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Thosa too larga to ba antiraiy includad in ona axpoaura ara fiimad baginning in tha uppar laft hand cornar, laft to right and top to bottom, aa many framas aa raquirad. Tha following diagrams lilustrata tha mathod: Las eartaa, pianchas, tabiaaux, ate, pauvant Atra fiimia k das taux da rMuction diff^rants. Lorsqua la documant aat trop grand pour Atra raproduit an un saui cliche, ii aat film* k partir da I'angia sup^riaur gaucha, da gaucha k droita, at da haut an baa, an prenant la nombra d'imagaa nteaasaira. Las diagrammas suivants iliustrant la mithoda. rrata o )elure. Id J 32X 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 ■m' ■ #* Ife? V mJ.tI'^/ '■■4S , '1. '■'•fj>^- ,:,;:-**:■, ■■■■■I' ■■■' ■■-. ■.'! A .,:a^'*< ' '. >*!? . m SAIN1 ELEMENTS § ■ '^■ OP '.> If k SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE: 'M: j^ IFmS^SB Ifi00i^7o ■•V5 5*J!r BY JOHN P. NORTON, l*ROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, YALE COLLEGE, NEWHAVBN, CONWICTICVT. RE-rUBLISHED ON ACCOUNT OF THE SAINT JOHN COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. , ;.M ...i. ,.-:r . --1^. SAINT JOHN, N. B. PRINTED BY HKITRY CKVBB 4e COMPANY, PBINCB WILLIAM •TRIBT. 1861. ^m »l )OM ,v\ ' \- C-J >* \\ \:.^- ).; -'■- 'V •■'.:! r-'/Hm: w 'i'»/^'iA8>-iiii^ irr fi^Kifc...,. >AV ^: ELEMENTS OF $€IEl\iTlFl€ AGRICIJLTIJRE. BY JOHN P. NORTON, rROrtSSOR of agricultural CHKHISTRY, YALE COLLEOK, HBWHAVSIT, CORK. INTRODUCTION. \\ \y ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF PLANTS. I)EFINITl\}N OF AGRICULTURE. Agriculture, according to the usually accepted meaning of the word, >ig. nifies the art of cultivating the soil. It is unnecessary to say that this is its troe meaning, and yet how few of those who would promptly give the above definition aeeni to have any adequate idea of all that is involved in the words " cultivating the soil." A soil that ia cultivated is thoroughly and more or less deeply plowed according to the situation — is mellow — is free from stumps and large stones— is dry and clear of hurtful weeds. How many fields in this condition are to be seen in most Ame> rican villages ? Are they in the majority ,^ or do they constitute a very small mino- rity ? It is to be feared that there are few neighbourhoods , even of limited extent, fitted to challenge inspection. How frequency, and how largely, do weeds, bushes, brambles, uneve . : v.rfaceB, unsightly stumps, and stones scarred with many a mark of plow anu harrow teeth, enter into the composition of our ruiul scenery ; and this not in new settle- ments alone, but in older and Innger-inhabited districts ! Even if we suppose that we have our farm thoroughly cultivated in the manner first described, is it sufficient ? No, the art of cultivaling the soil involves some- thing beyond this. The thoroughly accomplished farmer must study the nature of various crops, until he finds those which are beat suited to his land; if those are not such as pay him best, he must seek to bring about some change, by means of which he can profitably grow those that will. This done, he must set himself to increase the quantity grown per acre, for on this increase depends his profit. It costs little more to cultivate the ground for a crop of thirty bushels, than for one often bushels. The main end seema to be, in numerous cases, to obtain, indeed, a great yield of valuable produce, but with the least possible investment of money. Many, too many farmers, go entirely lipon this principle; they ought, however, to think far- ther, and then they would see that there is another point worthy of consideration. That point is, the keeping of the land in good condition. Cheapness in obtaining a present crop is not everything ; the prudent man will have an eye to the fatnre — he will see, that if he always takes away without adding, the richest land miist' ultimately become poor, or, at least, greatly reduced in value. r - / The man who dsefr th'm is like that one in the old fable who killed the goow thai "/ , luid him daily a golden egg. He thought that there must be mony eggs within the ■^1 . goose, but there was, of course, onl^ one; and he found, when it was too late, that ,v / he had destroyed the source of his riches in n most foolish and shortsighted manner. ''/ 80 will it always be with the farmer who pnrsaee a like system. Tempted by the idea of obtaining a few crops with little expense now, he ruins his land for the future. The good farmer, then, deshres to grow large crops with the least necessary cost, but at the same time nerer forgets that it is the best economy to keep his land in gooil condhbn, and even improving. In order to accomplish this, he most do some- thing more than merely plow and harrow, sow, plant and reap; he must think and study also. a. He must learn the natureof the varbus crops he raises or wishes to raiie : these crops differ; he should seek to understand the differences, and how they are caused, h. One field he will find to vary much in its nature from an- other; a certain crop grows here, and fails there; are these things accidental, or can he discover the reasons ? c. In adding certain substances, culled manures, to the soil, he finds diverse effects, not only in their applksation to difierent fields, but also to different crops; here is another subject for stidy. d. His animals thrive on some kind» of food, and derive little benefit from others. A small bnlk of some varieties sustains and increases their size or strength, while upon great quantities of other varieties they grow poor. What are the properties npon which these effects depend ? 'I'hus we perceive tlmt the farmer who really wishes to understand the " ari of cultivating the soil,*' must go a long way beyond plowing. He must, it is true. know how to set his soil into a good state ; but he must also know something as to I of nis e untmals. the nature of nis crops, of the various soils on which they grow, of the manures which are applied to increase that growth, and of the food wnich he supplies to hie This, it may be said, involves too much study for a practical working man. I reply that it is not necessary for him to learn the minute details of scientific re- searches and discoveriui*. It is enough to begin with the leading principles that have been established; with these he will be able to work more intelligently than ever before, and to go on continually adding to his knowledge. ,. , ;; .-,--,^^ , PLANTS DIVIDED IITTO AM ORGANIC AND AN INORGANIC FART. In endeavouring to explain, in a simple manner, something of this desirable branch of knowledge, we will commence with the plant, and give, in a clear, connected shape, the information that has been collected by the most approved writers and experimenters concerning it. Hard words and obscure phrases will be avoided whenever it is ponsible. We commence our examination with some inquiry into the nature of the mate- rials which compose all of our crops. The first result arrived at is the existence oi' two grand classes of bodies, to one of which, or to a mixture of both, belongs every part of the plant. In connection with this fact, there is one peculiarity in all vegetable snbstancesr that early attracts our attention. Whether we take the hard wood, the soft, flexible atraw, the leaf, or the root, we find that all arc more or less combustible. When dry they generally burn readily, and with a flame, but we see, at the same time, that all cities not disappear : the stalk of straw or the piece of wood, for the most part, buiiM away ; but aftei the flame is gone out, there is always an ash left. Thus we establish a grand division : one part bums and disappears; another pnrt is incombustible, and remains. Chemists have mimed the part that burns uvvay, organic mattery and the part that remains, or the ash, inorganic matter. Fire, then, is one test, by me«ns of which we distincnish organic from inorganic substances. To the firs ese two classes we will now attend. The name organic is given, because organw bodies, being products of life, have an organized structure that cannot be produced by artificial means. What i» '"ed tfce goo«, that lonjr egg. within the « WM too late, ,ba, hort.,ghted manner • Tempted by the «• hM luod fof the «»tnece«arjco.t, '?Jrinciples that »"'»entJ^ than W* desirable "1 a clear, 08t approved aseswill be ^ the mate- existence of longs every sabatances, pft, flexible e- When an>e time, ' the most left. 'fei have What i» meant by an organized •tmeture may be aeeit by examininf a eroM Metkw from th#, . «tem of a tree : this will be found to consist of little tnbee and ealb, all arranged 4-||M in a regular manner. Under the microscopes • |M>tato will appMr made ap of cells having grains of starch contained. So with other planu or parts of plants, tbey bH have an orfanimilon that is a product of life, and which we, therefore, cannot imitate. Inorganie bodies have no such structure, andean, in many cases, be produced by ehemlsal proeeM. OROAiriC BLEMKirTS Of PLAITTf. The organic part in plants is by far the largest, as is plainly to be teen on barning any form of vegetable matter. It ordinarily constitutes from 90 to 97 lbs, in every hundred. During the burning this solid orcnnic matter disappears: it ia driven t/K into the atmosphere, until nothincbuta Rttle ash remains; tliat which haa gone, then, has evidently become air. It is easy to see that this part of tho plant can only linva been formed from air at first. Such a conclusion may seam very strange at. first, but a little reflection will show that we can arrive at no other. IVhan we have made up our minds to this, it becomes important to know, what kind of air it is that forms so larce a part of our plants, or if there is more than ona kind. These points have been determined through the assistanee of certain chemical experiments, by means of which it has been provod that the organic part of plants consists of four substances. Their names are Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Hydrogen. The whole of the organic part of vegetables and plants, the whole of the atmos- phere, all water, and a very large part of the solid rocks which make up this globe, consist of one, two, three, or all of these four Hubstances united in different proportions. These names then stand for bodies of immense importance; and it ia very necessary that every farmer should, at least, know something about them. The three last, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, we find in their pore state as gases: gas is the chemical term for the different kinds of nir. The otnor substance, car- bon, is found in nature as a solid, and to this we will first direct onr attention. Carbon is a solid, usually of a black colour, and having no taste or smell. All the varieties of carbon barn more or less freely in the air, and, while burning, are converted into a gas called carbonic acid gat; this will, by-otid*by, be described. One very abundant form of carbon is common charcoal; another is lampblack; others are coke and blacklend; the most beautiful form is the diamond. Thin, strange to say, though it looks so pure, clear and beautiful, and bears so high u price, does not differ at all in its composition from common charcoal 1 A diamond can easily be burned by a high heat, and the product of the burning will be carbonic acid gas, just as when charcoal is burned. Charcoal seems to be soft; but if the fine powder in small quantity be ruLtad between plates of glass, it is found that the Tittle particles are very bard, and able to scratch the glast almost an easily, as the diamond itself. Charcoal has stcong disinfecting properties : liquids that are quite offensive in smell, when filtered through it, become pure and sweet. The color is also extracted from many liquids by it. Some of these effects are owing to its power of absorb- ing gaseous and other substances, itself being full of pores. Both the flame that we to the barniug of carbon ; are nil coloured by the combustion of this substance. It will Moon be seen that it constitutes a very large proportion in the organic part of all vegetdbles and trees. Hydrogen, as I have said, is a gas, or kind of air. It is trnnnparent, tasteleiis, colorless, and inodorous. As we cannot smell, tasto, or s«o it, wccan only judge of its properties by its action with other bodies. For this purpose, it is obtained by putting pieces of zinc or iron filings into water, and then adding salphuric acid, thut is the common oil of vitriol. About a third as much acid as water should be used. re see in wood, and the bright glow of coal fires, are owing I ; the flames of candles, of oilltimps, or ordinary coal gas, The mixiare will mwd grow warm, and hydrogaa fM will »{ oiMt opmmmM rMag to the anrfHce in little bnbblei. a. If e glaifl be Inid upon the top of the tumbler containing th« inlniiirt M ■■ to prevent the too rapid escape of the gni, the tumbler will, in H Tew momenta, bMOtne 10 filled that the gae will bum when a flame ia brought into eontnflt with H. b. By far the moet Mtiafactorjr method it to conduct the operation ai repre- Pif, 1, sented in fi^ 1. In the bottle are placed the nulphurio acid, zinc, and water. The moatb of the bottle ia atopped tightly by a cork, thronch which paaaes one end of the tube, a (tnia may be of glass or tin) ; |<^!^ the other end paaeee water in the ciatern^, f{:!ji|''^ i its conrae being marked by the dotted iKil! < line c (this may be a common pail, or •hallow water tub). A tumbler or other convenient vessel ia now filled with water, and inverted under the surface, so that it may contain no air, being filled entirely with wattr { it k ihm bfOlMrtil l of ••f to burn > <« aet Jt«. »PP«««f of »* ii ilMlf Im %li(«ft inottiofltb nrrists, oxidixing^ that is, of uniting with nearly all other bodies ct'nd forming new combinations, leading either to a changed state of decay. Ttios it ib not only tbo promoter of life, but of death and decomposition. It might be expected that a body of such immense importance should be abun- dant, and accordingly we find that oxygen gas is in larger quantity than any other eloment that is known. It forms, as has been said, a fifth of the atmosphero; in nine lbs. of water thOre are eight of this gas; it exists largely in all plants, and, in combination with various inorganic bodies, it conatitutea a lai]ge proportion of tho aolkl crust of our earth. We meet it in all places, and aee its efiecta on almost every known body. As the reader proceeds, he will find numeroua refereneei to its action, and will become bettA' acquainted with ita properties. In the very next paracraph below ia an instance of its oxidizing pboaphoros. The lost of these four moat important organic aubstancea is Nitrogen. Tbia gfea ii easily prepared in aufficient purity for puipoaea of experiment, by a very sittiplo prooesa. Common air, or onr atmosphere, has been stated to oontab one>fiAh of '■8 ozyi^en; the remaining four-fifths are nitrogen. In order to separate this nitrogen, we invert an empty glass jar, and place the open mouth in water, thus confining within the jar a portion of air. Into this air is to be bronght a piece of ignited phosphorus, contained in a little cup so as to float on the surface of the water. Phosphorus, as is well known, is very iiiflammable. While burning, it ignites with the oxygen of the air, and forms an important white acid compound cnUed phosphoric acid; to this we shall have occasion to refer again. When the burn- ing phosphorus is brought under the jar, the above-described process at once commences, and continues till all of the oxygen in the air within the jar has com- bined with phosphorus. The nitrogen is now left nearly pure. A portion of the confined air expanded by heat, of course escapes at first, and the jar is filled with white fumes of phosphoric acid. These are gradually absorbed by the water, until at last the interior of the jar is quite clear. 1. It is then to be perceived that this gas, like the two preceding ones, is colorless, inodorous, and tasteless. It has so few marked qualities, that it is much more ea:'ily distinguishod from the others by saying what it is not, than what it is. Among its negatives then we find, 2. That it does not support combustion : a lighted taper, plunged into it, is extin- guished instantly. 3. It does not bum itself, but remains unaltered after contact with flame. 4. It is a little lighter than atmospheric air. It will, for this reason, remain some time in a jar held with the mouth downward, but at once escapes if the jar be inverted. Both of these fact. the suc- ceeding parts of this essay. We will, then, now commence with good courage, and notice each of these inorganic substances separately. Potash is well known as the extract by water from wnod-ashcs, boiled down to dryness, a. It attracts moisture from the air when strong, and, if touched to the tongue, causes an acrid burning sensation, called by chemists an alkaline taste ; it is often 6ttong enough to destroy tho skin, and may be purified to such a strength as to corrode almost every perishable substance, b. When purified in the ordinary way, potash forms pearlash, which ia simply potash deprived of the foreign bodies with which it was contaminated, and carbonated or combined with carbonic acid : in this state it is nearly white, c. Potash is quite abundant in plants : more so in sonie classes than others. It is injurious to some kind of weeds, or, at least, is "sed to extirpate the.Ti, by bringing in better kinds. Soda. We do not often see this substance by itself, but almost always in combi- nation with other bodies, a. Some of the more common of these are carbonate of soda, that is, the common washing soda of the shops; and chloride of sodium, that is, common salt. Both of these compounds contain a large proportion of ^joda. b. It is white, and when pure has the same attraction for water, the same caustic and burning taste, as potash; in fact, the two are much alike in many of their pro- perties, and also in the purposes which they seem to serve in plants. Lime is a very common substance, and is well known in all it* usual forms. a. As quick or caustic lime, it is of a white color, having a strong burning taste, and powerful caustic properties. It absorbs large quantities of water, and at the ^. 10 •am« tint* beeomM hot, failiAg into a fine powder. Fresh bamed lime, when ex- pOMil to the air, doe» not remain long in this caustic state, bat drinks in moistnre, and onimbles smdaallv away. b. In nntnr e, it is always foand conVbined with tome other body, as, ror instance, the common limestone (carbonate of lime), or the iolphate of lime (gypsam or plaster of Paris), which are both most abundant rookl. Common limestone or marble, when burned, becomes quicklime. The phenomena of slaking quicklime are easily shown and explained. Every ton of quioklimei during slaking, absorbs one-fourth of a ton of water, which becomes a part of the stone itself. MagMiia is not so well known as lime, although it is abundant on the earth's ■nrface, and in many rocks, a. The most common and easily obtained form is the calcined magnesia of the shops. This is a light, white, tasteless substance, familiar to all who use much medicine. Epsom salts, so much in vogue as a medical pre- loription, is another compound of magnesia, b. When burned, magnesia has aomethin^ of the caustic properties of lime, but not by any means to the same ex- tent. It it a constituent of many rocks, and particularly of one class of limestones, henoe called maenesian limestones, or sonictimes dolomites. Although magnesia il necessary to plants, it is found that too gre;it a quantity of lime made from these dolomites is decidedly injurious to crops. Iron, in its metallic state, presents an appearance that must be familiar to all. Thh metallic state, however, that of a hard, bluish gray substance, is not found in nature. The metal, as extracted from the ore beds and mines, is always in com- bination or nnbn with some other body. a. Most commonly it is united with oxygen , forming what are called oxides. Metallic iron baa a strong tendency to form these oxides. Every one knows, that if bright iron be exposed to the air for any length of titne without protection, it speedily becomes covered with rust, particularly if the place where it lies be damp. The farmer finds that his bright plow exposed to a ehower, or to a nif(ht's dew, becomes streaked with rust, l^is rust is nn oxide of iron ; that is, a portion of the metal has united with a portion of oxygen from the air, and has thus formed this new compound. b. There is more than one oxide of iron, but that whi^^h is usually found in planta, and which is commonly known under the name of iron rust, is called by chemists the peroxide of iron ; this is to distinguish it from another oxide, to which we ahatl have occasion to allude subsequently. From such a distinction being made, the inference will naturally and correctly be drawn, that the oxygen and the iron unite in definite proportions : a certain quantity of iron uniteis with a certain quantity of oxygen, to form the peroxide; if the proportions are altered, we have some other oxide. Where, however, there is an al)undance of oxygen, it is Hiways the peroxide that is formed : hence we invariably find this oxide on exposed inm anrfaces, and in plants. The iubatanoos hitherto described have all been thofie that are found quite abundantly; but that which is now to be mentioned, the Oxide of Manganese, is more rare. Many species of our cultivated plants are found to i>e without it in their aab far more often than with it; and when it is present in the soil, we cannot, fl'om any experiments hitherto made, see that their growth is more luxuriant. In some trees it is said to exist abundantly; but for the ash of our cultivated crops ge- nerally, I am inclinffd to think that it can scarcely be considered an indispensable oonatituent. Mangunese is a metal some\vhat resembling iron, but much less afonndanti It alao is always found in some compound form, never as a pure metal. It forma oaidee with oxygen; and one of these, the black oxide, is of much value in oortuin manufacturing processes. For these purposes, it is mined whenever it is found in large quantity. This black oxide may be obtained and shown to a class. A» it ia now largely used in some manufactures, it is a cheap article. Silica is a subatance that existii abundantly in almost all plants, often forming mort thait half of the whole ash.- a. We see a nearly pare form of it in tfae com- mon qoartas erystale, or agate, or cornelian, or flint : tiusae all consist almoat entirely i^-l*.«.A'Lkr!f.V late '|ni«, When ex- "Ks in moiatore, conybined with te of lime), ©r most abundant jjuicklime. The • Ev^ery ton of nich becomes a : on the earth's ined form is the stance, ftmiJiar a medical pre- roagnesia has o the same ex- of limestones, >ugh magnesia de from these familiar to all. » not found in ^»yB in com- with oxygen. ,'0 mrm these or any length Julariy if the exposed to a 8 «n oxide of jen from the '';^ found in 19 called by «■ oxide, to ^ distinction the oxygen lites with a a'tered, we ^ygen, it is °^ exposed mnd quite '^neae, is thoBt it in ^e cannot, riant. In crops ge- 'pensable inch lees re metal, 'ch value ever it is ' a class. 11 of silica. Specimens of silice m some form, may be found in almost every neigh- bourhood, as it is one of t' « A common minerals. When perfectly pnre, it is a very hard, white substances, - eless, and quite difficult to melt. The fine grains, in ordinary sandstones, are particles of silica, b. It is not dissolved in water, and even strong acids produce little efiect; how singular then that it should be found so abundantly in the interior of plants ! Chlm-ine is a kind of gus. It is easily prepared by mixmg a little muriatic acid with some of the commercial black oxide df manganese ; a gentle heat being then applied, chlorbe is given oiT, and is conducted into receivers in the manner before described under oxygen and hydrogen, a. Water, when cold, absorbs it largely, and, therefore, the water in tho receptacle where the gaA is collected should be hot. b. It is, however, so much heavier than common air, that it mvj be collected in sufficient quantity by carrying the conducting tube to the bottom of a jar or bottle. The top being partially covered, so as to prevent too free access of air and oonsequant agitation, the vessel can be filled with chlorine as readily as with water. c. If the glass is white, it will be perceived that the chlorine now filling it is of a decided green color. d. The sense of smell should be tested cautiously in thu case, as the pas has a roost sttfibcatins and distressine effect when inhaled even in small quantity. The consequences of a single breath of it taken by mistake, are often felt for days in its irritating effect upon the lungs and throat. The method of collection last men- tioned will show that it is heavier than common air, but this may be farther illustra- ted by poming it from one glass to another. e. Phosphorus takes fire spontaneously in this gas, and so do several of the metals when powdered, antimony for instance. A taper plunged into it burns at fhrat with an enlarged red smoky name, but soon goes out. /. Chlorine has a peculiar power of bleaching, and is used very largely in the arts for such purposes. Almost any of the ordinary calicoes may be bleached by placing them in water saturated with it. The color of red cabbage liquor is very easily destroyed by a very small quantity. g. It unites with soda, one of the bodies already mentioned, and forms common salt, a substance having harmless properties in itself, and differing moM widely from either of those out of which it is formed. Sulphuric Acid is the common oil ef vitrei, a. It has commonly been called an oil because of its thick oily appearance, but has few other properties of oils. It is, like them, rather sofl and agreeable in its first feeling upon the skin, but this sensation is instantly succeeds by an intense burning pain ; for the acid is so powerful in its corroslv'e effects as to destroy both skin and flesh wherever it touches. Cloth is at once rained by it, eaten out in holes. A very small quantity taken into the mouth and swallowed is fatal, as all of the internal passages are destroyed or seriously injured by its contact. There have been many rases of death from accidentally swallowing even so small a portion us part of a spoonful. The name acid would naturally cause us to suppose that this liquid would be sour; and a taste of it, even when largely diluted with water, shows it to be so in the extreme. When thus diluted, so that the skin may not be at all afiected, it it not poisonous, and has a rather agreeable taste. b. If paper, saturated with blue litmus, a substance to be fonnd in many apothe- caries' sbons^ be dipped into this or other acids it will become red; if the paper thus turned red be dipped into a solution of potash, or soda, or ammonia, it will become blue again. This furnishes a test, by means of which we can tell whether fluids are acid or alkaline. ' c Sulphuric acid is occasionally found in springs, nncombined with anything. There are some in western New- York, near Lockport, where the water, as it comes from the spring is spur ai vinegar, owing to the presence of free sulphuric acid. d. This is mnch heavier liquid than water. A stream of it poured gently into a cup of water from a small distance above the surface, can be seen to sink directly ll^»i ittfS' / w to the bottom. When agitated, bo ns to mingle it with the water, the mixture be- comes quite hot, because a chemical, union takes place between the two liquids. e. This acid, except in such cases as the above, is always found in a state of combination with some other substance, and then cannot be recognised by any of the properties which 1 have mentioned. In some of these forms of combination it is very abundant. One of them, and an important one to the farmer, is gypsum or plaster of Paris. This, as is well known, is a solid, md has no acid taste; it, how- ever, consists of sulphuric acid, united with lime, forming what is termed by che- mists sulphate of lime. In every 100 lbs. of plaster of Paris are about 83 lbs. of sulphuric acid, ^\6 lbs. of lime, and 21 lbs. of water. Epsom salts consist of sulphuric acid and magnesia; alum, of sulphuric acid, alumina and potash. From all of these the acid can be separated by chemical means, It is used largely for various manufacturing purposes, and is made by burning sulphur (brimstone), with certain precautions, in large leaden chambers. This acid will be subsequently seen to be a substance of great importance for va- rious purposes in agriculture. Not less important is the next body on our list, phosphoric acid. It is also very sour, and is usually seen as a white powder. If a stick of phosphorus is burned, white fumes are seen to rise in large quantity. The phosphorus unites while burning with the oxygen of the air, and forms phosphoric acid. If these white fumes are passed through water, it will become sour, as it dissolves the acid : they may also be condensed on a cold glass plate. a. This body can be shown in a yet simpler manner by burnbg a common loco- foco match : the white smoke which goes off at first before the sulphur ignites, ia phosphoric acid. Phosphorus is used in the making of these matches, because it is u substance that inflames easily by a little friction. All who have rubbed them on a wall or board in the dark, have observed that they leave a quite brieht, luminous trace, distinctly visible. If the match fail to ignite, the end of it will also appear bright, and the peculiar smell of phosphorus may be perceived. Phosphoric acid does not seem to exist in so large quantity as sulphuric acid, as it does not constitute a principal portion of any of our rocks. It forms a very im- portant part of the bones of animals. . ..,, , , . , ,^ ,- , . .. DIFFERKNCES IN THE ASH OF CULTIVATED PLANTS. We have now noticed each of the substances that were named as occurring in the inorganic part of plants, and have given such of their more remarkable pro- perties and more common forms of appearance as seemed necessary to their recog- nition by ihe practical man. It has been already staled, that with one or two occasional exceptions, they are all found in the ash of cultivated plants. Sometimes one and sometimes another is absent, but generally we find small quantities of nearly all. It does not follow from this, however, that every plant contains the same quantity of ash. The trunk of n tree, for instance, if deprived of its bark, does not yield more than from one to two pounds of ash in one hundred of wood, while the stalk of grass or straw of grain frequently contains from 6 to 14 lbs. in 100. There are some plants which scarcely contain any ash whatever, and others in which it forms a large proportion. This difference exists not only between various plants, but between the parts of the same plant. If we examine the straw of wheat, we find usually 6 or 7 per cent, of ash; the leaf contains 7 or 8 per cent., and the grain not more than 1 or 2 per cent. So in turnips or beets, the dried roots have no more than from 1 to 2 per cent, of ash, while the dried leaves often leave from 20 to 30. These facts are to be remem- bered. When we pursue our researches a step further, and separate the substances which make up the ash of different plants, we find that here also is a great varia- tion. Tha n^h of potatoes is more than half potash, while the ash in the gritin of wheat contains much less potash, but is about half phosphoric acid. The ash of \ clover and lueerne often contains twice as much lime as that of herdsgrass or timo- thy hay. We may thus divide plants into classes according to th: composition of their ash. In the ash from the seed of wheat and all of our cultivated grains, phosphoric acid is the leading ingredient; in that from turnips, beets, and other toots, it in much less, while tne alkalies petash and soda increase; in the tubers of the po- tato they constitute more than half; in the grasses, lime and silica are more abun- dant, and in some, as the clovers, lime becomes a leading substance; in the stems of most trees lime abounds yet more, and in many cases exceeds in quantity any- thing else. These facts have a marked bearing on many practical points which we have yet to consider. It was stated that the quantity of ash varied in dHferent parts of the same plant, as, for example, in the straw and the grain of wheat. This variation in quantity is not more marked than that in the composition of these two ushes. In the ash of the straw we find that there is a great proportion of silica, and very little phospho- ric acid ; while in that of the gram, more than half is phosphoric acid, and there is scarcely any silica. When we come to consider the purposes for which these parts are intended, the cause of such variations will be plainly perceived. We even find in many plants a distinction between the composition of the ash at the bottom of the stalk, and that at the top. In all cases, the ash from the husk which covers the seed, as in oats, barlev, or buckwheat, differs exceedingly in its constitution from that of the seed itself. We shall subsequently see what is the character of this difference, and understand, nt least, a part of the reasons for it. We have now called attention to several valuable facts respecting the inorganic part or ash of plants : 1. All of the inorganic substances described are generally present in our culti- vated crops, but not invariably : Hometimes one or two are absent. 2. The quantity of ash yielded by different plants varies. 3. The composition of this ash also varies, and in as great a degree as the quantity. 4. This applies not only to different kinds of plants, but to different parts of the same plant. Upon these four points depend many of the most important discoveries in agri- culture, and we shall find them connected very intimately with all of the leadmg subjects which are yet to engage our attention. Let the reader, then, before pro- ceeding farther, understand them thoroughly and impress them upon his memory. SOURCES OF THE FOOD OF PLANTS. ' , ^ : ; j .ORGANIC FOOD OF PLANTS. ,^e ;•; < -^ ^ ;'r:'-'^ v^-^ «4.:M*. Having named and described the various substances from which the ash of plants is made up, and may therefore be considered their inorganic food, we must now see what are the sources of their inorganic, as well as of their organic food. An organic and inorganic part being absolutely essential to the existence of every perfect plant, it becomes necessary that the farmer should know where the diffe- rent bodies come from that are to make up these parts. This knowledge is of ad- vantage, as enabling him to increase natural sources of supply, or to devise artifi- cial means of .furnishing what is deficient. It is quite clear, that a plant, which is to grow rapidly, must have a constant sup- ply of the two classes of food ; and moreover, that this supply- must be presented in a shape immediately available. It is of no use to the crops of the present season, to say to them that there is an abundant supply of manure in the barnyard ; they want it near their roots, and will not flourish without it there. So of all other things required in the soil, they must not only be present, but must be in a soluble state, capable of immediate employment in building up the plant. The fanner, then, who knows best what is needed, knows how to furnish it so as to have the best crops, and at the least expense. ii'-'-- ■j-Kinffs?' \ \\ ,*-» 12 An examiuation of tha leaves and of the 'rooti of a living plant, tbowa that it obuina a portion of its food from the air, and a portion from the earth. a. Inorgaaio food, conaisting as it does of ■olid bodies, does not, of coarse, exist in the air, and muat, therefore, all be taken in through the roots. b. The organic food comes partly from the soil, and partly from, the air, throngh the leaves. It may be askod. Hew we know that plants get food throngh their leaves ? This is easily proved. If we place the stem and leaves of a growing plant in a portion of connned air, the composition of which is known, and that air be re-examined by means of chemical tests a da^ or two afterward, it will be found that its composition has changed : a portion of it has disappeared, having been ab- sorbed by the plant through its leaves. c. If the confined air, for instance, contained carbonic acid, a portion has gone, and its place is supplied by oxygen. d. If there is no carbonic acid present in the water or air, the action will not go on. The importance of these facta will soon be perceived. We have seen something of the forms in which plants may receive their inor- ganic food; that it is not usually as simple substances, but in some forms of combi- nation. Thus potash does not enter the roots as potash alone, but as sulphate or carbonate, or silicate of potasli; that is, in combination with sulphuric acid, or car- bonic acid or silica. So it is with organic food; the four eases which we have ex- amined do^not ordinarily minister in their simple state to the growth of plants, but,, as do the inorganic substances, in some form of combination. ^, ■ CARBONIC ACID, ITS SOURCES AND PRINCIPAL. PROPERTIES. One of the most important of these combinations is known to chemists as carbo* nic acid gas. This gas is very abundant in nature, and combines with many solid substances, forming what are called carbonates. a. Common limestone is a carbonate of lime; and if muriatic acid be poured< upon it, a violent effervescence takes place, caused by the escape of this gas. b. So in the common soda powders, the soda is a carbonate of soda; and when tartaric acid is added, a violent effervescence ensues, as all have often seen. This^ too, results from the escape of carbonic acid gas. c. It causes the froth on beer, and on the surface of all fermenting liquids. It is easily collected in glass receivers over water, in the same way as heretofore described. Pouring muriatic acid upon ccnndon limestone powdered, or upon carbonate of soda, is a convenient and cheap method of obtaining this gas. If it be done in a tall glass or wide-mouthed bottle, (he glass will rise and fill the bottle^ so that its properties may be examined. 1. The first thing apparent will be, that a lighted taper plunged into the bottle is instantly extinguished; thus showing that the gas neither inflames itself, nor sup- ports combustion. 2. It will be perceived that carbonic acid gas is heovler than common air. It does not rise and mingle with the air, but fills the vessel liko water. The taper will burn freely until it reaches its surface, and for a moment even ofter the lower part of the flame is immersed. When the vessel is full, the gas, in place of rising,, flows over the edge and downward, as water would do. It may be poured from a vessel upon a candle or taper so as to extinguish it, provided that there be no strong^ draft to sweep it away. It may in this manner be transferrod from one vessel to another. 8. A third important property of this gas is, that all animals compelled to breathe it instantly fall, and in a few mojiieuts die. This may be shown by placing a moose or other small animal in an atmi>sphere of it. Owing to its weight, it sometimes accumulates in sheltered hollows, and is the cause of fatal accidents. In brewer'» vats when fermentation takes place, and in some wells, it is apt to collect, and per- sons lowered incautiously to clean them suddenly fall insensible. All dnnger*may be avoided by simply lowering a lighted candle before any one goes down ; if the candle burns freely at the bottom, there is no risk in descending, •S^S^^L \^m^ - ti^ that it , of counie, exist i* ■»>. through od through thSr » of a growioc ^"f and that ai? «wi|] be found laving been ah- Irtion has gone, action wiJI not •▼e their inor- raia of combi- 08 sulphate or cacid, orcar- we hare ex- • Piants, but,. TIES. '" ists as carbo- 1 many aoJid ^0 poured >8 gas. » und when een. This, qjuids. ' heretofore '» or upon gas. If it 'be bottle. n air. ft iie taper 10 lower a from a strong, esse] to This gas consists of carbon and oxygen; tilbf. of carbon and 16lbs. of oxygen forming 22lbB. of carbonic acid. Chemists call it carbon 1 and oxygen 2. It is easy to prove this fact by burning cliarcoal, which it will be remeralMred is one form of carbon, in a jar of pure oxygen gas. When the charcoal has ceased to burp, the air rrniaiDinc in the jar will be carbonic acidi os carbon and oxygen were the only two sopstances present, the carbonic acid !nust plainly hove been formed by their union in certain proportions. This is another instance of those strange chemical changes in the properties of bodies, with which, all who study this subject soon become familiar. Carbon, a hard inflammable solid, unites with oxygen, a light gns, supporting combustion and animal life in a most remarkable degree; to form another kmd of gas, having much greater weight, entirely incombustible, and, when unmixed with air, destructive to almost every form of life. Carbonic acid exists naturally in very largo quantity. It is invariably present in the atmosphere. For a lon^ time this was thought to be accidental, but later ex- periments have shown that it is always there in very nearly the same proportion. This proportion is quite small, being only l-2500ln of the whole bulk, or about 1-lOOOth uf the whole weight. It seems insignificant, too much so to be noticed ; but when we come to calculate from the known weiglit of the atmosphere on each foot of the earth's surface, we find that there is in the air over each acre of ground about seven tons of this gas. This is a considerable quantity, and, when calculated over the whole surface of the earth, amounts to billions of tons. It is found to be just graduated to the wants of plants and animals. All living things, as has been said, die in an atmosphere which contains u large proportion of this gas. Plants,, however, require a certain portion of it to bo spread throuah the air, that they may draw it in through their leaves. This is necessary to their life, as they will not live for any length of time in an atmosphere where there is no carbonic acki gas, and will not flourish if the proportion of l-2500tli be greatly reduced. On the oiher hand, if this proportion be much increased, if more carbonic acid be introduced into the air, the efTect is also injurious. Tho proportion of carbonic acid may with benetit be increased, according to some oxperimonts, so long us the sun shines and daylight continues. When the sun goes down, however, and darkness comes over the earth, more of this gas ihau is usually present does hurm. We see, then, that the Creator has regulated the quantity of carbonic acid, so that there is just enough for tho necessities of the piaiit, and not so much as to injure either plants or animals. while at tho aatne time regard has been hud to tho alternations of day and night. CARBONIC ACin GAS OF THE ATMOBPircnE ABSORBED AND DECOM- POSED BV THE liEAVKS OV PLANTS. It has been said that this gas is ncccsAary to tho life of the plant, and that the leaves draw it in from the air. Those who have never studied the structure of the leaf, will be surprised to find how admirably it is adnpted to this purpose. When examined by a microscope, iis whole surface is seen to be covered with minute pores, both above and beneath; each of these pores is a species of mouth, intended to receive food, or to g or 700. It is easy for any person to satisfy himself that such pores do actually exist, and that the different sides of thci same leaf have different properties. A common cab- bage leaf, for instance, when applied with tlto under side to a wound or cut, will draw quite powerfully, inducing a disithargo, while the upper or smooth side will produce no such eifoct ; thus showing that on the under side are pores which have u power of absorption, t If the leaves were few in number and very small, it would be difficult for them to collect enough carbonic acid from tho air ; bat wo find that all plan » which M&^^ w grow rapidly have either qoite large leaves, or a great number of amall onea. Thoa they are able to expose a great extent of surface to the passing wind, and to draw from it as much food in the shape of carbonic acid as they require. It has been found that very quick growing plants, such as grape vines, melons, Indian corn, etc., when in full growth, will absorb as it passes nearly all of the carbonic acid from quite a swift current of air, so that only very slizht traces of it can afterwards be found. How active must every little mouth on tne leaf be at such a time ! a. The effect of the carbonic acid thus absorbed, is to hasten the growth of the plant by furnishing part of the materials from which its stalks, stems, leaves, etc., are composed. But it may be asked, is the whole of the carbonic acid used, or oaly a part ? VVe remember that it is composed of two substances, oxygen and caroon ; are both of these, or onlv one, retained ? b. It is not difficult for the reader to satisfy himself on this point. If the leaves of a flourishing growing plant be immersed in an inverted vessel full of water, and exposed to the rays of the sun, little bubbles of air will gradually begin to form, and to increase in size until they rise and collect in the upper part of the vessel. If fresh branches be occasionally placed in the water, and the operation thus con- tinued for a time, enough air will be collected for purposes of experiment. It will then be found that this air, which has thus escaped from the surface of the leaves, shows all of the properties which were described under oxygen. It is in fact pare oxygen, thus showing that the carbon of the carbonic acid is retained in the plant to constitute a portion of its bulk, while the oxygen goes off through the porea of the leaf. The pores in the under side of the leaf usually effect the absorption, the decomposition goes on in the interior, and the oxygen is given off through the pores on the upper part. These pores have for their office to give off, while that of the others is to receive. Some plants will live for n long time, if the under surface of the leaves is kept constantly wet ; if the upper only be wet, the plant soon dies. If either surface be varnished, so as to stop the pores, great injury results. During daylight, the leaves are constantly absorbing carbonic ncid, and giving oft' oxygen ; but us soon as the sun goes down a change takes place ; an examination will now show that it is carbonic acid which passes off from the leaves, and oxygen that is being absorbed. It is just the reverse of what goes on during the day. a. This curious fact shows why it is that plants grow so rapidly in the long days of summer. The nights are then comparatively a small portion of the day, so that for by far the greater part of the twenty-four hours the plant continues to absorb carbonic acid, and to build itself up with the carbon thus obtained. b. In Greenland and Kamschatka, the summer is not more than two or three months, but during that time it is always daylight, the sun scarcely going below the horizon at all. Certain plants are thus enabled to grow so fast as to mature and ripen their seed, even in that short summer. We see how this beautiful provision of nature tends to equalize different climates. If the nights of the short Green- land summers were even so long as our shortest, their crops w^ould never ripen ; but as they have nearly perpetual day, they can get enough food from their fields to sustain life during a large portion of their long winter. CARBOHr ALSO OBTAIKBD BY PLANTS FROM THE SOIL. We see that plants are able to obtain much carbon from the air, but it is found that a considerable quantity comes from the soil also. This is all, in one form or another, drawn in through the roots. The rain water which falls upon the surface, and all of the spring water found here already, contains some carbonic acid dis- solved. This water entering the roots, carries with it a variety of substances in solution, which the plant seems to use or not, as it may require; among these is carbonic acid. This is probably the chief form in which carbon is obtained from the soil ; but there exist in contact with the roots, other sources of this important article of food. Every soil con.uins more or less of organic matter, derived from the decay after death of plants and animals. Where abundant, this gives a black mber of small one.. ""'"« «:"»d, and to '«y require, h faaa »' of the carbonic « traces of it can •« Wheat such a the growth of the terns, leaves, etc on'" acid used, or ">«e8, oxygen and ?V. ? 'he leaves "" of water, and 01 the vessel. If 'eration thus con- •onment. It will «e of the leaves, It fin fact pure •nod in the plant ign the pores of ' absorption, the fough the pores 'h'le that of the ^nder surface of »Jant soon dies I'esults. I, and giving oft' •1 examination ^ea and oxygen J the day. the long days lie day, so that ones to absorb two or three >'ng below the ^9 mature and tifui provision short Green- er ripen; but heir fields to 't it is found •ne form or the surface, "c aciddis- ibstances in *ig these is ained from ifljportant "ved from es a black •■' • • 17 color to the soil, and one containing a large proportion of it is frequently described by farmers as a vegetable mould. While plants, &c. are decaying to form this rooald, various compounds containing carbon are the result. Quite a number of these have been examined by chemists, but it is not necessary to say much of them here. a. Humus is a name often given to the black mould of a rich vegetable soil, and this probably because u great part of the mould consists of a substance called hu- mic acid. This acid may be obtained by boiling some rich mould or peat in a solution of common soda, continuing for an hour or two ; filtering through a pieco of blotting paper, and then making the liquid quite sour with muriatic acid. Little brown flocks will soon begin to appear, and will fall to the bottom : these are hu- mic acid. b. This substance may serve ns a specimen of a large class that are contained in the organic part of the soil. They all consist of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, and in many situations are extremely abundant. They do not decay or dissolve very easily, and it is not supposed that plants get a large part of their carbon in this way. It seems certain, however, that they do get some; and it is found that in most cases where soils contain much of this organic matter, they are quite fer- tile. In all ordinary situations, it is supposed that at least two-thirds of the carbon in plants comes from the uir, the remaining third in various forms from the soil. This is shown by the fact, that plants cultivated year after year cause the organic matter of a soil to diminish quite rapidly. SOTJRCB OF TH^ OXYGEN AND HYOBOGEN OF PLANTS. Beside carbonic acid, the leaves of plants absorb through their pores a largo quantity of water. During the day, when the hot sun is upon them, the evapora- tion is, of course, far more than the absorption, and in u dry time the leaves may be seen to droop in the afternoon; bnt let the sun be obscured, and the atmosphere become misty and damp, and they soon absorb enough moisture to strengthen their failing stems. Every farmer knows that a light shower, which only moistens the leaves without wetting the ground at all, will revive his crops for many hours. Nothing in this case can have been taken in through the roots. Water, as has been said, is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. These two bodies are needed by the pl>«nt, and water is, consequently, not only of service in moistening its various parts, and furnishing a circulating fluid, but gives its oxygen or its hydrogen, or both, as the plant may happen to require. Water has a pecu- liar adaptation to this purpose, and to others equally useful in the interior of the plant, in the facility with which it is decomposed. Carbonic acid, and other che- mical substances only deconipose with grcsit difficulty; but the elements of water, a substance so universally dinused, and so indispensable, separate easily, aflbrding hydrogen here, oxygen there, to the necessities of the plant. ^^ SOURCES OF THE NITROGEN OF PLANTS. f We have now seen how the plant gets carbon, hydrogen and oxygen i:, abun- dance; but there is yet one more of the organic bodies, which is so necessary to the plant; this is nitrogen : it remains for us to consider the most probable source of this gas. a. As it has been said that the atmosphere consists of oxygen and nitro- gen, we might naturally conceive that the leaves absorb this gas, as well as car- bonic acid. Experiments have shown that this is not the case to any extent. After many careful trials, it has not yet been certainly proved that any nitrogen at all is obtained by the greater number of plants in this way. If there is, the quantity must be, in most cases, very trifling indeed. h. This is one of the most remarkable points connected with the nutrition of pilots. Here we have, in the air which surrounds the plant, and presses against erery.,part of it, an immense quantity of the gas nitrogen. It constitutes four- fifths of the whole atmosphere, and yet we cannot find that plants absorb it in any quantity whatever. On the contrary, as we have seen, they select oat anotlit^r '\m^^>'^ w 16 kind of gai, earbonio acid, althoach it w prwent in ao ainall a proportion as l-2500tb. Thb ahowa coacloaively that the learea do not draw in througn thair porm everjr- ihing that ia pr«aeated to tbam indiacriminattly, bnt that they faafo a powar of chooaing thoaa kinda of food beat adapted to their wanta. c. Thna the amaiieet plant haa the power of doing what man by hia unaided •enaea never haa been able to accompliah, and which he haa only learned to do by nrtifieial meana within a few yeara. Every little worthleaa weed by the wayakle haa ita leavea apread, ita thoaaanda of mouths open, selecting and drawing in from the paaaing air food beat adapted to its wants. As plants obtain, aecordrog to tlie above atateroents, little if any of their nitro- gen from the air directly through their leaves, thejr mast obvioasly set it in some way throogh their roots. There are two bodies which are now considered the chief sources of snpply : these are called ammonia and nitric acid. Ammonia ia a gaa oompoaed of nitrogen and hydrogen. We do not find it laigely in this shape, however, on acconnt of the strong tendency which it has to unite with other bodies, such aa carbonic acid; solpharic acid, etc. When it cannot find anything else, it ia at once absorbed by water, which will take np an immense quantity of it before becoming saturated. A pint of cold water will abaorb between 600 and 700 pints of ammonia. The aqua ammonia of the shops, is water, through which ammonia has been pasied until it ia very strong. By smelling of it, the extremely pungent and peculiar odor of ammonia is perceived. The strong aqua ammonia is so powerful m its effects as to take away the breath, and cauae n momentary suffbcution. A more agreeable form uf ammoniacal odor is in the or- dinary smelling salts. These are usually nothing more than carbonate of ammo- nia , scented in various ways with other perAimes. The properties of ammonia ought to be understood by every farmer, because it is a substance of much importance; it does not exist so abundantly in the soil as do many or most other necessary ingredients, and consequently he ought to know how beat to increase its amount, and how to keep it on his farm when he has got it there. Ammonia is very easily lost, because driven from its combinations with great racility. If, for instance, you mix with muriate of ammonn, a compound which has little or no smell of the gas, some quicklime, and rub the two together, there will immediately a strong smell of ammonia be perceived, passing off into the air and disappearing This is the reason why quicklime should not be mixed with manures containing ammonia, as that gas is driven off by it, and the value of the manure greatly diminished. Nitric acid (common aquafortis) is another important soarce of nitrogen. Thiv acid is composed of nitrogen and oxygen. It is to be found m druggists* shops, and is a nearly colorless liquid, having a peculiar smell, and being extremely sour and corrosive, a. When strong, it destroys the skin, and in all cases turns it of h deep yellow color, which cannot be removed by washing, b. It eats holes through cloth, turning it te a bright red colour, c. Like ammonia, and the acids before irentioned, we do not find it naturally as a pure substance; it is always combined with soinetliing else. One of the most common forms is nitrate of potash or salt- petre. Nitrate of aoda is also often found in nature, d. In South America, this latter is so abundant as to be brought away by the shipload. It is in the form of such compounds as these that nitric ackl is present in the soil. They are easily dissolved in water, can be received into the circulation of plants through theur roots, and can furnish nitrogen as readily as ammonia. In some situations, more nitrogen is received into the plant as ammonia, than from any other source; in others more as nitric acid. I consider that this is owinff simply to the quantity of either that may be present in different localities. Both kinds of manure produce remarkable results when applied to the soil uf most farms; and these effects are nearly or quite identical in appearance, shewing, that in both cases nitrogen caused the improvement, and that between these two forms of applying it theie is little choice. ., . . > w OF THE ORGANIC SUBSTANCE OF PLANTS. / STRVCTURS AND rUNCTIONI Of THE PLANT IN IT* tByBIIAL rABTt. Tha different external paru of planu are w«U known; they eonaiat of roota, fltenia, bark or opidarmia, and laavea. The internal atnictare and the functiona of tha roott are not le perfeotlj ander- atood aa that of the other parta, owing to the diffienltj of knowing exactly what oceara aoderj^roond. At a ahort diatance beneath the aarface they Mgin to divide, aending out little rootleta in every direction, and at the extreme end of each ia t amall bundle of aoft, minute, white iibrea. Theae are all oo many monthe for the nouriahment of the stem. If you place the roota of a growing tree in eertam co- lored liquida, ita body will aoon become colored. Thia pert of the plant haa, to a conaiderable extent, at leaat, a power of aeleetk>n, ae it ie fonnd that certain aab- atancea are admitted to the exclusion, either partial or total, of otbere. Some co- loring solutions, for instance, as above, enter with facility, and tinge the whole stem in a short time, while others are scarcely absorbed at ait. The same muat, in a degree, be true of various kinds of food, as we find that far more of one kind ia taken than of another, even when both are present in equal qnantitiei. In the item are numeroua little tubea running up and down, whksh serve to con- vey the aap absorbed by the roota up to the leaves. It passes np in the interior vessels or tubes, and passes down in the exterior, or just under the bark. This can be shown by the example of the tree and the colored flukl, just referred to: the inner part of the tree will be colored first, and finally the outer, in the deacent of the sap, after it has passed out to the extremities of the branches. There is then a regular circulation between the soil and the plant; oap flows op, having been formed in the roots and stem, out of the various sobelances drawn m from the soil, and ultimately flows down again next the bark and ont into the soil. During its circuit the sap undergoes many chances, and depofite such of ite con- stituents as are necessary to the plant. If taken from the lower part of the stem, it will be found thin; as it goes up it appears thicker and thicker, and at lost, on its way down becomes a dense substance, to which the name of eambiam haa some- times been given. At this period of its round, it deposits between the inner bark and the wood, material for forming the annual layer of new wood. The cause of this ascent and descent of sap is not fully known, and I do not eonaider it neces- sary to mention here the numerous plausible theories that have been advanced re- garding it. If the flow is entirely stopped, either upward or downward, the plant soon dies. This is shewn by the ordinary operation of girdling a tree, the down- ward flow is stopped and no new wood can form. The bark is quite different in its structure from the item. In the latter part, ae will bo remembered, the little tubes run perpendicularly, or straight np ana down; in the bark they run vertically, that is, toward the centre of the tree. It is sop- posed th.it air obtains access to the body of the plant through these tubes. Leaves are usually considered an extension of^ the baric. They have a net work of veins running through them in every direction, conveying fluids to all parts; and also have on their outer surfaces innumerable little pores or mottthe, through some of which they breathe out, and through others draw in, water and various gases. These functions of the leaf will be noticed again subsequently. THE GREAT NUMBER AND DIVERSITY OF OROANIO BODIXff IM PLANTS. The organic portion in theae several parts of the plant, consists of a great variety of substances, with the more common of which, at least, the farmer ought to be acquainted. The organic bodies of plants are exceedingly numerous. Almost every plant has some one or more peculiar to itself. Thus we see Indian robber the product of one tree, gntta percha of another, sago of another; various perfumes from one plant, and disagreeable odors from another, as in the rose or the mignonette of one class, the skunk cabbage or the tomato of the other; some niso have tt pungent or / \ \ Mronialie tante, Mch ai the Muafras and (h« birch. In aliorl, Ihn viif)«tjr of bodie* that thus communicate difTerent qualities to plunt«, ur uAmt lolhit dlfliirfnt parts of tlio same plant, aro mofe numerous than would b« bsliitvtNl by on* ¥»\w had not at- loiided Momewlint to the subject. The difierent oils and sugars, for instance, which ttnUt ia v«<||fftflbt«s, may he counted by tons and twenties already, while new kinds itre ffinAlMiilly b*ing dis- covered; so with the various extracts which can be ubiHtnHil frMiii Iho flowers or Imrk. There are few plants in which n careful MxaniinHtiim of their tiirious paru will not discover from fifteen to twenty diflerent oraanid Htt\minmvti, and in souie twice that number may be distinguished. The perfeitl HtipnrNlion nnd determina- tiun of such bodies, is among the most diiticult of probJKnm of niodnrn cliemistry. liut after all, the substances which make up the groat bulk »f phtnis are few in number. Those which give the color, taste, smell, ur pncMliitr prnperties of that kind, to particular plants, generally form but u small part (H' ihsir whole mass, and huve but little influence on their practical value. '" ; '" or vvATiin, _, In order to oxplain some remarkable propurtius in the mUnUtmtut Ut whicfi niicn- tion will soon bo called, it ia neces>)iiry huru tu iiiiiulinii lUu miiUHmtiUm uf water. This liquid, so universally diffused, and of such iiiuslimuhJM vnlu0| Is composed of but two gases, oxygen and hydrogen. In nine pounds of WHt«r ttfti about one of hydrogen and eight of oxygen. Although lliu weiaht of o%y§Mt is thns greatest, hydrogen is so light thai it coii)>titute8 the greatest bulk; »» (h«t Uy measure there is only one gallon of oxygen to two of hydrogen. ((. That water docs consist of tlieHo two g/ises nluiie mny Ua slmwn bv horning hydrogen in an atmosphurc of oxygen. U'^ater will irriMimlinlrrly begin to cou- dunsuon the Rido4 of the voiisel used b^ tho cxperimenteft And will mum accumulate MO as to ruti down in drop^. Sonio oi the Trench chertiixts omtt ir\m\ this experi- ineat on a large scale, continuing it for a number of days, ftiid (fhfnhiod several pints of watur. On burning u jet of hydroj^on in coriMMMti fiir, under a largo ;rlu8s vessel open ut bottom, water will immediately be furmmt by (ill Uliiun with tho oxygen of the air, and will condense on tho cool Kiirfuco of lliM gbM, h. Water exists in several states : 1. As thesirtiji d ||q)(ld{ 2. As »t«« 111 or vapor; II. As ice or snow. Each of these formti have ihmt pettuliiir proparlies and bene- Ktii. As a fluid, it renders the bodies of all nniinils plump, moist, and clastic, while it also gives life to all plants and vegotablus, furming thdif f'Jreilhilitig flukls. As a vapor, it prevents the outer surfaces of nlants und HliiiimlK from drying away too much, intercepts the rays of the sun which would uiUtifwlns scorch nnd burn us, and performs many other important offices, of wllifih t\mo is not space to rtpeuk here. As ico, its action is alternate freezing nnd ttlilivilig, thus expanding and contracting, ia to loosen und mellow the soil. This is lUu viVmt produced by ridging stiA' clays in autumn, that tho frost may have free ntfCiuM, OK ORG.* ' tC BODIES CONTAINING CARBON, HYUROOKW, AWH OXtOfiN. Uy far tho most abundant body in the organic part of all or lie/irly till n. nt;', is called woody fibre, aometinics cellular fibre. This is ihw stringy, wOtiJ/ nan o" straw, flax, hemp, wood, &c. If any of them nr( '>ruiied»iid ttmUvd, i'i',\ f. . thing that can be washed away is gone, a maHS ol while (ibm r^lllflii . . n is tolerably pure woody fibre. Cotton or pith are the purest KUttirftl forms of this substance, a. It is white, tasteless, insoluble in wutur, and will nilt, in its natural Mxidition, support life. b. It constitutes the larj^est poriiui) of ll«itrly all p!aiits, that is, in their dry state; this distinction is necessary, bfCUUiifl iliutiy plants lose more than .lalf sf their weight ol water by drying; this mty b§ §§§n in ItlMt of the common grasses. Woody fibre is coiro^ s of carbon, hvdrogen, and o«yg§0, N«W it 1« II curi- ous point, that in lU'm - uuv fil . , hydrc.^en and oxygen wra lirsMlit in Jtftit thw proportions to form Avler. Tu this imp^rtuut {act we shall rvfor Hgnill. ,^0mM^ n fl ' ♦•;»•«/ of bodies Mliflijrrnt pnrtg „r • ♦"TO had nut at- ("tiblM, niny be '"<«»ll> bf iiig dii. " •'<« flotvert or '•J' Viirioua part^t ''«•»# ftiid ill aouje ' fl'f'l defflrniina- '"Iwrn cbernwtrv ''"»la art few j, ''"parUw of that ♦^'holo iriaaa, and »« which nlion- «JoM of water. "o« J» oonipofled. "''w nbout one H 'hwagrentMt, "waaure thero *" hv horning I' heghi to con- '"ttflceumulat© "<< thia experi- '('•hiod flovcral ""«ior u Jargo «M*«fi with tho Ummor vapor; 't'»hiid hene- ''♦ «ftd olaatic, '"ll<«« fluids. from dryinjf *o scorch nnd < *iOi apnce to !'* Mponding ptOiluced by ty will prudne* an immediate eflfect. b. Starch may be easily obtained by making aonie whenten flour into dough, nnd then washing on n very fine acive or linen cloth pliu >'d above n convenii'nt veaael. As the dough ia kneaded under aucceasive portions of water, iKe wntf r becomea milky, nnd the mnaa of dough conatantly diminishea in buik until nt laat nothing but n atii I'.y - ibsiance called /gluten remains; to thia we ahnll refor ngnin. If the niilkv 'i',ii<< W'ch hna run through the cloth be allowed to stand i|uiet for ,y '!■' I' I fine wbito graina will be formed on tho bottom of tbn con< some ho* ■ tainir^ < < iel . 'liia is the stnrch. r. It ''. .y ' r^ be easily extracted from the potato, by grating fine and woHhing. T\n «tarch wi>' settle noxt the bottom, the skin, woody fibre, etc., will float above, ' / ' ". th«y mo J be poured off. In thia way potato starch is made. iuo composition of stnrch is carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; the same, it will be romemben^d, :is that of woody fibre. These aubatancea oxiat in the same propor- tion aa in woody fibre. Another itnportnnt organic substance ia sugar. Ita properties of e:iay aolubility and swoetnef>9 need scarcely be mentioned here, neither will they require illualrn- tion by tho teacher. There nre aovernl kinds of sugar present in planta, but the kind called cane ih* gar ia most abundant and important. It is tlint which exists in the stolk of th« augnr cnne, the root of the sugar beet, the trunk of the sugar maple, otc, etc. Sugar blackens, nnd becomes a species of charcoal when burned; it cnnsisla of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These same three substances also form tho gums, resins, and oily matters which exist ao abundantly in certain trees, us the pinea, and in certain seeds, as linseed. Thus by far the larger portion of plants is made np of substances containing only these three gases. Wo now come to a singular fact, hinted at with relation to one of the substances in the early part of thia section : the hydrogen nnd oxygen in woody fibre, starch, sugar, and many gumn, are in the proper proportiona to fonn water. The plant then can make these bodies without difficulty, for we have seen that it absorbs both carbonic arid and water through its leaves : if now the oxygen of the carbonic acid be given oflT through the leaves during the day, as we have aU ready mentioned that it is, there remains only carbon nnd water, or carbon, oxy- gen, and hydrogen, just the substances to form those bodies which we have named above. In the case of woody-fibre, sugar, starch and gum, the quantity of carbon, and of the elements of water, is the some, so that they are, in fact, identical in imposition. How strange that thev should be so different in prnpertiea ! W« i^annot explain why this ia; but yet the chemist is able to make sugar from either woody fibre, ^um, or starch. It is not more strange than a thousand other things in natnre. We have seen, for instance, that carbonic acid puts out nil fire, nnid destroys life; yet carbon, one of the substances of which it is composed, borna most violently in oxygen, the other; and this other body, oxygen, is, when alone, the great supporter of vitality : mingled in the air it ia what sustains all animal and vegetable life, nnd all conibui>tinr! also. It haa been incidentally noticed, that certain of the bodiea above named may b« changed by chemical n»nns. Some of these changes are important, and deserv« u rather more extended notice, a. Woody fibre, if ground fine, and subjected to a -.III**** tf ^ f ^1 !l ■ il 32 certain degree of beai for a long time, becomes hard, and yeHow in color, and finally can be grouud like flour. In tbi» state it is partly soluble, and can wkh yeast be made into a light, wholesome bread; it has also been partially changed into a substance reiieoibling sturch or gum. b. Starch, if heated at a temperature just below scorching for a day or two, gradaally becomes yellow, and finally quite soluble, with a sweetish taste. It has become dextrine, or what is called by calico printers British gum. This change takes place to a considerable extent in the ordinary baking of bread, c. By the action of dilute Bulphitric acid, in certain proportions, and at certain temperatures, starch may be changed first into gum, and then into sugar. We thus see that this class of bodies are not only nmilar in composition, but that a change from one to the other may be effected with much ease. If we can do this, how much the more readily can it be effected in .the interior of the plant I That such changes do take place there, and that they are of such practical importance, we shall have occasion to point oot in sabseqaent parts of this essay. OF ORGAIflvJ BODIES CONTAINING CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN AND NITROGEN. Although the substances containing the three first-named gases only, make up more than nine-tenths of most plants, yet there is a class which, in addition to them, contains nitrogen. This class, though so small m proportion, is, as will be seen ultimately, one of remaricable importance. The most easily obtained of these nitrogenous bodies is the one already men.- tioned as left behind when the dough of wheaten flour is washed upon a cloth, to obtain the starch, a. It is sticky, tenacious, and somewhat like glue in its charac- ter; its name gluten has reference to these properties, b. When heated, it swells up to a great bulk, becoming quite full of holes. For this reason fionr which has much gluten in it, i» called by the bakers, $/rong, because light, porous bread can be easily made from it, and because it absorbs and retains much water, c. The proportion of gluten in wheat is from ten to twenty per cent. The wheat of warm eountries b said to contain more than that grown in temperate latitndes. Several other grains contain glsten, but none so much as wheat; they all, how- ever, have bodies of the same class, not generally resembling ^uten in appearance and properties, but all containing nitrogen. To these different names have been given : the nitrogenous substance m peas and beans is called legumin, that in In- dian corn, zein. In some other plants there are substances of the same kind, caMed vegetable albumen fCateiUf etc. These are all somewhat similar in their properties and compontion. There is a little sulphur and phosphorus in gluten, and in these nitrogenous bodies generally, beside the four gases already mentioned. It will now be seen what an important part these four elements act, in the eco- nomy of nature. From them all the forms of vegetable life are built up; they are constantly passing from one state of ceeabinatiioa into another, and yet always come out at last tnemsehres unchanged. This is for the reason that they are truly, and not in the common sense, elementary bodies. If we take a piece of wood for examination, we can divide it by varmus means into oxygen, carbon and hydrogen; but we feil in any attempt to subdivide again either of these three bodies. Those bodies then are elementary, chemically speaking, which wc can not, by any means, decompose or separate, which we cannot show to be compound. There are in alt between fifty and sixty of these elements known, and among theoi are the four gases, the functions oi which we have been considering. Sulphur and phosphorus are also elements. OF THE SUPPLIES OF ORGANIC FOOD TO PLANTS. The sources from whence plants derive their various kinds of organic food are different in different localities. Carbon is mostly drawn in from the air in the form of carbonic acid : some aliio comes firom the soil, but by far the greater part from the air. The qnantit^ 71vmEMS& / yel ow in color, and 'olubJe, and can with •een partially changed ^atedal a temperature IW, and finally quite hat » caUed b/c2lica Hlerable extent in the »ric acid, in certain led first ,nto gum, and ■ in compogition, but » much ease. Jf we " .the interior of the are of such practical W'ts of this essay, GEN, OXYGEN 'ses only, „,a,.g h'ch, in addition to rt'on, is, as will be > one already men- 80 npon a cloth, to g'ue in its charac- '" heated, it swell* m flonr xvhich has orousbreadcanbe ^ water, c. The •e wheat of warn* tnodes. Jt; they all, how- ten m appearance names have been f«it«, that in In- the same hind, ^ similar in their horus in gluten, •eady mentioned. 'act,in theeco- ■"t Bp; they are 'nd ^-et always t they are truly, ece of wood (qt land hydrogen ; bodies. Those ^by any means, iherearein all "are the four nd phosphorus ■ganic food are J acid : some The were withdrawn, "sequence, animal '■'■', % ' I - '< ■.>>:. I ■■): ■R IN THE SOIL, ou»d in both the >*Jt is the connec- ices belter crops flourish at all ia indispensable on '"'ght benjen- tself. . ns in the plant, Jostances. If a y it will smoke ime, cease, the "tish or reddish Pting that there portion of their part is usually I peaty or rich hese constitnte 'vas not origi- and decay of "ompositioa of "e species of ind of animal 5«me food for ntil thq result atter. There y fertile, con- t may be said ten per cent. »ou3 effect is S3 will grow, equeutly.* tfiHt ought tn "H wiih 30 nr It- Thu« we 95 Having explained the origin of this organic matter, it is only necessary to men-* lion briefly, that it is composed of the same four organic substances prievously named, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen. NECICSSITT rOH ORGANIC MATTER IN THE SOIL, AND ITS LIABILITY TO ,,, EXHAUSTION. , i' . , <( ; This part is necessary in the soil for several reasons. 1. It enables the land, if light and sandy, to retain moisture, and also to retain manures much longer than it otherwise would; to stiff and clayey soils it gives mellowness and lightness. 2. Another important effect in cold climates is the darker color which it imparts to the surface. A dark colored soil absorbs more heat than a light one, being con- sequently warmer and earlier. This is seen in the fact that snow melts sooner from the plowed fields than from the meadow in similar situations, from the dark garden bed than from the gravelled walk. 3. Besides these useful purposeii, there is no doubt that the organic part of the soil, in a grenter or less degree, ministers food directly to the plant through its roots. The supply obtained in this way varies with the situation, but is of much impor- tance to plants, as shown by their increased luxuriance when it is furnished them in a soil previously deficient. This consumption of organic matter by plants to form their own bulk, shows how it is that land long cultivated and scantily manured, at last becomes very poor in this part. Each crop has carried away a portion of it, more than has been returned in the small quantity of manure applied. Another way in which this is exhausted is by frequent plowing and stirring, whereby it is exposed to the nir, and conse- quently decomposes rapidly. If you long bury straw, or other organic matter, deep under the surface, so as to be excluded from the air, it will remain almost unchanged for years; but as soon as you bring it toward the surface, where the air can obtain access, decay commences. There are then two ways in which this disappearance of organic substances goes on in the soil : first, as it is used for the food of plants; second, as it is decom- posed by being brought in contact with air. From what has now been stated, it is obviously for the interest of the farmer to keep up th» supply of organic matter in his soil : an equivalent, at least, for every thing taken off, should, as far as possible, be returned in the shape of manure; peat and composts are good forms of adding large quantities. But the best way of all, when the land is run down, is to cultivate green crops for plowing under; such as clover, buckwhent, vetches, etc., etc. a. Though plants draw much of their organic part from the soil, yet tho greater proportion comes from the air through the leaves; consequently when a crop of clover is plowed in, there is, in addition to what it has taken from tho soil, much more than half its weight which came from the air, and is, therefore, a clear gain to the soil. In this way the organic matter may be increased, and even the poorest land be gradually brought up to a state of fertility, b. Every good farmer should watch his fields carefully, and see that they do not become deficient in this very important part. Whenever or wherever we see land losing it from year to year, it is certain that there is bad management somewhere. The farmer must not suppose that by this or any other system ho can bring up his worn out land in one or two years ; the progress of improvement will be gradual. He must pqrsevere in tho use of green crops, bringing them in frequently, and re- turning, at the same time, in the shape of manure, as much as may be of the other crops taken off. Above all he must not, as soon as his land is so far re- covered that his clover or other green crop begins to be heavy, yield to any temp- tation to cut it off; for this is returning to the old system of exhaustion. The object should be to keep tho land steadily improving; and to that, for the few first years, all other considerations should give way. When it is fully established as a fertile und well-stocked soil, constant watchfulness will keep it in tliat condition without \\ much expense; and the farmer will soon find that it is fur cheaper to cultivate good land and keep it good, than to live on a farm where everything is taken ont and nothing put in. or THB DBRIVATIOir OF tfOILS, AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION. I have already said that the mineral part of aoilt is derived from the decompo- sition or crumbling down of the solid rocks. In every neighbourhood may be seen instances of this crumbling down : with some rocks, as granite, it is very slow, scarcely perceptible from one year to another; with others it is more rnpid, as some sandstones and limestones; with others still almost immediate, as some slates, which fall tu pieces whenever they are brought to the surface. However quickly or slowly this crumbling takes place, a soil is at last made, and, of course, re- sembles in its composition that of the rock from which it was formed. The greater part of the rocks which appear on the surface of our earth are va- ri:'(ies of sandstones, limestones, or clays, or mixtures of the three.* 1. Sandstone is oAen known as Freestone, and is common in many parts of this country, being a valuable building material. Our light sandy soils were nearly all originally formed from this rock. Many of these are very poor; but there are some sandstones which make most excellent soils, as rich as any that are cultivated. In particular cases they contain so much lime as to be nearly marls, and then form very fertile soils. Very many sandstones crumble away quite readily, some show- ing the action of the atmosphere almost immediately upon exposure. For this reason the soils are ordinarily of good depth. 2. Limestone is also common, and there are few places where a teacher cannot find some to exhibit to his scholars. It is found of ull colors, from white to black, and makes a great variety of soils. As a general rule these soils are good, and f^apable of bearing very excellent crops. There is much variation among the limestones as to ease of decomposhion. Many of them form a deep soil very soon, but there are some of the blue mountain limestones which decompose with exceed- ing slowness. On these the soil is thin, but usually of rather good quality, espe- cially for pastures. 3. Clay is the principal ingredient in roofing slate, in school slates, and in what are called shaUt. Beside this, ns is well known, it exists in large beds, from which are made pipes, bricks, tiles, etc., etc. Whenever it occurs largely in soils, they are stiff, tenacious, and nearly impervious to moisture. In consequence water remains on the surface, and makes them wet, difficult to plow, and hard to cultivate in any way. They are, however, usually of good quality, and by proper skill may be made most valuable. Some writers have classified soils, according as they contained more or less of one of thes(>. First would be a saad, then a sandy loam, then a day loam, a stiff clay, and finally a brick or pipe clay, the last being too stiff for cuhivation. Soils, in which lime existed largely, would b» called calcareous. Wberethere was more than 20 to 26 per cent., it would be a marl. Some definite rules of this kind might prove quite useful to farmers in describing soils. Professor Johnston has proposed the following : 1. Pure clay, such as pipe clay or poicelain clay; from this no sand can here- moved by washing. 2. Strong clay, brick clay, contains from 5 to 20 per cent, of silicionssand. 3. Clay loam has from 20 to 40 per cent, of fine sand. 4. A loam has from 40 to 70 per cent, of sand. 6. A sandy loam has from 70 to 90 per cent. '^ 6. A light sand has leas than 10 per cent, of clay. This ciassificatwn may easily be made by means of simple washing. The soil shoukl first be dried, and then after boiling m water should be thoroughly stirred in * Thi« i* n popular, < geaernl ile*crl|iiiou. nd not strictly acieniifle, cluaiilcation, and ia to be conaidered oiiljr aa a 'Wt ; to cultivate good 18 taken out and ICATION. »ni tiie decompo- '»?d may be seen 't w very slow, more rapid, an a« some ilate«, lowever quickly of courae, re. d. ur earth are va- "y parts of this were nearly all there are some cultivated. In and then form y, some show- "•■e. For this Mcber cannot '"'te to black, '« good, and « among the 'Oil \ery aoon, with exceed- [oality, espe- and in what e beds, from «•« largely in consequence and hard to 'd by proper a or Jess of oam, a atiff 'on. Soils, » was more Itind might Kan here- d. The soil atirrad in only ai a aome convenient Teasel. The sand will settle first, and when it is nt the bottom, the liquid above, holding the fine clay, etc., in suspeusion may be poured oflf; when this has been done a few times, nothing will remain at the bottom of the vessel, beside nearly pure sand; this may be dried and weighed, and the quantity will in- dicate to which class of the above the soil belongs. It is always possible to ascertain if there be much lime in the soil, by adding a little muriatic acid, such us may be obtained at any apothecary's. This ncid, as soon as it comes in contact with the lime, if there be any, causes a brisk efierves- cence, owing to the bubblings up and escape of carbonic acid gas, which is ex- pelled from its combination with lime by a stronger acid. It is easy in this way to ascertain if any s|)ecimen of earth is n marl or not. Such a simple test would often save the farmer much trouble and expense, b^ preventing him from applying useless material to his soil for the purpose of fertilizing it. The distinctions be- tween light and heavy soils, so common among farmers, all arise from the difierent proportions of sand and clay which the various soils contain. The light soils are most easily nnd cheaply cultivated, and are found to be par- ticularly well adapted to the growing of some cro|>s, such as barley, rye, buck- wheat, etc. The^ are porous, and for that reason generally dry. The heavier soils require more skill and caution in their cultivation, but are not so easily exhausted as the others; they are particularly adapted to growing wheat, oats, Indian corn, etc. Very heavy soils are exceedingly liable to wetness, and can only be made dry by draining. NUMBER OF INORGANIC SUBSTANCES IN SOIL. REASONS FOR FERTILITll OR BARRENNESS. It has been said that soils are chiefly made up of three substances, lime, sand (silica), and clay (alumina). Rut besidex these, cheniicul analysis finds smaller quantities of some seven or eiji;ht oiher bodies. In the first column of the ioliow- ing table, representing the composition of three different soils, are to be seen tlie names of these. T.ABLE FIRST. Soil fertile Feriife. Very witboul inniiure. wiib msniire. barren. In cue hundred pnnndi. Organic matter, Silica, - - - - Alumina, ... Lime, - - - - Magnesia, ... Oxide of Iron, Oxide of Manganese, Potash, . - » Soda, .... Chlorine, - - . Sulphuric acid. Phosphoric ncid, - Carbonic acid. Loss during the analysis. 9.7 64.8 5.7 5.9 .9 6.1 .1 .2 .4 ,2 .2 .4 4.0 1.4 100-0 5.0 4.0 83.8 77.8 5.1 9.1 1.8 .4 .8 .1 3.0 8.1 .3 .1 .1 .2 .4 1000 1000 It will, at once, be noticed that these are the very substances which were named and described when we were upon the. inorganic part, or ash, of plants. To this coincidence I shall hereafter refer. At the head of the first column is named organic matter; this baa already been di8|»osed of. The other substances making up the inorganic part, follow in difiitrent proportions, the silica being largest. It will be seen tl ut these three soils are diffe- rent in their qualities, one being fertile without manure, another fertile %vith the ad- fej8^i%. i 28 «ver,ve dlscovT "sl*;'J"j;««« even ""der such tverTcnr' ?"'' P«^^" «f P'o! banks of the iViJe or GaS fl" '" «"' o«^n w^n ^"["^'oo- Now. wL- a chemical examination K' in/-'.!r*"" P"' o^ thTS JlJ' '*''"!:''«' °» «''e above named. It un". " 'n^ariably show tho nL, ^®>^ """X be located I' vv-ouJd require an ?i:''^ P'"?P"''»''« vvouJd L 'n „ '"'' *^«'^« '"'^hes deen ^^«W1,SV^^^ ^oseor the second. cblorine, denoting that these ni k*'^ "''« ^'«»'^'' opposho to .L ?"? represent- *«d». and lime, are „Z.h ' n""'- Several ouK sutht -P"'"?'"' '""^^ ""d In the third column we S """"r ^"""titles than ii'thp fir ?° .""'^ Phosphoric PnlireJv wanHn» j ' ® ""*^ J«st ha f of rho .„ • , "'''' column. provement oVtchTsSur '=«"l'^ffori To do^vtS '^ '^P-'-" o7the IPS ia green croos 11.1 ''"*'!• ^he best way wIS h f ?'?"''"«^ <"«' the im- «>rm a^urfaceToil ThL ^'•^3"«J'y «ith a moirte u«/ V° ''""« '' "P ^ pC *hey contain all of the sSL ^^'® *"■« ««"s which remain h ^'■'' '^'=''««onallv This is because thpir f^hftances named above anTih u '""■'■°" even althouirh nresent in hrt?ul "exc^s^'?' ^i^^^ « -""g or'tei/rsl'^'r ''' """""d he very great th„ » -i "' " 'he quantities ^r «, "'^''^''e some substances ar*. the earth. Ono ;i Ji! ' ^ here are two nvin,- r • P P'^'^us to veffetatifln time, may not be "w^'fJ^ t° fertilize the moJt^on..» ? ''" the remedy.^We ««- par. of p,„„u „„a ,h„ „, A,.^'.;- ^™«,'';?'i- .^1^%^^., want iviih agricul. ""<', occasionally ins crops may be »eir power of pro. on. Now, wber- . whether on the •nay be located, 1 the substances "y the quantities ne of these m.iy when weconsi- ve inches deep, to several tons.' O' a per cent, of ' of the second, 1 are our ordi- «mn represent- 'tash, soda and snJ phosphoric umn. 'fot in the first " m their pro- >"gh to make Iji'gh and ma- id scarcely be lection of the ^ 'or the im- t up by plow- 5 in addition, e exercise of which cause 'le, and per- s<-'nce or ab- occasionally en although •■e is added. )stances are fnjiDganese, vegetation, ly found in 'eem to be otoxide of 'e> and is, y present. It to point ^y- We the same • It be- . ow what a practi- 29 characteristic of the one and abtent from the other. In nearly all loilt, ailica ie the leading substance, usually constituting fulljr two-thirds of their whole weight, and often eighty or ninety pounds in every hundred. The only cases in which it i» not largely present are those of tlie peat bogs, made up almost entirely of vegetable matter. Silica forma compounds with certain of the other bodies in the soil, mak- ing what are called soluble silicates. The gradual formation of these compounds uiforda a supply for the plant. We have now mentioned the substances which are present in the soil, and have previously dwelt upon tho^e which constitute the plant. Sundry points of connec- tion between the two, will already huvc suggested themselves to the read<*r or stndent. To these we must next turn our attention, in treating of the varioos me- thods proper to be employed in bringing soils to a state of fertility, and to a cnndi- tion the most easy and profitable for cultivation. From examining table tirst, and from tho explanations already given, it will be perceived that there are various points to be considered in attempting the improve- ment of the soil. a. If there be ii chemical deficiency, that is an absence of cer- tain constituentB necessary to fertility, hh mentioned above, then but one course can be adopted with any hope of success; this course is obviously to supply what is wanting. The ways of doing this in the most advantageous and economical man- ner will be considered under what imiy be ealled chemical improvements, or the use of manures, b. If there be u physical defect, if tho land is too wet, too light, too stiff, or if from either of these cauiscM it abounds in noxious compounds, the re- . medies come more properly under wimt may be called mechanical improvements. This branch of tho subject will first attract our attention, and will next be consi- dered. THE SOIL (CONTINUED), AND SOME OF ITS CONNECTIONS WITH THE PLANT. WHAT THE CONDITION OF THE SOIL SHOULD BE AND THE NATURE OT MECHANICAL IMPROVEMENT. We are now able to say tliut a fertile soil should have nil of the substances which were mentioned in Tublo I., and were ulso named when giving the composition of the plant. These substances should be present in abundance, and yet none of them in too large quantity; they should be in formn best adopted to the nourishment of plants, and the physical churucter of tho eoil should be such that the plants could easily penetrate in every direction with their roots to obtain them. Air and warmth should also pervade every part, becauite under their influence the plant flourishes better, and the necessary changes in tho composition of the soil take place more readily. To bring about these conditions is u study for the farmer, and the latter of them come appropriately under our present head. By mechunicul improvement nf the soil, I mean the improvement of its texture and of its other qualities, by means not connected immediately with alteration of its chemical composition. They bring on chemical changes, it is true, but still the operations themselves are purely mechanical. Some soils, for instance, are too light, and others too stiff and heavy. Theru are various ways of removing these defects. a. In situations where clay can be obtained, it is found to be the most valuable* possible application for light soIIh; it consolidates them, cauaes them to retain water and manure, and for the objects of permanent improvement is worth more, load for load, than manure. b. Upon very heavy clay lands, on tho contrary, sand is laid in large quantities with equal success. Here tho effect is the reverse of that desired on light sand«. The ciny is mellowed, made less retentive, dries sooner in spring, and does not bake so hard in summer. Such operations as these, in favourable situations, urn very profitable; and although expensive ut first, are, in the end, far cheaper than manuring in the ordinary way. |yte*^%-->- ' 80 V ■'' ^"= srFEcr. or too mit the soil, as furni,hf„ ' "*^ *.'«" ^^ese acids inamliT^ *" *':*»'* "I'MPpreheniioa S Jt«notonlyi„.w47- .. ^ .. ... "" 'he excess of them acids are formed- n nil !k ^^"^'derable and iniurin.?. ^ the proper words, for thev duces cold; tKassl ^ ^'''"'"' ^y «onst«„ TvaSl?/'""?''' °^ ">««« ^e^etawJ lestspots/TL?eTrJ,''"'^""'*P<»^ while r^^^^^^^^^ ^'^ ">« "TfaS. Jr.! ^^^ntfy. Farmer t^^nkZhTV' '^'^ "^"d "^'^ t^^Im^ '^'^•'' '•" '^^^'t- '^ay to make any DPrm«n ?^ '^"** '"^ dry for drainint ^"""^ ^^^^X Pa" of the to bake hard in L'^"""^"^'™P^«vement upon hT> ".">'* -''** that is the onlv "«} m 10 form rSIr'"'"""! "» pSdo &? """i 'J" ""="■ -I™*? fection, i/at al i» ^ *'"*' ^«""»'' which formJ^ ^" *""' *''« 'oil is warm an!^ ever before Th ' " * *'""««« «'ct, too thl?^ 4^ ""''*'■ "^""'d grow on h S n fu'l extenf^bpTook^ L''™"'" /"«''owlnd Lous sf .''SK^''' these soIl/JoC "'^ THE CONSTRUCT ^ ^^^ """ ^6 "OMOusiy important to know 31 soil. '. importance, and w u the preience ' »oiJ M to coin- «ed, and certain eactrf*. etc. In «tent, and form valuable plant* 'ot and dried, it am acceia, and 'Pprehenaion, it really uaefal in excesa of them e is mnch land "ngs that aatn- ng. yet atill it I'orda, for they heae vegetable ■urface, pre- •a in the wet- ry part of the at is the only in spring, apt " « not in a a good state roots of the icids already "te 28, b.)iB I find no no- drain. The auses above "ng farther. • ed drains), "d does not ' gradually •y contain, nsequently IS and pre- ►varni and ' it in per- etter than much far- yery part •'a do not . in their ' must be CO. >f,drains to know how they should be made. With the exception, perhaps, of large main channels, to which all others converge, or for carrying off small rivulets, the drains should be covered. Open drains occupy much of the land by their bulk and cannot be ap- [iroached very closely by teams on either side; they thus cause a farther loss of and, beside great inconvenience in working. Their banks and sides are nurseries of weeds, so that unless regularly cleared out they are extremely liable to become choked, and thus fail to do their work properly. Another great evil is, that when water falls upon the land, instead of sinkins through to the subsoil, it runs away over the surface; washing off* fertilising substances from the rkshett part of the soil, and carrying them away. For these reasons, covered drains are always to be preferred in situations where it is practicable to make them. There are several points of mach importance io the construction of such drains. First, as to their depth; where a fall can be obtained; this should be from 30 to 36 inches. The plants could then send their roots down, and find to this depth a soil free from hurtful substances. The roots of ordinary crops often go down three feet, when there is nothing unwholesome to prevent their descent. The far- mer who has a soil available for his crops to such a depth, cannot exhaust it so soon as one where they have to depend on a few inches, or even a foot of surface. Manures, also, cannot easily sink down beyond the reach of plants. On such a soil, too, dnep plowing could be practised, without fear of disturbing the top of the drains. The farmer should not, by making his drains shallow, deprive himself of the power to use the subsoil plow, or other improved implements that may be in- vented, for the purpose ef deepening the soil. There are districts in England, where drains have had to be taken up and relaid deeper for this very reason. It would have been an actual saving to have laid them deep enough at the first. Second, as to the way in which they should be made, and the materials to be used. a. The ditch should, of course, be wedge-shaped for convenience of digging, and should be smooth on the bottom. h. Where atones are used, the proper width is about six inches at the iiottom. Small stone? should be selected, or large ones broken to about the size of a hen's egg, and the ditch filled in with these to a depth of nine or ten inches. The earth is apt to fall into the cavities among larger stones, and mice or rats make their bur- rows there : in either case water finds its way from above, and washes in dirt and mud, soon causing the drain to choke. With small stones, choking from either of these causes cannot take place if a good turf be laid grass side down above the stones, and the earth then trampled in hard. Cypress or cedar shavings are some- times used, but are not quite so safe as a good sound turf The water shonld find its way into the drain frgni the sides anJ not from the top. Fig. 3. The accompanying figure (3) represents the arrange- ment of the stones : a is the tuif on top; if the water enters at the sides b b, it comes in clear, having filter- ed through the soil, and deposited everything in the way of mud, which might tend to choke the drain. Some farmers prefer to make stone drains like fig 4, hav- Jd, ing two flat stones laid against each other at the bottom ■0 as to form a sort of pipe, and filling above them with _Jlf small stones as before. In very swampy soft ground it is sometimes necessary to lay u plank or slab in the bottom of the drain, before putting in the stones. - This is to prevent them from sinking, and mak- ing an uneven bottom, before the soil becomes dry enough to be firm. Stones broken to the siee above mentioned are expensive in this country, and in many places they cannot be procured; in England it is now found that til«ii made of clny and burned, are cheapest. These have been mp'*' i,k various shapes. Fig. 4. \ . 32 I Fig. 6. a. The first used wbj the horseahoe tile, fig. 6. This was so named from its shape; it had a solo a, made as a separate piece to place under it, and form a smooth surface for the water to run over. b. Within a few years this tile has been almost entirely superseded by the pipo tiles , these are made of several shapes, as seen in the accompanying figures 6 and 7 ; Fig. 6. Fig. 7. vr»i •«, Fig. 8. ihc oval shape (fig. 7) is advantageous, because a small stream in the bottom will wash out every obstruction that can be carried away by water. These tiles have a great advantage over the horse-shoe shape, in that they are smaller, and nre all in one piece; this makes them cheaper in the first cost, and also more economical in the transportation. All these varieties are laid in the bottom of the ditch, it having been pie^iously made quite smooth and straight. They are simply placed end to end, as :( a a, in figures 6 and 7 ; then wedged a little with small stones if necessary, nnd the oarth packed hard over them. Wutcr will always find its way through the joints. Such pipes laid at a depth of from 2^ to 3 feet, and at proper di.ttanccs between the drdins, will, in time, dry the stiifest cinys. Many farmers have thought that water would not find its way in, but experience will soon show them that they cannot keep it out. The portion of earth next the drain first dries ; as it shrinks on drying, little cracks begin to rndiute in every direction, and to spread, until at last they have penetrated through the whole mass of soil that is within the influence of the drain, making it all, after a srauon or two, light, mellow, and wholesome for plants. The appearance of tilo drains in the earth is shown by lig. B, representing a cross section. They form u connected tube, through which water runs with great freedom, even if the fall is very slight. When carefully laid, they will discharge water where the fall is not more that two or three inches per mile. If buried at a good depth, they can scarcely be broken; and if well baked, are not liable to monldet' away. There seems no reasoa why well made drains of this kind should not last for a century. The pipe tiles are used of from 1 to 1^ inches diameter of bore for the smaller drains, and for the larger up as high as 4 or 5 inches. They are all made in pieces of from 12 to 14 inches in length. .An inch pipe will discharge an im- mense quantity of water, and is quite sutficient for most situations. These small drains should not ordinarily be carried more than 400 or 500 feet before they pass into a larger one, running across their ends, where a very great quantity nf water is to be dis- charged, two large sized horse-shoe tiles are oi\en employed, one inverted against the other as in fig. 9. Third, as to the direction in which the drains should run. The old fashion was to carry them around the slopes, so as to cut off the springs; but it is now found most efiicacious to run them straight down, .t regular ' distances apart, according to the abundance of water and the nature of the soil. From 20 to 50 feet between them, would probably be the limits for most' cases. It igas*^^^- ■ ■■ ■/'..'J >.,>, oe . t'le, fig. 6. Tbi» had a sole a, made '" «, and form a nover. ,„ ,, • erseded by the pipe King figures 6 and 7; »g. 7. 11 the hottorn will These tiles have nailer, and are all lore economical in I been pueriously >end, as f a a, >ry, and th.r oarth «ne joints. Such CCS betwaen the lought that water that they cannot OS It slirinks on end, until at last 1 the influence of 1 wholesome for , representing a i tube, through 'en if the fall is will discharge • or three inchf-s ey Clin scarcely We to monldei- Jll made drains The pipe tiles of bore for the '>'S'» as 4 or .5 from 12 to 14 charge an inj. icienl for most carried more one, running ' is to be dis- I one inverted un. The old T the springs; t«, .f regular e of the soil, Dsf cases. It 33 is aotnelimes neceatary to moke o little cross drain, to carry away ihs water 'n^^ some strong spring. In all ordinary cases, the drains running straight down, am discharging into a main cross drain at the foot, are aiitply sulHciflnt. Tilo machines are now introduced into thiii country, und tiles will soon come into extensive use. Their easy portability, their perinuiiuncy when laid down, and the perfection of their work will n commend them fur general adoption. It is also to be noticed that it takes less time to lay them than stones, and that the ditch re- quired for their reception is smaller and narrower. The botlorn of it need only be wide enough to receive the tiles. The Fig. 10. upper part of tho earth is taken out with a common npadc, and the lower part with one made quite narrow for the purpose. . Vrffctr . ttiiar' » T'v . -a-nr 8- tion which exists between the soil and the plant. The attentive reader will already have perceived that the inorganic substances in both show a certain marked coin- cidence. The source of the organic part in plants has before been shown to be partly the soil and partly ilie air. Ihe inorgmic substunces can, of course, onj^ coilie ^rom the soi!, and thus it is at once easy to perceive why the dtiTerences indi- cated .ly Table I. ounatitute fertility or barrenness. It is because the plant needs these substances that their absence is so destructive to the value of u soil. They all enter tiin)ugh the roots, having always been previously dissolved in water. If tliey wore received in fine solid particles, the ash of any particular plant would be difi'crent according to the differences in various soils; but this is not found to be the ciiHv, as each plant has a peculiar ash of its own, a. Experiments i)uve been mack by preparing six difl'erent plots of ground in the dame manner, and then mixing with one alumina, with *>DOther lime, with another soda, with another magnesia, and su on; all of these substonces being reduced to r very fine powder. The result was that the ash in the same plants grown on all these plots, was marly identical in composition; thus showing that they dkl ««t. c ^a^*.*../ 34 ■-'f* ^i*.- I'«IKN. l^i*'lil (tfifllii. VVhtHt i)M I,W !.92 O.liN »,»'! 0.68 iM /},»(i 8.(J2 7,70 7,JW 18. 68 »K,»4 MM 46.44 3J» 2,2H 27,12 31,71 24.18 n.m 21,07 10.84 l.tiH 8,32 99,39 m.M 09.01 take ill everything in the ihope of fine parlitilil, /*. iManganeae cannot be considered indiapeuublo to tha ordinary crupa, hut i\it>tn are aome claaaea of treea which appear to require it in conaiderHblii <|uiiiililii'a, 'I'Iip otlicri on the list are found in all cultivated cropa. Tim following (ubln giv«« inalunci>a in three common onea : the unalyaea were made in Germany. , TABLi: It. ' In out) liuiulrrJ llta. of Huh. Silica, ------- Iron, ------- Lime, ------- UliifineHiu, ------ I'hoapliorio aeiJ, ----- Siilphuriii acid, - - - - . '■'' Potiisli, ' Sod:i, Chloride of sodium, - - - . There is a little loss in each analysis, aa is almost invurinbly tbs oaae in practice. a. It will be seen from this table, that with thit efeeptiou of the two substancee above mentioned, alumina and manganese, all of tUaotimn imnm\ In Table I. are also present here. In subsequent tables, I shall hava oecMkn to present the com- position of ash from other crops, and it will be found tbftt in tb««9 ttlso they are, a« a general rule, all mentioned. b. Other facts are indicated by this table, which »ra §f mtuih importance : it will be noticed that the ash of these seeds varies oonaldsrAbJy in composition. In beans and peas, for instance, the quantity of potaah and m\» ii inttoh greater than in wheat, while on the other hand wheat contains moRt pllOf|itiotic acid : these points will be alluded to again. Some of the substances named in the table, as lima And inrtgnssia, are in small quantity. Suppose 60 bushels of beans to the acre, s vary Inrge ewp, weighing 60 lbs. per bushel, and making a total weight of 3,600 Ihif, hmU 100 lbs. would yield about 2 lbs. of ash; at that rate the amount of ash t»U§n fVom tilt itcr« wonkl be 72 lbs. Of this only about 9 lbs., according to the above fitblo, woald be lime .and magnesia; about Sdlbs. would be potash and soda. Tlia wboln r|Uflntity, 72lbs., seems small when taken from an acre, and either of tha nbovo portions of it ap- pear almost unworthy of notice; yet it is found, by experience, ihnt if the cro|Hi are unable to obtain these small and comparatively aeainlnf HnlmoOftttnt parts of their whole bulk from the soil, they 'absolutely refuaa to ttmrm, The farmer may furnish other manures as abundantly as he pleases, but if (hfty do not, in some form or other, contain these missing ingredients, the plant (tnnnot bo forced to grow thriftily or yield abundantly. The appearance of his (ii»ld will any us plainly as words could express it, that nomething is needed whifcn bi hnn not given. How many crops thus demanding food from their ovrners do w§ iOO in almost every neighbourhood ! Should not the farmer, of whom aucb a denmnd is made, exert .himself to supply what is wanted; and if he does nut nirasdy l(now, to gain the necessary knowledge ? Several points are thus established by such a Table Bi the fofigoing, ttAd these may, with advantage, be briefly recapitulated : |jy((«p«-*:Hte..' 35 oonfaci with their '«« «• iHiud tbvjr 'n •oJmion jfdi». "» •Hg«r or Mit j« '"•"iHco., becnu.e «"«« piniifg eo any « ween mentioned • ''• Wonganew "'•0 "orne cla«ies '«■ otlitTs on (lie ••''•"era in ,hre« '"111*. O.M 8.(J2 18.88 46.44 24.18 10,84 O0.OJ 'flln pruotict. Wo aubatancea Jtt Table I. are Mflnt the com- •0 tbejr are, «« 'nportaoce : it "po»lt/on. In N greater than 5 acid : theae « flfe in small ''P. weighing "W Iba. woDid « Here Would OttW be Ii,„e ""fy, 72lbs., 'fa of it ap- 'f the crojw '«"! parts of The farmer Not, in some ced to grow ipfujijjy as fen. How nJost every J«de, exert ra:ns. Some soils hear this severe treatment longer than others, but there are "(My lev^ that would not eventually hecomo exhausted. If turnips or potatoes ilone were grown, the loss would be of another description, but equally injurious. !d this case, instead of phosphoric acid, it is potash and soda that are exhausted, «nd no utiiount i>f ohosphoric acid would make good the deficiency. In the case of rices, ihe demand would mon; probably be for lime. f'he general rule may from ail of these f.icts be considered as established, that flopping tends directly to impoverish the ?oil. Wo see, by Table I., tltit silica, .lUiRiiua, iron and organic matter, in the soib there given, amount to, at lenst, HO .j#^j,.ftflBaP««*^'^ • 37 the straw, therfl i» ash of the straw, strawitsstifTness, the strqw cannot "■'Hers say. the grain will b(r i 13 shown by tb«' ;e and oats : thfr aJI these, thercr 'osphoric acid i» i straw of grain. '" turnij)s in on(, !ly a sinali quan- "t potash is the w a Jittle inortf tops, lime alaa Jfre among the ' is still another lorrc acid is but le exception of raw. established: 1. lere^ potash and' ■i' 1 'he various vhere silica is '1 also to men- tains, in very ''e paiticularly TION WITH •e effect that too often the 'P after crop, for a number ' this ? If js^ abondant a* lore of them farmer has mnnuro, hty quickly now exhaustion, silica to the away, and f the other t there are 01 potatoes y injurious. exhau8te^st, no lbs. of every 100. In many soils they come up to, at lea«t, 95 lb*. There is no fear, then, of exhaustin<; the silica; alumina, as lias been said, does not enter into the composition of plants, and iron is not usually u prominent constituenL The leading parts of the ash from the grain, the roots, and all of those portions of plants most valuable for food, are found not in the 90 to 95 lbs. made up by these abun- dant substances, but in the 5 or 10 lbs. necessary to nwke out the hundred. The quantities of these important substances contained in most soils are, therefore, small; and hence as they are the very ones most largely carried away, some one of them is usually first exhausted, according to the class of crops that have been chiefly cultivated, as has been heretofore indicated. When one is gone or reduced to a very small quantity, the crops which particu- larly require that substance will refuse to grow luxuriantly and to yield well : sup- pose it to be wheat, and the wanting substance phosphoric acid ; there may bo the greatest abundance of every other necessnry constituent, and yet all of their good effects are more than neutralized by this one defect. By attending to sucli ponits as these, the farmer may often save himself much disappointment and expense. He may put on load after load of ordinary manure, and still not produce the de- sired improvement; when at the same lime a bushel or two of some particular in- gredient, at one-twentieth of the cost, may have been all that the land wanted. a. In this way we can explain the wonderful effect often produced by a few bushels of lime, or of plaster. These were just the substances which were defi- cient in those soils where they proved so efiicacious; being supplied, the coils at once became fertile. Where they produce no change, aa is the case in many situa- tions, it is because there is .already a sutficient supply present; because some other substances beside these arc also wanting; because the land is too wet, or is otherwise faulty in its physical character; or because injurious compounds are so largely present as to be fatal to the healthy growth of plants. It is not uncommon for land to be brought up at once by adding a small quantity of plaster, and the application repeated yearly afterward seems to be all that is necessary. This seeming facility of fertilizing his soil is apt to lead the farmer into a great mistake. lie finds that be can obtain heavy crops each year by using a few bushels of plaster or lime, and is tempted to depend almost entirely upon so easy and so cheap a manure, to the neglect of all others. After a time, however, his crops begin to diminish again : he tries increasing the piaster or the lime, but with no renewal of the former effect; he finally resorts to common manure again, hut with not even so much success as he formerly had; the land is impoverished beyond anything he has ever known. Thus in some parts of England it has passed into a proverb, " Lirtiii enriches the fnthcrs, but impoverishes the unn* ;" the idea being that the improvement at first is rernarkal)le, but that in the end the land is ruined. Is the blame in such cases to be laid upon either the lime or the plaster? Let us reason a moment upon the facts of the case. Hero was a soil well supplied with all of the substances mentioned in Table 1., ex- <;epting, by way of example, sulphuric acid and lime (plaster of paris). The farmer adds plaster which iit once supplies the deficiency, and the land produces heavy crops; he adds it the second year with perhaps even increased effect, and so on, year after year, until there is as much as is necessary in the soil. Now what i<< the reason that after a time the crops begin to decrease ? There is an abundance ol" plaster, but may there not be a deficiency of something else ? ITo has been con- stantly taking off largo crops, and carrying them away from the land, with a va- riety of inorganic substances contained in them. As the crops have been larger than ever before, so the quantities of phosphoric acid, chlorine, mngncsia, potash. «i>da, etc., taken off, have been correspondingly great. How has this consLnnt drain npon the stock of these substances in the soil been met ? Why, by a ccti- fltiint supply of plaster, that is, of sulphuric acid and lime. At last one or more of (bcm are oxhaoscd, and how is the loss made up ? Still by an increased supply ct' plaster; and because this plaster no longer does any good, it is said that the fnrtl pr^jF been mined by its injurious influence. \m , felBR**''**^."'*''' 38 From the foregoing explairation, we maj easily perceive that it is no longer plav- ter which the land requires, bat perhaps phosphoric acid, potash, magnesia, 0** some of the other constituents of a fertile soil. They have been taken away, and nothinff brought back but plaster; and now that they are exhausted, hundreds of tons of plaster would not make good their loss. It is then the false practice of the farmer, and not the plaster, that has so greatly injured his land. The rule be- comes clear and imperative, that every one who uses such special manures to make good a special deficiency, should, at the same time, keep up the general stock by a liberal use of ordinary manure. CM THE FRIIICIPI.ES OF ROTATION IN CROPPING. Nearly all the foregoing statements in this and the preceding division of this essay, have borne more or less distinctly upon the theories or facts coi cted with the rotation of crops. It may be well to make a few direct applications of the knowledge we have now gained, with this particular subject in view. All ^ood farmers know that the most exhausting system that can be devised, is to cultivate the same crop on the same soil year after year. When a longer or shorter period has elapsed, as the land may have been at the commencement richer or poorer, the yield begins to decrease; an increase may be obtained again by the free use of manures, but the quantity necessary ia so large, and requires to be so' often redewed, that it is in most situations more profitable to change the crops, or alternate them. From such practical observations have arisen the various systems of rotation that nre in vosue in different districts. Table III. shows how practical experience hat, in this case, hit upon the very course which science would have recommended. It has been shown by that table, and attention has been called to the fact, that there are several distinct classes of crops, when we conskler them with regard to the composition of their ash. The classes are those which are found to bear a part in every good rotation, that is, grain crops, root crops, and grass crops, or the same three classes that were distinguished from each other in the early part of thii» divi»k>n of this essay. Suppose the farmer to have a soil which requires, as almost all soils do, the ap- plication of manure to render it fertile. He adds a good coating of nianure, and then takes a crop of Indian corn or wheat : this crop will carry away the largest part of the phosphates that were added in the manure; in most cases a second crop* of the same kind would not, therefore, be so good, and a third still less. There yet remains, however, from themanure, considerable quantities of other substances, which the grain crops did not so particularly require, snch as potush and soda ; with these a good root crop may be obtained, potatoes or turnips, or beets; after this there is probably still enough lime, etc., left to prodnco an excellent crop of hay, if seeded down with another grain crop, of a lighter diaracter than Indian corn or wheat. Wo perceive, then, that any good system of rotation must be founded upon the principle, that different classes of crops require diflerent proportions of the various substances th".t aie present in soils, and in the numerous fertilizers that are ap- plied for the purpose of enriching them. Thus the crops may be made to succeed mv.h other with the least possible injury to the soil, and with the greatest economy hi the use of manures. It would be useless to recommend here any particular sys- tem of rotation as the best; for that is a mutter to be decided by experience in each •action of country, under the various circumstances of climate, location, and value of certain crops. I wish only to enforce the general principle that rotations aro necessary, and that they afford the only means as yet discovered, thrcogh which the majority of farmers can regularly obtain heavy crops with profit to themselves; and nt the same time can keep up, or even improve, the value of their land. b is to be noticed, that even a good rotation should not be continued ton long un- changed upon the same land. After cultivating one grain crop for a very length- •oeU period in a rotation, it will be found of advantage to make ua oceubional h, «#te«..tt(l(B!M»*— ^ y IS no ronger plav- sn, magnesia, o*- taken away, and 19'ed, hundreds of 8e practice of the id. The rule be- nianures to inaite general stock by re. division of thi» coi cted with •pJfcations of the IV. in be devised, is ^hen a longer or encenient richer ed again by the squires to be so ;e the crops, or o*" rotation thai cal experience reconinjended. ' fhe fact, that wMh regard to )und to bear a s crops, or the '^y part of thi» ;ils do, the ap- "lanure, and •3' lf>e largest Ji second crop less. There er substances, sh and soda; >r beets; after j'lfnt crop of r than Indian dcd upon tht* f the various Ihat are ap- 'fi to succeed tst economy rticnlar sys- t;nce in eacli >. and value ointions are fogh which thimselves; and. "o long un- "y length- ocGusiooal 39 change to some other. The land appears to grow tired of a crop after a time, and to do better with another even of the same class. There are some districts in Scotland, where clover was for more than a century grown once in five yearn, their rotations in those districts extending over that space of time; now they can only get it once in ten years, or every other rotation, and that not so good as formerly. They call such land clover-sick. Instances of this character show very strongly the value of rotation in cropping, and establish by facts the theoretical view that has been taken of the advantages likely to result from such a system of cultivation. As we come to know more of the composition of our various crops, of the soils, and of manures, we may expect to attain greater exactness in our calculations of the amount taken off during any single year, or during an entire rotation. In each district, the farmer, by careful observation and study, can, after a time, mark out the system of cropping and of manuring best adapted to his particular soil and locality. 1. If he knows the character of the rock from which his soil was originally formed, his task is comparatively easy; for from the known composition of the rock, he can come very near that of the soil. 2. If he has no knowledge of this kind, he can still hope to arrive at good re- sults, by deductions from the known character of the crops that have been chiefly cultivated upon his farm. He can tell what are the substances that have been most probably exhausted by theso crops, and experiment accordiii ly with manures in which those are the chief constituents. 3. A still more satisfactory way would be to procure good analyses of soils by really competent persons. By these, the defector defects would at once be pointed out, and the most economical remedy indicated. Unfortunately few are able to procure such analyses readily, and the majority must therefore have recourse to one of the two first methods of examination, or a union of them both. I say " good analyses by really competent persons," with the design of hinting that some care is necessary in this matter. A poor analysis is worse than nothing, ns it not only involves the furiner in unsuccessful experiments, but in their failure throws discredit on the whole cause of scientific improvement. Many persons make analyses of soils hastily and carelessly, grudging the time and caution necessary to the obtaining of a good result; and others are really defi- cient in their knowledge of chemical investigitions. In both cases, mistakes with- out end are usually the only result. It is not an easy thing to derive positive or valuable information from imper- fect analyses; for they are usually most defective as regards the substances that are present in the smallest quantities, such as phosphoric acid, potash, soda, etc., the true proportion of which, as has already been explained, it is of great importance to know. OF MANURES. OF THE NECESSITY FOR MANURES IN MOST SOILS. Having now considered the charac:er of the soil, and that of the crops in connec- tion with each other, we see that thefj is no hope of keeping up and increasing the produce of any land, unless there is liom some source a supply of fertilizing sub- stances to restore those that are carried nwny by the crops. Some soils containing constantly decomposing rocks, or peculiar springs, or subject to annual overflows whereby enriching substances are deposited, n«ed no other foreign supply ; but these are rare when comi>ared with those that require a constant and regular sys- tem of addition, to render Ihem properly productive. To the various manures employed for this purpose, we shall now turn our atten- tion. Before taking them up in any regular classification, I may properly devote a few words to one particular method of enriching the soil, which cannot easily be brought into either of the classes. I refer to irrigation. fcjf-'- sM uam KttitePiMiiw., Jti-' •l*!;»it;.ii* m I 40 or IRRIGATION. This method of improvement is, of course, only applicable in particntar situations, such as where a head and flow of water can be obtained, and where also tho ground to be flowed is in grass or gowing grain. All water, except rain water, even that from the purest springs, has mineral Rubstances and organic snbstnnces in solution. As it flows over the surface among living plants, and in sinking through the soil comes in contact there with their roots, it yields up these substances Kir food. Beside such solid bodies, it contains in solution carbonic acid and oxygen, both of which the plant also receives with avidity. The surface of a field to be irrigated must, of course, be somewhat sloping, and the water is brought on by a main ditch at the head of the slope. In this main ditch, at proper distances, are gates to regulate the flow of water into smaller ditches, from the sides and ends of which again run small cuts; these arc so ar- ranged that every part of die field shall be flowed over by a thin but regular sheet of water. At the foot of the slope is another ditch, for the purpose of conveying away such of the water as may not sink into the earth. Where water is scarce, and the slope long, it is occasionally used several times in succession. When the flow has been continued for ten days or a fortnight at a time, the supply gates are shut down, and the field allowed to dry. The operation is often repeated once or twice in a season. The ellect of water in this case is not like that alluded to before in treating of swamps and wet land. Here there is no stagnation ; the water is always running and fresh. liand that is intended to be irrigated should have a porous subsoil, or if not, should be undrained ; in either case the water sinks away as soon as the flow is stopped, the soil dries, and the plants get at once the full benefit of all the fertilizing matter that has been deposited. In many parts of this country irrigated meadows and pastures might be formed, which would produce heavy grass for hay early in the season, and then, by occa- sional flowing, furnish rich and abundant pasture during the hot and dry weather of summer. In the neighbourhood of cities and large towns it is sometimes practi- cable to irrigate with water from the sewers and drains ; this is one of the richest of manures. In the vicinity of Edinburgh, Scotland, a poor sandy tract has by such means been converted into a perfect garden, which rents at an enormous sum, and fuinishcs successive crops of grass, from early spring to late autumn. CLASSIFICATION OF MANURES. OF VEGETABLE MANURES. We will now return to the classification of manures. They may be divided info three great classes, vegetable, animal and mineral. These we will consider in tho order above given. After 'I that has been said as to its efTects, it is scarcely ne- cessary now to give any elaborate definition as to the precise meaning of the word mamtrc; anything is a manure that gives food to plants, either directly or indirectly. Vegetable manures arc numerous and important; some of them have been al- ready mentioned, when treating of the plowing in of green crops. They are not so energetic in their action as other manures yet to be noticed, but are invaluable aa a cheap means of renovating, bringing up, and sustaining the land. Clover is one of the principal crops employed for this pnrpose, more largely on this continent than any other; buckwheat, rye, rape, wild mustard, .sainfoin, spurry, turnips sown thick, Indian corn sown thick, and cow peas, arc some of those more com- monly used in this and other countries. They add organic matter largely to the soil, which organic matter they have drawn in great part from the air, and their roots bring inorganic substances from the subsoil to the surface, so that it is within ihe reach of succeeding crops. There are differences of opinion in various district* as to the proper period for plowing these crops under : it is a matter to be settled by experience and convenience. They not only add fertilizing substances to the soil; they also improve its physical character. A light soil is somewhat consoli- dated, and rendered more retentive of moisture, while a stiff one is mellowed -^ind 41 Jcniar sitoutions, a where also the :ept rain wnter, "c snbfitnnces in sinking through 'e substances for Id and oxygen, ^at sloping, and In this main er into smaller these are so ar- 't regular sheet e of conveying ater is scarce, n- When the Pply gates are >eated once or I in treating of ways running us subsoil, or IS soon as the efitof all the If be formed, ^en, by occa- ■y vveather of (times practi- ce richest of " has by such "s sum, and tcs. divided info sider in the carcely ne- )f the word »■ indirectly, e been al- ley are not invaluable Clover is continent f, turnips "ore coni- fely to the and their is within s disfricld 1)6 settled :es to the c*nsoli. •wed^nd loosened. Some of these green crops, such as spurry and buckwheat, will grow well on extremely light, sandy soils. Afcer they have grown up and been plowed in n few times, the land is so improved that it will bear crops of a more valuable nature; and thus by a continuance of them nt proper intervals, it may not only be Uept up, but be steadily improving. The same effects follow the plowing of grass land, and turning under of the turf. The thicker and heavier the sward, the b'ittcr; because then a larger amount of fresh, decomposable organic matter, in the form of roots, is added to the soil. Where land has been in gra«3 for some years, say four or five, the weight of roots under the surface is in some cases twice us much as the weight of the grass above; these roots all become decomposed, and, of course, enrich the soil very materially. There ;ire few cases in which a judicious course of green cropping will not im- prove the land. In the worst instances, it is sometimes necessary to make nume- rous trials before even the hardiest green crop will succeed; when this difliculty is overcome, and a good growth once obtained, experienced farmers say that the land may, by proper after-management, be brought to any desirable state of fertility. It must always be remembered in bringing up land by green crops, that they really add no inorganic matter to the soil ; they only bring it up from the subsoil, and render insoluble combinations near the surface soluble. The inorganic part of the soil, therefore, is actually diminishing by the occasional crops which are taken; and while improving by these means, care should, for this reason, be taken to add oc- casionally some form of mineral manure. The practice of turning the turf upon one edge, when plowing, seems to be gain- ing ground; it is said by its advocates that the turf rots more surely and speedily. Those who contend for laying it flat say that the weeds are thereby more effectually killed, and that the fields may be made smoother. Potato tops, turnip and beet tops, green weeds, leaves, and every form of green vegetable matter, may be ad- vantageously plowed in at once, or carted to tho compost heap. Nothing of the kind should be neglected. Straw is not usually applied to the land until it has been worked over by animals, and mixed with their manure : in this form we shall refer to it again. VVhen ap- plied alone it is usually best and most covenient to rot it down in a compost heap, as the long straw is only plowed under with difficulty. On stiff clay soils it is, how- ever, very beneficial to bury long straw, as then it serves to loosen and mellow the clay, both by lying among and separating the lumps, and by its gradual fermenta- tion and decay. It has been found good practice, in many parts of the country, to draw out straw in the autumn, and lay a thin covering of it over winter grain. This serves as a protection during winter, and retains moisture, when necessary, during a dry spring or early summer. By the timn that the stubble is plowed, it has decayed, so as to turn under easily, and forms quite a rich coating in the way of manure. In the neighbourhood of the sea, where sca»vccd can be obtained, tlie farmer should embrace every opportunity for getting it. In England and Scotland, the right of way to a beach where sea weed can be had, incrca.'«es the rent of a farm several shillings per acre. On many parts of our own coast, too, the farmers arij very eager to obtain it. The ash of some seaweeds, analyzed liy Professor John- ston, gave the following results : — TABLE IV. Potash and soda, ^ ^ . ^ from 1 5 to 40 per cent Lime, - _ . — 3 — 21 Magnesia, . ' _ • — 7—15 Common Salt, - . _ .. * — .3-35 Phosphate of lime, • . • «, — 3 — 10 8alphnric acid, .. • .. . _ 14 — 31 Silica, - - - 3 — 11 ■.lB««««*lMii»^.*ak 42 This table shows that these ashes are rich in the substances most needed by our crops, particularly in potash, soda, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid. The quan- tity of ash that sea-weeds leave when dry is larger than that in straw or hay. When freshly taken from the sea, they contain a very large proportion of water. Seaweed is plowed in green, or applied aa compost. In either case it decays very rapidly, unless extremelv dry, and produces most of its effects upon the first crop. Many of the seaweeds contain much nitrogen; and this, while it adds greatly to their value as manures, increases the rapidity with which they de- compose. In England, rape dust is largely used as a manure, and with much advantage. The rape Need is presided to obtain its oil, just as linseed is, and the hard caxe formed by pressure sold fur manure. Four or five hundred weight per acre are ap- plied as a top dressing, or from 1500 to 2000 lbs., when it is plowed in. This is, therefore, a powerful manure, and is so portable that it would be valuable in this country could it be procured at a reasonable rate. Where green vegetab'e manures of any description can be easily obtained away from the farm, the farmer will do well to remember that there is an especial advantage in their application; they add to his land not only organic, but inorganic substances, which have nevur been there before, and are consequently a clear gain to the soil in every respect. 0>' ANIMAL MANURES. We will now take up the second class, the animal manures. These comprise the blood, flesh, hair, horns, bones and excrements of animals. Manures of this class are more powerful by far than the vegetable manures, because they contain so much more nitrogen. I now simply state this fact; the reason why nitrogen is so efficacious will be given hereafter. Blood and flesh are among the most valuable of all ; wherever they can be obtained they should be secured at once, and either buried or made into compost. All of the offal from slaughter-houses is of much value, though in this country it is often entirely wasted. It is not uncommon in many districts to see horses or cattle that die from disease, drawn out to some secluded spot, and there left to decay on the aurfa<^e. These are known to be some of the most powerful manures that the farmer cou'd obtain; equal to guano, poudrette, or any of the other more costly fertilizers. Every ani- mal that dies should be made into a compost, or buried in pieces at once. The best plan is to separate the flesh, which deomposcs readily, and produces an imme- diate effect, and make use of the bones according to some of the methods to be hereafter described. The hair of animals is an exceedingly rich manure; for this reason, woollen rags, and the waste from woollen mills, are both considered valuable in England; they are sold there at from $20 to $40 per ton, and are eagerly sought after at these pri':es, as not only very fertilizing, but also very lasting in the soil. All of the hair obtained from the furs of animals is there scrupulously saved, and sold at a high price. Twenty or thirty bushels per acre produce an excellent effect. All these parts of the anim;il leave an ash correaponding with that of plants in the substances whi^h it contains, with the single exception of silica; this does not seem to enter into the composition of the animal. We are, then, now able to point out distinctions betwee.) the inorganic matter in the soil, in the plant, and in the animal. Thev all contain the same substances, if we omit silica and alumina. TABLE V. Tho soil contains silica and alumina. ^ The plant contains silica, but no alumina. The animal contains neither silica nor alumina. or BONES. There is one important part of the animal yet unnoticed, that is the bones. — Their composition is, when dry, earthy matter about 66 lbs. in 100; organic matter th:it burns away, about 34 lbs. J{ ,,^itsswii?'.f*"^«**Bii«*=<^'«^" / >»t needed hy our «'d. Iheqaan- V or hay. When water. "■ case it decaya tsupon thefirat > while it adds which they de- luch advantage. • the hard cake 'er acre are ap- -d in. This ji, valuable in thia etab'e manures farmer will do fHon; they add ve never been 'pect, hese comprise anures of thia hey contain ao nitrogen is so most valuable :e, and either 8 is of much from disease, fii'^e. These cou'd obtain; Every ani- t once. The !Ps an imme- ethods to be on. woollen in England; ifter at these All of the 3ld at a high ^f plants in is does not ble to point and in the imina. bones. — lie matter 43 a. This earthy matter consists, ior the most part, of phosphate of lime, that is, lime in combination with phosphoric acid; these, as already shown, are two most valuable substances for application to any soil. h. The organic part is called gelatin or glue ; this is boiled out by the glue- makera : it is extremely rich in nitrogen, and is therefore an excellent manure. We thus see, at once, how important a source of nourishment for our land i^ to be found in bones. They unite, from the above statement, some of the most effica- cious and desirable organic and inorganic manures. Doth of these parts are fitted to minister powerfully to the growth of the p'unt. When the bones are applied whole, the effect is not very marked at first, because they decay slowly in the soil : it is also necessary to put on u large quantity per acre. The best way is, to have them crushed to powder, or to tine fragments, in mills. Ten bushels of dust will produce a more immediate and abundant result than 80 or 100 bushels of whole bones, although, of course, the eflbct will be sooner over. An advantageous way of using them is to put on B to 10 bushels of dust per acre, aitd half the usual quantity of farm-yard manure. Boiled bones, that have been used by thn alue-makers, are still quite valuable : they have lost the greater part of their gelatine, but the phosphates remain; and the bones are so softened by the long boiling that they have undergone as to de- compose quickly, and afford an immediate supply of fciod to plants. Another most important form of applying bones is in a state of solution by sul- phuric acid (oil of vitriol.) This is a cheap substance, costing by the carboy not more than 2<| to 3 cents, per lb. To every 100 lbs. of bones, about &0 to 60 of acid are taken; if bone dust is used, from 25 to 46 lb*, of acid is sufhcient. The acid must be mixed with two or three times its bulk of water, because if ap- plied strong it would only burn and blacken the bones without dissolving them. ^t^ a. The bones are placed in a tub, and a portion of the previously diluted acid poured upon them. After standing n day, another portion of acid may be poured on; and finally the last on the third ^uy, if they are not already dissolved. The mass should be often stirred. b. Another good way is to place the hones in n heap upon any convenient floor, and pour a portion of the acid upon them. After standing half a day, the heap should be thoroughly mixed, and a little more acid added; this to be continued so long as necessary. It is a method which I have known to prove very successful. in either case the bones will ullin)iitety soften and dinxolve to a kind of paste; this m;iy bo mixed with twenty or tlti:ty times its bulk of water, and applied to the land by means of an ordinary water cart. Used in this way, it produces a won- derful effect upon nearly all crops. A more convenient method in most cases is to thoroughly mix the pasty mass of dissolved bones with a large quantity of ashes, peat cnrlli, snw dust, or charcoal - dust, it can then be sown by hand, or dropped from a drill machine. Two or three b'lshels of these dissolved bones, with half the usual quantity of yard ma- nure, are sufficient for an acre. This i*, therefore, an exceedingly powerful ferti- lizer. One reason for its reiiiarktible effect is, that the bones are, by dissolving, brought into a state of such minute division that they nre easily and at once availa- ble for the plant. A peculiar phosphiito of limu is funned, called by chemists a xuper phosphate, which is very soluble; and in addition to this we have the sulphu- ric acid, of itself an excellent application to most soils. Bones are useful in nearly every district, and are peculiarly adapted to all, or, at least, to most of those situations, where the land, whhout heavy manuring, no longer bears good wheat, or indian corn, or other grains. In a great majority of cases, where land is run down by gr.iin cropping, the use of bones in Fome of the forms above mentioned, is of all things the most likely to meet the deficiency. It will be remembered that the ash of grain i/t peculiarly rich in phosphates; conse- quently, as grain is generally sold off', the phosphates are most readily exhausted; in bones, thertfore, we find Just the manure for restoring them, and with little ex- pense. This has been already tried in some parts of thd country, and with most litmsit^iiii^MA 44 encournging Riiccess. I would particularly recnmmend furmers to experiment with 1)01168 dissolved in nulphuric acid. The diaeolving of them is n simple businesii, und can be easily shown on .1 smnll ticnie, by the teacher to his class. He ran do it, for instance, in u teacup or tumbler, or on a plate or a flat stone. The cheap- ness of tliisi manure i^ a great rcconnTicndation. Two bushels of bones would not certainly cost more than $1.00; then say 50 lbs. of acid to dissolve them, would ^'ost by the carboy, !})! 1.50, making only $>2.50, for a quantity quite siifiicient for un acre, with half the usual dressing farm-yard manure. It would be worth al- most as much as this to cart the common manure from the yord, to say nothing of its value. There are few farms on which bones enough might not be collected in the course of a year, to help out in this way the manuring of several acres. Bones may not only be applied successfully to the ordinary cultivated crops, but also to meadows and pastures. In some of the older dairy districts, a few bushels of bone dust per acre will at once restore worn out pastures. The reason is that the milk and cheese, which are, in one form or (mother, sold and carried away, contain considcrablo quantities of phosphates in their ash. These are restored to the land by bones. It is calculated, by Professor Johnston, that a cow giving 20 quarts of milk per day, takes from the soil about 2 lbs. of phosphate of lime or bone i->arth in each week. There would thus be required three or 4 lbs. of bones, to make good this loss. If it is not made good in some way, iho rich grasses after n lime cease to flourish; being succeeded by those which require less phosphate of iime, und therefore do not furnish, when eaten by the cow, so rich or so abundant milk. All of these uses of bones which have been described arc understood and ap- preciated in England; so much so, that the bones are all collected with most scru- pulous care, and are even imported from every other country where they can be ad- vantageously obtained. It is to be hoped that the great waste of them in this country may soon cease, and that they v/ill be eagerly sought after by American larmers. This much as to the fertilizing value of the various parts of animals : we enter nexl,oji^nother most important department of animal manures. MANURES (CONTINUED). OF THE MANURES FHOM DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND THEIR PnESERVATION. The manure of various domestic animals is, in this country, most commonly em- ployed as a fertilizer, all other manures being used in comparatively small quanti- ties; and yet even those are seldom preserved and applied as carefully as they might or ought to le. The principal varieties are those of the ox, the cow, the hog, the horse, and th« sheep. Of these, that of the horse is most valuable in its fresh state, it contains much nitrogen, but is very liable to lose by fermentation. That of the hog comes next. That of the cow is placed at the bottom of the list. This is because the en- riching pubstances of her food go principally to the formation of milk, the manure being thereby rendered poorer. The manure of all these animals is far richer than the food given them, l)enau«ft it contains much n)ore nitrogen. This is for the reason that a Ijrge part of the carbon and oxygen of the food are consumed in the lungs and blood generally, for (he purpose of keeping up the heat of the body. They arc given off from the lungs, and also l)y perspiration and evaporation through the pores of the skin, iu ihe forms of <:arbonic acid and writer. From animals fed upon rich food, the manure is much racro powerful than vvhon the food is poor. In England, for instance, where they fatten cattle largely on oil- cake, it is calculated that the increased value of the manure repays all of the outlay. This is the reason why human ordure is better than manure from any of the atii- w:\\e m<>ntioned above, the food of man being rich and various. ,^.^M^ sJtperiment wiih niniple businesN, I8S. He pnn do The cheap, ones would not fi them, would fe siiflicient for d he worth al- say nothing of be collected in ncrep. >ted crops, hut n few bushels reason is that carried away, are restored cow giving 20 a'e of lime or lbs. of bones, grasses after phosphate of so abundant ifood and ap- li most scru- ycan bead- them in this y American ': we enter ClJt iQionly em- mii qnanti- they might «• and lh« it contains ''og roinea ISO the cn- le manure I. henausfi art of (he Ji-ally, for from tluj akin, ju lan whon ly on oi!- e outlay, the aai- All these kinds of manure should bo carefully collected and preserved, both a* to their liquid and solid parts. The liquid part or urine is particularly rich in the phosphates and in nitrogen. This part is, by very many farmers, permitted, in n great degree, to run av/ay or evaporate. Some farm yards are contrived so as to throw the water off entirely, others convey it through a small ditch upon the ncar- e.<«t field. The liquid manure, which might have fertilized several acres in the course of the season, is thus concentrated upon o»' iiall spot, and the consequenco is a vegetation so rank ns to be of very liltie ace. Spots of this kind may be seen in the neighbourhood of many farm yards, where the grass grows up so heavy that it falls down and rots at the bottom, and has to be cut some weeks btfor'o haying time, producing strong coarse hay that cattle will scarcely touch. The proper way to save this liquid is to have a tank or hole, into which all the drainings of the yurd may be conducted. If left hero long this liquid begins to fer- ment, and to lose nitrogen in the form of ammonia, which, it will be remembered, is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. To remedy this, a little sulphuric ncid, or a few pounds of piaster, may be occasionally thrown in, The sulphuric acid will unite with the ammonia, and form sulphate of ammonia, which will remain unchanged, not being liable to evaporate. Others prefer to mix sufficient peat, ashes, sawdust, or fine charcoal, with the liquid in the tank, to soak it all up; others still pump it out and pour it upon a compost heap. One point is to be noticed in the management of a tank. Only the water which naturally draino from the stable)^ and yards should be allowed to enter it; all that falls from the eaves of the build- ings should bo discharged elsewhere. Regulated in this way, the tank will seldom •verfluw, and the manure collected in it will be of the most valuable and powerful description. The tank may be made of stone, brick, or wood, as is most conve- nient, and need cost but very little. While the liquid manure is actually in many cases almost entirely lost, the Folid part is often allowed to drain and bleach until nearly every thing soluble has wnslicd iiway, or is exposed in heaps to ferment, without any covering. In such a caso ammonia is always formed and given off; it may oAen he perceived by the smell, particularly in horse manure. I'ho fact may also be shown by dipping u father in muriatic acid, and waving it over the heap. If ammonia, in any quantity, is escap- ing, white futMea will be visible about the feather, caused by the formation of mu- riatu of ammonia. A teacher can exemplify this by holding n feather, dipped in the same way, over an ammonia bottle. This escape of so valuable a substance may be in a great measure prevented by shovelling earth over the surface of the heap, to a depth of two or throe inches. If this does not arrest it entirely, sprinkle a few iiandfuls of plaster upon tho top; the sulphuric acid of the plui>tur will as before unite with the ammonia, and form sulphate of ammonia. Manures containing nitrogen in Inrge quantity aro so exceedingly valuable, be- cause this giis is required to form gluten, and bodies of that class, in the plant; this is particularly in the seed, and sometimes also in tho fruit. Plants can easily obtain an abundance of carbon, o.xygen and hydrogen, from the air, the soil, and ma- nures. Not rio with nitrogen. They cannot get it from Che air; there is little of it it> most soils : and hence manures which contain mnch of it, prm^uce such a marked effect. Not that it is more necessary than the other organic bodies, but more scarce; at least in a form available for plants. The same reasoningmpplies to phos- phoric acid. It is not more necessary than the other inorganic ingredients; but still '» more valuable, because more uncommon in the soil, and ip manures. In all places where manure is protected from' the sun, and from much washing by rain, its value is greatly increased. a. Horse uianaro particularly should not be left exfiosed it alF: it begins to heat and to lose nitrogen almost immediately, as may be perc^jBfd .b/ the smell. It should be mixed with other manures, or covered by sobie a^oi'tfent earth as sooir as possiblo. Almost every one wjio enters a stable in tho morning, where there artr ni:i ny horses must perceive the strong smell olT ammunic! that fills tho place. I h.ive seen i:i some stables, litth;' i>ans containing plaster of paris or sulphuric acid^ SaMaEvw*.-*^^!! 5i;*tiSis™i(uiii* for the purpose of absorbing these famea, and forniing sulphate of amnoonia. b. The liquid which runs from barnyards and from manure heaps, is shown by analjr- sis to consist of the moat fertilzins substances; and it is caiculated that where this is all allowed to wash away, as is the case in many instances, tho manure is often reduced nearly one-half in its value. I have seen yards where it was almost worthless, owing to long exposure. Tlio farmers of this country need awakening upon the subject of carefully pre- serving their common manures. In Flanders, where everything of tho kind is saved with the greatest care, the liquid manure of a single cow for a year is valued at $10; here it is too often allowed to escape entirely. Either Ihey are very foolish, or we are very wasteful. or MANURE FROM BIRDS. GUANO. '^ • The manure of birdo is richer than that of any animals, for the reason that here we have the liquid and solid excrements mixed together. On this account it is found to be particularly rich in nitrogen, and also in phosphates. The munureof pigeons, hens, ducks, geese and turkeys is very valuable, and should be carefully collected. The amount to be obtained from these sources may be thought so insignificant as to be unworthy of notice : but it must be remembered that three or four hundred lbs. of such manure, that has not been exposed to rain or sun, is worth at least 14 to 18 loads of ordinary manure. Guano, a substance that has been so much used within the past few years, is & manure of this class. It is found in those tropical latitudes where there is seldom or never any continued rain. Immense numbers of sea birds build their nests, rear their young, and pass their time when not upon the wing, on the rocky shores and small islets. Here their excrements have accumulated, layer upon layer, for cen- turies, remaining uninjured in those dry climates : beds of it have occasionally been found, from 16 to 23 feet in thickness. The food of these birds consists al- most entirely of fish, and hence their manure is remarkably rich in its quality. The guano, in its best state, is this manure concentrated by the evaporation of its water. ''^ The general composition of a few of the leading varieties is shown in the follow- ing table : — TABLE VI. Viiriety. Bolivian, _ - - Peruvian, _ - - Chilian, - - - Ichaboe, - - - This, it is evident at a glance, is an extremely rich manure : the quantities of ammoniacal matter, and of phosphates, are remarkably large. The Ichaboe guano contains much more water than the others, because the climate in that region is not so dry as on the west coast of South America. It is also more decomposed, giving \i8ually a strong smell of ammonia. a. The Peruvian, Bolivian, and Chilian varieties, have very little smell of anai- monia; but if they are mixed with a little quicklime, and gently heated, the odour becomes extremely |K)werful. b. This little experiment also shows that quicklime or caustic lime should not be mixed with manures containing much nitrogen, as through its agency ammonia is formed, passes off into the air, and is lost. Guano is so energetic in its action, that it should not come in contact with the seed, as it might destroy iis vit.ility. In dry seasons, it frequently produces very little effect, owing to its not being dissolved. From 2 to 5 cvvt. per acre are ap- plied; more than 5 cwt. makes vegetation too coarse and luxuriant. I knew of 8 cwt. being put upon an acre of turnips : they all grew to tops, and produced no Water : Orgon'c matter nnu rhosiihuicM per cent. animoniacnl snlta. 5 to 7 56 to 64 25 to 29 7 — 10 56 — 66 16-23 10—13 50 — 56 22 — 30 18 — 26 36 — 44 21 — 29 fesst** '*'«i.M!- 47 ammonia, b. hown by ariQly. that where this manure ii ofteh it was almost f carefully pro- of the kind is year is valued ire very foolish, !nson that he*r« ount it is found ire of pigeons, ully collected, ^significant as four hundred th at least 14 w years, is & ere is seldom ir nests, rear fy shores and lyer, for cen- occasionally I consists al- 1 its quality. )ration of its 1 the follow. rhoiithoicH. 25 to 29 16 — 23 22 — 30 21 — 29 uantities of »boe guano gion is not 'ed, giving jJ' of am- the odour aid not be nmonia is : with the uces s'ety 5 are ap- new of 8 luced no bulbs. Even (he succeeding crop of wheat was so rank in its growth that the f;rain was miaeruble. The best way of applying it, and indtfud all of these power- ol fertilizers, is at the rate of from 1 to 2 cwt. per acre, together with half tho usual quantity of bnrnyard manure. The supply of organic iiiultcr in the soil is thus kept up, while lurge crops are at tho same time obtained. It is a good plan, in tho casa of winter grain, to sow on 1 cwt, when the grain is sown, and 1 cwt. in the spring as a top dressing. In sowing, it is bust to mix with ashes, sawdust, peut, etc. The etfcct of guano is not UHually perceptible after tho second year; and if the first season be favorable, its most decided action is in the first year. I have recoil ncnded that experiments be tried in dissolving guuno, or at least its phosphates, in .sulphuric acid. The same superphosphatu would be formed as by its action upon bones. Ten or fifteen lbs. of acid, to 100 lbs. of guano, would be sufficient. A smaller quantity of guano might, in this way, bo oxtiected to produce an eqiiul etTect. It is quite liable to adulteration, ntid should only be bought warranted as to its purity, that the farmer may have a rtitnedy in a case of disappointment arising from its poor quality. This is a good rulu Ut apply to all of these high-priced manures. OF FISH MANURES. Another animal manure is fish, and one which is of very groat vnlne to districts near the sen. In many waters, white fish and other varieties ore caught in immense numbers for this purpose alone; in other places large quantities of refuse, the heads and cleanings c.'in be had. Thosn are all extremely valuable. On Chrsapeake Bay, in Maryland, the farmers collect this refuse froiri the fisheries with great eagerness, and curt il many miles inland. In other sections it is neglected en- tirely. The flesh of fish contains large quantities of nitrogen, and acts with much energy in hastening the growth of oiants. The bones contain moro water, and, consequently, in their wet state, less pinsphatesthan those of animals; but this very soAness occa- sions their rapid decay, tmd more speedy action. Dry fwh bones are richer in phos- phates lh;in the bones of animals. Fish beeome decomposed so quickly, that they should either be ploughed under, or made into a well-covered compost heap at once : probably the last is best. It is difficult to cover them in thu soil *o that some loss shall not take place. The use of this manure, for the reasons given abovo, Iiuk been confined to tho immediate vicinity of the sea-coast. It would be very desirable to find some me- thod of preserving it ho that it might bear transportation without losing its good qualities, and without becoming ofl'ensive. Experiments are now being made with a view to this result, which bid fiir to prove entirely successful, and to bring this admirable manure witliin the reach of the interior at a reasonablo rat)'. On many parts of tho Scotch coasts, there are extensivo beds of scollops and mnscles, which are got up and applied largely to tho land with oxcellent effect. Our farmers near the soa would do well to seek supplies of this kind also. The shells of all shell-fuh nro valuable, on account of the limo which forms their chief i)uik, and tlis aniinul inhsihitantsare remarkably rich iit nitrogen. They all decom- Dose rapidly, and require itniiiediato attention to prevent loss. 'Hiin sIiL'lls, such as muscles, soft clams, etc., crutnblo down qtaito rapidly : thick shells require craclung and crushing, to ensure their speedy decomposition. OF SALINE AND MINERAL MANURES. The last class of manures embraces those of a saline and mineral character. These are numerous, but not tn;my of them have been as yet largely used in this country. Besiilo those which are known here, I shall mention /» f«w of those that h:ive been found most eflicacious abroad. ,fe«iS?r*'U" iim^i- wasss^"^- 49 . , . ' ov t.iM»;. I will commenco with u mineral uiunuro, wlioio u«u \n moNt tvldtly fljttsndecl, in «vory country wlicru ugriculture has nmdo much advance, I rufttr \u I'nue. Lime ia ordiunrily found iu the ibrm of common liiiivaliiria, or ti»t\mmie of lime, .t combination of liino with curbonic ucid. Kvery lOU llw, uf pufn liitisalohe con- tains about 44 lbs. of curbonic acid gua. Tiiia niiiy hu drivuii t)(V \iy ii high hent, art in tlio limc-kihifl. Tliu lime then rcniaiu!! in what in cullud ihit twiualii} ainte, or quicklime. It will burn thu tongue if iipplied to it. Whuit WHtttt )« poured upon it (this may be aliown by teachers) it »wella, crackn, hauta, urid flfiMlly crumblea to a line powder. If the water is only utied in aulliciciit quuiilily Ut niitUn thtt limp, it will all disappear, being entirely absorbed : it has, ia fact, mt\im\ with iht^ lime, and becomes a part of thu Molid atone. The heal during «lakiiig ia muml by the chemical union of water and lime. A ton of liuie-atortu uititiia with ttbout one- fourth of a ton of water. If quicklime or nlaked lime is exposed to the air, it gruduully Hbaurba carbonic frnid; and if left a long time, becomes nearly all curbouute own imffi, If n piece of (juicklime be left exposed in this way until it has crumhIuU, it wilt cfl'ervesce agani with muriatic acid, as the limestone did before it wua ^)Ul^H^\, (hua proving the fact just atated. Lime is applied to the land iu the three states above inentioDud i i|Ui(iklinic, hy- drate or slaked lime, and air-slaked or mild lime, so called immuM it hHS lost its caitatic properties. It is butter for the land in all those stiit«!Mt lllttti it wtia before burning, because the burning has reduced it to an exIremAly t\a« powder, more titted to bo dissolved in the soil, and to be taken up by thu plHKf. From the vn- riuua tiibles already given, it is obvious that linn; is an absolutely ^M^nlinl ingredient ill the soil, being constantly needed by plants in nil of their \mtm but bt<9nl<) this, it performs otliur functions there, of scarcely less iiiiportaneo, diltWiti| according to the state in which it is applied. a. If the soil be stitf and cold, if it is ne\\ly drained, i!ont»iriiMg liiHoh of acid organic compounds, or if there are lougli, obstinate aniMan to (trilUieMti^, SUch oa bent, etc., it is best to apply (|uicklime, or the caustic liydrate. Ill silliar of these conditions it has a most beneficial and energetic nctiuii; lightoriiltg lind mellowing still' clays, neutralizing and decomposing injurious acid subslMliees, uiui tfXtirpating many hurtful grasses and weeds. b. If caustic lime is applied largely to light soils, it mav do llNrill hy loo rapidly decomposing the organic matter usually scarce in soils of tliii* dea('>rip(iofl< In ull such cas33, and generally when it is not wished to produuH MUoli (titvc'ts ns llio above, mild or nir-slaked lime is best. i ha action of ull varieties is invariably more marked and pernifintillt upoo drained or thoroughly dryland, than upon that which is wet and swanipy. All of these va- rious states of Imie act not only upon thu organic matlt-r in thu noil, but upon thu inorganic, also, decomposing certain insoluble compounds, and hrittfli»^ tlteiii into ii state favorable to the sustenance of plants. Thus we s«e that iikia itMllure per- forms uiany most important functions. It has a constant tendency to sink in the sod, and iu one tUul Uutf b«6it heavily limed for mr.ny years, (juite a layer of it exists in the subsoil ; tllitt tnny \m brought up by deep plowing, or is made available by drains, v/hich perriiH lliu r&OtS (o go down. \Vhen applied a.s a top dres.sing, it should in almost i^Vliry tittSti bo mild, and also when used in composts, when; much auimul lumurii \§ praaofit. Tho ipason why precaution should be used in the latter instance, JH mm that lius boflii alluded to before, in speaking of manures containing nitrogen, Ut time, xiHto of liinti, irtianlorie coll- ie M lirgh hont, ii»tic flinto, or poured upon / crarnbles to >« tlip lime, it Ml lliv lime, ,03 0.66 2.60 9.57 7.06 100.00 Heyre the carbonate of lime amounts to ibrout SOlbs. in 100, while the small quan- tities of magnesia, iron, alumina, and cs^pecially of phosphoric acid, add materiiiliy to its value, There are many marU which do not contain more than from IS to 25 per cent, of lime. It is necesnry to apply these in much larger quantity, to produce an equal eflect, and of course tthey will not bear transportation to so great u distance. In using marls, it is always best to put or. heavier doses than cf any form of burned lime, as there is not, from its mild nature, the same risk of nddiog too much. There are, in this country, some substances used largely as manure, and called marls, that have very little lime in them. These are in certain parts of New Jersey. The lime in shells scattered through them, varies from 10 to 20 per cent, in some specimens, in others there is scarcely any at all. The eflV > of theao marls is, however, great upon poor soils, and m New Jersey ihey are very largely applied. The secret of their value lies chiefly in from 12 to 20 per cent, of pot- ash, which the best. of them contain, according to the analyses of ProfeMtor H, D. ' Rodgers. It is always easy to ascertain vyhelher any substance supposed to be a marl really is so or not, by trying it with a little muriatic acid. If there is much carbonate ef lime, the effervescence will be strong and violent, owing to the bnbbling up and escape of carbonic acid gas. Carbonate of magnesia and many other carbonaten would, it is true, produce a like appearance; but these are rarely found native, iii very large quantities. ..«.ui^ii .jaiiiL^' ^^ ai-tJiliarij^G^r: -^U:-^,-^-^ •>*;'_ !iMi|*i!i--«i!;..;(;^ 50 . On flome sections of the sea coast, a species of shell or coral sand is to be ob- tained, made op of shells or corals ground into fine fragments by the action of the ■ea : this is always a valuable manure. On the coast of Ireland, the tishermen go out and scoop it up from a considerable depth. It contains usually some or- ganic remains, which add materially to its value. This, like the marls, may bs safely added to the land in large quantities, without fear of injury to crops. OF GYPSUM. cia i..t-- Another important mannre, in which lime forms a part, is plaster of paris, also called gypsum, and chemically, sulphate of lime. In this country it has been more generally ased perhaps than in any other, and often with very great benefit. In many cases, a few bushels per acre bring up land from poverty to a very good bearing condition ; complaints are , however, made, that after a time it injures the land in place of benefiting it. This, in almost all instances, results from using it alone, without applying other manures at the same time. The e^tplanation is of thesame general nature as thut given under lime. The farmer has taken away a variety ef substances, and has only added gypsnm. If the land is entirely ex- haudted at last under such treatment, it is obviously not the fault of the gypsum. There are many large districts where it produces no effect; but it may alwajs be considered certain, that where gypsnm or lime does no good, there is already, in one form or another, a supply of both naturally in the soil ; or, as has been previously explained under lime, there \a some physical or chemical defect which prevents their action. Gypsum, before it is burned, consists of sulphuric acid, lime and water; of the latter, there are about 21 lbs. in every hundred. This water can be easily driven off by heating the ground gypsum. This may be done with a small quantity by way of experiment, over a common lamp. During heating, it whitens; it is this burned gypsum that is used for the cornices of rooms, for making casts, for hard finish, etc. When water is mixed with it, a considerable degree of heat is pro- duced, the 21 per cent, of water is again absorbed, becoming once more a part of the solid stone, and the whole mass hardening or setting, as it is termed, in a few moments. It is upon this property of hardening when mingled with water, that the uses of gypsum in the arts, as above mentioned, depend. This manure frequently produces a most beneficial eflfect when applied as a top dressing upon pastures and meadows; it is also a favorite and excellent application to young corn and potatoes. It ii of service, not only by the valuable nutriment which it furnisl)es to the plant, but also from a certain power which it possesses of absorbing moisture and gases. a. Liebig has supposed that much of its efl'ect upon grass land is owing to this property, that it attracts - mmonia from the atmosphere, and rulnins it for the use of plants. This is, without doubt, an important efTcct, but should not be considered the principal one. b: To this same property is be ascribed its action when scattered over compost heaps, or mixed into the liquid in tanks. In both cases it absorbs ammonia, and prevents its escape. White fumes of ammonia may sometimes be perceived, both by the eye and the sense of smell, rising from the surface of fermenting manure heaps. A little gypsnm, sprinkled over the surface of the heap will arrest this evaporation nnd loss almost immediately. c. During drought, it seems, by its power of attracting moisture, to aid materi- ally in sustaining the plant. It is slightly soluble in water, and hence slowly dis- solves, either when buried in the soil, or left on the surface. It is best applied in damp weather, as then it can be sown more easily, and will produce an eflTect more quickly. The quantity applied per acre is usually not large. i VSi *1 OF COMMON SALT, NITRATES AND SULPHATES. '"" Common salt is a manure, the use of which is not only wide spread, but very ancient. In large quantities it is injurious, destroying vegetation rather than in- rei :// is to be ob- ictioa of the le fishermen illy some or- ris, may be ops, f paris, also s been more benefit. In I very good t injures the rom nsing it a nation is of ken away a entirely ez- the gypsum. y always be eady, in one n previously ch prevents ater; of the asily driven pantity by is; it is this Is, for hard leat is pro- ire a part of d, in a few water, that ed as a top application e nutriment )0S8es9es of I'ing to this for the use considered er compost nonia, and 3ived, both ig manure arrest this lid materi- ilowly dis- ' applied in iffect more , but very r than in- 61 creasing its growth. In moderate quantities, however, it has been found on some soils very valuable. Such are most likely to occur in places far distant from the sea. The sea breeze carries small quantities of salt spray far inland, and deposit* it upon the soil. All who live in the vicinity of salt water know that its peculiar smell may often be perceived at a distance of many miles in the interior. For this reason salt is not usually found to be of much value as a manure near the sea. A small proportion mixed in with a compost heap is likely to be useful. An- other good way is to dissolve a little in water used for slaking qaick lime. The compound thus formed is very energetic in its action upon vegetable substances, and has been found an admirable application to many soHs» particularly on those where there is much inert vegetable matter that can only be decomposed with great difiiculty. Common salt is, according to the popular definition, composed of chlorine and soda. There are other combinations of soda, that are beginning to be used in this country, and have been greatly approved of in Europe. The most important of these IS the nitrate of soda. This is composed of nitric arid (a substance before described) and soda. The nitric acid contains much nitrogen ,^ and is therefore very active as manure. One or two cwt. nitrate of soda have been founds in many i^.- stances, to produce a very great growth. It gives a bright dark green color to the leaves, and increases the yield of grain. It also produces a marked improvement in grass crops and pastures. Grain that has been grown by aid of this manure is said not to give so much fine flour, being richer in gluten, and having a thicker skin. Nitrate ot' soda is, in some districts of South America, a natural product, being found in a crust on the surface of the ground; it is so abundant as to be brought away by the ship load» and may be obtained at such prices as would warrant the application of it in moderate quantities. Other nitrates are manufactured, which would be excellent manures,^ but the price is generally so high as to forbid their use with profit. Whenever refuse nitrate of potash, that is, common saltpetre, can be obtained, or refuse liquid in which it has been dissolved for pickling meat, etc., it should be mixed into a compost heap, and carefully preserved. There are several compounds containing sulphuric acid, called sulphates, that are also valuable whenever they can be had at reasonable prices. Those that have been most commonly employed are the sulphates of magnesia and of soda. From their composition, both of these must be useful; but it would be necessary to exercise a degree of caution with the sulphate of magnesia, as it is very soluble, and much of it might do harm. It will be remembered that magnesia, in any large quantity, is quite injurious in the soil : small quantities are very useful. The refuse liquid from salt-works, t W the salt has been crystallized out, con- tains some soluble compounds of lime, magnesia, etc., and might, applied carefully in small quantities, be useful. Pouring a little occasionally upon a compost heap would be the safest and best mode of trying it. A large dose of this liquid would be fatal to vegetation. OF THE EFFECTS OF SALINE MANURES, AND THE BEST MODES OF APPJ^ICATION. The above are instances of saline manures; the few last given are merely as ex- amples of a class. In the following table are mentioned a few cases, recorded by Professor Johnston, of their effect as applied upon various crops in Scotland : TABLE VIII. ON GRASS LAND. Nitrate of soda, 1 cwt. per acre» Nitrate of soda, 120 lbs. per acre, Nitrald of potash, 1 cwt per acre, Product per acre. 6 tons 4 cwt. 3 tons ^ cwt. 2 tons 3 cwt. Undressed. 2 tons 12 cwt. 2 tons 1^ c^. 1 ton i\ cwt, m ^^ •"" OK OATS. Product per acre. Undressed, Nitfttte of pot. and nit. soda mixed, 1 cwt. per acre, 64 bushels. 48^ bushels. Do. do. . .j^f^ :, ' - do. 60^ busliels. 40 bushels. '' ■ '■ '' "''on wheat. ,^'_ '- ,'■.";'", Nitrate of pot. and nit. soda mixed, 1| cwt. per acre, 27 bushels. 18J bushels. Nitrato of soda, 1 cwt. - - - 54 bushels. 42 bushels. Theio, it will be recollected, are most favourable results, selected to show how ?;rtiat an influence such small quantities of these manures may have. From what lUM boon oxplained relative to the proportion of ash contained in the crop, and the lubvtuncoi of which it is composed, wo can now understand why such small quantites of these manures, seemingly thrown awiy when spread over an acre of ground, should still contain enough to supply all that is required by the plant of their particular constituents. The largest crop of wheat mentioned in Table viii., 54 buiihelK, would not carry away in all of the grain more than 60 lbs. of ash, and of this not more than 10 lbs. would be potash or soda. We see then that the 1 cwt. of nitrato of soda supplied enough of that material to have furnished, at least, 150 buMJielM, nnd a largo part of the straw beside. The supplying of such minute (|uuntitie« to the plant we have seen to be quite necessary, as much so as are the bolts and nnils to u ship : these are but a very small part of its entire bulk or wolght, nnd yet it could not hold together without them. When the farmer intends to use any of these manures, it is, in nearly every cuite, bettor to make a mixture. One hundred weight of nitrates of potash and tiodn, of common salt, sulphate of soda and sulphate of magnesia, all mingled to- gether, and applied with a few bushels of gypsum, would be much more likely to me«Jt titti wants of any soil, than a hundred weight of either one alone. Such mix- turen uro found remarkably effectual, and they are the basis of the artificial ma- nure* now gradually coming into vogue. These manures are very excellent if the |)rice i» reasonable, and the farmer assured of their purity. I have known instances of moat audacious cheating in these things, and in a way too that could not readily be di«(tovered unless by a chemical examination. The farmer should not buy these tiianares unless ho bus perfect confidence in the manufacturers, or unless, as was recotntnendod with regard to guano, they furnish an analysis by competent che- uiintM, and warrant the manure sold to be equal in]^ quality. If it fails him he can then have compensation from them. Wluiro such salino manures as I have mentioned, or others having some of the injured iutitM Unovvii to be valuable for plants, can be obtained at fair rates, the far- tnnr would da well to mix composts for himself ; adding 25, 50, 100 or more pounds a* he may requite, of various articles to his manure heap, or making small experi- iij>!ntul heaps to try the effect of different substances, and different mixtures, on his HuiU. This last is the best course of ail, as then he feels his way with little ex- \)(!mii, and only invests largely when sure of his return. It must be remembered, that nearly all of these manures are so powerful, that if sown immediately with the mmi, or laid on in too large quantities, they destroy vegetable life. Applied as lep drosiings, it is, as in the case of guano, advisable to mix whh ashes, or dry vc'gotablo mould, so as to facilitate even sowing, and equal distribution over the riurfiiCL*. Just before or after a rain is the best time. In a dry season, all of them, excepting gypsum, fail to produce their usual effect, and in some cases are said to li:ivo proved tiijiiriouH. Some farmers, on this account, advise the application of a p;irt in the autumn, and the remainder at the earliest advisable period in the xpriiig. Tiiis is an excellent plan for seve<'Ml reasons. If all be applied in au- tiifnn, u part washes away during winter and is iost. The haK which is added is enough to give the young shoots a vigorous start, and a firm hold in the soil before winter comes; then in spring the other half comes with none of its strength or sub-. .iJmEbk^ 53 stance lost, to push them forward through the changes of that season, and to ensure «n early harvest. OF WOOD AND COAL ASHES. Nearly all varieties of ashes arc valuable as manures. Those from sea-weed are used in hinYie localities, and are of very great value ; but where the whole weed can be cbtained, it is better to employ it in the fresh state, so as to add its organic matter also. Wood ashes are very commonly used, and form a manure of great value. Be- low is the composition, from Johnston's lectures, of ash from the oak and the beech : these are merely given as illustrating the general character of wood ashes. TABLE IX. Oak. Beech . 8.43 15.83 ■ 5.64 2.79 - 0.02 0.23 - 74.63 62.37 - 1.98 2.31 ■ 4.49 11.29 ■ 0.57 0.79 - 3.46 3.07 - 0.78 1.32 100.00 100.00 Percentage of Potash, Soda, - Common salt, - Lime, - Sulphate of lime. Magnesia, Oxide of iron, - Phosphoric acid. Silica, - The substances ^ ■ ing these ashes are seen at a glance to be of a valuable character for app '^ ■ ■( the soil. Even without an analysis we might confidently have asserted that this would be the case, from the fact that they had already been found proper for the support of vegetation. It will be noticed that the proportion of potash and soda is very considerable, being in fact more in the above ashes than in most'others. Besitio these there is quite an appreciable proportion of phosphoric acid, and a very larg uantity of lime : part of this was in combination with the phosphoric acid. The potash, soda, lime and magnesia, were, doubtless, for the most part, combined with carbonic acid, forming carbonates. The potash, soda, and common salt, being soluble in water, of course act first, and disappear first; the lime and other constituents come into action more slowly, but still are always steadily decomposing, and constantly yielding food for the plant. The effect of a heavy dose of ashes, therefore, is quite lasting. A favourite application of this manure is as a lop-dressing upon grass crops, also for dusting over young corn and potatoes. For this purpose ashes are often used with gypsum. They are very useful to absorb liquid from composts or in tanks, or, as has been mentioned in various places, to mix with guano and other portable manures for sowing. From the considerable proportion of alkali contained in them, they are quite caustic, and hence seem to have a very good effect in ex- tirpating troublesome weeds on meadows and pastures. Their action in running out poor grasses, such as bent, etc., when the land is otherwise well treated, is fa- miliar to practical men. They do this by adding to the soil substances which en- courage the natural, growth of more valuable classes. Spent or lixiviated ashes, that is, those that have been used by soap or potash- makers, are, of course, much less valuable, inasmuch as they have lost nearly everything that is soluble in water. Two-thirds, and oflener three-fourths of their bulk, however, continue unchanged, and in this part there still remains the lime, the magnesia, the phosphates, etc., whi-^h are of importance; for this reason these ashes should also be always carefully saved and applied. They are good for all of the purposes to which ashes are applied; good to mix with liquids or solids; and they can usually be obtained at very cheap rates. Being of so much less strength. .ii^iirf.Mc.iai 54 they may profitably be applied in greatly increaaed qaantity, and thus by the large proportion of ■lowly' English in its character, Some partial examinations made in my own laburatc: at Yale College, indicate small quantities of phos- phates in anthracite ash, and in the specimens examined about two per cent, of substances soluble in water. Such facts all show, that these ashes should ba pre- lerved, and applied either as a top dressing upon g^ass, or ploughed in as a pait of composts. Tney would have much of the beneficial mechanical effect of common ashes, and are also good for sowing with portable manures. It has been said, that when placed aronud t'ees in large quantities, they are injurious ; and this is probably true, because they have something of a caustic character, but it is no reason for their condemnation ; wood ashes, or any of the powerful manures which we have been describing, ituch as guano or the nitrates, would do the same if applied with like freedom. A manure which is highly bene- ficial in small quantity, may, in large quantity, be perfectly destructive to vege- tation. ' OF PEAT ASHES, 800T, ETC. In all situations where peat is burned, the ashe* wHl be found worth something as manure. They usually contain 6 or 6 per cent, of potash and soda, considera- ble quantities of lime, magnesia, iron, etc., being therefore worth about as much as the poorer kinds of wood ashes. In wet land, where varieties of peat abound, which are only decomposed with great difiieuhy» it is sometimes advisable to bnni on a large scale, for the purpose of obtaining the ash as manure. Heapc are made at convenient distances directly upon the surface of the bog, and the fire started by means of a little dry peat in the centre of each heap. As it burns through to the outside, fresh peat is dug up and thrown on, and so ttie process may be kept up as long as dewable. It is to be observed, as to all these varieties of ash, that their value is greatly iir Paired by exposure to the wflather. This is, in very many cases, not attended to; the ash heap is exposed to rain, and often to the drippings of a ro<^f beside, in either ease a large portion of the soluble and most valuble ingredients are washed away, and tb» worth of the ashes te the same extent diminished. They should, always, for these reasons^ ba kept earefully covered. Soot is a manure that is much neglected in this country, but is hi^ly valuable abroad. It results from 'a species of distillation of wood, or of bituminom coal ; the products of this distillation are condensed on the sides of the chimney, as the asceoding smoke cools. The smoke also carries up and deposits large quantities of the inorganic bodies from the fuel. Soot thus comes to contain a great variety of both iaorganic and organic bodies. We find, for one very prominent constituent, a large quantity of ammonia. Beside this, there am phosphates, sulphates, carbo- nates, and cmorides of lime, potash, soda, iron anid magnesia. These are the chief inorganic substances, and show it to be quite a powerm manure. It contains so much ammonia that when laid in heaps of gras are the containe are de- he way >nd with • othwof 30 to 6a faldaik green color to grass w grain, and on many soils increases the yield very largely. If a little exertion were made, there are few places where considerable quantities of thiii strong manure could not be obtained. In Great Britain it has been proposed to crush decaying granites, to mix them heaps with quicklime, and then allow the whole to stand for some months. :! m Granite contaitp much potash, and it is supposed that hy the prolonged action of the caustic lime, a part of this would become soluble, and fit for the nouriabment of plants. In some parts of this country, masses of decayed rock exist, which it would be well to examine with reference to their eoonomieal valne for applying to the land. 'v . - ' ' ' COMPOSITION O^ THE DIFFERENT CROPS. or WHEAT, RTB, AKD BARI.EY. r-'V We have already, to a considerable extent, entered upon this subject; but tl>e informtition given, particularly with regard to the orjpanic part of crops, has been nf a very general character. We have noticed the chief substances which compoue this part, but have said little as to their distribution in the plant, or in its several poftions. Various points relative to the composition of ash from the straw, grain and roots of cur ordinary crops, have been noticed heretofore, and we shall not revert to them at any length here. In the stalk and leaves of grain, we find that wood^ fibre is the leading sub- stance ; constituting in some cases, when the plant is ripe, more than three-fourths of the whole weight. In the grain, on the other hand, woody fibre only amounts to 2 or 3 per cent. The largest part here usually consists of starch : there are also considerable quantities of gluten, or of some ether bodies having the same nature, containing nitrosen ; and beside these, some oily or fatty substances. In the straw, these last only exist in very small quantities. a. All grains, as sold in market, or stored in granaries, and in the state usually considered dry, contain from 10 to 16 per cent, of water, which may be driven on by a gentle heat. Nearly every variety of Hour has a little larger amount than the abov-^. We will now notice the composition of some of the leading varieties of grain, in their organic part. Wheat IS one of the most important of all crops. The grain contains from 50 to 70 per cent, of starch, from 10 to 20 per cent, of gluten, and from 3 to 5 per cent, of fatty matter. The proportion of gluten is said to be largest in the grain of quite warm countries. a. It is a singular fact, that in all the seeds of wheat, and of other grains, the principal part of tiio oil lies near, or in the skin, as also does a large portion of the gluten. The bran owes to this much of its nutritive and fattening qualities. Thus, m refining our flour to the utmost possible extent, we diminish somewhat its value for food. The phosphates of the ash also lie to a great degree in the skin. b. These substances seem all to be collected here for the benefit of the young shoot. When it first starts, and until it appeals above the surface and expands its first true leaves, it has to depend for nutriment on the stores already provided in the seed. These have been prepared not only, but deposited, in that part of the seed molt near to )he germ, so that its nourishment may be easily and readi'y ob- tained. The best fine flour contains about 70 lbs. of starch in each hundred. The resi- dae of the hundred lbs. consists of 10 or 12 lbs. gluten, 6 to 8 lbs. of sugar and gum, 10 to 14 lbs. of water, and a little oil. Gluten, as has been mentioned, swells up to a great bulk when heated, and be- comes full of holes. The same thing takes place in the baking of bread. It is the gluten that gives tenacity to the dough, so that when babbles of gas are liberated m \\ duriDg the fermentation produced by yeast, the gluten stretches as it expands, and thus leaves the baked bread light and full of little holes. Flour, which contains much gluten is that which is ordinarily called strong. The tim f cutting grain very sensibly affects the proportion of fine flour and bran yielded by samples of it. Careful experiments have shown, with regard to wheat, that when cut from 10 to 14 days before it is fully ripe, the grain not only weighs heavier, but measures more : it is positively better in equality, producing a larger proportion of fine flour to the bushel. When the grain is in the milk, there is but little woody fibre; nearly everything is starch, gluten, sugar, etc., with a large per centage of water. If cut 10 or 12 days before full ripeness, the propor- tion of woody fibre is still small ; but as the grain ripens the thickness of skin rapidly increases, woody fibre being formed at the expense of the starch and sugar; these must obviously diminish in a corresponding degree, the quality of the grain being, of course, injured. The san* hir , is true as to all of the other grains. \t has been stated, that i ^ ' ordinarily called dry fiour, contains from 12 to 16 per cent, of water. When maue into bread and baked, it retains this, and absorbs in addition a much larger qr.antity. Professor Johnston gives, as the result of some trials made in his laboratory on bread one day old, the large proportion of 45 lbs. . of water in 100 lbs. of bread. Dumas found 45 per cent, in bread at Paris. This is much mere than is usually supposed possible, yet there is every reason to consider the above determination correct. We may then conclude that every 100 lbs. of bread, in the ordinary state as we use it, contains from SO to 45 lbs. of water. Strong flour, that which was mentioned as containing much gluten, and rifling well in bread, will absorb and retain a still larger amount of water : it is, therefore, most profitable to the baker. Rye flour more nearly resembles wheaten flour in its composition than any other; it has, however, more of certain gummy and sugary substances, which make it te- nacious, and also impart a sweetish taste. In baking all grains and roots which have much starch in them, a certain change takes place in their chemical compo- sition. If starch be taken and exposed to a carefully graduated heat for a few days, it will be found to have changed its character, to have become partially soluble in water, and also a little sweet. By the action of heat it has been converted into a species of sweetish gum, caWed dextrine. This is the change which occurs in baking; a portion of the starch is altered into this gum or dextrine, communicating the sweetish taste which is observable in good bread. Dy baking, then, flour be- comes more nutritious, and more easily digestible, because more soluble. This alteration happens, probably in baking any grain, but as wheat and rye are more nsed for making bread than other grains, we are better Hcquainted with the trans- formations which occur in them through the agency of heat. Barley contains rather less starch than wheat, also less sugar and gum. There is little gluten, but a substance somewhat like it, and containing about the same amount of nitrogen. a. The malting of barley depends on a peculiar chmigo which takes place dur- ing germination, or the sprouting of the seed. The starch, forming the principal part of it, and of all, or nearly all grains, is, as we know, insoluble in water; how then is it to be of use in nourishing the young shoot ? b. When the seed, moistened by water, and warmed by the summer sun, swells !ind pushes forth its shoot, a peculiar substance called diastase is formed, which has the property of changing starch into sugar. This sugar is, of course, soluble, and goes at once into the shoot, communicating that sweetness so observable in its first growth. c. Barley is moistened, and laid in heaps to sprout; when the sprouts have got to the proper length, the heaps are opened, dried and heated, to stop further growth, and the sprouts are all rubbed ofl^. The barley is then in the state called maZ<; the sugar from this is extracted to make beer, having all been formed from Its starch by the action of diastase. nul to[ 57 Oatmeal is little used as food in this coontry, but it is equni, if not superior, in its nutritious qualities, to flour from any of the other grains; superior, I have no doubt, to most of the fine wheaten flour of northern latitudgumin or albumen; they contain about as much nitrogen as gluten, and, in the dried peas or bean meal, amount to from 25 to 30 per cent. The meal, in its ordinary condition, contains frp- '5 to 20 percent, of water. i>v>th peas and beans are, according to the above statement, extremely nutri- tious. Experience in France, Germany and England sustains this theoretical view. They are in all of those countries highly valued for feeding to stock, and are also ii-iiMSifeii* « chief reliance aa food among the lower clasBei, with whom they take the place of bread. They occaiionally come into a rotation with great advantage, and their field culture wilf probably be gradually extended in this country. There is one class of seeds, such as linseed, rapeseed, etc., which abound in oil, amoouting, in some cases, to from 18 to 25 per cent. ; this may be, and is, se- parated by simple pressure. Beside the oil, they are uncommonly rich in nitroge- nous substances, containing about as much as peas or beans. These seeds, then, are of great value for feeding to fattening animals. A few pounds per day increase their growth remarkably. The linseed cake, from which the oil has been mostly expressed, is a most admirable food, and is nearly all exported iVom this country to England, for the use of British farmers, who know its value, and are eager to pur- cliase it. or THK BOOT CROPS. In the root crops we find quite different characteristics from any yet mentioned. In some of them starch almost entirely disappears, other bodies of a somewhat similar nature taking its place. The potato, and a few other less known crops, are exceptions. Another distinguishing feature is the quantity of Water which they all tato, thu qut^ntity euten must be greatly increased. In order to make us much mus- cle in the body as would be added to it by tivo or six ounces of meat, in its ordina- ry cooked form, it would be neces.<4ary to eat at leant one hundred ounces of tur- nips or potatoes in their raw state. When cooked, the proportion of water in them would probably be decreased somewhat, and with the seasoning employed to make them palatable, a less quantity might answer. OF RESPIRATION, STARCH, SUGAR, UUM, AND rAT. The use of starch in nutrition, has already been brietly alluded to. Wo have seen that it is one of the moat abundant of all the ingredients, in most varieties of vegetable food; and tho question naturally arises, what is the necessity in the ani- mal economy, for this Kirgc quantity of such a substanct*. a. Starch, as has been previously explained, consists of carbon and water, or car- bon united with hydrogen and oxygen, in the proportions to fortn water. This is brought into tho lungs by the blood after digestion, and (here, or aflerward in the blood, undergoes what may be considered a species of combustion. b. Tho carbon of the starch unites with oxygen, and forms cnrbonin acid. This accounts fur the increased quantity which, as will be remembcrod, is found in the air after it has passed through the lungs. Tho lungs aro full of little cavities, so that the blood may come in contact with as much of the uir us possible at once, and absorb large quantities of oxygen. c. Another result of tliis decomposition or burning is water, so that we have here carbonic acid and water for the final product, as in ordinory burning of wood or coal. We do not understand how it happens, but tho sumo effect seems to be pro- duced in tho lungs ns when carbon is actually burned by u flnme; its uniting with oxygen, and forming carbonic acid, heats tho body as un internal flame would do. Every person knows how diflicult it ii for a hungry man to keen warm in cold weather, and how soon a full meal restores the animal heat. Tne quicker we breathe, tho more food or starch is burned; thus, strung exerliun;* always heat us, because they compel us to breathe faster. The larger portion of the starch, then, which is received with our food, pus^sesotf in the shapo of catbonic acid and water. In warm weather, our appetites are less than in cold, bi'cunso the outward tem- perature is such as requires less action of the lungs lo retain the warmth of the body, and consequently involves a smaller consumption of fowl. Nothing reduces the flesh and strength so rapidly as cold and hunger combined, for then all the re- sources of the body are most speedily exhausted. Deprivation of food, while the temperature of the air corresponds nearly with that of tho Uw\y, may ho borne with comparative impunity and little emaciation, for a period, that would, in the first case, have been fatal. There are other substances in our ordinary food, which may servo tho same pur- pose as starch, in keeping up the heat of tho body. a. One of these is sugar, as indeed might bo expected from tho identity of its composition with that of starch; it also consisting of carbon, with hydrogen and oxygen in the proportions to form water. Sugar, when not taken in too largo quantities, must ho considered a wholesome food, particularly an fupplying mate- rial for keeping up the heat of the body. Some authors have condemned it, be- cause animals would not thrive on it alone; but this in no nrfftitnent at all. The same result would follow feeding upon any other sitiglo articlo, to tho exclusion of all others. The animal requires, and must have, a mixed food, or it will not thrive. b. Fatty and oily substances have the same function to porlbrm; they also con- sist u** carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and in animals that do not eat vegetables, are 03 undoubtedly the chief souroe by which carbon it lapplied U) th« llin|ii, Whtlt food fails, fat from Tarioua part* of the body ia firat uaed to ■Nppnrt raapiralion} hence resulta the remarkable emaciation which appeara aftar long alMllnanoe, or during itarvation. Fat ia extremely useful in the body for various purpoaes. It lnhrioatef and smoothes the joints, the muscles and the tendons, so that th»y pity MsHy and freely; it fills up hollows, making the bod^ plump and rounded, iliNt««d of anga- lar and full of disagreeable cavities, as it would otherwiwi Im, Thia flMMMaarv fiart of the animal is chiefly derived from the oily and fatty subatiinAM in tb« feoo. t aeems clear that, under certain circumstances, both starch and augar mav and do produce fat. This is partially the case when the food cunaiafa Mntlraly oi pota- toes, or when it is nothing but apples. Still we see tliat tluM* VMri«ti«a of food which contain most oil, fatten animals quickest. a. Indian corn in an instance of this : linseed cnke is a still martt atrtklng one. Such food not oniy supplies the usual daily waste of the body, but enMaoM an aooa- niulation and increase of fat. The natural supply of ready msdo oil or fat that furnished, suits the animal better than the conversion of atarcb or ail|ar into fat, aa being much easier, more natural, and more readily acconiplishedr /). The organic food must then, in order to meet all tno wania of tho animal, contain starch, sugar or gum, fatty matter or oil, and nitrogOHOUa eompounds. These are all organic bodies. The first three ura needed to furiiiMh oarl^on, to be consumed in respiration for the purpose of keeping up the snimai liaat, und also for making fat in case of necessity. The oil is of value for formiHg fat directly. and the nitrogenous substance for the production of muscle, cartilago, oto. c. Among the inorganic parts of the food, phosphate of llmt ahould bo promi- nent, in order that the animal may form its bones strong, and of ftiil mIk*, Potash and soda should also be present in considerable quantity. 1 montloil phoaphate of lime particularly, because no other phosphate will answer (lie ptirpoM of making bone. Experiments have been tried by feeding birds with food oontaioing little or none of this, but an abundance of other phosphates. They gradttflijy became thin and died, and it was found that their bones were all wasted away tttid weak, for want of the necessary material to build them up. OF FEEDING THE YOVNO AND GHOWINU AMIHAL, We see from the facts already stated, that with the knowlsdgo flow gained upon this subject, feeding may become a science ; we may modify uur food atjoordiog to the end that we desire to attain. Let us consider first the young and growing animal. Wimt if tho systom too often pursued ? The best hay, the best shelter, the best litt«r, all of llio grain and roots, are bestowed upon tho working or the fattening aniinala, Tho youu^ ones have poor shelter, coarse bog hay and straw for fodder, and litllo mr§ of any des- cription. In the main, they are left to shift for themselves, with poor fooid and im- perfect accommodations, frequently with no accommodations at all, tinlosa the warm side of an old stack of bog hay, or bleached cornstalks, cnii bo so oailod. Ar, with a more actire circulation, all parta of the body olMRg* The daily waate than in the old ; for, their constituent pnrticlea more rapidly. Quite yonag animala, it ia said, oAen re- new their whole bodies in the course of u single year. Beaide this larger waate, there ia the daily increase in bulk of every part to be attended to; the tood th«r*> fore should be nutritious enough for both purposes. a. In England, young calves eflen have a small portion of linseed meal fed to them with milk, this meal being rich both in nitrogen and in phospliates. Fat ia not of so much consequence, unless in feeding calves for market. It has been sug- gested that bone meal, ground fine, might be found good for yonng animals, n§ n portion of their allowance; but I am not aware if it has ever been triad with ane- cess. It is said that the Arabs make use of it for food in time of acareity. Deun meal or pea meal, in small quantitiea, makes an excellent mixture with milk. The natural milk of the mother combinea all the properties which I have men- tioned, as will be shown hereafter; but it is not always practicable or proAtable to feed with milk entirely. From the composition of the grains previously given, it is obvious that all of them are valuable food for young stock. Indian corn being cheapest, and on the whoU best adapted for the purpose, is most used in this country. Such directions as these, contrast somewhat strongly with the state of Dings de- scribed first; where the animal, shivering in the winter's cold, was compnlled to exist on food entirely unsuited to it4 wants, and scarcely suiTicient to supply mate- rial fur keeping up the lieat of its body. Let any reasonable man decide wlikh system will produce the best results. or FEEOINO THK rULL-OROWN ANIMAL. The full-grown animal has .its bones, its muscles, and all of its parts fully de- veloped and matured. That which it needs in its food, is the material to maktf good the daily waste of its body. This waste is not inconsiderable, especially wber the animal undergoes much labor and severe exertion. a. A man consumes in respiration alone, from six t» eight ounces of carbon in each twenty-four hours. In order to supply this, he must eat about one pound of starch, sugar, gum, fat, or other food rich in carbon. Then there are the phos- phates, the nitrogenous substances, the saline bodies, the fat, etc., which will re- quire a number of ounces more. b. In very cold climates, the amount of necessary food, especially of that which furnishes carbon to keep up the heat of the body, is vastly augmented. The Esqui- maux, and other savage tribes living in the arctic regions, eat quantities of fat, tal- low, and oil, which would be considered quite incredible, were it not for the con- curring testimony of numerous travellers. Several pounds of such food at a time, u dozsn or two of tallow candles for instance, or half a gallon of whale hlubbttr, fleems to scarcely satisfy their appetites; and this enormous eating appears not to produce the slightest ill effecl, as it does no more in that cliVnate, than kelp up the requisite animal heat, in addition to supplying the waste of the bod>. In warm weather, the quantity of food needed to supply strong;:, jr tho tame amount of exertion, is, as all know, greatly reduced; the appetite often disappeam almost entirely, and yet there is no feeling of weakness in undergoing labor. The temperature of the air is so elevated, that comparatively a very i-imall portion of the food is used in keeping up the animal heat. We shall hereafter consider the pnrti- uular bearing of these facts on feeding. OF" THE FATTENING ANIMAL AND ITS FOOI*. Hitherto we have spoken only of the young or growing, and of the full grown animal; it now remains to say something of the fattening animal. Here the object of feeding is changed : it is not intended to increase the size and weight of its bonea and frame, for these have attained their full developement; their daily waste if to be fully replaced, and in addition there is to be the greatest possible amount of floih ■=3*(*fe««sas' 64 ^^ and fat accumulated upon them in the shoitest possible time, and this with the least necessary cost. Here is clearly a new class of food needed, containing not only phosphates, saline substances, starch, etc., as before, but also nn increased proportion of protein bo- dies, and above all an abundance of oily or fatty matters. The vegetable fats - or oils, as has been said, do not greatly differ in' their composition from the animal futs, some of then>, in fact, bein^ almost identical : of course, then, the transforma- tions necessary to convert them into the various parts of the body are easily accom- plished. It has been argued by some E^f.ientific men, that these vegetable oils are really of not so much importance as is here ascribed to them : they say, that the chief part cf the fat in our domestic animals is derived from the starch and sugar contained in their food. The fact already mentioned, that both of these substances may be converted into fat, and doubtless are so converted to a large extent, might seetn to countenance such views, had we not direct practical evidence that the vegetable food which is most oily in its nature, is found to be most valuable in fattening. It is only necessary to instance Indian meal, oilcake, linseed jelly, etc., as compared, weight for weight, in feeding, with rye, oats, b&rley, potatoes, or turnips. AH ex- perience shows that the first named varieties of food are by fur the best. Starch, sugai and gum, especially the two latter, unquestionably aid materially in fattening, and will fatten whero there is little else given, but at the same time not so speedily or economically as more oily food would have done. A small portion of this latter food, mixed with larger quantities of the more watery or less concen- trated nutriment, is found an extremely good way of feeding. Ihus, in England, for an ox, as many turnips as the animal will eat, are given, with four or five pounds of oil cake per day. They also use linseed jelly, .made by boiling the lin- seed in watsr, and then mixing with cut straw and hay : when it cools, a stiff, firm jelly is formed, which may be turned out in masses. The mixture might wall be tried in this country. a. It is now becoming the practice here to use Indian meal for mixing with moist- ened cut stufi^, and there is great advantage in so doing; and advantage in the rea- diness and relish with which the animal takes its food, and also, of course, in the effect upon its growth. A cutting machine saves much hay, enables the farmer to consume a larger por- tion of straw by mixing with hay, and at the same time to promote the fattening of his stock, by the greater ease with which they eat and digest food already partially prepared for their stomachs. I shall soon mention why it is that everything which saves labor to the fattening animal promotes the increase of its bulk. Hay, for such purposes, should be mown before quite matured, as for the reasons explained in a previous chapter, it contains so much more ^um, sugar, etc., than when al- lowed to stand till fully ripe. The same practice is good with straw. We have already seen that the grain is heavier and better in quality for early cutting; and experience shows that the straw is not less superior for feeding purposes. Some kinds, cut errly, and carefully cured, are nearly equal to certain varieties of hay, and even superior to most of that which has been sufiercd to ripen and bleach till it is litile better than a mass of dry sticks. Indian cornstalks, when cut as above, and well cured, make a most admirable fodder. They are then sweet and nutritious in an eminent degree. When cut fine, and mixed willi Indian menl, are eaten by cattle with mnch avidity, and eaten clean, butts and all. Soino farmers think that really good stalks are worth about as mnch as the best hay. When we consider the weight of them to bs obtained from an acre of heavy corn, they are probably more than equal, taking into account the respective quantities per acre. In many parts of this country, cornstalks are neglected, or if carted at all, are only thrown into the barnyard whole. Their butts and stalks come out undecayed in spring, making the manure too difficult to handle or spread, and worse still to plough '-nder. We see hundreds of fields e )ry autumn, where the stalks stand i:. with the 65 bleached and white till jast before snow comes, when perhaps they are carted into tba yard as jost described, or stacked for the beneBt of snch unfortunate young itbcK as Inay be starved into the idea that they are a tolerable article of food. When made into small stacks in the field, with the butts well out so as to let air in, and the tops tied together, they dry green and sweet, and tender, so that all stock relish them highly. Some farmers leave the stalks of one hill uncut, and gather those of eight to sixteen others around it. The centre hill gives stability to the stack, and prevents it from blowing over. >^- ON THE SOII.IMO OF STOCK. The practice of feeding various crops to cattle, while they are green, or of soil- ing, as It is otherwise termed, has excited some attention of late years, and it is, therefore, proper to devote a few words to it here. The advocates of such a course contend : 1. That the food from an acre goes farther; 2. That the animals thrive better; 3. That their manure is more perfectly preserved. a. This latter position is unquestionably a true one; the manure being under cover, is not exposed to evaporation or washing, and is, without doubt, not only more valuable, but is retained in greater bulk. b. It is probably true also that the green food from an acre goe« much farther than the same amount would do when dried. I suppose that it is impossible tg make hay or fodder from any green crops, without, to a considerable degree, changing their composition, thus rendering them, to a certain extent, hard and in- digestible; some parts, which before were soluble, becoming in drying nearly in- soluble. . ''^ c. As to the animals thriving better, that is a point which I consider as not yet folly decided. It is a question if, in our extremely hot climate, animals do so well during the warm weather of summer, confined in close sheds, pining for liberty and green fields. I think that we require extended experience, and many comparative experiments, before this question can be regarded as finally settled. \ modification of the system would, without doubt, be successful in certain si- tuations, such as where tiie ordinary pasture would admit of being partly culti- vated, or had some arable field close at hand, in which might be grown Indian corn, sown thick, heavy crops of clover, or some other form of green fodder. ^ portion of this cut twice a day, and fed out upon the pasture, would have an ex- cellent effect, both on the condition of the anmials, and in the improvement of the pasture. Green food, given in this way, keeps working cattle in good order, and dairy cows in rich milk through the hot months. All of the crop is available, no part of it being lost by the trampling of stock. One man with a scythe can cut enough in a few minutes, morning and evening, to supply a very considerable herd. ON THE KEEPING OF STOCK DURING WINTER. The place in which stock is kept during winter has a much more important effect, not only upon their condition, but upon the quantity of food that they eat, than is usually imagined. Suppose it to be in an unsheltered yard, or on a hill-side, open to cold winds and driving storiii«>; from what has been already said, we know that in such a nitoatiun the action of the lungs will be increased as the temperature tif the body decreases. This will call for an augmented supply of carbon from the food, UHing up tho HtHi'ch, sugar, oil, etc., which would otherwise have gone to cover the frame with fat. '1 hus a large portion of the food is consumed or burned io the longs and hinod, to keep the body warm. As the animal grows poorer under this condition of things, it becomes less and less able to resist the cold, so that at last about all of its nutriment is used up, in the action necessary to keep it from freezing. The animal that has a sheltered yard with plenty of litter, with sheds facing to (he south, for the (lay, and good stables and other shelter for the uight, is constantlv Warm and comfortable; for these reasons respiration does not need to be ao rapid, '^m^ s\ and the larger part of ite food goes to the support and increase of its body. Under ■oeh Circumstances, we might expect a smaller quantity of nourishment to produce a greater increase of weight, and this is found to be actually the case. The amount of exercise taken has also much influence. When animals are fat- tening, the less exercise of a violent nature that they take, the better; for every exertion increases the depth and frequency of breathing, and so, of course, makes u drufV upon the food. The more tranquil and quiet the state, then, in which the aniruul is kept, the more readily will fat accumulate. a. This is shown by the well-known fact that turkies, pigeons, and other fowls, whon shut up in the dark, will fatten with very great rapidity. In such a situation they are kept perfectly still ; there being no object to distrnct their attention, and mmti them restless, they have nothing to attend to but eating, sleeping, and di- gesting. Boitio experiments have also been made, on the advantage of fattening animals by feeding in confinement, as contrasted with others at liberty. In Professor Johnston's Lectures, are given the results of an experiment made upon sheep, by selecting those of nearly equal weight, and feeding for four months under different RircttinHtances. One was entirely unsheltered, another in an open shed, another •till in u close shed and in the dark. The food was alike, 1 lb. of oats each per day, nnd as many turnips :ib they chose to eat. a. The first sheep consumed 1912 lbs. of turntpsi, the second 1394 lbs., and the third 886 lbs,, or lets than half of those eaten by the first. b. The first one gained 23A lbs. in weight, the second 27j| lbs., and the third t8,\ Urn. c. For every 100 lbs. of tnrnips eaten, the first gained in weight 1} lb., the Mcond 2 lbs,, the third 3 1-16 lbs. This is a most striking example of the effect of warmth nnd shelter; the one kept in a close shed, and in the dark, eat less than half AS much, nnd gnined more than the unsheltered one. Another remarkable instance is given by Professor Johnston. Twenty sheep were kept in the open field, and twenty others of nearly equal weight, kept undtr a cornftirtnhle shed. They were fed alike for the three winter months, having each day j lb. linseed coke, ^ pint barley, with a little hay and sah, and as many tur- nips HS they wished to eat. "The sheep in the field consumed nil the barley and oil cnke, and about 19 lbs. of turnips each per day, eo long ns the trial lasted, and , increnned in the whole 512 lbs. Those under the shed consumed at first &? much food an the others, but after the third week they eat 2 lbs. each of turnips l«>s-. per day ; nnd in the ninth week 2 lbs. less again, or only 15 lbs. per day. Of the lin- seed cake, thev also eat about one-third less than the other lot, and yet increased in weight 790 lbs., or 278 lbs. more than the others." Thi «, too, was with nearly 200 lbs. less of oil cake, and about 2 tons less of turnipM, according to the above statement. Are not such facts as these worthy of attention? Here it is shown by practical experience that theory is correct; that whan aniiniilfl are unsheltered and cold, they eat more and gain less, because so l«rg' or THx roRM in. which rooD is to bk givrit. The state in which food ia given has an important bearing on the effect which it Erodaces, in suatnining or fattening the animal. I have already apoken of cutting ay, straw and stalks, and have explained the advantages which result from the practice. On sriiall farms, all that is necessary may be cut by hand in an hour at nigh; and morning; and where the stock is large, there ia always, or ought to be, a horse power; by connecting this with a cutter, the work may be done with equal ease. For milch cows, thia cut stuff ia as advantageous as for fattening animals. If wet a little previous to feeding, and Indian meal or other ground feed sifted over in small quantity, the cows will eat it with great relish, and the effect of the meal will be quite apparent in the richness of their milk. Some such food is, in fact, ne- cessary to supply the nitrogenous substances, the butter and the phosphates which milk contains so largely. a. A half bushel of sugar beets, parsnips, or carrots, to each cow daily, will be found an excellent addition to their food; it gives sweetness and richness to the milk, making the butter of a yellow colour, even in winter. If these roots are cut by a root-slicer, they will be eaten cleaner and more easily digested, as the animal can then, without difficulty, grind up each piece separately. It is with milch cows as with fattening animals; quiet and warmth affect the quantity and quality of milk, as much as thoy do the accumulation of fat. All that the cow uses in breathing nfter exertion, or to keep herself warm, is so much with- drawn from the milk. Here then, also, good shelter and comfortable feeding- plares are the best economy. In fact, this rule applies to every class of stock. From what was said in the last chapter, with regard to young and growing animals when exposed to cold, it is clear that they, as well as others, need shelter and warmth, that their food may be of the greatest benefit in increasing their growths Cooked food, in various forms, is found to be of great value in feeding. The same quantity will, in many cases, go farther cooked than raw. This is especially true of many roots, as potatoes, carrots, eic. ; also, of every kind of meal, of pumpkins, squashes,. apples, etc. When cooked, the animal eats its food more readily, and a smaller quantity goes farther. This does not apply to all kinds of animals. According to some experiments, horses, for instance, throve little, if any, better on cooked food than on raw. In some of the trials, the raw food seemed to have the advantage. This is not, however, to be regarded as a general rule. It has been said that starch may be changed into sugar and gum in various ways : the appliciition nf heat is one of these ways: and in cooking food, this change, by means of heat, doubtless takes place to a very cdnsidurable extent. The starch i» not soluble in water, while the sugar, dextrine, and gum, thus funned during cook- ing, are etninently so : the cooked food is therefore more easily dissolved and di- gested in the stomach of the animal, and is, morpover, eaten without any exei'tion. This ease and quickness of digestion seems to have the same effect upon many Classen of animiis in hastening their growth, that has been before exemplified, with regard to some powerful and quilu soluble manures applied to plants. It waf^ shown that easy solubility, and therefore quickness of action, was more ittijiortant than quantity; lor instance, thnt two or three bushels of bgnes, dissolved in sul- phuric acid, would benefit a crop more than sixty or seventy bushels of whole bones. So with theanimul; a small portion of food which it can, at once, cat, di- gest, and m:iko into its own bones, muscle and fat, is worth more than a largct quantity of s-v.ne kind which it can only eat with difficulty, and digest slowly. 'L'urnips and parsnipa are usually fed raw; but potatoes, pumpkins, apples and meal, aro v.irieties of food which aru almost always bjlter to be cooked, where it m practicable. Every f inner should endeavour to have a cellar tittod for the purpose of keeping roots, where they would neither freeze, nor be so warm as to sprout. It is better tc -, ^fmm 68 hive the temperatnre a little too cold than a little too warm. In the latter case . decay will speedily commeoce, and towards spring, when the roots begin to sprout,. , their vaino will rapidly decrease; all their more Tnlaable and solnble parts being J abstracted by the shoot, leaving little more behind than troody fibre and water. In England, a system of feeding, with a species of linseed jelly, has been very flighty spoken of during the last few years. Linseed is thoroughly boiled in water, . t lb. to 2 gallons; and when the water is sufficiently concentrated, the whole is jtoured into little boxes; then as much fine-cut straw as convenient is added, and t tho whole thoroughly stirred together. As the mixture cools, the linseed forms the ^ t:ontent9 of each box into n mass of stiff jelly, capable of being turned out and of ;, Staining its shnpe; it is fed to cattle in tht, itate. This is an extremely nutritious, ftnd also a very fattening food. Somnti'iies a little bean or pease meal is alsv }»tirred in; either of these makes the cosiipttiuid richer in nitrogen, and, therefore, better adapted to the formation of mnsc'e. rhe results of this system of feedhig . have been entirely satisfactory, so far as ^e have any reports of its success. Cooked food, allowed to sour, hnsbeen found, in many cases, remarkably futten- .ing, particularly as fed to swine. The souring should, of course, not be allowed to . go on to the extent of strong fermentation. It is probable that the efficacy of this soured food is due to a still farther action upon the starch, than the one noticed in a preceding paragraph. Not only has heat the power of converting it into sugar, gum, etc., but certain acids also. a. By mixing a certain portion of dilute sulphuric acid with starch in weighed' '^ quantity, and exposing it for some '.lours to a gradual temperature, wo are able t& ^ produce sugar; the starch has been cliad of such food ; but for him it is easy to see that it would prove valnablc. If the souring is allowed to go too far, still another change takes place, by means of which all of the sugar is converted, through fermentation, first into alcohol, and finally into vinegar; in neither of these states would the food be nutritious, even if ^Animals could ^c induced to eat it. ON THK DIFrEIlKNCES IN CERTAIN CI.ASSES OF MANURE, We arc by this time fully able to understand the difference in the manures, de- rived from diflferent classes of animals, the young, the full-grown, the fattening, etc.; I will, therefore, now touch once more upon that subject. Wc have seen that the young animal is not only constantly increasing in its bull;, ' btit that it is renewing every part much more rapidly than those of mature age. -I'uod is for both of these reasons required, not only to supply the large daily waste, !"' niso to build up the growing bones. mu:Jcles, and all other part?. Hence it re "suits, that nearly everything of value in the food will be appropriated, and the ma- "■ nure will bo chiefly composed, of indigestible substances; little being rejected that c;in be made to aid in increasing the body or fiauic. n ill the milch cow, we have a sffll ytronger instance. Here everytliing avail- ai/ic g(ti;s to the secretion of milk; even the body becomes thin and emaciated by lliis constant drain : the consequence is, that the n)anure is poor and watery, con- taining only the refuse of the food, with the small waste of the body. These two kinds of manure, from the inilch cow, and from the rapidly growing animal, may be considered poorest of all. Manure from full grown workii){» rnimals. is usually of excellent quality. If ■''' tb-^y work steadily, thfir food innst be good in order to keep them in condition; of ' the cfirbon conliiined in it, so much os necossiiry, and this of course the largest part. -l^kte. ■^»' mm^ ^wmm 69 alter eaae- to sprout r irts being ivater. een very in water, whole i« ded, and forins tbc utand of intrilious, a I is alsv therefore,. >f feeding 38. ly futten- llowed to' y of thi» ticed in a to sugar,. «wingte the amoant of exercistf that they take, is used in breathing; and for this reason the manure is as it were concentrated, and is rich in nitrogen, in phosphates, and the saline substances of the food generally. All tliat is above the daily supply to keep up the body, and the bones, comes into the manure. In fattening nn animal, the aim is simply to increase the bulk of its flesh and fat, the bones have attained their full size already. By far the greater part of the fatty- matter in the rich food given, is in this case appropriated to the increase of the •■' body, beside a large portion of the nitrogenous substances also; but a goodly quan.* tity of both still goes into the manure, and it is rich in inorganic materials. These two last varieties of mannre, from full grown, and from fattening animals, should be preserved with much care. It is proper for the farmer to remember, that in feeding his stock well, he is not only increasing their weight, but is also benefit- "* lag bis land for the future, by the rich and powerful manures which they produce when well fed. Some of the best English farmers are accustomed to consider one load of mannre from their fattening stock, equul to at least two, andsometimes three loads, from the sheds and yards where their young stock is kept. This superiority is not a matter of opinion only, but the result of experience. ON THE EFFECT OF FEEDING UPON PASTURES. . ,'j There is one more point to be noticed, in connection with the difference in th(! portions of food retained by animals, fed at various stages of growth, and for differ- ent purposes. This is relative to the different effect produced by them upon pas- turoH. Where milch cows, or young stock generally, are fed constantly upon a pasture, or meadow, there is a rapid deterioration, particularly as to the inorganic materials of the soil The milch cow carries away phosphates, and other valuable mineral engrodients, besides nitrogenous bodies, in her milk; the young animal does the same, in its augmented body and bones. Their manure, even if all lefl upon the soil, does not restore more than a small part of that which they takeaway; and the richest pasture will, after a time, begin to show signs of exhaustion. The case of a pasture upon which full grown animals are fattened, is quite dif- ferent. Here all of the phosphates, etc., which are not required for the body, are restored to the soil, and such a pasture may hold out, with little decrease of fertility, for a very long period. If the animals are at the same time, as is usual, fed with rich food from sources foreign to the farm, then the pristure may even improve un- der such a system of pasturing; the inorganic substances In the soil may actually be.., increased, rather than diminished, if the food eaten abounds in them. In some ., parts of England, cattle are fed upon a rich field during the day, and driven to u poor one to pass the night, as a cheap method of manuring. This is a somewhat different plan from one which is adopted in many of our , States, where it is the practice to let droves of cattle on their way to market, upon good pastures, for a si tgle night, or for an hour or two at noon. They usually get little during the day, and of course fill themselves completely from the pasture, de- positing little compared with that which they take away. If they were fed at night with grain, or other rich food, then the practice might not be so injudicious. An generally conducted, however, it tends directly to the impoverishment of the pas- ture. Every such visit unregulated in any way, withdraws a considerable portion of its material for producing flesh, fat, and bones, and of course deducts to a like extent from its actual value. If the farmer can supply the substances abstracted, for a less sum than the drovers pay him, he may then be justified in continuing the system, but not otherwise. , ,..,.,. '1 ?flLK, AND DAIRY PRODUCE GENERALLY. i:<: ■« THE COMPOSITION OF MILK. This is an important branch of agriculture, and one upon which we have hithertf ; luierely given some passing hints; we will now take it up f omewhat in detail. i . ^. 70 \\ The rppearance and tbc asaal qualities o''niilk, are too well known to reqairt deacription here. It diflferti coni)id'>rabl} ;a it:> .'composition as obtained from differ- ent animals, but its general nature is similar ix all cases. From 80 to 90 lbs. in every 100 lbs. of cow's milk, are water. Thiti quantity may be increased by spe- cial feeding for this purpose. Some sellers of milk in the neighborhood of large cities, who are too conscientious to add pump-water to their milk, but who still desire to dilute it, contrive to effect their purpose by feeding their cows on juicy succulent food, containing much water; such watered milk they are able tu sell with a safe conscience, tho '^h it may bo «?oubted if the true morality of ihe case, 19 much better than if the pump had beei^ called directly into action. From 3 to 6 lbs. in each 100 lbs. of milk, are curd or casein; this is a nitroger.c-!!* body like gluten, albumen, animal muscle, and the others we have previoo >!y named. Casein is a white, flaky subsiaiice, and can be separated from ihe mill, in various ways; these will be specified when we come to wri!o paiticulaviy of cheese and cheese making. There are also in every 100 lbs. from 4 u> 5 lbs. ol r specie^' of sugar, called milk sugar; this is not so sweet as cane sug.'v, and does ti.:*. dis- solve so easily in water. It may be obtained bj evaporaJlng down the whey, after separation of rhe casein or curd. In Switzerland, it is made somewhat Inrgely , and used for food. The butter or oi! amounts to from 3 to 6 lbs. in ever- 100 of mill'. Lastly, the ash is from .{ to 1 lb. in each 100. This nsh is rich in phosphates, as shown in ibe following treble; k Tttpresente ^he composition of two samples each of the ash from lOOOlbs. ofmiii TABT.E XI. Phosphate of lime. Phosphate of magnesiu. Chloride nf potassium, - Chloride of sodium (com. Free soda, - - . Halt,) No. 1. No. a •25 .. . . -34 •05 -. . . ^07 •14 .. . . 18 •02 .. . . 03 •04 .. .. -06 0-50 0-67 We shall refer to this table again. The Itutter, as stated at>ove, is from 3 to 5 lbs. in each 100 of milk. It exists in the form of minute globules, scattered through the liquid. These globules of butter cr fat, are enveloped in casein or curd, and are a very little lighter thati the milk; if ii b left undisturbed, they therefore rise slowly to the surface and form cream. If th<- milk be much agitated and stirred about, the cream will be much ktnger in rising; so also if it is in a deep vessel, as a pail, in place of shallow pans. Warmth promotes its rising. a. There is a little mstrument called the galadometer, intended to measure the richness cTmilk. This consists of a series of graduated tubes, which, by means of small divi^.tons, mark the thickness of cream that rises to their surface. It is not a correct instrument, for the reason that I have already stated, that cream does not rise 80 well through a deep column of milk as through a shallow one. The quantity of cream then, indicated by a galactometer, will always fall short of the real propor- tion which the milk contains. It may someumes be of use, for comparing the rich- ness of ir.ilk- from various cows of the same dairy. When milk is drawn in the usual way from the cow, the last of the milking is much the richest : this is because the cream has, in great part, risen to the surface inside of the cow's udder; the portion last drawn off then, of course contams thr most of it. Sach a fact shows the importance of thorough and careful milking. In some lai'ga dairies, the last milkings from each cow are collected in a separate pai« More milk is said to be obtained from the same cow when she is milked three timeff n day, than when but once or twice; les.' when milked once than twice, but in thi» last case it is very rksh. , • So poor an ui the c aucci their Th food .;rVJC ;^0<)d >l IB 111 n Some large breeds of cows, are remnrkable for givin|( verv great qaantitiea of poor watery milk; other Bmall breeds give small quantities ol a milk, that contaiiiH iin uncommon proportion of cream. These large breeds are kept in mnny ports of the country about London, (or the purpose of supplying the city. By giving them succulent food, the milkmen contrive to increase still further the watery nature of their milk as before noticed.' The small breeds have one great advantage : it requires a much less quantity of food to supply the wants of their bodien, so that all over that quantity goes to the . richmg of the milk. A weight of food therefore, with which they could give good milk, would only suffice to keep up the body of the larger animal, and the tnWk would consequently be poor and watery. Tnis is probably one chief reason, •«.'lv the milk of the small breeds generally excels so decidedly m richness. or BUTTKR. We are now to consider the various methods of making butt -r, and some of the questions connected with its preservation. I'hn object in chtirning, is to break up the coverings of the little globules of butter : this is done bv continued dashing and Hgi: tion : when it has been continued for a certain time, the butter appears first in smull grains, and finally works together into lumps. a. Where cream is churned, the best practice seems to be, to allow of its becom- ing slightly sour : this sourness takes place in the cheesy matter, or casein, that is riiixed in the cream, and has no effect upon the butter beyond causing its more speedy and perfect separation. b. In many dairies the practice is to churn the whole n^ilk. This requires larger churns, and is best done by the aid of water or animal power; it is considered to produce more butter, and this ia said by some to be finer and of better quality. I do not think that there have been any very decisive experiments upon this point. The excellence of butter is greatly influenced by tho temperature of the milk or cream, at the time of churning; if this be either too hot or too cold, it is difficult to get butter at all, and when got, it is usually of poor quality. A large number of experiments have been made with regard to this point, and the result arrived at is, — that cream should be churned at a temperature, when the churning commences, of from 60 to 55 deg. of Fahrenheit's thermometer. If whole milk is used, the temperature should be about 65 deg. F. at commencing. In summer then, cream would need cooling, and sometimes in winter a little warmth. It is surprising how the quality of the butter is improved by attention to these points. I have seen churns made double, so that warm water, or some cooling mixture, according as the season was winter or summer, might be put into the outer part. It will be seen that in whatever way the temperature is regulated, a thermometer is a most im- portant accompaniment to the dairy. The time occupied in churning is also a matter of much consequence. Several churns have been exhibited lately, which will make butter in from 3 to 10 minutes, and these are spoken of as important improvements. The most carefully conduct- ed trials on this point, have shown that as the time of churning was shortened, the ^jutter grew poorer in quality ; and this is consistent with reason. Such violent agi- tation as is effected in these churns, separates the batter, it is true, but the glcbales are not thoroughly deprived of the casein which covers them in the milk; there is consequently much cheesy matter mingled with the butter, which is ordinarily soft, and pale, and does not keep well. Until the advocates of very short time in churn- ing can show that the butter made by their churns, is equal m quality to that pro- duced in the ordinary time, farmers had better beware how they change tueir method, lest the quality of their but:er, and consequently the reputation of their dairy, be injured. Butter contains tt7o kinds of fat. If melted in water at about 180 F., a neirly eolorless oil is obtained, which becomes solid on cooling. If the solid mass be snb- jected to pressure in a strong press, at about 60 P., a pore liquid oi? rune out, and there remains a solid white fat. The liqnid fat if called elaine, and the solkl fat. ■.w*»tab«i-*,«.-v. 'M margarine. These two bodies are present in many other animal and vemtabk oils and fats. They are both nearly tasteless, and when quite pure, will kee|t without change for a long time. In presence of certain impurities, however, they do change. If great care is not taken in washing and working, when making batter, some buttermilk is left enclosed in it; the buttermilk, of course, cuntains casein, the ni- trogenous body which we have already described ; there is also some of the milk sugar bu'fore mentioned. The casein, like all other bodies containing much nitro- gen, is very liable to decomposition. This soon ensues, therefore, whenever it is contained in butter; and certain chemical transformations are by this means soon commenced, wbt^reby the maroarino and elaine are in part changed to other and very disagreeable substances; those which give the rancid taste and smell to bad batter. The milk sugar is instrumental in bringing about these changes. It is decomposed into an acid by the action of the casein, and has a decided effect upon the fatty substances of butter, causing them to become rancid. This action and consequent change comes on more or less rapidly, as the temperature is warmer or voider. No matter how well the butter is made in other respects, if buttermilk be left in it, there is always, from the causes above mentioned, a liability to become rancid and ofVensive. When packed in firkins, it will be rancid next to their sides and tops; will be injured to a greater or less depth, as the air may have obtained access. Salting vrM partially overcome the tendency to spoil, but not entirely, unless the butl ' is made so salt as to bu hardly eatable. Another reason for much of the pjor butter, which is unfortunately too common, is to be found in the impure quality of the salt used. This should not contain any magnesia or lime, as both injure the butter; tliey give it a bitter taste, and prevent its keeping for any length of time. Prof. Johnston mentions a simple method of freeing common salt from these impurities. It is to add to 30 lbs. of salt about 2 qts. of boiling water, stirring the whole thoroughly now and then, and allowing it lo stand for two hours or more. It maybe aftervvurds hung up in a bag, and allowed to drain. The liquid that runs off is a saturated solution of salt, with all the magnesia and lime which were present. These are much more soluble than the salt, and are conse- quently dissolved first. Want of caution na to the quality of salt used, and of care in separating the but- termilk, cause the spoiling of very great stocks of butter every year; a large part of that sent to Europe is r.ola for soap grease, and for other common purposes, simply because these pouUs have been neglected. OF CASEIN IN CHEESE. Cheese ia made from the casein of milk; tliis casein or curd, is separated from the whey by means of rennet, the same thing may be done by small quantities of acids, oa acetic or hydrochloric acid; and if the/milk be allowed to stand long, it will be dono naturally by the formation of what is called lactic acid, from the n)ilk sugar. The appearance which the curd of milk, or the casein presents, when curdled cither by rennet or an acid, is so well known as to render any description aniiecessary. a. In the analyses of the ash from milk, Table XL, was mentioned a small quantity of free soda. This being dissolved in milk, keeps the casein likewise in solution; but when any of the acid substances mentioned above are added, they immediately unite with and neutralize the soda ; the liquid then of course becomes acid, so that the curd falls down at once. Rennet is not supposed to do this by acting as an acid, but by promoting the formation of an acid in the milk itself, which does the work. The milk is thus made to curdle by the action of itB own acid. This is not tne plane to enlarge upon the practical methods of cheese making, nor upon the endless varieties of cheeses to be found in this and otlier countries. Scarcely any two districts have a similar pract:::e in their manufacture, or prioduce nn artH be con highly ammot The milk. way d made as thei lecturt N( buttt weig kno\ eatii ihiri into abo' oft che art! I ash ma the th< all thi un th th ci a fi il c r t ^i&m^m$ mm Ibl4 [keep I they foate ni- hnilk fitro- JU u |«oon and bad Ut ia (npon and Br or ft in ncid and ined reli 73 nn article at all identical in ita taste or appearance. Those of Home districts would be considered the reverse of excellent in others. For iiistHuce, a variety most highly valued in Paris, has undergone an incipient putrefaction, so as to evolve ammonia. The richest cheeses are made by adding the last night's cream to the morning's milk. Such are the Stilton cheeses of England; from these we have them all tne way down to skiin milk, and, in 8ome counties of England, to those which are made from milk that has been skimmed for three or four days in succession. Such as these are perfectly hard and horny. The following table from Prof. Johnston's lectures, gives the composition of several English and Scotch varieties of cheese. TABLE XII. No. 1. No. 2. No. .3. No. 4. 43.82 35.81 38.58 38.46 46.04 37.96 26.02 26.87 5,96 21.97 60.11 31.86 5.18 4.26 6.29 3.81 III 100 lb*. Water, - Casein, Butter, Ash, No. 1 represents a skimmed milk cheese : it will be seen that the proportion o butter is very much smaller than in Nos. 2, 3, and 4; it is, however, weight foi weight, more nutritious than any of the others. It will surprise most persons, to know that cheese contains from 1-3 to 1-2 its weight of water; and that in eating very rich cheeses, fully 1-3 of whnt they eat is butter. No. 4 is a rich Ayr- shire cheese, of the kind with which some of our American dairies come especially into competition. This was a particularly fine sample. Cheese, judging from the above analyses, is both a very nutritious und n very fattening food. The richness of the finer varieties, prevents their being eaten in large quantities. On skim milk cheese, such as that in the first column, a man might live very well as a principal article of diet. It will be noticed that all of these cheeses contain a considerable proportion of ash : this ash is more than half phosphates, chiefly phosphate of lime; of the re- mainder a large part, at might be supposed, is common salt, that has been added to the cheese in curing. In various districts there are different ways of introducing the salt. In some cases it is all put in before the cheese is pressed; in others it is iill absorbed from the exterior after the cheese is made. Thifj will not do for very thick cheese. In making those, a portion of the curd is soviietimes doubly salted, and placed in the centre; the intention being to ensure tha the salt absorbed from the exterior shall penetrate till it meets the part already ^iittid, so that no part of the cheese shall escape. The temperature of the milk at the time when rennet \: added, for the purpose of curdling it, is a matter of much importance to the quality of the cheese. The best authorities prescribe from 90 to 95 deg. of Fahrenheit. a. Great care should be used in expelling the whey from the curj and afterward from the cheese in pressing, as the milk sugar which the whey contains changes its composition, as it does in butter, and communicates a disagreeable flavor to the cheese; by this means cracks uro often formed, and it becomes full of little holes. b. The use of bad salt is another way of effectually injuring the quality of the cheese, making it bitter, and preventing it from keeping well. The impurities of the salt are here the same as those which were mentioned under the head of butter, ill the preceding section ; and the method to be adopted for purifying is also the same. Want ef care in pressing and working out the whey, the use of bad salt, and neglect at to the temperature at which the milk is curdled, chiefly operate in producing the multitude of inferior cheeses which we find in every market; not destitute of richness, but miserable in appearance and flavor. VARIOUS POINTS REIiATIVE TO MILK AND CHEESE. From the composition of the ash of cheese, aa just noticed, and that of milk, mentioned bcforo, we car. c nily see how it h that pastures become poor in pho*- , m sii^iiiiili CONNECTED RECAPiTirr a^ 'JVATING THE SOIJ. : ^^^ P'ants. Great d-- ^^^wiifc. ^"" " 'i^ ^ts proper 1^ oiond are forms. -» fWK!^ '""PI n < ' Hydrocen, a gos, colorlen, taateleu, inodoroc the llghtcft body known. In- flammalTe, explosive when mixed with air, exlm^uiahM combottion, nnd will not ■nstain life. Oxjgen, a gat, colorless, tasteless, inodorous, not inflammable; supports com- bastion most ennrgeticully; Dupports life, both unimal ami vegetable; unites with nearly all other bmlies, and foniis oxides; most abundant of all known sabslances. Nitrogen, colorless, tuateless, inodorous; does not support eonibttstion; does not burn itself; does not maintain life. The great importance, and the vast division of these bodies. THE INORGANIC PAIIT OF THB PLANT Consists of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, oxide of inangnnese, silica, chlorine, sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), phosphorio acid. 1. Potash, common potash, pearlash, caustic potash. 2. Soda, caustic soda, caibonote of soda, for washing. 3. Lime, quicklime, common limestone, plaster of poris, marls generally. 4. Magnesia, calcined magnesia, epsom salts (sulpliate of magnesia). 6. Oxide of iron, common iron rust. 6. Oxide of manganese, commercial black oxide of manganese. 7. Silica, common quartz, flint, ngate, cornelian, chalcedony. 8. Chlorine, a gas, of a green color, heavy, sufTocutiug odor; does not burn, but some metala, when finely powdered, inflame in it. 9. Sulphuric acid, common oil of vitriol. 10. Phosphoric acid; burn common phosphorus, a white, very sour powder. These are all present in cultivated crops, though UNually not in large quantity. boi;rce8 of the food or plants. Their organic food comes chiefly from the air. Carbonic acid, a gas, heavy, extinguishes combustion, fatal to life; no color, slight acid taste, and peculiar smell. Furnishes carbon to plants. This gas is absorbed from the atmosphere by day, throu|(h the lefivcs, and oxy- gen is at the same lime given oflf ; l-2d00th of'^carbonic acid exists in the air. Hov. the supply of it is kept up : combustion, respiration, decomposition. The hydrogen of plants is obtained from water. The oxygen conies from water, carbonic acid, and almost every form of food. Nitrogen is supplied by ammonia nnd nitric acid. Ammonia, a gas, gives the smell to aqua ammouin, and to snielling salts. Nitric acid, coiumon aqua fortis. OF THE OBOANIC SUBSTANCE OF Pt.ANTH; STRt/CTt'HR Of TMK STEM, THE ROOTS, AND TTtlE BRANCHEM. Principal bodies which make up the organic part of plants. Woody fibre, the roost abundant of all, in stems, stalks, leaves, nt?. Starch, the leading substance in needs, and in many tubers. Sugar, (jrum. Oils. Their nature and importance. These all composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen only, the two LiUt'f beiag i the proportions to form water; the same formulB may nnd does reprea((/n«N, ntld olaya. Soila n)ay be named aa one or other of these preduiiiiiiuia, MECHANICAL IMPROVKMENT 0»' TtiK XOIk. Nature of the connection between the aoil and the plant, 0§ll«flt of iniiinf clay with N of y(tge(obl« acids, and other hurtful subHtnncea. Theae defecta are to be removed by draining. Drains tu be 30 to 36 inchea deep, ond olwayB covered, If iiiikId of itotioi, they ahoold bo broken small; if of tiles, these may bo eithur of 1I10 round, aval, or horseshoe shape. The eurth to bo rammed hard above them in ull flOi«i. Thiy ought to run straight down slopes, and be placed 24 to 60 feet iipurt. Subsoil and trench ploughing; diflferenco in the two operutlOHa, Hnd mttirti (if their effect.^ The inorganic substances of the soil are found in plants, with tllA nittgto micep- tion of alumina. The quantity of aoine of them ia quite small in plaota, but ull Mu ttlMoltttoly necessary. Effecl of cropping upon the soil. .;it^*» Ditfcrent crops take away the inorganic subatances of the aoil iu dilTafont pro- portions; their ash also varies in compoaition .' ,, The grains contn in chiefly phosphates. Potatoes and turnips, mostly potash and soda. Grasses, for the most part, Jime and silica; straws, nearly all »\\ki», This explains tho principle of rotation. One crop may nnd food whttt (bfl land has been exhausted for another, and so a succession may ba continued for aoins years. The value of land is kept up by such a course for a greatly Umrmiitii Ittngth of time. Of manures. - , ) z Irrigation, or manuring by running water. Vegetable manures, their nature. Not so energetic in action M aoms fertiliKora, but very beneficial to the soil. Green crops for ploughing under. These lighten and mnllow the soil, »6i\ orottoic matter to it drawn from the air, and bring up mineral aubatancea IVon) th§ •noioi). Htraw. Seaweed: valuable composition of itaaah; should be HppU«r floni* r (nliirif ;olable 'al, or uiely pro- Iflnd Diiia « of Animal manuft$ (eoniinutd). . 'ri ' n. Manuren of domestic animalt. Importance of prcnerving buth tho lolid and theliqaid pnrtaof the manor*; iNnkii nra noceainry, and all other precaations, to prevent drahingo, expoaore, and eoiian- (]H«nt low of nitrogen. Manuro of birds richest of all, having the aolkl and tho liquid paria tofether. Giinno an instance of this class, very rich in nitrogen and in phosphates. Fish, an important manure; contains mach nitrogen, and decomposM ogaily, For thia reason, it should be at once covered, or made into compost. Saline and mineral niannrcs. I^inie. Used as quicklime, slaked lime, ond mild or air slaked lime, Quicklime only to bo used where thero are no rich manures, as, when in eonbifll with them, it liberates nitrogen, and thus deteriorates the manure. Tho efiect of lime in the soil is to decompose organic and inorganic compounds, as well as tn furnish food for plants. Marls, a form of earbonate of lime; shell sand also another form; thoir .Uffiffi^ cial efl'ect as manurea. > . Saline and mineral manurtu {continued). Gypsum, or plaster of puris, a compound of sulphuric acid ond lime, valaahlf food fur plants. Its good effects in attracting gases and moisturfj ; abuse of it by adding, for a series of years, without other manure. Common salt, nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash (saltpetre), carbonate of foda, etc., all powerful manures. , Nono of these, nor guano, should be in immediate contact with the seed, and are best applied in small quantities, with half the usual allownnco of farmyard mo« nurc. A mixture of them, much better than one alone. Wondoshes, coal iishes, peat ashoo, aro all good manures; ounlit to bo kept from rain till they arc used. Good to extirpate weeds, and tu mix with utiivr things for sowing. Soot, a rich manure, contains much ammonia and inorganic substance*. Composition of various crops. Wheat contains from 50 to 66 per cent, of starch, 12 to 20 per cent, of gluten, 3 to 6 per cent, of fatty mutter. Outs, barley ond ryo do not differ groutly hi coiti' position. Buckwheat, less nutritious. Rice contains 80 per cent, of starch. Indian corn has 60 per cent, of starch; oil about 10 per cent., protein sobslanco* 12 to 16 per cent.; is a very fittening food. In peas and beans are starch about 40 per cent., protein 25 to 30 per cent,, and ■ littlo oil. Potatoes contain 75 per cent, of water, 14 to 20 per cent, of starch, and 1 to 'J per cent, of protein. Turnips, beets, etc , have about 90 per cent, of water, and small quunlilifs t)f protein, gum, sugar, etc. Th^'y make op for the poor quality, by tho quantity of nutritive matter that they yield per acre, more than any other crops. . r Application of crops in feeding. Nitrogonous or protein bodies of the plant are the same as those which form ihs muscle, and all the other purls of the animal that contain nitrogen. 'I'he oily or fatty matters are also nearly identical in composition, "" The inorganic substances are the Hamc as in the plant, with tho single execptian of silica. The plant m a species of manufactory, to supply food for the aoimu! in the most ooiivenient form. ^ &. ^mmmm. 78 '' Starch is in great part ued for the purposes of respiration : it b consnmed by & species of combustion in the lungs and blood, to keep the animal warm. Fat, gam. and sugar, may also serve the same purpose, when necessary. The young animal should have food containing substances to increase its bulk ; should not be stinted. All animals exposed to cold, use up a large portion of their food in keeping warm. The full-grown working animal only needs enough food to keep all of its parts complete : does not increase its bulk ; hence its manure is richer. The fattening animal requires food of such a character as to lay fat and flesh on Its frame; its manure is also valuable, in all cases it is better as the food is richer. Various modes of feeding; advantage of cutting straw, stalks, etc. Feeding {continued). The system of feeding green crops ; \Xn probable advantage. Feeding under shelter; sheltered stock increase more with less food. Influence of the state in which food is given. Cut, cooked, soured food; theories of their action. Any form usually better, so long as the animal will eat it, that increases the ease of digestion. Milk and dairy produce. Composition of milk. Butter is a species of fat, enclosed in globules; these rise to the surface of milk, and form cream. Temperature at which churning is commenced, highly important;, also the time oecupiad, a tolerably long time probably best. Care to be taken in separating buttermilk ; consequences, if any remains; salt to be pure. Ash from milk is particularly rich in phosphates. Cheese, made from casein of milk, a nitrogenous body thrown down or curdled by acids. Various qualities of cheese, due in a degree to the greater or less richness of tho milk. Care to be taken in expelling whey, and necessity of using pure salt. Milk should be curdled at a certain temperature. Influence which selling off butter and cheese must have on pastures, by carrying away phosphates, etc. This shows why bones are so benefkialan application to pastures. I have but a few words lo add in conclusion; these rekte to the beautiful and distinct connection which exists between each part of the outline now completed. We may follow any pnrttculur substance in its course from the inanimate soil to the livicg plant, from the plant to the living and conscious animal, and finally see it return to the soil once more. In aH of its changes it remains the same in its na- ture, but is constantly presented to us in new forms. The earth, the mother of all, from whose bosom all forms of life directly or in- directly, spring, and also draw their nourishment during existence, is sure, sooner or later, to uttract her children to her breast aj^ain. The same source from which they drew their lifs, receives them in death and decay. We see, th«n, from these facts that there is an endless chain of circulation, from the earth, up through the plant, to the animal and tlien again hack to thn parent earth. By watching this chain, and the var^ as transformations of matlor during its course, wo rr.ay hope to grow constantly wiser in every diipartment of agricul- ture. We discover that nothiii^r is lost : il" wo burn a piece of wood it disappears, but has merely been converted into carbonic acid and water, both of whicii are at once ready to enter into new combinalions. The animal or the plant dies, and al.-!i> after a time diaappoars; but in its decay every particle furnislies food for a new 79 aeries of living things. The fiirmer can annihilate nothing, he oan only change th« furm of his materials : every study which will enable him to do this according to his wish, should be pursued eagerly and perseveringly. The fiirmer must remember that all of the substances with which he has to do, all of the agents that are at his command, are connected in their composition and action with the fourteen elementary bodies, organic and inorganic, that have been described in this little work. If he preserves them, or if he adds them as manures in an improper furm, his utmost exertions are of little avail; if in a proper form, his land becomes fertile, and his returns all that heart could wish. If one is ab- sent, the others may all be useless; if one is present too largely, the same effect upon the action of the others may ensue. How immensely important then, and how directly practical is the knowledge of these elements, and of the immense variety of combinations in which they present themselves ! In thi» connection, I wish to add two chiipters as an appendix, upon particular subjects, for which there has seemed before to be no appropriate place; and which I hiive therefore omitted till now, rather than interrupt the continuity of the preced- ing essay. The fn-st of these subjects is that of chemical analysis. So many erroneous views are published, and otherwise disseminated, on this important branch of study, that it seems necessary to present bore some plain statements and facts, which may in a degree counteract the false impressions that have gone, abroad. I shall endea- vour to explain what a good analysis ought to be, and to give some simple methods for cheiii'iuiil examinations. The second subject will be geology. This science has been alluded to in pas- sing, and the naturo of its connection with agriculture partially explained. I pro- pose here to give more details, and also some illustrations as to tht laws which are moiit important to the practical man. OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. THE TRUE NATURE OF CHEMICAL. ANALYSIS. Among nil of the subjects that have been presented to the consideration of far rners, shice the work of agricultural improvement comii.encK'l, none has been less understood, even by many of those who have pretended to be its expounders, than thiit of analyJical chemistry, as applied to agriculture. Many authors and speakers have labored to establish it as a fact, that there is no difticiilty iti chemical investigations, beyond what may be overcome by a few days of study : thus a large portion of the farming community have been led into the belief that when proper institutions are established, they themselves, or at least their children, in:iy, in a few weeks time, do all of their own analytical work, just as they do tht'ir own ploughing, and as well as the most accomplished chemist could do it. That surli iJa.is ns these are totally at vnrinnce with the truth, none, who hav«« ever stndied ih.i oubjsct thoroughly, can for a moment doubt. It i» a perfectly safe conclui^iun when any mnn asserts, for instance, the entire simplicity and ease of nualysing a soil, tiiat his analyses '.vonid not bo of a very accurate desrription. Chemistry is a sci3Mc>i that must bo studiod airnestly and perseveringly, jui>t like any other branch of knowledge which has a wide rang '. In order to know what is in a soil, and to determine what arc the quantities of its constituents, j.n intimate a^iqii liiitanco i^ neoessary, not only with the substances thomsclvcs in lliotr almost endless relations and olVinges, hut with ftreat numbers of other substunces froiU \vhir;!i tlu-y must be distinguished, and with which they are likely Ij be co»- f.Mmil(;d by an inox[»erienf!cd neraon. We can only dilcrmiiie quantitias by means of certain cheminal processes; most of ttioio dopMul an the; addition of otiier bodias, to a solution in vvhicrh are dissolvi'd thw t!jit vvt,' u/s'i la a^;p:-,rate. Suppose now {\icf\! bodies which are thus addum ■■M'^.iusmtmim^wwmaitkiii^ m^lMllAwjUUIH 82 The Ibllowing courae may be adopted, in case mere inrornmtion is desired, re- garding the especial constituents of a soil. 1. Take a weighed half pound or pound of the soil, and boil it in water for some hours : rain water is purest. Then pour it upon a filter of coarse porous paper, of the kind that druggists use for their filtrations. The mode of managing thki oper- ation may be seen in any druggist's shop. If the liquid does not come through clear at first, it must be reiiltered till it is quite clear. The solution thus obtained is evaporated to dryness, and the solid residue burned. It will blacken at first, by the burning of its organic matter, but afterwarHo will become white again. a. It may now be weighed on u small apothecaries' balance, and the weight gives the per centage of inorganic matter soluble in water, that exists in the soil. b. This portion consists, in many soils, for the most part, of sulphates or carbo- nates, of potash and soda. There is also commonly preaaiit iis ceased. The mixture i.4 then boiled, or at Seaat well heated, and thrown upon n filter. The insoluble residue which remains upon the filter, must be washed clean from acid, dried and weighed : this is chiefly silica. Its weight, subtracted from the arisinal weight taken, will, in most cases, give nearly the amount of carbonate of lime that has been dissolved out by the acid. Small quantities of other substances have been dissolved at the same time, which have been mentioned in a previous chap- ter, as important to the value of the marl; but they are only to be separated by an instructed chemist. Since expensive manures, such as guano, have come into vogue, the temptation to adulterations on the part of dealers is great, and farmers siionld be cautious in their purchases. By two or three simple tests, the comparative value of a sub- stance offered as a guano, may be ascertained. Table VI., p. 46, will be a use- ful one for reference in such a case. 1. A weighed portion may be heated for some hours, at a temperature not ex- ceeding that of boiling water. The loss of weight will then indicate the amount of water which the guano contnined, and it can be referred with much probability to one of the classes mentioned in Table VI. 2. This dried portioi: may be burned, till it has ceased to lose weight : the loss is organic matter and salts of ammonia; if it is greater than the largest quantity mentioned in Table VI., then it is probable that an adulteration has been practised, hy mixing some finely-ground organic substance, such as tan-bark. 3. The residue, after burning, should be nearly white, not more than about 86 per cent, of the whole weight, and should dissolve almost entirely in muriatic acid. If a large portion refuses to dissolve, some solid substance may have been added as an adulteration. 4. Some solid may also have been added, which would dissolve in acid; and it therefore becomes necessary to ascertain if that which has dissolved be really phos- phate of lime. This is simply and easily done by adding ammonia, till the acid solution has become alkaline : if phosphate of lime be present, it will immediately ba precipitated in the form of white flocculent masses, the quantity of which may indicate the proportion present in the guano. 5. It is safe still farther to test the organic inaiter, by mixing with quicklime, as described, page 46. A very strong odour of ammonia should become perceptible immediately, and continue to be given off for a considerable length of time. The foregoing instances nreof a nature so simple as to be easily understood, and are sufficient t> show that the farmer, without becoming a chemist, moy still make some valual' experiments for his own satisfaction ; and this with such means as are to be fo^uu in any country village. I might multiply cases of the same nature to an indefinite extent, but as this is not an extended treatise upon analytical chemistry, the above illustrations are suffi- cient for the present purpose. One great end will be attained by all who go through with such exar.iinations an these, or who experiment upon the various substances msntioned in the previous portions of this essay. They will soon familiarize '..'mselves to such an extent with chemical phenomena and terms, that they will be able, far more readily and perfectly than ever before, to comprehend the writings and discoveries of scientifie men, and to draw from them truths profitably jipplicable lo their own pursuits. .84 THE GENERAL APPUCATIONS OF GEOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE. h»if.("ii'>i '-. !; OF THE STRATiriED AND UNSTRA TIFIED ROCKS. Geological science explores the structure of this earth's aurface, to as great u depth as our means of observation extend. In the course of geological investigations, various important and interesting laws have been established. It is found that the earth has been, before man inhabited it, a scene of constant change and convulsion. Forces from within and without have elevated, upheaved, and even overturned, some portions of its surface; while others have been over- whelmed or depressed in a corresponding degree. Dry land has thus appeared where seas had flowed, and seas have swept over what had long been elevated above their surface. But it may be asked how do we know these facts ? The answer to this is plain; simply by investigation of existing rocks, in the phe- nomena connected with their position and structure. The labours of geologists have resulted in the establishment of certain great di- visions among the rocks which present themselves for our inspection. The leading, and grand division, is into stratified, and unstratified rocks. Tneunstrarjh*' ' H. lavas have burst up through the stratified rocks, just as volcanic eruptions do nc mc\ have cooled in the open air: in such places we have the ranges of gran:; !. and traps, or basalts, which cover so much of the earth's surface,. T'he strat'f; ocks may be divided into secondary and tertiary formations, ac- cording to li £<> Mge. The primary rocks, as has been stated, bearmark^> of fusion, and of having been formed by heat; not so with the secondary and tertiary rocks. Their materials have evidently all been deposited by water, having, in many cases, undergone striking changes afterward, but always retaining marks of their origin. Sometimes the strata are thick, as in some sandstones and limestones; sometimes thin, like the leaves of a book, as in some slates. a. An example of stratification may be seen in almost any sand or clay bank, where the successive deposits by water are clearly marked ; some of the layers being quite thick, others very thm; some quite level, and others again very undu- lating. These strata were, of course, all deposited in regular succession, one above an- other .' if there had been no subsequent changes, then we should only be acquainted with a few of the upper deposits. But the various convulsions of which I have spoken, interfered to prevent this order; we consequently find the strata lying in all imaginable positions; sometimes flat, sometimes bent, sometimes inclined, and sometimes straight en end or vertical. In this way they are all, even to the lowest, in one place and another, presented to our view. Whatever convulsions they may have undergone, however they have been twisted and contorted, their relative posi- tion to each other is always the same, in whatever part of the world they may be found. This is a most important practical fact; as an instance, there a~.^ many kinds of dandstone : under one kind coal is always found, and this is called the new red sandstone; but below the coal is another, called the old red sandstone. Where this last occurs, it is a positive certainty that no coal exists beneath it, and consequently explorations are fruitless. A person unacquainted with geology would as soon look under one sandstone formation as another, and would therefore be liable to severe losses. Such losses used frequently to occur before geology had arrived at its pre- sent advanced state. It is necessary to say in a few words how these various stratifications are distin- gaisbbd from one another, and how their relative age can be known with so much certainty. thed part Tht ■ ^.l/'^.l/.fl The difTercnt geological exu' liiiations of which I have spoken dhow, that there wero not only vast alteration:) m this earlh'a surface before inun became its inha- bitant, but that race upon race, millions upon niillions, of animated creatures, had lived and died here. With the successivu changes which have deposited the va- rious rocks, whole classes of animals and plants have been swept from existence, and replaced by others, differing perhaps enlircly in form and structure. But these races, though they disappeared, were not nnniliiiated: they were embalmed, us it were, where they died; and we can now dig out from the bowels of the rock an im- pression, or the frame itself, of a tiHh, us clear and distinct us when it first died; or u plant, with every little feathery leaf prirservcd, as perfect as when it waved on that unknown laud, or floated in that ancient sea, long ages before man drew the breath of life. These are the records which enable us to read the en riy history of our globo; these mute witnesses, each in its own peculiar rock, identify that rock, in whatever part of the world it may occur. There is a gradual progression in their appearance. The lowest fossiliferous rocks contain bui few romainfl, and those of specKs entirely dissimilar to any which now e.xist. As w(3 come down from this most remote anti- quity, the fossils increase in number, and also in their likeness to the forms of living species ; until at last, in the vcr} latest furmutions, we find both animals and plants, nearly or quite identical, with some of our existing kinds. A skilful geo- logist can always tell, from its fossils, at what position in the series any rock be- longs. The number of stratified rocks is very great, but it is not toy present purpose even to name them ; I shall only show how u knowledge of their composition bears upon the practical cultivation ot the soil. OF THE DIFFERENCES IN COMPOBITIOlf AMONG THE VARIOUS ROCKS. All of oar rocks, both stratified and unstratified, differ in composition most mate- rially. Wo may take first, two examples of the primary, or unstratified doss, granite, and basalt, or trap. Granite is a mixture of three minerals called quartz, feldspar, and mica. The quartz is nothing but silica, in the feldspar and micu thf-re is also silica, with much alumina, and very considerable quantities of potash nn'J soda. There is scarcely any lime, and no phosphates, beyond, perhaps, mere v races. Some varieties of granite do contain these substances in fair proportions, but for the most part there is very little of either. Hence granitic soils are frequently cold and poor, particularly on the sides of the hills. In the valleys they are apt to be better, as the best part of the decomposing minerals naturally washes down the slopes. The abundance of alumina, however, often makes these soils quite stiff. The true trap rocks, or basaltic rocks, also contain feldspar, but with it an abun- dance of another mineral called hornblende, or another still, called augite. Both of these abound in lime, and consequent! v in this class of rocks, according to theory, we have the materials for producing soils superior to those formed on the granitic regions. Practice supports the same view; the greenstone traps and basalts, almost invariably form strong, good soils, fitted for the successful cultivation of almost any crop. Some of the richest land in Scotland is on this formation. The trap rocks vary in different situations, us to their proportion of lime. In nine samples examined by Prof. Johnston, the per centage of lime ranged from 2 to more than 10 p,er cent. These soils are so rich in some places, that the surface is carted away to spread upon poorer fields. The same differences of composition . :cur among the stratified rocks. Some form very excellent soils, and others very barren ones. The annexed diagram will show how the soils alter, from what is called the cropping out of mineral strata. m Fig. II. At a, the strata are «et up verlicnily, and are quite thin; Huppose them to differ coii- flidernbly ir. cnrnposition, there would he a ditTerent soil in every mile or less. I once e?Eumined a freries offloven slate rocki^, taken from as many different layers of nlate, in the name district. Four of them were almost destitute of lime, two had about 2 percent, each, and one had nearly 8 per cent. H .w different must have l)een the soils which these slates formed ! As we descend upon the plain, in the diagram, l the soil will be perfectly dry. OF THE CAUSES WHICH HAVE DISTURBED THE REOV1.AR FORMATION OF BOILS FROM THEIR UltDERI.YIITG ROCK». From the foregoing explanations, it might be supposed, that if we know the rock lying underneath any given field, and can tell of what that rock is composed, we may be able to decide positively upoo the character of the soil on the surface. This is not, however, always the case. That it is not so, may be ascribed to the numerous convulsions of the earth's surface, which have been before mentioned. Geological explorations have shown, that immense districts in various parts of the world, have no relations in the charac- ter of their surface, to the geoli^ical features of the region; the rocks which would ordinarily show themselves upon the surface, are covered, to n greater or leas ex- tent, by transported materials from some other source. Such observations as these, have led to the study of what are called the phenomena of drift. The vast qaantities of transported materials, which thus overlie original rocks, consist, o.n inspection, of the ruins of other formations that have been broken and crumbled down, and their fragments borne to other regions by some unknown power. It is clear, however, that water has been one chief agent in this action; for in nearly every case the stones which occur in drift, are water-worn and rounded ; thus show- ing that they have been rolled along in some mighty current, till all their angles have worn away. We see hard quartz rocks, weighing many tons, that h«.ve been, perfectly ronnded :ind smoothed in this way, and can thence conjecture how feaiful must have been , tin; n!«h and the war of element?, that produced «uch effects. rm ««»,'■ 87 ler con- llesa. I lyeri of two hnd Mt have (izontal, i>erhap« kg along ie chn- Gr')logi«t« con»i bergs; oth«rii to the upheaval of the bottom in tome portion of the north sea, sending an indescribable torrent of mingled mud, ice, dud water, sweeping over the face of the country ; tearing nwoy hills, scooping nut vnlle\H, crumbling away various strata of rock, and depositing their materials in (.i.ierent and often far distant localities. The fact that the rot^ks on the sides j. some of onr highest hills, are ground smooth, and ma \ed w>*'.i scMtches and evct. deep grooves, in the direction which 'hese currenia', b niass'ia .,i icj look, shows huw irresistible must have been their force, and how great their voluriie. Id some catios, t'le action of this drift has been to cover up good soils, or rocks that are capable ol producing iuch soils, with immense accumulations of sand and gravel. In other \ lar 3S it bus deposited a better class of substances than the ori- ginal. On the whole, it may be considered that it has done good, by mixing th« ruins of v.'.riaus formations; varying the soil and the consequent productions, over districts iuat ««.'uld otherwise have been uniform; and where tho want of these va^ rious material-' might have been severely felt, in all the ordinary occupations of life. What m«8t hav« seemed at the time, wild chaotic confusion and ruin, was then, dftsr all, a wise provision of God, to prepare this coatm-ot more perfectly for our habitation. Thete arc other secti "^ns where foreign accumulations cover the original soil, and alter its capabilities, from causes tliat we can more fully comprehend; caused which are operating at the present 'Jiay. These are alluvial plains, formed by sub- stances deposited during the annual overflow of rivers. These, while the water is high, become charged with materials from all of the formations through which their coarse lies. When the water reaches the plains of the low countries, where it has room to expand beyond its usual limits, a deposit cf these suspended sub- stances takes place, as soon as the current is checked by spreading out over the surface, and its flow becomes tranquil. Thus an annual layer is formed, which in time mal "ts a soil of great depth, and usually of great fertility; for the reason that it is a mi.xtuio from the ruins of many rocks^ and therefore likely to contain all that plants need. We have many instances of such soils in this country; on the banks of the Connecticut, of the Mo- hawk, of the Mississippi, and a hundred other streams. These causes then, are sufticient reasons for saying that we can always assert what any particular soil will be, if we know the rouk of tho district in which it is situated. Our opinion upon such a subject must be ^iven with the reservation — ** If there have been no disturbing influences." An inspei tion of a district by u practised eye, would immediately detect any foreign deposits, and determine their character. It is easy to perceive how even a superficial knowledge of this subject must be valuable to a practical man. If his soil is formed by the decomposition of a granite rock, he can ascertain with little trouble, what are the constituents of that rock, and what are the special manures most likely to prove beneficial in his section. So also if he wishes to buy land in a distant region, and hac no definite knowledge as to itr character; he may determine its probable quality a* 'tnce, from a good geo- logicru map. If he has cultivated the soil of some particuJar formation, till he has come to like it, and to know better how to cultivate it than any other ; he may in the same manner, learn where to find for himself, or for his children, the same kind of land in some other districts. I may observe in conclusion, that while Geology is thus p;.ctically useful, it also is among the most interesting of sciences ; for it takes us back through ages that are past, and lays open the early history of onr globe, with its silent yet speaking re- cords of extinct races, and of sudden, overwhelming changes. Nothing in this world can give such an idea of antiouity , as one of those fossils that I have mentioned; the remains of a fish, or a shell, from some of the lower 4. „. /"* 88 •tratified rock*. U'h are accustumed to think of the pyrntnidi as ancit'iit; butthU creature enjoyed life, and fuliiled its part in the aniinated world, at a period which bring« the pyramidn, in comparison, down to things of ynaterday tSince it died, race after race, in gradual progression. I -* occupied the seas and the land; has in it« turn been sooner or lutur swept away, to iko a partof sonne new formation. Wic*" seas or rapid torrents have rolled over u^ re:3ting plnRtt; and then again by a ttnv change, it has suppoited the immense growth of soniu old fottsil fore«t on dry Jr.iH), which, ill its turn overwhelmed, gave place to other sons, containing still other forms of life. After all these unnumbered centuries of revolution, it comas forth to the gaze of man upon the earth, which in itH day and generation it helped to prepare for his abode; to speak to him of the infinite power of that Being who made them both. his thus with everything in this world of ours; on every side we are reminded of a superior, and an All-wise Creator. We have been tracing nothing but the eviden- ces of his wisdom and power, in the simple, yet beautiful laws which regulate the being and growth of all living things; and here we have in this bit of stone, an evi- dence strong as doubt itself could demand, that these same laws were in operation . thousands of years before an^ of our race existed. To study such laws, then, is a noble, as well as an attractive pursuit, for they are not to outlast us, as they will everything in the material world around us, whose existence and whose periodical changes they regulate. Our bodies, it is true, will come undi>r the universal power of death; will be re- solved once more into their various elements; will perform once more their part ia that great circle of life, which we have endeavoured to follow in its varied round; but our souls will be beyond all such influences; will, living, be acting out an im- n^ortal destiny, in a world where evory transformation will not be a step toward uiumate decay, and where the blossoms of this brief lifetime will ripen into the sweet or bitter fruits of eternity. 95 r-J'.:u; t )'•. .-■ u ui . ;• .- 1 • ; f.i: '.:■ J -■ : ''■ '.i ■' ■ ,..)•• t5:4«.'-.' • -(' . tSV/.J; >■'. : ■! I ■: l^-v; . !• .!■• I. .-AV \ j| f^ which t died, in iu Wi^- a if.'*v other azo or for hit oth. edof t^iden- te the evi- ration ALPHABF/riiAL LIST OF TERMS FOUND IN TflK PRECEDING ESSAY. WITH EXPLANATIONS. Anthr.icile — (from Anthrax, a Greek word, ■igoiryinf '*^f; coal or char- coal) — is the name of a •peciea of coal, which haa a ■) ind which, like charcial when bnrning, emitH great heat, and little It contains 95 per cent, of carbon ; hence it is sometimes called mini Alumina — (from Mumen, a Latio word, aignifyinji alam^ — ix u v lite, powdery light clay, sometimes called Argil, from the Latin Argilla, rAay It receives its name from being the salifiable base of Alum, and is a sesqaioxide of Aluminium, the name of its metallic base. It is very abundant in tho mineral kingdom ; in the ruby and sapphire it is found nearly pure; in granite, §\it», and many other rocks it exists abundantly; and in all clays it forms a principal part. It may be obtained by adding some carbonate of soda to a solution of common atom. Tho deposit, which is white and insoluble, and of a gelatinous appMrnnce, is alumina. When dried en a cloth it becomes a line powder, which, when mixed with water, forms a tenacious mass, that may be moulded into any shape. Ammonia — (which derives its name from sal-ammoniae, from which it was first procured by Dr. Priestley, in its gaseous state, and called bv him Alkaline air) — is a volatile Alkali of a pu'jgent smell. It is a compound of ono atom of Nitrogen and threa of Hydrogen. It may be obtained in tho following manner. Put into a florence flask sal-ammoniac one part, and quick lime two parts; and apply a gen- tle heat. Previously to being mixed and put into the flask, those substances must be reduced separately to a fine powder. To collect the gas, fix in the cork of the flask a glass tube long enough to reach nearly to the bottom of the vessel, which is employeid to receive the gas, when it is inverted over the flask. Ammoniacal gas being lighter than the common air, will rise in the vesMl and expel the air. The following experiment will then excite interest. When von are satisfied that your receiver is full, cork it, then bring it over water which has first been rendered blue by some blue vegetable colour, and then reddened by the addition of a few drops of vinegar, and remove the cork; the water will msh in with force, and the blue colour will be immediately restored by the alkaline gas. Snl-ammonioc re- ceived its name from being found near the temple of Jupiter Ammon in Egypt. Analysis — (from Analuo, a Greek word, signilVing to resolve) — means the re- solution of a thing into its component parts. In chemistry, sach resolution is either proximate or ultitnate — proximate (from the Latin proximut, nearest or next), when it consists only in determining the simpler constituents of a compound, — ulti- mate (from ultimut, last or farthest), when it consists in resolving a substance into its absolute elements. Thus, by proximate analysis we discover that wheat con- sists of the compound substances, starch and gluten ; and by nititnate analysis, of the elements oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, Augite — (from Jluge, a Greek word, signifying brightnett)-- a mineral called so from possessing brightness, though found in voleanie produetions. It was called at ^^—jssifc » '» 'n >m '/ '"♦V^ >^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1^ I.I 1^ 1^ 12.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 Photographic Sdences Corporation /y 4r fe t^ :/. ^ 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" ^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 L4> >^ .•ir-rsr^!! 90 - ■' first pyroxene by HaUv, from Par, firo, and Xenos, a gUMt, probably becauM foDnd unscathed in volcanic lava. Its prevailing colour is dark green — sometinnes trans" lucent, but often opaque — it is hard enough to scratch glass. Its form is an oblique rhombic pristn, and is found in crystals, bounded commonly by twelve planes, every two opposite alike. Albumen — (from Albus, a Latin word, signifying white) — is the chief compo- nent of the white of eggs, whence its name. It enters largely into the composition of the blood, muscles, bones. Sic, of animal bodies. It is also found in the fari- naceous matter which surrounds the embryo in the seeds of vegetables. Both ani- mal and vegetable albumen coagulate by heat, by telcohol, and some of the acids and metallic suits. Soluble solid albumen may be obtained by evaporating a liquid containing albumen at a temperature not exceeding 120 degrees. Bituminous — (from Bitumen, a Latin word, and that from Pitut, a Greek word signifying the pitch tree) — signifies impregnated with bitumeti, or of a pitchy consistency or quality. Bitumen is a term applied to certain inflammable sab- stances, including the liquid naphtha, the viscid petroleuna, and the hard asphaltum* There is bituminous shale, bituminous wood, and bituminous limestone. Carbon — (from Carbo, a Latin word, signifying coal, which is probably from Karpho, a Greek word signifying to dry, ard that from the Hebrew word Hereb, signifybg dryness) -^it suraeiently explained in the Essay, and so also is Carbonie Acid— (see Essay, page 6.) v ,., .r>,.^-^a.. Carbonate is a term applied to a salt coMpoSod of CaVbOrlie Acid «M kh iiXk&- lioe or salifiable base— as Carbonate of lime, soda, potash, copper, &c. Marble, limestone, calcareous spar, chalk, &c., are all carbonated bf lime. Caustic — (from Kaustikos, a Greek word, signifyiag 6urntng)^^is a termapjplied to substances which corrode and destroy the skin and organized bodies. Lime- stone, as it exists in the rocks, is both tasteless and insoluble, but when burned in the'kila, it becomes to a considerable extent Holable, and a(;qair«sa caustic taste. Potass and soda, in their pare state, are al^ very caustic. Caseihe— (from Oaseus, a Latin word, signifying cheese) — is that inigredient in milk which is coagulated or curdled only by the action of aeids. CheeBe, raad« flom skimmed milk, well pressed, is nearly pure Casaine. Chlorine — (from Chloros, a Greek word, signifying gretn) — is a tion-metallio incombustible gas, which received its name from Sir Humphrey Davy in alhniOrt to its colour. It was before called Oxy muriatic Acid, from the opinion that it was a compound substance composed of Oxygen and Muriatic Acid. Tfaie mod* of oIh tainins it is detailed in the Essay — (see page 11). . . ,. ^ .:• Chloride — is a term applied to the combination of chlOrin« gM with «■!>&«», thtti we have the chloride of sodium, or eommCn salt — chloride of ume, an excellent dis- infecting sabttance, when a little muriatic acid is poured ubon it— cblfirid* of potM- num, a substance resembling cCmmon salt, and oticasiCinaify used in the manufilc- ture of alum. Compost — (fW>m ComposUttm, a Latin word, signifying ^t i#fefAer)—>^ia a term applied to a mixture of vegetable or animal matters and lime or Other earthy Mii»- KtiiBCes ptit together fbr ttw purpose of forming a manure. . Dextrine — (from Dexter, a Latin word signifying Hghij a's CppCiAid to lelft^— hi a soluble, white, gummy matter, without taste or smell, into which l!he hlteftor 6f starch globules is converted by Diastase, or by certain jEicida, afid dsrivei its'niiiue from its remarkable property of turning the plane of pokiri2atiob to the tight hand. " Dexttine is bait obtained by haatine to abottt 120° a mixMra of twenty pairta of ■tareh j^aito, ind on part of otrwig inniiioiiof m«li,'tiBtil iodiiao no kiifer II ■•■»aP73n 91 M found 8 trans-' oblique planes, compo- osition he fari- )th ani- acids liquid ■olours the mixture blue. Tha addition of strong alcohol now precipitatas the dei- trine at a thick syrup, while any sugar remains dissolved. When dried, dextrine much resembles gum, from which, however, it differs in the extreme facility with which it is converted into sugar when warmed with dilute sulphuric aeid or infusion of mult, and by not yielding mucie acid when acted on by nitric acid."— Gregory. Diastase — (from the Greek words Dia, through, and StasiSj a setting or plac- ing) — is a peculiar principle procured from the part of the potato which is attached to the young shoot, and from germinating barley and wheat, a'^d which cannot be procured from nnmalted grain or that portion of the potato, which is distant from tho shoot. Its name seems to be given to it from the office it holds in the process of germination. Like gluten, olbumon, and caseine, it is rich in nitrogen, and is supposed to btt produced by the transformation of some of these compounds. Its effects upon starch are most remarkable, the diastasp contained in one pound of multed barley being sufficient to convert five pounds of starch into sugar. Dolomite — so named from the French Geologist, Dolomieu — is a variety of magoe- sian carbonate o( lime of granular structure, or magnesian marble. Its slow or feeble effervescence with acids distinguishes it from primitive limestone. Elaine — (from Elainos, a Greek word signifying oily)— is a term applied to the oily principle of oils andfuts. It is obtained by submitting to pressure hogs' lard, fats, and oils, in a very cold state. What is squeezed out is the portion which re- mains liquid, and that is elaine. Feldspar — (from the German words Feld, field, and Spath, spar; the latter word spar appearing to be a corruption of the German spath, a word applied to what is lamellar in structure)— is an important mineral of a foliated structure, comr posed of silica, alumina and potash, with traces of lime. It forms an ingredient of .granite, and is the base of some other rocks. It takes its German name from being frequently a constituent of the loose blocks of stone that are scattered over the country. ,. , - .. , > ... , . Gypsum— (from the Greek Gupsoo, to plaster or spread) — is native sulphate of lime, and is found in the form of a soft chalky stone, which gives out under a moderate heat its water of crystallization, and falls into a very fine white powder, known commonly by the name Plaster of Paris. Alabaster, of which orna- mental vases, small statues, &c., are made, is a species of gypsum. The term is derived from a the Greek privative, signifying not, and laboti, signifying a han- dle, the vessels made of it not having handles. Gluten — (a Latin term, which signifies glue) — is a viscid, elastic substanre of a grayish colour, but brown and brittle when dried. It is obtained by washing under a. stream of water wheat flour wrapped in a coarse cloth. This process carries ofi' all the starch and soluble matters, and leaves the glaten behind. This subatPiic^* bich give* has been called the vegeto-aniinal principle, from its containing nitrogen, of v it has about 15 per cent., as also n small amoimt of sulphur. That which firmness to the texture of the blood is also culled gluten. Gelatine — (from the Latin Gelo, to congeal) — is a proximate principle, found in the tendons, ligaments, cartilages, bones, and skin of animals. It u obtained in solution, by acting upon any ot these substances with hot water, and on cooling, it forms a tremulous jelly. From the coarser forms of gelatine, derived from hoofs, hides, &c., glue is made. From skin and other fine membranes, size is derived. And from the air bladders, and other mHiiibranes of fidli, Isinglass is manufac- tured. Gelatine cannot yield albun>en, fibrine, or caseine, and therefore of itself fails in giving permanent strength and nourishment to animals. Guano — the term applied to a well-known iiiunurc, seems to bo derived from 'Guana, a lizard of South America, the uxurument* of these reptiles being c-om- *> ^T' <•'■ :.'*ii-i&iJlS:', 03 poMd ehicfly of orate of ammonia, oa« of the principal ingredients in guano. This, manure has ita fall riiare of attention in the preceding Essay. Granite — (from the Italian word Oranito, grained) — is an a^regate rock, com- posed of qnartz, feldspar, and mica. Sometimes one of these mmerals is wanting. Granite, according to Geologists, is the foundation rock of the globe, or that upon which all secondary rocks rest. By means of volcanic agency, it has protraded from its natural situation, so as to elevate and dislocate the adjoining strata, which it penetrates occasionally in the form of veins. Disintegration of some kinds of gra- nite is rapidly taking place in consequence of the joint action of air and rain upon the feldspar, removing its potash, and causing the silica and alumina to fall into white powder. Galactoroeter — ^is derived from the Greek words Oalaktot, of milk, and Metron, measure. Hydrogen — is derived from the Greek words Hudor, water, and Gennaein, to generate. It was formerly called inflammable air, and was thought to be identical with phlogiston, a term which chemists have applied to the matter of heat. Its properties and the manner of procuring it are well explained in tho Essay. In the atomic valuation of the chemical elements. Hydrogen, being the lightest substance known, is assumed as unity, on referring to the proportions by weight in which Iwdies combine. Hydrochloric Acid— is a gaseous compound of Hydrogen and Chlorine. Water absorbs it with much violence, taking up about 480 times its own volume. In this aqneoos state it is commonly known as Muriatic Acid, the name by which it was formerly designated. Place in a saucer about a quarter of an ounce of salt, and pour upon it about 25 drops of sulphuric acid, dense white fumes will immediately ari^e— these are called hydrochloric acid. The chemical action taking place here is as follows : the sodium of the salt unites with the oxygen of the water, which is contained in the sulphuric acid, to form oxide of sodium, or soda, which, uniting di- rectly with the real salphnrie acid, forms sulphate of soda, and the chlorine that was combined with the sodium in the salt, but now disengaged, combines with the Hydrogen that was with the Oxygen, and produces Hydrochloric Acid. Hornblende — (from the Geiman words horn and blenden, to blind or da22de) — is a mineral of a dark green and black colour. It has a glistening appearance. It abounds with Oxide of Iron and enters into the composition of some of the trap rocks. It was called by Hatty, AmphiboU, a word signifyin|; doubtful or equivo- cal. The application of this term to it may have arisen from its being so like acii- noliU and tremoliUt minerals having nearly the same characteristics. Legumine — (from the Latin word Legumen, pulse) — is a peculiar product ob- tained from pease. It seems to be intermediate between f/u^en and aZ^umen. It is obtained in the following manner. Pease are bruised in a mortar, then mixed with water, and strained through a piece of muslin. A milky liquid passes through, iirom which starch is sradually deposited. The liquid, when clear, is decanted and boiled; a pellicle or skin, like the scum on the surface of boiling milk, appears on the top. Thra is legumine, or as it is sometimes called, vegetable caseine. Like |laten and albnmen, it is rich in nitrogen, and also contains sulphur as an essential ingredient. » I^iava — (from the Italian word laua or lava, a stream) — is a term applied to that burning mass of matter which is ejected from the craters of volcanoes and runs in streams down their sides. The matter, when cooled, retains the same name. Lactic — (from the Latin word lac, milk) — signifies pertainin|( to milk, and is •hicfly used to designate the acid, which is procured flrom sour milk or whey. It kas the 6at com- taotiog. \t upon »traded I'hich it of gra- upon ill into 93 has neither colour nor ainell, bat is ver^ sour. It is found alio in human urine, and the fermented juice of beet root, turnipt, carrots, &c. It« chemical composition is 6 atoms of carbon, 6 of hydrogen, and 6 of oxygen. Malt — (probably from a root signifying to soften, connected with the Latin mol- li$, soft) — is barley which has become sweet, or whose starch has been con- verted into sugar by incipient germination, caused by artificial means. The process of malting is as follows : the grain is first steeped in cold water for forty hours, or more. This causes it to swelland become soft. The water is then drained off* and the softened grain is spread about two feet thick upon a floor, with free access to the air; it then heats and in about four days shoots out small roots, giving signs of incipient germination. It is then spread thmner to stop the growth, and after two days, durmg which it is frequently turned over, it is put into a heap and suffered to become somewhat warm. It is finally conveyed to the kiln, where, by a gradual heat, it is rendered dry and crisp. The result is malt, from which beer is manu- factured. Margarine — (from tbe Greek word Margarite, a pearl) — is a term given to the solid fatty matter of certain vegetable oils and hog's lard, from its pearly lustre. The concrete portion of olive ou yields the purest maigiirine. This snbsiance dis- solves in hot alcohol, and crystalizes on cooling. Mangel-Wurzel — are German words, signifying scarcity-root. This name is applied to a large species of beet, the Beta Hybrida, or mongrel beet, from the circamstaace that in Germany, in times of scarcity, it has been used as an excel- lent substitute for bread. It is cultivated largely for the food of cattle. Some aatbors prefer the term Mangold Wurtzel. The Germans use the term mangold to signify the beet, especially the white beet, and some other roots. Nitrogen — (from the Greek words nitront nitre, arui gennao, to generate) — is the name of a tasteless, inodorous, incombustible gas, so called from being the base of Nitric Acid. It was formerly called azote (a term compounded of the Greek privative a, and the adjective zotikos, vital), because it cannot sustain animal life. Besides the mechanical mixture of gases that constitutes atmospheric air, there are five known compounds of oxygen and nitro^ n, possessed of remarkable properties, viz., tbe protoxide or nitrous oxide, sometimes called laughing gas, from its exhili- rating effects, when inhaled; the deutoxide or nitrous gas, or nitric acid, known by its causing orange coloured fumes, when it escapes into the air; the hyponitrous acid; the nitrous acid, an acrid, pungent, and powerfully corrosive anhydrous liquor, which rapidly dissipates when exposed to the air in orange red fumes; and nitric acid, formerly called spirits of nitre, and nuw, as diluted with the sulphu- ric and muriatis acids, commo^ known in commerce by the name Amiafortis. All these compounds contain one atom of nitrogen each, but the atoms or Oxygen increase in regular order from one in nitrous oxide to five in nitric acid. Tbe pro- perties of nitrogen, as well as the manner of educing it from atmospheric air, are well explained in the Essay — (see page 8.) Oxygen — (from the Greek words oxus, sour, and gennaein, to generate) — re- ceived its name from producing acids when united with certain bases, as sulphuric acid with sulphur, nitric acid with nitre, carbonic acid with carbon. By its dis- coverer. Dr. Priestley, it was called diphlogisticaied air, because he conceived it did not contain phlogiston (a term derived from phlegein, to burn), by which the principle of inflammability was named. By Condorcet, it was called vital air, from its property of sustaioing life, and death being the result of its absence. Its properties, and tbe manner of evolving it, are described in tbe Essay — (see page 7.) Oxide — (from the Greek words oxus, sour, and eidos, form or appearance) — is u term given to a non-acid compound of oxygen. In experimenting with oxygen be- fore it received the name. Chemists finding that acids were so generally produced *;. f'^?f^ i ii'(f 91 by it, huatity concluded it to be the univental acidifying principle, and therefore called it Oxygen. This name it retains, thoagh tar from being correct, because the element is equally active in producing Alkalies, and compounds which are neither acids nor alkalies, as the neutral substances called by the name of Oxides. The lu^tallic oxides are particularly valuable, as the oxide of manganese, the oxide of zinc, the oxide of mercury. Protoxide — (from the Greok Protoi, first, and Oxide) — is the name given to an oxide when one equivalent or atom of oxygen is combined with one equivalent of the base. In like manner the term Deutoxide (from the Greek word deuteros, se- cond) is appKed when there are two equivalents of oxygen united to one equivalent of the base; and Tritoxide (from the Greek tritos, third) when there are three equivalents ef Oxygen united to one of the base, dec. Sesquioxide (from tho Latin Sesqui, signifying so much, and one half more) means that one equivalent and a half of one element is united with one equivalent of anothei , or that two equiva*' lents and a half of one are united to two equivalents of another, as in the case of Alumina, in which there are two equivalents and a half of oxygen, and two equiva- lents of Aluminium. Peroxide — (from the Latin word Per, through, and Oxide) — is a term applied to the highest degree of oxidisement, of which a metal or other substance is suscepti- ble without becoming an acid. It has been remarked, that this term has not been happily chosen, since different peroxides do not always contain the same quantity of oxygen; the peroxide of mercury being a protoxide, the peroxide of tin a deutox- ide, and the peroxide of gold a tritoxide. Pectine — (from the Greek Pektis^ what is congealed, artificial ice, curdled milk) — is a vegetable jelly, resembling isinglass, obtained by mixing alcohol with the juice of ripe currants or any similar fruit, till a gelatinous precipitate takes place. Phosphorus — (from the Greek words Pho8, light, and Phero, to bring or bear) — is the name of a semitransparent, almost colourless, elementary substance, which when cut with a knife presents a waxy surface. It receives its name from shining in the dark, and being inflamed at a very low temperature. It was made originally by distilling urine, but is now always extracted from calcined bones, with half their weight of sulphuric acid mixed with water. Phosphate — is a n< formed by the combination of phosphoric acid with a salifia- i)le base, as the phosphates of lime, soda, &c. The phosphate of lime constitutes 'the' base of the bones of animals, hence the reason for extracting pAoapAorus from bone. Plaster of Paris — a name given to Gypsum, froiji the circumstance of its abound- ing plentifully in the vicinity of the capital of France, especially on the hill Mont* martre, which is said to be wholly composed of it. Silica — (from the Latin word Silex, a flinl) — is a compound substance, an oxide of Silicum, its metallic elementary base, and is sometimes called silicic acid, be- cause it combmes with many aalifiablo bases, forming silicates, substances that con- stitute the greater number of the hard minerals that encrust the earth. Flint ii nearly pure silica. Sulphate — (from sulphur) — is a conoponnd of sulphuric acid with « base, as sul- jpbateof copper, commonly known by the term blue vitriol, or blue stone; suJpbate of iron, or green vitriol; sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol ; sulphate of lime, or gypsum; sulphate of magnesia, or epsom salts; snilphate of soda, or Glauber's salts. Shales — (firom the German Schaelen, to peel, or scale) — is a term applied to ■slate clay, from its peeling, paring, or scaling nature. It is generally a mark of the -existence of coal, and in coal mmes it is found frequently in strata. It aboundii >Avith vegetable impressions. glVtil horj fro{ frol roi ori o( fH-s-. : i- i:i4.fls%*: . t-^m^ lerefor* >wihe aeither The ^ide of to an Not of fvalont three Latin land a iuiva<^ >«e of juiva- ied to cepti- been mtity utox- nilk) h the ce. fiear) mich ining iialJy thetr 95 SodiuDi ia the metallic base of soda, which is itH protoxide. Thi» metal was diaco- Tered by the voltaic electrical experiments of Sir Humphrey Davy. It isailver white, with a very high lustre. When thrown into warm, water, such is the mpidity with which it decomposes tl^e water and unites with its oxygen, thnt it spontaneously takes fire. Potassium, the base of potassa, is still more remarkable for thi» property, for when put upon ice or into cQld water, it bursts into flame. Common salt is a chloride of sodium, consisting of 61) of chlorine and 40 of sodium in 100 parts, (see Chloride above). Sienite or Syenite — (from Syene or Siene, a place in Upper Egypt) — is a name given to granular rock, composed of quartz, hornblende, and feldspar. It ia the hornblende that distinguishes the rock from granite generally. It received its name from the fact, that many ancient monuments consisting of this rock were brought from Syene, in Upper Egypt. Stratified — (from the Lfktin word Stratum, that which is spread or laid) — signi* Res arranged in layers or ttrata, and is applied to rocks that are disposed in layem one above the other. Limestones, aandstones and slates, are of this class. Bat flranite, greenstone and lav.t, are said to be unstratified, because they do not ex- hibit any such arrangements. Trap — (from the Swedish word Trappa, a flight of steps) — ia a name given to rocks, which rise in layers like a series of steps. They are apparently of igneous origin, and are known under the names of greenstone, basalt, toadstone, whin, pitchstone, amygalojd, &c. Note. — The fin^e in the Greek words, above refened to as the sources of some of the terms, is t4i>e pronounced long, as doable e in the word feeH. I 1^-. lifia- utes i'om nd. mt« ide be. ra- il For the abov« List of Terms, with Explanations, the Publishers are indebted to James Paterbon, L L. D., Principal of the Saint John Grammar School, who has famished it with the hope tb^it will be found useful to those who read or study Professor Nortok's valuable Essay. It ought to be added, that Dr. Patkrson revised the proof sheets of the Essay as they went throogh fte Presb. if^'f'r lie 6r Is. to le '. \. m?i-^ m I- ''■■iJ&. % --.,