IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) h W/ /. A Z 5^. 1.0 I.I ^ us, 12.5 22 IL25 ■ 1.4 6" 2.0 18 M. iL6 y <« PhoiDgraphic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 \ iV n>^ \ :\ % (/a CIHM Microfiche Series ({Monographs) ICMH Collection de microfiches (monographies) Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques Technical and Bibliographic Notes / Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. 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Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent §tre filmds d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clichd, i! est film6 d partir de Tangle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 22X 1 2 3 4 5 6 :ll AIJORESS OP f f f > T. C. KEEPER, C.M.G. PRESIOiiiNT Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, AT THE — ANNUAL MEETING, JANUARY 12, i8p8. w 1^1 National Library BIbliothdque natlonale of Canada du Canada r f PRESIDExNT'S ADDRESS. At Annual Meeting, Jan. 12, 1898. By T. C. Keefer, C.M.G. Having been lionourcd by reelection to the Presidency, after an in- terval of ten years, I desire first to tbank you most heartily for this renewal of your confidence, and at the same time to congratulate tlio Society upon its record in this the first ten years of its existence, durinj,' which total membership and revenue have increased about fifty per cent. Unlike our predeccf-sors in England and America, we, as the oflFspring of later times, have encountered no early period of suspended anima- tion, but have advanced steadily, if not rapidly, in numerical strength, and maintained satisfactory financial stability. If we have not pro- gressed proportionately in public usefulness or mutual enlightenment, it may be ascribed (in some measure at least) to the fact that some from whom much could be expected are toe closely occupied with daily duties to contribute, as they might otherwise do, to our " Transactions." Some may be too modest, and some too old, or possibly too indolent. If, however, we have held our own as we l.avc done in these recent years (which embrace several of world-wide depression), our prospects for the luture seem brighter than when we began our organization in 188*7. Then our great railway systems were practically completed ; and although this was the case with our enlarged canal systems only as regards the Welland, the work on the St. Lawrence was in an inert condition. Ample leisure was then aS"orded Canadian engineers for organization, amusement or foreign travel. ^ow, however, there is a decided change in our position at home and abroad. Canada is now a colony of natioaal importance, the largest independent member of a world-wide Empire, and none have contributed more to this advanced position than engineers of every class embraced in our Society, which, while it excludes none, is composed almost en- tirely of the constructive rather than the destructive order. In 1887 Canada was not a mining country ; now, recent discoveries over a wide extent of our vast Dominica have brou'-ht the miniu" 2 President's Address. engineer to the front, ami with him the hydraulic and electrical engi- neer, because water power is almost universal in our mining regions from Labrador to Alaska. Our vast prairies, where is grown the most Taluable quality of the most important cereal, have hitherto been unable to attract mucli foreign interest, though accessible to all nations; but the recent discovery of gold has been of such a character as to invito world-wide attention. Its influence (however temporary) cannot fail to produce increased agricultural development in our great North-Wcfrt. Since the birth of our Society water power has attained a position of immense importance owing to electrical transmission, which has -^mical manufacture in which our profession is interested (on water power ground), which also depends on cheap (.lectiicity, is that of aluminum, for which the raw material is so wide'y distributed, but for which, as with the carbide, abundant and cheap water power is indispensable. In view of its importance, owing to its wide distribution over Can- adian territory from the Atlantic seaboard to the Rocky Mountains, whore no coal is found, and on account of its vastly enhanced value Preaidenfa Addreaa. 3 since the discovery of high voltage transmission, even where it is within the coal fields, I have chosen water power as the subject of some observations for the Annual Address. I have heretofore drawn attention to tliis widely distributed power outside of our coal regions as to some extent a substitute for coal, upon the assumption of local application of power in both cases, whether water or steam, and then the vust dififerciice presented itself that with the last the power could be taken to the work, while with the other the work must bo taken to tho power ; for tlicre was no thought then of electrical t'ansmission. The utilization of water power would be very slight and very slow if under the old conditions of advance into the forest (as in the agricultural portions of tlie valley of the St. Lawrence), because our jixeatcst extent of water power is in the mountainous and sometimes barren regions, not inviting to agri- culture though most favourable for the accumulation, maintenance and uniform distribution of water power throughout the year. In considering the question of water power generally, and in com- parison with steam, it may first be mentioned that while electrical transmission (where practicable) has enabled it to take the place of steam in many situations, the choice in others depends upon the work to be done as well as upon cost of fuel. For transmission purposes there are only the questions of the sufficiency and permanence of tho power and its superior economy ; but for lumber manufacture, although ample water power is at hand, and there is with it no question of ice difficulties, it is found in many cases that steam is preferable, because the mill site may be chosen in the best position for manufacture, ship- ment and storage of logs, and the waste material furnishes fuel for power. The cost and maintenance of a mill dam in many situations with the necessary piers and booms for the logs, the damage and ris. to mills, etc. , during fioods, are reasons urged (in addition to the questions of site and fuel) in favor of steam for this industry. But for other purposes the site of the water power (perhaps in a gorge) is unfavourable for many industries on account of difficulty of access and want of service ground j and here is the value of electric transmission of water power. When adopting water power, one of the most important considera- tions is the possible need of future enlargement. Where all the water power of a stream of any point is secured by a dam, and this power can be drawn upon from time to time until the whole is applied, we have only to consider cost and maintenance in the first place, even * Preaident'a Address, though the additional power must thereafter bo obtained by coal, or transmission (when this last is commercially practicable), not only be- causo the water power is aufficicnt for many years, but, as far as it goes, it is more economical than any other. But if only part of the avail- able water power is needed, and provision for the future must be postponed for financial reasons, then the question of how any future addition can be made without interruption becomes important in pro- portion to the purpose for which the power is required. If for water supply or electric light, either the original dimensions must be far beyond present wants, or there must be the power of duplication without interference with existing conditions, or else temporary power for this purpose on a sufficient scale, or permanent, if made auxiliary for future deficiency of water. Such considerations affect the question of the economy of water power for certain ])urposes and under certain conditions where a periodical increase of power must be provided for. It altogether depends upon local conditions whether an artificial water power, as it may bo called, will be worth what it costs for any purpose ; and more particularly if this is one in which power must be reserved for future needs. Temporary employment of surplus j^ower could not be counted upon to build up permanent industries. Electrical demand and transmission have created a "boom" in water power under which in some cases the schemes proposed may become financial failures. There is evidently a limit to the distance to which water can be artificially conducted in order to reach a fall under the most favourable conditions of route. For power purposes the only use- ful portion of the aqueduct is that which lies below the turface level of the water in it, and the value of this is in direct proportion to its size, and therefore its cost, which includes the cost of all required work above this level. The longer the aqueduct the higher must be the fall which it secures, and the lower tlie fall the larger must be its dimensions and cost if it is to be efficient. Whether it will be pro- fitable in cither case depends upon the cost. Such natural dams of took as those of Niagara, Sault Ste. Marie, Rat Portage, the Chaudi^re, the Chats and others on the Ottawa are natural water powers of the' first order; but the artificial powers created by our canals (apart from cost of every canal adjunct to the water channel) would never have been undertaken for water power purposes. There is a popular super- stition that there is more in water than its weight, because that weight is felt " all over " as well as on the bottom, and a tendency to ascribe to it a fictitiouB value. This has possibly something to do with some projects. Presidenfe Address. In water power the discovery of loweBt possible head level is of tho first importance, and the one often of the greatest di£Bculty where this is not controlled by a dam, which (wherever practicable) is the only certain nienns of fixing it. When a dam does not exist, or is not ob< tainable, recourse is had to legend and the " oldest inhabitant," who has seldom proved old enough for the occasion. Our canal engineers have, with the best information, found llieir mitre sills in many cases very much higher than they intended them to be, because the river had gone very much lower than it had ever been said to have done. To secure at all times a required depth it scen)s necessary to add about three feet to the "oldest inhiibitant." When, over fifty years ago, the Government first constructed timber slides on tributaries of the Ottawa, in the absence of any knowledge of the local range of water level, the mouths of these were found so high after the first fiood that the timber could not be floated into them until a dam was built for this purpose. The high water level is more easily provided against, and is often more important in connection with the tail-race in fixing the wheel level, where the discharge is into a reach subject to great variation, like that below the Chaudi^re Fiills, where the extreme range between high and low water exceeds twenty-five feet ; which, though of short duration, is about three times as great as the same range above these Falls, Where the wheels would bo nfi'ected, as this is always the case at the season when the rise is greatest at the head, provision may be made to utilize this temporary increase of head level so as to maintain the necessary power during back water. Where unceasing operation of power is required in our climate, duplication and separation of flumee (and it may be in some cases of tail-race) may, where practicable, warrant the additional cost in thug securing reserve of power (as wr!' us of machinery) when any particular channel has a surfeit of ice ; — w :vell as by so much contributing to a future enlargement. Except upon our canals (where the least winter difficulties are ex- perienced), our great water powers have been chiefly used as summer ones, in which the two independent questions connected with water power, viz., the power of enlargement and extension without interrup- tion, and the possible ice difficulties of a northern site, do not come in question. The large saw mills have not worked in winter because their logs are frozen in. Before the railway reached them the mills stopped sawing when thoy could no longer ship their output ; but where they ^ Preaidenfa Addrm. depend upon the water for their log^. whether they are worked by water or steam, they are idle in winter. j " ««• The co«>ing or eloetrieitv, bringing with it the demand for winter power, ha.s produced iee diffieulties where they did not before exit and were .herefore not antieipated and not ^ovided foTa , o"^^^ wmter water power, to a limited extent, had been in u«e. Inereasfd power orought increased eurrent, and this under eer.ain 000X3 biOught the submerged ice. vuuuiuoub There is no question of more importance to our water powers than h.s one of uninterrupted operation in our northern districts X" neady ^11 are loented, and where (with perhnps the exception of he southern portion of our Pacific coast) ice in one form or another mus edea 1 with It assails the moving water sometimes both from abov and below, and, ,f undiscovered, chokes off the motive power In artificial channels the fixed surface ice above may diminish the water power by its increasing thickness and depression from super- ineum ent weight of snow saturated by winter rains and thaws ; and where these channels are fed from open water in which floating slush ice IS moving, tho latter may be drawn in to increase the throttling of the reduced water-way. The situation is greatly complicated by winter fluctuations of the open water from which the mill-race is fed, and in whieh the "slush "or "anchor ice" is running-a not un;ommon situation in northern nvers which cannot be conveniently dammed, or where suiBcicntly large receiving basins cannot be created so that slush or "anchor ice " will not enter and travel through the mill pond to reach the flumes. The ice question can be more fully appreciated by what has taken place in connection with water powers at Montreal and Ottawa In he first ca.c, the aqueduct of the Montreal water works, five miles in length, almost entirely in excavation, is fed from the St. Lawrence above the Laclune Eapids, where there is a smooth swift current which prevents the freezing over i„ winter, but is often covered with « slush " or anchor ice " when that is running. The Lachine Eapids below the intake of this aqueduct are of that ragged character that tempor- ary ice dams often form and break away during the winter. These dams produce a sudden rise whieh extends to the aqueduct two mile From the setting in of winter until March the river level steadily lowers, except when temporarily elevated by the ice dam, so that in the early spring there is the least depth of water at the intake and the PrmdenVs Addreaa. if groatcot depth of Burfaco ico and saturated snow over the aqueduct and the only water-way left is at the bottom where the width is least' The ordinary action of snow falls, winter rains and thnws (the accu* Diulations of three or four months) would of themselves seriously encroach upon the water-way in ihe widest part of its earth section but these Pro (m this case) enormously increased by the sudden rise of the river whdo the ico is frozen to the aqueduct banks. This ico is overflowed before it onu be lifted, and as these winter floods always occur during the severest weather, the overflowing water is i.nu.ediatoly frozen, forcing the ico covering of the aqueduct further down until tho half or more of the area of its water-way may be o'osed off. These winter inundiitions scldoai last long enough to send tho river water far down the aqueduct, but their action at its mouth is ail that 18 necessary to affect its power. The first one experienced was durin- the first winter the works were in operation. Nothing like it has taken place in the forty years which have since elapsed, and it was tho only one which extended throughout the five miles of the aqueduct. Tq January, 1857, afler nearly five days of below zero weather, in tho middle of the night the water suddenly poured over the flumes in the wheel-house, sending an icy stream over the frozen surface of the ground for miles beyond. This ice-dam on the rapids caused a rise of four feet in a few hours at the aqueduct, entrance. Years later this flood might have destroyed the usefulness of the aqueduct for the remainder of the winter, but the power then requir-d was so smnll that winter difficulties did not arise until a later date, when tho conditions were aggravated from another direetion,_below instead of above ..nd from another description of ice insidiously creeping into tho winter- diminished water-way, due to the causes above described, and pro- ducing gradual suffocation. This did not take place until the combi- nation of extreme low water in the river, extreme accumulation of surface ice and snow and increased draught to the wheels so quickened the current at the intake that it attracted the floating frasil or "anchor ice," which immediately that it touched the solid bordagc ice at tho aqueduct entrance was sucked under and soon arrested where the strangling process was slowly but surely closing the gap. The lesson of this history is that in such situations, where anchor loe IS wont to pass, an intake basin is indispensable where possible so large, wide and deep that the necj&sary supply for the power channel coming into it from the river wHl never create a current sufficient to attract the frasil. Anchor ice is owly begotten in open water, and this 8 President's Address. m our climf»te always means water too awift tj become self-freezin" • and It will not leave this until enticed from the old paths by stronger currents. It is therefore only a question of cost to form a mill po°nd TTh.ch It will not invade. Where this is limited, the boom which sep- .iratos the river from tlie basin (forming a bordage to the ice cover of the latter) should be made deep enough to prevent the ice which is pass ing and crowding outside from being forced under it. An enlargement of the aqueduct was undertaken twenty-five years ago, but It was not carried farther than sevcn-eighths of a mile from the entrance. It has prevented the incoming of anchor ice and enabled the aqueduct in high water winters to pump its full summer average But as the strength of a chain is that of its weakest link, so, for this purpose, the minimum power must be equal to the maximum wants and auxiliary power will be required until the completion of the enlar-e' ment. Enlargement is not likely to be compleied until the consump, t.on IS so increased that it will become cheaper to pump the whole bv water power. ^ In high water mild wi nters when there is the minimum of ice obstruction, and an increased depth at its widest section, the aqueduct pumps its full summer average. Thus in March, 1890, it pumped 350 million gallons, while in March, 1893, it only pumped 46 millions, because when the river falls to a certain level all wheels are stopped to prevent further lowering of the ice in the aqueduct. This result would go to prove that, to meet our winter conditions in some situations, an increase of at least fifty percent, on the necessary sum- mer dimensions would be needed. THE OTTAWA WATER POWER. Until water power was required for pumping the city water supply in 1874, there had been no important winter use of the power of the Chaudiere Falls. The large saw mills did not work after November The few establishments on either side of the river where winter water power was used had no effect on the ice question, nor did the larger de- mands for the city pumping change the conditions in this respect The advent of electricity, however, in which three large users of power engaged, revealed tlie fact tiiat winter difficulties existed where they had not been anticipated. Fortunately, they have not yet seriously affected the city aqueduct, where, in the absence of auxiliary power or reservoir, they might produce a calamity. The conditions at Ottawa differ from those at Montreal in as much t' I' Preddent's Address, 9 as the aqueduct is fed from Nepean Bay, which is ice covered in winter, and all the other mill-races upon the Ontario side draw under similar condiiions. About a mile above these the foot of the Little Chaudiere Eapidsis reached, ana this is united with another mpid higher up, so that there is over a mile of open river in which anchor ice is manu- factured and sent below in successive and frequent crops in severe winters. On the north, or Quebec side of the river runs the only deep channel between the Little and Great Chaudiere. This is generally open water throughout the winter, and in it much of the anchor ice is carried into " the Kettle " and away from the mill ponds on either side. From this a subsidiary channel of considerably less depth crosses diagonally to Nepean Bay, discharging into a depression in which there is a depth much greater than that of the channels leading into and out of it, and therefore a slower current. This is the point from which tlie supply to the city aqueduct is taken, and, in leaving it, the aqueduct begins between piers sixty feet apart placed in twenty feet of water, whereas the section lugh the rock after it leaves the river bank is only twenty feet wiov. with about thirteen feet depth of water. The excavation being entirely in rock, this aqueduct has the great advantage, for winter work, of having as great a width at the bottom as at the surface. It was not known that any frasil passed through this bay under its ice covering, but it was believed that if and when it did, the slower current into the aqueduct would not attract it, and that it would pass outside in the main channel leading to the mills below. This has proved to be the case in the twenty-three years of the aqueduct's history, although there has been some frasil in the later years, causing a stoppage of the wheels on one occasion for a few hours, by which stoppage its presence was first made known. Unless anchor ice is expected and watched for, the first indication of its presence may be a sudden collapse of the water power. When the Montreal aqueduct was first corked up at its mouth by anchor ice, the wheels ran on until the five miles of canal was emptied, and the ice tumbled in, ruining it, as an aqueduct, for the time being. The same experience overtook the electric power at Ottawa, and from the same causes, but under different conditions, emphasizing the necessity of local knowledge of bed as well as of the surface of the channels near and above the site of the power. The whole Ontario side of the river bed is a submerged rocky plateau ten to thirty feet or more above the bottom of the north channel, so 10 President's Address, that if the river sui-faco here at low water were lowered ten feet ifc would lay dry the greater portion of the southern half of the river bed, while there would still be deep water in all the north channel above the rim of " the Kettle." As at Montreal, in a moderate and high water winter ice difficulties are not experienced, but in very severe and low water winters the thickened ice settles down on top of the shoals, reduces the depth and increases the current iu the channels between them until one after another is invaded by frasil, coaxed in by the increasing diaft towards the water power, and gradually shut off. In these winters the output of anchor ice is a maximum, while the storage room beneath tlic field ice is reduced to the minimum. More- over, as channel after chanuol is closed, the velocity in the remaining ones is so increased that the anchor ice is carried under miles (it may be) of an ice covered surface, until it reaches the mill-races. That anchor ice is carried long distances under the surface of an ice-covered river (or shallow lake with sufficient current) is proved by watching air holes near Montreal, where this ice is seen hurrying past, having come over the Laebino Rapids, below which none is formed after the viver becomes ice covered. On tlie other hand, in mild and high water winters there is the mini- mum of ice of all t 'nds and the maximum depth of cliannel, and there- fore the si jwcr currents in them, so that anchor ice is arrested by fric- tion under the field ice and frozen thereto, leaving some water-way under- neath it. The best way to fight anchor ice (which is the sole cause of the winter floods in the St. Lawrence) is to abolish it wherever this is practicable. It cannot be got rid of in the St. Lawrence, but could be at Ottawa by a dam at the Little Chaudiere. This could also be done in the Back Eiver behind Montreal by a succession of dams creatine slack water (and water power) if this can be accomplished at a profitable outlay. On mo^fc of our tributary rivcrd this hoary enemy of water power can often be got rid of, and a valuable water power created at the same time by means of one or more dams. I