief was not despotic. He derived no
revenue from his office. He held no particular state. He led
by advice and persuasion, and not by force. He had a body of
counsellors, sachems, chosen from the heads of families, who
guarded the public treasure, and without whose advice he could
do nothing. There were also a body of ancients, men of mature
age, and a crowd of warriors, comprising all capable of beaiing
arms, who had a voice in all public matters. The Indians had
thus their governor, executive and legislative councils, and
general assembly ; responsible government, in fact, but in a
rude form.

23. The Indians were the slaves of superstition. They be-
lieved that they were surrounded by good and evil spirits. All
nature to them was animate. The ro.ir of the cataract, the
brawling of the stream, the howling of the angry wind or the
sighing of the gentle breeze, and the rustling of the leaves,
betokened to them the presence of spirits — Manitous and

jjljll ^ Simples. — Medicinal plants. So I have a special virtue, which it exerts

called because each plant is believed to I without its being compounded.

SUPERSTITIONS. 46

Okies. They were given to feticism — the worship of iuauiuiate
objects, plants, and stones.

24. It has been asserted, that, before the advent of Christian
missionaries, the Indians professed belief in one God ; and, on
the contrary, it has been said that they received from their
aucestors no knowledge of God, and that there was no word in
their language that expressed his name. Some of the Indian
tribes spoke of the Great Spirit. When pressed to explain
what were the attributes of this Being, they showed by their
puerile notions that they had no conception whatever of one
God. The legends in which some writers — anxious to prove
that the Indians were the descendants of the Hebrews — profess
to see distortions of the scriptural accounts of the creation, the
fall of man, the deluge, are in the last degi'ee contused and
ridiculous.

25. Among the Algonquins, Messou, the Great Hare, was
the Supreme Spirit. He formed the eai'th out of a grain of sand
brought up from the depths of the ocean, and men from the
bodies of dead animals. Areskou^, the God of War, was held
by the Hurons to be the Supreme Being. The Indians believed
ill the immortalitv of men and animals. Heaven to them was
an improved earth, a happy -hunting-ground, where game was
always plentiful, and where an eternal sj^ring reigned ; where
want, misery, and pain were unknown ; where the warrior was
rewarded in proportion to the number of foes he had vanquished
iu battle. The Indian was sunk in the lethargy of savage
ignorance. He was excessively indolent, and scorned what he
did not understand. He had no knowledge of the laws of
nature, and accounted for their operation by some ridiculous
fable.

26. Ar account of the aborigines of Canada may fitly close
with a statement of their present condition. They are now only
a remnant of a people, never very numerous. Fragments of the
tribes of the Montagnais, Bersiamites, and Neskapees in north-
eastern Quebec, and of the Abenaquis of the rivers St. Francis
and B^ancour, still occupy portions of their old hunting-grounds.
The descendants of the Christian Iroquois, who were in 1671
settled first at Madelaine Prairie, then at Sault St. Louis, under
the care of the Seminary of St, Sulpiciua, are still found at the

PRESKNT LOCATION.

a'M I

);itter place, now commonly called Cauglinawaga. The remains
of other tribes occupy lands in Manitoulin and other islnuds of
Lake Hnron. Bands of Ojibawaya, Chippewas, OttaWas, and
Hurons are settled in different parts of the country east of Lake
Huron, and in Walpole Island in Lake St. Clair. The Moravian^
settlement of J)elawares is located on the River Thames in that
district. The " Six Nations" have lands on the (xrand River in
Brant county, whither, in 1784, after the War of Independence,
they were removed by the British Government. Bands of
Iroquois, Ottawas, and Nipissingr live at Two Mountains, near
the mouth of the Ottawa. The Mohawks are settled at Bay of
Quint(5, and on Salmon River, in the township of Tyengeda, in
the county of Hastings. There are Micmac villages in all the
counties of Nova Scotia, and in Kent and Westmoreland, Ne-w
Brunswick ; and there are Milicete towns on the Restigouche,
Miramichi, and St. John rivers. The whole Indian population
does not exceed twenty-five thousand.

27. Forty years ago the Indians were looked upon only as
useful allies in case of war. They were under the charge of
military superintendents, whose chief duty was to make them
annual presents of blankets, calico, thread, knives, powder, ball,
and tobacco. The majority were then pagans. The British
Government reserved large tracts of country for their support ;
but their just liberality was in a great measure nullified by the
rapacity of individuals who coveted the lands, and took advan-
tage of the simplicity and intemperance of the poor Indian.
These reserves checked the settlement of the country, and it

was found neither judicious nor possible to allow them

1830 to be held locked up. The policy of reclaiming the

A.D, Indians from paganism and sloth to Christianity and

settled habits was adopted. They were put under the
charge of superintendents. For several years afterwards no
correct accounts of the extent of Indian lands or of the number
of sales was given.

ill I I

* Moravian. — The Moravians, or
United Brethren, originated in Moravia,
a province in the north of Austria, and
in the neighbouring province of Bo-
hemia, about 1467. Having formed a
get|l,eiiie?jt o^ the estate of Count Zin-

zendorf in Upper Lusatia (in 1722), and
having called it Hemhut, — "The watch
of the Lord," — they are generally known
on the Continent of Europe by the name
Hernhntters. They began to found
missionary colonies about 173?.

PRESENT STATE.

28. In the jnesent day tlie ludians are tlie (jharge of the
(k'pa)'tineiit of the Secretary of State. Under the paternal care
of the Government of the Dominion they are comparatively
prosperous. Their hmdH are sohl to intending settlers, and the
piuceeds are invested for their benetit. They receive annual
presents of grain, seeds, imjiloments, and are, especially in
Ontario, advancing in agiicultural industry. Hundreds of
children in all sections of the country attend Indian scliools.
It is impossible to change natuie ; but under the influence of
juligion, education, and industry, they are being brought within
the i)ale of our civilizjition.

Questions. — 1. What theories have
been advanced regarding tho first
peopling of America?

2. Name the three chief Indian
"families" found by the French in
Canada. 'Who were the inhabitants of
Newfoundland '{

3. What tribes occupied the southern
and the western shore of Hudson Bay?

4. Where did the Sioux dwell?
A\'liat was their character?

5. Where were the Algonquins found ?
C. Mention the other tribes of Algon-
quin lineage, and their territories.

7. What county did the Hurons
occui)y? Where did the principal tribe
live ? Wherein did they differ f om the
Algonquins?

8. Which was the most jjowerful
branch of the Hurons? Explain the
meanings of the different names they
bore. AVhat was their character?

9. Into how many clans were the
Iroquois divided ? What was peculiar
in the tie of clanship?

10. How did the Jesuit missionaries
distinguish the three great families?
Describe their common characteristics.

11. Give some account of their intel-
lectual powers. How were the tradi-
tions of the past preserved among them ?
Describe their oratory.

12. What strange contradictions were
noticeable in the Indian character?
What introduced discord among them?

13. Describe their houses, and their
mode of living. What name was ap-
plied to a collection of cabinut

14. Describe their dress, and the
adornment of their bodies.

15. How did tiiey dress the hair?
How did they adorn the head and neck ?

10. What was wampum ? For wimt
was it used ?

17. What were the chief occupations
of the Indians? What weapons did
they use ?

18. What was the position of the
women among the Huron nations?
How were children treated?

19. What amusements had tlie
Indians ?

20. Why were the medicine-men so
important ?

21. What was the fundamental doc-
trine of their government? In what
different ways was the chief chosen ?

22. Show that responsible govern-
ment prevailed among the Indians.

23. By what superstitions were they
possessed? To what kind of worship
were they given?

24. What statements have been made
regarding their belief in one God ?

2.5. AVhat was held to be the Supreme
Spirit among the Algonqiiins and the
Hurons respectively ? What were their
notions regarding immortality ?

26. Where are the remnants of the
aborigines of Canada now settled ? To
what does their population amount?

27. How did the ludians use to be
regarded ? How were they supported ?
When was a change of policy adopted ?

28. How are they now treated? Wha^
is their present condition?

THE FUR-TRADE.

CHAPTER lY.

FIRST SETTLEMENTS IN NEW FRANCE.

1588 to 1607 A.D.

The Fiir-trade at Antlcositl.

Sieur de la Roche, Viceroy of Canada.

ConvlctB on Sable Island.

M. Pontgravfi at Tadoussac.

Samuel de Champlain.

He ascends the St. Lawrence.

M. de Monts, Lieut. -General of Acadie.

Settlement on the St. Croix.

Port Royal.

Raron de Poutrlncourt and Marc Les-

carbot.
The Order of the Good Time.
Break-up of establishment at Port

Koyal.

1. Canada was neglected for a period of forty years after the
disastrous issue of De Roberval's expedition. During that time
France was torn by civil and religious strife.^ While stern and
bloody work had to be done at home, her adventurous sons
thought not of pursuing the path that had been opened up by
the first discoverers. But hundreds of Europeans engaged in
the fisheries annuallv visited the Banks of Newfoundland, the
coasts of Cape Breton, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The
Indi?" ^ rought their peltries to the Island of Anticosti, and
b* chem away to the fishermen. The fur- trade became

/ject of importance to the merchants of the sea-ports of

France. When Henry III. granted to Jacques Noel

1588 ^11^ Sieur Chatin, nephews of Jacques Cartier, a monop-

A.D. oly of the trade in the Gulf and River of St Lawrence

for twelve years, they raised such an outcry that the

King rescinded it.

2. With the return of peace, and the ascent of Henry I V.^ to
the throne, the spirit of adventure was re-awakened. The
scheme of creating on the Western Continent a " New France,"
with the feudal institutions of the old country, was revived.

' Civil and religious strife. — It was
the time of the wars ol the League
(formed in 1576 to oppose the Protes-
tants) in France. Henry III. (the last
King of the House of Valois) was mur-
dered in 1589, and was succeeded by

Henry of Navarro (the first King of the
House of Bourbon) as Henry IV. He
overthrew the League at the Battlt of
Ivry in 1590.

^ Henry IV. — Henry of Navarre.
See preceding note.

81 EUR DE LA ROCHE. 49

The coniniisHion given lialf a century iK'fore to Sieur de
li(jl)eivjil way made out afresh in favour of Troilus des
McHguets, Sieur de la Iloche. Thia viceroy of a bound- J-""**
1l'«h domain sailed in a vessel so small, that the con-
victs, by whom it was chiefly manned, could wash their hands
ill the sea by leaning over its sides. Sieur de la Koclie
touched at Sable Island, and left there forty of his J-*^""

• • • AD

iniruly jail-birds, with the intention of returning and
Liking them ott*. But furious winds blew his banjue out
of its coui-se, and the viceroy returned "bootless liome, and
weather-beaten back" to France. For five yeaxs the aban-
doned crew were left on the island. They hunted the wild
cattle, the progeny of the animals left by Baron de Lery in
i 18. They fished, and they fought and murdered each other.
H. iiry of France was touched with compassion when he lieard
the story of their abandonment. He sent Chetodel, De la
lioclie's pilot, to ascertain their fate. Only twelve were
iilive when their release came. Clad in wild attire of 1603
skins, ])urned black by exposure, with shaggy beards a.d.
and long tangled hair, they stood before the King in his
palace, and received his bounty. Sieur de la Roche was utterly
mined.

3. M. Pontgrave, a merchaiit of St. Malo, and M. Chauvin,
captain of marine, obtained an extensive grant of ter-
ritory in Canada. Their chief object was commerce; 1599
and the settlement they attempted to make at Tadoussac, a.d.
on the SagMenay, did not succeed as a permanent colony,

but it continued for many years to be the centre of the fur- trade
of the St. Lawrence. The profits of the fur-trade were required
to help to defray the expenses of colonization ; but the mere
merchant was the woi st of colonizers. It was a^rainst his in-
terest to establish people in the c:ountry to share the gains
which he wished to monopolize. This spirit of selfishness re-
tJU'ded for many long years the growth of Canada. It was the
great difficidty against which its founder had to contend.

4. Samuel de Champlain, captain of marine, was a native
of Brouage, a small sea-port on the Bay of Biscay. From his
boyhood he had been familiar with the sea. He was thirty
years old when hL a-ttention was directed to the lands discovere<i

^473) 4

mv:

50 - SAMUEL DC OHAMPLAfN.

l>y Cartier. He had lived a life of action ; had commanded a
ship, and had fought with Henry of Navarre. High in favour
at Court, he cared not to dally in the ante-chambers of a palace.
He loved adventure in strange lands, and was very curious to
iilil observe and skilful to note the manners and customs of their

peoples. He was single-minded, courageous, resolute, but kind
and courteous. In liim the zeal of the missionary tempered tlie
fire of the warrior. His first expedition was undertakeu

1603 along with Pontgravd, under the patronag' of Ajmar
ii!!l! A.D. de Chastes, governor of Dieppe, and commander of tlie

Order of St. John, who desired to found a colony in
Canada, and to convert its heathen tribes. When Champlain
ascended the St. Lawrence, he saw no vestige of Stadacond or
Hochelaga. No gleeful natives came out to meet him. Nothing
remained but the ruins of the fort at Cap Rouge, to attest the
fact that Cartier had been there before him. At the Sault St.
Louis, where his course was checked, the Indians drew rough
plans on bark of the river above, of its chain of rapids, of the
great lakes, and the mighty cataract of Niagara. Champlaiu's
enthusiasm was aroused, and he longed to explore that mag-
nificent reach of waters. But he was compelled to return
with Pontgrave, who had, with much profit, traded with the
Indians. In the meantime De Chastes had died.

5. King Henry now created a gentleman of his bed-chamber
— Pierre du Guast, Sieur de Monts — Lieutenant-General of the
Province of Cadie, or Acadie, (which extended from the 40th
to the 46th degree of north latitude,) with full power to
colonize it, and with authority to make grants of land and to
confer titles, to levy troops and to wage war. He also received
the monopoly of the trade of the Gulf and River St. Law-
rence. A colon'^ was to be founded under the wing of the
Roman Catholic Church. De Monts, who was a Huguenot,^

was directed to take out priests with him. He was

1604 accompanied by Champlain and a kindred spirit. Baron
j A.D. Poutrincourt of Cham{)agne. With them sailed, from

H^vre de Grace, a mixed company of noblemen and
gentlemen, Catholic cures and Huguenot ministers, artisans and
soldiers, sailors and convicts. They made for the south-west

!i!

' flupienots, — The Freacli Protestants, so called in the 16th centui-y.

ACADIE.

coast of Acadie, and entei'ed a harbour, where they found a
solitary trading vessel. De Monts, by right of his moiioix)ly,
seized it, and the place was called, after the unfortunate owner,
Rossignol. They then sailed west into a smaller bay. A sheep
junijing overboard suggested the name — Port au Mouton.
Here they waited for Poutgrave's ship, which carried the prin-
cipal suppUes. When anxiety was relieved by its arrival, they
left the port, and rounding Cape Sable, sailed north into tlie
narrow Bay of St. Mary. Traces of silver and iron were here
found. Excursions were made into the woods. M. Aubry, a
young priest of Paris, became bewildered, and lost his way.
Jr\ vain his companions shouted themselves hoarse to guido his

PORT ROYAL.

I-'

steps; in vain were the ship's cannon fired. Suspicion grew
that he had been murdered. Dark looks were cast on a
Huguenot minister with whom he had had a dispute on the
passage out. Seventeen days after he had been given up as
dead, a man-spectre appeared, and hailed feebly a boat's crew
fishing off the bay shore. It was the priest.

6. Leaving St. Mary's, and sailing up French Bay, the expe-
dition entered a gut that opened into a spacious and placid har-
bour, encircled by wooded heights. The beauty of the scene
made an instant impression, and it was called Port Boyal.
Poutrincourt was so charmed, that he prayed the Lieutenant-
General to make him a grant of the place, and was graciously
answered. De Monts and Champlain then made a circuit of
French Bay.^ At the head of the basin were found traces of
copper ore, and some blue stones supposed to have beau
amethysts. They called the basin Mines.^ The mouth of the
river of the Etchemins, Ouangondy, on the northern shore of
the bay, was entered on the 24th of June ; and in honour of the
day it was named the St. John. They then sailed west until
they came to the Bay of Passamaquoddy. Passing by so many
islands that Champlain was unable to ascertain their number,
they continued their course until they found the mouth of
a broad river. Four miles up they saw an island in the middle
of the stream, that seemed " to be strong by nature and easy of
defence." Eiver and island De Monts called St. Croix. On
this island, a sandy spot where neither herb nor . grain would
grow, where neither fire- wood nor fresh- water was to be found,
he determined to settle and fortify himself. A busy and harass-
ing sui ler and autumn were passed. By the beginning of
winter a quadrangle of buildings was erected, including the
governor's house, which was " of fair carpentry work."

7. The cold set in early, and with intense severity. The icy
north-west wind swept down the river over the shelterless
island, and made the poor Frenchmen shiver in their rough
boarded barns, and forced them to think despairingly, as they
cowered over their fires, of the vine-clad hills of sunny France.
Gloom fell over the once vivacious company. Though Cham-

' French Bay. — Now Bay of Fundy.

found there, or from the stone calle'J

' Minea. — So named from copper ore mines, onoe U8e4 toj wheel arquebuses.

POUTRINCOURT AND LESCARBOT. 53

plaiu ever maintained a confident and cheerful fiont, ni.iny
rrrew dejected, and fell an easy prey to disease. Thirty-five
died, and as many lay long sick nigh unto death. The expe-
rience of that dreadful winter convinced De Monts that he had
chosen the site of his settlement unwisely. When spring came,
he with Champlain cruised along the coast of Maine and
Massachuse.t-a, from the River Pentagoet to the shoals 1605
and sands of Malabar Bay, but found no place that a.d.
pleased so well as Port Royal. Thither they removed
the colony from St. Croix Island, carrying with them the tim-
ber of the buildings, which they used in constructing another
quadrangular fort. Apprised by letters from Paris that he had
enemies who were jealous of his monopoly, and who were en-
deavouring to deprive him of it, r* t Monts, with Baron Poutrin-
court, returned to France. There he remained. Though, by
his influence at Court, he preserved his privileges, his enemies
were vigilant, and he required to be constantly on his guard.

8. Poutrincourt returned to Acadie next year. Wifli him
came Marc Lescarbot, a briefless barrister, a poet, a

man of varied talent, with whom the world had not 1606
gone well. Their coming, like a gleam of sunshine after a.d.
long dismal weather, infused a spirit of joy and hope
throughout the settlement of Port Royal. The miseries of a
severe winter were forgotten, as the expatriated Frenchmen
hob-nobbed with their friends from la belle France, around a
hogshead of wine that the baron caused to be tapped in the square.

9. Champlain sailed soon afterwards to explore again the
rugged coasts of Massachusetts : those who preferred land ad-
venture dispersed themselves through the woods, and fished,
hunted, and traded with the Micmacs. Lescarbot remained in
command of the fort, to direct the ploughing and sowing of the
fields around it, to till his garden, to indite a rhyme, or write a
page of his History of New France. When Champlain returned
in November, rather disconsolate from his cruise, the irre-
pressible Marc, habited like old Father Neptune, appeared at the
gate of the fort, surrounded by his Tritons, and welcomed him
with a poetical address. To j)ass the time pleasantly, fifteen
of the gentlemen of the colony instituted the Order of the
Good Time. Each of them held the oflfice of grand-ma«ter for

THE OUDER OP THE GOOD TIME.

a day, and his duty was to cater for the company. At the
hour of dinner this grand-master, with the staff of office in hia
hand, a napkin on his shoulder, and the collar of the order
around his neck, entered the hall, followed by the members of
the brotherhood, each bearing a dish. There was great rivalry
among them as to who should provide the best table. Their
board groaned with the variety of fish and game. The best
restaurant in Paris, Lescarbot boasted, could not show a better
bill of fare. An Indian tribe was encamped near Port Eoyal.
Tlie merry and hospitable Frenchmen invited its sagamore,
Membertou, and other chiefs, to their table. Warriors of less
note, and women and children, crouched in the corners of the
hall, and were fed from the board. The winter was mild and
genial, and it gave zest to " the Good Time."

10. In spring the prospect before Port Eoyal appeared

bright ; but the first ship from France brought dismal

1607 news. The enemies of De Monts had for a timepre-

A.D. vailed, and he sent out imperative orders to break u])

the establishment. This was a sore blow to Champlaiu
and Lescarbot, who had hoped to found a prosptrous settle-
ment in Acadie. Membertou and his Micmacs were much grieved
at the departure of their kind friends, and were only consoled
by the good-natured promise of a speedy return.

dition sent out in 1604? Who accom-
panied him? What incidents occurred
after they reached the coast of Acadie?

6. What places were touched at in
French Bay? Where did De Monts
determine to settle? What was the
character of the island ?

7. How was the winter passed ?
Y/here did De Monts and Champlain
go in spring? Whither did they re-
move their colony? What led De Monts
to return to France ?

8. What revived the spirits of the
settlers at Acadie the next year ?

C'. What coasts did Champlain soon
aftijrwards explore? How was he re-
ceived on his return to Port Royal? Do-
scribe the "Order of the Good Time."

li). What dismal news arrived in
spring? How were the Micmacs con-
soled for the dcpartme of tLcir fricudef

Questions. -1. AVhat led to the ne-
glect of Onada for a time after De
Roberval's expedition ? What trade
was opened during that time? V.^'hat
showed the importance which the
French merchants attached to it ?

2. What scheme was revived with
the return of peace ? To whom was a
new commission granted? What befell
the convicts on Sable Island?

3. What was the chief object of Pont-
grav6 and Chauvin? Where did they
attempt to found a settlement? Why
were merchants bad colonizers ?

4. Sketch the early career and the
character of Champlain. When was
his first expedition undertaken ? Along
with whom? What were the only
traces he found of Cartier's visits?
What aroused his enthusiasm ?

6. Wlio was at the head of the cxpc-

IMHKI

FOUNDATION OF QUEBEC.

CHAPTER V.

QUEBEC.

1608 to 1614 A.D.

Renewal of De Monts' Monopoly.

Foundation of Quebec.

Plot to murder Champlain.

He goes to war against the Iroquois.

Disorders caused by French fur-traders.

Poutrincourt returns to Port .Royal.

Baptism of Membertou and family.
The Society of Jesus.
Discord at Port Eoyal.
Settlement at St. Sauveur.
Destroyed by Samuel Argall.
Destruction of Port Royal.

1. De Monts, though he had many powerful enemies, had
still sufficient influence at Court to secure the renewal
of his monopoly for another year. The scheme of 1608
founding a colony on the St. Lawrence was revived, a.d.
Tlie explorer and the trader again united to carry out
the enterprise. It was expected that the profits of traffic would
defray the expense of colonization. The project w.is nearly
spoiled at the outset. Pontgravd, at Tadoussac, narrowly escaped
death at the hands of a fiery Basque sailor captain, who resented
bis assertion of an exclusive right to the fur-trade. Early in
June, Champlain moored his vessels in the roadway between
Point Levi and the promontory on which formerly stood
Stadacone. At the foot of the rock by the river's bank a num-
ber of buildings were erected in the form of a square, enclosing
a court, in the centre of which rose a tall pole surmounted by a
dove-cot. They were surrounded by a wooden wall, pierced
with holes for musketry. Outside the wall ran a moat ; and at
sahent points ramparts wei-e thrown up, which were defended
by cannon. This rude place was called Quebec. It was scarcely
finished when some of the inmates conspired to murder its
founder, and hand over the habitation to Basque and Spanish
traders. Timeous warning was given to Champlain. The con-
spirators were arrested ; the leader was executed, and his head
was stuck upon a pole ; four were sent manacled to France,
and a salutary impression was made on the remainder. During
the winter, twenty of the garrison died from the effect of im-

LAKE CHAMPLAIN.

proper food. A tribe of Montagnais pitched their wigwaim
close to Quebec. Among them were a few Ottawas from the
river of the north. They beheld with mingled awe and con-
fidence the stately and gracious presence of " the man with the
iron breast," whose weapon killed with flame and thunder,
and who always was happy to converse with them. They
longed to secure so potent an ally to aid them against the
Iroquois, and they proposed that he should accompany them
when they next went to war. Eager to explore the country,
Champlain seized this opportunity to gratify his desire.

2. In spring, Champlain, with a few Frenchmen, crossed

Lake St. Peter, and met at the mouth of the River Iro-

1609 quois^ a throng of Algonquin and Huron warriors, who

A.D. gave him a most clamorous welcome. The allied party,

slowly ascending the river, checked often by its rapids,
and hunting and fishing on the way, entered a great lake, which
was studded by numerous islands, and enclosed by lofty moun-
tains clothed with rich forests. Ever since that time it has
borne the name of Champlain. This lake in one place narrows
to the breadth of a river, and then opens out into a beautiful
sheet of water, Lac Sacrament. ^ In the gray dawn of a sum-
mer morning the party landed on the western shore of this
" Holy Lake." Proudly the Mohawk warriors stalked out
from their fortifications to meet a foe whom they despised.
But their confidence turned to alarm when Champlain, coming
to the front, fired his arquebuse rapidly, and two of their
chiefs fell and bit the ground in their death's agony. Soon
they fled in dismay. Champlain's heart turned sick within
him when he beheld the tortures inflicted on their prisoners by
the exultant victors. Angrily he remonstrated ; and, out of
respect,|they forbore their savage practices in his presence.
After the victory so easily gained, the allied Indians dispersed
to their hunting-grounds. Before separating from Champlain,
they exacted a promise that he would meet them the following
spring, again to make war upon the Iroquois.

3. A few mouths afterwards, Champlain was in Fontaine-

' The River Iroquois.-
Ricliclieu.

-Now the River

* Lac Sacranient. — Ijong afterwards
called Lake George.

DANGERS FROM THE FUR-TRADERS. 57

jleau^ Palace, amusing the King with the story of his adven-
ures. When next spring came, he went to fight the
[rOQUOis according to his promise. In the meantime 1610
,he fur-trade did not prosper in the hands of Pontgravd. a.d.
rhe one year's term o£ De Monts' monopol}? had ex-
)ired. The traders of St. Malo, Rouen, and Eochelle gathered
he best of the harvest at Tadoussac and Quebec, and enriched
hemselves by exchanging hatchets, axes, knives, copper kettles,
Lud beads for costly beaver skins. Champlain, with a view of
uterceptiug the canoes laden with peltry that descended the
)ttawa River, caused a station to be erected on tlie Isle of
yiontreal. But the traders ascended as far as the head of the
viult St. Louis. By their rough and boisterous manners they
utimidated the Indians, who did not think they were safe
mless they had the rapids between themselves and the pale
aces. The chiefs went to Champlain and besought their kind
rieud to leave his companions and come to live with them.
rhey told him he might make them Christians, or do what he
)leased with them. The red men appear to have been very
ractable under good treatment. It may be that if Europeans
Generally had shown in their dealings with them a kinder and
airer spirit, they might not have been the forlorn people that
hey now are. Champlain was grieved at heart. He saw that
mless some barrier were erected against the incursions of the
Taders his infant colony would die.

4. Three years after the abandonment of Acadie, Baron
?outrincourt returned to Port Royal, the grant made
him by De Monts having been confirmed by the 1610
ving. He found the buildings standing untouched by a.d.
he Indians and uninjured by the climate. By Mem-
)ei'tou, the stately Micmac sagamore, he was received with the
lignity of a chief who esteemed himself the equal of kings, and
vith the cordiality of a man not oblivious of past good cheer.
^ prejudice had been created against the former attempt at
iolonization by a charge made by its enemies, that the interests
>f religion had been neglected. The influence of the " Society

' Fontainchleau. — A town 35 miles
outh-east of Paris, celebrated for its
ncient royal palace, long the favourite

residence of the French Soveroig'is.
The palace is sunonnded by beautiful
gardens and parks.

BAPTISM OP MEMBERTOU.

of Jesus," founded by Iguatius Loyola^ in 1534, was tlieu
great at the Court of Paris. Through Cottin, confessor of King
Henry, Father Pierre Biard was appointed organizer of spiri-
tual atfairs in Acadie. But the feeling against the formidable
Society, whose members mingled with intense religious zeal
much worldly wisdom, was very strong in France, and Poutriu-
court, to satisfy the scruples of a Huguenot merchant with whom
he was associated, had evaded his engagement to take out with
him the Jesuit Father. To evince his zeal for reli.^^ion he sub-
stituted in his place a priest. La Fl^che, surnamed the Patriarcli.
Pitying the state of heathen darkness in which the ancient
Membertou had lived for over a century, Father la Fl^che
prevailed on him to be baptized along with all his family.
The names of the King and Queen of France, and those of
princes and ladies of high degree, were bestowed on the chief
and his wife, and on his sons and his daughters. The rite waa
performed with much solem> ity, and was followed by profuse
hospitality. It excited a grf u . desire among the Indians gener-
ally to be received into the fold of the Church. Biencourt,
the Baron's son, was despatched to Fi'ance with the registry of
baptisms, and for the purpose of seeking material aid from
certain Huguenot merchants of Dieppe.

5. In the meantime a tragical event had occurred. Henry

, IV., I'idinff throuofh the narrow streets of Paris, had
May 24 . . ■

1 ft 1 n ' ^^®^ stabbed by Eavaillac,^ a priestly fanatic. After

the great King's death Jesuit influence became all-
powerful at Court. Zeal for the conversion of the hea-
then took possession of the great ladies. Madame de Guerche-
ville (late maid of honour to the consort of King Henry)
evinced an uncontrollable desire, after inspecting the registry
brought by Biencourt, to aid in the conversion of the savagea
of Acadie. Biencourt was constrained to assent to the propo-
sition pressed on him, that Fathers Biard and Enemond Masse
should accompany him on his retui n. The merchants of Dieppe,

^ Ignatius Loyola. — The founder of
the Jesuits ; was the youngest son of a
Spanish nobleman ; born 1491, died
1556. He began life as a soldier, but
having got a leg broken, he vowed that
if he recovered he would devote him-

self to a religious life. This was the
origin of the " Society of Jesus."

^ Ravaillac. — Francois Ravaillac.born
167r, originally a monk, was expelled
from his order on account of his fanati-
cal vittWtf.

DISCORD AT PORT ROYAL. 59

leariiig of this coudition, refused to make their promised ad-
uDces. Bieucourt was driven to accept the assistance of
^ladame de Guercheville. Through her zealous efforts among
he charitable, funds were raised. The Society of Jesus be-
;;une partners with Poutrincourt by contributing 3^500 livres
the common fund, besides advancing further sums as
oaus. This aid placed him under heavy obligations. As a
nark of distinction, Biencourt was appoint' 1 Vice-Admiral of
he Seas of New France, with authority over the trading vessels
lom St. Malo and Rochelle. Claude Etienne de la Tour and
lis son Charles Amadou r accompanied his party to
"Lcadie. Poutrincourt returned to France soon after 1611
he arrival of his son, leaving him in command. Young, a.d.
elf-willed, and impulsive, he resented any interference
)y the Jesuit Fathers with his authority, which he was inclined
exercise harshly. Enemond Masse visited the wigwams of
,n Indian tribe of the River St. John, of which Louis, son of
^lembertou, was chief. After a few months' experience he
etnrued half starved, and inexpressibly disgusted by the filth
lid smoke and indescribable annoyances among which he had
ived. When winter came evil days fell upon Port Royal.
iistead of the plenty and geniality that had reigned in the
[iter days of Champlain and Lescarbot, scarcity and discord
<ist their gloom over it. The Indians shunned the once merry
iJiU, though a few, grateful for past kindness, came with small
»reseuts of game.

6. The internal harmony of Port Royal was not restored
^'hen Madame de Guercheville, who had obtained from
jouis XIII. a grant of all the territory formerly given 1612
De Monts, sent out Father Gilbert du Thet to look a.d.
iter her interests in the colony. Discord burst forth
iito open flame. Tlie Fathers, rather than endure the over-
•earing authority of the young Vice- Admiral, made prepara-
ions to leave Port Royal, but were restrained by him. There-
il)on they excommunicated their tyrant, and for months
efused to officiate at the altar. Then a change came over
lieir spirit. The chapel door was again opened, and peace for

time came back to Port Royal. Soon afterwards Father du
•het left fur France. Baron Poutrincourt was now involved

SETTLEMENT AT ST. SAUVEUR.

li (

Is:!

in law-suits arising out of the moneys advanced to him by
Madame, and lie loudly accused the Jesuit Fathers of having
enmeshed him in legal toils. An attempt was made to induce
him to abandon Poi*t Royal. On his refusal the Fathers re-
solved to seek some other place. In the spring of the following
year, M. de la Sanssaye received a commission as Lieutenant-

General of Acadie under Madame de ( Juercheville. He

1613 sailed with Fathers du Thet and Quentin, and a small

A.D. party of colonists. After taking Fathers Biard and

Masse on board at Port Royal, he cruised the Bay of
Fundy to find the mouth of the Penobscot River. Oft" the
south-east of Grand Manan the vessel was enveloped in a thick
^'*«^fe:s^fog, and it drifted along until the cloud rose from the sea, and
disclosed to the party on board wreaths of vapour curling
around the heigkts of Mount Desert. They anchored in a bay
on the east side of the island, and called it St. Sauveur. On a
well-sheltered point of Penobscot Bay a fit place to land was
found. There the tents presented by the Queen and the ladies
of the Court were pitched, and there the work of settlemeut
commenced.

7. The English colony of Virginia^ was then struggling into
existence. It was the custom of the people to send annually a
fleet of boats, under an armed convoy, to fish on the banks
around the " Seven Isles of the Shoals," some twenty-five leagues
south of the Penobscot. This year Samuel Argall, a man of
daring and unscrupulous character, but generous withal, com-
manded the convoy. Hearing from some Indians that French-
men were settling on Penobscot Bay, he promptly resolved to
treat them as invaders of English territory. By right of the
discoveries of the Cabots, King James claimed all the country
named Acadie, which was held by the French by virtue of the
explorations of John Verazzani. When it is considered that
the English and French nations were at peace, and that the
claims of both were vague and undefined, Argall's action ap-
pears unjustifiable.

8. The French sailors and settlers were on shore, busy plough-
ing and building, when a strange vessel was descried beating up

' Virginia. — So named by Sir Walter I virgin Queen of England, when he took
Ralegh in honour of Elizabeth, the I possession of the settlement in 1584.

DESTRUCTION OF ST. SAIIVEUR AND POUT ROYAL.

the mouth of the bay. Saussaye hurried his men on board Iiis
sliip, and, all unprepared, put out to meet the stranger. To the
sound of drum and trumpet, and with the red flag flying, Argall
jidvanr^d, and when within range, saluted the Frenchmen with a
volley of musketry. A cannon shot fired by Father du Thet
ilropi)ed harmlessly into the water. In reply, the English dis-
chargod their broadside, which tore up the timbers of the French
ship, and rolled the courageous priest, mortally wounded, on
the deck. The Frenchmen then struck their flag. The Eng-
linh landed, and plundered and destroyed the rising settlement.
By the craft of Argall (who privately caused the cherts of the
B'leuch commandant to be rifled), M. de la Saussaye could not
produce his commission from the French King ; so, when he was
accused of having invaded foreign territory, he could show no
warrant for his act. He, with Father Masse and fifteen others,
were sent adrift in an open boat. Fortunately, off the east
coast of Acadie they fell in with a French vessel, which bore
them away to France. The rest of the party were taken to
Virginia. Sir Thomas Dale, the Governor at Jamestown,
would have executed them summarily as pirates, but was
deterred by Argall, who then produced Saussaye's commis-
sion.

9. Next year Argall was again on the track of havoc. Father
Biard is vehemently accused of having disclosed to him,

from the grudge he bore to Biencourt, the fact of the 1614
existence of a French settlement at Port Royal. After a.d.
completing the ruin of the St. Sauveur settlement on
the Penobscot shore, he sailed for Passamaquoddy Bay, and on
the Island of St. Croix razed to the ground such buildings as
had been left standing. Crossing the Bay of Fundy (long
afterwards known as Argall's Bay), he plundered and destroyed
Port Royal ; and caused the names of De Monts, Poutrincourt,
Champlain, and others, and the fieur-de-lis of France, to be
erased from a massive stone. In a meadow, and standing on
the opposite sides of a stream, he and Biencourt had a stormy
interview. Each accused the other of piracy and robbery, and
they parted in mutual rage.

10. Knighted by King James, Sir Samuel Argall was shortly
afterwards appointed Governor of Virginia. Baron Poutrin-

DEATH OP PC I'RINCOURT.

court .abandoned his settlement at Port Royal. Tlie follow-
ing year he was slain at tl)e siege of Mesy, on the
1615 Seine. Buried at St. Just, in Champagne, liis epi-
A.D. taph bore testimony to his military virtues, and to the
difficulties lie had encountered in his Christian work of
establishing New France.

QuKHTioNH.— 1. By wliom was the
scheme of founding a colony on the Ht.
Lawrence revived? Give an account
of the founding of Quebec. What nar-
row escape did Champlaln make ? What
proposal gave him an opportunity of
exploring the country?

2. What lake was discovered ? How
were the Mohawks defeated? What
promise did his allies exact from Cham-
plain ?

8. Where did he go in the mean-
time? What disorders did lu; (Ind pre-
vailing on his return? What did the
chiefs propose to him? What reflec-
tion is made regarding the treatment
of the Indians ? What did Cliamplain
clearly see ? '

4. When did Poutrincourt return to
Port Royal? What charge had been
made against the former attempt at
colonization? Into what difficulty was
Poutrincourt led in trying to clear his
new enterprise of such a charge * What
solemn rite was performed by Ln

FlBche? What effect had it on the
Indians?

6. What change did the deatli of
Henry IV. bring about? Who became
especially zealous for the conversion of
the heathen? Who withdrew their
support from the colony? Who theu
became Poutrincourt's partners? How
was the next winter passed at Port
Royal ?

6. What led tlie Jesuit Fathers to
leave Port Royal? Where did they
found a new settljment Y

7. Who resolved to attack the new
settlers? On what ground? Why was
the action unjustifiable?

8. Describe Argall's attack on St.
Sauveur. What became of the French-
men?

9. What did Argall do tlie following
year? Where c.nd how did he and
Biencourt part?

10. How was Argftll rewarded for his
exploits? What was the fate of Pout-
rincourt?

LIEUTENANT-GRNERAT.9 OF NEW FRANCE

CHAPTER VI.

CHAMPLAIN.

1612 to 1616 A.D.

Lieutenant-Generals of New France.
Cointe de SolsHong.
Prince de Cond^.
Vignan the impostor.
Chanjplain ascends the Ottawa.
His disappointment.

H la troubles in France.
He visits the Huron country,
does to war against the Sunecas.
Repulse of the allied Indians.
Champlain detained a prisoner.
Lost in the woods.

1. Champlain, after his return to France in 1611, exerted him-
elf to secure a powerful patrr a for his colony, with the object
if establishing a centre of permanent authority. Charles de
Jourbon,^ Comte de Soissons, prevailed upon to give the in-
lueuce of his name and rank to ihe project, wiis created Lieu-
euaut-General of New France. By a commission, dated 15th
f October, Champlain was appointed his lieutenant, and was
a vested with absolute civil and military jurisdiction over the
olouy, and with exclusive trade privileges. The spread of the
Ionian Catholic religion, and the conversion of the savages,
fere mentioned as objects of paramount importance. Tlie
rade monopoly, of course, excited the wrath of the merchants
f the sea-ports. Their satisfaction was not concealed when, by
lie sudden death of the Comte de Soissony, it was rescinded,
lieir satisfaction, however, was short-lived.

2. Henri de Bourbon,^ Prince de Cond^, was appointed
jieutenant-General in room of the deceased Comte ; and the
ommission to Champlain was revived with all its powera and
rivileges. Champlain sought no^ the monopoly of trade for a
'Ifish purpose, but for the protection of his colony. He invited
lie clamorous merchants to join him. The strife of religious
ilferences was then very bitter. The Huguenots of Rochelle
sfused to associate with him, and with the Catholic traders

Charles d Bourbon. — Second son
f Louis Prince de Cond^, and cousin
' Henry IV. He died in 1612.
* Henn de Bourbon. — Grandson of

Louis Prince de Cond^, and nephew of
Charles, referred to in preceding note.
He died in 1646. His son Louis wis
the great Cond6, a famous soldjef .

ill

CHAMPLAIN ON THE OTTAWA.

Si!l't!!m:

of St. Malo and Ronen, who formed themselves into a body
of " Associated Merchants," preferring to run the risk of
carrying on illicit traffic. The obstructions that met Cham-
plain in his way, from the indifference of people in higii places,
and from the envy and jealousy of others, could only have been
surmounted by a most resolute spirit, fortified by the secret
belief that he was an instrument in the hands of Providence to
effect a great purpose. In the course of the winter, Nicolas
Vignan (an adventurer who had served with Champlain iu
Canada) appeared in Paris, and gave out that he had ascended
the Ottawa River to its source in a lake, and that he had fol-
lowed the course of a river that flowed into it until he reached a
great sea. Champlain listened eagerly to this tale. If it were
true (and Vignan, under threat of death by the hangman's cord
in event of its falsity being proved, maintained that it was true),
the question that had agitated discoverers since the time of
Christopher Columbus was solved, — the way to the East by the
west was found.

3. He did not require to be pressed by his friends at Court to
follow up this discovery. He crossed the AUantic in spring.

On the 27th of May, with Vignan and three other

1613 Frenchmen and one Indian, in two canoes, he left a

A.D. little island near the Island of Montreal, which he named

St. Hel^ne, in honour of his wife. Three days after-
wards he entered the mouth of the Ottawa, and saw its black
tide flowing through, without intermingling with, the blue-green
waters of the St. Lawrence. Above " the Lake of the Two
Mountains" an impetuous rapid checked his course, and the
party was compelled to drag the canoes through the thick
tangled woods. Beyond this " sault " the course was smooth ;
for leagues the river flowed gently past wooded banks some-
times level with the water's edge. But before long Champlain
was compelled to land. As he ascended, the river ran with great
force, and soon he saw the body of the stream dashing down a
steep chasm, and falling into a huge and deep " kettle," where,
frothing and bubbling, it swirled round with a mighty noise.
The upward voyage was arduous and difficult on account of the
ever-recurring " chuts" and cataracts. Above Chaudiere
Lake he entered the Lac du Chats, a beautiful expanse of soft

MEETING WITH TESSOUAC.

and <ylassy water. As he ascended, small islands divided the
descending waters into numerous falls. On one of them, the
Isle of St. Croix, he erected a cross of red cypress bearing the
arms of France. On his further way the canoes had sometimes
to be carried through forests swarming with mosquitoes, and
over or beneath huge prostrate trunks ; sometimes they had to
be drawn in the water by cords, near the edge of the banks,
on which there was slippery and dangerous footway.

4. At the Island of Calumet, which divided the river into
two arms, Champlain was welcomed by Nibachis, the chief of a
friendly tribe. With this escort he proceeded on his way.

OHAMPIiAIN 8 KXi'»LORATION OF THE OTTAWA.

passing frequent rapids and falls, and threading deep rocky
defiles, until the river expanded into Lake Colange. At the
Isle dAUumette he was met by Tessouac and his warriors.
The old Algonquin chief viewed Champlain with wonder, as
a man virho had fallen from the clouds. He could hardly be-
lieve that with so if'-'^ll a party he had made his way through
a country so difficult and dangerous. He gave a grand feast in
his honour. A solemn council was afterwards held, when Cham-
plain, through his interpreter, recounted the story told by
Nicolas Vignan, and expressed a hope that Tessouac would
assist him with men and canoes to ascend to the source of the
river, whence he might iind the great sea. The Indians heard

(473) 5

VIGNAN THE IMPOSTOR.

■•Mw

the story in silence ; but they looked askance at Vif^nan
(whom they knew, and who had passed a winter in their com-
pany), as if they would have eat^n him. But the old chief
broke out in fury, calling him liax. Nicolas, he said, had lain
down with his children and risen up with them. If he had
seen the people, the country, and the sea he had spoken of, it
must have been in his dreams.

5. The calm-tempered Champlain was transported with mo-
mentary rage when he found that he had been made the dupe
of an impostor. Vignan had to the last persisted in his
story, hoping that the difficulties of the way would break up
the expedition, while he would retain the reputation of having
made a great discovery. The Indians cried out, " Kill him with
tortures;" but the humane Champlain pardoned the wretch
after a full confession of his lie. He would fain have pursued
his journey to Lake Nipissing, where dwelt the tribe of the
Nipercini, or Sorcerers ; but Tessouac threw obstructions in the
way. He was forced to retrace his weary steps. A party of
Algonquin waniors accompanied him as far as the Chaudiere
Falls. On parting, he promised to accompany them and their
Huron allies on their next war expedition against the
Iroquois.

6. Trouble awaited Champlain on his return to France.
Trade jealousies gave him no rest. The merchants of Rochelle
intrigued for permission to trade to the St. Lawrence inde-
pendently of the Associated Merchants ; and they found men in
authority who abetted their pretensions. The Prince de Condd
even was accused of playing into their hands, and for a money
consideration of giving them passports that secured to them the
privileges of free trade. A facile disposition truly he must have
had, to pretend to be anxious to further the views of his friend
and lieutenant, and yet to permit those who were hostile to
them to approach himself with bribes ! Champlain found the
greatest difficulty in raising his enterprise above a mere trade
speculation. Nothing as yet had been done to promote the
spread of religion.

7. When he returned to Canada, he took out with him four
servants of the Church to minister to the wants of his own
people, and to convert the savages. The priests chosen as the

' (1

EXPEDITION TO THE HURONS. 67

fittest missionaries for New France were named Becollets, an

order of Franciscan monks of " the strict observance,"

who abjured all worldly ambition, and took the vow of 1615

])erpetual poverty. They wore a coarse, hooded gown, girt a.d.

with a knotted rope, and wooden sandals on their bare

feet. To Father d'Oilbeau was assigned the mission among the

Montagnais at Tadoussac ; Fathers Jamet and Pacifique du

Plessis were stationed at Quebec. Champlain chose Father le

Caron as his companion in his intended expedition to the Huron

country.

8. He found the Algonquins of the Isle d'Allumette im-
patiently waiting for him at Sault St. Louis. Imperative
business calling him to Quebec, he exacted a promise from them
that they would await his return. But his fickle allies, taking
with them Father le Caron and a few Frenchmen, were at the
Chaudiere Falls before he again reached the Isle of Montreal.
This insolent disiegard of his wishes mortified Champlain, and
his first angry impulse prompted him to abandon the expedi-
tion. If he had followed it, it might have been well for the
future peace of Canada. But he believed that he could not
extend his discoveries, and so promote the spread of religion
and commerce, without the goodwill of the Algonquins and
Hurons, and that he could not gain their friendship without
aiding them in their wars against the Iroquois. The benefits,
however, that were derived from an alliance with people so
intractable were very doubtful, while the evils that flowed to
Canada from the hostility to the French which his course
awakened among the " Five Nations," were very certain.

9. Passion for travelling conquered Champlain's irritation.
With his trusty interpreter, Etienne Brul6, the first of Canadian
voyageurs, and a crew of four Frenchmen, he ascended the
Ottawa to the Isle d'Allumette. He found the firs and
boulders of the country above it displeasing to his eye ; but
he remarked, as a signal instance of the goodness of Providence
to the inhabitants of so sterile a region, that it abounded in
wild fruit. On the borders of Lake Nipissing he was heartily
welcomed by the Nipercini, or Sorcerers. From the lake he
entered the French River, and the country along its course ap-
peared to him even more uninviting than that through which

MEETING WITH LE CARON.

he had passed. On the shores of Lac Attigoiiantin (the
Georgian Bay^ of Lake Huron) he encountered a friendly
people whom he called Les Cheveux Ilelev^s ; for no courtier in
France, he thought, had his hair dressed in so magnificent a
style.

10. Skirting along the rough, flat, and ill-wooded northern
shore of this lake, he passed many islands, and rejoiced in the
enormous trout and in the huge sturgeons, " of a marvellous
goodness," that were caught by his men. He was out many
days on this lake, which, from its vast extent, he called the
Fresh Sea. Coasting along its southern shore, he entered its
eastern extremity at Matchedash Bay.^ There his party landed,
and took the trail through a pleasant country of vale and
stream that led them to the bourgade of Otciaacha. On their
way they visited several other bourgades, and were every-
where received by the Huron people in the most kindly and
hospitable manner. At Cahiague, the principal town of the
country, Champlain met Father le Caron and the Frenchmen
who had preceded him. It was the 12th of August, and Father
le Caron (who rejoiced that it was his lot to be the first to pro-
claim the gospel in that heathen land) performed divine service,
returning thanks to God for their preservation amidst many
dangers.

11. Cahiague was situated at the north-eastern extremity
of Lake Simcoe. The fine country around it was well
adapted for wheat culture. Champlain saw fields of Indian
corn, pumpkins, and sunflowers from which the Indians ex-
tracted an oil. In the fir plantations hares and partridges
abounded. Plums, raspberries, strawberries, wild apples,
cherries, nectarines, and nuts were plentiful. Here on the 1st
of September the allied Hurons and Algonquin warriors as-
sembled for their expedition against the Iroquois. They ex-
pected the aid of five hundred Eries, who dwelt on the southern
shore of Lake Erie ; and a few resolute men, among whom was
Etienne Brul^, went forward to apprise them that the war
party had set out.

12. By a succession of lakes that formed an almost continuous

' Oeorgian Bay. — See Map, p. 92. ^ Maichedash Bay. — See Map, p. 92.

WAR WITH THE SENEGAS. 69

river through a country that looked like a grfeat pleasure-park,
Mnd which abounded in game, Champlain and the dusky
warriors, who fished, and hunted the bear and deer for their
daily support, made their way to the shore of Lake Entou-
hououns.^ They crossed its eastern extremity, and hid their
cauoes in the woods. They were now in the enemy's country,
and they moved cautiously. The object of their attack was
the castle of the Senecas, guarding the western end of the
Hue at the Eiver Genes see, between which and the Mohawk
River in the east the boirgades of the " Five Nations " were
situated. On the 10th of October they came in sight of it.
Against Champlain's advice the allied warriors rushed at once
to the attack ; but before they shot their arrows they poured
out a volley of abuse against their foes, who, crowding on the
galleries within the palisades, returned it vigorously, and
hurled down stones upon the foremost assailants. Champlaiu
and his few Frenchmen then stepped to the front. The balls
from their arquebuses whistling about the ears of the defenders
of the castle caused them to hide their heads. Several of the
Senecas were killed and wounded. The allies then retired and
encamped themselves out of sight of the foe.

13. Champlain rated them soundly for their want of disci-
pline. He taught them how they might ovei'power the volleys
of their foe by constructing a high covered r)latform that would
overlook the palisades, and from whence the arquebusier could
shoot down their defenders. He showed then also how to
make mantelets^ to protect themselves in advancing to set fire
to the palisades. They patiently set to work and constructed
the platform, and two hundred warriors pushed it within dis-
tance ; but, scorning the shelter of mantelets, they rushed into
the open fields and shot their arrows, which did little execution.
Champlain in despair roared himself hoarse in his endeavour
to restore discipline, but could not be heard above the furious
yelling of the combatants. He received two wounds, in the
thigh and knee. After fighting three hours, and suffering a
trifling loss, the allies grew discouraged, and drew off, saying that
they would await the arrival of the five hundred Erie warriors.

' Entouhonotins. — That is, Ontario.
' Mantelets, movable parapets, made

of boards, covered with skins or metaJ.
[Diminutive of mantle, a cloak. J

CHAMPLAIN A PRISONER.

14. After three days, when no aid appeared, they retreated
towards Lake Ontario, harassed by the foe. Champlaiu, cha-
grined, suffering from his wounds, confined in a sort of pannier,
and carried over rough ground on an Indian's back, endured
unspeakable torture of mind and body. The unreasonable
allies, though their want of discipline and perseverance had
alone prevented success, blamed him. They had imagined that
he carried assured victory with him ; but finding that their
" champion with the iron breast" was neither invulnerable nor
invincible, they failed to pay him superstitious respect as had
been their wont.

15. When they arrived at the shore of Lake Ontario the
chiefs broke the plight they made to Champlain before tlie
battle. None of them would take him to Sault St. Louis
by the route of the " great river" St. Lawrence, as they had
promised to do. He was compelled to accompany them, a
virtual prisoner, to the Huron country. He was indebted to
the chief Durantal for shelter. He spent the winter of liia
forced stay in hunting and in close observation of the mannei-s,
customs, and superstitions of the Indians. The results of his
observations are recorded in his published works. Once he lost
himself in the woods, and for two days and nights he wandered
about. He had given himself up for lost before he struck upon
the track by which he had entered. If he had perished in his

solitude, what would have become of infant Canada?

1616 Except himself, there was not a man in all France will-

A.D. ing to devote his life to its preservation. When in the

spring he and Father le Caron reached Sault St. Louis,
they were welcomed by Pontgravd and the Recollets as meu
who had risen from the grave.

Questions. — 1. Whose patronage
did Champlain secure for his new
colony in 1611 ? What was Champlain 's
own position? What objects were
held of paramount importance ? What
event gave satisfaction to the mer-
chants? Why?

2. Why was their satisfaction short-
lived? What dimculties had Cham-
plain to encounter ? What story fired
his enthusiasm ?

3. Describe Champlain's expedition

up the Ottawa. Who accompanied
him?

4. What occurred on the Isle d'Allu-
mette? What did Tessouao say of
Vignan's htory ?

5. How did Champlain receive the
discovery ? How did he treat the im-
postor ? Whither did he go?

0. What difficulties did Champlain
meet with in France ? Of what dupli-
city was the Prince de Cond6 accused ?

7. Whom did Champlain take with

'TP

QUESTIONS.

him on his return to Canada? How
were they distributed ? Where did lie
himself go?

8. What conduct of the Algonquins
annoyed him greatly? What waa his
first impulse? What prevented him
from following it?

9. In what direction did Champlain
travel? Who were his companions?
Describe his course.

10. Where did the party land ? Where
did they meet Le Caron ? ,

11. Describe the country around Lake
Simcoe, and its products. What ex-
l)edition was resolved on ?

12. In what direction did they pro-
ceed? What was the object of their
attack ? Describe the first encounter.

13. For what did Champlain reprove
his allies? What did he teach them?
What were the results ? What befell
Champlain ?

14. In what direction did the allies re-
treat ? On what ground did they blame
Champlain?

15. How did the chiefs break faith
with him? Where and how did he
spend the winter? When did he re-
turn to Sault St. Louis? IIow was he
received ?

INFANCY OF CANADA.

J!
Pii

CHAPTEK VII.

DIFFICULTIES OF FIRST SETTLEMENT.

1617 to 1626 A.D.

Precarious existence of Canada.

Due de Montmorency.

Intrigues of the Associated Merchants.

Champlain victorious.

Dismal state of Quebec.

Madame de Champlain.

Guillaume and Emery d« Caen

Due de Ventadour Viceroy.

The Jesuit Fathers.

Acadie.

Sir William Alexander.

Knights-Baronets of Nova Scotia.

1. For several years the infant colony of Canada passed a
precarious existence under the nominal sovereignty of the Prince
de Cond^, and in the hands of the "Associated Merchants,"
who quarrelled among themselves, and would do nothing to
advance its permanent interests. Champlain, when in France,
wiis surrounded by a network of intrigue. Every effort was
made to deprive him of his position as lieutenant under the
Viceroy. The persistency with which he urged upon the
Associated Merchants the duty of planting a colony, and of
maintaining priests for its spiritual welfare, was exceedingly irk-
some to them. They tried to evade their obligation by citing
the ill success of the efforts of De Monts to found a colony iu
Acadie. But Chtmiplain would not be diverted from the pur-
pose of his life by so irrelevant an excuse.

2. At this time the venal Prince de Cond^ disposed of his in-

terest in the viceroyalty to the Due de Montmorency,^

1619 Admiral of France, for 11,000 crowns. Champlaia

A.D. retained his position as lieutenant. By great efforts

arrangements were made to send out a body of eighty
colonists, including three RecoUet Fathers. Two years before,
Louis Hebcrt had taken out his wife and two children, and they
were the first regular settlers in Canada. To encourage the

' Due de Montmorency. — He was grand-
son of the Constable Montmorency who
was taken prisoner, along with Francis
I., at Pavia, 152.'>. lie joined in a plot

against Richelieu's government, and
was taken prisoner in a skirmish with
the royal troops. He was convicted,
and beheaded in 1632. Born 1595.

MADAME dt: champlain. 73

^rui'k of actual settlement, Champlain resolved to take his
louseliold with him. In 1611 he had married H^l6ne de
ioiilay, a young lady of great beauty and of pious mind. A
letermined eflFort was made by the Associated Merchants to
leprive him of the command of the colony. They intimated
hat Pontgrave would command at Quebec, while he would be
eft free to pursue his discovreries. But he refused to accept
his mandate. He hurried to Paris, pleaded and won his case
►efore the Royal Council, and then he caused the Royal Decree,
8t{iblishing him in his position as lieutenant, to be posted up
u the exchanges of all the sea-ports.

3. Champlain found the habitation of Quebec in a most de-
ilorable state, and the colony in a perishing condition.
Abuses introduced by the free-traders awakened his 1620
leap displeasure. In exchange for peltries they bartered a.d.
,way fire-arms and brandy. The poor red man took a

iolent liking for the fiery Uquid, which worked like poison in
lis blood, inflaming him to madness. Champlain gave imme-
liate orders for the construction of a stone fort on the summit of
, rock. Though clothed with full authority under the Viceroy,
le could not command the power of the purse. The Associated
^lerchants could not see the necessity of fortifying Quebec.
['he advances they made were small and intermittent, and so
he work of the fort made slow progress. Madame de Cham-
)lain was not dismayed by the rude scene in which she found
lerself, but entered with enthusiasm into the work of instruct-
ng the Indian children, whose hearts were won by her beauty,
ler benignity, and her pretty trinkets.

4. Owing to the non-fulfilment of their obligation to colonize
lie country, the Associated Mer(»hants were temporaiily
leprived of their privileges. The monopoly of the 1621
rade was granted to two Huguenot gentlemen, Guil- a.d.
aume and Emery de Caen, on condition that they would

;end out to Canada none but native Frenchmen and Roman
Catholics. The Associated Merchants were shortly afterwards
tdmitted to a share in the profits of the concern ; but the
uterests of the colony were little advanced by the new ar-
angement. An element of religious discord was introduced,
yhich caused scandal, and roused the wonder of the Indians.

74 THE JESUIT FATHERS.

De Caeu's Huguenot sailora, debarred from attending divine
service on land, roared out their psalmody from the decks of their
vessels, which lay moored by the banks of the St. Lawrence.

5. The state of the colony was very dismalt It was little
cared for at home ; it was rent by dissensions, and exposed to
the onslaught of foes from without. The Iroquois, perceiving its

feeble condition, sent out three war parties to extirpate

1622 the Frenchmen at one fell swoo]). The Montagnais,

A.D. Hurons, and Algonquins, hitheito friendly, evinced a

disposition to join them in their onslaught. But the
dangers were averted. The example set by Champlain in bring-
ing out his family was not followed by any one in France. By
reason of the irregular arrival of ships he was often in want of

necessary things ; and he did not choose that his wife

1624 should be exposed to privations. Her first glowing en-
A.D. thusiasm had waned. He returned home ; and

Madame de Champlain retired to a convent.

6. The Due de Montmorency was succeeded by his nephew,

Henri de Levi, Due de Ventadour. He was a spiritual

1625 enthusiast. From the splendour of the Court of Paris
A.D. he had retired to the seclusion of a convent. The great

objects he held before his eyes were, the spread of the
JRoman Catholic religion, and the conversion of the savages,
under his auspices. Fathers Lallemant, Masse (who had
survived the disaster in i^cadie), Fran9ois, and Gilbert, of
the Order of Jesus, were chosen and equipped for the work.
On their first arrival in Canada, the Jesuit Fathers had to en-
counter a hostility systematically encouraged by the Huguenot
merchants. Emery de Caen received them with the chilliest
civility. To the RecoUets they were indebted for temporary

shelter in their convent on the River St. Charles. In

1626 ^^^ following year they were joined by Fathers Noyrot
A.D. and Anne de Noue, whr brought with them several

workmen. They were soon independent of the hospi-
tality of the "gray gowns." The establishment they raised
formed quite an addition to Quebec. Still, outside the floating
population during the open season, there were not more than
fifty-five actual residents, agriculturists, artisans, and labourers,
in the habitation.

SIR WILLIAM ALEXANDER. 75

7. It will uow be conveuient to relate the events tha* occurred
iu Aca4ie after the descent of Argall upon Port Royal. Bien-
court still held possession of the country, and claimed to be its
commaudant under the French King. With his lieutenant,
young Charles de la Tour, he lived among the Micmacs, dressed
after tlieir fashion, and with them fished and hunted. Aid and
encouragement were sent to him by his friends in France.
When the RecoUets established themselves in their convent
(1620) on the St. Charles, they sent missionaries to the Nepi-
siguit, to the mouth of the St. John, to Port Royal, and to Cape
Sable. They were the first Europeans who penetrated the un-
broken wilderness between the Bay of Chaleur and the Buy of
Fundy.

8. The expedition of Argall paved the way for the occupation
of Acadie by the English. King James, in 1614, granted to Sir
Fernando Gorges and other gentlemen, who formed the
"Association of the Grand Council of Plymouth," all the
territory from the 40th to the 48th degree of north latitude, to
which the name of New England was given. In 1620 they re-
ceived a charter. One of the members of this Grand Council
was a Scottish knight. Sir William Alexander,^ gentleman
iisher to Prince Charles, and a member of the Privy Council.
He had an enthusiastic imagination and a patriotic mind. He
saw a New Spain, a New France, and a New England established
ou the American Continent, and he conceived the project of
fouuding a New Scotland.

f\ Through his influence with King James, he obtained a
concession of Cape Breton and the Peninsula, and all
the lands between the Bay of Fundy and the River St. 1621
Lawrence, and from the River St. Croix on the west to a.d.
the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the east. The charter
was granted on the 20th of September, and the territory was
called Nova Scotia. Sir William boasted that while other
preceding patents had been imaginarily limited by the degrees
of heaven, hk was the first national patent that was ever
clearly bounded in America by particular limits upon earth.

* Sir William ALixander. — Born 1580,
died 1640. In 1(530 he was made a
viscouut, and afterwards became Earl

of Stirling. He was an intimate friend
of the poet Drummond of Hawthorn-
den, and was himself a sltilful versifler.

NOVA SCOTIA.

NOVA SCOTIA, 1621 A.D.

Under his auspices the Scotch made a settlement and built a

fort on the west side of the basin of Port Boyal, oppo-

loJJ gj^e Goat Island. But they did not interfere with the

^'^' French who were already settled in Acadie.

10. The La Tours continued to occupy land within Nova Scotia,

Claude, the father, built a fort at the mouth of the St.

Id Jo John. When Biencourt died, CharleSj the son, suc-

' * ceeded to the nominal dignity of Commandant of Acadie,

and maintained himself in Fort Louis on the harbour of

L'Omeron at Cape Sable. On the death of King James the

1ft OK grant to Sir William Alexander was confirmed by

Charles I. At this time the order of the Knights-

Baronets of Nova Scotia^ was founded, and cou-

A.D.

' Knights-Bara.iets of Nova Scotia. —
The first order of Baronets was insti-
tuted by James I. in 1611, in connection
with a scheme for the colonization of
Ulster, in Ireland. The Baronets of

Ireland were created in 1619, and those
of Nova Scotia in 1625. Since the Irish
Union (1801), all Baronets have been
styled in their patents Baronets of the
United Kingdom.

THE KNIGIITS-BARONFTS.

Bi'sted of one hundred and fifty members. They received ex-
tensive grants of hind on condition of sending out settlers.
Their patents were ratified by Parliament. The insignia of the
order were designed. A gieat idea floated through the brain of
Sir William. He would transplant the feudal institutions of
his country to the New World. His Nova Scotia, divided into
the provinces of CaleL onia and Alexandria, and separat'^d from
New England by another Tweed — the St. Croix — would take
a proud place among the young nations created by the old
kingdoms of Europe on the American Continent.

QiTKHTioNR. — 1. What were the causes
of tlie precarious existence passed by
Canada for some years? What duty
did Champlain urge on the Associated
Merchants ? How did they try to evade
their obligation?

2. Who succeeded the Prince deCond^
in the viceroyalty ? Who were the first
regular settlers in Canada ? How did the
Associated Merchants intrigue against
Champlain ? What was the result ?

3. In what condition did Champlain
And Quebec ? What great abuses had
the free-traders introduced? What
prevented tlie fortifying of Quebec?
How did Madame de Champlain occupy
herself?

4. On what condition did the De Caens
receive the trade monopoly ? How did
the religious discord operate ?

5. What new danger threatened the
colonists ? What effect had the priva-
tions to which Madame de Champlain
was exposed ?

6 By whom was the Due de Mont-

morency succeeded? Wliat were his
great aims? Whom did he send out
for this work? What difficulties did
the Jesuit Fathers encounter? How
many actual residents were there in
Quebec ?

7. What became of Biencourt after
the destruction of Port Royal? Who
were the first Europeans who penetrated
the forests between Chaleur Bay and
the Bay of Fundy?

8. For what did Argall'e expedition
pave the way? To whom did King
James grant a wide territory? To
whom did the project occur of found-
ing a New Scotland ?

9. What concession did he obtain T
What name was given to the territory ?
Where did the Scotch make a settle-
ment?

10. Who succeeded Biencourt as Com-
mandant of Acadie ? What new order
of knighthood was established in 1626 ?
What great idea possessed Alexandei'a
brain ?

F.EEBLE STATE OF CANADA.

CHAPTER VIII.

FIRST CAPTURE OF QUEBEC.

1627 to 1635 A.D.

Unsatisfactory state of affairs.
Cardinal Richelieu.

New Company of vhe One Hundred As-
sociates
War between France and England.
Admiral Kirkt seizes Port Royal.
Champlain refuses to surrender Quebec.

French fleet captured by that of Great

Britain.
Quebec taken.

Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye.
Restoration of Canada and Acadie.
The last labours of Champlain.
His death.

1. When Champlain returned to Quebec he found that affairs
had gone on very ill in his absence. The half -finished
1627 stone fort was in the same condition in which he had
A.D, left it three years before. It was evident to him that
decisive measures ought to be taken to rescue Canada
from the hands of the traders, and to put an end to religious dis-
sensions. Either Huguencts or Catholics might form a colony
by themselves ; but while tlie commerce was mainly in the hands
of the former, .^nd spiritual affairs were in those of the latter,
there could be neither progress nor peace. The founding of Nova
Scotia and the creation of the knights-baronets had the effect
of siirring up the frie'Td.» of New Fra,ncc. Champlain viewed
with displeasure the pretensions of the English to found a New
England 8,nd a New Scotland in territory which, he held, be-
longed b} right of discovery to France. It was necessary to
take ^teps to reassert he claims. A vivid representation of
the feeble state of Oanada was laid before the Royal Council
p.! Paris

'^. Cardinal Richelieu,^ a statesman of enlightened views,
and of liberal ideas when external grandeur was concerned,
was at the head of affpirs in France. He approved of a project

' Cardinal Richelieu. — The powerful
minister of L)ui3 XIII. Born 1585,
uied 1G42. lie was the great opponent
of ihe Huguenots. Having crushed
them, he devoted all his powers to the

vork of humbling the House of Ansti a,
then the greatest power in Europe.
He founded the French Academy, and
was a liberal patro's of men of letter*
anf! science.

THE NEW COMPANY.

iibmitteJ to him by a number of gentlemen of the priiac^pal
owns of Frcince. Accordingly, a royal charter was granted to
he " New Company of the Hundred Associates," ceding to
hem all New France, including Florida, Canada, Acadie, New-
oundland, and all the islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, on
he feudal tenure of fealty and homage. Power was given
hem to grant lands in large and small concessions, to give
itles, and to erect duchies, marquisates, counties, and baronies.
'hey were accorded the monopoly of the fur-trade in per-
etuity, and of all other commerce except the fisheries for
fteeu years. In return for these extensive privileges they
(H-eed to send out three hundred workmen of all trades in
628, and to increase the number to four thousand by the year
653. Tbey bound themselves to eelect only Frenchmen and
loman Catholics ; to house and support the settlers for three
ears ; to assign to them cleared lands, with implements of cul-
LU'e and seeds ; and to maintain for fifteen years three priests
1 every habitation. They entered into an agreement, subject
a penalties in the event of their not fulfilling it, to send out
fteei hundred settlers during the first ten years. The ^ ^ ^ ^
Let confirming the establishment of the New Company ^"^o
eceived the assent of Louis XIII., and was proclaimed
y an edict dated 6th of May, given in the camp before Rochelle.
3. Fourteen months before, an expedition undertaken by the
)ukeof Buckingham 1 to relieve the Huguenots of that " proud
/ity of the Waters "^ had failed disastrously at the Island of B\i6.
'here being theu a state of war between France and England,
lir William Alexander thought it an opportune time to make
limself master of the country which had been granted to him.
Jnder his patronage David Kirkt, son of a Scotchman natural-
zed in France, received a commission from Charles I. to seize
Quebec and all the French forts in Acadie. Along with his
irothers Louis '>n 1 Thomas, and with the assistance of his
riends, he equipped a dozen vessels. He seized Port Royal,

' Duke of Buckingham. — George Vll-
iers, the profligat'5 favourite of Jsi^^eA
., the " Steenie" of Scott'? Fortunes of
Hgel. Born 1592, died 1628. He went
r' Portsmouth to superintend tho pre-
arations for tL^ deprture of a sec id

expedition to La Rochelle, While
there, John Felton, a half-cazed officer
whom he had disappointed, stabbed
him, and he died almost immediately.
'■* Proud City of the Waters. — La Roch-
elle. See Macaulay's ' ' Battle of Iv vy. "

80 CHAMPLATN IN DIRE STRAITS.

and took formal possession of the country for Sir William.
In the Gulf of St. Lawrence he captured a vessel fitted out by
the New Company to aid Quebec, on board of which was Claude
de la Tour.

4. Champlain, at Quebec, was anxiously awaiting the arrival
of ships from France, when he heard with dismay that there
was an English fleet at Tadoussac. A peremptory summons
from Admiral Kirkt to surrender was conveyed to him. As-
suming a confidence he scarcely felt, he indignantly refused to
give up his post. Kirkt, deceived by this bold tone, sailed off,
leaving a threat behind that he would return in spring.

5. Scarcely had this danger disappeared when a swift-sailing
pinnace brought Champlain intelligence that M. de Royemont,
convoying several vessels freighted by the New Company, had
arrived in the Gulf. Fast on the heels of this cheering news
came the tale of disaster. The French officer, rashly disobey-
ing the positive orders to relieve Quebec at all hazards and to
shun the enemy, after lightening his vessels at Gasp^, went iu
pursuit of Admiral Kirkt. He encountered the British fleet,
and was defeated, with the loss of his ships.

6. Champlain was now left in dire straits to face the long
and dreary winter. After levying on the fields of the priests
and of Madame Hebert, he could scarcely gather the scantiest
subsistence for his people. In these circumstances Father Lal-
lemant, superior of the Jesuits, embarked with the greater
body of the establishment for France, with the intention of
returning with succour in th«! spring. But he did not come
oack to cheer the denizens of the rock. On his return voyage
his vessel was wreckv^d off the Isle of Canceau, and of all the
crew he alone escaped to find his way back to France.

7. Champlain revolved in his mind many schemes for dis-
persing his people until the return of better times. "With
infinite trouble a small barque was fitted out, and Boulay, his
brother-in-law, and thirty men, were despatched in the spring

to France, with urgent demands for aid. Off Gasp^
1629 Boulay met Emery tie Caen, who told him that there
A.D. was peace between France and England. Eeturning
with the joyful news to Quebec, he fell into the hands
ij of Admiral Kirkt, who was again in the Gulf or St. Lawrence.

QUEBEC TAKEN AND RESTORED.

8. One morning in July, as Champlain sat alone in his fort
occupied with melancholy musings, an English vessel appeared
3ff Point Levi. He now received the summons to surrender
IS a relief. He stipulated that he, with such of his people as
were unwilling to remain under English rule, should be con-
t^eyed to France. Then, for the first time, the red cross flag
was hoisted above the rock of Quebec. Louis Kirkt remained
in command. At Tadoussac the Admiiul received Champlain
with, the greatest courtesy, but refused to believe that there was
jeace between the two countries. He had been at very great
expense in equipping his fleet, and he hoped that the capture
)f Quebec would indemnify him. When he ascended the river
;o vlow his prize, and saw some fifty half-starved people on a
aare rock, and a few pieces of cannon and some old arms and
irmour, he could not conceal his chagrin.

9. Peace had been concluded between France and England
it the Convention of Susa,^ on the 24th of April 1629; so the
capture of Quebec was an act of piracy, and not of war. But
the Eoyal Council was little disposed at first to demand its
restitution. There was a party strongly prejudiced against the
country, who held that Canada was no acquisition to France,
rt required all Champlain's influence and most vigorous repre-
seuuitions of the immense value of its furs, its fisheries, and its
Forests, to meet these objections. He fortified his material ar-
guments by showing that Canada oflfered a glorious field for
proselytism ; and that if England were allowed to occupy both
banks of the St. Lawrence, she would become all-powerful in
America.

10. Considerations of religion and national honour turned
the scale. Louis XIII. demanded restitution of all the places
captured by the English since the war. Out of the negotiations
that eu.^ued grew the treaty that was signed at St.
Oermain-en-Laye,^ on the 27th of March, by which 1632
King Charles I. restored to the French Crown Canada a.d.
and Acadie.

11. The attempt of Sir William Alexander to settle Nova
Scotia under his grand scheme was utterly unsuccessful.

* Susa. — A town in the north of Italy,
Bl miles west of Turin.

(473)

' St. Germain - en - Laije. — A town in
France, 10 miles north-west of Prtris.

ClIAMPLAIN GOVERNOR OF CANADA.

His knights-baronets did not carry out the object of their crea-
tion. When Claude de la Tour was brought to England by
David Kirkt (1628) he was caressed and flattered by Sir Will-
iam, and persuaded, not only to change his own allegiance, but
to engage that his son should do the same. Both the La Toui-s
appear to have been men of enterprising and energetic char-
acter, of fine address and persuasive manners ; but personal
interest was their first consideration. Claude was

1629 created a Baronet of Nova Scotia, with the title of Sir
A.D. Claude Saint-Etienne, Seigneur de la Tour and Vaure;

his son's name appeared on the roll as Sir Charles

Saint-Etienne de la Tour, Seigneur de Saint-Deniscourt and

Baigneux. The following year Sir William, then Earl

1630 of Stirling, made them a free gift of the country from
A.D. Cape Jebogue to La H6ve. Sir Claude married a lady

of the Court. When he returned to Nova Scotia, he
failed to persuade his son to accept the honours that had been
conferred upon him, or to become a subject of King Charles.
He consequently lost all credit in England, and was looked 6d

with suspicion by his own countrymen. He was com-

1632 pelled to accept shelter from his son. After the Treaty
A.D. of St. Germair, Isaac de Razilli was appointed Com-
mandant of Acadie.

12. The New Company did not enter into full possession
of New France until 1633. The Caens, who had lost much by

the war, were accorded the privileges of the fur-trade

1633 <^f the St. Lawrence for one year. Champlain was ap-
A.D. pointed Governor of Canada. With joy and thanks-
giving he returned to his habitation cf Quebec. Wit

him came two hundred people of varied degree —priests, gentle-
men, adventurers, artisans, and labourers. In memorial of the
happy recovery, a chapel was erected to Notre Dame de Recouv-
rance, close to Fort St. Louis.

13. Champlain's days of adventure, discovery, and war were
now over. He devoted himself to the interests of the New
Company, extended the fur-trade, erected s<F'veral posts above
Quebec, and sedulously endeavoured to exclude the English
from Canada. In the intervals of his secular employment he
gave himself to religious exercises. The formation of a mia-

DEATH OF THE FOUNDER OF CANADA.

onary settlement in the Huron country, which had long
ciipied his mind, was commenced by Fathers Brebceuf and
auiel. His career was drawing to a close. The result of
lirty years' devoted toil was not visibly great. He could not
i coufideut that all danger was averted from his infant colony.
.e could only hope that Providence, who had watched over it
its darkest days, would preserve it in those to come. When
le father and founder of Canada passed away on -^qr
liristmas-day, every member of the colony felt that J-""0
; had suffered a personal loss, and mourued for him * '
1 for a dear relation. The Indians among whom he had lived
menibered with wouder the purity of his life.

Questions. — 1. When did Chani-
*in return to Quebec? For wliat pur-
se did he see that decisive measures
ire required? What effect liad the
uation of the knights-baronets? What
;p was taken to reassert tlie claims of
ance?

2. Who was then at the head of affairs
France ? To whom was a new charter
anteu? On wliat conditions were its
ncessions made?

3. What project did Sir William
lexander form? Give an account of
irkt's expedition.

i. How did Champlain ward off
irkt's threatened attack?

5. What good news soon reached
lebec? By what tale of disaster was
followed?

6. What were Charaplain's prospects
r the winter? What plan was adopted

to relieve the settlement? What was
the fate of Lalleraant's expedition?

7. On what mission was Boulay de-
spatched ? What befiiU him ?

8. In what circumstances was Quebec
surrendered to Kirkt?

9. What different views prevailed in
France regarding the value of Canada?

10. Which views prevailed? What
was the main provision of the Treaty of
St. Germain?

11. What was the result of Sir Will-
iam Alexander's grand scheme ? Wb at
occurred during La Tour's residence in
England? How were his proposals re-
ceived in Nova Scotia?

12. In what circumstances did Cham-
plain return to Quebec in 1633? How
was its recovery commemorated?

13. Give an account of the close of
Champlain's career. Where did he die ?

THE POWER OF THE CHURCH.

i III

i'li

l|i

Ml;

CHAPTER IX.

THE KULE OF THE CHUHCH.

1636 to 1649 A.D.

M. de Montmagny.

The Jesuit Fathers.

Colleges, Seminaries, Hospitals.

The Huron Mission.

Founding of Ville Marie de Montreal.

Incursions of the Iroquois.

Dangers incurred by missionaries.

Maisonneuve at La Place d'Armes.

New Company fail to perform obliga-
tions.

Deceptive truce with Iroquois.

Continued prosperity of the Huron
Mission.

Its total destruction.

1. Canada now entered upon a period of great trial. M. Bras-
de-fer Chastefort administered the affairs of the colony
1636 until the arrival of the new Governor, Charles Hiialt
A.D. de Montmagny, Knight of Malta.^ Both by training and
by temperament he was disposed to enter earnestly into
the views of the Jesuit Fathers, who had now full sway in the
colony. By order of the Hundred Associates, the Eecollets
had been recalled, on the ground that their vows of perpetual
poverty unfitted them for being missionaries in a country from
which they could not draw their support. The power of the
priest was now predominant. One of the Fathei*s said, to live in
Quebec was t^ live in Heaven — in the bosom of God. Their small
chapel was crowded every morning and every evening. The
Governor-General and the gentlemen of birth and fortune who
had accompanied him to Canada, with their wives and daughtei^,
attended all the services. Absentees were noted and punished.
A placard against blasphemy was posted on a stake near the
church, and to the stake were attached a chain and a dog-collar.
A wooden horse stood hard by, on which offenr^ers against the
strict code of the Church were mounted. The liquor traffic

* KnigJit of Malta. — The Kni,:ht8 of
Malta, or Knights Hospitallers of St.
John of Jerusalem, were a military-
religious order, founded in 1099, during
the first crusade, to afford shelter to
the pilgrims at Jerusalem. When

Jerusalem fell again into the hands of
the infdels, they retired to Acre.
After living successively in Acre,
Cyprus, Rhodes, Candia, and Sicily,
they received Malta from the Emperor
Charles V. in 1580.

COLLEGES AND SEMINAIIIES. 85

ivas strictly forbidden. In these days the temporal and spiritual
luthorities were united. Against the sentence of the priest
ihere was no appeal. Some of the inhabitants chafed sorely
inder this rigid control, and appealed to the Court for a mitiga-
;ion of it. Their grievances were not listened to. The people
jvere restrained by the power of the Church.

2. The letters or " Relations " that Father le Jeune, the
superior, sent annually to France aroused the enthusiasm of the
aious ; and his appeals for aid called forth charitable endow-
neuts from the wealthy. Within the following ten years the
ariucipal colleges, seminaries, and hospitals of Quebec were
■ounded. The Jesuit College, endowed by Ren^ Rohault,
Tiandson of the Marquis of Gamache, was established in this
^ear (1636). The next year the institution at Silleii — called
ifter the founder, the Marquis Noel Bruart de Silleri — was
commenced on a small clearing in the seigneurie of Beauport.
A. dozen families of Christian Algonquin Indians were settled
there. The Fathers had striven, ever since their arrival in
Canada, to found a Hospital for the cure of the sick, and a
Seminary for the instruction of young girls. The Duchess
d'Aiguillon undertook the foundation of the Hotel Dieu, and
engaged for the office of mercy the willing services of three
hospital nuns of Dieppe. Madeleine de Chauvigny, Madame
de ia Peltrie, a young and childless widow, who had adopted
the religions life, devoted her wealth and her energy (in spite of
the remonstrances of her friends) to the work of establishing
the Seminary. A worthy coadjutress was found in Madame
Guyart, afterwards known as Ste. Marie de i'lncarnation,
whom the Fathers chose to be the superior, on account of her
remarkable faculty for business and management. Quebec
kept holiday when Father Vimond, appointed supe-
rior in succession to Le Jeune, with Madame de la 1639
Peltrie and the sisterhood, arrived. The devotion and a.d.
courage of the nuns were severely tested soon after,
when an epidemic spread in the town and the country aiouud,
and filled to overflowing the roomd ol the hospital and of tha
mission house at Silleri. A school for the instruction of Indian
children was opened by Father le Jeune on his coming to
Canada. He had only two pupils at frat, and never more than

iilfl

86 THE HURON MISSION.

a score ; but he said that he would not exchange his post for
a seat in the highest university in Europe. The savage in-
stincts of his young scholars rebelled against restraint, aud
they deserted him. The unwillingness of Indian parents to
live separated from their children was an invincible obstacle to
the success of the Seminary of Notre Dame des Anges, foiindetJ
in 1630.

3. The difficulties //) the way of establishing missions were
very great ; and the result, except to the eye of faith, appeared
quite disproportionate to the peril incurred and the misery en-
dured. Father le Jeune followed a party of Moutagnais to
their winter encampment. He endured, half-starved, the
alternate scorching heat and biting cold, the blinding smoke
and the tilth of their wigwams, and returned to Quebec in
spring, a wreck of himself, without having made a single con-
vert. The Indians generally were very docile, and gave ready
assent to the truths that were told them ; but they quickly
forgot them when out of the presence of the priest. Mis-
sionaj'ies were in consequence appointed who lived with the
wandering tribes, and followed them in all their hunting and
fishing expeditions.

4. The chief mission was in the Huron country, situated
between the great lakes ; a position that made it an admirable
centre for trade. Its people were the most intelligent and the
most prosperous of all the Canadian tribes. They had a
population of 20,000, distributed in thirty-two villages. Fathers
Breboeuf, Daniel, and Davoust, settled first in Ihontiria or
St. Joseph, near the site of the modern Penetanguishine. A
rude cabin of bark served for a chapel, and for a dormitory
and refectory, which were separated from each other by a
door. This door greatly puzzled the savages who daily came
to visit the Fathers^ only to sit smoking and silent for
hours. The Fathers rose at four in the morning, and gave
tlieir first hours to devotion in the chapel ; during the forenoon
they were accessible to all ; they then went out to speak with
the labourers in the fields, and to visit the sick. In the even-
ing they again held service ; and for an hour before retiring
consvlted over the prospects of the mission, wrote their lettei's,
or instructed one another in the native language. Thej lived

Hostility of the conjitreus. 87

exiled from everything held dear by men of education and
retiuement ; they endured persecutions, and abode in the per-
petual fear of death from the most frightful tortures.

5. There was an active heathen party in the country who
clung to the ancient customs and superstitions, and who re-
garded prayers, chants, and sacraments as spells that worked
theiu harm. The medicine men or conjurers thought that
their otHce was invaded, and were very hostile to the Fathers.
They kept alive ridiculous prejudices : if a child that had been
baptized fell sick, they whispered that it was in consequence of
the rite ; and the parents looked upon the priests with an evil
eye. Every misfortune that befell the nation after the coming of
the " black robes " wjis attributed to them. But the Fathers,
by their courage, their calmness, and their patience under
provocation, by their great charity and tender care of the sick,
won their way into the hearts of the body of the people. They
did not escape the tongue of scandal ; their enemies charged
them with making rich profits by the fur-trade. So pointed
was the accusation, that the directors of the New Company
thought it necessary to issue a refutation of the charge. In a
few years Breboeuf and his colleagues were joined by other
priests, and missions were established in all the four nations
into which the Hurons were divided.

6. During this period of spiritual fervour the foundf.tion of
the city of Montreal was laid. It owed its birth to religious
enthusiasm. The " Relations " of the Jesuit Fathers circulated
'"n France, and awakened among the devout much interest in
Canada. It is recorded that a M. de la Dauversiere and Father
Olier, a priest of Paris, who had previously been strangers to
each other, met in the gallery of the chateau of Meudon,^ and
recognized each other, as by inspiration, as destined co-labourers
in a great work. They communed together, and resolved to
found on the Isle of Montreal a Seminary, Hotel Dieu, and
College, to be consecrated to Christ, St. Joseph, and the Virgin.
The zeal of the Baron de la Fauxchamps and other wealthy
devoteee was kindled ; the Society of Notre Dame de Mon-
treal, numbering forty-five members, was formed. They pur-

' Meudon. — A small town on the I a royal palace and park. It has now a
Seuie ; five miles wot of PatJ. It has | station on the railway to Vei sallies.

88 VILLE-MARIE DE MoNTUEAL.

chased the Island of Montreal from M. de Lausou, one of the
Hundred Associates. They decided to confine their efforts at
first to the establiahment of the Hospital. Paul de Chomedy,
Sieur de Maisonneuve was appointed Governor, with forty-five
men under him. He was a brave and experienced soldier, and
a devoted servant of the Church. Mademoiselle Jeanne Mauce
wjis called from the seclusion of a convent to be nurse and
housekeeper of the colony.

7. Previously to the departure of the expedition, the Associates

met in the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, and conse-

1641 crated Ville-Marie de Montreal to the Holy Family.

A.D. Maisonneuve and his band remained ayear about Quebec,

and M. Montmagny betrayed some symptoms of jealousy
at the honours paid to the Governor of Ville-Marie. Attempts
were made to deter him from proceeding further, by representing
the dangers to which he would be exposed from the attacks of
the savages. But he exclaimed, that he had come to found a
colony, and he would go though every tree were an Iroquois.

8. In the following spring he ascended the river, accompanied
by the Governor-General, Superior Vimond, and Madame de la
Peltrie, who entered with enthusiasm into the spirit of the
work. On the 17th of May they landed on a tongue of laud
formed by the junction of the rivulet Caiiere with the St.
Lawrence. Tents were pitched on a meadow, and an altar
was erected in the open air. To the north-west rose the moun-
tain, and green forests encircled their camping-ground. M.
Montmagny formally handed" over the island to Maisonneuve ;
and the superior commended the colony to the protection of
Heaven, likening it to a grain of mustard-seed, whence would
spring a tree which would grow until its branches overspread
the earth. As the evening closed, fire-flies flickered over the
meadow ; numbers were caught and strung into a glistening
festoon which was hung upon the altar.

9. When M. Montmagny first airived in Canada, the
Iroquois kept comparative peace ; but now they commenced to
carry terror throughout the colony, and to wage a war of ex-
termination against the tribes allied with the French. The
great dread that the fire-arms of the French had first caused
them had passed away, and numbers of the Mohawk warrors

INCURBIONS OF THE IROQUOIS. 89

vcre supplied with carbiues by the Dutch traders of Man-
lattan. Their war parties went out generally in the spring ;
Kit as their audacity increased with success, and their rage for
(laughter grew hotter, they did not wait for the melting of the
mow or the breaking up of the ice. The Mohawks, or Lower
[loquoib, ascended by Lakes Sacrament and Champlain and
he Kiver Eichelieu ; while parties lay in ambush on the
outheru bank of the St. Lawrence, and about the isles of
^ike Sfr. Peter, and descended at Three Rivers and Quebec,
)tliers made their way above the Sault, and crouched perdu
)u some of the islands of Lake St. Louis, waiting to pounce on
he Algonquins and Hurons coming down the Ottawa in their
■anoes loaded with peltrie for the annual trade. The Upper
loquois — the Oneidas, Cayugas, Onondagas, and Senecas, on
he other side — crossed the eastern extremity of Lake Ontario,
md made their way into the Huron country by Lake Simcoe ;
hey ascended by the Georgian Bay of Lake Huron to French
River and Lake Nipissing, carrying havoc over all the region
)f the Upper Ottawa. They did not at first declare war
igainst the Hurons ; but, on pretence of revenging private in-
inlts, cut off detached parties, and destroyed small outlying
ullages. A general feeling of insecurity was spread over the
;oimtry ; and the people, instead of combining for defence, al-
owed the insults to pass unavenged.

10. The Iroquois, with a view of detaching the French from
Jieir alliance with the Hurons, made overtures of peace. M.
Montmagny, anxious to secure repose for the colony, met their
lelegates at Three Rivers. The orator assured Ononthio, as he
called Moutmagny (a name which the Indians gave to all suc-
ceeding Governor-Generals) that his nations had nothing so much
it heart as to live in amity with the French. While he was
jpeaking a party of Algonquins appeared ; the Iroquois broke
ip the solemn conclave and made a rush upon the canoes, and,
the intense mortification of Montmagny, despoiled them be-
tore his eyes. The Jesuit Fathers were exposed to dreadful
langera in their journeys between Quebec and the Huron
:;oiintry, both from the climate and the foe. Anne de None
perished in a snow-drift. Father Jogues was captured by a band
3f Mohawks, and carried to their canton, where he was treated

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DO DANGKRS OF MISSIONARY LIFE..

with maligu cruelty and indignity. By the aid of a Dutch
officer he escaped, and made his way to France. The story of
his sufferings, to which his body bore testimony, excited lively
sympathy at Court. Two years afterwards he returned to
Canada. Father Bressani was taken by a party of the sanM
warriors, and abused with surpassing malice; their hungry
dogs were set to devour their food on his naked body. But he
also survived the horrors of his captivity, and lived for nianv
years afterwards, and often thrilled by his eloquence crowded
congregations in his native Italy.

11. Ville-Marie enjoyed a brief period of repose. The pious
fervour that created it did not subside. Objections v/ere raised
by persons who were not in a state of spiritual exaltation that
fetes and ceremonies occupied time that might have been spent
in tilling the soil ; but they were disregarded. By the treachery
of a Huron Indian the weakness of the settlement was dis-
closed to the Iroquois. Thenceforth there was no peace for its
people. They could not walk in the meadows, or go into the
forest to cut fire-wood, unless at the risk of their lives. They
were mewed up within their fortifications. Under the super-
intendence of M. d'Ailleboust walls and bastions were substi-
tuted for the frail wooden palisades.

12. The weakness of the colony excited the contempt of

the Iroquois warriors. They boasted that they would
1644 carry off the "white girls "^ and drive the Frenchmen
A.D. to the sea. Ten war parties went out to cut off th de-
tached settlements at one swoop ; but, happily, they
were frustrated in their attempt. On the 30th of March the
trained watch-dogs of Ville-Marie bayed the alarm, and gave
warning to the Frenchmen that Indians were in the woods.
The French rushed into the presence of M. Maisonneuve, and
cried out for him to lead them forth. Against his better
judgxiient, he consented to go and seek the enemy. There was
snow on the gi'ound ; the road was heavy ; few of his people
liad snow-shoes, and those who had were maladroit in their use.
When Maisonneuve and his party penetrated the forest, no foe
was to be seen. Suddenly from the coverts there blazed forth

* White girls. — So the Indians called the nuns.

ttACfi D*ARM£!S. 91

fire, followed by sharp rifle cracks. Then the Mohawk warriors
rose with tierce yelh, and as suddenly sank out of sight. Un-
used to the Indian st} le of warfare, the Frenchmen, as they stood
huddled together, only presented a mark for the hostile fire.
Several fell, then they grew confused and alarmed, and looked
back upon the way they had come. The order was given, and
picking up the dead and wounded, crest-fallen they retreated,
the triumphant Mohawks following covertly on their trjick.
Maisonneuve brought up the rear, holding a pistol in each
hand. Two chiefs, eager to take a prisoner of such distinction,
hed forward. He shot one dead ; and as the warriors
crowded about to carry oH the body of their comrade, Maison-
neuve and his men gained the shelter of their fortifications.
The spot where the incident occurred was called "Place
d'Armes," and the city grew around it.

13. The New Company, considering the great show of
action they made on their incorporation, neglected Canada in
a most incomprehensible manner. They totally failed to carry
out the terms of their charter. They made large concessions
of land to individuals^ on condition that they would send out
colonists; but these grantees were quite as remiss as the
Hundred Associates themselves. The fur-trade was the only
object of value in their eyes, and they handed it over this year
(1644) to the inhabitants of the colony for an annual rent of a
thousand beaver skins.

14. A peace was (joncluded at Three Rivers between the
French and the Iroquois, and between the Iroquois and ^ ^.^
the allied Indians, and Canada enjoyed a brief interval '^"**^
of repose. But it was a peculiarity of the Indians ' *
that they entered upon a treaty with infinite gravity, con-
cluded it with imposing ceremony, and broke it on the
slightest caprice. Not long afterwards, M. d'Ailleboust ^ ^ ^ —
succeeded M. Montmagny, and the colony was again ^^"^f
plunged in war. ' '

15. In the Huron country the Mission was now at the
height of its prosperity. The chief station was at Ste. ^ nAo
Marie, on the little river, now called the Wye, that *"^"
falls into Matchedjish Bay. There the Fathers dis- * '
peused a bountiful hospitality ; there scattered parties of

THE HURON MISSION.

Algonquiiis of the region of the Ottawa, that had escaped
the lage of the Iroquois, found shelter. No wayfarer was sent
hungry or disconsolate away. The priests of the Missions of
St. Louis, St. Ignace, St. Jean, St. Joseph, and St. Michel met

THE HURON MI8SI01T.

The rage of the

often in Ste. Marie for grave consultation,
heathen party had spent its force. The country was peaceful ;
but the Fathers viewed vdth alarm the apathy of the warriors,
who lived careless and supine, although the security of their
villages depeijded on their constant vigilance.

16. The warriors of St. Joseph descended the Ottawa and
left the village defenceless. At Three Eivers they repulsed an
attack of the Iroquois. Returning in triumph with several
scalps, no crowd of women and children flocked out to " caress "
the prisoners, as was the custom. All was silence and desola-
tion. The story is soon told. One sweltering morning in
July the little chapel was crowded with devotees. Suddenly a
fearful cry arose without — " They kill us, they kill us." Like

COMPLETE DESOLATION. 93

ravening wolves the Iroquois had burst through the palisades,
and were slaughtering the children and decrepit old folk. The
people crowded round Father Daniel, who cried out, " Fly to
the woods ; here I shall stay. We shall meet again in heaven."
Alone, in hU flowing vestments, with gleaming face, the daunt-
less priest stood by the altar and confronted the yelling fiends.
He fell pierced by many arrows, and struck on the breast by a
partisan, and his body was consumed in the pyre of the burning
chapel. The Mission of St. Joseph was extirpated. .

17. During the autumn and winter the Iroquois lurked in
the woods. Hours before the sunrise of a morning in
March a party surprised the village of St. Ignace, and 1649
murdered the sleepers. They then stole in the gray a.d.
dawn upon St. Louis, and, bursting the palisades,
slaughtered the people and burned the cabins. Fathers Bre-
boeuf and Lallemant were seized and sent under guard to St.
Ignace. The reflection of the flames at St. Louis warned the
Fathers at Ste. Marie of some dreadful calamity ; and their fears
were too surely confirmed hy fugitives from the scene of
disaster. A band of Huron warriors threw themselves before
the advancing Iroquois. All day the tide of battle advanced
to, and receded from, Ste. Marie; and as the night fell the
yells of the combatants rose from the dark pine woods. The
priests of St. Ignace were bound to the stake. The younger
Lallemant was forced to witness the tortures inflicted upon
Breboeuf. The elder priest stood, firm as a rock, unOer the
most appalling suff'ering, while the fiends surrounded, mocking
him. " You told us," they cried, " that the more we suff'ered
on earth the greater would be our reward in heaven : thank
us." Lallemant, after prolonged sufiering, was despatched with
a hatchet.

18. The destruction of all their chief stations among the
Huron and " Tobacco " nations compelled the Fathers to
abandon their mission. An attempt was made to reestablish
Ste. M.arie on the Island of St. Joseph, in Matchedash Bay ; but
the adventurers were driven from it by famine and the Iroquois
to seek security by the banks of the St. Lawrence. At Sorel,
near Quebec, the Huron Mission was founded. Complete
desolation now reigned in tlie country of the Huions and

THE REMNANT.

Algonquius. The remnant of the people found shelter and
became incorporated with the tribes dwelling by the lakes
Erie, Michigan, and Superior.

Questions. — 1. Who was the new
Governor of Canada? V/ith whose
views did he sympathize? Describe
the mode in which the power of the
Church was exercised.

2. What was the result of the ap-
peals to France for aid? Name the
different colleges, seminaries, and
hospitals founded at this time. What
were the cavises of the failure of Le
Jeune'a seminary for Indian children ?

3. Describe Le Jeune's experiences
among the Montagnais. What plan
was adopted in order to keep the truths
of religioA before the natives ?

4. Which was the chief mission?
Describe the mode of life of the
Fathers.

6. With what difiiculties had they
to contend? How did they overcome
these?

G. Narrate the circumstances which
led to the foundation of Montreal.

7. What ceremony took place in
Paris before the expedition set out?
W^hat opposition did Maisonneuve en-
counter at Quebec ?

8. Describe what took place when he
obtained possession of the island.

9. What native tribes began to harass
the settlers? Against whom were
their attacks first directed? Describe
the routes of the Lower and the Upper
Iroquois respectively.

50. What o^'^rtures did the Iroquois
make? Where did Montmagny meet
them? What then occurred? Give
examples of the sufferings which the
missionaries endured.

11. How did the Iroquois become
aware of the weakness of Montreal ?
What was the consequence ?

12. Describe the encounter with the
Mohawks in the wood" ^and the in-
cident at "Place d'Annes."

13. How did the New Company treat
Canada? How did it deal with the
fur- trade!'

14. What gave Canada an interval of
repose ? How long did it last ? Wliat
peculiarity of the Indians in the
matter of treaties is noticeable ? Who
succeeded Montmagny as Governor?
What followed?

15. In what state was the Huron
Mission at this time? W^hat filled the
Fathers with anxiety ?

16. Describe the manner of the de-
struction of the Mission of St. Joseph.

17. Describe the attack on the other
chief stations. Give an account of the
martyrdom of Brebceuf and Lalleniant.

18. What were the Fatliers then
forcedl to do ? Whither did they trans-
fer their mission? In what state was
the country of the Hurotis and the Al-
gonquius left? What became of the
remnamt of these tribes ?

THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES.

CHAPTER X.

TIME OF TRIAL.

1648 to 1663 A.D.

The New England Colonies.

Proposed Treaty of perpetual peaoe.

Its failure.

M. de Lauson.

State of Canada.

Jesuit Mission in Onondaga.

Viscomte d'Argenson.

Insolence of the Mohawks.

Portents and signs in the skies.

The liquor traffic.

The great Earthquake.

New Company surrenders its Charter.

1. About this time the New England Colonies sent- greet-
ing to Canada. Since the Puritan Fathers had landed at
Plymouth on the 11th De-iomber 1620, and since the second
baud of Pilgrims had founded Salem, eight years afterwards,
several colonies had taken root between Casco Bay and the
Connecticut Elver. Their people had struggled sorely under
an inclement sky, with sterile soil, with pestilence and the
Indians. They had been torn by internal dissensions. Though
the Puritan Fathers had fled from England to enjoy civil and
religious freedom in the wilds of America, they drove from
their midst such of theii brethren as maintained liberty of
conscience. An outcome of this persecution, the colony of
Providence was founded in 1636. Community of interests,
and the necessity of combining to defend themselves against
tlie Indian tribes, and againyt the encroachments of the Dutch
of New Netherlands, and the French colonists of Acadie, im-
pelled the provinces of Massachusetts Pay (including Maine
and New Hampshire) and Plymouth, New Haven and Con-
necticut, to enter into the confederation of " The United Col-
onies of Now England/' in 1643.

2. They made a proposal to the Governor-General of
Canada, that there should be free trade and per-
petual amity between the French and the English 1648-51
colonies, even in the event of the mother countries a.d.
))eiug at war. M. d'Ailleboust received the sug-
gestion with pleasure, and sent Father Druilettes to Boston to

FAILURE OF PEACE NEGOTIATIONS.

li-

make a treaty. The negotiations were suspended, resumed,
and finally broken off, because the New England Government
refused to assent to the condition demanded, — that they should
ioin with the French in waging an exterminating war against
the Iroquois. The cautious Puritans would not make enemies
of that powerful people, whose country lay like a b" Tier be-
tween them and Canada. Instead of a treaty of perpetual
peavc being concluded, the foundation was laid for future
war. Father Druilettes won over the Abenaqui Indians to
the French interest. For over a century that people main-
tained a firm alliance with Canada, and by their cruel and
harassing warfare on the frontiers, they roused a rage in the
breasts of the New Englanders that was not calmed until
French domination was swept from the American Conti-
nent.

3. M. de Lauson succeeded M. d'Ailleboust. Beyond the for-

tifications of Quebec, Montreal, and Three Rivers,

1650-58 there was no safety. In the open field the sud-

A.D. den bolt of death sometimes struck the labourer,

and with a loud yell of triumph, the Iroquois
warrior fled into ambush with the trophy of his savage on-
slaught. In those days of trial, the strength of the people of
Canada lay in their religious fervour. Annalists say that they
displayed an integrity <,hat contrasted brightly with their con-
duct in later days. There were no courts of justice in the
province : there wits no need of them. Fraud and dishonesty
were unknov^'n, and it seemed as if all things were in
common.

4. A number of Jesuit missionaries, whose field of labour
had been narrowed by the destruction of the Huron Mission,
now left Canada. But there still remained not a few, who,
braving every danger and hardship, won their way among
the tribes of the far west and of the frozen regions of Hudson
Bay. Their mission was religious and secular. They made
known to the heathen the name of Christ ; they extended the
empire of France over distant nations; they promoted com-
merce by inducing their savage neophytes to cairy their peltry
to the magazines of Tadoussac, Quebec, Three River-s, and Mon-
treal.

JESUIT MISSION IN ONONDACA. 97

5. The Jesuit Fathers sedulously strove to gain a foothold
auiong the Five Nations. The warlike fury of these
nations being now directed against the tribes dwelling 1653
by the great lakes, they were disposed to make peace A.D.
with tlie French. In the following year they utterly
extirpated the EHes. Father le Moyne went amoug 1654
the Mohawks, but made no stay, as his life was in con- a.d.
stant danger from their caprice. The Onondagas prayed

the Governor- General to send them priests. Accordingly,
Fathers Mercier, Frtsmiu, Mesucard, and Dablon, with a body-
guard of fifty soldiers, were deputed to found a mission. The
jealous Mohawks attempted to cut this escort to pieces, but
only succeeded in capturing a few canoes. Shortly afterwards, a
party of the same tribe fell upon a band of Huron men, women,
and children, who were working in a field on the Isle of Or-
leans. They killed six, and took the rest captive. As they
passed Quebec, they compelled their prisoners to sing aloud,
and dared the Governor-General to seize them out of their
hands. M. de Lauson tamely allowed this insult to pass un-
punished. The audacious insolence of the Iroquoid increased.

6. The position of the mission in the Onondaga country now
became very critical. M. Dupuys, the commandant, receiviug
certain intelligence that there was a conspiracy afoot to de-
stroy it, ordered several light bateaux to be constructed. The
people of the canton were invited to a great feast. Whtn they
were completely gorged with food, and slept heavily, the French,
in the wan light of a March morning, made their escape by way
of the River Chouagen. The Iroquois broke into open hostility
soon afterwards, and spread themselves over the colony.

7. Ville-Marie did not prosper in the hands of the Society
of Notre Dame de Montreal. The aid sent out was insufficient
for its pressing necessities. To the great joy of the colony, the
society ceded the island to the superiors of the Seminary of
St. Sulpicius, a society of great repute and power, which num-
bered among its members many men of talent and energy.
Under their auspices, L'Abb^ de Quelus founded the ^ ^ _ ^
Seminary. Under the superintendence of Marguerite J-O"^
Bourgeois — of whom it is said that her religion mani-
fested itself in an intense devotion to duty — the Institution of

(i73) 7

98. THE SEMINARY OF QUEBEC.

the Filles de la Congregation wa; opened, to give religious and
superioi' secular education to the young girls of the colony.

8. Viscomte d'Argenson succeeded M. de Lauson, and ar-

rived in Quebec on the 11th of July. As if to show

1658 their contempt, the Mohawks, on the following morning,

A.D. fell on and massacred a party of Algonquins under the

cannon of the fort. The cry "To arms !" rang out, and
two hundred men rushed out in pursuit, but failed to find the
enemy. Shortly afterwards, the Mohawks approached Three
liivers with hostile intent. Under pretence of holding a par-
ley, they sent eight deleg?^ 3s to take note of the state of the
place. M. de la Potherie, the commandant, caused the spies
to be seized. He shut one in prison, and sent the others to
Quebec, where they were promptly executed. This decisive
action induced the Iroquois to leave Canada in peace for a
season.

9. Certain abuses having crept in, it was deemed desirable
to make some changes in the government of the Church in the
colony. M. Francois de Laval, LAbb^ de Montmigny, Vicar-
Apostolic and titular Bishop of Petrea, was appointed Ecclesi-
astical Superior. Several persons in orders accompanied him
to Canada. For a long time those cur^s were appointed to
the parishes by commission, and were removable by the
superior. Afterwards, when the appointments of the curds
were made permanent in the rest of Canada, those of Montreal
and the island remained on the old footing, under the jurisdic-
tion of the Seminary of St. Sulpicins.

10. Five years after the coming of M. de Laval, the Semi-

nary of Quebec for the instruction of the priesthood

1662 was instituted. Into the hands of its superiors were

A.D. paid the tithes levied for the support of the clergy of

the colony. They amounted at first to one-thirteenth
of the produce of the land ; but on account of the poverty of the
country, they were afterwards reduced to one-twenty-sixth, on
condition that the tithes should be paid in grain, and not in
the sheaf. The King supplemented the tithes by an annual
grant of 7,600 livres from the royal treasury. The stipend
of the cur^s was fixed at 400 livres annually. Eleven years
afterwards (1670), the C}ivi?'ch in C^pada was erected ijjto ^

rOUTENTS AND SIGNS. 99

bishopric, in dependeDoe on the Papal See, and M. de Laval
became the first bishop. The cliapter of tlie cathedral con-
sisted of a dean and grand cliorister, appointed by the King ;
ami of an archdeacon, theologian, and twelve canons, .appointed
by the bishop.

11. The Iroquois now resumed their warfare, and Canada
was reduced to a state of dire distress. The Ursulines

and Hospital nuns were compelled to fly from their 1660
convents and seek safety in Quebec, which was held a.d.
in a state of siege all summer and autumn. Many
thought that it would be necessary to break up the colony and
cross the sea. To add to their trouble, a luoital epidemic
broke out. The alternate states of excitement and depressi<jn
in which tlie people lived seem to have affected the minds
of many. Imagination lent horrors to the time. Portentous
signs of flaming crowns, burning canoes, and men entwined
with fiery serpents, appeared to them in the skies; and in
their ears strange voices cried lamentably. D'Argenson,
pained at beholding the unhappy state of the colony, and un-
able to procure it relief, demanded his recall.

12. His successor, Baron d'Avaugour, was an energetic
veteran oflicer, but of an irascible and obstinate tem-
per. He visited all the posts, and expressed his sur- 1661
prise that so grand a country should be so much ne- a.d.
glected. Vigorous representations of its urgent need

of aid were drawn up by him, and M. Bouchet was despatched
to France to present them at Court. In answer, the King sent
out a small reinforcement of forty soldiers, and a commissioner,
M. de Monts, w^ho was instructed to draw up a report of the
state of the colony. The joy caused by this mark of royal
consideration died away amidst the excitement of fierce dis-
sension.

13. The liquor traffic, which had been kept in check in the
time of Montmagny, was surreptitiously carried on during that
of his successors. To sell brandy was made a penal offence.
A woman was convicted of breaking the law, and was con-
demned to suffer. The Jesuit missionaries interceded warmly
with the Governor-General in her behalf. Baron d'Avaugour,
irritated bv their persistence, declared that, if the culprit were

100 THE LIQUOR TRAFFIC.

allowed to go free, no one should afterwards be punished for
a like offence. He refused to retract his hasty words, and
they were understood as giving permission to the tn.flic. With
grief the priesthood beheld a flame of dissipation overspread
the Cv)loiiy, and the demon of drunkenness invade the cabins
of the Christianized Indians. Their painful labours of over
twenty years were destroyed in an hour of reckless debaucJiery.
In vain they attempted to interpose the barrier of their aut'»or-
ity against the flood. The colony was now divided into the
Ecclesiastical and "Libertine" parties. Certjiin wild French
youths, who had lately come out, joined themselves with the
residents, who had always impatiently borne the strict rule of
the priests. They raised the cry that their free will was fet-
tered, that their consciences were constrained. The thunder
of the Church was launched at their head. In the fury of
the moment, admonitions and threatenings were disre-

1662 garded. Unable to bring the malcontents to reason,
A.D. M. de Laval crossed the sea to lay his complaints at

the foot of the throne.
14. The annalists of those days give remarkable accounts of
atmospherical phenomena and physical disturbances. To their
minds heaven appeared visibly and sensibly to display its
anger at the sins of the times. At Montreal a globe of fire
was seen to detach itself from the moon, burst in mid-air
with a report like that of a cannon, and disappear in blazing
fragments behind the mountain. In the month of

1663 January, a strange mist rose from the river, and three
A.D. suns stood parallel with the horizon, each encircled by

an iris which momentarily changed its varied hues.
Twice was this strange appearance seen. These portents were
the precursors of a fearful earthquake. On the 11th of
February, a mighty rushing noise was heard throughout Can-
ada, and the people rushed in terror from their houses to see
the walls cracking, the chimneys swaying to and fro, the roofs
falling in, and to hear the bells of the churches ring out. They
were attacked by a strange giddiness and qualmifihness : when
they essayed to walk, the earth seemed to rise and strike the
soles of their feet. The accounts given (mainly on the authority
of the "habitans" and Indians) of the convulsions of the land

it!

linii

Tin: END OF THK NEW COMPANY.

101

are very extraordinary. A huge mountain, they said, waa
tori), from its place and cast into the river, where it took i-oot
and became an island ; a forest slid from the banks into tho
St. Lawrence ; fearful chasms of unknown depth disclosed
themselves ; several rivers di8apj)eared, others changed their
beds ; gentle streams were changed into falls ai 1 rapids, and
falls atid rapids into gentle streams.

15. The Jesuit Fathers, who give an account of these too
strange incidents in their letters, state that not a single soul
perished during the terrible convulsion ; and they dwell with
satisfaction on the salutary effects of the terror it created in
calming dissension and reclaiming many from their e^nl courses.

16. In February of this year, the New Company of the
Hundred Associates, then reduced to fort}* dve members, sur-
rendered all their rights and property in New France into the
hands of the King. They c^ totally failed to carry out the
terms of their charter. All lands granted by them, and still
uncleared, were recalled by a Royal Edict.

Questions. — 1. What colonies about
this time sent greeting to Canada?
By what difficulties had they been
liarassed? What led to a confedera-
tion of these States in 1643?

2. What proposal did the United
Colonies make to Canada? How was
it received? Why did the negotiations
fail?

3. Who succeeded D'Ailleboiist as
Governor? Where alone was there
safety? In what did the strength of
the colonists lie ?

4. Where did missionaries labour
after the destruction of the Huron
Mission ?

5. Among whom did the Jesuit
Fathers strive to gain a foothold ? To
which of them was a mission seut?
How did the Mohawks insult the Gov-
ernor-General?

6. How d'.d the missionaries to the
Onondagas escape ?

7. To whom was the Island of Mon-
treal transferred ? Who superintended
the Institution of the Filles de la Con-
gregation?

8. Who succeeded De Lauson as Gov-

ernor ? What decisive action checked
the incursions of the Iroquois ?

9. What ecclesiastical changes were
about the same time introduced?

10. How was the Church in the col-
ony supported? Who was the first
bishop?

11. How was Canada once more re-
duced to a state of dire distress? What
effect had this on the minds of the
people ? What did it lead D'Argenson
to do?

12. Who was his successor? What
was the recult of his representations to
the Court ?

13. What was the cause of the dis-
sensions which followed? Into what
two parties was the community di-
vided ? What step did De Laval take ?

14. When did a great earthquake
visit Canada? By what portents is it
said to have been preceded? Mention
some of the incidents of the visitation.

15. What do the Jesuit Fathers say
of these occurrences ?

16. What step did the New Company
take in 1663? What had they failed
to do?

102

D aULNAY and la tour.

CHAPTEK XI.

ACADIE.
1632 to 1670 A.D.

D'Aulnay and La Toxir, lieutenants

under Razilli.
Their feuds.
La Tour disobeys royi.' command

to appear in France.
D'Aulnay'f, Fleet at Partridge Island.
La Tour and wife visit Boston.
D'Aulnay makes Treaty with Kew

England.

Madame La Tour's heroism and

death.
Death of D'Aulnay.
His widow marries La Tour.
Emmanuel le Borgue.
The English seize Acadie.
Grant to La Tour, Temple, and

Crowne.
Acadie restored to the French.

1. It has already been stated, that after the cession of Acadie

to France by the Treaty of St.Germain, Isaac de Razilli
1632 (who had been commissioned by his relative, Cardinal
A.D. Eichelieu, to take possession of the country), was ap-
pointed Commandant. He received an extensive grant
at St. Croix, compri.iing the river and the bay. He held his
residence at Cape la H^ve, and he built his fort at the head of
the harbour, on a hillock of land. To this pL^ce he brought
several families of French settlers. Along with Nicolas Denys,
Sieur de Fronsac, he carried on the shore fishery at Port
Rossignol. Under him Charles de Menou, Seigneur d'Aulnay
(Jharnisay, acted as lieutenant of the western di^trint, which
included all the country north of the Bay of Fundy to the
Kennebec in the west. Charles de la Tour was lieutenant of the
eastern district, which comprised the peninsula.

2. On the death of Razilli, Nicolas Denys was appointed

Governor of the country frora Canceau along the Gulf

1636 shore to Cape Rosieres.^ Fourteen years afterwards he

A.D. received a grant of this territory. There was now

bitter strife between the lieutenants of the western
and eastern districts. D'Aulnay, of an imperious, harsh, and
ambitious character, strove to assume authority over the whole
country. He obtained from Claude, brother of Razilli, a grant

Cape EosUres. — Now Cape Gasp6.

tiiEiR FEUDS. 103

of the St. Croix, of Cape Sable, and La H6ve. He aftei-warda
removed the Freuch settlers of the place to Port Koyal, which
he made his residence. He thus maintained several posts in
the district under command of La Tour. But La Tour held as
his own possession the forts at the mouth of the St. John and
at the Gemsic,^ within his rival's command. D'Aulnay vin-
dictively sought to make himself master of these positions,
which would have given him the command of the valuable fur-
trade of the river, and in effect of the whole country.
He received the royal instructions to live at peace with 1 Q 38
La Tour, and to confine himself to one district, the a.d.
limits of which were definitely laid down.

3. La Tour's antecedents and connections were not such as
were likely to be viewed favourably by the Catholic Court of
France. He was the son of a Huguenot ; thougli he pro-
fessed the t!)atholic faith himself, his wife was of the Huguenot
persuasion, and he held commercial intercourse with the
merchants of Rochelle, the stronghold of Protestantism in
France. He sought to enoer into an alliance with the Puritans
of Massachusetts, and made overtures to them proposing that
they should aid him in dispossessing D'Aulnay of his fort on
the Penobscot ; on tiie left bank of which river the English
had a settlement. D'Aulnay, through his relations, had
powerful influence with Cardinal Richelieu, and he succeeded
in undermining his rival's credit at Court. He received the
royal orders to command La Tour to embark for France, there
to answer to the King certain charges that had been preferred
against him. La Tour, disobeying the mandate on the ground
that it was given on faloe accusations, fortified himself
within his fort on the St. John, and defied the malice of hia
enemy. The King in council revoked his commission. The
efforts of his enemies to crush him completely were not success-
ful. He also had many friends at Court. The charges preferred
agninst him were not supported by any strong proofs of guilt.
They derived their importance from the influence of the parties
who pressed them. The quarrel between the lieutenants was a
peiaonal matter, in whi^h the authorities in France had little

* The Oeimic. — The Jemseg.

104 LA TOUK AT BOSTON.

interest. Though under a cloud at Court, La Tour was not
debarred from drawing his sujjplies from France.

4. D'Aulnay appeared in the spring of 1643, with two ships

and four pinnaces carrying five hundred sokliers, at the

1643 mouth of the St. John River, and blockaded tne har-

A.D. bour. The position of La Tour was critical ; he was

hemmed in, and ran the risk of being starved into
surrender. He was daily awaiting the arrival of a ship from
Rochelle with one hundred and forty immigrants, and with sup-
plies on board. It might sail into the jaws of danger, as D'Au in ay's
two ships lay to the south-west side of Partridge Island and his
pinnaces on the south-east. When the long-expected ship
appeared on the coast, a warning signal was made. Under
cover of a dark night in June, La Tour and his wife were con-
veyed on board. They sailed for the village of Boston, where
their appearance at first created some alarm. Governor Winthrop
received them courteously. The contentions of the two French
lieutenants caused the New England Fathers some anxiety.
Both sought their alliance, but to aid the one was to make an
enemy of the other. The Governor and his Council debated the
proposal made by La Tour that they should assist him, and
concluded that they could not do so as a Government ; but they
gave him permission to hire a naval and military force.

5. La Tour chartered, for two months, five vessels, furnished
with thirty-eight pieces of ordnance and a crew of fifty sailors.
He enlisted ninety soldiers, and armed and victualled the force.
As security for payment, he mortgaged to Major Gibbons all his
property in Acadie. On the 11th of July he reached the mouth
of the St. John, and attacked the ships of the enemy. D'Aulnay
spread his sails for flight, and crossed the Bay of Fundy. In
tlie basin of Port Royal he ran his two ships aground, and
landed near a mill not far from his foi t. La Tour having fol-
lowed him, assailed the position. After a brief combat, in
which both sides lost three men each, the captain of the hireling
soldiers refused to join in any further operations, and with a
rich booty of furs he returned to Boston within the time for
which his services had been engaged.

6. The mortification of D'Aulnay at this check was intense,
and he renewed, in France, his intrigues against his rival.

MADAME LA TOUR SURRENDERS. 105

The trausactions of La Tour with the Puritaus were repre-
sented in such a light as to make him appear a traitor to his
iiatioii and to his religion. He procured from the King a letter
intimating the royal desire that the English and the French in
America should live in peace. He despatched this document,
with others prejudicial to the character of La Tour ; and
through his commissioner, M. Marie, commenced negotiations
for a treaty of peace with the New England States.

7. Amidst the difficulties with which he was surrounded, La
Tour had in his wife a valuable help-meet. Madame la Tour
went to London to procure supplies for the fort. On the return
voyage the captain of the vessel broke the terms of the
charter, and instead of taking her direct to St. John, 1644
lauded her at Boston after a devious voyage, in course a.d.
of which the lady narrowly escaped capture by her
husband's inveterate foe. She brought the captain to trial, and
he was mulcted of £2,000 damages. After expending this
money in stores and munitions, she sailed for St. John. In
the following si)ring D'Aulnay attacked the fort, but was
repulsed with some loss by Madame la Tour at the head of her
garrison.

8. D'Aulnay now concluded a definite treaty of peace v/!th
the New Englanders, and detached them from all
alliance with his rival. Hearing that La Tour, with 1647
the greater number of his men, was absent on a distant a.d.
trading voyage, he sailed for the St. John and besieged

the fort, which was situated on the western side of the harbour.
For three days Madame la Tour kept him at bay, until,
through the treachery of a Swiss sentry, he gained access to the
l)lace. The lady at the head of her soldiers was prepared to
defend the ramparts. D'Aulnay, to avoid the disgrace of a
jjossible defeat at her hands, offered such honourable terms
that Madame, willing to avoid bloodshed, consented to capit-
ulate. The victor basely broke his plighted word on viewing
the weakness of the garrison. Sparing the life of one man on
condition of his becoming the executioner of his comrades, he
ordered all the captive soldiers to be hanged, and subjected the
lady to the cruel indignity of witnessing the brutal sight with
a halter around her neck.

106 LA TOUft MARRIES MADAME d'aULNAV.

9. The ruin of the husband broke the wife's heart. The for-
tunes of La Tour appeared now to be completely shattered.
While his rival enjoyed his triumph and ruled over all Acadie,
he led a wandering life in Newfoundland, Canada, and around
Hudson Bay. At Port Royal, D'Aulnay reigned as a feudal
lord over a body of serfs. He did nothing to increase the
settlement of the country. His establishment was maintained
n,t great expense, and he was plunged in debt.

10. On the death of D Aulnay, La Tour emerged from obscurity
into the sunshine of fortune. Not meeting the malign influence

of his rival at Court, he easily cleared himself of the

1651 charges against his character. He received a commission

A.D. as Lieutenant-Governor of Acadie, and D' Aulnay 's

widow restored to him the St. John fort. The position
of Madame D'Aulnay was very difficult. Her estate was in
debt some 260,000 livres t' one Emmanuel le Borgne, an
eminent merchant of Rochelle, d La Tour claimed jurisdiction
over her possessions in Acadie. She entered into a compact
with the Duke of Vendome, Superintendent of Commerce and
Navigation in France, by which his Grace, on condition that he
sent out annual supplies, became co-seigneur with her, and co-
partner in the fur-trade. This arrangement did not last long.
To settle the question of the jurisdiction of La Tour, the
widow married him. The Duke (who had a personal an-
tipathy to D'Aulnay's successor) was much displeased with his
fair business partner for taking that way of getting over a
difficulty. His Grace was in debt 65,000 livres to ^^e Borgne
for goods supplied to her. Through his influence, their mutual
creditor obtained authority *o seize on Acadie, in order to
satisfy the claim he held against the D'Aulnay estate.

11. Nicolas Denys then possessed several fishing and
trading posts. Le Borgne's first act on coming to Acadie was
to attack his settlement at St. PieiTe, Cape Breton, and to carry
him off a prisoner to Port Royal. After a rough confinement
Denys obtained his release, and sailed for France. His claim
to the country was reestablished by the New Company.
Returning to Cape Breton, he compelled the officer in command
at St. Pierre to deliver up the post to him. Le Borgne was at
Port Royal making preparations to dispossess La Tour of his

ACADIE SEIZED BY THE ENGLISH.

107

fort on the St. John when ho heard this news. He was on the
point of setting out to recapture St. Pierre when new actors
appeared on the scene.

12. Oliver Cromwell was at war with the Dutch.^ He sent
out an expedition to seize on their colony at Manhattan

on Long Island, and he demanded aid from Massa- 1654
cliusetts. While the Government was slowly raising a a.d.
force of five hundred men, peace was proclaimed between
the two countries. Secret orders were then given to Colonel
Kobert Sedgwick to take possession of Acadie. The restitu-
tion of that province to the French by the Treat}' of St. Germain
had been displeasing to the Puritans, and they gladly seized
the opportunity to regain it. They maintained that the French
never had had a just title to it, as it had alvrays formed part
of English dominion. Colonel Sedgwick easily made himself
master of the forts at Penobscot and St. John. At Port Royal
Le Borgne Was strongly posted, and had a garrison of one hundred
and fifty men, well supplied with munitions of war ; but he was
a man of un warlike character, and had no officer of experience
to command. A party which he sent out ' o resist the landing
of the English being defeated, he surrendered on condition of
receiving honourable treatment. The captors then turned
round and mocked him for his pusillanimity. Sedgwick after-
wards took Fort la H^ve, where a son of Le Borgne commanded.
The English now were masters of Acadie for the third time.

13. Peace was restored between France and England by the
Treaty of Westminster,^ 3rd November. I'he French
Ambassador at London pressed Cromwell to restore to 1655
France the forts taken by Sedgwick. The officers act- a.' y.
ing n behalf of the Ijord Protector maintained that

they ought to remain in possession of the English. The ques-

' War with the Dutch. — This war be-
gan in 1652 in consequence of the Navi-
gation Act (1651), which forbade the
importation of goods into England in
any but English ships, and thus ruined
tlie Dutch carrying trade. The Dutch
Admirals were Marten Tromp (father of
Van Tromp), and De Ruyter. The
chief battles were off Portland (south
of England), and off Texel (an island in

the north of Holland;, in 1653, in both
of which the Dutch were defeated. In
the latter Tromp was killed. Peace was
concluded in 1654.

* Treaty of Westminster. — Negoti-
ated by Cardinal Mazarin, the powerful
minister of Louis XIV. of France, with
Oliver Cromwell. It secured for France
the cooperation of England again.«t
Spain.

108

ACADIE RESTOllfin TO THE FUENCII.

tion was referred to commissioners. La Tour now displayed
that enterprising audacity tor w)rch he was noted. On the
strength of the grant made in 1629 to liis father and himself
by Sir William Alexander, he proceeded to London and mrAe
his claim clear to the satisfaction of Cromwell. He was a man
who liked to sail with the tide. He made no account of this
grant when in 1630 his father urged him to become an E^iglish
subject, for he had some expectation then that Acadie would
soon be restored to the French Crown ; now he was willing
enough to change his allegiance.

14. By letters-patent given by Cromwell, La Tour, in con-

junction with Sir Thomas Temple and William Crowne,

1656 came into possession of Acadie, including the country

A.D. along the coasts, and a hundred leagues inward from

Merliguesche to St. Mary's Bay, and along the shores
of the Bay of Fundy to the little River St. George beyond the
Penobscot. La Tour soon afterwards disposed of his interest in
this grant to Temple, and retired to the fort of St. John, where
he lived and died in obscurity before the complete restitution
of the country to the French Crown was made. For a period
of eleven years Acadie remained in the joint possession of
the English and the French. Sir Thomas Temple was appointed
Lieutenant to his Majesty of Great Britain. He built fortitica-
tions, and carried on an extensive commerce. Emmanuel le
Borgne was Governor under Louis XIV. The Acadians were
allowed to remain in undisturbed possession of their lands.
During this time Nicolas Denys removed to Miramichi, where,
and also at Nepisiguit on the Bay Chaleur, he established
trading and fishing posts.

15. By the Treaty of Breda ^ Charles II. restored Acadie

to Louis XIV. M. Morillon de Bourg was sent to take

1667 possession. The French then claimed that Acadie in-

A.D. eluded not only the peninsula, but also the country

between the Bay of Fundy and River St. Lawrence, and
west to the Kennebec River. Sir Thomas Temple memorialized
the King, and argued that Acadie was only a small part of that
extensive territory called Nova Scotia, and that his forts of

* Treaty of Breda. — Between Eng- in 1667. Breda is in North Brabant,
land, France, Holland, and Denmark, in Holland.

THE DISPUTED FORTS.

109

Penobscot, St. John, Cape la K6ve, and Cape Sable were in

Nova Scotia, and consequently were Eot included in the cession

of Acadie. It v/as not till tnroe years after the signing of

the treaty that the King sent positive commands for

the surrender of the forts. On the 1st July, Temple 1670

ordored his officers to deliver them into the hands of a.d.

Cht'>^aHer de Grand-Fontaine. Charles II. promised

Sir Thomrs ^16,000 as an indemnification for his losses. The

money, it is said, was never paid to him.

QuESTroNS. — 1. Where did De Razilli
hold his residence? AVho were lieu-
tenants under him ?

2. Who succeeded Razilli? What
relations existed between the eastern
and western lieutenants ? What orders
were sent to D'Aulnay?

3. Why was La Tour not likely to be
a favourite at Court? What alliance
did he seek to form? For wliat pur-
pose did D'Aulnay use his influence at
Court ? With what success ?

4. What hostile step did D'Aulnay
take ? How did La Tour escape ?

5. From whom did La Tour get
assistance? What use did he make
of it?

6. How did D'Aulnay avenge himself
on La Tour? With wl)o-a did he open
negotiatir*ns for a treaty or peace ?

7. How did Madame la Tour aid her
husband? What was the result of
D'Aulnay's attack on the fort of St.
John ?

8. What was the result of D'Aulnay's
negotiations with the New Englanders?
Of what perfidy was he guilty towards
Madame la Tour?

9. In what position were La Tour's
fortunes ? What effect had this on his
wife? What was D'Aulnay's position
at the same time?

10. When did La Tour's fortunes
change? How did he settle the ques-
tion of jurisdiction with Madame
D'Aulnay? What authority was given
to Le Borgne ?

11. Narrate the doings of Le Borgne
and of Denys.

12. What led the English again to
take possession of Acadie ? Relate the
circumstances.

13. What claim did the French make
in 1655? To whom was the question
referred ? What audacious step did La
Tour then take ?

14. To whom was Acadie given?
What was the end of La Tour ? In what
peculiar position was Acadie during
the next eleven years? Who was the
English lieutenant? Who was the
French lieutenant ?

15. When was Acadie again restored
to France? What point of difference
remained to be determined ? When and
how was it settled ?

110

A NEW ERA FOR CANADA.

CHAPTER Xi 1.

CANADA A SOVEREIGN COLONY.

1663 A.D.

M. Gauilols, "Royal Commissioner.
The Sovereign Council.
Governor-General — Bishop — Inten-

dant.
Courts.

Cl.aracter of the French Canadians.
The West India Company.

The Feudal System.
The Fur-trade.
Commerce.

T^z xCnglish at New York.
Their Alliance with the Iroqucis.
Rivalries between French and
English.

1. A new era now opened for Canada. Its state of utter
enfeeblement and exhaustion touched the heart of the King.
The conflict between the civil and the ecclesiastical authorities
moved him to take the colony under his direct protection. By
an Edict dated March 1663, a Sovereign Council was erected.
M. Laval, L'Abbe Montigny, returned to danada in September.
With him came Lx. de Mesy, late commandant of the citadel
of Caen, the first Governor under the new constitution; M.
Gaudoia, the Royal Commissioner; several military and law
oflicers ; and one hundred families of colonists. M. Gaudois took
possession of the country in the King's name, received the oath
of fidelity of its inhabitants, pud made certain regulations re-
garding the law courts and the police. He drew up a report
of the state of the country, and returned to France. Baron
d'Avaugour was exculpated from all blame, except for a some-
what harsh enforcement of the laws and a too great obstinacy
in adhering to his prejudices. He welcomed release from his
post. On his return to Europe he entered the service of the
Emperor of Germany, then at war with the Turks, and was
killed at the siege of Serin, on the frontiers of Croatia.

2. The Sovereign Council was composed of the Governor-
General, the Ecclesiastical Superior (or the Bishop, when in
1670 the Church in the colony was erected into a bishopric), and
the Intendant. They had joint power to appoint four Coun-
QJUors (who held office during their pleasure), and a Chief Clerk

THE SOVEPEIGN COUNCIL. Ill

and Attorney-General. The imraber of Coniicilliira was after-
wards iucreased to eight, and fiiijilly to twelve. Oue of the
number received the title of Chief Councillor, au hoiiorary dis-
tinction, to which a small salary was attached. The eiiiolumeuta
bestowed by the King on the principal ofiicers of the colony
were extremely moderate. This parsimony was sometimes the
cause of corruption, as it induced the unscrupulous to enrich
themselves by unlawful means.

3. The Governor-General was the representative of the
King ; he had power to make war and peace, and played an
active part in the general government of the country. The
Bishop had jurisdiction over ecclesiastical afi'airs ; on the ques-
tion of taxation for the support of the clergy, however, wi on
all temporal matters, he had only a single vote like the other
members of the Council. The Intendant was an officer of
gi-eat autliority. The Govern or-Geneial and the Bishop took
precedence of him ; but he was President of the Council : he col-
lected the votes, and gave the final decision on all subjects that
came under discussion. The meetings took place every Monday
in his " palace." In his hands remained tlie Kegisters in which
all the Acts of the Council were recorded. All matters relating
to the administration of justice and of police, to finance and
marine, came under his direct supervision. Several Governor-
Generals betrayed great jealousy of the powers intrusted to the
Intendant. The prosperity of the colony depended in a great
measure on the character, ability, zeal, and integrity of this
officer. If he were like Talon — the first wlio held the office,
a man of honourable principles and enlightened \ iews — he had
scope to promote the happiness of the colony ; if he were like
Bigot — the last, selfish and luxurious — he had many ways of
enriching himself, and of oppressing and impoverishing the
people.

4. The Sovereign Council was constituted a Supreme Court
to try civil and criminal cases. Justice was administered
according to the laws of France and the custom of Paris, a body
of unwritten laws established by long usage. These laws were
modified when not found applicable to the circunistances of the
country. From time to time the King issued Ordinance : they
^ere entered on the Beffisters of the Council, and became the

112

THE WEST INDIA COMPANY.

cliief code by which the colony was governed. Inferior courts
of justice were established at Quebec, Three Rivers, and Mon-
treal, composed of a Lieutenant-General, Sub-Lieutenant, and
Attorney-General. Tor a long time the Superiors of the Semi-
nary of St. Sulpicius maintained jurisdiction over the Island of
Montreal.

5. The system of government was autocratic — the people
had no voice in the direction or management of affairs. It
suited the character of the French Canadians, who were a
hardy, light-hearted, social race, with a very good opinion of
themselves ; very fond of pleasure, but remark.ably free from
vice ; obedient to authority ; devoutly attached to their Church,
and rigid observers of all its rites and festivals; somewhat
credulous and uninstructed, wedded to old customs and usages,
and averse to harassing their minds with book lore.

6. The urgent demands for aid to Canada were made at a
time when the financial affairs of Franco were under the direc-
tion of a great minister, M. Colbert,^ who was alive to the
importance of extending the commerce and of adding to the
strength and glory of the parent state by sustaining its colonies.
On the extinction of the New Company, Louis XIV., by an Edict
dated May 1664, established the West India Company; to
which was granted for fifty years the monopoly of the tei*ritory
and the trade of all the French colonies on the coast of Africa, in
South America, and among the West India Isles, and of Canada,
Acadie, and Florida. It was specially decreed that noblemen
might take shares in this Company without derogation to their
rank. The obligation to send out settlers and maintain priests
was similar to that undertaken by the late New Company.
All the rights and privileges that the West India Company
possessed over this vast domain were held on the tenure of
fealty and homage to the King.

7. The Feudal System^ then prevailed in France, and it was

' Colbert. — He gained the favour of
Mazarin by the dexterity with which
he managed some business on which he
was sent to Rome. Mazar'n recom-
mended him to Louis XIV. for the
l)ost of Comptroller-General of the
Finances. Some of the moat important

buildings in Paris were erected under
his superintendence. Born 1619, died
1683.

* The Feudal System. — The system
under which the rent or price of land
was paid, not in money, but by mili-
tary service. The feudal laws varied In

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.

113

transferred to Canada, but not in its extreme ritjonr, Tiands
were granted by the Conij)any in large blocks to families of the
Crown, to officers of the army, to gentlemen, to communities
(like the Seminary of St. Sulpicius), who held them en seigneurie;
that is, on condition of paying fealty and homage to the King.
The ceremony of doing homage was annually observed, and
took place in the Castle of St. Louis in Quebec. The seigneur
or his representative, kneeling before the representative of the
King, delivered up his sword ; which was gr-aciously returned.
AH the most fei-tile lands on both banks of the St. Lawience
for three hundred miles — from below Quebec to above M<mtreal
— were soon granted away, and lield en seigneurie. The seign-
eura enjoyed rights and privileges ; they had also obligations
to meet and duties to perform. They exercised legal jurisdic-
tion within their domain, except in cases of murder and treason.
When any portion of the seigneurie was sold, a fifth of the pur-
chase-money, called a quint, was paid to the King ; and the
purchaser was entitled to a rabat, or reduction of one-tifth on
prompt payment. These quints were a source of revenue to the
colonial treasury. When lands passed in direct hereditary suc-
cession no fines were paid by the heirs.

8. A portion of the land was granted on a sort of freehold
tenure, en franc alleu. Grantees under this tenure held their
lands direct from the King, but enjoyed none of the rights pos-
sessed by the seigneurs. Very little land was held en franc
alleu. The seigneurs not being able to cultivate their extensive
grants, divided them into lots having generally a frontage on
the Eiver St. Lawrence of three acres, and an extension back-
ward of eighty acres. These lots were granted en roture, or
villenage, and the holders were called Censitaires. They paid
a small annual rent in money, and some article of provision,
such as a goose or a pair of fowls, or it might be a bushel of
wheat. They were obliged to grind their grain at the seigneur's

different countries, but their essential
principle as everywhere the same —
they regarded the whole land as the pro-
perty of the king, who divided the greater
part of it among his barons, who sub-
divided it among their vassals. Each
baron was bound to bring to the royal

U73; 8

standard a certain number of men-at-
arms, who gave their services In return
for their lands. The royal revenue was
derived partly from the proceeds of the
crown lands, and partly from feudal
incidents: such iis fines, reliefs, for'
feitures, aids, v rdsliips, marriage.

•

THE FUR-TRADE.

mill, .'111(1 to pay to liiin a fourteeutli of the pi^.luce; to give a
tithe, or the vahie of a tithe, of the fish caiiglit in their waters ;
also to open up and repair the roads and build the bridges. They
were also compelled to do military service. The seigpeurs, on
the sale of lands within their seigneurie, were entitled to lods
et ventes ; that is, a twelfth part of the purchase-money, which
was exclusive of the sum paid by the purclniser to the seller.
Though the value of the land to be sold might have been
increased in value a hundredfold by buililings and improve-
ments, the seigneurs were still entitled to a sum equivalent to
a twelfth part of the purchase-money.

n. By the law of inherit :..nce, on the death of a seigneur
his estate was divided among his cliildren. The eldest sou,
along with the title and manor horse, received a somewhat
larger share than the rest of the family. This law of sub-
division left, in time, some of the se'cjueurs with little besides
their titles and their houses. By the same law the lots of the
censitaires were parcelled out till each individual owner pos-
sessed only the "shred of a farm." This extreme subdivision
of the land became, in time, a crying evil. In 1664 the com-
j^laint was made that the hal)itans were too much scattered,
and that they were exposed, in their detached farms, to the
attacks of the Iroquois. A Boyal Ordinance was passed, com-
manding them to settle closely together for mutual protection.
As the colony increased, however, the evils of this close settle-
ment became palpable, and the French King issued a ma,ndate
in 16^, forbidding, under a penalty, any one to erect houses and
barns on lots of less than an acre and a half frontage and forty
acres backward extension. This order had for a time a bene-
ficial effect.

10. The monopoly granted to the West India Company ex-
cited the greatest dissatisfaction. All the people of Canada
were interested in the fur-trade. It was their distinguishing
occupation, and it directed the more active minds into a par-
ticular channel, and had much influence in determining the
future of the colony. It aroused and kept alive a spirit of
adventure. As the beaver, the sable, and the mink became
scarce in the country nearest the French settlements, it became
necessary to penetrate far and wide into the wilderness, Th^

COUREURS DE BOIS. 115

neceasiticH of trade promoted discovery, and extended the
doraaiu of France over an immense stretch of territory, and
made known to the world the magnificent resources and the
splendid scenery of the northern part of the Continent of
America. The active life of tlie fur-trader had the greatest
chorms for the French youth. It imired them to haljits of
eudnrai >, and disciplined them for war. It created a distinct
class.— tlu Coureurs du Bois, or " Runners of the Woods,"—
who, breaking away from the restraints of civilization, adopted
the savage life. They became a scandal and a source of weakness
to the Province. Through them the country was drained of its
strength ; — the sober toil of agriculture, the foundation of a
nation's wealth, was neglected ; the natural defence of Canada
was weakened. Hundreds of her sons, instead of being settled
on farms by the St. Lawrence, were, in the hour of danger,
living in wigwams by the distant shores of lakes Michigan and
Superior.

11. The Company had the exclusive privilege of importing
from France all goods used in the colony. It not only bought
the furs which were brought to the magazines at the value it
chose to put upon them, but it compelled people to purchase
necessary articles at enhanced prices. A great outcry was
raised. M. Talon, the first Superintendent under the new con-
stitution, urged upon M. Colbert the necessity of permitting
greater freedom of trade, if he expected to make anything of
Canada ; a country which, he thought, might, under wise govern-
ment, become infinitely useful to the kingdom. Upon these
representations the people were allowed, a few years afterwards
(in 1671), to import their own goods, and to buy the peltry from
the Indians, on condition that they should pay a fourth of the
beaver skins and a twelfth of the buffalo robes to the Company.

12. The West India Company showed no greater interest in the
colony than the Hundred Associates had shown. Its c'aarter
was rescinded by a Royal Edict in 1674, ten years after its
creation, and all the vast domain that had been "^ded to it
became the direct possession of the Crown. The people of
Canada were still allowed freedom of trade upon the conditions
already mentioned. The collection of the "fourths" and
" twelfths " of the beaver ,md bnffalo skins was leased out to

no THE ENGLISH SEIZE NEW YORK,

officers called Farmers-General, who in time came to unite the
duty of collecting the taxes with the profitable speculation of
buying the rest of the furs at a moderate price. About thirty
years afterwards (1701) the people became dissatisfied with tlie
Farmers-General, and they were abolished by a Royal Edict,
and a New Company was then formed, open to ail who chose
to take sharer in it. In consideration of the privileges of trade
granted by the King, it paid 60,000 livres annual rent into the
colonial treasury.

13. An event happened simultaneously with the erection of
the Sovereign Council and the creation of the West India Com-
pany, which not only affected the current of the fur-trade, but
which had the most important influence on the course of politi-
cal events in Canada. Charles II., claiming possession of the
territory including the Delaware Bay and River, Long Island,
and the Hudson, by right of the discoveries of the Cabots,
coolly granted it to his brother the Duke of York and Albany.
For fifty years, undisturbed by foreign claim, this country had
been in the hands of the Dutch, who called it the New Nether-
lands. There was peace between England and Holland, and

the governor, Petrus Stuyvesant, looked for no enemy.
1664 To his dismay, one day in August, four English
A.D. frigates anchored within range of Fort "^"^ew Amster-
dam. Being summoned to surreude^, hu was strongly
tempted to reply by the cannon's mouth. But the clergy and
principal inhabitants gathered about hira and induced him to
forego his fell intent, an^l to accept the terms offered by the
English commander. So the Dutch became free English sub-
jects. They retained their property, tlioir laws and customs,
and their own mode of worship. In honour of the Duke, the
town of New Amsterdam was named New York ; and Orange,
on the Hudson River, Albany.

14. The first English Government formed in New York
entered into a treaty with the Five Nations ; and that people
submitted to Corlear, — as they called the English King and his
representative, — and placed their lands under his protection.
The importance of securing the alliance of the Iroquois became
very soon apparent both to the English and to the French; and
that astute people Avere quick to see the immense advantage

POSITION OF THE IROQUOIS. 117

the positiou of their country gave them, lying as it did between
the rival colonies. Its proximity to Albany and New York
compelled them to depend on the English for gunpowder and
shot .and other indispensable supplies. Though their interest
iuduced them to keep the treaty with the English pretty faith-
fully, natural inclination diew them towards the French, who
flattered their self-love by the consideration that they showed to
tlieir feelings, and by their good nature and familiarity. The In-
dians generally were repelled by the haugh!:iness of the English,
who often scarce concealed contempt for theii* persons and
scorn for their habits. The Iroquois, with great shrewdness,
played the English against the French, and the French against
the English. When offenaed with their *' brother " Corlear,
they professed great regard for their " f?„ther " Ononthio. If a
Governor of New York, presuming on the treaty, assumed the
airs and acts of a master, their chiefs retired within themselves,
and haughtily declared they w^ere free and independent, and
the subjects of no monarch upon earth, and they sent dele-
gates to Quebec to speak of peace with the Governor-General.
On more than one occasion, when their hearty support would
have enabled the English to drive the French into the sea, they
grew cool, and failed to fulfil their engagements. They instinc-
tively feared that their doom would be sealed if the English
became sole mastf rs in America.

15. The English strove 1^ divert to the Hudson River the
current of the fur- trade that passed down the St. L? ^^rence.
The Iroquois were not blind to the advantage they deri' ed from
the transit of so profitable a traffic through their coujitry. At
the instigation of the Governors of New York they intrigued
with the tribes of Canada to induce them to sell their peltry to
the English. When persuasion failed, they made war. The
French, apprehensive that their trad3 would be ruined, sought
by every means to humble or conciliate them. Id trading for
furs A/ith the Indians, the English under-sold the French by
giving higher prices, and selling better articles at lower nites.
Many of the vagabond " Kunners of the Woods " carried their
peltry to New York in preference to Montreal, as they were
not met by tax-gatherei-s there. The rivalries and jealousies
created by the fur-trade were a principal cause of the wars

118

QtJiistioifS.

that desolated Canada and the frontiers of the New England
settlements.

Questions. — 1. To whom did the
King intrust the govc jment of Canada
in 1603? Who went out as Royal
Commissioner? For what only was
Baron d' Avaugour blamed ?

2. Of whom was the Sovereign Coun-
cil composed ? How many councillors
had they ultimately joint power to ap-
point ?

3. What powers had the Governor-
General, the Bishop, and the Intendant
respectively? On which of these did
tb3 prosperity of the colony chiefly de-
pend?

4. By whom, and how, was justice
administered? Where were inferior
courts established ?

5. What was the nature of the system
of government ? What may be said in
its favour ? What was the ch.^racter of
the French Canadians ?

6. When was the West India, Com-
pany established? Who was French
Minister of Finance at the time ? By
what tenure did the Company hold its
rights ?

7. What system then prevailed in
France ? How, under this system, were
lands held in Canada? Describe the
ceremony of doing homage. What
were quints ? When were they paid ?

8. What other tenure was there be-
sides that of seigneurie ? How did
seigneurs subdivide their lands ? What
were the holders of these lots called?

./hat duties were required of them?
What where lods et ventes ?

9. What was the law of inheritance ?
To what great evil did it lead ? W hat
was done to check it ? What mandate
was issued in 1645 ? Why ?

10. What feeling did the monopoly
granted to the West India Company
excite? In what trade were all the
people of Canada interested? What
benefits did that trade confer on the
colonists ? How did its pursuit weaken
the colony ?

11. What proceedings of t'le Com-
pany excited discontent? What sug-
gestion did M. Talon make? What
was consequently done ?

12. When was the charter of the
Company rescinded ? To whom was its
domain transferred? Who were the
Farmers-General? When were they
abolished? What was the nature of
the New Company then formed ?

13. When and how did the English
obtain possession of New York? To
whom had it previously belonged?
How did the change affect the Dutch
settlers ?

14. With whom did the English form
an alliance ? What advantageous posi-
tion did the Iroquois occupy? What
use did they make of it?

15. How did trade rivalries arise be-
tween the English and the French?
Which did the Irciuois favour ?

t)E MESY AND THE JESUITS.

119

CHAPTEK XIII.

DOMINION OF FRANCE EXTENDED.

1665 to 1672 A.D.

M. de Mesy.

Marquis de Tracy, Viceroy.

Joy in Quebec.

The Forts on the Richelieu.

ppflant attitude of the Mohaw' i.

paign against thorn.

Je Courcelles.
Peace.

Missions at Ste. Marie and Michilli-

mackinac.
The labours of M. Talon.
The Tribes of the west, and the Crown

of France.
The Mississippi.
Hudson Bay.
Newfoundland.

1. M. de Mesy was not long in Canada before the flames of
disseusion again burst out. M. de Laval believed that in the
new Governor-General he had a man after his own heart, one
who would sustain him in all his acts ; for the King had gra-
ciously permitted the Abbe to select whom he pleased to fill the
office, and his choice had fallen on his old friend, the Command-
ant of the citadel of Caen, who had given proofs of exalted
piety and of devotion to the Chrrch. But no sooner was
M. de Mesy la possession of power than he opposed himself to
the Superior and all his ecclesiastics, and sustained the party
that clamoured for a reduction of the tithes for the support of
the clergy, and that favoured the liquor traffic. He set his face
against the Jesuits. Under the New Company the Fathers had
exercised supreme authority in the colony ; they had per-
formed signal service to it, and by aid of resources drawn from
France had helped to sustain it in its darkest days. Under the
new regime they still sought to maintain their rule ; but they
were opposed by a party who deemed it too rigid and severe.
To such lengths did the disputes at the Council proceed, that
M. de Mesy caused two of its most respectable members — Sieur
Villeray aad the Attorney-Gei eral Bourdon — to be arrested
aud shipped off to France. He even marched with a body of
soldiers to the residence of the Superior, as if he meant to lay
violent hands on him. M. de Laval was amazed at the im-
petuous temper of his pious friend, and promptly sought a

120

THE CARIGNAN REGIMENT.

remedy for the mistake he had made. He memorialized the
Minister of France, made serious accusations against the Gover-
nor-General, and requested his discharge from office.

2. At the time when the complaints against M. de Mesy
reached the minister, troubles were occurring in other French
colonies. Alexander de Prouville, Marquis de Tracy, was
commissioned by the King as his Lieu tenant-General and
Viceroy in America, with plenary power to settle all disorders.
He was directed, after visiting the Antilles and San Domingo,
to proceed to Canada and place its government on a sure founda-
tion, to restore internal quiet, and to reduce the Iroquois.
Daniel de Eemi, Seigneur de Courcelles, the new Governor-
General, and M. Talon, Intendant, were appointed with him
members of a commission to investigate the charges against
M. de Mesy, with authority to bring him to trial. But before
they arrived in Canada De Mesy died at peace with his old
friend the Abbd, and the complaints were allowed to drop into
oblivion.

3. There was unwonted stir among the people of Quebec

when the Marquis de Tracy landed. Their eyes glis-

1665 tened and their courage rose when the splendid regi-

A.D. ment of Carignan Salieres (which had acquired glory in

Hungary against the Turks, and had come to conquer the
Iroquois) paraded, and the town rang with the clangour of military
music. The habitans gazed with admiration on the casques,
and flowing plumes, and shining breastplates of the body-guard
of the Viceroy, and on his footmen and pages in their gorgeous
liveries. All this splendour was a visible manifestation of
power, and it reassured them. With the soldiers came families
of honest, industrious, pious peasants from Normandy and
Picardy, and artisans and labourers, with horses, and oxen, and
sheep. " It was a colony more considerable than that which it
had come to replenish." The Indians stared at the horses — the
tirst that had been seen in Canada ; to them the mounted
officers seemed inseparable from the animals they bestrode —
veritable centaurs.

4. The Viceroy acted with promptitude. Detachments of
soldiers, with a force of artisans and labourers, under Colonel
Salieres and two officers — Messieurs Chambly and Sorel — were

THE FOUTS ON THE RICHELIEU. 121

despatched to the Richelieu River. With great rapidity three
forts were constructed ; they were called St. Therese, Sorel,
and Chambly. They were not of much avail as checks agaiust
the inroads of the Iroquois, for there were many by-paths
through the woods by which they could reach the St. Lawrence
unsus])ected by the garrisons.

5. The report of the arrival of the Carignan regiment made
a great impression upon the upper cantons of the Five Nations.
The Cayugas, Onondagiis, and Senecas in haste sent deputies to
make peace with the Viceroy. The Oneidas, after a struggle
with their sullen dignity, also sought conciliation ; but the
Mohawks, the fiercest and most implacable of all, stood proudly
aloof. A company of soldiers was sent to chastise one of their
parties. It fell into an ami iscade, and three officers — one of
them M. de Chazy, the young nephew of the Marquis de Tracy —
were killed. The news of this disaster reached Quebec when
the deputies of the Oneidas were on the point of concluding a
treaty. At the same time two Mohawk chiefs, who pretended
they were ambassadors, made their appf .lance. Notwithstand-
ing the angry feeling that the death of the officers had created,
there appeared to be a prospect that peace would be concluded
with all the Five Nations without further bloodshed. The
Viceroy invited the Mohawks to his table. During the course
of the dinner mention was made of young De Chazy, when one
of the chiefs electrified the company by raising his arm, and
crying out, " This arm cut off his head." In furious rage
the French officers dragged the braggart from the hall, and
handed him over to an executioner, who strangled him in sight
of his brother chief. This incident determined the Viceroy to
wage war, and preparations were made for a campaign against
the Mohawks.

6. On the 24th September, a force of 1300 men— compris-
ing 600 of the Carignan soldiers, as many Canadians,

and 100 Indians — was ready. The Viceroy, though 1666
well stricken in years, was full of mental energy, and a.d.
he resolved to command the expedition in person. He
took the centre of the line of march. Accompanied by a
brilliant suite of officers, surrounded by his body-guard,
tended by his pages, and sitting in his easy-chair, he was borne

122 CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE MOHAWKS.

through the wilderness. As if in an open country the French-
men in all their bravery strode on, and startled the prime vi^l
silence by the flourish of their trumpets* In the course of the
long and toilsome journey provisions failed, and they plucked
the green nuts from the trees a,s they encamped in a forest of
chestnuts. By the treachery of an Algonquin scout the Mo-
hawks had been warned. So when in order of battle, with
ensigns flying and drums beating, the soldiers entered their
chief bourgade, they found only a few old men and women left
in the cabins. Before burning the bourgade to ashes they rifled
the deep pits in which the Mohawks had stored immense quan-
tities of corn. Spreading themselves over the canton, they
found only solitude ; for, dismayed at the clamour and clangour
of the Frenchmen's advance, the inhabitants fled to the covert
of the woods. In after years the French dared not show the
bravado they displayed on this expedition, for it would only
have betrayed them to the Iroquois, who were not long deceived
into thinking there was danger in drums and trumpets.

7. The Viceroy would have punished the Oneidas but for the
lateness of the season. The bleak winds, the cold rains, the
falling leaves, and the morning frosts that " candied the streams
with ice," warned him of the approach of winter. So the ex-
pedition returned to Quebec. He was blamed for not mak-
ing an assured peace by building a fort and leaving a strong
garrison in the Mohawk country ; but, unfortunately, he believed
tliat if the posts on the Eichelieu Eiver were well defended, the
inroads of the Iroquois would be eff'ectually checked. The
Marquis de Tracy, soon after he had established the West India
Company in its privileges, left for France with six companies
of the Carignan regiment. M. de Courcelles assumed the
functions of Governor-General.

8. Canada now entered upon the first period of real quiet
that it had enjoyed since its foundation. The punishment the
Mohawks had received produced a salutary effect not only
upon them, but upon the other four nations. Unable, however,
to restrain their passion for slaughter, they turned their arms
against the Andastes and Chouanons, tribes living to the south

!: and west of their cantons, and the fiercest of all the people they

had as yet encountered. They petitioned Ononthio to send

I'HE WESTERl^ MISSIONS.

123

them missionaries. Fathers Bruyas, Fremin, Gamier, Carheil,
;md Pearrou went to labour among them. There were peraons
iu France who doubted whether any good was effected by mis-
sions among the Indians. The untutored savages were naturally
courteous ; they could not withhold their assent from any pro-
position earnestly stated, though they did not in the. least under-
stand it. They often went to chapel merely out of considera-
tion for the priest, in order to swell the number of his congre-
gation. The Fathers did not think that all who sought baptism
were real converts ; they believed that among the Indians, as
among all other nations, God had his elect.

9. In the exploration of different regions the priest preceded
the soldier and the trader. Nothing as yet was cei-tainly
known of the country of the west and north. Thirty years
before this time. Father Mesnard had followed a band of
Ottawas to the borders of Lake Superior, and perished in the
woods from the effects of ill treatment and starvation. Unde-
terred by his tragic fate, Father Allouez accompanied a party of
the same ferocious and superstitious savages to the Sault which
was then first called Ste. Marie, at the strait between Lakes
Superior and Huron. From thence he started along the shores
of Lake Superior, until at its eastern extremity he came upon
the Island of Chagouamigon, called by the French St. Michel
There he met a band of the Christian Hurons who had fled
from the wrath of the Iroquois, and eight hundred warriors of
the numerous tribes dwelling about that region, as far north-
west as Lake Winnepeg, and as far south as the Illinois River.
There he erected a chapel and made many proselytes. At Lake
Nipegon he found a wretched remnant of the once powerful
tribe of the Nipissings. Moved by the sad condition of the
Christianized Indians, he and Father Nicolas shortly afterwards
founded two missions, and settled the Algonquins at Sault
Ste. Marie, and the Hurons at Micliillimackiuac at a point on
the south shore of the strait between Lakes Michigan and
Huron.

10. Great attention was now given to the general improve-
ment of the country. On his first coming, M. Talon, the In-
tendant, applied himself with energy to find out both its neces-
sities and its natural resources. Hitherto the outlay on the

MMki

124 talon's labours.

colony had been greater than the return it had made ; and lie
wtis very desirous to justify to tl e Court of France the opiuiou
he had formed of its great capabilities, by showing that it was
able to sustain itself. He had several objects in view : to add
to the permanent strength of Canada by settling in it an indus-
trious agricultural population, and to fuither this purpose by
an enlightened system of colonization ; to develop the resources
of the country, so as to create an external conmierce with other
French colonies ; to bring under the authority of the Crown of
France the northern and western regions of the continent ; to
extend the fur-trade, and to give the j^eople generally an in-
terest in it by breaking down the monoj)oiy of the Company.

11. To encourage the people who had come out with him,
and to show them the best \»ay of settling in the wilderness,
he obtained a grant of land belovf Quebec, to the east of the
River St. Charles. He caused the land to be stripped of its
wood, the rough fields to be sown, and houses and barns to be
erected. In this way were formed the villages of Charles-
bourg and Louisbourg. After the people were pretty com-
fortably settled on their own farms, he set them to woi^k to
prepare adjacent lots for the reception of coming colonists. At
his suggestion the Carignau regiment was disbanded in the
colony. Grants of land were made 'en seigneurie" to the
officers on the Richelieu River, and the common soldiers became
ceusitaires under them. When ^the six companies that had
accompanied the Marquis de Tracy to France returned, there
were about twelve hundred military settlers in Canada. It
cannot be said that they turned their swords into pruning-
hooks ; for in those days every man was required to be a soldier,
and to carry his rifle with his implements when he went to
work in the fields. Talon placed soldiers on the frontier, to
form a barrier against the Iroquois. They did not, how-
ever, give Canada the complete protection that was expected
from them. They could not be constantly under arms watching
for the enemy, and ploughing at the same time. If they had
not raised corn and wheat the colony would have starved ;
and, after all, the risk of being attacked by the Iroquois was
less than the danger of dying of famine.

12. The accounts that had been given by travellers of the

talon's labours. 125

great mineral resources of Canada prompted M. Talon to take
steps to verify them. On his first sailing up the Gulf, he lau<le(l
at G{isp(5, where, he was told, silver was to be found ; but seeing
no traces of the precious metal, he reembarked disappointed.
He despatched M. Tesserie to explore the coasts of the Bay of
St. Paul, opposite the Isle of Coudres. Traces of iron and
copper were found, but no silver. Being satisfied that there
were indications of mineral riches in the country about Three
Fivers, Talon sent out a mineralogist, M. de la Potherie. After
a careful examination he reported very favourably as to the
fine quality and abundance of the iron ore to be found there.
It was not, however, till many years afterwards tliat anything
was done to turn the discovery to account.

13. In the midst of his labo'.rs, M. Talon returned to France
on urgent private business. He was dissatiafied with the con-
duct of the Governor-General, who in personal intercourse with
him was reserved. Though M. de Courcelles was very active
ill military affairs, he was indolent in conducting civil matters.
He rather obstructed than ncouraged the work of internal im-
provement. Talon had also causes of complaint against the
Ecclesiastical Superior and the missionaries. The Court of
France expressed a desire that the young Indian children
should be instructed in the French language, and introduced
into French modes of living, as a means of consolidating and
strengthening the colony. M. Talon urged on the Fathers the
propriety of carrying out these instructions. They contended
that it was impossible ; and that, even if it were possible, it woidd
be inconvenient to do so. The Intendant was not satisfied with
these statements, and attributed their unwillingness to Frenchify
the Indians to a desire to retain their power over the savages,
and to make themselves, as being the only power that could
manage them, indispensable to the colony. He lent his ear to
the grievances of the Libertine party, who still cried out that
their consciences were constrained under the rigid rule of the
Church. He obtained from the King an Edict reestab-
lishing the RecoUets in Canada. The following year 1670
he arrived in Quebec with Father Germain AUard, and a.d.
three other priests of the order, and settled them in
their old convent by the Biver St. Charles. The arrival of the

126 THE TRIBES OF THE WEST.

"gray gowna" was tiailod with satisfaction by the enemies
of the " black robes." With the Recollets there came back
to Canadcv the six companies of the Carignan regiment that
had accompanied De Tracy to France ; and a number of young
women, who weie nent out to be wives for the «ettlcvi. On
tlieir marriage they received a considerable present. In his
anxiety to people the country, M. Colbert did not alwiiys send
out persons of the best character.

14. Active measures were now taken to establish French
dominion in the northern and western parts of the continent.
Nicolas Perrot, an intelligent and experienced traveller, who
possessed an intimate knowledge of the native languages, and
great iniluence among the tribes, received instructions to call a
General Assembly of Indian delegates, to hear a message from
Onontbio. He followed in the track of Father AUouez, and
from the north-eastern shore of Lake Superior made hjs way to
Chicago, the chief bourgade of the Miamis, at the southern ex-
tremity of Lake Michigan. Thence he journeyed to Sault

Ste. Marie, which he fixed upon as the place of gather-

1671 ^^S' There, in the month of May, delegates of nearly

A.D. all the tribes dwelling in the region around the great

lakes met M. de Lousson, the Royal Commissioner.
In a few words Lousson made them understand that he wished
them to place their country under the protection of the Frennh
King, and to become his subjects. When Father Alk ^z
translated his speech into the Algonc .a tongue, the delegates,
properly instructed, answ^ered with cries of " Vive le Roi."
While choristers sung a solemn chant, a trench was dug in
which a cedar cross and post wei-e planted. When the royal
arms were affixed thereto, M. Lousson proclaimed that the
ceremony was concluded, and that the country and people were
nnder the protection of the Great Ononthio.

15. At Sault Ste. Marie the Indians told Perrot of a gi-eat
river — the Mechasepe, or, as others called it, the Mississippi
— that flowed neither to the north nor to the east. The im-
portance of ascertaining the direction of its outlet was at once
seen by M. Talon ; for whether it flowed south to the Gulf of
Mexico, or west to the Pacific Ocean, a channel of navigation to
^he sea would be secured, He intrusted to Father Marquette,

THE MISSISSIPPI.

127

1673

A.D.

aud M. Joliet, a merchant of Quebec, the task of discovery.
They made their way to Green Bay at the north-western ex-
tremity of Lake Michigan. Tlie Indians of whom they sought
information as to their route, drew friglitful pictures of the
dangers they wouhl encounter. Treating with contempt this
childish attempt to deter them from proceeding, they, with a
crew of six men, launched two small canoes on the Fox River.
Forcing a way with infinite toil up its numerous rapids and
jiast its falls, they reached the source, aud made their way
across a difficult country to the Wisconsin River. After a
prosperous voyage the adventurers reached, on the 14th
of June, the main stream of the Mississippi, the
" Father of Waters." For many a league the river
flowed through the richest country they had as yet
seen. They saw flowery meadows, forests of stately trees, and
prairies dotted with coimtless herds of bulfaloes. They passed
the mouths of ilft great tributaries — the Illinois, the impetuous
and turbid Missouri, the Ohio, the beautiful river — and were
heartily greeted and hospitably entertained by the native tribes.
When they reached the Arkansas River the Indians were not
so friendly. There they received information that convinced
them that the Mississippi did not, as they had at first hoped,
flow towards the Pacific. Fearing that if they pursued their
course to the Gulf of Mexico they would fall into the hands of
the hostile Spaniards, they retraced their way. When they
reached Chicago, Father Marquette remained to minister
among the Miamis, and Joliet proceeded to Quebec.

16. M. Talon took active steps to assert the right of France
to the Hudson Bay Territory. Both the English and the
French laid claim to it, on the strength of the voyages of Cabot
and Verazzani. Henry Hudson,^ an Englishman, was the
first who entered the Bay and viewed the awful desolateness of
its rugged rock-bound coasts. He gave his name to the bay
and strait. Other explorers — Buttons, Nelson, and Luxfox —

^ Henry Hudson. — Born about 1560 ;
made several voyages in search of a
north-west passage ; on the last, redis-
covered Hudson Bay (1610) ; on his way
home, some of his crew mutinied, and
forced hjm, his son, and the sick and

frost-maimed into a small boat, which
was cut adrift, and was never more
heard of (1611). The Kiver Hudson
(New York) was also named after this
navigator, who discovered it in one of
his earlier vovages.

128

NEWFOUNDLAND.

followed him, and gave their names to certain havLours and
ports, but made no Hottlcment. In 1656, M. Bourdon took
possession of the country in the name of the King of France,
and opened up a trade with the Indians. Seven yea^ '« after-
wards two renegade Frenchmen — Groaellibre and liadibson —
conducted a i)arty of Englishmen, by way of the lliver Nemia-
ceau, to th - southern extremity of St. Jimas Bay, where the
expansive 8h(5et of the main bay is contracted. There, at the
mouths of the rivers now called Rupert, Moose, and Albany,
forts and trading-posts were established.

17. In pnvsuauce of the in'jtructions given by the Intendaut,

to find a short routy to Hudson Bay by the Saguenay,

1671 Father Albanel, with M. do Simon and M. Denys —

A,D. ascended to the source of that river in the Lake

St. John. They encamped all winter by its borders,
and made fiiends of the wandering tribes. When spring
came, they explored Lake Mistissin, and descended the River
Nemisceau to its mouth. Delegates from a dozen tribes as-
sembled at the point where it discharged itself into the bay ;
and in their presence Father Albanel took formal possession of
the territory.

18. About this time the French established themselves more
firmly than they had hitherto done in Newfoundland. After
the death of the brave Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the English ne-
glected the settlement of the island for many years. Their
vessels, in common with those of the French, the Italians, the
Spaniards, and the Portuguese, frequented its coasts for the cod-
fishing. In 1610, the "Company of London and Bristol Ad-
venturers and Planters" was formed. Among its distinguished
members was the famous philosopher, Francis Bacon.^ John
Guy, acting on their behalf, founded a settlement at Conception
Bay in 1616. This Company, like other famous companies of
those days, promised a great deal more than it performed.
Five years afterwards the population of this settlement num-

* Francis Bacon. — Born 1561, died
1626. In 1618 he became Lord Chan-
cellor ; but a few years afterwards he
was cl-arged with corruption in his
high office, was degraded and heavily
fined, but was afterwards pardoned.

His fame as a writer, and as th«
"Father of Experimental Philosophy,*
rests on his great works, the Novum
Organum, the "Advancement of Learn-
ing," and the " Essays." Of these works
the " Essays " ere the most popular.

POSSESSIONS OF THE FRENCH AND THE ENGLISH.

129

bered sixty-two souls, of whom fifty-four were males. The
cod-fishery wjis iu a flouriahiug stute; two liuiidred nnd fifty
sail of English ships, gieat aud small, were employed in it. At
this time Captain Whitburn received a commission from the
Admiralty that authorized him to impaunel juries, and correct
abuses and disorders committed by fishermen on the coastt.
He was the first of the " Fishing Admirals," tus they were
Ciilled, who governed tho island from their vessel's deck. In
10:22, Sir George Calvert, afterwards Lord Baltimore, obtained
a grant c^ land in the south and east of the island — trom
St. Mary's Cape to the Bay of Bulls — and (irected there the
Province of Avalon. The English had then several F,tttle-
nients on the eastern coast, from Cape Ilace to Conception. Bay,
the principal of which was St. John's. The French occupied a
post on the southern coast, at the Bay of Plaisance. This
beautiful and commodious harbour was entered by a narrow
strait, and defended by Fort St. Louis, which stood at the foot
of a rocky height. The settlement remained in the hands of
private individuals until the troubles in Canada awakened a
fresh interest at Court in all the French possessions in Nortli
America. The King sent out Sieur de Poyps with a commis-
sion as his Lieutenant-Governor to take command of Plaisance.
19. The French now claimed all the North American Con-
tinent from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Pacific Ocean, and
south to the Gulf of Mexico. The English occupied n stretch
of country along the Atlantic coast, from Maine to Florida.
They were hemmed in by the Alleghi^ny Mountains. As yet
tliey did not feel that their energies were cramped within these
narrow bounds.

QuKSTiONS. — 1. Who had selected
De Mesy for the office of Governor-
General? Why? How were his ex-
pectations disappointed? How did De
Mesy threaten De Laval? What step
(lid the latter take ?

2. To what office was the Marquis
de Tiacy appointed ? How did the quar-
rel of De Mesy and De Laval end ?

3. What event caused great joy in
Quebec? Why? What means were
taken to replenish the colony ? What
excited the wonder of the Indians?

(473}

4. What measure did the Viceroy take
to check the Iroquois? Why were the
fortsof little use?

5. What led many of the Iroquois to
seek for peace? Which tribe held
aloof? How did De Chazy die? How
was his death revenged? On vihat did
the Viceroy then resolve?

6. With what force did ho advance
against them ? What bravado did the
French display ? How did the Mohawks
escape? What damage did the French
do?

130

QUESTIONS.

7. What forced the expedition to re-
turn to Quebec? For what was the
Viceroy blamed? Who returned to
France with hira ? Who was the new
Governor-General ?

8. Against whom did the Mohawks
turr; their arms? Whom did they ask
to bo sent to them ? Why did certain
persons in France doubt the elflcacy of
missions to the Indians?

9. Describe the expedition of Father
AUouez. What two missions did he
and Father Nicolas found ?

10. To what did great atteu .on then
begin to be given? What objects had
M. Talon in view ?

11. What led to the formation of
Cwarlesbourg and Louisbourf ? Why
did Talon place soldiers on the frontier?

12. What stops did Talon take to as-
certain the mineral resources of Canada?
What was the result?

13. What causes of complaint had
Talon against Courcelles? To what
did he attribute the unwillingness of
the Jesuits to Frenchify the young
Indians? What edict did he obtain
from the King? Whom did he take to
Quebec when he returned from France ?

11. For what were active measnrcg
then taken ? Where did a general as-
sembly of Indian delegates meet?
What took place there ?

16. Of what river did the Indians tell
Perrot? To whom was the expedition
in search of the Mississippi intrusted?
What route did they take? Describe
their journey.

16. What territory was Talon anxious
to secure for France? What other
power claimed it? Who had taken
possession of it in 1056? What footincf
had the English obtained there?

17. Whom did Talon send to the
Hudson Bay Territory? By what
route? Describe the scene at the mouth
of the Nemisceau.

18. Where, about this time, did the
French establish themselves more firmly
than before? Who was the first of the
"Fishing Admirals"? Where were
bhe English and the French settlements
respectively? Whom did the French
King send out as Lieutenant-Governor
of Plaisance ?

19. What portions of North America
were at this time claimed by the French
and by the English respectively?

PK COUBCELLES FIRM RTJLE,

131

CHAPTER XIV.

THE MISSISSIPPI.

1672 to 1686 A.D.

Firm rule of M. de Courcelles.

The Fort at Cataracoui.

Count Frontenac.

M. Duchesneau, Intendant.

Sleur la Salle.

The Griffin on Lake Huron.

Salle reaches the mouth of the Mis-

sissippi — His sad fate.
Frontenac in disgrace.
Governor Dongan of New York.
M. de la Barre.
The Bay of Famine.

1. Canada, under the rule of M. de Courcelles, continued to
enjoy rest from war; but it required all his vigilance and
vigour to preserve it in that happy state. He acquired a great
ascendency over the Indians by the haughty resolution with
which he enforced his commands, and by the justice of his
dealings with them. He promptly met the first threat of
danger. He heard that the Iroquois were intriguing with the
Ottawas to induce them to carry their peltry to New York,
i'earing that the commerce cf the country would be ruined, ho
a.scended the River St Lawrence in a bateau, and confronted
them in their own country. He succeeded in putting a stop to
their scheming, but so impaired his health that he demanded
his recall to Franca.

2. The late influx of emigrants had let loose some bad
characters in the colony. Three soldiers waylaid a Mohawk
chief, who was caiTying a number of valuable beaver skins.
They gave him too much brandy, and then robbed and murdered
him. Three other Frenchmen treated six Mahingans in a
similar manner. These crimes inflamed the Indians, and
Canada trembled on the verge of a desolating war. The
officers of justice traced the murder of the chief to the tliree
soldiers. M. de Courcelles called on the Iroquois to send
deputies to meet him at Montreal. After showing them that
it was their interest to remain at peace, he commanded the
culprits to be beheaded in their presence. This prompt stroke
of justice satisfied them ; and the Mahingans were pacified

132

THE FORT AT CATARACOUI.

by a promise that the murderers of their people would receive
a like punishment. Shortly afterwards the Seuecas suddenly
attacked the Pottawattamies, and took a number of prisoners.
M. de Courcelles made a fiery and imperative demand for
their instant restitution. The Senecas fiercely declared that
they were not the vassals and slaves of Ononthio, and then
sent him a few of the captives. He pretended to be satis-
fied, for he knew it would be dangerous to press that fierce
nation too hardly.

3. The labours of the missionaries in the Five Cantons
produced some good results. Among the Mohawks a band of
neophytes displayed great fervour. The Superior, fearing that
they would be exposed to danger from their own people, removed
them to Prairie de la Madelaine, opposite to Montreal. M. de
Courcelles the more heartily approved of this step, as he hoped
that, in the event of war, they would be a check against the in-
roads of theii" pagan brothers.

4. The condition of the Indians, on the whole, was not im-
proved. The poor red men in Canada dwindled away. Brandy
and the small-pox made woful havoc. Whole tribes in the
north were swept away. At Tadoussac and Three Eivers, where
hundreds had been wont to assemble, only a few wretched in-
dividuals came to trade. The Irotiuois, having exter-

1672 minated the Andastes, grew restless for want of employ-
A.D. ment for their arms. M. de Courcelles, fearing that
sooner or later they would break the peace, conceived a
ei^heme to keep them in check. He invited their chiefs to
meet him at Cataracoui, at the *»CiStern extremity of Lake
Ontario. The great calumet was passed from mouth to mouth,
and the tree of peace was planted. After making gracious
speeches and handsome presents, he told them it was his inten-
tion to build a fort there, so that they might come and trade
more conveniently with the French. They were delighted
with the project, and expressed a hope that It would be soon
completed. It did not strike them at first that the Governor-
General would throw in soldiers when the fort was completed,
and that, instead of its being a favour, it was meant to be a
menace. De Courcelles returned to Quebec, and met Count
Frontenac, who had been sent out to relieve him. The new

COUNT FRONtENAC.

133

Governor-General heartily adopted his scheme, and gave instant
orders for the construction of the fort at Cataracoui. When
completed, it was called Fort Frontenac. This name was also
given to the great lake.

6. Louis de Buade, Count de Frontenac, was a nobleman
of high birth and powerful family connections. He was grand-
son of a friend and comrade of Henry IV. His spirit was as
lofty as his birth. There were some strange contradictions in
liip character. He was regular in his life, and devoted in his
religious duties, and he was adored by the people for his acts of
kindness ; but he was imperious, jealous, violent, and vindictive.
He possessed the power of commanding men in times of dif-
ficulty and danger, but could not command his own ten oer.
He was actuated by a desire to promote the public good, and
gave his countenance to all schemes for the extension of the
power of France in North America. He was opposed to all
commercial restrictions, and was disposed to allow the people
some voice in the management of their local affairs. If every-
body, from the bishop to the bailiff, had bowed submissively
to his will, matters might have gone on pretty smoothly.
M. Talon would not submit to his imperious manners, and de-
manded his own recall. Thereafter Canada, began to languish.

8. Count Frontenac soon raised a great turmoil. He em-
broiled himself with the Bishop. He favoured the Recollets,
and opposed the Jesuit missionaries. He countenanced the
liquor traffic, contending that it was necessary to permit it in
order to gain over ibe Indians, and that the evils growing out
of it had been very mu'*^ ^exaggerated. Its prohibition had, he
held, been made a handle fcr persecuting those who opposed
the domination of the priesthood. He threw Father Fenelon
into prisoi, because he dared to preach against his acts.

7. With M DuchOBUeau, tl'e new Intendant, he was soon
at open and violent war. He was exceedingly jealous of the
powers intrusted to that officer, who, as President, kept in his
possession the book in which all Acts of the Council were
registered, and who on every subject that was discmssed gave
the final judgment. The Count was not content with his posi-
tion as head of the Council, but he strove to invest in himself
all it« powers. In the spirit of his King, Louis XIV., he was

134 SIEUR LA SALLE.

disposed to say " that the Council was himself.'* M. Buches-
ueau, as fond of power, and nearly as self willed as the Count,
refused to make the slightest concession. The lengths to which
the Count carried his violence grieved even his warmest
partisans in the colony, embarrassed his friends a^ Court, and
drew forth a r^xnonstrance from the King.

8. At this time a young gentleman adventurer, Robert
Cavalier, Sieur la Salle, arrived in Canada, with his imagina-
tion aflame with the dream of finding a way to Japan and the
East Indies by penetrating the western wilds of the contiueut
until he reached a northern sea. He was formed for arduous
adventure. He was intelligent, ambitious, and daring, and had
be cu disciplined by the severe training of a Jesuit college. No
difficulty could daunt, no disappointment could depi iss him.
In Quebec he heard Joliet's tale of the discovery of the Mis-
sissippi. A great opportunity to accomplish the object of his
desire seemed to present itself to him. He flattered himself
that by descending the great river he would certainly reach the
Gulf of Mexico, and by ascending its tributary the Missouri
to its source he would find the north sea of which he was iu
search, or that fortune would meet him whichever route he
took. He unfolded his project to Count Frontenac, and won
his heart by offering to rebuild his favourite foi-t at Cataracoui
of stone, and on a larger scale. Armed with letters of intro-
duction to persons of interest at Court, he passed over to France.
Through the influence of M. Saignelay, Minister of Marine, and
of the Duke of Conti, he obtained a grant of the seigneurie of
Cataracoui, and the exclusive privilege of commerce in the west,
and unlimited liberty to make discoveries. With Chevalier
Tonti, a veteran officer, and Father Hennepin, a Flemish Ee-
coUet, and thirty men, he returned to Canada.

9. For a year La Salle busied himself in clearing land,
building forts at Cataracoui, building ships on Lake Ontario

and above the Falls of Niagara, and trading with the

1679 Indians. On the 9th of August, with Father Henne-

A.D. pin, he entered Lake Erie, on board the " Griffin," the

first ship that had ever ploughed its waters. Traversing
its length, he passed through the Detroit Strait into a beautiful
lake, which he called St. Clair. A furious wind struck the

ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 135

Griffln on Lake Huron. The sailors, dismayed by the storm,
dropped on their knees ; but the pilot swoie at La Salle for
enticing him to leave the oce-in, which he had navigated safely
for many a year, only to perish in a horrible lake. A calm
came, and Michillimackinac was reached. Their voyage came
to a close in the green bay of Lake Michigan. La Salle sent
the Griffin, freighted with a rich cargo of f ura, back to Niagara.
It was never seen afterwards.

10 Chevalier Tonti went to live among the Illinois. The
^cju-will of that people was necessary for the success of the
.enterprise. La Salle secured the commerce of the west and the
great lakes by For- Orevecour on the River Illinois, by
fortified poK.is at St. Josep"-' anfl .1 Chicago, at Sault Ste Marie,
at Michillimackinac and ? jL^etroit, and by his rer . forts
at Niagara and Catara> oui.

11. For two years La Salle, keeping his great project con-
stantly in view, worked on encompassed by enemies. There
were merchants in Canada who called him a creature of Count
Frontenac, and who, envious of his trading privileges and of his
success, attempted to destroy his credit. The Iroquois, insti-
gated by the English at New York, invaded the Illinois
country, and murdered his allies. His men murmured,
mutinied, and attempted to poison him. But he bore a stout
heart through all. He despatched Father Hennepin and
M. Daccan lo find the source of the Mississippi. They ascended
as far as the 45th degree of north latitude. They were stopped
by the beautiful falls, which the Father called ** St. Anthony."
There they fell among the Sioux, who held them captive a
long time.

12. At length La Salle launched his canoes on Illinois
Eiver, and on the 11th of February entered the broad
stream of the Mississippi. Sometimes receiving a friendly 168 2
greetiug, sometimes saluted by a shower of arrows, he a.d.
passed the mouths of the Missouri, the Ohio, and the
Arkansas, and through the country of the Chickasaws, Taencas,
Natchez, and Quinipissas. As he descended, flat, dreary, marshy
meadows, exhaling the miasma of rank vegetation, extended
as far as eye could reach. On the 19th of March he gained the
mouth of the " Father of Waters." He celebrated his im-

130

DEATH OF LA SALLE.

])()rtaiit discovery by great rejoicings. He took formal posses-
si on of the country drained by the Mississippi, and named it
Louisiana, in honour of Louis XIV. He then hastened to
carry to Quebec the news of his success. His return voyage
was very toilsome and dangerous, and he did not reach the
capita] until the spring of 1683.

13. La Salle was received with great distinction at Court.
In the following year he sailed from Rochelle, with his nephew
Moranger, and two hundred and eighty men, to find the month
of the Mississippi by sea, and to found a settlement ; but
having altogether miscalculated its longitude, he sailed two
hundred miles past it. Intense was his disappointment when
he discovered his mistake. Misfortunes accumulated on his
liead. The ship bearing his chief supplies was wrecked in the
Gulf of Mexico. The men grew mutinous. In exploring the
interior of the country, a party of them, exasperated by priva-
tions and by the haughty temper of Moranger, murdered both
nephew and uncle. Chevalier Tonti descended to the mouth
of the Mississippi in expectation of meeting La Salle : he did
not learn his sad fate until long afterwards.

14. For many years after La Salle's discovery, the French
took no steps to establish themselves on the Mississippi. During
his absence his patron fell into temporary disgrace. The
King supported the Bishop, and prohibited the sale of liquors
to the Indians. Count Frontenac was rebuked for attempting
t centre all the powers of the Council in himself, and M. Du-
chesneau was censured for the strong temper he had displayed
when opposing the Governor-General's pretensions. Both were
recalled. M. de la Barre, an old soldier, and M. des Meules
were appointed in their room. Pending their arrival, events
took place that boded ill for the future peace of the colony.

15. Colonel Dongan was appointed Governor of New York in
1682, and he commenced to intrigue with the Iroquois, in order
to divert the fur- trade to the English. A Seneca chief wus
murdered by an Illinois warrior, and all the Five Cantons rose
in arms, to take revenge on the tribes in the west friendly to
the French. Count Frontenac invited the Iroquois to send
delegates to Cataracoui, with the view of settling the quarrel
peaceably. Incited by Colonel Dongan, who wished to break off

M. DE LA BARUE. 137

all negotiations, the Onoudagas sent him word that he must
come to the Chouagen River if he wished to speak to them.
Frontenac then assumed his haughtiest air, and, in answer to
their repeated insolence, formally declared that all the western
tribes were under his direct protection, and that, if the Iroquois
had anything to say to him, they must come to Montreal, where
he would await them for a stated time. This proud bearing
seemed to have an effect, for shortly afterwards a deputation of
chiefs went to Montreal to confer with the Count. They made
fair promises to keep peace with all his allies, and departed loaded
with presents, and satisfied that they had amused Ononthio.

16. M. de la Barre, the new Governor-General, found
Canada in a state of great disquietude. A grand Council, com-
posed of every person of note and position in the colony, met in
Quebec, to consult with him on the best measures of defence to
be taken. Acting on its unanimous advice, he made an urgent
appeal to the King for three hundred soldiers, and for thirteen
hundred labourers to till the soil, while the Canadians were left
free to do military duty. He also prayed his majesty to make
such representations to the English Court as would deter
Colonel Dongan from aiding the Iroquois. The " Council of
Notables " was convinced that Canada could not exist unless
they were completely humbled. In answer to his petition, the
King sent De la Barre two hundred men, and an assurance
that Dongan had been instructed to forbear from hostilities. The
aid was insufficient, and the neutrality imposed on the Governor
uf New York did not prevent him from giving secret encourage-
ment to the Five Nations.

17. The Governor-General, not feeling confident that he could
crush his enemies, made overtures of peace. The wily
savages were very willing to send their deputies to smoke the
great pipe with the French at Cataracoui ; but their insincerity
was made too apparent by their acts to deceive any one but
De la Barre. His policy was very generally condemned, and
people about him said to one another that old age had made him
credulous. The course he pursued was calculated to excite
the contempt of the Iroquois, who attributed it to a conscious-
iiess of weakness. The Ouondagas, Cayugas, and Oneidas
amused him by entering into separate treaties of peace with

138 THE BAY OP FAMINE.

him. De la Barre then flattered himself that he would be able to
attack the Senecas alone, and crush them. That " nation " had
made itself particularly obnoxious to the French and to their
allies the Illinois. A force of nine hundred soldiers, militia
and Indians, was raised. De la Barre lingered so long on the
way that much of his piovisions was consumed before he
reached the enemy's country. He crossed Lake Ontario, and
encamped by a bleak cove, which the Frenchmen, in memory
of their miseries, called the Bay of Famiue. There De la
Barre still lingered, while sickness and death wasted his force.

18. At this juncture the fortune ( f Canada trembled in the
balance. If the Five Nations had united their forces, they
could have destroyed its feeble guard. Governor Dongan,
luckily for it, alarmed their proud spirit by an act that plainly
showed that he considered them English subjects. He caused
the arms of the Duke of York to be affixed to the cabins of
their principal bourgades. The Jesuit missionaries used this
act as an argument to convince the Iroquoi.s that it was not
their interest to drive the French from Canada ; for, if the
English became sole masters, they would not long be a powerful
people. The astute savages saw the danger of allowing either
English or French to become the dominant power.

19. All the "nations" adopted the cause of the Senecas as
their own. Their deputies visited the French camp, and bore
themselves as men who knew their power. M. de la Barre
received them in state. He sat in his easy-chair, surrounded
by his officers and the Indians. He told the deputies /hat
he had come to make peace; but he threatened them with
destruction if they persisted in their perfidious courses. The
chiefs, perceiving the weakness of the French, listened scorn-
fully. Garrangula, the Seneca orator, after gravely walking
five or six times around the circle, faced De la Barre, and said
that he saw a great captain who spoke as if he were dream-
ing ; who spoke of his having come to smoke the great pipe
with the Senecas, but Garrangula knew that he would have
knocked them on the head if sickness had not weakened
the arms of his soldiers. De la Barre was intensely morti-
fied at this sarcasm. He demanded that the Senecas should
refrain from warring against the Illinois. "Not while a

THE IROQUOIS DEFIANT.

139

warrior of either nation remains alive," was the bold
reply tluit crimsoned with rage the faces of the French officers.
The deputies would only promise that their people, when
fighting with the Illinois, would not " drop the hatchet on the
head of any Frenchman." They demanded the instant de-
parture of the French from their country as the preliminary
condition to their signing a treaty of peace. M. de la Barre com-
plied with the arrogant request. The mortification of the
French officei's at the ignominious termination of the campaign
was made more intense by the arrival, soon after, of Captains
Montorlier and Desnos with a reinforcement of troops. M. de
la Barre was recalled the following year. The report of the
peace he had made caused an unfavourable impression at Court.
No one in Canada believed that it would be of long continuance.

Questions. — 1. How did De Cour-
celles preserve peace in Canada? How
did he check the Iroquois ?

2. What crimes, perpetrated by
Frenchmen, inflamed the Indians?
How did De Conrcelles pacify them ?

3. Which of the Mohawts were re-
moved to Prairie de la Madelaine?
Why? Why did De Conrcelles approve
of the step?

4. What was tho condition of the
Indians generally? Why did the
Iroquois grow restless? What plan
did De Courcelles form for keeping
tbom in check?

5. Sketch the character of Count
Frontenac. What was the state of
Canada during his administration?

6. What was Frontenae's quarrel
with the Bishop ? W^hat were his views
regarding the liquor traffic?

7. Who was the new Intendant?
What was the cause of Frontenae's
quarrel with him ? How did the Count
suff'er for his violence ?

8. What young adventurer about
this time arrived in Canada? What
great project did he form? How did
he win Frontenae's heart? What suc-
cess had he in France ?

9. How did La Salle busy himself after
his return to Canada? Where did he
then go ? What became of the Oriffin f

10. How did La Salle secure the

commerce of the great lakes and of
the west ?

11. What great dilliculties encom-
passed La Salle? What befell Father
Hennepin and M. Daccan?

12. When did La Salle reach the
Mississippi? Describe his voyage
down the river. W^hen did he reach
its mouth ? What name did he give to
its bed?

13. What expedition did La Salle
undertake the following year? What
was his sad fate ?

14. How did the quarrel between
Frontenac and Duchesneau terminate?
Who were their successors?

15. What brought the French once
more into collision with the Five
Cantons? How did Frontenac deal
with them ?

16. What advice did the "Council of
Notables " give De la Barre ? What was
the result?

17. What policy did De la Barre resolve
to adopt? What was thought of it?
Whom did he resolve to attack ? Where
did his men endure great miseries?

18 What act of Colonel Dongan's
excited the jealousy of the Iroquois?

19. Describe De la Barre's meeting
with the deputies of the Iroquois. What
did they demand as a preliminary of
peace? What intensified the mortifi-
cation of the French officers?

140

TIIK THKATY OP NRUTRALtTY.

CHAPTER XV.

THE AGONY OF CANADA.

1684 to 1689 A.D.

Mnrquis de Denonville.

Treaty of Neutrality,

Seizure of Iroquois Chiefs.

The Senecas punished.

Pestilence.

Intrigues of Governor Dongan.

Cataracoui besieged.
Kondiaronk "the liut."
Peace Itilled.

M. de Calli6res in Franco.
The Massacre of Lacliine.
Hudson Bay.

1 . M. DE LA Barre was succeeded by the MaxQLUis de Denon-
ville, an accomplished cavalry officer. With him came M. de
Calli6res, Governor of Montreal, — a better soldier France never
sent to Canada. The new Governor-General was not long in
the country before he saw the dangers that threatened it from
without and from within. He concluded that it "was impos-
sible to conciliate the capricious Iroquois, to win them over
entirely, to make Frenchmen of them, as he had been instructed
to attempt. A Frenchman readily became an Indian, but an
Indian never became a Frenchman. The numbers of young
men v/ho adopted the savage life brought opprobrium on the
French character. Royal Edicts were launched in vain against
the " Runners of the Woods." By their reckless, vagabond con-
duct, they injured the trade and weakened the military force of
the colony. The evils resulting from their wild course of life
caused the Governor-General much anxiety.

2. With the aid of soldiers from France, the Canadian
militia, and the friendly Indians, De Denojivilk. resolye(L>to
humble the Senecas. The time appeared favourable. There
was perfect peace now between the Crowns of France and
England. The Duke of York, as James II., had succeeded

his brother Charles, "the meiTy monarch." He con-
1687 Eluded with Louis, his magnificent friend, a Treaty of
A.D. Neutrality, by which the two Kings agreed that per-
petual peace should subsist between their colonies in
North America. National antipathies and commercial jeal-

SEIZURE OF inOQUOIS CHIEFS. HI

ousies, however, could not long be restrained by such an agree-
ment. It did not prevent Dougan from endeavouring to thwart
the policy of the Governor-General.

3. While De BeLonville made vigorous preparations for war,
he .all the time professed anxiety for peace. In pursuing this
course, he, acting on the command of the King, who wanted
slaves to man his galleys, was guilty of treachery, getook
advantage of the implicit faith that the Iroquois reposed in the
missionaries. Without disclosing to them his object, h e requi red
the^^hersjojpersuade certain of the first men to visit him
at Cataracoui. When the chiefs were in his power, he ciused
tT jm to be seized, ;,<.nd, loaded with irons, to he shipped off to
France. It was an act both impolitic and cruel. It destroyed
faith in French honour, and aroused the Iroquois from the
sloth into which they were falling, to recommence their war-
fare. Before intelligence of the perfidy reached their cantons,
De Denonville arrived at the mouth of the Genessee with a
force of two thousand men in two hundred bateaux. On the
same day, (the 10th of June), M. Duvantye, Commandant at
Michillimackinac, met him with a band of Frenchmen, Hurons,
and Ottawas. The Indians drew auguries of success from this
happy rencounter.

4. The united force then marched through the country of the
Senecas. Unopposed it passed through two deep and danger-
ous defiles. When it emerged into the more open country, and
was within pistol-shot of the chief bourgade, eight hundred
Iroquois rose from their coverts and opposed its advance. Two
hundred stole through the woods and fell on the rear of the
French advance guard. Attacked on both sides, the regular
soldiers, unaccustomed to forest warfare, fell into confusion.
The Canadians and Indians remained firm, and gave them time
to recover their coolness. After some brisk firing, the Iroquois
broke and fled in all directions through the woods, leaving
forty-six dead and sixty wounded warriors behind. The
Ottawas, who had shown less bravery than the other Indians
in the battle, mangled and tortured the dead and wounded
with fearful ferocity when it was over. For ten days the
French remained in the country. Though they ravaged it all
around, they took no prisoners, for all the inhabitants had fled

142

INTRIGUES OF DONOAN.

to the eastern cantons. The principal bourgade was burned to
ashes, over a million biT^-hels of corn were destroyed, and an
enormous number of hogs killed. Sickness broke out among
the invaders, the allied Indians grew impatient to return home,
and no De Denonville marched west to the River Niagara.
There he caused a fort to be built, and left a hundred men to
garrison it. He h.od done the Senecjis grievous harm, from
which they never fully "f^covered. When they returned to
their desolated country, famine and pestilence swept them oft'
in great numbers.

5. During the summer Canada was visited by small-poz.
It made victims in every household, and committed fearful
ravages among the domiciled Indians. Canada, in its time,

- had experienced great suflfering, but it had never passed through J
l^ darker days than those that now descended on it. 3 The
chastisement inflicted on the Senecas united all the Five
Nations to revenge it. Like packs of fami-Lhed wolves, bands
of warriors spread themselves over the settlements. The habi- \
tans dwelling on the southern shore of the St. Lawrence werej
held in a state of siege ; in every seigneurie there was a fortified
enclosure, to which, with their household movables and cattle,
they fled for safety. When they went to work in the fields,
bands of armed men kept watch on the skirts of the wood.^ for
the savages v ^'^ might be lurking there.

6. Gover ongan encouraged the Iroquois to maintain a
hostile ' ^ towards the French, and instructed them to
listen t overtures oi peace except on the terms dictated by
himself,-4^mely, that the Governor-General should restore to
liberty the chiefs whom he had sent to France, that he should
raze the forts at Cataracoui and Niagara, make good the dam-
age he had done the Senecas, and restore the Christian Mohawks
at Sanlt St. Louis to their nation^ A thousand warriors
assembled in the chief bourgade of the Onondagas, as if deter-
mined to force the French to accept those hard terms. Through
the influence of Father de Lamberville, the Onondagas were
induced to send deputies to Montreal to treat with the Governor-
General. Five hundred warriors insisted on accompanying
them. Arrived at Cataracoui, the deputies demanded that the
Commandant, M. d'Orvilliers, should send an officer to accora-

CATAUACOUI BESIEGED. 143

pany them. So, with Lieuteuant la Perelle they descended to
Lake St. Francis, where the deputies found another baud of
Iroquois as numerous as their own escort. They were now left
to go to Montreal alone. In the presence of De Denonville,
ILuiskouau, their orator, spoke proudly. Mucli as he loved
Ouonthio, he said, he could hold out to him no hope of peace
unless the terms dictated by " Corleax " were accepted. But'^
/ the Governor-General was not to be brow-beaton by bragga- J
(^docio. He had several Onondaga prisoners. Giving theml
their liberty, he confided to one the conditions on which he waa
willing to treat with his nation, and then politely bowed out\
the deputies.

7. In the meantime the impatient Iroquois had blockaded
Fort Cataraconi, killed all the cattle in the fields, and burned
all the hay by shooting into it arrow? tipped with burning tow.
"W" en the Governor-General's envoy ascended to Lake Ontario, he
saw L French barciue surrounded by hundreds of canoes. Two,
filled with the most daring warriors, made a dash to board it.
Several shots from its swivel gun scattered the whole flotilla ;
and a favourable wind springing up, bore the vessel safely to
Fort Niagara.

8. The Indians never kept long to one course of action.
Their capricious temper caused those who dealt with them
much anxiety. At one time they would be all eager for war ;
then, on a sudden, they would grow cool and seek for peace. 7

/ The Iroquois now showed a disposition to treat with the Gover-J
Lnor-General on his own terms. The Onondagas, Oneidas, and
Cay u gas sent delegates to Montreal. Ta truce was agreed to,J|
on condition that hostilities should cease at once ; that the Mo-
hawks and Senecas should join with the other nations, and that
all the Indian tribes friendly to the French should be included
in the treaty; that the Iroquois should allow Cataracoui to be
re victualled ; and that the Governor-General should raze Fort
Niagara. /The delegates left, hostages behind, and departed |
with a promise that accredited ambassadors should be sent toj
conclude the treaty of peace.

9. A new danger sprang iip to harass M. de Denonville. The
friendly Indians heard of the proposed peace with displeasure.
They said that the French had sacrificed their allies to save

KONDIARONK " THE RAT."

themselves ; and that the Iroquois would take advantage of tli3
peace to make war upon them. The Hurous of Micliillimackinac
descended to Cataracoui in expectation of war. When M
d'Orvilliers told Kondiaronk, their chief, that there was a
truce, and that the wisest course he could take was to return
home at once, " the Bat " (as he was sur^amed) listened gravely,
and departed without saying a word. Me had heard, however,
that the ambassadors of the Five Nations would descend the
River Chouagen on their way to Montrecal.JSo he and his war-
ri«^rs lurked about the Bay ot Famine, and fell upon, and after

^f ief fight, captured them. J The Rat then proceeded alone to
Cataracoui, and spoke mysteriously to the puzzled Commandant,
saying that they had killed the peace, and he should like to
see how Ononthio could get out of the scrape. He then has-
tened away to his prisoners. They asked him indignantly why
he had so rudely stopped them on the errand of peace. With
well assumed surprise he pretended to be utterly ignorant of
their mission, and said that it was tne French themselves who
had set him on. To prove his sincei ity, he released them, with
the exception of one whom he kept to replace a Huron who had
been slai a in the skirmish. Kondiaronk then journeyed with
all speed to Michillimackinac, and reached it before the news
of the truce arrived. He delivered up his prisoner to the Com-
mandant as one who had been taken in regular battle. In vain
did the unfortunate Iroquois, when taken to the place of execu-
tion, protest that he was an ambassador. When he screamed
out about the peace, the Rat gravely shook his head, and said
that fear of death had turned the prisoner's brain.4_jWhen his
victim lay dead, the crafty wretch went away and secretly re-
leased an Iroquois chief vho had long lain in bondage. He
spoke in terms of indignation of the sacrilege committed on the
sacred person of an ambassador of peace, and told him to fly to
his country and warn his people against the treachery of the
French. |

10. rThese machinations had their effect^ Governor Dongan,
however, had as mi:ch to do with killing the peace as the Rat.
He maintained that the Governor-General had no right to enter
into treaties with the Iroquois, who were British subjects, with-
out his intervention. It was not difficult for him to create

DE CALLIERES IN FRANCE.

145

suspicion ia the mind of that capricious people, that the French
in seeking peace were merely meditating some act of treachery.
Dongan, who had not acted '^ to the spirit of vhe treaty of
neutrality, was now recalled. His successor. Governor Androa,
very soon intimated to M. de Den'^nville that peace could only
be secured on the terms Dongan had dicrtated.

11. About this time M. de Calli^res passed over to France.
He was indignant that the peace of so grand a country as
Canada should be at the mercy of a ''handful of savages,"
who, he believed, were incited to war by the English for the
purpose of destroying its trade. /Both he and De Denonville
agreed in thinking that the presence of Frgnnh r^ pd Eng lish on
the American Continent was incompatible with peavie| He laid

/before the King a scheme by which he proposed to seize on
I Albany and New York, which was then an unfortified town,

containing only four hundred inhabitants capable of bearing

armd.

12. While Canada had been struggling for its existence,
a great event had transpired in Europe. The Bevolution^ had
taken place in England. The despot James had fled to France.
Lq ^is X IV. was preparing to do battle with the combined
powers, and had declared war against England. He lent a

Iwilling ear to any scheme that would destroy her power/
iu America. He recalled M. de Denonville iii order to 1689
give him a command in one of his armies, and reap-y a.d.
I pointed Frontenac in his place in Canada. The weight
that the Count's high rank gave him, his experience in war, his
resolute and daring character, and the intercession of his
friends, induced the King to overlook the past.

13. M. de Calliferes' scheme was set aside for a project that
combined an attack o nffew York by sea and by land. I Two
great wf.r-ships and a number of lesser vessels were detached
for the enterprise, and the naval command was given to M. de
la Caffinifere. It was resolved that the attack should be made
iu early autumn, that Gaffini^re should blockade the harbour

' Tke Revolution. — The great English
Rovnlution of 1688, by which the Stew-

arts were Anally drivtn from the throne
James II. was then sncceeded by Will

f47C)

iam III. (of Orange), whose foreign
policy was guided by uncompromising
hostility to Louis XIV. of France and
all his schemes.

146

THE MASSACRE OF LACHINE.

-+--

[

of New York, and hold himself in readiness to bombard the
town as soon as he received certain intelligence that Frontenac
and Calli^res, with all the available troops of Canada at their
back, were in a position to cooperate with him. Much precious
time was lost in fitting out the war-ships. Winds and wave?
were hostile. When the expedition reached the entrance of the
Gulf of St. Lawrence a calm and a heavy fog descended on
it. ^t was the middle of September before all the ships met at
Chedabucto, the place of rendezvous, and the enterprise was

14. M. de Denonville waited long and anxiously for the ap-
pearance of the peace ambassadors. On the 25th of August,
"'bile the Island of Montreal was hushed in repose, t^C^elve
hundred Iroquois warriors burst on the neighbourhood of
Lachine, and massacred, in their first rage, men, women^ and
children. J Happy were those who were killed by the first
'stroke. Hundreds of prisoners were tortured with, appalling
cruelty. The fiends spread themselves over the country, and
advanced within a league of Montreal, burning houses and
barns, wasting fields, slaying the people, and perpetrating the
most abominable cruelties. On the first news of the invasion,
the Governor-General ordered M. de Robeyre, with a small
body of soldiers, to throw himself into Fort Koland, as he feared
the enemy would seize upon it. Eobeyre held out until his
last man was k'Ued, and himself was mortally wounded.
The Iroquois remained on the island till the middle of
October.

15. M. de Denonville was reduced almost to despair by this
dreadful catas" >phe.\ While the alarm and excitement were
at their height, his successor arrived in Quebec. With a sense
of infinite relief he handed over his command to old Count
Frontenac. I One of his last acts had been to command M.
d'Orvilliers at Cataracoui to abandon and destroy the fort
if relief did not come before November. \ The Count, consider-
ing the position of much importance, despatche^T an officer to
countermand the order ; but before he arrived the solid stone
works were ruined, and he heard the report of the explosion.
All the munitions of war were thrown into the lake. \

16. During M. de Denonville's time the French

gained

HUDSON BAY.

147

gevoral successes in Hndson Bay.^ The Euglisli in 1G83 occu-
pied all the trading posts on its coasts. In the following year,
Kadisson and Grosellifere, who had helped to establish them,
commenced to work against their interest. They returned to
France, and were received with favour by the King. Through
their instrura ^tality the Company of the North was formed
in Canada, and they established a post which they named Fort
Therese. It was not very long before mutual dissatisfaction
grew up between them and the Company. The renegades again
changed their allegiance, and transferred the fort to the Eng-
lish. The fur-trade of the Bay was very rich and profitable,
and was a prize worth contending foi( J The Company applied
to De Denonville for aid to regain ^ jssession of their pos4 He
sent Chevalier Troyea, M, d'Iberville, and eighty Canadians.
They marched on snow-shoes from Quebec, reached the further
end of the Bay, and surprised, and took in succession, the three
English forts on the Kupert, Moose, and Albany rivers.

17. When the treaty of neutrality was ratified (1687), the
English and French monarchs intimated their desire that the
trade should be free to both nations, and that Fort Nelson
should be constituted a common port. National jealousies could
not be restrained by royal decrees. When war was declared
(1689), Frontenac received instructions to support the Company
of the North. King William sent an officer to retake the forts
captured by De Troyes. The English ships were caught in the
ice in the Bay. D'Iberville, using stratagem, captured the
greater part of the English force (which had landed), and com-
pelled the officer to surrender. Freeing most of his captives,
D'Iberville sailed with his prizes to Quebec.

Questions. — 1. Who was the new
Governor-General? What did he per-
ceive to be impossible? Whose con-
duct increased the difllculties of the
French Government?

2. Whom did De Denonville resolve
to humble ? Why was the time appa-
rently favourable for his project?

3. Of what treachery was De Denon-
ville guilty? What was done with the

chiefs? What were the effects of this
conduct? With how many men did
the Governor-General advance ? Whom
did he meet at the mouth of the Gen-
essee?

4. Whose country did they then in-
vade? How did the Iroquois attempt
to surprise them ? What was the issue
of the battle? What damage did the
invaders do in the country? What

' Hudson Bay. — "The Governor and
Company of Adventurers of England

Trading to Hudson Bay" obtained a
charter from Charles TT. in 1670.

148

QUESTIONS.

forced them to leave It ? What fort was
built on their way back ?

5. By what pestilence was Canada
visited during the summer? How were
the habitans on the right bank of the
St. Lawrence harassed ?

6. On what terms of peace did Gov-
ernor Dongan advise the Iroquois to
insist ? Where were these terms pressed
on De Denonville ? How did he com-
municate his own terms?

7. What offensive measures had the
Iroquois meantime taken? How did
the French barque on Lake Ontario
escape from them?

8. What temper of the Indians made
them troublesome to deal with? On
what conditions did they agree to a
truce?

9. Whom did the news of this truce
alarm ? How did the Hurons "kill the
peace " ? Of what treachery was Kon-
diaronk guilty?

10. What position did Governor Don-
gan take up ? Who succeeded Dongan ?

What did he intimate to De Denon-
ville?

11. What was M. de Calli&res' scheme
for giving peace to Canada?

12. What great event had meantime
transpired in Europe? Who was re-
appointed Governor-General of Canada?

13. How was De Callifires' scheme
modified? How was the expedition
retarded ? When was Chedabucto
reached? What then?

14. What terrible catastrophe oc-
curred while the Governor - General
was waiting for the peace ambassadors?
What was the fate of the garrison of
Fort Roland?

15. In what circumstances was Fort
Cataracoui destroyed?

16. For what purpose was the "Com-
pany of the North" formed? What
aid did De Denonville send them?
What was accomplished?

17. What was the fate of the English
expedition sent out to retake these
forts?

CANADA IN EXTREMITY. 149

CHAPTER XVI.

THE STRUGGLE COMMENCED.

1690 A.D.

Canada in extremity.
The three war parties.
Schenectady.
The first Congress.
Acadie.

Capture of Port Royal.
Montreal threatened.
New England Fleet off Point Levi
The rage of Frontenac.
Kebeca liberata.

[ 1. The great struggle for the possession of the continent now
Qoramenced. It continued for sixty years, j Though between
the first and the final efforts of the French and the English there
occurred a long interval of peace, the feeling of national enmity
never lost its bitterness. At the commencement of the struggle,
the mother countries were too much engaged in mutual war in
Europe to take active part in the strife in America. For a
long time the war between the colonies was a series of useless
attacks and counter attacks and cruel frontier skirmishes.

2. M. de Denonville left Canada m a more distracted state
than that in which he had found it. Count Frontenac had now
an opportunity to display his great, powers and the better quali-
ties of his character. He had been well advised by his friends
at Court to curb his temper. It was no time to indulge
selfish interests, or to give way to jealousy and suspicion, for
Canada appeared to be on.the^point of a collapse. From
Quebec to Montreal the people were almost paralyzed by terror ;
the French had no hold on the country west of Lake St. Louis.
After the destruction of the fort at Cataracoui, the people in the
settlement around it fled to Montreal. The fort at Niagara
was deserted. In the west, the Indians dwelling by the great
lakes derided the military power of the French and contemned
their allegiance, and made overtures to the triumphant Iro-
quois. The Count had the great task set before him to restore
security to the colony and redeem the honour of the French
arms. ) He was well stricken in years, but though over three-
score and ten, his vigour was unabated. |

ii:

150

SAC;C OF SCUENECTA1)Y.

r i

3. After the miscarriage of the expedition against New York J
M. de Calli6res submittea a second scheme for its capturot
Louis was too much enga rod with war in Europe to send men
and ships to America. | He counselled Frontenac to remain on
the defensive; and instructed the inhabitants to abandon all
tfie' (letacEed settlements and gather in contiguous villages, for
mutual defence against the Iroquois. ^ The royal mandates were
totally disregarded. The habitans could not, like the peasants^
in old France, confine themselves within a narrow space ; the

J^nature of the country and the necessities of trade forbade them.f
The fiery old Coun^. would not remain on the defensive. He
knew that if he did not attack the New Englanders they would
attack him, and he determinod to strike the first blow. Be-
sides, he felt compelled to do something to win back the respect
of the savages for French prowess.

4. yin January, Count Frontenac despatched three war \

\ parties, from Montreal, Three Rivers, and Quebec, to /
1690\ carry fire and sword through the English settlements.^
A.r. ^ A number of the members of the "noblesse" in the
/6 / Y paint and feathers of Indian braves accompanied them.
Tliough they were only witnesses of the atrocious deeds com-
mitted by their savage allies, in the hearts of the English who
suffered by them there was stored up bitter hatred to their
nation and class. The party from Montreal, commanded by
Lieutenants Mantel and St. Hel5ne, had a general commission
to ravage the colony of New York. After a harassing march
through snow and shell-ice and water up to the knees, it arrived
where two roads diverged right and left, to Schenectady and
Albany. The French cried out to maich to Albany, but the
Indians refused, asking, with a touch of sarcasm, how had their
brothers become so bold all of a sudden ; so the road to the
right was taken, f At midnight of a piercingly cold Saturday I
the party rushed through the unguarded gates of Schenectady;
and with a horrid yell fell upon the inhabitants as they started
aghast from their slumbers. A few soldiers threw themselves
into a small fort, and defended it until they were all cut in
pieces. For two hours the Indians tortured and murdered
their captives. \At the first dreadful warning many of the
people fled half naked in the direction of Albany ,\ and were

CASCO HAY.

151

caught in a snow-storm : some perished, and others lost the
use of their limbs. /Leaving Schenectady in burning ruins,
loaded with plunder, the party next day commenced its home-
ward march./ Before it readied Montreal it was reduced to
the direst distress ; but the survivors entered the town as vic-
tors, and were rewarded for all their sufferings.

5. Fifty men under M. Hertel left Three Rivers, and after
two months' painful marcliing reached the village of _ Salmon
Falls, o n tho eastern border of New Hampshire. The^hice
was taken utterly by surprise. Its three forts were carried by
assauR ; fiouaesTbarnSj stables were wrapped in flames ; and two
thousand liead of cattle perished in their stalls. Fifty prisoners
were taken. iSertel sent them off to Quebec under guard, and
descended to the sea-coast by the route of the Kennebec Hi ver.
There he joined M, Tortneuf, who had left Quebec with the
third party. Theybesieged the fort that protected the settle-
ment at Ca;Sco Bay. For three days the Commandant held out,
but "surrendered at discretion when the French were on the
point of firing his palisades. Scenes of rapine and ruthless
destruction were enacted. A crowd of frantic prisoners was
given over to the tender mercies of the Indians. The sur-
rounding country was laid waste. While th^_jKhite_Jlag_9f
Fran^fi_jloated from the f()rt, four vessels that had been sent
from Bostou^fo^reTieve the place appeared off the coast : when
that sign of conquest was seen, they sheered off to carry back
the news of the disaster.

6. In the meantime, Count Frontenac took measures to win
back the tribes of the north-west to their French allegiance by
flattery and presents. A grand conv oy was despatched to
Michilli. EQackinac. On the way it was attacked by the Iro-
QUOis, who weiFe defeated with loss. This was a fortunate
encounter for the French, for it revived their credit among the
people whom they were most anxious to propitiate. When
Frontenac sent one of the prisoners taken in the fight to the
Ottawas, they were delighted with the singular compliment
paid to them, and burned the Iroguois warrior at the , itak^ jn^
order to show that they were^etermined to break ofi' all nego-
ti ations with th e Five Nat ions. The tribes dweHhig. by the_
great lakes senX their delegates to meet tKe^convoy. To show

152

THE FIllST CONGRESS.

their respect for Ououtliio, they despatched to Montreal, under
guard of three hundred of their warriors, one hundred and
ten canoes loaded with peltry, valued at 100,000 crowns. The
8ucc,fig s^ of this negotiation raise d the spirit o f the French. But
soon the alarm of invasion spread from Montreal to Quebec.

7. The New England colonists had in the previous year
determined to drive the French from New France. A valiaut
captain, Rir "yyilliin^ ^^T^i went to England to seek asaist-

. ance. King William had no forces to spare ; he required fdl
he had nearer home: for James II., resolved to strike for his
crown, had landed in Ireland, and was then marching north to
Derry.^ After the murderous attack on Schenectady, a meet-
ing of delegates from all the British colonies was
1689 hurriedly called, and on the 1st of May the first Con-
A.D. gress ever held met at Boston. The Governments of
fhv^ Massachusetts and New York then determined to
essay the conquest of Acadie and Canada a t the ir o wn risk and
charf^es.

8. Acadie, after it was restoreu to the French by the Treaty
of Breda, was very much neglected. Its only posts of any
consequence were the forts on the rivers Penobscot and St.
John. Within a period of six years they were twice seized by
New England adventurers, and twice restored to the French.
About the year 1680 a settlement was again made at Port
Royal, which became the capital of the province. It was
subordinate to the Government of Canada, and Count Frontenac
appointed M. Chambly the first Governor. The value of Acad icL
was well known to the Intendants, MM. Talon and Meules,
who pei-sonally visited the country, and drew up reports of its
condition and resources. With proper management it was
capable of becoming the most valuable French colonj;4]i,jj2rth
America. Tlie inhabitants devoted themselves principally to
the fur-trade. They held close intercourse with the Indians,

' Derry. — Londonderry, on the River
Foyle, in the north of Ireland. It was
the stronghold of the Ulster Protes-
tants, and was besieged by James II,
after his dethronement in 1689. The
siege lasted three months, during which
the citizens, encouraged by the Rev.

George Walker, endured the worst
miseries of famine. At last three ships
from England broke the boom which
the besiegers had stretched across the
Foyle, and carried food to the starving
garrison. The siege was raised the
very next day.

CAl'TURE OF PORT ROYAL. 153

and fell into reckless habits. They occu pied^ the besjLinaJCah
lands ; acquired grgait skill in buildii;g dikes ; and raised, with-
out much laBour, corn, hay, and cattle ; but they totally neglected
the rich uplands. The people of Massachusetts drew all the
profits from the rich fisheries on the coasts. The Governors
of Acadie, though the practice was expressly forbidden, issued
licenses to them, and in this way increased their own miserably
small salaries.

9. In the time of M. de la Barre, 1682-1685, an effort was
made to effect a reformation in the affairs of Acadie. Mis-
sionary labours among the habitans and Indians were pursued
with greater zeal. The claims of the New Englanders (who
then established themselves at Pemaquid) to the River St. Croix
as their line, were resisted, and strict orders were given to
exclude them from the fisheries on the coasts. ^^Tji^^Bgrgigi:
formed a company to prosecute the shore fisheries, and to briu^
the uplands into cultivation. Specim ens of the grain, vege-
tjibles^^nd fruits raised on Acadian soilwere sent to Paris for

exhibition, and were much admired by competent judges. But
the avarice of the Governors, who still sold licenses, and their
jealousy, interfered with the operations of the company. The
principal fishing-station of Bergier and his associates was at
Chedabucto. They obtained a grant for twenty years of ^Cape
Breton, the Island^of St. John," and Magdalen Isles. At the
time when the New Englanders threatened war, the population
of Acadie did not exceed 900 souls. Its capital, Port Royal,
was a small village defended by an insignificant fort, which
had not a cannon placed on its batteries, and which was miser-
ably in want of stores of all kinds.

1 ^^' Jn the beginjiing of May, a fleet of eight small vessels,\
bearing eight hundred men, and commanded by Sir Wiliia'n

;Pliips, entered the basin of Port Royal. When the alarm-gun
was tired in the fort to notify to the inhabitants that an enemy
was in sight, only three men answered the summons. Mf de
Menneval, the Governor, had eighty men with him, but they

\ could neither mount his cannon nor work them. Resistance
was out of the question. When Sir William Phips sent him a
summons to surrender, he assumed so bold a tone that he was

/granted most honourable terms. The New England General,

154

CANADA INVADED.

however, thought that he had been overreached when he saw
the wretched state of the fort, and he repented his generosity.
He soon found a pretext to break his word. Hearing that a
few French soldiers had in a riotous manner entered the Gover-
nor's store and appropriated some articles, lie declared that
they had stolen the property of the English King and broken
the terms of capitulation. He caused M. de Menneval and his
garrison to be arrested and held as prisoners, and then sent
them to Boston : he allowed his soldiers to plunder Pert lioyal,
and compelled the inhabitants to take the oath of allegiance
to William and Mary. Leaving an officer with a few men
in the fort, he sailed off to pillage Bergier's station at Cheda-
^bucto, and to destroy the post on the harbour of the St. John.

11. On Phips's return to Boston, preparations were made ft)r
the conquest of Canada. A force of twQ„thou sand men was
raised in Massachusetts, and tliirtj^-five vessels, great and
small, were collected in Kantucket harbour, for the captjica of
Quebec. Eight hundred New York volunteers, under Colon el
Winthrop, marched from Albany to^ta|t.^ . M.QPtrgal. Five hun-
dred Iroquois were expected to join them at Lac Sacrament.
Count Frontenac held his forces in readiness, about the mouth
of the Kichelieu, to repel the invasion. He waited, but Win-
throp did not come. At length a scout brought him intelli-
gence that small-pox had broken out in the English camp;
that three hundred of their Indian allies had been carried off
by it, and that the rest had refused to advance further. The
report was partly correct ; but the real trouble among the Eng-
lish was the bad faith of the Iroquois, who had not joined them
with the number of canoes and men that they had promised ;
so W inthrop had niarched back to Albany. Fronten ac wa s
hardly assureT tEat Montreal was safeTefore he was startled
by^jthe news that an English fleet was '"ascending the St. Law-
renc e. He huiried up to the post of danger, leavifig the militia
of Montreal and Three Rivers to follow him. EJearrpzjed^n
tim e to see that Quebe£^^was_^glaced m^^ajgosture of defence.
The line of fortfScations around the Upper Town wasstrength-
ened ; a battery of eight cannons was thrown up on the height
on the side of the Castle of St. Louis ; the gr tes of the Lover
Town were barricaded by barrels of stones and beams of wood.

t i :i

ATTACK ON QUEBEC. 155

12. On the 5th of October, t he English fle et appeared _iiff
Point Levi. The following day (^ir William Phips sent

au officerjnto Quebec to demand, in the name of King 1690
William, its instaiil'^surrenc[er. He was conducted a.d.
to a ch. jtibeFwhere sat the Governor-General and all
the members of the Council. The officer read his haughty mes-
siige, and when he had finished he placed his watch upon a
table, to mark the hour he would consent to wait for an answer.
The august assemblage was transported with rage. The fienv
ol d Coim t was cut to the quick, and spoke angrily, inveighing
against Sir William Phips as a dishonourable and dishonoured
General, and a traitor to his liege lord. King James. A man of
his quality, he exclaimed, was not to be insulted with impu-
nity ; he . wo uld give his a nswer bj the cannon's mouth.

13. On receiving this rebuff, Phips ordered an attack on
Quebec by land and water. Twelve hundred men, with six
cannons, were landed on the low, marshy Beauport shore.^ The
St. Chailes ran between them and the fortress. Count Fron-
tenac, with the regular soldiers, was posted on the right bank
of the stream ; on the left bank the militia, behind bushes,
boulders, and trees, kept up a galling fire on the invaders. In
the evening of the 8th, four English ships sailed up the river
and opened fire upon the town. Their cannonade did little
execution, but the batteries on the height and on the shore tore
up their planks and cut up their rigging. Next night they
dropped down with the tide and were moored again in the basin.

14. The land force, under Major Whalley, remained inactive
during the bombardment. The difficulty of marching and
hauling cannon over boggy and miry ground was very great.
The New Englanders were encompassed by invisible foes, who
blazed away at them with deadly effect from their coverts ; and
they cried out, in their rage, that the French fought like cowards
and savages, behind hedges and fences. On the 10th they
made a desperate effort to cross the St. Charles, and advanced
to its left bank, driving back the skirmishers. A body of
Canadian militia made a sudden attack upon their flank, and
threw them into confusion. They retired to their camping

* Beauport share. — See Map, p. 214.

156

KEBECA LI I ilATA.

place. The evening closed in with rain and gloom. They were
sick and half famished, and they ached all over from sleeping
out, two bitterly cold nights, on the cold ground. The totHin
of the cathedral in Quebec rang out with startling vehemence.
Imagining that some great danger was approaching them in
tne daik, they lost courage and rushed precipitately to their
boats, leaving their cannon and ammunition behind. SjjfL-
William Phips. utterly discomfit ed, sailed^away. A furious
storm arose as he descended the St. Lawrence, and nine of hi s
vessels sankamijdst the_\y^^ or were shattered against the
roclcs. On the 9th of November he entered the harbour of
Boston with the remnant of his fleet. He had the inexpress-
ible mortification of being the bearer of the report of his own
defeat and disgrace.

15. The joy of the people of Canada over their deliverance was
very great. In commemoration of the triumph of the French
arms at Quebec, Louis XIV. commanded a medal to be struck.
It bore this inscription: — Francia in Novo Orbe Victrix;
Kebeca liberata A.D. MDCXC. The inhabitants mingled
thanksgiving with their rejoicing, and erected in the Lower
Town a chapel dedicated to " Notre Dame de la Victoire."

Questions. — 1. What great struggle
now commenced? How long did it
last? What for long was the nature
of the war?

2. In what state did Frontenac find
Canada on his return? What was the
condition of the French power?

3. What was Louis's advice to Fron-
tenac, and to the colonists ? Was it
followed ? Why not ?

4. How many war parties did the
Count despatch against the English?
W here did the first party march ? W hat
did it effect ?

5. What did the second and third
parties accomplish? What was done
with the prisoners taken ?

6. What tribes did Frontenac then
endeavour to win back? What success
attended his measures?

7. When and where was the first New
England Congress held? What expe-
dition was resolved on ?

8. What causes retarded the pros-

perity of Acadie ? Who drew the profits
of its fisheries ?

9. What effort was made in the time
of De la Barre? What success had
Bergier's Company?

10. What was the result of Phips's
attack on Port Royal ? On what pretext
were the terms of surrender violated ?

11. For what new scheme wel-e pre-
parations made at Boston? What
caused the failure of Winthrop's expe-
dition? What measures were taken to
defend Quebec?

12. What demand did Pbips make
through one of his officers ? How was
it received?

13. What did Phips then order?
Describe the attack by water.

14. What great difficulties did the
land force encounter? Why did the
attempt to cross the St. Charles fail?
What disaster befell the expedition ?

16. How was the French viotory com-
memorated ?

FRONTENAC'S POLICY.

157

CHAPTER XVII.

THE BATTLE D£AWN.

1601 to 1698 A.D.

The Iroquois Chiefs.

Frontenac's policy.

Expedition against the Onondagas.

Naval fight in the Bay of Fundy.

Baron St. Castine.

Fort William-Henry captured.

The Nachouac.

Newfoundland and Hudson Bay.

Peace of Ryswick.

Death of Frontenac.

M. de Callidres.

Marquis de Vaudreuil.

1. The war continued. For seven years there was perpetual
skirmishing. Boston again WrefvEerfed Quebec ; and Quebec
in return threatened Boston. The Iroquois gave Canada no
peace. In Acadie, Hudson Bay, and Newfoundland, French
and English mutually harassed each other, capturing and re-
capturing forts, and destroying the fruits of each other's in-
dustry.

2. Count Frontena c. on his second coming to Canada, set his
he art on win ning the friendship of the Iroquois. The chieis
whom !be lienonvilleTlUd Bfiinr^o"JVance returned with him.
They had been treated, not as slaves, but as guests. They had
seen the " lions of Paris," and the splendours of the Court of
Versailles.^ But grander to them appeared the woods, the
rivers, and the lakes of their own country, and r'^arer to them
was its wild liberty. On the voyage out, Frontenac exerted his
remarkable powers of pleasing, in order to win their confidence,
so that, when they went back to their own people, they might
induce them to make a firm and solid peace. He was the more
confident that his diplomacy would be successful, as he flattered
himself that the Iroquois really esteemed him. He had fre-
quently invited their chiefs to his table ; he had often met
them in conference. The Indians, ever great respecters of the
visible si^s of power, were impressed by his proud bearing,
and admired the splendour of his body-guard. They were

' Versailles. — A town 10 miles south- 1 completed by Louis XIV. in 1C87, and
west of Paris, famous for its palace, | other magnificent buildings.

158

ATTACK ON THE ONONDAGAS.

i' iJ!

flattered when they saw him arrayed like one of themselves,
gravely moving in the measures of the dance, while singing Iiis
war song, after their fashion. But--fi^Sil...amoug_jjntutored
savages Self-in terest was the main motive ; compliments went
for very little." It was their interest to prevent the tribes in
the west from trading with the merchants of M':>ntreal, and to
oblige them to carry their peltry through their country to New
York.

3. Count Fro ntenac was m o rtified when he fou nd that all h is

^ij^jloni^cy had^begaiiih«aBaiLaway! He tooFstern meirs-

1696 tfi^e*^ Se collected at Lachine two battalions of regulars

A.D. and militia, each four hundred strong, commanded by

M. Calli<^res and M. Vaudreuil, and a crowd of savages of
every tribe friendly to the French. lu bateaux and ca noes the
force ascended to Cataracoui and crosse3~the laKeT tip both
banks and m the stream of the narrow and rapid Chouagen the
party advanced, until one evening an impetuous fall barred the
way. Hundreds of torches were lighted, and thre'v a glare on
the wild scene. Soldiers and savages rushed into the water, and
lifting the heavy canoes, bore them above the obstruction. As
they penetrated the country, they abandoned the course of the
river and struck into the woods. At an opening they saw sus-
pended from a tree two bundles of rushes, of four hundred
and thirty pieces. This was a challenge, according to the Indian
fjishion, and signified that four hundred and thirty warriora
awaited them to do battle. But when they advanced upon the
great bourgade of the Onondagas, tliey saw it in flames, and
found only a crowd of women and children. One old sachem,
of over a hundred years, alone had refused to fly. As the
Indians crowded around, mocking, he wrapped his robe about
his shoulders, taunted them as slaves of the French, and died
defiant of their tortures.

4. The country_of_ the jOnondagas was laid_waste. Count
Frontenac was urged by CafiiS^res and Vaudreuil to complete
the work he had come to perform, by destroying the other can-
tons ; but he refused. Ij[eJbhought h^^ jtad done eno ugh to
humble the Iroquois, and so he returned to !lVIontreal. fiis
enemiSS — and he had many — said that he had stopped half
way in his vengeance, because if he had givan peace t-o Canada

EDICTS AGAINST THE FUR-TRADE.

169

by completely crushing her inveterate foes, the King would
have withdrawn the regular troops ; and his love of power and
show, and concern for his own glory, were too strong to allow
that step to be taken.

5. The condition of the colony called forth, from time to
time, the remonstrances of M. Ponchartrain, the Minister of
France. He attributed the troubles to abuses growing out of
the fur-trade. The " Runners of the Woods " at the distant
posts in the west fomented feuds among the Indian tribes, and
involved the French in constant trouble. The old complaint
was made that Canada was drained of its strength, and that its
progress was retarded by the numbers of its young men who
foUov/ed the wild life. The Minister argued that the cause of
t he host ility of the Iroquois wasjtlicir jealousy at seeing the'^f ur-
trade drawn dowtTthe St. Lawrence instead of the BTudsoh, and
tTiat peacew^onld be secured iTtliat cause were removed. ^ Count
Frontenac was instructed to abandon all the trading posts west
Q|^Jl|,onj^eaX "^Itoyal EclictM ^ere promulgated forbidding the
inhabitants, under heavy penalties, f rpm„ ti'ading in the west;
recaTTin?^ "The" Runners;" and commanding the people to settle
closely together, and to devote themselves to agriculture. Fron-
tenac resisted these Edicts. He thought they tended to diminish
the glory of the empire, and to contract the bounds of the
dominion over which he ruled. He persisted, against all
counsel, in rebuilding his foit at Cataracoui. Tjie Ed icts
against the fur-trade could not be carried out. There was not
a family in Uauada tEat was iiot ihteresfed' in it. The King, on
urgent representations, permitted a few forts to be maintained
ill the west. The result ortfieconcessibii wjis that the fur-trade
Was jjursued w ith greater activity than evei-._

6. In AcadTe, New?< "Tlland, aiuTIBCudson Bay. ^,he course of
the war turned in favcur of the French After the capture
of Port Royal by Sir William Phips, the Gggefnme nt of M assa-
chus etts was not long able to maintain a garrison there, thougK
it continued to claim the right of possessToh."

aga, in into the hands of th e French, and under the jurisdiction
of the Govemor-Cxeneral ofCanadaT M. Villebon was appointed
Lieutenant-Governor. He, considering that Port Royal was
too much exposed to the attacks of New England cruisers, re-

< I

160

THE FORT ON THE NACHOUAC.

moved his head-quarters to the St. John. The fort at its mouth
had beeu destroyed by Phips, byjt th^ French had l ong possess ed
posts at^e Nerepis and at the Jemseg, belo'y F^eneuse^ or
Grand Lake. For greater security, Viilebon built a fort several
leagues higher up the St. John, at the mouth of its mBatary
the Nachouac.2 """^

7. Here, in this fastness of the wilderness, f or seven ye ars
floate d the white flag of France. Here Viilebon was safe, at
least from sudden attack. He had as much to fear from the
freshets of spring, which flooded his fort, and piled great hum-
mocks of ice against his palisades, as from the foe. His garri-
son might in winter sit round the blazing logs, and in sum-
mer doze in the shade, for the trained watch-dogs gave the alarm
at the least sign of danger ; and agile scouts at the mouth of the
river brought him swift intelligence of the appearance of English
ships in the Bay of Fundy. He held correspondence with the

* Governor-General in Quebec, and constant communication with
the Indian village at Medoctec, where Father Simon taught his
neophytes in peace and led them in war. At the Nachouac,
the Abenaquis from the Kennebec, the Canibas from the Penob-
scot, the Oupack Milicetes from the Grand Lake, and warriors

. of Medoctec and Madawaska, assembled to feast and dance and
hold council with Viilebon, and concoct schemes to destroy the
New England settlements on the frontiers of Acadie that
would give to war the aspect of midnight murder. Viilebon
was often visited by Baptist e, a noted privateer, who, after a
successful cruise among the New England merchantmen, would
bring his prizes into the harbour of St. John, and take his prison-
ers to the Nachouac for safe keeping. M. Bona venture, the naval
commander on the coasts of Acadie, brought him despatches
from M. d'Iberville, a famous Canadian captain who was much
employed in harassing the English settlements of Newfoundland
and Hudson Bay.

8. The Government of Massachusetts, in 1692, built a stone fort
I at Pemaquid, east of the Kennebec, on the sea-coast. It was a
I strong quadrangle, with four towers, and at high tide was sur-
• rounded with water. The Abenaquis viewed it with jealousy;

' Lake Freneuae. — See Map, p. 76. ' Nachouac. — The Nashwaak.

BARON ST. CASTINE. 161

f and the French, to propitiate their faithful allies, resolved to
/ destroy it. The plan of attack was arranged by Villebon and
V D'Iberville.

9. On a June day two French frigates from Placentia^
were anchored in the Bay of Fundy, in a fog. When
the thick mist rose, they were descried by three small 1696
New England war sloops, un der Captain E ams^that a.d.
were making for the mouth of th6 St. John. A Qlie

foremost craft, bore down on D'Iberville in the
the Frenchmen opened their ports and poured ir a
broadside, within musket range, that crashed in its timbers
and brought its fore-mast tumbling over the deck. Its con-
sorts sheered off and escaped amid the again descending fog.
D 'Iberville, with his priz e, entered the harbour of St. JoIil.
Taking Villebon and a troop of soldiers aboard, he sailed for Fort
William-Henry at Pemaquid.^ When he reached Penobscot
Bay, he was joined by Baron Sft. Castine and a band of.
Indians. This Baron was a notable example of the ease v/ith |
which a Frenchman could adapt himself to savage life. Born a
nobleman of Oleron in the Pyrenees, he accompanied his
regiment, the Carignan Saliferes, to Canada in 1665. He after-
wards settled on a peninsula at the mouth of the Penobscot ;
married, as one of his wives, the daughter of Madockawando,
the great sachem of the eastern Indians. He acquired great
ascendency over the simple savages, who, in return for the
presents he gave them, made him a free gift of their richest
furs. In this way he acquired heaps of gold. The Lieutenant-
Governor of Acadie often received instructions from the Minis-
ter of France to restrain him in his evil courses. But this inter-
ference had little effect on the old Baron.

10. M. d'Iberville, on the 14th of August, summoned Fort
William-Henry to suiTender. Captain Chubb, the Command-
ant, sent back a most valiant defiance. Besides the honour of
his flag, he had a strong motive to defend his position to the
last. A short time before, he had wantonly shot four chiefs
whom the Abenaquis had sent to him on a mission of peace.
He knew the Indian nature too well not to fear their revenge.

^ Placentia. — On the south coast of I * Pemaquid. — Between the mouths of |

Newfoundland, 70 miles from St. John's. | the Penobscot and the Kennebec. I

(473) 11 i

162

FORT WILLIAM-HENRY TAKEN.

D'Iberville landed his cannon and bombs before the dawn of the
following morning. Priest, soldier, and savage worked zealously,
and by noon the cannon were mounted. The hearts of the
New England soldiers began to sink when the great shells ex-
ploded in the square, and when they heard the fierce yells of
the beleaguering Indians. They became thoroughly alarmed
when Castine sent a messenger to inform the Commandant that
he would not be able to restrain the fuiy of his savages if he
persist jd in a useless defence ; but he promised to guard his
men from vengeance if he promptly yielded. Influenced by the
clamour of his soldiers, Chub b capit ulated. All the garrison
were liberated save four, who were" delivered into the hands
of the Indians, one for every chief who had been murdered ; for
D'Iberville was compelled to gratify their savage spirit of
revenge. The walls a nd towers of Fort William- Henr y were
blown down.

ii. The Government of Massachusetts, on hearing of the
capture of the Newport in the Bay of Fundy, despatched seven
vessels to cruise in search of the French frigates. D'Iberville,
from Pemaquid, very nearly sailed into their midst, and only
escaped by hugging the coast towards Mount Desert. Villebon
reached the St. John in safety. The destructio n of EortWilliam-
Heury detennined the ^^JEuglaxide^ tat,ak§.ijista^trevenge.
ColoneTBeniamin Church, a noted partipcin, with a. flnti],j(^, nf
whale- boats-fwHof armed men, p ut forth f rom Piscataqua, an d
ravagod the Acadian coasts from Passamaquo3(ly to TBeaii-
'un hisTreturn up the bay he was aupersgfled by an

bassm.

officer sent by the^&overnment to meet him withias^a.vesiSES
order to""inake an i^tejck on the fort at the._^achouac. Old
Church was sorely displeaseo^

12. M. Villebon, timeously warned by his scouts of the
threatened attack, looked to his defences, and summoned to his
aid Father Simon and the warriors of the Medoctec. On the
evening of the 18th of October the garrison assembled on parade,
and the Governor, in a stirring speech, flattered their pride and
aroused their courage. That night they slept under arms,
warned by the restlessness of their watch-dogs, that seemed to
scent danger. The night passed quietly. Early in the morning
the alarm-gun was fired ; and -Villebon A^as called out of chanel

THE NACHOUAC.

iC)3

by the report that strange sails were rounding the bend of the
river. As soon as the red flag was distinguished, a brisk
cannonade from the fort commenced. The vessels tacked about,
and were brought to anchor behind a sheltered point of the left
bank. The Nachouac stream was between the French and
their foe, and they made no attempt to resist his landing.

13. The Medoctec warriors, lurking along the right bank,
skirmished with hostile Indians who appeared on the left.
When the New Englanders were heard cheering as they
advanced through the woods, the French answered them by
counter cheers. As soon as they came within range of the fort
they hastily threw up side- works to protect themselves from the
fire, and placed three cannons in battery. Evening closed on
the besiegers without their having gained the least advantage.
As they crowded around their newly lighted camp-fires, a dis-
charge of grape-shot from the fort forced them to quench the
flames, and they lay without shelter through the chill and
dark October night. In the early morning they were saluted
by a volley of musketry from the fort. When the French opened
fire in earnest one of their guns was dismounted, and an-
other was made useless. It was evident that the fort could not
be taken by the fire of one disabled cann '^ across the stream.
Old Church was in the worst of tempers, and would propose
no bolder measures. Five officers and twenty n n had fallen
and half the force were suffering from the effects of the
vious night's encampment. When the shades of another even
iug fell the solitary cannon was dragged from the battery,
and the New Englanders retreated to the point where their
vessels were anchored, and lighted their camp-fires undisturbed.
By noon next day they were past the Oromocto on their down-
ward voyage.

14. After the capture of the fort at Pemaquid, M. d'Iberville
sailed for Newfoundland. Before his arrival, a French fleet,
under M. Brouillan, Governor of Placentia, bound for Ferry-
land,^ chased a solitary English man-of-war into the Bay of
Bulls.'* Placing all his cannon on the broadside next the

J-'

x.r B.^ ^.r K^^«

alien, J
3 pre- 'J

' Ferryland. — On tho south-east coast
of Newfoundland, 35 miles from St.
iJobn's.

' Bay of Bulls. — On the east coast of
Newfoundland, 12 miles south of St,
Johw's.

'II

•il

164

THE PEACE OP RYSWICK.

enemy, the gallant English captain fought furiously, until
overpowered by surrounding fire. He abandoned his vessel in
flames. He was followed to the land and compelled to surren-
der. Brouillan destroyed Ferryland. D'Iberville joined him ;
and an attack was made by land on the settlements of the
eastern coasts. Advancing through the woods from Ferryland,
they fell on St. John's on the rear, plundered and burned it,
and sent off the principal inhabitants to England. The othei-s
made their way to Carbonnear and Bonavista, which were the
only posts left uninjured by the French.

15. M. d'Iberville next year encountered three small English

ships amidst the drifting ice of Hudson Bay. He com-

1697 pelled them to strike their colours. A storm arose, and

A.D. drove his vessels on the coast. In the pitchy dark one

of his prizes was crushed against the rocks, and the

English sailors esca ped to Fort N elson^ onlxjtp falLaga JDi wit h

the place, into D'lbei ville's hands. The French had now pos-

fsession of Hudson Bay, andlhe command, for a time, of the

v^rich fur-trade of that frozen region.

/^ 16. The war^ was concluded by the Peace of Ryswick,^ \
/ signed on the 20th of September. By the seventh article

/ 1697 France and England mutually restored to each other f^U
I A.D. their possessions in North America which had changed

I hands during the strife. All the murder, the pillage,

I the wreck and the suffering of eight years, had decided nothing. /
\ The struggle was as far from settlement as ever.

17. Count Frontenac died next year, in his seventy-eighth
*► year. His lastacFwas a vigorous resistance to the claim put
forth by the Governor of New York to English sovereignty
over the country of the Iroquois. He passed away when these
formidable foes seemed on the eve of placing themselves under
the protection of France. On his second coming to Canada, he
had found the French in a state of terror and prostration ; he
left them with the bounds of their territory unimpaired, and
with a sense of security such as they had never before enjoyed.

* r/i« war.— Called by the English in
America, King William's War.

" Ryawick. — In the Netherlands, 2
miles south-east of The Hague. By

this treaty, to which England, France,
Spain, Holland, and Germany were
parties, William III. was acknowledged
King of England.

WAR OP THE SPANISH SUCCESSION.

165

18. M. de Calliferes w as the next Governor^sGeneraL With
great patience and prudence he succeeded in patching up a peace
between the allied tribes in the west and the Iroquois.
The final ratification of the treaty was made the occa- 1701
8ion of a great ceremony. A wooden structure was a.d.
erected in a plain on the Island of Montreal. As in a
theatre, the Governor and his suite, and all the fashion and the
beauty of the colony, sat in the boxes ; while within the railed
areua habitans, Coureurs du Bois, and Indian warriors, in motley
and gaudy garbs, stood in groups or squatted on the ground.
The orators of all the tribes that were parties to the peace
addressed Ononthio, and presented their wampum belts. The
mirth of the gay and fair assemblage broke forth in rippling
laughter as some stately sachem rose to speak, with an old
powderless peruke on his head instead of his native flowing
hair and feathers. The council was followed by a grand feast.

rl9. The peace between France and England was of short
continuance. Intelligence reached De Calli^res that England,
Austria, Portugal, and other lesser powers, were leaguing
themselves against Spain, France, and Bavaria. On the death
of Charles II. of Spain, Louis XIV. proclaimed Philip of Anjou,
his grandson, ^ g. The claims of the Archduke Charles,^ of the
House of Hapwourg, were supported by the other side.
War 2 was formally declared' on the 15th of May. It is 1702
known as the War of the Spanish Succession. Through a.d.
it the French and the English colonies were embroiled.
De Calliferes died before active hostilities commenced. The

I King appointed the Marquis de Vaudreuil his successor, in

\jmswer to the prayer of the people of Canada.

Questions.— 1. How long did the
war continue? Where was it carried
on?

2. Whose friendship had Fronttnac
set his heart on winning ? What policy
did he adopt towards them? By what
was it frustrated ?

3. What measures did he then take?
Describe the advance of his forces.

4. Whose country was laid waste?
What did Frontenac's enemies allege ?

5. What Royal Edicts were issued?
What rendered them necessary ? How
did Frontenac treat them ? What con-

' The Archduke Charles. — He was
second son of the Emperor Leopold, who
was grandson of Philip III. of Spain.

" War. — Known in America as
Queen Anne's War. In this war the

Duke of Marlborough gained his great
victories. — Blenheim (1704), Ramilies
(1706), Oudenarde (1708), Malplaquet
(1709). It was terminated by the Treaty
of Utrecht, 1713

16G

QUESTIONS.

cession enabled the fur-trade to be
actively pursued?

6. Wlio gained tlio upper iiand in
Acadie ? Wlio was (.ppointed Governor-
General ? Where did he remove his
head-quarters ? Why ?

7. How long did the French hold the
St. John? What made their position
there a secure one? By whom was
Villebon visited there ?

8. V'hat fort did the French resolve
to destroy ? Describe it.

9. Give an account of the naval iight
in the Bay of Fundy in 1696. Sketch
the career of Baron St. Castine.

10. Who was commandant of Fort
William-Henry ? What motive had he
for holding out to the last ? What led
him to capitulate ?

11. What did the Government of
Massachusetts do on hearing of the cap-
ture of the Newport f What, on hear-
ing of the fall of Fort William-Henry?

12. What preparations did Villebon
make for receiving the attack? Where
did tlie New Englanders land?

18. In what circumstances did they
spend the first night ? What took place
the following day? How did the ex-
pedition end ?

14. Where did Dlberville sail for,
after taking the fort at Pemaquid?
Describe the conduct of the English
man-of-war. What further damage
did the French do in Newfoundland ?

15. Where did D'Iberville go the fol-
lowing year? What sucress had he
there ?

16. When was the war concluded?
By what treaty ? What effect had its
terms on the colonies of North America?

17. When did Frontenac die ? What
was his last public act? In what state
did he leave Canada ?

18. Who was the nejft Governor-
General? What treaty did he succeed
in concluding ? Describe the ceremony
at which it was ratified.

19. What was the cause of a renewal
of the war ? When was war declared ?
Who died before hostilities commenced?
Who succeeded him ?

CAKAbA AND NEW ENGLAND. 16?

CHAPTER XVIII.

PEACE AND WAR.

1703 to 1740 A.D.

Canada and New England.

Port Royal.

The Bostonlana enraged.

The French destroy Haverhill.

Invasion of Canada checked.

Nova Scotia.

Annapolis Royal.

Canada again threatened.

The English Fleet shattered on the Egg

Islands.
The Treaty of Utrecht.
Internal condition of Canada.
Father Charlevoix.
Marquis de Beauharnois.

^ 1. The French in Canada were now in a more favoural)le posi-
tion to sustain a conflict than they had previously been./ Success
in arms had made them more confident than ev^ of their
own prowess. The insolence of the Five Nations was much
abated. The politic measures taken to arouse their jealousy of
the English induced them to lean towards the French, and to
maintain a sort of neutrality in the war. Canada was relieved
from the inroads of these terrible barbarians. Never again did
they perpetrate such atrocities as have made the name of La-
chine memorable in the annals of the colony.
/2. The English Colonies were now far more wealthy and
populous than Canada. They could bring four men into the
field for every one Canada could muster. They were divided
into several separate governments, which were jealous of one
another, and they were ruled over by men not always capable
ci gr>verning discreetly. The advantage that union would give
them was early apparent. A scheme of confederation v/as
about this time proposed by Colonel Francis Nicolson, who had
been at different periods Governor of Virginia and of New York.
It received the approbation of King William, who looked upon
it as a measure well calculated to consolidate the military power
of the colonies ; among their people it met with no favour.

3. Soon after the repulse of the New Englanders at Nachouac
Fort, the French abandoned that place, and again made Port
Koyal the capital of Acadie. M. Brouillan, Governor of

168

PORT ROYAL ATTACKED.

Placentia, succeeded M. Villebon in 1700. The fort of Port
Royal was built in the form of a regular square, with bastions
of earth-work faced with sods .and surrounded by high pickets.
It had a fine position on rising ground on a peninsula formed
by two rivers ; it was protected in the rear by marsh laud, in
which were cut deep ditches. The earthen fortifications were
often in want of repair. The importance of the place, and its
exposure to attack, suggested to the Governor the necessity of
rebuilding it of stone. That, however, was not done.

4. Brouillan was a brave man, but of a very irritable, despotic
temper. In old Port Royal, where once the " order of the Good
Time" reigned, hatred and envy prevailed. Watchful eyes
noted, and ready pens described to the Minister of France, the
failings of those in authority. The Governor, in self-defence,
wrote also, to expose the jealousy by which his detractors were
actuated. This system of scandal-mongering and mutual
espionage waa sufficient to breed distrust and destroy all social
harmony.

5. On the outbreak of the war, the French privateers ravaged
the coasts of New England. They even entered the harbour of
Boston and cut out several vessels. On the other hand. Colonel
Church, anxious " to do the enemy all the injury he could,"
ranged with his whale-boats from the Penobscot to the St.
John, and crossed the Bay of Fundy to cut the dikes of the
marshes of Minas and the throats of the cattle at Chignecto.
Port Royal was several times threatened. The Government of
Massachusetts sent an expedition under Colonel March to
take it. So confident were the people of Boston of success, that
they made preparations to celebrate the victory. Sickness
weakened the New England forces as they encamped about
Port Royal, and the place was strengthened by a body of
militia from Canada ; so Colonel March was constrained to with-
draw from it. Dreading to face the citizens of Boston, who
were raging from disappointment, he sailed into Casco Bay.
He was commanded by the Government to return to Port
Royal. On his refusal another officer renewed the attempt to
capture the place, but was defeated.

6. M. de Vaudreuil took active measures of reprisal. A
council of war was held in Montreal, at which the chiefs of

INVASION OF CANADA CHECKED. 169

the Abeuaquis and of other frieudly Indians were present. A
course of " petite guerre " — of petty warfare — against the frontier
New England settlements was inaugurated. Descending the
Kiver St. Francis, and advancing by a route almost impracticable,
M. Rouville d'Hertel, with a band of a hundred and fifty French
and a "tail" of savages, surprised and captured the village of
Haverhill on the Merrimac. This foray arous' d the country-
side. At the call of the trumpet and the roll of the dium tlie
people seized their arms, and rushed in a disorderly manner to
cut off the retreat of the French. D'Hertel escaped, and carried
his prisoners and spoils to Quebec.

7. The people of Massachusetts now resolved to conquer
Canada. Two officers of merit — Colonels Nicolson and Vetch —
energetically pressed on preparations. Vetch had long brooded
over the project. A few years previously he had visited Quebec
on a mission regarding an exchange of prisoners, and had found
an opportunity to sound the most difficult passages of the St.
Lawrence. He went to England, and by the forcible repre-
sentations he made of the importance of the conquest, and of
the ease with which it might be made, he induced the Imperial
Government to promise aid.

8. On the first rumour of the intended invasion, M. de
Vaudreuil, who had his forces assembled at Chambly to protect
the head of the colony, resolved to anticipate it by an attack
on New York. Through misunderstandings between himself
and the Governor of Montreal, much delay occurred ; when the
expedition set forth, it was frustrated by the insubordination of
the soldiers.

9. Colonel Nicolson, with two thousand men, advanced from
Albany. Four of the Iroquois nations had promised him
aid. Following out their astute policy, never to allow either
French or English to gain a decided advantage, they showed
themselves so remiss in fulfilling their engagement, that Nicol-
son coiild not but doubt their sincerity. As his army encamped
by the bank of a stream flowing to Lake Champlain, an epi-
demic broke out His treacherous allies, it is said, had poisoned
the water of which the soldiers drank, by throwing a quantity
of raw hides into it near its source. There he heard news that
forced him to retreat, and caused his exasperated soldiers to

170 AI4NAP0LIS ROYAL.

heap maledictions on the head of Vetch, though he waH not
responsible for the circumstance that aroused their ire. The
English fioet that had been i)repared for the expedition againf t
Quebec did not cross the Atlantic. The Imperial Government
suddenly despatched it to Lisbon to aid the Portuguese against
the Spaniards.

10. This check only made the New Englanders more deter-

mined to accomplish their purpose. Colonel Nicolson
1710 went to England to make renewed applications for aid.
A.D. The Government again promised to send a fleet and an
army to Boston. From her private purse Queen Anne
defrayed the expense of arming four regiments raised in Massa-
chusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island.
Through dilatoriness in fitting out the ships, they were detained
in the English ports until the season was too far advanced.
The attack on Quebec was postponed ; but there was time enough
left to capture Acadie.

11. M. Subercase was now Governor at Port Eoyal. Since
the attacks upon it in 1708 nothing had been done to strengthen
its fortifications or to reinforce its garrison. It was miserably
supplied with war material. Two successive bad harvests had
much diminished the means of subsistence. When Colonel
Nicolson appeared with thirty-five sail at the entrance of the
basin, M. Subercase found himself caught in a trap. He could
receive no assistance, either by land or by sea. He held out long
enough to give him a pretext to demand honourable terms.
The fort was invested on all sides ; Avhen the fire from the New
England batteries commenced in heavy earnest, he hung out
the white flag of suiTender. Nicolson accorded him the con-
ditions he asked ; but when he saw two hundred and fifty
emaciated and ragged French soldiers file out of the fort, drums
beating and colours flying, and found on entering it that he
would be obliged to furnish the inhabitants with food to keep
them from starvation, he, like Phips, felt that he had been
over-reached, — but, unlike Phips, he religiously kept his word.

12. The conquest of Acadie was final. It now became an
English possession, under the name of Nova Scotia. In honour
of Queen Anne, Port Royal was called Annapolis Royal.
Colonel Vetch, with four hundred and fifty men, remained to

CANAt>A AGAIN THKEAtENEt).

171

liuld it. The French Acadiaus complained bitterly to M. de
Vaudreiiil of his harsh rule, and prayed to be removed from the
country. The Governor-General, being unwilling to abandon
it, appointed Baron St. Castine (son of the old Baron) his
Lieutenant in Acadie, and gave him instructions to drive out
the English. Duri g the war the garrison of Annppolis was
sorely harassed, and barely escaped extermination.

13. Colonel Nicolson again visited England. He wished to
crown his success in Acadie with the conquest of Canada.
The times were not unpropitious. England was slackening
her war efforts on the Continent of Europe. A Tory Ministry,
at the head of which was Harley,^ Earl of Oxford, was in
power. Seven of the regiments wliich had gained fame in the
battles of Eamilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, were selected ^
to take part in the enterprise against Quebec ; and the great
captain, the Duke of Marlborough,^ was left to conduct a
campaign in the north-east of France with diminished forces.
The command was given to Brigadier-General Sir John Hill,
brother of Mrs. Masham,^ tl<e then confidante of Queen
Anne. A fleet of fifteen war ships and forty transports,
imder Admiral Sir Hoveden "Walker, bore the land force and a
number of Scottish settlers to Boston. A French privateer
descried it when it was some sixty leagues from its destination,

' Harley. — Robert Harley, born 1661,
died 1724. He was introduced into
the Godolphin Cabinet through the
influence of Abigail Hill (Mrs. Masham),
afterwards mentioned. He was created
Earl of Oxford in 1704, and became
Premier in 1711. In 1715 he was im-
peached for holding treasonable corre-
spondence with the Pretender, and was
detained in the Tower for two years.
On his release he spent his leisure in
collecting the famous "Harleian Li-
brary," containing 7000 manuscripts,
besides many rare printed books. It
was afterwards purchased for the British
Museum for jBlO.OOO.

" Duke of Marlborough. — John
ChurchUl, born 1660, died 1722. He
served for some time under the French
Marshal I'urenne. He was a favourite
of James 11. , who made him Viscount

ChurchUl ; but on the arrival of WUl-
iam of Orange in England, he went
over to his party. His brilliant career
from 1702 till 1711 is well known. In
1711 he was dismissed from his employ-
ments, and was charged with pecula-
tion. He went into voluntary exile till
1*714. He was buried in Westminster
Abbey.

' Mrs. Masham. — Abigail Hill; she
was cousin of Sarah, Duchess of Marl-
borough, who obtained for her the
place of waiting-maid to Queen Anno.
She ere long supplanted the Duchess
in the Queen's favour, and obtained a
powerful asce'.iiiency over her royal
mistress. She intrigued with the
French for the euccession of the Pre-
tender to the English throne. After
the death of the Queen she retired into
private life, and died in 1734.

172

CATASTROPHE AT THE EGG ISLANDS.

•41

U-

and carried tho tidings to Plaisance, Newfoundland. Costa-
belle, the Governor, had in the meantime heard from an English
prisoner of warlike preparations in Massachusetts, and he
despatched a swift-sailing pinnace to warn Vaudreuil of the
coming danger. In all haste the Governor-General placed
Quebec -in a state of defence, and then ascended to Cha ably,
where, with three thousand men, he awaited the invasion by
way of Lake Champlain.

14. On the 28th of August, Colonel Nicolson, with two thousand

volunteers, left Albany : a month before, the English

1711 fleet had sailed from Boston for Quebec. He had not
A.D. advanced far upon his way when disastrous news over-
took him, and compelled him to retrace his steps. In

the darkness of a stormy night. Sir Hoveden Walker, though
warned of the danger by a skilful pilot, had sailed too close
to the northern shore of the St. Lawrence. Eight of his great
ships were shattered to pieces among the Egg Islands. The
corpses of hundreds of soldiers, sailors, and settlers, and broken
timbers and bales of goods, were strewn along the coasts. This
disaster dissipated the danger that threatened Canada. Ad-
miral Walker returned with the remnant of his fleet to England.

15. Next yeai^ on a rumour reaching Quebec that the New

Englanders were preparing another enterprise against

1712 it, the principal inhabitants presented five thousand
A.D. crowns to the Governor-Geneial, to be expended on

strengthening the fortifications. A most confident
spirit now prevailed in the colony. The more devout, review-
ing the m;xny dangers that had been averted from Canada,
attribv ted its preservatio to the especial guardianship of
Providence.

r 6. As the war was drawing to a close, a neT7 danger for
Car da spran^' up in the west. The French in 1701 had settled
at Detroit. The possession of a fort in thfv^^ fine country gave
them the command of the commerce of the great lakes, and
placed in their hands the key that opened up to them the routes
to the Mississippi and to 'iheir ntsVv and vast province Louisiana.
The English of New York, eager to possess themselves of a
position of so much importance, incited the Ottigdmies or Foxes
to seize on Detroit. The Hurons, Ottawas, Sacs, and many

nsM -tm

THE TREATY OF UTRECHT.

173

other tribes, rallied for its defence. An interminable contest
ensued. Long after the centre of Canada reposed in profound
peace, the Foxes and kindred tribes made the western country
diingerous to the French, and infested all the routes to the
Mississippi and the Illinois.

17. The final terms of peace between France and England were
ratified by the "Treaty of Utrecht," ^ on the 11th of
April. Louis XIV. ceded to the British Crown all 1713
claim to possession of Acadie Hudson Bay Territory, a.d.
Newfoundland, and the Island of »St. Christopher. He
retained Cape Breton and the islands in the Gulf of St. Law-
rence ; and reserved to the French fishermen the right to cure
their fish on the coasts of Newfoundland, from Bonavista to
Cape Rich.

18. Cape Breton was now called " Royal Island." English
Harbour, a sheltered and commodious bay on the south-western
coast, was constituted the chief port. On a tongue of land ou
the eastern side, the French commenced to fortify themselves,
and "^o build a town, which they named " Louisburg." They
also began to settle on the Island of St. John, which hitherto
had been neglected.

19. To Royal Island were removed the French of Placentia.
The British Government contemplated transferring the Acadians
in Nova Scotia to it. But the time was allowed to pass by
when the removal might have been made with ease. In fact
none of the parties concerned were anxious that it should be
carried out. The English, jealous of the settlement in
Royal Island, were unwilling to increase the power of their
rivals ; the Acadians, being under a mild government, in the
undisturbea possession of their property and in the enjoyment
of their religion, were loath to leave their marshes, their fields
and orchards, r id their chapels ; the French authorities, who
fully realiz3d the magnitude of their loss when Acadie passed
out of their hands, sought to maintain a hold upon it, and by
means of the priesthood t" keep the simple habitaas true to
their allegiance to the French King.

20. Canada now entere 1 on a long period of peace. Fortu-

' Utrecht. — A citjr of the Notb^rlAQas, 21 miles south-ei^t of Am^tsrclam.

174

PERIOD OF PEACE.

nately, the office of Tiitendant was at this time in good hands.
The Messieurs Rtiiidot — father and son — divided the duties
between them. They sought to reform disorder, to create
internal industry, and to promote commerce. The habitans
were excessively litigious : when they quarrelled, instead of
fighting, they sought redress in the courts of justice. Law was
cheap, and frivolous suits multiplied fast. While they disputed
about the bounds of their farms, they neglected to till their
fields ; and so the progress of the country was retarded. The
Raudots settled summarily a number of cases, to the general
contentment of parties concerned. The spirit of litigation being
abated, the attention of the habitans was directed to the manu-
facture of articles of domestic use and daily wear. Hitherto
they had in a very great measure depended on the mother
country for their supply of such goods. The high price of these
"home" articles prevented the poorer people from buying;
many were, like the savages, compelled to wear skins in winter,
and to go half naked in summer. A disaster that had occurred
in 1701 caused the Government to see the necessity of encourag-
ing the inhabitants to grow flax and hemp, and to manufacture
coarse linen and woollen fabrics. The " Seine,*' a large French
store-ship, carrying M. Saint Vallier and a number of ecclesi-
astics as passengers, had been captured by the English as it
was making for Quebec.

21. Attention was given to ship-^juilaing ; war ships and
merchant vessels were constructed. Commerce with the old
c ^try and with the French West Indies was encouraged.- Ships
laden with lumber, mrsts, oils, flour and pork, were now cleared
from the port of Quebec. The shore fisheries of the St. Law-
rence were prosecuted by a company established on the south-
eastern coast at Mount Louis River, within view of the Moun-
tains of Notre Dame. The fur-trade continued to be the
principal pursuit of the enterprising people of Canada. The
great want of the colony was population. There was no free
emigration. The Government c»f France did not now encourage
the sending out of large bodies of settlers, as it had done in the
days of Colbert and Talon. A scheme proposed by M. Vaudreuil
to settle convicts in the country was not entertained by the
King. 4t this time the French inrde settlements in T^ouisiana;

FATHER CHARLEVOIX. ] 75

22. Canada, in population and wealth, ranked below the
English colonies. At the Peace of Utrecht its fighting force
amounted to 4444 men; that of her rivals to 150,000. The
fur-trade, which was the chief object of the Canadians, was
with the English only an accessory. The wealth gained by that
pursuit was ephemeral ; it did not permanently enrich the
country. It was different with agriculture, which was the
gi-eat occupation of the English. Year after year there was an
iuflux of energetic men, who came to pu^h their fortune in the
English colonies. There, land was far more easily obtainable
tlian in Canada, and was held under an absolutely free tenure.
Further and further the hardy pioneers penetrated into the
wilderness, leaving smiling fields and hamlets in their track.
The commerce of these colonies with England and foreign
countries was already great.

23. The long peace gave curious observer an opportunity to
visit Canada, then truly a land unknown. Father
Charlevoix, " Historian of New France," dashed ofi' his 1742
impression of the country in a series of letters ; and no a.d.
doubt he did something to dispel the prejudice against

it in France. The first voyagers had visited Canada (and Acadie)
in the hope of finding gold and silver : when no precious metals
were found, people had ignorantly contemned it as a poor, bar-
ren country ; holding as of no account those true mines of wealth
— its teeming fisheries, its fertile soil, its grand forests. Exagge-
rated accounts of the inclemency of its climate, and stories about
the Indians, had created an impression that it was a region of
perpetual snow and savagery. The Court had looked upon the
colony as unprofitable, because the cost of its maintenance
exceeded the amount of the revenue derived from it. Charle-
voix ascribed the backward state of the colony to a want of
persistent energy in the people. Either they had commenced
projects for developing the resources of the country, which they
had not carried out ; or they were discouraged by the jealous
opposition which their schemes encountered. Tliey preferred a
hfe of adventure and excitement, and the quick profits of the
fur-trade, to the sober toil of agriculture.

24. Though Canada was far less wealthy than the English
colonies, it iijade a greater show with the riches it had. <^uel>eg

176

ACTIVE RIVALRY.

was a mucTi gayer place than Boston ; there lived in it a greater
number of persons who seemed to possess fortunes, and who
spent them in maintaining handsome establishments. In the
capital there was a Court in miniature; and in society there
were all the gradations of rank that were maintained in France.
The love of amusement was as great among the habitans of the
country as among the officials of the city. Quebec then had 7,000
inhabitants, Montreal 3 000, while the population of all Canada
was about 26,000 souls.

26. During the long peace, the rivalry between the French
and the English colonies continued as active as ever. The
French now by every means sought the friendship of the
Iroquois. In 1717, the Tuscaroras, a tribe dwelling about the
head waters of the Susquehannah River, entered the league,
which was thenceforth known as the Six Nations. Missionaries
were sent among the Senecas, and then a company of soldiers
were stationed in a fort on the Niagara, within their coi ntry.
The English remonstrated in vain with the Governor-General for
occupying a post in a territory which was under the protection
of their Sovereign. Governor Burnet of New York then boldly
caused a fort and trading post to be built at the mouth of the
Chouagen, now called the Oswego. The English were then in a
better position than ever to intercept the fur- trade of the west.
26. The New Englanders pushed forward their settlements
along the eastern banks of the Kennebec, in the country of the
Abenaquis. For many years Father Basle held a mission at
Norridgewalk, and ruled the people at his will. The warriors
stole around the English settlements, and bore off" many a
horrible trophy of murders done. The Government c

Massachusetts declared war against i.ll the eastern
■"■'^^ tribes. For three years there were sia,ughters, and

burnings, and ciuelties perpetrated along the frontiers.
Norridgewalk was burned ; Father Rasle was killed with many
wounds and indignities. M. de Vaudreuil at first opposed
overtures of peace made by the Indians to the English,

when the deputies of both appeared at Quebec. A
** ^0 treaty, known as Dumner's, was afterwards signed at

Boston, by which the Indians east of the Kennebec and
those of Nova Scotia acknowledged King George's sovereignty.

THE MARQUIS DE BEAUHARNOIS.

177

27. This same year Canada was overcast with grief. The
royal ship "Le Chameau," bringiug to Quebec M. Chazel,
the newly appointed Intendant, and military officers and
ecclesiastics, was wrecked oif Loiiisburg. Not a soul escaped
alive. Dead bodies and bales of merchandise were strewn along
the coasts. Shortly afterwards, to intensify the sorrow that
overspread the colony, M. de Vaudreuil died. His memory
was long cherished by the Canadians. When in after years
dark days fell upon them — when they were robbed and oppressed
by corrupt officials, and threatened by their ancient enemies —
they remembered the peace and prosperity they had enjoyed
under his administration, and, fondly believing that there was
virtue in a name, prayed the King to allow his son to rule over
them.

28. The Marquis de Beauhamois, a natural son of Louis
XIV., succeeded Vaudreuil. For twelve years Canada
enjoyed rest from actual war. It was the time of its 1726
greatest happiness ; it was growing, though slowly, and a.d. .
it felt its strength. But it advanced not by peaceful

arts and industry. France held and extended her dominion by
military power and by the influence of the Church. Beau-
hamois' policy was by all means to confine the English behind
the Alleghanies, i nd not to permit them to advance towards
the St. Lawrence. On the western shore of Lake Champlain,
at the foot of the Narrows between it and Lac Sacrament, he
erected the fort of Crown Point, and overawed the advancing
settlers of New York.

QtjFr>riONS. — 1. In what position
were the French in Canada now? Wliat
were their relations with the Iroquois?
What position did they maintain?

2 In what respects were the English
colonies superior to the French ? What
scheme did Colonel Nicolson propose?
What did King William think of it'

3. Who succeeded Villebon as
Croveruor of Acadie? How was Port
Koyal strengthened ?

4. What wei ,i the causes of the jeal-
ousy that prevailed in Port Royal ?

5. How was the wai carried on by
the colonists ? What was the result of
March's attack )n Port Royal?

(473) ^ 12

6. What kind of warfare did the
French adopt ? Describe the exploit of
d'Hertel.

7. On wLat did the people of Massa-
chusetts ♦,hen resolve? Under whose
direction were the preparations made ?
What valuable information had Vetch
acquired ? When ?

8. On what plan did De Vaudreuil
determine? How wa ; it frustrated?

9. What caused the failure of Nicol-
son's expedition? What had become
of the English fleet?

1(», Where did Nicolscn go for help?
Whai aid did Queen Anne herself sup-
ply? Why had the attack on Quebec

178

QUESTIONS.

to be postponed? What was there still
time to capture ?

11. In what state was Port Royal
then 1 What was the result of Nicol-
son's attack on it? ITow did he act
when he was over-reached ?

12. What change in the possession
now took place ? What name was given
to the colony? And to the capital?
What effort did the French make to
recover it?

13. What scheme did NicoLson go to
England to promote? AVhat forces
were sent out to America ? How were
the French forewarned? What steps
did the Governor-General take ?

14. What disaster dissipated the
danger that threatened Canada ?

16. How did the inhabitants of Quebec
show their patriotism? What spirit
prevailed in tlie colony?

16. Why was the fort at Detroit so
important to the French ? What struggle
took place for its possession?

17. When was peace concluded be-
tween England and France? Wliat
possessions were ceded to England?
What did France retain?

18. To what was the name of Cape
Breton changed? What was its new
capital called ?

19. Who were removed to Royal
Island? Why were the English un-
willing to remove the Acadians ? How
did the French seek to maintain a hold
on Acadie ?

20. On what d»d Canada now enter?
What retarded the material prosperity
of the colony? Wliat disaster led the

Government to encourage niannfactnros
in the colony':'

21. What branches of industry were
pursued? What was the great want of
the colony?

22. What shows the diflfereuco in
population between the English and
the French colonies? Wherein did
they differ in the occupation of tl;e
people? Wherein did they differ i)i
the means of growth ?

23. For what did the long peace
afford opportunity? AVhat was one
effect of Charlevoix's letters? What
prejudices against the colony existed in
the French mind ? To what did
Charlevoix ascribe the backward state
of the colony ?

?.l. In what respect did the French
excel the English colonies ? What was
then the population of Quebec? of
Montreal ? of the whole of Canada ?

25. To what did the long peace not
put an end? What means did the
French adopt to secure the friendsliip
of the Iroquois ? How did the English
try to counteract their influence ?

26. In what direction did the New
Englanders push forward their settle-
ments? What led to war between them
and the eastern Indians? When was
peace concluded?

27. What calamity occurred in the
same year? Who died shortly after-
wards ?

28. Who succeeded Vaudreuil? In
what state was Canada during the next
twelve years ? What was Beauharnois"
policy?

THE ACADIANS.

179

CHAPTER XIX

LOUISBURG.

1744 to 1748 A.D.

The "War of the Austrian Succession.

The Acadians.

Du Vivier's stratagem.

The siege of Louisburg.

The great French Fleet.

Due d'Anville.

A series of casualties.

The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.

1. England and France now again engaged in war.^ They
took opposite sides in the question of the Austrian - -^ ^
Succession. The Emperor Charles VI., by the Prag- ■*■ ' **
matic Sanction, had solemnly declared that it was ?ns

will that his daughter should succeed to the crown of the
Austrian dominions. On his death Maria Theresa ascended
tlie throne. But Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria, was elected
Emperor, and France and other powers drew their swords for
him. England, Austria, Holland, and Saxony entered into an
alliance against this coalition. The peace which the colonies had
so long enjoyed was now broken. Canada was not disturbed
by the events of the next four years. The brunt of the war
was borne by Nova Scotia.

2. Nova Scotia, after the Peace of Utrecht had transferred it
to England, remained virtually a French province. Outside of
Annapolis, besides the fishing station of Canso, there was no
English settlement. The Acadians of Annapolis River, Minas,
Piziqiiid, Beaubassin, and Chignecto had steadily refused to take
the oath of allegiance to George I., without the reservation that
they should not be compelled to bear aims against the King of
France. They sought to establish for themselves a position of

I neutrality in the event of the mother countries going to war.
The British Government .would not recogrdze their claim, but
took no steps to compel them to become British subjects in
reality. The Acadians, generally aiuiable and tractable, lived

I content under the mild British Government, but their «ym-

fK«r. — CallQci bjrthe Enjjlish cojonists "King George's War," fpom Geovge ||

180

LOUISBURO.

patliies were with Frauce. If they were inclined to waver, they
were kept true to their allegiance by their priests, who looked
to Louisburg and Quebec for instructions.

3. During the long interval of peace the Fr^rch had fortified
the harbour and town of Louisburg : so strong did the place
seem, that it was called the Dunkirk^ of America. On the
suri'ounding heights were erected batteries ; and batteries on a
small rocky islet near the mouth of the harbour protected tlie
' atrance. Lofty ramparts of stone, with bastions and parapets
bearing one hundred and fourteen cannons, enclosed the squaie
and streets of the garrison town. A wide, deep ditch lay around
the walls. Louisburg was the place of refuge for the French
naval squadrons and fishing fleets. In time of war, privateei-s
were fitted out there to prey on the commerce of the New
England colonies. To their merchants and fishermen it was a
constant menace. To the Acadians it was a visible sign of the
power of France ; and in it they found a market for their com
and cattle, though the traffic was forbidden by the Governor of
Nova Scotia.

4. Immediately after the declaration of war, Du Quesnel, the
^ Governor of Eoyal Island, sent M. du Vivier with nine

1744 hundred men to r^eizo Canso and Annapolis. Canso was
A.D. burned, and its small garrison were sent as prisoners
to Louisbui'g. Returning thence, Du Yivier landed
at Chignecto, and made a painful inland march to Annapolis.
On their way, the French soldiers levied on the store-housea of
the unfortunate Acadians, who cried out against the harsh exac-
tions of their friends. It was their fate to sufier. For weeks a
band of Micmacs had invested Annapolis. The fort was in a
iuinous condition; its garrison was small, and poorly armed.
Mascerene, the Governor, was an intelligent and resolute officer.
Du Vivier harassed him by night attacks, and skirmishes hy
day, till his soldiers were worn out by want of sleep. Unable
to take the place by assault, the French captain tried stratagem.
He sent in a flag of truce, and informed Mascerene that a naval

* Dunkirk. — Or Dunkerque, a strongly
fortified sea-port of France, 45 miles
east of Dover. Tt was taken by the
English in 1658, but in 1662 it was sold

to Louis XIV. by Charles II. for
£500,000. Louis then restored itsfnr
tifictttions at a vast expense, and made
it a great stronghold.

I)U VIVIER's STRATACiEM. 181

force was comiDg from Louisburg which he could not reaist.
llu offered hiin honourable terms if he would sign the articlcH
of capitulation at once, but until the fleet arrived they were not
to be carried out. He knew that the garrison was reduced to
extremities, and anticipated that if Mascerene signed the
articles he would be compelled to surrender immediately. The
majority of the officers, despairing of succour, and anxious not
to be sent prisoners to Quebec, urged the Governor to accept
the terms. Mascerene, perceiving that Du Vivier wished to
create dissension, firmly refused, and succeeded in convincing
them that the Frenchman was practising a ruse. No fleet from
Louisburg appeared. A furious rain-storm made his camp so
uncomfortable that Du Vivier marched off without tap of
drum, under cover of night.

5. Incensed by the attacks on Nova Scotia, by the capture of
tlieir fishing vessels, and the destruction of their commerce, the
))eople of Massachusetts took the bold resolve to capture
Louisburg. It was a venture that an experienced general
might have hesitated to undertake ; but Governor Shirley, a
lawyer, troubled his head very little about technical difficulties.
He resolved to have the place, and thought that boldness would
carry it. There were many citizens who remembered the
events of the previous war, — how bold enterprises had been de-
feated when success was confidently expected, — ho\v the proudest
armaments had been shattered, — and they might well have their
fears.

6. A force of four thousand men, mechanics and labourers
for the most part, and without discipline, was raised.

The command was given to William Pepperell, a mer- 174 5
chant and colonel of militia, who had been very active a.d.
in pressing forward the enterprise. Preparations were
made with all secrecy and despatch, in the hope that the
French would be taken by surprise. The British Government
ordered Commodore Warren on the Newfoundland station to
cooperate with his fleet ; and, much against his will at first, he
sailed for Canso, where the New England force landed to wait
until the coasts were c^'ar of ice. Here he conferred with
Colonel Pepperell, and perfect harmony; so necessary to the suc-
cess of a combined movement, was established between them.

182

t«fi SlfiGE OP LOtlSUURG.

7. The expedition sailed on a Sunday. "When the ships reached
Gabams Bay, where the landing was to be made, the wind
lulled. All hope of taking the French by surprise vanished ;
alarm-guns along the coast were fired, the bells of Louisburg
rang out, and all the people of the outlying settlements fled to
the fortress for shelter. A heavy sea rolled into the bay, and
the surf broke with a sound of thunder on the iron-bouud
coast ; the path from the landing-place was steep, rugged, and
difficult, and a French force stood ready to dispute the ascent.
But with a cheer the English sailors swept the crowded boata

LOUISBURG.

through the surf ; with a rush the New Englanders carried the
height, and gained the ground in rear of Louisburg. With
infinite difficulty the siege guns and ammunition were landed
from the ships ; with heavy labour they were drawn in loug
sledges over the morasses, the men sinking knee-deep in water.
The work was severe, the weather raw and gloomy, the
bivouacs wet and cold, but a spirit of audacity and rollickiug
good humour pervaded the force.

8. A party marched through the woods, and in sight of the
fortress saluted it with defiant cheers. A number of store-
houses, filled with pitch, tar, turpentine, and brandy, on the
north-east of the harbour, were fired. The thick smoke stifled
the garrison of the Royal Battery, and hastily spiking their
guns, they fled into Louisburf'. The New Englanders seized j
on this commanding post, drilled out the touch-holes, aiiJj

THE FALL OF LOUISBURG. 183

Opened a destructive fire upon the town. Nearer aud uearer
they pushed forward their trenches towards the southern rani-
j)arts. Great breaches were made in the walls. On the 7th of
May, Warren and Pepperell summoned M. Duchambon to sur-
render. The brave French Governor answered defiantly. His
soldiers were sulky^; they had been shamefully used by the
luteudantBigjit, who had kept back their pay. A frigate from
France, carrying a regiment aud a quantity of stores, was cap-'
tured when making for Louisburg. The New Euglanders
dragged cannon ;;p to the Light-house Height on thewesi of the
harbour, and silenced the battery on the islet that defended its
mouth. Encompassed on all sides by a fire that swept destruc-
tion through the town, Duchambon was forced to capitulate
on the 15th of June. So Louisburg was taken. While the
French flag still floated above it, two French East Indiamen
making for the harbour were captured, with cargoes valued
at ^60,000. The garrison and inhabitants, numbering 4,130
persons, were conveyed to Fiance. Commodore Warren and
(Jolonel Pepperell were promoted ; the one was made an ad-
miral, the other a baronet.

9. The capture of Louisburg was a glorious success for Massa-
chusetts. A greater enterprise now busied the minds

of Shirley and Pepperell. In the phrase of Cato,^ 1746
the Governor exclaimed, " Delenda est Canada." The a.d.
British Government could not spare a naval squadron,
aud the New Englanders were soon compelled to look to their
own defence.

10. The French King would not submit to the loss of Louis-
burg. A great armament was gathered in the port of Ko-
chelle with the avowed purpose of recapturing it, taking posses-
sion of Nova Scotia, burning Boston, and ravaging all the New
England coasts. Fifteen ships of the line, twenty-four frigates,
several fire-ships, and a crowd of transports bearing over three
thousand trained soldiers composed it. Due d'Anville com-
manded. When the citieens of Boston heard of the sailing of

The phrase of Cato. — Cato the
Censor, an illustrious Koman (146 B.C.),
feared so much the rivalry of Carthage,
that he was accustomed to conclude
«very speech he made in the Senate

with the words, "Delenda est Car-
thago," — Carthage must be destroyed.
At his instigation the Third Punic War
was undertaken, and Carthage was
razed to the ground.

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184

THE GREAT FRENCH FLEET.

this graud fleet they crowded to the churches, and prayed that
the great danger might be averted from their country. Due
d'Anville's first destination was Chebucto harbour. Governor-
( reueral Beauharnois despatched a force of Canadian militia to
Ohignecto with the view of attacking Annapolis, when the
French soldiers arrived to cooperate with it. On their way
they defeated a party of English who were fortified at Minas.

1 1 . Before D' Anville was well clear of the French coast two
of his ships were captured off Brest by the Engli^'i. A furious
wind dispersed others. Some convoyed merchantmen to the
West Indies. When he entered the harbour of Chebucto in his
fiag-ship the Northimiberland, with the Renommee, he found
only one vessel of his great fleet at the rendezvous. His dis-
appointment was intense. He died suddenly from a stroke of
apoplexy ; but it was whispered that he had poisoned himself.
Scurvy and dysentery broke out among the soldiers and
sailors ; numbers landed to wander and die in the woods.
Rear-admiral D'Estoumelle arrived with three ships on the
afternoon of the day on which D' Anville died. He counselled
the abandonment of the enterprise. l)ut the majority of the
officers opposed him. Excited to delirium, when he retired to
his cabin he fell upon his sword, and was found dead, welter-
ing in his blood. M. de la Jonquifere (who had come out to
succeed Beauharnois as Governor-General) took the command.
With thirty vessels, great and small, he sailed to capture An-
napolis ; but encountering a heavy storm off Cape Sable, he re-
turned to France. The Bostonians held thanksgiving for their
signal deliverance. Bajffled but not discouraged, the French
prepared another great fleet, under the command of M. le
George. Off Cape Finisterre^ he met a British fleet under
Admiral Anson.^ After a hot engagement Le George struck
hi« flag. Several of his vessels escaped, but a rich booty fell

' Cape Finisterre. — A promontory of
Spain, forming the north-west angle of
tlie peninsula.

'^ Admiral Anson. — George Anson,
born 1G97, died 1762. In 1739 he com-
manded an expedition against the
Spanish settlements in South America.
In 1741 he doubled Cape Horn, and

three years later returned to England
by the Cape of Good Hope, with only
one ship, but that laden with immense
booty. He had circumnavigated the
globe. For his victory off Cape Finis-
terre he was made Lord Anson. He
was afterwards Commander-in-chief of
the British Fleet.

THE TREATY OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.

185

into the hands of the foe. M. de la Jouqui^re was made
prisoner and takon to England.

12. After these repeated d'-^asters the French Kmg thought
no more of recapturing Nova Scotia or of burning Boston.
Though defeated in America, he had gained advantages over
tlie English in the East Indies. The capture of Madras v :is «,a
oti'set to that of Louisburg.

13. On the 18th of October peace was concluded by t.ie
treaty signed at Ais-la-Chapelle.^ England gave

back C Breton to France , Fiance restox^ed Madras 1748
to England. The restoration of Louisburg to the French a.d.
was a sore mortification to the people of Massachusetts,
and to all in England who were interested in the New England
trade. In its capture Old and New England had expended
blood and treasure freely. The sacrifice had been made in vain.
The British Government reimbursed the State of Massachusetts
for the money it had expended ; but money was no complete
compensation for its losses. Peace and security to conmierce
were as remote as ever.

Questions. — 1. When did war again
break out between England an(f. France?
What was the cause of the war?
Wliich of the colonies bore the brunt
of it?

2. What position did the Acadians
seek to establish for themselves? With
which power were their sympathies ?

3. Describe the fortifications of Louis-
burg. What uses did it serve?

4. On what expedition was Du Vivier
sent ? By what stratagem did he attempt
to take Annapolis ? How did it fail ?

6. What bold resolve did the people
of Massachusetts take ? By whom was
it chiefly promoted ?

6. Who commanded the expedition?
How many men had he ? What naval
force was ordered to cooperate with
him?

7. Where did the New Englanders
land? What difficulties did they en-
counter?

8. Tfow did they gain possession of
the Eoyal Battel y? How did they
silence the islet battery? In what spirit
were the French soldiers? What was
Duchambon at last forced to do? What
prizes were taken soon afterwards ?

9. What new enterprise engaged the
thoughts of Shirley and Pepperell?
Why had it to be delayed ?

10. What steps did the French take
to recover Louisburg? What success
had the Canadian militia ?

11. What befell D'Anville's fleet?
What ^;as his fate? Why did D'Estour-
nelle ^111 himself? How was De la
Jonquifere's fleet scattered? What befell
Le George's armament?

12. What gain in the East did the
French regard as an offset to the loss of
Louisburg ?

13. When was peace concluded? How
did its terms disappoint the people of
Massachusetts 7

' Aix-la-Chapelle. — In German called
Aoi'hen, a city of Rhenish Prussia, 40
miles south-we-'t of Cologne. It takes
its name from its mineral springs (Aix=

aquas), and from the church or cathe-
dral of Charlemagne, who was born and
who died in the city. It has been the
Bcen^ of two treaties (16()8 and 1748).

iic ■•

180

THE AIM OF FRANCE.

CHAPTER XX.

CONTEST APPROACHING.

1749 to 1754 A.D.

Territorial pretensions of France.
Count de la Galissonnifire.
Boundary Commission of Paris.
M. de la JonquiCre.
Oflicial corruption.

Halifax.

Abb6 de Loutre.

Fort r-aus^jour.

Preparation for the coming struggle.

Collision in the Valley of the Ohio.

g- 1 . The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was merely a truce, a breath-

1 iug time, during which the combatants prepared themselves for

'' tho final struggle. The question to be decided was, Whether the

greater portion of the North American Continent should belong

I to France, or whether the rule of England should extend over

' it ? whether it should be possessed by a race of people subject
to an absolute Government that concerned itself but little with
their material progress, or belong to a nation imlued with the
spirit of independence, enjoying liberty of conscience and of

^ political action, and devoted to all the peaceful arts by which

\ nations grow and flourish ?

2. ri yg^ aim of Fr ance was to confine the English (if it
could not drive the stubborn people to the sea) to the t ract o f
country lying east of the Alleghany Mountains, and stretcliiug
from the Kennebec in the north to St. Mary's Rive£3a' the
,south. AH tile rest of the continent, from the mouth of the
St. Lawi'ence to the source of the Mississippi, and south to the
Gulf of Mexico, France claimed as its own by right of discovery
and conquest. Its magnificent territorial pretensions extended
even to the Pacific. Though its claims were vast, its power in
America was not strongly seated. The p opulation. ^ Ca^ jjdarr'
its chief possession, was only aboat.fiQ^OO ; that of the I^jiglisl^
colonies was 1 .200,000, while their wealth andcleveloped re-
sources were mrty "fold greater than those of their rival. >3Che
8ireMt3l.^?|JE!ra£ceiQj]l^^

skill of its ofiicers, m the aptitude of the people for,io««»8t-^¥rftr- ^
^ fare, in the vastness of the territory, and in the extreme dini- 1

DE LA GALISSONXIEUE.

187

culty that an enemy found in conducting military operatiojia in
it. The want of unity of action among the Gov^riiments of the
English colonies, as it weakened their power for offensive war,
was an advantage to the French.

3. In consequence of M. de la Jonquifere having been taken
prisoner by the English, Count de la Galissonrlere was ap-
pointed Governor-General. In person he was diminutive and
somewhat deformed ; in mind he was most intelligent and alert.
He resolutely upheld the territorial pretensions of France. He
wished to form a living barrier against the advance li the
English pioneers into the valley of the Ohio. He advised the
King to send out ten thousand peasants from the inland
counties, and to locate them along the frontiers of what was
called " the debatable territory." It was thought unadvis-
able by the Court to depopulate France in order to people the
wilds of America. Unable to carry out his policy, Galissonnit^re
took steps to assert, at least, the sovereignty of France over the
vast country claimed by it. Acting on instructions from him,
M. de Celerin de Bienville, with a company of three hundred \
soldiers, traversed the region from Detroit to the Alleghanies, I
and deposited at intervals beneath certain marked trees leaden )
plates, on which were engraved the royal arms/ He sent a
regular record of his proceedings to the Governor-General, who
transmitted it to the King. \This ostentatious assumption of)
right to the territory alarmed the Indian* tribes^and arou*^ id
tlie jealousy of the colonists of Pennsylvania ; the feeling was
inflamed into rage when M. C^l^rin formally notified their
Governor that all English merchants found trading west of the
Alleghanies would be seized and their goods confiscated.

4. Count de la Galissonni^re also took steps to assert the right
of France to the country north of the Bay of Fundy and west
to the Kennebec. Hisofficers heldj3ostsjon,.yie J^
a^idiiiJJbLfeJsthmus of_CKlgff5cTO. The English stoutly opposed

this, assumption of authority over territory whicli~tTrey claiiaed

as forming part of Nova Sci?tia. M. de la Jonquifere,

when released from captivity by the peace, shortly 1749

afterwards assumed the functions of Governor-General. A.D.

Galissonnifere, on his return to France, was appointed

d member of a Board to which was submitted the question of

188

DE LA JONQUIERE.

the disputed bouudaries. It was composed of Fveuch and
English commissioners, and it met at Paris. Each side sub-
mitted long historical arguments in support of the cbims of their
respective countries. The chief debate was over Nova Scotia.
The French commissioners maintained that it was confined to
the peninsula, and that the country north of the bay and west
to the Kennebec formed part of tlie cid Acadie, which had not
at any time been ceded to England. Af ter arg^ui ng for three
years nearly (1750-3) ov er the qu estions thajj Jixoagj ^the En glisIT
corMrilsslouers withdrew from tHe Board leaving? them un-
settled.

5. jM. de la J onquiere was a brave and experienced naval
officer, but he was~iI11ittiS3^r the high position he held. On
his first coming to Canada he was disposed to cultuiate.ftiendb
relat ions with the English. He wa sjn structe ^to carry out the
policy of his predecessor, to guard tTie val ley of theOhio. and
to keep possession of the country north of the bay. Jonquiere
then strengthened the guards on the St. John, and sent officers
to hold posts on the Peticodiac, Memramcook, and Chepody
rivers. He was not_actua^edLJ3yUJie_j>a^^
sonnifere, wlio had been solely anxious to uphold the grandeur
of French empire in America. Jonquiere was old, and avarice
had eaten out the noble passions. In his time the tide of
official corruption set in, which sapped the internal strength
of Canada and hastened its downfall. The salaries of the high
officers were inadequate to maintain their rank. The Governor-
General received about ^300 a year, and he was expected to
support out of that sum a guard composed of a sergeant and
twenty -five soldiers. His position gave him opportunities
to enrich himself illegally. Jonquiere pushed this advantage
to the utmost. In his lust for gold he showed himself
cynically disregardful of the welfare of the people. He ap-
propriated to himself the profits of the licences for the liquor
trade. The evil of drunkenness spread widely. He surrep-
titiously entered into the fur-trade. In conjunction with other
officials, he sent, under the pretext of wishing to make an ex-
ploration of the country west of the Mississippi to the Pacific, a
party to barter with the Indians for furs. By this one specu-
la, don alone he netted an enormous sum. While he amassed au

NOVA SCOTIA.

189

immense fortune by such means, he denied himself the ordinary
necessaries of life.

6. M. Bigot had been appointed Intendant in 174S. He was-^^
more corrupt, if possible, than his chief ; but, unlike Jonqui6re,y^*»'fV^
he lived prodigally, and mocked the misery of the people by his / ^^
ostentatious licentiousness. He had his palace in Quebec, and

his chateau at the foot of the Charlesbourg Mountain, where I

he aped the sensual extravagance of his royal master, Louis XV. !

Bigot was not only unprincipled himseK ; his example en-
couraged his subordinates to follow in his course.

7. The inhabitants sent petitions to the Court, bitterly com-
plaining of the conduct of the Governor-General. Jonquifere,
conscious that he had acted in an indefensible manner, asked to
be recalled. He died before an investigation of the charges
against him could be held. In his last hours, when the shadow
of death cast its gloom over his bed-chamber, his penurious soul

was disquieted by the sight of wax tapers burning. He i

ordered tallow caudles to be substituted ; " they were less ex-
pensive, and they ga^^e sufficient light." He was succeeded by
the Marquis du Qaesne. \

8. To turn to Nova Scotia. Before Louisburg was handed
over to the French, "the L'>rds of Trade and Plantations" in
England perceived the necessity of founding a settlement at
some point more convenient and accessible than Annapolis
Iloyal. Qhebuc to, a harbour on the south-eastern coast, ^;as
pronoun cea by naval officers to be the finest that they had ever

ItyKM-.E'^wJgirosea to Tie the site of the English power in

seen.

N|gjat^.^cotia. A notification appeared in the Royal Gazette,
London, holding out, on the part of the King, libern.l induce-
ments to haK-pay officers, and soldiers and sailors disbanded
after the war, and also to artificers and labourers, to become
settlers at Chebucto. Grants of land ranging from fifty to six
h'.mdred acres, free passages, arms, ammunition, working utensils,
and sustenance for a year, were ofiered. The protection of a
regular government and representative institutions were prom-
ised. TlieHon. Edward Cornwallis was appointed Governor.

9. On tKe^nH*ofTuWthe *^phynx," bearing Gover- _^
nor Cornwallis arid his suite, entered Chebucto har- *-i^^
hour, and was soon followed by a fleet of thirteen * '

'■1

mvm

190

HALIFAX FOUNDED.

^ m\

transports, having on board 2,500 persons, of various conditions
and occupations. The country was an unbroken forest. On
the western arm ot t\u. harbour the woods descended in a gentle
slope for half a mile to a gravelly beach. ^ On this commanding
and sheltered position the foundation of the town of Halifax
was laid ; a name given to it in honour of the Earl of Halifax,
President of the Board of Plantations.!

10. Halifax presented a busy and a stirring scene. In
the magnificent harbour rode men-of-war and the fleet of trans-
ports. Between ship and shore crowded boats passed and re-
passed. On board the Beaufort the Governor and his Council
met. Th ey took m easures t o procl aim the sovereumt
land over__thg^fiJijn^ Province : they despaiched Captain Eous
to drivethe FrenclTfrom the River St. John : they summoned
deputies from the Acadian districts to appear before them.
When these deputies protested that they could not take the
oath of allegiance to King George, without the reservation that
they should not be compelled to bear arms against the King of
France, the plain-spoken Governor reproached them with in-
gratitude to the British Government, which had extended acts
of kindness to them, and plainly told them that they must take
the uncon ditional oath if they wished to coujjjiu^.^ the pos
s^ion of their propert^affid'{lTi^"pTiTTteg^

11. The settlers v/orked steadily and laboriously. A few were
carri(id oif by excitement, and loafed about drinking success to
the rising town of Halifax ; for which the Governor abused them
roundly. The Indians, hostile at heart, came to gaze on the
scene. By the end of autumn three hundred log-houses were
built : they were surrounded by a palisade of brushwood, and
defeiide-I by two forts.

1';. The jealousy of the authorities in Quebec was aroused.
Nova Scotia appeared very precious to them when they saw
that the English were taking decisive steps to prev^ent their
ever regaining it. They kept it in a state of disquietude. They
used iyi334j46-J*^''^j52 ^^ their instrument for this purpose.
The Abbd was ambitious, vain, and restless. By the English
he was detested as the instigator of the attacks that the Mic-
macs of Shubenacadie commenced to make on Halifax, on Dart-
Wiovithj and on the new German settlement of Lunenburg. B^

sntini !!'

FORT BEAUSEJOUR.

101

the Acadians he was regarded with fear and trembling ; for ou
the least sign of swerving from their allegiance to France, he
from the pulpit launched anathemas on their head, and more
privately hinted to them that he would not be able to restrain
the Indians from ravaging their farms. By his ecclesiastical
superior he was looked upon coldly, for abusing his power
as a priest for political purposes ; but he enjoyed the favour '>f
the Governor-General. While the Board of Boundary Com-
missioners was sitting in Paris, De Loutre asserted that they
would decide in favour of the French claim, not only to the
country north of the bay, but to the Isthmus of Chignecto, and
to the country from Minas to Malagash Bay. A number of
Acadians on the peninsula were induced by him to leave their
farms and to settle north of the Missignash stream at Tantra-
niar, and on the Island of St. John, in the belief that they were
not abandoning their possessions for ever. The English called
them the " deserted inhabitants."

13. The French fortified themselves on the isthmus, and
built F ortJBeausejOUr on a gentle elevation in the marsh. It
was the Abbe s head- quarters, fromVnicn helield coiTCopond-
ence with Quebec by the River St. John, and with Louisburg
by way of Bay Verte. The Acadians of the peninsula sent
their corn and cattle to Louisburg, and bix)ught back from
thence supplies of French goods. The English had never been
able to prevent this traffic. Governor Cornwallis now sent
Colonel Lawrence to establish a settlement at Chignecto on the
route by which the Acadians conveyed the produce that they
intended to ship to market. F4)rt-4iawi:«ni5e_wa^ buil^^
sight oL-BeausidJaur. At. first Tn^itaw4-~rmM4f>wwtL wf^r^ inter-
changed betwjefiii-th6~twa^Commandants, M r. How jjiiJLM, de
I4 Coine.^How, anxious to recleem some English prisoners out
of tire hands of the Indians, held interviews with De Loutre.
While this affair was still pending, a French officer (or, an
Indian dressed like a French officer) appeared in sight of Fort
Lawrence, and waved a white handkerchief, the usual signal
for a conference. How, advancing to meet him, was shot
(lead by a party of Indians lying in ambush. The English at-
tributed the murder to M. de la Coine ; the French offi-cers in-
dignantly disavowed the dastardly deed, and accused De I^outre,

}

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192

A CRISIS APPROACHING IN CANADA.

14-

14. In Canada affairs were uowaj[y^)roa£liiu^a crisis. Tlie
policy inaugurated by GaliSb-anni^Trecould only be carried out
by force of arms ; the English would not consent to be ex-
cluded, by a mandate from Quebec, from the grand country
between the western slopes of the Alleghanies and the Missis-
sij^pi. In anticipation of an early rupture, M. du Quesne
organized as efficiently as he could the fighting force of the
colony. All the male inhabitants were then compelled to do
military duty, and were liable to be called upon at any time for
active service. The habitans were required to make great
sacrifices, and to endure severe ^lardships, and were treated
with little consideration by their officers and feudal superiors.
At the requisition of the Governor-General, the militia officers
made a draft on the parishes. Each of the men chosen was
furnished with a gun, a blanket, a cap, a pair of moccasins, a
cotton shirt, a pair of leggins, and a capot,^ before being
marched off to the scene of his duty.

15. The Indians in " the debatable territory" viewed with
alarm, not unmixed with wonder, the efforts made by the Freneli
and the English to supplant each other in a country which
they fondly believed belonged to themselves. A Shawnoe chief
sarcastically likenetl his people to a piece of cloth between the
blades of a sharp pair of shears. French and English made
unceasing efforts to win the alliance of the Indians, especially
of the Six Nations. After the Peace of Utrecht the Iroquois
(the three upper cantons more particularly) inclined more and
more to the French side. In order to form a barrier against
the approach of the English to the St. Lawrence, the Mission
of La Presentation, at the mouth of the Oswegatchie River,
was formed. There in his fortified bourgade — where were
gathered people from all the cantons — Father Paquet, half
soldier, half priest, ruled with a high sway. The efforts of the
French to win over the Iroquois in a body were counteracted
by William Johnson. In his wild youth he fell into trouble,
and from Ireland crossed over to America. He settled on the
Mc»hawk River. He studied the language and the character of
the Indians. By his honourable dealings, by the respect he

^ Capot, a militaiy frock-coat,

GEORGE WASHINGTON.

193

paid to their customs aud their prejudices, he acquired a won-
derful ascendency over the Lowe.' Iroquois. He married
Molly Brant, the sister of a Mohawk chief, and ruled like
a potentate. The British Government had made him Super-
intendent of Indian affairs.

16. The French sought to defend their extensive frontiers by
a system of connected forts, and grew bolder and bolder in
their encroachments. Some men of capital in London and
Virginia formed " The Ohio Company," and purchased a lai'ge
tract of land within the " debatiible territory." They com-
menced to build a post at the junction of the Monongahela and
Alleghany Rivers.^ Ere the work was well finished, M. Con-
trecour. Commandant of Venango Fort, with an overpowering
force drove out the garrison, aud, completing it, named it Fort
du Quesne, in honour of the Governor-General. Governor
Dinwiddle of Virginia despatched a body of militia

to demand restitution of the place, and to warn Con- 1754
trecour against persisting in seizing English traders and a.d.
disturbing the operations of the Ohio Company. George
Washington^ (who afterwards became famous for great
actions), on the sudden death of his superior officer, assumed
the command. Contrecour, hearing of his approach to Fort
(lu Quesne, sent M. Jumonville, with thirty-three soldiers, to
warn him against trespassing on French soil. Washington,
then in his hot youth and burning for action, on being apprised
of the approach of the party, at once assumed that its intent
was hostile. Guided by a friendly Indian, he, with forty men,
marched through the dark of a rainy night in May, and at
break of day surprised the Frenchmen as they lay encamped in a
secluded valley. One account says that he fell upon them Avith-
out warning ; another, that he ordered his men to fire whil ^ the
French officer was reading a formal protest against his trespass.
However it came about, Jumonville and others were shot dead,
ar.d the rest taken prisoners.

17. "Washington then encamped on the Little Meadows. His

'*>£

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,1-1

' The Monongahela and Alleghany
Rivers. — At the junction of these two
tributaries of the Ohio now stands
Pittsburg (in the west of Pennsylvania).

1478}

* George Washington. — Afterwards
first President of the United States ;
he was then in his twenty-second year.
Born 1732, died 1799.

lrl|

194

FORT NECKSStTY.

lueu threw up a line of intrenchinents which he named Fort
Necessity. There, with four hunch'ud militia, he held his gro ind
for over a month. M. Villars, with one thousand troops, ad-
vanced from Fort du Quesne to drive him off. The French,
though mucli superior in numbers, did not attempt to storm the
rude work, but surrounded the Virginians, and kept up a
galling fire from behind trees and bushes. Owing to the heavy
rains the trenches of Fort Necessity were filled with watoi-.
Washington surrendered the now untenable position on honour-
able terms. He knew not, when Villars read to him the ai-ticl'. s
of capitulation in French, that his attack on Jumonville was
termed " assassination." He did not understand the language.

Questions. — 1. What was the real
question at issue as regarded the North
American colonies?

2. What was the airn of France?
Why was its power in North America
not so strongly seated as that of Eng-
land? Wherein did the strength of
France lie ?

3. What plan did De la Galissonnifire
suggest for checking the westward prog-
ress of the English? By what device
did he assert the claim of Franco to
tho western territory?

4. In what other quarter did ha as-
sert French claims? To whom was the
question of disputed boundaries re-
ferred? What was the chief subject of
debate ? How long did the Commission
sit? What was the result ?

5. Wherein did De la Jonquifire differ
in character from his predecessor?
W^hat mal-practices did he encourage?
What did he neglect?

6. How did Bigot improve on his
master'", example ?

7. What led to Jonquifire's recall?
What proof of his penuriousness did
he give in his last hours ?

8. Wliat site was fixed on for the
new capital of Nova Scotia? What
inducements were held out to settlers?

9. When did the Gcvct'nor arrive?
How many persons accompanied him?
What name was given to the new city?

10. Where did the Governor and his

Council meet ? How did they deal wilh
the Acadlans?

11. How did the settlers work? What
progress had been made before the end
of autumn ?

12. In what 8t.tte did the French
keep the new seUlement? Whom did
they use as their instrument for this
purpose ? How was the Abb^ regarded
by the English, by the Bishop, and by the
Governor-General ? What did he per-
suade a number of the Acad'ans to do'

13. Where had the Abb6 his head-
quarters ? What means did Cornwalli.s
take to stop the traffic of the Acadians
with Louisburg? What was the fate
of Commandant How? Who wa.s
blamed for the dastardly deed?

14. How did Du Quesne act in an-
ticipation of an early rupture? How
were the habitans treated?

15. What effect had the rivalry of
the French and the English on tlie
Indians ? What barrier did the French
interpose between the English and the
St. Lawrence? By ••vhom were the
French schemes among the Iroquois
counteracted ? To what office had the
Government appointed Johnson?

16 What was the origii\ of Fort du
Quesne? Who were sent to deman<l
restitution of the fort ?

17. Where did Washington then en-
camp? How long did he hold out?
What compelled him to surrender?

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN.

195

CHAPTER XXI.

WAR DECLARED.

1755 to 1757 A.D.

The Mai "'lis ''.3 Vaudreuil-Cavagnac.
Capture of Fort BeausCjour.
Braddock at Monongahelu.
Battle of Lake George.
Kxpulsion of the Acadlans.

War declared.

Loudoun Commander-in-Chief.

Marquis de Montcalm.

Fort Oswego taken.

Massacre at Fort William-ITenry.

1. The colli sion in the vallej of the Ohio was the r*'^nalipr a
generaF conflict,* The' mbtlier countries were drifting

into hostilities : no actual procl?mn.t' i of war was 1754
made, however, for some time. In - ew of the inevi- A.D.
table c itest, the Deputies of the English Colonies held
a Convention at Albany, on the 14th of June, to consult on a
measure of general defence. This meeting was at first called
to iatify a treaty of peace with the Six Nations. In the case
of the famous league of the Iroquois, the English had seen
that union for a common purpose gave strength. It is said it
suggested the first idea of a confederation of the English
colonies. The celebrated Benjamin Franklin^ proposed a
scheme of union, which would have vesteiTHie power of de-
fence in a general government, and which would have enabled
tlie English colonies to use their superior power to advantage.
IJut through imperial and local jealousies it was frustrated.

2. France and England now sent out military reinforcements
to their colonies. The Marquis du Quesne, wishing to enter the
naval service, demanded his recall. At the prayer of the people
of Canada, who remembered his father's happy administra-
tion, the King appointed the Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnac.
The fleet bearing the new Governor-General and Baron Die-

' Benjamin Franklin. — Born 1706,
died 1790. In the struggle between
Great Britain and the colonies he took
an active part in the declaration of In-
dependence. He signed, on the part
of the United States, the treaty recog-

nizing their independence, in 1783.
From 1785 to 1788 he sat with Wash-
ington and Hamilton in tlie Federal
Convention whicli framed the Constitu-
tion of the United States. He also won
fame by his scientific i-esearches.

It' W

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196

FORT BEAUSEJCUR CAPTURED.

skau, with several veteran battalions, was met off the coast of
Newfoundland by an English squadron under Admiral Boa-
c^wen. But for a thick fog tha* baffled pui^uit, ^. de
Vaudreuil might never have reached Quebec.

?j. About the same time Gener al Bi:addock arrived in
America with the 44th and 48th Regiments, to cooperate witli

the New England forces. A meeting of the Colonial

1755 Governc)rs was held at Alexandria, and the resolution to

A.D. capture the^Forts DuQuesne, Fre deric qt Crown P oint,

Niagara, and Beaus^ur^ was a4opted. The possession
of those places would give the Euglish a hold on all the debat-
able territory.

4. On the 2nd of June a force of two thousand men, under
Colonel Moncton, arrived at the head of the Bay of Fundy.
They crossed the Missignash, and erected batteries within six
hundred yards of Beausdjour. M. Verger, the Governor, had
a garrison of one hundred and fifty soldiers ; and tAvelve him-
dreu Acadians from Chepody, Memramcook, Peticodiac, Bay
Verte, and Poiat de Bute, came at his call. Many of them
were " deserted inhabitants," who felt that they had been de-
ceived and mocked by De Loutre. The fort was small, confined,
and crowded. When the shells exploded, the Acadians were
stifled by the smoke ; when they saw several of their people
lying Head, they deserted. Verger did n'ot attempt to make a
vigor' s sally. One morning, as some French officers were
breals astiug with an English prisoner, a bomb-siiell burst
through the caseniate, killing some of the party and wounding
others. Before the day closed. Ver ger capitulated . De Loutre,
ruined .'^jid disgraced, fled to the St. John ; and Colonel Mono
ton and Captain John Winslow .^upped with the French officer
in Beaus6jour, which they named Fort Cumberland.

5. In the meantime, Major-General Braddock was wend-
ing his way through the wilderness to Fort du Quesne. In
temper Braddock was haughty, arrog ant, and unbending. He,
knew noT^l]^ j^TJS^iaiiHry," o^^^ mod£of w arfare pro per
to be pursue- 1 in^it ; and, wo^-st of all, he despise(i the counsel
of those wh(/ cuuJd have instructed him. There was discontent
among the colonial forces who followed him. The regulation of
the service, which gavs the oflSicers of the regular army superior

i^EATH OP GENERAL BRADDOCK.

197

nink over the officers of the militia of the same grade, excited
their jealousy, and spread among them a spirit of disaffection :
they felt they weie depreciated, that their legitimate ambition
was thwarted, and they soon exclaimed that they were sacri-
ficed by the glaring incapacity of the generals sent out to com-
mand them.

6. Braddock reached the Monongahela on the 9th of July.
He had pushed forward with twelve hundred men, leaving
Colonel Dunbar to follow with the rest of the troops and the
heavy luggage. He marched as if he were in the open coun-
try, with fife and drum and flying coloui*s. He recked not
that the Indian scouts might carry the news of his foolhardy
advance to the Governor of Du Quesne, nor dreamed that two
hundred French soldiers and a band of Indians were lurking
among the tall grass in the gloom of the woods through which
lie must pass. His advanced -guard marched through the
river to the inspiring strains of the " British Grenadier," and
})lunged into a defile. Suddenly from the dark ravine in front
there burst forth a VoUey of musketry, and the Indians
started up with a fierce yell, then sank again in the coverts.
The van fell back in terror upon the main body, which was
entering the defile, and threw it into confusion. In vain
Braddock stormed and raged, and endeavoured to re-form the
broken ranks of his soldiera ; in vain the officers exposed them-
selves with noble gallantry, and urged their men to charge and
clear the coveii: of the lurking foe. Braddock had five horses
killed under him, and at length fell mortally WOUnded. Fast
•hopped officers and men before the murderous fire ; utterly
demoralized, the soldiers broke into uncontrollable flight, and
rested not till they had reached Dunbar's camp, forty miles off.
Col onel Washin gton (who had behaved with great courage and
coolnegs) thre w himself with his Virgfn^'ans across t^ie Monon;^
gahela^an d checke d the__eriemy froni harasging^ t^i^ yfi ^ygfLfc^
The English lost sixty-three officers killed and wounded, and
six hundred men. Braddock, the headstrong, as he lay dying,
was heard to mutter, " We shall know better how to deal
with them another time." I e did not live to profit by his
experience.
7. This disastrous defeat spread dismay throughout the English

!ii

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1

198

IJATTLE OF LAKE GEORGE.

colonies. The expedition against Fort Niagara was abandoned.
By the influence of William Johnson alone, the Six Nations
were prevented from deserting in a body to the French. With

five thousand hardy back-
woodsmen he advanced to
attack Crown Point. Leav-
ing a garrison at Fort
Edward, he made his way
to the southern extremity
of Lake George.^ While
there encamped, his scouts
brought intelligence that
Baron Dieskau, with two
thousand men, was advanc-
ing to attack Fort Edward.
He sent one thousand men
to check the French-Dutch
General ; but they fell into
an ambuscade, and were
cut up with great slaughter.
Dieskau, avoiding Fort
Edward, now hastened to
surprise Johnson. But that
General, though he had
never fought a battle, had
chosen his ground well.
Morasses covered his right
and left flanks, his centre
was protected by a barri-
cade of felled trees, and he had two or three guns in battery.
The French force was so disposed that the Canadians and
Indians were placed on the flanks and the regulars in the
centre. The flank skirmishers would not advance across the
morass in face of the artillery fire. For a time the veterau
soldiers stood in line and fired unavailing volleys. They were
mowed down as they advanced to charge the barricade, aud
the few survivors fled. Dieskau was found alone, leaning,

' Lake George. — Previously called I George in 1765, in honour of the Eng-
Lac Sacrament. It was called Lake | lish King.

LAKE CHAMPLAIN.

EXPULSION OF THE ACADIANS.

190

wuimded, against the stump of a tree. In the Battle^of Liike
George tlie French lost six hundred men. On the scene of
the victory Johnson erected Fort William-Henry. In reward
for his services the King created him a baronet. The drooping
spirits of the English colonists revived ; but they did not
follow up their success.

8. When the alarm over the bloody defeat of Monongahela
was at its height, Governor Lawrence of Nova Scotia was con-
templating a ^tern ^measure. That disaster decided him. The
Acadians, buoyed up with the hope that their loved Acadie
would be restored to France, still persisted in refusing to take
the unreserved oath of allegiance to King George. As a body,
they maintained their position of neutrality ; but they were
doomed to suffer for the sins of those who gave open aid to the
French. Their joy over Braddock's defeat was lively ; they
could not help crying out, " Vive la France ;" it was naturtil.
They were an amiable people, but by no means good British
subjects.

9. Governor Lawrence summoned their deputies to appear
at Halifax, and commanded them to take the absolute oath.
On refusing, they were warned of the very serious conse-
quences, and put in prison to give them time for cool reflection.
Still they refused, and were not allowed another opportunity.
The final resolution t o remove the Aca diana^was taken

on the 28th July. At the meeting of Council were 1755
present A jmiral B oscawen and Savagg-^Mostyn. The a.d.
measure was carried ouT^ itTTalJ secrecy and despatch.
A numbei of transports were collected in the harbour of
Boston ; Lawrence -ffini te circular-letters to the Gpvernors of
the Colonies^J[ro m_Maine to Georgia, stating the necessity of
the step, a^d requiring them to detain the people that would
be scut to them.

10. The deputies returned home, not dreaming of **le grand
derangement " — " the great trouble " — about to befall their
people. Kot until ships appeared in the Bay of Fundy, and
entered the Basin of Annapolis, and were moored off the mouths
of the rivers Canard and Gaspereau, was suspicion excited. Then
many fled into the woods ; then commenced harrowing devasta-
tions. In the beginning of September, the prosperous village of

u$k

'ita

.■: -

M 1
1 ■

200 ^ THE SEVEN years' WAR.

Beaupre, on the Basin of Minas, rested in autumnal repose.
The liarvest was gathered in, and the barns were full to burst-
ing. On the 5th, all the male inhabitants assembled in the
chapel to hear a mandate from the Governor at Halifax. In
firm and feeling words, Colonel John Winslow, standing at the
altar, announced the stem decree, that their property was con-
fiscated to the King, and that the ships in the bay were ready to
bear themselves, their wives, and their families away to distant
shores. Kesistance was useless ; the men were caged as in a
prison, and armed soldiers stood on guard outside. With only
their money, and such articles of furniture as the vessels could
carry, they were forced on board. With wonderful patience the
unfortunate people endured the spoiling of their households and
their cruel banishment. In Chignecto, and at Peticodiac, and
Memramcook, the habitans resisted the English party, and
woful scenes followed : houses, b.'i ns, chapels, were given to
the flames ; men, women, and child, n fled into the woods, —
there some burrowed, others found their way to Miramichi, to
Shipi^egan, to the Nepisiguit, to Quebec, where they were
shamefully treated by Bigot and his creature Cadet.
A 11- Three thousand of the Acadians were distributed
/ among the English colonies. For reasons alike of policy and
/ of humanity. Governor Lawrence's act was injudicious and
\ harsh. It did not accomplish the object of giving security to
I the Province, — if that alone was his object, — for many found
I their way back, and, along with the Indians, sorely harassed
I the English settlers during the war ; and it was so contrary to
f natural feeling, that it aroused a sympathy that altogether
\ overlooked the provocation that the Acadians had really
given.

12. War was formally declared by the British Government

on the 27th of March. France made a counter declara-

1756 tion in May. The great contest, known as " the Seven

A.D. Years' War," now commenced in Europe. Frajice,

Austrja^jim l Bussij JbiaDded thjeir selves agajnst Prussia^^

Supplied with the sinew»»of war By England, Frederick entered

into the contest from which he was to emerge with the title of

" the Great." England encountered France on the high seas,

and in India ; but America waatneir chief^ battle-ground.

THE MARQUIS DE MONTCALM.

201

13. Little energy was displayed on the side of the British
ill carrying on the war. At the head of affairs was the Duke
of Newcastle,^ notorious for his mingled vacillation ?.id pre-
sumption. His spirit seemed to infect all operations. Under
his administration men of talent and energy had no scope for
action. Political favourites, however incapable, were preferred
to ])oaitions of the highest responsibility at the most critical
jjeriods. The resuh was disaster and disgi'ace. Thejaid of
Loudoun, a competent civil administrator, but of no militiiry
capacTty, was sent out as Commander-in-chief. In advance of
him arrived M ajor-General Abercrombie, with the 42nd High-
landers — the fani ous Black Wak ih — and the 35th Regiment.

14. The French King, although his resources were strained
by the war in Europe, sent out considerable reinforcements,
and several experienced officers, — Louis St. Veran, Marquis de
Montcalm/'^ General de Levi, and their aides-de-camp, M. de
Bouganville ^ and M. de Bourlamaque. Montcalm^ skilled in
all theajt^-jofjffai^lmdL^cqQi^ reputation in Italy, Bohemia,
aiid^Ciergj^ny. His mind was cultiv^ated, his manner was re-
fined and courteous. But he was haughty and impetuous ; he
could brook no interference with his plans, and he was sometimes
hurried into actions at variance with his judgment and humanity.

15. The necessity of employing the Indians infused a savage
cruelty into the warfare, which cast a stain on the fair fame of
the French General. Terrible deeds were committed by the
Indians in the open campaign ; but the worst aspects of the
war were seen in the skirmishing on the frontiers of Pennsyl-
vania,^^ew York, and the New England colonies, — in the mid-
night surprises of lonely settlements, — in wholesale householdl
slaughters of old men, women, and tender babes, — in scalpings,/

'3'

Umi

' The Duke of Newcastle. — Thomas
Pelham, Duke of Newcastle, became
Premier on the death of his brother,
Henry Pelham, in 1754. He resigned
in November 1766. The King was then
compelled, much against his will, to
send for Pitt (afterwards Earl of Chat-
ham). He an! the Duke of Devon-
s'lire held office till April 1757. New-
castle was then recalled, but he was
unable to form a Ministry without

Pitt's assistance. The Newcastle-Pitt
Administration (of which Pitt was the
real head) lasted from June 1757 till
May 1762.

^ Montcalm. — Born 1712 ; died at
Quebec, 1759.

' Bouganville. — Afterwards celebrated
as a circumnavigator. He was the first
Frenchman that ever made a voyage
round the world. This he accomplished
in the years 1766-1769.

202

FORT OSWEGO TAKEN.

burnings at the stake, and atrociois tortures. The sight of
the mangled victims aroused in the breasts of the white men
a maddening desire to wreak vengeance on the red demons.

16. At the opening of the year the English Governors mer
in New York, and concocted a grand plan of campaign. The
forts at Crown Point, Niagara, Du Quesne, were to be captured ;
and ven thousand men, ascending by the Kennebec and
Chaudiere Rivers, were to threaten Quebec. Months p^issed
away and nothing decisive was done. Individual officers, witli
small parties, performed gallant actions ; but the Commander-
in-chief seemed to have no determined purpose.

17. The French were very active and enterprising. OswegO,
the English naval dep6t on Lake Ontario, was their special
object of attack. There were two forts on opposite banks of
the river. Twice in the course of the year they were threatened.
In August, Montcalm advanced in earnest with five thousand
men and a numerous train of aitillery. He opened fire at
midnight on Fort Ontario, and soon compelled Colonel Mercer
and his garrison to evacuate it, and cross over to Little Oswego
Fort. From the captured post Montcalm directed a hot, con-
tinuous shower of balls and shells upon it. Mercer was killed,
and the dispirited garrison capitulated. Fourteen hundred
prisoners and an immense quantity of stores of all kinds, and
many sloops and bateaux, fell into the hands of the French. After
causing the forts to be razed to the ground, Montcalm moved
with his force to Lake Champlain, and advancing eight miles
beyond Crown Point, established himself in the fort on the
rocky height of Ticonderoga. By this action the English were
cut off from commiiTiication with the western lakes, and the
gate of Canada was closed against them. The attack on Crown
Point was abandoned ; and the English Commander concen-
trated the chief part of his forces at Forts Edward and William-
Henry.

18. /The following year the Earl of Loudoun confined the
V operations of the campaign to an attack upon Louis

1757 'burg, leaving Montcalm at liberty to assault the forts!

A.D. j on Lake George and the Hudson, and to threaten

^ Albany and New York. A fleet of fourteen great

ships of war, under Admiral Holborne, bearing seven veteran

THE MASS ACHE OF FORT WILLIAM-HENRY.

203

regiments, appeared in Halifax liarboiir. Much time waii lost
iu playing at war, iu reviews aua snam rights. Troops were
at leugth embarked for the e^iterprise ; but the Earl, hearing
that the 1 :>rtress was defended by aix thousand soldiers, and that
seventeen line-of-battle ships rode in the harbour, ordered them
to land dgain. The English fleet cruised all summer between
Halifax and lionisburg. Encountering a storm that wrecked
one of his finest vessels, and drove others, dismasted, to seek the
nearest ports, Holborne with the remainder sailed for England.
19. While Loudoun was fooling away his time in Halifax over
sham-fights. New York and the English colonies were thrown
into a state of alarm. Montcalm, with nine thousand men and
siege-batteries, advanced from Ticonderoga and invested Fort
WiUiam-Henry. With two thousand five hundred men, and
inefficient guns. Colonel Mnnro held the post. " I will defend
my trnst to the last extremity," said the brave veteran, when
summoned to surrender. At Fort Edward, Colonel Webb, with
four thousand soldiers, remained inactive. Though earnestly
entreated, he refused to attempt to succour his beleaguered
brother-iu-arms. Hundreds of Indians swarmed about the
French camp, prowled around the fort, and cut oflf the English
foraging parties. The heights surrounding the pure waters of
" Holy Lake " reverberated the thunder of Montcalm's cannon.
For six days he poured in a shower of shot and sliell. Having
fired away all his ammunition, and finding his position unten-
able, Munro capitulated on honourable terms. He stipulated
for an escort of French soldiers to conduct his force as far as
Fort Edward, — many of his soldiei-s, unaccustomed to wilder-
ness war, had a tenor of the red men. The temper of the
Indians, balked of blood and plunder, was dangerous. As
Munro with two thousand men, and the camp -following v'
women and children, were filing through the woods, a thou-
sand infuriated savages burst upon them. The fiends spared
iiuither the tender babe nor the distracted mother : they pulled
the soldiers out of the ranks by the skirts of their long great-
coats, and despatched them with their tomahawks. There was
a horrid clamour of shrieks and yells, and blood flowed like
water in the path of the destroyers. The suddenness of the
attack paralyzed the troops, and deprived brave men of their

111

'Aim

i If

I'!

204

MONTCALM RETIRES.

I;';

li ■

accratomed self-command. Too late to save hia honour from
stain. Montcalm appeared to c<'>.iin the fnry of hip allies.
Satiate^, with blood, they fell to plunder. Twelve hundred
British soldiers, ic is said, were slai'ghtered or carried off as
prisoners. The massacre of Fort WiUiam-Eenry aroused ia
the English colonies a feeling of rage and revengeful fury. In
England it created intense horror and indignation. It rested
in the memory and stung the heart of the British soldiers, and
it left with the French an uneasy sense of responsibility.

20. Montcalm was deterred from marching upon Fort Ed-
ward by ii sudden display of s])irit on the part of Webb, who
rallied to his aid the hardy militiamen of Massachusetts and
Connecticut. He returned with gi-eat spoils to Ticcnderoga.

QuEHTiOMS. — 1. What vras the pur-
pose of the Albany Convention? What
scheme did Franklin then propose ?

2. Why did Du Quesne demand his
recall? Who was his successor? By
whose desire was he chosen ? What
narrow escape did he make ?

3 What English General arrived in
America about the same time .' What
plan of action was adopted ?

4. Describe how Fort Beausgjour be-
came Fort Cumberland.

5. Where, meantime, wasBraddock?
What was the cause of the discontent
among his followers ?

6. How did Braddock advance? How
was his advance checked ? What was
the English loss ?

7. What effects had this defeat? Who
headed the expedition against Crown
Point ? What befell the body he sent
to check Dieskau? Describe the Battle
of Lake George. How was Johnson
rewarded ?

8. What hope animated the Acadians?
How did they receive the news of the
Monongahela disaster ?

9. What were the Acadian deputies
at Halifax required to do? To what
final resolution did their refusal lead ?
How was the measure carried out ?

10. Describe the scene in the village
of Beaupr^. What occurred in those

places in which the Acadians offered
resistance?

11. liow many of the Acadians were
distributed among the English colonies?
Why was this measure a failure?

12. What war began in 176G ? Who
were engaged in it? Where was the
chief battle-ground ?

13. Who was at the head of affairs in
England? Who was appointed Com-
mander in-chief in America?

14. Who was the chief officer sent
out by the Frfci»ch King? What was
his disposition ?

15. What introduced a feature of
savage cruelty into the warfare ?

16 Where did the English Governors
meet? What plan did they concoct?

17. Describe the capture of Oswego.
What was Montcalm's next move-
ment? What part of their plans did
the English then abandon? Where did
they concentrate most of their forces?

18. How did Loudoun show his in-
capacity ? What was the result of the
Louisburg expedition ?

19. What fort did Montcalm next
attack ? What was the result ? What
terrible tragedy followed ? What feel-
ings did it engender in the English, and
in the French ?

20. What checked the further ad-
vance of Montcalm ?

CONr'IDENCfi BEVIVINO.

206

CHAPTEE XXII.

THE CONaUEST.

1768 to 1760 A.D.

Internal state of Canada.
William Pitt.
Louisburg captured.
The Island of St. John.
Ticonderoga.
The last struggle.
Bourlamaque bars the gate.

Fort Niagara taken.

Wolfe before Quebec.

Battle of the Plains.

Surrender of Quebec.

Battle of Ste. Foye.

M. de Levi's blockade raised.

End of French Rule in Canada.

1. During the campaignofJ757J.he_^^
in the ascendant ; tliat of England was obscured by clouds.
Tlie conduct of the war in Europe and America had covered
the Newcastle Ministry with disgrace. The temper of the
people was gloomy and savage. Pamphlets prophesying the
decadence of British power were read with a morbid satisfac-
tion. For committing an error of judgment in not attempting
the relief of Minorca when besieged by the French, Admiral
Byngjpras made the scape-goat of an incapable Ministry, — was
tried by court-martial, and sentenced to die. So great was the
popular fury, that though Pitt, who in the meantime had come
to power, pleaded urgently for the unfortunate Admiral, he was
shot on the deck of the Monarque^ March 14, 1757. The re-
turn of Admiral Holborne, with his shattered fleet, without
attempting the reduction of Louisburg, filled the cup o ! popular
discontent to overflowing. William Pitt,^ the great Com-
moner, who proudly boasted that he alone could save England,
was calledrio'the head of affairs, June 29, 1757. Tlie influence
of hTs far-seeing, daring, and patriotic spirit was soon felt. Con-
fidence began to revive.

^ WilUam Pitt. —Born 1708, died 1778.
He entered Parliament before he was
twenty-one years of age, and soon took
the lead against Sir Robert Walpole.
He was made Earl of Chatham in 1766,
and thus sacrificed the popularity he
had enjoyed as " The great Commoner."

While he maintninef' the abstract right
of Parliament to tax the colonies, he
opposed the American War ; but when
peace was proposed on the basis of th(j
independence of the States, he wai
equally opposed to the dismemberment
of the empire. *

:;iR;

r 1

- IS
HI*!*

ills

4...,.

200 INTERNAL STATE OP CANADA.

2. While the arms of France were victorious iu Canada, Mont-
calm knew but too well that the colony had little intrinsic
strength. It was a mere skeleton. Its places of defence were
far distant from one another ; and when these were captured, the
French had nothing to fali back upon. The vast western re-
gion and the v.alley of the Ohio were held by two key-fortreaaes ;
but if they should be taken the country would be conquered. Tl\g
i nteriia l affairs of Canada were in a ruinous condition . Symp-
toms were manifest in society that were portents of some great
public calamity. Political corruption and private immorality
were rampant. The Head of the Church castigated the sins of
the times — the reckless gambling and debauchery. The ex-
tremes of licentious luxuriousness and squalid misery existed
side by side.

3. The people had looked with hope to the Governor-Gene. .1
for relief from the grinding monopoly of the Fur Company,
and from the iniquitous exactions of the officials. M. de
Vaudreuil had cruelly disappointed them. Though not charge-
able with gross corruption himself, he seemed in their eyes to
be an accomplice of those who were, inasmuch as he did not
punish or oppose them. |They murmured loudly against him.
Canada was in the clutches of the Intendant and his creatures./

/The rapcociuy of Bigot was shameless, and almost incredible.
He seized on the supplies sent from France to the colony, and
sold them at exorbi'v:int prices for his own profit. His subor-
dinates at the distant trading-posts acted in the riame manner

with the goods consigned to them. Owing to the oc-

1758 currence of bad harvests, there was at this time

A.D. scarcity and dire distress among the people. Yet Bigot

compelled them to bring their grain to his granaries,
and to sell it at his own prices. He exported great quantities
of it to the West Indies, realizing large sums by the iniquitous
transaction. When Quebec and Montreal were pinched by
scarc'ty of bread, he relieved them by forcing the farmers to
bring all their stock to market, and to sell it at a low i-ate.
f He laid the train that exploded in financial ruin, by issuing
sheaves of paper money under his own signature, made
payable on the Eoyal Treasury of France. \ These notes be-
came depreciated, and were eventually repudiated. iThe

WILLIAM PITT.

207

enemies of Canada within were as much to be feared as thoae
without.!

4. There could be no doubt aa to the issue of the long-pro-
tracted contest between the English and the French in America,
when William Pitt was at the head of affairs in England,
when his mind had grasped the determined purpose of destroy-
ing the power of France in America, when in his lavish hands
were the immense resources of England, and when he was free
to choose the most efficient officers in her service to aid him in
carrying out his design. Animated by the assurance that the
British Government would back their efforts to the last man
and the last shilling, and welcoming with joy the prospect of
the decisive conflict, the English coh^nies raised a large force
of militia, and gathered together immense stores of war ma-
terial. (Pitt projected a bold plan of campaign : — to reduce
Louisbnrg, and so deprive France of b^r only harbour on the
Atlantic ; to take Fort du Quesne, and gain a hold on the val-
ley of the Ohio ; to capture Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and
so open up the way to Montreal, and prevent all hostile incur-
sions from Canada against New York.*) The military command
of the expedition against Louisburg was given to Colonel Jeffrey
Amherst,^ a judicious, brave, and energetic officer ; and under
him to Colonel James Wolfe,^ who, though young in years and
frail in body, possessed an unconquerable spirit.

5. After the siege of Louisburg in 1745, the fortifications had
been allowed to fall into decay. Stones from the ramparts had
fallen into the ditches ; many of the carriages of the cannon
were so rotten that they could not bear the shock of discharge.
Repairs had been hurriedly made when M. Drucour, the
Governor, heard of the intended attack. (^But he trusted more
to the bravery of his garrison than to the strength of his works.^
He had 3,500 soldiers, militia, and Indians. Five line-of -battle
ships rode in the harbour. Three of his five frigates were sunk
at its mouth; a strong battery on Goat Island further pro-
tected it.

I i

'If'

' Jeffrey Ainherst. — Afterwards Lord
Amherst ; born 1717, died 1797.

'^ James IFo?/e.— Born 1726, died 17.')9.
Pitt S3lected him for the command in

Canada, though still comparatively a
young man, because of hi ; distinguish 6<1
services in the campaign is on the Conti-
nent of Europe.

208 LOUISBURCJ CAPTUHED.

6. Early in June a powerful fleet, under Admiral jioscawen,

carrying l .^jQO British troops, arrived in Gabarus Bay/

Jane, and lay heaving at anchor enshrouded in thick fog. The

1758 wild waves rolled in from the open sea, and broke iu

JlD. angry surf upon the precipitous coasts, rihe appalling

prospect caused even the officers who hau been specially
selected to do a bold deed to redeem England's honour, to hesi-
tate. \ The angry state of the water forced them to remain in-
active for days, and to look on while the French busily fortified
those places on the coast where landing was practicable. At
dawn on the 8th, word was given that the attempt might
be made. The British force, in three divisions, was rowed
through the swell of the waves to difterent points. Many of
the boats were swamped in the surf, and shattered agaiust
rocks. vWolfe, on the left, with his Grenadiers and High-
landers, landed in face of a rattling fire fro.n the French above
at Cormaron Creek, scaled the rugged path, and seized the
opposing batteries!^ The landing made, the French retreated
hastily to Louibburg. M. Drucour commanded the outside bat-
teries to be abandoned, and concentrated all his forces to defend
the town.

7. The weather continued stormy, the wind blew furiously,
the rain fell heavily. The danger in carrying siege material
from the ships to the coast was great, the difficulty of hauling
it over the marshes enormous. Wolfe, with 2,000 men, march-
ing north and east around the harbour, erected a battery on
Light-house Point ; and Whitmore and Lawreuoj pushed their
trenches closer and closer to the western ramparts. Boscawen,
pouring shell and red-hot shot into the harbour, burned three
of the great ships to the water's edge ; a party of sailors and
marines, dashing in in open boats, destroyed a fourth, and
towed out the fifth in triumph. Surrounded by a fire that con-
tinued to grow closer and hotter, (Nl. Drucour, after a gallant
resistance of seven weeks, surrendered at discretion \on the
26th of July. I The inhabitants were conveyed to France; the
garrison, with the sailors and marines, numbering 5,637 men,
were sent prisoners of war to England. VCape Bretor came

* Oaharua Bay. — See Map, p. 182.

THK ISLAND OF ST. .1011 N.

209

perniaiiouUy into the j)osaesaiou of tlic Crovvu of Eugland. I Two
yeara afterwards the fortifications of Loiiisbiirg were razed to
the ground; — not one atone of that fonni(hible alronghold, that
had cost two powers ho much trejiaure to build and to destroy,
was left standing upon another. Its destruction, haj)pily, ended
tlie era of war between France and Enghmd in America.

8. Along wit' Cape Breton, the Island of St. John fell into
the hands of t English. Tlie inhabitantij then numbered
4,100. They raised corn and horned cattle, for which they
found a market in Quebec. After the fall of Louisburg, a j)art
of Boscaweu's fleet, carrying Wolfe and his Grenadiers, ravaged
the coasts of the Gulf and Kiver St. Lawrence, from Miramichi
to Chaleur Bay, from Gasjx) to Mount Levi. A number of
the unfortunate Acadians, who had fled fr(jm Nova Scotia,
(h)ouied to ouffer on all hands, had to fly from their desolated
farms into the woods. {The spirit of the war was remorselosa. ^

9. The triumj)!! at Louisburg wfus overclouded by a dreadful
disaster. At Albany, in June, an army of 5,000 men assem-
bled, under command cf General Abercrombie. Over a thou-
sand bateaux bore them to the narrows between Lakes Cham-
plain and George. Montcalm, at Ticonderoga, had early tidings
of their approach. With his choicest troops — the Grenadiers —
he prepared to defend the breast-work at Carillon that covered
the fort on the rocky height. An embankment of earth, eight
feet high, sloped gradually tiow n for a liimdred feet ; trees were
era ^dded in it, with their sharpened branches pointed out-
wards; a dreary swamp spread out before it. The country all
around was covered with a close and thick wood, with tangling
brush and underwood. A reconnoitring party under Bour-
lamaque advanced from Carillon, but fell back on the approach
of the English. A company lost their way, and becoming be-
wildered, turned about, and encountered a division of their foe,
who were also astray. A close and fiei-ce contest, face to face,
and behind tree, and stump, and prostrate trunk, took place.

(The French were routed and almost "annihilated.^

10. (The English were very gloomy over their victory ; lli'^ir
leader, Lord Howe, had fa^llen at the first discharge."*) This
young officer was much esteemed and beloved by the army,
and his death cast a gloom over it. Nothing went right

(473) 14

i'.m

m I-

hv"

I'^v m

S''

ni&f.

m f^

210

THE BREAST-WORK OF CARILLON.

after it. Disorder spread through the ranks. The soldiers
had no coafidence in their General, who seemed to be bewil-
dered, and to have no definite plan of action in his head. With-
out knowing the strength of tlie position, without waiting for
his artillery, he ordered an attack on the breast- work of Caril-
lon. For hours, beneath a burning sun, the 55th and 42ud
charged that impenetrable barrier. Scores upon scores of the
devoted men were shot dead, or were staked upon the pointed
branches. The impetuous and agile Highlanders tried to clam-
ber over the barricades, and hacked furiously at them with
their broadswords. In a different part of the field one regiment
fired by mistake into another, killing some of their brothers-in-
arms, and wounding many others. A panic spread throughout
the army. The blood of hundreds of men reddened i' he pools of
the oozy swamps ; the bravest had pierced their hearts upon the
stakes in vain. Sheltered, and almost unseen, the French met
each assault with a withering fire. The soldiers, throwing
aw^ay their arms, broke into uncontrollable flight, and made for
the landing-place. But for the coolness of Colonel Bradstreet,
who checked them by the levelled muskets ,of a few men that
retained their coolness, hundreds, in scrambling into the boats,
might have perished in the lakes, f^early two thousand men
fell dead or wounded in the disastrous attack on Cari"on.9iBy
it Abtrcrombie lost his command and his character as a soldier.l

11. The dis.f^race of the repulse before Ticonderoga was, from
a military point of view, atoned for by the taking of the fort at

c Cataracoui by Colonel Bradstroet in August, and of Fort du
Quesne^\by Colonel Forbes in Novembei\ The capture of these
two important posts gave the English a hold of the valley of
the Ohio, and closed against the French the eastern pass to Lake
Ontario.

12. The death-struggle was now approaching. M. de Vau-
dreuil despatched M. de Bouganville to make representations
at the Court of France as to the perilous condition of the colony,
and urgently to crave aid. But the King, pressed by the re-
quirements of the war in Europe, was unable to send reinforce-
ments to Canada. *VWhen," said M. Berryer, his Minister, " the

Fort du Quesne. — Then named

" Fort Pitt," In honour of the English Pittsburg,

Minister. It formed the nucleus of

THE TRIPLE INVASION.

211

liouse is on fire, one does not mind the stables." " That," re-
torted Bouganviile sharply, " will not prevent people from say-
ing that you speak like an ass." | He returned to Quebec with
Btars, decorations, and brevets of promotion for the officers, — but
with neither men nor money. All that the King desired was
to maintain a foothold in the country. His officers were thrown
upon the defensive, and endeavoured to make the best of the
means at their disposal. M. de Vaudreuil issued a spirited proc-
lamation, calling on the militia to bestir themselves, and make
a bold stand against the foe, whose purpose to conquer Canada
was now declared. But there was sere distress in the country,
and among the people chere wa.s little martial enthusiasm.
Though the names of 11,000 men capable of bewaring arms were
on the muster-rolls, they were much dispirited and miserably
equipped. The chief defence of Canada was in the ten skele-
ton regiments of French veterans, in the skill and energy of the
commanding officers, and in the strength of the fortifications at
Niagara, Quebec, and Montreal, which were the points now
threatened.

13. Great preparations were made for what the English
Minister sanguinely hoped would be the final campaign. The
Governments of the colonies were incited to fresh efforts

to raise an adequate force. In the month of June, 1759
three armaments were in movement against different a.d.
points. ^ General Amherst, Commander-in-oh'>f, ad-
vanced from Albany with 1,100 men against Montreal ;\Gcneral
James Wolfe, with 8,000 soldiers, sailed with a great fleet, under
Admirals Saunders and Holmes, from Louisburg for Quebec ;\
^while Brigadier Prideaux and Sir William Johnson, with two
British regiments, a force of militia, and a crowd of Indians, in
bateaux and canoes, made their way through the difficult
country between the Schenectady and the shores of Lake Onta-
rio, to attack Fort Niagara. "^It was intended, by the plan of
campaign, that Amherst and Prideaux, after the reduction of
Montreal and Niagara, should advance towards Quebec to co-
operate with Wolfe in the reduction of that fortress, in which
Montcalm had concentrated the chief forces of the colony.

14. M. Bourlamaque was instructed to stay the advance of
the English against Montreal. He mined the works at Ticou-

lii

•i ■

019

ROURLAMAQUK BARS TTIE GATE.

(lei'(>g;a, ami retreated to Crown Point. Wlieii General Am-
herst's advanced-guard waa on the point of entering the fort,
a tremendous explosioD was heard. While the ruins were still
liot and smoking, an intrepid sergeant ventured in, and clam-
bering up the height, unfurled the red-cross banner. ( Bour-
lamaque, evacuating Crown Point, took up his position at the
Isle aux Noix, at the northern extremity of Lake Champlain.
There he was determined to make his stand, and bar the gate
of Canada. ^ Amherst took possession of the rich country the
French had abandoned. He moved forward with great cau-
tion ; but he was checked in his advance from Crown Point.
Four French armed vessels scoured the lake, and his foro
could not traverse its length in open bateaux unless protected
by a squadron fit to cope with them, precious weeks were
spent in rigging rafts, in building and equipping tugs and
sloops. Ji It was the 11th of October before the vessels were
launched. Chill, cloudy, and boisterous weather set in. /"When
all danger from the French fleet was overcome, a succession of
storms prevented General Amherst from venturiiig to trust his
open bateaux on the tumultuous billows of the lake. So he
made his winter quarters at Crown Point. '^

15. Fort Niagara^ was invested closely. On the 19th of July
Brigadier Prideaux had pushed forward his trenches a hundred
yards from the covered way. Before the heavy continuous
fire the shattered ramparts crumbled away. As he was stand-
ing in the trenches, he was killed by a splinter of a shell fired
from one of his own mortars. Sir William Johnson assumed
the command. The situation of the garrison was desperate.
One hope the stout Commandant, M. Pouchot, retained — that
the siege would be raised. From the forts of Venango,^ Pres-
qu'isle, Du Boeuf, and Detroit, 1,200 veterans and a great crowd
of Indians w re advancing swiftly to his aid. Leaving his pro-
vincials to guard the trenches and check Pouchot from sallying
out on his rear, Johnson advanced with his British infantry
and his Iroquois warriors to give them battle. Amid the boom
of the cannonade, the rattle of musketry, and the. mingled
clamour of the field, was heard the muffled roar of the mighty

' Fort Niagara. — See Map, p. 285. ^ Forts of Venango, d-c. — See Afap, p. 220.

WOLFE BEFORE Ql'-BEC.

213

Falls. From the woods the Indians rushed upon the red lines
with an astounding yell : swiftly they fled back again before
the steady fire of the cool British .soldiery, and vanished from
the fight. With loud shouts, throwing all their energy into one
impetuous charge, the French advanced, f nly to be driven back
in formless rout./ With their defeat, the country of the Great
Lakes passed away for ever from the dominion of France J
/On the 25th, Pouchot and his garrison marched out of Fort
Niagara, and laid down their arms on the banks of the lake.j
The fierce Iroquois looked on, but stirred not a hand to molest
them. Content with the victory, Johnson and his force rested
on t' * • armSc

1 . Volfe, before Quebec, looked, but looked in vain, for Am-
herst and Johnson. \ Safely the fleet had passed the diflicult
channel, "the traverse;" unharmed by sudden squall and
treacherous fire-raft, the ships rode at anchor in the basin, and
off' the west point of the Isle of Orleans. From his camp upon
the isle the young General surveyed the grand scene, and the
difficulties of his enterprise crowded on his mind, and for a
moment depressed him. On the right of the French line rose
the rugged fortress. Stretching from the Eiver St. Charles —
whose mouth was guarded by sunken ships and hulks bristling
with cannon — to ,ie Falls of Montmorency, there ran au irregu-
lar crest of land, fortified at all points.^ Behind these works, and
in the villages above, were gathered 1 2,000 men. Bands of savages
lurked in the woods. The shoaliness of the water on the Beau-
port shore, and the wide mud-flats, made landing on the face of
the coast all but impossible. ^ But Wolfe decided to land a force
upon the coast, attack the enemy behind his fortifications, and
bring on, if possible, a general engagement."^

17.* The English army was disposed in three divisions.
Brigadier Moncton, with four battalions, occupied Point Levi,
from which he had driven the French ; a brigade under Generals
Townsend and Murray occupied a camp on the west point of
the isle ; Wolfe was posted, with his Louisburg Grenadiers, on
the left bank of the Montmorency, close to the Falls, and at a
height overiooi<:ing the enemy's intrenchments. |

18. During the month of July the batteries from Point Levi
poured shot and shell into Quebec. The lower and upper towns

lit

A-

III
ill

m 4

WOT.FE BEFORE QDKtiEC.

( -

iii

f^'l'fmmut^

aiEOE OP QUEBEC.

were wra])ped iu flames, — hundreds of 'houses, churches, aud
public edifices were destroyed : the fortifications remained un-
harmed. / The position seemed impregnable. But within
Quebec the people lived in continual alarm : they fainted for
want of bread, and in their hearts all courage died out. 1' There
grew up estrangement between the (Governor-General and the
Commander. They disagreed over the plan of defence. ) /The
haughty Montcalm contemned the military skill of M. de Vau-
dreuil ; he deeply mistrusted the ability of the dispirited and
miserably armed militia to cope with the British soldiers ; he
would remain on the defensive, would not be drawn out of his
intrenchments to tight, but would hold on and wait until ap-
proaching winter should drive off the besiegers. |

19. Watchful eyes within his own army criticised the move-
ments of General Wolfe. The extreme favour shown him by
the great English Minister, in appointing him, over many of his
seniors in the service, to the command of so important an enter-
prise, excited jealousy. Much was expected of him ; increas-
ing anxiety and activity affected his feeble health. He spared
himself no fatigue, no danger. Passing under the guns of the

A D18ASTKR.

215

fortress, he ascended the river to find some point on the pre-
cipitous coast by which he might land ; but he returned unsuc-
cessful.

20. On the 31st of July Wolfe at length essayed to attack
Montcalm in his intrenchments. The soldiers detailed from
Moucton, Murray, and Townsend's brigades, waited in boats on
the north-western point of the Isle of Orleans for the word of com-
mand. Admiral Saunders in the Centurion iriga,te, Wolfe in one
of his transports, pushed in as far as possible to the shore. At
a preconcerted signal, the ships, the batteries from Point Levi,
and the height east of Montmorency, opened fire. The air was
sultry, and the lowering clouds thi »'atened a storm. The plat;e
of landing was a ford a little west of the Falls, defended by
a redoubt. Montcalm moved up ti ops from the west to the
east of the intrenchments where an attack was threatened. As
the English sailors swept the foremost boats to the shore, the
shot from the French batteries sank one or two ; the rest
grounded on a sunken ledge of rock. This ac ' Jlent produced
great confusion. By the energy of Wolfe they were rescued
from their dangerous position, and a safe j^assage through the
rocks to the ford was found. The thunder growled ominously,
<and rain fell in torrents, as theJLtJiuisburg Grenadiers and Boy al
Americans jumped ashore. Without waiting for the support of
the remamder of the force, they charged, irregularly and im-
petuously, the intrenchments on the crest of the rising ground ;
but they stumbled on the slope, now slippery from the wet.
In their ardour they had much under-estimated the strength of
the enemy's position. They fell fast before a galling fire, and
then they retreated. \ Over four hundred lay dead or wounded
ou the fatal slope. (^The General sternly rebuked the survivors
for their unsoldier-like conduct. *

21. \This disaster broke down the health of Wolfe. His
eager and ambitious spirit was housed in a sensitive, frail body.
For days he lay in burning fever on his bed. He knew that his
country expected much from him. He had been specially
chosen by Pitt to command, in the expectation that no danger
or difficulty would daunt him. As he tossed restlessly about,
the burden of his unaccomplished ta«k oppressed him sorely.
As if in sympathy with their beloved General, sickness broke out

I. k!i

i i

210

" THE PATHS OF GLOHV."

in the army. For a time the gloom of discourage rneut rested
upon it. \

22. When the fever began to leave him, Wolfe wrote to his
Generals requiring them to consult over future operations. The
obstacles to a successful attack by the Beauport shore were too
great. lAnother plan, suggested, it is said, by General Towns-
end, was adopted ; but it was kept a profound secret. V Health
returned to the army amid the bustle of preparation. \At the
end of August, Wolfe, now recovered, withdrew from his camp
on the left bank of the Montmorency, and concentrated his
forces at Point Levi.\ On the 12th of September his batteries
opened on Quebec, and Admiral Saunders anchored some of his
great ships within firing range of the Beauport shore. Mont-
calm could see the British sailors and marines entering the
boats, and he stood ready to repel another attack on his in-
trenchments. IHis army was now somewhat diminished in
numbers. \ A mutinous spirit breaking out among the militia,
I he hanged some " to encourage the others : "^ many he had been
compelled to send away to gather in the harvest. The reports
of the capture of Fort Niagara and of the movements of Am-
herst fiom Crown Point had disquieted him. M. de Levi was
then at Montreal with a large force ; and Bouganville, with
1,500 men, watched, above Cap Rouge, the movements of
Admiral Holmes and his fleet.

\23. While the cannon were thundering over the Beauport
shore, the English army marched by the southern bank of the
St. Lawrence eight miles above Quebec, to where the fleet was
stationed. Thrilled with the expectation of a great action, and
silently, the soldiers of the first division stepped into the boats.
Wolfe was in the foremost. The night was starry and still.
As the flotilla dropped softly down the tide, he relieved his ex-
citement by reciting Gray's Elegy ;^ adding, when he had
finished, " Now, gentlemen, X would rather have been the author
of that poem than take Quebec." He was soon to prove how
true it is that " the paths of glory lead but to the grave." On
the beach of a cove, three miles above the city, Wolfe and the
officers with him leaped. Fast as the boats arrived the soldiers

' Orny's Elegy. — ' ' Elegy written in
a Country Churchyard," one of the most

perfect poems in the English language ;
by Thoma? Gray ; born 1716, died 1771.

THE PLAINS OP ABRAHAM.

217

lauded aud formed in rank. All night the boats passed be-
tween the cove aud the fleet, which had now dropped down op-
j)osite it, bringing over the other divisions. A narrow path,
hidden by the boscage, ran tortuously from the beach up the
face of the precipitous rock. Swinging themselves up by the
branches, holding on by tufts of grass, the agile Highlanders
clambered to the top, aud captured a French guard. Wolfe
aud his whole army followed. When the gray dawn turned to
a burning red, streaked with glittering golden bars, 4,828 British
soldiers were falling into order of battle on the billowy and
bouldered Plains of Abraham. V

24. From the city an officer rode swiftly to Montcalm with
the startling intelligence that Quebec was threatened on the
west. Obeying only the impulse of his chivalrous spirit, he re-
solved to give battle to the daring foe. Loudly the reveilld
rang out, and roused his soldiers from their slumbers. Fast
they were hurried over the bridge of boats across the St. Charles,
and were formed for battle on a slope on the nortli-west of t)ie
fortress. In his precipitation Montcalm threw away the ad-
vantage that a superior artillery would have given him. He
had only two light field-pieces ; but his foe had only one. He
mustered 7,520 men under arms ; but hardly half of them were
proved soldiers. Wolfe had none but veterans imder his com-
mand. But his position was perilous : while a superior force
faced him, Bouganville was advancing from Cap Eouge to
attack him in the rear.

25. The French advanced with great show and bravery.
Strong parties of their skirmishers drove in upon the British main
lines, — the light infantry which were posted in front. Wolfe,
who was on foot near the centre of the battle, with the Louis-
burg Grenadiers, strode along the ranks and counselled his
soldiers not to fire until they saw the eyes of the foe. The
French skirmishers retired, and with loud shouts the army ad-
vanced in columns, Montcalm in the centre with the regiments
of Beam and Guienne. Before their sharp fire the British
soldiers fell fast. Wolfe was wounded in the wrist. When
within forty yards the red lines povtred forth one simultaneous
volley of musketry. It was decisive, — the militia fled. The
French columns, shattered and reeling, wavered. Wolfe gave

,3,

i' |i|

218

m:ATl! OP WOI.I'E.

the word to advance. As he led the way a shot struck him in
the body; wounded again, in the breast, he Staggered and
fell into the arms of a Grenadier officer, and was borne to the
rear. Montcalm aiid his officers strove in vain to re-form their
columns to withstand the charge of the British. Before their
advancing fire, and the rush of the Highlanders with their
keen clavmores, the French soldiers broke into irretrievable
flight, and sought safety under the cariDon of the ramparts.
Montcalm fell mortally wounded, and was borne through the
St. John's Gate into Quebec. "See, they run!" cried out the
Grenadier officer. — "Who run?" asked Wolfe. — "The enemy,
sir ; they give way everywhere." — " Now, God be praised ; — I
die happy."

26. When the battle was lost and won, Bouganville, too late,
appeared on the field. Before the firm front of the victorious
host he hastily retired. In the short and sharp conflict of "the
Plains " the English lost 55 killed and 607 wounded ; the French,
1,500 in all. Wolfe was dead. Generals MuiTay and Monc-
ton were severely wounded. General de Senezergues, the second
in the French command, was killed. Montcalm died on the
morning after the battle, consoled, as a soldier, by the fact that
the spotless flag of France still waved over Quebec.

27. On the first f-larm of the utter rout of the French army,
M. de Vaudreuil abandoned the line of fortifications on the
east, and fled with the militia to Jacques Cartier. On the 18th
of September M. de Eamezay received instructions from M. de
Levi and M. de Vandreuil to hold out to the last extremity, as
they were preparing to march to his relief. But it was too late,
—on that day the British army entered the capital of
Canada. After an existence of one hundred and fifty yeai-s, the
city of Cham plain passed away from the protection of France, and
the British standard was unfurled from the Castle of St. Louis.
Under the new rule the inhabitants remained in secure posses-
sion of their property and in the free exercise of their religion.

28. M. de Levi determined to strike one blow for the re-
capture of Quebec. By spring he had 10,000 men of
all arms under his command. On the 19th of April he
advanced to Silleri, and took post at the village of Ste.

Foye. The British army, wasted by disease and the suf-

1760

A.D.

■

ii 1

BATTLE OP STE. FOYE. 219

feriugs of a terribly severe winter, was reduced to a force of
3,000 effective men. General Murray marched out of Quebec,
and three miles from it came in sight of the advancing foe.
With rashness unaccountable he deserted his strong position on
tlie height, and dashed impetuously on the French in the
valley. Outnumbered, overpowered, surrounded, he was com-
pelled to force his way out and retreat hastily to the city. In
this second battle for Quebec, the fighting was more severe,
the loss was greater than in the first, made immortal by the
heroism of Wolfe and the chivalry of Montcalm.

29. The victorious French army sat down before Quebec to
besiege it. Trenches were opened, and cannon mounted. But
General Murray was not idle. He had now only 2,200 eff*ectiv9
men, and his hospitals were crowde(' with sick and wounded.
Every one who could do work went to it with a will. 'V\T^ien
M. de Levi opened fire from his batteries, Murray replied with
one hundred and thirty- cvro cannon from his ramparts. Both
Generals anxiously expected aid from their respective countries.
One day in May a war-ship appeared off Point Levi. There was
painful suspense in Quebec, for it might be the herald of a French
fleet. But when the Umon Jack was run up there was un-
controllable joy. Officers and men mounted the ramparts and
cheered lustily in face of the foe. After the appearance of the
English fleet M. de Levi hastily decamped, leaving guns, stores,
and ammunition behind him. He joined M. de Vaudreuil at
Montreal. All the effective force of the colony was called in. ''^' ^
There it was determined that the final Stand should be made.

30. During the summer and autumn three divisions of the
British army, from three different points, slowly but surely
converged on the city ; General Amherst and Sir "William John- ||
son descending from Oswego ; General Murray and Colonel |i
Carleton ascending from Quebec ; Colonel Haviland making his iij I
way by Lake Cham plain and the Eichelieu River. All met i !!|
within forty-eight hours of each other on the Island of Mon-
treal. On the 8th of September, 16,000 British troops were
encamped around the city. On the same day M. de Vaudreuil
surrendered at discretion. Over 20,000 soldiers, of all arms,
were included in the capitulation. The regulars were sent to
France; the militia were permitted to go to their own homes.

220

END OF FRENCH RULE IN CANADA.

^^H|nj|nii|^|ij|

J-
J

The civil officers with their families and thei r movable projxji-ty
soon left the colony. They were only required to leave such
public documents behind as were necessary for the government;
of the country. The people were secured in the enjoyment ot
their property and the free exercise of their religion.

31. The reign of Trench power in Canada now came to an
end, and with it the era of colonial warfare, that had lasted
for a century. Canada, ever since its foundation, had strug-
gled on amid manifold perils. The military instinct of the
French had been fostered and encouraged by the necessity of
constant conflict with blood-thirsty savages. Their genius led
theui to adventure, to make discoveries in the distant regions
of the continent. They opened up and prepared the way.
But it was reserved for another people to make those discoveries
fruitful. Under the military and absolute rule of France,
Canada had not grown strong. That rule had proved a failure.
A new era now began to dawn slowly on its inhabitants. But
strife was not ended, — it only took another form.

Questions. — 1. In what state was
public opinion regarding ' ic Newcastle
Ministry? What filled the cip of popu-
lar discontent to overflowing? Who
was then called to the head of affairs?

2. What made the position of Canada
really very weak? In what condition
were its internal affairs?

3. What was tho complaint of the
people against Vaudreiiil ? And against
Bigot? How did the latter pave the
way for financial ruin ?

4. What bold plan of campaign did
Pitt project? To whom was the mili-
tary conduct of the expedition in-
trusted ?

5. In what state were the fortifica-
tions of Louisburg?

6. What caused the English fieet to
remain inactive for several days ? Whose
division first effected a landing ? What
did the French then do ?

7. Describe the progress of the siege.
How long did it last? How did it end?
What was done with Louisburg ?

8. What other island fell into the
hands of the English besides Cape Bret-
on ? How was part of the English force
occupied after the fall of Louisburg ?

9. Describe the defences of Carillon.
Describe the conflict in the wood.

10. Why were the English gloomy
over their victory ? What rash order
did Abercrombie give ? What was the
result?

11. How was the disgrace of the re-
pulse at Ticonderoga atoned for ?

12. Whp ' ')revented the French from
increasin ..eirforces in Canada? What
was the icsult of Bouganville's mission
to France ? To whom did De Vaudreuil
appeal? In what did the chief defence
of Canada lie ?

13. What was the plan of the cam-
paign of 1759?

14. Where did Bourlamaque make
his stand for the protection of Mon-
treal? AVhat prevented the advance
of the English from Crown Point ?

15. Wliat was the last hope of the
Commandant of Fort Niagara? How
was it slftattered? What did Pouchot
then do 1

16. Describe the position of the
French army at Quebec. What did
Wolfe decide to do ?

17. Explain the disposition of the
English army.

QUESTIONS.

001

18. What parts of Qiiobco wore soon
destroyed ? What seemed impregnable ?
About what did the Commander and
the Governor-! ieneral diff«(r?

11). What made Wolfe's position un-
comfortable ?

20. What did Wolfe attempt on July
31 ? What caused its failure ?

21. What effect had the disaster on
Wolfe ?

22. What was the result of his con-
ference with his Generals? What dif-
llculties disturbed Montcalm ?

23. Where did the English army em-
bark? How did Wolfe relieve his ex-
citement? Where was the landing
effected? How many men formed on
the Plains of Abraham ?

24. How was the intelligence carried
to Montcalm? Where did he draw up
liis forces? What advantage did he
throw away? Why was Wolfe's posi-
tion perilous ?

2!i. Describe the courwe of the battle.
Describe the last moments of Wolfe.

20. What were the losses on each
side? AVhat consolation liad Mont-
calm at his death ?

27. When did the British enter Que-
bec? How did the change affect the
inhabitants?

28. Wliat led to the second battle for
the possession of Quebec? What was
the result?

29. What induced De Levi to aban-
don the siege? Where was it resolved
to make the final stand for franco ?

30. How many divisions of the
British army converged on Montreal?
When did they meet there? When did
the city capitulate ? What became of
the garrison and the officials ?

31. How long had the war between
the rival colonies lasted? What had
been done by the French in CmadaT
Wliat remained for the British ?

s ,

222

THE NEW SUBJECTS.

:p;i'

™

CHAPTER XXIII.

1760 to 1763 A.D.

PONTUC.

Military Government.

Canada left bankrupt Y.y the French.

Close of the Seven Years' War.

The Treaty of Paris.

Intluence of the Noblesse.

The Royal Proclamation.

The Rounds of the Province of Quoboc.
Civ'i Government.
Surrender of the western forts,
Pont'.ac.

The rise and deteat of Pontiac's Con
spiracy.

1760

A.D.

acre

^ 1. A Military Government was formed in Canada after the
conquest. General Amherst, on departing for New York, ap-
pointed General Murray commanding officer in the
colony. It was divided into the throe districts of
Quebec, Montreal, and Three Rivers. Murray ruled iu
the lirst-named district; in the latter two, Gjiiexal
nd Colonel Burton. Councils, composed of military
officers, met twice a week, and dispensed justice in all matters
brought before them. This form of government was a despotism
tempered only by the integrity and good nature of those who
enforced it. It was the best possible under the circumstances.
While thi war continued, the Canadians were buoyed up with
the hope that the country might be restored to the Crown of
France, and a firm hand was necessary to keep down " the new
subjects" of King George, as they were called. The new order
of things was very galling to " the noblesse," accustomed to en-
joy the privileges of their rank. The body of the inhabitants,
in a state of despair and distraction, looked upon themselves
as a conquered people. Confidence grew up among them
when they experienced the general forbearance and generosity
of their new masters. Accustomed to live under arbitrary
rule, the military government was infinitely less distasteful to
them than to the few English who now settled in Canada, and
came to be known as " the old subjects." If the Canadians
found cause to complain of the government, they were pacified
by the assurance that after peace was made they would have

CANADA BANKRUPT.

223

the supreme happinesa of becoming full Britwli subjecta, and of
eujoyiiig all the privileges of the aame.s—
t 2. The Eiigliah found Canada a bankrupt colon^'. Finan-
cially the people were ruined. The paper, foundetl on the
responsibility of the King of France for the support of the civil
and military establishments, and issued on authority of the
lutendai!*. far in excess of the authorized amount, was dis-
honoured at the Royal Tre.'isury of France. The holders of it
lost a sum equal to three hundred thousand pounds sterling.
The whole pa] ^r curi'ency — over three millions st srling — was so
depreciated as to be worth only four per cent, of its origip.:\l
value. To the last Bigot and his creatures had pursued their
unprincipled course of enriching themselves at the expense of
their King and country. At tlie siege of Quebec by M. de
Levi, the army contractors made out estimates in which they
put charges for work that had not been done, and for stores
that had not been supplied ; which were paid by the Intendant,
who had his profit from the fraudulent transaction. M. de Vaud-
reuil, Bigot, and the other chief officials, were, on their return
to France, thrown into the Bastille. Vaudreuil was acquitted
of the charge of fraud, but Bigot and the rest were condemned
to disgorge plunder to the amount of three hundred and thirty
thousand pounds sterling, and to be banished from the country.
Under the circumstances, considering that in addition to their
state of bankruptcy there was great general distress among the
people, and that several had died of absoiate famine, it must be
concluded that the conquest of Canada by the English was no
misfortune to its people. -^

^ 3. "The Seven Years' War" came to a close in 1762. On
the 3rd of November the preliminaries of peace were signed, at
Fontainebleau. On the 10th of February the definitive
Treaty of Peace was signed at Paris. By the fourth 1763
article the King of France abandoned all his pretensions a.d.
to Nova Scotia, and in the amplest manner made over
to the Crown of Great Britain, Canada, Cape Breton, and all
the islands in the Eiver and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, except-
ing St. Peter and Miquelon. Thus were settled for ever the
conflicting claims of England and France (founded on the dis-
coveries of Cabot and Verazzani) to the possession of the northern

11 'ivi

'hi ||lt

224

THE ROYAL PROCLAMATION.

j)art of America. By the s;inie article King George covenanted
to grant to the inhabitants of Canada the liberty of the Eomau
Catholic religion, and to permit all subjects of the King of
France to sell their property — but only to British subjects — and
to retire in all safety and freedom from the country within
eighteen months of the date of the ratification of the treaty.
Great Britain also acquired from France the Islands of Grenada
and the Grenadines, St. Vincent, Tobago, and Dominica ; and
from Spain, Florida and the possessions south and south-east
of the Mississippi.

"^4. Few of the ancient noblesse remained in Canada ; most
of them went to France and to the French West Indies. A
sufficient number, however, stayed, and exerted an influence that
helped to determine the future of the country. Though, com-
pared with the body of the habitans, they were but one in the
hundred, their national pride, their tenacious adherence to feudal
customs, which constituted the privileges of their rank, their hos-
tility to the introduction of English law, their mortification at
being excluded from public employment and places of trust on
account of their religion, caused them to hate English rule, and
to make the Anglification of the Province impossible. Ob-
servers remarked, that there would have been no insuperable
obstacle met with during the earlier years after the Conquest in
introducing English laws and the English language, provided
that it had been done gradually and judiciously. The oppor-
tunity to effect the change was lost. The det«^rm J nation to pre-
serve French laws, language, and customs, grew strong as suc-
cessive governorii made concessions to the native Canadians. —-
iJ.^The King issued a Proclamation on the 7th of October.
By that instrument His Majesty divided the territory he had
acquired into the four Provinces of Quebec, East Florida, West
Florida, and Grenada. The Province of Quebec extended along
both banks of the St. Lawrence from the St. John River. The
peninsula of Gasped and the Island of Anticosti were included
in it. It was bounded on the west by Lake Nipissing and the
line of the Ottawa River ; and on the south by a line passing
through Lake Champlain, along the 45th degree of north
latitude, and by the highlands dividing the rivers falling into
the St. Lawrence from those emptyiLg themselves into the sea. >

CIVIL GOVERNMENT.

^25

^ 6. As a strong inducement to British subjects to settle ill
Quebec, the King made a promise that whenever the circum-
stances of the country would admit thereof, representative in-
stitutions, similar to those in the other English-American
colonies, should be established ; and gave an assurance to all
persons inhabiting and resorting to it, that they might confide
in the royal protection for the enjoyment of the benefit of
English laws. Grants of land, ranging from 50 acres to 5,000
acres, were made to field-officers, captains, subalterns, non-
commissioned officers, and privates, on certain conditions of
improvement and cultivation. The grantees, after the expira-
tion of ten years, were subjected to '' quit rents " — a small tax
exacted from the proprietors in token of their subjection «:o the
Sovereign, by the payment of which they were " quit" from all
other service. The Crown did not rigidly demand the payment
of these rents, and the people were not very willing to pay
them. They were allowed to accumulate, and their proposed
collection in after years excited the greatest discontent through-
out the Provinces. The lands granted to British subjects in
Quebec after the Proclamation were, in efFeot. held on "the
tenure of free and common soccage," ^ the sole conditions of
which were allegiance to the iving and obedience to the laws. ^
'' 7. A Civil Government was formed, consisting of a Governor
and a Council, who had power to make laws and regulations
under certain restrictions. Courts were established ; — the
Supreme Court (or Court of King's Bench), where the Chief-
Justice presided, and where all criminal f,iid civil cases wero
decided according to the law of England ; and the Court of
Common Pleas, where all matters were determined by equity,
subject to appeal to the Supreme Court. Justices of the Peace
were appointed, who had power to settle, in a sunmiary way,
cjises under five pounds currency. The new Government was
hardly less arbitrary than the military rule that had preceded
it. It made laws and administered them, and pronounced

' i I

'^ m

ifi i

' Soccage. — From French soc, a
ploughshare; soccage was thus origi-
nally tenure of land byjpZ(m(< service,
and thence any inferior services in
husbandly. The English socmen of

1.473/ 15

Domesday Book (1086 a.d.) were ceorb
who had acquired land and freedom,
and were allowed to retain both. They
became the small freeholders or yeo-
manry of later times In England-

226

THE WESTERN FORTS.

judgment : the only power not placed in its hands was that of
taxation, wliich was imposed by an Act of the Imperial Parlia-
ment. General Murray was the first Governor under the
constitution of the Proclamation. -"

^ 8. In the meantime stirring events had taken place in the
west. On the 12th of November 1760 Major Rogers of the Pro-
vincial Rangers received orders to take possession of the forts
still in the hands of the French. His force numbered two

LAKE COUNTllY AND WESTERN FORTS.

hundred men in fifteen whale-boats. Ascending from Montreal,
and entering Lake Ontario, the party skirted its northern shore,
and then crossed over to Fort Niagara. Hauling their boats
over the portage, the Rangers launched them above the Falls.
Entering Lake Erie, they kept their course along its southern
shore until they reached the mouth of the Rivpr Cuyahoga,
on the banks of which they encamped. So fai' 'heir progress
had been unimpeded save by boisterous weather. Pontiac, an
Ottawa chief, thfen held sway over many of the western tribes.
Ho had served with the French ; had been present in the fatal

DISCONTENT OF THE INDIANS

227

defile of Monongahela 'when Braddock fell, at the siege of
Oswego with Montcalm, and in other actions of the late war.
He impressed all who came in contact with him as being a
man of superior force of mind, and of a natural greatness and
dignity. Under cover of night, Pontiac with a retinue of
chiefs appeared in the camp on the Cuyahoga, and haughtily
demanded of its commandant with what intent his armed force
had entered his country. During a brief interview. Major
Rogers explained to him the situation of aifairs, when Pontiac
consented, now that the cause of his old friends the French was
lost, to live at peace with the English. ^

9. 'Late in autumn Rogers reached Detroit. After some
show of resistance that important post was given up, on the
29th of November. The other forts were given up in the
course of the winter and of the following spring. Then the
flag of England floated over the forts in token of her
sovereignty over the western wilderness. The Indians 1761
of that region soon broke into open acts of rage and a.d.
discontent. Their position was changed, now that the
English were masters. They no longer met the courteous treat-
ment which they had been accustomed to receive from the French.
The English kept back the usual presents of clothing and arms,
and often treated them with contumely. The heart of Pontiac
swelled with rage at the cold and haughty behaviour of the
English officei», so diflferent from the good-natured politeness of
the French. Pei-sonal slights alone did not excite his wrath.
He saw that a crisis had come to his race. The Indians no
longer held a position between \\ie contending French and
English colonies that made their alliance worth winning. Now
tliey had either to mingle with English civilization, or to plunge
far into the depths of the wildern*^Sa. Brooding over the
wrongs and insults endured oy his people, Pontiac came to hate
the English with intense fury. He burned to exterminate them,
and to bring back the country to its primeval barbarity. |

10. 1 He conceived a bold and comprehensive scheme of ven-
geance. During the winter of 1762, his messengers, bearing
the war-belts, scoured the country east, west, north, and south.
The Ottigamies and Sacs, the Pottawattamies and Ottawas, tlie
Ojibaways and Wyandots, and all the other tribes dwelling

HI''

228

PONTIAC S CONSPIRACY.

around the sliores of Lake Michigan and the western shore of
Lake Huron ; the Shawnees and Delawares, whose bourgades
were situated on branches of the Ohio River, and close to the
frontiers of Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, entered
into the Conspiracy. They received secret encourag aent
from some French and Canadian fur-traders, who falsely told
them that their great Father in France was aroused from his
sleep, and was sending out a large army to wrest the country
from the English. Over all the allied tribes Pontiac held only
such authority as his abilities and personal character gave
him. The fickleness of the Indian temper, and its impatience
of long ontinued effort, made it necessary to strike a prompt
and decisive blow. He resolved that a simultaneous attr^k
should be ruade on all the forts held by the English, that the
defenders' settlements on the frontiers should be laid waste,
and that all the English should be driven out of the country.
Pontiac very much under-estimated the power of the English.
Wide as was his influence, there were maaiy tribes in Canada
hostile to him : of all the famous Six Nations he only gained
over the Senecas. \

11. The rising of the Indian tribes was fixed to take place

on the 7th of May. Before that day the English

1763 officers had several warnings that " mischief was afoot,"

A.D. which they disregarded. Pontiac undertook to surprise

Fort Detroit. It wa? garrisoned by one hundred and
twenty troops and forty fur-traders, and commanded by Major
Gladwyn. Two small schooners — the Beaver and Gladwyn—
gave it further protection, and carried despatches and sup-
plies to and from Fort Niagara. On the 6th, Catherine, a
young squaw, disclosed the plot to the commandant. Pontiac,
she said, would come with a retinue of chiefs next morning and
demand a council. Each chief would be wrapped in his blanket,
and would carry his rifle (purposely cut short in the barrel)
concealed in its folds. At a preconcerted signal the chiefs were
suddenly to shoot down the Major and his officers ; and then,
along with the Indians in the streets of the fort, fall upon and
butcher the unprepared garrison.

12. When Pontiac and the chiefs appeared next morning, the
garrison was drawn up in the square, with muskets at rest and

1N1>IAN STRATAGEMS.

229

bayonets tixed ; the officers wore their side-arms, aud carried
pistols in their belta Pontiac was surprised at the warlike
sight, but showed no visible sign of mortification. He finished
some pretended business and retired. Next morning he, with
the chiefs, again sought admittance into the fort, having signi-
fied to the Major liis wish to dance " the calumet ;" but he was
bluntly told to be gone. He then knew that the plot had been
discovered, and his wrath was terrible. He ordered the beauti-
ful traitress, Catherine, to be scourged ; and his followers
wreaked their vengeance jn some unoffending English settlers
near Detroit. Pontiac now determined to besiege the fort ;
and, to be nearer the scene of action, transferred his camp from
the eastern to the weK ; n bank of the river. He levied c^~^ •
tributions on the ( anuxlian farms to maintain his forces ..r.
he did it in a civilized manner, by issuing promissory notes on
birch-bark, to which he affixed his " token," — the figure of an
otter. There was now no rest for the garrison, by day or by
night. The Indians did not dare to make an open assault, but
from every convenient cover shot into the fort bullets, and
arrows tipped with burning tow. Gladwyn, who was anxiously
waiting for reinforcements from Niagara, despatched one of his
schooners to hurry them. One day the soldiers saw a line of
boats sweeping up the river, the foremost bearing the red
flag of England. In their joy they fired a salute : it was an-
swered by the war-whoop of axmed Indians, who started up
from the bottoms of the boats where they had lain concealed,
Gladwyn afterwards learned that a detachment of ninety-six
men, under Lieutenant Cuyler, with plentiful supplies, had
started from Niagara in whale-boats. Encamped one night at
Point Pel^, at the mouth of the River Detroit, the party had
been surprised and almost totally destroyed by the Indians.

13. Alarming intelligence reached Detroit in the course of the
month of June, of the capture and destruction, by the Indians,
of Forts Sandusky, St. Joseph, Ouatanon, Presqu'isle, Du Boeuf,
Venango, and Michillimackinac. The last named fort was
taken by a subtle stratagem. On the 4th of June, the King's
Birthday, a party of Ojibaways invited the officers to come out
and witness the game of " la crosse" on the plain in front of the
fort, between players of their nation and of the Sacs. It was

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230

BLOODY BRIDGE.

a holiday, and the soldiers were oj0f their guard. The gates
were open, and a number of squaws entered unnoticed. Cap-
tain Etheriugton and another officer stood outside betting ou
the match, which was played with great spirit for several hours.
The ball, struck with a vigorous blow, bounded against the
pickets of the fort. Then the whole body of the players rau
yelling up to the gates ; some of them seized the two officers, the
rest, rushing in, snatched their hatchets from the squaws (who
had held them concealed when they entered), and in an instant
killed an officer and fifteen privates, and took the rest prisoners.
14. During the whole summer the frontier settlements of
Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania were exposed to the
hostile incursions of the Indians, who ran riot in frightful ex-
cesses of cruelty. When General Amherst, at New York, heard
of the disasters, he had few effective troops at his command.
In all haste he sent as many as he could muster to reinforce
Niagara, and to relieve Forts Detroit and Pitt, formerly called
Du Quesne. On the 27th of July, the harassed and weakened
garrison of Detroit welcomed the arrival of two hundred aud
eighty men. The commander, Captain Dalzell, against the
advice of Gladwyn, resolved to attack the Indians. Pontiac
was secretly apprised of the intended sortie. To reach his en-
campment it was necessary to cross a narrow bridge thrown
over the deep gully of Parent's Creek, two miles above the fort.
Beyond the bridge the ground rose in ridges, and Pontiac had
intrei hments dug at the top of them. At two o'clock in the
morning of the 29th two hundred and fifty men stole out of
Detroit. As they marched along the settled road the watch-
dogs bayed the alarm. The advanced-guard crossed the bridge
— called "Bloody Bridge" after that night. It was saluted
with yells and volleys of musketry. Supports were hurried up.
The furious soldiers charged the intrenchments, and were shot
down by an invisible foe. The retreat was sounded. As the
baffled force marched back, a party of Indians, posting them-
selves in a house on its right, galled it sorely. It reached
Detroit with a loss of fifty-nine killed and wounded. Captain
Dalzell was shot dead in a gallant attempt to carry off a
wounded soldier. The next morning the frightened habitans
saw his head stuck on a garden picket.

feUSHY HUN.

231

15. Shortly after this disaster, as the "Gladwyn," on its
return from Niagara, lay at anchor one midnight, it was sur-
prised by a large party of Indians. The wind had failed when
the schooner was nine miles below the fort. The warriors killed
the captain, wo^mded several of the crew, and were on the
point of taking possession of the vessel, when the mate called
out that he would blow it up. The Indians, who had footing
on the deck, cast themselves in ten-or into the river. The
Gladwyn reached Detroit in safety. General Amherst caused
a medal to be struck, and gave one to each of the men who had
taken part in its defence.

16. Towards the end of July, Colonel Bouquet marched
with several companies of the 42nd Highlanders, and of the
Provincial Rangers, from Philadelphia. He took with him
sixty-six men to reinforce the garrison of Fort Pitt. The
soldiers, with their heavy baggage-train, toiled up the heights
of the Alleghanies, descended into the valleys, and made their
way through deep gorges. At Fort Ligonier the oxen and
waggons were left behind, and they pushed on with three hun-
dred and fifty pack-horses carrying flour and other provisions.
The difficult defile of Turtle Creek lay in the way of their
march, and Colonel Bouquet resolved to push on for Bushy
Run, encamp there for the day, and pass it by night. Within
a mile of the camping ground the advanced-guard fell into an
ambuscade. Shawnee and Delaware warriors raised their war-
whoop. A sharp fire of musketry ensued. Two light companies
were hurried up to the support of the van ; but the Indians
appearing in great numbers in all directions, the whole British
advanced-guard soon retreated on the main body. The Indians
followed, and kept up a fierce attack until darkness came on ;
then they retired to their coverts.

17. Colonel Bouquet arranged his camp in the form of a
circle: he placed the horses in the centre, and protected the
sick at (1 the wounded by means of the flour-bags. No water
was to be had, and the sufferings of this part of the force
were fearful. At earliest dawn the Indians awoke the uneasy
sleepers. The Highlanders and Rangers sprang up and stood
in tie circle until the sun rose in the heavens, enduring a thirst
more terrible to them than the fire of the foe. Many of the

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232

ntE MEKTING AT NIAGARA.

ifi

horses were wounded, and, terrified by the din, they broke out
and galloped off through the woods. Colonel Bouquet now
drew on the Indians to make an open attack. He ordered two
companies at one part of the circle to fall hastily back, and the
troops on their right and left to open up their files and fill their
place. The retiring companies, and two others, then took up
positions in the woods unseen by the Indians. They, imagining
that the British were beginning to give way, rushed forward
with audacity to the attack. As they were hotly engaged, two
of the companies posted in the woods threw themselves on their
right flank. Amazed and confused, they si )od their ground only
for a short time. The Highlanders, charging with spirit, put
them to flight, and they received the full fire of the other two
companies as they sped past a clearing where no trees inter-
vened. The victory won by Bouquet at Bushy Run had the
elFect of raising the siege of Fort Pitt, and of causing many
of the Indians to sue for peace.

18. The blockade of Fort Detroit was still kept up. Late
in autumn several tribes departed for the winter's hunting.
Pontiac seeing the falling away of his confederates, and receiv-
ing certain news of the peace between France and England,
which cut off all hope of aid, retired in disgust to a camp on
the Maumee River. All winter the garrison of Detroit was
obliged to keep strict guai'd, for the Ottawas and Senecas
prowled constantly around. In spring several tribes returned
to its neighbourhood.

19. Measures were now taken to crush the Indian revolt
General Gage (successor to Amherst) instructed General Brad-
street to relieve Detroit, and put down the tribes in its

1764 vicinity; and gave orders to Colonel Bouquet to com-
A.D. pel the submission of the Shawn ees and Dela wares. Sir
William Johnson, who had in the meantime made suc-
cessful representations to the British Government on the neces-
sity of conciliating the Indians, called a meeting at Niagara
of numerous tribes. When Bradstreet reached that place in
July, the Indian Council was sitting. Johnson made separate
treaties of peace with the different tribes, and sent them off
loaded with presents. Peace was made with the Senecas on
condition that they would never again attack the English, and

DEATH OF PONTIAC.

233

that they would cede four miles on each side of the Niagara
Strait.

20. On his way to Detroit, General Bradstreet was met by a
pretended delegation from the Shawnees and DeJawares, and,
believin.5 their false protestations, he entered iwio a treaty of
peace v/ith them. He received the submission of the Wyandots
and Ot^awas in the neighbourhood of Sandusky. On the 26th
of August his barges entered the Detroit River, and the relief
was hailed with the wildest demonstrations of joy by the gar-
rison oi the fort, which had been beleaguered for fifteen months.

21. General Bradstreei; then returned to Sandusky. Believ-
ing that he had made a secure peace with the Shawnees and
Delawares, he refused to cooperate with Colonel Bouquet. That
officer, not trusting to treaties, marched into the veiy heart of
their country, and compelled them to sue for peace, and to give
up their prisoners. Among his force were voluuteei from
the frontier settlements who had lost wives, children, sisters,
and sweethearts, and who enlisted in the expedition in the hope
of redeeming them from captivity. Mothers and wives, also,
dared the perilous journey, to relieve their anxiety about the
fate of their sons and husbands. When the Indians brought
their prisoners into Bouquet's camp, scenes were enacted that
aroused the sympathy of the most callous.

22. The Indian War was now over. Pontiac, seeing the utter
frustration of his conspiracy, sought peace from the English, and
obtained it. He was a few years afterwards assassinated by an
Illinois trader at St. Louis. With him died the last hope of the
Indian race. The war he raised was its last convulsive effort
to throw off the dominion of the white man in the country
bounded by the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the AUeghanies.
The Indian war in the west was finished before the people of
the towns of Canada knew that it had commenced, so slowly
in those days travelled news.

Questions. — 1. What kind of gov-
ernment was set up in Canada? "Wbo
were the "new subjects" of King
George 1 What reconciled the ItoAj of
the inhabitants to the Military Gov-
ernment?

2. In what state did the English find
Canada flnancially? What was the

cause of th^s state of affairs? How
were the offenders punished? How
should the people of Canada have re-
garded its conquest?

3. When was the Seven Years' War
terminated? What were the articles
of the Treaty of Paris which affected
the American colonies?

III

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234

QUESTIONS.

4. Wliat hindered the Angliflcation
of the colonists? What opportunity
of effecting the change was lost?

6. How was the newly-acquired ter-
ritory divided? Mention the bouiid-
aries of the Province of Quebec.

0. What inducement was held out to
British subjects to settle in Quebec?
To whom were grants of land made?
To what difficulty did the exacting of
"quit rents" lead? On what tenure
were lands granted to British subjects in
Quebec after the Proclamation held by
them?

7. Of what did the Civil Government
consist ? What courts were established ?
What was the only power which the
new Government lacked ? Who was the
first Governor?

8. On what mission was Major Rogers
sent? What force accompanied him?
Who was Pontiac? When did he
come to the English camp ? What did
he demand 7 What did ho consent to
do?

^9. When did Rogers accomplish his
mission? Who were enraged and dis-
contented ? Why ? How was the posi-
tion of the Indians altered ?

10. What scheme did Pontiac form?
Who joined the conspiracy? What
was the plan of action resolved on?

IL What date was fixed for the ris-
ing? Uow was the Commandant of

Fort Detroit informed of the plot?
Give the details.

12. How was the plan frustrated?
How wan Catherine punished ? What
did Pontiac then determine to do?
How was the garrison disappointed of
its reinforcements?

13. What intelligence reached De-
troit in June ? Describe the stratagem
by which Michilliinackinac was taken.

14. When was Detroit relieved? By
what disaster was the relief followed?

15. What narrow escape did the
schooner Gladwyn make? How was it
saved?

16. Describe Colonel Bouquet's
march. Where did he encounter the
Indians?

17. Describe the battle. What effects
had the victory ?

18. What led Pontiac to withdraw
fropi Fort Detroit?

19. What measures were then taken
to crush the Indian revolt ? What was
the result of the meeting at Niagara?

20. When was Fort Detroit at last
relieved ? How long had the blockade
lasted?

21. Why did Bradstreet refuse to
coSperate with Bouquet ? What did the
latter accomplish? What touching
scenes were enacted?

22. What was the end of Pontiac?
What died with him?

KKOLISH AND f*REKctt LAW.

235

CHAPTEE XXIV.

THE CONFLICT OF LAWS,

1766 to 1774 A.D.

The "New" and the "Old" Subjecte.

English and French Law.

Governor Guy Carleton.

The Bemedies for the conflict of laws.

The Feudal Tenure.

Marriage and Mortgage.

The discontents in tlie Englf sh Colonies.

The Quebec Act.

The dissatisfaction in " Quebec."

The fl-st Assembly of Nova Scotia

The French on the Miramichi.

The Loyalist Refugees.

Maugerville.

The Island of St. John.

1. The great disaimiiarity of character between the "new
subjects," the Catholic French Canadians, and "the old sub-
jects," the British Protestants, was soon shown. The latter
body, who were a small minority of the population, assumed
the air of masters, and thought to bend all the ancient laws
and customs to their will. Several had settled in the country
on the strength of the promise of the Proclamation that free
representative institutions would be established in it. They
did not wish to hold a lower gi-ade as British subjects than
their brother colonists in America. This part of the population
was composed principally of h ilf-pay officers, merchants, and
disbanded soldiers, and they L.ostly inhabited the towns.

2. The great mass of the Canadian popula don, who lived in
the country, were naturally strongly prejudiced in favour of
their ancient laws and customs. They were generally of a mild,
submissive character, and looked with awe to those placed in
authority over them. They were rather indifferent to the form
of civil government. They were inclined to think " whate'er is
best administered is best." All were not of that opinion. The
better instructed had no objection to popular assemblies, pro-
vided that the Roman Catholic population had fair representa-
tion, and that they were not disabled from filling places of
honour and trust on account of their religion. As matters
stood they were debarred from enjoying any office. Before
they could be eligible they were compelled to take two oaths; —

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236

TRIAL BY JURY.

that of abjuration of tho Pope's control of spiritual matters in
the realuis of the King of Englantl ; and that against transub-
Btantiatiou, a doctrine especially rencanced by the Church of
J^ngland and all Protestant sects. Tlie Canadians were very
willing to swear allegiance to Kin^ George, but they could not
take oaths against their religion. <::,

3. Bj^ the Proclamation, the criminal law of E gLglaBd Trith —
trial Vy jury was establishedin the colony. # It was accepted
by th J Canadian people without much dissent, a« its superiority
over t\m French criminal law was apparent. Under it no one
could be arbitrarily arrested, or secretly tortured, tried, and
sentenced. But to +rial by jury in civil cases the Canadians
generally objected. The noblesse were opposed to it, because
their pride was offended that Protestant mechanics should sit
to determine matters in which they were interested. I'he
habitans complained of the burden and expense of juries. They
ridiculed the unanimity demanded in their verdictu They said

it was a trial of strength among the jurymen to determine who
could fast the longest. But they might have been reconciled
to juries if jurymen had jbeen paid for their services, and if
a majority of votes had debided the verdict. They preferred
to have the judge decide all cases directly, according to ancient
practice. The prejudice against juries was natural enough.
The noblesse hated ' •=>'n because they made them amenable to
law, to which, ir pride, they deemed themselves superior ;

to the habita aght up in ignorance, and unaccustomed to

think for tht elves or manage their own affairs, they were
wearisome. The British population, on the contraiy, deemed
trial by jury to be the palladium of liberty, and in all cases
the most pi'ompt, secure, impartial mode of obtaining justice,
and of assuring to them the possession of theii- propeiiiy. In
the absence of free general assemblies, they looked upon trial
by jury as their best security against the undue exercise of
arbitrary power.

4. The government of Canada was no easy matter, the
character and the political education of its French and of its
English inhabitants were so very different. The English held
that English laws and forms of judicature were infinitely
superior to those of France. The question was, Whether their

wrm

THE CONFLICT OF LAWS.

237

will and pleasuro ahould prevail, or whether eouceasious should
be made to the feelings and prejudices of the great majority of
the inhabitants? .

6. The Governor,) General Murray, showed favour to the
French Canadian\and thereby incun'ed the displeasure of his
Protestant fellow-countrymen. iThey sent home petitions stat-
ing their grievances, and he was called to answer the
charges against him. [ But he was not found worthy of 1766
blame. In Ids absence, brigadier -General Guy a.d.
Oarleton administered the government. He had dis-
tinguished himself under General Wolfe, and at the Battle of
the Plains received a very severe wound on the head. As
General Murr.ay did not return to Canada, he was appointed
Lieutenant-Governor. He showed himself even more favour-
able to the majority than his predecessor had done. He entered
into t eir feelings, and seemed to adopt their prejudices. He
though o them a >'ery decent people, and much more easily
ruled than the more turbulent English. He abolished the
jurisdiction of the Justices of the Peade, several of whom
had acted tyrannically. Some of them were disbanded soldiers
who kept tippling-houses — not the Test claims of persons, he
thought; from which to form a magistracy. He introduced as
nuich French law as possible, and in the Court of Common
Pleas it was left to the option of parties to a suit to have it
tried by a jury. Confusion arose in the courts owing to the
mixture of laws. The judges were Englishmen, and little con-
versant with French law : to have made themselves masters of
it they would have been obliged to study closely a small library
of thirty volumes. If a case was tried by the French system,
the suitors stood a chance of not obtaining justice, owing to the
ignorance of the Judges (with the integrity of the Bench the
Canadians were well satisfied). On the other hand, if a case
was tried by English law, the Canadians were dissatioSed, be-
cause it was conducted in a mode and in a language which they
did not understand, and because the process was more expensive.!

6\The remedy proposed for this conflict of laws was the
restitution to the Canadians of the whole body of their civil
jurisprudence. I Governor Carleton inclined to this view of the ^
question ; but Chief- Justice Hey and Attorney-General Maseres

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238 PROPOSED REMEDIES.

were of opinion that an arrangement might be made satisfactory
to both English and French. They would have restored those
parts of the French civil laws relating to the tenure and con-
veying of lands, and altered those portions regarding inherit-
ance, dower, and mortgage, that more especially affected com-
merce, which was almost altogether in the hands of the British,
and that tended to retard the progress of the country.

7. Several views were taken of the best way of settling the
difficulties in Canada. There were those who held that the
prejudi of the g.eat majority of the inhabitants ought to be
consuhtd, and that Canada ought to be allowed to remain
F) '^nch in its system of government, and in its laws, customs,
anu religion ; others maintained that Canada, being a con-
quered country, should bo ruled by the law of the conqueror,
and be transformed into an English Province ; and again, there
were those who considered it as injudicious to keep Canada a
French Province as to attempt to make it English by force, and
who thought that those parts of the laws of both countries most
suitable to its circumstances should be retained, and that all
changes to the English mode of government and system of laws
should be made gradually.

8. Il is necessary to state, however briefly, some of the
objections that the British had to French law. They decidedly
objected to the feudal tenure. By it, as has been already
stated, the mass of the people were kept in a state of vassalage.
The condition of this tenure that bore most hardly on the
British was, the obligation forced on them, when they purchased
lands, to ppy to the seigneur in whose seigneurie they lay the
lods and vents — a mutation fine of a twelfth of the purchase-
money, over and above the sum they paid to the seller. The
land might have been improved a hundredfold by the erection
of houses and buildings, still the seigneur had a right to
demand a twelfth of its increased value. This heavy tax
naturally discouraged the improving of lands, and retarded the
growth of towns within the seigneuries.

9. ^JThe law of inheritance, by which the property of the
parent was equally divided among the children, was not gener-
ally repugnant to the British ; the people of the English
cplopies in America were on the whole opposed to the law of

OBJECTIONS OF THE BRITISH.

239

jjrimogeniture, as it obtained in the mother country. The
minute divisions of properties ^ere a great evil among the
French Canadians ; but Englishm, ^ did not, like many of them,
pine on mere shreds of farms when there was plenty of land to
be obtained. The British (except perliaps the lawyera) did not
object to the French system of conveyancing — the transferring
of land from one party to another — as they considered it more
expeditious and less expensive than the English mode. The
portions of the French law that affected them most were those
relating to marriage and mortgage. \

ids A man, before entering the holy st;ite of matrimony,
might make a contract devising in which way he wished his prop-
erty to go after his death ; but if he neglected to do that, thert>
were certain inevitable legal consequences to marriage which
Englishmen who had not taken the trouble to make themselves
acquainted with the French law sometimes found very incon-
venient. A wife was entitled to dower ; that is, to the enjoy-
ment, after the death of her husband, shouH she survive him,
of one half of the real property of which he was possessed before
marriage or might have acquired after it. After her death this
property went to the children. The wife was entitled to
another right, that of " communaute," or partnership, which
gave her half of the personal property of her husband. If she
died before him this portion went to the children even in the
lifetime of the father ; if there were no children, it went to
the wife's nearest relatives, who might be strangers to the
husband. \

-^1. A man, by taking proper precautions, might prevent his
property from going to strangers ; he found it more difficult
to prevent himself from being cheated in purchasing lands, and
in taking sec arity for debts owing to him. By the French law
of " hypotheQlie " (or mortgage), a man might go to a notary,
who was sworn to keep the transaction secret, and raise money
by a mortgage on his land ; he then might go to another notary
with another party from whom he wished to borrow money, and
effect another mortgage, and then he might sell the land with-
out the purchaser knowing anything of these prior claims upon
it until the mortgagees presented them. In this way English-
men, in some capes, ^ere forced to abandon the land thejy^ ha4

240

CANADA PROSPEROUS.

purchased, when the claims against it exceeded the sum they
had paid for it ; and an English merchant who sold goods to a
Canadian, taking security on his property for payment, was
sometimes defrauded when that property was sold, as holders of
secret mortgages came in before him. The cases of deliberate
fraud on the part of Canadians were probably not numerous,
but those that did occur made a great noise. These secret
mortgages had the effect of preventing English merchants, who
had made money in Canada, from investing it in land, and
they were hurtful to the prosperity of the country. In the
course of time the British agitated for the institution of offices
for the registration of deeds, where all mortgages might be
ente^'^d, and left open to the inspection of parties about to
purchase or lend money on landed property. The French
Canadians long objected to registration, on the ground that it
would be tyrannical to impose on the poor habitans the expense
and trouble of entering the deeds of their little properties in
such offices ; and, as they were very generally a people who could
neither read nor write, to expose them to be cheated by the
agent whom they would be forced to employ. \

12. Notwithstanding the difficulties of government, and the
little intercourse that existed between the British and the
French population, Canada was tranquil, prosperous, and
happy, compared with what it had been some time previous to
the Conquest. The population increased faster than it had ever
done before. A number of Acadians driven from Nova Scotia,
and flying from the English colonies to which they had been
sent, settled in Canada. The settlements along the St. Law-
rence were extende<^ backward, and a great extent of new land
was brought under cultivation. Quantities of grain were now
exported. Commerce increased ; the British engrossed seven-
eighths of it ; though few in number, their capital and enter-
prise gave them the lead. IjThey looked anxiously for the
establishment of a free representative government, but the
King seemed loath to fulfil his promise. \ He was hostile to
turbulent free assemblies. After the issuing of the Proclama-
tion, His MaJQfiiy was long too much occupied in battling with
Parliaments in England, in order to assert the royal prerogative
and his personal influence over their deliberatious, to think

w-T.

A REPRESSIVE COLONIAL POLICY.

241

much of his new territorial acquisition in Canada. The ques-
tion of giving a Constitution to the Province of Quebec waa
under consideration in 1766, but it was deferred owing to the
dissolution of the Rockingham Ministry,^ which was too liberal
and independent to suit its royal master. Amidst the excite-
ment of home pi cities, the rise and fall of ministries, Quebec
was forgotten for four years. Lord North, a stanch Tory and
a subservient friend of the King, was then called to the
head of affairs. The law officers of the Crown — A ttorney- 1770
General Thurlow, Solicitor-General Wedderburn, and a.d.
Dr. Harriot, King's Advocate — were commissioned to
draw up separate reports on the best form of government for
the Province. General Carleton was recalled to England to
give information on its condition ; and Mr. Cramahe, member
of the Council, was appointed Administrator. No action was
taken on the reports of the Crown officers for other four years.
In the meantime events of the utmost importance to the Eng-
lish colonies in America were taking place.

13. Soon after the advent of George III. to the throne (in
1760, almost simultaneously with the conquest of Canada),
a repress ive coloniaj^o licy was adopted. The people of the
English colonies loved the mother country, and gloried in its
past achievements ; but they had been so long accustomed to
virtual freedom of commerce, that they would not bear the
restrictions that were now placed upon it. By the Navigation
Laws (passed in the time of the Commonwealth 1651, and con-
firmed by Charles II. 1660) certain enumerated articles, — the
product of territories under the Crown of England, — were pro-
hibited from being carried from thence to any country except
to England, and in any but English-built vessels, including
those built in her colonies. The colonial merchants could not
thus, if they observed the laws, import sugar, tea, spice, cotton,
and other articles, direct from the country producing them ; for
these articles had first to be carried to England and thence
shipped to them, — a proceeding that caused both delay and

■•'i

' The Rockingham Ministry. — This
Ministry succeeded that of Mr. George
GrenvUleinl766. Orenville's Ministry
had passed the obnoxious "Stamp Act."

,i73)

Rockingham's, acting on Pitt's advice,
repealed it. The latter gave place to
the Ministry of the Earl of Chatham
and tho Duke of Grafton in 1766.

f !

242

THE STAMP ACT.

expense. But colonial merchants very generally did not observe
the laws, and grew rich by smuggling. Having been long
suffered to break the law with impunity, they grew rebellious
when the King's custom-house officers entered their warehouses
to seize their smuggled goods, and when their vessels with their
contraband cargoes were captured by English war-ships. Biots
occurred ; custom-house officers were roughly treated, and the
mob grew very angry indeed. The Imperial Government also
restricted labour in the colonies. The people were not per-
mitted to manufacture certain specified articles, or to build
certain mills, or to cut down trees in the forest that were
marked by the King's officers as being suitable for masts for
the Eoyal Navy. They had also political grievances. The
governments of the colonies were in the hands of oligarchies, of
English Crown-appointed officials and members of old colonial
families, who frowned down all who were without their pale ;
and the different religious sects were offended by the dominance
assumed by the Church of England. Very similar political
discontents prevailed in Canada in after years.

14. The "Stamp Act" was passed (1765), imposing a tax
upon the colonies for the general purposes of the Empire. The
people exclaimed that their dearest liberties were destroyed if
the British Parliament could vote away their money without
their advice being t-^ken or their consent asked. The obnoxious
Act ' ,is repealed, but Parliament formally declared its right to
tax the colonies by laying light duties on glass, paper, painters'
colours, and tea. The anger of the people broke out, and they
vowed that they would use no articles imported from Great
Britain. Parliament repealed the impost on three of the articles,
but maintained the duty on tea, in order to help the East
India Company, which had an immense quantity on hand.
Threepence a pound was laid upon it, to be collected at the port
of entry. The Bostonians might have drunk their tea in a
legal manner and more cheaply than they had ever done so
before, but a principle was at stake. So, when the East India
Company's ships arrived in their harbour, a party disguised like
Indians went on board, broke open the chests, and threw the
tea into the dock. Parliament, deeply displeased at this act
of " flat rebellion," closed Boston port, cutting off the people

THE QUEBEC ACT.

243

from commercial intercourse with the outer world, and passed
other Acts abridging their liberties.

15. It was under these ominous circumstances that the Earl
of Dartmouth, on the 2nd of May, introduced into the
House of Lords a Bill "for making more effectual Pro- 1774^
vision for the Government of the Province of Quebec." a.d.
By it the boundaries^ of the Province were greatly
extended, and included the territory from the coast of Labrador
in the east to the Mississippi in the west, north to the sources
of the rivers emptying themselves into Hudson Bay, and south
to the Ohio. Over this vast extent of country an arbitrary
Government — consisting of a Governor and a Council of from
seventeen to twenty-three members — was placed. The Roman
Catholic religion was established, and the whole body of the
French Civil Law introduced. Quebec was in effect constituted a
French Province, all the difference being that the Canadians
had George III. instead of Louis XVI. for King. During the
debate upon the Bill in the House of Commons, Charles Fox
and Edmund Burke denounced it as a despotic measure, that
threatened the liberties of the English colonies. WiUiam
Pitt, now Earl of Chatham, rose from a sick-bed to raise
his voice against it, when the Bill was sent up again to the
Ei^ouse of Lords. " It is an Act," he exclaimed, " that tears
up justice by the roots, destroj'^s the liberty that ought to be
the foundation of every Constitution, and that will lose His
Majesty the hearts of all his American subjects." The mer-
chants of London petitioned against it. The Lord Mayor and
Aldermen waited on the King with an address praying that His
Majesty would not give his assent to the Bill ; but the King
would not receive them. He believed that the measure was
founded on the clearest principles of justice and humanity, and
he was determined that it should be carried.

16. The British population of Quebec felt much aggrieved.
The hopes held out to them had been utterly falsified. They

17 7 U A.D. — In this year the Jesuits
were suppressed in Canada ; but they
remained in possession of their prop-
erty until the death of Joseph Casot,
the last member of the order, In 1300.
when it reverted to the Britisb Crown.

The Jesuit estates were then valued at
£12,000 a year. The Imperial Govern-
ment directed that this revenue should
be applied to promote the general edu*
cation of the colony
* B<mndcurU». — See Map, p. 36,

I
II'

244

NOVA SCOTIA.

found themnelves under a despotic foreign Government. The
criminal law of England was retained, but the Act of Habeas
Corpus was abrogated, and they were subjected to arbitrary
fines and imprisonment. They were not called upon to pay
tithes to the Roman Catholic clergy ; the lands granted to them
were not subjected to feudal exactions ; but they held their pro-
perty under the ill-understood terms of the French law.

1 7. Among the Canadians there was a party which would have
liked a larger degree of liberty than that accorded by the
Quebec Act. The position of the noblesse was not improved
by it ; they were still excluded from places of trust, honour,
and emolument, on account of their religion. The majority of
the members of Council were of British birth. But the new
Constitution was calculated to please the clergy and the mass of
the people ; and if that government is the best that gives con-
tentment to the greatest number, then the Quebec Act of
1774 may be considered a successful piece of legislation. The
Act is cited as 14 Geo. III. cap. 83. At the same time was
passed another Act, 14 Geo. III. cap. 88, to raise a revenue.
It imposed a graduated scale of duties on the brandy, rum, and
spirits of Great Britain, the British West Indies, and foreign
countries ; and regulated and protected the commerce between
the mother country and her colonies by placing heavy duties ou
foreign articles. The duties were collected by royal custom-
house officers, and deposited in the Exchequer of England. The
amount went to the support of the Civil Government ; but it
was at first, as it always continued to be, insufficient for the
purpose, and it was supplemented from other sources of revenue,
such as that derived from the sale of Crown lands and the lease
of mines, commonly called the casual and territorial revenue.

18. Nova Scotia, during the continuance of the war (1755 -60),
remained in a precarious state. The lands of which tlie
Acadians had been dispossessed were not quickly taken up, as
settlers upon them were exposed to attacks from parties of that
outraged people and of their allies the Micmacs. Another
cause retarded the settlement of the Province. There was as
yet no regular Government. No Assembly had been called, and,
wanting the sanction of the popular branch of the Legislature,
the laws passed by the Governor and Council were deemed

THE FIRST GENERAL ASSEMBLY.

245

invalid. Governor La-wrence pleaded the disturbed and scat-
tered state of the country as an insuperable objection to calling
an Assembly of representatives of its people ; but the Lords of
Plantations urged upon him the necessity of doing so, as the
only means of permanently establishing the Province.

19. The first General Assembly ever convoked within the
territory of the present Dominion met in the Oourt-House of
Halifax on the 2nd of October 1758. The House consisted of
twenty-two members, twelve of whom represented the Province
at large, and the other ten the townships of Halifax, Lunen-
burg, Dartmouth, Annapolis, and Cumberland. Tlie Church of
England was established by law ; liberty of conscience was
allowed to the other sects. The first Assembly lasted for up
wards of a year; the second met on the 4th of December 1759.

20. During the war, the French inhabitants of Miramichi,
Restigouche, Nepisiguit, Shippegan, Caraquetle, and the Bay
of Gloucester, were visited by great calamities. The English
cruisers intercepted their vessels from France, and as they were
dependent on the mother country for many necessaries, they
suffered immensely. The settlement on Beaubair's Island in
the Miramichi — once in a thriving condition, and numbering
over a thousand souls — was carried oflf by pestilence and famine.
La Petite Eochelle, a settlement of some importance on the
Eestigouche, was destroyed by an English squadron under
Captain Byron in the summer of 1760. In the following year
the Indians entered into a treaty of peace with Governor
Belcher at Halifax. Father Manach, with a number of French
families from Miramichi, appeared at Fort Howe, on the St.
John, to take the oath of allegiance.

21. After the peace (1763), Oape Breton and the Island
of St. John were annexed to the Government of Nova Scotia.
An attempt was made to induce a party of disbanded soldiers
to settle on the Eiver St. John ; but so eager were the men in
Fort Frederick (which stood near the site of the ancient Fort
la Tour) to leave the country, that one hundred and fifty of them
abandoned it and made for Machias in two open boats. *fhe
military station at St. John was not so pleasant then as it after-
wards became. In this year James Simonds, James White,
and Francis Peabody, from Massachusetts, established a fishing-

;^''^i'

246

MAUG£RVILLi:.

station on the St. John harbour. Their houses and stores were
built near Portland Height, under the guns of Fort Howe. To
this fort parties coming from the woods were wont to haul for
protection the masts and spars they had cut.

22. When the restrictive colonial policy of the Imperial
Government provoked disorder and excited tumult in the

English colonies, existence was made unhappy to many

1766 people. The Government of Nova Scotia offered tracts

A.D. of land to Loyalist refugees. In 1 766, a party from the

parishes of Rowley, Andover, and Boxford in Massa-
chusetts, received a grant of land of twelve miles along the
River St. John. The settlement was called Maugerville, from
an island which bore the name of its grantee. Colonel Maugers.
The people came of Puritan stock, and professed the Presby-
terian faith. They escaped none of the trials incident to a
settlement in the wilderness. The Indians treated them as
intruders on the red man's domain. Their first scanty crops
failed, and they suffered excessive^ from the winter cold.
They were shut up by the ice and snow from all succour. The
warm breezes of spring came to their almost despairing hearts
like the whispers of hope ; and the arrival of a sloop from Box-
ford was hailed with gratitude as a deliverance sent by Heaven.

23. Two years afterwards (1768) all the Acadian French were
rwraoved from St. Anne's Point and from other places on the St.
John to Madawaska. Maugerville was erected into the county
of Sunbury, in which was included all the country betwecxx
the Bays of Fundy and Chaleur. Courts of justice were estab-
lished, and the sittings were held at Oromocto.

24. A survey of the Island of St. John^ was commenced by
Major Holland in 1764. It was found to contain 365,400 acres,
of which only 10,000 were computed to be unfit for settlement.
By order of Lord William Campbell, then Governor of Nova
Scotia, most of this fertile domain was, in one day, raffled away
in lots to officers of the army and navy, on the conditions that
they paid quit rents, and that they actually settled one person
to every two hundred acres. Many of the grantees sold, surren-
dered, or alienated their property, so that most of the land fell

' Itland qfSt. John. — Now l^riuce Edward Island.

THE ISLAND OF ST. JOHN.

247

into the hands of a few absentee proprietors. The prosperity of
the island was thus "stifled in the cradle of its exist-
ence." When its population numbered only five resi- 1769 / 7 7 ^
dent proprietors and one hundred and fifty families, a.d.
it was separated from Nova Scotia and made a dis-
tinct Government. The first General Assembly met in 1773.

Questions. — 1, What air did the
"old subjects" in Quebec assume?
What had induced some of these to
settle there ?

2. What was the general feeling of
the "new subjects" towards their
rulers? What oaths did they decline
to take ?

8. To what custom of English law
did the French Canadians object?
Why? How did the British population
regard trial by jury?

4. What question had the Govern-
ment to consider in dealing with their
French subjects?

5. For what was General Murray
called to account? What policy did
his successor adopt? Whose jurisdic-
tion did he abolish? How did con-
fusion arise in the administration of
justice?

6. What proposed remedy was fa-
voured by Governor Carleton? What
was the opinion of Hey and Maseres ?

7. What different views prevailed
regarding the best way of settling the
difficulties?

8. What was the chief objection of
British settlers to feudal tenure?

9. What parts of the French law were
not repugnant to the British ? What
portions affected them most seriously?

10. What were some of the hardships
of the marriage law?

11. Describe the system of secret
mortgages. For what remedy did the
British agitate? Why did the French
oppose it?

12. What was the effect of the Con-
quest on Canada, on the whole ? How
did it affectr agriculture and commerce?
What promise did the King seem loath
to fulfil? Why? What step was taken
in thi? direction in 1770?

13. What colonial policy had been
adopted soon a r the accession of
George III. ? What were the Naviga-
tion Laws? How had colonial mer-
chants treated them? To what did
their enforcement lead ? On what be-
sides were restrictions put?

14. When was the Stamp Act passed ?
Mention the subsequent events. How
was Boston punished for its "flat
rebellion"?

15. When was the Earl of Dart-
mouth's Bill introduced? What were
its main provisions? On what grounds
was it opposed ? By whom ?

16. What complaints did the British
Canadians make?

17. Whom was the new Constitution
calculated to please? When was the
Quebec Act passed? What other Act
was passed in the same year?

18. What causes retarded the settle-
ment of Nova Scotia? What was sug-
gested to Governor Lawrence as the
only means of establishing the Prov-
ince?

19. When and where did the first
General Assembly ever held on Do-
minion territory meet? Of whom did
it consist ? What Acts did it pass ?

20. Where did the French suffer
great calamities during the war ?

21. What islands were annexed to
the Government of Nova Scotia after
the war? Where was a fishing-station
established in 1763?

22. Who were the "Loyalist refugees"?
Who settled at Maugerville? What
trials did they encounter?

23. What changes were made in
1768?

24. How was the prosperity of the
Island of St. John checked? When
was it separated from Nova Scotia?

248

THE PHILADELPIIIA CONGRESS.

CHAPTER XXV.

THE BEVOLUTIONABT WAB.

1775 to 1800 A.D.

The Philadelphia Congress.
The " Gates of Canada" secured.
The Invasion.
General Montgomery.
Benedict Arnold threatens Quebec.
Montreal Abandoned.

Death of Montgomery at Quebec.
Naval flght on Lake Champlain.
Burgoyne's Surrender at Saratoga.
Sir Frederick Haidimand.
Fort Cumberland.
The last Bising of the Indians.

1. The history of the English Colonies was connected with
that of Canada from the earliest times. Their constant wars
with the French imbued them with a warlike spirit. They
gi'ew strong and attained manhood while Canada and Nova
Scotia were in their infancy. They were always self-reliant
and independent. For many years mutual jealousies had
. .. .J. tended to keep them apart. Now that a common
177r' ^^^S®^ threatened them, they hastened to unite.
^ jj War had commenced. The Battle of Lexington had
been fought when the Delegates of the Colonies met at
Philadelphia in May to pass an Act of Perpetual Union, to con-
sult over measures for the common safety, and to make a last
appeal to the King in defence of their liberties. They wished

to manage their own affairs in their own manner ; to

1 77 *? ^® freed from the domination of favourites and irrespon-

^ ^ sible officials ; to have the portals to place and position

thrown open to men of talent and energy, to whatever
family connection or religious sect they might belong ; to be
able to turn their labour to the best account ; to sail their
ships the wide ocean over, and to trade at every port, unfet-
tered by regulations or Navigation Acts. The English Col-
onies were destined to obtain, by war, bloodshed, and the
rupture of dear national ties, the objects which the British-
American Provinces have gained by comparatively peaceful
agitation, and without breaking away from their allegiance to
the Crown.

THE GATES OP CANADA.

24D

2. Tlie Philadelphia Oongress^ looked with alarm to the
foimdaiion of arbitrary government in Quebec, and to the ex-
tension of th*^ boundaries of that Province, that seemed to gird
the English Colonies with a line of despotism. It accounted
the Quebec Act as a threat to liberty, the last wrong of many
that the Colonies had received from the hands of the King.
The alarm was not without cause ; for Lord North ^ had uttered
a threat that the Imperial Government would give Governor
(now Sir Guy) Carleton authority to arm the Canadians, and to
carry war among them. Congress deemed that the wisest
course would be to take the offensive. It heard that there was
disaffection among the British population, and that the con-
tagion of liberty wi!8 spreading among the French Canadians.
An armed invasior. would, it thought, bring out many sym-
pathizers. Circular letters were addressed to the people of
Canada and Nova Scotia, calling upon them to unite against
the common tyrant, f\nd to join the standard of liberty.

3. While Congress was sitting, Colonels Benedict Arnold
and Ethan Allen seized Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and
thus secured an entrance by " the Gates of Canada." In the
course of the summer an invasion was determined on. About
the middle of September two parties of English colonial insur-
gents, numbering each a little over a thousand men, marched
upon Montreal and Quebec. The first party, under command
of General Schuyler, advanced by Lake Champlain ; the other,
under Colonel Arnold, made its way by the Kennebec and
Chaudiere rivers to the southern bank of the St. Lawrence.
Montreal was defended by Forts St. John's and Chambly on
the Richelieu. On heariug rumours of the threatened attack,
Governor Carleton, unconscious that the capital was in danger,
sent most of his regular troops to reinforce the garrison of St.
John's. General Schuyler fondly hoped that the Canadians
would rise and join him. He caused proclamations to be dis-
tributed, that set forth that he had come as a friend to restore
to them the rights of British subjects ; and that he had received

' The Philadelphia Congress. — This
was the second continental congress.
The first met (also at Philadelphia) in
1774.

' Lord North. — He was Prime Minis-
ter of England from 1770 till 1782,—
that is, during the whole period of the
Reyolutionary War.

ill

250

THE INVASION.

If* ;>'U

strict injunctions to cherish them, and t guard their property
sacredly. Many of the British ix>pulatiou were not proof
aii^aiuat his blandishments, for they were utterly discontented
with tlie arbitrary government that had been imposed ui)on
them. Schuyler, finding that St. J )hn's was too strong to be
carried by assault, left his force and went to Albany to bring
up reinforcements. He fell sick by the way, and the command
devolved on Colonel Richard Montgomery. Sixteen yeai-s
before, this officer had served under Wolfe, and he had ever
held that hero to be the pattern of all military virtues. Daring
in battle, gentle in peace, ever courteous to his comrades and
generous to fallen foes, Montgomery was beloved by his own
soldiers, and personally esteemed even by those who disapproved
of his course.

4. While he was detained before Chambly and St. John's,
Colonel Ethan Allen, with three hundred men, rashly attacked
Montreal, and was defeated and taken prisoner. He was sent
to England, loaded with ironw like a criminal. Elated by his
victory. Governor Carleton, with eight hundred men, deter-
mined to raise the siege of St. John's. Crossing the St.
Lawrence, he fell into an ambuscade on its southern bank, and
was driven in confusion to his boats by a party of "Green
Mountain Boys." In the meantime Chambly had fallen into
Montgomery's hands. He found there several cannons and a
quantity of gunpowder. He was thus enabled to direct a stronger
fire against the more important post, St. John's. On hearing
of Carleton's defeat its garrison capitulated. Montgomery
then advanced against Montreal, while his naval squadron took
up a position below it, in order to intercept the garrison should
it attempt to escape to Quebec,

5. Colonel Arnold had by this time (10th of November)
emerged from the wilderness. For thu-ty-six days his soldiers
had endured the extremities of fatigue and distress. When
rocks and shoal- water drove them from the course of the Ken-
nebec, thej'^ had carried their canoes over mountains and mor-
asses: in their dire hunger they had devoured dogs and gnawed
their shoes and cartridge-boxes. Ragged, foot-sore, hungry
and sick, they appeared at Point Levi, and threw Quebec
into a state of alarm. Their coming was so utterly unexpected,

i
I

MONTREAL ABANDONED. 251

that, if Arnold could have crossed the river at once, he might
have taken the city by surprise. Boats were not ready, so the
opportunity was lost. Three days afterwards he made his way
to the opf)osite sliore, and clambering up the rugged path by
which Wolfe had ascended, paraded his ragged force on the
Plains of Abraham. He found the cit}"^ too strong to be taken
by assault : he had no siege-guns. He descended the path
again, and afterwards made his way to Point aux Trembles,
eighteen miles up the northern bank, and encamped to await
the coming of Montgomery.

6. Governor Carleton, in Montreal, heard of the danger
that threatened Quebec. He resolved to concentrate his small
forces to defend that most important post. On the approach of
Montgomery, he ordered the garrison to withdraw to his ships.
Unfortunately, General Prescott. several officers, and a hundred
and twenty soldiers, were intercepted by the foe. Carleton
escaped. He was rowed, in the darkness of night, in a boat
with muffled oars, through the American squadron, and after a
perilous journey reached the capital. The inhabitants received
him with joyful demonstrations. The appearance of Arnold's
ragged and hungry rebels had alarmed the comfortable citizens
who had property to lose. Carleton expelled some of the mob
who had expressed sympathy for the insurgents' cause, put
the city in a state of defence, mustered 1,800 regulars, marines,
and militia, and awaited attack with confidence.

7. Montgomery met Arnold on the 1st of December. Great
was the joy of their meeting. What a contrast ^hese

two brave soldiers presented ! In the eyes of x,he ^ ,f *-
British both were rebels. But Montgomery gained ■'••••'
their esteem during his life, and their sympathy in his
death. The memory of his virtues was cherished by his grate-
ful adopted country. Arnold, selfish, unscrupulous, profligate,
earned, by betraying the trust reposed in him, the infamous
title of Traitor.

8. Montgomery, with nine hundred men and eight cannon,
descended from Point aux Trembles to besiege Quebec. Win-
ter had set in. The sufferings of his force were dreadful. For
a month he dire'^^^ed an unavailing fire against the fortifications.
The last day of the year arrived. His desperate situation

my'

262

ATTACK ON QUEBEC REPELLED.

Dec. 31,

1775

A.D.

prompted him to lake a desperate resolve. A double attack on
the lower town was made. At four in the morning, amid a
heavy fall of snow, Montgomery led a body of New Yorkers
along the road under Cape Diamond, over which were piled
great blocks of ice. The western gate was defended by
a barrier and a battery. The guards in the block -house,
alarmed by the confused murmui' made by the advanc-
ing foe, fled into the city. Montgomery helped to tear
away the pickets of the barrier. A Canadian militiaman, pluck-
ing up courage, returned to the battery and fired a cannon.
The random shot was fatal. Montgomery and two of his
cf&cers were killed, and the force hastily retreated. The
falling snow covered the dead bodies as with a shroud.

9. On the eastern side, Arnold crossed the St. Charles, and
entered the narrow street leading to the fortifications. A fire
of cannon and musketry swept it ; a shot struck him on the leg,
and he was borne to a place of safety by some of his men who
saw him fall. Captain Morgan, commander now, and a body
or Virginian riflemen, rushed forward, scaled the rampart ., and
entered the town through one of the embrasures. For hours,
amid the storming darkness, they maintained an uncertain con-
flict. When the gray dawn revealed to them their dangerous
situation, in the midst of a hostile town, and exposed to a
withering fire from the houses, their hearts sank, and they sur-
rendered.

10. Arnold, after this repulse, transferred his camp to a point
three miles above Quebec, and during the winter kept the city
in a state of blockade. Reinforcements reached him with the
breaking up of the winter ; but they were hardly suflicient to
replace his loss by siege and sickness. The arrival of General
Thomas to take the chief command, put him in a bad humour.
When navigation opened, English ships, bearing troops for
Quebec, appeared. While General Thomas was making prepa-
rations to break up his encampment, and to retire further up
the river, Carleton, v/ith one thousand men, made a sortie,
took a number of prisoners, and carried off great quantities
of stores. The Americans then retreated to Sorel. There
Thomas died, and General Sullivan, who had in the meantime
arrived with fresh forces, took the command.

THE SURRENDER AT SARATOGA.

253

11. During May and June British and Brunswick troops
continued to pour in, until Governor Carleton had thirteen
thousand men under his command. He now advanced to attack
the foe. The Americans abandoned Montreal and places west.
When Carleton crossed the St. Lawrence, they retreated slowly
from Sorel to St. John's, and then to Crown Point, out of
Canada. These movements took up all the summer and autumn.
On the 19th of October, two naval squadrons, under
Arnold and Carleton, had a fierce encounter at the 1776
head of Lake Champlain. Several of the American a.d.
vessels were captured by the British. Arnold, to escape

the disgrace of surrendering his fleet, drove his remaining ships
on shore, and set them on fire.

12. The war now receded from the boundaries of Canada.
Governor Carleton was ambitious to have an active military
command. He resigned his position, and returned to England.
He was dissatisfied because General Burgoyne,^ who had
served under him the year before, was appointed chief

of the army that assembled ^arly in spring in Mon- 1777
treal, to invade the State of New York, to capture a.d.
Albany, and hold possession of the line of the Hudson
River, with the view of cutting the rebellion in two and of
separating the New England States from those lying south of
them. Burgoyne advanced, prosperously at first, deep into
the country. The hardy militia of New York, Vermont, Con-
necticut, and Massachusetts, rushed to arms, swarmed around
the British army, and cut oflf its supplies. Defeated in the
battles at Stillwater on the Hudson, Burgoyne retreated to the
heights of Saratoga. Being completely surrounded, he surren-
dered ^ himself and six thousand soldiers to General Gates.

13. General Sir Frederick Haldimand, a soldier of severe
temper and unconcilia' r manners, succeeded Ca> V.tou. While
the revolutionary war lasted, emissaries from the American
States industriously disseminated seditious sentiments. Among
the habitans, the priests, clothed with the awful authority of

' Oeiieral Burgoyne. — After his dis-
aster, Burgoyne retun.sd to England,
and devoted himself to play-writing.
He died in 1792.

' Surrendered. — The surrender at
Saratoga decided the French to recog-
nize the independence of the United
States.

254

FORT CUMBERLAND

( .« wa

the Church, had more power than those preachers of revolution.
The French Canadians had had some experience of the manners
of the people of the revolted English Colonies, and they had
reason to believe their pastors, who said that small respect
would be paid to their national prejudices, their laws, and their
customs, if they were amalgamated, under one Government,
with that people. The time was rife with excitement and sus-
picion. It was dangerous to express the slightest sympathy
with the revolution. There was no protection against arbitrary
arrest and secret imprisonment. The stern rule of Haldimand
was repugnant to the British subjects ; it outraged all their
feelings of freedom.

14. During the war, the settlements on the coasts of Nova
Scotia were much exposed to the ravages of American privateers.
A party from Machias entered the harbour of the St. John, de-
stroyed Fort Frederick, and tired on Aie houses and stores of
Simon ds's fishery station. Emissaries of the Massachusetts
Government were active in endeavoaring to make converts to
the revolutionary cause. A number of the people of Mau-
gerviille were led astray to make an attack on Fort Cumber-
land.^ Foiled in the attempt to capture it, the party with whom
they acted seized a brig that was lying in the empty bed of the
Missignash, and, when the tide came in, sailed off with it. The
prize was sold at Machias. A lenient Government overlooked
the escapade of the Maugerville men on condition of their in-
demnifying the owner of the brig.

15. The Indians on the St. John and the Miramichi grew
restless and troublesome. At their war councils they medi-
tated an onslaught on the British settlements. They entered
into a treaty with the Government of Massachusetts, by which
they engaged to send six hundred warriors to fight for General
"Washington. In the spring a numerous party of Micmacs and

Milicetes, in their war-paint, appeared at the mouth

1778 of the Jemseg. They sent down the British flag to

A.D. Captain Studholme at Fort Home. In response to this

action, which was equivalent to a declaration of war, the
commandant sent an invitation to their principal chiefs to come

IF " ■■ ■ ■' - ■-■■■■ ' ■ ■■,^ — — ,., .1 I I ■■■ ■ ■■ ,1. ,,__ I. ■ I I — ly

* fort Ct^mherland, — Formerly Fort Beaus^joor,

THE LAST RISING OF THE INDIANS.

255

down to the fort and meet Mr. Franklin, the Government
agent for Indian affairs. Flattered, feasted, and loaded with
presents, they broke their promise to "Washington, and again
took the oath of allegiance to King George. The following
year they threatened to break their peace, but were pacified by
similar means. The Indians of Nova Scotia never again aa-
sr.med a hostile attitude.

Questions, — 1. When and where
was the first battle in the revolutionary
war fought? For what purpose did the
Delegates of the Colonies meet? What
were their claims? How were the same
objects gained by the British- American
ProvLices ?

2. How did the Colonies regard the
Quebec Act? What justified their
alarm ? On what step did Congress re-
solve?

3. By whom were " the Gates of
Canada" secured? What plan of in-
vasion was proceeded with ? Who suc-
ceeded Schuyler in the command ?

4. How did Allen's attack on Mon-
treal end? What led to the surrender
of St. John's?

5. Narrate the proceedings of Colonel
Arnold.

6. What plan of defence did Carleton
adopt? What personal risk did he run
in carrying it out ?

7 Where did Montgomery and Ar-

nold meet? Contrast the characters of
the two men.

8. On what undertaking did Mont-
gomery at once enter? Describe his
attack on the western gate of the city.

9. Describe Arnold's attack on tne
eastern side.

10. AVhere did Arnold transfer his
camp? What changes in the command
took place there ?

11. What forced the colonists to
withdraw? Where was there a fierce
naval encounter ? With what result?

12. Where was the war carried on in
1777? Who was the British com-
mander? What disaster overtook
him?

13. Who succeeded Carleton? Why
did the priests oppose the revolution?

14. What coasts were ravaged by
privateers during the war? Describe
the escapade of the Maugerville men.

16. What part did the Indians take
in the struggle?

•ii

til

256

THE SURKENDER AT YORKTOWN.

CHAPTER XXVI.

NEW BRUNSWICK.

1782 to 1790 A.D.

Close of the Revolutionary War.

The United Empire Loyalists.

The Treat: of 1783.

Boundaries.

Landing of the Loyalists.

New Brunswick.

Governor Thomas Carleton.

Frederickton.

Lord Dorchester, Governor-General.

State of Canada.

1. Events now happened that gave the British element in
Canada greater power, and forced some concessions to political
liberty from the King and his Ministry. The last great act of
the revolutionary war closed with the surrender of the British
army under Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown. This disgrace
enraged the nation, and aroused in the House of Commons
irresistible opposition to the continuance of the war. The stub-
born King was compelled to bow to the storm, and to allow his
rebellious subjects to depart.

2. General Sir Guy Carleton was appointed Commander-in-

Chief of the Royal Army in North America. He re-

1782 ceived instructions to promote peace. American and

A.D. English Commissioners soon afterwards met at Paris

to settle the preliminary articles, which were signed on
the 30th of November. The Independence of the Colonies was
acknowledged. The conclusion of the war on such a condition
was a severe blow to the Tory party — the Ijoyalists who had
fought for the King and for the unity of the Empire, and who
had staked their all on a different issue to the conflict. By the
preliminaries. Congress was bound earnestly to recommend the
Loyalists to the generous consideration of the governments and
peoples of the several States ; but it had no power to make its
recommendation effectual. A few generous champions pleaded
for amnesty to the vanquished. Nevertheless the tide of popu-
lar fury rose over the victims of the war ; in the local Assemblies
they were denounced as traitora to their country. The fate of
the Loyalists weighed heavily on the minds of the King and

THE PEACE OF PARIS.

257

the Ministry. The leading men in both Houses of Parliament
spoke on their behalf. The honour of the nation demanded
that they should not be left to suffer for their patriotism.
Among their number there was a large proportion of men of
talent and position, who had been possessed of great property, and
who had enjoyed private fortunes or the practice of a lucrative
profession. They found themselves, with their wives and fami-
lies, penniless, stripped of their possessions, and in the midst of
exasperated foes who threatened to take their lives. In these
circumstances the Loyalists could not live on expressions of
sympathy, or await the tardy action of Parliament. They
applied urgently to General Carleton for assistance. He, acting
on his own responsibility, resolved to carry them out of the
country, and to grant them lands in Nova Scotia and Canada.
General Haldimand in Quebec and Governor Parr in Nova
Scotia were instructed to make preparations to receive them.

3. The final treaty of peace was signed at Paris on the 3rd
of September. By it the Province of Quebec, as consti-
tuted in 1774, was stripped of the vast and fertile region Sept. 3,
between the Mississippi on the west and the Oliio in the 1783
south. The northern boundary of the American pos- a.d.
sessions was defined by a line drawn from a point — St.
Regis — in the 45th degree of north latitude, through the middle
of the River St. Lawrence and of the greai Lakes Ontario, Erie,
Huron, and Superior, and the Lake of the Wood**- In the east,
British and American territories were divided by the St. Croix
River, and by a line drawn from its source to the " highlands
dividing the waters falling into the Atlantic from those empty-
ing themselves into the St. Lawrence." This definition was
open to different interpretations, which gave rise in after years
to interminable discussions, and nearly brought on a war. The
first difficulty was to decide what river was the St. Croix of the
treaty. The Americans claimed that the Magaquadaric, the
British that the Schoodiac, was the true St. Croix. The decision
was given (1798) in favour of the British, and it was then de-
termined that the line to "the highlands" should be drawn
from the sourca of the northern branch of that river. The
greater difficulty of detennining the situation of "the high-
lands " remained. The British defined them to be certain de-

1478) 17

258

THE DISPUTED TERRITORY.

! -.^

.j...

taclied heights running westwaid from Mars Hill ; the Ameri-
cans maintained that the high ridges running from Cape

Eosieres — thirty miles, on an
average, from the left bank
of the St. Lawrence — to the
north-west branch of the
Connecticut River were the
true highlands. The article
of the treaty respecting the
boundaries was framed with
the view of leaving within
the territory of each country
its great rivers and their
ramifying branches. The
British held that by the
spirit of this article they
were justified in maint-ain-
iug their claim, as the
country was watered by the
Aroostook, Allagash, and
MAP OF DISPUTED TEKRiTOKY, Walloostook, which wcrc

Showing Boumiarie-s claimed by the United States fviVkiif OT^iaa nf i-Vta m^aai- Sf
and by tireat Britain from 1783, and the line settled triUUiariCS OI lUC glCdl >3X.
by the Ashburton Treaty in 1842. J^hu^^ which, without a

doubt, took its rise and flowed through their territory. The
country in question was called, and long remained, the Dis-
puted Territory.

4. By the treaty of 1783 the Americans were accorded the
right to fish on all the banks and on the coasts of Newfound-
land, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and on the coasts and in the
bays and creeks of all the British- American possessions ; and to
cure and dry fish in the unsettled bays and harbours of Nova
Scotia, Magdalen Islands, and Salvador. The Americans were
never willing to relinquish these extensive privileges after they
had once enjoyed them. The fisheries became, in the courae
of time, an even more irritating subject of dispute than the
boundaries.

5. Early in the year the exodus of the United

1783 Empire Loyalists commenced. Ten thousand found

A.D. their way to Canada. The lands assigned to them

THE UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS.

259

were situated west of Montreal, around the Bay of Quintd, and
along the northern shore of Lake Ontario. Great changes
now took place in Nova Scotia. Before the final treaty, the
Loyalists of New York and New Jersey sent forward agents to
explore the country. In their imagination they had pictured
it to be a region of perpetual cold and frequent fog. Favour-
able accounts reached them of the aspect of the land on the St.
John and the Kennebecasis. Several parties settled themselves
about Halifax, Annapolis, and Port Eoseway, where the town
of Shelburne was built ; but the main body crossed the Bay of
Fuudy. On the 18th of May the ships from New York arrived
m the harbour of St. John. The prospect before those on board
might have deepened the impression of the sacrifice that they
had made for king and country. They might have seen, through
a melancholy fog, on the right a promontory of rock, covered
with thickets of cedar and spruce to the water's edge ; on their
left the (Carleton) heights, a few fishermen's huts upon the
rocks, and the ruins of Fort Frederick on the strip of land
round which the river makes its abrupt turn ; and before them
the elevated post of Fort Howe, and close to it a block-house, a
wood-yard, and a fev houses and stores.

6. The Loyali ' ^ lauded at the upper cove. Rude huts had
been erected fc ohe accommodation of the destitute families.
In the beginning of November seventy-four refugees from
Maryland arrived to swell the number. They had escaped
from the wreck of the Martha^ a ship of the September fleet that
sailed from New York for Quebec with eight thousand of the
expatriated people. Governor Parr gave his name to the settle-
ment. Parrtown, in its earlier days, must have presented a
strange scene of combined misery, bustle, work, and political ex-
citement.

7. The Loyalists did not agree very well with the original
settlers. They grew angi-y with the Governor because their
grants of land had not been surveyed. He, in his turn, re-
proached them for refusing to help on the work of surveying,
by acting as chain-men, unless they were well paid. Then they
claimed representation in the Assembly. Nova Scotia was then
divided into eight counties, with thirty-six representatives.
The County of Halifax included Canso, Cape Breton, and the

260

NEW BRUNSWICK.

couiitry between the St. Croix and the St. John (vvliere several
Loyalist families had settled) and along the Gulf of St. Law-
rence. Parr opposed the claim to representation on the strength
of a clause of the Royal Instructions to him as Governor,
which forbade the increase or the diminution of the number of
the members of Assembly. A party was then formed among
the Loyalists who raised the question of dividing Nova Scotia
into two Provinces. The discussion produced a good deal of ex-
citement and ill feeling. The Governor was much opposed lo the
movement, and caused some of the leaders to be transferred to
the other side of the Bay in the hope of settling the agitation.

8. The Loyalists of St. John had powerful friends in

England. The division was liiade. The Province

1784 of New Brunswick was created, and the River Mis-

A.D. signash was constituted the boundary between it and

Nova Scotia. At the same time Cape Breton was made
a separate government. On Sunday, the 21st of November,
Colonel Thomas Carleton, (brother of Sir Guy,) the first Gover-
nor of New Brunswick, arrived in St. John harbour, and landed
at Reed's Point. He had commanded a regiment during the
revolutionary war, and was much esteemed by His Majesty's
exiled Loyalists. The Province was formally proclaimed the
next day.

9. The Government of New Brunswick consisted of a Gover-
nor and a Council, that united both executive and legislative
functions, and a House of Assembly of twenty-six representa-
tives. The Council was composed of twelve members. They
were men of great talent, and had occupied, before the war, posi-
tions of influence in their native States. Chief- Justice Ludlow
had been a Judge in the Supreme Court of New York ; James
Putnam was considered one of the ablest lawyers in all
America ; the Reverend and Honourable Jonathan Odell, first
Provincial Secretary, had acted as chaplain in the Royal Army,
practised physic, and written political poetry; Judge Joshua
Upham, a graduate of Harvard, abandoned the Bar during the
war, and became a colonel of dragoons ; Judge Isaac Allen had
been colonel of the second battalion of the New Jersey Volun-
teers, and lost an estate in Pennsylvania through his devo-
tion to the Loyalist cause ; Judge Edward Winslow, nephew

ST. JOHN : FUEDERICKTON.

261

of Colonel John Winslow who executed the decree that expelled
the Acadians from Nova Scotia, had attained the rank of colonel
in the Koyal Army ; Beverley Robinson had raised and com-
manded the Loyal American Kegiment, and had lost gieat
estates on the Hudson Kiver; Gabriel G. Lndlow had com-
manded a battalion of Maryland volunteers ; Daniel Bliss had
been a commissary in the Royal An .y. Abijah WiUard had
taken no active part in the war. He was one of fifty-five
gentlemen who petitioned Sir Guy Carleton to grant them each
a field-marshal's allowance of land (5,000 acres), on account of the
great respectability of the position that they had held. William
Hazen and Gilfred Studholme \/ere settled in the Province
before the landing of the Loyalists. Judge John Saunders, of
a Cavalier family in Virginia, had been captain in the Queen's
Rjiugers under Colonel Simcoe, and had afterwards entered the
Temple and studied law in London. He was appointed to the
Council after the death of Judge Putnam. The government
of the young Province was conducted with very few changes
for several years.

10. The town and district of Parr was incorporated in 1785,
and became the city of St. John. It was the first, and long
coniinued to be the only, incorporated town in British North
America. It was governed by a Mayor and a board of six Alder-
men and six assistants. The first two sessions of the First
Geueral Assembly (1786-7) met in St. John. On meet-
ing the Legislature at its first session, Governor Carle- 1786
ton expressed his satisfaction at seeing the endeavours a.d.
of His Majesty to procure for the inhabitants the pro-
tection of a free government in so fair a way of being finally
successful. He spoke of the peculiar munificence that had been
extended to New Brunswick, the asylum of loyalty to all the
neighbouring States; and expressed his conviction that the
people could not show their gratitude in a more becoming
manner than by promoting sobriety, industry, and religion ; by
discouraging all factions and party distinctions ; and by incul-
cating the utmost harmony between the newly-arrived Loyalists
and the subjects formerly settled in the Province.

11. Two years afterwards the seat of government 1788
was removed to St. Anne's Point, Frederickton, a.d

262

LORD DOlU'llKSTEU GOVERNOU-GENEHAL.

Em*

fir:-:

[;IS

which was considered the most ceutrai position in the Province,
It is siiid that Frederickton was chosen to be the seat of
government because Albany — the seat of the Legislature of
New York (from which State the great body of the Loyalists
came) — is situated many miles up the Eiver Hudson, and is
tlius removed from the distracting bustle, the factions, and cor-
rupting influences of the great commercial metropolis at its
mouth.

12. In Canada, after the arrival of the Loyalists, dissatis-
faction with its form of government increased. When British
subjects saw the people of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, an<l
the Island of St. John, enjoying politiail privileges from which
they were debarred, they naturally came to hate more and more
the arbitrary government under which they lived. It was dis-
tasteful to the more intelligent French Canadians. Some change
was necessary to give contentment. The unpopular Haldimand
was recalled at his own request. Before the coming of his suc-
cessor the government was administered first by Hon. Henry
Hope, and afterwards by Colonel Hamilton.

13. In those days the colonial policy of the Imperial Govern-
ment divided the Crown territory in British America into a
number of separate Provinces. They could thus, it wan thought,
be governed more easily. The immense extent of the country,
the sparseness of the settlements, and the difficulty of inter-
communication made such subdi\ isions almost necessary. The
fact that they were bound together by one common allegiance

and interest was recognized. Sir Guy Carleton, who

1787 w^s created Lord Dorchester, was appointed Governor-

A.D. General of all the Provinces, and Commander-in-Chief

of all Forces in British America. The Captains-General
of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were named Lieuten-
ant-Governors. The advantages that union would give were
then seen. Governor Thomas Carleton, in addressing the Legis-
lat^ire this year, argued that New Brunswick (and all th«
Provinces) "would acquire greater strength to overcome ob-
stacles in the path of its growth and prosperity as the relations
between the sister colonies grew more intimate, and as their
interests were more closely entwined."

14. Lord Dorchester had shown himself a true friend, both to

STATE OF CANADA.

2G3

the Freucli CaiiudiaiiH, and to the United Empire Lcyaliatft who
now formed the greater part of tlie British population. No
inau was better qualified to unite them iu political liarmony
under one government. The task was one of extreme difficulty,
the antagonism of races was so strong. The pretensions of
French and Englirih to govern Canada by their own laws were
(to use M. de Calli^res' phrase) incompatible with peace. Until
an adjustment of the difficulties could be made, some conces-
sions were granted to the British, to allay the existing discon-
tent. Trial by jury in civil cases was introduced, and the Habeas
Corpus Act was restored. The Governor-General caused reporCa
on the state of education, the administration of justice, and
commerce, to be drawn up, for the information of the British
Parliament in legislating upon the future government of the
Province. He divided the great western country into the four
districts of Lunenburg, Hesse, Nassau, and Mecklenburg. Their
population consisted of Loyalists, disbanded soldiers, and
Americans who crossed the line a few years after the peace.
They were the pioneers of a great Province that was soon to
spring out of the wilderness. They found themselves in a
forest, unbroken save by the clearings they had made. Settle-
ment was isolated from settlement. The roads were mere Indian
trails and bridle-paths. There were no bridges, and no schools.
The zealous missionaries, — Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Metho-
dist, — labouring hard in their holy vocation, travelled from
})lace to place.

Questions. — 1. What event closed
the revolutionary war in America?

2. To whom was the conclusion of
the war a severe blow? Why? How
were they treated in the local Assem-
blies? To whom did they appeal?
What did he determine to do?

3. When was the final treaty of peace
signed? What vast territory did th-j
Province of Quebec lose? What was
the northern boundary assigned to the
United fc'tates? What difference was
settled in 1798? What difficulty re-
mained?

4. What fishing rights were granted
to the Americans in 1783 ?

5. When did the exodus of the United
Empire Loyalists commence? How

many went to Canada? What lands
were assigned to them? Where did
the main body of those from New York
and New Jersey go? What prospect
awaited them at St. John ?

6. Where did they land? By whom
were they joined in November ? Whose
name was given to the settlement?

7. What differences arose between
the Loyalists and the original settlers?
On what ground did Parr oppose the
Claim to representation? What ques-
tion was then raised ?

8. What new Province was then cre-
ated? What colony was at the same
time made a separate governmerit?
Who was the first Governor of New
Brunswick ?

204

QUESTIONS.

0. Of what did the Oovernment con-
Biat? Name the members of the first
Council. What positiona had they held
before the war ?

10. When did Parrtown become St.
John? How was it governed? Where
did the House of Assembly Iiold its first
and second sesaiona? How did the
Governor express himself on first meet-
ing it?

11. When was the aeat of government
removed to Fredericlcton ? Why ?

12. What increased the dissatisfac-
tion in Canada? What change in the
governorship took place ? t

13. Why waa British America divided
into aeparate Provincea? Who was
appointed Governor-General ? On wliat
ground were the different coloniea urged
to maintain intimate relationa with one
another?

14. What difficult task lay before
Lord Dorchester? What wjre his quali-
fications for undertaking it? What
concessions were made to the British
colonists? Why? How did he deal
with the great weatern country? Of
whom did its population chiefly con-
sist? What waa its condition at that
time?

THK FUENCII K EVOLUTION.

2G5

CHAPTER XXVII.

THE CONSTITUTIONAL ACT.

1791 to 1798 A.D.

The French Rei^olution.
fox and Burke.
Earl Granville's Act,
Upper and Lower Canada.
The Constitution.

The Meeting of the two Legislatures.

Governor Simcoe at York,

Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and

Navigation.
Affairs in Lower Canada,

1. In 1791 the state of Canada came under the consideration
of the Imperial Parliament. A Bill to divide the country into
two Provinces was introduced by Earl Grenville in the House
of Lords. In the seventeen years since the passing of the
Quebec Act of 1774, gieat political changes had taken place in
the New as in the Old World. The English Colonies had fought
their way to independence, and, as the United States, had as-
sumed rank among the nations. Their example had given an
impulse to the Revolution in France. Europe was now in the
throes of that mighty event. It was creating intense feeling in
the British people, and among large classes was exciting a dread
of republican principles. Charles Fox^ and Edmund Burke*
had voted side by side against the Quebec Act of 1774. Now
they were estranged. Fox had repeatedly expressed his ad-
miration of the French Revolution. Burke had as often de-
nounced it with the full force of his eloquence. He now stood
alone, separated from the Liberal party, the Whigs. His lios
tility to the Revolution became almost a mania. When the
Canada Bill was discussed in the House of Commons, he com-
menced a speech upon it by a violent philippic against repub-
lican principles and the government of France. He wound up
by declaring, that if by adhering to the British Constitutiou he

* Fox. — Charles James Fox, the
great rival of William Pitt (the young-
er), was bom in 1749; died, a few
months after Pitt, in 1806. He was one
of the most powerful orators of modem
times.

^ Burke. — Edmund Burke, born at
Dublin, 1728; died 1797. He was a
distinguished author as well as a great
orator. Chief worlcs: "Essay on the
Sublime and Beautiful," and "Reflec-
tions on the French Kevolution."

266

EARL GRENVlLtZ S ACT.

would cause his friends to deserc him, he would risk all, and,
as his pubHc duty taught him, exclaim in his last words, '* Fly
f ^-om the French Constitution." " There is no loss of friend-
ship, I hope," said Fox, sotto voce. " Yes," retorted Burke ;
" there is loss of friendship. I know the price of my conduct
Our friendship is at an end." A scene such as is seldom wit •
nossed in Parlinment followed this outburst. Members weie
visibly affected by the open rupture between those two cele-
brated statesmen. Fox shed tears, and it was some time before
he could sufficiently master his emotion to reply.

2. By Earl Grenville's Act, commonly called the
_ Constitutional Act, Canada wiis divided into the two
Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada ; and the line of

A.D.

Woi.'^^^^^R

UPPER AND LOWER CANADA.

division between them wps rlrawn from Point au Baudet, on
the :>orthern bank of Lake St. Francis, due north to Point For-
tune on the Ottawa, and along the course of that river to
Lake Temiscaniing, and thence to the southern boundary
of the Hudson Lay Territory. Upper Canada was constituted
an entirely British ProviiiCe. The whole body of the En^i^lish
Law w^as introduced. Lands were held on the freehold tenure.
Lo^^er Canada remained Irench. The Feudal Tenure r>nd
French Civil Law were retained. The option of holding newlj-
granted lands on a freehold tenure was allowed, subject to

THE CONSTITUTION.

267

modification by Acts of the Legislature. The Criminal law of
England and the Habeas Corpus Act were introduced into both
Provinces.

3. The British population strongly objected to the division
of Canada. The object of the separation, as avowed by
William Pitt,^ was to avoid forcing on the French Canadians
laws and customs to which they were adverse, but gradually to
assimilate them " to the manners, habits, language, and consti-
tution of Great Britain." It was maintained that the separa-
tion would tend to strengthen national prejudices, and to bring
the two sections into collision. The British merchant class
opposed the division on the ground that it would place the
commerce of Upper at the mercy of Lower Canada. There
was no port above Montreal, as ships could not ascend further
on account of the rapids, and they coald only gain access to the
sea by the St. Lawrence, which ran through the territory of the
Lower Province. All the imports and exports of Upper Canada,
the merchants said, would have to be entered at the port of
Montreal or Quebec, and be subjected to such duties and regu-
lati ns as the Legislature of Lower Canada might think proper
to impose.

4. In each Province a Legislature of three branches — Gover-
nor, Legislative Council, and General Assembly — was estab-
lished. The Governor was appointed by the Crown, and was
responsible to it. He carried out the instructions of the Im-
perial Government, transmitted to him in despatches from the
Colonial Office, Downing Street. The members of the Legis-
lative Council received their appointments from the Crown,
and held their seats nominally during pleasure, but practically
for life. William Pitt at first contemplated the creation of an
order of hereditary noblesse, to hold a similar position in the
Colonial to that of the aiistocracy in the British Constitution.
Fox ridiculed \b idea. He said that there was not in Canada,
or in the other Provinces, a permanent class of great landholders
from which a privileged order could be formed ; and that the
attempt to establish one Tould excite jealousy, and cause the

* Pi«.— William Pitt (the yrnnger),
second son of the Earl of Ciathara •
born 1759 ; died lli\JQ. He was C >ni;«i

lor of the Exchequer in his tweniy-
foAirth year, and Prime Minister in his
twenty-fifth.

2C8

THE CONSTITUTION.

■'J

people to institute an unfavourable comparison between the form
of government under which they lived and that of the neigh-
bouring Republic. In making a Constitution for Canada,
Edmund Burke held that it was of importance that its people
should have nothing to envy in the Constitution of a country so
near their own. Though an hereditary noblesse was not cre-
ated, the members of the Legislative Council constituted them-
selves, in spirit, into a privileged order. They were mostly
J udges and officials holding places of emolument from the Crown,
and quite independent of the people. Objections were raised
at the very finst to a Legislative Council composed and ap-
pointed in that manner. It was said that it would be subser-
vient to the power that created it, and that it would not main-
tain that independent position which it ought to hold between
the representatives of the Crown and the representatives of the
People. Fox suggested that the best way to obtain an inde-
pendent Legislative Council was to make it elective ; but, at
the same time, to raise the qualifications both of the persons
offering themselves for election and of those who elected them,
above the qualifications demanded from candidates for the
Legislative Assembly and from their electors.

5. The Members of the Legislative Assembly were the
representatives of the people. Persons qualified to vote elected
them to serve a certain term. In Canada a House lasted
four years, unless it was sooner dissolved by the Governor, iu
whom was vested the prerogative, to be exercised according to
his die "etion. The Assembly, in conjunction with the Legis-
lative Council, made the laws ; the assent of the Governor was
necessary before they became operative Acts. The Assembly
had power to raise a revenue for the support of roads, bridges,
schools, and other public services.

6. The Governor had a body of advisers called the Execu-
tive Council. Its members were salaried officials under the
Crown, and Judges, and they generally held seats in the Legis-
lative Council. The duties of this body were not very well de-
fined. They held that they were not accountable either to the
Governor or to the Assembly for their acts. A Governor
might be removed on petition of the Assembly to the Imperial
Government, but his advisers wet'e beyond its reach. A Gov-

THE SPEAKERSHIP 11? LOWFIc CANADA.

209

ernor, on couiiug to the Province, was necessarily unacquainted
with its affairs ;' he had to rely on his Executive Council for
information. It is not extraordinary that in some cases he saw
with their eyes and judged according to their judgment. He
might be recalled, if he acted harshly or injudiciously ; but
his advisers held their seats in contempt of censure.

7. By the " Constitutional Act" provision was made for the
support of a Protestant Clergy. The land granted by the
Crown for settlement was divided into townships. In each
township a quantity of land, equal to a seventh, was reserved
for the Clergy ; another seventh was retained by the Crown.
By these land reservations the Act laid the ground for great
trouble in the future.

8. The new Constitution of the Canadas was inaugurated in
1792. In the absence of Lord Dorchester, Colonel Alured
Clarke was appointed Governor of Lower Canada. The Legis-
lature met on the 17th of December, in the Episcopal Palace,
Quebec. The Legislative Council was composed of fifteen
members, the Legislative Assembly of fifty members — knights,
citizens, and burgesses — of whom sixteen were of British origin.
On the first meeting of the Assembly an important question
was decided. It was necessary to appoint a Speaker, the officer
who presides over the Assembly and controls its debates. By
a vote of twenty-eight to eighteen, M. Panet, who could speak
no language but his native French, was chosen. A rule was
iiiade which prescribed the use of both the English and the French
language in debate, and in recording the proceedings of the
Assembly in its journals. The French Canadians never aban-
doned the position they took in defence of their nationality, on
the question of the election of Speaker : the futility of the hope
expresiied by William Pitt, that they would be gradually as-
similated to the language of Great Britain, was proved. Their
addresses to the Governor, in the first session of the Legislature,
were replete with sentiments of gratitude and loyalty to their
good King George III. The session lasted three months, and
the principal work done was the forming of rules and regu-
lations. The majority of the members of Assembly were as
yef, unused to the proceedings of a deliberative oudy. The
mass of the habitans at first viewed the Assembly as a sort of

H^f . -v..

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270

GOVERNOR SIMCOE AT YORK.

machine invented in order to tax them. When a call was made
on them to elect representatives, they considered it as a mandate
to be obeyed, and not as a privilege to be enjoyed. They looked
upon their representatives as officers clothed with authority
whom they were bound to obey.

9. Colonel John Graves Simcoe was appointed Governor
of Upper Canada. He had commanded the Queen's Virginian
Rangers during the Revolutionary War. He was a good old
Tory, who upheld the union of Church and State, and was in
favour of establishing the Church of England in the Province
as a means of maintaining ranks in society. The Legislature
met on the 17th of September in the town of Newark on the
Niagara River. It was on a small scale. In the Legislative
Council there were seven, and in the Assembly sixteen members.
The foundation of the Constitution was laid by the enactment
of the English Criminal and Civil Law. Means for the ad-
ministration of justice were provided. The names of the four
districts were changed into Western, Eastern, Home, and Mid-
land. Newark, being situated close to the American frontier,
was considered an ineligible site for the seat of Government.
Simcoe proposed to remove the capital west to the River
Thames. Lord Dorchester recommended the choice of Kings-
ton, the ancient Cataracoui. As a compromise, York,^ on the
noi-th- western shore of Lake Ontario, was selected. The country
was then a complete wilderness ; but so eager was the Governor
to occupy the new capital, that he removed to the site before a
house was erected, and lived in a large canvas tent. The
Queen's Rangers accompanied him ; aud the men were em-
ployed in opening up the northern road — Yonge Sti eet- -to Lake
Simcoe. It was not the fortune of the Governor ^.o open the
first session of the Legislature held in York (1798), as he was
removed to the government of San Domingo.

10. When Lord Dorchester returned to Lower Canada the as-
l)ect of affairs abroad was lowering. Terrible scenes were being
enacted in France. The head of Louis XVI. had fallen beneath
the guillotine amid the ribald jeers of a populace drunk with
blood. The Reign of Terror was at its height. The Kings

* York. — NowToronta

.,,J'fpi'\

TREATY WITH THE UNITED STATES. 271

had mustered their forces to crush Liberty in its cradle. The
revolutionary Jacobin Government had sent forth armies
to do battle against them. It had declared war against ^nko
England. In the United States the sympathy with the ■■■••'"
republican cause in France was strong ; against Eng-
land the feeling was bitter. M. Genet, minister from France,
sought to embroil the country in the strife and gain an ally.
President Washington resente*^ the course he took, and de-
manded his recall from the French Government, and used all
his great influence to turn the tide of passion into the channel
of peace. The following year a Treaty of Amity, Commerce,
and Navigation was concluded between the United States and
Great Britain. A great danger was thus averted. Attempts
were made by agents from France to sap the loyalty of the
French Canadians ; but their allegiance to the " best of Sov-
ereigns" remained unshaken. A son of George III., Edward,
Duke of Kent,^ at tnis time held military command in
Quebec. Addresses glowing with loyalty were presented to
him by the Legislature, the clergy, and the inhabitants of the
cap .al, and of Montreal and Three Rivers. In answering
them, the Prince discountenanced the distinction made between
" old" and " new" subjects ; British and French, he said, were
equally the King's Canadian subjects.

11. Lord Dorchester, whose connection with Canada had com-
menced at the Conquest, finally left the country in 1796. He
was succeeded by General Prescott. Emissaries from France
continued to mingle among the habitans, and attempted to in-
struct them orally in the doctrines of the Revolution. Procla-
mations were put forth by the Governor-General to warn the
people not* to listen to insidious disseminators of false prin-
ciples ; but their best safeguard was their obedience to the
instructions of the priesthood. The mass of the people of Lower
Canada, when left alone, remaine4 contented and happy ; but
their leaders and representatives were dissatisfied with the rule
of a Government which excluded them from itlaces of power,
honour, and emolument. The members of the Legislative and
Executive Councils wero, with very few exceptions, British.

' Duke of K^nt— The father of Queen Victoria.

if?

272

DIFFICULTIES IN LOWER CANADA.

!!l!i!

In the Legislative Aftsombly the case was revei'seJ ; there the
British were a small minority. The diflFerence "between the in-
terests of the two sections of the population gave rise to dis-
putes. The British objected to the imposition of duties upon
articles imported into the Province, for the purpose of raising a
revenue to defray the expense of building jails and court-
houses. Commerce, they exclaimed, ought not to be taxed for
local works, but the cost of their construction should be met
by direct taxation. The agitation of such questions caused ill
feeling, which was imbittered by the invectives of the press.
The Canadien, the French organ, sneered at the British as " in-
truders and strangers ;" the English Mercuries and Gazettes held
up the customs, habits, and laws of the Canadians to ridicule,
and contemned them " as an inferior race."

3l JFI,,,

Questions. — 1, What Bill affecting
Canada was introduced in the House of
Lords in 1791 ? What great event was
being transacted in Europe at the time?
What was the cause of the rupture be-
tween Fox and Burke? Describe the
scene.

2. What was the boundary between
Upper and Lower Canada fixed by the
Constitutional Act? What differences
were made in the Constitution of the
two Provinces?

3. On what ground did the British
population object to the division of
Canada? On what ground did the
merchants of Upper Canada object to
it?

4. Of what did the Legislature in
each Province consist? How were the
members of the Legislative Council
appointed? What was Pitt's first idea
regarding it? What view was taken by
Fox? What by Burke? What objec-
tion was taken to the Council from the
first? What plan did Fox suggest for
obtaining an independent Council ?

5. What was the popular element in
the Constitution? How long did a
House last? Who had the power of
dissolving It? What special powers
had the Assembly ?

6. What was the Executive Council?

What was remarkable in the post-
tion of its members ?

7. For what clergy was support pro-
vided by the Constitutional Act?
What were the land reservations?

8. When and where did the Legisla-
ture of Lower Canada meet for the first
time? Of how many members did the
Assembly consist? How many were of
British origin? What was the first im-
portant question decided? What is
the peculiar significance of the decision
arrived at? In what light did the
people regard the Assembly ?

9. Who was appointed Governor of
Upper Canada ? When and where did
the Legislature meet? How was the
foundation of the Constitution laid?
Why was the seat of Government re-
moved from Newark to York ?

10. What attempts were made to em-
broil America in the European strife?
How did Washington act? What
treaty was concluded in 1794? How
did the Canadians evince their loyalty?

11. Who succeeded Lord Dorchester
as Governor-General ? A'v hy were the
leaders of the people in Lower Canada
dissatisfied? To what did the British
specially object? How was the ill
feeling caused by these disputes im-
bittered?

NOVA SCOTIA.

273

CHAPTER XXVIII.

THE SISTER FBOVINCES. (1783 to 1800 A.D.)
SIGNS OF YTAR, (1807 to 1811 A.C.)

Nova Scotia.

Impeachment of the Judges.
Sir Joiin Wentwortli.
Edward, Duke of Keut.
Prince Edward Island.
Legislative Disputes in New Bruns-
Vfick.

Members' pay.

Governor T. Carleton's Administra-
tion.
Hostile feeling in tlio United States.
The Right of Search.
Change of Governors.
Beign of Terror in Lower Canada.

1. During the ten years from the cL^se of the Americau
Revolutionary War till the commencement of the

French War, Nova Scotia was not free from inter- 1783-93
nal strife. Its population was of various origins. a.d.
It included the English, who founded Halifax ; the
Germans and the Dutch, who settled in Lunenburg ; the New
Eiiglanders who came in before the American Revolution; a
remnant of the Acadians who returned in 1763, and made settle-
ments on the Minudie, in Clare, and about Yarmouth ; and last,
but not least, the United Empire Loyalists. The Loyalists
were in high favour with the King, and among them were
men of consideration, education and talent, who assumed the
lead in society. Divisions arose between them and the "old
inhabitants," as the first English settlers were called. Some
Loyalist lawyers, members of the Assembly, created consider-
able excitement by impeaching two old Judges — Deschamps
and Brenton — for maladministration of justice. Governor
Parr and his Council declared them innocent; but as the
Judges were themselves of the Council that pronounced the ex-
culpation, Parr laid himself open to the charge of haviixg been
biased by "evil and pernicious councillors." He submitted
the case to the British Privy Council, an 1 was supported in the
action he had taken. This decision quieted the excitement
without restoring confidence in the impartiality of the Bench.

2. Governor Parr died in 1791, and was succeeded by Sir
Jolin Wentworth, Surveyor-General of His Majesty'y Woods

(473) 18

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274

SIR JOHN WENTWORTH.

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in British America. The new Governor plumed himself on his
accurate knowledge of the country. In his opinion Nova Scotia
was equal in resources to many, and superior to most, countries.
He administered its government for sixteen years. Sir John
might have sat for the portrait of a Loyalist Tory Governor.
His principles were similar to those held by many Governors be-
fore the era of responsible government. He was an accomplished
man, and amiable in private life. He was sincerely desirous to
mak*^ N wa Scotia prosperous and happy. He was a strict up-
holder of the prerogative of the Crown, and of the principle of
aristocracy as represented by the Legislative Council ; and he held
that the peace, prosperity, and attachment of the British Ameri-
can Colonies depended upon the right selection of the membei-s
of the Council, and on the rank which they held among them-
selves and in society. The persons whom he recommended to
the Colonial Office as fit to be appointed were, in several cases,
closely related to himself ; and some were Englishmen — officers
holding appointments under the Crown — who had little knowl-
edge of the Province, and little real interest in its welfare.
Sir John was a stanch upholder of the Church of England, and
boasted that it had no better friend. Through his influence,
and for its benefit. King's College, Windsor, was founded,
with endowments from the Crown and the Province ; and the
students of all other denominations were excluded from it by
its religious tests. Sir John disliked the expression of any
opinion in the Assembly that had the least tendency to create
dissatisfaction with the existing state of things — it disturbed
the beautiful harmony of the British Constitution. He marked
the man who became a leader in the Assembly, and used his
influence to stop his promotion. Ha hated to see people meet-
ing in public to discuss any question — the idea of revolution
ever occurred to his n;ind on any manifestation of popular
feeling.

3. Nova Scotia was more affected by the war with France
than any of the other Provinces. The people on its coasts were
exposed to sudden attacks from French privateers. The danger
raised up a military spirit : every man capable of bearing arms
joined rhe militia ; and, in addition, the Royal Nova Scotia Regi-
ment, of which the Governor was colonel, was raised. The

DISI'UTESIN NEW BRUNSWICK.

275

j)eo])le of Hiilifax were brought into close contact with tJie power
of England — Chedabucto Harbour was the rendezvous of her
mighty fleetu. The streets of the town were often crowded
with regiments of her " red-coats " and parties of her rollicking
" tars." A great deal of her money was expended in the Prov-
ince, and trade was consequently brisk.

4. The Duke of Kent, Commander of the Forces, left Quebec
(1794), and made Halifax his head-quarters. He was a strict
disciplinarian. His presence sustained the martial spirit of the
Province. The residence of a " prince of the blood " gave im-
portance to it, and added lustre to the gaiety of the society of
its capital. Governor Wentworth had a retreat on Bedford
Basin — " Friar Lawrence's Cell." The Cell was improved, and
became the Prince's Lodge, and there the Duke of Kent dis-
pensed his splendid hospitality. He manifested much interest
iu the welfare of Nova Scotia and the other Provinces.

In compliment to him St. John was named Prince 1799
Edward Island. The following year the royal Duke a.d.
finally left Halifax for England.

5. In New Brunswick, soon after the seat of government had
been removed to Frederickton, the question of the appropriation
of the revenues became a serious matter of dispute between
the Upper and Lower branches of the Legislature. In fact this
was the chronic trouble in all the Provinces. In the right to
raise, appropriate, and control the revenues lay the power of
the Lower branch. The first quarrel arose on the members of
Assembly voting themselves pay — 7s. 6d. a day — for the ses-
sion. The Governor and Council objected to the appropriation.
The Assembly, in order to constrain the Upper branch to con-
cur in the vote, put it in a bill which they " tacked " to the bill
that included all the votes of money passed during the session,
leaving the Council the option either of consenting to an appro-
})riation of which it disapproved, or of taking upon itself the re-
sponsibility of rejecting the whole Appropriation Bill, and of de-
priving the people of the money for the support of their roads,
bridges, and schools. The Duke of Portland, Colonial Secretary,
gave judgment in the case, and declared that it was derogatory
to the dignity of memb. rs to receive " wages " from their con-
stituents ; and that the custom of " tacking " sever?! matters in

276

THE RIGHT OP 3EARCH.

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one bill was preposterous in the extreme. In spite of official
admonition the membera of Assembly persisted in paying them-
selves. For three years (1796-99) there was a dead-lock of the
branches of the Legislature. No revenue and appropriation bills
were passed. Harmony was then for a time restored, on the
Assembly agreeing to include all the items to which the Council
agreed in one bill, and to put those to which it had objections
in another. The members, however, received their pay.

6. Governor Carleton, after a rule of twenty years, left the

Province. In his time the foundation of its educational

1802 institutions was laid. Its ship-building and lumber

A.D. trades, from small beginnings, grew into importance.

There was then a great demand for masts for the Royal
Navy. England, mistress of the seas, maintained her supremacy
in many a bloody fight ; and pines that had stood for ages in
the silent forest of the St. John were shattered in a moment
where they rose above her wooden bulwarks. The mother
country was then drawn towards her colonies. The Inmber
trade of New Brunswick was fostered by a heavy duty im-
posed on the timber from the Baltic. Its ships that carried
masts and deals to Great Britain returned with immigrants,
and in this way population steadily incr' sed. No regular
Governor was appointed after Carletou's departure. For five
years the government was administered by senior members of
the Council : first by the Hon. Gabriel Ludlow, and then by
Judge Edward Winslow.

7. The feeling in the United States was now growing very

Lostile to Great Britain. Events happened that por-

1807 tended a speedy rupture. The British maintained tlieir

A.D. right to stop American aiiips on the high seas and

search them for deserters from the Royal Navy. Govern-
ment found difficulty in keeping the fleets manned — many of
their sailors were seduced to enter the American service.
" The right of search " was sometimes carried out in an offen-
sive manner. The U.S. ship Chesapeake^ sailing out of Hamptoii
Roads, was brought to by H.M. ship Leopard, and four m^u
were dragged from its decks a« British deserters, after it had been
disabled by a murderous fire. This act enraged the American
people ; their Government issued orders closing all the United

ANTICIPATION OF WAR.

277

States ports against British vessels, and iuteivHcting commercial
intercourse with Great Britain. The course of commerce was
much interrupted at this time. By a Decree^ issued from Ber-
Hn, Napoleon declared Great Britain to be in a state of blockade,
and forbade all use of her manufactures or colonial produce. In
retaliation, the British Government passed Orders in Council
prohibiting all commerce with France. The United States and
France suffered most during this period of retaliation. Con-
fident in the strength of her navy, Great Britain laughed
at the Berlin Decree. Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Bruns-
wick flourished under the " Non-intercourse Act ;" for they car-
ried on a great and profitable contraband trade with the people
of the United States, and their revenues increased largely.

8. In anticipation of war, the Imperial Government ap-
pointed military governors over the Provinces. In Lower
Canada Sir James Craig, a veteran officer, took the place of the
Hon. Mr. Dunn, a member of the Executive Council. In Nova
Scotia Sir John Wentworth was superseded by Sir George
Prevost. Major-General Hunterwas appointed President of His
Majesty's Council in New Brunswick. In that Province, in
less than four years, six changes had taken place in the office,
though only four were made in the person of the incumbent.
During that time Major-Generals Hunter, Johnstone, Balfour,
and Tracey Smythe had held the position. The Legislature
was very much annoyed by these frequent changes, and peti-
tioned the Prince Eegent (Georve IV.) to appoint a regularly
commissioned Governor. For several years the petition was
not answered according to its desire.

9. In Lower Canada, up till this time, the Executive Council,
in spite of differences, had been able to command the support

' Decree— The "Berlin Decree," is-
sued on November 21st, 180G, wa<} pro-
voked by the strict blockade of the ports
between Brest and the River Elbe,
effected by the English fleet. Besides
(loclaring the British Isles in a state of
blockade, and interdicting, under heavy
penalties, all intercourse with them, it
confiscated all merchandise and prop-
erty of every kind belonging to British
Bubjecta, and prohibited any vessel

coming from Britain or her Colonies, or
which had touched at any English port,
from entering the harbours of France.
The British "Orders in Council" were
issued 7th January, and again 11th
November, 1807. Napoleon's attempt
to exclut J Britain from the commerce
of the Continent was a complete failure;
but the Orders in Council, which greatly
checked the progress of British manu-
factured, remained in force till 1812.

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LOWER CANADA.

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of a majority in tlie Assembly. Violent discussions now arose
that arrayed the Upper and Lower branches in direct antagon-
ism to each other. The expulsion of Jews and Judges from the
Assembly, and the control of the financial expenditure, were
the chief matters of controversy that agitated the Legislature.
Judges were then not only members of the Executive and
Legislative Councils, they sat also in the Assembly and mingled
in the turmoil of politics. GoverL >r Craig sent a mes-
1809 s^-ge to the Assembly, advising them to take the neces-
A.D. sary measures to provide means to ^ lace the Province
in a state of defence. Instead of attending to this pre3b-
ing business, members wasted five weeks in angry discussions
on the Judges. The Governor, in displeasure, disbolved the
House. The new House, which met in the following January,
was hardly lesf turbulent and intractable. The expenses of
the Government had nov^ greatly increased, while the revenues
at its command were insuiftcient to meet them. The Governor
called on the Assembly to appropriate a sum to make good the
deficiency. The revenues were then in a very flourishing con-
dition. The Assembly, in the plenitude of its generosity, offered
to defray all the expenses of (what was called) the Civil List.
Its object was to gain control over the expenditure, and to
make the oiBficials dependent on it for their salaries. The
Council were surprised and offended at the proposal — if it were
accepted they would become amenable to a French Catholic ma-
jority. Sir James Craig replied coldly and cautiously : he could
not accept the offer without the concurrence of His Majesty.

10. The Assembly passed a Bill to disqualify the Judges.
The Legislative Council made amendments to it, to which the
majority oi the Assembly refused to agree. It then proceeded
^;o expel Judge Deboune from his seat, by passing a resolu-
tion declaring it vacant. Governor Craig would not sanction
this unconstitutional proceeding, and again dissolved the House.
The members boasted that they would come back again. The
country was much excited during the time of the general elec-
tion. Reports were circulated among the habit^ns that tne
Governor had dissolved the House because the French Canadian
majority had thwarted his designs, to call out and embody
twelve thousand of them as soldiers, and to tax them in a body.

REIGN OF TERROR.

279

Sir, James Craig, in an angry proclamation, pronounced the
reports to be atrocious falsehoods; nevertheless, the habitaus
returned their former representatives. While the elections
were being held, six of the most prominent members of the late
Assembly were seized and thrown into prison. The office of
the Canadien newspaper was entered by a squad of soldiers, and
its effects were carried away and deposited in a ceil in the court-
house. The printer was thrown into jail. People now said
among themselves that they were living under a " Beign of
'"'^rroir" The new House with the old face was rather quiet
a. u subdued in its bearing. Acting on instructions from the
Colonial Office, Sir James Craig gave his asseno to the Judges'
Disqualification Bill. After a busy session he prorogued the
House, and made his farewell speech. He was old, and those
who did not like him said that his infirmities had made him
peevish. His administration had not been successful ; but the
fault was as much imputable to the Council, which had given him
harsh advice, as to himself. Besides, owing to the differences
of the habits and opinions of the two sections of its population,
Lower Cana-^ia was an extremely difficult Province to govern.

11. Sir George Prevost was called from Nova Scotia by the
Governor-General. At the same time Major-General Isajic
Brock was appointed administrator of the government of Upper
Canada. Prevost succeeded in allaying, for a time, the jealousy
of the French Canadian party. He increased the number of
Executive Councillors, and called some of its members to seats
at the Board. He preferred to places of honour a few whom
his predecessor had treated harshly: one was called from a
prison qell to a seat on the Bench. Soon all thoughts were

turned to meet external danger

Questions. — 1. What was the chief
cause of the internal strife in Nova
Scotia between 1783 and 1793? By
whom were the Judges impeached?
What was the result ?

2. Who succeeded Governor Parr?
When? What were his political prin-
ciples ? How did he favour the Church
of England?

3. How did Nova Scotia suffer during
the French War? What elTect had the
danger ? How was Halifax benefited ?

4. Where did the Duke of Kent fix
his head-quarters ? W hat effect had his
residence there? What island was
named after him?

5. What was the cause of legislative
disputes in New Brunswick? About
what iid the first quarrel arise? Nar-
rrte tiis circumstances. How was har-
mcy ./ restored ?

6. What institutions and trades were
founded in Governor Carleton's time ?
How was the lumber trade fostered ?

280

QUESTIONS.

7. What question Irritated tlie United
States against Britain ? Wliat act en-
raged the people of the States? How
was trade at that time much retarded '!
How did the British- American Provin-
ces flourish ?

8. What steps were taken in antici-
pation of war? On what subject di^l
the Legislature of New Bruns\?ick
petition the Prince Eegent ? How was
the petition treated ?

9. What controversy divided the Up-
per and Lower Houses in Lower Can-

ada ? Why did Governor Craig dissolve
the Assembly ? How did the next As-
sembly respond to his demand for
funds?

10. What led Governor Craig again
to dissolve the House? What extreme
measures did the Governor adopt dur-
ing the general election? To what is
the non-success of Sir James Craig's
administration asciibed?

11. What was the effect of Prevost's
measures? Towards what were all
tlioughts soon turned?

THE FEELING IN THE UNITED STATES.

281

CHAPTER XXIX.

THE ANGLO-AMEEICAN WAE.

1812-1813 A.D.

The Feeling in the United States.
President Madison declares War.
Defeat of the American General Hull.
Death of Brock — Queenston Heights.
Ill success of American War operations.
Preparations for Campaign of 1813.
Ogdensburg burned.
General Proctor victorious in the West.

York captured by Americans

Fort George taken.

Sackett's Harbour.

Midnight Attack at Stor y Creek.

Naval Fight on Lake Erie.

Chateauguay,

Newark burned by the Americans.

Buffalo burned by the British.

1. The clouds that had long been gathering now burst in
storm. The feeling in the United States towards Great Britain
was divided. In Pennsylvania and the States south to Georgia
there was an eager desire for war. Tn Massachusetts, Con-
necticut, Vermont, Eliode Island, and New York the people
were strongly in favour of peace, and opposed to the policy of
President Madison and the majority of Congress. The avowed
cause of quarrel with Great Britain was the determination
shown by that power to maintain the " right of search." But
ambitious motives impelled the dominant party to make this
gi'ievance a sufficient reason for declaring war. A favourable
opportunity seemed to offer itself to them to extend the
dominion of the United States over the northern part of tlie
continent. Napoleon was then in the zenith of his glory.
England alone opposed his march to supreme power in Europe.
He would soon, it was thought, make himself master of the Old
World. By attacking his great antagonist, the United States
would etficiently aid him, and secure to themselves the mastery
of the New World. In the British Provinces there was a de-
cided opinion tliat the American Government designed to take
an unfair advantage. In the Eastern States, where French prin-
ciples were held in detestation, it was said that the Government,
though it might not have entered into a direct alliance with
" the bloody despot of France," certainly ranged itself on his
side, when at his instigation it broke vidth Great Britain,

282

DECLARATION OF v,AR.

■/■ii

1!^::'

p!'''

2. An incident occurred early in the year which inflamed

Congress. President Madison submitted a copy .i a

1812 secret correspondence, which seemed to implicate

A.D. the Government of Great Britain in an attempt to

seduce the people of some of the Eastern States from
their allegiance. In 1809, Sir James Craig despatched a Cap-
tain Henry to collect information as to the state of feeling in
Massachusetts and Connecticut towards Great Britain. In his
letters this agent alleged that there was among parties there
a desire to withdraw from the Union. Henry, dissatisfied with
the reward given him for his services, sold his letters for a
large sum to the President. Sir James Craig had acted with-
out authority in sending him on his secret mission. The
British Government disavowed it ; but President Madison was
more anxious to excite a hostile feeling against that Govern-
mfcnt than to give a fair opportunity for explanation. The
reading of the correspondence called forth a loud burst of in-
dignation in Congress. A thousand copies were printed and
circulated, and provoked indignation in the country.

3. War was declared on the 18th of June. When the news
reached Boston, flags were hoisted at half-mast on the vessels in
the harbour. Three days after the President took the fatal
resolve. Napoleon threw down the gage to Russia;^ and then,
with kings and princes in his train, he marched with his innu-
merable host towards the region of snow.

4. The Americans proposed to invade Canada by way of
Lake Champlain, Niagara, and Fetroit. Their regular soldiers,
under r^jcers who had served 'n the Revolutionary War, were,
with i\tb undisciplined militia, mustered at these points. A
requisition was made by the President on each State to raise
and equip its quota of 100,000 men, and to hold them in readi-
ness to march at a moment's warning. This call was by no
means obeyed with enthusinam. Some of the Governors denied

' Russia. — Napoleon invaded Russia
with an army of 450,000 men, in July
1812. He reached Moscow on Septem-
ber 14. On the 15th the city was set
fire to by order of the Russian Govern •
ment. Napoleon evacuated it in Octo-
ber, and commenced his disastrous

return march over snow-covered plains,
constantly harassed by the Russians,
who hung on his reav. It was Detem-
ber before the shattered remains of liis
splendid army reached the Niemen.
The French loss is estimated at 350,000
men.

THE INDIAN ALLIANCE.

283

the power of the President to compel the militia to do service
out of their own State. The invaders counted on making an
easy conquest of Canada. They imagined that when they
entered the country, crowds of disaflfected people would flock to
their standard. They much mistook the spirit of the great body
of the Lower Canadians, who bore for the Americans no love.
A few of the militia of the district of Montreal showed them-
selves refractory when called on to march from their parishes ;
but they were soon brought to a better state of mind. When
war became a certainty, the most loyal and patriotic spirit
was displayed. Political strife was for the time stilled. The
Legislature voted all they had — nay, even more than they actu-
ally possessed — for the defence of the country, and placed the
combined militia at the disposal of the Governor-General.

5. The Canadians were called upon to make great exertions
and great sacrifices. In all the country from Quebec to York,
find along the frontiers of the Niagara and the Detroit, there were
only 4,500 regular British troops. Wellington was then contending
in the peninsula of Spain with French armies led by Napoleon's
marshals. That war engrossed the chief attention of the British
nation , and drained the Royal Army. The defence of Canada was
thrown in a great measure on her own sons, — on the Loyalists of
Upper Canada, the volunteers of York, the men of Glengarry,
the fencibles of Kingston, Prescott, Dundas, — on the militia of
Montreal and Quebec, — on the gallant chasseurs and voltigeurs of
the Lower St. Lawrence. The domiciled Indians — the Mohawks
under Brant, their chief, the warriors of the remnants of the
" Six Nations," the Wyandots, Hurons, and Delawares — stood
by their white brothers. The tribes ncHh and south-west of
Lake Erie were in a state of warlike excitement, and in a temper
that made them eager allies of the British. Before the steady
onward march of civilization they were being driven from the
great valley of the Ohio, west, to the setting sun. The year
before (1811), roused by the nervous eloquence of the famous
Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, and of his brother " the Prophet,"
they had risen and attacked the settlers of Michigan, Indiana,
Kentucky, and Illinois, in the vain hope of recovering their lost
hunting-grounds. The alliance with the Indians was a sad
necessity. Thev could not be restrained from committing acts

\fi:

284

SURRENDER OF GENERAL HULL.

It >
It!!;

of ferocious cruelty, of which their white allies were condemned
to bear the odium. They could not remain still when war was
raging around, and their friendship was better than their
enmity.

6. The war was opened in the west. To secure the fur-
trade, and to create a favourable impression among th^ Indians,
an attack was made on Fort Michillimackinac ^ by a party of
British regulars, Canadian voltigeurs and savages, under Cap-
tain Roberts. In the meantime General Hull, Governor of the
Michigan territory, crossed over from Detroit to Sandwich, witli
2,500 troops, in the vague hope of conquering Canada at a stroke.
He caused a bombastic proclamation to the inhabitants of
Canada oo be distributed, wherein he promised them the bless-
ings of civil and religious liberty, and protection of their prop-
erty. He told them that his force "iv^ould look down all
opposition," and that it was only the van-guard of a greater
army. He threatened a war of extermination if one Indian
tomahawk were raised to resist him. His words were more
decisive than his actions. His invincible force ravaged the
country as far as the Moravian village on the River Thames ;
but when they advanced upon Amherstburg they were checked
at the River Canard. He grew uneasy when he heard of tlie
capture of Michillimackinac and the threatened descent of the
victors on his rear. He had. soon a new enemy on his front.
On the first news of the invasion, General Brock prorogued the
Legislature at York, and with all the available troops at his
command, hastened by way of the Niagara and Lake Erie to
relieve Amherstburg. He arrived there on the 12th of August.
Quite discouraged now, Hull withdrew his whole force across
the river to Detroit, followed by the gallant Brock with 1,300
men, of whom 600 were Indians. Perceiving that the British
were making preparations to carry his position by assault, the
American General surrendered himself ^ and his force. Two

' MichUlwiackinac. — Called by the
Americans Mackinac {Mak-in-aw). It
stood between Lakes Huron and Michi-
gan. See Map, p. 22j.

' Surrendered himself. — General Hull
was subseqxiently exchanged for thirty
British prisoners, and was tried by

court-martial for treason and cowardice.
He was acquitted of treason, but con-
victed of cowardice. He was sentenced
to be shot, but was pardoned by the
President because of the faithful ser-
vices he had rendered during the Revo-
lutionary War.

NIAGARA FRONTIER.

9.S5

thousand three hundred prisoners were sent off to Montre.al ;
thirty-two brass cannons and a quantity of stores fell into the
lumds of the British, who, by the capture of Detroit, held pos-
session of the Michigan territory.

7. Soon after the declaration of war, Sir George Prevost re-
ceived despatches informing him that the British Goveniment
]i;id rescinded their Orders in Council that bore so hct.vily on
American commerce. An opportunity, he thought, now offered
itself to open negotifwtions for peace. Early in August he pro-
posed an armistice, to which General Dearborn, commanding
the U.S. " army of the north " at Plattsburg, jissented. The
American Government refused to enter on negotiations of i)eace
on any terras except the abandonment by the British of the
right of search. The operations of the war were resumed in
September.

8. The Americans had an army, under General van Kens-
selaer, on the Niagara frontier — between Fort Niagara and
Buffalo — confronting a British force much im*^*^rior in numbei',
quartered on the line from Fort George to Fort Eiie. Before
dawn on the morning of ,
the 13tli of -Septemb^
1,200 men, under Gen- ^
eral Wadsworth, crossed ;
over from Lewiston on
the American side.
One division landed
above Queenston ; an-
other, in face of artil-
lery fire, made good
their footing on the
shore close to it. The
British force, too weak
to make effective re-
sistance, was driven
hack, and the Ameri-
cans gained possession
oftheHeights. General Niagara, frontier.

Brock, at Fort George, seven miles off, heard the sound of
cannon ; leaving orders to General Sheaffe to follow ]»im with

286

THE WATTLE OF QUEENSTON.

reinforcement^ in all haste, he Lurried, in the gray of the"
morning, down to the scene of action, lljillying the 49th Regi-
ment and the militia for a desperate struggle, he pressed for-
ward with the Grenadiers to retake the important position
which the enemy had gained. While cheering on the brave
York volunteers he fell mortally wounded in the breast. By
his fall the attack on the Heights was stayed. The troops re-
treated, mourning the loss of their beloved General.

9. The frontier was now alive with men upon the march.
General Sheaffe arrived wl ;i 300 men of the 41st Regiment and
two companies of militia. He was joined by the garrison from
Fort Chippewa, and, counting red-skins with red-coats, he had
800 men. Again the Heights were attacked. The nimble
Indians rushed forward with their fierce war-whoop, but were
driven back. With steady tramp and loud hurrah the British
soldiers charged up. For a brief time the Americans made a
spirited resistance, during which they suffered much. Then
they broke their ranks ; many fled, but escape from the hands
of the murderous savages was difficult. General Wadsworth
delivered up his sword to General Sheaffe on the field of battle ;
9'"0 men laid down their arms and surrendered themselves
p^'ifloners. The Battle of Queenston is more memorable for
ha disaster than for its victory. The death of the gallant
Brock distinguishes it from contests as bloody and decisive. A
cenotaph covers the spot where fell the hero whom Canada has
delighted to honour. A column marks the Heights as historic
ground.

10. All the efforts of the Americans ended in defeat. On the
loth of November Commodore Chauncey sailed with five armed
vessels from Sackett's Harbour to attack Kingston and burn
the ship the Royal George. He was so warmly met, that after
wasting much powder and. ball he was compelled to haul off.
A few days afterwards the " army of the north," 10,000 strong,
moved from Plattsburg to Champlain, a village six miles from
the boundary line. Sir George Prevost made a call upon the
militia, and it was obeyed with the utmost alacrity. By the
19th a force of regulai-s, Canadian voltigeurs and voyageurs,
and Indians, had crossed the St. Lawrence from Montreal, and
were posted at La Prairie, eager to repel the invasion. Among

AMElllCAN SUCCESSLS AT SEA.

287

the Aiiiericau militia there was no euthusiasm. Many of them
Btood by their State rights, and insisted that by the Constitution
neither President nor General had authority to order them to
march across the frontier. General Dearborn made a feeble
advance. The invasion ended in skirmishings with the Canci-
dian pickets, and then a hasty retreat over the line to Platts-
burg, Burlington, and Albany, where the i\rmy went into winter
quarters. x\.nother demonstration ended even more disgrace-
fully. Brigadier-General Smyth had succeeded Van Eenaselner
ill command of the " army of the centre," on the Niagara frontier.
A force of 4,500 soldiers and New York militia assembled at his
call. In a high-flown address he announced that in a few days
he would plant the standard of America in Canada ; und he gave
them for a rallying cry, to nerve them for the glorious and difli-
cult enterprise, " The cannon taken at Detroit, or Death."
When the decisive hour came only 1,500 were found willing to
venture across the river, and there was not a sufficient number
of boats to convey even that remnant of the force. On the 18th
of November 430 men crossed over to the upper end of Granvl
Island, and dispersed and captured a few British soldiers. But
when next morning a larger party in a division of eighteen
boats approached the Canadian shore, they were confronted by
the united garrisons of Forts Erie and Chippewa, which
poured a destructive fire upon them; whereon they turned
and fled precipitately. A mutiny broke out in the American
canjp. The exasperated soldiers blamed their General for the
failure of the enterprise. To save his life he fled.

11. "While the Americans met with nothing but disaster in
their attempts to invade Canada, they gained some startling
successes at sea. Their frigates the Coiistitution and the
United States met in single combat and shattered and captured
the British Guerriere and Macedonian. They had completely
the advantage of their opponents in the size of their ships, the
number and weight of their camion, and the force of their
crews. These glorious victories fired the pride of the nation.
Honours were showered on the fortunate commanders. The
British people were enraged at unaccustomed defeat on their
native element.

12. Preparations for the next campaign were prosecuted

288

OGDENSBURa BURNED.

jlii

1 f

!i;p

lli

■;■■

ilip ^i'

!'''■
ill!:.

ill],

ill' -

with vigour by the Americans. Hitherto the Eritisli had held
coniniaiid of the great Lakes Ontario and Erie by their
larger squadrons. The Americans determined to obtain
a naval superiority. Tn their })orts at Sackett's Harbour,
Ogdensburg, Oswego, Black Rock, Buffalo, and Sandusky, strong
vessels were rapidly run up, fit for rough service. The British
also built vessels, but more slowly. They thought that every
])art of them ought to be thoroughly finished ; and the Gove.n-
ment, seemingly of opinion that there were neither craftsmen
nor woods in Canada, sent out artisans and material.

13. Winter did not stay the warfare. Marauding parties
from Ogdensburg crossed the frozen river and ravaged the

settlements that were distant from any military post.

1813 ^^^6 of the first operations of the new cam])aign was to

A.D. take revenge for these predatory excursions. Major

M'Donnel of the Glengarry Fencibles, early on tlie
jj' morning of the 21st February, crossed the St. Lawrence witli
480 men to attack the position at Ogdensburg. Heavy snow
impeded their march. They had to charge a height defended
by the fire of a fort ; but, in spite of all difficulties, they stormed
the place, captured eleven guns and quantities of stores, burned
barracks, gunboats, and schooners.

14. In the west the campaign opened early. The people of
Michigan and Ohio grew impatient at the occupation of their
country by the British, and the consequent interruption to their
trade. They called on General Harrison to re* apture Detroit,
which was held by Oolonel Proctor. On the 19th of January

J General Winchester, with over 1,000 men, crossed from San-
' dusky and advanced to Frenchtown, twenty-six miles from
Detroit, and drove out its defenders, v/ho fell back on Browns-
town. There a motley force of British regulars, sailors, marines,
Newfoundland fencibles, Essex militia, and 600 Wyandots
and other Indians, assembled, by order of Colonel Proctor.
Under cover of night they advanced on Frenchtown, and
at break of day of the 22nd surprised the Americans. Posted
in houses and In garden enclosures, they defended them-
selves bravely for a time, and many fell on both sides. On
Proctor intimating that he would be unable to restrain his
savage allies if they resisted longer, five hundred surren-

san^age warfahe.

289

dered at discretion. Many, iu attempting to escape, were
captured l)y tlie Iinliaus and massacred. General Winchester
was taken prisoner by Soundhead, a Wyandot chief. Deeds
of great cruelty stained tliis decisive victory. President Madi-

LARB ERIi;.

son, in his address to Congress in March, held the British
guilty of them, as the Indians, who had perpetrated them, were
enlisted in their service. The war threatened to assume a very
savage character. Exasperating questions arose that inflamed
the passions of the combatants. By British law, subjects of the
Crown in removing to a foreign country did not free them-
selves from their allegiance. The United States Government
held that persons freely emigrating from the British Isles to
America owed allegiance to the country whose protection they
enjoyed. Among the prisoners taken at Queenston there
were twenty-three whom General Sheaffe claimed as British
subjects, and deserters from the Eoyal Army. They were sent
home to England ironed, to stand their trial as traitors. ITie
United States Government claimed the twenty-three as free
immigrants, who had taken up arms, as duty obliged them, at
the call of their adopted country. By its order, General

(473) 19

290 THE king's regiment of new bUUNSWICK.

Dearborn placed as many British soldiei*s in prison as hostages,
to suffer death, man for man, should all or ciny of the twenty-
three be executed. This threat only called forth a counter
threat. In the course of the year Sir George Prevost received
orders to execute two Americans for every one of those hostages
who might be shot or hanged. The American General then
doubled the number of hostages ; whereon Sir George added
forty-six American officers to the twenty-three whom he already
held. Happily this barbarous course of retaliation was not
carried out : the prisoners in the end wrre exchanged.

15. When the spring of 1813 opened, the harbours from New
York to Savannah, and the mouth of the Mississippi, were
blockaded by British ships. British privateers preyed on the
merchantmen of the enemy. Squadrons appeared on Lake
Ontario ; reinforcements arrived in Quebec. The chief efforts
of the Americans were directed against Canada. Nearly all the
regular troops were withdrawn from the Lower Provinces.
A loyal and liberal spirit was displayed by their people. Their
coasts were open to the attack of American and French cruisers ;
but they sympathized with their sister, Canada, in her greater
peril. Large sums were voted for war purposes ; seamen
volunteered to serve on the lakes, and were despatched to the
scene of action at the public expense. At the commencement
of the war, the King's Regiment of New Brunswick, first
raised from among the Loyalist veterans who in 1784 settled in
York county, was numbered with the line of the Royal Army as
the 104th. The Legislature passed a complimentary resolution
to the officers and privates on the occasion, and presented the
regiment with a silver trumpet. It was called on to do active
service in Canada. A portion of it was conveyed to Quebec by
sea, but several companies made their way overland. The
march, on snow-shoes, through a wilderness country, in intense
cold,, tested the endurance of the soldiers, whose gallantry was
afterwards displayed in several actions. <

16. At the commencement of the campaign the Americans
had proposed to destroy York and Kingston, make themselves
masters ot the fox-ts on the Niagara frontier, retake Detroit,
gain command of Lake Erie and the possession of the western
district. They then proposed to attack Montreal by way of

SURRENDER OE YORK.

291

Lake Champlain and the St. Lawrence. Montreal taken, the
hold of Great Britain on Canada would be confined to Quebec.
17. The town of York was, from its situation, difficult to
defend. It was held by General Sir Roger Sheaffe, adminis-
trator of the government, and a garrison of 700 men. On
the evening of the 26th April, an American squadron ap-
peared in sight of it. Early next morning sixteen ships were
ranged on the western side of the harbour. Eight hundred
men in boats made a dash to the shore, drove from the
woods a small British force which resisted their landing, and
stormed the batteries. They were aided by the fire from the
ships. A magazine exploded, killing their commander and 100
but reinforcements poured upon the shore. General

men

Sheatfe, after destroying a ship upon the stocks and naval
stores, retired with his troops upon the town, and then re-
treated towards Kingston, leaving the colonel of militia tio
surrender the place to General Dearborn. A large quantity of
military stores and provisions fell into his hands. He did not
attempt to hold York, but sailed to the head of Lake Ontario,
and landed above Fort Niagara with 1,300 men. Commo-
dore Chauncey returned to Sackett's Harbour. Leaving the
sick and wounded there, and taking reinforcements on board,
he sailed to rejoin Dearborn. Colonel Vincent held Fort
George, opposite the American Fort Niagara, with over 1,000
British troops. On the 25th of May the squadron under
Chauncey, carrying a force of 5,000 men, manoeuvred on the
lake within his view. The vessels took position in form of a
crescent, which enabled the gunners to pour a destructive
cross fire on the fort. On the 27th the grand assault was ^^
made. A large body of riflemen, under Colonel Winfield Scott, /
was driven back by the British ; but 2,000 more of the enemy '
landed on the beach under cover of a storm of shot and shell
that swept the batteries. The foil; being untenable, Vincent
caused the works to be dismantled and the cannons to be
spiked. He withdrew to Queenston. Calling the garrisons from
Forts Chippewa and Erie, he retreated to Burlington Heights,
at the head of Lake Ontario, leaving the Americans in pos-
wssion of the Niagara frontier, for which they had so vainly
fought the year before.

292

sackett's harbour.

18. The day aftci* the capture of Fort George, Sir George
Prevost sailed from Kingston with a flotilla commanded by
Sir James Yeo, to surprise and capture the post at Sackett's

(7* Harbour.^ The shores were covered with thick woods, and a
fort and block-house, armed with heavy ordnance, protected the
dock-yard and store-houses. An island lay not far from the
mainland, with which it was connected by a narrow causeway.
On a dark and rainy night 1,000 men in boats in compact
order assembled near the commodore's vessel, and opposite the
point where they intended to land. But they drifted down
with the strong current. At break of day the Americans
were swarming in the woods with their rifles, before they were
able to regain their position. Owing to adverse winds, the
large vessels of the fleet, and the sloop carrying their artillery,
were not within distance to aid them. The boats were pulled
to the island ; the men of the 100th and 104th, of the King's
Regiment, of the Royal Scots and the Glengarries landed, and
charged across, ai'kle-deep in water, clearing the causeway. At
the point of the bayonet they drove the Americans through the
woods, down the height, and compelled them to take refuge in
their fort. The British retired out of reach of its fire to await
the arrival of their artillery. Sir George Prevost, believing
that no further advantage could be gained, ordered a retreat.
Enraged and mortified, they retired to their boats. Their loss,
in killed, wounded, and missing, amounted to 206, ofiicers and
men. Sir George was much blamed : confidence in him as a
general was shaken.

19. The Americans seemed to be on the point of gaining
possession of Upper Canada. Since the opening of the
campaign success had attended them. They had plundered
York. For too hastily evacuating that capital General Sheatfe
had been censured and superseded by Major-General de Rotten-
burg. From want of determination. Sir George Prevost had
converted a probable triumph at Sackett's Harbour into a de-
pressing defeat. Colonel Vincent had been forced to retreat
from Fort George. In the beginning of June, a body of 3,500
Americans, with cavalry and artillery, advanced from their

' Sackett's Harbour. — See Map, p. 297.

AN UNACCOUNTABLE OCCUKRENCE.

293

■5^.

camp at Forty Mile Creek above Fort George, ou the lake shore,
under Brigadier-Generals Chandler and Winder, to attack him
at Burlington Heights.^ They rested at Ston|y Creek, someJu^*u^ i'
seven miles off. At midnight, 704 British soldiers, coramandecJ^
by Lieutenant-Colonel John Harvey, with fixed bayonets, burst
suddenly upon their camp. A fierce and confused combat en-
sued. The Americans were driven out, and fled to the sur-
rounding heights. Their two generals, and 100 officers and .
men, fell into the hands of the British, who retired to Burling-
ton before break of day. The Americans returned to their
camp, and, after destroying a quantity of baggage, retreated to
Forty Mile Creek, where they were joined by a body of 2,000
men. Sir James Yeo and his squadron appeared at the mouth
of the creek, and threw shot and shell among them. They
thereon fled precipitately to Fort George, leaving behind a great
part of their camp equipage, and quantities of stores and pro-
visions.

20. Shortly afterwards the Americans met with another
'3heck. Lieutenant-Colonel Boerstler, with 570 men, advanced
from Queenston to disperse a small body of British at y .
Beaver Dams. As he was passing through a wood he was / /
attacked by Indians led by an English officer. Withdra'^v-
ing as speedily aa possible from this ambuscade, he took ^^p
a position on a road crossing a mountain. He sent for re-
inforcements ; and as he rested there, he was descried by
Lieutenant Fitzgibbons, who was marching in advance of the
British with a few men of the 49th Begiment. By a skilful
disposition of his small force, he caused Boerstler to believe
himself surrounded ; and, on receiving a summons, he sur-
rendered himself and his whole party, with their cannon and
colours, on the 24th of June. After this " unaccountable oc-
currence," General Dearborn found himself beleaguered in Fort
George. Colonel Vincent extended his line from Burlington
Heights to Queenston, and harassed him by cutting off his
supplies.

21. During summer the combatants inflicted much loss on
each other without decisive eflfect. From Fort Erie, on the

' Burlington Heights. — See Map, p. 285.

294

SIEGE OF FORT MEIGS.

/2-

Niagara frontier, the British crossed to Black Bock on July 1 1th,
and burned barracks and navy yard ; but their leader, Colonel
Bishop, was mortally wounded. To counterbalance this loss,
the Americans again plundered York and burned the military
buildings. In a running fight on Lake Ontario, Sir James
Yeo captured two of Commodore Chauncey's armed schooners.
On Lake Champlain, Major Taylor, commanding at Isle aux
Noix, captured the American gunboats Eagle and Growler.
Lieutenant-Colonel Murray, advancing to Plattsburg, burned
the barracks, and destroyed the military stores. About the
middle of August, Sir George Prevost transferred his head-quar-
ters from Kingston to St. Davids. He made a reconnaissance
of the enemy's position at Fort George, and found the place full
of men and bristling with cannon. Not being able to provoke
the Americans to come out and fight him on the open field, he
retired unmolested.

22. In the west, during all his time, Colonel Proctor had been
active. His ability to maint. ^ a hold on the Michigan terri-
tory and on the western frontier of Upper Canada, depended
on his crushing the forces that were gathering to attack him.
The Americans intrenched themselves at Fort MeigS,^ at the
foot o^ the rapids of the Miaimi i^iver, which empties itself into
Lake Erie at its south-western extremity. Proctor, with a
force of 2,100 men, of whom the greater part were Indians, led
by Tecumseh, laid siege to this fort on the 1st May ; but his
cannon could make no impression on its works. On the 4tli,
1,200 volunteers of Kentucky and Ohio, under General Clay,
descended the Miami, and, joining the garrison, : Jiade a sud-
den attack on Proctor's batteries early next morning. There
was a fierce contest. In tho end the Americans were driven
back with a total loss of 1,200. But Proctor was forced to
abandon the thought of further operations. A number of his
militia went home ; his Indians deserted him ; Tecumseh, with
twenty warriors, alone remained. He therefore returned to
Sandwich, moralizirg on his misfortune in being dependent ou
such fickle allies. But fickle at ,vere the Indians, he could have
done little without their friendship. In their way they were

* fort AfeiflfS. — See Map, p. 289,

PEKRY ON LAKE ERIE.

295

faithful, and resisted the enticements of the Americans to vath-
draw them from their British alliance. They certainly misled
him sometimes. Yielding to their solicitation, he attacked the
Fort of Sandusky ; but when the word was given to assault
it, the warriors, erst so clamorous, kept warily out of the way
of its fire, and allowed the red-coats to take it if they could.
They could not, and Proctor returned discomfited.

23. A large American army was now assembled in Michigan,
under General Harrison, who was impatiently waiting to hear
from the naval commander on Lake Erie that its waters were
clear of British ships of war. Nine vessels lay in Putin Bay, at
its western extremity. When, on the 10th of September, their
commodore, Perry, descried a British squadron of six sail
approaching, he weighed anchor, and hoisted the signal of
battle. The contect was hot and decisive. Perry's vessel, the
Lawrence J was disabled at the outset. In the midst of the
firing he was rowed in an open boat to another of his ships.
The Detroit, the English commander Barclay's flag-ship, was
made a complete wreck. The captain of its consort, the Queen
Charlotte^ was killed ; and the vessel becoming unmanageable,
the crew struck their colours. Perry, bringing his whole fleet
into action, passed between the British ships, and poured in a
heavy, close fire. Barclay was severely wounded ; most of his
officers were killed or struck down. He could do nothing but
surrender. Perry sent word to Harrison, "We have met the
enemy, and they are ours."

24. The Americans by this decisive victory regained all they
had lost the previous year by the defeat of Hull. The position
of the British was now critical, cut off from air succour by
way of Lake Erie. General Harrison, having taken Maiden,
was ; Ivancing towards Sandwich. Not until the 24th of
September did Majcr-General Proctor abandon Detroit and
Amherstburg, after having burned the principal buildings
and dismantled the fortifications. With 450 men, and Tecum-
seh and his Indians, he retreated up the River Thames
to Moravia village, followed by his enemy in overpowering
force. There, on the 15th of October, he made a desperate
stand. His ranks were broken by a fierce charge of mounted
Kentucky riflemen j those who were not killed, wounded, or

298

TECUMSEH.

" * ". !?

captured, dispersed. Two hundred joined Proctor at Ancaster
on the Grand Eiver, and thence made their way to Burlington
Heights. Tecumseh was slain. The American officers
gathered around and viewed with interest his majestic corpse.
Living, the chief had done them all the harm he could ; but
now that he was dead, they remembered that though fierce in
battle he was humane to his prisoners. General Harrison, on
the 17th of October, assumed the government of the upper
district of Upper Canada.

25. The aspect of affairs was gloomy enough now for the
Canadians. The Americans had two armies ; — one on the Niag-
ara frontier, under General "Wilkinson, who was now chief in
command ; another at Plattsburg, under General Hampton —
together numbering 16,000 men, exclusive of 10,000 militia.
Their naval squadron, under Commodore Chauncey, sailed freely
on Lake Ontario, unhindered by Sir James Yeo. Owing to the
large number of American troops in the west, and the increase
of the force in Fort George, the British soldiers were withdrawn
from the extensive line they had occupied, and concentrated in
the camp at Burlington Heights. Early in October, General
Wilkinson was instructed by the War Minister at Washington
to cooperate with General Hampton in an attack on Montreal.
There were very few British troops in Lower Canada. The
honour of successfully defending their frontiers was to be earned
by the Canadians themselves. General Sheaffe, who commanded
there, had 3,000 embodied militia under him ; Sir George
Prevost made a call for 5,000 of the sedentary class. Most
cheerfully and gallantly did they obey the call. Sir George
said that their zeal and alacrity were beyond all praise.

26. General Hampton crossed the boundary line on the 21st
with 7,000 infantry, 200 cavalry, and 10 field-pieces. This force

Ji^ advanced along both banks of the Chateauguay. Hampton
led the division that took the northern route. The country was
hilly and covered with woods. His march was stayed by a small
body of 300 Canadian voltigeurs and fencibles under Colonel
de Salaberry — excellent marksmen all. Throwing themselves
behind a breast-work of prostrate trees, they bade defiance to
assault. The Americans, who were chiefly raw soldiers, could
l^ot be persufj,ded to charge vigorously. The^ fired from the

ON THE ST. LAWRENCE.

29'

woods, and, in their confusion, into each other, and inflicted
much greater loss on themselves than on the Canadians, of
Nvhom two were killed and sixteen wounded. The division that
julvrnced by the south Jir bank of the river was met by a sma]l
part3* of militia and Chateauguay chasseurs, under Captains
Daly and Bruyers, and was forced to retreat. Quite crest-
fallen, 'Jeneral Hampton led his beaten army into their own
country and to tlieir old camp at Plattsburg.

27. If General Wilkinson had followed the plan of the joint
attack upon Montreal, he would have commenced his movement
down the St. Lawrenc':^ on the same day that Hampton crossed
the boundary. But he had difficulty in collecting his forces,
and a continuance of tempestuous weather retarded his prepara-
tions. Not until the beginning of November did his 10,000
soldiers leave the rendez\'^ous, Grenadier Island, in bateaux and
small river-craft. In passing Prescott on a clear moonlight
night, they sustained much damage from a heavy cannonade
from the British fort. In their wake followed Lieutenant-

SACKETT's HATIBOUR AND CHRYSLER'S FARtf.

Colonel Morrison, from Kingston, with 800 British infantry
and voltigeurs, and a division of gun-boats. From the head of
the Long Sault this corps of observation followed the Apa^yi-

298

BATTLE OF CHRYSLER S FARM.

cans on shore. Arrived off Williamsburg, General Wilkinson
ordered Brigadier-General Eo/d to trush away the annoy-
uncA. With 3,500 infantry, and a i-egiment of cavalry and
artillery, that officer encounte^'ed the British force drawn up iu
line of battle on a field on Chrysler's Farm, the ri^er on its
right, the woods upon its left. It was on the afternoon of the
12th of November. In vain the Americans charged to break
the ranl<;s of the red-coats. When the British advanced witli
firm front and steady fire, the Americans fell back. Two hours
after the commencement of the fight they retreated precipitately
to their boats, and retired to their own side of the St. Ijaw-
rence. They lost 339 of their best soldiers — double the num-
ber of the killed and wounded on the British side. When he
arrived at Lake St. Francis, General Wilkinson heard with dis-
may that Hampton and his army were not at St. Eegis. They
had agreed to meet there, and unite their forces for the attack
upon Montreal. The grand plan had been completely disar-
ranged. Wilkinson withdrew with his troops to French Mills
on Salmon River, and there rested during winter.

28. Sir George Drummond assumed command in Upper
Canada in December. He despatched a force under Colonel
Murray to take Fort George. General M^Clure hastily aban-
doned it, and crossed the river to Fort Niagara. He left the
town of Newark in flames, exposing to the bitter winter cold
the young and the tender, the aged and the frail. The barbarity
of this act excited in Canada the deepest indignation. The
American Government took pains to disavow it. It was very
promptly avenged. The British carried Fort Niagara by
assault, laid waste the frontier as far as to Buflalo, and burued
that town. So in tears and in misery, in hatred, in blood, and
in flames, ended the long campaign of 1813.

Questions. — 1. What different feel-
ings towards Britain prevailed in the
United States? What was the avowed
cause of quarrel ? What were the real
motives of the dominant party ?

2. What incident provoked great in-
dignation against Britain? Explain
fully the circumstances.

8. When was war declared? How
W^ t-^e news received in Boston ? On

what campaign did Napoleon then
enter ?

4. What was the American plan of
cuerations? How was the President's
Cc. 1 for levies obeyed? What spirit
was r'isplayed by the Canadians ?

5. On whom was the defence of Canada
mainly thrown ? Why? What part did
the Indians take in the war?

6. Where ancl how did the war be-

liiiiiiii

QUF.STIONS.

299

gin ? Describe General Hull's attempt
on Amherstburg, and its result.

7. What opportunity occurred for
opening negotiations for peace? "What
prevented their success ?

8. On what frontier were operations
resumed in September ? What led
General Brock to Queenston? When
did his troops retreat?

9. Who renewed the attack on the
Heights of Queenston ? With what
result ? What is the most noteworthy
thing about the Battle of Queenston ?

10. What was the result of Chauncey's
attack on Kingston ? How did the in-
vasion by the "army of the north"
end? What enterprise did Brigadier-
General Smyth undertake ? What suc-
cess had -he?

11. Where had the Americans some
startling successes ?

12. What special preparations did the
Americans make for the next campaign?
In what did the British ship-building
differ from that of the Americans ?

13. What led to M'Donnel's attack
on Ogdensburg? With what success
was it attended?

14. What was the object of the
American campaign in the west ? Nar-
rate its chief incidents. What dispute
arose regarding prisoners ?

15. Where were the chief efforts of
the Americans directed? How did
the Lower Provinces behave towards
Canada? How was the King's Regi-
ment of New Brunswick distinguished?

16. What different exploits had the
Americans proposed to themselves at
the commencement of the campaign ?

17. Describe the taking of York.
What place did Dearborn and Chauncey
next attack? Where did Vincent go
when he abandoned Fort George ?

18. Who commanded in the descent
on Sackett's Harbour? Describe it.
For 'vhat was Prevout blamed?

19. IVhat flteps were taker to drive
Vinceiiu Iroxa Ejrli. j<ton Ueifhts?
How was t'ac attempt fristrated ?

20. What other check did tlie Ameri-
cans meet with soon afterw.Tdp? In
what position did Dearborn then tind
himself ?

21. Mention some of the exploits
which occupied the summer? What
movement did General Prevost make
in August ?

22. Where had the Americans in-
trenched themselves in the west ?
Wlio besieged them there ? When did
a fierce contest take place ? How did
it end?

23. Describe Perry's engagement on
Lake Erie. How did he report his
victory to Harrison ?

24. Why had Proctor to abandon
Detroit? Where did he make a stand
against his pursuers ? Who was among
the slain ? What did Harrison assume
in consequence of his victory ?

25. Where were the armies of Generals
Wilkinson and Hampton posted? In
what attack were they ordered to co-
operate ? On whom was the duty of
defending Lower Canada thrown ?

26. How was Hampton's advance
checked? Where did he then lead his
troops ?

27. How did Wilkinson fail to follow
the plan of joint action ? Where did
part of his force encounter the British?
What was the result? Where did
Wilkinson then go ?

28. When did the British recover Fort
George ? Of what barbarity was Gen-
eral M'Clure guilty? How was it
avenged ?

300

MEDIATION OF THE CZAR.

i'i-llll!

P'liii

III

■•^- .-HH

Ml
■ '!|til

ill':

CHAPTER XXX.

WAB ENDED

1814-1815 A.D.

Mediation of the Czar.

Impeachment of the Lower Canada
Judges.

Position of the combatants.

U.S. General Brown crosses the Ni-
agara.

General Eiall retreats.

Battle of Lundy'a Lane.

Halifax.

The " Chesapeake" and the " Shannon. "

Washington burned.

Sir George Prevost at Plattsburg.

Fort Erie.

Close of the War.

1. There was no prospect of peace yet. Early ir 1814 the
Emperor of Rujsia, as the friend of both the nations at war,
offered himself as a mediator. The British Government de-
clined his proposal : the President accepted it ; but owing to
the refusal of the other party, nothing was done. The seeming
inclination of the American Government to terminate the con-
flict did not abate their exertions to carry it on with success.

2. In Canada the people could look forward to nothing but
a continuation of harassing attacks. The experience gained
during the war had taught them that they might safely trust iu
the protectiun of Heaven, if they resolutely acted in their own
defence. The spirit of the mass of the population was excellent.
The Lower Canp.dians had vindicated their loyalty, and proved
their military spirit, against the aspersions of those who denied
the one and doubted the other.

3. Political strife broke out during the lull of military

operations. When the Legislature of Lower Canada

1814 iTfi^t at Quebec in January, all the branches of it were

A.D. united in enthusiasm over the victories at Chateauguay

and Chrysler's Farm. The sums voted to defray the
expenses of the war were passed unanimously. But questions
arose that set the members at variance. The harsh acts com-
mitted during the " reign of terror" were not forgotten. Old Sir
James Craig was in his giave, but those who had advised him
were within reach of the members of the Assembly. They sought

IMPEACHMENT OF THE JUDGES.

301

to make Chief-Justice Sewell of Quebec responsible for the
abnipt dissolutions, the arbitrary imprisonment of the mem-
bers, and for the seizure of the Canadien newspaper. He was
charged with having been privy to the secret mission of the
notorious Captain Henry, and with having instituted rales of
practice in his court without the authority of the Legislature.
Along with him was also impeached Judge Monk of Montreal,
who was accused of sundry malversations. The Assembly grew
angry with Sir George Prevost when he refused to suspend
them from office until the cliaiges preferred against them were
proved. Possessing the strong sympathy of the members of the
Councils, the Judges were safe from the resentment of the
Assembly. Chief-Justice Sewell went to England. He found
favour at Court, and was well received at the Colonial Office, of
which Earl Bathurst was then head. None of his accusers
appeared to confront him. While in London, he submitted a
scheme for the Confederation of the British North Ameri-
can Colonies. Tlie project found much favour with the Duke
of Kent, who took a great interest in colonial affairs ; but the
proposal was premature. Half a century of political strife had
to pass over the colonies before they were ripe for the scheme.

4. The campaigns of the two preceding years had laid waste
large portions of Canadian territory, and inflicted deep injury
on the people. Many lives had been lost, and the bitterest feelings
had been engendered, but no decisive ad vantage had been gained
by either aide. The Americans had signally failed to conquer
Canada. They, certainly, held possession of the western part of
the western peninsula of Upper Canada ; they had not a few
sympathisers among the people of the district ; and their raw
militia were becoming inured to warfare : so much they had in
their favour. Taxation, however, was being greatly and rapidly
increased, and the dissatisfaction of the people of the Eastern
States with the unjust and unnecessary war was gi'owing more
intense. They feared that it would press more hardly upon
them than it had yet done. The Canadians, on the other hand,
were elated at having twice beaten back invasion. In two
harassing campaigns they had proved their devotion to their
mother country. The battles that had been fought on their
soil and on their waters had grown out of a quarrel which they

302

OSWEGO FOHT TAKKN.

had doue nothing to excite, and which they had freely expench'd
tlieir blood and their treasure in maintaining.

5. For the firat six months of the year no event of great
/ moment took j^bice. On the 11th of February the Americana

liurriedly broke up their encampment at French Mills on
Salmon liiver: one body cf them, under General Brown, re-
treated to Sackett's Harbour ; another, under General Wilkin*
son, retired to Plattsburg and Burlington, closely followed by
Canadian skirmishers. Towards the end of March, Wilkinson
made a feint as if he intended to renew his attack on Mon-
jL treal. On the 30th his division again crossed the Lower
^' Canadian frontier, and advanced from Odell-town to Burton-
ville and La Colle Mill. The latter strong position was held
by Major Ilandcock with five hundred men and two guns.
The attack was commenced early in the morning. Wilkinson
made a show of assaulting it with a force of three thousand,
and a battery of three field-pieces. But no determination was
shown by the General ; no resolute rush v,^as made by his sol-
diers to carry the position. Discomfited, t -.ey retreated in the
evening across the border, having suffered severe ioss. Tliia
affair destroyed Wilkinson's military reputation. He was super-
seded by General Izzard.

6. Early in May a combined military and naval attack, under
O General Drummond, was made on Oswego. There the Ameri-
cans built and equipped war-vessels to do duty on Lake Ou-
tario. They had just completed a great sixiy-four- gun-ship.
The position was strong : it was defended by a well-garrisoned
fort on the brow of a hill. But within half an hour from the land-
ing of the British the fort was taken, its defenders were slain,
wounded, captured, routed ; the barracks, the store-houses, and
the great ship were in flames. In war, disaster quickly follows
on success. On the morning of the last day of May, Captain

yfj^ Popham, with a thousand siiilors and marines, ascended Sandy
Creek, with the view of intercepting a party of the enemy, which
was carrying; a quantity of naval stores from Oswego to
Sackett's Harbour. They fell into an ambush, and were cut vi
pieces.

7. From the beginning of summer greater spirit was thrown
into the contest. Hopes were raised in Canada tha^ Great

KIAQAUA FltONTlEU.

303

Britain would do in America something worthy of lier power.
Tlie turn of events in Euro})e had relieved her from the great
fit rain on her military resources. Naj)oleon, the disturber of
tlie worhl's peace, wjis for the time chained in the little isle
of Elba. In June several British rOj^dments arrived in Quebec ;
;iii(I with them commands came to Sir Ge(»ige Prevost to take
the offen< ve, and prosecute the war vigorously The strength
of the tiiii.sh naval squadrons in American waters was in-
creased. The Imperial Government proclaimed that the ports (
from New York to the New Brunswick frontier, as well as
those to the south, were closed against neutral vessels. The
President declared that the blockade of two thousand miles of
coast, from Maine to Georgia, was ineffectual, and called on
foreign nations to disregard it.

8. General Drummond, in Upper Canada, had urgent need
of reinforcements. The enemy was making preparations for
invasion. Among a portion of the people dissatisfaction had
shown itself, and had been sternly crushed. Eight persons
had been executed in Burlington, in the Niagara district, for
high treason. The evil spirit might spread more generally
throughout the Province should the invaders gain a decided
advantage.

9. On the 3rd of July, six thousand men, under General
Brown crossed the Niagara from Black Rock. Fort Erie with
its small garrison was captured. As they advanced towards
Fort Chippewa, they were met by Major-General Riall and a
body of fiteen hundred British regulars, and three hundred
militia and Indians. The Americans took position of battle.
Their right, strongly supported by artilleiy, rested among the
orchards and buildings close on the Niagara Hiver, their left on
the woods. General Riall commenced the battle at four o'clock
in the afternoon of the 5th. He threw forward his skirmishers,
who drove in the riflemen and Indians in front of the en imy's
left. He threatened the right and left of the enemy's position,
and pushed on an attack on his centre. The troops, met by a
hot and galling fire, were checked. This repulse was followed
by a general but orderly retreat on the British line. Riall made
a final stand at the Fort at Niagara. General Brown took up
a position at Chippewa. They both rested about a fortnight.

304

BATTLE OF LUNDv's LANE.

ill'

i'l!) I

111,

iii!

'■•> •'■ .s

10. In the meautime reinforcements of British troops had
arrived at Niagara : still Eiall's force was much outnumbered.
So confident in the quality of his troops as to contemn the odds
against him, he pushed his division towards the Falls to engage
the enemy. On the 24th of July, General Drummt)nd arrived
at Niagara from York. With eight hundred soldiers, gathered
from the garrisons of the forts, he advanced to Riall's support.
"When he reached the road to Beaver Dams, over the summit of
the hill at Lundy's Lane, he found Eiall's division in retreat
on Fort George, and the Americans in gre.tt force posted well
on the hill and in the woods. He at once countermanded
the retreat, and formed his order of battle. His guns were
placed in the centre. The engagement commenced at six in the
evening. The Americans made des}jerate efforts to capture
the guns and gain possession of the road. In the close and
confused combat, the opposing cannons were brought muzzle to
muzzle. For a brief time the Americans held the road. At
nine there occurred a pause in the strife. The night had set
in darkly with clouds ; but through the rifts the moon shed a
fitful gleam on the wild scene. Distinctly was heard the roar
of the falling Niagara. While General Brown brought up ail
his available forces, Colonel Scott- of the 103rd joined General
Drummond with , twelve hundred soldiers o different corps,
Still the Americans were almost two tc one. With fresh force
they r*^newed their efforts to gain po'isessjon of the hill. At
midnight they desisted, and fled hjistDy to their camp at Chip-
pewa. They had lost in all fifteen hundred men. Next day,
after throwing their heavy baggage into the Eapids, and de-
stroying the bridge over the Chippev/a, they retreated to I'ort
Erie. The Battle of Lundy's Lane was the most fiercely con-
tested of any in the whole war.

11. In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick the excitement and
anxiety of the war were felt, but their people escaped its
actual horrors. American privateera cruised along their coasts,
and kept the merchants in fear for their vessels. In Halifax the
effect of the wax was seen most plainly. Its citizens lived amidst
scenep of bustle, misery, and feverish gaiety. Ruin and riches
came at a blow. Now they mourned the loss of a merchant
or fishiag fiet-t cape ,ired by the foe ; now they rejoiced to see

HALIFAX IN TIME OF WAR.

305

A.merican ships brought into their harbour as prizes, and sold
at a great profit. While some rejoiced, many mourned. Trade
was brisk, money plentiful ; many new inhabitants came to the
town ; new houses were built. Farmers found a ready and prof-
itable market for their produce. The citizens saw much of
" the pomp and circumstance" of war. British men-of-war were
continually entering and leaving the harbour, and the guns of
the citadel bellowed forth their salute. Often the town was
illuminated in honour of some "glorious victory;" the strains
of military music sounded in the streets, and the hearts of the
youth swelled to hear of acts of British daring by sea and by
laud.

12. But events had happent^d that gave a check to pride. The
people of British America had heard with wonder and alanu of
the successive defeats of British frigates by American war-ships.
The accumulated disasters had aroused in the liearts of British
uaval officers a burning desire to wipe out the disgrace.

13. One Sunday morning in June (1813) the people of
Halifax saw two frigates sail into the harbour, sails and rig-
ging in the most beautiful order. From the top-mast of one
floated the British ensign above the " stars and Stripes. ' ^ >^
Ai '. to outward view seemed fair ; but in their cabins one cap- / (J
tain lay wrapped in his death-shroud, the other raved in the
agony of a desperate wound. People visiting the frigates saw

a fearful si^ht — decks clotted yith gore. Five days before— on
the 1st of June — a pleasure party had sailed out of Boston har-
bour in the wake of the U.S. frigate " Chesapeake," to witness
a sea-fight and another triumph ; for bold Broke of the British
"Shannon" had challenged the gallant Lawrence to single
combat. In fifteen minutes from the time when the frigates
were locked in combat, two hundred and thirty men lay dead
or fearfully wounded and mangled on their decks; and the
Chesapeake was a prize. A week after Lawrence had sailed so
confidently fortli to fight, British soldiers lined the streets of
Halifax, as all that was moi'tal of the hero was borne to its
resting-place with funereal pomp, followed by many who had
been his deadly foes.

14. From Halifax, in July 1814, an expedition sailed to Pas-
samaquoddy Bay. Moose Island ^aaJl the town of Eastport

1,473)

Aa^

^cii^i

306

WASHINGTON BURNED.

■ >!i

were captured, and the inhabitants were obliged to swear alle-
giance to King George. In August a British fleet under Admiral
Cochrane, having on board a land force in command of Major-
General Eoss, appeared in Chesapeake Bay. The city of Wash-
/ ington was taken, and the Capitol and other public buildings
were given to the flames ; Alexandria was compelled to capitu-
/^late; the citizens of Baltimore were thrown into mortal terror.
Another expedition, in command of Admiral Griflith and the
/ Q Governor, Sir John Sherbrooke, sailed from Halifax in Sep-
tember for the coast of Maine. It ascended the Penobscot
River ; the town of Castine was taken ; Bangor was surrendered
into their hands. The territory between the Penobscot and the
St. Croix (anciently part of Acadie) was proclaimed to he under
British rule.

15. Sir George Prevost had received commands in June to
invade the State of New York. Ever slow and cautious, he
did not move his army from its encampment between the
Richelieu River and the St. Lawrence and cross the American
frontier until September. He had under his command thirteen
thousand of the choicest troops, splendidly equipped : many of
whom were veterans who had fought under Wellington. As he
advanced, the enemy abandoned the villages of Champlain and
Chazy and retired to a strong position in front of Plattsburg, on
the elevated ridge of land on the southern bank of the Saranac,
which was held by General M'Comb. A flotilla of armed brigs
and schooners and gun -boats, under Commodore M'Donough,
was anchored in the Bay of Plattsburg, and gave it further pro-
tection. Sir George Prevost sent urgent orders to Captain
Downie, who commanded the naval squadron in Lake Cham-
plain, to attack it, while his soldiers stormed the intrenchments
on the Saranac. The gallant Downie did his duty, but his ship
was disabled, and he himself was mortally wounded at the outset
of the engagement. His fate decided that of his squadron : all
the larger vessels struck their colours, the gun-boats made their
escape. On this disaster. Sir George caused all land operations
to cease, and retreated in haste, leaving many sick and wounded
and much valuable war material in the hands of the enemy. He
lost two hundred and sixty in killed and wounded, and several
hundreds by desertion. The army was enraged at the disgraco

FORT ERIE EVACUATED.

307

cast on it. Sackett's Harbour was remembered. Grave charges
of incompetency were preferred against him. He was recalled
to England to answer them ; but he fell sick, and died before he
was brought to trial.

16. General Drummond followed up his victory at Lundy's
Lane by investing Fort Erie — place of dismal remembrance !
His batteries opened fire upon it on the 13th of August, and
seriously damaged its works. Two hours before day-break of
the 15th an assault was made. Unexpected obstructions pre-
Bented themselves, disasters uncontrollable occurred. In the
darkness confusion arose, and panic set in. The heads of the
P++onkii]g columns, led by Colonel Scott of the 103rd and Colonel

mmond of the 104th, made their way into the fort. A
powder-magazine exploded, killing and fearfully mangling the
leaders and many a brave fellow. Nine hundred and two men
were reported killed, wounded, and missing on the British side.
The investment was kept up. On the afternoon of the 19th of
September, while the rain fell m torrents, the Americans made
a sudden sortie, and drove the right of the British from their
iutrenchments ; but after two hours' desperate fighting they
were compelled to retire and seek the safety of their fort. In
maintaining their position the British lost six hundred men. It
was a success r arce distinguishable from a defeat. Fort Erie
was demolished and finally evacuated by the Americans on the
5th of November.

17. The war was now drawing to a close. British and
American Commissioners met at Ghent in August. On the 24th
of December the final Treaty of Peace was ratified. But for
months the people of Canada and of the United States remained
in ignorance of the happy turn that events had taken.

On the 8th of January the bloody battle of New Orleans 181 5
was fought, when the British General Pakenham and A.D.
two thousand soldiers fell before the breast-works de-
fended by General Andrew Jackson and his raw militia.

18. Peace was hailed with wild delight in New York and
Boston. It was proclaimed in Quebec on the 9th of March.
The treibty provided for the establishment of a firm and com-
prehensive peace, the restoration of all places and prisoners
taken during the war, and the appointment of Commissioners

308

PEACE.

'MM

■m

!(. -rf, ii:;iliil'. lI ,

to ascertain by actual survey the boundaries between the pos-
sessions of Great Britain and the United States, from the source
of the Eiver St. Croix to the Lake of the Woods. No mention
was made of the " right of search," or of questions affecting the
rights of neutrals — the real causes of the war ; they were al-
lowed to rest, to occasion difficulty another day. Nothing had
been gained by either party during the contest. To both it
had been alike bloody and barren. They both had seen defeat
follow victory, and victory follow defeat, in a most unexpected
and surprising manner. During its progress the war had
pressed with increasing severity on the American people, dis-
turbing their social happiness and political quiet, and destroy-
ing their trade and commerce. The Government of Great
Britain was, in 1815, in a position to throw undivided force
into the contest ; but the extraordinary reverses that had over-
taken their choicest veteran troops — as at Plattsburg and New
Orleans — were not calculated to create confidence as to the cer-
tainty of ultimate victory should the struggle be prolonged.
The Canadians had most reason to be satisfied with the
result. The most brilliant successes of the war — as at Cliaii-
teauguay and Chrysler's Farm — were mainly due to their
prowess ; and throughout it they had been the main-stay of their
country's defence. At the end of three years the Americans
were as far from conquering Canada as ever ; and they had
found out the impossibility of subduing by force a people who
were determined to maintain their allegiance and their nation-
ality.

1. What attempt at
made in 1814? Why

Questions. -
mediation was
did it fail?

2. What had the Canadians learned
from the war? What spirit prevailed
among them?

3. For what were the Lower Canada
Judges impeached? How did the affair
end? What proposal did Chief-Justice
Sewell make when in London?

4. What encouragement could the
Americans gather from the two pre-
ceding campaigns ? What was there to
discourage them ? On what could the
Canadians congratulate themselves?

6. What movement did the Ameri-

cans make in February? When did
Wilkinson again cross the frontier?
Where was he defeated?

6. What success had the British at
Oswego in May? By what disaster was
it followed?

7. What hopes were now raised in
Canada? What orders came to Pre-
vost in June ?

8. Where were reinforcements ur-
gently needed ? What severe measur' •
had been made necessary there ? Why ?

9. By whom was Fort Erie captured
in July? Who opposed his advance
northward? What was the result of
the skirmish ?

QUESTIONS.

309

10. What reinforcements did the
British receive? Where did Drum-
mond meet Riall's division ? Describe
the Battle of Lundy's Lane.

11. Where was the effect of the war
most plainly seen? What effect had it
on trade ?

12. In what respect had the fame of
Britain been seriously tarnished? What
were naval men burning to do ?

13. Describe the ocean duel between
the Chesapeake and the Shannon.

14. In what three expeditions were
the British successful in 1814?

15. What commands did Prevost re-
ceive in June? Where did the Ameri-
cans take up their position? Wliat
duty was Downie ordered to perfori;i?

What decided the fate of his squadron ?
What did Prevost then do? What
charges were brought against him?
What was his 'ate ?

16. What was the result of the assault
on Fort Erie ? What success had the
sortie of the Americans? When was
the fort evacuated ?

17. When was the treaty of peace
ratified? What bloody battle was
fought thereafter?

18. What feelings did the news of
peace excite in America? What were
its chief provisions? What subjects
were omitted? What had been the
character of the war? Who had moat
reason to be satisfied with its result?
Why?

310

STATE OP CANADA.

,; ;i I Hi

iili

i ■

CHAPTEK XXXI.

THE FAMILY COMPACT.

1815 to 1827 A.D.

State of Canada after the War.
The Feeling of the French Can-
adians.
The Revenues.
Disputes in the Legislature.
Death of the Duke oi Richmond.

The Earl of Dalhousio.
Upper Canada.
Aliens.

Clergy Reserves.

Customs Dispute between the two
Provinces.

1. The years from 1815 to 1827 inclusive may be viewed as a
distinctive period in the history of Canada. The system of
oligarchical government, which obtained in all the Provinces,
remained undisturbed. No startling events took place. Dis-
content showed itself, but did not reach the dangerous state of
violent agitation. All the political changes, however, that
afterwards overtook the Provinces were then foreshadowed.
The Provinces affected by the war did not return to their
normal condition for some time. The lavish expenditure of
the Imperial Government ceased ; though money was no longer
plentiful, and though there was no call for military service,
habits of extravagance and disinclination to sober industry
remained. 'In Nova Scotia (in Halifax especially) the difference
between a time of peace and a time of war was soon keenly
felt. The upward flow of its prosperity, swelled by naval and
military outlays, was checked; and its state, it may be said,
came to resemble one of its rivers, which looks broad and
beautiful when the full tide from the bay is in, but which, as
the tide recedes, becomes contrfi.ied into a narrow stream.

2. Sir George Prevost having been recalled only to die. Sir

Gordon Drnmmond, the victor of Lundy's Lane, ad-

1815 ministered the government of Lower Canada. The im-

A.D. peachment of the Judges Sewell and Monk failed ; and

the Imperial Government, in defending them, censured
the Assembly for seeking to shake the confidence of the people
in the purity of the administration of juatice. For a time there

THE FRENCH CANADIANS.

311

was peace in the Legislature. The harsh acts committed during
the administration of Sir James Craig were not, however, for-
gotten. After the war the French Canadians were warm in their
loyalty to the British Crown ; but the position in which they
were placed with regard to the British minority did not cease
to excite their dissatisfaction. They saw favoured members of
that minority placed over them in invidious superiority, engross-
ing all the chief offices of honour and emolument, and assum-
ing the airs of a higher and privileged class. The refined and
sensitive among them were cut to the quick and stung into
auger. Feelings of disaffection arose gradually. When the
Upper and Lower branches came into contact, the British
minority in the Assembly for the most part sided with the
Fi'ench Canadians ; for it was equally concerned to gain control
of the government. "When, in time, the animosities of race
became angrily excited, that minority found it impossible to
act with the majority without seeming to forswear its country
and its allegiance.

3. Sir John Cope Sherbrooke was called from the govern-
ment of Nova Scotia to be Governor -General. He

found the financial affairs of Lower Canada in a dis- 1816
ordered state — the revenues were insufficient to pay the a.d.
expenses of the Civil List. The Assembly in 1809 had
proposed to assume them; they then amounted to ^40,000.
The offer had then been rejected ; now, Sir John Sherbrooke
received instructions from the Imperial Government to accept
it. The expenses had in the meantime amounted to £60,000.
This sum the Assembly, which was in a pretty good humour,
consented to give ; but it would make no permanent appropria-
tion. It would only pass an annual Bill, and it reserved to itself
the right of examining into all the details of the expenditure
of the Civil List.

4. In order to understand the nature of the dispute that
arose among the different branches of the Legislature, it is
necessary to state the sources from which the revenues of the
Province were derived. It has already been said, that when
the Province of Quebec was constituted a Government, in 1774,
an Act was passed to raise a revenue. The right of the Imperial
Government to raise taxes in the colonies was quietly allowed

.|»

312

TnK REVENUES.

>li!lil !

Mil
III

in Canada and Nova Scotia. When the Declaratory Act of 1778
was passed, abandoning that right as it affected the English
colonies then in revolt, it still remained in force in the provinces
named. The right of the Imperial Government was not ques-
tioned until after the passing of the Constitutional Act of 1791,
when separate Governments were formed in the two Provinces
of Upper and Lower Cauada, and when representative institu-
tions were established. The Assembly then claimed the power
to raise and appropriate the money necessary to carry on the
Civil Government to be its inherent right and privilege, and
started objections to the collection of a revenue by the Crown
by authority of the Act of 1774. In lieu of that revenue, the
Assembly had proposed (in 1779) to appropriate permanently a
certain sum, provided that \,he Imperial Government would
repeal the Act of 1774 ; and it pa,ssed a Bill to give effect to the
proposal. But the condition was not complied with — the Im-
perial Government still maintained its right.

6. Besides the amount raised by the Act of 1774, a revenue
— ^the Casual and Territorial — was derived from the sale of
lands and the lease of mines ; and another revenue was raised
from duties imposed by the Assembly on articles importel into
the Province. The Crown, represented by the Governor-
General, maintained that the Assembly had power of appro-
priation only over the last named source of revenue, while that
branch claimed that it had the right to appropriate the moneys
raised from all the three sources. The Assembly had, in a
manner, placed itself in the power of the Governor-General ;
for in passing the Act to raise a revenue from customs-duties,
it had made that revenue permanent. It might pass annual
Bills of appropriation, detailing the manner in which that reve-
nue should be expended. These Bills might be rejected by
the Upper branches, but the supplies were not thereby stopped ;
for the money still came into the Treasury, and tlie Governor-
General might expend it without the consent of the Assembly.

6. Difficulties somewhat similar, with regard to the control
of the expenditure of the revenues, were occurring at this time
in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. In these Provinces the
Assemblies had taken the precaution to make the Eevenue as
well as the Appropriation Bill annual, so that on any disagree-

THE DUKE OF RICHMOND.

313

inent with the Upper branches, it waa iu their power " to stop
the supplies ;" — that is, to refuse to vote the money necessary to
sustain the Civil Government.

7. In the time of Sir John Sherbrooke the temper of the
several branches of the Legislature wjis not so excited as to
c«ause them to maintain angrily the rights that each claimed.
He was succeeded by the Duke of Eichmond. In the
meantime the expenses of the Civil Government had 1819
increased. The ^60,000 was now inadequate to make a.d.
good the deficiency. A demand was made on the As-
sembly for ^16,000 iu addition. It grew uneasy, remonstrated,
and insisted on examining into all the details of the expendi-
ture, and on cutting down some of the items. The Legislative
Council refused to pass its am ^nded Appropriation Bill, and the
two branches came into direct collision.

8. The administration of the Duke of llichmond was of brief
duration, and ended tragically for himself. While on a tour on
the Ottawa Eiver he was bitten by a fox, and died in great
agony. His son-in-law, Major-General Sir Peiegrine Maitland,
Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada, was appointed ad-
ministrator. A general election took place in Lower Canada.
Sir Peregrine called the Assembly together before all the re-
turns of the newly-elected members >Vere sent in. His act was
pronounced to be a dangerous stretch of the prerogative ; for,
as the Assembly argued, if a Governor could convene a House
before the roll of its members was completed, he might deprive
the greater part of the Province of representation by calling a
House together before that roll was half made up. No estimate
of the expenses of the Civil Government was submitted by the
Governor, and, altogether, it was an irregular session. Sir
Peregrine and the same irate Assembly had not an opportu-
nity of meeting again. The revered and sorely afflicted

King, George III., died, and the Prince Pegent as- 1820
cended the throne as George IV. According to cus- a.d.
torn, on the death of the Monarch all the provincial
Assemblies were dissolved. The new House of Lower Canada
met a new Governor-General, the Earl of Dalhousie.^ He

' The Earl of Dalhousie. — Father of
the Marquifl of Dalhousie, the most

distinguished of the Governor-Generals
of India.

^i;

THE EARL OP DALIIOUSIE.

ill!!

had administered the governnieut of Nova Scotia for several
years. He had the reputation of being a proud man, refined
and courteous in ,his manner, and a rigid upliolder of the pre-
rogative of the Crown.

9. At the commencement of the EarPs rule, though there had
been sharp political contention, there was no disaffection in the
Province. The idea of establishing " la nation Canadlenne "
in Lower Canada had not yet taken possession of the minds of
the majority. The man of most influence over it, Louis Papi-
neau, Speaker of the Assem1>Iy this year, contrasted, with all
the force of his eloquence, the happy state of the French
Canadians with the miserable condition of their forefathers
under French rule. " On the day on which Canada," he said,
" came under the dominion of Great Britain, the reign of law
succeeded that of violence. From that day its treasures were
freely spent, its navy and its army were mustered to afford
her an invincible protection. From that day the better part
of British laws became hers, while her religion, her property,
and the laws by which they are preserved, remained un-
altered." A change in a few years came over Papineau's mind.

10. The Earl of Dalhousie soon showed in what spirit he was
prepared to meet the Assembly. He demanded that it should
make the Appropriation Bill permanent, or at least enact it for
the King's life. On the repeated refusal of the Assembly to
accede to his demand, he, by the vice of his Council, drew
upon the money raised by the permanent Revenue Act, which
was in the hands of the Receiver-General. The Assembly de-
nounced his act as unconstitutional. There were other causes
of trouble, arising chiefly from the differences between the
characters, laws, and customs of the French and British popu-
lations. The feudal tenure had always been held by the
British to be degrading and oppressive. A proposal w^as now
made by the Government to allow holders of land under feu-
dal' obligations to change the tenure to that of free and com-
mon soccage. As the laws by which property descended in
families depended on the permanence of the feudal tenure, the
French Canadians became alarmed : they imagined that the
proposed change was to be forced upon them, and that it was
but the commencement of an agitation for the abolition of all

UPPER CANADA.

315

their laws and customs. Many members, indeed, of the British
minority held that ruless Lower Canada was made, in fact, a
Biitish Province, by banishing the French language from the
Legislature, and the French laws from the country, it would
not long remain a dependency of the Crown. This extreme
section of the British minority, which was well represented in
tlie Councils, advised the Crown to unite Lower with Upper
Canada under such conditions as, if they had been fully carried
ou*^^, might have brought about the result desired.

IL The government of Upper Canada from 1815 to 1820
was administered by a rapid succession of Governors : — by
Lieutenant-General Sir George Murray, from April till July
1815 ; by Major-General Sir Frederick Eobinson till September
1815 ; by the Honourable Francis Gore till June 1817 ; by the
Honourable Samuel Smith till August 1818 ; by Sir Peregrine
Maitland till he was transferred to Lower Canada in 1819,
when the Honourable S. Smith again administered the govern-
ment until Sir Peregrine's return in 1820. In none of the Prov-
inces was power so firmly centralized in the hands of one class
as in Upper Canada. Its state in its earliest days almost
necessarily brought this position about, and the Constitutional
Act helped to fix it. Its population was scattered, and pos-
sessed little education; the number of persons possessing means
and knowledge qualifying them to fill the highest positions was
limited. Men naturally defend the privileges which they enjoy,
and to which long usage seems to give them a prescriptive right.
As the population increased by immigration, the cordon of ex-
clusiveness was drawn around the party in power — "the
Family Compact." Its members held all the seats in the
Executive and Legislative Councils for life, and all the offices
that had control of the finances and of the lands ; and they
secretly influenced the Governor. The commerce and the lands
of the country were mainly in their hands. Through the
amount of patronage at their disposal, they were enabled to fill
the Assembly with their adherents ; and all legislation tended
to maintain the monopoly of power in their hands. They held
that to give the press liberty to critici'^'e the acts of the Govern-
ment, or to allow the people to petition against alleged griev-
ances^ or to agitate them at public meetings, was to encourage a

316

ALIENS.

iii|||j|

I m

republican wpirit ; aud that to give education to the children of
the poor was to lift them out of their sphere, to make them too
independent in thought and action. Such opinions, though they
might only be lield rigidly by Home, Iiad their influence on all
the party. As a result of them, a writer for the press who
dared to h\it at abuses or to suggest reforms had a very hard
time of it. He was ruined by actions of libel brought against
him : his types were destroyed, and he was thrown into jail.
A man who .attended a public meeting ran the risk of having
disaffection nx^puted to hi:i, And of being deprived of any posi-
tion he 'night hold under Government.

12. A question that caused angry feeling was at th;s time
agitated in Upper Canada. It wai? discovered that many re-
spectable persons — some of them members of the Legislature —
who had for a long period enjoyed the privileges of British sub-
jects, were not entitled to them. They had come from the
United States and settled in the Province after the Declara-
tion of the Independence of the English Colonies in 178.3. The
law declared that they were citizens of the United States, and
therefore aliens in Canada. Some of the persons pronounced
to be aliens had served the King during the war of 1812, and
held offices and lands under patents from the Crown. They
were exceedingly indignant when called upon to take the oath
of allegiance again, and to submit to the formality of a seven
years' residence in the Province before they were declared en-
titled to enjoy privileges to which they had never dreamed that
they had not a right. Persons emigrating from Great Britain
or Ireland, and passing through the United States to Canada,
were treated as aliens. This strained interpretation of the law
was made in order to cover the case of a Scotchman, Eobert
Gourlay, a journalist, who had made himself obnoxious to the
governing powers, and who was driven from the Province.
This alien question caused much excitement, until it was settled
according to the dictates of good sense and good feeling.

13. The enduring trouble in Upper Canada, the grievance
that excited the deepest discontent and aroused the angriest
feelings, arose from the position assumed by the Church of
England. It was recognized by law ; other sects were tolerated.
Jts members, among whom were ah the chief officials, assume(|

TIIR CLERGY RESEUVES.

317

tluit it was the dominant, the Stiite Church. In the hands of
tlie Colonial Secretary was tho bestowal of the patronage of the
rectories of Quebec, Montreal, and Three Elvers. When the
Ecclesijistical Hoard was formed (1822), of which the Arch-
bishops of Canterbury and York and the Bishop of Loudon
were members, the ai^iiointments were made at its suggesti^ii.
The clergymen and niissi(/naries of the Church were ai)pointed
by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel iu Foreign
Countries,^ whoi' function was the supply and maintenance of
a body ' f clergyiden for the North American colonies. The
members of the Cliurch in the colony contributed veiy little
towards the supi)ort of their clergy. Compared with other
sects they were less numerous than the Presbyterians or the
Methodists.

14. The clergy of the Church of England claimed the sole
enjoyment of the Clergy Reserves, the seventh of the granted
lauds set a])art by the (Joustitutioi il Act for " the support of a
Protestant Clergy ; " and by a clause in that Act provision was
made for the erection of rectories in every parish of the Prov-
ince. They maintained that under the general term, " Prot-
estant Clergy," no other sect was included. The members of
the Church of Scotland were indignant at this assumption, and
insisted on their right to a share of the Reserves. During the
debate on the Constitutional Act iu the Imperial Parliament,
Charles James Fox said that it w^ould be unjust to impose the
Church of England on Canada, aud that if any Church had a
claim to be established it was that of Scotland. The Methodists
and Baptists were displeased at the attempt made to create
invidious distinctions between the various religious bodies,
and to place them in a position of inferiority. Along with
the Roman Catholics they proposed that the Clergy Reserves
should be sold, and that their jDroceeds should be applied to the
interests of religion and education, to the building of churches
and school-houses, and to purposes of internal improvement in
the Province.

15. The clergy of the Churcli of England took a practical

' The Society for the Propagation of I corporated by Royal Charter in 1701, in
the Gospel in Foreign Countries — In- 1 the reign of William III.

Il i

L'liii,,!;

ilHlli

ii.

\u\

318

THE CUSTOMS DISPUTE.

step to assert their sole right to the Reserves. A Clergy Cor-
poration (of which the Bishop of Quebec and othera,
1820 chiefly clergymen, were members) was forme<^, under a
A.D. Royal Charter. It managed the sale of lands, and col-
lected the rents. At first the profits hardly covered
the expenses.

16. Besides the troubles peculiar to each of the Provinces,
there was a standing cause of quarrel between them. It
has already heen stated that the commerce of the western
Province, by way of i'^e St. Lawrence, was controlled by tl^j
eastern, as there were no ports of entry above Montreal. The
duibies for purposes of revenue were imposed by the Legislature
of Lower Canada, and distributed in the proportion, first of
one-eighthj afterwards of one-fifth, to Upper Canada. The
people of the British Province were making great advances in
population and wealth, and they complained that they did not
receive justice. They grew impatient of the state of thraldom
in which they vere placed, and sought for a way to escape
from it.

Questions. — 1. "What is the pecul-
iar character in Canadian history of
the twelve years following the war?
How was Nova Scotia affected by the
return of peace?

2. Who succeeded Prevost as Gover-
nor of Lower Canada? How did the
impeachment of the Judges end ? Whet
were the feelings of the French Cana-
dians after the war? What gradually
excited disaffection among them?

3. Who became Governor-General in
1816? W):at difficult question had he
to deal with? What position did the
Assembly assume w ith reference to it ?

4. When was the right of the Impe-
r'al Government to tax the colonies
questioned in Canada i What proposal
had the Assembly made in 1779? Why
had it failed?

6. What were the different sources
of revenue In Canada? What different
views regarding the power of the As-
sembly were held by the Assembly and
by the Crown? How had the Assembly
placed itself in the power of the Gover-
nor-General?

6. In what other Provinces had si ni-

lar questions arisen? What precaution
had the Assemblies in these Provinces
taken ?

7. Who succeeded Sir John Sher-
brooke as Governor-General? What
brought the Council and the Assem^-iy
into direct collision?

8. How did the Duke of Richmond
die? Who succeeded him? How did
Sir Perftgi ne irritate the Assembly?
What terminated his rule? Who suc-
ceeded him?

9. Who was the man of most influ-
ence in the majority of the Assembly?
What view of the situation of affairs
did he take ?

10. What demand did the Earl cf
Dalhousie maks from the Assembly?
What did he do when th? Assembly
refused? What followed? What pro-
posal alarmei the French Canadians?
What was the opinion of the extreme
section of the British minority ?

11. How many changes in the gover-
norship of Upper Canada took place
between 1815 and 1820? Who pos-
sessed the chief power in that Prov-
tace^ How did this arise? Describe

QUESTIONS.

319

the monopoly of power possessed by
the Family Compact. By what opinions
was it influenced? How did those
who claimed freedom suffer?

12. What was the alien question?
How was the law strained in the case
of Robert Gourlay? How was the
question at last settled ?

13. What was the most troublesome
grievance in Upper Canada? What

was the position of that Church? By
wliom were its clergymen appointed?

14. What did the clergy of the Church
of England claim ? By whom was the
claim resisted? In what proposal did
tlte Roman Catholics join?

16. What practical step did the
Church of England party take ?

16. What standing cause of quarrel
was there between the Provinces ?

t^X.i* i.Wy-l ■■ I

320

THE UNION SCHEME.

i.m

CHAPTEE XXXII.

THE FIRST APPEAL TO ENGLAND.

1822 to 1827 A.D.

The Union Scheme.

Canada Trade Act.

Failure of Sir John Caldwell.

The Canada Tenures Act.

The Earl of Dalhousie's unpopular acts.

The Crown lands.

Statue of Nova Scotia

Cape Breton,

Legislative troubles in New Brunswick.

Death of Governor G. Tracey Smythe.

Sir Howard Douglas.

The Great Fire at Miramichi.

The Disputed Territory.

The Duties on Baltic timber.

1. A Scheme of Union was proposed by the Imperial

Government as a remedy for the evils that afHicted the
1822 Canadas, separately and in their relations with each
A.D. other. It met with some favour from the British mer-
chant class in Upper Canada, and from the British
population of the townships of Lower Canada. The latter, now
about 40,000 in number, were placed in a peculiarly disadvan-
tageous position. A wilderness intervened between them and
the anciently settled part of the Province. They had no repre-
sentation in the Assembly or in the Courts of Justice. They were
compelled, when they wished to seek legal redress, to make au
PTduous and expensive journey to Montreal, Three Bivers, or
Quebec, where legal proceedings were conducted according to
French law and in the French language. Though they held
their lands under freehold tenure, they were uncertain whether
their properties were subject to British or to French lav/.

2. The Union Scheme was almost unanimously denounced by
the French Canadians ; they looked upon it as an insulting
measure, and as designed to obliterate their nationality. Two
most objectionable features in the scheme were, a provision that
the English language should alone be used in the written pro-
ceedings, and, at the end of fifteen years, in the debates ei
the Assembly ; and the proposal to givo the Government the
privilege of placing two members of the Executive Council
of each Province in the Lower House, for the purpose of
carrying through its measures, but without allowing them to

i>»

FAILURE OF SIR JOHN CALDWELL.

321

vote. The Union Scheme was withdrawn, and the Canada
Trade Act was passed by the Imperial Parliament. It imposed
certain duties for the purpose of regulating commerce and of
raising a revenue ; and Commissioners were appointed to distri-
bute them between the two Provinces.

3. The disputes in the Legislature of Lower Canada over
the appropriations were now increasing in warmth. The
Assembly refused to sanction certain charges for pensions in
tbfi estimates laid before it. The Legislative Council threw its
Bill, in which those items were omitted, " under the table," and
refused to give it any consideration. The Governor-General
continued to pay salaries and charges on the Civil List on his
own responsibility. The growing discontent was aggra-
vated by the failure of Sir John Caldwell, Keceiver- 1824
General, in whose hands were placed the revenues for a.d.
r>afe keeping. He could give no account of ^96,000 of

the money belonging to the Province which had passed through
his hands. The Assembly now had a just grievan-^f^ This
officer had been appointed by the Crown, and no proper security
had been taken that the Province would be indemnified in the
event of his failure. Though Sir John Caldwell was convicted
of being a defaulter, he still held his seat in the Executive
Council. In the Assembly it was said that if the Eeceiver-
General had been obliged to submit annually to it a full and
explicit statement of the financial condition of the Province no
such loss could have occurred. The continued antagonism of
the Legislative (Jouncil, — several of whose members were
salaried officers, directly interested in maintaining the expenses
of the Civil List, and in taking the power to reduce them out of
the hands of the Assembly, — provoked in that body a desire to
change the composition of the Upper branch by introducing into
it members r^ho were independent of the Crown, and whose
sentiments were more in harmony with those of the body of the
people.

4. This year the "Canada Tenures Act" was passed,

making legal the proposal to giv« holders of lands under

feudal tenure the option to change that tenure to that of "free

and common soccage ;'' and to establish the operation of English

law over them.

(473) 21

if'^-.^lAj Mil

'(''

HsI

I'i

322

DALHOUSIE S UNrOPULARlTY.

5. The Earl of Dalhousie went to England on leave of absence.
He had not made himself popular ; but Governor-Generals in
those days did not court popularity. Sir Francis Matthew
Burton was appointed administrator. The signs of a rising
tempest disappeared. He conceded the deman^^ that the
Assembly had been making for several years — to control the
Crown revenues raised by the Act of 1774. Satisfaction was
diffused over the Province. Soon, however, the Earl returned,
and that feeling died away, or was changed to exasperation.
He undid what Sir Francis had done ; denied the right of the
Assembly to dispose of the Cro vn revenues ; peremptorily
called upon it to make permanent provision for the Judges and
oilier officials ; and on its refusal, issued, without its sanction,
warrants for the payment of their salaries. He showe . himself
personally hostile to the chief men in the Assembly, who
certainly were not chary in condemning his acts. The leader
of the British minority — Mr. Neilson, editor of the Qii£bec
Gazette^ an able man and a powerful writer — came under the
EarFs d ispleasure ; and with his favour another Gazette was
established on the ruins of the original paper, which bitterly
assailed Neilson. M. Papineau was now in a state of semi-
rebellion against British authority.

6. The House met after a general election. The Earl refused

to recognize Papineau as Speaker, though he was the

1827 choice of the majority of the Assembly ; and he violently

A.D. dissolved the Hoi:se. This action brought matters to a

crisis. The Constitution was suspended. Excited
public meetings were held in the districts of Montreal, Three
Kivers, and Quebec. Petitions, addressed to the King and
the British Parliament, setting forth numerous grievances, and
praying for the recall of the Governor-General, received 87,000
signatures. Messrs. Viger, Neilson, and Cuvillier were deputed
as agents to present them. The British population of the town-
ships also met and drew up petitions, and affixed 10,000 signa-
tures to them. They prayed for a legislative union of the two
Canadas as the best remedy for all the troubles.

7. In Upper Canada discontent was not so vivid as in the
Lower Province. Still many of its people thought that its state
demanded the consideration of the Imperial Parliament. There

THE CROWN LANDS.

323

never would be peace while the Church of En ^land was allowed
to maintain the sole right to the Clergy Reserves, which then
amounted to over 3,000,000 acres of land.

8. The general system of Crown land management was
much comT>lained of, not only in Upper Canada, but in all the
British Provinces. Favouritism prevailed in making grants of
lands. Extensive tracts were given gratuitously to Executive
Councillors and othej*s, which were allowed to remain in a wild
state, and which, intervening between settled districts, obstructed
their progress. This evil was early seen, and Eoyal Instructions
were issued forbidding the granting of more than 1,200 acres
to any one individual. In the Canadas such regulations were
adroitly and systematically evaded. A number of ? iates
would apply through "a leader" for 1,200 acres t.,jn. In
many cases their application was a subterfuge, as the combined
grants, amounting sometimes to 50,000 acres, went to the
"leader."

9. After the war of 1812, the Prince Regent signified his
pleasure that grants of land should be made to the militiamen
of Upper Canada, in reward for their services. The royal
bounty was intercepted or rendered of no avail. Difficulties on
account of the routine of the Crown land department, and the
amount of fees demanded, met the militiamen when they sought
to obtain their grants. In cases where they did receive them,
the lands were sometimes inconveniently located and unfit for
settlement, and were not unfrequently parted with, it is said,
by the disappointed grantee to speculators for a mere trifle — for
a bottle of rum, or some such ridiculous non-equivalent.

10c An effort was made to turn the waste lands of Upper
Canada to account. The Canada Land Company (whose
head-quarters were in London) was incorporated by Royal
Charter on the 19th of August 1826. It proposed to pui'cliase
all the Crown and Clergy Reserves. On an objection being
raised by the Clergy Corporation that the price offered was too
W, the Company obtained 1,000,000 acres in the Huron country
in place of the Clergy Reserves. For 3,300,000 in all, the Com-
pany agreed to pay £350,000 sterling, in sixteen annual instal-
ments ; and to expend money in opening up roads, and in other
works of public utility. The portion of the revenue raised by

(1,

!l ^

ii| '^

■lii

324

THE STATE OP NOVA SCOTIA.

authority of the Canada Trade Act being insufficient to pay the
Civil List of the Province, the annual payments made by the
Land Company relieved the Imperial Government from the
necessity of making good the deficiency.

11. In Nova Scotia, as already stated, there was a great

decline of prosperity after the war. In 1816 the

1816—20 revenue amounted to ^96,300, and a surplus of

A.D. ^60,000 over the expenditure was left. In 1820

the revenue was ^53,000, and there was a balance
of debt of ^1,800 against the Province. In these five years
changes for the worse took place in Halifax. Trade languished,
many of the inhabitants went away, leaving tenantless houses.
The Imperial Dockyard establishment was much reduced. Hali-
fax ceased to be the chief naval station, that distinction having
h::^i\ transferred to Bermuda. Hundreds of workmen out of
employment at one time were indebted to the Poor Man's
Socii^ y for their daily subsistence. The Earl of Dalhousie was
then Governor. There was little political excitement, and the
thoughts of public men were directed to the improvement of
the Province. Pictou Academy and Dalhousie College were
founded ; the parish school system was inaugurated ; an impetus
was given to agriculture by the let+ers of Mr. Young, who
assumed the njm de plwne " Agricola."

12. On the appointment of the Earl of Dalhousie as Governor-
General, the Assembly voted ^1,000 to purchase " a sword and
star," as a testimonial of its esteem. The Earl at first accepted
the gift with thanks, but afterwards declined it, because, as he
stated to the Speaker, the Assembly had neglected to carry out
his suggestions for improving the militia and road service, and
to provide for a survey of the Province. The Assembly, more-
over, had shown a want of respect to the Executive Council,
and had preferred charges against one of its members — the
Collector of Customs — that affected his character for strict
honesty ; but above all, the Earl felt sensitive about receiving
a costly gift in the low state of the finances. When he went to
Quebec he was succeeded by Sir James Kempt, a veteran
officer, who had served with Abercrombie in Egypt, and with
Wellington in the Spanish Peninsula, and who had been
wounded at Waterloo.

TROUBLES IN NEW BRUNSWICK. 325

13. Or the •t&th of October 1820, Cape Breton was formally
iucorporated with Nova Scotia, much against the will of a
raajority of its inhabitants. As a county of the Province it
sent two representatives to the Assembly.

14. The petition of the Legislature of New Brunswick to the
Prince Regent, praying for a regularly commissioned Governor,
was answered in 1818, when Major-General George Tracey
Smythe was appointed. He had great difficulties with the
Legislature, as there was constant collision between the Legis-
lative Council and the Assembly over the question of the con-
trol of the revenues. He took a firm stand in 1819, and dis-
solved the Assembly. The new House showed itself a little
more tractable ; but on the death of the old King, George HI.,
in 1820, another dissolution took place, and the House that
met the following year followed the evil courses of its prede-
cessors.

15. Ill the midst of the session of 1823 Governor Smythe died,
and contention was stayed for a time. Business was hurriedly
brought to a close, and the House was prorogued by Chief-
Justice Saunders and Judge Chipman, on the authority of a
commission under the Great Seal. A series of rather strange
casualties followed. The Hon. Christopher Billop (who had
renounced his own name, Richai J Farmar, and assumed that of
his father-in-law, on his marriage with an heiress of Staten
Island), presuming on his position as senior Executive Coun-
cillor, issued his proclamation as President. Being very old
and very infirm, he was not considered to be, as the Royal
Instructions in such cases required, the most fitting and proper
person for the office. He was superseded by the Hon.
Ward Chipman. The new President met the Legislature in
seeming good health in January (1824), but die^ before the
close of the session, on the 9th February. On that day the
Legislative Council had under its consideration a bill for the
interment of Governor Smythe in the parish church of Fred-
ericki,on. The Hon. James Murray Bliss became President, and
continued in office until the arrival of Sir Howard Douglas
in August. The new Governor was distinguished as a soldier
and as a man of science and letters.

16. The population of New Brunswick was now 74,000. The

r-m

v*i>.

I IlL,

326

THE GREAT FIRE AT MIRAMICHI.

settlements were chiefly on the bauks of the rivers. The roiids,
few in number, ran " up hill and down dale," in the old Eoman
fashion, and were ill adapted for travel and traffic. Agricul-
ture was neglected. Large sums were annually sent out of the
Province to purchase flour, meal, and farm produce. Labour
was high and scarce. The lumber trade was prosecuted with
great ardour, and had never been so prosperous. Ship-building
was prodigiously active. Sir Howard studied the state of the
Province with solicitude. He deprecated the too exclusive
devotion to lumbering, and sought to encourage a better system
of agriculture and of road-making. Through his influence
King's College at Frederickton was established. On his first
meeting the Legislature the prospect was full of cheer ; when
he met it again that prospect was overclouded.

17. The summer was unusually hot and dry all over the

American Continent. No rain fell in New Brunswick

1825 for over two months. There were many fires in the

A.D. woods. On the 29th of September, Government House,

in Frederickton, was burned. The drought, with mid-
summer sultriness, was felt in every part of the Province, and
continued until October. On the 7th a destructive fire broke
out in Frederickton, and at the same time a flaming storm swept
over the country between the Nashwaak and the Miramichi,
and north to the Bay Chaleur. A terrible scene took place in
Miramichi. Towards evening a pitchy darkness overspread
the sky, through which shot tongues of fire ; then a hurricane
of flame burst, with a fearful roar, and rushed over Newcastle
and Douglastown, destroying churches and houses and sliips
upon the stocks. Many old and infirm persons and many children
perished. The people sought the river for safety ; wild animals
even, which had been driven from their lairs in the burning
forest, crept to its bank. The lurid waters were tossed about
in wild commotion. Vessels, with their rigging all afire, were
torn from their anchorage and driven on shore. Many of the
people threw themselves into the river and essayed to cross on
rafts of logs, in scows, boats, and canoes. On that fearful night
one hundred and sixty persons perished from fire, water, and
injuries. Hundreds were maimed. Property worth ^250,000
was destroyed. The loss incurred by the destruction of the

THE DISPUTED TERRITORY.

327

forests was incalculable. This calamity evoked wide-spread
sympathy. Large sums were promptly subscribed in all the
British Provinces, in Great Britain, and in the United States,
for the relief of the sufferers.

18. The Americans had always shown a disposition to en-
croach upon the Disputed Territory. Governor lin-

coln of Maine assumed a threatening attitude, and mar- 1827
shalled the militia of the State upon the frontiers. A a.d,
fellow named Baker, at the head of a party of fillibus-
ters, made a dash into the Madawaska district, and hoisted the
" stars and stripes" upon a pole in token that it was under the
protection of the U.S. Government. The old Loyalists and
French settlers had no idea of being made " free and enlight-
ened citizens" against their will. They appealed to the Gover-
nor, and Sir Howard Douglas quietly moved troops to the fron-
tier, and held them in readiness to resist invasion if necessary.
A constable drove into the Madawaska settlement, levelled
the staff, bundled the American flag under his arm, seized
Baker, and carried him off a prisoner, and lodged him in the
jtiil at Frederickton. Governor Lincoln and his militia fumed
terribly, but did not cross the frontier. Baker was brought to
trial before the Supreme Court, and fined. There was great
excitement : when it calmed down, the Governments of Great
Britain and the United States, by joint consent, referred the
question of the boundary to the King of the Netherlands.

19. About this time Great Britain commenced to throw
down commercial barriers. Hitherto she had rigidly
protected the commerce of her colonies. The trade of 1830
the West Indies was finally thrown open to the Ameri- a.d.
cans in 1830 ; and the people of Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick complained that by that concession a great blow was
given to their prosperity, the West Indies being one of the
beat markets for their fish and lumber. Dissatisfaction almost
swelled into disaffection when the report reached New Bruns-
wick that it was the intention of the Imperial Government to
repeal the duties on Baltic timber, and con3equently to with-
draw from the lumber trade the protection it had always
enjoyed. Nothing but ruin seemed to stare the people in the
face. The Legislature sent urgent petitions against the contem-

il"

328

THE DUTIES ON BALTIC TIMBER.

plated measure to the King .ind the Parlianieut. Sir Howard
Douglas — who was called to England to give information with
regard to the Disputed Territory — published a pamphlet in
which he stated clearly the impolicy and injustice of repealing
the duties. This brochure had a good effect. The Bill for the
repeal was defeated in the Imperial Parliament. Joy was dif-
fused over New Brunswick. A. handsome service of plate was
presented to Sir Howard. He did not return to the Province ;
for he felt constrained to resign his governorship, as, in oppos-
ing the repeal of the Baltic duties, he had acted against the
Government which had appointed him. The Hon. William
Black, President of the Council, administered the government
until the arrival of Major-General Sir Achibald Campbell,
the new Governor.

ijii

"A
m.

llll'rn

Questions. — 1. What remedy for
the evils of Canada was proposed in
1822? Under what disadvantage did
the British population in Lower Canada
labour?

2. By whom was the Union Scheme
opposed? What were its objectionable
features? What was its fate? What
Act was passed by the Imperial Parlia-
ment?

3. What real grievance had the As-
sembly of Lower Canada in 1824 ? What
wish did the antagonism of the Council
provoke in the Assembly?

4. What was the Canada Tenures
Act? When was it passed?

6. When did the dissatisfaci 'on dis-
appear? What occurred on the Earl's
return? To whom did he show him-
self personally hostile?

6. What brought matters to a crisis ?
What steps were taken by the malcon-
tents? What did the British popula-
tion of the townships propose ?

7. What was the state of Upper
Canada?

8. What complaints were made
against the system of Crown land man-
agement? How were the regulations
evadev ?

9. To whom were grants of land made
after 1812? What difficulties did they
encounter?

10. What wm the objAct of fche Canada

Land Company? Describe its opera-
tions.

11. What was the condition of Nova
Scotia, and specially of Halifax, after
the war of 1812?

12. Why did the Earl of Dalhousie
refuse the testimonial of the Assembly?
Who succeeded him as Governor of
Lower Canada?

13. With what Province was Cape
Breton incorporated in 1820?

14. Who was appointed Governor of
New Brunswick in 1818? With what
difficulties had he to contend ?

15. How was the contention stayed
for a time? Who held the office of
President until the arrival of the new
Governor? Who was he?

16. What was then the population of
New Brunswick? What was its condi-
tion? WhaA improvements did Sir
Howard Douglas encourage ?

17. What calamity overtook New
Brunswick in the summer of 1825? De-
scribe its details. Whence was relief
sent to the sufferers?

18. What encroachment was made on
the Disputed Territory in 1827? How
did it end ? To whom was the question
of boundary referred ?

19. What measures excited dissatis-
faction in Nova Scotia and New Bruns-
wick in 1830? How were these maas*
ures defeated?

AN AGE OF POLITICAL REFORM

329

CHAPTER XXXIII.

RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT— LOWEB CANADA.

1828 to 1836 A.D.

An Age of Political Reform.
Keport of the Canada Committee.
Ilecall of the Earl of Dalhousie.
The Concessioiis made by the British

Government.
Renewed discontents.

Lord Aylmer.

Kebellious tendencies.

The Ninety-two Resolutions.

Lord Gosford.

The Commission of Inquiry.

A dead-lock.

1. Canada now entered upon the most trying and the most
important period of its history. In the twenty years from 1828
to 1848 the battle of " Responsible Government " was fought.
The oligarchical system, which had prevailed in all the Prov-
inces since their foundation, was overturned ; and the people,
through their representatives in the Assemblies, obtained
control over affairs. A number of causes helped to bring about
this result. The spirit of the age was in favour of political
reform. In the countries most intimately connected with
Canada the people were rising : in fiery France they were pre-
paring to rush through a revolution to a republic ; in sober
England they were demanding that classes hitherto excluded
from the franchise should ha' > the right to vote for representa-
tives in Pai'liament. A period of protracted commercial dis-
tress drove thousands from Great Britain to seek an asylum in
the British American Provinces. Many were destitute — not a
few were disaffected. Immigrants were not then, as now,
v/elcomed as friends, nor were lands freely provided for them :
they found themselves placed under many disadvantages. In
Lower Canada they were looked upon as intruders by the
French Canadians, who wished to keep the whole Province to
themselves, ^ud who threw difficulties in the way of their
settlement. In Upper Canada immigrants found themselves in
the position of foreigners ; they were looked upon as aliens by
the old Loyalists and first American settlers ; they found that
the avenues to advancement were closed against them, and that

fit\ '

li'

330

THE CANADA COMMITTEE.

all legialatiou tended to keep them in a position of inferiority.
Another class — consisting of Americans who had settled in the
Province after the war of 1812 — found themselves equally dis-
advantiigeously placed ; and they were imbued with a love of
republicanism. The amazing prosperity of the United States —
which was attributed to their free institutions — aroused the
envy of parties who were neither immigrants nor late American
settlers : they drew comparisons very unfavourable to the
British American Provinces ; they thought that like causes
would produce similar results. They were loyal to the King,
but their love for the British Constitution did not deter them
from seeking to break down the monopoly of power held by the
Family Compacts, with the view of infusing more energy into
the Government, and of giving freer play to all classes.

2. The petitions from the seigneuries and townships of Lower
Canada, and those from Upper Canada, received a favourable
hearing from the Imperial Parliament. A. Committee was ap-
pointed, which examined at great length a number of the leading
men of both Provinces, and of all parties and sects, on the alle-
gations therein set forth. This Committee drew up a Report in
favour of concessions and reforms. It recommended that the
Crown duties raised by the Act of 1774 should be placed under
the control of the Assembly, on condition that it made perma-
nent prov'sion for the salaries of the Governor-General, members
of the F ve Council, i nd the Judges : it suggested that the

Jud'" .1 the exception of the Chief- Justice, should vacate

the ,os in the Legislative Council ; and that the Bishop and
the Ai'chdeacon ought to re/rain from meddling with politics.
The Committee thought it advisable that a more independent
character should be given to the Executive and Legislative Coun-
cils (of both Provinces), by introducing into them gentlemen who
held no offices under the Crown, and who represented all inter-
ests ; and, in the case of Lower Canada, without making invid-
ious distinctions between British and Protestant, and French
and Catholic sects and nationalities. In order to save Lower
Canada loss in the future by the defalcation of any Receiver-
General, the Committee recommended that proper securities
ahould be taken before the appointment was made, and that a)l
accounts should be regularly examined by a Board of Audit The

ITS REPORT.

331

Committee expressed disapprobatiou of tlie action of the Gover-
uor-General in taking money (Jl 40,000 in all) out of the Treas-
ury without the sanction of the Assembly. Complaint having
been made that the proceeds of the Jesuit estates in Lower Canada
had been diverted by the Government from their i)roper purpose,
the Committee recommended that they should be applied, as the
law directed, to the promotion of education.

3. An extension of representation, based on the principles of
population and property, and an enforcement of the clause in
the Canada Tenures A>^t establishing English law over lands
held in free and common soccage, were suggested as remedies
for the grievances of the British population of the town-
ships ; the French Canadians to be left in undisturbed enjoy-
ment of their own laws and customs, with the right to acquire
other new properties under the feud?l tenure. With regard
to ty^ grievances of Upper Canada, the Committee recommended
that le unproductive Clergy Eeserves should be sold to persons
willing to perform the conditions of settlement ; that a tax
should be levied on the holders of all other unimproved lands ;
and that the system of granting large tracts gratuitously should
be abandoned.

4. " The Report of the Canada CJommittee of 1828" was
received with an outburst of praise and gratitude. In the
Assembly of Lower Canada it was pronounced to be an im-
perishable monument of justice and profound wisdom, and a
guide for the future in all disputes among the different
branches of the Legislature. It inspired confidence in the
impartiality of the British Parliament.

5. In the course of the twenty years after 1828 the party
generally termed Reformers, who sought to break down the
privileges of the Family Compacts, had often occasion to appeal
to that tribunal. To Downing Street resorted its delegates,
armed with budgets of grievances in the form of reports and
petitions, to be laid at the foot of the Throne and submitted to
Parliament ; there also went the agents of the Compact, official,
or Tory party, with counter petitions showing forth the utter
gi'oundlessness of the complaints of the Reformers. It was no
easy matter to decide between two parties each of which claimed
that all right was on ite side. The British Government eviiiced

332

A LULL AFTER THE STORM.

a strong desire to do justice to both, — to redress all real griev-
ances. But sometimes its good intentions were frustrated by
the Governors and Executive Councillors of the Provinces.
Besides, there often occurred changes in the composition of the
British Government. Great Britain was then in the throes of
political agitation. Tory and Whig Governments succeeded
each other ; at each change of Administration a new Colonial
Secretary was installed in Downing Street, and the acts c^ one
were sometimes nullified by those of another. But in spite of
\e changes in the Colonial Office, there was one circumstance
that tended to give uniformity to its policy, — the Under Secre-
tary was a permanent official. Mr. Stephen, who possessed an
intimate knowledge of the affairs of the colonies, then held that
position. To him the heads naturally looked for information.
He was stroiigl}'" imbued with liberal ideas regarding the
government of the Provinces, and in him the Reformers found
a stanch friend. It is certain that his influence in Downing
Street was felt by the Family Compacts, and that they com-
plained of it.

6. In Lower Canada, while its grievances were under the
consideration of the Imperial Parliament, public discontent grew
stronger. The administration of the Earl of Dalhousie grew
more and more unpopular: arbitrary acts were committed;
militia officers were displaced for attending political meetings
where these acts were denounced. The Earl was recalled, and
Sir James Kempt was transferred from the Government of
Nova Scotia to his post. A lull came after the stoim. When
the Assembly met, the Governor- General recognized M. Papineau
as Speaker. Animated by the hopes of reform held out by the
Canada Committee, the Assembly proceeded quietly to business.

7. The British Government, with an anxious desire to put a stop
to all complaints, proceeded to carry out the suggestions of the
Committee. It is unnecessary to enter into minute details of
all the measures taken to bring about that desirable result; only
some of the more important need be mentioned. Instructions
were given to the Governor-General to place at the disposal of the
Assembly all the revenues, save the Casual and Territorial ;
to call members of the Reform party to seats in the Executive
Council ; and to give the preference to French Canadians j—

RENEWED DISCONTiJNTS.

333

accordingly ten of the new members were persons of that
nationality. The Tjcgislative Tnuncil, as remodelled, contained
thirty-five members, only sevc^i of whom were officers of the
Crown. It was considered that a sufficiently independent
character was thus given to that body. As a measure of justice
to the British population of the townships, the Assembly was
left free to increase the number of their members so as to give
them a fairer representation. The proceeds of the Jesuit estates
were placed at the disposal of the Assembly, to be applied to
purposes of education. An improved system of Crown land
management was inaugurated. General orders, forbidding
tlie granting of land gratuitously, and commanding that in
future all lands should be sold by public auction to the highest
bidder, were issued to all the Provinces.

8. The satisfaction caused by the Eeport of the Canada Com-
mittee soon died away in the Assembly. It showed that it
coDsidered that the concessions that had been made were only
half measures. The reservation of the Casual and Territorial
Ee venue aroused its displeasure. Though it obtained the con-
trol of the Crown duties on the express condition that it should
make satisfactory and permanent provision for the Judges, it
refused to do so unless the reserved revenue was handed over
to it.

9. Lord Aylmer of Balrath succeeded Sir James Kempt in
July 1830. On meeting the Legislature, he found that

the Assembly was as full of grievances as if the Canada 1830
Connnittee had never made a report, and as if the a.d.
British Government had never acted upon it. In the
most candid and conciliatory manner he implored the Assembly
to make a full and explicit statement of its grievances, and
promised it ample redress. But its demands reached a height
beyond what the spirit of concession in the British Govern-
ment would go. It refused to surrender the Casual and Terri-
torial Revenue. Th§ Government saw clearly that the aim of
the Assembly in demanding the disposal of all the revenues
was to place the Judges and E\ev.utive Councillors, and even
the Governor at its mercy. The Reformers in the Executive and
Legi'lative Councils by no means pleased the Assembly. It
complaineu that the appointments made were hostile to the

r:Js.

334

CAUSES OF COMPLAINT.

\im.

li.'!i!;''

interests of the French majority, and that, in fact, these bodies
were as exclusively British as ever they had been. It demaD Jed
that the Legislative Council should be made elective — that is,
that its members should be elected like those of the Lower
branch — and that all officers receiving appointments from the
Crov/n should appear before the people for reelection. By these
meai.s the Assembly sought to gain the entire control of the
Government : for as the French Canadians composed the great
bulk of the population, they would have caiTied all the elections
for the Legislative Council ; and if the possession of office had
depended on their votes, the great majority of Crown officei-s
would have been of their nationality.

10. The national jealousies, the determination of the French
Canadian majority to gain control of the Government, and
the resolute defence of its privileges by the British minority,
were the real causes of all the difficulties in Lower Canada.
All other causes of complaint were of comparatively little
moment. If only the French Canadians could gain control of
the Government, they could make such laws as they pleased
regarding schools and roads, and the nianagenieiit of waste
lands ; they could, if they chose, decree that all properties must
be held under the feudal tenure, and be subject to all the inci-
dents of French law ; and they could hamper the commerce of
the British population by imposing what duties they liked. In
carrying out uie suggestions of the Canada Committee the
British Government left much in the hands of the Legislature ;
but the Assembly wilfully neglected to do its part. To be sure,
it remodelled the electoral districts of the Province and added
to the numbe^' of representatives, but in such a way as to in-
crease its large French Canadian majority. Out of a total
representation of eighty-eight members only eleven were British.
The pretensions put forth by that majority tended to consoli-
date the British party ; even those members of it who had acted
with the majority up till 1828, when the question became one
of nationalities, swallowed their own political predilections and
sided -with their countrjrmen.

11. For three years (from 1831 to 1834) the contest between
the branches of the Legislature grew in intensity. The As-
sembly refused to vote the supplies unless the Casual and Ten i-

'■■ !..'•(' '-.-a

tlEBELLIOtS TENDENCIES.

335

tori&l Revenue were surrendered to it. The Governor-General
was precluded from drawing upon the Receiver-General without
its sanction, as the Earl of Dalhousie had done. The money at
his command was totally insufficient to pay the expenses of the
Civil List. The consequence was that the salaries of Judges
and officials w( „ not paid, and the excitement of the time put
an end to all useful legislation. Bills coming up from the
Assembly to the Legislative Council were thrown out, or so
amended that they were rejected when sent down again. In
the Assembly the time was chiefly spent in passing resolutions
condemning the Governor-General and the Councils.

12. M. Papineau from the Speakers chair launched forth
his invectives against the arrogant .yranny of British power,
and inflamed the mind and heart of his party against it ; yet ten
years before, no one had been so enthusiastic in praise of it.
Seized with the revolutionary spirit that possessed his brethren
in old France, he held up monarchical institutions to execration,
poured praises on the Government of the United States, and
expressed a fervent hope that it was the destiny of that great
country to give republics to America. In the passion of the
hour he was hurried into saying a great deal more than he
meant; for, according to his own after-statement, he had no
serious idea of rebelling, with arms in his hand, against British
power. But his violent words were committing him to violent
actions. The Canadien newspaper, which had been suppressed
during the administration of Sir James Craig, was revived at
this exciting time, and added fuel to the fire. It returned to
its old role of denouncing the British as usurpers, foreigners,
intruders. On the other hand, the British press stigmatized the
French Canadians as rebels, ungrateful to the authority that had
treated them too generously. Such recriminations exasperated
the always strong antipathies of race. Seventy years had
passed away since the Conquest, and French and British stood
as distinctly apart as. when they were enemies ranged against
each other in the 'ranks of war. They did not meet at all in
society, and not much in business ; in the towns and counties,
where there was a mixed population, they formed distinct parties.
There was no disposition on either side to make concessions.
The French Canadian majority would not submit to the arro-

336

THE NINETY-TWO RESOLUTIONS.

liiii

gance of the British Councils, and the British minority would
not endure the tyranny of a French Canadian majority.

13. A crisis came. The Assembly poured forth its griefs in

Ninety-two Resolutions. Drawn up by Judge Morin,

1834 they were moved by Judge Bechard, and supported

A.D. by Papineau in one of his most inflammatory and

revolutionary speeches. They reiterated all the com-
plaints that had been made by the Assembly since Dalhousie's
time. The substance of this fearful volume of complaint may
be given in one sentence : — " We, the French Canadians, have
been treated with contumely ; shut out from all offices of hon-
our and emolument; defrauded by dishonest British officials,
and denied all compensation ; attempts have been made to
change the tenure under which the body of our people hold
their property, and to introduce laws foreign to our habits and
customs ; our lands have been recklessly given away : let justice
be done ; let the will of the majority rule ; throw open to us
all the seats in the Councils ; give us entire control of all the
revenues and all the lands; let us establish the authority of
our own laws and customs all over the Province; — or we shall
rebel."

14. The Ninety-two Resolutions, which made a great noise
in their day, were embodied in the form of an address to the
King and the Parliament. The British passed counter resolutions
and drew up a counter address. Both parties received a patient
hearing in England. The Imperial Government, disregarding
the covert threats of rebellion couched in the French Canadian
address, pursued a conciliatory course, to the mortification of
the British official party, which thought that the time for con-
cessions was past, and which had hoped to hear a decided
refusal given to the demands of the majority. Lord Aylmer
was recalled. Lord Qosford was appointed Governor-General,
and the head of a Commission — whose other members were Sir
Charles Grey and Sir James Gipps — to inquire into the giiev-
ances set forth in the addresses. This Commission of Inquiry
arrived in Canada in 1835. It did not propitiate the French
Canadians, and their papers continued to inveigh as strongly as
ever against British tyranny.

15. Lord Gosford, an amiable, good-natured nobleman, found

A DEAD-LOCK.

337

himself in a difficult position. By his " Instructions" he was
debarred from granting the majority the only conditions that
would have pacified it. On meeting the Legislature his lordship
used language that was calculated to assure the members of
Assembly that he had full power to settle their grievances to
their satisfaction, and laid himself open to a charge of duplicity.
On the strength of the assurance he had given, his lordship
called on theto to vote the supplies. They were not satisfied,
and the utmost concession they would make was to vote them
for six months ; they absolutely refused to pay the arrearages
of the four preceding years, or to vote the full expenses of the
Civil List, except on the condition that a fondamental change
was made in the Constitution ; that is, unless the Legislative
Council were made elective, and the Executive Council were con-
verted into a ministry responsible to the people. They also
demanded that the Canada, Tenures, and Laud Company Acts
should be repealed ; that all the Crown revenues should be sur-
rendered to them without any conditions ; and that the man-
agement of all the waste lands should be placed under their
control. Affairs had now come to a dead-lock.

'«

Questions. — 1. On what struggle did
Canada enter in 1828? When and how
did it terminate ? How was the move-
ment affected by the spirit of the age ?
How by the position of immigrants,
and of Americnn settlers ?

2. What was the general tenor of
the Eeport of the Canadtt Committee?
What did it recommend with reference
to the Crown duties? to the constitution
of the Executive and Legislative Coun-
cils? to the position of the Receiver-
General? to the proceeds of the Jesuit
estates? Of what action of the Gover-
nor-General did it disapprove ?

3. What remedies were suggested for
the grievances of the British population
of the townships ? What for the griev-
ances of Upper Canada?

4. How was the report received in
Canada? In what did it inspire con-
fidence ?

5. What two parties were accustomed
to appeal to Parliament? How did the
political agitation in England affect the
Colonies? What circumstance gave

,473)

uniformity to the policy of the Colonial
Office? What were Mr. Stephen's politi-
cal leanings ?

0. What led to Lord Dalhousie's re-
call ? Who succeeded him ?

7. What instructions did the British
Government give to the Governor-
General ? Of whom did the Legislative
Council, as remodelled, consist ? What
change was made in the mode of grant-
ing land ?

8. What aroused the displeasure of
the Assembly? On what condition
only would ix- make permanent pro-
vision for the Judges ?

9. In what state did Lord Aylmer
find the Assembly ? What were its de-
mands ? What end did it seek to ob-
tain?

10. What were the real causes of the
difficulties in Lower Canada? What
would have been the consequence of
making the Assembly supreme? Of
what neglect had the Assembly been
wilfully guilty? How were the two
parties represented in the Assembly?

MSi

338

QUESTIONS.

What was the effect of the pretenalons
put forth by the French party ?

11. What was the state of affairs
from 1831 till 18S4 ? How was the time
of the Assembly chiefly occupied ?

12. To what sentiments did M. Pap-
ineau give expression? What part
did the press take in the contest? In
what attitude did the two parties stand
towards each other ?

13. What form did the complaints of
the Assembly take f Give the substance
Of these resolutions.

li. In what were the resolutions em-
bodied? What step did the British
party take ? What course did the Im-
perial Government pursue ? Whom did
this displease ? What steps were actu-
ally taken ? When did the Commission
of Inquiry arrive f

16. How did Lord Gosford lay him-
self open to the charge of duplicity?
What was the utmost concession tlie
Assembly would make ? What were its
demands? Into what state had affairs
now come?

SillllliiSiili^liii,

^:■-M

iiiiliiHii

WILLIAM LYON MCKENZIE.

339

CHAPTER XXXIV.

RESPONSIBLE GOVEBNUENT-UFFES CANADA.

1828 to 1836 A.D.

WiUiam Lyon M'Kenzle.

The Family Compact.

WiUiam IV.— the People's Friend.

M'Kenzie expelled from the Asfsembly.

The People's Agent in Downing Street.

The Result of the Mission.

H'Eenzie dragged from his seat.

Lord Goderich.

The Fifty-six RectorieB.

Sir Francis B. Head.

The Reformers deceived.

The Tories triumphant.

1. In Upper Canada, Major-Greneral Sir John Colbome suc-
ceeded Sir Peregrine Maitland. Great expectations

were entertained by the Reform party that the sugges- 1828
tions of the Canada Committee would lead to some a.d.
change in the composition of the Executive and Legisla-
tive Councils ; but their hopes were doomed to be disappointed.
The Governor-General adopted the views of the Family Cora-
pact. The question of the Clergy Reserves remained as exas-
perating and as unsettled as ever.

2. At this time William Lyon M'Kenzie gained notoriety.
He had, when a poor lad, emigrated from Dundee, Scotland ;
after a few years' engagement in ordinary business in different
towns in Upper Canada, he undertook the office of journalist,
and became editor of the Advocate in York. Robert Gour-
lay, a precui-sor in the stony and thorny path of reform, had
some years before been tried for libel, thrown into prison, and
then, with ruined fortunes and shattered nerves, driven from
the Province. It demanded much moral courage to be a politi-
cal reformer in those days. It is difficult now to realize the
fact that the existing form of government, which is accepted as
a matter of course, was reached through furious storms of pas-
sion and obloquy, and at the cost to individuals of mental peace,
social happiness, and private fortune. From the time that any
one commenced to criticise the acts of Government he became a
marked man : old friends fell away from him ; he was subjected
to outrages and insults most galling to a sensitive mind ; leveller,

:Wit

\fif4tt i

m^{.- '

340

THE MODERATE REFORMERS.

m\>

III ill'

republicau, rebel, were the mildest epithets hurled at him.
M'Keuzie loved Cauada, the country of his adoption. He con-
vinced himself that the party in power obstructed its progress
in improvement and in happiness. He was honest in his inten-
tions, and had an intense hatred of injustice ; but his impulsive
temperament hurried him into extremes of word and deed.
Early in his political career he was imbued with an admiration
of American republican institutions. In despair of effecting
coustitutional reform, and exasperated by what he deemed per-
secution, he rushed without forethought into rebellon. He
represented that class of British immigrants and American
settlers who found themselves in the position of aliens and
foreigners, who formed the extreme section of the Reform party,
and were actuated by an intense hatred of the Family Compact
Their intemperate attacks were repelled with scorn. The violent
and uncompromising temper of the assailants and the assailed
infused a rancour into the political strife of Upper Canada
unknown in the other British P' evinces.

3. Between the two extremes chere was a body of Moderate
Reformers, — numbering among them such men as Robert
Baldwin, Dr. Rolphe, Marshall Bidwell, and Judge Rideout,—
who lepresented a portion of the population in a different social
position from that of the Radical section, but who were equally
anxious to break up the Family Compact ; to make the Govern-
ment responsible to the representatives of the people ; to sweep
away the invidious privileges claimed by the Church of Eng-
land ; to promote a better system of Crown land management,
immigration, and settlement ; to extend education to the chil-
dren of the poorer classes ; and, generally, to establish a less
costly and more economical Government, that would spend less
money on high salaries, pensions, and sinecures, and more on
roads, canals, and other works of public utility. This body, up
to a certain point, acted with the Radical section ; but it held
back when M'Kenzie entered on his desperate course. Yet to
the impetus given by him the ultimate triumph of their prin-
ciples was in a great measure due.

4. Editors of newspapers, fifty years ago, wrote very strong
articles against their political opponents, but not a whit more
violent than those that their successors of the present day pen

M'KENZIE PERSECUTED.

n4i

when their party spirit is aroused, or their indignation at comip-
tiou in government is excited. Fifty years ago the most furious
personal abuse against the opponents of the party in power was
allowable ; but an attack on the constituted authorities — even
when couched in terras which would now be considered temperate
— was a libel deserving of summary punishment. On account
of some strictures, M'Kenzie came under the ban of the Govern-
ment. Some youths connected with the official party broke
into his office, destroyed his presses, and . oattered his types.
Though they were tried and fined for the offence, they suffered
nothing in fortune or in reputation ; but the persecution won for
M'Kenzie popular favour : he was elected one of the members for
York, and was borne into the Assembly on the tide of sympathy.

5. A new House met, and the Eeformers formed the large
majority of the Assembly. An almost unanimous reso-
lution was passed, calling on the Governor-General to 1829
change the composition of his Executive Council, and a.d.
to introduce members into it whose sentiments were in
accordance with those of the majority of the Assembly. The
appeal had no effect. The Executive Councillors maintained
that they held their offices for life ; they would hardly acknowl-
edge that they were responsible to any power above them;
they scoffed at the idea of being held amenable to the people
for their acts ; and totally disregarded the censure of the
Assembly. The Reformers soon perceived that, while the Exec-
utive Council bade them defiance, a majority in the Assembly
was no advantage to them, and that all useful legislation accord-
ing to their principles was impossible. Their great aim now was
to make the Executive Council responsible to the Assembly.

6. The Tory-official party had, from youth up, been trained
in the belief that the preservation of the Province to the British
Crown, and the maintenance of the British Constitution, de-
pended on its upholding the prerogative of the Crown and its
own privileges, and on its resisting the encroachments of the
people. Many men of high character and talent belonged to
it; outside of the placemen who were dependent on it, there
was throughout the Province an influential body which thought
that power was s;ifer in its hands than in those of the Reformers.
The Family Compact was thus strongly intrenched, and it pos-

III™!!

342

m'kenzie twice expelled.

' 111

"1 '

II r r

pi-'L'i i

iirawftf

eessed the prestige that the long enjoyment of high position
gave it. To seek to destroy its influence was to incur a charge
of disloyalty ; and people, generally, were anxious to avoid such
odium. Besides, the Tories were not the only political sinners.
The Keform majority in the Assembly wjis as extravagant and
reckless in voting awjiy the public money as ever they had been,
— a fact that strengthened the argument that it would abuse
power if it gained it.

7. George IV. died in June, and was succeeded by William

IV., " the People's Friend." In the new House that
1830 Baet the year after (1831), the Eeform majority was
A.D. reduced to a small minority. The Crown now sur-
rendered the control of the Casual and Territorial
Revenue to the Legislature, and the Tories made permanent
provision for defraying certain expenses in the Civil List.
Their " Everlasting Salaries Bill " was made a grievance by the
extreme Reform section. M'Keuzie, after the defeat of his
party, found himself almost alone in the Assembly. His free
speech, and the persistency with which he ferreted into all acta
of the Government that seemed to him to savour of corruption,
drew upon him the concentrated hostility of the Tories. He
was expelled from the Assembly on a charge of having pub-
lished a libel against the Government. His constituents of
York immediately reelected him. Again he was expelled, and
declared to be disqualified for sitting in the Assembly during
the term of the existing House.

8. This course of persecution elevated M'Kenzie to the rank
of a martyr for the people's cause. Public meetings were held,
at which the general policy of the Government and the tyran-
nical action of the Assembly were denounced. M'Kenzie was
appointed agent to bear to England a petition to which were
attached 24,000 signatures, setting forth the grievances under
which the Province groaned, and indicating the reforms that

were necessary to give it tranquillity. The time was

1832 auspicious. The Reform Administration^ of Earl Grey

A.D. was*in power. In the British Parliament there were

many members who sympathized with the object the

' The R^orm Administration. — The
Administration of Earl Grey, whicli

passed the Parliamentary Ref ornj . i ct in
1 832. It lasted from November 1830 iiU

CHANGES IN DOWNING STREET.

343

Colonial Beformera had in view. Lord Goderich, Colonial
Secretary, lent an attentive ear to the long tiile of grievances
which the " people's agent " poured in, and promised redress.
He wrote a despatch to Sir John Colborne relieving Attorney-
Genera^ Bolton and Solicitor-General Hagernian of their offices,
!i8 they had been especially active in expelling M'Kenzie from
the Assembly.

9. M'Kenzie's triumph was short-lived. While he was in
England the Hon. E. G. Stanley was transferred from

the Irish Secretaryship to the Colonial Office, and undid 1833
what his predecessor had done. Hagerman was re- a.d.
placed, and Bolton was appointed Chief- Justice of New-
foundland. This action added to the catalogue of the Reformers
another grievance; for when they saw that a change in the
bead of the Colonial Office produced a change in its policy, it
furnished them with an argument against the system of govern-
ing the Colonies from Downing Street, by ministers who were
ignorant of their condition, and who were likely to be biased
by sympathy with the party in power there.

10. The official party was indignant at the courteous recep-
tion accorded to M'Kenzie. In an address to the Governor-
General both branches of the Legislature denounced him as
heing unworthy of credit, and characterized the grievances set
fortli in the petition as groundless. They treated the sugges-
tions of Earl Goderich with hardly a show of decency. The
result of M'Kenzie's mission to England was not great.
Quakers, who had hitherto been prevented from voting, were
granted the privilege; representatives of the towns were de-
clared to be, equally with those of the counties, entitled to
remuneration ; the Government was commanded to lay detailed
accounts of all receipts and expenditures annually before the
Assembly ; and the education of the people was brought under
its notice as a subject worthy of serious consideration. During
his absence M'Kenzie had been reelected for York. He

July 1834, with the exception of one
week In 1832 (May 10 to 18), when the
Buke of Wellington tried to form a
Ministry, but failed. Lord Goderich
was Colonial Secretary till March 1833,
when he was made Lord Privy Seal,

with the title of Earl of Ripon. He
was then succeeded by the Hon. E. G.
Stanley (afterwards Lord Stanley and
Earl of Derby), who till that time had
been Chief Secretary for Ireland in the
same Ministry.

P '|.»4

urn

.'fi

liiiii

344

THE ITFTY-SIX r CTORIKS.

entered tlio House, but waa dragged from his seat by the Ser-
geant-at-arma, and compelled to retire. This proceeding created
extraordinary popular excitement. It elicited remonstrancea
from Downing Street; M^Kenzie, ueverthelesa, waa not y)or-
mitted to take a seat during the term of the Hcjiise.

1834 The town of York waa at this time incorporated, and
A.D. became the city of Toronto, and M'Kenzie was elected

its first Mayor.

11. In the new House, which met the following year, the Re-
formers mustered in force. Mr. Bidwell, an American by
descent, and in bad odour with the Family Compact, was
elected Speaker. At this time communications passed between

the Assemblies of Upper and Lower Canada, and their

1835 members commenced to act in concert against the Gover-
A.D. nors and the Councils. A volume of complaints, known

as the " Seventh Report of Grievances," was drawn
up. It received the sericms consideration of King William ami
his Ministry. Sir John Colborne was superseded by Sir Fran-
cis Bond Head,^ who carried out with him an answer to the
Report, which was intended to be conciliatory.

12. Sir John Colborue bequeathed a legacy of trouble to his
successors, by sanctioning, before leaving his Government, the
erection of fifty-six rectories out of the " Clergy Reserves."
This act was pronounced legal, according to the provisions of
the Constitutional Act of 1791, but it provoked the jealousy and
aroused the hostility of the other denominations. On the eve
of his leaving for England, Sir John was detained and appointed
Commander-in-Chief of the forces of British North America.

13. Sir Francis Bond Head arrived in Toronto in Januaiy.

Even M^Kenzie and his party looked with hope to him.

1836 The rumour that he was a friend to reform preceded
A.D. his coming. Never was rumour so falsified by fact.

His appointment at so grave a crisis was regarded by
some people as throwing doubt on the asserted good intentions
of the British Government. Sir Francis himself looked upon

* Sir Francis Bond Head. — Born
1793 ; author of several humorous books
of travel, as, "Rough Notes of some
Rapid Journejrs Across the Pampas,"

and " A Fortnight in Ireland." He pub-
lished, in 1838, a "Narrative" in de-
fence of his Administration in Upper
Canada.

THE SUPPLIES WITHHELD.

345

it at first as a ministerial joke, for he frankly confessed his
entire ignorance of everything pertaining to the colonies and
their government. He was an author of some repute, and had
given evidence of business capacity as a Poor Law (Commissioner;
but his political prejudices unfitted him for conducting a mis-
sion of conciliation. His first official act caused endmrrassment.
His " Instructions " wore almost identical with those which had
been given to Lord Gosford, and were adverse to the popular
demands for an elective Legislatix'e Council and a responsible
Executive. He submitted them in full to the Assembly, con-
trary to the intention of Lord Glenelg,^ then Colonial Secretary.
Papineau and his pai-ty in Lower Canada thus received confir-
mation of their suspicions, and grew more rebellious in their
utterances, inveighing against the bad faith of the British
Government and the duplicity of the Governor-General.

14. Sir Francis Head animated the hopes of the Reformers
Duly to sink them in the depths Oi disappointment. He called
three members of the party — Baldwin, Kolplie, and Dunn — to
seats in the Executive Council, but refused to recognize the
principle of responsibility to the Assembly, on which they in-
sisted. He told them that they were responsible for their acts
to him alone, while he was responsible to the King and the Par-
liament ; that he was not bound to ask the advice of his Coun-
cil, and would only do so when it suited himself. The three mem-
bers resigned, and a break-up of the Council ensued. Sir Francis
then threw himself into the arms of the FarLiijy Compact. A
new Council was formed, composed entirely of riioiibers of that
party. There was war to the knife between the Governor
and the Reformers. An address condemning the action of
Sir Francis, and airaigning him for want of truth and can-
dour, was passed in the Assembly ; and, for the first time, it
refused to vote the supplies. At the close of the session
Speaker Bidwell read a letter from Speaker Papineau, calling
on the Reformers of Upper Canada, and of all the British
Nortli American Provinces, to unite in order to obtain redress
ot their common gi'ievances. The British lion was aroused in
the heart of -Sir Francis. He conceived that the purport of the

' Lord Olenelg. — Colonial Secretary 1836 till 1839, when he was succeeded
in Lord Melbotmie's Ministry, from by the Marquia of Normanby.

346

THE TORIES TRIUMPHANT.

letter was revolutionarj" — that it showed a design to subvert
the British Constitution and to establish a republican form of
government, und conveyed threats of foreign interference iu
the domestic quarrel. Alluding to the letter, in his speech
before dissolving the House, he said that the people of Upper
Canada were loyal, and detested democracy ; and then, throw-
ing out a challenge to an imaginary host of foreign invaders,
he exclaimed, " Let them come if they dare."

15. Sir Francis Head was convinced that "Monarchy or
Democracy " was the issue at stake in the political contest in
Upper Canada. He conceived that it was his mission to fight
against Democracy. As visible evidence that he was deter-
mined to uphold monarchical institutions, he caused the royal
standard to be unfurled over Government House, " for the first
time in the history of the Province." He threw himself heart
and soul into the elections. In addresses and speeches he put
the issue before the people. The contest was bitter in the
extreme. The battle was for the Constitution lb it was, and
for the preservation of its privileges, and the whole mfluence of
the Family Compact was brought to bear to defend them. The
result was victory for Sir Francis and the Tories. M'Kenzie,
Bidwell, and other Reformers, were not returned as members
of the new House. The unfair m aans that their opponents, as
they conceived, had taken to defeat them rankled in their
hearts. Sir Francis congratulated himself that the question
was settled — Monarchy had triumphed, and Upper Canada was
pacified. He soon afterwards received a despatch from Lord
Glenelg instructing him to enlarge his Council, by adding to it
members who represented the different interests of the Province,
and who possessed the confidence of the people. Such a meas-
ure of concession, faithfully carried out, would have satisfied
the more moderate of the Reformers. Sir Francis, however,
would not pursue a conciliatory course ; he ran counter to his
instructions, and widened the breach between himself and the
whole party.

Questions. — 1. Who succeeded Mait-
land as Goyernor of Upper Canada?
What views did Colboroe adopt?

2. Who was Wi:'iam Lyon M'Ken-
xie? What dangers had political re-

formers to encounter in those days?
Wherein was M'Kenzte indiscreet?
What class did he represent ?

8. Who were the Moderate Eefoim-
ers ? What wore their aims ?

QUESTIONS.

347

4. How did M'Kenzie fall under the
ban of the Government ? How was he
persecuted ? What eflfect had his perse-
cution ?

5. What resolution did the new House
of Assembly pass ? What did the Exec-
utive Councillors maintain ? ' Vhat did
the Reformers then perceive ?

6. What were the views of the Tory-
official party ? How was it supported ?
To what charge had the Eeform majority
laid itself open ?

7. How was the position of parties
changed in 1831? What concession
did the Crown make? For what was
M'Kenzie expelled from the Assembly?
What followed f

8. On what mission was M'Kenzie
employed? Why was the time auspi-
cious? How was M'Kenzie received?
What steps did Goderich take?

9. What led to the reversal of Gode-
rich's policy? What effect had this
action ?

10. How did the official party ^^ve
e:!cpression to their views on M'Kenzie
and the petition ? What were the only
results of his mission? What took place

when he took his seat; in the Assembly ?
What honour was conferred on him in
1834?

11. Who was elected Speaker of the
new House ? With whom did the As-
sembly begin to act iii concert? What
volume was prepared? What effect
had It?

12. What legacy of trouble did Col-
borne bequeath to his successor ? Whose
jealousy did the Act excite?

13. How did Sir Francis Head dis-
appoint the expectations which had
hc^.n formed regarding him? What
was his first official act? W^hat em-
barrassment did it cause ?

14. What led to the breach between
Sir Francis and the Reformers? What
extreme step did the Assembly take?
What letter did Speaker Bidwell read
at the close of the session? How did
Sir Francis deal with the letter ?

15. What did Sir Francis conceive to
be the issue at stake? How did the
contest end? What instructions soon
afterwards arrived from the Colonial
Secretary ? How did Sir Francis widen
the breach ?

«■!■

348

NOVA SCOTIA.

■\.t% :

LiV

■J'. ■.; A

^Li

CHAPTER XXXV.
RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT— THE LOWER PROVINCES.

1832 to 1837 A.D.

The Family Compact of Nova Scotia.

Joseph Howe and L. A. Wilmot.

Division of the Council of New Bruns-
wick,

Crown Land Department.

Mission of Messrs. Simonds and Chand-
ler.

Surrender of Casual and Territorial
Revenue.

Mission of Messrs. Crane and Wilmot.

Sir Archibald Campbell.
Hon. G. F. Street in Downing Street.
The Civil List Bill passed.
Harvey and the Reign of Harmony.
Joseph Howe.
The closed doors.
The Twelve Resolutions.
The doors opened.

The King's gracious intentions de-
feated.

1. In the Lower Provinces, at this time, there was much
political agitation. It was comparatively mild in its character,
as neither New Brunswick nor Nova Scotia was troubled by
those questions of race and origin which aroused such rancor-
ous feelings in Lower and Upper Canada. The form of their
government was, however, similar, and excited similar discon-
tent. The events passing in the Upper Provinces had an influ-
ence on the people of the Lower, and helped to break them
away from their habit of " passive obedience," of which some of
the leaders among them complained.

2. In Nova Scotia the domination of a Family Compact was
as firmly established as in Upper Canada. The Executive and
Legislative Councils (as in New Brunswick) formed one branch,
and combined the functions of making and administering the
laws. The members were all residents of Halifax, and did not
represent the interests of other parts of the Province. All the
principal offices were in the hands of two or three families, and
the subordinate places were distributed among their adherents.
Ten of the twelve Councillors were members of the Church of
England ; the other two were members of the Church of Scot-
land ; all other denominations were unrepresented. The Bishop
sat at the Council board, the Chief-Justice mingled in political
disputes. Five of the Councillors were partners in a bank. Tlie

HOWE AND WILMOT.

349

Council sat in secret conclave, with closed doors, contemptuous
towards the House of Assembly and defiant of public opinion.

3. In New Brunswick the Council was similarly constituted,
but the members did not keep themselves so rigidly aloof from
the people or their representatives, and they represented fairly
the interests of the whole Province. In some respects the posi-
tion of the sister Provinces was singularly alike. The interest
of a political struggle sometimes centres in a particular individ-
ual. In Nova Scotia at this time, Joseph Howe, the son of a
Loyalist, was rising into notice. He had qualities that fitted him
to become a leader of the people. He had a very sociable tem-
per, and was a ready, vigorous, eloquent, and humorous speaker
aud writer. His occupation of journalist made him intimately
acquainted with the political questions of the day ; and he came
into close contact with all classes of people in the Province. The
name of " Joe Howe" soon became as familiar in their mouths
as a household word. By his writings in the press, by his
speeches and acts in the Assembly, by his letters to public men
in Great Britain, he did much to subvert the old system of rule
in the Provinces, to make the principles of responsible govern-
ment undei*stood, and to draw attention to British North Amer-
ica. In New Brunswick, Lemuel Allan Wilmot took the
lead of the reforming party. On both sides of his family he
was connected with the old Loyalists and the party in power.
He was a member of the profession of law, which, in the Prov-
inces, soonest leads to political distinction. On his first enter-
ing the Assembly the influence of his brilliant eloquence was felt.

4. At that time two military men of the same name, and
alike in character, ruled in the sister Provinces. Sir Colin
Campbell was Governor of Nova Scotia ; Sir Archibald Camp-
bell, of New Brunswick. They were brusque soldiers, bred in
the habits of command and implicit obedience, and possessing
little of the suavity and ductility of polished politicians. They
naturally ranged themselves on the side of the constituted
authorities, and in opposition to innovation and reform.

5. The first movement towards political change was made in
New Brunswick. A division was made by which the
Legislative Council became a branch separate from the 1832
Executive Council. The latter body was composed of a.d.

liiii^

[iifss^i

'N'l II

350 THE CROWN LAND DEPARTMENT.

five members, — Honourables Wlmiwu Bailey, Frederick ^
Robinson, William F. Odell, Greorge F. Street, and John S.
Saunders. The ostensible object of the division waa to open up
a channel of communication between the Executive and the
Assembly, by appointing members of the latter body to seats in
the Council. As no increase was made to the number of five,
the change was regarded as having been made entirely in the
interest of the old " Compact" party, and excited much dis-
satisfaction among members of the Legislative Council and the
Assembly.

6. New Brunswick had many grievances then ; the chief of
all was the state of the Crown Land Department. The sys-
tem of granting lands favoured the rich, the influential, the
large lumber operators, and was very obnoxious to the people.
The head officer, the " Chief Commissioner," was appointed by
the Crown, and was in a position to disregard their censure.
He enjoyed a large salary, swelled by fees and perquisites, out
of proportion to the incomes of other officials. This enabled
him, it was said, to live in a style that set a bad example of
extravagance. Out of the proceeds of the sales of lands — the
Casual and Territorial Eevenue — the salaries of the Governor,
Judges, and officials were paid ; and a surplus remained after
the payment of this Civil List. The Assembly had no control
over the management of the Crown lands and the revenue
derived from them. During the session of 1832 that body
prayed the Governor to submit to it detailed accounts of the
moneys received and expended by the department. The request
was brusquely refused. The Assembly then deputed Messrs.
Charles Simonds and E. B. Chandler delegates to make arrange-
ments with the Imperial Government for the surrender into its
hands of the Casual and Territorial Eevenue. Terms were pro-
posed by Mr. Stanley, then Colonial Secretary (1833), and
accepted by the Assembly ; but through some misunderstand-
ing, or secret influence, the arrangement was not carried out.
One of the alleged causes of the failure was the refusal of the
Secretary to include in the surplus the payments made by tiie
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia Land Company.^

* Land Company. — The Company I but was not incorporated by Eoyal
named was formed in London in 1831, I CSharter until 1834. It« object was to

MISSION OF CRANE AND WILMOT.

351

7. The Assembly again grappled with the Crown laud ques-
tion. Dissatisfaction with the 8t.'>tc g2 the department

had, in the meantime, increased. The battle was com- 1836
menced by L. A. Wilmot moving an address to the a.d.
Governor for detailed accounts of the lands sold during
the previous year. In answer. Sir Archibald Campbell caused
a mere general statement to be laid before the Assembly. This
course showed disregard to the instructions he had received
from the Colonial Office, and incensed the members. An address
to the King, praying for the redress of grievances, was passed ;
and Messrs. Crane and L. A. Wilmot were appointed delegates
to carry it to the foot of the throne. •

8. The spirit of the AddresB of the Assembly met the
marked approval of King William. Lord Glenelg evinced a
disposition to meet the views of the delegates. After several
interviews, at which the surrender of the Casual and Territo-
rial Revenue was considered in all its bearings, a definite ar-
rangement was concluded, and the draft of a Bill for the sup-
port of the Civil Government of the Province was drawn up.
By its provisions the net amount of the Casual and Territorial
Revenue was placed at the disposal of the Assembly, on condi-
tion of its making a permanent provision of ^£14,500 currency
annually, for the support of the Civil List. The salaries of
the officials on the list were not touched, but a reduction was
promised, in some cases, in event of death and f new appoint-
ments. The management of the Crown lands was vested in the
Governor and Council; but they were commanded to submit
detailed accounts, fourteen days after the opening of each ses-
eion, to enable the Assembly to maintain a supervision over the
department. The principle of calling members of the Assembly
to the Executive Council was recognized, but no peremptory
rule was laid down. The selection of members of the Legislative
Council from the ranks of gentlemen representing the variou =»

promote emigration from the over-
crowded parishes of England, and to
give employment to the poorest class
in making roads, clearing land, and
building houses. It also held out in-
ducements to officers retired from the
military and civil services to settle on

farms, and increase their means by
husbandry. A traot of over 600,000
acres, between the St. John and Mira-
michi Rivers was purchased, for the
sum of £56,000, of which £21,000
was paid down, leaving a balance of
£85,000.

352

Sm ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL.

' « ■ w\

•J- ■

J ' ',a

■ -1

it-' »::

interests of the Province was recommended. All grants and
leases of lauds, unless sold by public auction to the highest
bidder, were declared null and void.

9. The Assembly seemed to have gained a victory i tint
the battle was only half fought. The members of Council liad
a strong personal interest in maintaining the old order of thiugs.
They raised objections to the Bill, to the insufficiency of the
sum of £14,500 to cover all the expenses of the Civil List, as the
salaries of the Judges of the Circuit Courts and several contin-
gencies had been omitted ; and to the injustice that would be
done to a numerous and useful class of squatters, who could
show no title to the land they were living on if the clause
regarding sale by publicv auction were carried into effect.

10. The views of Sir Archibald Campbell might have beeu
coloured by the sentiments of his Council, but he was in a
position to be independent. He was opposed to the Surren-
der of the Casual and Territorial Revenue into the bauds
of the Assembly. He was afraid that the large surplus from
that revenue, amounting to ^5171,222, would be squandered, as
he thought that it was unsafe to intrust a legislative body
with the expenditure of mone}'^ ; while, if the sum were propeily
invested, it would secure a permanent Civil List, and leave the
annual revenues free to be devoted to purposes of general im-
provement. In answer to the despatch of Lord Glenelg, trans-
mitting the draft of " the Civil List Bill," the Governor wrote
counter despatches pointing out errors and omissions, and
suggesting amendments.

11. The Legislature met in January. Sir Archibald Campbell

had not received an answer to his despatches, and he
1837 wished to gain time. He assumed a cold and stiff atti-
A.D. tude, and signified his desire that, in the event of the
Civil List Bill being past^ed, a "suspending clause"
should be appended to it. The Bill wjis passed by the Assem-
bly and the Legislative Council by large majorities. To meet the
viewfe of the Governor and his Council, they declared themselves
willing to provide for all necessary expenses and to protect all
just rights; but they refused to make any alteration in the Bill,
or to append to it the suspending clause, the effect of which would
have been to render the Act inopeirative until the will of the

THE CIVIL LIST BILL.

353

King concerniug the amendments suggested by the Governor
should be known. They were apprehensive that, in the event of
these amendments meeting the approval of the Colonial Secre-
tary, the Bill would be so altered by their insertion that the
law officers of the Crown might advise His Majesty to refuse
his assent to it. A deputation of the Legislature waited on the
Governor to request that he would give his assent to the Bill.
"Not without the suspending clause," said Sir Archibald.
Later, the deputation again approached him with the question,
" Would His Excellency assent to the Bill in the event of his
receiving an answer to his despatches before the close of the
session?" Sir Archibald would give no direct answer.

12. On the 7th of February the Legislature was startled by the
report that the Hon. George F. Street had secretly departed on a
mission to Downing Street. This sudden movement of the
Governor and the Council excited alarm and suspicion. Ees-
olutions, pitched in a tone of strong indignation, denouncing
the acts of the Council, and demanding the recall of the Gover-
nor, were passed by the Assembly ; and an address to the King,
embodying their se itiments and spirit, was drawn up. When
this address w presented to Sir Archibald Campbell, the old
soldier met tL ensure of the Legislature with an air and with
words of perfect indifference. The temper displayed by the
Governor was not calculated to allay the angry excitement.
Messrs. Crane and Wilmot were again deputed delegates to lay
the address at the foot of the throne. They left Frederickton on
the 9th amidst demonstrations of popular feeling. On the 21st
they had an interview with Lord Glenelg in Downing Street,
when they were informed that Sir Archibald Campbell had
resigned, and that Major-General Sir John Harvey had been
appointed to succeed him. Their arguments and representa-
tions nullified the efforts of the Hon. G. F. Street, the Council's
delegate, to obtain a modification of the Bill.

13. The Civil List Bill became law on the 17th of July.
The Reformers rejoiced over the great boon which they had
obtained. Honours were bestowed on the delegates ; Mr.
Crane was called to a seat in the Executive Council ; Jar,.
Wilmot was appomted King's Counsel. In the overflow of its
gratitude, the Assembly requested Lord Glenelg to allow his

(473) 23

354

THE REIGN OF HARMONY.

..'lai

r,itv ■■;i'|i;li:i;,'- .ti .

full-length portvait to be taken; and it now hangs over the
Speaker's chair in the chamber in Frederickton. The principle
of the Civil List Bill was the basis of the Constitution wliich
the Imperial Government proposed to extend to all the British
North American Provinces. It was objected to by Sir Francis
B. Head, who complained that Messrs. Crane and Wilniot
had made a Constitution for Upper Canada without its assent
being asked. The Reformers, however, in that Province and
in Lower Canada looked upon the concessions made by the
Imperial Government as most unsatisfactory. They stifled
political agitation in New Brunswick, and, under the benign
rule of Sir John Harvey, the Beign of Harmony between all
the branches of the Legislature was inaugurated.

14. The contest did not commence in earnest in Nova Scotia
until it was almost ended in New Brunswick. Joseph Howe
entered the Assembly for the first time in 1837. He had proved
himself to be a bold and acute reasoner. Two years before, he
had been tried for publishing a libel on the Board of Magis-
trates which governed the town of Halifax. He proved the
charges of incapacity and corruption that he had preferred
against them, and was triumphantly acquitted. He acted as
his own counsel on the occasion, and showed himself to be
eminently qualified to take his own part. The Reformers looked
to him as to tliie Ajax who should " defy the lightning" of the
Council. It required a bold man to do that. On his motion a

demand was made that the doors of the Council should

1837 ^e thrown open. It was met by defiant taunts. Howe

A.D. returned to the charge, and hurled at the heads of the

Council Twelve Resolutions, which repeated the de-
mand for " open doors," and denounced the Council, in a body,
as being exclusive, intolerant, opposed to the spread of civil
and religious liberty, enlightenment, and education among the
people, and actuated by motives of self-interest that were pre-
judicial to the trade and commerce of the Province. Stung by
the imputation on their character, the members of Council
angrily called on the Assembly to rescind the obnoxious resolu-
tions, threatening to stop all legislation in case of refusal. A
collision, which would have been very hurtful to the country,
was adroitly jiverted. The resolutions were cancelled j but

THE DOORS OPENED.

355

they were embodied in an address to tlie King, in which the
members prayed for, among other reforms, the exclusion of the
Bishop and Chief-Justice from the Council, and for an elective
Legislative Council.

15. Lord Glenelg extended to Nova Scotia the provisions of
the Civil List Bill of New Bruna ** ick. Nearly everything was
conceded save the elective Legislative Council. The doors
were thrown open at last. The Assembly, however, soon began
to complain that it had been amused by a mere mockery of con-
cession. The gracious intentions of the King, it was said, were
defeated by the manner in which the Governor carried them
out. The Council was divided into two branches, but the new
appointments were made from the Family Compact. The As-
sembly refused to make permanent provision for the Civil List,
on the ground that the scale of salaries was too high for so poor
a Province. The surrender of the Casual and Territorial
Revenue was not an object of so great importance to it as it
had been to the Assembly of New Brunswick. The proceeds
were not nearly so great, and there was not only no large sur-
plus in the treasury, but Nova Scotia was in debt.

16. Events in the Canadas were now running in a revolution-
ary current. Those who in Nova Scotia raised their voices for
an elective Legislative Council were pronounced to be par-
tisans of Papineau, and were stigmatised as rebels and repub-
hcans. The Reformers shifted their ground, and directed all
their efforts to remodel the Executive Council, and make it
"responsible to the people."

Questions. — 1. What made the po-
litical agitation in the Lower Provinces
milder than that in the Upper? What
effect had the events in the latter Prov-
inces on the former?

2. What was the state of affairs in
Nova Scotia? Who were the members
of the Supreme Council ? What was its
attitude towards the Assembly, and to-
wards public opinion?

8. How was the Council constituted
in New Brunswick? What two men
came into notice as political leaders in
Nova Scotia and in New Brunswick?
Sketch their characters.

4, Who were then Governors of the

sister Provinces? Describe their com-
mon character. On which side did
they range themselves?

5. Where was the first movement
made towards political change? Of
what did it consist ? Whom did it dis-
satisfy? Why?

6. What was the chief grievance of
New Brunswick? What was the re-
sult of the negotiations with Mr. Stan-
ley?

7. When did the Assembly again
grapple with the land question? How
did the battle commence? How did
the Governor incense the Assembly?
Wh^t did it then do?

356

QUESTIONS.

f 'I

8. How wa8 the address of the As-
sembly received by the King and by the
Colonial Secretary? What were the
chief provisions of the Civil List Bill?

9. What objections did the Council
raise to the Bill?

•10. What were the views of Sir
Archibald Campbell? How did he an-
swer Lord Glenelg's despatch ?

11. What proposal did the Governor
make, in the event of the Bill being
passed? Why did the Assembly op-
pose the suspending clause? What
position did the Governor take up?

12. What movement of the Governor
and Council er cited alarm? What did
the Assembly consequently do? What
did the delegates learn from Lord Glen-
elg?

13. When did the CivU List Bill be-
come law? How were the delegates re-

warded? What compliment was paid t >
Lord Glenelg? Of what did the Blh
lay the foundation? What objection
did Sir Francis Head make to it ? How
were its concessions regarded by the
Keformers in tlie Canadas?

14. When did the contest begin in
Nova Scotia? On what occasion had
Howe proved his ability? What mo-
tion did he make in the Assembly?
What did he do when the demand was
refused? How was a serious collision
averted ?

15. What was the result of the appeal
to the Imperial Government? What
complaint did the Assembly soon be-
gin to make?

16. How were events now running in
the Canadas? What led the Reformers
to shift their ground? To what did
they direct their efforts?

THE CRISIS.

357

CHAPTER XXXVI.
BEBELLION.

1837 A.D.

Lord John Russeirs Resolutionn.

Opinions regarding Responsible Gov-
ernment.

Final Dissolution of the Legislature of
Lower Carada.

Sir Francis Head tranquilly a\Kaits Re-
bellion.

The Meeting of the Five Counties.

" The Dorics " and "Sons of Liberty."

Affairs at St. Denis and St. Charles.

Flight of Papineau.

M'Kenzie threatens Toronto.

The Rebels defeated at Montgomery

Farm.
Loyal enthusiasm of Militia of Upper

Canada.
Insurrection in the Two Mountains

crushed.

1. The crisis now came. In Lower Canada legislation was
at a stand-still. Since 1832 the Assembly had refused

to vote the supplies. Great suffering was the result to 1837
individuals. The Judges and officials, who were chiefly a.d.
British, were reduced to dire straits. Yet such was
the rancorous spirit of the strife, that the members of the
Assembly, who were mainly French Canadians, mocked at
the misery which they had created.

2. On the meeting of the Imperial Parliament in February,
the Reports of the " Royal Commission of Inquiry " were
laid before it. On the 6th of March, Lord John Russell ^ intro-
duced a series of Ten Resolutions, which embodied the chief
suggestions made in them, and a coercive measure empowering
the Governor-General to talie, without the sanction of the
Assembly, ^142,000 out of the moneys in the hands of the
Receiver-General, to pay the arrears of the Civil List. In
the House of Commons, the friends of the French Canadians
warned him that such an arbitrary stretch of power would drive
them into rebellion, and into the arms of the United States.
Lord John Russell met the prediction coolly and quietly. He

' Lord John Russell. — ^Born 1792 ;
third son of the Duke of Bedford ;
entered Parliament 1813; took office
1830; introduced the first Keform BiU

to the House of Commons 1831 ; three
times Prime Minister of England, 1846,
1851, 1866 ; raised to the peerage as Earl
BusseU, 1861.

358

L0I;D JOHN KUSSELL S RESOLUTIONS.

wfls not apprehensive that the United States would provoke a
quarrel with Great Britain. The Imperial Government did
not propose to tiike money out of the Canadian treasury for its
own purposes, but to do an act of justice to individuals. The
Lower Canadians had no real giievances. The people were
very lightly taxed; the Assembly had control over the ex-
penditure of the revenues ; and the Executive and Legislative
Councils would be remodelled in such a way as to give them
a fairer representation.

3. In the House of Lords, Brougham alone protested against
the policy of the Government. That policy was opposed to tie
chief demands of Papineau and his party. It refused to con-
vert the Legislative Council into an elective body. The feel-
ings of the King were opposed to such a change ; which change,
moreover, would tend to subvert an important principle of the
Constitution. The Legislative Council, a body in some measiii
analogous to the House of Lords, was constituted to be a check
to the encroachments and hasty legislation of the Assembly. If,
like the latter, it were made elective, it would equally repre-
sent popular sentiment and feeling, and the barrier would be
swept away. The Government policy also refused to make the
Executive Council responsible to the people. The reasons for
the refusal advanced by Lord John Eussell were then very
generally held by Liberals as well as by Tories in England, and
were for a long time stumbling-blocks in the way of the Ee-
formers. It was maintained that colonies held a different
position from that of the mother country, and that the exact
form of government that obtained in the latter was incompatible
with the condition of the former, as dependent, subordinate
provinces. In Great Britain, the King was placed above the
passions of political strife. He represented the abiding power
of the State. The Government was carried on by a body of
advisers, a Ministry commanding the support of a majority of
the people's representatives in the House of Commons. For its
acts the Ministry was responsible to them. When it no longer
met support, when the majority dwindled into a minority, the
Ministry resigned its offices into the hands of the leadei"s of the
party opposed to it, who enjoyed the confidence of the majority.
The Ministiy might doubt if the majority against it in the

VIEWS OP THE MODERATE REFORMEUS.

359

House of Commons represented the real sentiments of the mass
of tlie electors ; it might advise the King to disKolve the House
and appeal to the people, in whose power was the ultimate fate
of Ministries. If, after standing the test of a general election,
the Ministry found that its acts were condemned, and that its
supporters would ^>e in the minority, it gave place without
further demur to its oj)ponent8. To his new body c" advisers
the King, whose position was unatFected by the war of parties
and the fall of Ministries, gave his confidence as representing
the mind of the majority of the nation. But the Governor of
a province was not a ruler in that supreme sense. He was ap-
pointed by the King and the Parliament, and was re8})onsible
to them for his acts. He received his instructions from the
Colonial Office, and with the aid of his Executive Council carried
them out. If the Executive Council were converted into a Minis-
try responsible to the people, as in Great Britain, the Governor
would become a mere cipher ; power would be transferred from
King and Parliament to the body of electors in the Province,
and the Province would become independent. Its position in
relation to the Empire would be changed. The ultimate re-
sult of this state of virtual independence would be the severance
of the tie that bound the mother country and the Province to-
gether, — the overthrow of monarchical and the establishment of
republican institutions.

4. The moderate Reformers contended that such extreme re-
sults would not follow upon the granting of responsiole govern-
ment to the Provinces. The supreme power of the Crown
would remain unquestioned. The Governor, as the representa-
tive of the King, would, under imperial direction, have the
command of the naval and military forces, the power of making
treaties and binding the colonies, and of regulating their com-
merce according to the general interests of the Empire. It was
only over mere local affairs, of which the Imperial Govern-
ment could have no intimate knowledge, and in which it had
really no interest, that they sought to establish the principle
of the responsibility of the Executive to the people. The
spirit of the great majority of the colonists was misunderstood.
Their loyalty to the Crown and to the Britifih Constitution was
deep-seated. They were bound to their fellow-countrymen at

360

FLAMING PATHIOTS.

iEifeiiiJ!

home by the ties of pride in the past history of the Empire,
and of social and commercial interest in the present. They
claimed the same lineage with them, spoke the same language,
obeyed the same laws ; all they asked was, that they should
not be placed in an inferior position, as regarded their govern-
ment, to their brethren in the old country.

5. When the Eesolutions of Lord John Russell were read
in Lower Cauada, they excited exultation in the British and
rage in the French Canadian party. The Act empowering tli
Governor-General to take £142,000 out of the treasury, was
denounced by Papiueau and other leaders as being quite as
unjust and arbitrary as any that had driven the ximericau
Colonies into rebellion. They would not listen when it was
said that the Imperial Government was justified in exercising
extreme authority, since the Assembly had abandoned its
legislative functions, and for five years had refused to vote the
supplies. To show their detestation of imperial tyranny, they
counselled the habitans not to use any dutiable articles, and to
resort to smuggling rather than help to raise a revenue. In
their rage and disappointment at being denied the changes in
the Constitution which they had demanded, they entered upon
the most violent courses. Abandoning the position of Re-
formers, they became flaming Patriots, determined to obtain
by force of arms the concessions that had been refused to their
addresses. The crisis demanded the exercise of calm judgment,
and la^ver were its dictates less regarded.

6. The Russell Resolutions affected Upper Canada equally
with Lower Canada, and dashed the hopes of the extreme
sect? vLi of the Reform^ s. M'Kenzie and Papineau now
clasped h:A,ndc;, and took the same desperate resohe — to rebel.
"^f they had listened to the counsel of their best friends in
F~\gland, chey would have paused before committing them-
selves to so mad a course. The Imper'al Government, they
were told, had shown a disposition to be oonciliatory ; it could
not be expected to break loose at once from the system of
government that had obtained in the colonies ever since i'ae
colonics had had an existence. It would be wisdom or the paii;
01 the Reformers to accept the concessions offei 3d in the same
spirit, and to wait until it was seen how they should be carri'^d

LORD GOSPORD's PROCLAMATION.

361

out befoiv. making further demands. Equally, however, it be-
hoved the opponents of reform to be moderate. The gracious
intention of the Imperial Government to remodel the Executive
and Legislative Councils, by appointing members fairly repre-
senting the interests of all parties in the Provinces, might bo
defeated b}'- the way in which it was carried out ; its letter
might be obeyed by increasing the number of members of the
Councils, but its spirit disregarded by selecting them from
persons in whom the people and their representatives had no
confidence. That was not the time for the party in power to
intrench itself selfishly behind its privileges, but to yield
gracefully to necessity. They took counsel, however, of their
pride. Papineau and his party gave way to their rage and
disappointment. The seemingly i 'resolute tone assumed by
Lord John Russell tended to draw them into the path of danger.
If they had been met with the stern announcement that the
Imperial Goverimient had conceded so much and would con-
cede no more, and that the force of the Empire would be
us'^d to crush rebellion^, it is scarcely conceivable that they
would have harangued the simple habitans on their duty as
patriots to free themselves from British tyranny, and coun-
selled them to attend political meetings with arms in their
iiands.

7. About the end of June, Lord Gosford, alarmed at the
turn that affairs were taking, issued a Proclamation,
warning the people of Lower Canada of the danger -tnon
they were incurring by attending seditious gatherings.
Copies were posted up in public places, and on the walls
of the churches ; but they were torn down with shouts of " Dowii,
with the „>oclamation ! " " Long live Papineau, our deliverer !"
"Hurrah for liberty!" In the course of the summer all the
British troops wrre concentrated in and about Montreal. Two
additional regiments were called for from Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick. Unwilling to proceed to extremities. Lord
Gosford convened the LeQ;i'jlature towards the end of August.
In his opening speech he besought the members of Assembly
to resume their duties, to pass the supplies, and to accept the
concillatciy neasures offered by the Imperial Government.
But his friendly overtures we.e met by demands for an elective

; « i

•4'

/A-.'

362

THE DECLARATION OP THE REFOHMERS.

4:C^.*»--,4 -*■-'■:-:■-.-

'tliii

Legislative Council, a responsible Executive, full, unconditional
control of all the revenues and lands, and a termination of
imperial interference in provincial affairs. Lord Gosford had
no option but to dissolve the House and let rebellion run its
course.

8. Immediately after the dissolution, agitation was carried
on with increased fury. Papineau traversed the country from
Montreal to Eimouski. Dr. Wolfred Nelson, Lafontaine,
Girouard, and other leaders, held insurrectionary meetings in
the counties south of the St. Lawrence. The blessing of the
Church was not on the work. The clergy were solemnly in-
structed by the Bishops of Quebec and Montreal to refuse the
rites of the Church to those who took part in it. But even
the threat of excommunication had no terrors : the habitana
turned on their priests, and told them not to meddle with
matters political.

9. In Upper Canada the Tories were triumphant, and the
Reformers were driven to desperation. To M'Kenzie's soured
spirit and excited mind the opportunity, now that Lower
Canada was on the eve of open rebellion, appeared to be
favourable to shake the Province free of Sir Francis Head and
his band of hireling officials. He wildly reasoned himself into

the conviction that success was possible. On the 2ud
Aug. 2. of August, the Declaration of the Reformers, in

whicn they set forth at lentjCh their unredressed griev-
ances, renounced imperial authority, and gave their active sym-
pc^vuy to the cause of the French Canadians, was published. It
was signed by M'Keuzie and other membeis of the extreme sec-
tion ; but the more moderate men, Baldwin, Rolphe, and Bidwell,
carefully abstained from appending their signatures. A Vigi-
lance Committee was formed in Toronto ; and Reform Unions
were established in the Home and Gore districts. M'Kenzie
travelled from village to village, inflaming the minds of the
people. Sometimes he barely escaped very rough usage from
the Loyalist farmers and men.bers of the Irish Orange Society.
Sir Francis gave him full scope to say and do what he pleased.
He might easily have nipped the rebellion in th^ bud ; but he
chose to allow it to grow to a head. He sent all the regular
troops out of the Province to aid Lord Gosford and Sir John

H,^*^

THE MEETING OF THE FIVE COUKTIES.

363

Colborue, and proclaimed his intention to trust to the loyalty
of the brave militia of Upper Canada. " With folded arms"
he awaited the outburst of the rebellion.

10. By the middle of October the state of Lower Canada
became alarming. From the county of the Two Mountains the
British settlers flocked into Montreal, leaving their farms to be
ravaged by the excited habitans. On the 25th a great gather-
ing took place at St. Charles on the Richelieu. — the Meeting of
the Five Counties, as it was called. On the meadow a column
was erected surmounted by a cap of Liberty, and bearing the
inscription, " To Papineau, by his grateful brother Patriots."
A b?-nd of armed militia kept the ground. Inflammatory
speeches were made, and revolutionary resolutions passed
amidst wild acclamations, followed by volleys of musketry.
The young Patriots marched past the leaders ; at the column
of Liberty they paused, and laying their hands on it, solemnly
vowed to devote themselves to the service of their country.
Political organizations were formed in Montreal and Quebec,
which marked the division of the races and provoked a
disturbance of the peace. On the 6th of November, Nov. 6.
the British " Doric " Club dispersed, by force, a meet-
ing of French Canadian "Sons of Liberty." No life was
taken on either side ; but f.he afiair was remarkable as being
the first collision that took place, and as a proof that both
parties were prepared to come to blows.

11. The Governor-General now gave orders for the arrest of
the ringleaders of the revolt on the southern bank of the St.
Lawrence. A party of volunteer cavalry, returning from St.
John's by way of Argenteuil, were surprised by a body of
insurgents, and routed, with the loss of two prisonei-s whom
they had taken. A simultaneous attack was made on the
strongholds of the rebels on the Richelieu Eiver. On

the night of the 22nd November, Colonel Gore, with Nov. 22.
five hundred men, one gun, and a few mounted police,
advanced from Sorel to St. Denis, where Dr. Wolfred Nelson
and a body of rebels held a strong position. Colonel Wetherall,
With 'A slightly larger force, moved from Chambly to St.
Charles, where "General" Stowell Brown and a party of
habitans were posted in an old French chateau, within well-

Id. . ' -.-5 '

■,i;

364

ST. DENIS AND ST. CHARLES.

y-mi

STJOHNS

barricaded grounds. The weather was dark and stormy, and
the mud on the roads ankle-deep. It was ten o'clock the follow-
ing morningbefore Colonel
THREE RWERs^^ Gore's force reached St.

Denis, a distance of six-
teen miles from Sorel.
Dr. Nelson had his men
posted in a strong stone
building, and in houses
that lined the road leading
to it. As the British
soldiers, exhausted and
foot-sore, advanced to at-
tack the main position,
they suffered a galling fire
on their flanks. They
could make no impression
on the stone house ; so
leaving their one gun
stuck fast in the mire,
they retreated, crest-fallen,
carrying sixteen of their comrades killed and wounded. A
young officer, Lieutenant Weir, carrying despatches from
Gore to Wetherall, was intercepted by some of the insur-
gents, and murdered in the most barbarous manner.

12. Owing to the frightful state of the roads and the destruc-
tion of the bridges, it was noon of the 25t"ii before Colonel
Nov. 25. Wetherall reached St. Ghaxles. The old chateau T^as
strong, but its defenders were wretchoaly armed w h
untrustworthy muskets and fowling-pieces. " General" Brown
was a very different leader from the intrepid Doctor of St.
Denis, and he fled after the first shot was fired. The deluded
habitans made a stand for a time, till the red-coats, charging
over the barricades^ broke into the chateau grounds and poured
a deadly volley of musketry upon them. All then fled who could
flee. At the close of the contest, Colonel Wetherall counted
fifty-six dead bodies of the insurgents. In revenge for the
murder of Lieutenant Weir, the soldiery let loose their fury on
the villagers. Daunted by the fate of St. Charles, Dr. Nelson

ST. DENIS AND ST. CHARLES.

TORONTO THREATENED.

365

evacuated St. Denis on the 5th, on hearing the report of the
advance of Colonel Gore with a fresh force. Emeutes among
the habitans of St. Ours and Hyacinthe were promptly quelled.
Papineau, the "head and front of the rebellion," and other
leaders, were by this time across the frontier, and safe in
the United States. Dr. Wolfred Nelson, in attempting to
escape, was captured and lodged in Montreal jail.

13. Not until the fate of Papineau and his party had been
decided at St. Denis and St. Charles did rebellion break out in
Upp^r Canada. Deceived by the seeming indifference of Sir
Francis Head, and the defenceless state of Toronto, M'Kenzie
was drawn on to tempt Fortune. Fifteen hundred men enrolled
themselves to fight under his flag, on which was inscribed the
legend, " Bid well and the glorious Minoiity of 1837 ; a good
beginning." He had not arms for a tiiird of the number. On
the night of the 4th of December a band of four hundred
met at Montgomery's tavern, in Yonge Street, the great Dec. 4.
road running north from Toronto. The city was un-
gaarded; there was not a British soldier in it save the guard at
Government House. A sudden, determined attack, might have
placed the city, the Governor, and the Government in M'Kenzie's
hand. A patrol riding out from Toronto brought back word
hurriedly that the rebels were advancing. The alarm-bell
rang and awoke Sir Francis out of a sound sleep. Hastily
the citizens gathered around the City Hall, where four thousand
stand of arms were stored. The first to seize muskets were the
Attorney-General and the Judges. Messengers were despatched
to Colonel M'Nab and the officers commanding the militia of
the Gore, Newcastle, and Midland districts to come to the
rescue. M'Kenzie lost his opportunity. His force, undis-
ciplined and wretchedly armed, would not obey the word of
command. Midway to the city they were struck with panic,
and fled bacfeto their head-quarters at the tavern. Sir Francis,
under the mask of indiff'erence, had been very uneasy. He was
greatly relieved when Colonel M'Nab appeared with the militia-
men of Goye. They were not clad in scarlet tunics and armed
with regulation rifles, like our modern volunteer force. They
mostly wore their ordinary gray homespun ; and many of them
carried old muskets, and even pikes and pitchforks. On the

366

AT MONTGOMERY FARM.

heels of the men of Gore followed the militia of the north-
western districts. Unwilling to shed blood in civil broil, or
anxious to gain time until he had an overwhelming force, at his
command, Sir Francis sent a messenger to the rebels to call on
them to lay down their arms ; but he curtly refused the con-
dition demanded by M'Kenzie, that he would summon a Con-
vention for the redress of all grievances.

14. About noon of the 7tli, Sir Francis Head marched out

of Toronto with a force of five hundred men to give
Dec. 7. battle. The rebels, commanded by M'Kenzie, Van

Egmond, an old officer who had served under Napoleon,
and Lount, a blacksmith, were posted on both sides of the
great road, and had the protection of a copse and a few houses.
The Loyalists advanced with spirit to the sound of military
music. They opened fire with two pieces of artillery. For a
brief time the rebels bore it and the continuous volleys of
musketry; then they broke into utter rout. To mark his
vengeance. Sir Francis gave orders to bum the tavern, and the
private dwelling of one of the rebel leaders ; but he generously
extended pardon to a few prisoners. He proclaimed M'Kenzie
an outlaw, and offered a large reward for his capture. Euined
and well-nigh reckless, that ill-starred man escaped pursuit, and
found safety and sympathy for a time in the United States.
In a week from the time of the first rising, the abortive
rebellion w crushed. The militia flocked to Toronto in such
numbers that Sir Francis felt constrained to announce that
he had no need of further help, and to direct the enthusi-
astic volunteers to go home, or to march to the aid of Sir John
Colborne. His confidence in the loyalty of the yeomanry of
Upper Canada had not been misplaced. The Province was far
from being restored to a state of quiet and contentment. The
harsh manner in which the Government used its victory, the
revengeful spirit with which it pursued some of the ringleaders
of the revolt to the bitter death, and persecuted those who
were suspected of sympathizing with it, offended many loyal
people.

15. Rebellion still raised its head in Lower Canada, in the
county of the Two Mountains. On the 13th of December, Sir
John Cojborue set out from Montreal with a force of thirteen

THE REBELLION CRUSHED.

367

hundred men. in his train followed many of the British settlers,
who at the outbreak of the revolt had been compelled to Hy
from their farms : they were in a bitter mood. When
Sir Jolin entered the village of St, Eustache, the main Dec. 13.
body of the insurgents, under Girod, fled before him.
Dr. Chenier and four hundred of the more resolute threw them-
selves into the church and into adjoining buildings. They
found themselves penned as in slaughter houses. The stone
walls of the church fell before the fire of the British artillery,
the wooden rafters took fire from the shells. In an hour's
time the position became utterly untenable. Chenier and one
hundred men were shot dead. Then the rest fled ^rom the
ruins of the church and from the burning outposts. One hun-
dred more were taken prisoners. On the 15th, Sir John Colborne
advanced to St. Benoit, where the fiercest resistance was ex-
pected. The leaders fled (as nearly all of them had done in
the course of this luckless rebellion), daunted by the near ap-
proach of the danger whi( h they had courted. A deputation
came out to meet the General, and made peace for the insur-
gents. They did not escape punishment. In the night a part
of the village was destroyed by fire, — a deed of vengeance
attributed to the British settlers who had followed the camp.

Questions. — 1. When did the crisis
come? What had been the state of
affairs in Lower Canada since 1832?

2. On what ground were the proposals
of the Government opposed in the
House of Commons ? What was Lord
John Rxissell's reply?

3. Who alone protested in the Lords
against the Government policy ? What
were the objections to making the
Legislative Conncil elective? What
contrast was drawn between the posi-
tion of colonies and tliat of the mother
country in regard to the supreme
pover? What conclusion was drawn
thence?

4. What was the contention of the
moderate Reformers? In connection
with what affairs only did they seek to
make the Executive responsible to the
people?

5. What effects had the Russell
Resolutions in Lower Canad|a? To

what did the Leaders chiefly take ex-
ception? What character did t.hey
assume ?

6. Who were disappointed by the
Resolutions in Upper Canada ? What
resolution did M'Kenzie and Papin^jau
take? Whar, advice was given them by
their best friends in England? By
whom should the advice of moderation
also have been followed ? What tended
to draw Papineau and his party into
the path of danger?

7. What step did Lord Gosford ta'ice
about thii end of June ? How was the
rroclamation treated? In what terms
did Lord " osford address the Assembly ?
Ho-v were his overtures met? What
did he then do?

8. By what was the dissolution lol-
lowed? Who took part in it? What
part did the Church take in it ?

0. What docunient did the Reformers
issue iu Upper Canada ? How was the

368

QTTESTTONS.

agitation carried on? What attitude
did Sir Francis Head assume ?

10. Describe the Meeting of the Five
Counties. What Icind of political
societies were formed in Montreal and
Quebec ? Wh en did the flrst collision
take place ?

11. What orders did the Governor-
General then give? Describe Colonel
Gore's attack on St. Denis. What was
t^ J fate of Lieutenant Weir?

12. Who attacked St. Charles? What
was the result? What became of
Papineau ? and of Dr. Nelson ?

13. How many men had M'Kenzie
under his flag? What city did he

threaten? How were the authorities
warned ? How did the rebels conduct
themselves? What message did Head
send to them ?

14. Describe the affair of the 7th
December. Whatbecameof M'Kenzie?
How long had the rebellion lasted?
Who were enthusiastic in their loyalty?
How did the Government offend many
loyal people ?

15. Where did Sir John Colborne
defeat the insurgents in Lower Canada?
Where hnd they taken refuge? How
wore they driven out? What was the
fate of Chenier? How did the affair
end?

LOYALTY OF THE MARITIME PROVINCES.

369

CHAPTER XXXVIL

TROUBLOUS TIMES.

1838-1839 A.D.

Loyal feeling in the Maritime ProTincos.
M'Kenzie on Navy Island.
The burning of the steamer Caroline.
American sympathizers invade Canada.
Suspension of the Constitution of Lower

Canada.
Sir Francis B. Head resigns.
Execution of Lount and Matthews.
Earl Dnrhnm, High Commissioner.

Amnesty to political prisoners.

The Earl abruptly leaves Canada.

Fresh outbreak.

Affairs at Napierville and Odell-to>»Ti.

"The Hunters" invade Canada.

The Disputed Territory.

Warlike excitement in Maine and New

Brunswick.
The Ashburton Treaty.

1. The rebellion in the Canadaa called forth the British
feeling of the Maritime Provinces. The people of Nova Scotir-
aud New Brunswick stood ready to march to support Gosford
aud Head in their defence of monarchy. In the hour of danger
their love for their Queen, and the dear old mother country
and its institutions, rose above all political discontent. The
uprising, however, obtained the sympathy of the A'liericans on
the frontiers. In all the towns the feeling was openly expressed.
In Buffalo, M'Kenzie, the attainted rebel, was received with
entliusiasm and offers of aid. Lawless men enrolled themselves,
in the desecrated name of Liberty, to " free Canada from op-
pression." Preparations for inYasion went on before the eyee
of the authorities of the States of New York, Ohio, and Michi-
gan, who unaccountably could see in them nothing amiss. The
State arsenals were broken into, new muskets were pu) loinedf-
and no remonstrance was made. Great Britain and the United
States were at peace, but the President issued no Proclamation
warning the citizens not to levy war against a friendly nation.

2. M'Kenzie joined a General Yan Rensselaer, who, with a

bodv of Canadian refugees and American adventurers,

Doc 13
took possession of Navy Island in the Niagara River, . '*

a short distance above the Falls, on the 13th of Decem- '

ber. Here, on British territory, M'Kenzie proclaimed

a republic for Upper Canada, and promised grants of land and

.^73) 24

370

DESTRUCTION OF THE " CAROLINE."

money bounties to all who would volunteer to fight under the
flag of Liberty. He offored a reward of £500 for the capture of
Sir Francis Head. Kecruita did not flock to his standard.
Colonel M'Nab and his militia confronted him at Chippewa,
and a brisk but not deadly fire was kept up between the shore
and the island. The conduct of the American General did not
inspire confidence ; for he had a strong propensity to lie in
bed, drink brandy, and write love-letters, instead of attending
to his military duties. The situation had a ludicrous aspect,
but an event happened which threw a serious shade over it.
Shortly before midnight of the 27th a flotilla of boats, under
Lieutenant Drew of tlie Royal Navy, swept c»ver to Fort Schlosser
on the American side and surprised a steamer belonging to the
marauders. Her crew was landed, and the Caroline^ on fire,
was towed into mid-stream above " the rapids" and abandoned.
Drawn in by the current, she wa§ carried swiftly, in a flaming
mass, right over the crest of the Horse Shoe Falls. Soon after
this incident M'Kenzie left Navy Island.

3. The destruction of the " Caroline " won applause from
the British Government for Colonel M'Nab, under whose orders
it had been done. He was shortly afterwards knighted. By
the United States authorities it was dt .ounced as an infraction
of the law of nations. Very angry feelings were aroused by
this aff'air, which at one time threatened to embroil the two
great nations in war. While the Americans were very sensitive
on this point, they saw unmoved the attempt of some of their

citizens to invade Canada. A plan was concocted to

1838 attack it in three directions, — from Ogdensburg, from

A.D. Buff'alo, and from the Detroit frontier. Fortunately

there were too many generals who claimed the honour
of leading these enterprises. Every one wished to command ;
none cared to obey. They grew jealous, and thwarted each
other's plans. Mutual charges of treachery and cowardice were
made. The consequence was that many of those who had con-
sented to act as privates became disgusted, and deserted at the
critical moment. On the 22nd of February a force of some
1500 men crossed over .to Hickory Island from a point of ;
the St. Lawrence below Kingston. While there their leader,
Yan Rensselaer, misbehaved himself as usual, whereon the

POINT PEl£ island.

371

woiild-be marauders took the alarm and hastily made their
way to the mainland.

4. In the west a force, styled the Patriot Army, made a land-
ing on Bois Blanc Island,* opposite Sandwich. Their general,
Sutherland, issued a proclamation to the Patriots of Ui)per
Canada, calling on them to rise and rally around the standard of
Liberty and free themselves from the parasites of the British
Crown, who were fattening on their substance. A schooner,
carrying arms and ammunition, ran aground and was captured
by the British ; whereon Sutherland in real or feigned alarm
ordeired a hasty retreat. Loud accusations of treachery were
raised against him. He took part in another foray

made by the Patriots on the 4tli of March. Four Marcl) 4.
hundred made their way to Point Pele Island, forty
miles south-east of Amherstburg.^ They were met by Colonel
Maitlaud at the head of several companies of regulars, and
driven from the island. Two companies, posted on the frozon
river, cut off their retreat. Throwing themselves behind blocks
of ice, the Patriots kept up a stinging fire until they were dis-
lodged by a charge of British bayonets, and compelled to seek
their own shore in great disorder. Sutherland was among the
prisoners taken. He was arraigned before a court-martial by
Sir Francis Head. Before the trial took place, when lying in
the jail at Toronto, he attempted suicide, having previously made
a confession, in which he accused the United States Govern-
ment of having abetted the attempts at invasion, and of harbour-
ing the design of conquering Canada as it had done Texas.
Whether the charge was true or not, it was implicitly believed
by the impulsive and outspoken Governor, who did not fail to
give the United States authorities his opinion of their conduct.

5. Lower Canada was now reduced to a wretched state.
Civil government was suspended, and the people were placed
under martial law. The unhappy events of the rebellion, the
barbarous murders, the wanton destruction of property, widened
the gulf between the hostile races. A return to the state of

' Bois Blanc Island. — In Detroit
River. Sandwich is on the Canada
side, 3 or 4 miles south of Detroit. See
Map, p. 289.

'^ Amherstburg.— On Detroit River,
11 miles south of Sandwich. For this
place, and for Point Pel^ Island, see
Map, p. 289.

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372

DIFFICULTIES IN LOWER CANADA.

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affairs previous to the outbreak, when a French majority con-
trolled the Assembly and a British minority ruled in the
Councils, was impossible. The British minority appealed to
their brethren in the other Provinces for sympathy. "The
Constitutional Society of Montreal" sent an address to the
several Legislatures, in which they depicted their unhappy
condition, living in the midst of a majority speaking a foreign
language, and subjected to the operation of barbarous laws,
which repressed commerce ard retarded progress. The remedy
they sought was the abolition of the French laws and lang!
and the Union of Lower with Upper Canada. They asked
for a favourable expression of opinion from the legislatures to
aid them in obtaining these reforms. The address was discussed
in the Legislatures, and sympathetic answers were sent from
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. But Eeformers like Howe
would no. sanction the intolerant spirit of either the address
or the ans\7ers, which was shown in the desire expressed to Au-
glify the French Canadians. It was not wise statesmanship to
endeavour to crush out a national feeling by sweeping away the
language, laws, and customs by which it was sustained. Besides,
it was impossible to make a Frenchman act and think like an
Englishman. The only way to avoid perpetual civil strife was
to act justly, and in framing a Constitution to consult the feel-
ings, customs, and prejudices of the French Canadians.

6. Though to all appearance the active spirit of rebellion was
crushed out, disaffection smouldered ; the rebellious gathered
some hope from the actions of the sympathizers along the
American frontiers. Lord Gosford was recalled, and Sir John
Colborne was appointed Governor, with supreme power, in con-
junction with his Council, to make, enact, and carry out, such
laws as were necessary. It was a return to the absolute form
of government erected in the Province after the Conquest.
The Constitution of 1791 was suspended.

7. In Upper Canada the state of atfairs was not much more
satisfactory. Sir Francis Head set his face against conciliation,
and absolutely refused to carry out the recommendation of
Lord Glenelg to promote certain prominent members of the
Reform party. As he chose to act in opposition to the policy of
the Government that had appointed him, he felt constrained to

J 7 .

EARL OF DURHAM, HIGH COMMISSIONER.

373

resigu.

He chivalrously sacrificed himself to preserve the Con-
stitution and the privileges of the Compact party. He was
rewarded by the presentation of numerous addresses from all
the Provinces expressing admiration of his conduct and regret
at his departure. He was succeeded by Colonel Sir George
Arthur, formerly Governor of Van Diemen's Land, a penal
colony. He had a firm and heavy hand. He entered into the
views of the party in power, and ridiculed what he called
lYrKenzie's scheme of Responsible Government. The jails
ill Toronto and other places were now crowded with political
prisoners. Many had fied from the Province to escape trial
for high treason. The triumphant Tories were in no lenient
mood. They even showed zeal in punishing suspected sympathy
with the rebellion, and dissatisfaction with the existing order.
Lount and Matthews, in contempt of an urgent and numer-
ously signed petition, were executed. Lord Glenelg inter-
fered to stop the wanton spilling of blood in revenge. The
body of the people had vindicated their loyalty, but the uncom-
promising attitude of the Family Compact in opposition to
reform tended to unite all parties and sects outside of it, — Catho-
lics, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists, — and to form in them
a resolve to obtain some constitutional change.

8. The affairs of the Canadas engaged much attention in the
Imperial Parliament. The Government was aroused to take
an earnest step to give peace to the distracted country. The
appointment of Sir John Colborne was only temporary, pending
the arrival of the Earl of Durham, " Governor-General of all
the North American Provinces, and ITigh Commissioner for the
adjustment of certain important questions depending in the
Provinces of Lower and Upper Canada, respecting the future
government of said Provinces." He had had gi'eat experience
as a statesman, and belonged to the Liberal school. He possessed
much ability and many accomplishments, and was of a refined
and courteous nature. But he was proud and sensitive ; he
asserted his own opinions very strongly, and could not patiently
brook contradiction. His liberality was princely. He was
clothed with great powers, which he was disposed to use on the
side of mercy and justice.

9. Lord Durham arrived with his retinue in Quebec on the

374

THE AMNESTY.

21st of May. He was received with the greatest cordiality by
all parties. The people were impressed by thi viceregal poniji
with which he was surrounded. The thoughtful looked forward
with hope to his administration. In order to keep himself free
from the suspicion of being influenced, he called no members of
any existing parties to his Spf ial Council. This Council was
composed of five members, Vice-Admiral Sir Charles Paget,
General Sir James MacDonnel, Lieutenant-Colonel Grey, Colonel
Cowper, and Hon. Charles BuUer. His first acts were to
despatch Colonel Crey to Washington to make representations
against hostile demonstrations of American sympathizers, and
to put the frontiers in a state of defence. On his staff were
several gentlemen of great ability. To them was confided the
task of collecting information concerning the political grievances
and the general condition of the Canadas. Major Head was
despatched to the Lower Provinces for a like purpose. Invita-
tions were sent to the Governors of Nova Scotia, New Bruns-
wick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland, to meet and
confer with the Earl in Quebec. Deputations com])Osed of the
leading members of the legislatures of the Provinces accom-
panied them.

10. The disposal of the political prisoners was a subject
of anxious consideration. In the exasperated state of the
country it was needless to bring them to trial. No French
Canadian jury would ever convict a fellow-couutryman, how-
ever heinous his offence. No mixed jury of French and British
could be found who would agree on a verdict. And the act of
bringing offenders to trial would stir up smouldering party
hatreds. As Papineau and other leaders had fled from the Prov-
inces, Lord Durham found that there were very few who were
amenable to the grave charge of high treason. He issued an ordi-
nance causing Dr. WoFrod Nelson and eight other ringleaders
to be transported to Be muda, under penalty of being liable to
captur'e, trial, executi<>n if they ventured to return to the Prov-
ince. An amnesty was extended to all other offenders.

11. Lord Durham had acted from the best of motives, but he
had committed a technical error. The Governor of Bermuda
raised the objection that he had no legal authority to restrain the
party sent to him, or to detain them as prisoners in the island.

THE hunters' lodges.

375

The difficulty was not insuperable, but the question was taken
up in the Imperial Parliament. The political opponents of the
Earl had shown a disposition from the very first to criticise his
acts in a keen and captious spirit. The extent and expense of
his retinue and the number of his secretaries had been objected
to. They now condemned his action in transporting the po-
liticjil offenders to Bermuda on his own authority as an illegal
exercise of power. They ought to have been brought into
court, tried by a jury, and sentenced by a judge. An Act was
passed disallowing the ordinance, but indemnifying those who
had issued and acted under it. This action deeply wounded the
proud and sensitive Earl. He complained that while he had
been unfairly assailed by his opponents, he had been but coldly
supported by his friends. The course pursued by Parliament
weakened the influ' nee of his authority in Canada, and destroyed
his power of doing good. He gave way to irritation, and re-
solved to throw up his commission. In publishing the Act of
Indemnity he proclaimed that, as the Imperial Government had
disallowed his act transporting the nine to Bermuda, the am-
nesty that he passed for minor offenders was extended to all.
The force of this declaration was to extend pardon to Papineau
and all others charged with high treason. This hasty interpre-
tation of the Indemnity was understood as tending to encourage
sedition. The Earl abruptly terminated his mission and re-
turned to England.

12. The departure of the Earl of Durham seemed to be the
signal for a fresh outbreak in Lower Canada, and for a renewal
of hostile demonstrations on the American frontiers. Early
in May secret societies, called " Hunters' Lodges," had been
formed in all the towns and villages from Cleveland to Ogdens-
burg. Their members took an oath to uphold republican
institutions on the American Continent, and to fight for the
independence of Canada. Among them -were a number of
refugees, but the greater part were American adventurers. A
simultaneous rising had been arranged for a certain day, but
there was no discipline or unity among the predatory hordes.
Their generals, as usual, quarrelled among themselves and abused
each other. Their pretensions to conquer Canada were absurd,
but they could commit acts of rapine and murder, and keep up

376

FRESH RISING IN LOWER CANAr>A.

a state of dangerous excitement. A spirit almost app/oaching
to disaftection was manifested among a portion of the :j:iilitia of
Upper Canada, who were annoyed at the lenity shown to par-
ticipants in the late rebellion.

' 13. Early in October revolutionary societies were formed iu
Lower Canada. Again the British Loyalists fled from the dis-
tricts about Montreal and Quebec into the cities ; again tlie
habitans in the counties north of the St. Lawrence gathered in
large bodies. On Sunday the 5th of November they rose in

Beauharuois county. At Caughnawaga, on news arriv-
Nov. 5. ing that the insurgents were close at hand, a party of

Indians, who were attending divine service, rushed out
of the chapel, fell on them, and took many prisoners. The cl-ief
force of the reb.'llion was collected at Napier ville, in La Prairie
county, under Dr. Ro]?ert Nelson, brother of Wolfred. Here
he proclaimed the independence of Canada and his intention of
founding a republic. General Sir James MacDonnel advanced
with a force of regulars and militia. Thereupon Nelson retired
towards the boundary line with the expectation of uniting with
a body of American sympathizers. A party marching in ad-
vance was interrupted by two hundred militiamen, and put to
flight. The victorious Loyalists then fell back on Odell-tov»'n,
and on the approach of the main body of the insurgents under
Nelson, threw themselves into a church. A spirited attack Wc\s
made on this strong position, but failed to dislodge its defenders.
After suffering a loss of fifty killed, and as many wounded, the
deluded habitans retired aoross the line. The rebellion was
crushed with extreme violence in the counties where it had
raised its head. Tracts of land were made desolate, houses and
barns were given to the flames ; with brutal violence suspected
rebels were hauled to prison, and crowds of distracted women
and weeping children followed the devastating march of the
militia.

14. In the meantime the members of the Hunters' Lodges
had been active ; but Sir George Arthur was on the alert. His
agents on the frontiers had discovered the secret of the intended
rising. A large body of sympathizers assembled at Ogdensburg,
and the inhabitants of that town collected in gleeful crowds to
witness the invasion. As usual, there was trouble am'»ng the

THE MILL AT PRESCOTT.

377

" generals." The head one suddenly fell sick, and the Huntera,
thinking that cowardice was the cause of his illness, refused to
put their lives in peril. On the 11th of November, Van Schultz,
a Pole, crossed to Prescott^ in a schooner with one hundred
and seventy men. There they intrenched themselves on rising
ground behind stone walls. On the 15th they were attacked by
a party of marines and militia from Kingston, and driven to
take refuge in a circular stone mill and stone house adjacent.
The position was so strong that the guns of the steamer Victoria
could make no impression on it. Van Schultz sent urgent re-
quests to his friends across the river for assistance, but they were
unheeded. On the 16th, companies of the 83rd and 93rd Eegi-
meuts arrived on the ground. The mill was surrounded, and
the stone walls were battered down by artillery. Van Schultz
was compelled to surrender at discretion. His force suffered
severely. He was executed along with eleven other prisoners.

15. A body of sympathizers assembled in the west. By this
time President Van Bur en had issued a Proclamation, warning
the American people not to give countenance to hostile enter-
prises against a friendly nation. But the citizens of Detroit
were not prevented from turning out in great numbers, in the
gray light of a December morning, to cheer on a body of in-
vaders as they crossed to Sandwich. They saw them burn a
steamer and set fire to barracks; but it was not long before
they beheld the remnant of the invaders flee in all haste to the
river's side, and throw themselves into boats and canoes and
cross again. They had left many of their comrades dead,
v/ounded, and captive in the midst of the town, and in the
hands of the enraged mihtia commanded by Colonel Prince.
Four of the prisoners were shot without trial. This act was
condemned by many.

Ifi. The attack on Sandwich v\^as the last attempt at the inva-
sion of Canada ; but the frontiers were still in an un-
settled state. Amidst the dangerous excitement of the
time, the people of Maine and of New Brunswick quar-
relled over the old bone of contention — the Disputed
Territory. The King of the Netherlands had (in 1831) given

' Pre«co«.— See Map, p. 297.

1839

A.D.

378

THE DISPUTED TERRITORY.

L^}

liis decision. His Majesty " split the difference," and gave the
United States the Uon's share ; but as nothing save the whole of
tlie land would then satisfy their claims, they refused to be
bound by the award. Early in January a paity of lawless {)ei-
sons made a dash into the debatable land to cut timber. Gover-
nor Fairfield of Maine despatched a sheriff with a strong party
of constables to expel the " intruders " and seize their lumber.
A fracas occurred between them and a body of New Bruns-
wickers. M'Intyre, the land agent for Maine, was captured,
bundled into a sled, and driven off to Frederickton. M'Laughlau,
the British warden, was seized by the Americans and carried
off to Aiigusta. Maine and New Brunswick went aflame
with excitement. Governor Fairfield ordered Colonel Jarvis
with eighteen hundred militiamen to march to the support of
the sheriff". Sir John Harvey issued a proclamation, in which
he asserted the undoubted right of Great Britain to guard the
territory while it was in dispute, and called on the Governor to
withdraw his troops. Fairfield answered by a counter-proclama-
tion, denying that right, and by a call upon the State for ten thou-
sand men, horse, foot, and artillery. Sir John then despatched
Colonel Maxwell with the 36th and 69th Regiments and a train
of artillery to the Upper St. John, to watch the movements of the
Maine militia. Great enthusiasm was shown by the people.
Volunteers from St. John, Frederickton, and York, along with
those from Woodstock, were attached to the army of the Mada-
waska under Maxwell, w^ho opened communication with Sir
John Colborne at Quebec and Sir John Harvey at Frederickton
by means of a corps of York light dragoons.

17. The people of Nova Scotia heard not unruffled the news
of these movements. In the Legislature angry discussion was
stilled for a time. Measures were enacted placing a strong body
of militia and ^100,000 at the disposal of the Governor. Eeso-
lutions expressive of sympathy were passed. In the excite-
ment of the moment the members of Assembly, carried out of
their usual decorum, gave vent to their feelings in hearty
British cheers, which were caught up and prolonged by the
people in the crowded galleries. This action excited the admira-
tion and gratitude of the Legislature of New Brunswick, and
gave rise to a counter-demonstration.

-w

THE ASHBURTON TREATY.

379

18. In the United States the warlike ardour of the anti-
British party was aroused, ))ut the uation as a whole did not
respond to its clamour. President Van Buren took a temperate
view of the difficulty, and thought it capable of peaceful
adjustment. The great Daniel Webster accused him of want
of nerve, and declared that if Great Britain would not enter
into negotiations under the Treaty of 178;i, the United States
should take forcible possession of the territory on the 4th of
July. (Conciliatory notes passed between the British Minister
at Washington and the United States Secretary of State. The
President then despatched General Winfield Scott to Maine
with full power to settle the difficulty. When he arrived at
Augusta he at once countermanded the march of the valiant
ten thousand. This decided step at once abated the excite-
ment. He then entered into a friendly correspondence with
the Governor at Frederickton. He and Sir John Harvey had
fought on opposite sides at Stoney Creek and Lundy's Lane,
but they addressed each rthcr as comrades. They came to an
understanding, which was made the basis of the terms agreed
to by the British and American Ministeiu Maine consented to
withdraw its militia ; and Great Britain undertook, in case of the
necessity arising, to expel intruders from the Disputed Territory.

19. Thus ended the " Aroostook War," It left the bound-
ary question as unsettled as ever. To finish this story: the
people of Maine, under specious pretexts, continued to advance
into the territory and to put up block-houses. Fresh surveys
we^ft ordered by the British and United States Governments.
The reports of the respective engineers made out for their own
couutry a right to the territory which they both claimed. To
settle the interminable difficulty, and to avert war, Lord Ash-
burton, an amiable aged nobleman, was sent out from
England in 1842. Daniel Webster was intrusted by
the President to look after the interests of the United
States. Of the twelve thousand and twenty -nine square
miles in dispute, seven thousand and fifteen were ceded to the
Americans, the rest were given to Great Britain. The Ameri-
CJin portion was not only the larger, but was also the more valu-
able for lumbering and agricidtural purposes. This decision
certainly did not please the people of New Brunswick. They

1842

A.D.

380

QUESTIONS.

!■■

'IS

, (

''^l
%

could only bow iu acknowledgment of the right of the Crown
to settle, in the interest of the whole Empire, a question which
was a continual source of international irritation.^

Questions. — 1. What feeling did the
Canadian rebellion call forth in the
Maritime Provinces? Whose sympathy
did it obtain ? Of what remissness were
the United States authorities guilty?

2. Where did M'Kenzie fix his ren-
dezvous? Wio confronted him ? What
exploit did Lieutenant Drew perform ?

3. How was the destruction of the
Caroline regarded by the United States
authorities? How were the plans of
the marauders disconcerted ?

4. Where did the Patriot Army make
a landing? What was the issue? In
what other foray did Sutherland take
part? Describe the encounter on the
Ice. What confession did Sutherland
make when in jail?

6. What step was necessitated by the
v~etched state of Lower Canada? What
remedy was proposed by the Constitu-
tional Society of Montreal ? What ob-
jections did Reformers like Howe make
to these proposals ?

6. What extraordinary powers were
given to Sir John Colborne and his
Council ?

7. Whai; led Sir Francis Head to re-
sign? Who succeeded him ? How dH
he treat the fallen party ? To what did
the uncompromising attitude of the
Family Compact lead ?

8. Who was the new Governor-Gen-
eral? With what powers was he in-
vested? What was his character?

9. Of whom did Lord Durham's
Special Council consist? On what mis-
sion was Lieutenant-Colonel 'Grey de-
spatched ? What means did Lord Dur-
ham adopt to obtain information and
advice ?

10. What difficulties beset the ques-
tion of the disposal of the political pris-
oners ? What course did the Governor-
General follow?

11. What technical error had lie
committed? Who condemned his ac-
tion? What did Parliament do? Of
what did he complain? What inter-
pretation of the Act of Indemnity did
he publish ? What did he then abruptly
do?

12. What were the " Hunters'
Lodges " ? Of whom were they chiefly
composed? Why did their rising fail?
What offended a portion of the Upper
Canada militia?

13. Describe the rising in Beauhar-
nois county. Where was the chief
force of the rebellion collected ? Wliat
success had it there? In what manner
was the rebellion crushed?

14. Who headed the invaders of Pres-
cott? Where did they take refuge?
How were they dislodged ?

15. What damage did the party
which attacked Sandwich in December
do ? How did the raid end ?

16. What quarrel between Maine and
N3W Brunswick was reopened in 1839?
What had been the decision of the
King of the Netherlands ? What effect
had it? What led to a serious fracas?
What r''jht did Sir John Harvey claim ?
What l^rce did Governor Fairfield call
for? How did the people of New
Brunswick show their enthusiasm ?

17. How did Nova Scotia show its
sympathy ?

18. What did President Van Buren
think of the difficulty? What was
Daniel Webster's opinion ? What prac-
tical step did the President take?
What was the result of General Scott's
mission?

19. When was the boundary question
finally settled ? By whom ? How was
the Debatable Territory divided? To
whom T-as the decision unsatisfac-
tory?

See Map of Disputed Territory, p. 258.

LORD Durham's report.

381

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

BESFONSIBLE OOVEBNMENT ESTABLISHED.

1839 to 1849 A.D.

Lord Durham's Report.

Charles Poulett Thompson.

The Union Act of 1841.

Meeting of first Parliament of United
Canada.

Death of Lord Sydenham.

Sir Charles Bagot and Sir Charles Met-
calfe.

The right of Appointment to Office.

Lord Elgin and the Reform Ministry.

Nova Scotia.

Reconstruction of the Executive

CounciL
Lord Falkland.

Responsible Government carried.
New Brunswick.
The Provincial Secretaryship.
Charles Fisher's Resolution .
Rebellion Losses BilL
Lord Elgin mobbed.
The Parliamert Buildings burned.
Seat of Govei .mont question.

1. The shcrt administration of Lord Durham was an important
epoch. It was a turning-point in the history of the
British North American Provinces. The Report he 1839
submitted to the Imperial Parliament gave a clear view a.d.
of all the difficulties besetting their government. He
suggested a Confederation of the Canadas, Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland, and the
construction of an intercolonial railway. In view of the
difficulties of immediately carrying out the more comprehensive
scheme, he advised the establishment of a Legislative Union of
Upper and Lower Canada, and the recognition of the principle
of the responsibility of the Executive to the representatives
of the people. The Report was bitterly attacked by the Tory
party in England and in the Provinces. Its statements were
denied, its suggestions were ridiculed ; but they had the eflfect
of modifying the opinions of the Imperial Government.

2. The Hon. Charles Poulett Thompson, President of the
Board of Trade, a statesman of liberal political principles, of fine
judgment, and of great tact, was appointed Governor-Greneral.
He arrived in Quebec on the 13th of October, and relieved Sir
John Colborne in Lower, and Sir George Arthur in Upper,
Canada. He had a task of great difficulty before him. He

' --i .

382

LORD JOHN RUSSELL S DESPATCIItlS.

found everything in a diRorganized rtate. In the Lower Prov.
ince the Britisli and the French Canadians were much cxfiH-
pcrated against each other ; in the Uj)per Province the Tory
party was dominant in both branches of the Legishituie, and
repelled the idea of constitutional change ; while the Ileforniei's
were increasing in number and in determination to attain tlieir
end. Both parties had been so long fighting for power, that the
gaining of it seemed to be the chief object of their desire, to
which the advancement of the general welfare, and the im-
provement of the internal condition of the country, were merely
secondary considerations. The establishment of Resi)onsil)le
Government would be a boon only if it produced good measures.

3. Soon after his arrival, the Governor-General published
two Despatches from the pen of Lord John Russell, which
conveyed the views of the Imperial Government with regard tc
colonial rule. His Lordship, in the tirst despatch, maintained
that the system of government established in Great B' ain was
incompatible with the dependent position of provinces ; yet
while he insisted that imperial control over colonial affairs was
necessary in order to uphold the honour of the Crown and the
unity of the Empire, he admitted that the affectionate attach-
ment of the people was the best security for permanent dominion.
He declared that the Imperial Government had no desire to
retard in any way the improvement of the Provinces ; and that
it was earnestly desirous to give men of character and ability
advantages similar to those which talent and character obtained
when employed in the United Kingdom. Without laying dowu
definite rules, he left it to the judgment, good sense, and good
feeling of Governors on the one hand, and of Assemblies on
the other, not to push the exercise of the prerogative of dissolu-
tion or of the right of withholding supplies to an extreme.

4. In his second despatch, his Lordship laid down rules
regarding the tenure of the chief offices. Members of the
Executive, and such officers as the Receiver, Surveyor, Attorney
and Solicitor Generals, were notified that they must consent to
hold office, not as heretofore, during good behaviour and practi-
cally for life, but dependent on the will of the Sovereign, or of
her repiesentative. A motive of policy, or the appointment of
a new Governor, w^as to be regarded as sufficient reason for

THE TWO CANADAS UNITED.

383

making a change in the composition of the Executive Council
uiul in the heads of departments. This despatch on the tenure
of ofB.ce was hailed by the Reformers in all the Provinces, as
bestowing — to use the words of Sir John Harvey, Governor of
New Brunswick — " a new and impro ed Constitution" upon the
Provinces.

5. Mr. Poulett Thompson triumphed over all difficulties. He
convened the Special Council of Lower Canada, laid before it
the draft of a Bill for uniting the two Provinces, and carried it
by a majority. One gi'eat objection was the ncjessity that
would be imposed on Lower Canada of bearing its proportion
of the large debt of Upper Canada, which would be assumed
by the united Provinces. The French Canadian party was not
consulted, as it was considered hoj^eless to expect that it would
consent to a mc^' :e which it regarded, in its angry and jeal-
ous state of feei-jg, as a design to destroy its nationality. Mr.
Thompson experienced great difficulty in gaining the assent of
the Tory party in Upper Canada, but an effectual append to its
loyalty was made by him. The Union Bill was introduced
into the Legislature as a Government measure : it was first
passed by the Legislative Council ; and then, after a long and
hot debate, obtained the consent of a majority of the
Assembly. The draft of the Bill was introduced into
the Imperial Parliament, and being slightly modified,
was finally passed in July 18-10, and was proclaimed to be law
in the following year.

G. The Act of Union of the Two Canadas provided that
i-here should be one Legislative Council and one Assembly.
Equal representation in both branches was granted t the two
Provinces. The Legislative Council was composed of twenty
members, who were appointed by the Crown, and held their
seats for life. The Assembly was composed of eighty-four
members, forty-two for each Province. A permanent Civil
List of ^75,000 was established. The control of all the revenues
was granted to the Assembly. An Executive Council was
formed of eight members : such of them as held seats in the
Assembly went back to the people to be reelected. By taking
this step, and gaining their reelection, ministerial office-holders
were assured that they possessed the confidence of their con-

1840

A.D.

384

RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT ACKNOWLEDGED.

stituents. This Executive Council held office as long as it, as a
body, commanded the support of a majority of the representa-
tives of the peo; le in the Assembly. All measures involving
expenditure of money were submitted to the Legislature by the
G'^vernment. Previous to the passing of the Act of Union, the
initiation of the money-rolls was in the hands of the members
of Assembly, which led to improvident and reckless expenditure.
This practice was maintained in Nova Scotia and in New Bruns-
wick long after it had been abolished in Canada ; for in spite of
advice from Downing Street, and the arguments of their leading
members, the Assemblies clung to what they considered the
most convenient mode of voting grants for the public service.

7. The Hon. C. Poulett Thompson was elevated to the peer-
age with t-he title of Lord Sydenham of Kent and Toronto.
In the course of the summer he visited the Maritime Provinces.
His presence in Halifax animated the hopes of the Reformers,
In New Brunswick he was leceived in a manner befitting his
high position as Governor-General of all British America.
Popularity is a very uncertain element. A few years previous,
when he was plain Mr. Thompson, he had been burned in
effigy in King's Square, St. John, and on the Old Church Green
in Frederickton, for his hostility to the interests of the Province.
As President of tlie Board of Trade he had favoured the abro-
gation of the duties on Baltic timber.

8. The first session of the first Parliament of the United

Canadas was opened at Kingston on the 13th of June
-Q^-'1841. Lord Sydenham, in addressing the assembled
legislators, said that he had been commanded by Her
Majesty to administer the government in accordance
with the well understood wishes of the people, and to pay their
feelings, as expressed througli their representatives, the defer-
ence that was justly due to them. The principle of Respon-
sible Government was thus acknowledged, but not till several
years had passed was it carried out in perfect practice, and un-
hesitatingly accepted as the established rule.

9. The Union did not put an end to the old bitter conflicts
between parties, or all at once assuage the jealousies and an-
tipathies of race. But the field was broader ; there was less
danger of parties coming into direct collision, and they had

THE WAR OF SECTIONS.

385

acquired some moderation from the dangers they had incurred
aud the miseries they had enciured in the past. The English-
speaking population could not say that their representatives
were outnumbered bv the French Canadians ; for the British
members of Upp'" and Lower Canada were now in the majority.
Tlie French Canaa.aus, on the other hand, could not complain
that their influence was swamped by the British majority, and
tliat their language, laws, customs, and institutions were in
danger of being swept away. They had their full, some said
more than their full, share of power. Parties aro^e in the
Legislature, Tories (or to use the milder term, Conservatives)
aud Reformers ; and the French Canadian party, by throwing
its influence into the one scale or the other, managed to hold the
balance of power in its hands. Union eventually put an end
to the war of races, but in time it promoted another war — that
of sections. Upper against Lower Canada. But its immediate
eiFect was to calm the mind of the country so far, that it was
enabled to give more attention to the consideration of reforms
necessary to advance its prosperity. A number of important
measures were introduced during the first session. The founda-
tion was laid for many of the improvements that were after-
wards carried out. Bills were introduced to establish municipal
institutions and a system of common school education, and to
promote the building of public works and the extension of the
canal system. Laws were passed regulating the currency and
adjusting the scale of customs-duties on imports and exports.
Lord Sydenham did not live to see the system of government
which he had inaugurated carried into successful operation.
He was thrown from his horse, and being worn out by his
arduous exertions, he could not bear up against the shock given
to his constitution : he died on the I7th of September. At his
dying request, Major General Clitheroe was appointed to admin-
ister the government.

10. At this time a change of Government took place in Eng-
land. The Conservatives came into power. Sir Robert PeeP

' Sir Robert Pfiel.—Borv 1788 ; died
1850. His father specially educated
him for political life. He took a
double flrst-class degree at Oxford —

(473)

lirat in classics and first in matliemn*
tics. He began hLs Parliamentary
career as a Tory. Twice his convic-
tions led him to abandon his party, and

386

BAGOT AND METCALFE.

became Premier in the place of Lord Men30ume ; Lord Stanley,
Colonial Secretary in the room of Lord John Euspell. The old
official party ^»'as buoyed up with hopes that the new system of
Kesponsible Government, which it had not accepted even in
theory, would be overturned. These hopes were further

1842 raised by the appointment of Sir Charles Bagot, a
A.D. good old Tory and High Churchman, as Governor-
General. But Lord Stanley followed up the policy of

his predecessor, and Sir Charles Bagot faithfully carried out

his" instructions. Baldwin, Lafontaine, Hincks, Dominic, Daly,

prominent members of the Reform party, were brought into

his Executive Council. The old feuds of party and race

1843 were revived in the Legislature. This Administration
A.D. was of very short duration. Sir Charles was forced to

resign in March, on account of ill health. He died at
Kin^stc n in May, and was succeeded by Sir Charles Theophi-
lus (afterwards Lord) Metcalfe.

11. The new Governor-General had many of the qualities
that gain esteem even from political opponents. He had held
a similar high position in India. Those who disliked his
policy said that his experience in that country had unfitted
him to administer the government of a free country like
Canada. He had been accustomed to exercise the prerogative
of the Crown without question. Contact with the wily, supple,
dishonest natives, had made him incurably suspicious. But by
the Tories he was considered a model Governor. He main-
tained their favourite doctrine, that Responsible Government,
as carried out in England, was incompatible with the dependent
position of a colony. He held that he was responsible to tlie
Queen and the Parliament ; and that the right of patronage and
appointment to office was vested in him as the representative of
the Crown. Acting up to his high idea of the prerogative, he
made one or two appointments without the advice, consent,
or knowledge of the leaders of the Go.'ernment. Messrs.
Baldwin and Lafontaine had accepted office, on the express

to advocate measures he had previously
opposed — Catholic Emancipation in
1829, and the Repeal of the Corn Laws
in 1846. He was one of the greatest
financial reformers oi oiodein times.

His death was caused by a fall from
his horse. His second Ministry lasted
from September 1841 till June 1846,
when his free trade policy lost him the
confidence of his party.

THE RIGHT OF PATRONAGE.

387

understanding that they woiihl only retain it as long as they
could command the support of a majority of the AsHembly.
They were responsible to it for all acts done by the Government.
If appointments were made that were unacceptable they would
lose the confidence of their supporters, and would be forced to
resign. They remonstrated with the Governor, and requested
him to give up the right of patronage ; but Sir Charles Metcalfe
absolutely refused. He would not degrade the prerogative of
the Crown to enable them to purchase support" in the Assembly,
or allow them to reduce his office to a nullity. Messrs. Baldwin
and Lafontaine resigned. This quarrel not only raised great
excitement in Canada, but it was watched with keen interest
by the people of the Maritime Provinces. Everywhere the
stand taken by Sir Charles Metcalfe was supported by those
who had always opposed the Reformers. A general election
took place, and the Governor-General was sustained. A Tory
Ministry was formed, of which Mr. Draper was the leader.
Metcalfe was soon afterwards created a peer, — a pretty sure
proof that the Imperial Government did not disapprove of his
action. The attitude he had assumed tended to array Tory
against Reformer, and to increase the number vl the adherents
of the latter party.

12. The harsh and angry feelings aroused by rebellion were
now subsiding. Many people began to entertain gentle thoughts
of Papineau and M'Kenzie. Instead of execrating them as
rebels, they were inclined to sympathize with them as martyrs
to the popular cause. The Imperial Government had now pro-
claimed an amnesty, which included all the leaders save M'Kenzie
(who was not pardoned till 1850) ; and some of them were re-
turned members of the new Parliament, which met in Montreal
for the first time on the 28th of November.

13. Lord Metcalfe suffered under a grave malady — a cancer
in the face. He wa^ compelled to resign his position

and return to Enghnd, where he died the following 1845
year. Major-Generai Lord Cathcart was appointed a.d.
Administrator, and afterwards Governor-General. Dur-
ing his time a question was rai£:.d which threw Canada into a
turmoil for several years, and threatened to revive the war of
I'aces in all its rancour. A number of persons had sutfered loss

\-l ■•

1 »

388

LORD ELGIN.

v.-'-

'i'!

of property during the rebellion in Upper Canada. Tlie Draper
Government proposed to indemnify them. The Lower Cana-
dian members consented to support such a measure on couditiou
that parties who had taken no part in the rebellion in tliat
Province, and who had lost property, should receive like com-
pensation. A Commission was appointed to make inquiry into
the amount of loss sustained, and the number of parties justly
entitled to indemnification. A Eeport was submitted

1846 to Parliament, which was deemed unsatisfactor3\ But
A.D. an Act was passed which provided for the full payment

of the Upper Canadian losses, and for a small portion
of those of Lower Canada. The question was left in an un-
settled state. The French Canadians were unsatisfied, while
the Loyalists »i Jpper Canada, who looked upon them as hav-
ing been reb 's in a body, were enraged at their receiving any
compensation all. A Liberal British Ministry^ came into
power this year. Earl Grey, the Colonial Secretary, wrote a
despatch confirming that of Lord John Kussell in 1839 con-
cerning the tenure of office. Lord Elgin, a son-in-law of the
Earl of Durham, imbued with the Liberal sentiments of that
nobleman regarding colonial government, and endowed with

strong sense, sound judgment, and commanding elo-

1847 quence, was appointed Governor-General. He arrived in
A.D. Canada in 1847. From his time is dated the final estab-
lishment of Responsible Government in that Province.

14. A general election took pla 3 in Canada the year after
the arrival of Lord Elgin. The Tory party had for some time

beoii losing strength in the country. The Eeformers

1848 were thoroughly aroused. The French Canadian party
A.D. acted with them. When the new Parliament met, j\ii.

Draper found that he could not command the support
of a majority of the Assembly. Acting on the now recognized
pri \ciple, he resigned, and Messrs. Baldwin and Lafontaine
assumed the reins of Government.

15. NOVA SCOTIA.— -The course of events in Great Britain
and the Canadas affected the political struggle in Nova Scotia.

The rage of the Family Compact was now excited rnd then

— — ^

' A Liberal British Ministry. —That i in power till 1862, when Lord Dei'oy's
of Lor4 John itnssell, who continixed first Adminiatration ww formed.

NOVA SCOTIA.

389

soothed, according as affairs looked unfavourable or favourable
to their views. The Reformers aldo had their cold and their hot
fits. ?''he action of the Imperial Govornment in pronouncing the
principle of '^responsibility to t^e people" incompatible with
the dependent position of colonies, elated the Tories and morti-
fied the Reformers. The mission of Lord Durham was watched
with intense interest by the latter ; its abrupt termination filled
them with sorrow. When "the Report" appeared, they re-
ceived it with applause. Joseph Howe pronounced it to be a
masterly review of the difficulties of government in the Prov-
inces, and said that the remedy proposed in it — namely, the
establishment of the principle of responsibility — was both easy
and efficient. The Tories in the Legislative Council — to mark
their contempt of the suggestion of a Confederation of all the
Provinces — passed condemnatory resolutions, averring that the
scheme would be destructive to the interests of the Empire and
of the Provinces, and would lead inevitably to their separation
from the mother country.

16. To Downing Street, at this time, delegations from both
parties — Tories and Reformers — frequently resorted. When
Lord John Russell's despatch concerning the tenure of office
appeared, it was immediately adopted by Howe and the majority
in the Assembly ; and they called an the Governor to put "the
new and improved Constitution" into practice by dismissing
those of his advisers who did not possess their confidence. Sir
Colin Campbell chose to be governed by the despatches of Lord
Glenelg (1836), in which the principle laid down by Lord John
Russell was not recognized. The gallant veteran at the head of
the Government was esteemed by Howe and his party, but the
persistency with which he opposed their demands provoked
them to address Her Majesty praying for his recall. Party
feeling now ran very high, and the Province was thrown into
a state of feverish excitement. Tories and Reformers held
meetings in Halifax, and all over the Province. The farmer
was drawn from his fields, the fisherman from his nets, and the
labourer from his work, to listen to eloquent speeches from
Joseph Howe, who fired their imagination and aroused their
hopes by dilating on the great happiness and prosperity that
would shiue on the Province when Responsible Government

;

■

390

Lord Falkland.

should be established The expectations of the people "were
raised and dejiressed by contradictory rumours : now they re-
joiced, when they heard that Sir Colin Campbell was to be
recalled ; then they grieved, when it wshj said tJ^at he was t )
be sustained by the Imperial Government.

17. Lord Sydenham arrived in Halifax in Jul}, and assumed

the government. He reconstructed the Executive Coun-

1840 cil by dismissing four members who held seats neither

A.D. in the Legislative Council nor in the Assembly, aud

appointed Howe and others belonging to the Keform
party in their place. The new members accepted office on the
express understanding that they held it only on the tenure of
public confidence. Among other measures, a Bill to incorporate
Halifax was brought in by this coalition Government. Sir
Colin Campbell retired, and left Nova Scotia with a pleasaut
farewell to his stanchest political opponents. Lord Falkland
became Governor. He expressed a determination to preserve
to the people the rights and privileges of the British Constitu-
tion, and to give talent, industry, and integrity their due share
in the Government. His sincerity was not doubted. He
quickly achieved popularity, and his cheering presence broke
through the cloud of political discontent.

18. The hopeful aspect of affairs did not long continue. The
four Executive Councillors who had been forced to give way to
the Reformers, would not remain quiet. The members of the
coalition Government did not agree very well among them-
selves : their opinions on some important questions were dia-
metrically opposed. The old Tory members scouted the idea
that their tenure of office was dependent on a majority vote
in the Assembly, and they rather looked down on their uew
colleagues ; and the Reformers soon began to sus[)ect that the
Governor was under their influence. Mr. Johnston, the leader
of the Tories, and Mr. Howe, the head of the popular party,
differed widely on the subject of education : the former was
in favour of sectarian schools supported by grants of public
money ; the latter, of a free common-school system. While the
country wtis agitated by this question, the Governor, acting, it
was suspected, in the interest of the Tory section of his Council,
and without consulting Howe, dissolved the House aud ordered

A FIERCE POLITICAL STOttM.

391

{I general election. A small nuijoi'ity of membei's was ieturiied
who suppoited Mr. Johuston'd policy. Bitter eumities were
provoked by this action, aud the fiercest political storm that
ever rent the Province arose.

19. Another stretch of the preropfative angered the Ileformers.
Lord Falkland, like Sir Charles Metcalfe, maintained that the
right of appointing to office was in the hands of the Governor,
ne called to the Executive Council a gentleman (a friend of
Mr. Johnston) who held a seat neither in the Upper nor in the
Lower branch of the Legislature. As this appointment was very
disjileasing to the Eeformers, Howe and his colleagues felt con-
strained to resign. In taking that step they fultilled the pledge
they had given on entering the Executive Council, and carried
out the principles of Responsible Government. Lord Falkland
afterwards made overtures to the retired members, with the
exception of Howe, and offered them their seats again, on the
condition of their deserting their leader and their principles ;
but they refused. A wide breach was now made between the
Governor and the Reformers, who felt as if the fruits of their
long struggle had been snatched away from them. A fierce
literary war ensued. Lord Falkland was overwhelmed with
ridicule and invective in poetry and prose : he wrote indiscreet
despatches to the Colonial Secretary, which stigmatized the
leaders of the Reform party; and they were read by the Speaker
in the Assembly. Howe attacked and insulted him in language
which no provocation could justify. The heats and enmities of
party conflict were carried out of the political arena into society.

20. Lord Falkland's influence for good was destroyed. Sir
John Harvey was called from Newfoundland to take his place.
The great " Political Pacificator," as he was called, attempted
to form a Government of " all the taler " by taking into it
the most influential men of both parties ; bat he failed. Howe
and the Reformers distrusted coalitions : they were conscious of
their strength, and were content to bide their time. A general
election was close at hand, and the Imperial Government was
now in favour of the principle of responsibility. A despatch
from Earl Grey (dated 17th March 1847), pointedly confirming
the celebrated document from the pen of Lord John Russell
(1839) on. the tenure of oflice, was received by the Johnston

:ll!i

lill

■m'

... ■;.

392

NEW BRUNSWICK.

*'l1i

:lf

Government ; but it 'iid not see the light until the elections

were over, and until the victory of the men who had so long

been fighting to carry out the principles there laid down

1848 was made sure. Eesponsible G)vernment was fairly

A.D. established. Howe was called to the head of affairs.

The vexed question of the surrender of the Casual and

Territorial Revenue was now settled by the Assembly making

provision for a permanent Civil List.

21. NEW BRUNSWICK. — Political parties were more
evenly balanced in New Brunsv/ick than in Canada and Nova
Scotia ; a spirit of greater moderation actuated its people.
Some of the leaders, who had been instrumental in obtaining
the concessions granted by the Civil List Bill, now rested con-
tent. When a resolution to give effect to the principle laid
down in Lord John Russell's despatch on the tenuie of office
was introduced into the Legislature, it was defeated by the
casting vote of the Speaker, Charles Simonds. The Governor,
Sir John Harvey, showed a decided leaning to the cause of

'political reform. He had the happy art of making himself
popular. He was exposed to pemstent and bitter attacks from
the portion of the press that supported " the small and disap-
pointed party " which had opposed the surrender of the Casual
and Territorial Revenue, and all concession. The appointment
by him of a relative to office, and an addition to his salary of
^500 for table-money, voted by the Legislature, were made
the grounds of slanderous attacks. Notwithstanding such dis-
agreeable incidents, his administration was successful. He
safely carried New Brunswick through the trouble regarding
" the Disputed Territory." When he was appointed (1841) to
the Government of Newfoundland, he was presented with a
handsome service of plate, which he received as a memorial of
the unsurpassed legislative harmony that had reign^ during
his term.

22. His successor was Major- General Sir William Colc-
brooke. Not long after hi;i arrival the Province was subjected
to one of the periodical depressions of its timber trade. It was
unusually severe and prolonged, and was followed by a general
depression of all branches of business. The gloom of the times
was deepened by a great fire that occurred in St. John. The

THE rilOVINCIAL SECRETARYSHIP. 393

revenues fell off. The Province was in debt, and in need of a
loan ; and Lord Stanley, then Colonial Secretary, informed the
Legislature that its improviJenc mode of voting away the reve-
nues tended to depreciate the financial credit of New Bru7i.swick
in England. The large surplus placed at its disposal in 1837
was all spent. The opponents of the suiTender of the Casual and
Territorial Revenue seemed to be justified. But then, investi-
gations had been made into the management of the Crown Land
Department in 1839-40, which disclosed serious deficiencies
in its accounts, and proved the absolute necessity of theii* annual
supervision by the Legislature.

23. A general election was held in 1842. Responsible Gov-
ernment was the rallying cry of the Reformers. But
(ho mass of the people appeared to be indiffei^ent, ani 1842
they were defeated. Conservatism had a strong hold a.d.
on the Province. In the contention between the Gover-
nor-General and his advisers as to the right of appointing to
office, the majority of the Legislature applauded the stand
taken by Sir Charles Metcalfe, and eulogistic addresses were
passed thanking him for his defence of monarchical institutions.

24. The question raised by Sir Charles was soon brought
home to the Legislature. On Christmas day the Hon.
William Odell died. He had succeeded his father, the 1844
Hon. and Rev. Jonathan Odell, in 1818, in the office of a.d. liilii'
Provincial Secretary, and for quarter of a century had

been a power in the Province. Sir "William Colebrooke, assum-
ing that his right was acknowledged, appointed his son- ' J
in-law, Mr. A. Reade, provisionally. This action ex- 1845 ||i|pill
cited the greatest dissatisfaction among all parties. a.d. . - l
Four members of the Executive Council resigned their
seats. The Hon. Messrs. Hugh Johnston, E . B. Chandler, and R.
L. Hazen, professed themselves prepared to maintain the pre-
rogative of the Crown in its fullest sense ; they only objected
to its exercise in this particular case. Lord Glenelg (in 1835)
had laid down an explicit rule, that public employ ments should
I only be bestowed on natives and settled inhabitants of the
I Province. Was Mr. Reade a settled inhabitant of the Province ?
I He might become one if he received the appointment, but no
I one cared to have him on such terms. The Hon. Mr. Wilmot

)

j
3i

394

CHARLES fisher's RESOLUTION.

not only held that all appointments of honour and emolument
Bhould be bestowed on inhabitants of the Province, as the hopo
of gaining them was an incentive to the honourable ambition
of its youth, but sought to make this incident a means of
advancing the cause of Responsible Government. The office of
Provincial Secretary was a Crown appointment, and held for
life. He wished to erect it into a department, and i)lace at its
head a member of the Executive Council, who should be respon-
sible to the Assembly. This reform was not effected till several
years later. Mr. Reade's appointment was not sanctioned by the
Colonial Secretary, and the Hon. J". Simcoe Saunders succeeded
to the office.

25. The question of Responsible G'^vernment was tested in

1848. Mr. Charles Fisher, member for York, holding

1848 that the subject of Earl Grey's Despatch (of 1847) was

A.D. as applicable to New Brunswick as to Nova Scotia,

framed a resolution expressing full approval of its con-
tents. The rule laid down by the Earl was, that those
officers who directed the policy of the country should hold their
places on the tenure of pleasure ; that is, only as long as they
could command the confidence of a majority of the representa-
tive branch. Members of the Executive Council and heads of
departments were included in this cat-agory. All officers under
the Government were to hold their places on the tenure of
good behaviour. They were excluded from either branch of
the Legislature, and were not to be subjected to removal on a
change of Government. The resolution was debated on the
24th of February, and carried, the members of the Conservative
Government voting with the large majority. Shortly after-
wards, Messrs. L. A. Wilmot and Charles Fisher entered its
ranks. A great outcry was raised by some of their supporters,
who accused them of having deserted their principles ; but as
Responsible Government had been almost unanimously ac-
cepted, they could say that there was nothing really inconsisteu
in their conduct. Many of the Reformers were not content with
a triumph of principle; the victory was incomplete until the
control of all the offices should be in their hands.

26. Sir "William Colebrooke, being seized with indispositiou
while in St. John, summoned the Legislature to meet in the

THE UEBELLION LOSSES BILL.

895

Court House of that city. Hei-e, on the 3()th of March, }io
prorogued the House he was not to meet again. He was called
that year to the government of British Guiana. For a long
lime the legislators retained a lively recollc'jtion of the inci-
dents tliat marked the close of the memorable session of 1848.
Sir Edmund Head, grandson of a baronet of the same name
Mho had been forced to flee with the Loyalists from the States
ill 1783, was the next Governor, and the first civilian ever
regularly appointed to the position.

27. CANADA. — One of the first acts of the Baldwin and La-
fontaine Administration in Canada was to introduce a Bill into
the Legislature t< • provide for the indemnification of parties in
Lower Canada whose property had been destroyed during the re-'
bellion. It authorized the raising of ;£ 100,000 for the purpose.
Tl)is step was taken to satisfy those parties whose claims had
uot been paid in 1846. Tlie Government, to avoid the charge
of indemnifying rebels, excepted from the benefit of the Act all
persons who had been convicted of high treason since 1st
November 1837, or who had been transported to Bermuda.
This measure excited the most furious opposition, both within
and without Parliament, of the party now called distinctively
"British." They would make no exceptions, and raised the
cry, " No pay to rebels." Anger reached the point of disaftec-
tiou. The British North American League was formed at
Montreal, with the avowed object of breaking up the Union.
Its r.embers turned to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick for
comfort, and proposed a Confederation of all the Provinces as
the best means of breaking down the influence of the French
Canadians ; if they were denied that remedy, they declared
that they would throw themselves into the arms of the United
States.

?8. Lord Elgin, though urgently pressed by the Opposition to
take a contrary course, deemed it his duty to give his assent
to the Rebellion Losses Bill. In resolving on this step he
fairly carried out "Responsible Government." The occasion
was an extreme one, and well calculated to test the value of
the ])rinciple. The measure in question had been proposed by
a Government which enjoyed 'he confidence and commanded
the support of a majority in the Upper and Lower branches of

iji'i,

390

THE PARLIAMENT *^UILDINGS BURNED.

H'-'v. .. ,

l>'ii|^^

IJMl

B >''-'^'i<^^^

^^^Rl

iijH

^^^^Ki

the Legislature, and the matter involved was entir+^ly within
their jurisdiction. They proposed to pay local clainiH with
money raised in the Province. The exasperation of the Op-
position minority was great : its members were among the
most respectable and influential in the community, and Lord
Elgin would certainly offend them intensely should he Suuc-
tion a Bill that seemed to them to depreciate loyalty and to
put a premium on rebellion. Yet, if he had become a partisdi.
Governor, and had adopted their views, he might have rekindled
the flames of civil war. For if he had refused his assent to
the Bill, the French Canadians might have thought that it
would be for ever after impossible to obtain, by constitutional
forms, what they deemed justice. If Responsible Government
broke down at this crisis, v/hat hope could there be that it
would ever be firmly established ?

29. Lord Elgin, acting on his own judgment, gave his assent
to the Bill on the 26th of April. As he was leaving the Par-
liament Buildings, he was received with mingled jeers and
cheers by a small " well-dressed " crowd that was assembled
about the entrance ; and as the carriage drove off" it was pelted
with stones and malodorous eggs. Two hours had hardly
elapsed after it was known that the assent had been given,
when a great concourse of people was assembled in the Champ
de Mars, to mark its reprobation of the action of the Govei jor-
General. They were not ir a mood to listen to L.jg speeches.
Some one cried out that the time for action had come ; and
then the cry, "To the Parliament Buildings," was raised.
Preceded by a party bearing lighted torches, the excited crowd
rushed thither. It was night : the Assembly was sitting, and
the halls were brilliantly lighted. A shower of stones shivered
the glass of the windows, and broke up the meeting in " the
most admired disorder." As a party of armed men entered the
Assembly Chamber tumultuously, the members and the lady
visitors in the galleries took shelter in the lobbies. One fellow
seated himself in the Speaker's chair, and placing " the hat "
upon his head, roared out, "Gentlemen, the French Parlia-
ment is dissolved." Another sshouldered the mace and walked off
with it. Then the cry of " Fire" was raised, and a general rr.sh
was made from the building. The flames did their work with

THE SFAT OF GOVERN'MKNT.

397

furious r.ipidity. Before midnight the buildings, with their
spleudid libraries, containing thousands of vahiable vohunea
and the records of the Provijice, were utterly consumed. For
some days afterwards stormy excitement prevailed in the city.
Tarliaraent met in Bon Secours Market on the 27th. A reso-
lution, expressing approval of the action of the Governor-
General in jiasenting to the Eebellion Losses Bill, was moved.
It was violently opj)osed by Sir Allan M'Nab and the British
party ; but was carried by a large majority of the Assembly.
On the Biime day a number of the c 'tizens of Montreal met on
the " Champ de Mars," and carried resolutions for an address
to the Queen, praying Her Majesty to disallow the Bill, and
to recall the Governor-General.

30. The course taken by Lord Elgin was sustained by the
Imperial Government. The British party did not recover its
temper for some time. It is strange, but the good old Tories —
the Loyalists — showed symptoms of rebellion, and spoke of
cutting off connection with the mother country. Three hundred
aud fifty persons, mostly of local note in Montreal, signed a
document, in which, after drawing in the blackest colours a,
picture of impoverished, bankrupt, and backward Canada, they
declared that annexation to the United States was its only re-
source in its dire extremity. Of course, this manifesto was a
mere ebullition of feeling.

31. Parliament met no more at Montreal. At the last
stormy meeting in Bon Secours Market the question of ''dter-
mining the future seat of Government was debated. John A,
McDonald moved that Kingston should again become the
capital of Canada. A proposal was made to move the seat
of Government to By town on the Ottawa ; but the course was
adopted of transferring it to Quebec and Toronto every four
years alternately. The removals from one city to another being
both inconvenient and expensive, the question of fixing a
permanent site was placed before the Queen in 1858. Her
Majesty's choice fell on Bytown, to which the name of Ottawa
was then given. ^

i'fi

' Responsible Government was estab-
lished in Prince Edward Island in 1851,
when Sir Ale'^ander Bannerman was

Governor; and in Newfoundland during
the aduiinistration of lion. Kor B.
Hamilton.

398

QUESTIONS.

Questions. — 1. What were the chief
suggestions of Lord Durham's Report ?
What tentative measure did he advise ?
How did tlie Tories treat the Report ?

2. Who was appointed Governor-
General in 1839? What were the diffi-
culties of the task he had before him ?
For what were the rival parties chiefly
striving ?

3. What was the tenor of Lord John
Russell's first despatch ? What advici
was given to colonial Governors aud
Assemblies ?

4. What was the subject of the
second despatch? What important
change did it introduce? How was it
regarded by the Reformers ?

5. Whose consent did Mr. Poulett
Thompson first obtain to his Union
Scheme? What was one great objec-
tion to it ? Who opposed it in Upper
Canada? How was their opposition
overcome ? When was the Bill passed
by the Imperial Parliament ?

Q. Mention the chief provisions of
the Act of Union. Ir what particulars
was the new Government "respon-
sible"?

7. What honour was conferred on
Mr. Thompson? How did hie career
illustrate the uncertainty of popu-
larity?

8. When was the first session of the
United Canadian Parliament opened?
How was the principle of Responsible
Government recognized on the occa-
sion?

9. What effect had the union on the
conflict of parties? How did the
French Canadians retain a large share
of influence? What war of sections
arose ? What important Bills were in-
troduced? How did Lord Sydenham
die?

10. What change of Government took
place toward tlie end of 1841 ? Whose
hopes did it raise ? How far were they
justified ? Why was the new Adminis-
tration shor^ lived?

11. What was the opinion of Lord
Metcalfe entertained by those who dis-
liked him ? What did the Tories think
of him ? Why ? What led to the res-
ignation of JKlessTS. Baldwin and La-
fpnte^ne? What was the result of the

general election? What Ministry was
then formed?

12. How did Papineau and M'Kcnzie
begin to be regarded? Who was ex-
cluded from the amnesty? When was
he pardoned?

13. Who succeeded Lord Metcalfe?
What question was raised in liis time ?
What Act was passed regarding it ? In
what state was the question left?
What was the result of the change of
the British Government? What is
dated from Lord Elgin's time ?

14. What was the result of the gen-
eral election in 1848 ? Who were at the
head of the new Ministry?

15. What was the state of parties in
Nova Scotia? What was Jorjeph
Howe's verdict on Lord Durham's
Report? What did the Tories think of
Confederation ?

16. What despatch of Lord John
Russell's was adopted by Howe and
his party ? Who refused to be guided
by it? What were the consequences ?

17. What changes took place in
1840 ? Who succeeded Sir Colin Camp-
bell ? What determination did he ex-
press ?

18. What disturbed the peaceful
aspect of affairs? What question
brought on a crisis? How did tlie
Governor's conduct provoke enmity?

19. To what further stretch of pre-
rogative had Falkland recourse ? How
did he try to break Tip Howe's party?
What ensued ?

20. Who was called to take Falk-
land's place? What kind of Ministry
did he try to form ? Why did the at-
tempt fail? What despatch was re-
ceived from Earl Grey ? When was it
published? Who was then called to
the head of affairs ?

21. What was the state of political
parties in New Brunswick? Toward?
what were the leanings of the Gover-
nor? To what did this expose him?
In what was he nevertheless success-
ful?

22. Wlio succeeded Harvey? What
serious difficulties had the Province to
encounter soon afterwards? What
proved the necessity of the annual
supervision of the expenditure ?

QUESTIONS.

399

23. What was the restilt of the gen-
eral election of ]842? What further
proof of its Conservatism did the Prov-
ince afford ?

24 What incident brought homo to
the Legislature the question of ap-
pointments ? What different effects
did it produce? What view did Mr
Wilmot take ? What was the issue as
regarded Mr. Reado's appointment?

25. What was the substance of Mr
Charles Fisher's resolution? What
had been the rule laid down by Earl
Grey? What was the result of the
debate? For what were Messrs Wil-
mot and Fisher afterwards blamed v

20 When did Sit W. Colebrookere- I
tire ? Who succeeded him ?
27. What was one of the "first act? of I

the Baldwin and Lafontaine Ministry
in Canada? Whose opposition did the
measure excite? What League <li<l
they form? WHh what object? What
seemed to be the only remedy for
the case? '

28. What course did Lord Elgin

CtKbi'r'^^^^^"^^^^^^--^-'

29. How did the Briti-sh party show
Its reprobation of Lord Elgin's action?
What outrage did the mob perpetrate ?

q7^..P'"°'''®^'°^' ^'«« 'i followed?

dO. What was the verdict of the
imperial Government? What did the
Bruish party threaten to do ?

21. What course was adopted with
ref.'rence to the seat of Government?
wiiat change was adopted In 1868?

400

COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE.

. 'ii'^K'

■f:.< •» .^ f

- ,

CHAPTER XXXIX.

MEASURES OF PROGRESS.

1850 to 1858 A.D.

Commercial independence.

Measures of Progress.

Municipal Institutions.

The Intercolonial Railway.

Delegations and Conferences.

The Reciprocity Treaty.

The Clergy Reserves question settled.

Feudal Tenure abolished.

Emigration.

The Hudson Bay Companv.

Tb-^ North-West Territc

Selkirk Settlement.

Feuds of rival traders.

British Columbia.

1. In the year 1850 the British Korth American Provinces
fairly entered on their political !nanhood. From this period
may be dated the final acceptance by all parties of the system
of government that gave t,o each Province the management of
its own local affairs, free from the dictation of Downing Street;
leaving to the Imperial Government the burden of defending
them, the power of binding them to treaties, and the right of
disallowing any acts of the local Legislatures which it deemed
prejudicial to the interests of the Empire. From the same
year may also be dated the commercial independence of the
Provinces. Four years before, in 1846, during the administra-
tion of Sir Robert Peel, the Corn Laws were repealed, and Great
Britain entered into free trade with all the world. The effect
of this measure was to place Canadian exporters of grain in
a position similar to that of foreigners. In comparison with
the Americans, they were placed disadvantageously, as the for-
mer had greater facilities for exportation. Formerly, when the
trade of the Provinces was regulated by the Imperial Govern-
ment, higher duties v/ere imposed on articles imported into
them from foreign countries than on similar goods from Great
Britain. These discriminating duties in favour of the British
merchant were repealed by permission of the Imperial Gov-
ernment in 1847. This was one concession in favour of the
Provinces.

2. In 1849 the last barrier of protection was thrown down, hy

MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS.

401

the Repeal of the Navigation Laws. American ship-owners
were then permitted to register their shipa in British ports, and
to compete with the ship-owners of the Provinces in the carry-
ing trade to Great Britain and her colonies. This state of
commercial independence, which enabled the people of the Prov-
inces to trade freely with any part of the world, to import
articles of necessity and luxury from any country they pleased,
and to manufacture among themselves whatever they chose,
was not at first looked upon ab a great boon and precious privi-
lege. The repeal of the Corn and Navigation Laws disarranged
trade ; tb • people endured a long and severe depression in all
branches of business, and many grew discontented, and cried
out that the mother country was casting off the Provinces. As a
means of allaying the discontent, the Imperial Government was
induced to give instructions to Lord Elgin to use all his influ-
ence to promote reciprocal free trade between the United States
and the Proviiices. The spirit of commercial independence
forced upon them tended to awaken among the people a spirit
of self-reliance, and to arouse a desire for enterprise. In the
fourteen years between 1850 and 1864 (when the Provinces
were agitated by another political change), matters of internal
improvement were carried out ; — municipal institutions were
established in Canada ; laws were simplified and codified ;
common-school education was extended and placed on a syste-
matic basis ; internal means of communication were extendetl
and improved ; lines of railway were constructed with aid from
the Government. By private enterprise, telegraphs were
erected, and a line of ocean steamers was established between
Montreal, Quebec, and Liverpool.

3. No more can be attempted here than a brief statement of
the improvements carried out during the period in question.
Much had already been done in Canada between 1841 and
1850. The beginning of all the reforms, it may be said, was
then made. The system of canals was extended and com-
pleted. They wjre built to overcome the obstructions of the
St. Lawrence from its numerous rapids and falls, and to open
up an uninterrupted course of navigation from Lakes Erie and
Ontario by the great river to the ocean. The canals were
hardly finished when the people of the United States com-

(473) P'G

!. ;■'

*1i*^:

402

MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS.

menced making railways ; and the Canadians, in self-defence,
were compelled to undertake similar works.

4. Ihe acknowledged cause (dwelt upon by Lord Durham
in his Report) of the rapid advance of the United States, was
the early establishment among them of municipal institutions.
The people of every town, village, and township, obtained full
control of their own local affairs ; — such as the management of
the common schools, and the levying of rates and taxes for
their support ; the opening up and maintenance of highways ;
the building of bridges, court-houses, and jails ; the support of
the poor; and generally all matters pertaining to the health,
cleanliness, and local traffic of their districts. By throwing so
many matters of local concern on local bodies, the Legislatures
were relieved of much business, and the people were brought
to take an intelligent interest in their own affairs. Having
the power to provide for their local wants, they did not look to
the State to do everything for them. The want of local control
over local affairs was early felt, especially in Upper Canada ;
but it was not until 1849 that an efficient system of municipal
institutions was established there. Lower Canada had not the
benefit of them till 1850 ; and it was several years after that
time before the system in either of the Provinces was per-
fected. In the smaller Provinces of Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick no great desire was manifested by the people at
large to take tlie control of their own local affairs. In the
earliest period of their history they were compelled to look to
their Legislatures for the support of their roads, bridges, and
schools ; and they have not grown out of the habit. In New
Brunswick, Sir Edmund Head endeavoured to rouse the people
to look less to tho State and more to themselves ; but muni-
cipal institutions, as carried out in the Canadas, have as yet
taken no root in the Lower Provinces.

5. Between the years 1841 and 1846, common-School educa-
tion was placed on a systematic basis in Upper Canada. It was
not until the year 1850 that the people of Lower Canada were
roused from their apathy towards this question. A system
suited to their wants was then established. After this time
much attention was given to improving the grammar-school
and collegiate systems of both Provinces.

THE IN I'ERCOLONIAL RAILWAY.

403

6. The people of the British American Proviuces were in a
measure excited by the railway mania that raged in Great
Britain in 1845. A great many projects were brought before
the Legislatures, but no great undertaking was carried out
until seventeen years afterwards. The railway from Portland
to Montreal was then commenced, by the American, St. Law-
rence, and Atlantic Company. This line was afterwards leased
by the Grand Trunk Company, and became part of the great
Canadian railway.

7. An Intercolonial Railway, from Halifax to Quebec, waa
a scheme that early engaged the attention of all the Provinces.
In connection with that scheme their legislators for the first
time met o common ground j and though for fifteen years
afterwards i thing was done, their raeetin/^ led to most im-
portant results. Lord Durham, in his Eeport, was the first to
show the vast importance of railways as a means of strengthen-
ing the hold of Great Britain on British N orth America, and
of uniting the Upper an^ Lower Provinces.

8. After tlie settlement of the boundary question in 1842, the
Imperial Government contemplated making a great military,
macadamized road through New Brunswick, from the Bend of
the Peticodiac to Quebec. A London company ofi'ered to sub-
stitute a railway, on condition that part of the money neces-
sary to make the road should be granted to it. This scheme
excited attention in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but
awakened very little interest in the Canadas, especially in
Upper Canada, the people of which were more interested in the
construction of a railway from Montreal to the western bound-
ary. Nova Scotia gave an impetus to the project. The Govern-
ment of Lord Falkland considered it idle and visionary to expect
that a vast undertaking, which held out no inducement of imme-
diate profit, could be carried through by a company. It could
only be constructed by the Imperial Government, with the com-
bined and spirited cooperation of the three Provinces.

The Lower Provinces undertook to bear the expenses 1846
of an exploratory Burvey of the country through which a.d.
the railway muat pass. Canada, for the sake of the
great national project, agreed to join with them. The British
Government, in response to their united request, sent out Major

404

THE PORTLAND CONVENTION.

William Kobinson and Captain Henderson of the Koyal En-
gineers, with a staff, to undertake the work.

9. The Keport of Major Kobinson was submitted to the Legis-

latures of the three Provinces in 1849. It gave an en-

1849 thusiastic estimate of the resources of the country, and
A.D, of the importance of the railway for their development.

Out of the several routes explored the preference was
given to that by the coast of the Gulf,—" The North Shore,"—
as the best for purposes of military defence. The cost was calcu-
lated at X5,000,u()0 sterling. In anticipation of the immediate
action of the Imperial Government, Canada, Nova Scotia, and
New Brunswick voted aid to the extent of £6,000 a year, and
ten miles of ungranted lands on each aide of the railway. But
this scheme was most unfavourably criticised by Captain Har-
ness, one of the Railway Commissioners of the Board of Trade.

To the joint proposal of the three Provinces, Earl

1850 Grey returned a most discouraging answer. This was
A.D. the first of many checks to the Intercolonial Railway.

Repelled by the Imperial Government, the Lower
Provinces now looked in another direction. The desire for
closer commercial intercourse between the Provinces and the
United States was then growing strong. This feeling took
form in a Convention held at Portland on the 31st of July.
Delegates from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick met repre-
sentative men from New England. In the hall where they sat
the red-cross banner and the stars and stripes were intertwined,
— the emblem of a union that many desired to promote. Out
of this meeting grew the project of the European and North
American Railway, by which Halifax was to be connected with
Bangor, Portland, and the railway system of the United States,
by a line passing through New Brunswick by way of St. John,
and extending westward to the frontier of Maine.

10. Joseph Howe now entered the railway field. He was
not carried away by the enthusiasm created by the Poi-tland
Convention, and was opposed to placing a railway running over
British territory under the control of an American company.
He held that the only safe way to construct great public works
was by the Government raising money on the credit of the
Provinces or under imperial guarantee, on the security of the

JOSKPH HOWE IN ENGLAND.

405

lauds aud revenues of the Provinces. He carried the people
of Nova Scotia along with him. Bearing a letter of introduc-
tion from Sir John Harvey to Earl Grey, he crossed over to
England with the view of raising a loan of ^^'800,000 by aid of
the Imperial Government, to construct a line of railway from
Halifax to Windsor.

11. With regard to railway projects. Nova Scotia stood in a
more favourable position than New Brunswick. Whether the
line from Halifax to Quebec alone were made, or the line to the
Maine frontier, or both combined, the railway by the proposed
route was equally necessary. In New Brunswick it was ex-
tremely difficult to reconcile the clashing interests of the differ-
ent parts of the Province. Every scheme proposed met with
this sectional opposition. The line running we.^ ward tu the
frontier of Maine was looked npon as advantageous chiefly to
St. John. The people of the northern counties favoured the
railway to Quebec by the North Shore route ; those of the
river counties .hat by the v alley of the St. John ; while the
people of Charlotte thought that a line from St. Andrews run-
ning nearly parallel with the United States frontier was the
most direct and advantageous route.

12. Joseph Howe, by his speeches and letters, created a
favourable feeling in England. With his robust and florid
eloquence he brought British North America with its vast re-
sources prominently into view. Earl Grey was so far over-
come by his arguments as to invite him to reopen the
Intercolonial Railway Scheme. In a letter to him, 1851
written on the 10th of March, by Mr. Hawes, Under- a.d.
Secretary of State, the aid of the Imperial Government

was pledged, and the statement made that no objections would
be offered to the European and North American Bail way form-
ing part of the Intercolonial. At the suggestion of Earl Grey,
Lord Elgin called^ at Toronto, a meeting' of delega^:es from
the Three Provinces concerned, to arrange the terms and settle
the amount of responsibility to be borne by each.

13. The glowing pictures drawn by Mr. Howe of the re-
sources of British North America, and the prospect of the ex-
penditure of millions raised under imperial guarantee, offered
great inducements to a celebrated firm of railway contractors —

406

THE TORONTO CONFKRiiNCfi.

■•<m

Messrs. Jackson and Company— to transfer their organized
force of engineers and labourers to so inviting a field. Through
their agent, Mr. Archibald, they made overtures to the Govern-
ments of the Provinces.

14. The movements of Joseph Howe had been watched with
some suspicion by the party in New Brunswick that favoured
the line proposed al the Portland Convention, A Bill was
passed through the Legi3lature providing for the construction
of a railway from St. John to Shediac, which should form
part of the Intercolonial ; and the resolution was taken not to
construct the New Brunswick portion of the railway from Hali-
fax to Quebec unless imperial aid were given to the line from
St. John to Shedi; c. Howe, passing through New Eiunswick
on his way to Toronto to join the meeting of the delegates,
smothered opposition by showing, by Ihe letter of Mr. Hawes
of the 10th of March, that the Imperial Government was
pledged to aid both lines.

15. The delegates met at Toronto on the 21st of June. Sev-
eral proposals were made. The one agreed to provided that
the line from Halifax to Quebec should be u .dertakeu on the
joint account of the three Provinces, which should grant five miles
of Crown lands on each side ; and that, until the payment of the
cost of construction and interest, the receipts should be com-
mon property, after which each Province was to own that
portion of the road passing through its own territory. The
New Brunswick Government agreed to this proposal on the
distinct understanding that imperial aid should be given to
the European and North American Railway. The Government
of Nova Scotia afterwards generously offered to make thirty
miles within New Brunswick. Everything seemed to be now
satisfactorily settled. But there is many a slip between the
Cup and the lip. Earl Grey, by a despatch dated the 27th of
November, apprised the Government of Nev/ Brunswick that
Mr. Howe had misinterpreted Mr. Hawes's letter ; — the Im-
perial Government would not aid the European and North
American Railway. This announcement, after high hopes had
been raised, caused deep disappointment. Many accused Howe
of having made a wilful mistake. He, however, maintained
that the interpretation he had put upon the letter had been at

■m

The HALIFAX CONFEUEN'CE.

407

first accepted by Earl Grey, and that his Lordship must after-
wards have changed his mind. This misconception tended to
engender mistrust among the Provinces.

16. Unwilling to stop the works of the Intercolonial Eail-
way, the Government of New Brunswick then announced that
it was prepared to abide by the Toronto aiTangement, provided
the route by the valley of the St. John were chosen. But " No/'
said the men of Nova Scotia. " We undertook one-third of
the line on the understanding that it should go by the North
Shore ; the adoption of the St. John valley route would nullify
the advantages that made us willing to agree to undertake so
much."

17. Another meeting of delegates took place at Halifax
the following January, to reconsider the whole matter.

The Hon. Messrs. Hincks, Tache, and Young, of the 1852
Canadian Government, submitted a final proposal to a.d.
the Maritime Provinces. Before it was taken vp,
the Hon. E. B. Chandler of New Brunswick intimated to Mr.
Hincks that a body of English capitalists (including Jackson and
Co.), and calling themselves the North American Railway
Association, were about to make a proposal to construct the
two proposed lines en condition of receiving an annual grant of
^90,000 a year for twenty years, and 5,000,000 of acres of
Crown lands. Would he consider it ? " Not for a moment,"
answered Mr. Hincks. The Canadian proposal was then ac-
ce]ited. It bore hard on New Brunswick, for that Province
was called to undertake five-twelfths of the cost of construction ;
but, hard as were the terms, its Government accepted them
rather than bear the odium of staying a great national work.

18. A deputation was appointed to proceed to England to
solicit imperial aid for the Intercolonial Railway on the new
basis. There now appeared to be a want of cordial cooperation
among the Goverimients of the three Provinces. The dele-
gates of Nova Scotia did not join the delegates of Canada and
New Brunswick, so that Messrs. Hincks and Chandler were left
to make what arrangements they could. They were coldly re-
ceived by the Government of Earl Derby. They suspected
that some secret hostile influence was at work. Aggrieved at
being slighted, impatient at being kept waiting for an answer

408

IMPERIAL AID DENIED.

to his communication to the Colonial Secretary, Mr. Hiucka
wrote a sharp letter to Sir John Pakington, in which he
bluntly stated that Canada, which he represented, came not
as a humble suitor for aid, but on the invitation of the Imperial
Government to take part in a great national work. The an-
swer the delegates at length received was adverse. Imperial
aid could not be given to a railway by the valley of the St.
John: so again the great project fell to the ground. Each
Province was now left to construct the works most advai-
tageous to its interests on its own responsibility. Messrs.
Hiucks and Chandler threw themselves into the arms of Jackson
and Co., and made ia'rangements for Canada, New Brunswick,
and also on o.lialf A Nova Scotia ; but the people of the last-
named Province, hearkening to the advice of Howe, would not
enter intc copartnership with contractors, however eminent, and
called on the Government to undertake the works.

19. This year the Grand Trunk Company was incorporated
in Canada to make a railway from Montreal to Toronto, and
from Quebec to Riviere du Loup ; and the work was commenced.
In the same year in New Brunswick, the Legislature ratified a
contract with Jackson and Co. to make the line from St. John
to Shediac.

20. By the influence of Lord Elgin, the negotiations for the
establishment of a sys^-^m of Free Trade between Canada and
the United States w" ^ brought to a successful conclusion. By

their express desire, the Maritime Provinces were in-

1854 eluded. On the 5th of June 1854 the Reciprocity

A.D. Treaty was signed and sealed at Washington by Lord

Elgin and the Hon. W. L. Marcy,the American Minister.
By the articles of the treaty the produce of the sea, the soil,
and the forests were mutually admitted free ; the Amei"icans
gained a full participation in the sea fisheries and in the naviga-
tion of the canals of Canada, and of the rivers St. Lawrence
and St. John. The treaty was to continue in force ten years
from the time when it came into operation, and a year after
either of the contracting parties signified a desire to terminate
it. It was very favourable to the interests of the farmers of
tipper Canada, but in the Maritime Provinces it evoked dis-
satisfaction. The course pursued by Lord Elgin awakened

THE RECIPROCITY TREATY.

409

displeasure. He was accused of hurrying oflF to Washington
withouii giving their delegates due notice, and of signing away
their interests without giving tliose delegates an opportunity to
make, if possible, a better bargain. The objections raised to
tlie treaty were, that though the United States had nothing to
exchange comparable in value to the priceless fisheries of British
North America, and though their ships were placed on an
equality with the ships of Great Britain, they still peremptorily
declined to concede the only equivalent they could offer —
iijiniely, the admission of colonial vessels to registry in their
])orts and to their coasting trade. Great Britain, in the spirit
of the policy she had pursued since the last war with the United
States, conceded much to preserve amicable relations. The dis-
content in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick was only a passing
feeling. The events of the times were such as called forth the
sympathy of all the Provinces towards the mother country ; for
Great Britain, in alliance with France, had declared war
against Russia,^ and while Lord Elgin was signing the treaty
at Washington, the forces of the com>.)ined powers were collecting
at Varna,^ preparatory to an invasion of the Crimea.

21. Dui'ing the course of the iiummer of 1854 Sir Edmund
Head was appointed Governor-General in the room of Lord
Elgin, and the Hon. J. Henry Thomas Manners-Sutton
assumed the Governorship of New Brunswick. At this time
Sir J. Gaspard le Marchand was Governor of Nova Scotia, and
Sir Dominic Daly of Prince Edward Island.

22. In Sir Edmund Head's time the questions that had con-
tinually provoked jealousy and discord in Upper Canada were
settled in an amicable manner. After the Union, several
attempts were made to dispose of the difficulty arising ou of
the claim of the Church of England to the sole enjoyment of
the Clergy Reserves. The establishment of fifty-six rectories
hy Sir John Colbome had brought the contest between that

' War against Russia. — Russia seized
the Principalities of Moldavia and Wal-
lachia, north of the Danube. France
and Britain, holding this to be a dis-
turbance of the balance of power,
firmed an alliance in aid of Turkey.
I'he Crimea was the chief theatre of the

war which ensued. The Allies gained
the great victories of the Alma, Inker-
mann, Balaklava, and the Tchernaya.
The war was ended by the Treaty of
Paris, March 1856.

' V'^ma. — A sea-port of ';^irkey, on
the western shore of the Black Sea.

, *^ 1

410

TlIK KNl) OP THK CLiniOY UK8EHVKS.

body aud the other sects to a direct isstie. That act formally
gave the Church of England connection with the State aud tlio
position of an Established Church, which it had always claimed.
But such {jretensions were exceedingly distasteful to the mem-
bers of the other sects, who formed the majority of the popula-
tion. The discussions in Parliament over this question reviv. d
the fingry passious of the past, and tended to perpetuate discor«l
and disquiet throughout the Province ; but in 1854 this trouble
was disposed of. Parliament, acting under authority of au
Imperial Act, passed a measure decreeing the separation of the
State from connection \Vith any Church, providing for the pay-
ment to the incumbents of the rectories of a sum equivalent to
the value of the existing stipends, and making provision for
the support of the widows and children of clergymen. After
all just claims were satisfied, the remaining Clergy Reserves
and funds were divided among the municipalities according to
population.

23. At the same time an important step was taken, to abolish

" the Feudal Tenure" in Lower Canada ; but this

1855 reform was not finally carried out until 1859. The

A.D. body of the Censitaires had long desired to be freed

from the state of semi- vassalage in which they were
kept, and which so plainly placed them in a position of inferiority
as compared with the British population. The Seigneurs were
naturally unwilling to relinquish their feudal rights and privi-
leges ; but their opposition was at length overcome, and full
justice was done. The Censitaires paid a small sum, and the
Province generally contributed ^650,000, to indemnify the
Seigneurs.

24. Measures were taken to promote settlement. The treat-
ment that immigrants had formerly received in the Provinces
was disgraceful. Nothing was done to *?ncourage or cheer
them. The vessels that brought them were frequently unsea-
worthy, overcrowded, and plague-stricken. On landing, many
brought with them fever^ disease, and destitution. Such as
had means were waylaid by villains, whose only object was to
rob and mislerd them. To obviate these evils quarantine
harbours were established, and the sick received medical care
in the hospi*'^\^ ; officers were appointed to give the immigranta

tllE NOIltli-WKJiT TKIlUnoUY.

411

voliable infonuatiou regarding the mode of obtaining grants of
land, and of reaching their allotted destinations. The tendency
of the Governments and people of the Provincec ic to show to
immigrants increasing care and kindness, — to welcome them as
friends and labourers whose toil will increase tue wealth and
greatness of the Dominion.

25. In the year 1858 attention was drawn to the North-West

Territory. It will be convenient here to take a glance at the

progress of events in that quarter. The Hudson Bay Company

(incorporated by Royal Charter in 1670) remained in undisputed

posseHsion of a boundless dominion, after the French King, by

tlie Treaty of Utrecht, had relinquished all claim to it. In fact,

its boundaries were, as defined in the treaty, a ridge of highlands

extending, or which was supposed to extend, along the sources

of the rivei-s falling into St. James and Hudson Bays. This

definition was vague enough to encourage the Company to

maintain claims that were open to dispute. It contended that

its possessions stretched to the Eocky Mountains, including the

great tract which has its centre in Lake Winnipeg.^ For over a

century the great Company enjoyed an almost matchless

pro&perity. Its ajBfairs were presided over by a Governor-iu-

Chief, whose liead-quarters were at Fort Factory, on Nelson

Bay.2 Under him was a number of factoi-s, who took charge of

the several departments and districts into which the Territory

I was divided. In its service was a nurjerous force of traders,

clerks, servants, and voyageurs. The warriors of the various

Indian tribes that hunted over their domain brought the spoils

of the chase to the posts, which were built in convenient positions

Iby the shores of the great bays, at the heads of lakes, and by

I the banks and mouths of rivers.

26. A few years after the Conquest, certain merchants of
IKontreal, chiefly Scotchmen, commenced trading in the North-
IWest Territory, whose boundaries were defined ?.s stretching
jfrom the head of Lake Superior over the Rocky Mountains to
|he Pacific coast, north to the Frozen Sea, and north-eastward
the limits of the Hudson Bay Company's domain. In 1784

iSi:<!l;

fi;|'

Lake Winnipeg. — Into this lake

bw the Saskatchewan, Red, and As-

liboine Rivers. It findjj an outlet

by the Nelson River, falling into Hud-
son Bay,
' Nelson Bay. — In Hudson Bay.

412

SELKIRK SETTLEMENT.

they formed the North-West Company. They were very
prosperous, and soon had a small army of employes at their
command. They established posts by the shores of Lake Win-
nipeg and on Red River, in the country that the Hudson Bay
people claimed as their exclusive domain. Then arose disputes
about boundaries, which broke into bloody feuds between the
rival traders.

27. Employes of both Companies made discoveries in the
hitherto unknown wilderness. John Hearn (1771) found his
way to a lake larger than Ontario, the Great Slave, and to
the Metal or Coppermine River. (Sir) Alexander Mackenzie
(1789) explored further north-west to a great river falling
into the Arctic Sea, since called the Mackenzie. He crossed
the Rocky Mountains and discovered the T^-cout-ch^ Tesse, the
river of the Faculty nation. Several years later (1808), Simon
Frazer, a North-wester, navigated it to its mouth, and half a
century later it became famous as the gold-bearing Frazer
River. Six years before (1797), Captain Vancouver had
threaded his way through the archipelago on the Pacific coast,
and given his name to the largest of its islands.

28. The Hudson Bay Company dold to the Earl of Selkirk
(1811-12) a large tract of country along the courses of the Eed
and Assiniboine Rivers. He sent out a party of Scotchmen
(who were afterwards joined by some Norwegians and French
Canadians) to make a &.^ttlement. They were exposed to severe
privations from the failure of their first crops, and to constant
peril from the prowling Indians. Captain Milnes M'DonDel
was appointed Governor. He kept his head-quartera at Fort i
Dan (the present Pembina). The establishment of this colony l
in territory to which the Hudson Bay Company had doubtful
right, more fiercely inflamed the jealousy of the North- Westers.
The feuds between the servants, the wild half-breeds and
Indian allies, of the rival traders, were waged with fearful ani-J
mosity for several years. Blood was shed, life was taken,
cruelties were perpetrated, and the fruits of arduous toil were!
destroyed. The unfortunate Scotchmen and Norwegians ofj
Selkirk were driven from their settlements. A party found
tempo i'ary shelter at Norway Jlou^e, one of the chief Hudson
Bay posts near the outlet of Lake Winnipeg. They retumeij

M.1

THE HUDSON BAY COMPANY.

413

ouly to be driven away again. The feud reached such a height
that Sir George Drumraond, then Governor of Canada, sent a
regiment to Eed Eiver to keep the peace (1816). At this
time the profits of the Hudson Bay Company fell to zero. The
stock-holders in London received no dividends whatever. In a
few years the criminal folly of the rivalries forced itself on the
minds of those who had the chief interest in the fur-trade. An
amalgamation of the interests of the two Companies was
brought about. Tljey were united under the name of the
Hudson Bay Company. The monopoly of the trade in the
British region between the coasts of Labrador and Columbia
was granted to it for a term of years by the Imperial Parlia-
ment. "With peace, prosperity returned.

29. The Hudson Bay Company commenced to color'ze Van-
couver Island in 1843. It was looked upon as a moi^u favour
able field for settlement. It possessed spacious harbours, and
enjoyed a healthy climate. Its soil was fertile, its forests of
pine and other useful trees were extensive, and its sea and
river fisheries exhaustless. Victoria, the capital, was then
founded.

30. Shortly after chis time, Great Britain and the United
States were on the point of going to war over a dispute regard-
ing the boundaries of their respective possessions in the west.
The dispute was for the time settled by the Oregon Treaty
(Only 17, 1846). The boundaries were then defined to be sepa-
rated by a line passing through the middle of the channel that
divides Vancouver Island from the mainland. In this channel,
and between the Strait of Haro on the east and of Eosario on
the west, lies San Juan and other lesser islands. The Americans
soon began to assert that San Juan was within their territory,
as they claimed that the Haro Strait, which runs by the eastern
coast of Vancouver, was within the dividing line as defined by
the treaty. The British, on the contrary, contended that the
Rosario Strait, running west of San Juan, and leaving that
iskud within their territory, was the true dividing line. The
San Juan difficulty^ remained unsettled for a number of years.

The San Juan difficulty. — It was re-
f Ted by the Treaty of Washington (8th
M»y 1871) for arbitration to the Em-

peror of Germany, who, in October 1872,
gave his award in favour of the Unlte<l
States. See p. 442.

iWiWi

sii'i..

414

BRITISH COLUMBIA.

Ill 1849 Vancouver was erected into a Crown colony, and (Sir)
James Douglas, local agent of the Hudson Bay Company, was
appointed Governor.

31. Attention, as already stated, was directed to the Nortli-

West Territory at this time. The term of the monop-

1858 oly of trade of the Hudson Bay Company was about

A.D. to expire. Doubts were raised as to the validity of its

ancient Charter, and a desire was manifested to annex
the vast domain to Canada. The value of the Ked River dis-
tricts and Saskatchewan fertile belts was then becoming well
known. Parties in Upper Canada perceived that they presented
an opportunity to extend the bounds of their Province west-
ward, and to increase British iufllience in the United Canadas.
But the annexation of the North-.West Territory did not take
place till eleven years afterwards. British Columbia in the

UaiTISH COLUMBIA : VANCOUVER ISLAND,

same year sprang into notice (1858). Discoveries of gold
had been made in the country of the Upper Columbia River as
early as 1850. The "findings" continued to be made on so
large a scale that Governor Douglas in 1856 apprised the
Imperial Government of the fact. When it was noised abroad,
adventurous spirits were seized with a desire to explore the new

THE SAN JUAN DIFFICULTY.

415

gold-fields. "Wild miners from California deserted their old to
try their fortune in the new diggings. By the year 1858,
between twenty and thirty thousand men were scattered over
the rocky mountain -slopes and the terraced ravines through
which flows the Frazer River and its tributaries. A fixed
and firm Government was necessary, to keep the reckless por-
tion of the mixed population in order. British Columbia was
constituted a separate colony, and New Westminster, its seat
of Government, was founded.

3'2. The following year the American General commanding
in the Oregon Territoiy crossed the dividing channel
with a military force, and landed in San Juan. The 1859
British Admiral on the station. Sir Robert Baynes, there- a.d.
upon sent a party of Royal Marines to the island. The
claims of the two countries were thus brought to a threatening
collision; but the danger was averted. The United States
Government did not countenance the act of its General. The
American soldiers did not retire altogether ; for an agreement
was made between the two Powers that each should maintain a
small military force upon the island until the question of owner-
ship should be settled.

Questions. — 1. Describe the system
of government finally accepted by all
parties in Canada. What effect had
the repeal of the Corn Laws on the Prov-
inces ? What concession was made to
them in 1847?

2. When and by what measure did
the Provinces achieve commercial inde-
pendence? What were its immediate
effects? What means were taken to
allay the discontent? How were the
years from 1860 till 1864 occupied ?

3. What was the pu'^ose of the canal
system ? ''.Vhat induced the Canadians
to construct railways ?

4. To what had Lord Durham as-
cribed the rapid advance of the United
States? How had this affected the
people? When were efficient munici-
pal institutions established in Upper
Canada? When, in Lower Canada? In
what Provinces have municipal institu-
tions taken no root ?

5. When were systems of public edu-
cation established in the Canadas?

6. What effect had the English rail-
way mania on the North American
Provinces ? What was the first great
railway undertaken there ?

7. What railway scheme early en-
gaged the attention of all the Provinces 7
Who had been the first to point out the
importance of railways in British North
America?

8. What great project was discussed
shortly after 1842? Which Province
was most active in connection vrith it ?
W hat step did the British Government
take?

9. Give the substance of Major Robin-
son's Report. What aid did the Legis-
latures of the three Provinces vote to
the undertaking? What discouraged
it? What project took the place of this
one?

10. What was Joseph Howe's opinion
of the scheme ? On what mission did
he go to England ?

11. Why was Nova Scotia more fa-
vourably situated than New Brunswick

1 n|

''\:4 ■ ty|

•ff. -

S;|

>'A '

41G

QUESTIONS.

for entering on these great railway
schemes?

12. What was the result of Joseph
Howe's visit to England? For what
purpose was a meeting of delegates
called at Toronto ?

13. What were Messrs. Jackson and
Company induced to do?

14. What party had watched Howe's
movements with suspicion? What
position did the New Brunswick Legis-
lature take up ? Ho v was opposition
in that quarter smothded ?

15. What proposal was agreed to
by the delegates at Toronto ? How was
the harmony disturbed ?

16. What did the New Brunswick
Government then propose ? What did
Nova Scotia reply ?

17. What proposal did Mr. Chandler
make at the Halifax meeting of dele-
gates? How was it received ? To what
did the delegates then agree ? On which
Province did that project bear hardly ?

18. What was the result of the appli-
cation for imperial aid ? What was the
only course now open to the Provinces ?
On what point did Nova Scotia separate
from the other Provinces ?

19. What line of railway was begun
in Canada in 1852 ?

20. When was the Reciprocity Treaty
between Canada and the United States
signjd? To whom was the treaty fa-
vourable? Where was it unpopular?
For what was Lord Elgin blamed?
What were the chief objections to the
treaty ?

21. When did Lord Elgin retire?
Who succeeded him ?

22. What act had brought the contest

between the Church of England ani
the other sects to a direct issue? When
was the matter settled ? How ?

When was feudal tenure in Lower
Canada abolished? How were the
Seigneurs indemnified?

24. What measures were taken to in-
crease the comfort of immigrants and
to promote settlement ?

25. When was the Hudson Bay Com-
pany incorporated ? What land did the
Company claim ? How were its opera-
tions carried on ?

26. When was the North-West Com-
pany formed ? What brought the two
comp.' nies into collision?

27. vVhat discoveries were made by
the employes of these companies ?

28. Sketch the early history of the
Selkirk (Red River) Settlement. What
effect had the feuds between the com-
panies on the fur-trade? When did
prosperity return ?

29. When did the colonizing of Van-
couver Island begin? Why was it
deemed a favourable field for settle-
ment?

30. What dispute arose at this time
between Great Britain and the United
States ? What were defined to be the
boundaries by the Oregon Treaty?
What further difference arose ? When
did Vancouver become a Crown colony?

31. What desire was manifested in
1858 with reference to the North-
west Territory ? What brought British
Columbia into prominent notice? How
did it obtain a fixed Governmient?

82. What proceedings threatened s
collision in San Juan in 1859? How
was the danger averted ?

THE QUESTION OP UNION.

417

CHAPTER XL.

CONFEDERATION.

1857 to 1867 A.D.

State of the Union Question.

Increased Bepresentation.

An Elective Legislative Council.

Representation by Population.

First proposal of Union.

The Canadian Tariffs.

The Prince Of Wales's visit.

The United States.

Defence Question.

Crisis in Parliament of Canada.

Parties coiilesce to carry Confederation.

Prince Edward Island Conference.

Quebec Conference.

The Scheme of Union.

Delegation of Canadian Minidtiy to
London.

New Brunswick anti-confederate.

Mr. Car " I's Despatch.

The F ..J. Brotherhood.

The Session of 1866 in New Brunswick.

Meeting of Delegates in London.

British North America Act.

First Meeting of Confederate Parlia-
ment.

1. Not very long after the establishment of British power iii
Canada the Question of Union became a subject of speculation.
The vast progress made by the United States seemed to prove
the strength of that principle ; and the aggressive spirit evinced
by them raised uneasy feelings with regard to the weak position
of the separate Provinces. Each State had its independent
Legislature, which governed its own local affairs ; and there
was a Central Government (the visible representation of the
idea of country), which was supreme over all such general
matters as pertained to defence, commerce, currency, and foreign
relations. Within the bounds of the Union there was freedom
of trade. The individual States were thus all bound together
by the bond of obedience to a central power, and by the tie of
a common interest. The British Provinces owed allegiance to
one Sovereign, — there was thus a grand bond of union ; but a
similar strong community of interest did not exist among
the individual Provinces as between the States. Each regu-
lated its own currency; each adjusted its own tariffs to suit
its own views and wants ; and the free interchange of products
was prevented by a barrier of custom-houses along the boun-
daries of each Province.

2. In the year 1808 a scheme to unite all the British Provinces
\tn) 27

■ ■'■ i -

, 1 ■

9- "

ill

8||i!

iiili!

418

THE WAR OF SECESSION.

under a federal form of goverument was suggested by Richard
J. Winacke of Nova Scotia. In 1814 (as before stated) Chief.
Justice Sewell of Quebec laid a proposal for the Confederatioy
of all the Pro\'inces before the Earl of Bathurst, then Colouia.
Secretary, as a means of overcoming the difficulties of govern*
ment in Lower Canada. In 1822 (the year in which a measure
to unite the two Canadas was proposed in the Imperial Parlia-
ment and withdrawn) a project for the Confederation of all the
Provinces was, at the request of the Colonial Office, drawn up
by Sir John Beverley Kobinson. In 1839 Lord Durham rec-
ommended Confederation as the best means of obviating the
difficulties of government in Lower Canada, and of advancing
the general interests of all the Provinces. In fact, at every
political crisis in Canada the idea of Confederation was revived.

3. The period between 1857 and 1867 was an important
decade in the history of the British North American Provinces.
In 1857 the first practical step was taken to carry out the proj-
ect which had been at various times in contemplation. In
1 867 Coiif ederation was consummated. During the earlier years
of this period the discussion of the question was confined chiefly
to the Canadas, and there it was only intermittent. In the
Lower Provinces neither the people nor the Legislatures con-
cerned themselves about it, though it sometimes formed the
theme of a newspaper article. In Nova Scotia the proposal for
a legislative union with New Brunswick and Prince Edward
Island found favour, but the greater union with Canada did
not then seem to be thought practicable.

4. Several events happened which, combined, forced the
people to look upon Confederation not as a theory, as heretofore,
but as a serious practical measure. The War of Secession
broke out. An angry feeling was aroused in the United States
against Great Britain. The danger of war being imminent, the
British Government pressed upon the Provinces the ne ^essity
of uniting, in order to provide greater means of defence. The
sectional difficulties in the Canadas, which had been increas-
ing in int«ensity since 1857, reached an alarming height in 1864,
when the United States gave warning of their intention to abro-
gate the Reciprocity Treaty. Again, a party in England raised
the cry that the Provinces were a burden and a danger, and d

CONFEDERATION OR ANNEXATION.

419

little commercial benefit to the mother country ; and a feeling
ill favour of severing the connection seemed to be growing in
strength. A conviction took possession of the minds of many
people, that if the Provinces did not seize the opportunity that
l^resentud itself to unite, they could not remain in their sepa-
rate condition, but would be forced before long to join the
confederacy of the United States : the alternative was Confed-
eration or Annexation.

5. Important measures of reform had been passed during the
preceding ten years by the Parliament of the United Canadas.
Still, there remained the old difficulties arising out of the dif-
ferent characters of the two portions of the population, ex-
pressed in their language, laws, and religion. The Government
of the Canadas was, in fact, divided into two sections, — Eastern
and "Western, — each with its premier, or leader, and its several
members in the Cabinet representing its interests. The British
aud the French Canadian members in Parliament were divided
into parties ; — the iirst into Conservatives and Liberals or Re-
formers (vulgarly Grits) ; the second into similar divisions,
termed Bleus and Rouges. The i*')'ench Canadians held their
position well. By aid of thtir majority, the British Con-
servative minority were enabled to carry on the Government.
The jealousy of sections tended to promote extravagance, and
to excite angry altercations. As nearly as possible an equal
division of the public money was insisted on. When a grant
was made to Upper Canada for a useful public work, a like
amount had to be voted to Lower Canada.

6. The Union of the Canadas had been founded on the basis
of equality of representation in Parliament. The French
Canadians regarded that provision as a guarantee that they
would be enabled to preserve their language, laws, and religion
intact. When Lower Canada entered the Union in 1841 it had
the greater population ; ten years later it could not boast of that
superiority. Upper Canada had then 60,000 more people than
the sister Province. The question was then raised, " Ought

not the Western British Province to have a representa-
tion in Parliament in proportion to its numbers 7"

7. In 1863 the number of representatives was increased from
84 to 130, giving 65 to efvch section, Three years afterwards a

■X

■A

420

REPRESENTATION BY POPULATION.

change wji8 made in the mode of appointing members to the
Legislative Council. It became an elective instead of a nomi-
native body. Its members, instead of being appointed by the
Governor and Council, under authority of the Crown, were
henceforth to be elected by the people. The Provinces were
divided into 48 electoral districts, corresponding to the number
of members of the Council. Elections were to be held in one-
fourth of the districts every two years, thus securing an election
of the entire Houso once every eight years. The new law did not
affect the members already appointed by the Crown, but only
took effect on their death or resignation. The elective principle
had not been fully carried out when the nominative principle
was reestablished by the Constitution of 1867.

8. While these changes were in progress the Provinces were
agitated by a demand for alteration in the basis of representa-
tion. Probably most people in Upper Canada thought that the
Province ought to have more representatives, but all were not
willing to raise an exasperating question. The increase of rep-
resentation became the favourite dogma of the Reformers.
George Brown, a powerful speaker and writer, was the leader
— the Boanerges of the party ; his journal, " The Globe," estab-
lished in Toronto, was its exponent. At public meetings
" representation by population " was the theme of exciting
harangues ; it was the rallying cry at elections. If their demand
were conceded, the Reformers expected that the representation
of British and Protestant Upper Canada would become all-
powerful in Parliament ; that they would be able to carry out the
common-school system in its entirety, and to prevent the estab-
lishment of sectarian schools by the Roman Catholic clergy;
that Upper Canada would gain control of the revenues, and be
able to prosecute useful public works, to develop trade in the
west, and to acquire the North- West Territory.

9. This demand for "representation by population" was
strenuously resisted by the people of Lower Canada ; they con-
sidered it a violation of the pact of the Union. They did not
say that the Upper Canadians would do them absolute injustice,
but they were afraid to trust them with the power that would
enable them to do so, were thfey so disposed. They would never
conseut to the principle, unless it were guarded by such cb^lvs

THE PtRST BLAST OF BATTLE.

421

and guarautees an would secure to them the continuauce of
their peculiar institutions. In order to surmount the difficulty
caused by the agitation of " representation by popula- ion," and
to restore harmony between the sections, some of the Reiormers
])roposed that the Legislative Union should be broken up and a
Federal Union substituted, by which a General Parliament would
be established to legislate in matters of common concern to both
Provinces, — as customs, commerce, currency ; and a Legislature
in each, to have control over local mutters, — as education,
administration of justice, militia, public works.

10. The angry disputes between the two sections awak-
ened the anxiety of thoughtful statesmen in Canada,
Alexander T. Gait, member for Sherbrooke, brought 1857
under the consideration of Parliament the subject of a a.d.
Confederation of all the Provinces. In his place, he
made a speech in which he set forth the advantages of such a
scheme, as oflfering the means to put an end to sectional strifes,
to still the agitation of representation by population, and to
advance the prosperity of British North America. The speech,
able though it was, excited little interest in Parliament, but it
was the first blast of battle. Next year a change in the
Government took place. The Administration of John A.
McDonald and George E. Cartier was defeated on the question of
carrying out Her Majesty's decision respecting the removal of the
seat of Government to Ottawa. Parliament was dissolved, a
general election took place, and the Keform party gained a small
majority. George Brown and A. A. Dorion formed a Govern-
ment. It was defeated, after a very brief existence. The
Governor-General, Sir Edmund Head, then called on the leaders
of the Conservatives, and the former Administration, with a
slight change, was reconstructed. It was now the Cartier lind
M'Donald Administration. Its members did not go back to
the people for reelection, according to the established practice,
but resumed their duties as if the few^ days of Brown and Dorion
were not woiih reckoning. The rage of the Eeformers was
aroused at the abrupt manner in which their Government had
been defeated, at the refusal of the Governor-General to dissolve
Parliament, and at what they deemed the unconstitutional way
by which the Consei-vative Administration had regained power

»ir.,ijil iiBil

t)lSCOURAGEMKNfS.

-f ■
• *

-0r;~'-

11. Mr. Gait joiued the Cartier and M'Douald Adminiatra-
tiou, and Confederation was brought forward as the leadinf,'
measure of their policy. At this time the project of the Inter-
colonial Railway was engaging the attention of the Govern-
ments of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, and their
delegates* met in London to enter into negotiations with the
Imperial Government ; these were, however, unsuccessful. The
Canadian delegates — Hon. Messrs. Cartier, Ross, and Gait —
addressed a memorial to Hon. E. Bulwer Lytton,^ then Colonial
Secretary, in which, in all seriousness, they stated that grave
difficulties presented themselves in the way of Government in
Canada, and pointed out that Confederation was a measure
not only of Provincial, but of Imperial importance ; that it
afforded a remedy for allaying the sectional jealousip oi Canada,
and a means of binding together and promoting the prosperity
of all the Provinces, and of strengthening the power of the
Empire on the American Continent. They suggested that the
Imperial Government should authorize the appointment of
delegates from all the Provinces to discuss the question. A dis-
couraging answer was returned by the Colonial Secretary, and
the proposal was somewhat coolly received by the Maritime
Governments. In Nova Scotia a legislative union with New
Brunswick and Prince Edward Island was more favourably
looked upon than the Canadian scheme. In New Brunswick
the Government seemed to be little disposed to discuss the
question of union at all. They conceived that any change in
the existing condition of the ProviTices was unnecessary ; the
prosperity they had attained, and the power of self-government
they enjoyed, left them nothing to envy in the condition of the
neighbouring Republic.

12. The subject of Confederation was not taken into con-

sideration when the Canadian Parliament met again.

1859 It "^^s dismissed for the time from consideration.

A.D. A Federal Union of the two Cauadas was proposed at

a Reform convention held at Toronto in the beginning
of winter, as a remedy for the increasing difficulties. But

* Hon. E. Bulwer-Lytton. — After-
wards Lord Lytton ; the celebrated
noTclist and dramatic writer. He was

Colonial Secretary in Lord Derby's
second Administration, from 1858 till
1859. Born 1805, died 1873.

COMMERC AL CRISIS.

423

notliiug practical was doue, though the uecesaity giuvv more
pressing for some change in the reljitions of Upper to Lower
Canada.

13. When the Canadian Government made the pjoposiil of
union to the Lower Provinces the circumstances of the time
were unfavourable. Since the year 1854 Canada had enjoyed
much seeming prosperity. The building of the Grand Trunk
Eailway caused a great expenditure ; money was plentiful, and
was more easily obtained than it had formerly been. The
Provinces were blessed with fine harvests, and tlie farmers had
a profitable market for their grain. The Peciprocity Treaty
with the United States favoured them. But in 1857 a change
occurred. A severe crisis overtook the commerce of America.
It was long and se\ erely felt in Canada. To add to the depres-
sion and difficulty of the times there was a succession of bad
harvests. The wheat crop of 1858 was almost destroyed. The
farmers had no grain to export. Many, who in the feverish
hour of prosperity believed themselves rich, were plunged into
the depths of bankruptcy. The revenue derived from the
duties on imports fell off. At a time when the Government
had insufficient money at their command to meet the ordinary
expenses, they were called upon to assume large additional
liabilities. To maintain the credit of the country they were
compelled to increase taxation by readjusting the tariff and
imposing a ;rger scale of duties on imports.

14. The imposition of the high tariff prejudiced English
manufacturers against the Provinces, and tended to raise doubts
in their minds as to the value of colonies to the mother coun-
try. They complained that its effect was to shut them out
from the Canadian market, and to favour the introduction of
American manufactures. The tariff also caused much discus-
sion in the Provinces among parties who took different views
regarding the commercial policy that colonies ought to pursue.
After the repeal of the Corn Laws in Great Britain (in 1846),
the question of Protection or Free Trade was much debaced,
not only in Canada, but also in the other Provinces. One party
held that the wisest course was to reduce as much as possible
the duties on imports, to carry on unrestricted commerce with
all foreign nations, and to raise a revenue by direct taxation.

^.iifi

IIh »j

lliiiilfiti;:

424

INVITATION TO Tht QUJSEN.

Auothei' party held that the money of the Provinces ouyht to
be retained in them, and not sent abroad to purchase what
their own people might make ; and that high protective duties
should be imposed on foreign manufactures to encourage their
own ; that the aim of their Legislature should be to make the
Provinces as nearly self-sustaining as might be ; and that in-
stead of promoting the importation of goods and articles from
abroad, they should endeavour to induce British capitalists to
establish manufactures in the Provinces, and to draw skilled
oj^eratives to them from Britain.

15. The tariffs of 1858-59 were arranged by the Canadian
Government, not with a view of carrying out any particular
policy, but for the purpose of raising a revenue. Indirectly,
however, they were to some extent " protective," as the high
duties imposed on certain articles tended to foster a numbv ^ of
new manufactories.

16. From the war of sections, the strife of parties, and clash -
hig views of policy, the coui-se of history turns to an event that
stirred the heart of the people of British Koi-th America, and
touched their feelings of attachment to the mother country, and

of love and respect for the Sovereign. Two circum-

1860 stances aeemed to the people of Canada to demand a

A.D. signal celebration. The magnificent Victoria Bridge,^

spanning the River St. Lawrence at Montreal, was all
but completed, and the erection of the Parliament Buildings
at the new seat of Government at Ottawa, was about to be
commenced. Only a royal hand should lay the key-stone of
the arch, fasten the last of a million of rivets in the enor-
mous tubes of the bridge, and lay the comer-stone of an edifice
that might become the seat of the wisdom of a nation. The
two branches of the Legislature united in an address soliciting
the honour of a visit from the Queen to the loyal and flourish-
ing Provinces. Unable to accept the invitation, Her Majesty
graciously deputed her eldest son, the heir-apparent to the
throne, to be her representative. When the intention of the

* Victoria Bridge. — This bridge, built
over the St. Lawrence at Montreal,
under the superintendence of Mr.
Robert Stephenson and Mr. A. M.
Kosa, was begun 24th May 1864, and

opened by the Prince of Wales 2511'
August 1860. Its length is about fixty
yards less than two English miles It
is supported by twenty-four piers. The
cost was £1,700,000.

VISIT OF THE PRINCE OV WALES.

425

Prince of Wales to visit Canada became kuowu, the other
Provinces eagerly desired to share in the honour.

17. Since Edward, Duke of Kent, commanded in Quebec, and
dispensed viceregal hospitality at the Lodge, Halifax, no mem-
ber of the Eoyal Family had set foot on British North American
aoil. In the sixty years that had intervened between his time
and the coming of the young Prince, his grandson, scattered
settlements, newly cut out of the wilderness, had grown to be
flourishing provinces.

18. The Hero, bearing the Prince of Wales, his guajtlian the
Duke of Newcastle, Colonial Secretary, and a brilliant suite, and
with a fleet of war vessels in its train, arrived oflf the coast of
Newfoundland in July. The royal party landed at St. John's
on the 23rd, thence proceeded to Halifax, St. John, and
Frederickton, and ended their tour of the Maritime Provinces
iu Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Their progress
through them was a continuous ovation. From far and near
flocked the people of the towns, villages, and settlements to the
cities, which were lighted up with the spirit of rejoicing. In
Canada the reception of the Prince was more imposing and
formal, especially at iVContreal and Ottawa, owing to the special
public ceremonials. Toronto (which had no existence in the
days of the Duke of Kent) outdid all other places in the magnifi-
cence of its preparations. But the smallest town vied with the
largest city in loyal enthusiasm. Princes, who must live in the
hearts of their people, value sentiment more than ceremony.
On the 20th of September the royal party entered Detroit in
the United States. They visited the principal cities — Chicago,
St. Louis, Cincinnati, Pittsburg, Philadelphia, Baltimore,
Washington, New York, Boston; and the Prince was every-
where received with a warmth of welcome that showed that
the people of the Great Eepublic were touched with a feel-
ing of kin to the country of whose Sovereign he was the rep-
resentative. On the 20th of October the royal fleet sailed
from Portland. The visit of the Prince to America was like a
burst of sunshine before the closing of the clouds in storm.

19. The United States had now attained an amazing degree
of prosperity. To the original eleven States had been added
twentv-three others, with an aggregate population of 31,000,000.

42G

THE U.S. WAR OP SECESSION.

Figures would fail to give an adequate idea of theii* posses
sions, of their realized wealth, of the extent of their com
merce. With a territory and with latent resources far transcend
ing those of the kingdoms of Europe, th^y were fast approachiii
the oldest and most populous in actual power and riches. For
nearly a quarter of a century the country had been divided
about slavery. In the presidential contest this year (1860), the
Republican party in the North, which was opposed to it, de-
feated the slaveholders of the South. Tht chief question at
issue was, whether or not slavery should be confined to the
States where it was established and protected by the Constitu-
tion, and be excluded from all territories hereafter to be
brought into the Union. There was also disagreement regard-
ing the tariff. The North generally urged the imposition of
high duties' to protect its manufactures. The South, which pro-
duced much cottoii, tobacco, and rice, but manufactured hardly
anything, and which imported most of the articles it consumed
and used, was in favour of low duties and free trade. The
commercial interests, as well as the state of society, were dif-
ferent in the two sections of the country, and created opposition
and repugnance between them.

20. The election of Abraham Lincoln, a noted Abolitionist,
was the signal for war. The people of South. Carolina had always
maintained that each State was sovereign and independent,
and had a right to break loose from the Union when it chose.

On the 20th of December they passed an ordinance of

1861 Secession. By the end of January six other States—

A.D. "Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana,

Texas — had seceded. They were afterwards joined by
Eastern Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee,—
eleven States in all, with a population of 9,000,000, of which
3,000,000 were slaves. These "wayward sisters" of the Union
constituted themselves into a separate Confederacy, and chose
Jefferson Davis to be President. Government troops held
Fort Sumpter. The rebel cannon of Charleston opened fire
upon it. Aft«r a hot but bloodless bombardment, its com-
mandant, on the 13th of April, surrendered it to the trium-
phant Secessionists. War Was thus commenced. President
Lincoln called on the loyal States to send their quota of armed

PftOCLAMATIOK OJb' NEUTRALITY.

427

meu to take ^e field, and proclaimed the blockade of the
Southern ports. The i)eople of the North showed a burning
zeal tu support him. To preserve the Union, to refute the
doctrine of State rights, to compel the rebel States to acknowl-
edge that they were but the component parts of one great
country, and that their first obedience was due to the Central
Government, was their immediate desire. The abolition of
slavery was only determined on amid the exigencies of a long
and fierce contest, as a means of weakening the rebellion.

21. A month after the fall of Fort Sumpter, a Royal Proc-
lamation was issued, calling on all loyal British subjects
everywhere to preserve neutrality in the war. This was held
to be an acknowledgment that the Southern Confederacy was
a nation, and entitled to the rights of a belligerent power. The
anger of the Northern people was excited. They heL. ^hat the
Confederacy was but a banding together of lebels, and that the
British Government wat not justified in elevating a domestic
quarrel into a contest between independent powers. Their feel-
ing of exasperation was strengthened by the sympathy shown to
the Secessionists by a portion of the British people, and by events
that arose in the course of the war, — the breaking of the blockade
by British vessels, and the escape from British ports of cruisers
of the South (chief among them the noted "Alabama") to
l)rey upon the commerce of the North. The people of the British
North American Provinces could not view with indifference the
fierce struggle so close to them. In the past the example of the
neighbouring Kepublic had had some effect in moulding their
])olitical constitution ; in the present it was destined to have
some influence in determining their future condition. In the
autumn of 1861 Sir Edmund Head was succeeded by Viscount
Monck, as Governor-General of Canada ; the Honourable J.
H. T. Manners-Sutton, by the Honourable Arthur H. Gor-
don, as Governor of New Brunswick. ^

22. The year closed in a threatening and a sorrowful manner.
On the 8th of Noveniber, Captain Wilkes, of the United States
war ship the San Jacinto^ stopped the British mail-packet the
* Trent," on the high seas, and forcibly took from on board
Mason and Sliddel, the Southern Commissioner to England.
This act Wf\s hailed with exultation by the people of the North-

v: ■

428

THREATENINGS OP WAR.

erii States. Wilkes became the hero of the iiour. But it was
determinedly resented by the British Government, who pre-
pared to back their demand for the rendition of the Southern
Commissioners by a declaration of war in case it were refused.
Amidst the excitement caused by the threatened rupture, and
the hurry of preparation, the "Good Prince" Albert died,
and all British land was clothed in mourning. While British
troops were being hurried across the Atlantic, President Lin-
coln quietly gave up the Commissioners, who sailed from
1862 Boston for England on the 1st of January ; so when the
A.D. Guards and Rifles arrived in St. John, New Brunswick,
they found that war's alarms were changed to hospitable
meetings with the citizens. The Trent afl^air intensified the
feeling of hostility in the North against Great Britain. The
danger of a rupture drew the attention of the British Govern-
ment to the defenceless state of the Provinces in face of the
fast growing military power across the frontiers. In case of
war, they inevitably would be the battle-ground. Military
officers were sent out to inspect the country and to organize the
militia. A plan of fortification was agreed upon : the cost of
the works at Quebec to be defrayed by the Imperial Govern-
ment ; those at Montreal, and other places above it, to be paid
by Canada. The people of the Provinces were, in a measure,
willing to provide for their defence, but the militia schemes
proposed were thought too costly and extensive for their means.
An impetus, however, was given to the volunteer movement,
and rifle competitions kept up its spi^^

23. In the meantime the difficulty of conducting the Gov-
ernment of Canada continued. The Cartier and M'Donald
Administration, unable to carry, besides other measures, a
Militia Bill, resigned, and was succeeded by a Reform Govern-
ment led by J. Sanfield M'Donald and A. Sicotte. This
event, occurring at a time when the Imperial Government was
urging on the Provinces the necessity of adopting adequate
measures of defence, produced a bad impression in England.
It raised a discussion regarding the relations of the mother
country to the Provinces, and the burdens they cast on her.

24. Defence was a very difficult matter to adjust. The
Imperial Government perceived that it might be called upon to

CRITICAL ASPECT OP AFFAIRS.

429

hold the Provinces against the military power of the United
States, and that it would be impossible to do so unless the
Provinces put themselves in a thorough state of preparation.
The Duke of Newcastle urged on the Government of Canada
the necessity of making some permanent provision for the
militia system, so as to place it beyond danger of being de-
stroyed by a party vote in the Legislature. On the other hand,
the people of the Provinces very generally held that no war
could occur with the United States through their insti-umen-
tality. It would grow out of a quarrel between the two Gov-
ernments, which they had done nothing to foment, and which
they could do nothi^ig to allay. When it did arise, the contest
would be fought on their soil, and they would have to bear the
brunt of battle ; and they thought it unjust that they should
be called upon to assume burdens beyond their resources. They
were willing to bear a fair share; and, as in the past, they
would, if the crisis came, freely expend their blood and their
treasure to preserve the connection with the mother country.

25. At this time the project of the Intercolonial Bailway
was again under consideration. Its importance as a means of
defence caused the Imperial Government to look favourably
upon it. The terms as to the portion of cost to be borne by
each of the Provinces were settled. But the M* Donald and
Sicotte Government refused to carry out the arrangement made
for Canada. They were soon placed in such a position as to be
unable to carry on the Government. A reconstruction was
made, and A. A. Dorion took the place of M. Sicotte. The
Parliament was dissolved, and a general election was held.
The Administration gained a majority, but it was not strong
enough to enable them to carry on business satisfactorily.
Another ministerial crisis soon occurred. The old Con-
servative Government, with Sir Etienne Tache as *0"*

AT)

leader, again assumed the reins. After a brief hold of
power for four months, it fell before a vote of want of con-
fidence.

26. The position of affairs was now alarming. Party pas-
sions were fast gaining complete ascendency in Parliament.
There seemed to be nothing before the country but another
election, and further dangerous exciteroeut Then the leaders

M tnlln

430

THE CHARLOTTETOWN CONFERENCE.

paused to consider if some means might not be devised to
escape the threatening danger. George Brown, the leader of
the Reformers, made overtures to his political opponents. A
Coalition Government was formed with the express understand-
ing that it would carry out a measure to establish a Federal
Union of the two Canadas, with a provision for the admittance
of the Maritime Provinces and the North- West Territory.
Tliere was some difference of opinion as to whether a Confedera-
tion of all the Provinces, or the Federal Union, should be. the
measure held first in view. But a circumstance decided the
course of the Government.

27. While these events were occurring in Canada, the Gov-
ernments of. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick agreed to send
delegates to dharlottetown to discuss, with representatives of
Prince Edward Island, a scheme for a Legislative Union of
the Maritime Provinces. The Conference was arranged for
the 1st of September, with the cordial sanction of the Colonial
Office, given in a despatch (6th July 1862) from the Duke of
Newcastle. In the course of the summer a disposition was
suddenly shown by parties in the Provinces to cultivate acquaint-
ance with each other. Straws show which way the wind
blows. A band of Canadians, led by Thomas d'Arcy M'Gee,
a poet; an orator, and one of the firmest of Unionists, came as
guests to the Lower Provinces, and were hospitably entertained
in Halifax, St. John, Frederickton, and elsewhere. At the table
in the Council Chamber, Frederickton, the Honourable Samuel
L. Tilley, leader of the Government, joined hands with repre-
sentatives of Canada and Nova Scotia, — a significant illustra-
tion of secret thought shaping itself in action.

28. The Canadian Government being apprised of the meeting
of the Conference at Charlottetown, intimated a wish to be
present. An invitation was forwarded to it, and delegates,
comprising its leading members, descended on the island in their
steamer Victoria, and took the representatives of the Mari-
time Provinces present in Charlottetown captive. The idea of
a Legislative Union was dismissed from their minds. The Con-
ference was broken up with the understanding that delegates
from all the Provinces should meet at Quebec to discuss the

greater <|uestion of Confederatipn, From Priwce E'lwArd

THE QUEBEC SCHEME.

431

1864

A.D.

Island the delegates proceeded to Nova Scotia and New Bruns-
wick. Social demonstrations, balls and banquets, marked their
progress, and gave a sentimental impulse to their political pur-
pose. In the beginning of October, the Fi'c^ona, sent back by
the Canadian Governmentj after its members had reached home,
gathered the Maritime delegates on board at Pictou, Charlotte-
town, and Shediac. It might have been a complete pleasure
party but for the lowering skies and strong gales during a part
of the voyage. In the calm of a Sunday forenoon they reached
the ancient capital.

29. On Moo day, the 10th of October, thirty- three represen-
tatives of British North America met in a chamber of

tlie Parliamentary Buildings of Quebec, to discuss the ^q^a*
future political condition of the Provinces. The Cana-
dian Government was there in its full force of twelve
members. The Provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,
Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland, were represented by
leading members of their Governments and Opposition parties.
The Conference sat with closed doors, and continued its delibera-
tions from day to day. When it rose, on the 27th of October, the
Quebec Scheme of Oonfederation was completed. It was
agreed that the different Governments should submit it to the
Houses of Assembly then existing in the Provinces, and carry
it without permitting the least alteration in its form. Until
the time for legislative action arrived the Scheme was not
to be published. Fortunately for public curiosity, one of the
members of the Conference could not keep the secret. The
Scheme appeared in a Prince Edward Island newspaper,
and was quickly in the hands of the people of British North
America.

30. The result of the proceedings of the Conference at
Quebec took the people by surprise, especially those of the
Lower Provinces. But the idea of Union recommended itself
to the judgment and imagination of many. It suggested
strength, gi-owth, and prosperity. It was viewed in various
lights. By some it was looked upon as a political necessity, as
a means of overcoming the difficulties of Government in Canada,
and of enabling the Governments of all the Provinces to com-
biwy ill a m**^uv<^ of defence. The Provinces owed ^ comTnoo

Riaii

m
m

m w
ill

iii

'i'-

432 ADVANTAGES OF CONFEDERATION'.

allegiance to one Sovereign. They were only kept separate hy
tariflFs and custom-houses. If these slight barriers were broken
down, and a General Government were erected as a centre of
authority, they would attain a strong position, and command a
respect which would never be accorded to them as isolated de-

[ pendencies. The idea of a young nationality springing into

life appealed to the imagination. Then the Provinces, in the

; magnificent extent of their fertile territory, in their industrious

\ fi and intelligent population, in the amount of their commerce

r and shipping, possessed the elements of national greatness.

They were necessary to one another. Though their resources
and pursuits were very similar, each of the Provinces pos-

l'»' sessed something in a greater degree than the others. Upper

Canada, in her fertile wheat-growing territory, had the means
of becoming one of the greatest of agricultural countries. Lower
Canada had extensive timber forests and great capabilities of
manufacturing. Nova Scotia had coal and iron; exhaustless
fisheries were common to itself and to New Brunswick. The
latter Province possessed all that the others did, and was famous
for its ship-building besides. By their canal and railway sys-
tems the Canadas possessed great facilities for carrying their pro-
ducts to ports on the St. Lawrence, whence they passed directly
to the sea. But for five mouths every year that river was sealed
with ice. In winter they had no outlet for their exports, no
inlet for their imports, except through the territory and by the
sea-ports of the United States. By constructing the Intercolo-
nial Eailway (which was made a necessary part of the Scheme
of Confederation) they would gain access to the ports along
the extensive sea-coast of the Maritime Provinces, — they would
become independent of foreign countries.

31. Although the general idea of union was acceptable to
very many, yet when the particular Quebec Scheme, made up of
numerous details — some of them open to definite objection — Wtos
presented for acceptance without hope of change or modifica-
tion, many shrank from it. The party opposed to all sudden
change — always pretty strong in every country — swelled the
ranks of the Opposition. War against the Scheme was quickly
raised in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The Confederate
and the Anti-confederate forces joined in battle on the platfoiin,

NEW BRUNSWICK ANTI-CONFEDERATE.

433

in the press, in the store, in the street, — wherever men met
and conversed on the topic of the day.

32. The Oanadian Parliament met on the 3rd of February.
The resolutions passed at the Conference at Quebec

were submitted by Sir Etienne Tache to the Legislative 1865
Council, and by the Hon. J. A. M'Douald to the Legis- a.d.
lative Assembly. In the course of the debates, in which
all the ablest speakers took part, the position of Canada in
the past and in the then present was reviewed, and the pro-
spective advantages of Confederation were set forth. The
union would eflfect a great change with the least disturbance
to the existing state of things. It would establish a General
Government, charged with matters of common interest to the
whole country ; and Local Govenimeuts in each of the Provinces,
charged with all matters of local concern. It was calculated to
satisfy the chief demand of Upper Canada — for representation
by population, as the representation in the General Parliament
was to be based on that piinciple ; and to reassure the French
population of Lower Canada that their laws, language, and re-
ligion would be preserved, as it left to them the full control of
their own affairs in their Local Legislature. Sarly in March
the Canadian Ministry received from New Brunswick the dis-
couraging information that a majority of the electors there had
recorded their votes against the Scheme. The Government acted
with decision, pressed the debate to a close, took the vote of the
Assembly on the resolutions (which stood 91 yeas, 33 nays),
framed an address to the Queen based upon them, and ap-
pointed a delegation, composed of their leading members, to
proceed to England to entreat the Imperial Government to use
its influence to induce New Brunswick to reconsider its decision.

33. The course prescribed at the Quebec Conference, to sub-
mit the Scheme to the then existing Houses of Assembly, was
not carried out in New Brunswick. A general election took
place in March. As already stated, the majority decided
against Confederation. Not a single member of the delegation
was elected. An Anti-confederate Government, under the
leadership of the Hon. A. J. Smith and George L. Hatheway,
was formed, with a strong body of support in the Assembly.

The decision of New Brunswick arrested the action of the
(473) 28

111

il*!' 'I
\m I J

1 1

434

THE TURN OF THE TIDK.

Government of Nova Scotia. It strengthened the Opposition,
of which Joseph Howe commenced to take the lead. It dis-
couraged the few Confederates in Prince Edward Island and
Newfoundland, and the Scheme was there laid aside. Tlie
interest of the Confederate contest was concentrated in New
Brunswick. There the battle was fought. The vanquished
would not accept their crushing defeat as final. Confederation
was still agitated throughout the Province. Within and with-
out, strong influences were brought to bear to break down the
Government. In the Legislature there was divergence of opinion
between the Upper and Lower branches. The Legislative
Council was as strongly Confederate as the Legislative Assembly
was Anti-confederate in sentiment, and conflict ensued. The
Canadian delegates gained the ear of the Imperial Government.
Despatches were sent by the Colonial Secretary, the Hon. Mr.
Oardwell, expressing approval of Confederation. The pressure
thus brought +0 bear upon New Brunswick was very strong
and hard to resist. The tide of opposition to the Scheme was
turned, and commenced to rush in the other direction.

34. The War of Secession had now come to a close by the
vanquishment of the South. On the 9th of April, General Lee
surrendered to General Grant with the army by means of whicli
he had long kept the Northern forces at bay. Eebellion then
nowhere raised its head. The North had wound around it the
folds of military power, and crushed out its life. A deed that
shot a thrill of horror through the civilized world marked the
close of the strife. President Lincoln, in the hour of his supreme
thankfulness that the days of peace had come, was foully assas-
sinated as he sat in his box in a theatre at Washington. The
varying phases of the contest had been watched with sympathy
and interest by the people of British North America, who faith-
fully preserved neutrality. But their peace was at times endan-
gered through the acts of others. Parties from the South found
refuge in Canada, and some of them misused the hospitality
extended to them by organizing raids on the frontiers of the
North. A band of marauders invaded the town of St. Albans
in Vermont, robbed the banks, and committed other excesses ;
then fled back again. The American General Dix made intem-
perate threats of reprisal, which he Wcia fortunately restrained

THE "ALABAMA" DIFFICULTY.

435

from carrying out. The CanadiaD Government, to prevent the
recurrence of similar deeds, called out a large body of militia
to patrol and watch their frontiers. The people of the North
were sorely aggrieved. Their commerce had suffered very
severely from the depredations of the Alabama^ Shenatidoah ,
and other Southern cruisers. They held Great Britain respon-
sible, as some of the privateers had siiiled from British ports.
A correspondence was opened between the Governments of the
two countries with respect to the right of the American people
to demand compensation. The controversy over what were
called the "Alabama" Claims^ remained open for several years,
and created a feeling of painful suspense as to the mode of their
final adjustment.

35. The events of the war tended to break up the close com-
mercial intercourse between the Provinces and the United States.
A notification of its intention to abrogate the Reciprocity
Treaty was given by the Government of the latter country in
1864. In the summer of 1865 the question of its renewal was
discussed at a Trade Convention at Detroit, at which were
present delegates from all the principal cities of the Union and
of the Provinces. Joseph Howe carried his audience with him
when he spoke eloquently of the benefits of reciprocity. The
enthusiasm created passed away with the hour. Acting with
imperial authority, the Governments of the Provinces entered
into negotiations at Washington. But they could not accept
the terms of renewal offered to them, and so the treaty ran to
its close.

36. At this time the Fenian Brotherhood caused alarm.
Ostensibly, it was composed of Irish patriots who had banded
themselves together to revenge the wrongs of their country, and
to overthrow the British Empire. But their ranks were
recruited with lawless desperadoes, who, at the close of the
war, had been let loose to engage in any desperate enterprise.
They boastfully proclaimed their intention to invade Ireland
and to conquer Canada.

' Alabama Claims. — The Court of
Arbitration, consisting of representa-
tives of the Great Powers, met at Geneva
in December 1S71. It gave its award

on 14th December 1872. Great Britain
had consequently to pay to the Govern-
ment of the United States upwards of
£3,250.000.

»ill i '

iiiii '

436

BIEETING OF DELEOATES AT LONDON.

. 3

■J

37. The Legislature of New Brunswick met in the midst of

rather exciting circumstances. Some time previously

1866 rumours had been rife that a decisive step would be taken

A.D. to overcome the opposition to Confederation. Govemti

Gordon, in his opening speech, announced the strong
and deliberate opinion of Her Majesty's Government, that it
was an object much to be desired that all the British North
American Colonies should unite in one Government. A willing-
ness to meet these imperial views was expressed by the Smith
and Hatheway Administration, provided that justice were done
to New Brunswick. They were not allowed to develop their
policy. They were met at the outset with a vote of want of
confidence in their general management of aflfairs, by the
Opposition in the Assembly. The Province, the while, was
(Startled by rumours of invasion. Bands of marauders hover-
ing about the frontier created alarm in the detached settlements.
The 15th Regiment, under Colonel Cole, and a body of volun-
teers, were despatched to Campobello, St. Andrews, and St.
Stephen, to watch the movements of " the Fenians ; " who, how-
ever, dispersed, happily for themselves, without attempting to
invade British soil.

38. The protracted debate was brought to a startling termi-
nation. The Legislative Council passed an address expressing
a desire that the Imperial Government would unite the Prov-
inces under the Quebec Scheme. The Governor replied,
rejoicing to believe that their action would tend to hasten the
desired consummation. The Government was constrained to
resign. Mr. Tilley was called to the head of aflfairs. A general
election followed. The people went as far for Confederation as
formerly they had gone against it. It was carried ; and the
destiny of British North America was decided in New Bruns-
wick. The members of the Nova Scotia Government now took
action. In conjunction with those of Canada and New Bruns-
wick, they appointed delegates to proceed to London to perfect
a measure of union. Joseph Howe, the agent of the Anti-
confederate party, was there to oppose them ; but his powei-s of
argument and rhetoric were expended in \ii.ln. The delegates
of the Provinces met in the Westminster Hotel. The Quebec
Scheme was slightly modified (the subsidies for the Local Govern-

CONKEUKKATION CONSUMMATKI).

437

menttj were increaaed), aud foimed the Constitution embodied
in the " British North America Act/* passed by
the Imperial Parliament on the 29th of March. At March 39.
the same time a Bill (the Canada Eailway Loan
Act), authorizing the Imperial Government to give its gua-
rantee for a loan of £3,000,000 for the constmction of the
Intercolonial Railway, became law.

39. On the 1st of July 1866 the Royal Proclamation was
formally issued, and the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and
New Brunswick were united in one Dominion, under the name
of Canada. Before the close of the year the United Parliament
met in the new buildings at Ottawa. Much had been done ; a
great deal remained to be done before the union should be
completed. Discontent in Nova Scotia had to be stilled ; the
North-West Territory had to be added to the Dominion ; British
Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland to be
broughc into the Union.

QuBSTioMS. — 1. What lesson did the
Provinces of British North America
derive from the example of the United
States? Under what disadvantages were
the Provinces, owing to their 3< pivra-
tionr

2. When was the first scheme of union
suggested? Mention the subsequent
occasions on which the idea had been
revived.

3. When was the first practical step
taken? When was Confederation con-
summated? What part was taken in
the discussion of the question by the
different Provinces ?

4. What events forced the people to
regard Confederation as a serious prac-
tical measure ? What alternative pre-
sented itself to them ?

5. What was the state of parties in
the Canadian Parliament? What effects
had the jealousy of sections?

6. What had been the basis of the
union of the Canadas? What question
was raised in 1851 ?

7. What addition was made to the
representatives in 1853? What change
was made in the constitution of the
Legislative Council in 1856 ? How long
did the new rule last ?

8. What became the favourite dogma
of the Reformers in Upper Canada?
Who was their leader? What were
their expectations ?

9. What was the objection of the
Lower Canadians to representation by
population ? What proposal was made
in order to restore harmony ?

10. What proposal did Mr. Gait make
in 1857? What ministerial changes
took place the following year? What
aroused the rage of the Reformers?

11. What was adopted as the leading
measiire of the Government ? On what
occasion was the subject brought under
the notice of the Colonial Secretary?
What answer was returned ? How was
the proposal regarded in the Maritime
Provinces ?

12. What proposal was made in
1859?

13. Why were the circumstances of
the time at which the proposal of union
was made to the Lower Provinces un-
favourable ?

14. Who complained of the imposi-
tion of the high tariff? Why? Whpt
different views were held on the Free
Trade question ?

15. What was the purpose of the

!!tlt1

i!'!r

Mil?i

11'

438

QUESTIONS.

4; ■'

■ ' r '

'• i

taritfd uf 1858-69? What was thulr in-
direct effect?

10. What two events did the people
of Canada wish to celebrate worthily in
1860? Whom did the Queen depute to
be her representative ?

17. How many years had passed since
royalty had set foot on British North
America?

18. Who accompanied the Prince of
Wales? What cities did ho visit suc-
cessively ?

19. Describe the prosperous condition
of the United States. What questions
divided the country?

20. What was the signal for war?
How many States in all seceded ? What
was the first act of war ? What spirit
(lid the people of the Northern States
show? What led them to determine
on the abi ilition of slavery ?

21. Why was the Royal Proclamation
of neutrality resented by the North?
What strengthened their feeling of ex-
asperation ? What changes in the
governoi iiips of the British Provinces
took plac; in 1861 ?

22. Whatwas the Trent affair? How
was war averted? What steps were
taken to improve the defences of Can-
ada?

23. What ministerial crisis occurred
in Canada at this time ? What impres-
sion did it produce in England?

24. State the different views held by
the Imperial Government and the colo-
nists on the question of defence.

26. What led the Imperial Govern-
ment to favour the Intercolonial Rail-
way project ? What ministerial changes
occurred at this time in Canada?

26. Why was the position of affairs
alarming? How was the threatening
danger avoided ?

27. What was the obje>it of the Char-
lottetowD Conference? What indica-
tions appeared in the m(3antime of a
desire for a wider union ?

28. How was the Charlot&etown Con-

ference broken up ? Whuro was u gQU-
eral Conference arranged to be held ?

29. When did the Quebec Conference
meet? Who attended it? When was
its work completed? What agreement
was made regarding the Scheme?

30. How was the Quebec Scheme re-
ceived? Wluit considerations made the
idea of union generally acceptable?

31. Why did many shrink from the
Quebec Scheme in particular? Where
was the feeling against it strongest ?

32. When was the Scheme submitted
to the Canadian Parliament? What
reasons were urged in support of it?
What discouraging news arrived in
March? How did the Government
act?

33. Where had the Anti-confederato
party its stronghold ? What other
Governments were influenced by the
conduct of New Brunswick? What
turned the tide of opposition ?

34. When did the War of Secession in
the States close ? How had the peacj
of the British Provinces been endan-
gered during the war ? What step did
the Canadian Government take ? How
did the question of the Alabama clainis
arise ?

35. What effect had the war on com-
merce ? What question was discussed
at the Detroit Trade Convention ?

36. What was " the Fenian Brother-
hood " ? How did it cause alarm ?

37. What announcement was made
by Governor Gordon to the New Bruns-
wick Legislature ? How was the Smith
and Hatheway Administration over-
thrown? W^hat rumours meanwhile
startled the Province ?

38. How did the protracted debato
terminate ? What state of public feel-
ing did the general election show?
Where and when was the measure of
union perfected? What other Bill at
the same time became law ?

39. What Provinces originally formed
the Dominion of Canada?

APPENDIX.

NOTES OF FBINCIPAL EVENTS SINCE CONFEDEBATION.

1. Viscount Monck held the position of first Governor-General of
the Dominion until November 1868, when he was succeeded by Sir
John Young (Lord Lisgar). In the first year after Confederation,
Sir N. F. Belleau was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec ; and
Major-General Hastings Doyle, of Nova Scotia. Military officers ad-
ministered the Governments of the two other Provinces until 9th of
July 1868, whon the Hon. W. Howland was appointed Lieutenant-
Governor of Ontario ; and Hon, L. A. Wilmot, of New Brunswick.

2. The first Privy Council was constituted as follows, viz.,—

President Hon. A. F. J. Blair.

Minister of Justice Hon. Sir John A. M 'Donald.

Secretary of State Hon. H. S. Langeoui.

Minister of Finance Hon. John Rose.

Minister of Public Works Hon. "W. M'Dougall.

Postmaster- General Hon. Alexander Campbell.

Minister of Agriculture Hon. J. C. Chapais.

Eeceiver-Oeneral Hon. E. Renny.

Minister of Alilitia Sir G. E. Cartier.

Minister of Customs Hon. S. L. TiUey.

Minister of Inland Revenue Hon. W. P. Howland.

Minister of Marine and Fisheries ...Hon. P. Mitchell.

3. In the earliest hour of the 7tb of April, the Hon. d'Arcy M'OoQ
was tracked from the Parliament Buildings, and shot dead as he ..« .
was entering his hotel. The deed cast a gloom over Parliament, ^ j^
and over the Dominion. Imposing obsequies marked the sense

of national bereavement. Generous sympathy was extended to the
widow and family of the murdered statesman. M'Gee was one of the
foremost advocates of Confederation ; but his political course awakened,
it is to be feared, the rancorous hostility of a party of his coimtrymen

'»

440

MANITOBA.

1 O.'

1869

A.D.

1870

A.D.

'/f ' i

whose sympathiea were with the enemies of Great Britain. Patrick
Whelan was arrested, convicted, and executed for th3 crime.

4. Agitation for the rep'ial of the union of the Provinces in Nova
Scotia. Sir J. A. M 'Donald, Premier of the Dominion Government,

opened correspondence with Hon. Joseph Howe, with a view
to conciliation. Arrangements subsequently made by which
Nova Scotia obtained better ^nancial terms. The amount of
its debt assumed by the Dominion was increased from $8,000,000 to
$9,186,756, and an additional annual subsidy for ten years and the
cost of the new Provincial Buildings granted to it. Mr. Howe entered
the Dominion Government, and was appointed President of the Execu-
tive Council. He gained his reelection after a violent contest.

5. Negotiations with the Hudson Bay Compary, for the cession of
the North-West Territory to the Dominion, brought to p. close.
The Company obtained in compensation $1,500,000 in money,
grants of land around their posts equal to 50,000 acres in all, a

right to a twentieth part of the land laid out for settlement south of
the northern branch of the Saskatchewan River, and retained all its
privileges of trade.

6. A new Piovince — Manitoba — organized in the Red River Country
(the seat of the Selkirk Settlement), and added to the Dominion. It is
represented in Parliament by two members in the Senate and four in
the House of Commons. An annual subsidy of $30,000, and 80 cents
a head on a population computed at 17,000, granted to it. A local
Legislature, consisting of a Lieutenant-Governor (aided by an Exec-
utive Council of five oaembers), a Legislative Council of seven mem-
bers, and a House of Assembly of twenty-four members, was consti-
tuted. The government of the North-West Territory was attached to
that of Manitoba, and was conducted by the Lieutenant-Governor and
eleven memb'^rs of Council, subsequently increased to twenty-two.
The organization of this new British Province was opposed by a party
in the settlement. Kiel, a young French Canadian, and others, usurped
the government at Fort Garry, and carried affairs with a high hand.
The murder of Scott, an Upper Canadian, by this band of conspirators
excited great indignation throughout the Dominion. The Hon. William
M'Dougall, Lieutenant-Governor, on entering the Pro^'ince was met
by Riel and his band, and forced to retire to Pembina, in the United
States. The British Government asserted its sovereignty over Mani-
toba ; the Red River Expedition, composed of British regulars and
Canadian militia, under Lieutenant-Colonel Wolseley, 'accompanied by
a large party of boatmen, voyageurs, and Indians, left Thunder Bay,
on Lake Superior, in June, and reached Fort Garry in August. Riel

' Lieutenant -Colonel H'olseley. — As
General Sir GarnetWolseley he in 1873-
74 commanded in the Ashantee War,

which he successfully brought to a
close. For hi? services he received the
thauks of Parliament.

THE WASHINGTON TREATY.

441

1871

A.D.

and hk Couucil fled, as the advanced companies of the 60th Kitles,
under Colonel Fielding, entered the fort. Hon. A. G, Archibald was
afterwards appointed Lieutenant-Governor.

7. In May^ the Fenians put in execution frequent previous threats
of invading Canada. Parties assembled at points upon the frontier.
One of them, crossing the line, marched a few miles into Lower Canada,
but was checked by some companies of British soldiers and Canadian
militia, and hastily retreated. The ** General," O'Neill, did not ac-
company it, but was quietly captured by the United States Marshal.
Wlien the trouble was over, the United States President issued a proc-
lamation, forbidding American citizens to take part in forays against
a friendly nation. The British Government hastily thanked him for
his prompt action.

8. Joint High Commission, composed of plenipatentiaries appointed
by the Governments of Great Britain and the United States (on
which the Hon. J. A. M'Donald represented the interests of
Canada), met at Washington on 27th February, to settle ques-
tions at issue between the two countries respecting the Alabama claims,
fisheries, Sar Juan boundary, the claims of C^anada on account of
Fenian raids, and other matters. The treaty was concluded on the 8th
of May. The articles from 18 to 34, both inclusive, refer to Canadian
interests. By their terms, American citizens were admitted to shore
and coast fisheries of British North America, and British subjects to
coast fisheries of United States ; a compensation in money to be paid
to Canada in consideration of the superior value of the privilege it con-
ceded — commissioners to be appointed to determine the amount ; fish
and fish-oil to be mutuallj' admitted free in the T^^Hed States and
Canada ; the navigation of the canals of Canada, of the United States
St. Clair Canal, and of Lake Michigan, to be reciprocally thrown
open, and the privilege of passing goods arriving at any port in United
States or Canada in bond through the respective countries mutually
granted. Trans-shipment of goods from port to port on the American
side of the Great Lakes granted to Canada ; but the privilege was made
contf^-^nt on the abrogation, by the Legislature of New Brunswick,
of the oxport duty' on American timber floated down the St. John.
The dispute regarding the San Juan boundary was referred to the
German Emperor for arbitration.

9. Great dissatisfaction manifested in the Dominion at the surrender
of fishery rights to the United States for inadequate compensation,
and at the non-settlement of the claims of Canada for the Fenir.n
raids.

m-'i v

* Br port duty. — In 1873 tne Do- export duty, which had previously been
minlonParliameDt granted New Brum- one of its chief independent sources of
wick $150,000 per annum iu lieu of this local revenue.

J?'

442

P.AlLWAV PKOJECTS.

1872

A.D.

10. British Columbia, including Vancouver Island,' entered the
Dominion on the 20th of July. It is represented in the Dominion
Parliament by three members in the Senate ai?d six members in the
House of Commons. Its debt was computed at $1,666,200, on a popu-
lation of 60,000 ; and it receives five per cent, interest on the difference
between its actual indebtedness and that amount, besides 80 cents a head
on its population, and an annual grant of $35,000. The construction
of a line of railway from the Pacific coast to be connected with the rail-
v;ay system of Canada, and its completion within ten years, constituted
one of the terms of union — the Province to grant an extent of land
twenty miles in breadth on each side of the line, and running the en-
tire length of the line in its territory, and receiving in compensation
$100,000 per annum from the Government. Surveys to ascertain the
best route for the railway commenced. First census of the Dominion
taken.

11. Acts passed during this the last session of the first Parliament
of Canac'a, to give effect to clauses of Washington Treaty relat-
ing to fisheries, &c. In consideration of the abandonment of
the Fenian raid claims, the British Government, in order to

aid the Dominion Government, guaranteed a loan of $2,500,000, and
also allowed a former guarantee of $1,100,000 for fortifications ($3,600,000
in all, out of a total loan of $5,000,000) to stand.

12. Two railway companies—** the Canada-Pacific," president, Sir
Hugh Allan; and *'the Inter-Oceanic," president, Senator M'Phersoii
— were incorporated. An Act passed authorizing the Government to
give the contract to make the Pacific Railway to either company,
or to the two companies amalgamated, or to a company distinct from
either ; and to give to any company undertaking to make the road a
subsidy of $30,000,000, and a grant of 5,000,000 acres in alternate blocka
along the line of railway.

13. In June, Earl Dulferin succeeded Sir John Young (Lord Lisgar)
as Governor-General. General election held throughout the Dominion
from 15th July to 12th October. In Ontario and Quelc j, fierce struggle
for power.

14. In the course of this year the award of the German Emperor, as
arbitrator under the Washington Treaty, was made known. His Maj esty
gave his decision in favour of the Haro Strait as forming the boundary
line between the possessions of Great Britain and the United States,
thus giving to the latter Power the possession of San Juan and other

islands in the Western Archipelago.

15. First session of second Parliament. Charter granted on
19th February to a new *' Canada Pacific Railway Company;"

1873

A.D.

-'<*,■«

' British Columbia . . . Vancouver Isl-
and. — These two Provinces, at first

under separate Governments, had been
unit«d in IbtiO.

THE PACIFIC SCANDAL.

443

president, Sir Hugh Allan, and a board of directors of seventeen
members, composed of soioe of the leading promoters of the two
former companies, and of representative men from all the Provinces in
the Dominion.

16. Grave charges preferred by Mr. Huntingdon, member for Shef-
ford, against the Dominion Government ; the gravamen being that the
contract for the Pacific Railway was given to Sir Hugh All ai, with
whom were associated certain American capitalists, in consideration
of a large sum of money advanced to leading members of the Govern-
ment, to enable them to carry elections in Quebec and Ontario. The
charges referred to a Committee for investigation. The " Oaths Bill "
passed, to enable members of Committee to examine witnesses under
oath. Awaiting the Report of the Committee, the Parliament rose in
June, with the understanding that it should meet for prorogation on the
13th of August.

17. In the course of early summer, Canada lost two of her foremost
men. Sir George Etienne Cartier, leader of the French Canadian
party, died in London on the 27th of May. The Dominion undertook
the cost of the imposing ceremonies with which his remains were
buried at Montreal. The Hon. Joseph Howe, a few days after having
been appointed Governor^ of his native Province, died at Government
House, Halifax, on Sunday the 1st of June.

18. Prince Edward Island became a Province of Canada on the
Ist of July, Dominion-Day. The auspicious occasion was celebrated
with great rejoicing at Charlottetown. By the terms of union, the
island has representation in the Dominion Parliament by four mem-
bers in the Senate, and six members in the House of Commons. Its
debt was computed at $4,701,050, and it receives interest at five per
cent, on the difference between its actual debt and this amount. It
also receives a subsidy of 80 cents a head on a population of 94,221,
and a grant of $30,000 per annum, and $45,000 per annum, less interest,
on any sum not exceeding $800,000 advanced by the Dominion to
enable the Island Government to purchase lands held by large pro-
prietors.

19. The Governor -General and Countess Dufferin made a tour
through the Maritime Provinces. His Excellency, as the representa-
tive of the Sovereign, was everywhere received with warm demonstra-
tions of loyalty.

20. In the course of the summer, letters were published by the press
that seemed to bear out the charges of corruption preferred by Mr.
Huntingdon against the Government. The ''Pacific Scandal" created

I if?

* Governor. — The position of Lieuten-
ant-Governor of NovaScotiawas offered
to Hun. Judge James Johnstone, but

failing health compelled him to decline
the honour. He died in November
1873.

444

THK M*KENZIE ADMINISTRATION.

intense excitement throughout the Dominion. In the meanlime the
Imperial Government had disallowed the *' Oaths Bill," and the Com-
mittee of Investigation was at a stand-still. The Grovemor-General
left Halifax for Ottawa to prorogue Parliament on the 13th of August.
At the meeting, ninety-two members signed an address to his Excel-
lency, prajdng that he would not prorogue until after a strict investi-
gation of the charges against the Government had been made by the
House. His Excellency, after fully stating his reasons for not acced-
ing to the request, prorogued the Parliament on the day appointed.

21. Royal Commission, composed of three members — Judges — ap-
pointed to examine witnesses under oath on the charges. Parliament
met again on the 23rd of October. Sir Hugh Allan resigned his contract
for the Pacific Railway. Mr. M'Eenzie, member for Lambton, leader
if the Opposition, moved a vote of want of confidence in the Govern-
ment. Government resigned before close of debate. Mr. M'Kenzie
was called upon by the Governor-General to form a new Adminis-
tration.
22. House of Commons dissolved during recess on 2nd Jan-

1874

A.D.

uary, and general election ensued.

THE CONSTITUTION.

1. In order to exhibit the change made in the Government of the
Provinces by Confederation, it is necessary to give an outline of the
Constitution as established by the "British North America Act,"
which is now in force.

2. The four Provinces of Ontario (Upper Canada), Quebec (Ijower
Canada), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were constituted the
Dominion of Canada. Their seat of General Government was fixed at
Ottawa, and the Provincial seats respectively at Toronto, Quebec,
Halifax, and Frederickton. To these four senior Provinces were after-
wards added, — Prince Edward Island, British Columbia, and Mani-
toba, whose seats of Government are Charlottetown, Victoria, and
Winnipeg.

3. The Ezecntive Authority over Canada is vested in the Queen.
It is administered by the Governor-General, the duly authorized repre-
sentative of the Sovereign. He is aided and advised by a body styled
the Privy Council, the members of which are summoned to their places
by him. The command of all naval and military forces is vested in
the Queen.

4. The Privy Council is composed of thirteen members, namely, the
President, the Ministers of Justice, Militia, Customs, Finance, Marine

THE CON xITUTION.

445

and Fisheries, Inland Revenue, Agriculture, and Public Worlcs, the
Postmaster-General, the Receiver-General, the Secretary of State for
the Provinces, and the Secretary of State for Canada.

5. The Legislative Power is vested in a Parliament, consisting of
the Queen, through her representative the Governor-General, the
Senate, and the House of Commons.

6. The Senate consisted at first of seventy-two (72) members, twenty-
four (24) for each of the three divisions, — Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia
and New Brunswick. The number was afterwards increased, in con-
sequence of the entrance of Prince Edward Island, British Columbia,
and Manitoba into the Confederation.

7. The members of the Senate are appointed by the Crown (that is,
by the Governor-General in Council, by an instrument under the Great
Seal of Canada), and hold their seats for life, subject to forfeiture if
they take an oath of allegiance to a foreign jwwer, if they are attainted of
treason or are convicted of crime, if they become bankrupt, or cease to
hold the necessary qualifications of property and residence. A person,
to be qualified for a Senator, must be of the full age of thirty years, a
natural-bom subject of the Queen, or a subject naturalized by an Act
of the Imperial Parliament or of a Provincial Legislature; he must
reside in the Province (if an inhabitant of Quebec, in the district) for
which he is appointed, and be possessed of landed property of the value
of $4,000, and of real and personal estate to a like amount.

8. The Speaker, or presiding officer of the Senate, is appointed by
the Governor-General. He otes on all questions : in cases where the
voices are equal, he always gives a negative vote.

9. The House of Commons, a^s o ginally constituted, consisted of
one hundred and eighty-one (181) merilbers : eighty-two (82) for Onta-
rio; for Quebec, sixty-five (65); for Nova Scotia, nineteen (19); for
New Brunswick, fifteen (15). By the entrance of the three junior
Provinces, and by the adjustment of the representation according to
the census of 1871, the number of members has been increased to two
hundred and six (206).

10. The number of Members may from time to time be increased by
Parliament, provided each Province receive its proportionate repre-
sentation. Sixty -five (65) is the fixed number for Quebec, —no addi-
tion will be made to it; and each of the Provinces receives, and will
receive, such a number as bears the same ratio to its population as the
number sixty-five bears to the population of Quebec. The House of
Commons continues for a term of five years, unless sooner dissolved by
the Governor-General It elects its Speaker, who presides at all its
meetings. He only votes in cases where the voices are equaL Either
the English or the French language may be used in debate in Parlia-
ment. The proceedings are recorded in both languages.

11. Appropriation of Revenue.— Bills to appropriate the public reve-

I !i'

iii»

I ii

4W!fti 1

w
m
m

44G

THE CONSTITUTION.

!^'

nue, or to impose taxation, originate in the House of Commons. They
must first be recommended by a message from the Governor-General.

12. Bills. — The Governor-General has discretionary power to give or
Avithhold, in the Queen's name, his assent to Bills, and to reserve them
for the signification of Her Majesty's pleasure, which may be given
within two years. The Governor-General communicates the fact of
the royal assent or disallowance, as soon m he receives notification of it,
by message to the Houses of Parliament.

13. Powers of Parliament. — Parliament has exclusive jurisdiction
over the public debt and property; trade and commerce; the raising
of moneys by taxation, by loan, and on the public credit ; the postal
service ; the militia, military, and naval services ; the census and statis-
tics; salaries of officials; navigation, shipping, fisheries; over every-
thing relating to money, — banks, banking, currency, coinage, interest ;
over bankruptcy and insolvency; marriage and divorce; criminal law;
public works, railways and canals, steamboat lines, telegraphs. In
common with the Local Legislatures, Parliament has jurisdiction over
agriculture and immigration. Where there is common jurisdiction, its
laws control, and, when they clash, supersede those of the local bodies.

14. Provincial Constitutions. — A Lieutenant-Governor is appointed
for each Province, who holds office for a term of five years, unless he is
sooner removed for cause assigned. The api ointment is vested in the
Governor-General in Council.

15. Ontario has a Legislature, consisting of the Lieutenant-Governor
and a Legislative Assembly of eighty-two (82) members.

16. Quebec has a Legislature consisting of the Lieutenant-Governor,
a Legislative Council of twenty-four (24) members, and a Legislative
Assembly of sixty-five (65) members.

17. The Constitution of the Legislatures of Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick remain as they existed previous to Confederation. The
Provinces of Prince Edward Island, British Columbia, and Manitoba
have each a Local Legislature of three branches.

18. Bills passed by the Local Legislatures are subject to disallow-
ance by the Governor-General within a year after their passing.

19. The Local Legislatures may make laws in relation to such
matters as amendment of the Constitution of the Provinces ; direct taxa-
tion ; borrowing money on the credit of the Provinces ; the establish-
ment and tenure of provincial offices ; the payment of provincial offi-
cers ; the management and sale o' lands belonging to the Provinces ;
prisons and reformatories; hospitals and asylums; municipal institii-
tl@ji)|U. local works ; solemnization of marriage ; property and civil
rlg^h^igAdministration of justice ; and education, with certain reserva-
tionstMMj^tect the right to maintain separate schools of the Catholic
and Protestant bodies in Quebec and Ontario.

20. Appointment of Judges,— The Goyemor-General in Council np-

TXTERNAL PROGRESS OF CANADA.

447

points all the Judges of the Superior, District, and County Courts.
The Judges hold office during good behaviour, are paid by the General
(jrovemment, and will continue to be selected from the bars of the
respective Provinces until their laws are assimilated.

21. The General Oovemment takes charge of the duties and revenues
collected in the several Provinces : these form one consolidated Revenue
Fund, from which the charges of the public service are paid. It
assumes, to a specified extent, the debts of the Provinces, and pays
certain annual sums, subsidies, and extraordinary grants for the sup-
port of their Local Governments.

22. Fnblio Works and Property, as canals, harbours, light-houses,
steamboats, railways, and railway stocks, custom-houses, post-offices,
and armouries belong to Canada. Lands, mines and minerals, and
the revenue derived from them, belong to the Provinces.

23. Free Trade exists among all the Provinces of the Dominion, in
all articles of their growth and manufacture.

DTTEBNAL FEOOSESS OF CANADA— 1492-1867 A.D.

First Period.— Canada a Wilderness.
Second Period.— Canada a French Colony.
Third Period.^ Canada a British Colony.
Fourth Period.— Canada at peace.

1. A sketch of the history cf Canada has been given during four
periods, namely : —

I. The Period of Discovery, 1492-1583 a.d.

II. The Period of Exploration and War, 1600-1760 a.d.

III. The Period of Political Strife and Change, 1761-1840 a.d.

IV. The Period of Responsible Government, 1841-1867 a.d.

It may be important, in order to gain a general idea of the progress
made by Canada, to make a rapid review of its internal state during
these several periods.

I. THE PERIOD OP DISCOVERY, 1492-1583 A.D.

2. At the time of the discovery of America Canada was an un-
broken wilderness, on whose skirts dwelt tribes of savages. The trees
of the forests ; the soil beneath them ; the minerals ; the wild animals
— the moose, the bear, the beaver, the otter, the fox, the sab^e ; the
fish in stream, river, lake, and gulf — the trout, the salmon, the
mackerel, the herring, the cod — were its natural resources. It wa.s
not a cpuiitfy where Nature produced fruits fit for food spontaneously,

. . J. J. , -,

448

INTERNAL PROGRESS OP CANADA.

where men could live in indolence. The climate was at some seasons
rigorous, but it was on the whole genial and bracing. It was a country
fitted to make the people who first attempted to settle in it bold, ad-
venturous, hardy, but disinclined to steady industry : the savage
denizens gave them no peace, and left them no option but to become
soldiers; the necessities of living made them hunters and fishers.
Their life was reduced to the rudest elemfuts.

r. THE PERIOD OP EXPLORATION AND WAR, 1600-1760 A.D.

3. For more than a century, from the foundation of Fort Boyal and
1 flniv_i 71 1 ^^^^^^^ *® *^® Peace of Utrecht, the progress made by Canada

was very slow. Agriculture was conducted without system
and with the rudest of implements. The manure whicli
should have fertilized the soil was carte<l by the inhabitants to the
frozen river, and was swept away by the spring freshets. Wheat and
com were raised in quantities not more than sufficient for the sustenance
of the colony. Under the vigorous »way of the Intendant Talon some
improvement was made in the mode of agriculture ; the cultivation of
hemp and flax and the domestic manufacture of cloths were encouraged.
But after his departure i, Canada, amidst the excitement and horrors of
perpetual Indian wars, relapsed into its former condition. The Fur-
trade was its chief industry. Rich cargoes of peltries were brought
to Montreal from the region of the Great Lakes, whose natural outlet
was the River St. Lawrence. The English sought to divert this trade
tu New York, by way of the Hudson River. T'he rivalry provoked
wax. The competition between the two conmiercial routes never
ceased. It grew keener with the increase of trade, and with the
improvement of the means of transportation. The value of fui-s
exported in a good year was 550,000 francs. The population of
Canada in 1713 was 20,000 souls.

4. In Acadie, up to the time when it became a British Province
under the name of Nova Scotia, progress was equally slow. The
few inhabitants were more addicted to the wild life of the woods
than to the sober toil of the fields. They took advantage of the

natural fertility of the marshes, and diked them in from the tides of
the Bay of Fundy ; but they neglected the cultivation of the uplands.
1 AftA Eighty-two years after the founding of Port Royal, the popula-
tion of Acadie, — including the settlement of Port Royal, and
those of Minas, Chigpiecto, Cape Sable, St. John River, Passara-
aquoddy, Miramichi, Nepisiguit, — '.was eight hundred and fifteen
settlers. At the time vrhen Acadie ceased to be a French colony its
population was not over 20,000.

6. Education in those days was possessed by the few. The Jesuit
Fathers kept the lamp of learning burning in the wilderness.' In the
college at Quebec, and in the seminaries of Montreal, were educated

1674

A.D.

1711
A.D.

SECOND PERIOD.

449

1764-60

A.D.

the young men destined for the prieathood, and the youth of both
sexes of the ujjper ranks. The body of the i^ople had hardly any
school instruction.

G, Canada, during the peace that followed the Treaty of Utrecht,
advanced faster than it had previously done. In forty yeanj the
popidation increased from 20,000 to 60,000. Its commerce grew in im-
portance. In 1754, a prosperous year, its exports of furs, seal-oil,
timber, flour, and pease were valued at $350,000 ; its imports, at a little
over £1,000,000, leaving the balance of trade gi-eatly against the
Province. Thirty-three vessels were then engaged in the canying-
trade. Ten ve«soLs, of lrrmi"lon~lo' a IniiTclrecl tons, ^vere built. The
money in circulation came, in a great part, from the salaries, stipends,
and pay of the Governor-General and the high officials, of
the priesthood, and of the officers and soldiers. During the
war, the Government of France expended large sums ; but
they did not enrich the country, they were spent in military oi)era-
tions, and were partly embezzled by fraudulent officials. Canada was
banteupt at the Conquest.

7. The progress of Nova Scotia under British rule was not very
perceptible until after the founding of Halifax. By that event,
and the evacuation of Louisburg, and the settlement of Lunen-
burg, the population was increased by 3,000 people. At least as
many of the primitive Acadians v/ere expelled five years later.
num})er returned after the peace, but how many has not been
exactly ascertained. Some time afterwards a census was taken.
The population was then officially stated to be 2,775 families, or
9,789 persons. The foundations of its agricultural, manufacturing, and
fishery interests were then laid. Its people possessed 292 square-
rigged and other vessels ; 45 grist, saw, and hemp mills : manu- noQ
factured 1,132,184 feet of deal boards; and caught and cured a.d.
11,929 quintals and 10,000 barrels of cod fish.

III. THE PERIOD OP POLITICAL STHIFE AND CHANGE, 1761-1840 A.D.

8. From the commencement of British rale, Canada made decided
advances in population, agriculture, and commerce. The change from
an arbitrary and oppressive to a mild and just form of Government
was felt. The people were not ground down by the harsh exactions of
a corrupt Intendant, nor compelled to perform unpaid military service.
They were left at peace to devote themselves to the cultivation of their
fields. They increased in number fast ; and raised quantities of wheat
and com for exportation. Agricnltore was chiefly in the hands of the
French Canadians. Commerce was controlled by the British, who
formed tilie small minority of the population. Canada early felt the
impress of their intelligence and energj'. But several causes — the an-
tipathies of race, the sectional jealousies of Upper and Lower Canada,

(473) 29 *

1749

A.D.

1764

A.D.

"■}M

460

INTERNAL PROGRESS OP CANADA.

1811

A.D.

1829

A.D.

and continued bitter political strife — retarded its progress, decided aa
was its advancement compared with that made under French rule.

9. Eduoation : Colleges and Superior Schools.— In all tlie Provinces
lann-ioaA *^^ establishment of Colleges and Grammar Schools precede<l

^^ that of Common Schools. In Lower Canada, besides the
provision made for superior education in the anciuut
Colleges of Quebec and [Montreal, "Industrial and Classical Semi-
naries " were established, under the sole direction of the Catholic
Clergy, in b'^veral of the counties. The Hon. James M'Gill, a
merchant of ivlontreal, bequeathed funds to found a Protestant
Institution in that city. His will was contested. It was not
until eighteen years afterwards that M'Gill College was in-
corporated by Royal Charter, and opened to students. It long
remained in an incomplete state.

10. In Upper Canada the Legislature early contemplated the founda-
tion of a College at Toronto. The scheme met the ajjproval of the Duke
of Portland, then Colonial Secretary, who recommended that half a
million of acres of land should be reserved for its support. But the

project was not carried out for thirty years. King's College was
. j^ then established by Royal Charter. A thousand pounds a year

was granted by the Imperial Government to provide fimds for
the erection of suitable buildings. An endowment of land was also
bestowed on it. It was placed under the direction of the clergy of
the Church of England. Great objections were raised by the other
sects to its exclusive character.

11. At first, owing to the scattered state of the settlements, and to
the difficulty of intercommunication, public schools could hardly be
maintained. Classical education was given in private academies,
conducted chiefly by clergymen, in Cornwall, Kingston, York, Nia-
gara, Ancaster, and other places. The first attempt to estab-
lish Grammar Schools failed. Eight were afterwards erected,
one in each of the eight districts into which the Province was
divided. They were not well supported. The farmers were pre-
judiced, and looked upon them as institutions for the benefit

of the upper class.

12. In Nova Scotia, provision was made for superior education bj' the
establishment of an Academy at Windsor. It was soon erected
into a Royal Chartered College, with the Archbishop of Canter-
bury for its patron, and niembers of the Church of England for its

directors. Students of all other sects were excluded by religious tests.

The exclusiveness of Windsor incited other sects to establish their own
colleges, and led to a multiplication of such institutions far beyond
the wants of the Province. The Presbyterian College of Picton
was founded. It received legislative aid, but languished for

want of popular supx.ort. Dalhousie College, Halifax, was established

1795

A.D.

1807

A.D.

1787

A.D.

1816

A.D.

TllIIlD PERIOD.

451

1811

A.1).

1829

A.D.

for the especial benefit of students against whom the halls of Windsor
were closed. The greater proportion of the money for its erection and
maintenance was taken out of the Castine Fund/ The Earl of Dal-
housie laid the corner-stone of the building. For many years the Prov-
ince was not able to support the institution in a suitable man-
ner. Grammar Schools were established in the seven counties
and the three districts into which the Province was then divided.

13. Six or seven years after New Brunswick hod become a separate
Province, Orammar Schools were erected in its eight original counties, —
St. John, York, Sunbury, Charlotte, King's, Queen's, Northumberland,
and Westmoreland. A College was also founded in Frederickton, ^^
and was endowed with land and with an annual grant of money. rzT
Quarter of a century afterwards the governor and trustees sur-
rendered its charter, in order that it might be placed on a better foun-
dation. The Bishop of Nova Scotia exerted his influence to prevent
its receiving a Royal Charter, as he was anxious that Windsor College
should become the University of the Provinces ; but he was unsuccess-
ful. On the 1st of January, King's College, New Brunswick,
was opei.ed by its stanch patron and first Chancellor, Sir
Howard Douglas. On that occasion he founded the Donglas
gold medal, as a prize for English composition, to remain as an in-
centive to virtue and learning, and as a permanent token of his regard
and good washes. The College was under the management of the
Bishop, clergy, and members of the Church of England ; but, in order
to draw towards it students of all sects, religious tests were abolished.

14. Common-School Education. — During this period nothing was
done systematically in Lower Canada to promote the education of the
people, though, according to the testimony of persons well qualified to
judge, it was impossible to exaggerate the want of it among them.
As Upper Canada became more thickly settled, the desire of the
people for means of instruction increased. Common schools
were established by law, and received Grovemment support.
Education was then placed under the direction of a Board ; but
no proper supervision was maintained over the schools. Their
state was very similar to that of the common schools of Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick. There, year after year, complaints were
made of the apathy of parents, of the irregular attendance of the
children, of the wretched buildings used as school-houses, and of the too
frequent moral and intellectual incompetence of the teachers, who, as
a body, were degraded in popular esteem, by reason of the system and
the scale of remuneration, which very generally deterred persons of re-
spectable standing from adopting the calling.

1816

A.D.

1823

A.D.

i 1

•m

^ Castine Fund. — In the course of the
war 01 1812, the port of Castine, on
the Penobscot, was captured hy the

British, who, during their occupation,
levied customs-duties, which formed
the fund in question.

452

INTERNAL PROGRESS OP CANADA.

. ? '*''!.

15. lutemal Commttnioation.— The labour and the cost of opening
tip the wiUleruoHs of the Provinces were very great. The first British
settlers were exposed to hardships and suffered privations of which
the people of the present day have small conception. Now the waggon,
on easy springs, bowls over macadamized roads ; the locomotive, with
its train of cars, speeds over the smooth lines of rail ; and the steam-
boat, in spite of wind and tide, makes its way up and down river, and
across lake, gulf, and sea. Roads and mail routes now penetrate to
the farthest settlements. The telegraph flashes intelligence between
the most distant places. By its means the Provinces are connected
with one another and with all the world. Ninety >8arR ago, as late as
the middle of this, our third period, the British settlers in Canada
found themselves isolated in the wilderness. Their children grew up
in ignorance. They could not reach their nearest neighbours, nor carry
their produce to market ; and for a time there was no market to which
to carry it. When settlements became connected with one another, the
rough corduroy roads were almost impassable in spring, and after
heavy falls of rain. Winter was the season of brisk travel in sleighs
over the snow tracks, the time for hauling loads of wood, and supplies
of flour, pork, and molasses.

16. Beads and Bridges were the prime necessity of the country.
They were the public works in which all the people were interested.
The Legislatures of all the Provinces aided their construction by an-
nual grants, which were distributed among the several counties. A
representative could not better show his zeal for his constituency than
by obtaining a large share of this road money. It was not always
judiciously spent ; but, on the whole, good roads were made by this
moans.

17. Navigation : Canals.— The Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence
were navigated in open boats and bateaux up to the year 1790. Then sail-
vessels — sloops and schooners — made their appearance there, and on the
St. John and other large rivers in New Brunswick, and carried pas-
sengers and freight. The passages they made were of uncertain dura-
tion. The first steamboat appeared on Canadian waters in 1809.
"The Accommodation" plied between Montreal and Quebec. It was
superseded by the more efficient ** Swiftsore" just before the breaking
out of the war of 1812.

18. The St. Lawrence, above Montreal, was obstructed by numerotis
falls and rapids. The necessities of a growing commerce demanded

that the river should be made navigable for vessels of con-
siderable burden. The Americans constructed a ship canal
between Lake Erie and the Hudson River. The trade of
northern New York and Vermont, which had previously sought an out-
let by the St. Lawrence, was diverted by it to the port of New York.
The feeling of rivalry impelled the Legislatures of the two Canadas to

1817-24

A.D.

FOURTH PERIOD.

453

1821-25

A.D.

1824-40

A.D.

take action ; but sectional jealousies prevented its being combined and
efficient.

19. In Lower Canada, the Laohine Canal was made, to overcome the
obstacles of the rapids, and to connect Lake St. Louis with
th Harbour of Montreal. In Upper Canada, the Welland
Joint Stock Company was formed, with a capital of only
$150,000, to construct a canal to connect Lakes Erie and On-
tario. The Welland Canal was finished on a small scale at
the close of this period, at a cost of $162,300. Its promoters en-
countered numberless difficulties, and had to apply to the Legislature
for aid. At this time the Eideau Canal from Kingston to Ottawa was
constnicted at the expense of the Imperial Government.

20. Population. — It is hardly possible to ascertain quite correctly the
()opulation of the British North American Provinces at the close of
this period. But there were then in Canada about 1,090,000 people
(of whom 625,000 were inhabitants of the Lower, and 401,000 of the
Upper Province) ; 200,000 in Nova Scotia; 154,000 in New Brunswick;
and 47,000 in Prince Edward Island. Their combined revenues
amounted to about $1,700,000. The amount of their shipping may be
computed at 2,500,000 tons. Generally, it may be said that they then
had attained a not unimportant position as agricultural, lumbering, and
tihip-building countries.

IV. THE PERIOD OP RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT, 1841-1867 A.D.

21. Canada during this time made remarkable advances in internal
reform. Troublous constitutional questions, and those of the Feudal
Tenure and the Clergy Reserves, were finally settled. The education of
the people was placed on a firm basis. The canal system was completed.
The foundation of the railway system was extensively laid. Municipal
Institutions were established in the two Canadas, which gave the
people control over the local affairs of their cities, towns, villages, and
townships. They were directly taxed to maintain schools, roads,
bridges, and a number of other services. A great deal of mere local
business was thus taken out of the jurisdiction of the Legislatures, and
the public revenues of the Provinces were relieved.

22. Education : Colleges and Superior Schools.— In Lower Canada,
after the Union, the Collegiate system was extended. The ancient
Seminary of Quebec was erected into the University of Laval, and a
number of additional Industrial and Classical Seminaries were
established throughout the Province. M 'Gill College was placed v^
on a new foundation, and became a University. Tt was opened

to students of all denominations, and entered on a career of great use-
fulness. It received no endowment from the Province, but was sup-
ported by private munificence.

23. In Upper Canada the unpopular King^s College was mtfrged In

;i!'
iV

4ttN ■

«;

i i

>(^:

454

INTERNAL PROGRESS OP CANADA.

1853
A.D.

1863

A,D.

1846
A.r».

the University of Toronto. The chair of Divinity was abolished, and
its halls were opened to students of all denominations. The
functions of conferring degrees and of teaching were divided
when a University and a College wero established. It was in-
tended that v/ith the University (where only degrees are conferred) a
number of the higher institutions of learning throughout the Province
should become affiliated. When King's College was remodelled, Trinity
College, Toronto, was established by Bishop Sti whan under the
auspices of the Church of Tilngland. At the same time the Presby-
terians founded Qneen's College, Kingston; the Wesley an Methodists,
Victoria College, Coburg; and the Bapti^^ts and Congregationalists
their separate institutions in Woodstock and Toronto.

24. In Nova Scotia the Colleges led an uneasy life. Windsor, Dal-
housie, Pictou, Acadia, were made the objects of perpetual hostilo
attack. The courses of education they offered to students were de-
nounced in the Legislature as unsuited to the wants of the Prov-
ince. Dalhousie College only entered upon a career of useful-
ness when, forty years after it was first opened, it received the
support of several denominations.
26. Few institutions of learning have weathered such a stcnn of
obloquy as King's College, New Brunswick. Twenty years after
it was incorporated by Royal Charter the sole control of its
affaira was taken out of the hands of the clergy and members of
the Church of England. But this concession to popular feeling did not
put a stop to complaint. The small number of students educated in
comparison with the extent of the endowment was a standing charge
against it. As the result of the recommendation of a Commission
which sat in Frederickton, King's College v'a^s merged in the Univer-
sity of New Brunswick, the course of instruction was extended, ana
adapted to the wants of the time.

26. Co: .non-School Education. — An Act was passed immediately
af\,er the union of the two Canadas, making provision for elementary
ednoation. The Legislature granted the sum of £200,000, which was
divided among the several counties of the two Provinces. But the
measure did not meet the wants of Upper Canada. The way to educa-
tional reform was opened there by Egerton Ryerson, in a Report
whc nn he reviewed tbo school systems of Massachusetts and Prussia,
and of other states and countries of America and Europe. It was made
the ba-tis of a ocliool law, which was often changed and amended before
it was brought into a satisfactory shape.

27. The government of the schools of tho Canadas wf s placed under
their separate Chief Supdrintenucncs in the year 1846. The common -
school system of Upper Canada provides for the general control over
educational affairs through the insti-umentality of a Council or Boarc!
imd (k Chief Superintendent ; and for the particulftr super , ision over the

FOURTH PERIOD.

455

1850
A.D.

1864

A.D.

1872

A.D.

different schools by means of Inspectors. It provides a course of sound
elementary instruction for every child, free of charge. It is supported
by an annual grant from the Legislature, and by the proceeds of
the direct taxation of the people. A somewhat similar system
was organized in Lower Canada. Normal and Model Schools
were established in Toronto, and afterwards in Quebec and Montreal,
to train student-teachers in the duties of their profession.

28. Several changes in educational affairs were made in the Maritime
Provinces a^ter the year 1841. Some of the features of the Upper
Canada School Act were adopted. The principle of Free Schools, sup-
ported by direct taxation, was first (1855) carried out in Prince Edward
Island, but not in an entirely satisfactory manner. In Nova
Scotia, a School Act based upon that system was passed during
the administration c ' the Hon. Dr. Tupper. Through the exer-
tions of the Hon. George E. King, leader of the Local Govern-
ment, a somewhat similar Act became law in New Brunswick '
four years and a half after Confederation. The Free-School Acts
of all the Provinces have encountered much opposition ; but the way in
which they have been administered has infused vigour intj education,
has improved the eflBciency and standing of teachers, and, as already
stated, has greatly increased the number of scholars.

29. Canals. — Work on the canals was vigorously prosecuted in the
Canadas after the Union. The Imperial Government gave the guar-
antee on a loan of £1,500,000, which enabled the Provincial Govern-
ment to borrow that amount at a lower rate of interest than it could
have done on its own credit. The Welland Canal was enlarged so
as to allow vessels of 400 tons burden to navigate it. The obstruc-
tions in the St. Lawrence from Prescott to Lake St. Peter were
overcome by the Williamsburg, Cornwall, and Beauharnois Canals.
The system was (though capable of greater expansion) completed in
1846.

30. In Nova Scotia, the project of connecting Hab'fax Harbour with
the Bay of Fundy by a canal uniting the Dartmouth I'akes and the
Shubenacadie River was early conceived. But it was not thoroughly
carried out. A ca:ial across the Isthmus of Chiegnecto, between Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick, had been ,in contemplation from the
earliest times. This Bay Verte Canal will be one ^f il o ^teat worka
of the near future.

■' ^ j

If!'

V'v

li!

* New Bi^nswick. — In the Report of
the Chie' Superlntendect, Theodore H.
Rand, «rho has been instrumental in
bringing to SJ",ce8sful operation "the
Free Common-ochool Acis" of both
the Maritime Provinces, a marked in-
cre^e .'n the nnm')er of children at-

tending school is noticed. Since the
establishment of the system in Nova
Scotia there has been a progressive in-
crease of attendance : in !^ 870 the num-
ber* of scholars was caore than double
that of 1864. The prospect before New
Brunswick i9 no less encouraging.

ill

456

INTERNAL PROGRESS OF CANADA.

1846-47

A.D.

1347-52
A.D.

1864-67

A.D.

31. Railways. — The canals were no sooner finished than the railway
mania seized the people of Canada, and of the other Prov-
inces. Great projects were put forth, that seemed to be
vastly disproportionate to their then existing means. But in

the course of twenty years from the time when the making of railways
was commenced in earnest, they were nearly all carried cLit. The proj-
ect that engaged most attention was "The Intercolonial Bailway"
between Halifax and Quebec. With the view of making it
a joint undertaking, the Governments of the several Prov-
inces entered into negotiations with one another and with the
imperial authorities; but with no result. The negotiations were re-
newed three several times in the course of the ten years succeeding, but
were on eveiy occasion frustrated by some misunderstand-
ing or cross purpose. Yet the construction of this railway
was made the indispensable condition on which the Mari-
time Provinces consented to enter into confederation with the Canadas.

32. The most serious railway projects— in which the people of the
Canadas were interested, and which were first cafried out — were
the St. Lawrence and Atlantic line, connecting Montreal with
Portland, United States; and the "Great "Western," between

Bamia and the Niagara, which was connected with the American
railway system by means of u, suspension bridge over the river.
Then the Grand Trnnk Company was formed, with the view of
constructing a line between Montreal and Toronto '(which was
afterwards extended to Samia), and between Quebec and Riviere du
"^ oup. The work of constructing it was undertaken by Jackson and
Company, a famous firr* of contractors. The main line, with its
approach to Montreal Ijy the magnificent Victoria Bridge, was in full
operation eight years aftervards. Branch lines were made by the
municipalities with money borrowed from the Government.

33. In the same year in which the Grand Trm:k Company was
formed, the Government of New Brunswick entered into a contract
with Jackson and Company to form a railway between St. John and
Shediac, to form part of the European and North American line, which
v/aa to connect Halifax with St. John, and with the United States. In
Nova Scotia, the railways between Halifax and Windsor and Trur^ —

links in the great chain— were undertaken on the direct responsi-
bility of th'3 Government. Jackson and Company, unable to
proceed, gave up their contract and all the work done under it
for the sum of £90,000. The Shediac road was then finished under the
supervision of the Government. A prciect was then contemplate i, to
spread a network of railways over New Brunswick, to connect St.
John, Frederickton, Woodstock, St. Stephen, and St. Andrews with
one another, and with Novi* Scotia, Canada, and Maine.

34. A similar scheme was revived seven year? aftei wards, when

1850
A.D.

1853

A.D.

1855

A.D.

FOURTH PERIOD.

457

1862

A.D.

the Government * of the day (annoyed at the withdrawal of Canada
from an agreement to make the Intercolonial Railway), intro-
duced a Railway Facility Bill ^ that offered a bonus of $10,000
a mile to any Company undertaking any of the lines therein
specified. This liberal measut'e gave an impetus to railway con-
struction in New Brunswick. Ten years after it was passed (1873),
the scheme that had floated before the vision of the Legislature in 1845
was almost realized. The Western Extension line— from St. John
to the border of Maine— and its branches, connect St. John, Fred-
erickton, St. Stephen, St. Andrews, and Woodstock with one an-
other, and with the railway system of the United States. The Inter-
colonial Bailway, running along the Grulf shore, connects New Bruns-
wick on one side with the Truro, Windsor and Halifax, and Annapolis
lines, and on the other v/ith the whole railway system of Canadr , By
the end of another decade there may be direct communication between
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick on the Atlantic, and British Columbia
on the Pacific coast.

35. In the quarter of a century between the union of the Canadas
and Confederation (1841-1867), the British North American Provinces
made great progpress. In 1867, the population had increased to three
million, one hundred and seventy-seven thousand, four hundred and
fifteen (3,177,415) ; their revenues, to an aggregate of twelve million
dollars ($12,000,000) ; their commerce, to one hundred and ninety million
dollars ($190,000,000); the annual value of their fisheries was three
million, six hundred and five thousand, nine hundred and fifty dol-
lars ($3,605,950). The population of Canada was in 1874, on a near
calculation, four millions (4,000,000) ; its commerce amounted to two
hundred million dollars ($200,000,000) ; and the value of the fisheries
to nine million, five hundred and seventy thousand, one hundred an«i
sixteen dollars ($9,570,116).

36. The idea that this short sketch of " progress " seeks to convey is,
that as Canada, in spite of complicated difficulties, has made such
great progress in the past, she must in the future advance with
manifold more force and speed, now that she has attained political and
commercial independence, perfect internal peace, and an actual state
of great enlightenment, power, and wealth.

ill I

■iif

' Government — Of which the Hoa
S. L. Tilley was leader.
* Railway FadUty Bill. — Humor-

ously called the Lobster Bill, because
it had "claws" (i.e. a clause) pointing
in every direction.

458

CHRONOLOGY : 982-1640 A.D.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

A.D.

Eric Baude discovers Greenland and Labrador i> 982

Christopher Columbus discovers San Salvador and other Islands of the

West Indies 449e'/^v<-

John and Sebastian Cabot come in sight of Prima Vista, Newfoundland,

and the Mainland of the Continent 1497-1498

Voyage of Amerigo Vespucci < 1499

Death of Columbus.* 1506

European vessels frequent the "Banks" of Newfoundland 1517

John Verazzani's voyage from Florida to Newfoundland 1524

Jacques Cartier enters the Gulf of St. Lawrence — the Bay Chaleur 1534

Jacques Cartier ascends the River St. Lawrence — Stadacon^ — Hochelaga.. 1535
Jacques Cartier passes a second winter in Canada — Charlesbourg Royal.... 1542

M. de Roberval, Viceroy ^4rJ^(>lb4!^lb4i9

Martin Frobisher— Voyage to Greenland and Labrador 1576-1578

Sir Humphrey Gilbert forms a settlement at St. John's, Newfoundland ... 1583

Sieur de la Roche, Viceroy of Canada — Convicts on Sable Island-... 1598

M. Pontgravg — Fur-trade at Tadoussac 1599

M. de Monts, Viceroy of Acadie — Samuel de Champlain 1604

Port Royal founded >... 1605

Baron Poutrincourt and Marc Lescarbot at Port Royal 1607

Champlain foUnds the habitation of Quebec 1608

Champlain joins the Hurons in war against the Iroquois >.... 1609

Barou Poutrincourt returns to Port Royal 1610

Henry IV. of France assassinated by Ravaillac 1610

The Jesuit Fathers settle in Acadie 1611

Settlement of St. Sauveur, on Penobscot, destroyed by Samuel Argall 1613

Argall destroys Port Royal 1614

Champlain visits the Huron country — goe? to war againsi the Iroquois 1615

Louis Hebert and family, the first settlers in Canada, arr* ^ in Quebec 1617

Madame de Champlain accompanies her husband to Canada 1820

The Fort St. Louis, the Recollet Monastery on St. Charles, established 1620

Monopoly of fur-trade granted to Guillaume and Emery de Caen 1621

Madame de Champlain returns to France 1624

Grant to Sir William Alexander of Acadie (Nova Scotia)... 20th September 1624

The Jesuit Fathers establish themselves in Quebec 1625-1626

The New Company of the Hundred Associates founded 1627

Sir David Kirkt takes possession of Acadie 1628

Champlain surrenders Quebec to Kirkt 1629

Claude and Charles de la Tour created Knights Baronets of T ova Scotia... 1629
Treaty of St. Germain — Canada and Acadie restored to France, 27th March 1632

Isaac de Razilli appointed Commandant in Acadie 1633

The New Company enter on full possession of New France 1633

Death of Champlain 25th December 163.'i

Jesuit Collcsre, Institution atSilleri, and Hotel Dieu, Quebec, founded 1636-1637

Mesdames de la Peltrie and Guyart found Ursuline Convent, Quebec 1639

tkKsiety of Notx^ Dame de Montreal formed in Paris 1640

CHRONOLOGY : 1642-1690 A.D.

459

Montreal Ville-Marie founded 1642

Montreal attacked by Iroquois — Maisonneuve at Place d'Armes 1644

Destruction of the Jesuit Missions in the Huron country by Iroquois 1648-1649
Proposals for perpetual amity between New England and Canada..... 1648-1649

Father Druilettes goes on mission of peace to Boston 1648-1649

Negotiations between Canada and New England finally broken off 1651

Madame d'Aulnay marries Charles de la Tour 1653

Emmanuel le Borgue obtains Acadie in satisfaction of debts due to him.... 1653

New Englanders under Colonel Sedgwick capture Acadie 1654

Treaty of Westminster— Acadie in joint possession of France and Eng-
land .Srd November 1655

Insecure state of Canada under M. de Lauson 1656

Island of Montreal ceded to Seminary of St. Sulpicius 1657

Institution of Filles de la Congregation, under Marguerite Bourgeois,

founded 1658

M de Laval, Ecclesiastical Superior (afterwards flret Bishop], arrives in

Quebec 1659

Extreme distress in Canada 1660

Disputes concerning liquor traffic 1661

The Great Earthquake 1663

The New Company surrenders its charter 1663

Sovereign Council established in Canada — M de Mesy 1663

West India Company formed 1664

Marquis de Tracy, Viceroy, arrives in Quebec with Carignan Salidres regi-
ment and a large party of colonists. 1665

Father AUouez explores the country around Lake Superior 1665

Forts St. Therese, Chambly, and Sorel, on the Richelieu River, built 1665

Marquis de Tracy conducts eicpedition against the Mohawks 1666

Treaty of Breda — Acadie restored to France o...sist July 1667

The RecoUet Fathers reestablished in Canada by Royal Edict 1669

Canada makes progress under direction of M. Talon, Intendant 1670

The western Indian tribes acknowledge sovereignty of the King of France 1671

Father Marquette and M. Joliet discover the Mississippi... 1673

M de Courcelles, Governor-General, makes peace with Indians at Catara-

coui 1672

Arrival of Count Frontenac 1672

Sieur la Salle obtains seigueurie of Cataracoui 1677

Voyage of the Oriffin, the first ship on the Great Lakes 1679

Port Royal the capital of Acadie 1680

La Salle ^caches the mouth of the Mississippi..... 1682

Count Frontenac recalled — M. de la Barre Governor-General 1682

Colonel Dongan, Goveraor of New York 1682

Efl'orts made to colonize Acadie ^ 1683

Sufferings of French army at Bay of Famine 1684

M. de la Barre makes disgraceful peace with the Irciquois 1684

M. d'Iberville captures the English |)osts on Hudson Bay 1686

Treaty of Neutrality between French and English Colonies 1687

M. de Denonville lays waste the country of the Senecas 1687

Dismal state of Canada 1688

Machinations of Kondiaronk, the Rat 1688

W»r declared between Great Britain and France 1689

The Massacre of Lachine 1689

Return of Count Frontenac 1689

Three French war parties attack English Colonies — "petite guerre" 1690

Sir Wmiara Phips seizes Port Royal 1690

lit

i' '''

J ^'

4G0

CHRONOLOGY : 1690-1756 A.D.

Sir William Phips repulsed at Quebec ;

Medal struck by order of Louis XIV. In honour of the success of French arms
Country of the Onondagas devastated by force under Count Frontenac — .

Fort William-Henry (on the Pemaquid) destroyed by M. d'Iberville

Fort on the Nachouac unsuccessfully attacked by New Englanders

Peace of Ryswick '.20th September

Doath of Count Frontenac 28th November

M. de Callidres, Governor-General, makes peace with all the Indian tribes
War of the Spanish Succession — French and English Colonies embroiled...

Marquis de Vaudreuil, Governor-General

Thie Ottigamies attack Detroit — Western country disturbed for many years

Port Royal attacked by New Englanders

Another unsuccessful attack on Port Royal

French under M. d'Hertel destroy Haverhill

Invasion of Canada checked

Colonel Nicolson captures Port Royal, and names it Annapolis Royal

liritish Fleet under Sir Hoveden Walker shattered on Egg Islands

Treaty of Utrecht 13th April

Canada enters on a long period of repose

The building of Louisburg (Cape Breton) commenced by the French

Canada begins to make great progress under MM. Raudot, Intendants

The Tuscaroras enter the League of the Iroquois, which is now called the

Six Nations

The French make settlements in Louisiana

Father Charlevoix visits New France

The English of New York build Fort Oswego at the mouth of the Chouagen
The New England States make peace with the Abenaquis and Micmacs....

Death of Marquis de Vaudreuil — Wreck of the royal ship Chameau

Marquis de Beauhamois Governor-General

Fort Frederick, at Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, erected

M. de Verendrye explores territory between the Mississippi and the Rocky

Mountains...

War of the Austrian Succession in Europe — French and English Colonies

embroiled

M. du ViArier and his Micmac allies besiege Annapolis Royal

Capture of Louisburg by Commodore Warren and Colonel Pepperell

Disastrous issue of the French Expedition against Massachusetts and

Nova Scotia «

Death of its leader. Due d'Anville — Suicide of Admiral d'Estournelle

Capture of M. de la Jonqui&re, Governor-General of Canada

I'eace of Aix-la-Chapelle — Louisbu:'g restored to the French

Count Galissonnidre, Governor-Gen<2ral

The London and Virginia "Ohio Land < ompany" formed.

M. C€16rin de Bienville marks the boundaries between French and English

possessions ^

Halifax founded under the auspices of Earl of Halifax 2nd July

English and French Boundary Commissioners meet at Paris

Intrigues of Abb€ de Loutre in Nova Scotia

Fort Beausfij our built

Death of M. d«^la Jonqui^re — Marquis du Quesne, Govemor-GeneriiL

Collision between French and English in the valley of the Ohio

George Washington surrenders at Fort Necessity

Marq\iis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnac, Governor-Crcneral

Fort BeausSjour captured by forc<3 under Colonel Moncton

Gensral Braddoek defeated at Monongahela «..............«.4 ()th July

1690
1690
1692
1696
1696
1697
1698
1701
1703
1703
1703
1707
1708
1708
1709
1710
1711
1713
1713
1713
1713

1717
1718
1722
1724
1725
1725
1726
1733

1743

1744
1744
1745

1746
1746
1746
1748
1748
1749

1749
1749
1760
17iiO
1760
1753
1754
1754
1755
1755
1756

CHRONOLOGY : 1755-1782 A.D.

461

Dieskau at Lake
8th September

William Johnson defeats the French under Baron
George ••....

Expulsion of the Acadians from Nova Scotia

War formally declared between £ngland and Franco

Belnforcements arrive in Canada with Marquis de Montcalm and General
Levi

M. de Montcalm captures and destroys Foirt Oswego

Earl of Loudoun, Commander-in-Chief — his vacillating course

M. de Montcalm captures Fort William-Henry (on Lake George) — Mas-
sacre of British prisoners

Capture of Louisburg by Admiral Bosca.wen and Colonels An>herst and
Wolfe

Cape Breton and Island of St. John become British possessions

General Abercrombie defeated at Ticonderoga 6th July

Fort du Quesne captured by Colonel Forloes — it is named Fort Pitt

Meeting of first General Assembly at Halif' *: v

General Amherst checked in his advance on Montreal

Fort Niagara taken by Sir William Johnson ..., 25th August

Unsuccessful attack by the British on French intrenchments at Beau-
port SIst July

Battle of the Plains of AbiJtham — Death of Wolfe and Mont-
calm 15th September

Surrender of Quebec to the British 18th September

Battle of Ste. Foye — General Murray defeated April

Petite Rochelle destroyed by squadron under Captain Byron

M. de Levi hastily raises siege of Quebec on appearance of the English fleet

Capitulation of the French army at Montreal 8th September

End of French rule in Canada

Canada divided into the districts of Quebec, Montreal, and Three Rivers...

French posts in the west are surrendered to Major Rogers

Pontiac's Conspiracy

The Treaty of Paris 10th February

Fort Michillimackinac captured by the Ojibaways and Sacs July

Royal Proclamation 7th October

Simonds, White, and Peabody establish a fishery on St. John Harbo\ir ....

Defeat of Pontiac's Conspiracy — End of the Indian War...

Brigadier-General Guy Carleton, Governor of Canada •.

Meeting of the first Assembly in St. John (Prince Edward) Island

Quebec Act passed

Meeting of Congress at Philadelphia — Commencement of the Revolution-
ary War

Montreal and Quebec threatened by insurgent Colonial forces under Gen-
erals Montgon..ery and Benedict Arnold

St. John's (on the Richelieu) and Montreal taken by Montgomery

Unsuccessful assault on Ouebecj — General Montgomery killed, and General
Arnold wounded 31st December

British fie«t arrives with large reinforcements ..........m......^......o. May

Insurgent Colonial forces driven out of Canada

Naval fight on Lake Champiain — Benedict Arnold defeated

British army under General Burgoyne assembles at Montreal to attack
New York State

Major-General Sir Frederick Haldimand, Governor of Can»d» — Discontent

Lord ComwaUis surrenders at Yorktown

General Sir Guy Carleton arrives in New York to promote peiw^

Independence of the United States

: S^S - * «4**«*«

1765
1756
1756

1756
1756
1757

1757

1758
1758
1768
1758
1758
1769
1759

1759

1759
1759
1760
1760
1760
1760
1760
1760
1761
1762
1763
1763
1763
1763
1764
1766
1778
1774

1776

1775
1775

1776
1776
1776
1776

1777
1778
17dl
1783
1783

III

-i!'

462

CHRONOLOGY : 1782-1816 A.D.

(General Carleton makes arrangements to settle the United Empire Loyal-
ists in Canada and Nova Scotia 1782

Treaty of Paris 3rd September 1783

Landing of the United Empire Loyalists at St. John 18th May 1783

Province of New Brunswick formally proclaimed 22nd November 1784

General Sir Guy Carleton (Lord Dorchester) appointed first Governor-
General of the British North American Provinces 1787

Earl Grenville's Act, commonly cahed the Constitutional Act, passed 1791

Division of Canada into Lower and Upper Canada — First meetings of their

Legislatures 1792

The Revolutionary Government in France declares war against England ... 1793

Town of York (Toronto) founded by Governor Simcoe 1794

Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, visits Halifax 1794

Island of St. John named Prince Edward Island 1799

Duke of Kent finally leaves Halifax 1800

Death of Joseph Casot, the last member of the Jesuit Order in Canada 1800

Emperor Napoleon issues the Berlin Decrees interdicting commerce with

Great Britain 1806

The British Government promulgate Orders in Council forbidding com-
merce with France 1807

The dispute between Great Britain and the United States culminates in

the attack by H.M. ship Le')pard on the U.S. frigate Chesapeake 1807

American ports closed against the British 1808

Secret mission of Captain Henry to the Eastern States of America 1809

Troubles in Lower Canada during the administration of Sir James Craig.... 1809

Violent dissolutions of the Legislature — The Reign of Terror 1810

Sir George Frevost, Governor-General 1811

President Madison declares war against Great Britain 1812

Emperor Napoleon declares war against Russia 1812

Fort Michillimackinac taken by the British 17th July 1812

American General Hull surrenders his army at Detroit 16th August 1812

Battle of Queenston Heights — Death of Sir Isaac Brock 13th October 1812

American General Wilkinson defeated at Frenchtown by Colonel Proc-
tor 10th January 1813

York (Toronto) captured by the Americans 27th April 1813

Fort George, on the Niagara, taken by the Americans 27th May 1813

Aflfair at Sackett's Harbour 29th May 1813

Midnight attack by the BrUish on the American camp at Stoney Creek, Jime 1813

Americans repulsed at Fcrt Meigs, on the Miami river 1813

Naval fight on Lake Erie 18th September 1813

Proctor defeated at Moravia village by the U.S. Geneval Harrison, October 1813
Colonel Salaberry defeats the U.S. General Hampton at Chateau-

guay 26th October 1813

Americans defeated at Chrysler's Farm November 1813

Town of Newark (Niagara) burned by the Americans December 1813

Buffalo burned by the British December 1813

U.S. General Wilkinson defeated at La Colle Mill..... January 1814

Ogdensburg destroyed under Major M'Donnel, of Glengarry Fencibles .... 1814

U.S. Greneral Brown crosses the Niagara river — takes Fort Erie July 1814

Battle of Lundy's Lane — Americans defeated 24th July 1814

Fort Erie assaulted — British repulsed August 1814

Sir George Prevost retreats from Plattsburg September 1814

Treaty o' Ghent 24th December 1814

Feuds between the traders of the Hudson Bay and North-West Com-

pani(3a — Selkirk Settlement 1815

CHRONOLOGY : 1816-1839 A.D. 463

Sir John Cope Sherbrooke, Oovernor-Oeneral — calls on the Assembly of

Lower Canada to vote the deficiency of the Civil List 1816

Duke of Richmond, Governor-General— dies from the effect of a fox-bite. 1819

Earl of Dalhonsie, Govemor-GeniTal 1820

Union of the two Canadas proposed 1823

Defalcation of Sir John Caldwell, Receiver-General i 1824

Great fire at Miramichi October 1825

Canada Land Company inc< rporated 1826

Boundary dispute between Maine and New Brunswick 1827

Political dissensions in Lower Canada — Public meetings and petitions 1827

The Canada Committee Report in Imperial Parliament 1828

Lord Aylmer, Governor-General — Renewed troubles in Lower Canada ... 1830

West India trade thrown open to the Americans 1831

M'Kenzie, the agent of the people of Upper Canada, takes a petition to

England 1833

The Assembly of Lower Canada pass the Ninety-four Resolutions 1834

Town of York incorporated tm the city of Toronto 1834

Lord Gosford, Governor-General — Royal Commission of Inquiry 1835

Sir Francis Bond Head, Governor of Upper Canada 1836

Mission of Crane and Wilmot to Downing Street 1836

Surrender of Casual and Territorial Revenue to New Brunswick Legislature 1836

Civil List Bill passed in the Legislature of New Brunswick 1837

Joseph Howe iirst enters the Legislature of Nova Scotia 1837

Lord John Russell introduces coercive resolutions into the Imperial Parlia-
ment 6th March 1837

Lord Gosford issues a Proclamation against seditious gatherings June 1837

Reformers of Upper Canada publish their Declaration August 1837

Fray between the British "Dorics" and ..he French Canadian "Sons of

Liberty " November 1837

Colonel Gore repulsed by rebeli at 8L Denis — Murder of Lieutenant

Weir 23rd November 1837

Colonel Wetherall defeats the rebels at fit. Charles ..~ 24th November 1837

St. Denis evacuated by the rebels 6th December 1837

M'Kenzie advances to attack Toronto 6th December 1837

Fight at Montgomery's Farm — U.C. rebels put to rout 7th December 1837

Rebellion in the county of Two Mountains crushed 16th December 1837

M'Kenzie proclaims a Republic on Navy Island 16th Decembex 1837

The Rebel steamer Caroline burned, and carried over the Falls of Ni-
agara 28th December 1837

American sympathizers repulsed at Hickory Island rmd at Point Pel6

Island '- February and March 1838

Lord Gc )rd recalled — The Cotdtitution of Lower Canada suspended —

Sir «l0hn Colbome, Governor-General January 1838

Arrival of the Earl of Burham, High Commissioner 21st May 1338

Nine of the leaders of the rebellion jsent to Bermuda- —Amnesty extended

to all the other political prisoners June 1838

The Governors of the Lower Provinces, accompanied by delegations, visit

the Earl of Durham — Confederation discussed 1838

Earl of Durham leaves Canada ~.. 3rd November 1888

Second outbreak of the rebellion — Affairs in Beauharnois and Odell-

x)wn 3rd and 9th Novbmber 1838

" Hunters" under Yen Schultz defeated at Prescott 16th November 1838

Colonel Prince and U.C. Militia defeat whe Patriots at Sandwich, December 1838

Excitement over the Disputed Boundaries question....... » > -, 1839

Earl of Durham's Report submitted to the Imperial Parliament #* 1839

464

CHRONOLOGY : 1839-1867 A.D.

Hon. C. P. Thompson, Oovernor-Oeneral 183d

LordJohn Russell's despatch on the Tenure of OfHce lUth October 1839

Union Agreed to by the Council of Lower Canada November 1839

Union Bill passes in the Legislature of Upper Canada December 1839

Union formally proclaimed 10th February 1841

The first met ting of the Parliament of the United Canadas 13th June 1841

Death of C. P. Thompson (Lord Sydenham) , 13th September 1841

Sir Cliarl(>8 Bagot, GoTemor-Oeneral 1842

Treaty of Washington — Settlement of the Disputed Boundaries 1842

Sir Charles Metcalfe, Governor-General 1843

Seat of Government transferred from Kingston to Montreal 1845

Lord Cathcart, Governor-General 1846

Committee appointed in the Legislature of Canada to inquire into losses

occasioned by the rebellion — submits a Keport 1846

Lord Elgin, Governor-General 1847

Responsible Government established in Canada, Nova Scotia, and New

Brunswick '. 1848

Lord Elgin assents to Rebelliod Losses Bill 2nd April 1849

Parliament Buildings burned 2nd April 1849

Repeal of the Navigation Laws 2nd April 1849

Major Robinson's Report on the Routes of the Iniercolonial Railway sub-
mitted to Provincial Legislatures 1849

Railway Convention at Portland 31st July 1850

Intercolonial Railway negotiations between the Imperial and Provincial

Governments 1852

Reciprocity Treaty with the United States June 1854

Crimean War June 1854

Sir Edmund Head, Governor-( aeral June 1854

Clergy Reserves question setllea June 1854

Bettlement of the Feudal Tenures 1856

Alexander T. Gait's speech on Confederation in the Canadian Parliament 1857
The Cartier and «[. A. M 'Donald Administration proposes a Federative

Union of the Provinces .,., 1858

Government established in British Columbia ....< 1858

Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales to Canada and the United States 1860

War cf Secession commences April 1861

Lord Mouck, Governor-General 1861

The Trent affair , 8th November 1861

Deathof Prince Albert..... ^ December 1861

Serious political crisis in the Canadian Parliament — A Coalition Govern-
ment formed — Confederation policy adopted 1864

Conference of Delegates from tlie Maritime Provinces in Prince Edward

Island t. 1st September 1864

Quebec Conference 10th October 1864

Quebec Resolutions pass the Parliament of Canada March 1865

New Brunswick anti-confederate 1865

Mission of the Canadian Ministry to England 1865

End of the War of Secession 9th AprU 1865

Murder of President Lincoln 11th April 1865

Trfci.o Convention at Detroit July 1865

Termination of the Reciprocity Treaty 1865

The Fenian Brotherhood threaten to invade Canada 1865

Confederation carried in New Brunswick 1866

Meeting of Provincial Delegates in Westminster Hotel 1866

British North America Act passed by the Imp»rial Parliament, 20th March 1867

CHRONOLOGY : 1867-1874 A.D.

Dominion of Canada proclaimed jst j^iy

Thomas d'Arcy M'(Jue assassinated 7th April

Sir John Young (Lord Lisgar), (iovemor-Ceneral .'.'..*

Agitation for repeal of the Union in Nova Scotia stilled

Province of Manitoba organized

The Red Elver Expedition "/....7Mav to Auffii«t

The Fenians invkde Canadh 1............^. f.. ^

The Treaty of Washington "". V.Vsth May

British Columbia enters tlie Confederation *20th Julv

Census taken '

Earl Dufferin, Governor-General ...."..r/..!!!!..!!!!!."!]."!!]]"]]]"]*]]

General election..., ""'

Mr. Huntingdon prefers charges against the Dominion Government"..!!!!..'

Death of Sir George Etienne Cartier and the Hon. Joseph Howe

Prince Edward Island enters the Confederation Ist July

Earl and Countess Duflferin make a tour of the Maritime Provinces .

Excitement over the Pacific Scandal

Meeting of Parliament ...r!! 23rd October

Resignation of the J A. M'Donald Ministry November

The M Kenzie Administration formed November

The House of Commons disbolved 2nd January

General election

469

1867
1868
1868
1869
1870
1870
1870
1871
1871
1871
1872
1873
1873
1873
1873
1878
1873
1873
1878
1878
1874
1874

I i

^^yrs

■>%.

V^, - .0.

o.A^.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

1.25

^ 1^ 112.0

12.2

1.8

i-4 ill 1.6

"c-l

c^l

Ci> ^^^

^.>

''^%
<^:.. ^^^

•V''

466

i'llONUi^CIATlON OF PKOPER NAMES.

PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES.

Explanation. — In the pronunciations given, many vhich a 3, of
course, only approximations, the letters and syllables aru to have their
ordinary English sound, with these exceptions : — viz., u and eti, in
ITALICS, denote the corresjjonding French sounds, which have no
English equivalent ; ii represents the short sound of the French e,
somewhat like u in but; ns denotes the French nasal sound ; g every-
where denotes the /lard sound of that letter, as in yo ; zh denotes the
sound of z in azure.

Abenaquis Ab-en-a'h-quis.

Asadie, or "> A'k-ah-dee, or

Acadia ) Ak-a-de-a.

Aiz-la-Chapelle . Aks-lah-shape'l.

Albanel Al-ban-el.

Algonquin A l-gon8-kan8.

AUlatho Al-i-la-tho.

Andastes Ahn8-da'st.

Areskou^ Ar-es-koo-a'y.

A • 'x.^' f As8-in-ib-wawn

Assinibome ... < , . ,

I {or, -om).

.... . ( At-te-kam-e-

Atticamigues. <

° { gwess.

.... ^. ( At-te-gou-an-

Attigouantm • -j x

Attinanchrons. . . At-teen-ankrons,
Aubry O'-bree.

Baccalaos Bak-a-lay-os.

Baggiatway Baj -e-at-way.

Baudot Bo-day.

Beame Bay-a'rn.

Beaubassin Bo-bass-a'n^

Beauharnoifl. ..... Bo-har-nwa'w.

Beauport Bo-po're.

Beausejour Bo-say-zho'or.

Becancourt Bay-kans-koor.

Beuoit Ben-waw.

Berryer Berry-ay.

Bersiamites Ber-see-a-mites.

Biard, (Pierre)... Be-a'r, (Pe-air).
Biami, or ) Be-ar-ne, or

Biorn ) Be-urn.

Biencourt Be-an^-kocr.

Boerstler Burst-ler.

Bouganville Boo-gans-vee'l.

Bouquet Boo-ka'y.

Bourdon Boor-dons.

Bourlamaque . . .. Boor-lah-ma'hk.

Brouage Broo-a'hzh.

Brouillan Broo-ee-ya'hn8.

Bruyas Brw-e-yah.

Bruy ers Brw-e-y air.

Burgoyne Bur-goin.

Cabot Kab-ot.

Caffinidre Kaf -in-e-a'ir.

Cahiague Ka-e-ft-gu.

Callieres KaJ-e-^.

Canceau, or ^Kahns-so', or

Canso ) Ka'n-so.

Canibas Kah-ne-bah.

Carheil Kar-ell.

Carignan-Sa- > Kar-een-yahn8.

lieres ) Sah-le-aiV.

Carillon Kar-ee-yonK<,

PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES.

iG7

Cartier, Jacques. Kar-te-ay, Zhak.

Cataracoui Kat-ar-a-koo-g.

Caughnawaga . . .Kaw-naw-wagi.

Cayugas Kay-yu-gahs.

Chagouamigon. . Sha-gou-a-mi-gon.

Champlain ShaunR-planB.

Charlevoix Char-le-vo-^.

Charnisay Shar-ne-zay.

Chatin Shah-ta'nK.

Char^cey Chahn-se'.

Chetodel Shet-o-de'l.

Chippewa Chip-pe-waw.

Chomedy Sho-med-ee.

Chouagen Shou-a-gen.

Chouanons Shoo-ah-no'ns .

Chrysler Kris-lier.

Cockburn Ko-bum.

Codougey Kod-oo-gay.

Colange Ko-lahns-zh.

ContreccBur KonK-tr-ke'ttr.

Cottin Kot-ans.

Courcelles Koor-se'lL

Coureurs du ^Koo-reit'r du
Bois ) bwaw.

Coutume de ) Koo - tw'md - pah-
Paris i re'e.

Cristinilaux .Krib-teen-e-lo'.

Cuvillier Kw-veel-yay.

Babbn

Dauversiere

D*AigttilIon

D'Ailleboust

D'Argenson

D'Aulnay

D'Avaugour

Dearborn

De Bienville, >

(Celerin).....;
De Caen, (Em- )

ery) J

De Chastes, )

(Agmar) )

De Guast,

(Pierre)....

.Dah-blonK.

.Do-vair-se-ai^*.

.Day-gee-ydn8.

.Dal-boo.

,Diir-zhahn8-8on8.

Do-nay.

Dali-vo-goo'r.

Deer-bum.

Dtt Be-ang-vecl,

(Cel^e-rin).
Dii KahuB, (Emi

er-y).
Da Shast, (Ag^

mar).

}DttGah,(Pe-air).

De Monts Dtt Mon*.

De Silleri,)Dtt SiU-er-y,

(Bruart) j (Bru-ar).

Denys Day-nee.

Deschamps Day-shahns.

Des Mesgou-)Day May -goo -

ets, (Troilns) ) ay, (Tro-e-lus).

Des Meules Day-mewl.

D'Hertel,(Rou- ) Dair - tell, (Koo -

ville) ) veel)

D'Iberville Dee-bair-ve'eL

Dieskau Dee-e's-ko.

Dinwiddie Din- wi'ddy.

D'Orvilliers Dor-ve'el-yay.

Druillettes Drw-ee-ye't.

Dnchesneau Dit-shen-o'.

Dupuys Dw-pwe'e.

Du Plessis, ) Dm Pless-e'e,

(Paciflque).. ) (Pass-e-feek).

Du Quesne Dm Kai'n.

DuThet, (Gil-)Dw Tay, (Zhil-

bert) ) bair).

Duvantye Du-van-ti.

Eric Er^ik.

Enemond En-em-on.

Entouhonouns . . .En-tou-hon-ouna
Etchemins Etch-e-mius.

Fauxchamps Fo-shahnK.

Fontainebleau . . . FonB-tain-blo'.

Fremin Frem-anK.

Freasase Fren-euz.

Oabarus

Galissonnilre. 4

Garrangula .

Genessee

Ghent

Girouard

Grosellidre...

Gruyart

Guercheville ,
Guillaume

Gab-ah-roo's.
Gal - e^8 - on8 - ne-

air.
Gar-a'n-gii-lali.
Jen-S-se'e.
GahnB.
Zhee-roo-a'rr.
Gro-aell-e-ai'r.
GrM-e-yar.
Gairsh-veeL
Gee-yo'me.

468

PRONUNCIATION OP PROPER NAMES.

Haaskouan Hah-sko'o-an.

Hebert A-bai'r.

Helluoland Hel-lu-o-land.

Hennepin Hen-ng-panR.

Heriufalson Her-< u-f ul-son.

Hochelaga Ho-sh-la'b-gah.

Hodenosaunee < ^ - en - o - sau -
( nee.

Ihontiria I on-ttr-e-a.

Joliet Jo-li-et.

Jonquiere Zhon8-kee-a'ir.

Iroquois Ee-ro-quaw.

Isle anx Noix....Eel-6-nwaw.
Jumonville Zhu-monK-ve'el.

Kickapoos Kik-^-poos.

Kondiaronk Kon-de-ar-o'nk.

Labrador Lab-rah-do're.

Lachine L. h-shee'n.

La Pleche Lau Flaish.

Lafontaine Lah-f one-tain.

LaH^TC Lah Haive.

Lallemant Lahl-ma^hns.

La Ferelle Lah Pair-ell.

Lanson Lo-zon^.

Lescarbot Lay-kar-bo.

Levi Lev-ee.

Limoilu Lim- waw-lw.

Longueuil L6n8-ge7^-ee.

Loyola, (Igna- ) Loi - o - lah, (Ig ■
tins) ) na-shus.)

Macdonough Mak-don-ah.

Macomb Ma-koom.

Ma delaine Mad-e-1 ain.

Madockawan- l Ma-dcji a waun-

do ) do.

Maisonneuve Ma'y-sonB-ncw'v.

Maniton Ma'n-it-oo.

Mantel MahnR-tel.

Marqnette Mar-ket.

Masooutins Mas-koo-tanR.

Meoliasepd Me-sha-sa-pa'.

Meigs Meegs.

Menneval Men-va'hL

Mercier Mair-se-ay.

MerUgnesche.|^*^'";i^-f'^'

I now Maliguash.

Mesnard May-na'r.

Messou MesB-o'o.

Mesy Ma'y-zee.

Michillimack- ) Mish - 11 - e - mak •

inac. J in-aw.

Milicetes Mi'l-e-seets.

-, , , f Mo-non-ga-hee-

Monongahela . -j , , ^

Montagiiais MonR-ta'n-yay.

Montcalm (St. ^ Mftns-kahm

Veran) j (Sans-vay-rahns).

Montmagny MonB-ma'n-yee.

-- J, fMon8-mo-ralin8-

Montmorency. -j

Narragansetts ..Narra-ga'n-sets.

Nemisceau Nem-e w'.

Neskapees Nes-ka-pees.

l^ibaohis Ne-ba-sis.

Nipercini Ne-per-ce-ne.

Noel (Jacques)... No-el (Zhak).

Norembegue Nor-em-bay-gu.

Noyrot Nwaw-ro.

Ojibaways O- j ib-a- ways*

Okies O-kees.

Olier. 0-le-ay.

Oneidas O-ni^ahs.

Onondagas On-on-daw-gahs*

Oswegatchie Oz-we-gatch-e.

Otoullcha 0-tou-a-ka.

Ottigamies Ot-ti-gam-ees.

Ougonhonse Ou-gon-hon-se.

Ouangondy Oo-an-go'n-dy.

Paracelsus, l Para-sel-sus,

(Theophrastus) j (The-o-fras-tus).

Fakenham Pak'n-am.

_ . , . { Pah-pe-nati«
Papinaohois . . . < ,
^ \ sawaw.

, Sis

PRONUNCIATION OP PROPER NAMES.

469

Pearron P-vy-ar-ro'n*.

Penouil Pen-oo-ee-yti,

Pentagoet Pen-tah-go-et.

Perrot Pair-ro'.

Pontohartrain . . .PonK-shSr-tranP.

Pontgrave P6n?-grah-vaV.

Pontiac Pon-te-ac.

Potherie Po-ter-ee.

Pottawatta- ) Pot-ah-wo't-ah-

mies j mees.

Pouchot Poo-sho'.

Poutriucourt .... Poo-trahne-koor.

Presqu'isle Press-ke'e].

Prevost PraVo.

Prideauz Prid'o.

Quinipissas Keen-e-pis-sus.

Radisson Rah-dee-sons.

Basle Rahl.

Bazilli Rah-zeel-ye.

Recollet Ru-koU-aV.

Recouvrance Ru-koo-vra'hnR-ss

Kene Rohault....Ru-nay-ro-ho''.

Kensselaer Ren-se-lur.

Eichelieu Reesh-le-e u.

Bossignol Roz-een-y oil.

Sagamore Sa'g-ah-more.

Saignelay San-jrti-lay.

Saskatchewan . , .Sas-ka'tch-e-wan.
SaultSte. Marie, So-8an8t-mahre'e.

Saussaye So-sa'y-ee.

Savaxmois Sah- vau-waw ;

-e-

Scliultz Shoolts.

Schuyler Sky-ler.

Senecas Se'n-e-kahs.

Senezergues Se'n-ez-airg.

Sioux Soe-oo'.

Souriquois Soo-re-quaw.

Ste. Poye Sanst-f waw.

St. Pierre Saint Pe-are'.

„,-,,.. ( Saint Sul-pi'sh
St. Sulpicius... I ^

Stadacone Stad-ah-ko-nay .

Stuyvesant \ Sti-ve-sant
(Petrus) ) (Pe-trus).

Taencas Ta-en-kahs.

Tecumseh Te-cum^ti.

( Tern - iss - kam -

t ing.

Tessouac Tess-ou-ak.

Tionnates Tee-on-na-tes.

Troyes Trwaw.

Temiscaming

Utrecht You-trekt.

Vaudreuil Vo-drcM^e-y t.

Vaure Vor.

Ventadour Vahn8-tah-doo'r.

Verazzani Vay-rah-za'h-nee.

Vespucci, ) Ves-poot-chee,

(Amerigo)... I (Ah-may-ree%o)

Vigor Vee-zhay.

Villebon Veel-bon8.

Wyandot. Wy-an-do't.

INDEX.

Abcnaquis, 3t).

Abraham, Plains of, 217.

Acadians, expulsion of, 199.

Acadie {note), 14 ; present condition of,
21 ; colonized, 50 ; Poutrincourt's re-
turn to, 53; Lieutenant-General Saus-
saye in, 60; chartered, 79; restored to
France, 81 ; Eazilli commandant in,
82, 102 ; seized by English, 107 ; re-
stored to Louis XIV., 108 ; resettled,
152 ; Port Royal, capital, 167.

Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of, 185

Alabama, The, 427, 435.

Albany, named, 116; French routed
at, £09.

Alexander, Sir William, 75.

Algonquin, 38.

Aliens, 316.

Alilatho, The, 44.

Allen, Colonel, 250.

Allen, Isaac, Judge, 260.

Alliance, Indian, 283.

America, discovered, 23 ; origin of
name, 26 ; first peopled, 37.

Amherst, General, 230.

Annapolis Royal, 170.

Argall, Samuel, 60 ; Governor of Vir-
ginia, 61.

Arnold, Colonel, 250.

Aroostook War, 379.

Arthur, Colonel Sir George, 373.

Ashburton Treaty, 379.

Assembly, First General, in Canada,
246.

Assembly, General Indian, 126.

Attigonantin, Lac, 68.

Aubry, M., lost, 51.

Avalon, Province of, 129.

A^lmer, Lord, 888.

Baccalaos, 26.

Bagot, Sir Charles, 886.

Baltic timber duties repealed, 327.

Baptiste, Privateer, 160.

Baronets, Knights, of Nova Scotia, 7G.

Barre, M. de la, 137.

Basque, language {note), 26.

Bay Chaleur, 28.

Beaubair's Island, Pestilence on, 24.'>.

Beauharnois, Marquis de, 177.

Beaupr^, 200.

Beausejour, Fort, 191,

Beaver Dams, unaccountable occurrence

at. 293.
Belleau, Sir N. P., 439.
Berlin Decree {note), 277.
Bigot, M., 189.

Billop, Hon. Christopher, 325.
Bishop, powers of, in Canada, 111.
Bliss, Daniel, 261.
Bloody Bridge, 230.
Borgne, Emanuel le, 106.
Boston, La Tour at, 104
Boulay, H616ne de, 73.
Bouquet, Colonel, 231.
Bourbon, Charles de, 63.
Bourbon, Henri de, 63.
Bourgade, 42.
Bourlamaque, M,, 211.
Braddock, Genoral, 196.
Bradstreet, Geneial, 233.
Breda, Treaty of, 108.
Breton, Cape, 209; annexed to St. John,

245 ; to Nova Scotia, 325.
British North America Act, 437.
Brock, General, 284, 286.
Brouillan, M., 163 ; Governor, 137.
Brown, Gene. .1, 302.
Brown, George, 420, 42i.

INDEX.

471

Brul^, Etienne, 67.
Burgoyne, General, 253.
Burke, Edmund {note), 265.
Burton, Sir Francis Matthew, 322.

Cabots, The, 25.

Cafflni6re, M. de, 145.

Cahiague, 08.

Caldwell, Sir J )hn, 321. •

CalliSres, In France, 145; death of, 16,;.

Calumet, Isle of, 65.

Campbell, Major-General, 328.

Campbell, Sir Archibald, 849, 352.

Campbell, Sir Colin, 349.

Canada, origin of name, 35; Invadad
by English, 154, 1G9; end of Frerch
rule in, 220; Royal Proclamation, 2 li;
Upper and Lower, 266; Reign of
Terror in, 279; invaded , 282: Pe.\ce
of, 308 ; Trade Act and Tenures J.ct,
321 ; Land Company, 323 ; rebell: ous
tendencies in, 334; invaded, 370; (Con-
stitution suspended, 372; invade I by
Hunters, 377 ; Dominion of, 437 ; in-
ternal progress of. 447.

Canals, 455.

Cardwell's despatches, 434.

Carignan Salidres, 120.

Carillon, 210.

Carleton, Colonel Thomas, 260.

Carleton, Governor Sir Guy, 23', 249;
Lord Dorchester, 262 ; leaves Prov-
ince, 276.

Caroline, Destruction of, 370.

Cartier, Jacques, sails from St Malo,
27: takes possession of Can,, da, 28;
visits Hochelaga, 30 ; last da 's, 33.

Cartier, Sir G'?orge Etienne. 4-^3.

Casco Bay, 151.

Cataracoui, Peace meeting at, 132 ; be-
sieged, 143.

Cathay (note), 15.

Cathcart, Majof-General, 387.

Catherine, the squaw, 228.

Caughnawaga, rising at, 376. ,

Cavagnac, Marquis de, 195.

Censitaires, 113.

Census first taken, 442.

Chambly, 260.

Chameau, Le, wrecked, 177.

Champlain, Lake, 50, 253.

Champlain, Samuel de, 14, 49; made
lieutenant, 63; returns to France, 64;
to Canada, 06 ; explores the Ottawa,
67 ; war with Senecas, 69; a prisoner,

70 ; returns to Quebec, 73 ; Governor
of Canada, 78 ; death of. 83.

Charlesbourg, 124.

Charlesbourg Royal, 33.

Charlevoix, Father, 175.

Charlottetown Conferi nee, 430.

Chastefort, M. B., 84.

Chateauguay, Battle of, 296.

Chauncsy, Commodore, 290.

Chauvigny, Madeline de, 85.

Chazy, M. de, killed, 121.

Chebucto, 189.

Chedabucto, 140, 153, 276.

Chesapeake taken, 305^

Chicago, Perrot at, 126.

Chipman, Hon. Ward, 325.

Chijipewas, 38.

Chrysler's Farm, Battle of, 298.

Chubb, Captain, 161.

Church, Colonel Benjamin, 162.

Church Rule, 84,

Civil List Bill, 352.

Clarke, Colonel Alured, 269.

Clergy Reserves, 317, 410.

Clitheroe Major-General, 385.

Colbert, M, {note), 112.

Colebrooke, Major-General, 392.

Columbia, British, 414, 442.

Columbus, Christopher, 23.

Commercial Independence, 400.

Commission, Joint High, 441.

Commission of Inquiry (1835), 336.

Compact, Family, 340; of Nova Scotia>
348.

Company of Hundred Associates, 79.

Company of the North, 147.

Confederation, 19, 418, 433.

Congress, First, 152.

Conjurers, Hostility of the, 87.

Constitutional Act, 266.

Constitution of Canada, 444.

Cornwallis, Governor, 189.

Council, Giand, of Plymouth, 75.

Council, Sovereign, 110.

Courcelles, M. de, 122; firm rule of, 131.

Coureurs du Bois, 115.

Cromwell, Oliver, 107.

Crown landSj 323, 350.

Cumberland, Fort, attacked, 254.

Customs dispute, 318.

Czar, Mediation of, 300.

D'Ailleboust, M., 90, 96.

Dalhou-sie, Earl of, 313 ; recalled, 332.

D'Allumette, Isle, 65.

472

INDEX.

--4 4

-i*.

Dalzell, Captain, 230.
Daniel, Father, murdered, 93.
D'Anville, death of, 184.
D'Argenson, Viscomto, 98.
D'Aulnay Charnisay, Seigneur, 103.
D'Avaagour, Baron, 99.
Davis, Jefferson, 426.
Dearborn, General, 285; beleaguered in

Fort George, 293.
Denonville, Marquis de, 140 ; recalled,

145.
Benys, Nicolas, 102, 106.
Deschamps and Brenton, 273.
D'Estournelle, Admiral, 184.
Detroit, given up, 227 ; captured, 284 ;

Convention and Treaty of, 435.
D'Hertel, M. Rouville, 169.
D'Iberville, M., 147; sails for Fort

Henry, 161 ; captures Englisli sailors,

104.
Dieskau, Baron, 198.
Disputed Territory, 827.
Dongan, Colonel, 136, 142.
Doric Club, 363.
Douglas, Sir Howard, 325.
Downie, Captain, 306.
Doyle, Major-General, 439.
Drummond, Governor Gordon, 310
Drummond, Sir George, assumes com

mand, 298.
Duchesneau, M., 133.
Dufferin, Earl, 442.
Dumner's Treaty, 176
Dunnacocna, 29.
Dupuys, M., 97.
Durham, Earl of. High Commissioner,

373.
Duvantye, M., 141.

Earns, Captain, 161.
Education in Canada, 450, 453.
Egg Islands, catastrophe at, 172,
Elgin, Lord, 388 ; mobbed, 396.
Erie, Fort, evacuated, 307.
Erie, Lake, battle on, 295.

Falkland, Lord, Governor of Nova

Scotia, 890.
Family Compact, The, 315.
Fenians, The, 435, 441.
Feudal system, The, 113.
Feudal tenure {note), 19.
Fishing Admirals, The, 129.
Five Counties, Meeting of the, 363.
Vive Natiojis, The, 40.

Fox, Charles James (note), 205.

Franklin, Benjamin, 195.

Frazer River discovered, 412.

Frederickton, St. Anne's Point, 201.

Frenchtown surprised, 288.

Froblsher, Martin, 34.

Frontenac, Count, 132 ; goes back to

Canada, 167 ; death of, 164.
Fur-trade, 48, 114 ; edict against, 159.

Galissonnigre, Count de la, 187.

Gait, A. T., 421.

Garrangula, 138.

Gaudois, M., 110.

George, Battle of Lake, 198.

Ghent, Treaty of, 307.

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 34.

Gladwyn, The, surprised, 231.

Goderich, Lord, 343.

Gordon, Hon. A., 427.

Gosford, Lord, 336 ; proclamation, 361.

Grenville's Act, 266.

Grievances, Seventh Report of, 844.

Griffin, The, 134.

Guercheville, Madame de, 59.

Haldlmand, General Sir Frederick,
253.

Halifax, founded, 190 ; in time of war,
304 ; conference, 407.

Hampton's, General, army, 296.

Harvey, Sir John, 391.

Hazen, William, 261.

Head, Sir Edmund, 395 ; Governor-
General, 409.

Head, Sir Francis, 344; awaits rebell-
ion, 362 ; resigns, 373.

Hennepin, Father, 134.

Heriufulson, Biarni, 23.

Hochelaga, 30.

Hodenosaunee, 39.

Horse, The, first in Canada, 120.

Howe, Lord, death of, 209.

Howe, Joseph, leads Reformers in
Nova Scotia, 349; enters Assembly,
354 ; enters railway field, 404 ; death
of, 443.

Hudson Bay Company, 411, 440.

Hudson Bay Territory, taken by France,
128, 164.

Hull, General, surrenders, 284.

Hunters' Lodges, 375.

Hunter, Major-General, 277.

Huron or Wyandot, 88.

Huron Mission, 86, 92.

INDEX.

473

Indians, origin of name, 25 ; their wel-
come to Frenchmen, 29 ; their tribes,
38 ; characteristics, 41 , government,
44; superstitions, 45; present loca-
tion, 46 ; discontent 227 ; last rislne
of, 264. *

Inheritance, Law of Pedual, 114.

Inquiry, Royal Commission of 357.

Intendant, The, 111.

Iroquois, division into clans, 39; in-
cursions of, 89; murders and mas-
sacres by, 93; their spies executed, 98;
defiant, 139 ; seizure of their chiefs
141.

Loyola, Ignatius (note), 5S.
Ludlow, Chief-Justice, 260.
Lundy's Lane, Battl. of, 304.

Jesuits, Society of, 58; Fathers, 74 Col-
lege established, 85,

Johnson, Sir William, 192, 212.

Jonquifire, M. de la, 184, 188.

Judges, Impeachment of, 273, 301; ap-
pointment of, 446.

Juraonville, M., lA

Kebeca Uherata, 156.

Kempt, Sir Jame», 3i!4; Governor of

Canada, 832.
Klrkt, Admiral, 79.
Kondiaronk, The Eat, 144.

Lachine, Massacre at, 146 ; Canal, 453,

Lallemant, Father, 80.

Land Company (note), 360.

L'Assomption discovered, 29.

Lauson, M. de, 96.

Laval, M. Francois de, 98.

Lawrence, Fort, 191.

Laws, Conflict of, 235.

League, British North American, 895,

Legislatures, Local, 446.

Lescarbot, Marc, 53.

Levi, Henri de. Due de Ventadour, 74.

Libertine party, 100.

Lieutenant-Governors, 262.
Limollu, 33.

Lincoln, Abraham, elected, 426 ; assas-
sinated, 434.
Liquor traffic, 100.
London, meeting of delegates at, 436,
Louisbourg, 124,
Louisburg founded, 173 ; siege of, 181;

second siege, 20a
Louisiana named, 136.
Loiiut and Matthews executed, 373.
Loutre, Abbe de, 190,
Loyalists, United Empire, 266-268.

Mackenzie River discovered, 412.

Madawaska, 246.

Madison, President, declares war, 282.

Madockawando, 161.

Maine, excitement in, 37a

Malsonneuve, Paul de Chomedy, 8a

Maitland, Sir Peregrine, 3ia

Manitoba, 440.

Manitous, 44.

Mantelets (note), 69,

March, Colonel, 168.

Mascerene, Governor, 180.

Maugervillo, 246,

M'Donald, J, A., 433, 439.

M 'Donald, J. Sanfield, 42a

M'Dougall, Hon. William, 440.

M^Gee, D'Arcy, 430 ; shot, 439.

M'Kenaie Administration, 444.

M'Keuzie, William Lyon, 339; perse-
cuted, 341 ; Mayor of Toronto, 344 ;
rebels, 360 ; besieges Toronto, 365 ;
in Navy Island, 369 ; pardoned, 387.
Meigs, Fort, siege of, 294.
Membertou, first met with, 54; re-
ceives Poutrlncourt, 57 ; baptism of
58. *- «

xKlerchants, Associated, 64, 73,
Mesnard, Father, 123,
Mesy, M, de, 119,
Metcalfe, Sir Charles, 386,
Michigan territory, held by British.
285.

MichUlimacklnac, Hurons settled at,
123 ; convoy sent to, 161 ; Fort at-
tacked, 284.
Miramichi, Fire at, 326.
Missionaries, Dangers of, 90,
Missions, Western, 123.
Mississippi explored, 127.
Mohawks, Campaign against, 121.
Monarchy triumphant, 346.
Monck, Viscoimt, Governor, 427.
M'^ncton, Colonel, 196.
Monk, Judge, 301,
Monongahela, 197.
Montagnals, 88, 45, 56, 67,
Montcalm, Marquis de, 201 ; death of.

2ia
Montgomery, Colonel Bichard, 260;

killed, 252,
Montgoinery Farip, 3Q6.

474

INDEX.

Montmagny, M. de, Governor, 84.

Montmorency, Due de (note), 72.

Montreal founded, 87 ; Iroquois depu-
ties at, 131 ; Onondagas at, 142; tlireat-
oned by the English, 154 ; surrender
of, 219 ; disturbances at, 396.

Monts, De, Lieutenant-General of Aca-
die, 60 ; returns to France, 53 ; his
monopoly renewed, 65.

''' 'oose Island captured, 305.

Moravia village, Battle of, 295.

Moravians (note), 46.

Morgan, Captain, 252.

Mount Royal named, 31.

Municipal Institutions, 401.

Murray, General, 226.

Nachouac, Fort on the, 160, 163.

Napierville, rising at, 376.

Navigation : Canals, 452.

Navigation Laws repealed, 401.

Navy Island, 369.

Necessity, Fort, 194.

Neilson, Mr., 322.

Neison, Dr. Robert, 376.

Nelson, Dr.Wolfred, 363; captured, 305.

Neutrality, Treaty of, 140.

Newark, Legislature meets at, 270; in
flames, 298.

New Brunswick, 260; disputes at, 275;
in 1848, 392; Anti-Confederate, 433.

New England Colonies, 95.

Newi'oundiand, French in, 128.

New France, 48.

New Orleans, Battle of, 307.

New York named, 116.

Niagara, Fort, invested, 213; meeting
at, 232; an American possession, 291.

Niagara frontier crossed, 303.

Nibachis, native chief, 65,

Nichokon, Colonel Francis, 167.

Nipercini, The, 67.

Nipissing, Lake, 67.

Norembdgue, 32.

North- West Territory, 411,

Nova Scotia, charter granted, 75: in
l765-<50, 244; decline of, 324; Family
Compact, 389; Responsible Govern-
ment, 891.

Oaths Bni, 443.
Odell, Hon. Jonathan, 260.
Odell-town, 37a
Ogdenbui^ burned, 283.
OJjio Company, 193.

Ojibaways, 38.

Okies, 45.

Onondaga Mission, 97.

Onondagas attacked, 158.

Oregon Territory, 413.

Oswego taken, 202, 302.

Ottawa, Parliament removed to, 397.

Ottawas, 38.

Ougonhonse, Iroquois, 39.

Pacific Scandal, The, 443.

Papineau, Louis, 314; opposed, 822;

Speaker, 332; ag^nst Britain, 336;

unites with M'Kenzie 361.
Paria {note}, 26.
Paris, Treaty of {note), 16, 223; Peace

of, 257.
Parliament Buildings at Montreal

burned, 396.
Parliament, First, of united Canadas,

384 ; Powers of, 446 ; first, of Domin-
ion, 437.
Parrtown,.259.
Patronage, Right of, 387.
Peltrie, Madame de la, 85.
Pemaquid, Fort at, 160.
Pepperell, William, 181.
Perrot, Nicholas, 126.
Perry on Lake Erie, 295.
Philadelphia Congress, 249.
Phips, Sir William, 152.
Pitt, Fort, Siege of, 232.
Pitt, W^iiam, 205.
Place d' Armes, 91.
Plaoeni.^,, 161.
Point Pol^ Island, S71.
Pontchartrain, M., 159.
Pontgrav^, M., 49.
Pontiac, M., 226; conspiracy of, 228;

death of, 233.
Population, 453, 457.
Portland Convention, 404.
Port Royal, named, 52; discord at, 54;

captured, 153; attacked, 168.
Poutrincourt, first arrival of, 50; goes

to France, 53; abandons Acadie, 57;

his second return to France, 69;

slain, 62.
Prescott, General, 271.
Presentation, La, 192.
Prevost, Sir George, 285; retreat of, 292;

in New York, 306.
Prima Vista, 25.

Prince Edward's Island, 21, 275, 443.
Prince of Wales in Canada, 425.

INDEX.

475

Privy Council, First, 439.
Proctor, Colonel, 288.
Provinces, Maritime, 3G9.
Puritan Fathers [note], 39.
Putnam, James, 260.

Quebec, foucded, 16; present condition
of, 19; origin of name, 30; first cap-
tured, 81 ; restored, 81 ; besieged by Iro-
quois, 99; by English, 155; Wolfe be-
fore, 213; Act, 2'i3; besieged by
Montgomery, 251 ; Scheme, 431.

Queenston, Battle of, 286.

Quesne, Marquis du, 189.

Quints, 113.

Hallways : Canada Pacific, 442 ; Cana-
dian, 456; Facility Bill, 457.

Basle, Father, 176.

Raudot, Messieurs, 174.

Ilazilli, Isaac de, 82, 102.

Keade, Mr. A., 393.

Kebellion Losses Bill, 395.

Reciprocity Treaty, 408.

Recollets, The, 07; re-established, 125.

Rectories, Fifty-six, 344.

Reform Administration (note), 343.

Reformers, Moderate, 340; views of,
359; declaration of, 362.

Regiment, The Ring's (of New Bruns-
wick), 290.

Resolutions, The Ninety-two, 336.

Resolutions, The Twelve, 354.

Revenue, Appropriation of, 445.

Revenue, Casual and Territorial, 312,
352.

Revolution, French, 265.

Riall, Major-General, 303.

Richelieu, Cardinal {note), 78.

Richelieu, Forts on the, 121.

Richmond, Duke of, 313.

Riel in Fort Garry, 440.

Roads and Bridges, 452.

Roberval, Sieur de, 32.

Robeyre, M. de, 146.

Robinson, Beverley, 261.

Roche, Sieur de la, 49.

Rossignol, 51.

Russell, Lord John, 357; his Resolu-
tions, 358; his Despatches, 382

Ryswick, Peace of, 164.

Sable Island, Landing on, 27 ; Convicts

on, 49*
SnQkett's Harbour, 29?.

Salle, Robert Cavalier la, 184; explores

the Mississippi, 135.
Sandusky attacked, 295.
Sandwich, Attack on, 377.
San Juan Difficulty, 413. 416.
Saratoga, Surrender at, 2.')3.
Saunders, Judge John, 261.
Saussaye, M. de la, 60.
Savannois, 38.
Schenectady, Sack of, 150.
Schultz, Van, Surrender of, 377.
Schuyler, General, 249.
Scotch, at Port Royal, 70.
Scott, General Winfteld, 379.
Search, Right of, 276.
Secession, War of, 418.
Secretaryship, Provincial, 393.
Sections, War of, 385.
Sedgwick, Colonel R.. 107.
Selkirk Settlement, 412.
Senate, The, 445.

Senecas, War with, 69; punished, 141.
Seven Years' War, 201.
Sewell, Chief-Justice, 301.
Sheaffe, Sir Roger, 291.
Sherbrooke, Sir John Cope, 311.
Sicotte, A., 428.
Silleri, Marquis Noel B., 85,
Simcoe Country, 39.
Simcoe, Governor {note), 19, 270.
Sioux, 38.

Six Nations, The, 176.
Slave Lake, Great, discovered, 412.
Smallpox, 142.
Smythe, Major-General, 325.
Soccage {note), 225.
Sons of Liberty, Political Club, 363.
Stadano-<5, 30.
Stamp Act, 242.
Stoney Creek surprised, 293.
Street's, Hon. George, Mission, 353.
Studholme, Gilfred, 261.
St. Albans invaded, 434.
St. Castine, Baron, 161.
St. Croix named, 52.
St. Denis and St. Charles, 364.
St. Foye, Battle of, 219.
St. Germain -en-Laye, Treaty of, 81.
St. John (Island), captured, 209; name

changed, 275; separated from Nova

Scotia, 247.
St. John (New Brunswick), 52, 261.
St. John's, Fort (on the Richelieu), 249.
St. John's (Newfoundland) 129; sacked,

164,

476

INDEX.

Ste. -Marie, Mission at, 01.

St. Sauveur, settlement, CO; destroyed,

61.
St. Sulpicius, Seminary of, 07.
Sunbury, 240,
Susa, Convention of, 81.
Sutton, Hon. J. H. I., 409.
Sydenham, Lord, Governor of Nova

Scotia, 300.

Tadoussac, English fleet at, 80.

Talon, M. , 116 ; Investigates the case
of Mesy, 120; tries to Improve the
country, 123-125; claims Hudson Bay
Territory for France, 127

Tariffs, Canadian, 423.

Tecumseh, 283; besieges St. Meigs, 204;
slain, 296.

Temple, Sir Thomas, 108.

Territory, Dispirted, 268, 377.

Terror, Beign c/, in Lower Canada, 279.

Thomas, General, 252.

Thompson, Hon. Charles, 881; Lord
Sydenham, 384.

Ticonderoga, 202.

Tilley, Hon. Samuel L., 430.

Tonti, Chevalier, 134.

Toronto, 20 ; threatened, 365 ; Confer-
ence at, 406.

Tour, Charles de la, 82; Lieutenant,
102; disobeys the King, 103; heroism
of his wife, 106; marries D'Aulnay's
widow, 106; seizes Acadie, 108.

Tracy, Marquis de, 120.

Treaty of Amity, 271.

Trent Affair, The, 427.

Trial by jury, 236.

Triple invasion, 211.

Two Moimtains, Insurrection In, 367.

Union Sch<)me, 320; of Two Canadas,

383.
Upham, Joshua, Judge, 260.
Ftrecht, Treaty of, 173.

Vancouver's Island, 413.
Vaudreuil, Marquis de, appointed, 166;
invades Canada, 1^; dei^th of, 177.

Verazzani, John, 27.

Vespucci, Amerigo, 20.

Vetch and Nicholson, Colonels, 160.

Victoria Bridge {note), 424.

Victoria Founded, 413.

Vignan, 64, 66.

Villebon, goes with D'Iberville, 161;

Rails for Newfoundland, 163.
Vincent, Color' 2P1.
Virginia {note), 60.
Viviers, De, stratagem of, 181.

Wampum, 42.

War, U.S., 426.

Washington, burned, 306; Treaty of,

441.
Washington, George, 103.
Webster, Daniel, 370.
Weir, Lieutenant, murdered, 304.
Welland Canal, 463.
Wentworth, s= • John, 273.
West India U/mpany established, 112;

chartered, 115.
Westminster founded, 415.
Westmiuster, Treaty of {note), 107
Whelan, Patrick, 440.
Wilkes, Captain, 427.
Wilkinson's army, 206.
Willard, Abijah, 261.
William -Henry, Fort (on the Pemaquid), ,

taken, 161.
William -Henry, Fort (on Lake George),

erected, 199; Massacre of, 2U3.
Wilmot, Lemuel, leads Reformers in

New Brunswick, 840; his mission,

851.
Winacke, R. J., 4ia
Winslow, Edward, Judge, 260.
Wolfe, General, 208; before Quebec,

213; slain, 218.
Wolseley, Lieutenant-Colonel, 440.
Wyandot, Sa

Yeo, Sir James, 202.
York, seat of Government, 270 ; Sur-
render of, 201.
Yorktown, Surrender of British army

ftt, 2§6.

ur-

cisTi