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HYP806RAPHICAL M^

NEW YORK, D. APPLE

OGRAPHICAL MAP OF ASIA

e-vation. of tlie Land al>oire tKe Level of tKe Sea.

tUJ M Oflkt t

r-lKtOOWmt

■H-E\l/ YORK, D. APPLETON 8cC?

**?

'1\

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"^ ,||.'Niliiii|i"' A>^H

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«i

CONTENTS.

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

rAoa

Chap. I. Oineral Remarks ok Asia . 1

Plateaux : Highliinds and Lowlitnds, p. 3. Qeological Formation : Igneous Forces, p. 6.
Climate: Diminution of Moisture, p. 8. Areas of Inland Drainage, p. 9. Rivers flowing
iSeawards, p. 12. Temperature, Rainfall, Vegetsition, p. 14. Peninsulas, p. 16. Inhabitants,
Culture, p. 18. Religions, p. 21. Historical Retrospect, Migrations, p. 23. European
Influences, p. 24. Progress of Discovery, p. 25. Political Rivalries, p. 28.

Chap. II. Caccasia 33

I. Cauuasia: The Ponto>Caspian Mountuin System, p. 33. The Great Caucasus, p. 34.
Geological Formation, Volcanic Action, p. 38. Water Systems, Snow-line, Rainfall, Glaciers,
p. 40. Vegetation, Fauna, p. 43. Inhabitants ; Varied Ethnical and Linguistic Elementx,
p. 46. Russian Conquests : Main Physical Divisions, p. 48. II. Wi stern Cavcamia : Kuban
Basin, p. 60. River Systems : Kuban Basin, p. 60. 'I'aman Peninsula, p. 63. Inhabitants :
. the Cherkesses, p. 64. The Abkhasians and Cossacks, p. 67. Toiiography, p. GO. III.
Central Cavcasvs : Koma anu Terek Basins, p. 64. River Systems : Kuma Basin, p. 66.
The Terek, p. 68. Inhabitants: the Kabards, p. 70. The Osses and Nogai Tatars, p. 71.
Topogmphy, p. 73. IV. Eastriin Caucasia : Daohestam, p. 78. River Systems, p. 79.
Inhabitants : the Cliechenzes, p. 79. llie LoEghians, Tats, and Tatars, p. 83. Topography, p. 86.
V. Inour, Rion, and Chohi'kh Bamnb: Minorelia, Imeritia, Svania, Lazibtan, p. 88.
Climate, Flora and Fauna, p. 91. Inhabitants: the Svans and Ttachians, p. 92. The
Imeritians, Mingrelinns, and Lazes, p. 94. Topography, p. 96. ^ ( The Kura Bakin:
(iBOHOiA, Transcaicabiin Tataht, p. 100. River Systems: thel. >;•: p. 100. Agriculture,
Irrigation Works, Climate, p. 1U4. Lower Kura Busin : Apsheron Pen-' ula, p. 106. Inhabit-
ants: the Georgians, p. 111. The Khevsurs, Pshavs, and 'J'dshes, p. 116. The Tatars,
Talishes, Slavs, pnd Germans, p. 119. Topography, p. 120. VII. Bissian Armenia : Ararat,
Ala ooz. Plateau op Lake Gok-chai, and Araeis Basin, p. 13(i. Orography: Ararat.
Ala-giiz, p. 130. Lake Gok-chai, the Karabagh, Flora and Fauna, p. 136. The Araxis Basin,
p. 139. Inhabitants: the Armenians, p. 140. Topography, p. 146. YIII. General Con-
dition AND Administration of the Caucasus, p. 160. Land Tenure, Agriculture, p. 162.
Population, Industries, Trade, Education, p. 164. Religions, Finance, Administration, p. Iu8.

Chap. III. The Aralo-Oaspun Basin: Russian Turkestan, the Turkoman Country, Khiva,

Bokhara, Region op the Upper Gxus 161

T. General Survey, p. 161. II. The Pamir and'AlaI, p. 166. Flora, Fauna, Lnkesof the
Pamir, p. 170. The Ala'i Highland, p. 171. III. The Tian-bhan, p. 176. Orographic
System, p. 176. Katdn and Yulduz Highlands, p. 179. Semirechinsk Region, p. 182. Ala-
tau Highland, p. 183. I.Ake Issik-kul and Western Tian-shan Highlands, p. 184. IV. Tar-
BAUATAi Hiohlands AND Bai.khash Basin, p. 189. Lake Balkhash, p. 191. Semirechinsk
River System : the Hi, p. 192. V. The Ahalo-Cahpian Hyouookapkir System, p. 193. The
Turkestan Deserts, p. 194. Flora and Fauna of Turkestan, p. 196. Water System: the Sir,
p. 108. The Oxns River System, p 201. The Aral Sea, p. 208. The Turkoman Deserts and

CONTENTS.

r*aa
Highlandi, p. 213. The Atrek and Ourgsn Wven. p. 214. Tho U«t-urt PlatMU, p. 216.
KHrt ConBt of tho Caipian, p. 217. VI. Inhaiiitanth or tub Aralo-Cakpiam Uboiumk, p. 219.
The Turkomani, p. 220. Tho Kara-Kulpak» and Kirghiz, p. 225. Tho Taranchii and Dunurnna,
p. 231. 'JTio Uzbogs, p. 233. Tho Hurti)», Tajik*, and Oulchus, p. 234. VII. Statu ok tub
Aualo-Cahi>ian lUiiN : I. Haktriana, or Afghan Turkestan, p. 237. Wakhan, p. 238. Dadak-
Khan, p. 240. Kundui and Uamian, p. 244. Khulm, Balkh, Andkhoi, p. 247. II. Merv : the
Houthom Turkoman*, p. 260. III. Bokhara, p. 262. Bhignan and Itoahan, p. 263. Darvas
and Karatoghin, p. 263. Hiasar : the Iron Oate, p. 366. Topography : Bokhara, p. 267.
IV. Khiva, p. 2U3. V. Uuiaian Tuikoatan, p. 268. Ferghana Baain : Topography, p. 372.
humarkaiid, p. 2! 2. Kulja Basin : Topography, 284. Administration of Turkestan, 287.

Chap. IV. 8iiiekia 292

I. SiBBKiA, p. 202. Progress of Conquest and Discovery, p. 193. Water Highways, Portage*,
Highlands, p. 297. Iliver Bystenu, p. 300. Northern Heuboard, p. 30). Pacific Seabuard :
Transbaikalia, p. 304. Climate, p. 306. Flora, p< 310. Fauna, p. 314. Inhabitants : the
Chddes, p. 317. II. Thb Altai Uiohlands, p. 319. Flora and Fauna of tho Altai, p. 323.
Inhabitants: the Kalmuks, Tatars, and llussians, p. 324. Topography, p. 327. III. Tub On
Basin : Oovbhnmbnts of Akholinsk, Bxmipalatinsx, Tomsk, Tobolsk, Eastbhn Disthicts
OF THB Oovbhnmbnts of Pchm and Ohbnbuko, p. 320. Tho Irtish Basin, p. 33). Course of
tho Ob, p. 334. Inhabitants of the Ob Basin : the Voguls, p. 338. The Ostiaks, p. 340. Tho
Urol Mining Districts, p. 344. Topography of West Siberia, p. 346. IV. Ybnbbei-Baikal
Basin, p. 3)2. Basin of the Western Yenesei, p. 362. Inhabitants : the Chddes, p. 366. The
Boyots and Karagaases, p. 366. The Tunguses, p. 368. Topography, p. 361. The Baikal-
Angara Boain, p. 364. The Tunka Highlands, p. 366. Lake Baikal, p. 868. Tho Angara
Water System, p. 373. Inhabitants : the Buriats, p. 376. Topography, p. 378. V. Ba»in of
thb Lbna : Shobbh of thb Arctic Ocian, p. 382. The Lena and its Inhabitants, p. 384. The
Yana, Kolima, and Indigirka Itivers, the .A rctic Islands, New Siberia, p. 3M8. Inhabilanta:
tlio Yakuts, Yukaghirs, and Chuvantzes, p. 303. Topography, p. 398. VI. Bkuino Pekinscla.
Basik of thb Anadir, and Kamchatka, p. 899. Bering Strait and Sea, p. 402. Climate:
Fauna and Flora, p. 406. Inhabitants : the Chnkchis, p. 408. The Koriaks and Kamchadales,
p. 413. Topography, p. 416. VII. Thb Stanovoi Highlands, Amur Basin, Rvmian
Manchuria, p. 417. The Stanovoi Uplanda: the Yablonoi Range, p. 410. The Dailrian
Plateau, p. 420. The Amur River System, p. 423. Tho Sungari ond Usuri Rivers, p. 426.
The Lower Amur and its Delta, p. 428. The Manchurian Seaboard, p. 43\. Climate of
Manchuria, p. 432. Manohurian Fauna and Flora, p. 434. Inhabitants : the Golds and other
Tungus Tribes, p. 436. The TazI, Mandzi, Gilibks, and Russians, p. 437. The Kamensh>ki,
p. 440. Topography, p. 442. VIII. Sakhalin, p. 448. HigUands, p. 462. Climate, Fauna,
Flora, p. 463. Inhabitants : the Ainos and Oroks, p. 466. Topography, p. 467. IX. MATsitiAi
Condition and Administration or Siberia, p. 469. Social Elements : the Exiles and Outlaws,
p. 460. The Siberian Bussians : the Commune, p. 463. Religious Sects : the Stranniki, p. 466.
Agriculture, the Chase and Fisheries, p. 466. Mining Industries, p. 467. Manufactures,
Trade, p. 469. Highwayi* of Communication, the Trakt, Railway Projects, p. 471. Educa-
tion, Administration, p. 472. Siberian Political Life, p. 474. Growth of tub Russian
Empire, p. 476. Merv, p. 478. The Dera-g&z,4Sl. The Akhal Tekke Country, 483. Racbs
of Asiatic Russia oroupxd aooobdino to thbir Affinitibs and Rblioioxh, p. 486.

ApPBNDIX : STATISriCAL

Tables . . . / . f

Index

480
497

^-*^«-.

■MPP

.... . ■4.1,

i My i i m' .. .t ipp— .■ . ! iiii im . , . M l iii>ii I I I imm

20'i

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

MAPS PRINTED IN COLOUES.

1. Hypsographical Map of Ana. Frontiipieec.

2. EthnographicRl Map of tho Caucasus .

3. Lakes Balkhnsh and Issik-kul .

4. The Delta of the Amu-daria

6. Ethnographical Map of Northern Asia

6. Victoria Bay, or Gulf of Peter the Great

PLATES.

Clillk in the " Yellow Earth," north of Tai-

yuen, Shau-si . . To fact page 11

The Upper Yangtse-kiang .... 13

The Darial Defile . . . . . .42

Jews of the Caucasus . - . .66

Patigorak— View taken irom the Mnshuka Slopes 73

Svan Types 92

Mingrelian Types and Costumes ... 05
Georgian Types and Costumes . .111

ImerianTypeiand Costumes— Gronpof Dancers 116

KheTsnr in Armour 118

A Street in Tiflis . . . . .124

Armenian Types and Costumes . . . 140

TownofQirOsi 149

ShchuroTskiy Glacier . ■ . . . .173
Kizil-kum Desert— Dossihai W'ellii . . .194
Ijako Iskander-kul . . . . '202

Shores ot the Casnian 208

Turkoman Customs— Pursuit of the Bride . 222

Kirghiz Horsemen . . . To fact page 226
Kirghiz crossiug a River . . . . . 229

Tajiks of Bokhara '234

Colossal Idols, Upper Bamian Valley . .245
The Iron Gate Defile on the Kanhi-Derbent

Route 267

Bokhara — Assembly in front of tho Monqne . 268

Khiva , 266

Itukhtarma Valley— Altai highlands . .319
Ostiak Types and Costumes . . . . 841

Yekaterinburg 348

General View of Tobolsk . . .360

General View of Omsk . . . . . 851
Tungus Types and Costumes .... 360
Irkutsk— View taken before the Fire of 1878 . 380
Chukchi T3rpe8 and Costumes . . . .408
General view of Petropavlovsk . . .416
Gold Types and' Costumes .... 436
Port of Ayan, Sea of Okhotsk .... 442

•

T»

LlaX OF ILLUSTUATlONa.

ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT.

no.
1.
■J.

li.
6.
7.
8.

0.
10.
11.

\i.

13.

14.
16.

10.

17.

18.
10.

20.
21.
22.

23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

31.
32.
33.

34.
36.

36.

37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
4.5.
46.

A8UTIC RTTHHIA.

Plntmiux nnil I'lninn of Cnntnil A»iii
I'linillnliNtn oi' tliii Main Aiitttic Itaiigei
Mount KvKiirNi' ....
'I'hti llitn-lmi : u ilrinj-iip 8t«-V)«d
Arid KoKionit mid Cluwd lluaini of Aaia
iNoliiini in •liinuury . . < •

iMotHirii in July

Ciirvnaof th« Ka»t< rn Aiintii; Huuboard and

Inlnndii

Doniiity of thn Aiiiittic I'opuliitions .
PlNtritiiitioii of thn Aitiiitic lliicua
('liii)f Uoligiona of Central Asia
( 'hiof Itinttnirioi of ('ontnil Anil
EurupottQ Inttuunco in Asia

3
4

17
lU
22
27
29

CAUCASIA.

Dcd ol tho Canpian 35

Ui'olo)ificuL Konnutions of tho Cuntral

C'llllUHHIlll 27

Hot HpringR und Kuphtha Rogioni in tho

CuucHsiia 30

Profile of tho Caucosua as aoon from Pati-

gorak 40

Kninfall of tho Cnucaius . . . .41
TiiK Kaziikk : View taken rnuu Tin

Kaziikk Station .... 43

Knzbuk and Devdoraki Olacion . . 44

Forest* of tho CaiicasiiB .... 46
Tho Weatem Caucasus aoon from ofT Capo

Kodor 60

Tho Akhtari I.iman 62

Tho Kuku-Uba Mud Volcano ... 64

AltKIIAHIAN TVI'E 68

COHBACK KbNTINKI, 60

Valley of the B/,ib 01

The Tamau Peninsula . . .62

Valleya of Erosion in the Kuban Baain 63
Passanauh, on the Tiflih-VlaiiiKavkaz

Wot'TB 66

The f:ibruz Oroup 66

Uamification of tho KalnOs ... 67
Delta and flooded Districts of the L )wer

Terek . . ... .68

The Terek Floods of 1863 . ... 69

Patigorak and the Begion of Thermal

Waters 74

The Vladikavkiiz-Ananur Route through

the Torek Valley .... 76

The Tebulog-mta Oroup .... 77

Moutha of the Terek and Lower Sulak . 80

The Kuba District 81

NooAi Yoi'TH 84

Mount GCnib .86

Derbent .87

Mouth of the Rion . . . . . 89

Upper Ingiir Valley 03

MiNOHBLiAN Lady 96

Kulaiia and tho Rion and Kvirila Junction 97

rii.

47. POTI

48. IIati^m ....
41). Akhiilkalnki Plntnau .

60. Tatah 'I'vi-R

61. The Kiini nnd Atnxiit Confluonuo

62. Mouths of tho Kuril .

63. Chiiif Region* of l'liirth(|ii>tkcN in (!ituciwiii

64. Usi'illatioMa of the Huku Coast during tho

last 1,600 Vtiiirs

66. Thit Apiihor.in Puninaula ....
60. Mt/!kiirt, Ancunt Caimtal or Oeoroia

67. Tho KhevBur, Ti^sh Hnd I'ahav Ijanda

68. Tho Huram Pass nnd Musk Mountains

69. The Kura Valley bvtwnoii Uori and

Mtzkhut

60. Tiflis

01. Yelizavotpol and Vicinity . . . .

02. Tho Telav Rosin

03. Baku and (.'aph Bail-Buuni .

04. Lenkoran

06. Recent Russian Conquent*

00. Ararat

07. MoVNV AuAiitT

08. Alu-giiz .......

00. Lake Qok-chai

70. llie Alapolarim I-4iva Htreams .

71. Araxis and Zuiign Basin . . . .

72. Ahminian Woman

73. The Kara chui Valley: Kara and Alox-

andrapol

74. Xakiiiciibvan

T6. Progreaa of Ruaaian Conquoat .

76. Fever Districta in Caucaxia

77. Density of tho Population of the Caucasus

in 1873 per Square Mile . .

78. Highways in Caucasia ....

79. Section of the Route from Vladikavkaz to

Jufa

80. Shiahs and Sunnitoi in Eastern Caucasia .

81. Baku Harbour

H2. Stavropol

FAON
0»
OC

lot

1(13
1U3
100
lUH

109
110
112
117
121

122
136
126
127
128
129
131
132
133
136
136
137
143
144

146
148
160
161

163
164

156
166
167
160

THE AKALO-CASPIAN BASIN.

83. Routeaof Explorera in the Aralo- Caapia>.

Baain . . . .163

84. Ruaaian Encroachments iu Turkestan 164

85. Routea of Explorera in the Eoatem Pamir 166
80. Thk Alai and Thann-Alai Ranob . . 168

Beli<^f of the Highlanda and Plateaux
between the Uindu-Kuah and Tian-
shan . .... . . .170

The Alai Plat<>att 173

The Shchurovakiy Glacier . . .173
Routea of Explorera in the Weatem Pamir 174

91. Relative Area of the Tian-ahaii, Alps, and

PjTeneea 176

92. Relative Relief of the Tian-ahan, Alps,

and Pyreneea 176

93. Chief CreaU of the Tian-ohan . . '.177

8S
89.
90,

■■:^4"

LIST OF ILLUsmATIONfl.

fio.
04.
SA.

lot
ii>a

103
11)0
108

I OB
UO
113
117
121

1-22
126
12«

lar

139

131
132
133
13A
138
137
143
144

146
148
160
I«l

153
164

li6
166
167
169

163
164
166
168

170
179
178
174

176

176
177

KiMtnm (-'hnini nf tho Tinn-ahnn

Uiiiili'it of Kxplonm in tbit F^mtcm Tinn-

rIiiiii

06. Ovia Kahkmni, AhoaM, ()vi« I'iili

Thi) AktoRni I).>Hli<

WfRttTii ('huiim Iff thii Tiiin-ahan .
KmitcH of Kxploniri in the Wtntorn Tian-

"hiin .......

100. SiiOrii iiikI TiirbH)(nlai . . . ,

101, VltlllCTATIO.lf OK Tim Kr/ll.-KI'M

lU'i. idinKii of Vi'Ki'tutioii in TurkcHtun .

I'litrov Oliicii^r

F-owcr I'lirt of tho lir-taah Ulutli r .
The Hir Didtn

I.AKM ViLTUKIA, OH SaHNKIJI.

Map in thu Cutiilonian Attn* of 1374 ,
Viill(<y of tho Ux))oi at tho Aidiii Wulla .

Tho llnlkan Oulf

Fnundution of tho Oxiu in 1878 .

111. Tho AmlHoa

112. Uld Uivvr Boda of the Anilo-Coiipian

Uaun

113. Ak-tnu and Mortviy-kultuk .

114. Entranco to tho Kura-boghai . ,
116. 'nieTuk-karagan Lukoa

116. Tentiiiksor

117. Ogurohinikiy Iilund ....

118. Kulali Iilund

Turkoman FiUAti HsAD-imKiiN
Tokko Turkoman Oaaii in tho Atok
Area of the Turkoman RaidH 8outh of

Kizil-arvat

A Wbalthy Kikohiz ....
A KiHOHiz Woman ....

07.
OH.

103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
100.
110.

119.
120.
121.

122.
123.

124. ropulationi of tho Hi Basin .

126. Saktb Typb

126. Population of Ferghana ....

127. A Tajik Mollah . . . ' .

128. KiLA-PANM, OK TKi UppBit Oxva : Fours

AT THB Foot of tub Pamir .

129. Eait Badakshan

130. Badakshan and Kundiiz ....

131. Bamian Pass and Kundii/. Route

132. Ruins of Bolkh and Mazai-i sherif .

133. Saripul and Shibirkhan Valley

134. The Maimene Valley ....
136. £hanates of Afghan Turkestan Wdst of

the Oxus

136. Metv and Sarakhs Cases ....

137. Ak-tash Vallky and Mountain .

138. Shehr-i-sebs and Karshi ....

139. Bokhara : Ruins in thb Intebiok of

THE City

140. Ouiaof BoUuua

141. Khiva

142. A Minabbt in Khiva ....

143. Khita: Extebich of a Mosqui .

144. Krasnovodak Bay

146. Cheleken Island and Michael Qolf .

146. Hossaii-kaleh Bay

147. Ashiir-adeh

148. Valleys of the Atrek and Gurgen .

149. Samarkand . -

160. Samabka;<d : Approach to tan Citaobl

FAOI

rtu.

17H

161

IHO

162.

INI

1N3

163.

1H6

IW.

16).

1H7

liiO.

100

167.

10(1

148.

107

160.

1!)H

lUO.

lOU

101.

201

162.

203

200

207

163.

208

. 104.

300

106.

210

160.

211

167.

212

213

168.

214

100.

31S

216

170.

217

171.

221

172.

223

173.

224

174.

227

228

173.

232

176.

233

234

177.

233

178.

179.

230

180.

241

181.

242

182.

243

183.

244

246

181.

247

186.

248

186.

261

187.

264

188.

266

189.

260

190.

261

191.

2S2

102.

-.^63

193.

264

194.

266

267

196.

268

106.

260

270

197.

271

198.

rAuB
. Mamahkanii; Tub Uuh-imiu Tomh or

TAUBUt.ANB 273

. Vamxaminoh: Uppbr ZAUAfHiiAN Val-

•-■v . 273

. Ointia i,f thn /iiriifnhiin .... 276

. l''roin Koknn to .Mar^^bilan , , 277

. KiiojiMi: OrNBiiAi, \'i(\v , . t79

. Khoji'nd ritid Nnighbourh loU . . 380

. riiiiri of Tiiahkind 2N1

. A HrurKT in 'I'aiiiikfnii .... 283

. Kiiijn and NciKhlMjiiriiiK Mines . . 386

. D; .puled Turritory in Kulji* . . . 286
. CiiiNiNK Tti-B, KtiiJA . .287

. Projuctod Railway Lines in WtNtcrn Asia 289

SIBERIA.

West Siberia, accordinjf to Ihiborstoin . 203

Sakhalin, according to l.ii P^roiiMu . . 206

(k'LF or Cakthiks : La l'/<iio( ss Gats . 296
Wotor Highways and Portugos oiro»s

Siberia 2U8

Duriitiuii of thn Frost and Thaw on tho

Yenisei and Imuh .... 300

Drift Ice on tliu Bunks of tho Yonisni . 3Ul
SiiuHis or thh Ybnihbi worn by Ui.aiui,

Action 302

BaNKSOVTIuY^RNISBI: IcE-roHMBIlLBVEB 31)4

Climate of Yakutsk .306

Northern Limit uf Forest Vegetation 309
Trailino Larch 160 Years old :

Quarter of the natural H,/b . 310
Larch Forsst on thb Booaniua, a Tbi-

uutary of thf. Katanga. . . 312

Range of Animal Species in North Asia . 313
The ChindagGtui, a Thihutary of the

Irtish, Province or ^BMirALATiNSK 320

Lake Teletzkoyo 831

Zmei'nog^rsk 328

Lak^ Zaisnn 330

The Utft-Kiiinonogorsk Defile . . .331

Lakes Chany and Sartlam in 1870 . . 332

Dried-up Streams in the Bamaiil District 334
Projected Canals between tho Ob and

Yenisei .... 336
Network of Si roams at the Ob and Ket

Junction ...... 836

Lower Course and Mouth of the Ob . 337

Lakes and Marshes in the Iset Basin 346

Yekatei inburg and Berezovskiy 348
Upper Yenisei Basin and Minusinsk

Steppes 363

Rock Insohiption on thb Banks of

I HE Yenisei 361

Region of the Yenisei Qold Mines . . 362

From Krasnoyarsk to Kansk . . . 363

Thb MuNKu-sAKniK Oboup . . 365

Munku-sardik and Kamar-daban . 367
Thb "Cup" at thb Soubce of thb

Oka 368

Depths of the Western Baikal . 370
Thb Anoaba bblow thb Padunskiy

Rapiii 374

Rapids of the Angara .... 375

Populations of the Irkutsk Qovemment . 381

tiii

no.

199.

200.

201.

202.

203.

204.

205.

206.

207.
208.
209.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.
216.
216.

LIST OP ILLUSTBATIONS.

PAOC

Coast of the Taimir Peninsula . 383

Old Lake traversed by the Vitim . . 384

J^na Delta 3b6

Archipelago of Xew Siberia . . 389

RoutM of Anjou and Wrangcll . . 390

KoNYAM Bay : tub Vboa at Amcuor . 391

Yakutsk 397

Volcanoes at Cape Fovorotnoii, South of

Avacha Bay 400

Bering Sea 403

Boring Strait 404

Currents of the Bering Waters . . 406

Avacha Bay 416

Plateaux and Highlands of East Siberia . 418

Lake Khanka 426

Isthmus of Kici 428

Mouths of the Amur .... 429

Bat of the Golden Houn ,i . . 430
Bay of Castries . . . . .432

no. TXan

217. Harbour of Olga 433

218. Hbubaceouh Ybobtation o!f thb Islands

OP thb A^t-u 436

219. Blaootvrshchensk, on thb Amvk 444
22C. Xikolayevsk 446

221. America Bay 446

222. The Potsiet Inlets 447

223. La P£rouse Strait . . . . ■ 449

224. Sakhalin: Capb La JoNQUifcBi . . 460
226. Mamia Rinzo Strait . . . .461

226. Sakhalin 468

227. AiNO QiBL 464

228. Sakhalin: thb Dui Yallbt . . . 466

229. Port of MaravioT 467

230. Density of the Siberian Population . . 460

231. Produce of East Siberian Sablc>hunting

from 1860 to 1866 . . .466

232. Oold-washings in the Amor Basin . . 468

233. Vladivostok and the Eastern Bosporaa . 473

«*w»-

pAoa

• •

433

IB Islands

, ,

435

Imuh

444

, ^

446

• •

446

• •

447

, '

449

as .

460

■ • •

461

■ • •

463

• •

464

• • •

466

467

ition .

460

I>le-hiinting

• • •

466

asin .

468

BospoTOS .

473

«i i .«fiMAim«Mki.

^^^«^^j^^

^HH^

iRPP^Qn^^^^^

'i^^r'.^^'^^j:*^^-ly'"i^}!i^^^^^^^ '^'^ ' -'"S'v^/^

THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS.

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL REMABKS ON ASIA.

F the great diyisions of the globe Asia is by far the largest, com-
prising almost exactly one-third of. all the dry land, and exceeding
in area even the double continent of the New World. It is one-
third larger than Africa, and five times more extensive than
Europe, which may in some respects be regarded as one of its
peninsular appendages. Excluding the Caspian Sea and the eastern districts of
the government of Perm, it has a total area of 16,776,000 square miles, and
including Japan, the Philippines, and Malaysia, 17,930,000 square miles.

But if it takes the foremost rank in size, it is far inferior even to Europe in
the variety of its peninsular forms, in the development of its coast-line, in the
extent to which the ocean inlets, and with them the marine climate, penetrate
into the heart of the land ; nor does it, like Europe, present the great advantage
of geographical imity. Divided by lofty tablelands and old sea-beds into
absolutely distinct regions, it embraces vast rainless tracts, where the dryness of
the atmosphere, the cold, and even the rarbfaotion of the air o£Per great di£Bculties
to the migrations of its inhabitants, the more so that the opposite slopes are not
connected together by natural valley routes like those of the Alps. Asia may
thus have given birth to many local civilisations, but Europe alone could have
inherited them, by their ftision raising them to a higher culture, in which all the
peoples of the earth may one day take a part.

Plateaux — Highlands and Lowlands.

Compared with the other continents, Asia is essentially the region of table-
lands. Were the dry land to subside uniformly, All the other regions of the
1

^ '

', -■

% ASIiTIO BUS8IA.

globe would have long disappeared, or would be indicated at most by narrow
islands and peaks, while the lofty uplands of Central Asia, with the ranges
skirting them, still rose above the surrounding waters. The plateaux of Asia, with
the regions enclosed by them, form, so to say, a continent within a continent,
differing in its climate, its flora, fauna, and inhabitants from the surrounding
species. Rising in some places to a height of 20,000 feet und upwards, these
plateaux give to the whole of Asia a mean altitude greater than that of the other
quarters of the globe. Humboldt calculated the mean of the Asiatic continent at
1,165 feet, which on more recent information Kriimmel raises to 1,650 feet, or
one-third more than that of Europe.

The Asiatic coast-line is more diversified than that of Africa or South
America, especially on the south side, which is varied with large peninsulas,
gulfs, and islands. But the central mass, including the plateaux and deserts,
presents a great uniformity of outline. This region, limited southwards by the
Himalayas, Dapsang, and Earakortim, almost everywhere presents other lofty
ranges — in the west the numerous crests of the Pumir, in the north-west the
Tian-shan, in the north the Altai, in the north-east and east the several chains
separated by intervening river valleys. This upland tract, which includes Tibet,
Kushgaria, and the Gobi. Desert, presents the form of a vast trapeze gradually
narrowing towards the west. Near its south-west angle there rises a lofty
mountain nucleus formed by the junction of the Himalayas and Earakor&m, and
marking the centre of gravity of the whole continent. From this central mass,
which is otherwise less elevated than many other Asiatic mountain systems, there
radiate three vast plains and as many tablelands, disposed like the spokes of a
wheel. The lowlands are the plain of Tatary in the north-west, the Tarim basin
in the east, and iq the south and south-east the depression furrowed by the Indus
and Ganges; the highlands are the Pamir, Tibet, and Iran. The last named
doubtless begins with the Hindu-Eusb, a mountain range separating the Indus
and Oxus valleys ; but this mass is of very small extent, and the uplands attached
to it, while less extensive and less elevated, are more geometrical in their outlines
than those of Tibet. The Iranian tableland, comprising most of Afghanistan,
Baluchistan, and Persia, forms a trapeze whose northern and southern sides are
almost perfectly parallel.

In the north-west this plateau is continued through Kurdistan, Armenia, and
Asia Minor, by other lofty upbnds overlooking the waters of the Euxine and
Mediterranean. Thus nearly the whole of the continent is intersected by an
elevated mass, forming in the west a single, in the east a double line, separating
the northern and southern slopes, and leaving between them a few gateways only,
through which passed the great historical routes of migration. In the centre of
East Asia the Euen-lun forms a continuation of the Hindu-Eush and more
westerly systems. Though its crests fall short of the extreme height attained by
those of the Himalayas, this rang^e is on the whole the most elevated on the globe,
and probably stretches eastwards across 42° of the meridian, or for a distance of
2,300 miles. It thus forms the eastern half of the continental axis, and is much

» *» M ii V wmmmmmmmmmim

HMMi

PLATEAUX-HIGHLANDS AND LOWLANDS. 8

more regular in outline than the western, running in the direction of Europe.
The term " Diaphragm," restricted by the Greeks to the mountains on the north
Iranian frontier, might equally well be extended to the whole parting line from
the Eastern Euen-lun to the Anatolian Taurus. This would thus correspond with
the European diaphragm formed by the Pyrenees, Cevennes, Alps, and Balkans,
and roughly continuing the line of the Asiatic " Great Divide." But in the
European section, with its rare tablelands and convenient passes, how much more
numerous are the gaps and breaks of continuity, facilitating the movements of
migration from slope to slope !

The ranges skirting or towering above the Asiatic tablelands are mostly of
striking regularity in their line of direction, and several consist of distinct ridges,

Fig. I.— Plateaux txm Plainu of Gintbau Ahia.
Sesle 1 : 91,000,000.

70-

60*

ErerSr.

Begioiia abore «;^M» XM.

ItegioiM Iwiow 6,600 UNt

.800 MOm.

all running parallel to each other. The Himalayas, cnlminating with Mount
Everest, or Ghrarisankar, " the Radiant," tlie highest pcdnt on the globe, develop
along the northern f^ntier of India a perfect arc, whose focus might be in the
very heart of Central Asia. The whole system, including both the Terai Hills of
Hindustan, and the Dapsang, Earakordm, and other ranges of South Tibet, also
runs in parallel curves north and south of the main range. In the same way the
Kuen-lnn comprises a great many ridges, all developing uniformly parallel lines.

This well>marked parallelism recurs in m6st of the systems of Siberia, China,
Cis and Transgangetic India, Irania, and Western Asia. Speiiking generally,
the main continental ranges may be sidd to run chiefly in two directions — east-
south-east to west-north-west (Altai, TarbagataX, Western Himalayas, Iranian

■s:^\

4 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

Mountains, and Caucasus), and east to west, or rather east-north-east to west-
south-west (Tian-shan, most of the Siberian chains, and those converging on the
Pamir tableland). In many places the ranges forming curves with their convex
sides facing southwards, by their intersections, give rise to entanglements and
overlappings which disturb the general uniformity of the mountain systems.
Thus the ridges forming a continuation of the Himalayas and Dapsang intersect,
east of the Pamir, the reg^ular chains running parallel to the Tian-shan and
Altai. To these crossings are probably due the elevated masses of Eizil-yart and
Tagharraa, rising above the eastern edge of the Pamir, and from remote times

Fig. 2. — Fahallklibm of thi Vain Asiatic Ranobs.
Aeoordinv to BlohUiafeii for the Central Aiiatio Bangs*. Scale 1 : 180,000,000.

. SilOOOXiiN.

known to the Chinese as the Tsung-ling, or " Onion Mount«ins," from the wild
garlic covering all their slopes. Out of these groups has been created the
imaginary Bolor range, to which Humboldt had assigned a paramount importance
in the orographic structure of Asia.

Asia, like Surope, runs mainly east and west, a geographical fact which has
had enormous influence on the development of mankind. While Europe and
Asia occupy over half of the earth's circumference east and west, but a fourth part
only taken north and south, the New World, confined between the Pacific and
Atlantic Oceans, stretches precisely in the inverse direction, across more than a
third of the periphery from the Arctic nearly to the Antazotio Circle. The

■aMMMMMMMHIHMPM

PLATEAUX-HIGHLANDS AND LOWLANDS. 5

contrast is complete in the general disposition of the two continental groups, so
that 1. .ra, fauna, and races all present analogous contrasts. In Asia the species are
easily diffused from one extremity of the continent to the other by following the
parallels of latitude, and taking advantage of the breaks of continuity, wherever
the upland plateaux present an obstocle to their progress. From the pkins of the
Oxus to the Atlantic seaboard races have Laa variously displaced without meeting
with chmates greatly differing from their own. Hence the mutual influences

Vig. 3. — MovMT Etubst.

and tiie elements of a common civilisation spread over vast spaces. The same
oauae secured the inevitable intermingling of all the European and Asiatic races,
generally producing, in these two divisions of the Old World, a certain unity
contrasting forcibly with the diversity characteristic of the western hemisphere.
Here the migrations from north to south, or from south to north, were necessarily
confined to much narrower limits, the ordinary obstacles presented by plateaux and
highlands being intensified by thoae flowing from differences of latitude. Special

MMi

RMM

6 ASIATIC BUS8IA.

civilisations were thus developed in favoured regions, which had no more than a
distant influence on each other, and the peoples remained almost everywhere
without coherence or any common bonds of union. For how could the Eskimo
share in a common culture with the Prairie Indians, or these with the Mexicans,
Mayas, Muiscas, Quichuas, Aymarns, Quaranis, PatagnniansP It was even
through the interference of Europe that the American aborigines were destined
to receive the first impulse which caused them to become members of the common
human family. Thanks to the position of the two continents stretching across the
northern and southern hemispheres, Europeans of difierent climates — Portuguese,
Spaniards, Italians, French, English, Scotch, Scandinavians — have been able to
settle north and south of the equator in regions whose climates resembled their
own, thus founding in the two zones a new England, a new Spain, and for a
time a now France.

Geological FoRMAnoNS — Ionbovs Forces.

Still but partially explored as a whole, Asia remains even now to a large extent
an imperfectly known region. The western section, Siberia, with some of the
highlands separating it from the central plateau, India, and various tracts of
Further India and Ohina are the parts whose iormations, disposed in the same
order as in Europe, have already been studied and. classed by the geologist.
Crystalline rooks, old schists, paleeozoic strata, are the chief constituents of the
Siberian highlands. The Euen-lun and the £arakorilm seem also to belong to
the primitive structure of the continent, whereas the Himalayas, while resting on
crystalline masses, have been more recently upheaved during the secondary and
tertiary periods. An idea of the tremendous disturbances that have here taken
place may be had from the fact that the eocene strata near Leh have been raised
to a height of 11,650 feet.

The tracts covered with molten lava occupy a great part of the periphery of
the continent. Yoloanio eminences occur in Siam and Pegu; half of the Ganges
peninsula is strewn with igneous rooks ; hot springy and mud volcanoes bubble
up on the crests of argillaceous cones on the Mekran coast, and near the
Helmand ; extinct craters are met in South-west Arabia and the Strait of Bab-el-
Mandeb, as well as in Abyssinia, on the opposite coast ; the Hejaz also, and the
Sinai peninsula, have their ancient lava streams ; in Asia Minor we meet with the
burnt plains of Oappadocia, " Phlegrsean Fields" like those of Italy, the Hassan
Dagh, Arg^us, and other mountains of igneous origin ; in Armenia, Mounts
Ararat, Alagoz, and Abul are of the same character ; and Elbiirz, giant of the
Caucasus, is also an old volcano, while the two extremities of this range are
marked by boiling mud and naphtha wells. Laistly, Demavend, rising majesti-
cally above the southern shores of the Caspian, is a burning mountain, whose
crater is not yet quite extinct.

The northern ranges, which under various names separate Russian Turkestan
and Siberia from the Chinese Empire, must be regarded as forming a section of

u l iuw u ii ltw i* 9'*mM^m

■^■■■itMMn

GEOLOGICAL FOEMATIONS— IGNEOUS F0BCE8.

the vast, though frequently interrupted, ridge stretching from the southern
extremity of Africa to that of the New World, and forming un immense crescent
round the Indian and Pacific Oceans. But within this is another crescent, the
"fiery circle" already traced by Leopold von Buch. Starting from the volcanoes
of New Zealand, it runs through the Philippines and along the Asiatic seaboard
northwards, through Japan and the Kuriles, to the Aleutian archipelago and
Alaska, whence it is continued in a south-easterly direction to the neighbourhood
of Magellan Strait. In the Asiatic section of this crescent the active or barely
quiescent volcanoes are reckoned by the hundred, though the only fiery cones
still active on the mainland are those of Kamchatka, which counert the Euriles
with the Aleutian group.

In some regions of the interior there also occur masses of scoria and lava
streums, but the craters whence they flowed have been extinct either since the
second half of the tertiary period, or at least for some centuries. The doubts
formerly thrown on the reality of the active volcanoes mentioned in the Chinese
records, and often referred to by Humboldt, have not yet been finally disposed of.
The observations made by Stoliezka, who fancied he had traversed a volcanic
district with basalt rooks in the distance, have been called in question. But
west of Irkutsk the valley of a tributary of the Oka is filled by a vast
lava stream, above which rise two craters. Other craters occur in the valley of
the Irkut, and other lava streams farther east, in the basin of the Jida, near
Selenghinsk, and on the Yitim plateau, near the north-east angle of Lake Baikal.
Lavas and basalts have also flown from the neighbouring Okhotsk Mountains,
while vestiges of recent eruptions occur in most of the terraced mountains of
Siberia flanking the north-west side of the Mongolian plateaux.

The suspension of the lava streams arises firam the almost total disappearance
of the saline lakes formerly filling tbe great depressions of Oentral Asia. Never-
theless there is a volcanic tract in the east of the continent south of A'igun, and
540 miles from the coast, where eruptions certainly took place in 1721 and 1722.
The detailed reports of the Chinese savants brought to light by Yasilyev leave no
doubt as to this fact, which should perhaps be explained by the number of lakes
and swamps still found on the plateau.

The oscillations which have given its prMent form to the continent are still
going on with sufficient rapidity to enable observers to detect them along a great
extent of the seaboard. Thus there can be scarcely any doubt that the northern
shores of Siberia are slowly rising above the Arctic Ocean, for islands in the
middle of the last century standing at some distance from the coast are now
connected with it, not by sand-banks, but by the rooky bed of the sea. Similar
phenomena have been observed in the ^gean and Black Seas, as well as along
the east side of the Red Sea, as shown by the upheaved coral banks fringing
the coast of Arabia. Traces of recent upheaval have likewise been noted on the
shores of Baluchistan and Malabar, in Ceylon, British Burmah, East China, about
the Amur delta, and in Kamchatka.

Symptoms of subsidence, so much more easily recognised than the upward

ftt^'ssa^^- i>f-,M^*!r • ■«- X' ■'fl^'iv r

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

motion, huve hitherto been detected only at a very few points along the Aaiatio
■eabourd. A part of the ooaat of Syria, the Great Western Runn between the
Indus delta and Eatch, the shores of Fo-kien, Ton-kin, and Coohin Ohina, are at
present subsiding. But the movement is most perceptible in the Laooadives and
Maldives, where the atolls, or circular coral reefs, are slowly disappearing,
notwithstanding the efforts of the busy polyps to keep them above the surface.
The Chagos Bank has already been entirely engulfed.

• >

CuMATE — Diminution of Moisture.

The great elevation of the Asiatic plateaux, with an atmosphere twice as
rarefied as that of the lowlands, modifies to a remarkable extent the normal
climate of the continent. Already as a whole far more extensive than Europe,

Fig. 4. — ^TuB Han-haK : a ouid-vf 8ba-bid.
Aeeording to Biohthoftn. Betlt 1 : 81,000,000.

6aaAy or Stonr DcMtt.

UphMvad IdamU. Beoent LaeaifaiM Depnatau.

and consequently less exposed to oceanic influences, it everywhere receives a
proportionately less amount of moisture. But the central portions, being almost
completely encircled by mountains which arrest the course of wet or snowy winds,
receive far less humidity than the average rain&Il of the rest of the continent.
Still the maritime slopes of the plateaux and highlands do not retain all the
moisture brought by the winds, so that torrents and even rivers furrow the slopes
facing inland. Some of these streams ultimately find their way to the ocean,
but most of them run dry either in the "cirques " where they rise, or at a lower
elevation, or else in the deep and binding depression stretching south-west and
north-east, between the Euen-lun and the Tian-shan and Altai mountam vjrstems.
At a time when these waters were more abundant the whole of the lower part of
the great Asiatic depression was filled by a vast sea nearly as long, east and west,

mMiiiiimmmiiam

45-

35*

AREAS OF INLAND DRAINAGE.

as the Mediterranoan, but somewhat narrower. This dried-up soa, the Han-hai
of the Chinese, seems to have stood about 5,000 feet above the actual sea-level,
roJt: a depth in some places of 3,000 feet. It occupied between Tibet and the
Tian-shan range all the present Tarim basin, forming between the Tian-shan and
Altai a ramifying gulf, which Richthofen has called the " Zungariun Basin."
Eastwards it joined the Chamo basin through a strait studded with islands, all
running in the same direction us the Tian-shan. At present this depression is
divided by slight elevations into secondary cavities, each with its dried-up
river beds and marshes, or saline incrustations, last remnants of what was once
the Asiatic Mediterranean.

In spite of the different elevations and latitudes, a singular uniformity is
imparted to all these inland regions by the general sterility of the soil, the
dryness of the atmosphere, and the sudden vicissitudes of temperature. The
rolling steppes of red earth in the Altai region ; the argillaceous plateaux, heavy and
grey like a sea of congealed mud ; the less monotonous districts, varied here and
there by a few protruding rocks ; the deserts where orescent sandy dunes drive
like mighty billows before the wind ; lastly, the stony plains strewn with frag-
ments of quartz, chalcedony, jasper, camelians, amethysts, released from their less
solid and vanished matrices, weathered to dust and dispersed by the winds — all
these regions form a monotonous whole sublime in the very simplicity of their
lines. On these vast tablelands, crossed from horizon to horizon by long furrows
like the ground-swell produced by the trade winds, caravans wind their way
for days and weeks through a changeless scene of dreary majesty. Even the
descent from the plateaux towards the deep depressions produces little change.
The upland steppe, 3 miles above sea-level, the bed of the dried-up Mediterranean,
the naked lands of Tibet and the Northern Gobi, separated from each other by
18° of latitude, present everywhere the same uniform aspect, broken only by a
few oasecf, whose fresh-water streams, with their fringe of rich herbage, contrast
forcibly with the bare mountain crags and steppes of the surrounding plateaux.
The species of indigenous plants are nowhere numerous, and even by the running
waters few trees are met except the poplar and willow. The nomad shep-
herds, who drive their flocks from the lowlands to the uplands, 13,000 to 20,000
feet above sea-level, are little affected by -the change. How different all this
from the contrast presented in Europe by the luxuriant plains of Lombardy with
the rug;ged Alpine heights I ■■ '

Areas of Inland Drainaob.

The expression "Central Asia" is by the Russians wrongly applied to the
part of the continent bordering on Europe, and lying within the same Aralo-Caspian
depression as the portion of Russia watered by the Volga and its tributaries.
Richthofen more correctly restricts this term to the Han-hai' depression, and the
Tibetan tablelands whose waters evaporate without forming streams. This part
of the continent is, in fact, distinguished from all the surrounding regions by the

ASIATIC EU88IA.

ciroumstunoo that the detritua of the plateaux and highlands caused by weathering
and erosion remains in the basin itself, whereas it is elsewhere regularly carried
u\^ay to the sea. The general movement of Oentrul Asia proper is centripetal,
that of the periphery centrifugal. But on the Pamir, forming the wuter-parting
between China and the Caspian, there also occur closed cirques, whose waters do
not reach the lowlands. Afghanistan and the Persian tableland have also their
isolated basinn, their land-locked takes and marshes; and Asia Minor itself
presents saline lakes cut off from all communication with the sea, notwithstanding
the greater relative abundance of the rainfall in this sea-girt region. The plains
of Syria, Arabia, and even India, also comprise vast spaces whose waters have no
outlet towards the sea. Lastly, the Aralo-Caspian depression is now a laud-
locked basin, or rather forms a group of distinct basins like that of the Chinese
Mediterranean, with which they seem to have formerly communicated through
the Straits of Zungaria. Before the present geological epoch the Caspian, Aral,
Balkash, and countless other lakes of smaller size were successively isolated like
those of the Han-haK. But the two depressions of Western and Central Asia
present a complete contrast, the one in the generally horizontal direction of its
plains, the other in the great relief of the surrounding highlands.

Taken collectively, all the Asiatic regions with no outlets seawards have
an area of perhaps 4,000,000 square miles, equal to that of the whole of
Europe. This arid tract is connected through the Arabian peninsula with the
zone of waterless deserts occupying nearly the whole of Africa between the
Mediterranean seaboard and Sudan. Thus all the eastern hemisphere is crossed
obliquely by a belt of arid regions, which barely fringes the south-east corner of
Europe, and is divided in nearly equal proportions between Asia and Africa.
Historic evidence shows that for the last four thousand years a large portion of
Central Asia has been dried up. At one time the region of Lake Lob was
occupied by a vast inland sea, the Li-ha'i, or " Western Sea," forming a con-
siderable section of the ancient Han-ha'i. But as the process of desiccation
progressed this term had to be transferred from the Turim basin to the Caspian.
Skilfully planned works of irrigation may have here and there created a few
small oases, but the loss of habitable land has been enormous. Whole kingdoms
have disappeared, many cities have been swallowed up in the sands, and certain
tracts, formerly accessible to travellers, can no longer be visited, owing to the
total absence of water and vegetation. Inhabited districts south of the Lob-nor,
traversed by Marco Polo, are now inaccessible. Even beyond the larg^ Asiutic
basins on the South Siberian and Mongolian plateaux the same phenomenon of
gradual absorption is perceptible, especially in the west. East of Lake Baikal
the ancient sheets of water filling the cavities and terraces have been replaced by
countless lakelets, tarns, marshes, forming an ever-changing watery labyrinth.
From the Baikal to the Amur, fW)m the Argun to the Khingan Mountains, the
land is studded with these lacustrine bodies, recalling a time when the country
exhibited the same aspect as the present Finland.

East of the western Chinese closed basin the erosive action of running waters

mmi

wouthoring
irly carried
oontri petal,
ter-parting
B waters do
e also their
[inor itself
ithstanding
The plains
»ra have no
[)w a laud-
bhe Chinese
3d through
ipian, Aral,
solated like
entral Asia
otion of its

nrards have
e whole of
la with the
)etween the
e is crossed
At corner of
md Africa.
:e portion of
:e Lob was
ting a con-
desiccation
the Caspian.
)ated a few
le kingdoms
and certain
ring to the
he Lob-nor,
irg^ Asiatic
iuomenon of
L<ake Baikal
replaced by
f labyrinth,
luntains, the
the country

tning waters

•miM

ji.^ .n''j ' ' I.' . ! sW W W f -^ '^'^si'*^

M]iJ4l^MltL«iUjl i ii r WJ i|i m il<W B ll M» I JJ> l WWM i J! iB«^^

ARKA8 OF INLAND DUAINAOK.

han exoavutiHl vuHt oailona, ruvcaliiig the (^lof^icul Htruoturu of tho uld hod of the
•teppoi. Fur u Hpuuo fur hir^vr than the whole of Frunco, North Chiiiii is
ooinp«>iod of a yellow clay, in «ume places 1,600 to 2,000 foot thick. In the
prurince of Shuu-ni the atinoaphoro ii nearly alwuya churned with thia dunt,
which gives a yellow hu« to roudu, houses, tree*, fields, way furors. This
"Yellow I^nd " (IIoang<tu) ^as ^ivun its name to tho Yellow Uivur (ITouiig-ho),
which hours its uUuvium to the Yol[(rv 8«^;i (Huang-hai). Tho clity is exactly
like tho loess of the JUuue and Danube valleys of alluvial ur glacial origin. It

llg, 4.— Auo HioioMs AND OLorao fiAflNH or Asu.
OostponC PrnJwH'ti. OoaU 1 : IXiOMMXIO.

OMMf*.

TTMti with no onUat iMmKla.
8,000 Milw.

is not perceptibly stratified like aqueous deposits, nor does it contain fluvial shells,
but only the remains of land molluscs. Throughout its whole thickness it is
pierced by vertical holes variously ramified, evidently caused by the roots of
countless plants, above which the dust of the soil has been successively accumu-
lated. Through this porous soil the water percolates rapidly, except where roads
have been formed, destroying the fibrous texture of the clay. According to
Richthofen, this yellow earth is nothing more than the soil of tho steppes formerly
deposited by the winds in the closed basins. '

ASIATIC EIJSSIA.

The erosion of these vast accumulations is effected by the infiltration of water.
Wells are sunk, and underground galleries opened here and there, over which the
clay vaults sink in. Thus are formed ravines with vertical walls ramifying in all
directions. In many places the plateau seems perfectly horizontal ; yet it is out
up into so many fragments connected by narrow isthmuses that the traveller,
unaccompanied by a guide, would inevitably lose his way. The erosion is
incessantly advancing in the west, where nothing remains in many river
valleys except isolated vertical masses assuming the form of walls, turreted
castles, or keeps. Many of these blocks have even been converted into strong-
holds pierced with invisible caverns, affording shelter to their occupants. By a
remarkable contrast, this clay, formerly covering uninhabited wastes, now yields
the heaviest crops in the irrigated districts. The yellow earth even serves as a
manure for the neighbouring lands. The Tibetan plateaux would seem to be also
composed of a similar clay, and there is reason to believe that geological pheno-
mena are taking place corresponding exactly with those of the Upper Hoang-ho
basin. In their aggregate all the geographical zones of Eastern Asia may be
said to have shifted westwards. The ravines of the Yellow Land encroach on the
plateaux, the sources of the Hoang-ho and its tributaries advance continually
farther inland, the coast-line itself stretched formerly farther eastwards, and
Japan and the Euriles are probably the remains of the ancient Asiatic seaboard.

ItlVERS FliOWING SeAWARDS.

On the northern slope of the continent the waters drain to the Arctic Ocean
through the three mighty rivers Ob, Yenisei, and Lena, though they flow freely
for a portion only of the year. In these northern latitudes the streams are ice-bound
or blocked for eight or nine months, besides which Uieir navigation is extremely
tedious between frozen tundras destitute of towns, villages, or cultivated lands.
The sea voyages from Europe to the mouths of the great Siberian rivers did not
begin till about 1600 under, the Ozar Boris Godunov, but a few years thereafter
a decree of the Russian Government closed all trade with the Siberian coast,
which was not reopened till 1869 by the Norwegians Oarlsen and Johannesen.
The Lena, however, was ascended for the first time in 1878 by a vessel accom-
panying that of Nordenskjold. But though the communication is now fully
established between Europe and the Siberian estuaries, this result can have but
little economic importance so long as these northern lands remain tmpeopied.
Out off from the rest of the world by ice and the bleak wastes of the seaboard,
the Siberian rivers, though flowing to the open sea, may be said to possess no
more interest for uian than if they drained to inland basins. Even the Amur,
flowing under a more favourable climate eastwards to the Sea of Okhotzk, is
ice-bound for eis. months in the' year. Thus fully half of Asia, consisting either
of inland depressions or of valleys without easy outlets, is deprived of the
advantages derived by most other regions from their running waters.

From the Pet-chi-li to the Persian Gulf most of the coast lands are abundantly

MWMili

mMm

tion of water,
'er which the
lifying in all

yet it is out
the traveller,
le erosion is

many river
alls, turreted
I into strong-
ipants. By a
!s, now yields
en serves as a
iem to be also
logical pheno-
per Hoang-ho
1 Asia may be
icroach on the
se continually
astwards, and
ic seaboard.

Arctic Ocean
bey flow freely
s are ice-bound
a. is extremely
iltivated lands.
L rivers did not
rears thereafter
Siberian coast,
ad Johannesen.
a vessel accom-
in is now fully
It can have but
lain unpeopled.
)f the seaboard,
d to possess no
Even the Amur,

of Okhotzk, is
consisting either
leprived of the
ers.
1 are abundantly

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The erosion of these vast accumulations is effected by the infiltration of water.
Wells are sunk, and underground galleries opened here and there, over which the
clay vaults sink in. Thus are formed ravines with vertical walls ramifying in all
directions. In many places the plateau seems perfectly horizontal ; yet it is out
up into so many fragments connected by narrow isthmuses that the traveller,
unaccompanied by a guide, would inevitably lose his way. The erosion is
incessantly advancing in the west, where nothing remains in many river
valleys except isolated vertical masses assuming the form of walls, turreted
castles, or keeps. Many of these blocks have even been converted into strong-
holds pierced witb invisible caverns, affording shelter to their occupants. By a
remarkable contrast, tliis clay, formerly covering uninhabited wastes, now yields
the heaviest crops in the irrigated districts. The yellow earth even serves as a
manure for the neighbouring lands. The Tibetan plateaux would seem to be also
composed of a similar day, and there is reason to believe that geological pheno-
mena are taking place dorresponding exactly with those of the Upper Hoang-ho
basin. In their aggregate all the geographical zones of Eastern Asia may be
said to have shifted westwards. The ravines of the Yellow Land encroach on the
plateaux, the sources of the Hoang-ho and its tributaries advance continually
farther inland, the coast-line itself stretched formerly farther eastwards, and
Japan and the Kuriles are probably the remains of the ancient Asiatic seaboard.

Rivers fix)wing Seawards.

On the northern slope of the continent the waters drain to the Arctic Ocean
through the three mighty rivers Ob, Yenisei, and Lena, though they flow freely
for a portion only of the year. In these northern latitudes the streams are ice-bound
or blocked for eight or nine months, besides which their navigation is extremely
tedious between frozen tundras destitute of towns, villages, or cultivated lands.
The sea voyages from Europe to the mouths of the great Siberian rivers did not
begin till about 1600 under, the Czar Boris Godunov, but a few years thereafter
a decree of the Bussian Government closed all trade with the Siberian coast,
which was not reopened till 1869 by the Norwegians Oarlsen and Johannesen.
The Lena, however, was ascended for the first time in 1878 by a vessel accom-
panying that of Nordenskjold. But though the communication is now Ailly
established between Europe and the Siberian estuaries, this result can have but
little economic importance so long as these northern lands remain unpeopled.
Out off from the rest of the world by ice and the bleak wastes of the seaboard,
the Siberian rivers, though flowing to the open eea, may be said to possess no
more interest for man than if they drained to inland basins. Even the Amur,
flowing under a more favourable climate eastwards to the Sea of Okhotzk, is
ice-bound for pix months in the' year. Thus fully half of Asia, consisting either
of inland depressions or of valleys without easy outlets, is deprived of the
advantages derived by most other regions from their running waters.

From the Pet-chi-li to the Persian Gulf most of the coast lands are abundantly

-dMM

MMUi

iion of water,
'er which the
lifying in all

yet it is out
the traveller,
le erosion is

many river
alls, turreted
I into strong-
ipants. By a
!s, now yields
en serves as a
3em to be also
logical pheno-
per Hoang-ho
1 Asia may be
icroach on the
se continually
astwards, aud
io seaboard.

Arctic Ocean
bey flow freely
B are ice-bound
a. is extremely
iltivated lands.
L rivers did not
rears thereafter
Siberian coast,
ad Johannesen.
a vessel accom-
in is now fully
It can have but
lain unpeopled.
)f the seaboard,
d to possess no
Even the Amur,

of Okhotzk, is
ionsisting either
leprived of the
ers.
) are abundantly

RIVEBS FLOWING 8EAWAEDS.

watered, and some of their rivers are not only amongst the largest on the glohe,
but are also amongst the most useful for trade and irrigation. Those flowing
eastwards to the Pacific and southwards to the Indian Ocean are disposed in
groups presenting striking analogies with each other. Thus the Hoang>ho and
Yang-tze-kiang, rising in close proximity, flow first in opposite directions, and
after describing vast curves, again approach each other so closely that their
deltas have often been nearly united in the Shan-tung peninsula. The
Me-khong, the chief river of Indo-China, and, according to Francis Gamier,

Hg. 6. — Ibobab* :n JamuaIit.
Baale 1 : lao.OOCMWO.

■M

. S,000 UilML

the largest in volume in Asia, rises in the same highlands, as do likewise
the Salwen and Irawady. The Brahmaputra and Ganges also have their
sources near each other, but on opposite slopes of the Himalayas, reuniting
only in the common delta formed by their own alluvia. The Indus and
Satlaj may likewise be regarded as twin streams, in their upper courses
resembling the two last mentioned. Collectively these four rivers represent
the four animals of the Hindu legend — elephant, stag, cow, and tiger —
which descend to the plains of India from the orest of the sacred moun-
tain. - The two streams flovring to tbe Persian Gulf, the Tigris and the
Euphrates, also form an analogous group famous in legend and history. Lastly,

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

the Sea of Arali ov inland basin of Turkestan, offers a like phenomenon in the
Oxus and Sir-darya, flowing parallel to each other, and at one time apparently
united in a common delta.

Temperature — Rainfall — Vegetation.

The work of geographical exploration being still unflnished, pluviometrioal
observations are also necessarily incomplete, the direction and force of the winds
and the amount of humidity having been gauged only in the regions accessible
to European science, so that tracts as large as all Europe are still almost unknown

Rg. 7. — Ibobabs IK JULT.
Sad* t : xaajooafloo.

tfiOOi

lands for the meteorologist. Not even a proximate estimate can be formed of the
rainfall in the various Asiatic countries, though we know that in the aggregate
the climate of Asia contrasts sharply with that of Europe. The latter, almost
everywhere sea-girt, receives moisture at all seasons, the mean difference between
the driest and wettest months oscillating between 1 and 3, whereas the
great bulk of the Asiatic mainland is exposed to atmospheric strata far more
regular in their action. East of the transitional zone bordering on Europe, the
course of the winds and rains is marked by extreme uniformity. On all the
southern and eastern seaboards the driest month yields fifty to sixty times lew
moisture than the rainy season. In winter the cold atmospheric strata become

PENINSULAS.

in the
rently

etrioal

winds

easible

known

lO*

ad of the
ggregate
r, almost
between
treas the
far more
rope, the

aU the
imefl lew

become

concentrated in Eastern Siberia in the basin of the Lena and its tributaries. The
maximum point of cold oscillates about Verkhojansk, where the sky is always clear,
the air bright. On some places snow falls so rarely that sleighs are unavailable
for a great part of the winter. Then this cold air sets eastwards and southwards*
bringing in its wake fine weather and dryness. Tn summer the reverse process
takes place, as shown in Yoye'ikov's tentative chart. Siberia, where the barometer
in winter marked the greatest pressure, is then exposed to the least atmospheric
weight. The sea air is here concentrated from the Pacific and Indian Oceans,
filling up the vacuum and bearing with it clouds and rain. Along all the sea-
board from the Arabian Sea to the Oulf of Okhotzk the wet monsoon prevails
during this period of atmospheric reflux to Eastern Siberia.

Cis and Transgangetio India, with the neighbouring archipelagos cf
Malaysia and the Philippines, probably receive more than half of the whole
continental rainfall. In this region, exposed by the barrier of the Himalayas and
its eastern extensions to the full play of the tropical currents, the sea air arrives
charged with vapours, which are precipitated at the slightest contact with the
upland slopes. In summer the southern portion of the contineut, having a much
higher temperature than the sea, attracts the aerial masses resting on the Indinn
Ocean, thus producing the southern monsoon. Saturated with the moisture
arising from the sea as from a seething caldron, this monsoon discharges
torrential downpours on the Malabar and Transgangetio coasts, after which it
strikes against the advanced Himalayan spurs and other ranges flanking the
southern border of the Chinese tablelands. The moist clouds, thus arrested by the
lower chains, show that the marine breezes seldom rise higher than from 5,000 to
6,500 feet. But here the tropical rains, real deluges, exceed anything that the
inhabitants of the temperate zone have any experience of. Annual rainfalls of
20, 30, and 40 feet' are by no means rare in various parts of India, and in the
Eassia Hills, overlooking the course of the Lower Brahmaputra, it amounts to
52 feet. Certain Indian valleys have received in one downpour as much water as
many Frraich valleys in a twelvemonth.

Peninsulas.

Thanks to their varied ooast-Iine ond reliefs, the regions of Southern Asia,
Irania and Arabia alone excepted, present a greater diversity of aspects than the
other parts of the continent. The two great peninsulas of India and Indo- China,
with the neighbouring archipelagos, are probably unequalled in the richness of
their vegetation, the splendour of flower and foliage, end the beauty of the
animal species. These are the enchanted isles of the Arab legends, where
the sands sparkle with rubies and sapphires, where the trees shed strength and
health-giving perfumes, where the birds with their diiunond plumage speak with a
wisdom unknown to the inhabitants. Many of these islands, gems set in a blue
sea, lie nevertheless within the zones of typhoons, earthquakes, and fierce volcanic
action. But the vapour- charged sea breezes soon repair the disasters of these
agendea, quickly reviving the magnificence of their tropical vegetation.

/•j ••

ASIATIC EUSSU.

Oomparing continents with continents, the Swede Turbern Bergmann remarked
in the last century that the large peninsulas, such as Arabia, Hindostan, and
Indo-China, nearly oil face southwards. These correspond exactly with the
Hellenic, Italic, and Iberian peninsulas in Europe, and to a less degree with those
of Lower California and Florida in the New World, where the intermediate peninsula
has been transformed to an isthmus by the upheaval of the land in Central America.

Fig. 8. — OvKTKS OF THR Eastbhn Asiatic Siaboabu and IsLANUt.
SnOe 1 : aO;000.000.

OtoSlO
IWthanu.

810 Frtho iM iu»A
npwaida.

The peninsulas of the two continents of the eastern hemisphere, taken in their
g^graphical order, are also distinguished by special and analogous features.
Thus Arabia, nearly quadrangular in form, is another Spain in the solidity of iU
contour and the monotony of its coast-line. India, like Italy, presents more varied
outlines, and has a large island at its southern extremity. Lastly, Indo> China and
Greece are both alike washed by seas studded with countless islands and islets. These
European and Asiatic archipelagos, like the corresponding Antilles in America,

mam

mmtm

PENINSULA8.

have all their igneous phenomena, their craters of molten lava — more numeroVs,
however, in Asia than elsewhere. Important geological changes are now taking
place in this partially upheaved region, which may in its aggregate he regarded
as a sort of isthmus between Asia and Australia. Nevertheless Wallace has noted
a sharp line of separation between these two worlds, easily recognised by the
di£ference in the vegetable and animal species peopling the lands situated on either
side of this line. In the volcanic chain of the Southern Sundas, Bali belongs to

Fig. 0. — Density of thi Ahiatio Popvlations.

▲oooiding to B«hm uid Hanemann.— Coatpont ProjeoUon.

Soda 1 : 190.000,000

Par SqoaM mk.

Uninhabited. Undw*. StolS. 18toS6. aStoTI. ntol«4. 144tof88. SSBand

npwaids.

8,ooomi«a.

the Asiatic, while Lombok, only 24 miles distant, already forms part of the
Australian group.

Like the southern, the eastern Asiatic seaboa^ has also its three peninsulas
stretching southwards — Kamchatka, Corea, and Sakhalin — the last apparently an
island, but really a peninsula, being connected with the Siberian coast by a bank
inaccessible to large vessels. Though possibly mere coincidences, these facts are
more probably the result of a law reg^ulating the distribution of dry land, the
existence of which can scarcely be questioned, if its explanation must still remain
an unsolved problem.

• .n

ASUTIO BUSSIA.

No less reiniirkable geographical analogies occur in the south-eastern archi-
pelago. Thus Sumatra is obviously a peninsula of Malacca, connected with the
mainland by the partly submerged isthmus of the Nioohar and Andaman groups.
Several of the Malay Islands, Sumatra itself included, are disposed in regular order
on openings in the crust of the earth, through which they communicate with an
underground lava sea. But the distinctive feature presented by all these insular
groups consists in their coast- lines forming a succession of segments of circles.
From the north-west extremity of Sumatra to Flores the shores facing the Indian
Ocean are developed in the form of a regular arc, and the same is true of Borneo,
Paliivan, Luzon, and Formosa. The east coast of Corea begins a third curve, which
is continued towards the Liu-khieu Islands, while Japan and Sakhalin form a
fourth, which in the island of Yesso intersects a fifth, sweeping through the Euriles
along the east side of Kamchatka. Lastly, the chain of the Aleutians, resting on
a Kamchatka headland, stretches like a barrier across Bering Strait to Alaska.
The radii of these insular curves vary in mean length from 1,100 to 1,200 miles,
and the continental seaboard facing them is also disposed in large circular lines.
The coasts of Siberia beyond the Amur, the Chinese seaboard between the Yellow
Sea and Qulf of Ton-kin, that of Cochin China as far as the Me-khong delta, are all
traced as if by the compass. Were the level of the Pacific to be raised from
1,600 to 2,000 feet, the Sikhuta-Alin coast range, Russian Manchuria, would be
changed to an archipelago like that of Japan, and the lower valley of the Amur
and Sungari would be transformed to a sea, in its outlines resembling that of the
Euriles. In the west the Khingan range also develops a curve parallel to the
sweep of the Euriles, though composed of older rooks.

Inhabitants — Cultuiie,

About two- thirds of the whole population of the globe are probably concen-
trated in Asia ; but thesef multitudes are far from being evenly distributed over
its surface. They are disposed according to the conditions of soil and climate,
and, speaking generally, their density may be said to be in proportion to the
abundance of the rainfall. Over one- tenth of the land, consisting of sands, rocks, or
frozen tablelands, is absolutely uninhabited, and some of these tracts are never even
traversed by caravans. In four-fifths of the surface the number of inhabitants
scarcely reaches 40 per square mile. But in the remaining fifth, comprising
India, pirts of Indo-China, the Yang-tze-kiang and Hoang-ho basins, Japan,
Luzon, and China, the population is dense enough to give Asia a decided numerical
preponderance over the other continents. More than half of mankind are grouped
in Southern and Eastern Asia within a space less than one-sixth of the dry land.
Thus one of the extremities of Asia presents in this respect a phenomenon analogous
to what is witnessed in Western Europe at the other extremity of the Old World.
Isolated from each other by plateaux, lofty ranges, or waterless wastes, the
Asiatic populations have naturally remained far more distinct than those of
Europe. Whatever be the origins, rivalries, or antagonisms of the European

H.l«Ii l W

INHABITANTS— CULTURE.

nutiona, they have none the less the full oonsciousness of belonging to the same
human family, and in many places the interminglings of Iberians and Celts, of
Slavs and Finns, of Turks and Albanians, have effaced all primitive differences.
But crossings are far from having produced a similar racial uniformity in Asia.
Doubtless in the north an ethnical fusion has taken place between many T(^rki and
Mongolian tribes, in the west between Semites and Iranians. Nv re there any

concen-

«d over

climate,
►n to the

rocks, or
ever even

labitants
uprising
is, Japan,
numerical
grouped

dry land.

analogous
d World.

rastes, the
those of

European

Fig. 10. — DlBTHIHVTION OP THB ArIATIO RaOSS.
Boole 1 : 110.000,000.

50'

Harlh

30*

110' E.of 6r

AiyaiM. KnngoUuiii. Tatan. Finno- Tibetann. ChincM, SemitM. UnTidiua
■ li'silana Jfipanaw, ke.

CuoeaaiMia. EfUmn. AMcaiu. UalaTi. Pdi)taiia.

__^i__i_ii-n— _• .— i— — a,000 MilM.

longer to be found completely homogeneous races, except, perhaps, in the Anda-
man Islands and Tesso. Tet what striking contrasts are still to be seen in the
greater part of the continent ! The various so-called " Turanian " or Finnn-Tataric
races mostly form distinct groups, completely separated from the other races in
their mental qualities and social habits. In the north the Samoyedes, Ostyaks,
and other Siberian tribes form one of the most easily recognised subdivisions. In
the east Manohus and Tunguses, in the west Kirghiz and Tatars, represent the

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

'.' ,

:''^1

^.^

TArki stnck. The Mongolians and Duriuts of the centre are regarded as the
typical brunch of the Mongol, or Yellow family. On the southern plateaux the
Tibetans also form a distinct group, while the basins of the eastern rivers are
occupied by the more or less mixed Chinese nation, surpasding all others in
numbers, and distinguished itoxii them by well-marked moral and mental features.
In the south-east the Malays constitute another division of mankind, which in
some of the Sunda Islands and Malacca exhibits characteristics contrasting with
those of all the Asiatic peoples. The Arabs also, who with the Jews form the
Semitic family, have maintained the primitive purity of their type in the interior
of the south-western peninsida. Lastly, the races of India have, so to say,
followed each other in successive layers. Although living in the same land, the
various ethnical groupn, divided into hostile castes, have been developed side by
side, while keoping aloof from nil physical or social intermixture. The sacred
poems of the Hindus relate how the noble races had to struggle with the low-caste
tribes, people of black complexion and flat nose, and even withthe Ana«ika», demons
and monkeys. The struggle has ceased, but the law of caste has raised a brazen
barrier between these prim ^val conflicting elements.

Speaking generally, the thickly peopled southern and eastern regions may be
said to be occupied by cultured races, while the more desert northern tracts were
till recently the exclusive domain of savage tribes, the intervening plains and
plateaux being held by nomad peoples at the transitional or barbarous stage of
civilisation. Yet through a strange, though by no means solitary delusion, the
lofty Central Asiatic highlands have often been described in legends as the cradle
of mankind, and the influence of these childlike traditions has been felt in many
grave scientifio works. It seemed natural that these cloud-capped peaks — abode
of the gods and immortals — should also be the first home of man orr<it^ by them,
and that the migrations of the tribes should follow the course of i,au streams,
descending to the lowlands from the pure sources springing amidst eternal snows.
The Hindus, gazing northwards on the glittering crests of Mount Meru, fancied
that here the first rays of light had beamed on their forefathers. The Armenian
Ararat, with its snowy cone sweeping a boundless horizon of hills and plains, was
also for many peoples the eminence on which the universal father of mortak had
first set his foot. Lastly, the Pamir, well named the " Roof of the World,"
forming the g^eat divide between east and west, was held sacred as the birthplace
of the Aryan tribes, who spread thence over Western Asia and Europe. Thus
have these uninhabited upland wastes come to be regarded as the cradle of the
countless multitudes which, since the appearance of the Aryan race, have dwelt
west of the Pamir.

But these delusions are henceforth dispelled, and the peoples of the earth have
ceased to discover in the regions of perpetual snow the first trace of their anoeston.
The geography of traditions and legends is doubtless of great importance, often
furnishing valuable hints to the historian ; but, if taken as an exclusive guide^, it
could lead to nothing but error. The civilisation of modem Europe cannot have
had its rise in the arid upland plateaux and desert valleys of Central Asia. Apart

INHABITANTS— CULTURE.

m«t be trff' , to
!>ylonia, A ibiu,

tVom what has heen devolopod on the spot, most of its elero<'rit
the Nile basin, to the Asiatic coast hinds, Asia Minor, Svri<-i,
Persia, India, and China.

All the languages of Europe, except Basque, are of Asiatic origin, and .dl,
whether introduced by the Aryans, Finns, or Tatars, bear witness in thcir
vocabularies to the multiplicity of objects derived from the Eastern civilisations.
In prehistoric times especially Asiatic influences must have been most felt by the
still barbarous tribes of Europe. Previous to the national and spontaneous
development of independent Hellenic culture, the first impulses had come from
Asia, where the more advanced peoples had already worked out complete systems
of culture. Here were invented the arts of copper casting, of blending the metals
into useful alloys, of smelting iron, working in gold and silver. Languages,
religions, customs, implements, domestic animals, all came from the East. But
after Europe had achieved its first triumph over Asia by the overthrow of Troy,
Hellenic culture made rapid progress in the western peninsulas of Asia Minor as
well as in Greece itself. Europe began, so to say, east of the ^gean Sea, where
the Ionian cities received and transmitted to posterity the inheritance of knowledge
bequeathed to them by the Ohaldeans, Assyrians, Medes, and Persians. The very
name of Asia seems to be of Hellenic origin, restricted at first to a small, portion
of the Ionian seaboard, and afterwards spread to the Anatolian peninsula and the
whole continent. By an analogous phenomenon the name of a small tribe dwelling
on the south coast of the Mediterranean was first extended to a Libyan province,
and then to all Africa.

Beligions,

But even long after the great centres of civilisation had been shifted from the
Mesopotamian regions westwards to Athens and Rome, the religion destined
gradually to spread over the West took its rise in an obscure hamlet by the shores
of Lake Tiberias. The Arab writers had already observed in mediaeval times that
all the great religions, except Buddhism, had their origin in Western Asia, which
has given birth to Judaism, the Zoroastrian, Christian, and Mohammedan
worships, which, like rhythmical waves of thought, here succeeded each othei; at
regular intervals of about six hundred years. All these systems have otherwise a
strong family likeness ; all have been alike influenced by outward surroundings,
which in their essential features present striking analogies from the shores of the
Caspian to those of the Red Sea. Notwithstanding minor differences, the wilder-
nesses of Arabia, Palestine, Chaldna, and Persia have the same aspect of monotonous
g^ndeur.

Buddhism also attempted to penetrate westwards, and traces of its passage
are still preserved in the upland valley of Bamian, the main highway of intercourse
in former times between India and Western Asia. On this historic spot, 8,600 feet
above the sea, in the Hindu-Kush, a Buddhist king ruling over the Upper Oxus
basin caused two colossal statues to be hewn in the solid rock, pierced with niches
giving access to pilgrims. Other religious monuments mark the track of Buddhism

ifiai«««w?^frmm'#^rgffif^

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

towurda tho north and north-woat. But it failed to secure u pormaaont footing
anywhere wefit of the Pamir and Tian*Bhan. But Mongola, Chinese, and Tibetans
received the Indian raisaionarius, and, though misunderstanding their doctrine,
they at least accepted its name, repeated its formula), and practised its rites. At
present Buddhism, mingled with divers superstitions, prevails in China, Tibet, Japan,
Mongolia, amongst numerous tribes about Lake Baikal, and oven in Europe on the
short'8 of tho Caspian. In point of numbers it takes the foremost rank amongst
the religions of the earth, while geographically Christianity has become the most

Fig. U.— Chibf RauoioNa or C'intkal Asia.
B«aU I : 68.000.000

ChiitUuU' Moh»i»nnd»ni. BnUunani.

Bnddlitota.

1400

Vagonik

widely diffused. In Asia the influence of the latter is limited to the Armenians,
Georgians, Nestorians, Maronites, Greeks of Asia Minor, the evangelized tribes of
Asiatic Bussia, a few Chinese, Japanese, a^d Indians, besides European immi~
gprants a&d Eurasians. But elsewhere it has become the creed of all the civilised
nations of Europe, America, South Africa, and Australasia. Mohammedanism also
has spread over a vast domain, stretching mainly south and east of the Christian
area. Arabia, its original home, Palestine, nearly all Western Asia as far as the
Hindu-Eush, belong to the various Moslem sects. In India the followers of the
Prophet are more numerous and influential than elsewhere, while their domain has

mAWIHSTm

"fi^>!

UIHTOKIO BETUObi'ECr— MIORATIONH.

ttlw) been extondcHl to Ohinu and MulayBin. North Africa has aim been converted
by thu ArubH, and Iiilaip in rapidly developing in Sudan, and even uppruach<
ing the Guinea ouust. In Kurope it in praotiaed onlj' by the OBmunli, AniuutH,
Pomaki, and Hoiiniuna of the Balkan peniniula, and by tho Tiitara and other non-
Aryan races of llusiiia. In the huuIH it has been extirpated by fire and sword,
though not before it had exeroinod a considerable influence on European civilisa-
tion. Tho Hponish Moors were for some time the teachers of the Western nations,
nor were the urta and sciences unaifeotod by tbe warfare carried on for two
centuries by the Crusaders against the Saracens and Turks for the |)08ac'Msion of
the Holy Laud.

HlSTORKJ RkTKOSPIXT MlORATIONM.

Sekn from an elevated standpoint, the great drama of universal history resolves
itself into endless struggles, with varying issues, between Kuropo and Asia. After
the initial Asiatic movement a European reaction began in the legendi'.ry tines
which are recalled by the myths of the Argonautio expedition. But the ICuropean
period begins probably with the first great defeat of Asia, when the free citiisens
of Athens triumphed over tho hosts of Dariua and Xerxes. Henceforth the spirit
of Western civilisation stood out in bold contrast with that of the Eatit. Greece and
the heirs of her greatness understood that the true object of life is to uphold and
expand freedom, even at the cost of life itself. But after the glorious Htruggle
ending with tho memorable victories of Marathon and Salamis, Europe failed to
maintain her rising superiority. Alexander no doubt in a few yearn overran
Aaia to the Indus; but his Macedonian followers ended by beconi og Asiatics
themselves, leaving successors who sought to continue the work of Darius and
Xerxes by attaching Greeoe to Asia. Evon Rome accepted her religion from
Palestine, and tbe seat of empire was shifted to the Bosporus. And while the
cultured peoples of tho South, the Aryans and Semites, were thus exercising a
moral influence on the West, the barbarous tribes, of Eastern Europe and of Asia
contributed by wholesale migrations to modify the races, if not of the West, at least
those of the Sarmatian plains. After the fall of the Roman Empire the eastern
continent again acquired an a.tcondancy, which lasted for a period of a thousand
years. In the north the Alanf. Avars, Huns, Pecheneghs, Kumans, Magyars, and
other Finns, followed later on by T itars and Mongolians, penetrated at^ross the steppe
lands westwards, and one of thow) nations founded a state within the circuit of the
Carpathians which still flourishes. In the south the Arabs, following the southern
shores of the Mediterranean, reached the very heart of Gaul, whilo between these
two great movements the Turks seized the Balkan peninsula, and made the second
Rome, the city of Constantine, the capital of their empire. For a time the European
world threatened to be swallowed up in the advancing tide of Eastern supremacy.
One of the most astounding phenomena of history is the sudden rise in the
thirteenth century of the Mongolian Empire, the largest that ever existed. The
strictly nomadic population of tho E^t can scarcely be estimated at more than
four or five millions, and tbe fighting element oan at no time have exceeded half a

mmm

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

million in these regiona. The Mongolian hordes could never of themselves alone
have made up those vast hosts spoken of in the mediaaval chronicles. The alarm
and terror of the vanquished multiplied in imagination the number of the
conquerors, and in the popular fancy the East seemed to be an offlcina gentium
peopled by vast multitudes, whereas the more favoured regions of the West were
really far more populous. The Mongolian conquests were, in fact, achieved by small
armies moving quickly from place to place with a unity of purpose, and fulling
suddenly on enemies too scattered or dismayed to offer an effectual resistance.
The detachment sent by Jenghis Ehan to Samarkand in pursuit of Sultan Ala-
ed-din consisted of no more than 20,000 men, and for three years these warriors
triumphantly overran Persia, Ehorassan, Armenia, Qeorgia, the Caucasus, the
Crimea, and the plains of the Volga before returning to their master.

The Mongols easily reached China by descending from their barren tablelands
through the many valleys watered by the tributaries of the Hoang-ho. But towards
the west there was but one route, which all could not reach. During the great
displacements of populations vast numbers were crowded into Eashgaria, where
they found themselves enclosed by lofty ranges inaccessible to armies. But the
bulk of the migratory tribes followed the traditional route along the southern
slopes of the Alt^'i, whence they swept over Western Siberia in two streams, one
proceeding westwards to Europe, the other southwards to Persia and India. None
of these hordes ever returned to their native pastures, except a few of the Astrakhan
Kalmuks, who attempted in 1770 to escape from Russian rule to their ancestral
homes at the foot of the Alta'i. And now silence reigns in the restless regions which
were once the centre of the Mongolian Empire, and the highway of the Alta'i is a
solitude. The turbulent populations formerly dwelling on the northern frontier
of China have been pacified largely through the policy which, by the propagation
of Lamaism in Mongolia, has changed a population of waiTiors into a community
of monks.

But the traces of the old migrations have not been e£faced. The flora and
fauna of the two continents have become intermingled, while the peoples them>
selves overlap anj encroach on each other at various points. Samoyedes and
Lapps may still te regarded as Asiatics, and many even of the Mordvinianb,
Chuvashes, and Cheremissians in Central Russia are more akin in their habits to
the remote Si^jerian Ostyaks than to the surrounding Russian populations. Many
Bashkirs, Tatars, Kirghiz, and Kalmuks are also settled in Burope, while, on
the other hand, European nations have penetrated far into Asia. Compact Slav
communities are settled in Transcaucasia, and even on the Pacific seaboard, while
the Hellenes are more numerovs in Anatolia than the Osmanli in the Balkan
peninsula.

EuROFKAN Influences.

Formerly the civQising, the Asiatics now represent the barbarous element in
the presence of the Europeans, whose culture, with all its shortcomings, may still
be regarded as the focus of education for the Eastern world. The general move-

^^mmm

.ves alone
he alarm
ir of the
3 gentium
Vest were
i by Btnall
id fulling
resistance,
iltan Ala-
e warriors
casus, the

tablelands
lit towards
the great
iria, where
. But the
e southern
reams, one
iia. None
Astrakhan
T ancestral
jions which
e Altai is a
)m frontier
iropagation
community

e flora and
oplfis themo
oyedes and
ordvtnianb,
ir habits to
ms. Many
while, on
impact Slav
)oard, while
the Balkan

I
PEOOEESS OP DISCOVEEY. 25

ment of civilisation has thus been reversed, and intellectual life now radiates
from Europe to the remotest comers of the earth. Wherever the European
explorers first settled they doubtless ?egan their civilising work by massacring,
enslaving, or otherwise debasing the natives. But the beneficial influences of
superior races have ever commenced by mutual hatred, mistrust, and antagonism.
The conflicting elements everywhere contend for the mastery before they awaken
to the conviction that all alike are members of the same hum&n family.

Like the civilising action of Asia in former times, that of Europe spread
eastwards first from the seaboard. The Portuguese led the way by establishing
themselves on the shores of both India and Malaysia ; and these were followed
successively by the Spaniards, Dutch, English, and French, who founded
factories or forts on the islands and coasts of the same regions. At present
Cyprus is an English island, while Asia Minor is at least in theory under the
protectorate of Great Britain, whose agents are also establishing her supremacy
over Baluchistan, Afghanistan, end possibly even over Persia. Several points on
the Arabian and Persian seaboards belong, directly or indirectly, to England, which
guards the waters of the Persian Gulf, and reigns as undisputed mistress over
India, Ceylon, and part of Indo-Ghina. A large portion of Further India is
imder French rule, while Holland, England, and Spain, share with a few native
sultans the possession of the Eastern Archipelago. Of all the Asiadc nations
Japan has been most rapidly transformed under European influences, and in the
Chinese seaports whole quarters are already occupied by European or American
trading communities. Lastly, all the northern division of the continent owns the
sway of Russia, whose Cossack pioneers have since the close of the sixteenth
century brought the whole of Siberia under the sceptre of the Czar. Thus about
one-half the area and one-third the population of Asia belong henceforth politically
to Europe, as appears from the subjoined table of the direct and indirect Asiatic
posaeasions of the various European states : —

Ana in Sq llllt*. Fopnlatloo.

Asiatic Buisis and DependenoieB 6,736,000 17,000,000

British Poas-^Miona and Dependflnoies in Alia . 2,772,000 248,600,000

Dutch ........... 696,000 26,600,000

French 66,200 2,760,000

Spanish 118,200 7,460,000

Portugoeao 7.200 770,000

Total Asia subject to Europe .... 10,386,600 313,080,000

From the settlements on the seaboard the political conquests and commercial

relations of the West have advanced with ever-increasing rapidity towards the

interior, although the work of scientific discovery is still far from complete.

There are extensive regions of Central Asia scarcely visited except by solitary

explorers, while even in the parts already surveyed many obscure problems

remain still to be solved.

element in
fs, may still
neral move-

pRooRESs OF Discovert.

The ancients, whose navigators never ventured to sail beyond the Indian
waters to China, carried on a tedious overland tra£Bic with that country by caravan

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

'«i

routes, which remained unknown to the Western conquerors. It will be scarcely
possible to discover the exact highway followed by the Greek traders ; but Bactra
being at that time the great emporium, the route indicated by Ptolemy most
probably penetrated eastwards through the Upper Oxus valley across the southern
portion of the Pamir, thence descending by one of the head-streams of the
(Echardes (Turim) to the present basin of Kashgaria. Attempts have even been
made to identify the Tash-Edrgan, which lies on a tributary of the Yarkand in
Sarikol, with the " Stone Tower " spoken of by the old traders. At the beginning
of the Christian era, when their military power was most flourishing, the Chinese
subdued Western Tutary, and while their armies were crossing the Tian-shan
passes, their merchunts and pilgrims were traversing the rougher routes over the
" Roof of the World." Hwen-T'sang, the most famous of these pilg^ms, describes
his journeys with sufficient minuteness to enable us to follow his footsteps ucross
the Pamir and the Upper Oxus valley. Marco Polo also, after leaving Bactra
(Balkh), followed a route diffiaring little from that of his Oreek predecessors, and
running north-east across " the plain of the Famier, which they say is the highest
place in the world." Beyond Yarkand he skirted the Gobi district on the south,
entering China proper about the souroea of tbe Hoang-ho. This journey of
Marco Polo across the continent from west to east still remains unrivalled after a
lapse of six hundred years. As an imperial functionary he also visited most of the
Chinese provinces and East Tibet, penetrating into Burmah through the still little-
known itigions separating Yun-nan from Indo-China. By his enthusiastic account
of China, it« great cities and eastern islands, he contributed more than any other
traveller to stimulate the love of enterprise, and by him was conjured up the phantom
pursued by Columbus across the western waters to the goal of a new world.

When Marco Polo was making his way over the Pamir, another more
northern route to Mongolia had already boon traversed by numerous merchants,
missionaries, and envoys. In the middle of the thirteenth century the centre of
gravity of the Mongol Empire lay about the neighbourhood of the Altai. Hence
the main commercial highway naturally converged on Earakordm, capital of the
state, and this was the road already followed by the Mongol and Tatar hordes
north of the Tian-shan, and along the valley of the Sir-darya. It was also
traversed by Plan de Carpin and Rubruk, envoy of Louis IX. Western
adventurers now crowded round the imperial tent, and so numerous were the
relations of the West with the great Eastern potentate that there was question of
founding a chair of the Mongolian language in the Paris Sorbonne.

But the empire was soon broken up ; Earakordm ceased to be a capital, and
its ruins were forgotten in the sands. Still the route to China along the northern
slopes of the Tian-shan, and through Zungaria, remained open to trade. Pegolotti
and others followed it in the fourteenth century, and it might have ultimately
acquired real commercial importance, had the attention of the Western nations not
been diverted to the great oceanic discoveries round the Cape of Gbod Hope to
India, and across the Atlantic to the New World. The long and dangerous
highways of Tatary, Zungaria, and Mongolia were now forsaken, and the work of

mmm

PROGRESS OF DISCOVERT.

scarcely
t Bactra
ay moat
louthern
I of the
ren been
rkand in
Bginning
Chinese
'ian-shan
over the
describes
>pa across
g Bactra
isors, and
e highest
ihe south,
mmey of
sd after a
lost of the
itill little-
ic account
any other
) phantom
rid.

her more
uerohants,
I centre of
i. Hence
>ital of the
tar hordes
) was also
Wefltem
were the
question of

lapital, and
e northern

Pegolotti
ultimately
nations not
9d Hope to

dangerous
the work of

Marco Polo ha& been resumed only in our days. But it is being now prosecuted
by many explorers armed with 'le resources of science, and protected by the
respect with which the natives have learnt to regard the Western nations. From
year to year the space still remaining to be explored becomes narrower ; the main
features of the mysterious Pamir are already determined ; Northern and Western
China have been traversed in every direction. But certain Tibetan districts still
remain a ierra incognita, pending the exploration of which many important
geographical problems must remain unsolved. Asia may still be said to lack

Fig. 12.— Chup Itinibariu op Centuai. Asia. ■
Boale 1 : l«O,O0O,00O.

__ BOkBootB.

Hoaaa CUiieM in fifth omtmy.

»_ Hmn-T'MDy.

>~-~. Aikbs.

,__- Nicolo and KcJTeo P«do.

— — Marco Polo.

• Pimdita.

Oabet.

.-~_ XVaaobOMnicr.
— ~-. VoCwUqr.
•» Bicfatbofsii.

,«»— ^ eum, isrs.

w Main ThKte Route aomrdiDg to Tegoletti, IWO. —• •♦- Soanowkl.

Forqrth, 1870. ^. — Cooper.

PrjeraUkL .».>.- Amurnd David.

— — ftAlagiatwrit.

————<——«— —I 8,00OSIflei.

geographical unity in its relations with the history of man ; for the interior
remains but partially known, while the movements of population and commerce
continue still to be made by the seaward routes and coast regions.

The progress of trade and discovery must ultimately give to Asia the unity it
now lacks, and the result must be a general shifting of equilibrium throughout
the whole world. At no distant day the European railway system will be
continued eastwards, connecting the dties of the Bosporus with those of India,
and enabling goods to be forwarded without break from the Yistula to the Indus
basin. Travellers will then flock to those still unknown regions of Eastern Tibet,

'^h'-'

fo':

It -

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

the scene of some of the grandest phenomena on the globe. The teeming
populations of India and China will then also enter into direct relations with each
other, and the trade routes of Calcutta and Shanghai will meet midway between
those emporiums.

All these economic revolutions must revive many cities decayed, or even
vanished, since the overland routes were abandoned for the safer and easier
oceanic highways. Large cities cannot fail again to spring up in Bactriana and
Sogdiana, where the main road between Central Europe and India will cross that
leading to Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt. But besides the new centres of
population that must arise in the West, others will be founded in Central Asia,
the rallying-points of Chinese and Russians, of the Hindu and European traders.
But the precise locality of these new marts must be determined by political as
well as by climatic and other physical considerations, for Asia is a battle-field
which is destined soon to witness a decisive struggle in the history of mankind.

Political Rivalries.

The influence of Europe on the Asiatic populations is steadily increasing, so
that the vast eastern continent would seem in some respects to be becoming more
and more a simple dependency of its little western peninsula. The power of
Europe is represented in Asia mainly by the two rival states, England and Russia,
differing profoundly from each other in their traditions, political situation, and
interests. Russia rules in the northern, England in the southern zone, and many
small intermediate peoples struggling to maintain their independence gravitate
necessarily to the orbits of these great states.' In the extreme east, Japan, while
preserving its political autonomy, is striving to rival the European peoples in the
form of its administrative system. But the Chinese still cling to their individual
nationality. Their power has been but little affected by the recent invasions and
treaties with foreign states, and the empire is already beginning to resist further
aggression by the inert force of its teeming populations. But these countless
masses have also the strength imparted by industry, toil, and patience, while
common sense, methodic habits, unflagging tenacity, render them formidable
competitors in the race. Compared with the Hindus, the Chinese have the
paramount advantage derived from a thorough mixture of races and national
cohesion. Their temperate habits also enable them to become acclimatized under
the most varied climes. They are an enduring race, which acquires fresh vitality
from oppression and defeat. Hence England and Russia are not the only rivals
for supremacy in Asia. Nay, more, the Chinese race cannot fail to clash with the
peoples of Europe and North America on the fundamental questions of culture and
social habits, before taking an active and intelligent part with them in the work
of human progress. This conflict mtist needs retard the development of mankind
until its course be again resumed by a final reconciliation of the ideas common to
both elements.

The ineviiable struggle between these three rival states is still retarded by

%'-ij-s?,v??'&ia!rm?*'<'«f*'ffl>??w^^^

tooming
ith each
between

or even
1 easier
lana and
rose that
intres of
ral Asia,
1 traders,
litical as
ittle-iield
akiud.

lasing, so
ing more
power of
id Russia,
ition, and
ind many
gravitate
»n, while
les in the
ndividual
isions and
st further
countless
ice, while
ormidable
have the
national
zed under
ih vitality
•nly rivals
I with the
ilture and
the work
mankind
ommon to

POLITICAL RIVALBIES.

S»

the vast extent of the partly desert lands separating them. If China is easily
acoBHsible by sea, she is at least completely enclosed landwards. Towards Russian
Siberia she has far more solitudes than peopled regions, and here also Russia, having
but few colonies, is incapable of exercising any political pressure on China. Between
the " Flowery Land " and British India the zone of separation is formed not by
solitudes, but by highlands still scarcely explored. In the west there is still a
considerable tract intervening between Russian territory and India, and here the
native element has hitherto maintained a certain political independence. In both

Fig. 18. — EvBopxAir Imfldbho ut Aau.

Scale 1 : 130,000,000.

Salijeet to RuMlaii
Inflnenoe.

Britidi SnUMt to Britiah

PoMeMtoos. Tnfl ne n ce.

, 8,000 XilM.

directions the Turkomans and Afghans have till recently presented a bold front to
the Russian and English invaders, who are endeavouring to seize the strategic points
of their territory. Influential statesmen have even declared, whether sincerely or
not, that this intermediate zone should be permanently respected by the two rival
powers, and that the advanced sentinels of British India and Russian Turkestan
run little risk of soon meeting on some pass of the Hindu-Eush, or about the
sources of the Murghab.

From the military point of view China is still far inferior to the two other

BiliMiiiBllllM W M i

fwrnm^mrng-y-M^^m'^mmrwmw^^mmf^^'^v

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

great Asiatic powers. Although she has had the foresight to utilise the lost twenty
years of peace to reorganize her arnty, replenish her arsenals, oast guns, build
ironclads, slie is scarcely yet strong enough to contend with any European power
beyond her own limits. She is also still largely enslaved to official etiquette and
deep-rooted traditions, preventing her from /reely entering on the new career
towards which ahe is impelled by the course of events. Nevertheless both
Government and people are at one in the determination to prevent foreigners from
monopolizing the wealth and trade of the country. While receiving thetti in
compliance with the terms of the treaties, the Chinese have contrived to protect
their own interests, and while slowly, accepting new ideas, they prefer to be their
own teachers in applying them to economical purposes. From the material
point of view they also possess the strength inherent in numbers. In Manchuria,
in Formosa, and in the central regions they are gradually acquiring the land by
cultivation, and even in many foreign countries they have attained a decided
preponderance. From their over-peopled native laudlhey are already overflowing
into Further India, Malaysia, Auistralia, the Sandwich Islands, and the United
States.

On the othex' hand, England is unable to contend by means of compact masses
for the supremacy in Asia. In the very centre of her power she has nothing to
depend upon beyond her European troops and native mercenaries. Still the
territory already acquired gives her a tremendous defensive and aggressive power.
She not only raises formidable armies in an empire containing one-sixth of the
population of the globe, but also a sufficient revenue to be independent of
the resources of the home country, The English cannot, of course, rely on the
sympathy of their subjects, whom they probably despise too much to expect it of
them. The time must also doubtless come, though it may be still remote, when
the Hindus will develop a national life and get rid of their foreign masters.
Meanwhile the English tenure is far more secure than before the mutiny of 1857,
although the majority of the army is composed of sepoys, and all the lower
functions of the administration are in the hands either of natives or of" Eurasians ; "
that is, half-caste Hindus and Europeans. The secret of England's strength lies
in the fact that no national spirit has yet been evolved, no public opinion formed,
except here and there, and even then deprived of all efficacy in a country which is
divided into a multitude of distinct societies by the institution of caste. The
English, belonging almost exclusively to the wealthy and influential classes, and
unattended by servants of their own nationality, whose menial status might
diminish British prestige, are enabled to live like gods and move in a higher
world, fur above their multitudinous subjects, by whom they are hated, yet feared.

Apart from the various qiiestions of internal policy, the main point for
England is not only to uphold her sway in Oisgangetic India, but also to con-
nect by easy and rapid routes the two centres of her vast empire on which " the
sun never sets." She requires the geographical unity of a powerful state, for
there are still great gaps in her boundless domain. The London and Oalcutta
highway is not absolutely secured to her fleets and armies, and would be exposed

■^ ».

POLITICAL EIVALBIES.

t twenty
as, build
An power
lette and
iw career
[ess both
aers from
thetn in

protect
) bo their

1 material
[anchuria,
) land by
a decided
rerflowing
le United

act masses
nothing to
Still the
Ave power.
Ixth of the
lendent of
ely on the
ixpect it of
aote, when
n masters,
ly of 1867,
the lower
urasians ; "
irength lies
ion formed,
•y which is
aste. The
classes, and
atus might
n a higher
yet feared.

point for
Iso to con-
nrhioh " the
1 state, for
id Calcutta

be exposed

on the flank were Russia to seize the Dardanelles and upper basin of the
Euphrates, or place Cossack garrisons in the strongholds of Afghanistan. Thanks
to her fust-sailing fleets, England has hitherto enjoyed a great advantage over her
rival for empire ; for British armies are moved from the Thames to the Indus far
more expeditiously than feeble Kussian columns from the Caspian to the oasis of
Morv. Hence, in spite of the maps, England is in reality much nearer to India
than are the advanced Muscovite outposts on the Upper Oxus. The Mediter«
ranean belongs to the fleets of England, which is thus enabled to close the Suez
Canal at pleasure. She also rules supreme in the Red Sea, on the Arabian sea-
board, in the Persian Gulf, and along the coasts of Persia and Baluchistan. But
the water highways are insufficient, and she will also have to hold the overland
routes beyond Europe. With this object she has already secured the virtual pos-
session of Asia Minor and occupied Cyprus, at the extreme comer of the Mediter-
ranean, over against the great bend of the Euphrates ; she also holds strong posi-
tions in Makran and Baluchistan, and must either now or ultimately annex
Kandahar permanently to British India. She is on friendly terms with the
Western Asiatic sovereigns, by means of pensions g^dually transforming them
into vassals, thus avoiding the risk and expense of ruling them directly, for she
also enjoys over Russia the great advantage derived from the possession of accu-
mulated capital. Her military routes are being rapidly developed, and a line 600
miles long will soon connect the Indian railway system with £andahar, the true
key to Afghanistan. Half the distance separating Alexandretta from Calcutta
will thus be traversed by English locomotives. But is it nc« evident from such
efibrts that the struggle for supremacy in Asia is approaching P

Slower in their movements, because opposed by still unsurmounted physical
obstacles, the Russians have, as a military power, advantages of another description
over their English rivals. Their territory is not composed of scattered frag-
ments, but forms from the shores of Lapland to the Pumir a perfect geogra-
phical unity. A large portion of the inhabitants are, moreover, of Russian stock,
and this ethnical element is yearly increasing by colonisation. Nor are the
native tribes anywhere numerous enough to cause serious alarm to thr Slav
settlers, who have become diversely intermingled with them, and who do not
maintain a haughty reserve towards the former owners of the land. Perfect
fusion is prevented by differences of social habits, and amongst the Moham-
medans by religious prejudice. Still the Orthodox Russians and the Moslems of
Turkestan do not, like the English and Hindus, hold aloof from each other, as if
they belonged to two distinct orders of humanity. Hence national cohesion may
be ultimately realised in Asiatic as easily as it has been in European Russia.
The Russians will also, like the English, soon doubtless succeed in giving greater
material cohesion to their Asiatic Empire by means of military routes, lines of
wells, and even railways across the intervening wastes. The railway system, now
reaching no farther than the Caucasus, Atrek valley, and river Ural, will bo
continued to the foot of the Hindu-Kush, and then formidable armies may in a few
weeks be massed on the frontiers of the lands hitherto swayed by British influence.

8fl ASIATIC RUSSIA.

But theae frontiers still present many weak points, especially on the Iranian table-
land and in the upland valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. Whether the two
rivals wish it or not, whether they seek to precipitate or avoid the conflict, it must
sooner or later inevitably come. All the petty intermediate states are already
being disintegrated under the pressure of the twofold attraction, and on both
sides the intrigues, rivalries, political, commercial, and religious jealousies have
silently begun the mighty struggle which must one day burst into open warfare.

Thus are being prepared revolutions of a vital character in the heart of the
Old World. The Asiatic lands, where, rightly or wrorgly, the cultured races seek
their primeval origins, are becoming the scene of a supreme political struggle
between the two most powerful nations in Europe. Whatever be the issue, the
hope may be entertained that Western Asia and tbe Indian world will definitely
belong to the domain of Western civilisation, and that thenceforth all the European
and Asiatic peoples will accomplish their evolution harmoniously together, so that
all may benefit by the progress of each. Thanks to the reaction of Western
culture on the Eastern world, mankind, conscious of its unity, has already been
enlarged, and political revolutions are preparing for the world a common destiny
and solution of the problems affecting the life of nations.

CHAPTER U.

CAUCASIA.

I.— THE PONTO-CASPIAN MOUNTAIN SYSTEM.

I HE Gauoasion mountain syatem is often regarded as belonging to
Europe. Rising like a barrier north of the eastern extremity of
the Black Sea, it must have seemed to the Greek navigators dis-
tinctly eevered from Asia, whereas to the traders settled on the
northern shores of the Euxine it appeared to form the southern
limits of the great Scythian plains. Since that time geog^phers have discussed
the question whether the natural confines of the two continents were indicated by
the bed and marsh lands of the Phasis in Colchis; or by the Kimmerian Strait
and course of the Tanais. Apart from this question, Hellenic tradition constantly
kept in view these mountains, loftier than either Olympus, Etna, Hemus, or the
Alps. The history of Greece itself was associated in legend with this distant
range, where the firtit germs of oiviliftation were sought. Towards the shores of
Colchis was directed the famous Argonautio expedition in search of the Golden
Fleece, symbolizing the wealth of every sort flowing both from science, trade, and
industry. Here, also, the Hellenes endeavoured to find the origin of their race.
Deucalion, who peopled Greece, was son of Prometheus, and it was to a rock in
the Caucasus that this Titan was -bound for having stolen the fire from heaven.
A sort of superstition, perhaps associated with the Promethean myth, formerly
induced savants to apply the term Caucasian to all the fair European and Asiatic
races, thus testifying to the instinctive reverence with which the nations have
ever regarded these mountains forming the barrier between two worlds. This
border-land was supposed to be still inhabited by the purest representatives of the
race, whose beauty, symmetry, and graceful carriage were spoken of as physical
advantages peculiar to all the white peoples. Nor has this term Caucasian yet
quite disappeared from ordinary language as the synonym of the White, Aryan, or
Indo-European stock.

Since the true relief of the land has been determined by Pallas and other
explorers, there can be no longer any doubt that the Caucasus belong^ to Asia.
It is sharply separated from Europe by the deep depressioi^ now traversed by the

A8IATI0 BUSdIA.

'-.

Manlch, and formerly filled by the waters of the Ponto-Oiupirtn Strait. In the
aouth the ayatetn, while preHerving its ohari'oter of a distinct chain, is connected by
spurs and a lofty transverse ridge with the Auutolir.n mountains, so that it forms
the advanced moss of the whole continent. Historically, also, the inhabitants of
the Caucasus belong to the Asiatic woriii. Before the intervention of Russia the
Georgians, Mingrelians, Armenians, Kurds, Tatars, and other Transcaucasian
peoples maintained relations, whether friendly or hostile, chiefly with the inha-
bitants of Anatolia and Persia. The southern slopes facing the sun are also much
more densely peopled than those turned towards the arid steppes of Europe.
Hence, even after their annexation to Russia, the centre of gravity of these Asiatic
lands was naturally found at the southern foot of the Caucasus, where is conoen*
trated the aggressive force of the empire against the other regions of Western
Asia. Recently a considerable strip of Turkish territory has been forcibly added
to Transcaucasia, so that this division of the Caucasus, already the most populous,
has become nearly as extenfiive as the northern. It is even larger, if in it be
included the province of Daghestan, which, though lying north of the main range,
is administratively regarded as part of Transcauoasia.*

The Great Caucasus.

Few ranges are characterized by a more striking unity than the Caucasus, the
Eok-kaf or Eaf-dagh of the Turks and Tatars, a section of " the chain that
girdles the world," according to the Oriental mythologies. Seen from the distant
steppes of Muzdok or Yekaterinogradsk, k>i.retohing from horizon to horizon, it
seems like a rampart with a thousand sparkling battlements. The poets call it
simply the Caucasus, as if it were but one frowning mass reaching; 'rom sea to sea
for a distance of 720 miles. It is also called the " Great Caucasus," in contradis-
tinction to tba irregular spurs of the " Little," or rather " Anti-Caucasus " beyond
the Eura basin. Approached from the Euxine or the Russian steppes, it seems
at first an impalpable vapour, a hazy cloud mingling with the fogs of the sur*
rounding swamps ; then it assumes more distinct outlines, breaking into snowy
or wooded crests and deep goiges, the whole soon bounding tbe horizon, towering
above the ssone of cloud, wind, and storm, eclipsing the sun midway in its course,
threatening the lowlands with avalanches and widespread ruin, hurling the
foaming torrents in cascades and rapids down to the plains. Accustomed to the
sight of boundless steppes or slight eit.inencee, the Russians could not fail to
be struck by these lofty sumroit« which seemed to belong to another nature,
whose charm was enhanced by the valour and beauty of its inhabitants.

* Area and population of Rusaian Caucasia : —

Aim in Sqnara Eitimated PopnUtioa

Mile*. (1880).

CiKaucasia . . . ^ . . 88,000 1,020,000

Daghestan 11,436 600,000

TranMaucaaia with Kuba . . 76,844 8,260,000

Becent conqueeta 10,636 200,000

Total 186^ 6,870.000

■MH

THE OBEAT 0AUCA8U8. W

Rusrian literaturo reflects the deep improMion produced on the imagination by
the sight of the CaucanuR, and by the warfare wug^d against its numerous tribes.
Pushkin det4cribed in song the romantic scenery of Oircassia ; I^ermontov inter-
preted the traditions of the inhabitants, and made the Cauriisus the scene of his
novel the " Hero of the Day," which had such a large share in the intellectual
development of the rising generation. How many noble spirits have perished,
' like Lermontov himself, in this region, persecuted during life, all the more
honoured in death I

The general south-east and north-west direction of the range suffers but slight
deviations. It thus follows the same line us the mountains of Persia, Asia Minor,
and so many other Asiatic systems. Its origin is therefore associated with
the laws by which a large portion of the crust of the Old World has been modified.

Fig. U.— Bso OP TMi Caspian.

AoBoidla* to A. Orinmuk BoO* 1 ; S,mo,oeo.

to e I!»tiiomi.

toaix

ectoiao.

laotoiao. iSOMidtiinnmlii.
WICOm.

In the formation of the surrounding lands the Ouuoasvs has even played a more
important part than is evident from its apparent relief. W'th a regularity sur-
passing that of all other systems, it is continued beyond the main ridge by argil-
laceous hills thrown up by igneous agencies. At either/ extremity low peninsulas
heaving with the pressure of pent-up forces are projected seawards — those of
Taman on the west, and Apsheron on the east. The first is scarcely separated
from another peninsula, that of Kertch, advancing from the Crimean mountains,
while the second stretches across the Caspian in a line marked first by volcanic
islets, and then by a submerged bank separating the two g^reat northern and
southern marine depressions. On both sides of this bank the lead sinks 1,300
feet deeper than the line of projection of the Caucasus. On the east coast the
cape north of the Erasnovodsk peninsula is the starting-point of a chain of

M ARIATIO BUSfllA.

heigbtfl, bills or aingle eaoarpmpntN continuing the lino of the OauoaauH direotly
to the Murghub valley between Morv and Herat. Through these eminences and
those of North Afghanistan the Oauoasian syNtein ia connected with that of the
Hindu*Kush.

The Caucasus resembles the Pyrenees in its direction, in the serrated form of
the main range, in its position between two murine basins, and like them uIho it
may be considert^d as consisting of two sections of unequal length. But if the
gap forming the natural limit between the western and eastern sections is not
situated in the middle of the range, it lies at all events almost exactly midway
between the two seas. Through this depression pusses the grout military highf
way betwi an Russia and Tiilis. On the meridian of this pass the main range
contracts on either side to a width of about 60 miles between the two opposite
plains, while east and west the highlands spread much further north and south.
The western section, though the narrower, is the higher of the two, for here
rise the loftiest summits, six at least of which surpass Mont Blanc, culminating
point of Europe.* Daghestan, i.e. " the Highlands," comprising the most
important region of the Eastern Ouucasus, is lower, but more irregular and rugged,
than the western section.

The old geographers supposed that the system consisted of a simple unbroken
ridge ; but the investigations of Abish and others show that the general relief is
much more intricate. The chain is almost everywhere formed by two ridges, and
in many places even by three or four running parallel, or nearly so, with each
other, and connected at intervals by nuclei, thus presenting a formation analogous
to that of the Andes. The upper valleys of the Caucasus generally take the
form of cirques, or elongated craters, in which are collected the head-streams,
and from which they escape through a deep lateral gorge. From the orographic
point of view the Eoshtan-tau may be considered the culminating point of the
system ; for this peak, which has never been scaled, rises on the parting-line
between the two slopes. Between the sources of the Kuban and of the Adai-
kokh, 100 miles further east, the watershed presents no passes lower than 10,000
feet. The first breach below this eluvation is the Mamisson Pass (9,540 feet),
situated at one of the sudden breaks in the main range, on a transverse ridge
branching off at the Zikari Mountains. East of this pass numerous gaps ooour
at altitudes ranging from 6,500 to 10,000 feet. Although the triangular survey
of the Caucasus has long been finished, the work of exploration is still far from
complete. Since 1868 the Kazbek and Elbruz have been ascended by Freshfield,
Moore, and Tucker, accompanied by the Chamonix guide Devouassoud, and
several other peaks have also been scaled ; yet the Alpine Clubs have still plenty
of work before them, especially in the Western Caucasus.

The northern and southern slopes of the rang^ differ greatly in their general

* Chief summitH of the Caucasus : —

Elbrus .

Kashtan-tau

Dikh-tau

Feat.
18,820
17,370
17,190

Kaisbek . . . .
Tshba (Resoch-mta)
Aghiih-tau, or Adiah-tau .

F<wt.
16,800
16.760 (P)
10,260 (f)

mmmmammm

£i:^

TOR ORKAT CAUCASUS.

Mpeotfl. Tlio lotter {■ on the whi)lo the more abrupt of the two, and tho diHtunco
from tho control ridgo to tho phiins wutorod by tho Kura ia about ono-hulf thut
which intorvonen botwoen tho Haino point and tho northorn valloyn of tho Suhik
and Tori'k. In tho woHt a ainiilur oontrait in proHontod by tho alop^m fuuing tho
Rion und Kubun renpectively. Tho deacont towards tho Kuban is very irregular,
boing broken first by a toriot of parallel oresta, and then lower down by tho pro-
jections of the upland limeatono terraces roaembling tho glocia of a rampart, which
stretch somewhat confusedly from the Euxine to tho Oaspian, but which present

Fig. 18.— GaoLoaicAL Fornationi or thi Cbntiul CavcaiuSi
AMordiof to K. I'arr*. Sod* I : l,400,0aa

GMAitM.

P«l»eaoic
BohMi.

Lowar JnnMic

Upptr Jtmudo
Uuidi.

Tiomr Chalks.

UppirCluaiw.

Undetarmiued
Lower Tertiaiiei.

Anaitb
Porpbyrr.

— MlUlM.

AaOnbu,

remarkably i^istinct outlines about the western hemicyclc of the Upper Terek.
There ia thus developed a vast intermediate valley between the main range and
the advanced ridges of Jurassic formation. These terraces slope very gently
toward the steppe, whereas the side facing the central chain is broken by steep
declivities, some of which present nearly vertical walls over 3,000 feet high.
These broken terraces, intersected by rapid torrents, are regarded by the inha-
bitants as of far greater importance than the higher eminences of the main range,
for the pastures and woodlands are here parcelled out as landed property. Every
prominence has its name, whereas till recently the Elbruz and Eazbek were the
only peaks of the main range known by name to the lowlanders,

ASIATIC RUSSIA,

Geological Formation — Volcanic Action.

The regularity of the Caucasian system is not confiued to the general relief,
but is also shown, at least on the northern slopes, in the main features of its
geology. The chief range consists principally of crystalline schists, resting here
and there on granites, and diminishing in extent as we go eastwards. The
Suram transverse ridge,connecting the Oau casus with the Anti-Caucasus, also
consists of crystalline rocks ; but here the strata are fur less regular than on the
northern slopes. Bight and left of the great central chain, the prominences on
both slopes are chiefly composed of limestone and silicious strata of various ages
— Jurassic, cretaceous, or eocene. In the north these older formations are covered
by the pliocene and more recent steppe lands. In their prevailing characteristics
the Urukh, Terek, and Baksan valleys all closely resemble each other. Here the
streams rise in wild and rugged granitic cirques, thence traversing marls and sandy
clays between glens dotted with numerous villages, beyond which they enter
narrow gorges, above whose chalk sides are visible the pastures and woodland r.
Lower down stretches the steppe, where the torrents combine to form the Terek.
About the middle of the range, between Daghestan and the Western Caucasus,
a sort of geological inlet penetrates into the Upper Terek valley, where a vast
horizontal plateau of tertiary grits projects like a peninsula between the surround-
ing chalks. Here the attraction of the hills is unusually active, the deviation of
the plummet towards the intermediate rocks amounting to thirty-eight seconds
between Vladikavkaz, at the northern base, and Dushet, south of the range.

Porphyries cropping out in the upper regions raise their steep crests above the
snow-line, while in the central regions more recent lavas have broken through the
crust, especially on the southern slopes. In the north the Elbruz, culminating
point of the system, is an old volcano, which was probably active when the
Euxine and Caspian were still connected by the Manich Strait towards the close
of the tertiary or beginning of the following epoch. This mountain terminates in a
sort of horseslioe cirque, which eeems to be a crater partly fallen in. The Kazbek
also is a trachyte cone, while the cfestsof the " Bed Hills," farther south, are all
volcanic, and the route skirting the Aragva passes along the foot of columnar
basalt rocks. Nor are the subterraneous forces still extinct in the Caucasus.
Not only arc both extremities fringed by boiling mud volcanoes, but numerous
mineral and naphtha springs bubble up from underground lakes disposed in
symmetrical order on both sides of the range. The hot springs are amongst the
most copious in the world, though few of them seem to he associated with the
igneous forces lying beneath the main chain.

Earthquakes, probably of volcanic origin, occur at frequent intervals in the
valleys of the Eura and Araxis, while regular upheavals of the land have taken
place at both ends of the range. The steep cliffs overlooking the little harbour
of Petrovsk, in Daghestan, are scored by horizontal lines produced by the former
action of the waves, although they are now some 300 feet above tbe present level
of the Caspian. On the Abkhasian coast there are also distinct evidences of

W^SfSOhiiaiiii^ua. .<>...

erul relief,
turea of its
'esting here
ftrdfl. The
icasus, also
than on the
ninences on
various ages

are covered

aracteristics

Here the

Is and sandy

they enter
. woodlands,
a the Terek,
rn Caucasus,
rhere a vast
ae surround-

deviation of
ight seconds
range,
its ahove the

through the

culminating
re when the
irds the close
rmiuates in a

The Eazhek
south, are all

of columnar
Lhe Caucasus,
mt numerous
disposed in
) amongst the
ated with the

;erval8 in the
id have taken
little harhour
by the former
5 present level
, evidences of

GEOLOGICAL FOBMATION— VOLCANIC ACTION. 89

changes of level, and as high as 600 feet there are visible old marine shores in
every respect resembling those still washed by the waves of the Black Sea. The
marshy springs oozing from the ground at this elevation contain shell-Bsh, such as
the mi/m and gammarm, of the same species as those now inhabiting the Euxine,
though their presence has been attributed either to a former communication with
that sea, or to the action of water-fowl carrying the spat backwards and forwards
in their plumage. Lake Abra(k, near Novo-Rossusk, also contains a semi-marine
fauna, which has gradually adapted itself to the fresh water. The remains of
buildings in the alluvia near Sukhum-Kaleh, both above and below the surface,
show that even in historic times the land has first subsided and then been

Fig. 16.— Hot Sviunoh and Naphtha Rsgionb in the Cavgasub.
Soda 1 : 11,000,000.

NiVliUiaBegiain. Hot Springs. Nq^UteWelK

. ISOHilw.

upheaved, and that it is now again subsiding. The ruins of a fort are at present
16 to 18 feet under water, und a large wall has been found even at a depth of
32 fTOt. After every storm, coins, rings, and other antique objects are constantly
thrown up, and in one instance a gold coronet was discovered in the sands.
Similar oscillations have occurred on the Baku coast of the Caspian, where the
remains of a building are still visible near the shore.

The advanced spurs of the Caucasus are not high enough to conceal the
oratral chain from the inhabitants of the plains. From the steppes of Stavropol,
a distance of 120 miles, the snowy Elbrus I? distinctly visible, rising in solitary
majesty on the horizon. Travellers approaching from the north see it for miles

*,!■

■Mk.

ASIATIC EUSSU.

and miles along the route, constantly increasing in size long before the presence
of the range is betrayed by any other peaks to the right or left. But when it
suddenly comes in sight it presents a stern, almost a terrible aspect, snow-clad
only on the highest crests, here and there furrowed by avalanches, but lacking
the charm and variety of the Alpine masses. Being much narrower and simpler
in its structure, it is necessarily more uniform than the Alpine system. It is aUo
deficient in grand cascades, its hills having already been furrowed by the action
of water into regular river beds.

Water Systems — Snow-line — Rainfall — Glaciers.

The absence of detached masses and of broad intervening valleys deprives the
Caucasus of great lakes like those of the Alps. No such lacustrine tarns even
occur as are so frequently met in the Swiss and Tyrolese highlands. The fresh-
water lakes, formerly stretching along the plains at both sides of the range, have
been drained since the glacial period. One of these old lakes, contemporary with

Fig. 17. — Pkofilb of the Caucasus as sben from Patioobbk.
According to Fresbfl«ld.

the volcanic eruptions, is now replaced by the cultivated fields of Vladikavkaz and
Alagir in the Terek valley. Another of equal extent on the south filled the
Karthalian basin between Suram and Mtzkhet, disappearing with the bursting of
the embankments that confined the waters of the Eura. The whole of the
Alazan valley, with that of its tributary the Aliri>chai, was also flooded by a
lake, which ultimately escaped through a gorge in the advanced spurs of the
Caucasus. In fact, all the river valleys, those of the Euban and its tributaries
the Zelenchuck, the Laba, and the Belaya, no less than those of the Eura system,
formerly served as lacustrine reservoirs, so that the Caucasian streams, like so
many others, may be regarded as rediiced lakes or contracted fiords. But the
Anti-Caucasus, a vast hilly plateau, or rather an aggregate of irregular masses
' with axes at various angles, thus presents far more numerous land-locked depres-
sions, and this system accordingly offers in its lakes a marked contrast to the
Ponto-Caspian chain.

Although with a greater mean elevation than those of the Alps, the Caucasian
peaks are far less covered with snow and ice, not only in consequence of their
more southerly latitude and other climatic conditions, but also owing to the

WATEE SYSTEMS— SNOW-LINE— EAINFALL—GLACIEBS.

presence
when it
low-olad
lacking
. simpler
it is ako
ae action

irives the
.ms even
'he fresh-
age, have
rary with

avkaz and
filled tiie
ursting of
le of the
Dded hy a
lira of the
tributaries
ira system,
ns, like so
But the
liar masses
:ed depres-
rast to the

) Oauoasian
ce of iheir
Lng to the

narrowness of the upper crests, and the absence of cirques where the accumulated
snows might serve as reservoirs of glaciers. The snow-line varies considerably
with the latitude, exposure, amount of snow or rainfall, direction and force of the
winds, and relative position of the several mountain masses. The extreme limits
would appear to differ as much as 6,100 feet, for, according to Radde, the line
falls to 8,460 feet on the western slopes of the Qaribolo, whereas Parrot fixes it
at 14,560 feet on the north-west side of the Great Ararat. Mount Alagoz, rising
to a height of 13,660 feet in the Anti-Oaucasus, is entirely free of snow in
summer, and even in the Great Caucasus Rupreoht ascended to an elevation of
12,600 feet on the south side without meeting a single snow-field ; but this was
in the eastern section facing the Caspian. Farther west the moist winds from

Fig. 18. — BAHfrALL or nn Cavoaius.
.Stale 1 : 10JSOO,000

Undmr 10 Inebts.

lotoao.

MtoM

MtoSO.

80 and opwudi.

the Euxine often cover the southern slopes with snow. In some of the upper
valleys of the Rion basin ihe snowfall is said to amount to firom 16 to 23 feet.
On the whole, and apart from local differences, the line of perpetual snow would
seem to oscillate on the southern slopes between 9,600 and 11,600 feet, and on
the northern between 11,000 and 13,000 feet. Thus the mean limit is about
2,000 feet higher than in the Pjrrenees, though they lie in the same latitude.
This contrast must be attributed to the greater general dryness of the climate, at
least on the northern slopes, and to the greater summer heats of the Caucasus.
The portion under perpetual snow begins at the Oshtek, or Oshten, in the west,
and extends eastwards to the Kazbek, beyond which the mow rests throughout
the year only on isolated peaks.

ASIATIC EU8SIA.

The various meteorological statioLd established along the range have approxi-
mately determined the diminution of humidity, owing to which the snow-line
rises gradually eastwards, according as the moist winds recede from the Euxine
and approach the Eastern Caucasus, where the continental winds prevail. On the
slopes facing the Black Sea the snow or rain fall is three times more abundant
than in the centre, and six, eight, or even ten times more so than in the Eura
basin and the Apsheron peninsula. At times not a drop of water falls for six
months along the lower course of the Eura, for the influence of the west winds
from the Euxine reaches no farther than the Suram Mountains, which connect
the main range with the Anti-Cuucasus, east of Euta'is. The Caspian itself
supplitsa very little moisture to the Eastern Caucasus, because the limited amount
of humidity brought by north-east winds is mostly discharged on the advanced
spurs at the foot of the .Daghestan highlands.

Notwithstanding the excessive summer heats of this region and its higher snow-
line, the mean annual temperature does not exceed that of the Pyrenees, or even
of the Alps. For the cold north-east winds, being untempered by the warm
south-westerly breezes, which are arrested by the Anatolian plateaux, lower the
normal temperature of the Caucasus. The climates of Caucasia and Switzerland have
a common mean, but the extremes are much greater in the Ponto-Caspiau region
than in Central Europe. The temperature in summer and winter varies in Switzer-
land about 18° or 19°, whereas there was a difference of 27° at Patigorsk in 1876.

The absence of snow produces a corresponding scarcity of glaciers. Tet they
are numerous enough, especially about the Elbruz, and there is almost continuous
ice for a distance of 120 miles between the Juman-tau and the Ealtber, above the
Ar-dun valley. The lowest glacier is that of Ealchi-don, or Earagan, which
drains from the Adai-kokh into the Upper Urukh valley. According to
Fresbfield the only Swiss glacier of equal length is that of Alech. But as a rule
the frozen streams of the Caucasus descend no farther than 7,000 feet above
the sea ; that is, several hundred feet above the corresponding limits in the Swiss
Alps. Unlike the snow, they reach a lower point on the northern than on the
southern slopes, a fact due to the general relief of the mountains, which are much
more abrupt on the south than on the opposite side, where they slope northwards in
long valleys. Unmistakable evidences of the passage of former glaciers show that
in the Caucasian, as in the European mouucain i^stems, the frozen streams reached
a much lower depth formerly than at present. About the outlets of the Malka,
Baksan, and Terek valleys there occur erratic boulders suspended at a slight
elevation along the slopes of the bluffs overlooking the plains. The Termolov
stone, near the northern entrance of the Oarial Gorge, is 96 feet long, with a bulk
of 197,900 cubic feet, and similar blocks 26 feet long are met at Vladikavkaz, and
even 5 miles farther north. In Svania the upland villages now standing over
a mile from the extremity of the glaciers are built with the detritus of the
moraines here stranded from former glaciers.

At present the best known and most frequently visited glacier in the Caucasus
is the Devdoraki, or Devdoravki, one of the eight that descend from the Eazbek.

approxi-
mow-line
e Euxine
On the
abundant
the Eura
Is for six
est winds
1 connect
ian itself
1 amount
advanced

■her snow-
18, or even
the warm
lower the
iand have
iau region
a Switzer-
L in 1876.

Yet they
sontinuous

above the
an, which
ording to
b as a rule
feet above
. the Swiss
lan on the
L are much
th wards in

show that
ns reached
the Malka,
it a slight
I Yermolov
irith a bulk
avkaz, and
ading over
tus of the

^-\

^Stob^ ^'5

'V-.-t-

PC f.

^>^>>.vi

cs^^

e Caucasus
be Kazbek.

'<xm^m^^m%imsm&,^

.. _ , .f.^fi'^^^^

VEGETATION— FAUNA.

It is visible at a distance of over 5 miles west of the valley watered by the Terek,
and crossed by the military route between Vladikavkaz and Tiflis. Its lower
course is subject to sudden and violent floodings, and while most of the other
Caucasian glaciers are retreating, the Devdoraki has advanced 770 feet between
the years 1863 and 1876. The general progress of the ice has been calculated

Fig. 19.— Thb Kazbrk : View takbn from tbi ELaibbk Station.

not to exceed 4 inches a day, whereas the average velocity on Mont Blanc is
about 12 inches.

Vkgbtation — Fauna.

While the lower limit of the ice-fields is higher in the Caucasus than in tho
Alps, forest vegetation reaches a higher point. True timber flourishes at a mean
elevation of 7,730 feet. Then come the azalea and rhododendron, the dwarf
laurel and bright green sorrel, and lastly, the Alpine plants of the pastures.
The zone of trees is higher on the northern than on the southern slopes, thanks,
doubtless, to their greater humidity ; for, although they receive less rain, they

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

lose less by evaporation. The greatest elevation is reached, not by evergreen
pines, as in Central Europe, nor by the cedar and larch, as in Siberia, but by the
birch, while the great forests of the slopes consist chiefly of conifers, the maple,
lime, ash, hornbeam, beech, oak, and chestnut. The valuable box, so largely
exported to England, and thence to the rest of Europe, forms in certain parts of
Lower Transcaucasia impenetrable masses of vegetation, which, especially between
Poti and Nikolaya, covers the whole coast of the Black Sea. The queen of
Oaucasian shrubs is the Azalea Pontica, one of the glories of terrestrial vegetation.
This lovely plant, whose blood-red autumn foliage oontraetB with the dark green,
of the fir, occupies a zone at least 6,000 feet in vertical height between the

Fig. 20. Kazbek and Dbvdobaki Qlacibbs.
rrom the Hap of the BuHiitii Staff. Soala 1 : 183,000.

8MflM.

advanced offshoots and the slopes upwards of 6,600 feet high. In some places
the azalea is replaced by the rhododendron. The traditional belief in the intoxi-
cating and even maddening effects of its honey has not been confirmed by more
recent observation, and would seem to rest on altogether exceptional facts. In
Eabarda, where bee-farming is largely developed, no such evil consequences are
attributed to the honey of the azalea.

On the lower slopes the wild vine twines round the trunks of the trees, whose
branches are festooned with its foliage, intermingled with that of other twining
plants. The vine is probably here indigenous, and the walnut is also supposed to have
originated in the valleys of Imeria. In no other region are there so many stone
fruits, several species of which, elsewhere unknown, are found growing wild in the

MHlil

VEGETATION— PAXJNA.

foreata of Karthalia, south-west of the Eazhek. The Caucasus is, in fnct, the
classic land of fruit trce.4, and the gardens, especially of Mingrelia, abound in
flowers and fruits, to which Western culture might easily impart an exquisite
perfume and flavour. But as we proceed eastwards from the well-watered shores
of the Euxine to the arid Caspian seaboard the vegetation gradually diminishes ;
the forest lands become less numerous as we appro.- ~h the eastern extremity of
the main range ; the dry steppe winds burn up the grass itself, and the solur rays
are reflected on the bare rock. Some Russian plants grow with difficulty even ot
elevations where they find a mean temperature answering to that of their native
homes. The Russian soldiers have succeeded in acclimatizing the European

Fig. 31. — FdRisn op th« Caucakus.
Aoeordinv to PetermMiii. Bmde t : 11,000,000.

.180 MUci.

vegetables in the upper valleys of Svania, but the beloved birch-tree> which might
remind them of their distant fatherland, nowhere acquires a vigorous growth.

The cultivated no less than the wild plants reach a much higher elevation on
the slopes of the Caucasus than in the Alps, a fact due to the greater summer
heats of the former region. In the district destined some day, perhaps, to be
pierced by the tunnel of the future Caucasian trunk line betwoon the Ar-don and
Lakhva basins, all the upland villages are surrounded by barley- fields to an alti-
tude of over 6,500 feet. In Oasetia this cereal reaches the village of Eolotu
(8,230 feet), and farther south it ripens on the fi*..ipes of the Alagoz at an elevation
of 8,300 feet. Wheat also is grown as high as 6,700 feet, or 3,300 feet higher than
in the Alps ; maize reaches 3,000 feet, and the vine 3,630 feet, near the village of

■4

•V

-:3.

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Kurtu, in Oasetia ; but the best vintages of Kakbetia are those of the Alaxan
valley, 2,i)00 feet above seu-lovul.

Many Oaucusian forests have been cleared for agricultural purposes, but many
more have btun wantonly destroyed, and the destruction is still going on in the
most reckless manner where timber rno^t abounds. To save the labour of felling
the trees, they are burnt down at the risk of setting fire to whole forests. When
fodder fails, the trees are dextruyed, and the cattle fed with their leaves and
sprouts. Ilence many regions formerly densely wooded ure now bare, and even
on the upland slopes the woodlands are rapidly disappearing.

In spite of the ravages of man, most of the original wild animals of the Caucasus
are still found there. The chamois and the (our, a species of wild goat, it- lent
the upper valleys, and some herds of the ^ison or wisant, wrongly described as the
auroc/is, roam over tbe forests watered by tributaries of the Kuban at the foot of
Mount Elbruz. The Caucasian bear, less formidable than the Russian, is found no
higher than 5,000 feet, the limit of fruit trees. Like the wolf and lynx, he inhabits
the Abkhusian forests, and Prendel ro.et one wi( Min 6 miles of Sukhum-Kaleh. The
wild boar haunts the thickets of the lowlands, especially along the banks of tarns
and rivers. The tiger, said to have come from the plateaux of Persia, rarely
ventures to show himself on the plains of Transcaucasia, and never penetrates into
the upland valleys. The leopard, hyena, and juckal are not unfrequently met
about the Lower Eura, and the jackal occasionally finds his way across the main
range to the forests of the northern slopes. In its fauna and flora Trarscaucasia
already belongs to the sub-tropical Asiatic world, whereas in this respect Cis-
caucasia must still be included in the European xone.

Inhabitani-s — Varied Ethnical and Lingcistic Elements.

The well-watered Transcaucasian plains might support as g^at a population as
France, and two thousand years ago were probably abundantly peopled. The
northern valleys are also fertile enough to supply the wants of mill ons ; yet Caucasia
is on the whole less densely peopled than Russia itself. In tbe north the steppe
prevails, and here the population is restricted to the river banks. In the south also
the plains of the Araxis and Lower Kura have remained unpeopled, owing to their
extremely unhealthy climate, while in the highlands nearly all the region above
the forest zone is a solitude of pasture, rooks, or snows, frequented only by a few
herdsmen and hunters. The highest Caucasian village, Eurush, in the Daghestan
highlands, about the source of a head-stream of the Siunur, is 8,200 feet above sea-
level, an elevation nearly equal to that of the Hospice of the Great St. Bernard in
the Swiss Alps. But the summits of the chain rise from 6,000 to 9,000 feet above
this last inhabited spot of the Caucasus.

The most healthy zone lies between 2,500 and 6,650 feet, and here are situated
the sanitary stations wh3re most of the officials of Tiflis, Erivan, and Telisabetpol
spend the summer months The most favourite elevation is 4,000 feet, where the
vine, mulberry, and southern cereals still flourish, and where the pure and cool air

-WW^Wf^

e Alaxan

but laany
on in the
of felling
When
>ayei and
and even

3 Caucasus
;, fr- lent
bed as the
the foot of
I found no
le inhabits
aleb. The
C8 of tarns
sia, rarely
)trateB into
lently met
B the main
irscaucasia
jspect Cis-

pulation as
pled. The
et Caucasia
the steppe
B south also
ing to their
Bgion above
ly by a few
) Daghestan
t above sea-
Bernard in
feet above

are situated
Felisabetpol
;, where the
and cool air

1
i
!

■LidH'IIMUJiiiiij I .

■" ■I J I 'I ! »l . l

ILWHWI II HWUM i f iip fc -'W

>- t t ^mmmfjftmitm i f ' ' mjm mmmm9 ''m ' V' " **

■**<

CTHNOORAPHICAL MAP Of

MusHmns Ae. CI

.0»»ttmm
0A00A8XA>S.

JSm»ti?'MaiTHb»0 HID
atOirooiiS.

AjyAur

ArdW [T]

Sa^ 1 t.AOO.OOO.

NEW TrOHK. D

APPLETC

mMH**

APHICAL MAP or THE CAUCASUS

NEW -yOHK, D APPLETON &C?

'-sf'-""- "'■i ' i rf«li l Biiw i i,» !^: ■-,. ■ ..1 ■- ^<Ag r .; T;geaBjrg:s-a:S

■®.3asss.«*s

INHABITANTS— VAEDBD ETHNICAL AND LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS.

from the glaciers prevails. The Tatars of the hot valleys harvest their maize in
May, send their families and herds to the hills, and soon join them themselves,
returning to the plains in time for the autumn vintage. Some of the insalubrious
districts remain uninhabited except by a few of the peasantry engaged in irrigating
the maize and rice fields. Still the population is densest, not in the healthy region
of the advanced spurs, but in the valleys watered by the large rivers and traversed
by the main highways. Here the population may easily be doubled as soon as the
now forsaken irrigating canals are reopened, thus bringing under cultivaction all
the valleys of the Araxis and Kura. According to the old chronicles Trans-
caucasia was formerly six times more populous than at present. When the
Mongolian prince, Batu Ehan, seized the land in the thirteenth century he
compelled every tenth adult male to serve in his armies, thus raising a force of
800,000 men. This would imply a population of 16,000,000, probably about the
same number as in the time of Strabo.

At the beginning of the present century oommerciel relations had fallen off to
such an extent that the highways leading from the Euxine to the Caspian, formerly
followed by Greeks, Romans, and Genoese, had been .completely abandoned. In
1823, for the first time probably for centuries, merchandise was transported from
Redout-Ealeh to Baku, and this was considered a memorable event. Even now the
communications between the two slopes of the main range are beset with difficulties.
It is still untraversed by a line of railway, and till recently the two divisions of
Caucasia were connected by one carriage road only. This route, frequently out
of repair, and occasionally even destroyed by avalanches and detritus, runs east of
Mount Eazbek through the gorges of the Darial, at all times so important in the
records of migration and conquest. Known to the ancients as the " Gate of the
Caucasus," this route forms in reality a rocky approach, whose issues were defended
by strongholds, now replaced by the fortified stations of the Russians.

East of the range the narrow strip of coast commanded on the one hand by the
escarpments of the Caucasus, limited on the other by the waters of the Caspian,
offered a second and easier highway to the invading or migrating tribes advancing
from Asia to Europe, or from Europe to Asia. But this route might here and
there be blocked, and one of the passes at the extremity of a ridge in Daghestan
was barred, like the Darial Gorge, by a derbent, or *• fortified gate," whence the
name of the town commanding this part of the coast. The Euxine seaboard
skirting the Western Caucasus seems since the Roman epoch never to have Horved
as an historical route. But at that time the two divisions of the kingdom of
Mithridates were connected by a road skirting the coast, and at several points
milestones are still standing, which the Abkhasians look on as " Mry altars."
But this road has been deserted since the Byzantine epoch. For centuries this
coast- line, some 250 miles long, has been beset by too many natural obstacles, and
guarded by tribes of too fierce a character, to serve as a military route, more
especially as the sea was always open to Greeks, Genoese, Turks, and Russians to
prosecute their commercial or warlike enterprises with the peoples of the Caucasus.
The Genoese roads, of which traces have been discovered, did not follow the coast.

•ri'iiw-- -■ (-■■ ri iMi^'Wiiiiii'i

..^1L 1/11-^fl^J^I

miiu^euaudMa*iiitj»SMi«^^t'Miieii1^

:?s^is

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

but crossed the hilla, thus connecting the inland districts with the Euxine
seaports.

But these great highways were not forced without a struggle, and every fresh
invasion scattered fresh fragments of nations amongst the surrounding upland
valleys. Thus the Caucasus has become, in the language of Abulfeda, "The
Mountain of Languages," an expression still current in Persia. Strabo tells us
that the Greek traders frequenting the port of Dioscurias, on the Euxine, met there
no less than seventy peoples, all speaking distinct languages, and Pliny adds that
in his time one hundred and thirty di£Perent idioms were current in the same place.
At present the languages and dialects of the Caucasus are still estimated at seventy.
But Uslar, first of Caucasian philologists, points out that every local variety is
regarded as a distinct language by traders and travellers, and that in reality the
numerous Caucasian dialects may be grouped in a small number of families. Thus
the thirty of Daghestan are reducible to five radically distinct. Many were formerly
spoken by powerful and widely diffused peoples, now repsesented only by a few
remnants lost amongst the hills, and whom a geologist has compared to erratic
boulders, the scattered fragments of now vanished mountains.

The Caucasus, which stands out so boldly against the boundless and monotonous
Russian steppes, contrasts no less strikingly in its varied peoples, races, and
languages with the vast Slav world stretching from the Euxine to the Frozen
Ocean. Nevertheless the Bussians are now slowly penetrating into the valleys on
both slopes of the main range, where they already number about 1,400,000, or
nearly one-fourth of the whole population. They are in a decided majority in the
districts bordering on Russia proper ; that is to say, in the province of Kuban and
the government of Stavropol. Even in Transcaucasia they form one of the chief
ethnical elements, especially in the towns and military stations, and here and there
their Cossack or nonconformist settlements give a great local preponderance to
the Slav race. Whilst n^any native tribes are disappearing either by extermina-
tion or forced or voluntary exile, whilst others are slowly diminishing in the
struggle for existence with the. Russian invaders, the latter are steadily increasing
in the north by ceaseless encroachments on the ethnical frontier-lines, in the south
by scattered colonies continually expanding, and thus approaching each other and
absorbing the intervening spaces.*

Russian Conquests — Main Physica Divisions.

The long and laborious conquent, of the Caucasus, which took about two hundred
years, is now a &miliar topic. lu the north the Russians at first confined them-

• Population of Caucasia according to races : —

Russians

Georgians

Tatars and Turks .

Armonians

Lezghians and other Highlanders .

Persians, Tats, and Talishos .

Other raoea

Estimated Fopnistion.

18S8. 1880.

840,000 1,410,000

830,000 l,lfi0,000

825.000 1,330,000

620,000 720,000

1,400,000 1,060,000

76,000 120,000

86,000 90,000

-r-TT-r-

RUSSIAN CONQUESTS— MAIN PHYSICAL DIVISIONS.

selves to a line of fortified Btations, where the Cossacks kept constant guard, ready
at the first signal to leap into the saddle. The Transcaucasian provinces were
originally nothing but foreign lands possessing no cohesion with the rest of the
empire, but the pressure of the dominant race gpradually increased. All the
lowland tribes were finally subdued, while those of the uplands were compelled
from year to year to oon^i'act the limits of their warlike incursions. The Russians
not only commanded both seaboards, enabling them to lend a helping hand to their
allies or subjects in Mingrelia, Imeria, and Georgia, but they were from the first
in possession of the breach presented by the Caucasus between the Terek and
Aragva valleys. In 1769 the Darial Pass was crossed by 400 Russians, and in
1784, 1795, 1796, and 1799 they again utilised this route. In the beginning of
the present century, when Georgia became an integral part of the empire, a
military route connecting Transcaucasia with the north was constructed along the
Terek and Aragva valleys, whereby Caucasia was henceforth divided into two
distinct fragments. Pushkin describes the risks still incurred in 1829 by travellers,
traders, and others on this highway. The daily progress under armed escort from
station to station was little more thnn 10 miles. This first route was succeeded by
another over the Mamisson Pass, between the Terek and Rion valleys, and by others
through the lateral valleys, cutting off the forests in which the highlanders lurked
to fall upon the Russian foe. " I should like," said Shamyl, " to anoint with holy
oil the trees of my forest, and mingle fragrant honey with the mud of ray high-
ways, for in these trees ard this mud lies my strength." But although the bogs
are far from having disappeared, the upland forests are no longer inaccessible, and
their inhabitants have been subdued. In a song by Lermontov the Kazbek is
represented as rising in its majesty, and looking with scorn on the puny swarms
approaching from the northern plains to scale it. But when it sees them armed
with pickaxe, shovel, and hatchet, grubbing in the soil and felling the trees, it
trembles to its base, for it now understands that the day of thraldom is at
hand.

Caucasia consists of a number of distinct physical and ethnical regions, which
must be described apart, although they are becoming daily more united by the
bonds of common interests. All the Western Caucasus, tapering towards the Sea
of Azov, forms, with the Euban basin and neighbouring steppes, one of these
natural regions ; another comprises the Central Caucasus, the home of so many
different tribes ; while a third embraces the Eastern Caucasus, whose inhabitants
are sometimes collectively known as Gortzi, or " Highlanders." The Terek basin,
the plains and lakes of the Euma, the half-drained bed of a former sea, offer a
marked contrast to this highland region. In the south the Rion and Chorukh
basins, partly rescued from the Turks, are inhabited by people of one stock, and
constitute a fairly well-defined ethnical province. But in the east the districts
watered by the £ura offer no such racial unity, for this region is shared by
both C^rgians and Tatars. Still it forms at least a distinct geographical province,
and the same may be said of the Araxis valley, which is occupied by Tatars
and Armenians in common.
4

:;?

<«iiili

jiuiiife

ataMMMtMaM

mmtmy

Mumm'M'mtttma. i .itiii

80 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

II.— WESTERN CAUCASUS: KUBAN BASIN.

ABKHA8IAN8, CIRCASSIANS, COSSACKS OF THE BLACK SEA.

West of the highlands culminating with Mount Elbruz, the Caucasus becomes a
coast range, falling in abrupt escarpments towards the Black Sea. The slope is
continued to a great depth under the surface, for even close to the shore the
sounding-line reveals a depth of over 12,000 feet. The first section of the coast
range west of Elbruz retains a great elevation, and is commanded by snowy crests
10,000 to 12,000 feet high. Here also, as in the Central Caucasus, the main ridge
is flanked by parallel chains, which with the transverse ridges form long depres-
sions, and invariably present their steep sides towards the middle chain, their
gentler slopes towards the sea. The tracks across the rang^ ascend the valleys
parallel with it until they reach the passes, and thus easily skirt the peaks. Near
Mount Elbruz the range rises above the snow-line. Here are the Juman-tau, the
Marukh, and in the centre the magnificent Oshten, or Oshtek, beyond which the

Fig. 22.— Thb Wbstbkn Caucabvo bbbn from on Capb Kodob.
Aoeording to Dubois de Montpomix.

crests diminish rapidly in elevation towards the north- west. The last point taking
the name of mountain is the Idokopaz, south-east of the port of Novo-Rossiisk,
after which there are nothing but hills, whose base merges with the alluvia of the
Taman peninsula.* The range is crossed by few and little-frequented tracks, and
even the military station of Sukhum-Ealeh is unconnected by any direct strategic
route with the Kuban valley. Pending the completion in 1883 of the carriagpe
road, travellers are obliged to follow the coast across the sandy and shingly

beach.

River Ststems — Kuban Basin.

Although the coast climate is very moist, the streams flowing to the Euxine are
too short to be very copious. They are mostly mere torrents, which carry off the

* Chief elevations in the Westem CaucptiuB : —

Feet.
Oshten ..;.... 9,606

Marukh Pass ... . . 11,660
Sancharo Pass 8,000

Nashar Pass (near Mount Elbrus)

Psegashko Pass

Idokopas ....

aOBnw

-r*sra

;sij^(is:.- .

>ij'l;'^'*S*'a'"'»'

BIVEB SYSTEMS— KUBAN BASIN.

ecomes a
slope is
liore tbe
the coast
wy crests
ftin ridge
g depres-
lin, their
le valleys
ts. Near
a-tau, the
which the

tint taking
iRoasiisk,
ivia of the
rafiks, and
st strategic
le carriage
shingly

Euxine are
irry off the

9,774
6,360
2,460

rain-water falling od the uplands, fiut a few rivers in the southern valleys, such as
the Kodar, Bzib, and Mzimta, acquire a certain importance, thanks to the paral-
lelism of the main chain and side ridges enclosing their upper courses. Most of
these upland valleys bear the traces of old lakes, which have been drained either
by the torrents or by underground streams making their way through caverns
excavated in the Jurassic limestone rocks. Thus the Michish, represented on most
maps as an independent river, is really a branch of the Bzib, passing for 2 miles
under the Fskhuv Mountain, and escaping through an outlet near the coast. The
Pitzunda River, running close to the Bzib, presents a phenomenon of a different
order, for it seems to have changed its course within the historic period from the
south to the north of Pitzunda.

The Abkhasian streams are of little importance except for irrigation purposes
in the lovely gardens and orchards on the coast. Here the palm is associated with
European plants, beneath whose shade wind avenues of the rose and jasmine. But
most of the streams flowing from the hills now form swumps at the outlet of their
valleys, where they poison the atmosphere and decimate the people. Hence the
natives generally fix their homes far from the unhealthy coast lands, either in the
forests or on the bare plateaux. As soon as the climate has been improved by
drainage and clearing the ground of its rank vegetation, this part of the Euxine
seaboard, some 240 miles long, will become a second Crimea for the Russians.
Still the Abkhasian coast, while warmer and less subject to fogs than the Crimean,
has the disadvantage of being less sheltered except on the south side of the lateral
3. The average high temperature of the water contributes greatly to raise

that of the land, which till the end of November stands as high as 58° or 59° Fahr.,
varying at Sukhum-Ealeh in winter from 45° to 46° Fahr. The south-west gales
blow with great violence in spring and autumn, and during their prevalence
navigation is very dangerous on a coast destitute of good harbours of refuge. The
Abkhasian seaboard is completely sheltered from the cold north-east blasts which
sweep the Caspian and Euma steppes. But at its northern extremity Western
Caucasia is not sufficiently elevated to arrest this bora of the Euxine, as it has been
called by the Italian and Greek sailors frequenting these waters. On January 12th,
1848, the vessels riding at anchor off Novo-Rossiisk were driven seawards or
stranded, and one of them sank with all its crew, borne down by the weight of the
dense spray suddenly freezing in the rigging and on deck.

The northern slope of the coast range belongs to the Kuban basin. This river,
the Euman of the Nogai Tatars, and Eubin of the Abkhasians, is fed by the Elbruz
glaciers, and receives all the torrents and streams of the Western Caucasian valleys,
except a few rivulets lost in the steppe before reaching the main stream. Swollen
three times during the year by the spring rains, the melting of the snows in
summer, and the autumn downpours, it often assumes the proportions of a large
river from 700 to over 1,200 feet wide, and upwards of 10 feet deep. But ut low
water in August and September it is nowhere more than 4 feet deep, and in some
years the northern arm of its delta runs dry. All attempts have hitherto failed to
render it permanently navigable, although since 1873 the steamers from Eertch

^.^

w> iM >m aij ii*it aumiii m m i mK

TAMAN PENINSULA.

consists of alluvial deposits made in the inner busin of a " limun," or lagoon,
separated by an older strip of sand from the Sea of Azov. The soil held in solution
by the Kuban being in the proportion of 1 to 480, these deposits would have
rapidly filled the liman were they not carried away by the current partly to the
Sea of Azov, aud partly directly to the Euxino.

Taman Peninsula.

The lower stream has often shifted its bed, land islands and channels have so
frequently changed place that the descriptions of the old writers are no longer
intelligible. So recently as the fifteenth century the chief discharge was into the
Sea of Azov, and since that time it has oscillated between the two branches, every
fresh inundation modifying the currents. The Taman peninsula is everywhere
studded with marshes and eriks, or false rivers, the remains of former freshets, and
with river beds and banks showing in their alluvial strata the successive levels of
the stream. Although about 24 miles broad, the whole peninsula is frequently
transformed to its former insular condition by the lukes and side channels of the
main branch. But though thus surrounded by water, this is not a lowland
district, for it consists of five parallel chains of hills, occasionally rising 480 feet
above sea-level, and separated one from the other by alluvial tracts, which were
formerly inlets, and are still partly covered with lakes.

The mud volcanoes of the Taman peninsula seem to have been at one time far
more active than at present. They run exactly in the line of the axis or con-
tinuation of the parallel ridges, and it was in the same line that a volcanic islet
was erupted in 1799 near the town of TemrCkk. This mud islet, which was
about 1,330 feet in circumference, with an elevation of 13 feet above the sea,
soon disappeared, but was replaced in 1814 by a second cone, which remained
some time above the surface. These mud hills of the Taman peninsula are
amongst the most remarkable on the globe, for they present the complete succes-
sion of phenomena from the simple oozing of mud to distinct volcanic eruptions.
The TemrCkk islet is said to have vomited smoke and flames in 1799, and the
Euku-Oba, or " Blue Fill," 7 milea north-west of Taman, opened its crater in
1794, ejecting flames aid fragments of frozen earth to a distance of over half a
mile. Other volcanic cones oast up stones, accompanied by argillaceous muds,
seaweed, roots of rushes and other aquatic plants, showing that they evidently
communicated with the bed of the limans and sea. Formerly numerous frag-
ments of Greek and Scythian pottery were found amongst the erupted matter,
and in the immediate vicinity of the cones. In explanation of this fact Pallas
suggests that the ancients may have been accustomed to throw in vases and other
objects as offerings to the volcanoes.

The naphtha springs of the peninsula and north side of Western Caucasia
also run in the line of the mud cones. The tertiary lands whose clays and marls
contain this valuable substance occupy an upheaved area of at least 620 square
miles, and are also continued under the limans. Lake Temr(lk itself contains a

mirrii'ii iinrti

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

small quantity, which, however, does not prevent the pike, perch, prawns, and
other Hsh from living in its waters. Although wells have been sunk only in the
most promising sites, the results have been so far quite as satisfactory as might be
expected. The works were begun in 1 66 in the Euda-ko, or "Naphtha
Volley," on a piece of ground presented by the Czar to one of his generals.
The first well yielded about 2,400 gallons daily, but most of this mineral oil was
lost, the reservoir having been swept away by sudden rains. The well itself
soon ran dry, but six others were opened in 1870, which jointly yielded 62,000
tons a year. After the boring the jets of naphtha often rose to a height of

50 feet above the ground. Were the
district properly worked and con-
nected by rail with the Anapa coast
and Kuban basin, it might produce
700,000,000 gallons of distilled oil
yearly.

Fig. 24.— Thb Kuku>Oba Mud Voloako.
Acoording to PkIIiui. Bode 1 : 8a,0(ia

..v^i

Inhauitants — The Cherkgsses.

Few regions of the Old World have
shifted their populations more fre-
quently than Western Caucasia and
the Euban basin. Since the middle
of the century war«, massacres, and
exile have caused the disappearance
of tribes and whole nations from the
valleya limited eastwards by the
Elbruz, where they have been replaced
by other races. The course of history
has been abruptly arrested ; traditions,
languages, dialects, have irrevocably
perished, nothing remaining in the

il,6S0Tatt

land except geographical names more
or less distorted in the untrained mouth
of strangers.
In the last century the steppes of Oircassia were still mostly peopled by the
Cherkesses, who even owned grazing lands north of the Euma, and procured their
salt from the lakes in the Manich depression. In 1859 they numbered about
600,000 in Western Caucasia, and even in 1864, after the wars ending in the
Russian conquest, they were still estimated at 300,000. But now they have
ceased to exist as a distinct nationality in the country, and in all Caucasia they
will soon be represented by a few individuals only. The Abkhasians also of the
Euxine seaboard and southern valleys have mostly disappeared, although nomi-
nally subjected to Bussian rule since 1810, and treated far more leniently than
the Cherkesses. They were reduced from about 150,000 in 1864 to 50,000 in

*E&ii

LU.

■V'.? ■jU'^■ H-t1V-'^ ;■<r25tTil.^.«T^?■iT^ ^^il«'y:s^ •Sis-?M'«srtA?i'*^r^;s^

INHABITANTS— THE CHERKESSE8.

wns, and
ly in the
inigbt be
Naphtha
generals,
il oil was
roll itself
d 62,000
beight of
Were the
md con-
apa coast
; produce
itilled oil

K ESSES.

'"orld have
more fre-
icasia and
le middle
icres, and
ppearance
from the
by the
Q replaced
of history
traditions,
rrevocably
ig in the
imes more
ned mbutb

ed by the
ured their
sred about
ng in the
they have
icasia they
also of the
ugh nomi-
ently than
50,000 in

1877, and whole vnlloys wore completely deserted when over 20,000 emigrated
in mass after the struggle between the Russians and Turks for the possession of
Sttkhum-Eul«-h during the late war. Their place bus been partially Hupplicd by
Russians, and the sites of their former habitutions are now known only by romantic
graveyards overgrown with the wild plum, apple, pear, and vine.

Vanquished by the armies of Nicholas, the Adigheh, or Cherkessos of the
northern slopes and Upper Kuban valleys, preferred exile to permanent subjec-
tion to the Russian yoke, 76,000 alone accepting the conditions o£fered them by
the Russians. Happy to be rid of such enemies, the Government hastened to
facilitate their departure, and their exodus ended in wholesale transportation. A
proclamation issued in 1864, after the last battle, ordered all the Adigheh " to
quit their valleys " within a month's time under pain of being treated as pri8or".rs
of war. The order was obeyed, and over four-fifths of the people were driven at
the point of the sword from valley to valley until they found refuge in Anatolia,
Cyprus, the Balkan peninsula, and other parts of Turkey. Thus were 260,000
transported by sea to the temporary dep6ts at Trebizond, Samsun, and Sinope
during the first six months of 1864, and according to the ofiioial returns 398,000
Cherkesses emigrated between 1858 and 1864. It is easy to understand what the
8u£feriugs and mortality must have been of these refugees, crowded on board smuU
craft, or exposed in wretched hovels to hunger, cold, and hardships of every sort.
In many places more than half had perished of starvation or disease a few months
after quitting their homes. And even on reaching the districts assigned to them,
they found themselves surrounded by hostile populations, of different race, speech,
religion, and customs. They themselves assumed the air of conquerors, con-
tinuing their warlike or predatory habits, and seizing with the sword the fruits of
the plough. The exile of the Cherkesses was disastrous alike to thorn and to those
with whom they were thrown.

Although but few Cherkesses survive in the Caucasus, they have so long been
regarded as typical of the Caucasian tribes generally, and they have exercised so
much influence on those who have not yet emigrated, that they require to be
studied as they existed before the f-xodus of 1864. At that time their determined
resistance to the Russian invuier had earned for tjhem the reputation of being
one of the most heroic peoples on the globe. Their chivalrous traditions, the
patriarchal simplicity of their habits, their physical beauty and symmetry of form,
rendered them unquestionably the foremost race in the Caucasus, so that their
name came to be often applied in a general way to all the highland tribes.
Unfortunately they lived only for war, and the very word Cherkess was usually
explained to mean " Brigands," " Banditti," or " Highwaymen," although it
more probably derives from the Kerketea of Strabo. Strangers find extreme
difficulty in pronouncing their rude, and guttural language, and in their warlike
expeditions they are said to have made use of a peculiar dialect.

The Cherkesses belong probably to the same stock as the Georgians, Lezgbians,
Chechenzes, and other mixed or non- Aryan tribes of Caucasia. Mostly very
handsome, they are tall, slim, and broad-shouldered, with oval features, light

A'WiwuiMtUMWkJNMiiMM

i mti ^iii u

i ava 9r» . i j ittA.Txsm

ina iMWIiit Wrtr MK ^^sA i W tf afc i w i . l i aJ

mmmmsammtmm

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

oonplexion, bright eya, abundant hair, mostly black, but oooaalonally alao
cheatuut and fair. Both sexes consider obesity and other physical defects as
disgraceful, and those who are so afflicted abstain from appearing at the public
feasts and popular gatherings. Regarding beauty as the privilege of their race,
they seldom intermarried with aliens. Their dress, of a remarkably elegant type,
is admirably suited to these erect and pliant figures, and has accordingly become a
sort of national costume for all the Caucasians, including even the Russian Cossacks
und the peaceful Jews, who are sometimes found wearing the cherkeska, with its
curtouch pouch, in their case " more ornamental than useful."

Like the Albanians of the Pindus highlands, with whom they present many
points of resemblance, the Cherkesses regard the vendetta as the supreme law.
filood demands blood, and the murderer must die, unless he purchase redemption,
or succeed in kidnapping a child from the family of his enemy, in order to bring
it up as his own, and then restore it to the paternal home. Family feuds lasted
for generations ; yet, unlike his Svanian neighbour, the Cherkess scorned to lurk
in stone houses, but, trusting to his strong arm, resided only in slightly constructed
wooden huts. Vengeance, however, was never exacted in the presence of women,
sacred beings, who might with a gesture arrest the hand of the slayer, and who
yet belonged themselves to fathers or husbands claiming the right to kill them
with impunity. According to the old custom, the young man seized by force hiq
intended bride. The daughter of the Cherkess knew beforehand that she must
quit the paternal home either b}' a real or feigned abduction, or else be sold in
foreign lands ; yet such is the force of habit, that the thought of exile and the life
of the harem seldom cau ed her any dread. Traditionally, however, they con-
fidently expected that their beauty, good manners, and poetic language would
insure to them the position of legitimate wives of distinguished persons. The
boys, on the other hand, were generally brought up, not by their parents, but by
an atalik, or " teacher," chosen especially for his physical and moral qualities, his
courage, politeness, eloquence, skill in arms and horsemanship. When his
education was over the young man returned to his home, but never ceased to
regard the atalik as a true father. Thanks to the care thus taken in their
education, the Cherkesses claimed to have become " the most polite people in the
world."

Although proud of their national freedom, they were not all equal amongst
themselves. Yet, while forming three castes of princes, of nobles reduced by
intestine feuds, and the simple peasantry, all were grouped in fledah, at " brother-
hoods," and it was these associations of men devoted to each other unto death that
rendered their resistance so formidable to the Russians. The authority of the
nobles prevailed mostly in the plains, where they hod in some places succeeded in
establishing a quasi-feudal system. But their peasantry ^ed to the highland
Cherkesses for protection. Hence the incessant wars, resulting in the defeat of
the nobles, many of whom adopted the fatal policy of applying to strangers for
aid. Below the three classes of freemen there were the slaves, consisting exclu-
sively of refugees and prisoners of war. The will of the freemen expressed in the

)nally also
defects a>
the public
their race,
Bgant type,
y become a
in Cossackt
:a, with ita

laent rauny
sreme law.
edemption,
er to bring
mdn lasted
led to lurk
sonstruoted
of women,
r, and who

kill them
)y force hiq

she must
be sold in
»nd the life
p, they con-
lage would
'sons. The
nts, but by
ualities, his
When his
r ceased to
m in their
ople in the

al amongst
reduced by
f " brother-
> death that
)rity of the
ucceeded in
e highland
B defeat of
rangers for
ting exclu-
Bssed in the

THE ABKIIASTANS AND COflSAOKS. 91

puMio gatherings hud the furoo of law, und the princoa and nnblbn conttitutod tho
(•xocutive. The prioatR, though ranking with tho htrdH, hud hut little iuHuoncr,
for, owing to the confusions of creedn, the CherkeMcs wuro nt oncu pii^nnn,
rhristiuns, and Mohammedans. As puguns thoy worithip|)od Shibleh, gtMl uf
thunder, war, und juNtico, and to him uftur tho victory wore sucriKccd tho fuiroitt
of the tlock. Thvy venerated the tree blasted by lightning, beneath which the
criminal found a aufe refuge. The gods of tho air, water, woodlands, fruit troon,
and herds, uU unimut.'d by the breath of tho Oreat Spirit, hud also their speciiil
worrihip, and received uffurings, if only a few drops solemnly poured out' from the
goblet. To soothe tho stormy sea, and induce it to spare tho mariner, mother,
wife, or betrothed committed her votive offerings to the mountain torrent, by
which they were borne to the Euxine, whose response was the soughing of tho
winds and the banking up of the clouds.

Such was tho religion of the ancient Cherkesses ; but till the luttor hulf of tho
uighteenth century the nobles mostly claimed to be Christians, und worshipped in
the ohupols, whoso ruins are still met here and there on the hill-tops. But the
Sheikh Mansi^r, whom the Russians afterwards sent to die in tho island of
Solovetz, in the White Sea, made nearly all his countrymen Sunnito Moham-
medans. The influence of the Crimean khuns worked in the same direction, and the
faith of Islam became more and more intensified according aa hatred of the
Christian Muscovite invaders increased. Nevertheless certain Moslem practices,
cHpeciuUy polygamy, were not generally introduced, and the old family life held
its ground. ' In religious zeul neither the Cherkesses nor other western high-
landers are to be compared with the Kura-chai, or " Black River " Tatars of the
southern Kuban valleys, west of Mount Elbruz, who are strict Mohammedans,
engaged in trade, and as intermediaries between the northern and southern
Caucasian tribes.

Thk Ahkhasiaks and Cossacks.

The Ahkhasians, who still retain in a slightly modified form the name of
Abazes, by which they were known to the Greeks, call themselves Absua, or
" People." Before the great emigraHons they occu|iied nearly all the southern
slope of the Caucasua between the Ingdr and Bzlb valleys, and at certain points
encroached on tho Cherkess territory on the opposite slope. Their speech
resembles that of the Adigheh, hut they di£fer g^atly from them in appearance
and customs. The Absua are shorter, of browner complexion and llucker hair
than the Cherkesses, and their features are mostly irreg^ar, with a hursh, wild
expression. Hence slaves of this race commanded no more than hnlf the price of
their Circassian neighbours. Though of less chivalrous appearance, like them
they preferred to live by the sword, or scour the sea as corsairs. Before the
Kuxine had become a " Russian lake," their long galleys, impelled by oar or sail,
and with crews of from one hundred to three hundred men, ventured along all tho
shores of Anatolia, the Crimea, and European Turkey. Many also took service or
became slaves in Egypt, where they were numerously represented amongst the

,■;!

m imvlii t t ^ I Mi m <n lii w w

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Mamelukes, and where not a few celebrities were natives of some upland Abkhasian
valley. Like the Cherkesses, they formed warlike confederacies with their princes,
nobles, and freemen, leaving to slaves the hardships of field operations. Some
were still unacquainted with money before the Russian rule, exchanges being
usually effected by a cow, whose calves represented the interest. It thus some-
times happened that after a few years a small loan had to be repaid by a whole
herd. But in 1867 this primitive mode of usury was replaced by that which is in
vogue amungst " civilised " nations. Like the Cherkessians also, they were still
pagans in thought, while retaining the traces of the old Christian worship in their
Moslem creed. Thus they respected churches and the cross, eat pork, and
brought to their temples votive offerings of arms, coats of mail, or garments.
Even now a chapel, traditionally supposed to have been built by St. Paul on an

offshoot of the Marukh, is one of their
Fig. 26.— Abkhasian Type. chief places of pilgrimage. But the

most revered temple was still the forest,
where they loved to pronounce their
solemn vows, and suspend their offer-
ings on the branches of the sacred oak.
Here were also formerly placed the
coffins of their dead, in the belief that
the gaseous explosions would cause the
demons to respect their repose. They pay
extreme devotion to the departed, and
their burial-places are far better cared
for than the dwellings of the living.

Several thousand Abkhasians still
occupy the upper valleys of the Southern
Caucasus, whereas the Adigheh have
ceased to exist as a distinct nationality
on the opposite slopes. Here the
Eara-cha'i alone have succeeded in
hitherto resisting the advancing Muscovite element. Elsewhere the Russians are
encroaching incessantly on the domain of the now subdued highlanders. The
natives of the Caucasus formerly looked towards the south as the source of
civilisation, and they received mainly from Georgia their arms, costly stuffs, and
letters. Novi they are fain to turn towards the north, whence come the ukases,
the armies, and the colonists destined one day to absorb them. Great Russians,
Little Russians, Cossacks of both branches, take part in this migratory movement,
to which the Government has imparted a distinctly military character by organ-
izing the settlers in companies, battalions, and regiments. All Western Caucasia
may be said to be already Russian. Bohemian colonists also, who have received
allotments in Circassia, are gradually amalgamating with the conquering race, and
the number of Slav immigrants in the Adigheh territory has already long
surpassed that of the natives.

^'il.:JM ^'di^SSSSSKS

.■•■'

THE ABKHASIANS AND COSSACKS.

A-bkhasian
(ir princes,
ns. Some
iges being
thus some-
jy a whole
which is in
' were still
lip in their
pork, and
garments.
?aul on an
one of their
I. But the
1 the forest,
ounce their
their ofEer-
sacred oak.
placed the
) belief that
Id cause the
se. Theypay
eparted, and
better cared
he living,
hasians still
the Southern
cligheh have
t nationality
Here the
acceeded in
Russians are
nders. The
le source of
Ly stuffs, and
the ukases,
tat Russians,
y movement,
ter by organ-
»rn Caucasia
lave received
ing race, and
already long

The plains of the Lower Kuban and Taman peninsula have been more subject
than most regions to successive changes of population, unaccompanied by any
appreciable mingling of races. The affinities can no longer be determined of the
builders of the dolmens scattered over the peninsula and neighbouring landR, but
elsewhere unknown in Caucasia. These dolmens are distinguished from those of
other countries by the circular opening in the anterior slab, large enough to allow
of a child's head being passed through. The history of the Euban valley does
not embrace these monuments of the age of iron, for it reaches back scarcely more
than ten centuries, to a time when this region was occupied by the Khazars and
Polovtzi, a remnant of whom were the Eumans, who settled in Hungary.
Towards the close of the tenth century the Russian colony of Tmutarakan had
already been established in the Taman district, where they had formed relations

Fig. 26.— CoMAOK Sbntinbl.

with other Russian settlers in the Crimea. The chrciicles describe their straggles
with the Tasses and Kos6gs, predecessors of the- Cherkesses, and an inscribed
stone found near Taman, and now in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg,
bears witness to the advanced state of civilisation of the early Russian settlers in
this region. But they were not numerous enough to hold their ground in the
midst of hostile populations, and the country was afterwards occupied by Tatar
tribes under Mongol princes. At the beginning of the eighteenth century other
Russians made their appearance, not as enemies, but as refugees, in this region.
These were the Nekrawttzi Cossacks, who preferred the rule of the Crimean Ehan to
that of Peter the Great, and who were afterwards joined by numerous Raskolniks
from various parts of the empire. The country was thus soon repeopled by Russians,
who cultivated the soil, established fisheries on the rivers and lagoons, and

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

introduced the fine Ukranian cattle since propagated in the Transcaucasian
provinces. But these industrious settlers, falling under the Czar's displeasure,
were compelled to seek refuge first amongst the Cherkesses, and afterwards in
Asiatic and European Turkey. Most of them became ultimately absorbed in the
surrounding Mc'lem populations. They were succeeded by some two thousand
Nogui Tatar families from the Crimea, who were in their turn removed in mass
by the Russian conquerors to the steppes west of the.Don.

Henceforth the country formed an integral part of the empire, and was
disposed of at the pleasure of Catherine and her all-powerful minister, Potomkin.
The unfortunate Lower Dnieper Cossacks, after many viciusitudes, were trans-
ferred, in 1793, to the marshy wastes on the right bank of the Kuban. Numbering
17,000 fighting-men, they were at first well received by the Cherkesses, but soon
changed from friends to foes and conquerors. The war of conquest was a war of
surprises. Redoubts, watch-towers, and fortified stanitzas were established at all
strategical points along the Euban, and to guard against the enemy lurking in its
sedgy banks there were formed those formidable plastuni which became the terror
of the Cherkess outposts in the protracted border warfare. During these
conflicts the Cossacks became gradually assimilated in manners, habits, and dress
to the highland Caucasiauo, from whom they could not always be easily distin-
guished.

Hand in hand with this hostile struggle of some seventy years, the Cossacks
maintained another against the outward surrounding, which is still far from
concluded. At their arrival towns, villages, canals, highways, everything had
disappeared. The process of resettlement also progressed vory slowly in steppe
lands, partly destitute of, partly covered by water. In the Euban delta, where
fever is endemic, the rate of mortality is very high, in some years often greatly
exceeding that of the births. On an average one-third of the children die in the
first year, and half the generation has disappeared between the third and fifth
years.

' Topography.

Here there are no large towns. Emigration has carried off most of the
inhabitants, the constant wars have laid waste tha lands, the absence of roads
prevents the transport of produce to thf) coast, and the coast itself is still
unhealthy, and nearly destitute of sheltered havens. Thus are neutralised the
great advantages of a region which is, nevertheless, yet destined to become one
of the most flourishing in the Old World, Even Svkhum-Kakh, guarding its
southern approach, although chief town of a military distriut, and notwithstanding
its deep and safe harbour, is still an insignificant place. Yet it is supposed to
occupy the site of the Hcllr^nic town dedicated by the Milesians, some thirty-two
centuries ago, to the Dioscuri, and afterwards known by the name of Sebastopol.
The ruins of a Greek city, with its streets, open spaces, and the foundations of its
buildings, are still partly visible at a depth of several yards in the Sukhum-Ealeh
waters ; the remains of cunab, roads, and auoient structures may be traced in the

. ■lP'fl7*W**'W;'

r-Hl^tWmyfftgliiiiiiaiffM

=*W«!CS

TOPOGRAPHY.

neighbourhood ; aud the debris of Greek monuments were utilised by the Turks to
rebuild, in 1787, the fortress of Sukhum, after it had been destroyed with the town
in 1777. The imports and exports of the place have never in the best years
amounted tu £40,000 ; but the dolphin fishery is productive, and in 1872 as many
as 3,800 were taken in the harbcur ulone.

The village of Pitzunda, the Fythius of the Byzantines, was also at one time
an important town, as is evident from the ruins in the neighbourhood. A
Byzantine church restored by the Bussians is said to have been built by
Justinian in 551. It was to the monastery of this place that the exiled St.
Chrysostom withdrew when overtaken by death in 407. It afterwards became
the chief Genoese trading station on this coast, and from it most of the Italian
traders and missionaries set out, who have left in the Western Caucasus so

Fig. 27. — Vallby or the BzIb.
ftnaa the Hap of the Ruasiaii Siafl. Scale 1 : 860,000.

ISMilM.

many traces of their presence — churches, watch-towers, coins, arms. Many of the
latter, inscribed with Latin or French legends, were still met with down to the
middle of the present century in these highlands.

Beyond Pitzunda follow the old forts of Gagri, Adler or Ardiller (Arduvaoh),
and others. Farther on is the deep and well-sheltered roadstead of Ttcapae, at
piesent a mere hamlet, but destined probably to become the chief tradinr'-place
on this seaboard. Meantime, Novo-Eoaaiiak, or SAjdk, is the first town on the
coast near the extremity of the Caucasus. It does, a considerable trade, although
the roadsteaid, like the neighbouring Bay of Gelenjik, is exposed to the north-east
gales. The old Turkish town of Ampa lies on a still more dangerous spot.
Thrice taken by the Russians, it was temporarily suppressed in 1860 in favour of
Temr&k, administrative capital of the T«unau peninsula. At that time Temr(lk

X-/

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

was a simple Cossack stanifcza on a hill 250 itet high, in the centre of the isthmus
stretching between two lagoons connected with the Euban. In its vicinity are
the chief mud volcanoes of the Taraan peninsula, forming five distinct groups
of about u hundred altogether. For some yours past the mud has been applied to
the treatment of rheumatic complaints. The village of Taman, which gives its
name to the peninsula, lies near the strait facing Eertch and Yeni-Kaleh, and a
little south-west of the fortress of Phanagoria, which stands on the site of the
Greek city of that name. ^

The stunitzas founded by the Cossacks in the districts watered by the Euban
and its tributaries have over the coast villages the advantage of lying at the
junctions of the natural routes across the steppes. Several have grown into real
towns, although the houses still remain scattered over a large area. In the

Fig. 28.— The Taman Pbninsvla.
From the Map of the RnsBian Staff. Soale 1 -. 1,100,000.

to 16 Fe«t

16 to as Feet

88 Feet aiK) ir>>nffda.
19 Mae*.

province of Euban alone there are no less than 146, each with upwards of 2,000
inhabitants, a vast number considering the short period since the colonisation
began. In 1872 the population of the Euban territory rose from 672,000 to
733,000, and, as the normal excess of births over deaths was only 6,000 or 7,000,
the immigration could not have been less than 54,000. But such a rapid move-
ment, directed without system towards marshy lands, necessarily entails fatal
consequences on many of the new arrivals, more especially as the best tracts are
already occupied by high officials and members of the imperial family. Between
1860 and 1870 over 325,000 acres were thus disposed of in the province of Euban
and government of Stavropol.

The Cossacks do not distribute the land in separate holdings. " Together we
conquered it," they say, "together we have defended it; it belongs to all of us."

isthmus
inity are
; groups
pplied to
gives its
eh, and a
ite of the

le Kuban

ig at the

into real

, In the

•N

50^

ds of 2,000
colonisation
672,000 to
00 or 7,000,
rapid move-
entails fatal
at tracts are
Between
Be of Kuban

Together we
Ko all of us."

TOPOGRAPHY.

«8

The commune decides every year how the several districts are to be cultivated,
and market-garden plots alone are held as private property. Still the officers,
being no longer elected by their Cossack comrades, have received with their
commission parcels of land, or khutors, intended to enhance their prestige. The
example of the superior officers was soon followed by other dignitaries, and the
stanitzas thus became surrounded by khutors, from which the herds of the com-
monalty were excluded. In 1842 the Government proceeded with the regular
distribution of the land according to the rank of the holders — 4,090 acres for

Pig. 20. — Vallbtb of Euubion ik the Kvban Basin.
From the Map of Uie BuuImi Staff. Scale 1 : 700,000.

tilUum.

generals, 1,090 for superior officers, 645 for subaltem^^, 83 for simple Cossacks.
The allotments of the soldiers, constituting the communal dojiain, were thus cut
up into small fragments, and the peasantry protested in vain ngainst a distribution
so entirely opposed to their interests. Of late years the ShalopAts and other
sectarian communities have acquired a great development in this region, the
habits of co-operation giving them exceptional strength, and enabling them to
^succeed where others fail.

The most populous villages are foxmd in the fertile v&lleys formed by erosion
in the limestone terrace facing the CoiTtcae^us. The most important of the stanitzas

ASIATIC EUS8IA.

lying at the very foot of the Caucasian spurs is Maikop, formerly a first-class
strategic point, now a chief mart for the produce of the whole country. In the
Kuban valley are also the trading towns of Batalpashinskaya ; Nikolayevskaga,
near the Kurakent coal mines ; Ladorakaya; and Yekaterinudar. The last named, now
capital of the province of Kuban, does a considerable trade, and at its September
ftiirs, frequented by 25,000 of the peasantry, the exchanges amount to about
2,000,000 roubles. Yeink, founded since 1848, has had a rapid development,
thanks to its free trade and productive fisheries, and although its progress has been
less marked since its privileges have ceased, it still remains the most populous town
on the Caucasian seaboard.

Stavropol, capital of the government of like name, stands at an elevation of
2,000 feet on one of the rtdvunced terraces flanking the foot of the Caucasus.
Founded as a mere fort in 1776, it long remained without any importance except
as a strategical positic a on the line of the ten fortresses guarding the plains of
Ciscaucasia between the Don delta and the town of Mozdok. But thanks to the
fertile lariiis {>% r hich it is surrounded, it has now become one of the most flourish-
ing place; in Russia. North of it stretch a number of populoM villagfe» in
♦'if Yeg'orlik and Sredniy-Yegorlik valleys, founded chiefly by peusaniry from the
vi!.;)tre of Kussia ; hence forming not stanilzaa, but seloa, a circumstance whi,?h
< 'ip).^i .. th(, liJffiarence of terminations presented by the names of villages in the
]\'Kbi*i.; '*.;'! reg'orlik basins.

^i*^i'K';

TIL— CENTRAL CAUCASUS.

KUMA AND TEREK BASINS.

Between Mounts Elbruz and Kazbek the main range rises for a distance of
10b miles above the suow-line. At certain intervals side ridges, with the summits
of the range, form huge massoR towering like glittering citadels of ice above the
surrounding highlands. Thi Elbruz, with its counterforts, constitutes the most
imposing of these masses In the Caucasus. It is the " Holy Mountain " of the
Cherkesses, on whose f ^iowy peak is enthroned tbe " Jjord of the World, King
of Spirits." The Ad^ oh, Kashtan-tau, and Dikh-tau also form a sort of promontory
projecting beyopc'i the main range, and succeeded farther east by a similar
group consisting of the Adai-kokb, Tzea kikh, and neig.hbouriug mountains.
Immediately east of this group tho rihain is brok^ \ by the deep gap through
which flows the Ar-don ; but the gorge is blocked by a ridge running parallel
with the main axis, and culminating with Mount Zikari, In the same way
the Zilga-kokh stands at the southern entrance of the depression formed by
the torrents flowing between the masses culminating respectively with the Tepli
and Kazbek. The latter, which is the Mkinvari of the Oeorgians, and Urs-kokh,
or " White Mountain," of the Ossetes, is still more venerated than Mount Elbruz,
thauas probably to its position near the gate of the Caucasus, now known as the

'j^Wf''

ii-st-class
In the
t/evakaga,
ued, now
eptember
to about
)lopment,
has been
tous town

ivation of
Daucusus.
ce except

plains of
iks to the
; flourish-
Uag&<i in

from the
ce whi,"h
[[68 in the

istance of
e summits
above the

the most
i" of the
rid, King
fomontory

a similar
nountains.
p through
ig parallel
same way
brmed by

the Tepli
TJrs-kokh,
nt Elbruz,
>wn as the

RIVER SYSTEMS— KUMA BASIN.

Darial Pass. Here is the celebrated grotto, whence the hermits could ascend, by
means of an iron chain, to the " Cradle of Bethlehem " and " Abraham's Tent,"
an 11 le Kazbek peak is variously known to the native Christians.*

River Systems — Kuma Basin.

The counterforts and terraces falling from the snowy crest of the (Juucasus
form the various chains of the " Black Mountains," beyond which thev develop

Fig. 30.— PASSANAfrR, OW THR TlKLW- VLADIKAVKAZ RoUTB.

into a vast semicircle round the Kabarda plains, terminating northwards with
the isolated mass of the Besh-tau, Here the streams converge towards the centro

• Mean height of the Ciauoaaus between the Elbruz (18,820 feet) and Adai-kokh (16,485 feet).
12,670 feet. Chief peaks :—

Feet.

10,430

12,840

Zikari .
Zilga-kokh
Tepli .

14.000

Mamisson Pass
Erestovaya Gora
Besh-taa

Feet.
9,640
7,642
4,670

A8UT10 BUflSIA.

of the amphitheatre, like the Alpine torrents collected in the plains of Piedmont,
and. thus is formed the Terek, the Po of the Caucasus, flowing thence in a swift
and copious stream towards the Caapian. Still the waters descending from the
more advanced spurs of the Caucasus du not join the Terek, hut drain through
the Ealuils and Kuma north and north-east wards to the steppes,

The Ealuda is a true steppe river. With the melting of the snows in spring
it overflows its banks far and wide; in summer its stream contracts more and
more as it recedes from the hills, and at last runs quite dry before reaching

Fig. 31.— Ths ELBBtrs Qaovr,
Trom the Map of th* Boajan BtaS. tloak 1 : 480,000.

501

4S'I0"

CoP

AB'AO

the Manich depression. It also presents the remarkable phenomenon of a double
discharge in the direction of the Euxine and Caspian. Entering the Manich
depression at the water-parting, its floods, arrested and divided into two streams
by a small eminence, are diverted west to the Manich of the Don, east to that
which flows to the Euma delta. Steep banks enclose a bed 2 to 3 miles wide,
bearing witness to its iormer importance. But in this space, large enough to con-
tain the waters of the Nile or Rhone, nothing now flows except a sluggish stream
winding its way from marsh to marsh through its sedgy channel.

-^-- iii»»»Mii

RIVER SYSTEMS -KUMA BASIN.

The Kuma basin ia more extensive than that of the Kaluils, and the streams
oy which it is watered flow from more elevated ground, some of them from moun-
tains covered with snow for the greater part of the year. On issuing from ita
upper valley the Kuma is already a copious river ; but after receiving its last
regular aflBuent, 160 miles from the Caspian, it gradually contracts as it winds
through the steppe. A portion of its waters is evaporated, and the rest is diverted
right and left to the pastures of the Nogai Tatars and Kalmuks. It often happens
that about 60 miles above its former mouth the last drop is turned aside by the
dams of the natives. At one time the quantity of water in the Kuma basin was
much greater than at present, and a delta began at the point where the river now

Pig. 32.— RAHinOATION OP THB KaLA(»8.

From the Map of the RuMian Staff. Seale 1 : 610,000

45*50

44»eo

Kurgana.

, IS MUM.

runs dry. The northern branch flowed to the Western Manich, whose bed is now
replaced by the lakes and tarns of the H(iid(ik, strung together like pearls on a
necklace. The two other branches of the Kuma, also indicated by fens, pools,
and channels, run nearly parallel towards a bay in .the Caspian still known as the
Kumskiy Proran, or "Mouth of the Kuma." Exceptionally high floods occa-
sionally sweep away the dams constructed by the Nogai Tatars, and the lower beds
are then temporarily flushed, as in 1879, when the yellow waters of the Kuma
again reached the Caspian.

Neither the Kuma nor the Kala&g discharges water sufHoient to feed a Fonto-
Caspian canal, and even if such a projeot wore carried out, Serebrakovskaya, tie

-_^

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

intended port of the Kuina, would be inuccossiblo to vessels drawing more than
2 feet uf wuter, while thoae drawing over 4 feet could not approach wit'iln 4 nitles
of the place.

The Tekbk.

The Terek is not one of those rivers which, like the Manich and Kuma, run
out before reaching the sea. Its chief sources rise iti a cirque about 8,300 feet
above sea-level, and it is already a large stream before issuing from the region of

Fig. 33. — DiLTA AND FiAonBD Dihtricts of thb Lowbu Tkuek.
According tn Litvinov. Hcnlo 1 : 1,000,000.

E^oFG. 46'eO

47'00-

OldUdaoftbcTerdh.

Flooded Landi.

•'» ^

(Corgaoi. BnntiiigoftheDyke. Terek Delta in 1841.

snows andv upknd pastures. After skirting the Kazbek group on the south and
west, it flows from basin to basin through a series of gorges down to the plains
below Vladikavkaz. At the foot of a vast declivity filling the bed of an old lake
it collects the waters of the Qusel-don, Fiag-don, Ar-don, and several other rapid
streams, beyond which it is joined by the XJrukh, and its largest tributary the
Malka, with its affluents the Oherek and Baksu. Above the Malka junction it
already discharges 17,6C9 cubic feet per second, and during its further course
through the steppe to the Caspian it is joined by the Sunja, another large and

THE TEREK.

V\g. 84.— Tk* Tihbk Floods or 1863.
From the M*p of the Ituui;in Htaff. Boale 1 : 600,000.

^#«

o-Vi,

rapid river flowing t.li rough the country of the Chechenzen, and fed by luimuroun
sulphur streams. One of these is thu Molchihi, which is formed by the junction
of five copious springs, so hot that sevurul miles lower down it is still unpotuble.

Below the Sunja, notwithstanding the losses caused by evaporation and irri-
gation, the Torek is still copious enough to form a vast delta, with a largo number
of permanent or intermittent branchea frequently shifting with the floods, and
changing their relative importance
from century to century. One of
these is the " Old Terek," formerly
the most abundant, but now sur-
passed in volume by the " New
Terek." The delta oomprises a
coast-line of about 70 miles, and it
seems to have been formerly con-
nected on the one hand with the
Euma, on the other with the Sulak
by some now partly obliterated
channels. West of thu present
delta are still to be seen the old
shores of the Caspian, as well as a
number of parallel lines of elongated
sand dunes, or bugri, exactly similar
to those of the Volga deltii, and '
doubtless formed by the subsidence
of the water at the time when the
Caspian became separated from the
Euxine. According to Baer the
alluvia of the Terek are encroaching
on the Caspian even more rapidly
than those of the Volga. Several
inlets have already been choked up,
and fishing stations which in 1825
stood on the coast were, thirty years
later on, nearly 10 miles from the
sea. The whole coast-line between
the Kuma and Terek has advanced
from 1,000 to 2,000 yards since
1841 ; but all these new and badly
drained tracts are still very unhealthy. During the months of July and August
the labourers and gardeners complain of swollen heads, and the marsh fever
subjects them to hallucinations of all sorts.

The stream of the Terek is amply sufficient to contribute its share towards the
navigable canal with which Danilov proposes to connect the Euxine and Caspian.
But pending this somewhat remote contingency, its waters and those of its tribu-

:;^;^£i-^

v«t

oPG. 45*10

4e*so

Old Beds of the Terek.

,isMnM.

.5;

■^

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

tarioA aro utilised in irrififutin}^ tho horderiiiff ntuppe lands. Tho Rristo- junnl,
fed by tlut Mulkit, truvoraos the nortlioni pluinn, joining the Torek utV u coune
of 140 miloa. Further north tho KtirHkiy Cunul, also Howing fnun !.e Mulku,
turnn the wheels uf nineteen railis, and during the floods forms a stroum Wi miles
long. A third, running north of the Sunja junction, irriguton over 2/>0,()00 ucres.
If skilfully utilisefl, the waters of this river system, which abound in fertilising
matter, might extend fur north and north-cant the rich Kuburdu basin, which
promises one day to become a magnificent agricultural region.

Inhabitants — Thk Ka hards.

Tho Kabardx, or Kaburdins, who call themselves Kubertti: occupy nearly all
tho northern slope of the Oentrul Oaucasus between the Klbruz und Kuzbek.
They are ethnicriPy closely related to the Cherkessos ; like thom, a fine race, fondur
of wars and stril.) thun of peaceful habits, and distiuguished from thom only by
their harsh speech full uf gutturals and sibilants. Their princes claim Arub
descent, though the difference which some observers have detected between them
and their subjects is probably due to outward circumstances and their occasional
alliiincos with foreign families. The Eabards seem to have come originally from
the north-west, probubly even from the Orimeo, whence they have been gradually
driven towards the Terek, first by the Nogai Tatars, and afterwards by the
Russians. They have retainfH^ something of their former nomad life, and are oven
now far more devoted to the ! reeding of hors.s and sheep than to agriculture. The
land is still held iit common, the woods and pastures remain undivided, und no
one has any claim except to the plot ullo(' by himself. Such plots, when left
uncultivated, revert immediately to the f^f r-nur Perhaps more than elsewhere
in Caucasia daring robbery is held in i ;.>>«» but on the condition of its being
committed awuy from the village and ' - ">, and provided that the robber escape
detection. In the latter case he woi ' le exposed to the taunts and jeers of the
community. Notwithstanding 'he Russian laws, it is also still considered highly
honourable for the young man t6 carry off his bride. Some days before the
nuptials he steals into the chamber where she await« him, and whence they escape
together. On returning to sue for pardon, he may calculate beforehand on the
approval of all who still respoct the old usages.

The Eabards properly so called number about 32,000. At one time they were
the leading nation in Ciscaucasia ; but owing to their exposed geographical posi-
tion, they were the first to lose their independence. The Russians easily pene-
trated through the Terek valley into the heart of their domain. Forts erected
at intervals along the river divided the plains into two distinct regions — Great
Eabarda on the west, and Little Eabarda on the east. Between the two runs the
great military route over the Caucasus, and here the Russians consequently strove,
in the first instance, to establish their power on a solid footing. As early as 1763
gome of the Eabards, outwardly Christians, withdrew to Russian territory,
settling in the steppe along the middle course of the Terek. At the beginning

m tj^mm m:

\ Janal,
u coune
I iVIaIku,
96 intlua
00 ucre«.
artiliHing
[J, which

learly all
Kuzbek.
je, fondur
I only by
im Arab
3en them
Ksoasional
ally from
gradually
I by the
1 are even
ture. The
d, and no
when left
elsewhere
its being
ber escape
lers of the
ed highly
before the
hey escape
ind on the

1 they were
>hical posi-
aeily pene-
rts erected
ms — Great
ro runs the
atly strove,
ply as 1768
L territory,
beginning

f Vt

.'v-^

■ j i msj:»moHUi'i:! : M^ -'SDi^

''AiUCKfiWaVUf^owft^WHVIffM

^^^.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

Photographic

Sdfflices

Corporation

23 WBT MAM STMIT

WnSTfR,N.Y. 14510
(716)873-4503

CIHM/ICMH

Microfiche

Series.

CIHM/ICMH
Collection de
microfiches.

Canadian Inatltuta for Historical Rfllcroraproductlona / Inttitut Canadian da microraproductiona hiatoriquas

THE 0SSE8 AND NOOAI TATARS.

of the present century upwards of 40,000, flying from Russian rule, sought a
refuge amongst the Euban Tatars, who welcomed and gave them lands, which
are still held by the descendants of those "White Kabards " But the bulk of
the nation remained in the Upper Terek basin, and their young men were fain
to accept service in the imperial armies. Amongst them were first recruited
those magnificent " Cherkesses," as they are called, who figure so conspicuously
on all state occasions. Returning to their homes, they have ceased to be Kabards,
and take pride not in their ancestral freedom, but in their present thraldom.
The ancient usages also become slowly modified by constant intercourse with the
ruling race, while their national unity is broken by the intrusion of foreign
elements. Isolated villages are already occupied by Tatars, Uruspievtzes,
Balkars, Nogais, grouped in democratic communities administered by the elders.
The country is also traversed by Jewish usurers in search of fresh victims, while
groups of Germans are settled here and there, generally on the more fertile lands.
The " Scotch " colony north of Patigorsk has even been already completely assi-
milated to these Teutonic settlers. On the other hand, the towns, growing daily
in size, have become exclusively Russian, and the district north of the Malka
has been entirely Slavonised by the Cossacks, who beg^n to make their appearance
in this region during the reign of Ivan the Terrible.

The Osses and Nooai Tatars.

The Osses, more commonly but less correctly known as Ossotes, are ab
numerous in the Terek basin as the Kabards, but they have scarcely yet ven-
tured on the plains, confining themselves mainly to the upland valleys between
Mounts Adai-kokh and Kazbek, west and east. Two-fifths, however, of this
nation dwell not -on the northern, but on the southern slopes, in the valleys
draining to the Rion and Kura, and even on a portion of the Trialetes Hills,
south of the Kura plains. They are estimated at upwards of 110,000 altogether,
thus forming one of the most important nations in Caucasia. But their fame is
due not so much to their power as to the various theories that have been broached
touching their origin and affinities. Some have regarded them as Alans ; others
as the purest representatives of the Aryans in the Caucasus, akin either to the
Teutons or to the Iranians ; while Vivien de Saint-Martin suggests that they may
belong to the race of the Ases, like those who migrated to Scandinavia. Lastly,
Pfaff thinks that they are at least partly of Semite stock. But, judging from the
great variety of types and features, ranging from the ideal beautiful to the down-
right ugly, they would seem to be a very mixed people, including Oeorgian,
Armenian, Kubard, and other elements. In the Digor district, on the north
slope, several noble families are undoubtedly of Tatar origin, whilst others in the
southern valley of the Livash-don are of Georgian stock. Apart from numerous
exceptions, the bulk of the people are decidedly inferior in physical appearance
to the other races of the Caucasus. Their features are generally angular, their
forms heavy, and they utterly lack that pleasant expression, that noble air and

ASIA.TIO RUSSIA.

graceful carriage, by which the Cherkesses and Eabards are distinguished. The
fair type is more common than the brown, and some are met with blue eyes like
the Scandinavians, while others resemble the Jewish dealers in their black or
brown eyes, and even in their wheedling voice.

But whatever be their origin, their speech belongs unquestionably to the Aryan
familj'. Their national name is Iron, and their country Ironiston, words sug-
gesting the Iran of Persia. The Digor dialect has a large mixture of Tatar and
Cherkess elements, but the pure speech still current in the upland valleys, while
ruder than that of the lowlands, abounds in Aryan roots. In their manners and
customs the Osses seem also to betray their relationship with the Western niitions.
They differ from the other Caucasians in their use of the bed, table, and chair ;
they salute in the European fashion, embracing and shaking hands as in the
West ; lastly, they brew from barley, and drink their beer from tankards exactly
like those of the North German peasantry. In the upper valleys, where wood
is scarce, they live in stone towers of great age ; but lower down they build
little wooden houses like the Alpine barns, shingle-roofed and weighted with heavy
stones.

On the whole the Osses do not reflect much credit on the Aryan race.
Physically inferior to their highland neighbours, they cannot compare with
them in pride, dignity, or courage, although Freshfield calls them the " Gentle-
men of the Caucasus." Like their neighbours, they have always been ready to
offer themselves to the highest bidder, taking service under the Byzantines,
Greeks, or Persians, and returning to their homes to spend in revelry the fruits
of their plundering expeditions. They had been so debased by this mercenary
trade that they became confirmed marauders, worshipping Sadbareg, god of
brigandage, who rides a black horse, accompanying and guiding the freebooters
on their predatory incursions. But though still ready for murder and pillage
when no danger is run, they took care not to defend their liberty against the
Bussians at the risk of their lives. Although masters of the central valleys, and
consequently of the most important strategical points in the Caucasus, they left
the Cberkesses in the west and the Lezghians of Daghestan to fight and perish
separately. Instead of occupying the foremost rank in the wars against the
aggressor, they waited till victory hod decided in favour of the Russians to make
up their minds. Poverty had made them the prey of every foreign speculator,
and to put an end to all further disputes touching the ownership of the land, the
Russian Government declared all the lowlands State property, and removed
thither the "unsafe" hillmen. Most of the Osses used to call themselves
Mohammedans, but now they pretend to be Christians, and revere St. Nicholas
no less devoutly than the prophet Elias. Besides, they had already changed
their' religion three times during the ten last centuries, and in spite of their
present Christianity they practise polygamy, aggravated by the fact that the
first wife treats the children of the others as slaves. Pagan practices even
reappear beneath the official religion and the remains of .the Moslem creed. During
Holy Week they make offerings of bread-and-butter on the altars of the sacred

flWiTtlMiilM'ftrii-i

[iguished. The
blue eyes like
their black or

ly to the Aryan
on, words sug-
re of Tatar and
d valleys, while
3ir manners and
Western nations,
ible, and chair ;
ands as in the
ankards exactly
ijs, where wood
own they build
hted with heavy

le Aryan race,
compare with
tn the " Gentle-
8 been ready to
;he By/antines,
Bvelry the fruits

this mercenary
(ibareg, god of
■ the freebooters
der and pillage
srty against the
tral valleys, and
iicasus, they left
fight and perish
'ars agai^8t the
Russians to make,
'eign speculator,
of the land, the
r, and removed

call themselves
ere St. Nicholas
ilready changed
Q spite of their
le fact that the
1 practices even
1 creed. During
irs of the sacred

TOPOGEAPHY.

^•:^:;^^:

c'fa

s^i

^k.^

^:5#-^

' '-- 7..-

^i^V^

1- ','''7',

groves, in the grottoes, in tbe former Christian shrines, and then devour tho sheep
victims of the sacrifice. Their most revered monuments are the aappads, or ancient
gravets octagonal structures from 12 to 16 feut high, terminating in a pyramidal
roof pierced with holes. In some Oss and Gherkess villages tho sappads are
numerous enough to form veritable cemeteries ; but since the middle of the
century no new ones have been allowed to be built, because of the gases escaping
from them and poisoning the atmosphere.

Of the non-Caucasian peoples the most numerous in the Euma and Terek
basins are the Nogai Tatars, who roam mostly over the eastern steppes, and along
the shores of the Caspian and brackish lakes filled by the winter rains, dried up
under the summer suns and winds. Akin to those still met here and there on
the banks of the Euban, and partly descended from the old masters of the
Crimea, the Nogais are true Asiatics. Like their poor neighbours the Stavropol
and Astrakhan Ealmuks, they dwell in felt tents, and when removing to fresh
pastures they place their children in the panniers carried by the camels on whose
hump the women are perched, and in this order the caravan crosses tbe desert
wastes. Thus are the familiar scenes of Central Asia repeated on the western
shores of the Caspian, though this Asiatic region is being gradually contracted,
according as the Mongoloid populations are being driven back by the Russians.
During the last fifty years the Nogais of the Caucasus have fallen from 70,000 to
half that number. In features, stature, and carriage most of them have become
Mongolians, assuming by mixture the flat face, broad nose, prominent cheek
bones, small and oblique eyes, high brow, and scant beard of the Ealmuks.
They are of a gentle and kindly disposition, but wedded to their old usages,
haters of all change, and resisting Slav influences except along the river banks,
where tillage and the fishcriea bring them into constant contact with the Russians,
and where poverty obliges them to hire themselves out to the Armenians and
Cossacks. With the sad temperament of all Mongolians, they derive their
national name, with a sort of melancholy irony, from a word meaning " Thou shalt
be wretched."

Some thousands of Turkomans also live in t^e neighbourhood of Eizlar.
According to a tradition, based apparently on a faint reminiscence of submarine
geology, these Turkomans crossed over on dry land from the Erasnovodsk headland
to the peninsula of Apsheron.

Topography.

Patigorsk (in Russian " Five Hills "), the largest town in the Euma basin,

lies at the southern foot of the Mashuka, an advanced spur of the Besh-tau group.

This five-crested porphyry cone rising in the middle of the plain was at all times

a rallying-point for the steppe nomads. Hence Patigorsk occupies one of the

spots in the Caucasus most frequented by divers tribes, Eabards, Nogais, Cossacks,

and others, and it has now become a rendezvous for the Russians of all the

surrounding provinces, and even for strangers from the rest of Europe, Patigorsk

is, in fact, one of the thermal stations whose abundant sulphur springs are held in
6

% ASIATIC RUSSIA.

■,■.,•

tho highest repute, aad is more frequented than uU the rest of the hundred watering-
phioes in Cuucusia, with their seven hundred different mineral springs, as enume-
rated by Oliodzko. Within a radius of 24 miles the Putigorsk medicinal waters
comprise a complete scries of such as are recommended by modern therapeutics.
The twenty springs in Putigorsk itself, with a temperoture varying from 85" to
110° Fuhr., and yielding on the average 2 J gallons per second, are typical sulphur
springs. About 12 miles to the north-east the station of Jekanovodak — that is,
" Iron Water " — indicates by its very name the nature of its twenty springs, which

Fig. 36.— Patiooksk and thb Region of Thermal Watwm.

From Ibe Mop of the Riuaian Staff. Boal* 1 : e00,000.

^^^^^^^^^^^M

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t^^gJii^SmSzl '^^^fe'mm^jSpfWlBP^^'^^

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l^^^Bl^^^^^BIBB^M^BBBiiS!3BMK^!!T..5i^B8Bi3f^'3«y

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w^^^^^^^lM^^^mtBBKK^^SSSsSm

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> -K^'K. ■J^X^-'-iM'^ ^% 'f <xir T ..'r4^^.j^:

E.afG 48- 35 4S'5-

19 Mflcl.

differ greatly in temperature and the amount of their carbonic acid, while varying
in the quantity of their discharge, which is a£Eeoted by the earthquakes. Near the
village of Yesentuki, west of Patigorsk, there are also twenty springs, but cold,
alkaline, and containing iodine and bromine. In the hills to the south-west occurs
the magnificent spring known to the Cherkesses as the Narzan, or " Drink of
Heroes," and now distinguished by the less poetic but more accurate name
Kislovodsk, or " Acidulated Water." This spring, whose properties are unrivalled,
yields over 376,000 gallons of water, and liberates 190,000 cubic feet of carbonic
acid daily. The approach to the sacred spring was formerly defended by a wall

l.._

' MllJl

TOPOGRAPHY.

7ft

idred wutering-
ngs, as onume-
edicinal waters
n. therapeutics,
ig from 85° to
typical sulphur
wodak — that is,
r springs, which

y5-

d, while varying
uakes. Near the
iprings, but cold,
louth-west occurs
:n, or " Drink of
) accurate name
[es are unrivalled,
feet of carbonic
fended by a wall

several miles long, flanked by grottoes and by totnbs, the truces of which are still
visible. Other sources that have not yet been utilised contain chlorine, magnesia,
murine suit, while the lakes and pools left in the steppes after the subsidence of
the sea have their saline muds filled with microscopic alga}, like the limuns of the
Euxine.

Ptttigorsk covers a large space in the valley of the Podkumok, a southeni
affluent of the Euma. It stands at a mean altitude of 1,680 feet above the
unhealthy atmosphere of the plains, and its climate is further improved by extensive
promenades, parks, and gardens. Fine hotels, houses, arcades, and elegant shops
well stocked with Russian, English, French, and Oriental wares, give it the aspect
of a European watering-place, though dating only from the year 1830. At the
end of the last century invalids came to take the waters " under the fire of the
Oherkesses." The Russian lords arrived with retinues of some hundred cavaliers
and retainers, long lines of equipages, tents, and supplies, during the treatment
encamping in the neighbourhood of the spring.

OeorgyevHk, north-east of Patigorsk and in the stime river basin, was the
capital of Ciscaucasia till 1824. When the administration was removed to
Stavropol, it fell to the rank of a simple village, but has since recovered its
importance as the agricultural centre of the Euma basin, and as a station of the
Caucasian railway. Its prosperity has also been promoted by some German
colonies in the neighbourhood. Farther down, on the Kuma and its western
affluents, there are merely a few Cossack stanitzas, some of which, such as
Otknzndie, Alexamlrovikaija, Blagodarndie, Praskoveya, have become towns and
important agricultural centres. East of Praskoveya formerly stood the famous
city of Majar, or Majari, on both banks of the Euma. The coincidence of names
has induced some writers to suppose that Majar was a capital of the Hungarian
Magyars. But the word, which is of Tftrki origin, meaning "paloce," "edifice,"
seems to have been the name of one of the four chief cities of the Ehazar Empire.
The Eipchak Tatars were settled here, and various recently discovered documents
show that it was still a flourishing place in the fourteenth century, much
frequented by Russian traders. In the time of Pallas there were still standing
thirty-two buildings in good repair; now the.;, is nothing to be seen but the
remains of towers and heaps of rubbish covering i vast space. The few inscrip-
tions that occur refer all of them to the Moslem Tatars, and the medals that have
been dug up had all been struck at Sarai, on the Volga. Numerous kurgans are
scattered about, and the Armenian village of Svutoi-Erest has sprung up in the
midst of the ruins.

The capital of Eabarda end the chief place in the Terek basin is Vladikavkaz,
known to the Osses as Eapka'i, or " Gate of the Hills." It lies, in fact, at the foot
of the Black Mountains, guarding the entrance to the deep gorges through which
the Terek escapes. Standing about 2,300 feet above sea-level at a point
commanding the military route through Central Caucasia, it enjoyed paramount
strategical importance during all the wars of the Caucasus, and since the reduction
of the hillmen it has become a large commercial emporium. Yet the military

1i . . ASIATIC RUSSIA.

and official elomonts uru Htill predotiiinunt, and in 1874 thu male wos more than
double 1)10 fomiilo population.

Till recently tlie inilittiry route from Vladikuvkii/. across the Caucasus to

Flg.36.-THKV.,A.,iKAVKAr..AKANi)uKoiT«Tifli8 wus cxposed to destruction from the

TiiHouoH TiiK 'i'KiiKK VAi.r.Rv. HngFy wutors of the Terek, while avalanches

From the Miip nf ttip UiiMlaaHtttff. MciiIb I ; 840.000. „n _^„„, .„ > J„i_:»..„ ..„ ^a. „„_ ;» .* xu

^__^_1________^„__^,^^_^ 01 snow and detritus swept over it at tbe

issues of tlie mountain torrents. £von now
it is constantly threatened to be overwhelmed
by the Devdoraki glacier, and is generally
blocked for seventeen days in the year for a
space of 8 or 9 miles. Hence heavy engineer-
ing works will have to be carried out, should
the project be persitttud in of running a line
of railway through the Terek valley and under
the Caucasus from Vladikavkaz to Tiflis. The
prosperity of Yladikuvku/ and other towns on
both slopes of the main range largely depends
on the ultimate choice that may be made of the
several alternative lines that have been pro-
posed. It is probiible, however, that, before
attacking it directly, the main range will be
skirted at its eastern extremity by a line con-
necting the towns of Petrovsk, Derbent, and
Baku.

Tekaterinograd, on the Terek below Vladi-
kavkaz, a former outpost of the Oherkesses,
still occupies a vital position near the confluence
of the Malka. Here Potomkin founded one
of the chain of Russian fortresses in the
Caucasus, and seven years later on it was
chosen as the capital of the Muscovite posses-
sions in this region. But it lost this position
in 1790, since when it has remained a simple
Cossack stanitza. The political and commer-
cial centre of the district is Mozdok, or " Black
Wood," founded in 1769 by a chief of Little
Eabarda driven by the fortunes of war into
exile. From the first it was a haven of refuge
for fugitive Eabards, Osses, Chechenzes, Arme-
__— 6 MUe». nians, and Georgians from Transcaucasia. Till

lecently the Armenians formed by far the most numerous element, and thanks to
them Mozdok had become the chief trading-place in Ciscaucasia. • The Russian
Government had even favoured it by diverting towards it the military route
between Stavropol and Tiflis ; but since the completion of the railway it has lost

I i i "' " ill B i l l ^tU'immmtmmmmHtmimm

Mn*;RS'Bp*«api

TOl'OOttAWiy.

rus more than

D CuuoasuB to
ion from the
ilo uvalaiiehea
iver it at the
Evon now
B overwhelmed

is generally
the year fur a
eavy engineer-
iod out, should
running a line
lUey and under
to Tiflis. The
other towns on
argely depends
be made of the
lave been pro-
er, that, before
L range will be
by a line con-

Derbent, and

ik below Vladi-
ihe Oherkesses,
,r the confluence
in founded one
rtresses in the
iter on it was
luscovite posses-
ost this position
mained a simple
il and commer-
zdok, or " Black

chief of Little
tes of war into
haven of refuge
echenzes, Arme-
tscaucasia. Till
t, and thanks to
,. • The Russian

military route
ilway it has loet

iho udviintageH thereby a(M]uirod. Iloncoforth its proupcrity must dcpond
exclusively on ilH position uh thu natural rullyiii^-|H)iiit of tho nurruiuuiiiig
|)opulatiuns, and uh tho entrepot of thu agricultural Huttlumuntx on tlio Middlo
Torek.

Qrozniy, which has grown up round the fortroHH of (iroznuyu, is now tho

Fig. 37.— Tmb TKHui.ofl-MTA Orovp,
Worn iha Map of the RiuMUm Htnff. 8o«le 1 : 'JflA,O0O.

natural capital of all the Sunja valley, probably the most fertile in Ciscaucnsia.
Its mineral waters, known since the middle of the last century, are mu<-h
frequented, but the neighbouring naphtha well» have no great commercial value.

' - ■ !iJ.g!! " -'-

AHIATTO RUSSIA.

Of the iminoroufl towtiH and villugoa aoiittorou ovor the Groznty plain and
aurroiiiidiii^ liilU thu muNt iiii|>ortiiiit uro lfruii-3f'it'(fin, und furthur ouiit the
Mtmlutn tuwn uf Ak-nai, in ii wull-wuturod diHtriut l«id uut in gurduuH.

h'iz/iir, of which mention occum no oiuly u*" ll'l i>, wa« uImo a pluoe of rofugo
for fugitivoN, oapeoiully ArnioniunH, who graduully monopolizod tho h)uul triidu.
It Ih huppily nituatcd ut thu houd of the Toruk dultu for truftic und horticulturu,
I ho t'ivur und its brunohuH Mupplying ull tho watur needed for irrigating purpoacH.
In lH(il there were in this diatriut over 1,250 flourishing gardens, supplying the
liuBsiun markets with ull sorts of spring fruit* and vegetublea. Kizlar is likewise
noted for its vineyards, the produce of which, exported from the neighbouring
port of Briunsk, or Hriansko'ie, is used by tho Russians in the manufacture uf
"jwrt," "sherry," "madeira," and other famous southern wines. About
l,2oU,000 gallon* are yearly sold at the Nijni-Novgorod fair.

IV.— EASTERN CAUCASIA.

DAGHE8TAN.

Ai.THni'nii boasting of no summits rivalling Mounts Elbruz and Kazbek, the
general relief of the eastern is far more considerable than that of the central
sootion of the Caucasus. The depressions between the peak* are relatively very
high, while the lateral ridges give to this division an expansion of 2° of latitude
north and south. Here the different altitude* and dispositions of the groups
impart fur greater variety to the scene, and in many valley* *nowy or wooded
heights rise all along the line of the horizon. The rugged and tangled masses
long afforded a shelter to the native* against the Russian*, who were unable to
penetrate into the upper valleys except through the winding bed* of the mountain
torrents or across unknown tracks, where they were exposed to the ambuscades
and sudden attack* of the lurking foe.

Mount Borbalo, source of the streams flowing to the Terek, Sulak, Euma, and
Aliizan, is usually regarded as the western limit of Daghestan. Hero the Andi,
or principal side ridge, branches from the main range, forming with it the
triangular *pace of the Easi'em Cauoa*u8. This region presents somewhat the
aspect of a vast plateau scooped into valleys, the higher of which nowhere fall
more than about 3,000 feet belo the surrounding crests. Abi*h regard* the
whole of Daghe*tan a* a syst^ii ■ f sedimentary, Jurassic, cretaceous, and tertiary
rock* overlapping each other, and whose fold* have been rent and intersected by
crevassos. The culminating point of this system is the Tebulos-mta, rising to a
height of 14,990 feet in the Andi ridge. Several other mfa, or " peaks," in the
same chain exceed 13,000 feet, whereas those of the central range vary from
9,750 to about 11,370 feet. Still the line of perpetual snow is reached by several,
such as the Sari-dagh, Vitziri, Bazardiiiz, Tkhfan-dagh, Baba-dagh, on the main
range, and the Alakhiln-dagh, Shalbt^z-dagh, Shah-dagh, or Eastern Elbruz, and
Eizil'Euya, in the northern side ridge*. East of the Baba-dagh the mountain*

icr iii l i r i i rn ii M MiiwartiiM

iiittaiUimimmim'ilggf

Ml "Htll PI

INIIAIUTANTH- THH CIIKOHKN/KS.

iy pluin and
-thur uuHt the

)luoe of rofugn

10 louul triidu.

1 hortiuulturo,

ttiiig purpuBUH.

Hupplying thu

xlur ia likewise

neighbuuring

nunufacture uf

wines. About

fall rapidly towards the Ciispian, sinking to mere hilU in the Apxlioron p4«ninsiilu.
Nearly itil these mountuins uru still known by their T(lrki or Uoorgiun

d Kazbek, the

of the central

relatively very

2° of latitude

of the groups

owy or wooded
tangled masses
were unable to

)f the mountain

the ambuscades

names.

RiVKK SVHTKMS.

A fow of the torrents rining in the iuIvuikmhI npurs of Daghostnn flow to the
Sunju, the chief mmthcrn iitHuont of the T«ri<k ; but numt of tlicNit wat<>rH ure
colloctwl by flu' Huluk, fomu'd by the four torrtnitn wliicli iK'ur tlu* Tiitiir inline
of Koi-MU. Like tlie Torek and Ar-don, the Suluk enicrgfH through iimgniHci'iit
gorges on the plaiiiN, trending thence euHtward to the (yaN])ian. Like them, uIho,
it is gradually encroaching on the sea, and during the H(hm1h foniiH a teni]H)rary
delta, whose waters are partly mingled with those of the Terek in the vast liuy of
Agrakhan, which is rather a lugoon than a marine inlet. In the ho|)e of deepening
its channel, Peter the Great diverted to it a (lennaneut stream from the Huluk, but,
like so many similar projects undertaken by that czar, the attempt proved aliortive ;
the dykes were swept away by the floods, and the navigable canal choked by the
mud. More successful have been the irrigation rills fonne<l some years ago, and
bringing under cultivation 160,000 acres about the Lower Sulak.

Of the streams flowing to the Caspian south of the Sulak, the Samur alone
asNumos the proportion of a river. On emerging from the mountains it ramitics
into several branches, which are continually shifting their beds in the midst of the
Nonds and shingle. The Samur, and all the torrents travert ing the Kuba district,
may be said to form a common delta, intermingling their waters, and jointly
encroaching on the Caspian. Like the fumi and flHuiare of the eastern slopes of
the Apennines, these streams are constantly changing their beds, leaving here and
there old channels, false rivers, and stagnant pools no longer traversed by running
waters. Hence the Lower Samur district, whoso hydrographic system is not yet
fully developed, ia one of the most unhealthy in the Caucasus.

lak, Euroa, and
Here the Andi,
ng with it the

somewhat the,
sh nowhere fall
sli regards the
iU8, and tertiary
I intersected by
mta, rising to a
" peaks," in the
,ngc vary from
ched by several,
;h, on the main
irn Elbruz, and

the mountains

Inhabitants — The Chechenzes.

In 1868, at the close of the wars that had laid waste the Caucasian valleys, the
Russian Government took a census of the highland population, which was found to
number 908,000. In 1872 it was estimated at 996,000, of whom nearly one-half,
or about 478,000, were in Daghestan alone. The Chechenzes and Lezghians of the
northern slope lietween Kabarda and the Caspian form at present an aggregate

* Chief altitude! of the Eititern Caucasns : —
Main Ring*.

Borbalo

Sari-dagh

Vitztri .

Bazardiftz

Tkhfandagh

Baba-dagh .

AteHh-gah (Apsheron)

Feet.
11.120
12,180
12,030
14,930
13,970
12,100
910

TebuloS'inta
Kachu .
Dikloe-mta .

Alakhiin-dBgh
Shah-dagh
Shalb&z-dagh
Kusil-Kaya .

Andi Ridge.

Ettttern Highland*.

Feet.
14,000
14,220
13,930

12,930
14,160
14,100
12,420

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

of at least 670,000 souls. This population is made up of several races differing
in origin, religion, manners, and speech, though it is now ascertained that most
of the idioms here current are merely varieties of a common stock language. One
of them is restricted to the single village of Iniikh, consisting of some thirty houses,

Fig. 38. — Mouths of thi Tirbk and Lower Svlak.
From the Map of the Rnniui Staff. Scale 1 : 710,000.

""f^^S"^

o;«oo*

0to65teet. 66 Feet and npwaidi.

. 18 HUe*.

in South-west Daghestan, and none of them possess any literature except the
Avar, which boasts of a few documents written in the Arabic character.

Amongst the peoples of the Eastern Caucasus the Chechens, or Chechenzes,
estimated at about 140,000, are divided into some twenty different groups, each
with a distinct lang^ge. Known to the Lezghians by the name of Misjeghi, and to

uAuJ i w't*

III I I « iw iiiiiiii ' fii wi iMliili

INHABITANTS -THE CHE0HENZE8.

il faces di£Fermg
lined that most

llanguage. One
le thirty houses,

ture except the

icter.

, or Chechenzes,

int groupS; each

Misjeghi, and to

the Georgians as Kists, the Chechenzes occupy the whole of West Daghestan, east
of the Osses and Eabards, and even descend from the advanced spurs down to the
plains. Their territory is traversed by the Simja, which divides it into " Little
Chechniya," the lowland district, and "Great Chechniya," the highland region.
Both the lowlanders and the hillmen fought desperately against the Russians in
the last century under Da(id Beg and Omar Ehan, in the present under Ehazi-
Mollah and Shamyl. Sunuite Mohanmiedans of a more fanatical type than the
Cherkesses and Abkhazians of the west, they fought with the devotion inspired by
religious enthusiasm, combined with a love of freedom and a warlike spirit. Yet

Fig. 89. — Tbi Kvha Pmtbiot.
FmintlMlCtpoftheBiinUnBte& Bode 1 : 840,000.

■-^

UMUag.

they were fain to yield at last, and since 1859 Chechniya, the most fertile and
salubrious region in Caucasia, has been completely subdued. In 1819 the fortress
of Groznaya, now grown into the city of Grosniy, had been bmlt by the invaders
on the banks of the Simja between the two Chechenz territories, and its " threats,"
as the name implies, were not in vain. Like the Cherkesses, most of the highland
Chechenzes were compelled to forsake their ancestral homes, and those who refused
to settle in the plains migrated to Turkish Armenia in convoys of one hundred to
two hundred &anilies, escorted by Russian guards. Here fresh misfortunes awaited
them. After sanguinary struggles with their new neighbours for the possession of the

!< ■> >> tin aj. J aH

-'4^^

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

land, they were several times removed, and the (Savoyards of each fresh place of
exile retained numbers of the emigrants.
' The Chechenzes bear a strong resemblance to the Cherkesses, and, like them,
are haughty, well proportioned, active, fond of rich garments, which they wear
with an easy grace. Most of them have an aquiline nose, and a restless, almost
sinister glance ; yet they are generous, and always maintain a certain dignity of
speech and carriage : they kill, but never insult. The women of the better classes
wear an elegant robe revealing the figure, and wide silken trousers of a pink colour.
Yellow sandals, silver bracelets, and a piece of cloth falling over their shoulders
and partly concealing the hair, complete their attire. The Chechenz dwellings are
nearly all veritable hovels, cold, dank, and gloomy, some dug out of the ground,
others formed of interwoven branches, or of stones rudely thrown together. A
group of such dwellings forms one of those a&b often seen perched on some steep
bluff, like erratic boulders arrested on the brink of the precipice. Before the
Russian conquest most of the people lived in republican communes, governing
themselves by popular gatherings like those of the primitive Swiss Cantons.
Other communities were subject to hereditary khans, whose power dated from the
time of the Moslem invasion. But all alike obeyed the adat, or unwritten code of
the common law.

Although much dreaded by the lowlanders as brigands and marauders, the
Daghestan hillmen, and especially the Chechenzes, more, perhaps, than any other
warlike people, revealed the most brilliant qualities of freemen, at least during the
final struggle with the Russians. " We are all equal," they were fond of repeat-
ing, and in point of fact there wer°i no slaves amongst them except prisoners of
war or their descendants. But these often married the daughters of their masters,
and thus became members of the family and the equals of all. The Chechenzes
carried their pride to a pitch of fanaticism, but their hospitality was boundless,
although associated with eccentrie practices. The traveller is often met by a band
of horsemen swooping wildly down tram the camping ground, firing salvoes over
his head, then suddenly stopping within ten or fifteen paces, and saluting him with
a profound " Salam aleikum ! " In such a sooiely justice was necessarily regulated
by the law of life for life, and, notwithstanding the Russian code, this law is still
the only one that is respected. Murder, pillage, robbery with violence, can be
expiat«d only by death, unless the offender allow his hair to grow,' a^d the injured
party consent to shave it with his own hands, and make him take the oath of
brotherhood on the Koran. It also happens that the law of vendetta is at times
suspended by some great feasts. When a hillraan discovers that his horse has
disappeared, he sets out in search of it, fully equipped, wrapped in one of those
white woollen shrouds which serve as winding-sheets, and provided with a piece
of money to pay the priest who has to utter the prayers for the dead. The robber
mostly gets rid of his booty by- selling it in some remote clan, but at the sight of
the rightful owner armed for a deadly fight the purchaser restores the animal,
takes over the shroud and money, and presents himself before the vendor. Should
he happen to be the robber, the priest is called in, and they fight it out. But if

THE LEZGHIANS, TATS, AND TATARS.

resh place of

d, like them,
!h they wear
Btless, aknost
in dignity of
better classes
i pink colour,
teir shoulders
dwellings are
the ground,
together. A
)n some steep
Before the
is, governing
riss Cantons,
ited from the
ritten code of

arauders, the
an any other
st during the
nd of repeat-
t prisoners of
their masters,
le Chechenzes
ras boundless,
let by a band
^ salvoes over
ang him with
rily regulated
lis law is still
lenoe, can be
i the injured
I the oath of
ta is at times
bis horse has
one of those
with a piece
The robber
t the sight of
« the animal,
dor. Should
i out. But if

the vendor has himself been deceived, he sets out in his turn with the dread
emblems of mortal strife, and thus death at last hounds down its quarry, unlq^s
the horse-stealer happens to be a stranger from over the hills.

Another custom peculiar to the Iii<rush tribe illustrates their strong belief in an
after-life. When one of the betrothed dies on the wedding-eve, the ceremony is
performed all the same, and the dead is joined with the living in a union to
be ratified in heaven, the father never failing to pay the stipulated dowry.
Christianity still retains a certain hold on the Chechenzes, although all have
adopted the Sunnite creed except those of Braguni, on the Sunja. Three churches
built on a hill near Kistin in honour of SS. George, Marina, and the Virgin are
still much-frequented places of pilgrimage, where rams are offered in sacrifice at
certain times. These buildings are choked with animal remains.

The Lezohians, Tats, and Tatars.

Most of the peoples occupying the valleys east of the Chechenzes are grouped
under the collective name of Lezghi, or Lezghians. The term has been explained
to mean " Brigands," or " Marauders," in Tatar, although it seems more probable
to be, an old national name, for the Georgians and Armenians have from time
immemorial applied the form Lekhi, or Lekaik, to this nation. The number of
Lezghian tribes, constantly changing with wars and migrations, is estimated at from
fifty to fifty-five, although £omarov, keeping to the main divisions, indicates the
domain of twenty-seven tribes only in his ethnological map of Daghestan. All
these have distinct dialects marked by guttural sounds extremely difficult of
utterance by the European mouth. They have been g^uped by XJslar and
Schiefner in a number of linguistic divisions, the chief of which are the language
of the Avars in West Daghestan, and the Dargo and Kura in the east. Most of
the tribes being thus imable to cbnverse together, intercourse is carried on by
means of a third language — ^Arabic usually -in the west, and the Tfirki dialect of
Azerbeijon in the east. Of all the Lezghian nations the most renowned are the
Avars, bordering on the eastern frontier of the Chechenz domain, and comprising
over one-fifth of the whole population. Most writers think they may probably be
the kinsmen of the Avars who- founded on the Danube a large empire, overthrown
by Charlemagne. But according to Komarov Avar is of recent origin, meaning in
the Lowhmd Tftrki " Fugitive," or " Vagrant." .

Daghestan has too little arable land to enable its half-million of Lezghian
population to live on agriculture and stock-breeding. Tet they are skilled tillers
of the land, their walled and well-watered plots supplying good com, fruits, and
vegetables. Still they had to depend on emigration and plunder to make good
the deficiency of the local supplies. Settled on both slopes of the Caucasus, they
were able to swoop down on the Terek and Sulak plains in the north, or on the
fertile southern region of Georgia. No less daring, and even more steadfast than
the Chechenzes, they had the disadvantage of being broken up into a great number
of free tribes often at feud with each other, while the flower of their youth were

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Fig. 40— NooAi Youth.

accustomed, like the Swiss and Albanians in former times, to hire themselves out
as mercenaries to all the surrounding kinglets. In their warfare they displayed
more savagery than the Cherkesses, and, milike them, carried off as a trophy the
right hand of their captives when forced to abandon them.

The Lezghians never fought in concert till during the final struggles against
the Bussians in defence of their hearths and altars. All are Mohammedans except
the Dido of the Upper Koisu valley in Andi, who have the reputation of being
devil worshippers, because they endeavour to conjure the evil one by sacrifices.
Although much given to wine-drinking, tobacco smokers, and observers of tradi-
tional Christian and pagan rites, the Lezghians are none the less zealous Sunnites,

and it was owing to their ardent faith
alone that they were able for many years
to forget their tribal and family rivalries,
and make common cause in the ghamvat,
or holy war against the infidel. Rally-
ing with the Gheohenzes round their
fellow-countryman Khazi-Mollah, and
afterwards round his ward Shamyl
(Samuel), of the Koisu-bu tribe, , they
drove the Russians more than once back
to the plains, often compelling them to
abandon their more advanced military
settlements and isolated garrisons in the
hills. Their strength lay mainly in the
spirit of freedom by which they were
inspired, and which was kept alive by
the deeds of their legendary hero Haji-
Murad, renowned in the wars waged
against the khans of the Avars. But
when the aristocracy of the naiba, or
governors, was gradually restored, the
people, becoming enslaved to their
chiefs, ceased to struggle with the same
vigour against the Russians. Surrounded on three sides by an ever-narrowing
iron circle of forts and military columns, and seeing their territory out up by great
military routes, they were fain to yield after half their numbers had perished from
disease, hunger, and the sword. When Shamyl surrendered in 1869 his followers
had dwindled to about four hundred armed men.

. After the conquest the old family jealousies revived, and the Lezghian districts
are now the chief scene of sanguinary strife and murder. About one in every three
hundred of the population is either killed or wounded during the year, and the
circle of Ea'itago-Tabasseran, west of Derbent, has the melancholy distinction of
harbouring more assassins than any other district in the empire. Yet in their
neighbourhood dwell the peacefid Ukhbukahes, or Kubichi, who are chiefly

' ■ MW WW UKWUWJI i li M W IW UW H>-l i< W i' Hl i !j)W W WV T im '''t WuWMWil '■ I ff lit CM I

THE LEZGHIANS, TATS, AND TATAHS.

tmselves out

»y displayed

trophy the

gles against
)dans except
on of being
ty sacrifices,
srs of tradi-
us Sunnites,
ardent faith
many years
lily rivalries,
he ghazavat,
del. Rally-
round their
ifollah, and
ird Shamyl
tribe, . they
in once back
iing them to
ced military
rrisona in the
nainly in the
h they were
:ept alive by
y hero Haji-
wars waged
4.var8. But
ihe ndib%, or
restored, the
d to their
ith the same
sr-narrowing
; up by great
erished from
his followers

iiian districts
n every three
ear, and the
listinction of
fet in their
are chiefly

engaged in forging arms for the surrounding hillmen. Indispensable to all, their
ueutrality is alike respected by all. This industrious tribe claims European
descent, but their national name of Frenghi, orFrenki — that is, Franks — is justified
neither by their features nor their speech, which is a Dargo dialect. In any case
they are a very small community, consisting in 1867 of scarcely 2,000, dwelling in
400 houses. Some of the magal, ' r tribal confederacies, acquired a considerable
degree of prosperity, thanks to their common solidarity and individual freedom.

Fig. 41.— Mount aOmB.

1 -'... ■ n

- ^

J^'- ^-^^:^ffite^*==r:-;i

'^r ." ^ ' :^^, -V '^" "-.": ' Jls

" """ -■""."""::""' ... ■ -v^^:z^--".- ■'

^^^-^=.^g^

ws^mm^^^,^^,_~__-.

E=^ — ^===^=r— _-=^5^^^—

mgai^.=g;^--^

-^ -^^^^^-

"'„

■■■ ■■.- y%\ .

-'-^-

^^l—^-

'', III.

^fe

'^ ■%■

^^'''

, M^-

M^ A

vfi^

■'

n-T—, -

'"* -irrrT'

■ 1 iffnHHI^HHI

Such was that of the five Dargo clans, whose popular gattherings, which resembled
the Swiss /atuhgemehiden, were held in a plain near Akhusha. This magal received
refugees from all nations, and their territory was the most densely peopled in all
Daghestan.

The Caspian seaboard, forming the historical highway of migration and conquest
between Europe and Asia, was naturally occupied by a motley population, in which
were represented all the races who had made use of this mifitary and commercial route.

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Hence Mongolians, Semites, Aryans, and Tatars are now found crowded together
in this narrow strip of coast. The Nogai Tatars have fixed their tents in the
northern steppe bordered by the Sulak. The tract stretching thence to Derbent
is occupied chiefly by the Eumik Tatars, numbering over 50,000, and many
Armenian traders. Other Tatars, akin to those of Transcaucasia, dwell farther
south in the Euba district. The lingua franca of all these races is the T6rki
dialect of Azerbeijan, although the Persians, Tats, or Tajiks, about Derbent
and between Euba and the Gulf of Baku, still preserve their language and usages
since the time of the Sassanides, when they settled here. With them evidently
came the Jews, who also speak Persian, while their women wear the Iranian garb.
But their Persian dialect is mixed with many old Hebrew and Chaldean terms,
and according to some authorities those of Euba, Baku, and Shemakha are descended
from the Israelites, who were removed to Persia after the first destruction of the
Temple by Salmanazar over two thousand five hundred years ago. The names of their'
children are those in vogue during the time of the judges, and which have elsewhere
been obsolete for the last twenty-five centuries. Most of the Caucasian Jews, however,
have become much mingled with, and even absorbed by, the Osses, Georgians, and
especially the Tatars, and many villages known by the name of J(it-kend, or
" Jewish Town," are now excliisively occupied by communities claiming to be of
Tatar stock.

Topography.

In the highland districts there are no towns, though the Leaghian a'Als have
often been crowded by thousands attracted by local festivities, or rallying round
their warrior chiefs. Khunzak, formerly capital of the Avar Ehans, is now a
mere ruin, on a bluff commanding a tributary of the Eoisu, and itself conmianded
by the guns of a Russian fort. Ohimri, above the junction of the two rivers
Eoisu, retains nothing but a reminiscence of the national wars, for here died
Ehazi-MoUah, and here Shamyl was bom. Vedeno, on a lofty terrace within
the Chechniya territory, is an important village overlooked by a Buasian fort,
which stands on the site of l^hamyl's former citadel. Near it is Mount GAnib,
whose upper terrace, 40 square miles in extent, served as the last refuge of the
Lezghian prophet and prince.

Tetnir-Khan-Shura, in the Eimitk Tatar country, stands at an elevation of
1,540 feet in a valley opening towards the Caspian. The lake, or tarn, whence its
name, is now drained, although fever is here still endemic. The port of all this
district is Petrovsk, during the wars a place of some strategic importance, and with
one of the best harbours on the Caspian, sheltered from the west and south winds,
and affording good anchorage in 30 feet of water withiu 800 yards of the shore.
Though of recent origin, Petrovsk has already supplanted its southern rival, Tarki,
or Tarku, which, with a Tatar population of nearly 12,000 at the beginning of the
century, is now a mere village dependent on Temir-Ehan-Shura.

The narrow defile between the advanced spurs of the Tabasseran range and
the coast is guarded by the city of Derbent, or Berbend, traditionally founded

» i> * tiii<i.

S B bAl ' W'^ W

TOPOGRAPHY.

'ded together

tents in the

le to Derbent

0, and many

dwell farther

is the Tdrki

M>ut Berbent

ge and usages

lem evidently

Iranian garb.

aldean terms,

are descended

ruction of the

names of their'

lave elsewhere

ews, however,

Georgians, and

J(it-kend, or

ning to he of

lian aiHa have
rallying round
ana, is now a
If commanded
he two rivers
for here died
terrace within
Russian fort,
Mount GAnib,
refuge of the

I elevation of
m, whence its
>rt of all this
tnce, and with
1 south winds,
I of the shore.
1 rival, Tarki,
[inning of the

Ein range and
lally founded

either by the Medes or by Alexander the Great, but more probably by one of the
Sassanidea about the close of the fifth century. This unique town and fortress is
enclosed between two long parallel walls running from the hills to the sea, flanked
by towers and inscribed sepulchral stones. Within this inclined parallelogram
the houses and bazaar form in reality but one lino of buildings somewhat under
2 miles long. As implied by its Persian name, Derbent is merely a large forti-
fied gateway, whence also its various Tatar and Arabic names. All the mediaeval
travellers describe its walls as advancing far into the sea ; but nothing is- now
visible of this marine rampart, which may be due to a local upheaval. Between

Fig. 42 — DcHBiNT.

Scale 1 : (00,000.

Thmm of Old Wall, ■oonrding to EiohwtU.

ihe town and the present coast-line there stretches a broad strip of land which
was formerly perhaps under water. West of Narin-Kaleh, the citadel com-
manding it on the west, the wall, here also flanked with towers, follows the crest
of the hills in the direction of some distant peak. According to the natives this
wall formerly crossed the wholt range from sea to sea, and in any case it guarded
all the lowlands at the foot of the Eastern Caucasus, for traces of it are still met
at A distance of 18 miles from Derbent. There are few more industrious places
in Russia than this Persian town, although its population is said to have fallen
from 26,000 in 1826 to little over half that number in 1873. In the district are
1,500 well- watered garden plots, yielding wine, saffron, cotton, tobacco, madder,

WiiiM - t

■'iW& i M&'«- ' *^^'iii^^

88 ASIATIC BUS8U.

and fruits of all kinds. Borne naphtha wolls and quarriea of bituminous schists are
worked in the neighbourhood.

Less picturesquely situated than Derbent, Kuba resembles it in its population
and pursuits, its inhabitants consisting chiefly of Mohammedans of the Shiuh sect
engaged in gardening, and of some thousand Jews occupied with trade. The
climate is so unhealthy that an attempt was made in 1825 to remove the town to
a more salubrious site some 10 miles farther north-west. But the people refused
to fdlow the Russian officials, who were fain to return to the old town, where,
however, they reside only in winter.

In the Samur valley the chief town is Akhti, standing at the junction of two
torrents in the heart of the mountains.

v.— THE INGUR, RION, AND CHORUKH BASINS.

MINUKELTA, TMERITIA, SVANIA, LAZISTAK.

This Transcaucasian region, recently enlarged by a slice of territory from Turkey,
has long been politically attached to Europe. The Greeks had thrown a himdred and
twenty bridges over the Phasis, and constructed a fine carriage road across the moun-
tains between the town of Sarapanes, the present Sharopon, and the Kura valley.
To the Greeks and Romans succeeded the Genoese, and even when the Turks seized
the seaboard they did so as masters of Constantinople and heirs of the Byzantine
emperors. European influence has also made itself felt in religious matters, most
of the inhabitants having been Christians since the first centuries of the Church,
whereas the two great divisions of the Moslem faith have prevailed elsewhere
in Caucasia. Nevertheless the Ing&r and Rion basins have long kept aloof
from the general movement of modem culture, and some districts are still in a
barbarous state.

This region, the Colchis of the ancients, is equalled by few places for the
splendour of its vegetation, its natural fertility and resources of every sort. Tet
it is but scantily peopled, with scarcely one-half of tlie relative population of
France. The IngAr and Rion basins are both of them sharply limited by the
Caucasus, Anti-Caucasus, and intermediate Mesk range. From Abkhasia to
Lazistan the hills form a complete semicircle, whose lowest point, except near
the coast, is at the Surom depression, 3,040 feet above sea-level. This vast
semicircle is divided by ridges rtmning parallel with the Great Caucasus into
secondary segments, some of which are completely isolated, and form little worlds
apart.

The Upper Ingiir valley, which has b6come administratively the district of
Free Svania, forms one of these distinct regio^s, and is typical of those elongated
troughs lying between two parallel crests at an altitude of about 6,300 feet, and
skirted north and south by snowy ridges. Here the glaciers of the Truiber have
carried their advanced moraines to within 2 miles of the Svan village of Jabeshi,
in the commune of Mujal, and the village itself, like so many others, is built on

iWii lrW

« < BW«'.|« f i^tfi.M WMWMW?agg'*''P'

MINOBELIA, IMEBITIA, SVANLA, LAZISTAN.

)U8 schists are

its population
he Shiuh sect
trade. The
the town to
Mjople refused
town, where,

notion of two

[8.

from Turkey,
a hundred and
ross the moun-
e Eura valley.
le Turks seized
the Byzantine
I matters, most
of the Church,
tiled elsewhere
>ng kept aloof
I are still in a

places for the
^ery sort. Yet
population of
limited by the
I Abkhasia to
it, except near
jI. This vast
Caucasus into
m little worlds

the district of
hose elongated
6,300 feet, and
B Truiber haye
ige of Jabeshi,
iTB, is buUt on

the detritus of moraines deposited by the old glaciers. The glacial torrents
forming the Ingfir arc collected in the depression of Free Svania, which is
enclosed by a transverse barrier running south of Mount Elbruz. Ilonce the
Inf^dr escapes from its upper valley through a narrow and deep rocky defile, in
which it flows south-west and south for a distance of 48 miles. From 15 to 30
feet broad, and commanded by granitic or schist escarpments 600 to 1,200 feet
high, this gorge presents, nevertheless, a succession of smiling landscapes, thanks
to the bushy vegetation of the river banks and to the little mounds of rooky debris
at the mouths of the tributary streamlets. Previous to the military expedition of

Fig. 43.— Mouth op tmi Bion.
Boal* 1 : ¥»,«».

4I<40-

48' L.otC

1858 no route had penetrated through this gorge, and Svania communicated with
the Mingrelian plains only by a dangerous mountain path.

The gorges of the Rion and its head-streams lack the sublimity .of those of the
IngAr, although all of them present some delightful views. The Rion and
Tskhenis, the two chief rivers of this basin, both rise amidst (he snows of the
Pasis-mta, a word almost identical with that of Phasis, given by the Greeks to the
river now known by the Qeorgian name of Rion, or Rioni. Separated at their
source by the Garibolo ridge, the two streams diverge more and more, ihe
Tskhenis watering the Svania of the Dadians and Mingrelia, while the Rion flows
through Radsha and Imeritia. From the eastern valleys comes the Evirila, which,
T

! W4tH ■ V.^ Bg

timmimS^MiSim^^'i''^l^Sin'^^'i^^''^^^^^^^^^!^^^'SiS^s:S,

KMMM

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

after joining thn Khani from tho south, united with tho Rion in tho fertile plain
stretching south of KutuiH. Hero l)uginH the old inlet, which has been gradually
filled in by tho alluvia of these mountain torrents. Where tho liion becomes
navigable it is skirted by broad swampy tracts, mostly concealed by their dense
aquatic vegetation, and in places even by thickets and forests. But few oxiNinsos
of still water remain to recall the time when all this district was covered by
the sea.

Nevertheless, near tho coast there remains a remnant of the old inlet, still
known by tho Greek name of PaloxMtom, or " Old Mouth," and which is supposed
to have formerly received the waters of the Phosis. In the last century it seems
to have communicated by a navigable channel with the sea, and its fauna is still
partly marine, although the water is no longer even brackish. It is in some places
over 60 feet deep, and is separated from the Euxine by a straight strip of dunes,
which the Rion has pierced, its alluvia, like those of the Ing(ir and other Mingrelian
coast streams, gradually encroaching beyond it seawards. According to Strabo
the Rion and its tributary, the Evirila, were navigable to Sarapanes, 90 miles
from the present mouth, whereas boats now stop at Orpiri, which is about one-
third of that distance, and during low water, from July to December, there are
scarcely more than 20 inches in the channel.

The mountains forming the watershed between the Rion and Eura basins,
towards the east and south-east, are continued uninterruptedly by the Suram Hills
westwards to the Lazistan coast range. These mountains, imposing even in the pre-
sence of the Great Caucasus, rise above the forest zone to the region of pastures,
some reaching an elevation of 8,000 feet, but all falling short of the snow-line.
Westwards the Ajara, or Akhaltzikh range, which is the last section of the chain,
skirts the Euxine at a distance of little over half a mile from the coast.* Seen
from the sunmiits of these Lazistan highlands, which were annexed to Russia in
1878, the land presents the aspect of a storm-tossed sea. Here the highest point
is the Earch-shall, south-east of Batftm, which is 11,430 feet above sea-level, while
the mean elevation scarcely exceeds 8,000 feet, or about 2,000 feet above the
forest zone. Mount Arsiani has all the appearance of an extinct volcano, and
lava streams have been discharged in prehistoric times from several neighbour-
ing summits. Their upper slopes are clothed with rich pastures, whose flora ia
much the same as that of West Europe, while the fruit trees of the valleys rival
those of the southern slopes of the Caucasus. Lazistan is an earthly paradise,
where the natives have generally shown a keen sense of natural beauty in the
choice of ihe sites for their villageis. Each of these villages commands a lovely
prospect of flowery meads, steep rocks, mountain torrents, cascades, clumps of trees,
and scattered haiplets.

* Chief elevations of the Ajara range : —

Kepis-tzkaro, south of KutaXB 9,484

Nageho 8,720

SagalaUo 8,2M

ChekhataH . . . . . . . . . . 3^865

•imm ' imjt m^

sTrwmBjeir"

mmmM:->-»w

I'ffiir.

CLIMATE— FL( )IIA AND FAUNA.

ho fertile pluin

boon gradually

Iliun becumoH

by tlioir denao

it few oxpanM)8

vaa covered by

old inlet, still
liob is supposed
ientury it seems
ts fauna is still
in some places
strip of dunes,
ther Mingrelian
"ding to Strabo
panes, 90 miles
is about one-
Daber, there are

Euro basins,
the Suram Hills
even in the pre-
ion of pastures,
! the snow-line,
on of the chain,
le coast.* Seen
ed to Russia in
e highest point
sea-level, vrhile
feet above the
ct volcano, and
eral neighbour-
i, whose flora is
ihe valleys rival
arthly paradise,
1 beauty in the
omands a lovely
clumps of trees,

Itet.
9,48«
8,720
8,265
3,S66

All the waters flowing from tho Arsiani Hills westwardH roach the Chorukh
oithor tlirougb tho Ajura or tho Imnrshovi. Tho main stroam rises south of
Trobi/oiul, and after rotteiving its firnt aflluonts flowH puruUol with tho cooHt and
tho Up]M<r Kuphrates valleys. In this part of Asia Minor all tho hilU, plutouux,
unci valloys run uniformly south-woHt and north-east. But after a courxo of about
IHO miloH tho Chorukh, now swollen by the united waters of the Tortuin and Olti,
oscaiNSH directly towards the Euxine through a deep gorge intersecting tho coast
range. Doyond the defile it has formed an alluvial plain projecting beyond tho
normal coust-line, and thus serving to shelter tho harbour of Bat&m from the
west. Although little inferior in volume to the Rion, the Lower Chorukh is ovon
loss navigable than the Mingrelian river. This is due to its current, which is so
rapid that boats taking four or five days to ascend from Bat(im to Artvin make
the return trip in eight hours.

Climate — Flora and Fauna.

The climate of Transcaucasia is one of the most favourable for vegetation in
the temperate zone. Here plants are intermingled in the greatest variety, and
assume their loveliest forms. Thanks to the abundant rainfall and to the barrier
opposed by the Great Caucasus to the parching north-east winds, the various forest
and cultivated species attain a greater elevation than in most other places enjoying
the same mean temperature. Thus the walnut flourishes at 6,500 feet in Svania,
where the white mulberry and the vine are found at elevations of 3,000 and even
3,400 feet, while in the Upper Rion valley the cotton-tree is met as high as
2,110 feet. In general tbe vegetation of West Transcaucasia resembles that of
Central Europe and the French Atlantic seaboard rather than that of the Mediter-
ranean shores, although in many respects the Mingrelian flora seems to belong to
both zones. The indigo plant grows by the aide of the cotton-tree on the banks
of the Rion, where maize is the prevailing cereal. The tea plant is even said to
occur in Lazistan, where the camphor-tree has bem acclimatized. In the flowering
season the pomegranate groves give to this region the aspect of a vast garden ;
but, on the other hand, the eucalyptus, so useful for its febrifugal properties, has
failed, owing to the severity of the Caucasian wintera. The orange also, which
formerly flourished at Poti, has disappeared irom. Transcaucasia since the middle
of the last century. The coast region is subject to excessive moisture, while
elsewhere there is rather an excess of dryness. The mean temperature of Euta'is
(68° Fahr.) is somewhat higher than that of the coast towns, an anomaly due to
the fierce and 'parching east wind often prevailing in the Rion valley. This wind
loses its virulence as it proceeds westwards, so that at Poti it is no longer disagree-
able, and ceases altogether at Redut-Ealeh.

The magnificent Mingrelian and other Western Transcaucasian forests have
been exposed to fearful ravages, especially since the finer timbera have been sought
after by French and other foreign traders. The walnut has nearly disappeared
from all the accessible lowland tracts, while the destruction of the upland forests

■ wiBiyii-tf ii

'■ nm

ASIATIC UU88IA.

ia slowly modifying the anpeot of tho country. Yot but little of the clonnnl loml
iH brought uiuUtr cultivation, tho primitive muth«MlH of tillage ntill prevail, and no
paiiiN are taken to improve the vino, whi(rh in here indigenouH. Umler the
univerHul apathy many cultivatofl tractn have iHWfmie overgrown with bra<^kon, while
tho proprietors, after an ubHonce of a few yearn, no longer recogniiw) their fonner
fannHteudH, now concealed amidst tho rank vegetation.

Tho Ing(^r and Ilion basins are no less noted for their magnificent fauna than
for thoir rich and varied flora. Free Svuniu, says Radde, *' owns tho finest cattle
in tho world." There are two excellent breeds, one nraall and sprightly, tho other
strong, majestic, and admirably proportioned. This is tho Ukronian race intro*
duoed by tho Giscaucusian Tatar traders into the Upper Ing&r valley, where,
under new climatic conditions, its colour has become modified, often assuming the
shades and stripes of the tiger. The horse, although not numerous in the upland
valleys, is also noted for his strength and action, while the Svanian mules and
asses fetch three or four times the price of the lowland breeds. The goat and
other smaller domestic animals are likewise disting^hed for their symmetrical
forms and' other excellent properties.

In the lowlands the marsh fevers are no less injurious to the animals than to
man. Here the Mingrelian peasantry fail even to rear poultry, which Toropov
does not hesitate to attribute to tho malaria.

Inhabitamth — ^The Svans and Rachianr.

The natives themselves are far from being a pure race. Amidst a great variety
of types the contrast presented by the fair and brown Mingrelians is very striking.
Tho former are distinguished by a lofty brow and oval face, the latter by broad
features and low forehead, though both are alike handsome and of graceful car-
riage. From the remotest times the eastern shores of the Euxine have been
visited by friends and foes of every race, many of whom must have introduced
fresh ethnical elements. Arabs, and even negroes, flying from their Turkish
masters, have contributed to increase the confusion. Yet, however numerous
were the crossings, all have become blended together, jointly tending to develop
the beauty of the original type. In the Ming^lian lowlands, and especially on
the advanced spurs up to an altitude of about 3,700 feet, nearly all the men are
handsome. But in the heart of the highlands, where the struggle for existence
becomes more intensified, the features, especially of the women, are often even
ugly. Goitre and cretinism are frequent amongst the Svans, and as we ascend the
Ing(kr from the region of maize to the snowy pastures, the change in the appear-
ance of the inhabitants is analogous to that which is observed by the traveller
passing from the Italian lakes to the Alpine gorges of the Yalais.

The Svans, who occupy the Upper IngAr and Tskhenis valleys, are evidently
a mixed race, although fundamentally akin to the Georgians, to whom they are
also allied ip speech. They were formerly a powerful nation mentioned by Strabo,
and in the fifteenth century they still, held the Upper Rion valley. TLs present

i. ii rj i mi » i iJ ' >t<«.im"'-injj»»iiiMai i HW.1.1M'i li ii>iliy i

[jo clmrtxl lund
prevail, unci no
H. Under the
I bruckon, while
HO their former

cent fuunu tliun
the finest cattle
jfhtly, the other
jiun race intro-

vttUoy, where,
m uHfluniing the
M in the upland
nian mules and

The goat and
eir symmetrical

animals than to
which Toropov

asanri?

t a great variety
is very striking,
latter by broad
of graceful car-
ixine have been
have introduced
n their Turkish
iwever numerous
iding to develop
tnd especially on
all the men are
^le for existence
I, are often even
as we ascend the
;e in the appear-
by the traveller

jys, are evidently
( whom they are
tioned by Strabo,
ay. TLq present

Miiiiai

INHABITANTS— THE SVANS AND EAOHIANS.

survivors seem to descend mainly from fugitives driven from the Mingrelian
plains by oppression and the calamities of war. In the secluded valleys bor-
dering on the glaciers they foimd a secure retreat, almost severed by physical
barriers from the rest of the world. More accessible are those of the Upper
Tskhenis basin, who have consequently had to endure the hardest feuda] rule
imder princes binding them to the glebe. This branch take the name of Dadion
Svans, from the ancient Georgian princely title of " Dadian " assumed by the
governing family. They are scarcely to be distinguished from their Imeritian
neighbours, and their speech is a pure Georgian dialect. The Dadishkalian
Svans, in the western division of the Upper Ingflr basin, are also \mder a feudal
lord of Kumik Tatar stock ; but being regarded as serfs, they were emancipated
at the expense of the Russian Government when serfdom was everywhere oiBcially
abolished. The eastern communities of the Upper IngAr have long maintained

Fig. 44. — TJppRB iNots Valley.
From tbe Uap of the BuMtan BtaO. Bede 1 : 810,000.

.ISHitai.

their independence, and are still often distinguished by the epithet of " Free,"
although they took the oath of obedience to Russia in 1853. And in many
respects they are still really free, recognising neither lord nor master, and rejecting
even the control of the clergy. In the communal gatherings all have an equal
voice, and important decisions require to be adopted unanimously, the opposition
of a single member causing the whole question to be postponed until unanimity
can be secured. Nor does the commune interfere in personal quarrels, which are
regulated by the lex talionis. Nowhere else in the Caucasus are the laws of
vendetta more rigorously adhered to, so that few are met who have not killed their
man. All the houses along the Upper Ingdr are real fortresses, perched on rocky
eminences, and commanded by square watch-towers 60 to 80 feet high. The doors
of these keeps are on the second or third story, and can be approached only by rude
ladders formed of the stems of trees.

Hereditary animosities greatly contribute to the reduction of the population
pent up in the bleak valley of Free Svania, or Jabe-Shevi ; yet it is still so dense

. ■Mt^.jMttetatJi.'.iUiJ Mkf.aMiJrl'^a'Uhfcanl-JBll/

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

that the people are obliged to emigrate to the neighbouring tribes. In the days of
their military power their young men left their homes as conquerors, often under-
taking plundering expeditions to the plains, and even in the fourteenth century
they were strong enough to bum the city of Eutais. Till recently the excessive
population was also checked by the practice of infanticide, in which most of the
girls perished, while in hard times grown-up children were sold at prices varying
from £30 to £50. The small am^>unt of trade carried on by the tiffies lower down
is monopolized by the Jews, who are grouped in the village of LokhomuU. These
Jews are distingmshed from their brethren elsewhere by their warlike- habits. But
although practising Christian rites and calling themselves Svans, the hillmen of the
Upper IngAr contract no alliances with them, and even refuse to eat at their table.

All the Svans, estimated at over 12,000, are classed amongst the Christian tribes
of Caucasia, and even claim a sort of pre-eminence amongst their co-religionists,
pretending that their ancestry were baptized by Christ himself. But their Chris-
tianity has been developed in a somewhat original manner imder the influence of
older rites. Thus their little chapels, large enough to acconamodate about a dozen,
have crypts filled with the horns of the chamois and wild goat, which are objects
of great veneration. The priests, or " papas," form a distinct hereditary caste,
though their only privilege is exemption from the laws of vendetta. Although not
obliged to keep the lower part of the face covered, the women pass a bandage over
their mouths when singing national or religious songs, possibly to prevent the devil
from entering. All the Svans are also bound to silence when on the march, or
chanting sacred hymns, for the least word might draw down the tempest.
Analogous superstitions occur amongst the Norwegian fishermen, the Buriats, and
the American hunting tribes.

The district of Bacha, comprising the Upper Rion valley, is larger and more
populous than the western basins of the Tskhenis and Ingfir, and has always
offered a route to graziers, traders, and even warlike bands crossing the Caucasus
obliquely from the Georgian to the Terek lowlands. Hence the Rachians, who, like
most of the people in the government of Eutais, are of Georgian race and speech,
are more civilised than their Svanian neighbours. But they also are too numerous
for their largely unproductive territory, so that thousands are forced to emigrate
to the lowlands, seldom returning without having amassed a small fortune. Most
of the carpenters and sawyers met with in Imeria and Mingrelia are Ba^hians.

The Imeritians, Minorelians, and Lazes.

The Georgians of the Upper Bion basin bear the general name of Imeritians,
or more properly Imerians ; that is, " People of the other side," in reference to the
Suram Mountains separating them from the bulk of the nation. The term Imereth,
or Imeria, has been applied, with the shifting of the border peoples^ at times to all
Western Transcaucasia, at times only to its upper section, Mingrelia being usually
reserved for the low-lying region comprising the alluvial lands and coast district.
Thanks to their damp, miasmatic, and enervating climate, the Mingrelians are

nnmnmni

In the days of
•s, often under-
teenth century
y the excessive
Lch most of the

prices varying
bes lower down
bamnli. These
Irohahits. But
3 hilhnen of the
it at their table.
Christian tribes

co-religionists,
3ut their Chris-
the influence of
) about a dozen,
lioh are objects
ereditary caste,
Although not

a bandage over
revent the deAril
n the march, or
n the tempest.
;he Buriats, and

larger and more
and has always
ig the Caucasus
chians, who, like
race and speech,
lie too numerous
reed to emigrate
I fortune. Most
re Rachians.

' i feiw iM iOimi mmm»*tmmj»Mii»i ■. .wi i nwiwMMiw

THE IMEBITIANS, MINGBELIANS, AND LAZES.

\,\

U'<

'"*'*

moBtly of an indolent temperament, while their brethren who have migrated to the
dry district of Tiflis are noted for their active habits. A repugnance to labour was
also naturally fostered by former devastating inroads, incessant intestine warfare,
and the complete thraldom of the peasantry to their nobles. Here was represented
every variety of serfdom, and until 1841 the priests themselves were classed as
serfs. Even in recent times the Mingrelian princes were accustomed to apply
personally for their tribute. Followed by courtiers, retainers, falconers, dogs, and
horses, they would swoop down on some unfortunate vassal, living at his expense as
long as the provbions lasted, then betaking themselves elsewhere, and thus making
a round of revelry as self-invited guests, and leaving ruin in their wake. No
women, especially if well favoured,
were safe from these despots, who Fig. 46.— Minorblum Ladt.

carried them off and sold their children .„- . i.

into slavery. Although generally too
weak to resist, the Mingrelians' were
nevertheless occasionally driven by
this oppression into revolt, as in 1857
and 1858, when they appealed to arms
for the recovery of their captured
women, and to get rid of the yoke
riveted by their masters round their
necks. But all such efforts were
quenched in blood, nor was serfdom
finally abolished till three years after
its suppression in the rest of the
empire. But many of its effects still
remain, and in a teeming land the

Imerians and Mingrelians oontiniie, '^^^^^SH^RIIS^ . -"^^9^v«'
like the wretched Lombard peasantry,
to live almost exclusively on a mess of

maize or millet resembling the polenta of Italy. The usoal dress is a tattered smock
fastened by a cord or strap to the waist, and instead of a hat a bit of cloth retained
on the head by a string passed under the chin. The Mingrelian farmstead consists
of a wretched hovd of wood or branches, surrounded by badly cultivated maize-fields,
with a few lean pigs or goats, and one or two buffaloes wallowing in the muddy pools.
Although till recently dwelling beyond the political limits of Russian Trans-
caucasia, the Lazes of the Ajara and Chorukh basins are none the less akin in
speech and race to the Mii^^relians and Georgians. Those still subject to Turkey,
and leaching westwards beyond Trebizond, are also of the same stock, though more
or less mixed with other elements, while beyond these limits many geographical
names show that in remote times the interior of Asia Minor was largely peopled
by Georgians. Rosen has established the near, relationship of the Laz and
Georgian tongues. The language current on the banks of the Chorukh differs
little from Mingrelian, though that of the west coast is largely affected by Turkish

"j^^g

ASIATIO BU8SU.

and Greek elements. In their customs also the Lazes resemble the Imerians.
Both respect old ago, are extremely hospitable, and, while fidl of curiosity, still
maintain a dignified reserve. Like most Caucasians, they are fond of display
and rich attire, nor do they deserve the charge of indolence brought against them
by careless observers, for their fields are well tilled and their houses kept in good
order. The Laz women combine with beauty and symmetry of form a rare repu-
tation for courage. The Moslem Lazes have emigrated in large numbers to Tiirkish
territory since the annexation to Russia in 1878, while the Christians will now
probably find their way to Tiflis and the Russian ports on the Euxine.

The national character could scarcely fail to be modified under the Turkish
regime. Three centuries ago all the Lazes of the Upper Ajara valleys were
Christians, and many villages still boast of well-preserved churches in the best
Byzantine style of architecture. Certain communes did not conform to the Moslem
creed till about the close of the eighteenth century, and several, though nominally
followers of the Prophet, are still practically Christian, the two faiths often over-
lapping to such on extent that it becomes difficult to say where the one ceases and
the other begins. With their religion the Turks also introduced their lang^ge
into all the towns and large villages, so that the Laz dialect ceased to be current
except in the remote rural districts. The Armenian colonies scattered over the
land had also forgotten their mother tongue in favour of Turkish, which must now
in its turn slowly yield to Russian, just as the Mohammedan must give way to the
Christian faith.

Topography,

The Rion valley, whose commercial importance was already recognised by the
prehistoric Argonauts, and where, thirty centuries later on, the Genoese also went in
search of the " Golden Fleece," promises once more to play a large port in the
general development of trade. For some years past it has been crossed in its entire
length by a railway connecting Tiflis with the Euxine, and this is but a first
section of the line destined, sooner or later, to reach the Indus. But the site of the
old Greek trading route, like that of their chief emporium Colchis, has long been
forgotten. The village of S/iaropan, at the jimction of the £virila and Dzir(ila,
claims to stand on the spot where grew the famous grove penetrated by the
legendary Jason in search of the " Golden Fleece." At the gorges of the Ehani,
south-east of Kuta'is, are the extensive ruins of the former Turkish fortress of
Bagdad, whose Moslem inhabitants were driven into exile in the last century.
Nevertheless Bagdad is still a considerable village.

Kuta'is, the present capital of the province, which comprises most of Western
Transcaucasia, is happily situated at the junction of the three valleys watered by
the Rion, Evirila, and Ehani, and at the head of the alluvial p^. u. tretching thence
to the coasc. Standing on the first rising g^imds of the advanced spurs cf the
Caucasus, it is well sheltered from the north wind, while its gardens and parks are
abundantly watered by the Rion, which traverses the town. Euta'is, if not the
traditional city of Medea, is at all events a very old place, for it is mentioned by

NiilMil

mMJJSia^M^JttirM,

TOPOGBAPHY.

the Imerians.
curiosity, still
pnd of display
» against them
ss kept in good
a rare repu-
3rs to Turkish
Itians will now
pie.

[er the Turkish
valleys were
les in the best
I to the Moslem
>ugh nominally
iths often over-
one ceases and
their language
to be current
ttered over the
rhich must now
give way to tho

sognised by the
ese also went in
rge part in the
sed in its entire
} is but a first
t the site of the
, has long been
a and Dzir&la,
etrated by the
} of .the Ehani,
dsh fortress of
e last century.

lost of Western
leys watered by
retching thence
sd spurs of the
3 and parks are
tais, if not die
8 mentioned by

Procopius under the name of Eotatission, and it constantly figiires in Georgian
history, sometimes even as capital of the kingdom, and always as a noted strong-
hold. The old town stood on the right bank of the Rion, at the foot of the
acropolis ; but the modem lies mainly on the opposite bank. Its most remarkable
monument is a ruined cathedral built by the Bag^tides early in the eleventh
century on the acropolis. On it have been modelled most of the other religious
edifices in the coimtry, so that it is rightly regarded as the most precious relic of
Georgian art. Thanks to its trade and local industry, chiefly hat-making, Eutais
has recently made rapid progress, the population rising from 4,000 to 12,000

Sig. 46.— KtlTAi't AMD THB RiON AMU KtIBILA JvMOTIOM.
From the Map of Um RoMlan Stnff. Soala 1 : 440,00a

, ■', V . . .'•'■

.UMilca.

in a few years. In the district is found a species of jet used for bracelets and other
ornaments; but the rich Tkvibula coal-fields, some 18 miles to the north-east,
have been but little worked. Since 1879 the manganese deposits of the Upper
Kvirila valley, estimated at several millions of tons, have also attracted attention.

Khoni, at the entrance of the Tskhenis valley, north-east of Eutais, is the market
town of the Dadian Svans, and lower down is the large village of Kukuht, near the
junction of the Rion and Tskhenis, in the most densely peopled district of Caucasia.

Orpiri, the river port of the Rion, at the junction of the Tskhenis, is inhabited
by members of the Skoptzi sect, who are mostly wealthy, though the trade of the
place has fallen ofi since the opening of the railway. The two seaports of JRedoiU-

?!: fr-^;- '' '^yST^ ! ? t^^^!^!^i^W^'^^-

TOPOOBAPHY.

local feven, and
whose name is

composed of a French and Turkish word, both moaning the same thing, is a poor
Russian village founded in the present century as the seaport of the rich Lower
IngikT district, but now almost forsaken in favour of Poti, situated farther south, at
the mouth of the river. Its houses, raised on piles and surrounded by palisades,
Htretch for a considerable distance along the unhealthy marshy banks of the river,
whose floodings convert the town twice a year into a peninsula. The harbour is
rendered inaccessible to large vessels by the bar at the uth of the Rion, all the
engineering efforts to remove which have hitherto had but partial success. Hence
it is little used except for shipping cereals and raw silk. The exports amounted in

Fig. 48.— BatCm
1>Vom «hr Mfip nf tha BomUd Staff. Scale 1 : »90,0(jO.

itm

. SHUaa.

1876 to nearly 5,000,000 roubles, while the imports average scarcely more than
800,000.

A much finer harbotir is that of Batum, lying 30 miles to the south-west, and
ceded by Tiurkey in 1878. Even before the annexation it was far more a Russian
than a Turkish port, for here the large Odessa steamers transhipped their cargoes
in 60 feet of water to smaller vessels capable of crossing the bar at Poti. Although
declared a free port by the treaty of Berlin, Battkm has none the less already
become a strong fortress. But with all its advantages, the peninsula created by the
alluvia of the Chorukh on the west is constantly increasing, and threatening to still
further restrict the available space in the harbour, which i>« already insufficient to
accommodate more than twelve large vessels. But nothin;; would be easier than
to connect the port with the river by a canal, which, with the railway now being
construoted by the town of Uzurgeti to the Foti-Tiflis line, will render Bat(km the

100

ASIATIC BUSSU.

(lommon outport of tho Ilion and Cborukh basins. Tho extraordinary fertility of
this region will thus Hocuro it a certain commerciul iinportancu in future. The
chief exports are cereals, cotton, the excellent apples known in Russia as " Orimean
apples," and the oil yielded by the dolphina taken in the bay.

The chief inland town of Russian Lazistan is Artvtn, standing on the slope of a
hill at the outlet of the gorge of the Lower Chorukh, and at the head of itit
nuvigutiou. It is built in the fonn of an amphitheatre, with a circuit of not leas
than 5 miles, including its gardens. Besides dyeing, which is its staple industry,
it manufactures silks and other woven stuifs. Itb traders, mostly Armenians,
have relations through BatQm with Constantinople and Marseilles. Here the Laz
race is said to reach its highest physical perfection, and all the children might
serve as models for the painter or sculptor.

Ardaniy, on a plateau south of Artvin, was formerly capital of the kingdom,
and higher up in the heart of the mountains is 0/ti, ceded in 1878 by Turkey.
Like Artvin, it is a city of fruits and flowers, and the chief trading-place between
Arduhan and Erzerum.

VII.— THE KURA HASIN.

GEORGIA, TRAN80AU0ASIAN TATAEY.

The Eura and Araxis may be regarded as twin, but independent streams. Of
nearly equal length, and draining about an equal area, they remain separated
throughout their upper and middle course by plateaux and lofty ranges. In the
time of Strabo they had even separate mouths, ani' < t present unite their waters in
the neighbourhood of the Caspian, soarcely more than 20 feet above the level of
that sea. Ethnically also the two river basins are quite distinct. . Both are now
no doubt occupied by Tatar peoples, but the Georgians are still predominant in the
Upper and Middle Eura valley, while the A roxis is chiefly occupied by Armenians.
Politically the former belongs entirely to Russia, whereas the latter rises in Turkish
territory, and for about half its course its right bank, with all its southern tribu-
taries, waters Persian districts.

River Systems — ^Thb Eura.

The Georgian river known as tho Eura, or Eur, names recalling the Gh«ek
Euros (Anglicised Cyrus), has its farthest source in the " Pearl Brook," or "Coral
Water," of the Turks, a torrent flowing from a cirque, or old hill-enoircled
lakelet, through a narrow gorge round the east foot of the Arsiani range. It
descends thence through a series of defiles and sudden windings between the Ajara
and Trialetes Hills, west and east, down to the plains of Tiflis. In one of these
defiles, between Atzkhur and Borjom, it falls altogether about 740 feet through a
succession of rapids in the space of 15 miles. The plateau whence flow its head-

.s-ssisissmMxi^^^,

mmmm.

iry fertility of
future. The
as " Crimean

the slope of a
e he»d of itv
uit of not lets

.plo industry,
y Armenians,

lere the Laz
hildren might

the kingdom,
178 by Turkey,
-place between

it streams. Of
[uain separated
anges. In the
their waters in
sve the level of
Both are now
luminant in the
by Armenians,
"iaes in Turkish
southern tribu-

ing the Gh«ek
ok," or "Coral
i hill-encircled
ani range. It
reen the Ajara
[n one of these
feet through a
I flow its head-

KIV£B 8YST£MS~TiLt

1A.

streams is very irregular, but it becomes mucli more

Akhultzik, where it forms the true wator-parti»K '>

with a moan elevation of from 7,000 to 8,000 ff-et

depressions on this monotonous plateau uro tilled wit

Araxis, some to the Kura, while others have become brackish tamH m ith w Aiw,

and others again half dried-up fens and marshes. The aspect uf the 1 id still

iifonr hptween Ai*dahun and
>veer the K' n and Araxinr
;K)ve the iic.k 8<'u. The
likes drai ng m»iii > the

Fig. 49.— AXHALKAI.AXI Platiav.
ftan tb« Map of Um Riuaiu SUIT. S«U« I : MflbOOa

l-^

41'
!)0

41*

■^..s^

fe-5:5v.i^^

^'f^^B

.It * . ^-

wm^

E»B^!|

•■'$»*■ ^ \

^V ' A > ilV ^^1

" "^ '■/ \T*^?

fW'

:*j

; ^V;.

::'*'{// fr
■.^/H'

:^":i
"■c^

' #y '..v^' '-wtk

^>m^

''-

iv-va

... .^

?t'<^

1 . r -A'^-^Ct^W

■ \" i'&

i^lJI;'' ri^-

— ■« , — ."■ /'i;#«;'i»v-.Vj-

.■ ■■* '

• >

^' *■„;:—■-/

— . . - r

■if ^y , . : -^ **

.■"^^^^"^/^

'^ - ■ '->-:,- 'i,^T:v 1. ri,\y^x;^

irjk;

'^,

C.oPC.

Ai*

speaks of a time when it formed a vast lacustrine basin with inlets ramifying into
the, surrounding hills. This region was formerly lit up by a double line of active
volcanoes rising to the east of Akhalkalaki, and running north and south vertically
with the axis of the Trialet«s range. Mount Samsar, one of these volcanoes, has an
oval crater nearly 2 miles long, and its lava streams stretch north-west over a
large portion of the plateau. The Great and Little Abiil, rising from a common
base, resemble in form the double cones of Ararat, and from their trachytic

ISmS^m^^^^^^M^^

101 AHIATIO BUBSIA.

porphyry aummit*! u northern view in ufTurdixl, umbraciuf^ all tho Cuucasu* from
Elbruz to tho TobuloH-nitu. Other extinct vulcunues uru (iiMimtied in urcaoont fonn
round thecirc{uo enclosing the romantic I^ake Toporovan, which, with ita mmaina of
lacuatrino dwuUingH, itttult rcaoniblea 'i vuat fl(KNlud crater. Thia aublimo but
gloomy tableland, with ita black mouiitaina, yawning abyaaea, and ancient lava
atroama, " atill haunted by demona and goblina," preaenta a atriking contraat to the
winding valley of the Kura, with ita leafy shadea and aparkliug running watera,

atill occaaionally broken by nar-

Fig. 60.— Tatab Ttpb. ^^^ ^'^^^ f^^^g^^ AQ<1 columnar

oryatalline cliifa many hundred
{jet high, and capped with the
ruina of ancient caatlea. All theae
volcanic highlanda and rugged
terracea riaing to the weat of Tiflia
..^ form a aort of advanced pro-

montory of Aaia Minor, about
60 milea long, within whoae nar-
L^ ^ft "^^ limits are brewed nearly all

the fierce tempeats and hail-
-y- itK:.7,^^^w atorms that bi^'st on the neigh-

,^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ bouring Earthu.ian plaina. The

<■ ^-^^^^^^^^^^^KI^^My^^^^ r ^ frequency of theae hail-storma
l^^^^^^ifl^^H^^B V y ^\| ' X has compelled the peasantry to
'-i:.^^^^^^^^^^^^^IKt^li[v;'A<.-^^^, N abandon the cultivation of certain

^:^Y districts in this region. A aeoond

,A'VR^|i|m^^^^H^p^Hr VBHH||^n^^^. zone of tempests stretches along

'i'tjr'^^ml^SS^KSmuZ^ i \x^^^^^^ ^^ '°^^ ^^ ^^ Yelizavetpol

I ^-"{fliflBi^^w : ''A v\v ^^ Mountains, preventing the exten-

4k J M"'w?l^» '^> ^\ "^'^ °' sericulture in consequence

y'n *^»V, \^^^ '^ \^ of the great mortality caused

by thunder amongst the silk-
worms.*

Before its junction with the
Aragva, which is scarcely inferior in volume to the main stream, the Kura flows
south and south-east mainly in a line with the Great Caucasus and with the Yora
and Alazan, the two tributaries which join it after emerging from the upper

* Chief elevations of the Upper Kura baain : —

Kizil-Ojaduk. aourre of the Kara . - 10,360

GwatAbfll . . . . . . . . 11,125

Samsar 11,000

Godorebi 10,630

EmIekU . . . ^ 10,106

Koyerettn-dagh, west of the Kura . . • . . . 10,116

Aij«van 9,106

Kanll PasH, between the Eura and Chorukh 9,060

Kojor Pass, between the Akhaltsik plain and Tiflia ^ . . 4,890

SP"

. «)'!*«

BIVEfi S¥8TEldS-TUE KUltA.

uucasu* from
crescont fonn
its ronminH of
Hublimo but
ancient lava
EontraNt U) the
inning waters,
rokcn by nar-
and columnar
(lany hundred
)ped with the
ties. All these
and rugged
west of Tiflis
idvanced pro>
Minor, about
lin whoso nar-
wed nearly all
sts and hail-
on the neigh-
n plains. The
ise hail-storms
B peasantry to
ation of certain
^on. A second
stretches along
) Yelizavetpol
iting the exten-
in consequence
ortality caused
igst the silk-

iction with the
the Kura flows
I with the Yora
rom the upper

VMt.

10,360

11,12«

11,000

10,680

10,1«6

10,115

0,106

9,060

4,800

gorges. At the point where it is crossed by the rood from Yelizavetpol to Ttuku,
li little below the confluence of tht'se HtrnuiiN, the Kura is ulrt'udy nuvigahlc for
croft drawing 4 feet, although, owing to the w<unt population along itH ImnkH, the
water highway of some 450 niilen Ims hitherto been little utiliscMl. FiNhitig is
almost the only industry curried on along its lower cournts which teems with flsh

Fig. 61.— Thi Kt«A AND AiiAxiii CoNrtviwci.
rrom Um lUp of tba Iluiaiaii Staff. SoO* 1 : 67S,U00

tlk^

r^.

;'V«^*.-*^t ^^^

^f-m

\ \,

I SkirtmA»ifmZt»pft

«Vy5

E opc-

de
40

45' 00-

43 'PO

OidContla.

ISUilM.

probably more than any other spot on the globe. Here the chartered company
captures prodigious quantities of "white fish" and sturgeon, paying a yearly
revenue to the Government of not less than 120,000 roubles. Yet according
to the descriptions of Pallas these fisheries were even still more productive during
the last century, when as many as 16,000 sturgeon were taken in a single day.

104

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Whenever the fishing had to be interrupted for four-and-twenty hours the Eura,
here 490 feet wide and 70 feet deep, became one moving mass of fish. The
diminution of their numbers has been attributed to the introduction of steam
navigation, which frightens away the shoals ascending the river to the spawning
grounds.

The united volume of the Eura and Araxis is estimated at about 24,000 cubic
feet per second, which, in proportion to the area of their basin, is much less than
that of the Rion, a difference due to the less abundant rainfall and greater evapo-
ration in the region draining to the Caspian. A large portion of the Eura basin
consists of almost waterless desert incapable of cultivation, though rich in herbage
after the rains, and in spring frequented by Tatar graziers, who drive their herds
to the upland pastures in summer. Even in the heart of Georg^, between the
Eura and Tora, and thence to the Alazan, we meet with rocky steppes destitute of
permanent dwelling^, and above the triple confluence the stony and arg^illaceous
land everywhere presents an aspect of monotonous aridity. During the last
century rice was cultivated by the Tatars along the left bank of the Eura, north
of Yelizavetpol. But they were compelled by the inroads of the Lezghians to
abandon their fields, and nothing now remains except traces of the old irrigating
canals from the Tora, and a few Tatar herdsmen, who are obliged to burrow in
the ground to shelter themselves from the cold blasts that sweep the bare Earayaz
plateaux in winter. "With the first spring days they gladly quit their wretched
underground hovels, migrating through the beech forests southwards to the fine
Alpine pastures of the Gok-chai.

Agriculture — Irrigation Works — Climate.

In these lands civilisation has retrograded, since agriculture has been replaced
by a nomad pastoral life. Tet in winter during the low waters the Eura and
Araxis together have a total volume of 6,800 cubic feet, and in aummer about t35,000
cubic feet per second might be raised for irrigation purposes. But nothing has
been done beyond constructing the so-called " Mary Canal " aoroas the Earayai
steppe between the Eura and Yora. Unfortunately this tract is very unhealthy,
so that few venture to risk their lives in reclaiming the land. The Tatar popula-
tions, who have retained possession of their lands between Nukha and Shemakha,
are still able to show the Russians how a proper system of irrigation may transform
the desert to a garden. The torrents descending from the gorges of the Caucasus
are arrested, on entering the plains, by dams which divide and subdivide them into
countless rills, until the last drop of water is iitilised before reaching the Eura.
But the irrigation works might be met by channels from this river, by which the
whole steppe could be brought under cultivation. Some of the waste spaces are
at present dangerous for caravans, owing to the want of fodder and the poiscmous
herbs, such as the Pontine wormwood, fatal to horses. The army sent by Peter the
Great in 1722 against Shemakha thus lost all its artillery horses, and the same
disaster overtook General Tzitzianov's army a century thereafter. «

JIMI I HL I .^U'itHWH'

AGKICULTUEE— IRBIOATION WORKS— CLIMATE,

106

loiira the Eura,
of fish. The
iction of steam

the spawning

ut 24,000 cuhic
much less than

1 greater evapo-
the Kura basin

rich in herbage

rive their herds

g;ia, between the

ippes destitute of

and argiUaceous

During the htst

the Eura, north

he Lezghians to

llie old irrigating

i;ed to burrow in

the bare Earayaz

t their wretched

imrds to the fine

las been replaced
irs the Eura and
mer about 35,000
But nothing has
srofls the Earayaz
is very imhealthy,
rhe Tatar popula-
la and. Shemakha,
on may transform
B of the Caucasus
bdivide them into
Baching the Eura.
ver, by which the
) waste spaces are
And the poisonous
sent by Peter the
les, and the same

A portion of the Earabagh and Sbirikum steppes between the Kura and
Araxis, and thoHO of Mugan stretching from the right bank of the Araxis and
Lower Eura to the foot of the Talish Mountains, were formerly cultivatcxl and wWl-
peopled districts. The great city of Bilgan, destroyed by Jenghis Ehan, stood
on a canal constructed fifteeu htmdred years ago across the, Earabagh steppe, and
when Timur restore J the canal two centuries afterwards this city reappeared ond
continued to flourish till the last century. East of the Araxis the traces have been
discovered of nimierous canals running from its right bank eastwards across the
steppe ; but these could not be restored without tapping the river above the old
dams, either because its meau level has fallen, or because the land has been raised
by its alluvia. One of the canals followed by Toropov is no less than 90 miles
long, and on its banks are the remains of a vast city. Ruined caravanserais and
choked-up cisterns also mark the site of other now abandoned trade routes. The
plain is here and there dotted with barrows, and throughout the peninsula, formed
by the junction of the Eura and Araxis, there are numerous lines of earthworks,
flanked by redoubts and hillocks used as outposts. The general disappearance of
the population, whose presence is shown by all these remains, dates from the
Mongolian invasion of the thirteenth century, when those who escaped service in
the armies of Batu Ehan abandoned their towns and land, and took refuge in the
mountains. The irrigating canals now became choked with mud, and, the waters
of the Eura and Araxis overflowed into the surrounding depressions, where they
formed unhealthy morasses, and even real lakes, such as that of MakhmCld-Chalassi,
though many of these have since evaporated, leaving nothing behind except saline
tracts fringed with a russet border of sickly vegetation. Elsewhere the land is
covered as far as the eye can reach with the grey mugwort or the white-flowering
delphinium. Tet it would be comparatively easy to restore its fertility to this
region, which might support an agricultural population of at least two millions.
The survey carried out in 1860 showed that in the lower plains there are over
5,000,000 acres capable of being irrigated. A large portion of the steppe is
covered with a black loam, which only awaits the fertilising waters to become one
of the granaries of Western Asia. But even as it is the soil at the foot of the
Talish Mountains is moist enough to grow vast crops of cereals, and here the
Raskolniks have already flourishing villages, which have begun to do a large trade
since the restrictions on free intercourse have been removed. Nowhere else in
Caucasia has Russian colonisation been more successful.

Formerly it was feared that the main obstacle to the reclamation of the land
would be the insalubrity of the climate, caused, as in the French Camargue, by the
decomposition of organic matter under a fierce sun. But this difficulty seems to
have been exaggerated. The intense heats of these plains i^pear to have been
formerly symbolized by the multitudes of venomous snakes said to guard their
approach. Even Plutarch tells us that the army of Pompey was arrested by fear
of these reptiles, and so recently as 1800 the Russians under General Zubov are
said to have found thb. land in winter covered with vipers in a torpid state. But
although vrild beasts were even supposed to avoid this region, Toropov and other

wmmmsMmiiBim

mmiif&m^i^^Mmm^iiem.^.:

106

ASIATIC EU8SIA.

travellers assure us that serpents and scorpions are so rare on the Mugan strppe
that they cause no alarm to the graziers frequenting it. They dig up the ground,
hut only in search of truffles, which here abound. Land and water tortoises are
also extremely numerous wherever there is any moisture, and flocks of antelopes

Fig. 62. — Mouths op thb Kuiu.
Ttom the Map of the Buauan Staff. Scale 1 : 820.000

, tSMflaa.

are occasionally seen bounding over the plain, while the marshes and running
waters of the delta attract vast multitudes of birds.

Lower Evra Basin — Apsheron Peninsula.

Like the Rion, the Eura is continually encroaching on the sea, which it colours
for a great distance with its reddiah-yellow waters. In the thirty-three years

?!5SP^

. ' ' ' .v y — ^

'-#-

LOWER KUBA BASIN -AP8HEB0N PENINSULA

107

e Mugan strppe

up the ground,

iter tortoises are

icks of antelopes

80*

ihes and running

1, whicli it colours
ihirty-three years

between 1829 uud 1862 the land advanced about 54 square miles. The main
channel has also pierced the line of dunes continuing the normal coast-line,
beyond which it has i mified into two branches, each of which has developed a
peninsula by connecting islets and sand-banks with the mainland. Between the
two advanced streams of the delta there are also numerous strips of land, evidently
formed by the alluvia of the Eura. Only the north-east swell created by the
polar winds has reacted on these deposits, causing them to assume a crescent form,
with their concave sides facing seawards. The island of Sari, lying south-west of
the extreme peninsula of the delta, is disposed in a similar manner by the same
waves. All the Lenkoran coast has also been enlarged by the alluvia first carried
seawards with the current, and then driven landwards under the action of the
winds. In the same way a broad belt of marshy land has been formed at the foot
of the advanced spur:^ of the Iranian plateau. But these imhealthy tracts are
infested by such dense clouds of mosquitoes that the Tatar natives are obliged to
pass the night in pavilions raised like pictiiresque turrets into the purer atmosphere
above their dwellings.

The hilly district of Lenkoran, wrenched by Russia from Persia, belongs
geographically to that state, for it is merely the escarpment of the lofty terraces
rising above the southern shores of the Caspian, and commanded by the Savalan
volcano. By holding this district the Russian armies are able to reach within
their own territory an elevation of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, whence they have no
further difficulty in penetrating into the Iranian plateaux. Here the land being
abimdantly watered by the rains brought by the northern winds blowing steadily
from the Caspian, its flora and fauna differ from f;ho8e of the Caucasus. We are
already within the domain of the tiger, while some of the plants flourishing in
the dense forests resemble those of the tropics. Still the arborescent vegetation
covering the slopes of the Talish range between 650 and 6,000 feet corresponds
rather with thai of Central Europe. Few regions present a greater contrast in their
flora than do the slopes of the Talish and the Mugan steppe, the arid parts of which
latter yield only five species of plants. Ethnically, also, the difPerence is equally
marked, for the Talish highlands already belong in this respect to the Iranian
domain. ,

In the district north of the Eura, which still retains its old Persian name of
Shirvan, a few eminences isolated in the midsf of the plain seem to have formerly
belonged' to the Caucasian system, from which they have g^radually become sepa-
rated by the erosive action of running water. But this region has also been sub-
jected to more sudden changes by underground agencies. Here earthquakes
are still frequent, causing great damage, especially to the city of Shemakha,
where in 1669 as many as 8,000 persons were in a few seconds buried under a heap
of ruins. According to the local chronicles, the village of Lacha, lying farther
south, was completely swallowed up, with all its inhabitants, flocks, and herds.
Shemakha, with the industrious village of Boskal, was again wasted in May, 1859,
after which the seat of Government was transferred to Baku, and most of the
inhabitants left ike place. Those who remained again suffered from a violent

108

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

shock in 1872. According to Abish the seismatic waves are here propagated
north-west and south-east in a line with the continued axis of the Caucasxis, and
Shemakha consequently lies at no great distance from the centre of the movement.
Explosions of burning naphtha occasionally throw up masses of earth and stones,
accompanied . with smoke and flames. The botanist Eoch foimd the debris of
one of these eruptions covering the steppe for a space of over half a mile,
where all the crevasses were filled by brackish water with a slight flavour of
naphtha.

The Apsheron peninsula, forming the eastern continuation of the Caucasus,
together with the coast-line stretching thence southwards to the Kura delta, is the
scene of constant igneous activity. Jets of gas, hot springs, mineral oils, mud

Fig. 63.— Chief Rkgiokb op EABTHavAKBR in Cavoabia.
From the MtmMr$ ofOu Qufrapkical Bdeklt of the Canouoa. Boele 1 : 8,000,000.

':niin

Hey Slat, IHW.

Jane SOth, 1840.

May)IOthaiid81et,18B0.
— IWMflee.

volcanoes, and even lava streams bear witness to the internal commotion throughout
the region, which, like tLe segment of a crater, encircles the Gulf of Baku. It
would seem as if the forces by which the Caucasus was upheaved were here still at
work endeavouring to continue the range across the Caspian. Tet a subsidence has,
on the contrary, been going on during recent times, as shown by the building
eng^ed in the harbour of Bakui, and by the tradition according to which the
island of Nargin was formerly attached to the mainland. Ehanikov has shown that
since the tenth century the seaboard at the eastern extremity of the Caucasus has
been subject to various oscillations, rising 60 feet above its present level, then
sinking 18 feet below it, and again rising and falling alternately. The whole
Apsheron peninsula, with the various islands continuing it eastwards, has evidently

LOWER KUBA BASIN— APSHERON PENINSULA,

109

lere propagated
e Caucasus, and
the movement,
arth and stones,
the debris of
er half a mile,
light flavour of

f the Caucasus,

ura delta, is the

ineral oils, mud

900.

341'

50*

otion throughout
ilf of Baku. It
were here still at
a subsidence has,
by the building
ig to which the
V has shown that
the Caucasus has
38ent level, then
sly. The whole
ds, has evidently

Iwen upheaved, but not uniformly, for the relief of the land shows traces of
numerous folds, due, doubtless, to side pressure. Mud volcanoes are dotted over
the peninsula, all the depressions are filled with marshy soil, and the coast-line is
disposed in curves, like those of the Kura delta. The " Holy Island," north of
Apsheron Point, which assumes an analogous form, is of volcanic origin, like all those
in the neighbourhood. Emnani, one of them, rose above the surface in 1864, and
Lozi, another, was the scene of three eruptions in 1876, during which stones were
thrown as far as Cape Alat, on the mainland. Shoals of seals * frequent the coast
of the peninsula, but most fishes are driven away by the exhalations of gas and
naphtha.

In many places these gases are liberated by simply piercing the surface of the
land, and they are so inflammable that a mere spark suffices to set them burning
till extinguished by a strong wind or heavy shower. The flames will at times even
burst forth spontaneously, and during boisterous nights the hillsides have been
swept by sheets of phosphorescent light. Even in the middle of the sea the
naphtha streams bubble up, clothing the ripples far and near with a thin iridescent
coating. Near Cape Shikov, south of Baku, a gas jet produces such a violent eddy

Fig. 64.— OwiiiL&TioNs OF TBI Baku Coast dvrimo tum last 1,(00 Ybars.

Aeeording to KbMiikoT. . '

that boats are obliged to cast anchor to avoid being sucked in. Elsewhere the
underground forces not only throw up jets of gas, petroleum, and asphalt, but
upheave the very bed of the sea, as was lately seen, when an islet rose to the surface
near Baku. The legend of Prometheus, who stole fire from heaven, may, in the
popular fancy, be possibly associated with the flaming hills and waters of this
region.

The chief focus of the burning gases lies "some 9 miles north-east of Baku,
on the margin of a considerable saline pool near the villages of Balakhan and
Surakhan. The district, known by the name of Atesh-gah, has become famous as the
hallowed shrine of the fire worshippers. Tet this sanctuary, at least in its present
form, would not seem to be as, old as is generally supposed, dating only from the
seventeenth century, when the courts of the Tatar khans of Derbent, Shemakha,
and Baku were much frequented by Indian traders. The " Fire Temple " is now a
mere redoubt, tolerated in the comer of avast naphtha and asphalt factory, which is
directly fed with combustible gas from the imderground fires. The votaries of this

* The Caspian Seal {Phcca Caapiea) differs specifically from that of Lake Baikal, though both are
related to the Banged or Arctic Seal (PkMa/attida). Both are also referred by Joel A. Allen, *■ History of
North Araericsn Pinnipeds," to a ^koene anoeator from the south.— Ed.

^~: ^^^^-aia i ^?ti afe t';^j#;aay'TavS^*^^'

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

temple have no longer any notion of a positive creed, and on the altar, by the side of
Hindu deities, are seen the vases associated with Parsee worship, Russian images
of St. Nicholas, statues of the Virgin, Roman Catholic crucifixes, objects which are
all treated mth like veneration.

The commercial importance of this great natural workshop has been much
enhanced of late years, and the sale of rich naphtha plots has already ^Idlded over
8,000,000 roubles to the State. Nothing can be imagined more simple than the
structure of these lime-kilns. It suffices to light the gas escaping from the
crevassed calcareous layers, and the stones are g^dually reduced by the heat to the
state desired by the lime burner. In privpte houses and workshops these jets are used

Fig. 65. — Thb Ap8Hbbo>c Prninwula.
Soale 1 : MO,0OU. ~

ModVoIoHiOM. Naphtha Wdla. OaiJate. Snbnwqiad Baina.

SMflta.

for heating, lighting, and cooking, though the illuminating power of the Balakhan
gas is much inferior to that of the artificial article, for it possesses far less carbon.
To the internal pressure of the gas is due the rising of the naphtha, which is forced
upwards through the sandy and shingly layers below the superficial tertiary strata.
With the petroleum stream there are carried up large quantities of sand, which
accumulates about the orifice, where it gradually forms conic moimds 60 feet high.
So far the seven hundred n(q)htha wells sunk in the neighbourhood of Baku have
shown no signs of exhaustion. They supply over five-sixths of the petroleum of the
Caucasus. Between 1870 and 1878 the yield was increased over tenfold, and quite a
fleet of steamers and sailing vessels has been equipped for the export of this produce.

mmmm

Jtfiffi^UJP'

Itar, by the side of
>, Russian images
objects which are

p has been much
ready yielded over
e simple than the
leaping from the
by the heat to the
these jets are used

BaiH.

9r of the Balakhan
es far less carbon,
ha, which is forced
jial tertiary strata,
ies of sand, which
lunds 60 feet high,
lood of Baku have
le petroleum of the
enfold, and quite a
)rt of this produce.

INHABITANTS— THE OEOBOIANS.

Ill

But immense Ions is cauaod by the ignorance of thoae engaged in the trade. Thufi a
well at Balakhan, yielding 4,800 tona of naphtha daily, ran waste for four weeks
before a reservoir could l)e prepared to receive the oil. The totol yield of naphtha
at Baku amounted in 1878 to about 7,000,000 owt., of which nearly 3,500,000
cwt. were exported.

Inhabitants — ^The Oeorgians.

Tn Central as in Western Caucasia the most numerous race are the Georgians, or
Karthvelians, descendants of the Iberians spoken of by Strabo. The statuettes found
in the graves represent exactly the same type and the same ^tyle of head-dress as those
of the present inhabitants, so that no change has taken place in this respect during
the last two thousand years. Masters of the land from the remotest historic times,
the Georgians have succeeded, if not in maintaining their independence, at least in
preserving their ethnical cohesion and various national idioms. They formerly
occupied a wider domain, and although encroached upon at various times by
Persians, Medes, Armenians, Mongols, Turks, and now by the Slavs, their territory
still stretches from the plains of the Eura to Trebizond, and from Mount Elbruz to
Mount Arsiani. Of all the Caucasian peoples the Georgians, who are estinwted at
upwards of a million, form the most compact and homogeneous natioAality. In
Georgia is situated Tiflis, capital of all Transcaucasia.

As a political state Georgia had its periods of prosperity and military fame.
Especially in the twelfth century, in the reigns of David the " Restorer," and of
Queen Tamara, the Earth velian kingdom acquired a decided preponderance over all
the Caucasian lands, and the name of Tamara has remained popular from the Black
Sea to the Caspian. ' In all the upland valleys she is the theme of countless legends
and national songs ; most of the ruins scattered over the land are supposed to be the
remains of her palaces and strongholds; as a ruler of men the popular enthusiasm
ranks her with Alexander ; as a saint with Sti George and the prophet Elias. But
the period of Georgian ascendancy was of short duration, and the invasion of
Jenghis Ehan was followed by incessant warfare and civil strife, which ended only
in 1802, when Georgia was officially incorporated in the Russian Empire. Its
geographical situation pennitted the inhabitai\(8 to maintain their independence
and become fused in a ctanpact national body. Most of the Earthvelians dwell on~
the plains, where the conditions of soil and climate oblige them to live as agricul-
turists scattered over the land. Their territory is everywhere enclosed by lofty
mountains, whose occupants, pent up in their narrow, bleak, and unproductive glens,
cast envious glances on the lowlands, never failing to swoop down whenever an
opportunity is offered for making, a successful foray. . The Georg^ian territory is,
moreover, divided into three distinct parts, clearly defined by forests and mountain
ranges. The Eura basin in the east, those of the Rion and IngAr in the centre, and
that of the Chorukli in the west, are so many detached geographical areas, whose
inhabitants were naturally involved in different political careers. The severance of
the Georgian nationality into distinct fragments was also rendered almost inevitable

"WiH

112

ASIATIC BU88U.

by the form of the neveral diatrict«, all of which are greatly elongated east and
west.

The Kurthvfl, or KurtbalianH, properly m called, who hove retained the collective
racial nuiiie, uro the Georgians dwelling east ot the Huram Mountains, in the old
lacustrine plain whose centre is oc(>upied by the town of (}ori, and which terminates
at Mtzicliet, ancient capital of Karthalia. They become blended eastwards with the
Gru.siunH of Tiflis, whone name is frotjuently applied collectively to all the branches

Tig. Ae.— Mtxkhiit, Amcibnt Capital or Obomoia.

of the Georgian family. The Eakhetians, the easternmost of these branchefl,
occupy the Yora and Alazan valleys; west of the Suram Mountains dwell the
Imerians and Mingrelians in the Riou, Tskhcnis, and Lower IngAr basins ; the
Gurians hold the northern slopes of the Ajara Mountains ; the Lazes a portion of
the Ghondch basin west of that range ; lastly, the Svans, with a few other tribes,
have found a refuge in the fastnesses of the Upper Caucasus valleys. The varioiis
branches of the Karthalian family cannot all of them converse together, largely

INHABITANTS— THE OEOBOIANS.

118

ngatod eaiit and

ed the collective
taiiifl, in the old
v^hich tcrtninatea
Ntwarda with the
uU the branches

^■^i^'

fis _ -

these branches,
itains dwell the
gfir basins; the
azes a portion ot
Eew other tribes,
^8. The various
ktgether, largely

owing to the foreign words that have cropi into tho different local idiomn. Hut
the general rcHoniblanco is very marked throughout the whole region from
Trcbizond to Tiflis, while amongst tho educated Kurthaliuns complete unity of
speech has been maintained by the works of all sorts that have been published in
(ileorgian. At least since tho tenth century there has ftcurishcd a Karthalian
literature, beginning with a simple translation of tho Dible and gradually enriched
by religious treatises, epic poems, songs, dramas, scientific writings, and more
recently with translations of foreign works and periodical publications. Neverthe-
less the cultivation of the Qeorgian language and the intcllectiul development of
the nation have been arrested by extreme centralizing tendencies. Hince 1807 the
Georgian archives and the valuable literary and historical documents found in
Tiilis have been removed to St. Petersburg. Studied efforts are' also being made
to replace Georgian by Russian, and the latter lang^ge is now compulsorily
taught in all the local schools. The national speech, by some grouped with the
Aryan, by others with the Ural-Altaic family, would really seem to stand quite
apart, a view already held by Klaproth, and since confirmed by Zagarelli, who has
paid the greatest attention to the structure of the language. Like the Basque in
Europe, Georgian appears to be the surviving representative of a form of speech
formerly current throughout a far wider area, and absolutely distinct from the
Aryan, Semitic, and Uralian linguistic stocks. The alphabet in use, at least since
the tenth century, is derived, like the Armenian, through the Pahlvi and Zend from
the Aramtean.

With the exception of the Lazes, who are mostly Mohanunedans, the Eartha-
lians belong to the Greek rite, and to their patron saint, George, is with some
probability attributed the name of Georgia, whence the Russian Grusia. North of
the Rion and Eura this saint is held in greatest veneration, whereas in the region
south of those rivers, including the whole of Armenia, the worship of Mary has
everywhere replaced that of Ma, or Maya, goddess of the teeming earth and of the
harvest. The Georgians are strongly attached to their faith, and notwithstanding
their naturally gentle disposition, they have always energetically resisted the
successive religious persecutions of the Turks and Persians. The Byzantine style
of their churches, introduced from Armenia, assumed in mediaeval times a certain
originality, still represented 'by exquisite oaves, belfries, and apses, dating
especially from the tenth and two foUo'ving centuries. Even in the remotest
upland valleys the traveller is surprised to meet with churches in a renoarkably
pure style, mostly standing on pleasant hills in the midst of leafy thickets. Nearly
aU are so built as to serve also as strongholds, while some are even subterraneous,
betrayed by no outward signs, and capable of sheltering the community in troubled
times. In Kakhetia the rocky eminences of the Earayaz steppe overlooking the
Yora valley are pierced with caverns, said to have been excavated as churches and
convents in the sixth century. In aU the hilly districts of Karthalia the peasantry
are also acquainted with labyrinthine oaves, the former abode of a troglodytic
people. Hundreds of strange towers are also met, recalling the nuraghi of Sardinia,
but of unknown origin and use, although each is associated with its special legend.

114

A8IATI0 BUS8U.

The old method of oonHtructin^ dwellingH hnn peniiited for orer two thotimnd
yoorn. Whole villiif^cH eoiiNitit of nothing hut holcH dug in the ground or hewn out
f)f the roi'k, revoulwl from without only hy masitea of foliugo, or by clay roofs on
which the women nit in the eool of the nummer oveningii. In mont of the towns
many hou8cn are uIho still covennl, instead of a roof, with a layer of hardened
earth alM)ut 2 feet thick, and inclined just sufficiently to allow the water to run
off through the openings in the low wall enclosing the terrace. On this surface
there grows a dense leafy vegetation, in which the Lepidium teticariuHi, a species of
crucifera, pre<lominate8 ; but it withers up in summer, and is got rid nf by being set
on fire, these nightly bonfires often producing a very startling effect as they blaze
up suddenly, and as suddenly die out on the housetops. As regards health the
clay terraces are far preferable to tho European roofs, as they maintain a warmer
temperature in winter and a cooler in summer. Yet, through a blind love of
everything foreign, the upper classes in Tiflis have begun to build their houses in
the Western style.

The Georgians of the Eura basin, like their Imerian, Mingrelian, and Laz
kindred, fully deserve the reputation for physical beauty which they enjoy. They
have the same abimdantr black hair, large eyes, white teeth, delicate complexion,
lithe figures, small hands, that distinguish their western neighbours. Yet the
appearance especially of their women, who mostly paint, can scarcely be described
as prepossessing. They are cold and unattractive, their features lacking the
animated expression and bright smile which intellectual development might be
expected to have produced. Most of the Georgians have a high, almost flushed
complexion, due doubtless to excessive indulgence in wine, of which they are ever
ready to take copious draughts in honoiir of their friends, generally with the Tatar
words, Allah Verdi, " the gift of God ! " The Eakhetians especially, proud of
their excellent vintages, consume large quantities, and before the ravages of the
o'idiiun, the usual allowance of the field labourers was here about half a gallon
daily. This fiery wine, some of which might compare favourably with the best
produced in Europe, is mostly consumed in the country, and one of the most
familiar sights in Eakhetia is the well-filled ox or pig skins hanging at the doors
of the shops, or crossing the country in waggon-loads. In order to preserve
the pliancy of the skins the natives have the horrible practice of flaying the
beasts alive, and then smearing the hides with naphtha. Thier imparts a
disagreeable flavour to the liquor, to which, however, even strangers soon get
accustomed.

Notwithstanding the fertility of the land and relatively sparse population, the
peasantry of the Eura basin are generally poor, owning little beyond a few mangy
cattle and sheep, whose wool looks almost like hair. Like the Mingrelians and
Imerians, though to a less extent, the Georgians have suffered from the feudal
system. However, since 1864 and 1866 they have at least ceased to be attached to
the glebe, and serfdom has been abolished in Transcaucasia, as elsewhere throughout
the empire. But the nobles, who have remained large proprietors, have not all of
them yet lost the habit of treating the peasantry as beasts of burden, while practices

er two thouMnd
und ur hewn out
by clay roofs on
oHt of thu towns
yer of hardened
be water to run

On this Hurface
'iuHi, u speoiea of
d of by being aet
act as they blaze
l^rda health the
iintain a warmer

a blind love of
d their houses in

^elian, and Laz
ey enjoy. They
cate complexion,
ibours. Yet the
jely be described
ires lacking the
pment might be
h, almost flushed
ich they are ever
ly with the Tatar
Bcially, proud of
le ravages of the
mt half a gallon
>ly with the best
one of the most
^ng at the doors
)rder to preserve
le of flaying the
Thier imparts a
rangers soon get

le population, the

ond a few mangy

Mingrelians and

from the feudal

to be attached to

where throughout

•8, have not all of

in, while practices

i i i iit '- ' .u M w ii M i i i w wn H' m

[n1rfl'lT"'''Mltiri'rJ<ry'\ii i ' ii ii

■M^

INHABITANTS— THE GEOEGIANS.

116

begotten of slavery in the people themselves have not yet disappeared. They are
for the most part uncleanly and listless, though their naturally cheerful, social, and
upright disposition is g^radually asserting itself. They are said to be rather less
intelligent than the Caucasian races, and in the schools show less quickness than
their Tatar and Armenian neighbours in mastering foreign languages and the
sciences, though this may be partly due to the fact that the latter are mainly
townsfolk, while the former are a rural population. Theft is a crime almost
unknown in the Georgian and Armenian communities, the few cases of larceny that
come before the Tiflis courts being mostly committed by strangers. At the same
time many are addicted to contraband hubits. Nor does their national legislator,
King Yakhtang, seem to have entertained any high opinion of their general
uprightness. " I have drawn up this code," he writes, " but in Georgia no just
sentence has ever yet been, nor ever will be, pronounced." Yet, however
barbarous may have been the former Government, it remained for the Russians to
introduce corporal punishment of the most degrading form.

One of the most remarkable traits of the Georgian race is their love of song and
the dance. They have no great musical talent, and their language, with its
numerous gutturals and sibilants, is scarcely adapted to melody. Yet none the less
do they keep up an incessant chant all day long, accomp&nying themselves with
the daira, or tambourine, and the balalaika, a sort of three-stringed guitar. Some
will, so to say, adapt every movement to musical rhythm, and while weeding their
maize-fields or engaged in other field work, the men dispose themselves in groups,
singing in various sets snatches of verse suitable to the work in hand. As they
advance the chorus becomes more vigorous, and their measured movements more
rapid. At the end of the furrow they stop short, shift their places, and in
retracing their steps renew the interrupted burden of their song. Despotic
masters from gloomy Russia attempted in vain to impose silence on their Trans-
caucasian labourers. Unaccompanied by the glad music of the voice, the daily task
hung heavy on their hands.

Custom has also given force of law to numerous feast-days analogous to the
old holidays of " Merry England." On foot, on horseback, or in their ramshackle
carts the whole population flocks to the scene, indicated from afar by some venerable
church or cluster of oak-trees', and here the song, the dance, trade, revelry, and
religious rites all follow in rapid succession. Worship is itself performed with a sort
of blind rapture. Pilg^rimn present themselves before the priest to have the iron
collar removed, with which they had symbolized their temporary thraldom to the
patron saint ; and when released they immolate to his honour the ram or the bull,
which afterwards supplies the banquet. Frequently some fair white-robed
spouse of the white George " will cast herself at the feet of the faithful, who
must either step on her prostrate body or leap over it to reach the hallowed shrine.
The Armenians, and even the Moslem Tatars, come to trade, are at times carried
away by the religious frenzy, and join in the chorus and Christian rites. To the
sacred succeed the profane dances, wL^ch often assume the appearance of a free
fight, the victors seizing the girdles of the vanquished, enveloping themselves in

mmmimim

mstk^'

116

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

the ample folds of their b&rkas, or donning their imposing papaahes. Formerly the
sham fights held in the streets of Tiflis in commemoration of the expulsion of the
Persians ended in regular battles, often accompanied by loss of life.

The Khevsurs, Pshavs, and TdsHEs.

As in the west, so in East Georgia, the ethnical pictiire is completed by a group
of highlanders, who had till recently maintained, their independence in their inac-
cessible upland retreats. On the one hand are the already described Svans, on
the other their Ehevsur, Pshav, and Tiish neighbours. The highest eastern
valleys about Mount Borbalo have afforded a refuge to fugitives of diverse race
and speech, who, amidst these secluded upland snows and pastures, have gradually
acquired, if not an independent type, at least a distinct physiognomy. Chechenzes,
Lezghians, Georgians, and, according to tradition, even Jews have entered into the
composition of these tribes, although the chief ethnical element is no doubt the
Georgian from the south, whose presence is also shown by the prevailing Christian
practices. Nevertheless the predominant speech on the northern slopes is of
Chechenz origir .

Mount Borbalo is no less remarkable as an ethnological than as a water parting.
Eastward stretches the TCksh district, watered by the two head-streams of the
Eoisu of Andi ; on the south the Alazan of Eakhetia, apart from a few Tdshes,
is mainly occupied by Georgians ; on the south-west the sources of the Yora and
Eastern Aragva rise in the Pshav territory ; while the Ehevsurs, or " People of
the Gorges," dwell in the west and north-west, on both slopes of the central range,
though it is impossible to assign definite limits to all these peoples.* They fre-
quently shift their quarters, following their flocks to fresh pastures assigned to
them by custom, or acquired by the fortunes of war.

The Pshavs, who reach farthest down, or about the altitude of 3,300 feet, thus
abutting on the Southern Georgians, are the most civilised of these highlanders,
and speak a Georgian dialect. They have greatly increased in numbers since
the pacification of the land has enabled them to bring their produce to the Tiflis
market. The Ti^shes, though less numerous and pent up in their rugged valleys
everywhere enclosed by snowy mountains, are said to be the most industrious and
intelligent of all the hiUmen in this part of the Caucasus. Most of the men, being
obliged, like the Savoyards, to emigrate for half the year, bring back from the low-
land populations larger ideas and more enterprising habits. Many have even
acquired a considerable amount of instruction, besides several foreign languages.
Their own is an extremely irude dialect, poor in vowels, abounding in consonants,
with no less than nine sibilants and eight gutturals, one of which combines so inti-

* Population of Upland Borbalo valleys in 1876, according to Seidlitz :—

Pshavs 8,lfi0

KhevButs 6,000

Tashes 5.050

Total 20,100

Formerly the
[pulsion of the

Bted by a group
e in their inac-
ribed Svans, on
highest eastern
of diverse race
have gradually
Chechenzes,
entered into the
is no doubt the
ailing Christian
irn slopes is of

a water parting,
-streams of the
1 a few Tdshes,
If the Yora and
I, or " People of
le central range,
ties.* They fre-
iires assigned to

3,300 feet, thus
ese highlanders,
L numbers since
uoe to the Tiflis
r rugged valleys

industrious and
f the men, being
sk from the low-
if any have even
reign languages.
^ in consonants,
combines so inti-

THE KHEVSURS, PSHAVS, AND T^^SHES.

117

raately with the preceding or following consonants that special signs had to be
invented to represent the combined letters.

The Ehevsurs, completely isolated from each other daring the winter by the
main range, are still in a very rude and almost barbarous state, although in some

Fig. A7.— Thb Khbtsvu, TCsk, and Pshat Lakd*.
Bade 1 : 853,000.

•!!ii!«'!iiiir\

45«i5

TftdtM. VOntn. flcoiglMM. CheobeoM*.

respects one of the most remarkable people in Asia. Generally of a lighter brown
complexion than the Tftshes, they are evidently a very mixed race, varying con-
siderably' in stature, features, coloiir of hair and eyes, and in the shape of the
cranium. Most of them have a savage aspect; some are extremely thin, like

MMMM

iiiiMiiniwuiniiiiiimi-^-.ff--"

118

ASIATIO BUSSU.

walking skeletons with miraculously animated Death's heads on their shoulders,
and with large hands and feet, out of all proportion with the rest of the body.
From the surroundings they have acquired muscles of steel, enabling them, even
when heavily burdened, to scale the steepest cliffs, and often returning across
the snows and rocks from Vladikavkaz with a hundredweight of salt on their
backs.

Some of the still surviving Khevsur and Pshav customs resemble those of many
Red Indian and African wild tribes. Thus the wife is confined in an isolated hut,
roimd which the husband prowls, encouraging her to support the pains of labour
with volleys of musketry. After the delivery young girls steal to the place at
dawn or dusk with bread, milk, cheese, and other comforts, the mother renuiin-
ing for a month in her retreat, which is burnt after her departure. The father is
congratulated on the birth of a son, and feasts are prepared at his expense, but of
which he may not partake. The struggle for existence in this unproductive
land has introduced many practices calculated to limit the number of children to
three ; but infanticide does not prevail as it formerly did amongst the Svans. The
Khevsurs show great affection for their offspring, though forbidden by custom to
caress them in public. The boys are generally named after some wild animal —
Bear, Lion, Wolf, Panther, &c., emblems of their future valour, while the girls
receive such tender names as Hose, Pearl, Bright-one, Daughter of the Sun, Little
Sim, Sun of my Heart, &c.

Most of the marriages are arranged by the parents while the children are yet
in " long clothes." Nevertheless a formal abduction is still practised, and after
the wedding and attendant rejoicings, the young couple avoid being seen together
for weeks and months. Yet divorce is frequent, and the example of the Moham-
medans has even introduced polygamy :a several Khevsur families. The funeral
rites are not practised with the same rigour as formerly, when none were allowed
to die tmder a roof, but compelled to dose their eyes in face of sun or stars, and
mingle their last breath with the winds. In presence of the body the relatives
at first feigned to rejoice, but tears and wailings soon followed, accompanied by
mournful songs for the departed.

The Ehevsurs are very proud of their Christianity, which is certainly of an
original type. Their chief divinity is the Ood of War, and amongst their other
gods and angels are the Mother of the Earth, the Angel of the Oak, and the
Archangel of Property. They keep the Friday like the Mohammedans, abstain
from pork, worship the sacred trees, offer sacrifices to the genii of earth and air.
They have priests whose duties are to examine the sick, sprinkle tiie victim's blood
over the people, proclaim the future, prepare the sacred beer, and these dignitaries
end by becoming possessed of all the precious stones, old medals, and chased silver
vases in the country. The Khevsurs are also, perhaps, the only people in the
world who still use armour, coats of mail, arm-pieces, and helmets like those of
mediaeval knights, and formerly general amongst all the Caucasian tribes. Down
to the close of the last century the Chechenz Ingushes still wore the shield
and coats of maU. The traveller is often startled by the sight of these armed

.:^,.::M^,,.L.t^,i^imM^irCt^i MMMl'L.&miUdl^^lS l M

■*-

THE TATARS, TALISHES, SLAVS, AND GERMANS.

110

warriors, who look like lineal descendants of the Crusaders, but whom the law of
vendetta alone compels to go about thus cased in iron. All who have to execute
or fear an act of vengeance appear abroad with all their offensive ond defensive
arms, including the terrible spiked gauntlet, which has left its mark on the features
of most of the natives.

The Tatars, Talishes, Slavs, and Germans.

Although far less numerous than the Georgians in the Eura basin, the Tatars
still occupy nearly all its eastern section below Tiflis. In several districts they
are grouped in compact masses of afar purer type than their kinsmen, the Western
Osmanli. By the Byzantines and Arabs they were all confused, under the general
name of Ehazars, with the peoples at that time predominating on the banks of the
Don and Volga. Although presenting every variety of type from the coarsest to
the noblest, they are in general, scarcely less symmetrical than their Georgian
neighbours, while harbouring, imder a serious and solemn expression, moral qualities
not found in other Caucasian races. Those who have prieserved their freedom are
remarkably sincere, upright, and hospitable, generally very industrious, and superior
to their neighbours as stock-breeders, agriculturists, gardeners, and artisans.
They are often even better instructed than the Russians themselves, for most of
them can read, while many write Turkish very correctly, and some show themselves
familiar with Arabic and Persian.

In some respects the Tatars are the civilising element in Caucasia, for their
language, the T&rki of Azerbeijan, is the general medium of intercourse between
the various tribes, so that all the natives are commonly comprised under the col-
lective name of Tatars. Amongst them are some representatives of the Kimians
and other warlike invaders of Southern Europe, and they could not fail to
have acquired a decisive influence in the country, but for a certain apathy of
character which has caused them to fall into the hands of Armenian speculators
and money-lenders. In their habits those of the Lower Eura, Shirvan, and Baku
approach nearer to the Persians than to the Turks. They seldom pra6tise poly-
gamy, and their women generally work freely with unveiled face. On the whole
they are remarkably tolerant, nor does the Shiah sect take advantage of its decided
ascendancy to persecute either the Sunnite Mohammedans or their Christian
neighbours. In some mixed villages the mayors are chosen alternately from the
Armenians and Tatars, and even on the Persian frontier the Christians assist at
the Shiah celebrations. Thus at Shusha the funeral processions in honour of
Hassan and Hussein are escorted by mounted Cossacks, and attended by military
bands. Yet the fanatical actors often bewail those martyrs of the Prophet's
family by self-inflicted tortures of a most atrocious description, slashing their
heads with knives until they are bathed in gore, burying wooden pegs in their
skull, attaching iron clasps to the cheek bones and nostrils, confining the shoulders
between two sharp swords which pierce the skin at every step, or loading the
arms, breast, and loins with chains and amulets fastened by means of iron hooks

mmumm

mimmm

190

A8IATI0 RUSSIA.

sunk into the flesh. The unhappy victimfl often fall from exhaustion or Ions of
blood, while the dervisheH und priests continue to excite the populace with sougs,
pruyors, and nhouts.

In certain eastern districts dwell the Tats, also zealous Shiah sectaries, descend-
onts of the former Persian rulers of the country, and whoso name is synonymous
with thot of Tajik, current throughout Turkestan. They are found in compact
groups about Baku, and as far north as Kuba. Most of the Lenkoran district, on
the Persian frontier, is also occupied by un Iranian people known as Talishes, who
have long dwelt in a semi-barbarous state in the secluded region between the
highlands and the swamps of the Lower Kura. Their language is not a Persian
dialect, but an independent parallel development, showing a certain affinity to the
Afghan. Next to the Georgians and the Tatars, these Tats and Talish Iranians
occupy the widest ethnical area in Caucasia, although outnumbered by the Arrae-
^nians, who are grouped in the towns, and especially in Tiflis. Besides all these
races there are a few Mongol tribes in the Lower Kura basin, survivors of the old
invaders, who live more or less intermingled with the Tatars along the left bank of
the Alazan between Signakh and Zakatali. The hilly district overlooking Tiflis on
the west is occupied by some Osses, and even Greeks, invited hither to replace the
Tatars in 1829. Lastly, the settled population of Eastern Transcaucasia is com-
pleted by several Russian and German colonists, some banished, others voluntary
emigrants to this region.

The Russian nonconformists, compelled in 1838 and subsequent years to settle
in Transcaucasia, are mostly Molokanes — that is, " Feeders on Milk " — or Dukho-
bortzi — that is, " Wrestlers in Spirit " — from Taurida. Thanks to their co-operative
habits, both are far more prosperous than their Tatar or Georgian neighbours,
though in many respects inferior to other Slav colonists. The Germans who, like
the Russian dissidents, have also settled near Tiflis and Yelizavetpol, live entirely
aloof from the surrounding populations, and by their agricultural skill have con-
verted into gardens the lands conceded to them when they migrated in 1817 from
Wurtemberg. These Suabian colonists seem, in the course of two generations, to
have become remarkably modified under the influence of the physical surroundings.
Although they have contracted no alliances with their Georgian, Armenian, or
Tatar neighbours, they no longer resemble their kinsmen in the fatherland, most
of them being now distinguished by dark hair, black eyes, oval and regular features,
graceful and lithe figures. >

TOPOGRAPHV.

The highest to\(ai in the Eura basin is Ardahan, a stronghold situated in a
fertile cirque at the southern foot of the bliiff surmounted by the fortress of
Ramazan. By its capture in 1877 the Russians became masters of the more
important passes leading towards the Chorukh and Araxis valleys. But eastwards
Ardaha^ still remains unconnected by easy routes with the rest of Transcaucasia,
the volcanic region here traversed by the Eura opposing great obstacles to trade.

■ymt-

TOPOGRAPHY.

181

istion or lom of
ilaco with flongH,

ctaricH, doscend-
is synonymous

und in compact
coran district, on

as Talishcs, who
ion between the

is not a Persian
in affinity to the

Talish Iranians
sd by the Arrae-
Besides all these
vivors of the old
', the left bank of
rlooking Tiflis on
ler to replace the
Bcaucasia is com-
others voluntary

it years to settle
ilk"— orDukho-
their co-operative
gian neighbours,
rermans who, like
tpol, live entirely
il skill have con-
ted in 1817 from
70 generations, to
cal surroundings.
;n, Armenian, or
fatherland, most
reg^ar features,

>ld situated in a
f the fortress of
)rs of the more
But eastwards
>f Transcaucasia,
ibstacles to trade.

One of the river gorges below Arrlnhuii onolosos the celebrated convent of Vardziu,
or Vardzish — that is, " Castlo of Roses "—entirely oxoavuted in the Hoft tufa, which is
liore regularly stratified with layers of black Hcoria. The underground town contains
innumerable cells dis|)OHcd in stories, and connected by galleries edging the preci-
pice 200 foet above the Kura. The larger spaces form either chapcjls, where are
still to bo seen the rcmaius of frescoes, or the so-called summer and winter palaces
of Queen Tamaro.

East of these defiles stands the important fortress of Akalkalaki, on an exposed
but fertile plateau 6,630 feet above sea-level. Akiaka, or Akhaltzik — that is, " New

Fig. 68.— The Suhax Fasb and Mbkk Moumtains.
Bcalu 1 : 9tO,<ro

-45* C5'

45* i5-

L.PG

. SMiln.

Fort " — which was the old Turkish town of Ak-hissar, or " White Fort," is also an
important military town, commanding several of the frontier routes, and in peaceful
times the centre of a considerable trade, since the emigration of the Turks chiefly
occupied by Armenians, with about a thousand Jews. The old mosque of its
citadel, now a church, is one of the finest monnments in Caucasia. The district
abounds in hot springs, amongst M^hich those of Aspinza below Vardzia, and Abbas-
Tuman to the north-west, attract numerous bathers to one of the most umbrageous
and romantic valleys in this re^';,jn. Descending from Akhaltzik towards Tiflis
by the banks of the Kura, we reach the magnificent gorge, whose entrance is
guarded by the pleasant watering-place of Borjom, 2,665 feet above sea-level.

mmmagUgmtmiBmmemi

taiii»swwil>)iiitrr,riiwiiiiiiiiriiii(i ii w

A8UTI0 BUS8IA.

This ia the Huminer rcnort of the woulthy classes from Tiflis, and the ruined build-
ings intcrH|x>rHC<l iiniDUgHt the nuKlem palaces and villas show that it was u lur)f<>
centre of population even l)oforo the sixteenth century. Hero the air is pure and
fresh, water flows in abundance, and every eminence is clothed with forests in which
the ibex uiid wild goat are still hunted.

Snram, though small in size, is a bu.«y town, well known to travellers as a
resting-place on the routo and railway between Poti and Tiflis. It is comnuinded
by a strong custlo, which, according to the legend, the owner endeavoured to render
impregnable by layinv^ the foundation stone on the only son of a widow. Surani
stands at the western extremity of the Earthalian plain, a dried-up lake whose bed
is now extremely fertile. The temporary railway ot pre .at crossing the Suram

Fig. 69.— Thb Kura Valley Bmr»N Qori and Mtsuut.
IlromUMlUpofthcaaMlMiStaC. a«at 1 : MXMW).

AQ,

FvfflHHHflr* ll

ifSfi^^'^^i^^

^ V * •: *^H^^^^^^H^* 1

E^:-'

^ffi^V^Eg

^ Vai....*-<^.t

4i'
DO

^^gj

EoPG

44* 10*

'a^'ao- 1

.•XflM.

Hills will probably be ultimately replaced by another running farther south, and
piercing the Mesk range by a tunnel in the vicinity of Borjom.

Oori, capital of the district, and ethnological centre of Oeorg^a, stands as nearly
as possible in the middle of the old lacustrine basin, not far from the junction of
the Eura, Lakhva, and Mejuda, of which the two latter streams descend from the
country of the Osses. Gori is happily situated in a fertile and well- watered district
at the foot of a bluff crowned by an old citadel. The wheat of this district is the
best in Transcaucasia, and its wines are used in Tiflis for tempering the more
fiery vintages of Eokhetia. On a tertiary rock of molasse formation, 5 miles east
of Gori, lies the troglodytic town of Uflis-tzikhe, no less remarkable than the convent
of Yardzia, and much more accessible to visitors by the railway from Tiflis. The
rock, some 660 feet high, consists of strata of varying hardness, carved, sculptured,
and excavated from base to summit, so as to present the appearance of a pyramidal
group of buildings. These Uflis grottoes were probably at first inhabited by

TOPOOEAPHY.

128

tho ruined build -
at it WU8 a lur{j^>
e air is pure and
forests in which

travellers as a
It is comniunded
ivoured to render

1 widow. Surani
ip lake whose bed
isaiug the Surani

>M'40'

farther south, and

%, stands as neok'ly
m the junction of
descend from the
11- watered district
this district is the
apering the more
ition, 5 miles east
e than the convent
from Tiflis. The
arved, sculptured,
Lce of a pyramidal
Krst inhabited by

luirbarous troglodytes ; but their Huocesimrs were acqiuiintod with tho arts and
I'omforts of life, and in these underground chambers are found the romainH of
Urcok, Roman, Arub, and Dyzuntino architecture.

Mftkhet, standing at tho outlet of the old Lake of Kurthalia, though now an
insigniHcant village, was tho residence of the Georgian kings in tho fourth and
Hfth centuries. It occupies a vital position at tho junction of the main routes from
tho Dariul defile through the Aragva valley, and from the Caspian and Euxine
through the Kuro and Rion basins. Hence after its destruction tho new capital of
Georgia and of all Caucasia was founded in tho same neighbourhood, but removed,
about a thousand years ago, some 13 miles farther south, to avoid tho dangerous proxi-
mity of the Osses. The piles of a bridge thrown across the iCura in 1841 are said to
rest on Roman foundations dating from the time of Pompey. But more interesting
are the ruins of the cathedral founded by King Mirian in 328, and since then
frequently restored.

Tiflia, capital of Caucasia and the largest city in Asiatic Russia, was a more
hamlet on the banks of the Kura till the fifth century, when the seat of Govern-
ment was transferred hither from Mtzkhet. The Georgian term Tiflis, Tphilis, or
Tphilis-Kalaki, means " Hot Town," doubtless in reference to the sulphur spring
rising near the Euro, amidnt the porphyries and schists of the Tsavkjssi fissure.
Yet the name might be equally well applied to it from the sultry summer heat
reflected by the bare rocks of the surrounding heights on the basin enclosing the
city at an elevation of 1,220 feet above the sea. Nothing is visible in every direc-
tion except the slopes of hills or yellow and grey schistous mountains stripped of
the forests formerly covering them, and even of the vegetable humus carried away
by the winds and rains. The Russians have recently endeavoured to restore these
forests, but they have succeeded only in the ravines, on the flats and islands
watered by the Euro. Above the quarter where stood the old town, the mono-
tonous uniformity of the rocky landscape is broken by ramparts, bastions, and
crumbling towers, while the banks of the Euro present a picturesque view with
their three bridges, hanging galleries, low many-coloured housetops, and churches
flanked by belfries terminating with octagonal pyramids. Nevertheless the general
aspect of the place is not cheerful, the grey tones of the brick and wood work con-
tributing to produce a depressing effect on the traveller. In 1874 nearly half of
the houses were still roofed with earth, giving them the appearance of huts, and
forming a strange contrast with the grand edifices in their midst. North-west of
the old town stretch the regular streets of the new quarter, flanked by heavy
buildings, churches, barracks, palaces, in the ultra-Caucasian Russian style. A
broad boulevard, much frequented after sunset, vies in the splendour of its ware-
houses with those of the great European capitals. The town is also constantly
spreading northwards, especially round about the Poti railway terminus, along the
left bank of the Eura, and in the direction of Mtzkhet.

In its motley population Tiflis is the worthy capital of the Caucasian regions.
Although lying within the ethnological limits of Georgia, it is not in a special
sense a Georgian city, and even in 1803 of 2,700 houses four only belonged to families

wmmmmmmm

ssasmmemmMmmmim^

124

A8IATT0 RUSSIA.

of that nation. The AnnonianH, oonntituting ono-thinl of the inhabitantH, are i\w
nioHt nuniorouM olonicnt, whilu niMtlu>r lluHHianH nor Quorgianit amount to ono-Hfth,
and «vcn amoni^Nt tho latter niunt bo inulud(*d tho Inioriun and Miiigrcliun " Lowitn
of w{hhI and drawtTM of wat(>r." * A lurj^o ntim))c>r of tho |)<<oplo aro unniarriod
inuni^runtM, toniiN)rary roHidentM ruiHing tho nialo population to about two-thirds of
tho whole, und partly aeeountin)^ for the prevailing depravity noticed by all
travellers. Tho bazaars aro largely fi-tHiuontod and woU stocked with arms, carpets,
silks, English or Russian cottons, I'aris fancy goods, and other wares. Tho skilful
Armenian jewellers produce various articles of an original type. The baths form
another centre of social activity, ospecially for the Russian, Armenian, and
lioorgiun ladies, who here occupy themselves with the pleasures of tho toilet.
The city has no remarkable monuments, but possesses a rich natural-history
collection, and in tho governor's palace may be seen a fine plan in relief of tho
Caucasus range. Amongst the numerous learned associations noteworthy is tho
Geographical Society, which is attached to that of St. Petersburg, and has pub-
lished valuable documents on Caucasian geography and ethnography. Another
institution has been formed to collect the old manuscripts of the Transcaucasian
languages.

During the oppressive summer heats tho parks, pleasure grounds, and botanic
gardens in the neighbourhood are frequented by thousands, glad to escape from the
close and foul air of the narrow streets. The officials and wealthy traders now also
flock to the villas and hostelries of the surrounding uplands. The chief " Sani-
torium " is Kojor, whose houses are scattered at an elevation of from 4,400 to
5,000 foot along the slopes of a mountain conunanding the Tiflis basin, and where
the Georgian kings had also their summer residence. Here are the remains of
some ancient forests, and Manglis, Beliy-ElCkch, and other more remote retreats in
the heart of the hills are still surrounded by extensive woodlands. The numerous
alabaster quarries of this district supply the gypsum required by the Tiflis builders.
Farther south volcanoes pierced by craters and furrowed by crevasHes have accu-
mulated vast terraces of lava above the fertile Somkhet district, which is watered
by an affluent of the Eura. This country was long the domain of the Orbeliani, a
princely family of Chinese origin, who some twenty-three centuries ago settled here
as conquerors, followed by Eastern retainers of all races. Various ruins still testify
to the former power of the Orbeliani in this region.

On one of the numerous streams to the south-west of Tiflis stands the famous
Shamkhor column, already mentioned by Abulfeda in the thirteenth century. This
finely proportioned minaret, with its pedestal, frieze, capital, and terminal piece, is
180 feet high ; but it is in a very bad state of repair, already inclining from the

* Population of Tiflis in 1876 according to nationalities :-

Armenians

Georgians of all branches

Russians

Germans

Tatars and Turlcs .

Persians

37,808

21,623

ig,S74

2,006

2.310

1,892

Poles
Jews
Qreeks .
Osses
French .
Sundries

1,146

267
1,3M

In boarding-houses, barracks, hospitals, and priaoni, 14,473. Of thetJ 30,147 ore males, 37,877 females-

labitantu, ore t]\v
(unt to ono-fiftli,
igreliun " hewiTN
lie uro unmarried
out two-thirds of
r noticed by ull
ith arras, coriiets,
rea. Tho Hkilful
Tbe baths fonii
Armenian, and
gg of tho toilet.
1 natural-history
I in relief of tho
oteworthy is tho
irg, and has pub-
raphy. Another
le Transcaucasian

imds, and botanic

escape from the
Y traders now also
The chief " Sani-
Df from 4,400 to

1 basin, and where
re the remains of
remote retreats in
». The numerous
the Tiflis builders.
jvasses have accu-
, which is watered
)f the Orbeliani, a
es ago settled here
8 ruins still testify

stands the famous

ttth century. This

terminal piece, is

Inclining from ihe

-— « -S WJ S B W« ' -~'

TOPOGRAPHY.

125

perpendicular, and the Eufic inscription on the frieze in no longer legible. It dates
probably from the ninth century. The basin of the Shainkhor, which flows by the
village of like name, is the most important in Caucasia for its mineral wealth. In
a cirque in these porphyry mountains, at an elevation of 5,000 feet, are situated the
Kedabek works for reducing the copper ores extracted from the neighbouring
mines. This establishment, purchased in 1863 by some German engineers, gives

Fig. 60.— TiFLiB.
Soda 1 : 86,000.

1,080 Tard*.

constant employment to 1,000 Persian, Armenian, Tatar, and Greek workmen, and
works up, on an average, from 8,000 to 10,000 tons of ore with about 6 per cent, of
metal, partly purchased by the Government for the artillery service. It has
developed quite a network of railways, and disposes of about 36,000 acres of forests
and pastures, and one of the shafts has already been sunk to a depth of nearly
2,000 feet. Near Soglik, in the some basin, are some alum deposits, as rich as those

JwaiMrttflH^

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>i»ffijT; "'v^f ^fj..::' r.,;:'«»sss®> rfa.is's^cSffir!

A^S

1S6

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

of Tolfa, near Giyita Yecchia, and covering an urea of over 12 square roilea. These
mines have been worked since the time of the Romans, as shown by numerous
remains found on the spot. Iron and cobalt are also worked in this part of the
Yelizavetpol district.

Some 120 miles south-east of Tiflis lies the old city of Ganja, formerly capital
of a khanate of like name, and now renamed Yelizavetpol, as capital of the Russian
province of Yelizavetpol. It existed in the eleventh century, but some miles from
its present site, where are still to be seen the ruins of the old place, popularly
attributed to Alexander the Great, who never visited the Eura basin. A little
farther south-east stood Partav, the old capital of the kingdom of Agvania, or

Fig. 61. — Yblizavbtfol and VioimrT.
n«iii the Map of the Bawian Staff. Soale 1 : 000,000.

.11

Albania, in the district watered by the Tertor above its junction with the Kura.
Partav was destroyed in the tenth entury, according to the Arab historians, by
" R(is8i " advent rers from beyond the Caucasus, and its site is now indicated by
the village of Barda, or Berdaya. This region was certainly far more densely
peopled formerly than at present, and Yelizavetpol itself, rebuilt in the sixteenth
century on its present site, was evidently a considerable place, as shown by its
extensive ruins and the fine Persian mosque erected here by Shah Abbas. Most of
its windowless houses are bitilt of a hardened clay, which is very durable in this
dry climate, but which, with the ruins, contributes to g^ve the place an appearance
of g^reat age. With its fine plantations it covers a large area, some 12 miles in
circumference ; yet it is so unhealthy that the ofiicials are all obliged to remove in

TOPOGRAPHY.

summer to the banks of the romantic " Blue Lake " (Qok-gdl), to Ilelenendorf, and
Haji-Kend, near the wooded hills of the south. Yelizavetpol is even noted for a
local endemic, the so-called godovik, or " yearly leprosy," so named because it lasts
about one 3'ear in defiance of all remedies. This loathsome disease is probably due

127

to the twenty-two cemeteries close to the town, iningling their contents with the
numerous irrigating rills fronii the river Oanja, whose waters are often absorbed in
this way before reaching the Eura. The skilful horticultiu^ of its Tatar, Suabian,
and Slav inhabitants has brought the fruits of this district to great perfection, and
its cherries especially are tihe finest in Caucasia. They also occupy themselves with

128

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

the cultivation of tobacco, cotton, sericulture, spinning, and weaving, while the trade
of YelizaviJtpol is chiefly in the hands of the Armenians.

Shusha, the largest town in this government, is also peopled by Armenians and
Tatars. Standing 3,500 feet above the sea on an augite porphyry terrace enclosed
by an amphitheatre of hills, its climate is one of the severest in Caucasia, while its
flag-paved streets, stone houses, fortified buildings, towers, and posterns give it the

•

Fig. 63.— Baku and Cafh Bail-Buhni.

aspect of a mediaeval European town. T^ Vrmeuian traders, who deal chiefly in
silk, have extensive relations with Tiflis, Moscow, and Marseilles.

Telav, capital of Kakhetia, and in the eleventh century the residence of a " King
of Kings," is now merely a picturesque village, standing with its ruined forts on the
summit of a blu£E overlooking the Alazau valley. Yet it has a considerable wino
trade, and but for its inconvenient situation might possibly recover some of its former
importance. Signakh, also commanding the Alazan valley from an eminence

■s^ssss^^^

-**-

TOPOGBAPHY.

120

, while the trade

f Annenians and
terrace enclosed
aucaaia, while its
stems give it the

J_-r!

>Ko*:

iio deal chiefly in

dence of a " King
(lined forts on the
considerahle wino
some of its former
om an eminence

Fig. 64.— Lbnkoran.

Fram th« Map of the Bunian Staff.

Scale 1 : 600^000.

2,600 feet high, was originally a fortress and " place of refuge," as indicated by its
Tatar name, but has gradually become a thriving commercial town, with a prepon-
derating Armenian population. Nukha, at the foot of the Great Caucasus, is
peopled chiefly by Tatars engaged mostly in sericulture and silk-weaving. Here
the Khan Hussein built a strong fortress in
1765, which encloses an extremely handsome
palace in Persian style. It does a large export
trade in raw silk, and since the ravages of the
silk disease in the European nurseries it is yearly
visited by hundreds of French and Italian
buyers.

Shamakhi, the Shemakha of the Russians,
capital of the old province of Shirvan, and
formerly the largest city in Transcaucasia, was
said to have had a population of 100,000 in the
seventeenth century. But it has suffered much
from earthquakes, and still more from the hand
of man, having been wasted first by Peter the
Great, and then by Nadir Shah. Yet ever
since the removal of the seat of Government
to Baku it has remained the most popidous place
in the province. It is chiefly engaged in wool-
spinning, dyeing, and weaving carpets in the
Persian style, said to be the best and most
durable in all Asia, and surpassing even those
of the French looms in beauty of design, rich-
ness of colour, and cheapness. Its seedless
pomegranates are also famous throughout the
East.

Baku, the present capital of the eastern
province of Transcaucasia, exhibits quite an
Asiatic appearance, with its low flat-roofed
houses, taU minarets and palace of its former
khans. Close to the blue waters of its bay
stands the so-called " Maiden's Tower," a
truncated cone, originally, doubtless, a watch-
tower, but now used as a lighthouse. But being
otherwise destitute of monuments, the dirty,

irregular, and dusty town of Baku, and centre of the naphtha trade, possesses no
impoirtance except as the Caspian seaport of all Transcaucasia. In its deep and
sheltered roadstead at least fifty vessels are always anchored, some in 20 feet of
water within a few yards of the shore, and although still unconnected by rail either
with Stavropol or Tiflis, it has the largest trade of any Caspian port except
Astrakhan. But it has scarcely any industries, and even all the naphtha and

,iaiu)M.

nnii-'i lillniiliiii

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L ' .U.v.lbJ^-f <*'«.>^£;uu^,1.

180

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

petroleum refining works are carried on at Balakhani and Maslitagi, in the
neighbourhood of the " fire springs."

8alyani, or Salyan, the chief town of the Exira delta, and standing near its
apex, derives considerable importance from its productive fisheries and horticulture.
Lenkoran, or Lenkorud, a maritime town near the Persian frontier, lacks the
natural advantages of Baku ; for although its Tatar name means " roadstead," it is
greatly exposed to the winds and surf, and its shipping is obliged to oast anchor
about 2 miles from the coast. The Mard-ab, or " Dead Waters," of the surround-
ing district also render its climate very unhealthy. In these swampy g^'ounds
multitudes of ducks and other aquatic birds are taken by the net, and the cultiva-
tion of rice, together with a rich Indian flora, has been introduced by the Hindu
traders.

South of Lenkoran stands the equally inconvenient and insalubrious little port
of Astara, at the mouth of a river of like name, which here marks the frontier of
the Russian and Persian Empires. From Persia, Astara imports dried fruits, gall
nuts, and raw cotton, in exchange for cotton stuffs, iron and copper ware, and
samovars. It has a yearly trade of nearly 1,000,000 roubles.

VII.— RUSSIAN ARMENIA.

ARARAT, ALAQOZ, PLATEAU OF LAKE OOK-GHAI, AKD ABAXIH BAS

Thk Araxis basin presents on the whole a marked geographioal unity, forming,
north of the Iranian tableland, a broad semicircular zone, with its convex mia
facing southwards, and everjrwhere enclosed by lofty mountains, except near the
Caspian, where the hills fall towards the alluvial plains of the Euia and Araxis.
Neither of these rivers forms a uniform ethnological domain, for Armenians,
Georgians, and Tatars dwell on the banks of the former, while the Araxis valley
is occupied by Armenians, Kurds, and other Tatar peoples. Still the Armenians
everywhere preponderate not only in culture and influence, but aLso in numbers.
Politically also the Araxis- basin is divided between the tiiree u>nverg^g states,
the region of all the head-Btreams belonging to Turkey, and most ci the right bonk
of the main stream to Persia, while more than half of the whole basin, indudihg
the best strategical points for a descent on the Euphrates valley, ore now Riueian
territory. Russia is thus mistress of the famous Mount Ararat, and of the con-
vent of Echmiadzin, the religious capital of the Armenians, and centre of their
nationality.

Oroobapht — ^Ararat — ^Ala-ooz.

North of the sources of the Araxis the mountains sloping northwards towards
the Euxine are cut up by ittvines and glens into irregular chains and spurs, such as
the Kirechli, Soghanli, and Childir-dagh, which, north of the Ears basin, merge in
the lacustrine plateau bordered eastwards by the Abul and Samsar volcanoes.
Although presenting serious obstacles to intercommunication, none of these ranges

■*»-

OBOOEAPHY— ABAEAT— ALA-OOZ.

181

lashtagi, in tho

rtanding near its
and horticulture,
ontier, lacks the

roadstead," it is
ed to cast anchor
of the surround-
swampy g^'ounds

and the cultiva-
led by the Hindu

ubriouB little port

'ks the frontier of

dried fruits, gall

copper ware, and

LXI8 BAS

al unity, forming,
h its conrex aide
is, except near the
Eura and Araxis.
1, lor Armenians,
) the Araxis valley
ill tlie Armenians
t also in numbers,
converging states,
I; of the right bank
le basin, including
r, are now Russian
,t, and of tiie oon-
id centre of their

Dithwards towards
and spurs, such as
irs basin, merge in
Samsar volcanoes.
>ne of these ranges

attain the altitude of the Caucasus and Anti-Caucasus, tho highest summit being
the Eizil-dagh, or " Red Mountain," between the Ears basin and Lake Childir,
which is only 10,460 feet, and consequently below the normal snow-line. South of
the region of the Araxis head-streams the highlands become narrower, but more
elevated, here forming a single parting range running east and west between the
Araxis and Euphrates or Murad valleys, with several extinct craters over 10,000
feet high, and culminating with the Ferli-dagh in the centre, and the Chingil,

¥itf. b(.— Bbcint RrwiAif CoxauiiiTS.
1 : 8,000,000.

OadMbytbetiMtr
ofSt. Stefeao.

Anaavd
inisrs.

TnuBMuoMia before
tlMWar.

near the eastern pass leading from Erivan to Bayazid, both about 10,830 feet above
the sea.

Several streamlets flowing to the Araxis indicate, by their name of Tuzla-su, the
nature of their waters, which spring from extensive salt beds. North of the
Perli-dagh stands Mount Eulpi, one of the largest masses of rock-salt in the world,
rising on a tertiary plain near the point where the Araxis passes through a narrow
basalt gorge above its junction with the Arpa-chai. The surrounding hills,
destitute of vegetation, and composed of red, blue, green, or grey marls, impart to

::t;

mftw"

188

ASIATIC RU88U.

tho landHcapo a most motley appearance. The Eulpi salt mines, which are
confined to a central layer from 100 to 210 feet thick, have probably been longer
worked than any other out of China. The Armenians tell us how Noah drew his
supplies from this source, and even show the very spot where he began his mining
operations. In the abandoned parts of the works hammers and other implements
are frequently picked up, dating from the stone age. These objects are all made
of diorite, a rock found nowhere in the district, and which must have been procured
from distant countries. The mining operations are still carried on in a rude
manner, and owing to the absence of roods, the produce is limited to the Tiflis and

Fig. 66.— AiUBAT.
nom the Map of UmBdmUb Staff. Sod* 1 : 8«M)00.

H^:*^

■/' r^.

?■ -.V ■,/

44» lO'-

Erivan markets. Between 1836 and 1876 the average yield has risen from 4,000
to 16,300 tons.

Ararat, " historical centre of the Armenian plateau," and central point of the
line of tablelands stretching across the eastern hemispheres from the Cape of Good
Hope to Bering Strait, rises above the eastern continuation of the volcanic chain
nmning between the Araxis and the Euphrates. ' But its snowy crest towers to
such a height above the surrounding mountains that they become dwarfed to mere
hills, while the hilly plateaux seem to stretch like plains at its base. Its very
name of Ararat, probably of Aramaean origin, is synonymous with ^upereminence,
while its Armenian designation, Masis, is also said to mean " grand," or " sublime."

&:'SSSWS?S

r""::mimimsm

OBOOEAPHY— ABAEAT— ALA-OOZ.

lines, which arc
lubly been longer
«r Noah drew his
}cgan his mining
ather implements
octs are all made
ive been procured
Eld on in a rude
I to the Tiflis and

The Turks call it Agri-dagh, or " Steep Mountain," and the Persians Koh-i-Nuh,
or "Noah's Mount." This superb muss, gronder than the Hellenic Olympusc-s,
naturally became a sacred object to the peoples of the plains, the mysterious
summit whence men and animals descended to people the world. The Armenians
show the very spot where Noah's ark grounded, ond where it is still guarded by
genii armed with flaming swords.*

Viewed from Nakhichevan, Ararat looks like a compact conic moss rising on
the north-west horizon ; but from Bayazid on the south, and Erivan on the north,
it is seen to consist of two distinct mountains disposed in the direction of the
Coucosus— Great Ararat, with a double peak in the north-west ; Little Ararat, with
a rounded crest in the south-east, and with a deep intervening depression. Both

Fig. 67. — ^HovMT Ababat.

EeFG.

I risen from 4,000

mtral point of the
the Cape of Good
the volcanic chain
wy crest towers to
le dwarfed to mere
its base. Its very
ith iBupereminenoe,
id," or " sublime."

masses, with their (»unterforts, occupy an area of about 380 square miles between
the plains of Bayazid and Erivon. Like those of Etna, their slopes ore almost
everywhere gently inclined, although the ascent is -rendered very difficult lower
down by occasional lava streams, and higher up by the snows, nearly always
softened under the solar raye in summer. The Armenians speak of the prodigies
by which too daring shepherds hove ever been prevented from scaling the " Mother
of the World," and the failures of Toumefort and Morier lent a colour to their
statements. When Parrot at last scaled the highest crest in 1829, they unani-

* Elevniioiu of the Irazia and neighbouring plaina

Feet,

Great Ararat
Little Ararat
Intermediate Col

16,760

11,080

8,78d

Bayazid (citadel)
Echmiadzin .
Krivan .

6,634
2,810
3,200

^mimmseKsiim

jgateiaBCMi'iga.wffj' v' . w . t i ^f 'iji W 'fri hwaw iif j i w i ^ ii j itJ' ii 'ff^-'.^

;^JT.«r>'»«',a»fjf."f."

»ami^mmmim

184

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

mouHly (lonicd the truth of hiA account, and for a long time micceeded in casting ii
doubt on hlH veracity, until the exploit was repeated by other adventurers. In
1860 Khodzko pawed five whole days on the auinmit in order tx) prosecute his work
of triangultttion in Caucasia. He passed thence south-east to Mount Halivan,
204 miles off, and north- west to Mount Elbruz, distant 264 miles, corresponding by
means of heliotropic signals with the astronomers stationed on Mount Akh-dagh, in
the centre of the Qok-chai plateau.

At an elevation of 11,600 feet, Ararat is still everywhere clothed with vegeta-
tion ; but herbage ceases at 12,600 feet, while nothing occurs except on Alpine
flora between 13,200 and 14,300, which marks the line of perpetual snow. The
species of the Upper Ararat are all either identical with, or allied to, those of the
Alps, but they are much less numerous, a fact doubtless due to the greater dryness
of the atmosphere on the Armenian mountain. Its fauna also is comparatively
very poor. The wolf, hyena, and perhaps the panther, haunt the thickets at its
base about the Araxis ; but higher up nothing is met except an ibex, a polecat, and
a species of hare.

Although only 3° of latitude farther south than the Pyrenees, the lower
slopes are free of snow much earlier, and the snow-line itself is about a mile lower
down than on the Iberian range. StiU the snow reaches much further down in the
ravines of erosion by which its flanks are furrowed. In several gorges these snows
become true glaciers, of which the chief is that of St. James, whose cirque has
undoubtedly been formed by a former eruptioa analogous to that of the Yal del
Bove on Mongibello. In more remote times the glaciers reached much lower, as
shown by the scored and polished surface of the traohite rooks.

Notwithstanding the vast quantity of snow lying on its slopes, Ararat is almost
entirely destitute of water. Wagner failed to discover anything beyond two
cprings at its base, from which mere rills trickle away amongst the stones. Hence
its sides remain arid and parched, while the neighbouring mountains, also of
volcanic origin, discharge torrents numerous enough to form vast and deep lakes
at their feet. During dry seasons Ararat becomes altogether uninhabitable, the
want of shade and moisture driving away the flocks, and even the Inrds of the air.
It is therefore probable that the water from the melting snows disappears in
crevasses, or beneath the ashes and lavas, either collecting in underground lakes,
or forming a network of hidden streams. These waters, transformed to steam by
the subterraneous fires, may perhaps explain the terrible eruption of 1840, when
an old crater above the convent of St. James suddenly reopened, ejecting a dense
vapour far above the smnmit of Ararat, and diffusing sulphurous exhalations
round about. The mountain groaned threateningly, casting up from the fissure
vast quantities of stones and rocks, some weighing as much as 5 tons. Jets of
steam escaped through niunerous crevasses, and springs of hot water bubbled up from
the bed of the Araxis. The convent itself disappeared beneath the debris, together
with the rich and populous village of Arguri, supposed by the Armenians to be
the oldest in the world, and to mark the spot where Noah planted the vine on
leaving the ark. There perished on this occasion, besides the 2,000 inhabitants

OEOOBAl'HY— ARARAT-ALA-G6Z.

sded in casting a
idvonturen. In
rosocuto his work
Mount Halivan,
jorreaponding by
iint Akh-dagh, in

bed with vegeta-
xoept an Alpine
tual snow. Tbo
1 to, those of the
) greater dryness
is comparatively
le thickets at its
ex, a polecat, and

snees, the lower
lout a mile lower
ther down in the
>rgeB these snows
(rhose cirque has
it of the Yal del
1 much lower, as

Ararat is almost
ing beyond two
e stones. Hence
ountains, also of
t and deep lakes
ininhabitable, the
) Inrds of the air.
WB disappears in
idergrbund lakes,
med to steam by
m of 1840, when
, ejecting a dense
trous exhalations
I from the fissure

5 tons. Jets of
r bubbled up from
e debris, together
Armenians to be
ated the vine on
2,000 inhabitants

of Arguri, several thousands at Envan, Nakhichevan, ond Hoyajsid, victims of the
(•(irthquako felt at those places. Four days afterwords a fresh disaHtcr doHtroyMl
nouriy all the land under oultivotion about Arguri. Tht' wiiter und slush, collected
in the crat«r portly from the mdfing snows, burst their Iwrriers, overflowing in
long streams of mud down the sIojkjs, and converting the plain into a vast morass.
The Arguri eruption is the only one mentioned in historic times, though Ararat

Fig. 68.— Ala-ooi.
Um Map of Um BuMlMt Staff. Soalt 1 : 800,000.

.SMUm.

has been the scene of frequent and violent earthquakes. The statement of
Reineggs that he saw flames and smoke emitted from the s'lmmit in 1785
is more than doubtful, for the phenomenon was witnessed by none of the
natives.

The Allah-ghoz, or rather Alo-gdz ("Motley Mountain"), faces Ararat from
the opposite side of the Erivan plain. It is a volcanic mass, with a truncated
cone 13,900 feet high, but with its counterforts occupying a wider area than its

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£=3Bbi

186

ASIATIC HUH8U.

hnuffhty rival, lin Invn utrpaniii dencond iiouth and «wt towanln the Araxin
vulU'V — wont iind north towardN AU»Xiindra|K)l, in th«) Ari>u-«hai IwiHin. It takes itH
name from tho divorHo coloiirR of ita Hcoriiu, pumico, and <•*»' ' ini.v, vun'oti hero and
then' with horlMigo and bright flowers. Throo of tho o' i . . orH now form r a many
Hniall lakes, although but fow streams roach tho plains, ' ' m > un^ waters gone-

Fig. 00.— Lake Oox-chai.
Trom th« Hap uf tlw llumian Staff. Soal* I I I.OOO.nnn

44050

4a'so Z oCG

rally disappearing beneath the scorisB, and feeding tlie Aiger-gol, a lake lying
south of the mountain, and draining through the Eara-su to the Araxis.

Lake Gok-chai — ^The Earabaoh — Flora and Fauna,

Isolated like Ararat, the Ala-goz is connected only by low ridges with the
northern highlands. These run parallel with the Caucasus, and connect the
volcanic chain of the Akhalkalaki plateau with the mountains overlooking Lake

LAKE nOK-rnAI— THE KARAHAOH— PT.ORA AND FAUNA.

187

anlH the AnixiN
iNin. It tnkcs itn
, vuHcd here und
)W form f A inuiiy
itiif^ wulufM gvnu-

50 C oCG

gol, a lake lying
iraxis.

LUNA,

f ridges with the
and connect the
overlooking Lake

(!ok-«hui, euHt of Krivun. Theno inountuinH — Hoiiikhi-t, I*nnih(ik, and otherH from
H.OOO to 10,000 feet high — Htuiul on iiuch an elevutwl pluteiiu that the rulgv \h
camily Hurniuunted hy {iummw upprouehiHl by lony; iiiul ^i ni\y Nloping indineN.
The KHhek-Muidun I'umh, on the trade route lM<tw(H<n TifliH mid Kriviin, NtiiiidH iit
nil altitude of 7,'2W feet at the north-went angle of a hilly plateau, wliore the
InterstHition of the various axes of the (^uueanuH fonnn a labyrinth of chainN radi-
ating in all directionn, although mainly nuining north-went and mmth-oaHt, parallel

with the Oreat ('aucaiius.

T\g 70.— Tim ALAroLARtM Lava RniiAMt.
From Dnbola do Mnntp^Ttim PmIw i : (MW nno.

The ridges maintain a moan
uniform elevation, rising
ovorywhero about 3,300
foet above tho plateau
fonning their common base,
although a few extinct cones
attain a relative height of
5,000 feet, or about 13,330
above sea-level. This inter-
section of ridges of uniform
elevation explains the forma-
tion of a vast lake filling a
cavity in the plateau 6,440
foot above the Euxine, and
in summer only discharging
its waters through Zanga,
south-west towards the
Araxis. This is the Qok-
chai, or " Blue Water," of
the Tatars, and the Sevanga
of the Armenians. Although
550 square miles in extent,
or two and a half times
larger than Lake Geneva,
Chardin is the first European
traveller who mentions it.
The mean depth varies from
150 to 250 feet, but its
waters, fresh in the northern
section, slightly brackish in the south, harbour five species only of fish, including
the trout and salmon, although these are so numerous that from 2,000 to 3,000
trout have been taken at one haul.

The lake forms an irregular triangle, contracted towards the centre by two
advancing headlands, and as it is everywhere encircled by grey and snowy moun-
tains, the landscape presents on the whole a grand and solemn, though somewhat
sombre aspect. The lava and porphyry slopes are perfectly bare down to the
10

45'tiO'

eMiiM.

mgjlgtggigtgmm

lUaMiMMdaiiMiMnMMMMii

iirnniit. ■^-

" ''< iuV^-*?LTW'^jJi4W41iri--'{^

188

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

water's edge, while of the old cities nothing now survives except crumhling masses,
beneath which numerous coins have been found dating from the time of the
Sassanides. The villages also lie hidden away in sheltered nooks, so that little is
visible beyond a few hamlets half buried in the ground, and the so-called " Tombs
of the Giants," numeroiis tumuli scattered over the plateau, which is under snow
eight months in the year. Nearly all the cultivable land has long remained fallow,
so that the country has again become a desert. Till recently no craft navigated
the lake, which, notwithstanding the fierce storms sweeping down from the hills,
is often ice-bound in winter. On a volcanic islet in the north-west comer stands
the convent of Sevan, noted throughout Armenia since the ninth century. It would
be hard to conceive a more forlorn place of exile than this bleak island of bluck
rocks, whose inhabitants are condemned to silence except for four days in the year.
But the villages of the neighbouring plateau have become convalescent retreats for
the people of the unhealthy town of Erivan, where dangerous fevers are endemic.

East of the Gok-chai and its encircling volcanoes, conspicuous amongst which
ia the Alapolarim, the labyrinth of intersecting ranges is continued south-east-
wards, under the collective name of Karabagh, the Rani of the Georgians.
Although the ravines preserve their snows throughout the year, not more than
three or four of the crests in this region rise above the snow-line. Such are the
Garnish (12,460 feet), source of the Terter, the Eazangol-dagh, and its southern
neighbour, the Eapujish (12,380 feet), continued southwards towards the town of
Ordubat by steep rugged hills crowned with peaks. South of these culminating
points of Eastern Armenia, and beyond the gorge of the Araxis, rise other moun-
tains of equal height, and similarly furrowed with.supwy raianes. Between the
chain commanded by Mount Eapudish and the Shuaha Koimtains lies the' Zangezdr
basin, at a mean elevation of 4,000 feet, apparently an old lacustrine depression,
like the Gok-chai, whose waters have been drawn off by the Berguahet and
Akera Rivers, which unite before reaching the Araxis Talley. In the centre of
this basin the conic Ishikli, or Eachal-dagh, rises to a height of over 10,000 feet,
and the scorise and ashes ejected by the surrounding volcanoes have been accumu-
lated on the bed of the old.^lake to a thickness of several hundred yards, since deeply
furrowed by torrents.

The flora of these highlands bears a remarkable resemblance to that of ' the
European Alpine regions. Here are the same beeches, oaks, aspens^ undergrowth,
and flowering plant|. The upland valleys, covered with a thick layer of black
loam, are very fertile, whence probably the name of Earabagh, or " Black Garden,"
by which this coimtry is known. But on the arid slopes, with the thermometer
at 104° Fahr. during the summer months, little grows beyond the wild sage
and other aromatic plants, while the fauna is chiefly represented by reptiles,
scorpions, and formidable tarantolos (Phalangtum araneoides). The Earabagh
horses, however, which climb the cliffs like goats, are said to be i^e finest in
Transcaucasia.

THE ABAXIS BASIN.

189

b crumbling masses,
the time of the
is, 80 that little is
e so-called " Tombs
hich is under snow
ig remained fallow,
no craft navigated
iwn from the hills,
-west comer stands
century. It would
eak island of black
ir days in the year,
alescent retreats for
ivers are endemic,
ious amongst which
ntinued south-east-
of the Georgians,
ear, not more than
line. Such are the
and its southern
owards the town, of
[ ^^ c^^inating
is, rise other moun-
ines. Between the
IS lies the' Zangezdr
sustrine depression,
;he Bergushet and
In the centi'e of
if over 10,000 feet,
have been cccimiu-
L yardB, since deeply

nee to that of ■ the
ipens^ undergrowth,
lick layer of black
)r " Black Garden,"
bh the thermometer
ond the wild sage
sented by reptiles,
\. The Earabagh
to be the finest in

The Araxis Basix.

The Araxis, or Aras, pre-eminently the Armenian river, rises beyond Bussian
territory to the south of Erzerftm, and receives its first tributaries from the Bingol-
dagh volcano, the " Mountain of the Thousand Streams," some of which flow south-
wards to the Euphrates. After entering Bussian Transcaucasia its still feeble
volume is doubled by the junction of the Arpa-chai, or Akhurean, descending
from the volcanic plateaux of Alexandrapol and the Ala-goz. Thanks to this
supply, it is enabled to contribute largely to the irrigation of the Erivan basin,
which would else become a desert waste. Diverted southwards by the Gok-chai
and Karabagh highlands, it escapes from the old lacustrine bed through a narrow
rocky gorge with falls from 200 to 270 feet broad, where its seething waters
descend between steep rugged cliffs at an average rate of 15 feet in 1,000 yards,
falling at one point as much as 45 feet in the same distance. Ordubat, above the
Arasbar gorge, is still 3,090 feet above the Caspian, yet within 60 miles of this
place the river has already reached the lowlands. After receiving the Bergushet
it sweeps roimd the southern base of the Diri-dagh, beyond which it is joined by
several torrents from the Persian highlands, ultimately joining the Kura after a
course of about 470 miles. At the Diri-dagh it is crossed by the £h(idaferin
Bridge, attributed traditionally to Pompey, but which is certainly of more recent
date. " Higher up are the ruins of another bridge, referred by the natives to
Alexander the Great, but which may well be a Roman structure. Below that of
Ehiidaferin there are no other bridges, and here the former hydraulic works and
irrigation canals have been mostly abandoned, so that instead of promoting the
fertility of the steppe, they combine with the swamps of the Eora to render this
tract of the Caspian seaboard all but uninhabitable. The Araxis is said to be
showing a tendency to trend more to the right, and again separate itself from the
Kura, and flow independently to the sea, as in the time of Strabo.

The Araxis basin is exposed to greater extremes of. temperature than most
regions in Western Asia. The climate of Erivan is even more severe than that
of Tiflis, the temperature falling in winter to '—20° Fahr., and rising in summer to
104° and even 110° Fahr. Hence the frequency of malignant fevers and other
epidemics in Erivan. "In Tiflis," says the Armenian, "the young are not to be
distinguished from the old; in Erivan the living are no better than the dead."
Fortunately during the summer heats the Erivan plain is swept at nightfall by a
cool north or north-west wind, blowing fiercely from the Ala-g^z highlands. It
generally beg^s to blow about five p.m. and lasts the greater part of the night,
but is accompanied by such clouds of dust, and even sand, that the inhabitants are
confined to their houses during its prevalence. All the poplars in the neighbour-
hood of Erivan are slightly inclined toward the south-east.

These pyramidal poplars are a conspicuous feature of the landscape in the
Araxis basin. But a more remarkable plant is the nblbond, a species of elm,
whose leafy branches form a vast canopy of foliage absolutely impenetrable to the
solar raya. Although one of the finest omameatal trees in the world, it is found

•■%fitfn'i"vi i ii i i iii l ii ' iii ' iiii ' i f'w iii

-ii!,-\--^f:^jy»f:i-A\

\^ i\ l! ^ Mii^ \i9tl

140

A8UTI0 EUSSIA.

nowhere beyond the limits of Russian Armenia. The apricot grows in all tlio
gardens, and rice, cotton, and sesame are also cultivated, besides a vine producing u
strong M'ine of a brown colour, somewhat like sherry or madeira. But this vine
has to be buried underground in winter, and regularly watered in summer. In
this climate everything perishes, and the ground becomes baked like burnt clay,
except where the irrigating channels convert the desert to a green oasis. The
former irrigation works were all developed by the Persians, and an English
engineer now proposes to distribute the waters of the Arpa-chai over the
desert plains of Sardarabad. Meantime field operations are carried on in the
most primitive fashion. Although skilful traders, the Armenians are bad agri-
culturists, but scarcely worse than their Tatar neighbours. In several districts
the land is also exposed to the ravages of wild boars, which haunt the brush-
wood and sedgy banks of the Lower Araxia. Yet the zealous Tatars hold these
unclean bsasts in such horror that they will neither soil their hands by pursuing
them themselves, nor allow others to interfere with them.

Inhabitants —The Armenians.

The chief nation in the Araxis basin, numerically the fourth in Caucasia, and
second to the Russians alone in influence, are the Armenians, or Hai, Ha'ik, or
Haikan, as they call themselves. The term Armenia, of Aramaean origin and
probably meaning "highlands," is extremely vague, and applied in a general
way to all the region of plateaux overlooked by Ararat. Armenia proper, or
Hayasdan — that is, land of the Ha'ik — has shifted its borders from century to
century with the political vicissitudes and migrations of the race. At present it
comprises most of the Araxis basin, a large portion of the Eura valley, all the
Upper Euphrates basin as far as the junction of the two main head-streams, the
shores of Lake Van, and a few isolatevl tracts in Persia about Lake Urumiyah.
The centre of g^vity of the nation has been gradually removed northwards from
the neighbourhood of Lake Van and the Eastern Euphrates valley, where a village
still bears the national name of Ha'ik. But from all parts of the globe the scat-
tered fragments of the people turn their eyes towards Ararat and the plains of the
Araxis as their true fatherland. Here they are still found in the most conipact
and homogeneous masses, and here the Armenian tongue is spoken in the
greatest purity, approaching nearest to the old language 'rtill employed in the
churches, but which has ceased to be citrrent since the close of the fourteenth
century.

At the time of the Russian conquest in 1828 — 30, about 130,000 Armeniane of
Persia and Turkey migrated to the Araxis and Eura valleys, here replacing the
Eurds and Tatars, who in their turn took refuge in the lands that had remained
in the power of the Mohammedans. During the war of 1877-8 a similar cross
migration look place. Tha ^stricts of Ardahan in the Upper Eura valley, and
of Ears in the Araxis basin, lost the greater part of their Mussulman inhabitants,
receiving in their steed a multitude of Armenians from the Upper Euphrates, the

«M*

b grows in all tbo
a vino producing a
ra. But this vine
3d in summer. In
id like burnt clay,

green oasis. The
and an English
rpa-chai over the

carried on in the
lians are bad agri-
[n several districts
I haunt the brush-
) Tatars hold these

hands by pursuing

rth in Caucasia, and
IS, or Hai, Haik, or
ramsean origin and
)plied in a general
Ajrmenia proper, or
rs from century to
ace. At present it
f ura valley, all the
n head-streams, the
at Lake TJrumiyah.
red northwards from
lley, where a village
: the globe the scat-
ad the plains of the
a the most conipact
i is spoken in the
ill employed in the
le of the fourteenth

}0,000 Armeniane of
, here replacing the
that had remained
r7-8 a similar cross
er Eura valley, and
Bsulman inhabitants,
pper Euphrates, the

X-/

*r'

1NHA13ITANT8-THE ARMENIANS. 141

Cliorukh, and especially from the tract ceded to Russia by the treaty of St.
Stcfano, but restored to Turkey by the Congress of Berlin. These national move-
ments were doubtless attended by a frightful loss of life, and even now religious
and racial hatred gives rise to terrible tragedies. But the populations have, on the
whole, been grouped more in conformity with their natural affinities.

Hitherto no reliable estimate has been formed of the number of Armenians in
Asia Minor imder Moslem rule, but they are probably less numerous than those
subject to Russia.* The whole nation, usually estimated at three and even four
millions, would seem scarcely to exceed two millions, of whom no less than 200,000
reside in Constantinople. Tiflis, the second Armenian city in numerical impor-
tance, lies also beyond the limits of Armenia proper, and the same is true of several
other Transcaucasian towns in which the Armenian element preponderates.

Deprived for centuries of all political unity and national independence, the
Armenians have been scattered over the Eastern world since the days of
Herodotus, who met them in Babylon. When their country fell a prey to
foreign conquerors they preferred to become " strangers amongst strangers than
remain slaves in their native land." They migrated in multitudes, and since the
eleventh century have been settled in Russia, Poland, Bukovina, and Galicia. At
present they are found in all the large emporiums of trade from London to
Singapore and Shanghae, everywhere distinguished by their commercial enter-
prise. They have often been compared with the Jews, whom they certainly equal
in religious tenacity, spirit of fellowship, mercantile instincts, and commercial skill.
But they are less adventurous, and whereas individual Jews have penetrated to
the ends of the earth, sustaining alone the struggle for existence, the Armenians
seldom advance except in compact groups. The majority of the nation have also
remained in their original homes, where they are far from showing the same
aversion as do the Jews to agricultural pursuits. In several districts of Trans-
caucasia all the peasantry are of Armenian stock, and in some of their villages in
the Earabagh dintrict they are jccupied temporarily as masons or carpenters,
pursuits which th« Jews are Eifavei found engaged in.

Nevertheleos the Semitic eiomeni probably entered largely into the formation of
th«' sTaik race, for numerous migirations end even transportations in mass have taken
piuce from Palestine to Armenia. The Ha'iks maty in a general way be regarded
as Aryans closely allied to the Persians ; but during the incessant wars, conquests,
and migrations of the last four thousand years they have become mingled with
all the neighbouring peoples, and especi&Jly with the Jews, multitudes of whom
were removed by the Assyrian kings to the Armenian highlands. The Bagratides,
the most famous royal race that has ruled over Hayasdan and Georgia, even claim

• Probable nnmber of ArmnniimR ir the world : — „ -

Cancasia and European Biusua 840,000

Asiatic Turkey 760,000

Persia .... 160,000

European Turkey , « 250,000

Elsewhere 60,000

Total 2,OeO,000

:_-jl

142

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

to be descended from David of Israel. Amongst the other foreign elements said to
have exercised a considerable influence on the nation, mention is made of the Mani-
gonian tribe, introduced in the third century of the new era into Somkhet, in Armenia,
by a prince of Jenasdan — that is, of C uina. But the chroniclers show clearly that
most of these foreigners, arriving, like the Normans and Varangians, as warriors and
mercenaries, were in fact Iranians, probably allied to the Tajiks of the Oxus basin.

The Armenian language is included by all philologists in the Aryan family.
Its affinities are chiefly with the Bactrian ("Zend"), its syntax is completely
Iranian, and its vocabulary greatly resembles the Greek and Slavonic. Although
very harsh and abounding in consonants, it rivals the Hellenic in its wealth of
words and grammatical forms, as well as in its flexible structure and unlimited
power of word-building. Still the numerous modem varieties have borrowed
largely i'rom Turkish and Georgian, and the speech current in the Lower Araxia
basin is a veritable jargon, in which the Tatar element at times prevails over the
Ilaikan, while in Shirvan numerous Armenianr communities have forgotten their
mother tongue as completely cs have the more distant settlements in Bukovina and
Transylvania. In the convent of Echmiadzin, nhere it is spoken in its purest
form, it still remains a purely Iranian dialect, wh&.ie origin and development are
well illustrated in a local literature, continued uninteryupiedly over a period of two
thousand years. Rock inscriptions in the cuneiform character occur in the Van
district. Other Haikan documents are extant in Persian and Greek letters, and in
*he flourishing literary period (fith century a.d.), when three hundred schools were
open in the country, the pecuJ'or alphabet now in use was introduced. Th.a people
still show a great love of inf-fcruction ; schools are supported in all the comm^mes ;
and the villagers have often to contend either with the Russian Government, or
with the clergy, jealoujB of the influence exercised by their teachers. The scientific
and literarj' movement has become very active, and in proportion to their numbers
the Armenians probably print more books than any other people in the empire.
To the former theological, historical, metaphysical, and grammatical works are now
added translations of foreign masterpieces, and even in Anatolia are found close
students of French literature. In 1854 about twenty- two Armenian presses were
at work in Europe and Asia, issuing periodicals in Tiflis, Constantinople, and other
towT.'. and publishing the old monimienir of the language, especially in Moscow,
V'.onua, Paris, and Venice. The most famous establishment of this «ort abroad is
%ke tionvent foimded in 1717 by the monk Mekhitar, or the " Consoler," in the
island of San Laz2. vo, ne ir Venice. Here are published many valuable documents,
ftvid in the library are preserved 8»n3 rare Oriental manuscripts.

The Mekhitaiists, like most of ih<i communities residing beyond the limits of
Transcaucasia and Turkey, belong to the United Armenian ritti, in union with the
Roman Church, while preserving some of their traditional practices. But the bulk
of the nation in the Euphrates and Araxis valleys have remained faithful to the
old Orthodox cult. The dogmatic differences dividing the nation into two hostile
religious sects turn chiefly on the nature of Christ, hell, and purgatory, the
authority of the councils, the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and sundry rites. But

INHABITANTS -THE AEMENIANS

148

n elements said to
uade of the Mani-
ikhet, in Armeniu.
show clearly that
ns, as warriors and
)f the Oxus hasin.
;he Aryan family,
tax is completely
ivonic. Although

in its wealth of
ure and unlimited
es have borrowed

the Lower Araxis

1 prevails over the
ve forgotten their
s in Bukovina and
)ken in its purest
d development are
'er a period of two
occur in the Van
eek letters, and in
ndred schools were
uced. Th.a people
ill the comnuimes;
m Government, or
)rs. The scientific
n to their numbers
pie in the empire,
ical works are now
ia are found close
lenian presses were
itinople, and other
Bcially in Moscow,
this sort abroad is
' Consoler," in the
duable docimients,

rond the limits of
, in union with the
ces. But the bulk
ted faithful to the
)n into two hostile
id purgatory, the
undrv rites. But

beneath the outward teaching of both forms are preserved numerous symbols dating
from still older religions. The Armenian was the first nation converted in mass by
Gregory the " Illuminator," about the beginning of the fourth century. But
while changing its deities, it lost few of its traditions, and modified its worship
very gradually. The sacred fire is even still commemorated, as in the days of
Zoroaster. On the annual feast a recently married couple consume in a copper
basin the richest fruits of the earth, flowers of all sorts, ears ( corn, the vine and
laurel branches. On all important occasions the people turn towards the sun as if
to seek for aid from that source. During the great feasts bulls or rams crowned
with wreaths and decorated with lighted candles are led into the churches or under

Fig. 71. — Aiuxis AND Zakoa Bahn.
From the Map of the Bnntan Staff, Boale 1 : 800,00a

a MOn.

the sacred trees, and afterwards sacrificed with songs and prayers — evidently the
sacrifice of Mithra bequeathed by the old to the new religion.

The " Eatholicos," or spiritual head of the nation, derives his power from the
possession of a precious relic, the right hand of the martyred Gregory. Chosen by
the dignitaries of Echmiadzin when not designated by his predecessor, he is
obeyed by all his co-relig'onists of the Gregorian rite ; he names the bishops, who
are nearly always selected from the monkish communities ; and he addresses the
Patiiarchs cf Constantinople and Jerusalem as a superior. Hence the extreme
importance attached hy the Russian Government to the possession of Ararat and
the sacred convent of Echmiadzin. By seizing this strip of territory, so renowned
throughout the East, the Muscovites have at the tsame time secured the spiritual
ruler of over 2,000,000 human beings. The St. Petersburg authorities, who
usually view with scant favour all religions antagonistic to the Orthodox Greek,

n^ittivS^rtf.'Tiiirt^.-i

144

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

have accordingly boon caroful to treat the Katholicos with the greatest respect,
thus acquiring a sort of protective right over all the Armenians settled in Turkey.
On several occasions excessive zeal for the " Russification " of all the inhabitants of
the empire has doabtless led to acts of violence and oppression even in Armenia.
But the caprice of governors and political dreams do not prevent the Armenians
from, on the whole, exercising a considerable influence in the empire — an influen(;o
due to their knowledge of languages, to their tact, often even to their intriguing
spirit and adroitness in gaining access to the bureaucratic circle. They have long
enjoyed a large share in the government at Constantinople, and they have already
begun to play a part in St. Petersburg analogous to that often exercised by

wily Italians at the Frencli
Fig. 72.— Abminian Woman. courts. Even in Trans-

caucasia they are gradually
taking possession of the soil,
and constantly encroaching
on their Tatar neighbours.

The Armenians of Rus-
sian Transcaucasia diifer
little in their physique from
the Georgians, except that
their features are generally
rounder, their neck shorter
and thicker. Many are in-
clined to obesity, probaUy
from their sedentary habits.
With fine heads of brown
hair^ large, black, and
languid eyes, they seem to
be of a gentle and almost
melancholy temperament.
Yet they do not lack valour
in resisting attacks, as shown
by the Seven Years' War of
Independence, which they sustained in the beg^ning of the eighteenth century
against the Persians in the Karabagh highlands, and since then in many local revolts
against the Turks. Though they do not go about armed with an assortment of pistols
and daggers, like the Georgians of the Rion basin, they have contrived far better to
preserve their liberties, and have never fallen under the hard yoke of serfdom, which
has been the lot of most of their neighbours. Notwithstanding the prevailing igno-
rance, they betray a remarkable degree of intelligence sl^u aptitude, especially in the
acquisition of languages. It has been said that " the intelligence of the Georgians
is only in their looks, whereas that of the Armenians is in their head." But on
the whole they seem to take life too seriously, and are somewhat indifferent to the
charms of poetry, although they have produced some good poets even in recent

—.-^flte

TOPOGRAPHY.

146

greatest respect,
tettled in Turkey,
the inhabitants of
oven in Armenin.
it the Armenians
)ire — an influence
their intriguing;
They have lonn;
hey have already
'ten exercised by
ins at the French
Even in Trans-
ley are gradually
isession of the soil,
antly encroaching
'atar neighbours,
rmenians of Rus-
nscaucasia diSer
leir physique from
^ans, except that
ures are generally
their neck shorter
er. Many are in-

obesity, probably
r sedentary habits,
e heads of brown
rge, black, and
jyes, they seem to
gentle and almost
ly temperament,
do not lack valour
ig attacks, as shown
ven Years' War of
nghteenth century
L many local revolts
ssortment of pistols
itrived far better to
e of serfdom, which
he prevailing igno-
de, especially in the
:e of the Georgians
nr head." But on
t indifferent to the
Bts even in recent

times. Their favourite studios are theology, metaphysics, and philology, and
their influence has been chiefly felt in the more solid walks of literature.
Knigments of Eusebius, Philo, Chrysostomus, and other Greek fathers, which were
supposed to have been irrevocably lost, have been found in old Armenian trans-
lations by the Mekhitarists of Venice and Vienno.

In most places the Armenians keep themselves aloof from the surrounding
populations, generally forming distinct trading communities, and in the Tatar and
Georgian towns rendering themselves no loss indispensable, hated, and despised than
the Jews in East Europe and Germany. But popular feeling is of little con-
sequence to men living quite apart in the seclusion of the family circle, where they
still practise patriarchal habits. The grandfather commands — children, sons-in-law,
and grandchildren obey. The wife, condemned to silence till the birth of her first
child, wears round her neck and the lower part of her face a thick bandage con-
coaling the mouth, and obliging her to converse in signs like a dumb creature.
Even after childbirth she speaks only in a low voice till advanced in years, but
imdertakes all the household duties till the marriage of a sister-in-law. Strangers
are rarely welcomed into the domestic circle, and many villages might be traversed
without suspecting them to be inhabited, so completely are dwellings and gardens
walled off from the outer world.

The Tatars of the Lower Araxis valley differ in no respects from th'e Tdrki
tribes of the Euro basin. Here also are found a few Gipsies, besides some Kurdish
herdsmen, mostly temporary immigrants from Persian and Turkish Kurdistan.
Amongst them are several hundred Yezides, regarded by all their neighbours with
a sort of horror as devil-worshippers. The sedentary Kurds are numerous only in
the Zangez&r district, south-east of the Gok-chai, where they number about 13,000,
mostly assimilated in dres;, and often even in speech, to the Tatars.

Topography.

The chief town of the Upper Araxis valley is Kaghizman, pleasantly situated
in the midst of trailing vines, cherry, apricot, peach, and other fruit trees. In
the same district, but on a tributary of the main stream, lies the capital of Upper
Russian Armenia, the celebrated city and fortress of Kara, thrice conquered from
the Turks in 1828, 1866, and 1877,- and definitely ceded to Russia in 1878. Even
before the Russo-Turkish wars it had often been exposed to attack. Capital of an
Armenian kingdom during the ninth and tenth centiuries, it was sacked by
Tamerlane, by Amiirat III., and again by the Forsians, its strategical importance
constantly attracting the attention of invaders. For it occupies a central position
between the upper basins of the Kura, Araxis, Chorukh, and Euphrates, com-
manding all the mountain passes between those valleys. At this point the
Ears-chai, confined in a narrow rocky bed, makes a double bend, first partly
encircling the town, and then sweeping roimd the citadel. Built of lava blocks,
and standing on a block basalt eminence, Kars could formerly defy the attacks of its
assailants. But since the invention of artillery it was found necessary to fortify
the surrounding heights, and during the late war the eleven detached forts

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

enclofling an ontroncbed camp formed a line of def ruct; 1 1 milen in circumferenco.
These forts, with their basalt and obsidian rocks, are the onl^ attractions of a town
which, although 6,1. 50 feet above Hca-level, enjoys a considerable trade.

A carriage road descending eastwards from the Kars-chai to the Arpa-chui
valley connects Kara with Alexandrapol, a Russian stronghold whoso fortifications
have been continued almost uninterruptedly since 1837. At that time nothing
existed here except the village of Giimvi, peopled by Armenian refugees. Situat«.'d
near the oast bank of the Arpa-chai, in a basin commyndod on the south by the
Ala-goz, and 1,330 feet lower down than Ears, Ak^yjir -irupol lies in a better-
cultivated district, abundantly watered by the Arpa-chai. It succeeded to Am,
former residence of the Armenian Bagratides, which was destroyed by an earth-
quake in 1319, and whose extensive ruins still cover a triangular headland
overlooking the right bank of the Arpa-chai. According to probably exaggerated

Fig. 73.— Tub Kabs-chai Vallhv: Kam ai'd Albxandkapol.
From the Uap of tba Bnwiaa Staff. Soale 1 : 800,000.

45*5

IS MUm.

accounts of the native chroniclers, Ani had at one time a population of 100,000,
with 1,000 churches and other public buildings.

South-east of Ani is Taluh, which also seems to have been an Armenian capital,
the ruins of whose high walls and towers now afford shelter to a wretched hamlet.
The whole of the Lower Arpa-chai valley is a land of ruins. To the west are the
remains of Pakaran, or " Abfiembly of the Gods," and a little farther south those
of two other capitals, Eromittashad and Eromntagerd, built successively by
Erovan II. north of the Araxis and Arpa-chai confluence, and said to have formerly
contained 30,000 Jewish and 20,000 Armenian houses. Armarir, piso founded by
the same king, has left but few remains on a hill overlooking the plain skirted
by the Kara-su Canal, near the Araxis. Lastly, south of this river stands Kara-
Kaleh, the " Black Castle," wrongly supposed by some to have been the ancient
Tigranocertes, but still a most pictitrorque object perched on a frowning precipice,

TOPOOHAPllY.

147

n circumference,
actions of a town
rado.

o the Arpo-chui
1080 fortifications
lat time nothing
Eugeea. Situatod
the south by the
lies in a better-
ucceedod to Am,
>yeA by an earth-
ingular headland
Mibly exaggerated

4&'50

dationof 100,000,

Armenian capital,
i wretched hamlet,
'o the west are tihe
farther south those
It successively by
id to have formerly
i>, plflo founded by
f the plain skirted
river stands Kara-
been the ancient
frowning precipice,

with toworn built of alternate rows of red porphyry and black luva. at whose feet
rush the foaming waters of u mountain torrent.

Echmiadzin, the present religious capital of the Iltiikans, lies to the west of
Erivan, nearly in the middle of the plain. In the neighbourhood is the small town
of Vayarshabad, but Echmiadzin itself is little more than o vast convent surrounded
by a cob-wall, and commanded by a church with pyramidal belfry and side turrets.
The lower story of the buildings is concealed by a plain quadrangular enclosure of
dull grey walls, so that there is nothing to relieve the monotony of these heavy
masses except the surrounding thicket of poplars and fruit trees, a few flower beds,
and limpid streams. Yet this monastery, whose name means " the only son has
descended," is the capital of the Armenian world. Here, according to the legend,
the " Son of God " appeared to Gregory the Illuminator, and at one thunder-stroke
hurled the pagan divinities beneath the earth. For here formerly stood Ardimet-
Eaghat, the " City of Artemis," the " Armenian Venus," to whose shrine wor-
shippers flocked from all quarters. Tho deities have changed, but for at least five-
and-twenty centuries this has remained a hallowed spot. The library contains
six hundred and thirty-five old mani< ts, and its printing-press, the oldest in
Armenia proper, publishes a periodica . some popular works. One of the bells bears
a Tibetan inscription with the famous mystic words, om tnaiiipadmi hOim, showing that
at some unknown epoch Armenia must have had relations with the Buddhist world.

Erivan, capital of the chief government in Russian Armenia, and the second
city of the Araxis valley, stands at the nort.h-east angle of the old lacustrine basin
traversed by the river, and on the banks of the Zanga, here diverted into a thousand
irrigating rills. It is chiefly inhabited by Armenians, who have succeeded to the
Tatars occupying it under the Persian rule. It holds an important commercial
and strategical position at the entrance of the upper valley leading to Tifl:8 and
the Eura basin over the Ook-chai plateau, and its fortress, perched on a columnar
basalt cliff, has been the scene of many stirring events. Built mostly in the
Persian style, it boasts of some picturesque structures, including a handsome
mosque decorated with arabesques, and shaded with magnificent elms. The
district, commanding a superb view of Ararat, is very fertile and well watered.
But the wretched climate, with its violent changes of temperature, dust, and fevers,
woidd soon depopulate the place, but for its extreme strategical importance on the
Turko-Persian frontier and the rich rock-salt mines in the neighbourhood. In
summer the Bussian officials retire to Semonovka, Delijan, and other sanitaria among
the surroimding hills. The copper mines of this region are no longer worked.

East of Erivan are the ruins of Boih-Karni, or Garni, another old capital,
which the natives pretend was foimded four thousand years ago, and which
contains the remains of a Greek temple, probably dedicated to the Armenian Venus.
But more remarkable than its ruins are its basalt columns, blue, green, red, and
other igneous rocks, the scene of former eruptions, through which now foams a
mountain stream. In the same wild and rugged region lies Kegart, Eergash, or
A'irivauk, the " Convent of Hell," half of which is hollowed out of the tufa and
lavas. In the centre of the plain, watered by the Eami-chai, stood Artaxates,

v~— ^

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Collection de

Canadian Inatituta for HIatorlcal MIcroraproductlona / Inatltut Canadian da microraproductlona liiatoriquaa

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. >

'iMsb^

mnaPB

TOPOGBArnY.

140

«l*?

It was succeeded by Neronia, which yielded later on to Vagarshabiul, and was
finally overthrown by Sapor 11. in 370, when its 200,000 Armenian and Jewish
inhabitants were put to the sword or carried captive into Persia.

Nakhichevan, or Nakhijevan, capital of the district stretching south-east of
Ararat, is said to be even an older place than Echmiadzin, having been tradi-
tionally founded by Noah after planting the first vine on the slopes of Ararat. Its
very name means the " First Dwelling," and a mound is shown in the neighbour-
hood in which Noah is supposed to be buried. The town, already mentioned by
Pompey under the name of Naxuana, has been repeatedly rebuilt, and all the
present houses are constructed of stones from previous ruins. The gateway of an
old palace flanked by two brick minarets bears a Persian inscription surrounded by
rich arabesques, and near it stands the " Tower of the Khans," a twelve-sided
building bearing a long inscription with letters in relief. Nakhichevan is now
inhabited chiefly by Tatars occupied with gardening and vin3 growing, and has
been much reduced since the time of" the Persian rule, when it had a population of
40,000. The district is well watered, and in the neighbouring hills are rich salt
mines, worked since prehistoric times. The millstones, cut from a variegated sand-
stone, are highly esteemed throughout Armenia.

South-west of Nakhichevan is the frontier station of Jtifa, on the banks of the
Araxis, and facing an old Persian caravanserai, which is commanded by a strong-
hold perched on a red sandstone escarpment. At the beginning of the seventeenth
century Jufa was the richest and most industrious place in Armenia, with a popu-
lation of 40,000. But Shah Abbas the " Great " commanded the inhabitants to
emigrate in mass to New Jufa, near Ispahan, those who lagged behind being
thrown into the river, and the town burnt to the ground. Its most noteworthy
remains are its ruined bridge and the tombs of its vast necropolis. In 1854 the
popidation had dwindled to ten famil; )8 living in a ruined caravanserai.

Ordubat stands on the Araxis, below Jufa, near the Migri Gorge, south of the
Earabagh Mountains. It is the pleasantest place in Armenia, being in a fertile
district watered by numerous streamlets anc'. irrigation rills, and studded with villas
scattered over the wooded heights of the neighbourhood. A few miles to the north-
west is the thriving village of Akuliai, inhabited by wealthy Armenians. The copper
mines of the surrounding hills yielded no more than 117 tons of pure metal in 1877.

The double basin of the Bergushet and Akera, between the Ordubat and Shusha
Hills, comprises the administrative district of Zangez(^r, and contains no towns, but
several important villages peopled by Armenians, Tatars, and Kurds. The largest
is Khinztrak, but the administrative capital is OirufA, the Koriss of the Armenians ;
that is, the " Village of Pillars," so called from the " needles " of tufa rising above
the slope of the terrace on which the village is situated. The flat-roofed houses are
disposed in the form of a flight of steps, beneath which the inhabitants move about
in underground streets. Other dwellings are excavated in the igneous scoria of the
terrace, but the present village is a modem place 1,000 feet lower down than the old
,Gir£k8i. For a few weeks in summer it becomes a busy trading-place, when 50,000
nomads of the surroimding districts drive their flocks to the rich Zangezftr pastures. .

S?S3^',-'

y p irii i ^w

t I ^iiPi,((f^l<«IJ^,«JUiJ^p

160

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

VIII.— GENERAL CONDITION AND ADMINISTRATION
OF THE CAUCASUS.

The Russiuns are not recent arrivals in Caucasia. A portion of the Kuban basin
was peopled by them since the close of the tenth century, and in 914 others reached
Berda, at the foot of the Earabagh Mountains. Over two hundred years ago
Stephen Razin sacked Baku, and in 1723 Peter the Great pushed his cono'iests
to the Persian frontier. For over a century the Muscovite power has secured •.

Fig. 76. — Phoorbss of Russian Cunoubst.
8oaU 1 : 10,fi00,00a

Seveuteenth Centwy. 1700— fiO.

mm ^

18SB-80. 1830-fie.

1780-lSOO.

1801.

1800-64.
.SWHilea.

i6os-ae.

1S78.

footing in Transcaucasia, which has been gradually annexed to the empire either
by conquest, purchase, or voluntary cession.

In spite of wars, migrations, wholesale exiles, and the insalubrity of certain
districts, the population of Caucasia has rapidly increased since the conquest,
although still relatively inferior to that of European Russia. The losses have been
repaired by the immigration of the Cossacks, Russian peasantry, and Armenian
fugitives, while the popidation of all the provinces has been increased by the
normal excess of births over deaths. At the beginning of the military occupation
Caucasia was a Russian tomb, fevers more than decimating those attacked during

GENERAL CONDITION AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE CAUCASUS. 161

TION

le Kuban basin
others reached
Ired years ago
I his cononests
' ha6 secured -.

the course of the year. But experience, quinine, a better hygienic system, and
here and there the draining of the marshy htiids, have brought about wonderful
improvements, and at present the mortality of the Russians is less than in Russia
proper.* A similar phenomeii in has been observed in Algeria, where the French
and Spanish immigrants have gradually become acclimatized. The actual rate
of mortality is less in Caucasia than in any other part of the empire, and in this
respect the country takes a foremost position in the world. The niunber of suicides
is, on the other hand, rather high, and it is remarkable that they are here about
equal in both sexes, whereas in Europe those of men are generally three or four

Fig. 76.— F«VBB Dl»THlCT8 IN Caucaria.

EofG

58'

4Q' L.oFG

**'iidftnnfflti

Frequent.

B«l»

le empire either

)rity of certain
the conquest,
osses have been
and Armenian
Lcreased by the
tary occupation
attacked during

times greater than those of womoi. Amongst the Armenians and Osses the cases

of female suicides are even more frequent than those of males. This is, perhaps,

due partly to the enforced silence and monotonous lives of the Armenian women,

and partly to the brutal treatment to which the Oss women are subjected.

A large portion of Caucasia rising above the zone of cereals can scarcely be

inhabited except by a pastoral population. But there are also extensive tracts,

formerly under cultivation, which have been rendered improductive by desolating

* Mortality of the army of the Caucanu: — 1837, I in 9 of those attacked; 1846, 1 in 17 of thoiie
attacked; 186->. I in 41 of those attacked. Total mortality :- 1864, 25 in the 1,000; 1872, 19-86 in the
1,000. Tutal mortality in the Moscow district, 4111 in the 1,000. '

iS'iff'!.VJ^'W,w»

162

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

wars and tho abandonment of the irrigation works. The vast plains of Eehmiud/in,
the Lower Kura, and Aruxis have thu8 been partly changed to deserts, and even the
region confined by tho Alazan, Yora, and Kuru is now a barren steppe, notwith-
Htanding tho copious streams surrounding it on all sides. Tho neglect of the
irrigating canals has caused tho disappearance of millions, but tho population
everywhere reappears with the gradual revival of these works and with tho progress
of tho drainage system. Cultivated fields thus succeed to the swunips, and the
land becomes at once more healthy and more populous.

Land Tenuhe — Aoricultuuk.

In taking possession of Caucasia tho Hussiun Government introduced great
changes, often of a contradictory character, in the laws affecting landed property.
These were further complicated by all the vicissitudes of conquest, the wasting of
cultivated districts, destruction of nomad encampments, depopulation and whole-
sale shifting of the people, military and agricultural colonisation. During tho first
period of Russian rule all the colonies were of a military character. Composetl of
Cossacks, at once peasantry and soldiers, they had to build villages and forts, to till
the land, dig canals, open up highways, and keep constant watch against the enemy.
One feels amazed at the vast amount of work performed by these men, thanks to
whom all the western division of Ciscaucasia has been finally settled. Its settle-
ment would have been even still more thorough, had not the Government long
prevented its peaceful colonisation by the Russian peasantry. Millions of serfs
might have migrated to this region had thoy been free to do so.

In all the already peopled districts of Caucasia the Government at first pursued
the simple policy of securing the loyalty of the native princes by guaranteeing to
them the property of the land, though occasionally compelled, as in Kabardia and
Daghestan, to favour the people against their chiefs. But this system was soon
abandoned, and towards the end of the reign of Nicholas every effort was made to
gain over tlie local aristocracy. In many places serfdom was introduced, and large
fiefs granted to the nobles. Some of the Kabard princes thus received domains of
30,000, 100,000, and even 250,000 acres, so that the State was afterwards obliged
to repurchase many of these lands either for the Cossack settlers, or for the com-
munes after the abolition of serfdom. The principle was even laid down in 1863
that the whole of the lands should belong to the communes ; but in practice the
large properties were maintained, and in Kabardia alone 140 lots, each of about
1,400 acres, were reserved for influential persons likely to be useful to the Govern-
ment. All the officers of the army also received freehold allotments independently
of the lands assigned to the communes, while all the forests and pastures remained
undivided. Thiu was brought about a state of things analogous to that of Russia.
Below the large proprietary class came that of the peasantry, sharing the land
according to the communal system of rotation, and paying an average tax to tho
State of about 3 roubles per family.
. The serfdom, which under divers forms prevailed throughout most of Caucasia,

•^mm

LAND TENURE— AORIOUIiTUBE.

168

of Kchmiudziii,
H, und even the
teppe, notwith-
neglcct of the
the iM)pulution
ith the progress
vuiups, und the

itroduced grent
mdcd property.
, the wasting of

ion and whole-
During the first
Composed of
and forts, to till
linst the enemy.

men, thanks to
led. Its settle-
ovemment long
lillions of serfs

, at first pursued
guaranteeing to
n Kabardia and
system was soon
ort was made to
iuced, and large
lived domains of
terwards obliged

or for the com-
1 down in 1863

in practice the
s, each of about
il to the Govem-
ts independently
astures remained
3 that of Russia,
iharing the land
^erage tax to the

nost of Caucasia,

waa at first aggravated under Russian rule, and even when abolished in 1866 very
harsh conditions were imposed on the emancipated. In virtue of " free contracts "
they were bound to pay the landlords either 200 roubles or six years' manual
labour, children under fifteen years being charged 150 roubles, or ten years of
forced labour. When the serf was at the same time owner of cattle or movable
property this was divided into thr(>(' parts, of which one part only was assigned to
the freedman. Hence much misery, especially in the lowland districts.

The ag^cultural produce of Caucasia already suffices for a considerable export
trade. Land was formerly valued in Imeria at from 22 to 28 roublos the hectare (2|

Fig. 77.— Dbnsity of tub Popvlation ov tub Cavcabur in 1873 pbk Sqiahi Milb.

44-

4QI

/\a

4a*

10 to to.

10 to 40.

40toao.

60 to 80. 80 to too. 100 and upw»rda.

acres), whereas now it fetches ten times that amount ; but the eastern districts of the

Eura and Araxis, exposed to storms and locusts, have increased less rapidly in value.

The superabundant cereals are largely used in the distillation of alcohols. Far more

than Bessarabia, the Crimea, or the Lower Don valley, Caucasia is the " vineyard of

the empire." In 1876 the land under vines still scarcely exceeded 212,000 acres, but

the districts where wine migbt be grown certainly exceed those of France, and they

have hitherto escaped the ravages of the phylloxera, though riot those of theoidium.

Caucasia supplies most of the wines consumed in the empire, the rich vintages of

Eakhetia being used chiefly for the table, those of Eislar and the Lower Terek for
11

1S4

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

mixinj? with other vintugos. In the Aklmltzik diNtrict the vino in cultivutod to a
heijfht of 4,H00 feet ubove the hou. Tolmcco \h alwi l»ccoinin>? un im}K)rtunt crop,
9,840 ucroH having yielded 1,700,000 kilogmmmeH of louf in IH70, undHuppIyingthe
chief urticlo of export from the Bluck Sea porta. The TrunseuucuBian pluinn
pnxluce Bonie cotton, wliich during the Americun war inoreoHed rapidly, and even
found its way for a time to the markets of the West. At present the mean annual
yield scarfiely exceedH 480 tons. The raw silks of Nukha and Hhcmakha are highly
appreciatefl, cHpeciully by the French weavers. Since the spread of the silk disease
in the south of Franco Eastern Caucasia has become one of the most important
fields for the production of the finer qualities. In 1848 a. uiunber of French female

Fig. 78.— IIiniiwAvs in CAVctstA.
Aoourdinff to N. de BcidllU. Soaia 1 : 7,68U,000.

. Biilwari.
Railway! In i n og i aw,
Carriago Boadi.

spinners settled in Zugdidi, Nukha, Shemakha, and other towns to teach the native
women the art of winding the thread. For many other products, especially fruits
and spring vegetables, Caucasia is destined to take the same position as regards
Russia as Algeria has taken towards France. Tropical heats prevail in the Araxis
valley, and wherever sufficiently watered the soil produces excellent crops. There
is also a succession ol climates on the mountain slopes, suitable for raising produce
of the most varied character. ,

Population— Industries — ^Trade — ^Education.

The population of Caucasia, nowhere as dense as in Western Europe, is con-
centrated especially on the Mingrelian plains, where the climate and vegetation

I'OPULiVTlON- INDUSTRIES TRADE EDUCATION.

1S5

cultivated to a
injiK)rtunt crop,
id supjil ying tho
uucuHian pluiuH
ipidly, and even
ho mean annual
akha are highly
: tho silk dincaao
most important
f French female

most roHomblo those of the wcHt of France. In the districtH of this region it aniounta
to alK)ut HO |K>r Mcpiare mile, and theno more denw^ly jMHiplwl tracts are at tho
Htuno time tho moHt floui-iMiing, and have mo. to Hparo for export.

Tlie chaw) and forest produce have ceased to be of any economical importance,
since most of the plains have boon jioopled and the mountain slopes largtdy cleared.
lUit the fisheries are very productive in tho Sou of Azov, tho Kiixino, ond ps|)ecially
tho Caspian. Tho Akhturi and Yeisk limans, the river Kuban, the coasts of I'oti
and ]3at(^m, the Lower Terek, and, above all, tho Kura and Gulf of Kizil-Agach
abound in animal life, and contribute largely to the support of the people and to the
cxiwrt trade to Russia an4 Persia.

Manufactures are still mostly confined to the old traditional industries, and to
those connected with mining operations. But implements dating from the stone age
are still found in use side by side with the powerful modem machinery now employed
at the Baku naphtha wells, the Kedabek copper mines, the Saglik alum works, near
Yelizavctpol, and the iron works of Cbasash, in the Bolnis valley, 14 miles south -

Fig. 79.— 81CTIOK OP THB Rovn pbom Vladikavka* to JrrA.
Beale t : 8,000,000.

.110 HUM.

8m1« of Altttndn flfty time* Ungtt than that of Dictaaee*.

teach the native
especially fruits
lition as regards
ail in the Araxis
it crops. There
■ raising produce

I Europe, is con-
» and vegetation

west of Tiflis.* This state of things must necessarily continue until the Caucasian
provinces are connected with the rest of the world by means of good roads. Each
of the two g^reat divisions has but one railway, one connecting Ciscaucasia with the
Russian system by the Rostov- Vladikavkaz line, the other connecting Tiflis with
the Euxine. But both slopes of the Caucasus are crossed only by the military routes
passing beneath the Eazbek glaciers and over the Mamisson Pass. In the east the
range is skirted by the road from Derbend to Baku, and in the west the Abkhasian
coast route will soon be opened to traffic. The g^reat lines of railway destined to
connect Vladikavkaz with Tiflis, Yelizavetgrad with Petrovsk and Baku, Groznaya
with Saratov vid Astrakhan, Bat(im with Rostov, have only just been begun. The
line from Tiflis to Baku, which will complete the jimction of the two seas, has also

* Steam-engines in the CHUcasian mines (1876), 91 horse-power,
mines (18T6), 174 horse-power.
Mining returns (1876) : —

Silver .... 810 lbs. ! Alum

Lead . . . . ],78fi cwt. 'Salt
Copper .... 2,650 „ ; Goal

Water engines in the Caucasian

130 tons.
24,630 „
6,218 „

AHIATIO lUISBIA.

lM'«>n reci'iitly taken in hand. Kor tho liiHt twenty yeuPH tho pnij f Hum lieon
nntcrtaincil of u groat intcrnutinnul line lM>twoen Kurn|H> and India, tu fuUuw the
went (;(>aHt of tlio Canpiun vid liuku iind Lenkoran to IteNhd, and ho on acromi the
Ininiiin plateau. Meantime the nouthcrn plateaux ure api)rouohed by one go4Ml
road only, the military route U^twecn Karn and Krzorum forming u continuation
of that between Titlin and KarH nVl Alexandru]>ol. One branch of thi« route
dc8cendH HouthwardH towurdH Krivun and tho Persian frontier at Jufu.

Tho general trade of ('aucaniu munt long roniuin inudoquatc* to moot thooxponiieN
of tho intoruatiouul highwuyH tu Aniu Minor and I'erHia. In 1878 tho ini{)ort8 and

Fig. 80.— Hhiahm anu Hunnitbm in Kabtbkn Caucavia.
rrom OttoUl Itctunu. Hoala 1 : 3,00O,0U>.

^^v

«i«r"^;-y^^^^

fJ'T^C'

^5a

-W-

so* E of G

ChristUiu.

Sbiaha. SnnnltM,

aOMfltt.

exports amounted altogether to about 12,000,000 roubles, or less than 4 roubles per
head of the population. Although Persia communicates more easily with Europe
by the north than by other routes, its exchanges with Transcaucasia and Astrakhan
fall short of 6,000,000 roubles.

If Caucasia still lacks the material unity imparted by a well-developed railway

I'OI'ULATION -INDUSTUIKH-TUADK-KDUOATION.

167

)| 't han been
1, tu fulluw the

un acroHa th(<
1 hy onu giMxl
u continuation

of thin route

Dt tho oxponseM
bu iuiiwrtH and

f<yiit«m and liir^j^* connnori'iiit miivtH, it \h Mtill ninr(« ilrficiont in tliiii nioml unity
which flowN from the M>ntiiri«'nt of ii roninion nationality or ^roup of MiitioniilitioN
iM)HM(>HHin)f the Mun(> intcn'Mtx and iiNpirutionN. IiiNtruction uIno in in t(M) Imckwiird
11 Ntutu to allow tho yinith of the vuriouM ruccN t(»u(><|uirc that fooling of hrothcrhoml
drrivod from a ooninuinity of idcniM. Ni'V«>rtlu'l«'HM n;r»>at profi;n'H« Iuim In'm nindo in
thiu rcH|N)ct, and in many N<-h<M)lH the ArnuMiian in now found anHoriatrd with the
Tatar, tho UuNNian with tho Ooor^ian. Moroovor, a larjfo nundM<r of tho middle
and upi)er oIuhson Hond th(>ir childron abroad. In IH7U there wore lU) Iohh than
twouty-oight Aruiouiuns iu tho variuuH mcUooIh and coUegvM of Zurich. But u groat

E.rG

Fig. 81.— Baku Hahhovb.
S«d« 1 1 tso^'WO.

'M^

<j|'ll ,*0»

131

^'*m»- — ■i

EofG

40*50 ■

50' 10'

'<^;.

to in Feot.

V\ to 31 Fe«t. 8* Ftat kud npwuds.

— — — _ 8 HUei.

1 4 roubles per
y with Europe
and Astrakhan

eloped railway

obstacle to instruction in common is caused not only by the variety of languages,
but by the different alphabets in current use. The Abkhasians, Osses, and
Daghestfr Mghlanders were altogether unlettered until Lhuillier, Schiefner, Uslar,
and otheru invented writing systems suitable to express the fifty distinct soimds of
their languages. Caucasia, more perhaps than any other region, stands in need of
some such common system as that proposed by Lepsius in 1852, and subsequently
under other forms by Bell, Coudereau, and others.

168

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

i
I

' Religions — Finance — ^Administration.

But Caucasia is noted for its diversity of creeds quite as much as for its great
variety of speech. Paganism under many forms still survives amongst the hillmen.
Here are found the two great Moslem sects, numerous especially in the government
of Baku,* where they are distinguished from each other by the cut of the hair and
by other practices. Here also dwell Jews, converted Israelites, and Judaizing
Christians, besides Orthodox Greeks, Georgian and United Armenians, which aro
the prevailing forms of Christianity. But dissidents are also numerous, far more so
even than might be supposed from the official returns. The Molokanes especially
have important colonies in the government of Stavropol, near Tiflis, on the Akha-
laki plateau, in the Milgan steppe, and they are now spreading in the annexed
territories.

All these national and religious differences have necessitated different theories
and practices in the administration of justice. Hence, after many useless efforts, the
Government has been compelled to abstain, at least for the present, from intro-
ducing a common system of jurisprudence. Amongst the Moslem highlanders two
codes are still maintained — the ahariat, or religious code based on the Koran, and the
ttdot, or common law. The former is appealed to only in religious, family, and
testamentary questions, while the latter regulates the ordinary affairs of property
and communal interests. Its decisions are pronounced in public by elected judges,
and certain villages noted for their scrupulous administration of justice have been
chosen by usage as veritable courts of appeal in all doubtful cases.

Most of the hillmen still foster a feeling of animosity against their conquerors,
and recall with pride the days of their ancient independence. Amongst the low-
landers, some, like the Nogai Tatars and the Tats, know that they have kinsmen
and co-religionists elsewhere, and regard themselves as straligers in the land.
Others, like the Kurd shepherds, are immig^nt nomads, always ready to strike their
tents. The Georgians feel that their destiny is raiher to serve the Russians than
become their equals, while the Armenians endeavour to m Jce themselves masters of
all by the power of money. The Slav invaders, although already the most numerous
relatively, have not yet succeeded m giving political cohesion to the population.
Their ascendancy is mainly of a military character, and Caucasus remains still for
them campaigning ground quite as much as a field for colonisatidn.

From the strategic point of view Asia Minor and Persia are completely open to
the armies of the Czar. The Euxine has become a Russian lake, while the Caspian
belongs still more exclusively to the northern Power. Here the fleet at anchor in
the commodious harbour of Baku may at the first signal ship an armed force for the
coast of Mazanderan. Alexandrapol and Kars, strongholds and arsenals of the first
importance, threaten the upper basin of the Euphrates, and all the passes are
already in the hands of the Russians. In case of a struggle with England for
supremacy in Western Asia, Russia occupies a masterly position. The Bosporus
has already been three times threatened from the north ; now it may also be attacked

* Mohammedans in the Baku government (1878) :-«-Shiah sect, 270,787; Sun&ites, 206,121.

^' i ^ ii . iiitwtiix

EELIGIONS— FINANCE— ADMINISTRATION.

159

luch as for its great
imongat the hillmen.
y in the government
3 cut of the hair and
ilites, and Judaizing
irmenians, which aro
umeroiiB, far more so
Molokanes especially
Tiflis, on the Akha-
ling in the annexed

from the east. If England reigns supreme in the Mediterranean, she would still
look in vaiii for armies strong enough to oppose the Russians in Asiatic Turkey, of
which she has, perhaps imprudently, guaranteed the present limits. Through the
Euphrates valley Russia may also at her pleasure advance towards the "holy
places " once conquered by the Crusaders, and over which Christians of all sects
are endeavouring to acquire a religious preponderance. Is it not further evident
that the influence of Russia must increase in that direction with the growth of
population in Caucasia P At all times the peoples of the Ararat and Anti-Caucasus
highlands took a large part in the political movements of Western Asia, and these
peoples have now become the van of the immense Slavonic nation. Against this
formidable power the only barrier would be an alliance of free peoples. But it can
scarcely be hoped that the Armenians, Kurds, Turks, and Arabs of the Tigris and

ted different theories
ay useless efforts, the
present, from intro-
iem highlanders two
n the Koran, and the
eligious, family, and
y affairs of property
lie by elected judges,
of justice have been
,ses.

inst their conquerors.
Amongst the low-
t thoy have kinsmen
aAgers in the land.
8 ready to strike their
ve the Russians than
themselves masters of
ly the most numerous
n to the population,
isus remains still for
atidn.

re completely open to
Ice, while the Caspian
the fleet at anchor in
n armed force for the
d arsenals of the first
d all the passes are
■le with England for
ition. The Bosporus
b may also be attacked

Sunnites, 206,121.

Fig 82.— Stavropol.
Soidel :800,voa

.*4^i^

■|^j^!".'vv .-^b

:^mm^

. 15 MOn.

Euphrates basins will soon become emancipated, and forget thei ' religious hatreds
and national rivalries sufficiently to unite against the common foe.

The Caucasian peoples possess no political privileges over the Slav inhabitants
of the empire. All alike are subjected to the same autocratic will of the Czar,
whom all are equally bound to obey " in spirit no less than in act." None of them
enjoy constitutions guaranteeing their rights, though several are still more or less
protected by written or imwritten codes. The Czar is represented in Caucasia by
a lieutenant-general, or viceroy, with full administrative powers. The families of
the former native rulers, while deprived of all political authority, are still in the
enjojTnent of pensions, privileges; and honours, thanks to the " eternal and faithful
submission " sworn by them to the Czar.

The Caucasian budget, whose receipts amounted in 1878 to 6,750,000 roubles,
is included in the general finances of the empire. Transcauoasia alone, including

160

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

Daghestan, has a general budget, which increased from 6,368,470 roubles in 1870
to 3,784,980 in 1880, and which would amply suffice for the local expenditure,
were this not doubled and occasionally quadrupled by the maintenance of consider-
able forces in the frontier fortresses. The deficit thereby created varies in time of
peace from 18,000,000 to 40,000,000 roubles, rising in time of war to 55,000,000 and
upwards, and amounting in the ten years between 1869 and 1878 altogether to no less
than 343,131,000. The receipts in the whole of Caucasia amounted in 1878 to
16,339,703 roubles, and the expenditure to 71,660,326, leaving a deficit of
55,320,622. The chief receipts are derived from the excise on alcohol, which
averages about one-third of the whole income.

Caucasia is administratively divided into provinces of very unequal extent, all
of military origin, and officially designated either as governments, provinces,
circles, or divisions. Tiflis, capital of all Caucasia, is at the same time the chief
town of Transcaucasia, while Stavropol, advantageously situated on the line of
approach to the centre of the main range, is the chief administrative capital of
Ciscaucasia. Daghestan, which would seem to belong properly to the northern,
has been included in the southern division. So also the district of Euba is com-
prised in the Transcaucasian government of Baku, doubtless owing to the ethnical
and religious unity of the populations dwelling on both slopes in the eastern
division of the range. Derbend, or " The Gate," thus remains the political limit
of the two regions north and south of the Caucasus.

The Appendix contains a table of all the provinces, with their districts, areas, and
populations according to the official returns for 1873 — 7 . Here Daghestan has been
separated from Transcaucasia proper. The Trans-Caspian district, depending
administratively on the military government of Cauca^ii , and comprising a portion
of the still unsettled Turkoman country, belongs geographically to the Aralo-
Caspian region, from which it cannot properly be separated.

M^Mi— waiii mw M Wi i /» '> i *w w t iji^M> wMW W !Mw eM e ^ui w « » ^t yT.«<i'tiw .<J tw .^ ■ M Jtilwmi m m m

roubles in 1870
al expenditure,
ice of consider-
aries in time of
65,000,000 and
^ther to no less
ted in 1878 to
g a deficit of
alcohol, which

q[ual extent, all
snts, provinces,
time the chief
on the line of
itive capital of
I the northern,
Euba is com-
to the ethnical
in the eastern
! political limit

riots, areas, and
bestan has been
ict, depending
rising a portion
to the Aralo-

^iiM

iiw^ljF

^^M

w^^^

!lBptf*>'^

^-^^i^

'IImMB

Hii

fFH^

f^^Sfii^

BBI

^gB

#iil

BklffiSS

MMmEPHi^'^

iiS^-^»B

jiiiiffiiii

^ni^fli

ifflPfWl

ISh9

CHAPTER III.

THE ARAL0CA8PIAN BASIN.

RUSMIAN TVRKEITAN, THB TuHKOHAN CoUMTBY, KhIVA, BOKHARA, RkOION 07 TUB UpPER OxUS.

I.— GEKJURAL SURVEY.

rr^;-'-^*.^ ?'

EST of the Caspian the limits of Europe are clearly defined by the
ancient Ponto-Caspian Strait, which runs as a natural dividing line
along the foot of ihe Caucasus. But north and east of the Caspian
Europe and Asia are merged together in a vast plain, where dreary
wastes of sand, clay, or rock, saline steppes and muddy swamps,
stretch from horizon to horizon. Here the only natural limit of the two continents
is the lowest part of the elevated tract between the Aral basin and the Ob valley.
Both sides of this ridge are studded with countless ill-defined lakelets, the remains
of dried-up seas. But beyond it the lowlands stretch away to the foot of the
plateaux and highlands forming part of the main continental mountain system.

Thus the Aralo-Caspian slope of the Central Asiatic tablelands blends north-
westwards with the Russian steppes between Ural and Caspian, while scarcely
separated northwards from the Ob valley. But everywhere else it is sharply
defined westwards by tlie Caspian, southwards by the highlands separating it from
Persia and Afghanistan, and stretching in an elongated curve from the south-east
comer of the Caspian to the Hindu-Kush. Eastwards and north-eastwards rise the
upland pastures and snowy peaks of the Pamir, the Tian-shan, and Tarbagatai
ranges. The whole region, including the Russian protected states, Wakhan,
Badakshan, Balkh, and the Turkoman country, has an estinmted area of over
1,200,000 square miles, and to this has now been added a tract of over 400,000
square miles in the Ob basin, henceforth administratively included in the general
government of Russian Turkestan.*

* Area and population of the Aralo-Caspian landit : —

RufBtan posseauons from tho Atrck to the Irtish

Khira

Bjkiiax« . . .

Turkoman country . i . . .

Afghan Turkestan .....

Total .... . .

AiaainSqnan
HilM.

1,620,000

23,000

96,600

60,000

64,000

1,762,600

Frobatde F<
in 1880.

4,fi00,C00
300,000

2,160,000
200,000
960,000

8,100,000

ilation

162

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

This region, which slopea westwards and northwards to the Caspian, Aral, and
Balkhash, is about equally divided into a lowland and highland district. Climate,
flora, and fauna vary as much as the geological formations in a land rising in some
places to elevations of 20,000 and 22,000 feet ; in others, as along the Caspian shores,
sinking l)elow sea-level. Nevertheless a certain analogy is maintained between the
eastern highlands and the western lowlands. In both cases the anniul variation of
temperature is greater than in Europe or any other sea-girt land. In autumn and
winter the north-east polar blasts prevail on the plains and uplands, giving place
in spring and summer to the hot equatorial winds from the south-west. Thus the
normal climate of each season becomes intensified here as elsewhere in the interior
of the continent, so that in July this region is included in the isothermals of 20° to
25° Centigrade, a temperature answering to that of the Cape Verd Islands,
1,650 miles nearer to the equator, while in January the isothermals aro those of
Canada, South Greenland, and Spitzbergen, some 1,800 miles nearer to the North
Pole. But the variation between the hottest and coldest days is even still greater,
averaging no less than 130°, or from about 111° to — 12° and even — 20° Fahr. On
the plains the dryness of the atmosphere and absence of dew add to the rigours of
the climate. Whole years have passed without any rainfall, and in 1868 the rains
lasted only four hours altogether in the Kara-kum Desert. The moisture borne by
the south-west breezes is precipitated on the slopes of the Pamir and in the Tian-
shan valleys ; but even here the discharge is relatively far less than on the European
and Indian highlands.

Another characteristic of Russian Turkestan is the continuous drying up of the
soil going on throughout the whole of the present geological epoch. The twin rivers,
Oxus and Sir-daria, flowing from the Pamir and Tian-shan nearly parallel to each
other, at present discharge their waters into the Aral Sea ; but these formerly far
more copious streams imited in a common channel, disemboguing in the Caspian.
Though still ranking in length amongst the great Asiatic rivers — over 1,200 miles
each — they are far inferior in volume to the Siberian, Chinese, and Indian streams
flowing seawards. Their basins show evident signs of gradual absorption — old
channels now partially filled up, numerous rivers formerly reaching the main streams,
but now lost in the sands, or expanding into brackish morasses, thousands of lakelets
now indicated only by saline incrustations. Even the large inland seas, such as Aral
and Balkhash, have diminished in size, while others have been replaced by the Eulja
and Ferghana plains. Owing to this continually increasing dryness a large portion
of the country has been transformed to steppe lands even on the higher grounds, as
on the Pamir, Tian-shan, and Tarbagatai, where the growth of vegetation is limited
to three months, partly by the winter snows, partly by the summer droughts.

Such a region is necessarily but thinly inhabited, the average being rather less
than four persons to the square mile, or six or seven times less than in Caucasia,
notwithstanding its vast extent of waste lands. But the local traditions, historical
records, and the ruins of nunaerous cities leave no doubt that the coimtry was
formerly far more densely peopled. The inhabitants have disappeared with the
running waters. The powerful empires of the Oxus and Sogdiana basins have

■*"> /w^ »W»>W < '

^^iMgaitf^fe'aKiB gyas^aaaifeKig.^w. -i^idas

GENERAL SURVEY.

168

pian, Arul, aud
rict. Climate,

rising in some
Caspian shores,
ed between the
lal variation of
In autumn and
s, giving place
est. Thus the

in the interior
rmals of 20° to

Verd Islands,
Is aro those of
ir to the North
9n still greater,
20° Fahr. On
) the rigours of

1858 the rains
isture home by
id in the Tian-
1 the European

rying up of the
rhe twin rivers,
parallel to each
se formerly far
n the Caspian,
ver 1,200 miles
Indian streams
ibsorption — old
e main streams,
lands of lakelets
as, such as Aral
sd by the Eulja
1 a large portion
;her g^unds, as
kation is limited
droughts.
)ing rather less
m in Caucasia,
tions, historical
le country was
leared with the
aa basins have

vanished ; the great centres of Eastern civilisation have bocomo eclipsed ; many
cultured peoples have "^verted to barbarism ; and the nomad has triumphed over the
agricultural state. Even the ruling race has changed, the original Aryan element
having been largely replaced by Turkomans, Kirghiz, and other TArki peoples.*
The upland Pamir valleys from Karateghin to Wakhan are still occupied by Aryon
agricultural tribes, some probably autochthonous, others driven to the highlands
when the plains were over-
Fig. 88.— RouTcs OF EXFI.0BKR8 IN THE Aiulo-Caspiam Baun.

Scale 17 : 400,000

run by the nomads from
the north-east. The ethnical
evolution begun by climatic
changes was hastened by
wars and massacres. But
the urban populations were
rendered partly independent
of the changed outward
conditions by trade and in-
dustry, so that the original
stock, diversely intermingled
with the intruders, has hero
held its ground to the pre-
sent time. Aryan and Tdrki
peoples thus continue to
dwell in the same towns,
forming distinct communi-
ties, which adapt themselves
to the surroundings accord-
ing to their respective tem-
peraments and hereditary
habits. Hence, in a political
sense alone, the Oxus has
for ages served as the limit
between Iran and Turan.
North of this river Iran has
at all times maintained a
footing in the midst of the
Turanian peoples.

And now the incentive to a higher development flows once more from a race of
Aryan stock. The Russians, strong in the power imparted by a superior culture,
are enabled to grapple with the difficulties of climate and vast distances in con-
solidating their new Aralo-Caspian conquests. After having surveyed the land us

• Throughout this work the term TArki U to be taken as practically synonymcus with the popular
but less accurate Tatar, or "Tartar." Farther on occurs the expression " Turanian," used in a very
vague way by most ethnologists. Here it will be strictly limited to the Tiirki nomad as opposed to the
Iranian settled populations.— £u.

E-otG.

55'

fltr

. aooMUss.

164

ASTATIC EU8SIA.

naturalists, traders, or envoys, they have settled down as its political masters. They
establiHh themselves in the already existing towns, found others on more favourable
commercial and strategical sites, and have even begun a more systematic colonisa-
tion in the upland valleys east of the Tatar plains, thus assigning definite limits to
the nomad regions, Lines of steamers on the two main streams, roads, and, later
on, railways, will cause the hitherto insurmountable distances to vanish, thus
enabling the Slav element all the more easily to establish its political and social
predominance. In the midst of Tajiks, Sartes, and Uzbegs, Tashkend and Samar-

Fig. 84. — Russian E.ncroachmbmts js Tvrkehtan.
Scale 1 : 23,000,000.

VusMMions In 1805 .

lialSSl.

aOOHilea

kaud are becoming Russian cities, just as Kazan has been Russified in the midst of
the Tatars, Chuvashes, and Cheremissians of the Volga basin.

Since the middle of the present centiuy the Russian power has rapidly advanced
in this region, notwithstanding the final limits from time to time laid down by the
St. Petersburg authorities. Since the capture of Ak-Mejid, on the Sir, in 1853, a
territory of about 460,000 square miles has been aeqmred, partly through the
caprice of some ambitious captain, partly under pretext of chastising some unruly
tribe. Gorchakov's circular of 1864 limited the farther advance of the imperial
arms to a few settled tracts beyond the nomad districts, " where both interest and
reason required them to stop." But since then vast strides have been made towards
the subjection of the whole Aralo-Caspian basin, and by the fall of Geok-tepe in
January, 1881, the independence x)f Merv and of the few remaining Turkoman tribes
is directly menaced. An official treaty concluded in 1873 between Russia and
England includes a large portion of their territory in the Afghan states. But such

.j.i ' iBaL'iij « waLiy.Ljmi

•9am

THE PAMIB AND ALAl.

166

masters. They
lOre favourable
[natic colonisa-
iinite limits to
>ad8, and, later
vauish, thus
ical and social
id and Samar-

in the midst of

pidly advanced
i down by the
Sir, in 1863, a
J through the
^ some unruly
f the imperial
kh interest and
\ made towards
' Geok-tepe in
irkoman tribes
en Russia and
.tes. But such

diplomatic triflings cannot prevent Russian influence from making itself more and
more felt in these regions, which are cut off from Afghanistan proper by the
Hiudu-Eush, and which belong physically and ethnically to the Aralo-Cucpiau
basin. All the lowlands stretching from the Caspian to the foot of the Pamir, and
from the Iranian tableland to the sources of the Ob and Irtish, may already be
considered as practically Russian territory, separated by a single range from
British India or its immediate dependencies.

East of Turkestan the Russians have for neighbours the Chinese, whose empire
is separated from them by the Pamir, the Tian-shan, and farther east by a con-
ventional line running through the gates of Zungaria, and at many points offering
no obstacle to invasion. But so far from having anything to fear from the possible
irruption of some modem Jenghis £han, here the advantage is entirely on the side
of the Russians, both in arms, resources, strategical positions, and military science.

II.— THE PAMIR AND ALAl.

The Pamir and Tibet, which converge north of India and east of the Oxus, form
jointly the culminating land of the continent. Disposed at right angles, and
pr.rallel, the one to the equator, the other to the meridian, they constitute the so-
called " Roof," or " Crown of the World," though this expression is more usually
restricted to the Pamir alone.

With its escarpments, rising above the Oxus and Tarim plains west and east,
the Pamir occupies, in the heart of the continent, an estimated area of 30,000 square
miles. With its counterforts projecting some 300 miles, it forms the western
headland of all the plateaux and mountain systems skirting the Chinese Empire ;
it completely separates the two halves of Asia, and forms an almost impassable
barrier to migration and warlike incursions, Tet notwithstanding its mean
elevation of 13,000 feet above arable land, it has been frequently crossed by small
caravans of traders or travellers, and by light columns of troops. The attempt
could not fail to be frequently made to take the shortest, route across the region
separating the Oxus from Eashgaria, and Europe from China. Hence the Pamir
has often been traversed by Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Italians, Chinese, some as
traders, some as explorers, some inspired by religious zeal. But of these travellers
very few have left any record of their journey, and all took the lowest routes
across the plateau. Here are neither towns nor cidtivated land, so that it becomes
diflicult to identify any of the former routes. It was reserved for modem explorers
to convey a general idea of the plateau, by their methodic surveys introducing
order into the confused nomenclature of the ancients, reconstructing the geography
of Central Asia, and getting rid of the fanciful mountain ranges traced at hap-
hazard on the maps. The imaginary "Bolor," which, according to Humboldt,
formed the axis of the continent, has already vanished, at least as a line of crested
heights, and, like the Imaus of the ancients, it is now merged in the broad table-
land of the Pamir. The name itself would seem to have been restricted to a
district near the Hindu-Kush, probably identical with the present Dardistan.

166

ASIATIC BTTHSU.

Traders from Greece bej^n, about the twelfth century of the new era, if
not earlier, to become acquainted with the routes over the Pamir to Sorica, or
" the Land of Silk." Boinj? already established in Baktriana, on the valley of the
Middle Oxus, the Greeks naturally sought to cross the plateau by ascending the
Oxus until stopped by some impassable gorge. Ptolemy, relying on older documents,
tells us, in fact, that thoy proceeded northwards to the country of the Comedes,
whose name possibly survives in that of the town of Kabadian. Farther on the

Fig. 85.— ROVTB* OF ExPLORBRa IN TUB E*8TBItN PaMIS.
Stale 1 : 4,000,000.

road followed the foot of the plateau by the valley of the Oxus, and probably of
its tributary the Surgh-ab, running thence towards the " Stone Tower," the chief
station and resting-place on this dreary journey. This tower Rawlinson seems
inclined to identify with one of the numerous Imh-kurgan, or cairns, scattered over
this region. It stands 11,000 feet above the sea, on a head-stream of the
Yarkand, at the eastern base of the Pamir in Sirikol. But it does not seem
probable that, in order to pass from the Surgh-ab to the Tarim (Oechardes) valley,

- %.i« i iato « « »i»ieB«w wt. « <«» i 'i ' i ' WW »i *i > a!*Mci» ' J>j<

THE PAMIIl AND ALAt.

167

le new era, if
? to Serica, or
3 valley of the
aHc-endiiig the
ier doeumentB,
the Comeden,
Farther on the

40"

tid probably of
Rrer," the chief
kwlinson seems
scattered over
stream of the
does not seem
hardes) valley,

the caravans would have turned so fur to the south-east, besides which Gordon
regards this cairn as in any case of recent origin.

Two hundred , j(irs before the Greeks hud crossed the Pnmir the Chinese had
made the acquaintance of the peoples dwelling on the Sir und Oxus, with whom
they had established relations through the pusses of the Tsung-ling, or Pamir of
the Russian geographers. After Chang-Kien's expedition (probably alxmt 128 a.d.)
trade was rapidly developed, and large Chinese caravans soon found their way
directly from the Tarim to the Sir basin in the "Tavan" country. To these
caravans has been attributed the introduction into China of the vine, walnut,
pomegranate, bean, cucumber, parsley, lucem, saffron, and sesame. Coming from
the Tarim valley, the Chinese traders naturally sought to cross the heights at their
narrowest point. They nkirted on the north-east the Pamir and Alai by the Terek-
davan, but we also know from contemporary records that they crossed the Pamir
directly by the southern passes in order to reach the Oxus and Ei-pin, or
Eabulistan.

This direct commercial movement between east and west was interrupted by
civil wars and migrations. But the routes over the Pamir were reopened by the
Buddhist missionaries and pilgrims. Hwen-T'sang, the most famous of these
pilgrims, describes the journey of sixteen years' duration which he made across
Central Asia in the first half of the seventh century, and a sufficient number of
names in his itinerary have been identified to enable us to follow him over the
Southern Pamir through Sirikol, Wakhan, and Badakshan. This is nearly the
same route as that taken by Marco Polo in company with his father and uncle in
1272 — 5. But this traveller seems to have passed more to the north, instead of
ascending the Upper Oxus crossing the Pamir in a north-easterly direction,
travelling " twelve days on horseback " in a region " without dwellings or pasture."
In 1603 the Catholic missionary, Benedict Goes, also crossed the Southern Pamir,
probably by the same route as Hwen-T'sang. But two hundred years elapsed before
it was again approached by a European traveller. In 1838 Wood ascended a head-
stream of the Oxus to the Sari-kul, or Eul-kalian, and with this journey begins the
era of modem scientific exploration. In 1868 Hayward visited the south-east comer
of the plateau ; the Hindu emissaries of the Indian Topographic Bureau also traversed
the " Great " and " Little " Pamir ; the Greek Potagos penetrated, in 1871, from
Badakshan to Eashgar ; and in 1873 Forsyth, Gordon, and Trotter crossed the
plateau to Badakshan, and sent a Hindu geometrician to visit Shignan and Roshan.

But the Northern Pamir has ceased to be vasited ever since the epoch of
Chinese supremacy. The Arabs. mast«r8 of the Sir valley, sent their trading
expeditions by relatively easier routes round the northern base of the Tian-shan,
and the same route was followed by the European envoys to the Mongol court.
The rediscovery of the Northern Pamir is due to the Hindu Abdul Mejid, who
was the first to cross the Pamir from south to north in 1861, and to the Russian
explorers, Fedchenko, Eostenko, Mushketov, Sieverzov, Oshanin, and others. Over
four-fifths of the whole area have already been surveyed, and Sieverzov's expedition
of 1878 came within some 30 miles of the English exploration of 1873. About

FLORA, FAUNA, LAKES OF THE PAMIR.

) elevations of
ertain that no

Although rising 13,000 foot above the TurkeHtan ))1ainR, the Puunr in Hmitt>d
north and south by ranges towrring 7,000 and even 10,000 feet higher. On the
Houth the Ilindu-Kush, continued by the mountains connecting it with the Kucn>
lun, forms the great parting-line of the Indus basin. On the north the Trans-
Alai and the Alai, forming geographically a section of the Tian-shan, separate
the Pamir from the slopes draining to the Sir-daria. But the region thus com-
prised between two escarpments running west-south-west and east-north-cast is
far from presenting a uniform surface, for it is divided into a number of smaller
Pamirs by ridges and deep ravines, through which the streams drain, west to the
Oxus, east to the Tarim, without any well-defined water-parting. The relief of
the uplands, even excluding the distinct ridges, presents deviations of over 3,000
feet, which suffice to produce a certain variety in the climate and scanty flora of
the plateau. Still the ridges offer no effectual barrier to the nomad Kirghiz
pastors or travellers, and the Pamir is crossed in every direction by a thousand
tracks. In the north the eminences attain a relative height pf no more than 1,000
to 1,600 feet, while in the centre and between the Rang-kul and Yashil-kul the
routes may be compared to artificial highways. In the west General Abramov was
able to transport a battery over the Alai, so that with modem appliances the Pamir
presents no insurmountable obstacles even to well-appointed military expeditions, at
least during the four months from June to September. At other times the surface is
covered with snow and exposed to fierce gales, rendering the Pamir uninhabitable.

Below the upper clays and sands the Alai rocks consist of granites and crystal-
line schists. The granites run precisely in the same direction as the Tian-shan
and the spurs projecting westwards into the Turkestan lowlands. But the inter-
vening spaces are occupied by triassic and other more recent formations. The
general tilt of the land is towards the west and south-west, and the somewhat
ill-defined water-parting lies much nearer to the Eastern Tarim than to the
Western Aralo-Caspian basin. On its eastern verge also rises Mount Tagharma,
or Taghalma, culminating point of the land. This mountain, known also aa the
Wi-tagh (" House Mount ") and Muz-tagh-ata (" Father of the Ice Mounts "),
rises, according to Trotter and Eostenko, to a height of 25,500 feet, and is con-
tinued south-eastwards by the Chichiklik, which is itself about 20,000 feet high.
These highlands, which run transversely with the Tian-shan, are the Tsung-ling,
or " Onion Mountains," of the Chinese, and the Kizil-art of the Eashgarians.

The Pamir is often swept by terrific gales from the north-east, where its
sheltering mountain barrier is broken at several points. On the shores of the
Eara-kul and in the sandy gorge of the Eizil-art the very rocks are worn by the
sands incessantly playing on them from the north. In these lofty regions the air
is generally very dry and clear, except when clouded by the powdered mists of
the desert winds. The extremes of temperature occasioned by this transparent
atmosphere, combined with the snow-storms, which prevail chiefly in February
and March, are amongst the principal dangers to which travellers are exposed.
They also suffer much from " mountain sickness " and distressing headaches.
12

170

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Flora, Faina, Lakkh op tup. Pamir.

The Piiinir in froquontod in Numinor by Kirghiz nnnmdn, with thoir flnoki irom
Khoidind and Kumtoghin in the north, und from Shignun in tho woiit. Cuinifl unt
KattcrcMl horo and thoro, inurkinf^ old cunipin)^ f^roundH, or tho f^ravos of Kirghiz
" RaintH," dockod with Hhoep'n honin and fluttoring raga. AIn>vo tho line of
arborcMtent vogotution, indicated by tho willow, dwarf birch, juniper, and thorny
8hrul)H, tho only available fuel in that afforded by tho wood of r(x>tH of a H|)oci(>N
of lavender, while t»till higher up even thiH resource fail*. Yet in many placcN,
even at altitudoH of l.'i.OOO foot, the gram in an thick an on the groxing grounds of
West Europe, and perhaps richer. Marco Polo's statement that the Pamir affonls
tho best pasture in the world, fattening a lean hook in ton days, is confirmed by recent
explorers and their Wakhi guides. In the upland Sirikol valley sloping towardu
Kashgaria borloy, haricots, and other plants are cultivated as high as 10,300 feet.
Yet the parallel ridges, especially in the north, are almost destitute of vegetation, and
here nothing grows except in the moist hollows on the banks of the lakes and rivulets.

The fauna is much richer than wa« formerly supposed. Sieverzov found in
1878 no less than 112 species of birds at an elevation at whiqh on the Alps there

Tig. 87. -KbLIIF of tub HtOHLAirDI and PiATIIUX IHTWMM THH HWBU-KfUM AMD TiAN-nUMr

Seal* t : 18,800,000.

r A t » n - S h m H Pamif PLtitmwk

/tJH^ fbtth

.800 MUM.

are no more than a dozen. The muddy shores of the lakes show traces of the
chamois, hare, deer, fox, bear, wolf, lynx, leopard, and on the Great Pamir are
wild goats like those of the Himalayas. But the typical animal of the plateau is
the 80-caUed kachkar, or arkhar {Ovis poU), a species of sheep over 3 feet high,
weighing from 400 to 430 lbs., and distinguished by enormous horns inclined
backwards in a double spiral. Formerly very numerous, the kachkar seems d be
disappearing frofti the Pamir, and in the north it was nearly swept away by the
epidemic of 1869. Potagos appears to have met a small species of monkey in
the upland valleys of the south ; but the bear has vanished from the north, and the
tiger spoken of by some travellers was more probably a leopard.

Traces of increasing aridity are no less evident on the Pamir than elsewhere in
the Aralo-Caspian basin. A great many lakes have already ceased to overflow,
and have been gradually changed to isolated saline or brackish tarns. Such fs the

7'Tg /A:*k»jav.^< T wwm wM B i K aB(y3>g

TIIK ALAl IIIOIILAND.

171

loir flnoki irom
•t. Cttinm am
V08 of Kirghiz
re the line of
or, and thorny
>tM of a NpocicH
n many pluccH,
;ing groundfl of
a Pamir affonln
irmed by recent
loping towardH
tt8 lO.aOO feet,
vegetation, and
:es and rivulets,
arzov found in
the Alps there

AND TlAN-RRAMr

r traoeB of the
reat Pamir are
I the plateau is
er 3 feet high,
horns inclined
tear seems t>' be
pt away by the
i of monkey in
) north, and the

lan elsewhere in
led to overflow,
IS. Such in the

Rtifwik-kul in the Miuth, though th<> lliing-kiil Ntill retain* itii RWoetneM, thanks to
tho Htrmni through which it dritiiiH to u tributary of the Oxun. In many plucuH
tho old lakcn un) now intlicutiKl by incruHtationH of wit und inagnoHitt.

Tho Kurii-kul, or " Hlu(!k liuko," «> cullwl fntni itH ilonp blun (colour, in tho
largest on the I*amir, but noomH ut pri'Mcn'tf to Im< paMning through u tranNition
period. Situated immodiat<»ly south of tho kkil-urt, it in ovcrywhoro oncloM<d by
unowy mountainH, but its vunt ImHin in no longor entin^lv fl'KMlcid. Itn proscnt area
in about l!iO Mcpuiro miloH, but its former exttnt is dourly nmrkwl by iiutiuTous
JNlandti, poninHiilaN, Hwnmpy flats, and the dnitTsling ^hdo iuoruHtationn of nkagnoitia
met with ah>ng its shoroH. It in dividtKl iuu* two halves by a rirlg<; running north
and south, and c<mnoctod with tho mainland by u strip of sand. Its f'^niors no
longer compensate for tho loss by evaporation, the rainfall is very slight, and
noarly all tho moisture is discharged either as hail in summct or sii. >w in winter.
Before Kostenko's visit tho lake was represented os draining either to tho Kashgar
or to the Oxus, or even to both basins. Hut if it over oxisttnl the outlet through
tho Markan-su north-east to the Kashgar has long boon dried up, while that flow-
ing south to the Oxus seems to be intormittent, during high floods still sending a
little water through the Ohon-su or Ak-baital to that river. Doing thus without
a reg^ar outflow, its waters have become so bitter that animals will only drink
them when suffering from extreme thirst. But they ore always clear, and
apparently stocked with fish. According to the nomads tho level of the lake rises
regularly every Friday, a belief Kostenko seems half inclined to credit. Koros-
tovzev also speaks of regular risings, without, however, indicating their duration.

The Alai Highland.

North of the Pomir. the two parallel ramparts of the Trans- Alai and Alai
belong to the Tian-shan system, and their geological structure, according to
Mushketov, is the same. But these diorite and granite mosses being separated by
the Kog-art and Terek-davan • Passes from that range, they may bo regarded as
forming an independent system. This western section of the Tian-shan, merging
in the Turkestan plains between the Sir and Oxus basins, has a length of 420 miles,
and, like the Tian-shan proper, consists of various ridges running either east-north-
east or north-west, and crossing each other at intervuls.

At the north-east comer of the Pamir the two ranges present a remarkably
regular appearance. The Alai, or Kichi-Alai, forming the water-parting between
the Sir, Oxus, and Tarim basins, sharply limits the Ferghana depression by a
barrier of crests with a mean elevation of from 13,000 to 18,000 feet, which
are separated from each other by elevated posses. Of these one of the lowest is
the Isfoirom Poss, 12,000 feet high, ot one of the " breaks " in the Alai, where
the chain suddenly tokos o westerly direction. From a neighbouring bluff o view
is afforded of the snowy monarch of the Trans- Aloi, which Fedchenko hos named

• The Tian-shan passes hear the Tatar names of davan or daban, art or yart, bel and kutal. The
(lavm is a difficult rocky defile, the art a dungerous gap at a high elevation, the bel a low and easy pass,
the kutal a broad opening between low hills (Fedchenko).

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

the Kaufmann Peak, and which is probably the culrainaliug point of the whole
Tian-shan system. A little farther east rises a group of three other crests, of
nearly equal elevation, the Gurumdi of the Kirghiz.

The space between the Alai and Trans- Alai is regarded as forming a separate
plateau, a sort of advanced platform or landing-place in the descent from the
" Roof of the World " down to the Ferghana valley. It forms the bed of a dried-
up lake, at its most elevated place, no less than 24 miles broad, and stretching in a
narrower channel north-east and south-west. The upper part, known as the
Bash- Alai, or " Head of the Alai," is the " Paradise " of the Kirghiz, though a

Fig. 88 — Thb Alai Plateau.

Boale 1 : 640,000.

^.mM<%im :^^^^'^^' --^^s^.

X ,^if

%^^^m

a^ vc^A\ \

''" '^' ilHiMv ifHffTr "^'IBiy

^m^

^^^v^^^^wyi

^jA^^^^nHH^B

^^1 "^ fiwilBw

'- ' „.v^$iilil

IP^iPll^i ^■- ■'-■■-'' ...

pjp^ "iMB

■HHHp^i*r^'

,,^Mi

59
50'

HBfP^!SftiA&iiii

E.oP G. '7Q'00

76* so-

12Mil«*.

paradise they can visit only for three or four months in the year. It forms the
water-parting between the Oxus and Kashgar basins, and the two streams that
here take their rise are both called the Kizil-su, or " Red River," from the colour
of their banks. Most of their tributary rivulets have also a reddish tinge, due no
doubt to the clays deposited by the old glaciers. In those flowing towards the
Western Kizil-su, the Surgh-ab of the Tajiks, Fedchenko discovered a species of trout
not met with in any other Turkestan river, and probably allied to that found by
Griffith in another tributary of the Oxus near Bamian. This fish seems to have
been driven by the change of climate from the plains to the mpuntaiii torrents.

'-''.'"WSSt^SW

MiW ' . ' llJM;,:

-XJJW I II I UU I Mlfc i

urmiiiiiioi

point of the whole
iree other crests, of

forming a separate
e descent from the
J the bed of a dried-
, and stretching in a
part, known as the
^ Kirghiz, though a

72' 50-

year. It forms the
le two streams that
er," from the colour
■eddish tinge, due no
flowing towards the
3red a species of trout
ed to that found by
8 fish seems to have
;>untaiii torrents.

tmmm

JiitiWiNiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiBiii iiiiiiii,iirii»iiiiiiHiw[H«i

THE ALAl HIGHLAND.

17»

West of the Isfai'ram and Eara-kazik Pass the Ala'i rises gradually in a parallel
line with some northeni ridges traversed by the streainb flowing to Ferghana. It
is connected by spurs with these ridges, the whole constituting, north of the sources
of the Zarafshan, a highland region rising 6,000 or 7,000 feet above the snow-
line, and sending down mighty glaciers

Fig. 80.'

-Thb Shchi'kotskiy Glacier.
Soale 1 : 820,000.

to the surrounding upland valleys.
From the highest peak of these high-
lands, the culminating point of the Ala'i
proper, the Shchurovskiy glacier flows
northwards, while from the slopes of
the Ehotur-tau and neighbouring
mountains there descend nimierous
torrents and cascades, a phenomenon
elsewhere as rare in the Central Asiatic
highlands as on the slopes of the
Caucasus. Here the forests, far inferior
in beauty to those of Europe, are com-
posed largely of the archa, a species
of juniper (^Jtmiperut pseudo-sabina),
which flourishes at an elevation of 5,000
feet and upwards.

The Eara-tau. which forms a
western continuation of the Ala'i, main-
tains an altitude of over 13,000 feet to
the south of Tashkend, beyond which
it falb somewhat rapidly in the direc-
tion of Samarkand, while throwing oif
at a sharp angle another spur towards
the north-west. The various sections
of these mountains, which are inter-
rupted by broad gaps, are known by
different names, such as the Fra-tepe,
the Julan or Sausar-tau, Eara-tau, and
Nura-tau.

The parallel ridges running between
the Alai and Western Pamir have a
greater mean altitude than the outer
chain ; but they are divided by mountain
torrents into a number of distinct frag-
ments, nowhere forming any decided

water-parting. Thus the Trans- Ala'i is divided on the west of the Earateghin Moun-
tains by the Ters-agar, whence flow two streams in opposite directions, northwards to
the Tuz-altin-dara, a tributary of the Surgh-ab, southwards to the Muk-su. Farther
west the Surgh-ab itself pierces Hxe Earateghin range to effect a junction with the

. BMfle*.

174

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Muk-su, which is formed by three head-streams, one of which is fed by a glacier
over a mile broad, and at its lower extremity about 100 feet thick. The Sel-su
valley is filled by a still larger glacier, at least 10 miles long, which Oshanin, the
first explorer of this region, has named after the celebrated traveller Fedchenko.

"West of tiie Alai, where all the parallel chains converge in a snowy plateau
sending down glaciers to the surrounding cirques, the two parallel Zarafshan and
Hissar ranges are also pierced by river valleys. But here the chains begin to
branch off like a fan, gradually falling towards the plains, where they reappear
here and there in isolated rooky eminences. Between Samarkand and Hissar some

by a glacier
The Sel-8u
)8hanin, the
Bdchenko.

THE TIAN-SHAN.

of the peaks still rise above the snow-line, and although less elevated than the
Kaufmann Peak of the Trans-AlaY, they perhaps present a grander appearance,
thanks to their greater relative height above the surrounding district.*

III.— THE TIAN-SHAN.

Of the Asiatic mountain systems sloping northwards this is the largest both in
extent, elevation, the abundance of its snows and glacier masses. The title of
Tian-shan, or " Celestial Mountains," was conferred on it by the Chinese, doubtless
from the elevation of its snowy peaks blending with the fleecy welkin. Its lofty crests
have ever formed one of the chief barriers to migration, conquest, and commercial
intercourse, and these mountains have at all times been avoided eastwards by the
Zungarian passes. Till recently the Russians themselves, notwithstanding their
military resources and superior culture, have stopped short at the northern base of

Fig. 01. — Bblatitb

176

OF THK TlAN-BHAW, Au>«, AND PTRBKnS.

Soale 1 : MX)00.(MV«.

Tian-ihan.
.eooMilM.

the range, which for thran formed the limit of the known world, and which was
masked by vast deserts, Bwamps, and shallow lakes. Its passes are approached
by no great river valley except that of the Sir-daria, which, like all the other
streams flowing from the Tian-shan, is lost in a- land-locked lake. Although
forming the chief moimtain mass of Asia north of the Himalayas and Kuen-lun,
this range is nevertheless of far less hydrographic importance than the secondary

* Chief elevations of the Pamir and Alai system : —
Pamir.

Fcrt.

14,240

13,400

16,100

16,600

Bash-Alai

Alal-tagh, highest point
Alai'-tagh, mean height ....
Shchurovskty Glacier, lower extremity .
Kaufmann Peak, Trsns-AM

Ters agar Pass

Trans- Ala! snow- line ....

Shelveli

Saudal

Chabdara (Hissar Mountains)
Hasreti-Sultan

Feet.
11,000
19,380
16,000
11,900
26,000

9,860
14,160
26,000
26,000
18,600
16,000

■I

176

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

masses, where rise the gi-eat Siberian rivers — Ob, Yenisei, and Lena. The Tian-
shan is, in fact, entirely comprised within the central region of the continent, which
has an exclusively inland drainage. It belongs to the region of steppes, deserts,
half dried-up lakes and saline marshes, which form the " inner (routinent" enclosed
within the Asiatic mainland. Nor is it inhabited except very thinly in the valleys,
on its outskirts, and on some of its plateaux, so that while twenty-five times larger,
it has less than one-tenth the population of the Swiss Alps. It also forms an
ethnical and political parting-line, on the one hand limiting the domain of the
Mongolians, Kirghiz, Zimgarians, and Tajiks, on the other forming abnost every-
where the political frontier of the Russian and Chinese Empires.

According to the most recent surveys this system forms altogether a more
extensive highland mass than all the European mountains collectively, from the
Eastern Carpathians to the Sierra Nevada. The term Tian-shan, restricted by
Semyonov to the crests north of the Issik-kul, and by Humboldt to the chains
between the rivers Narin and Kashgar, is extended by Hwen-T'sang to the region

Rg. 02.— Rbiativb Relief of the Tian-shan, Alps, and Pybbnibb.

Soale 1 : 24,000,000.

Veitieal fifty times laiger than the Horiiontal Soato.

^_____i_i.^— i_-^— 600 Miles.

east of the Khan-tengri, and the geographic unity of the vast highland tract
stretching from Zungaria to the Turkestan ranges has now for the first time
been recognised by Sieverzov. "As I proceeded south-westwards," says this
traveller, "I had snowy crests for months together on my left. After passing
the Ala-tau of Semirechinsk, I sighted the white Talgar and the other peaks of the
Ala-tau beyond the Ili. The Alexander Chain was succeeded still by others and
others, and the Celestial Mountains seemed to continue in an endless line of sierras."

Orographic System.

The Tian-shan begins in Mongolia with a simple rocky crest rising above the
bed of the " Dried-up Sea," the Han-hai of the Chinese. But this crest, which
nms west-south-westwards, is soon joined by a second, and then by several others,
connected by intermediate plateaux, and broadening their bases till they have
stretched across 8° of latitude. Tqv. ards the centre the plateau supporting the ranges
gradually narrows, and the parallel ridges become reduced in numbers, until at
last the Tian-shan, towards its western extremity, loses its name and merges with
a few rocky eminences in the Turkestan lowlands. The various chains running

IHi

mmm

OROnRAl'HIC MYSTEM.

177

The Tian-
tinent, which
ppes, deserts,
;nt" enclosed
n the valleys,
times larger,
Iso forms an
omain of the
abnost every-

ther a more
ely, from the
restricted by
to the chains
to the region

SISB

-m

ighland tract
le first time
B," says this
Lfter passing
* peaks of the
by others and
le of sierras."

ng above the
crest, which
jveral others,
U they have
ig the ranges
lers, until at
merges with
Eiins running

east and west are collectively about 1,500 miles long, with a mean breadth of at
least 240 miles, and a total area of 400,000 square miles.

All the ridges do not run uniformly east-north-east and west-south-west, or
simply east and west, for several stretch in parallel lines south-east and north-west,
or else east-south-east and west-south-west. These last are formed of diorites, while
the main chain consists of granites and syenites. The whole system is intersected
by one only of the secondary chains, that which skirts the Ferghana plains on the
east, forming the western escarpment of all the central plateau. The outer chains
spread out like a fan beyond the main range, thus enclosing valleys of triangular
shape. The Sir-daria and its tributaries, like the other streams flowing to the steppe
lakes, run first eastwards through one of the intermediate valleys of the Tian-
shan proper, and are then deflected north-west by the outer chains. In the heart

Fig. 93.— Chibf Chests of thb Tian-buan.
Scale 1 : 22,000,000.

C"--'^'-

7/-/>""'""

E.ofG 70'

00'

O OULtltes.

aoOMlfas.

of the system all the valleys, like those of the Alai, Pamir, and East Siberia, belong
to very old geological epochs, for triassic and Jurassic strata have here been regularly
deposited between the crystalline, Devonian, and carboniferous crests of the main
ranges. Here are also vast layers of loess, in some places 1,000 feet thick, and by
their uniform yellow-g^y colour imparting a wearisome monotony to the landscape.
Till the middle of the present century the Tian-shan was one of the least-known
regions on the globe. But since then the steady progress of Russian power and
influence has enabled many explorers to traverse it in every direction, so that
little remains to be done beyond making a more exhaustive study of its structure
and products. The work of exploration begun in 1856 by Semyonov has been ably
continued by Valikhanov, Golubev, Venyukov, SieverzDv, Reinthal, Mushketoy,
Prejvalsky, Hegel, &c. Valuable itineraries remain still to be published, which will
probably clear up many doubtful points, and help to remove the confusion occasioned

178

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

by the various Tutar, Zungarian, Russian, and Chinese nomenclatures. Great uncer-
tainty also sometimes prevails regarding measurements, the various barometrical and
other estimates of altitudes often presenting discrepancies of several hundred feet.

The Tian-shan proper begins about 120 miles east of the town of Hami
(Khamil), and soon reaches an elevation of from 7,000 to 10,000 feet. The
Kosheti-davan Pass, on the route between Hami and Barkul north and south, is no
less than 9,100 feet high, an altitude probably maintained as far west as the Bogdo
Mountains. But immediately beyond this point there occurs a profound gap

Fig. 04.— Eabteun Chains or tri Tun-bhan.

Penlo 1 : 8,601,000.

/ . Oy/oumg

/•^*/AA»aA

i^aizt^ f^fS.

TXAff- SA*n ^/ot*

„.^AjgrgtM|L-^^^,^

HupoiuitiL

-*6mr

Sfgmf^r^

fJ^rMamfc*

Akteu

S'^*

■ y

40>

E ofG.

80'

85'

340MilM.

through which runs the road from Urumtsi (Umritsi) to Turfan and Pishan. All
this section is encircled by a narrow belt of verdure, watered by streams flowing in
parallel channels from the gorges, and soon losing themselves in the sands, or
expanding into morasses on the lowlands. Around this green belt there stretch
westwards two inlets of the old Asiatic Mediterranean, which have been gradually
changed to gohi, or deserts. The hills between Barkul and Hami, thus rising
like a headland above the wastes, have played a prominent part in the history
of the world. Standing like a barrier between two great historical highways, they
deflected the westward waves of migration, some to the Tarim basin and Eaahgaria,

"=^^i3i.'il6ti8!iS3i^''i!"i(lilll,'i'l

g^afg iiMMm i MMM t 'i lJ lM I M i

KATOn and Yin.DUZ HIOHIiANDS.

170

Great uncer-
metrical and
indrcd feet.
vn of Hami

feet. The

1 south, is no
18 the Bogdo
rofound gap

40:

others through the narrow Nomin-iningin-gobi gateway between the Barkul Hills
and the advanced spurs of the Altai north- west wanlM to Zunguriu. Hero the
Mongolians were easily enabled to skirt on the north the whole Tian-shan system
by availing themselves of the numerous passes opening westwards to the Hi basin,
north-westwards to Lake Balkhash, northwards to the Black Irtish and Luke Zaisan.
These depressions between Mongolia and Siberia have a mean altitude of probab^ *
not more than 3,300 feet, and the highest point on the route from Barkul north
west to the Black Irtish is only 2,545 feet. The existence of an oblique chain, sup-
posed by Richthofen to run north-west from Barkul to the Tarbagatui Mountains,
has not been confirmed by Potantin's explorations, though a small ridge runs from
the extremity of the Tian-shan at Barkul in a north-westerly direction, again joining
the main range west of the town. This is the outer rim of an ancient lake, of
which nothing now remains except the small Barkid basin, to which this town owes
its Tatar name. Beyond the Barkul heights nothing occurs in the north-west as far
OS the valley of the Black Irtish, except irregular masses representing the islands
and peninsulas of the old sea flowing between the Altai and Tian-shan highlands.

rgiyglaL

K/W.^

iff

Pishan. All
ns flowing in
:he sands, or
there stretch
en gradually
, thus rising
L the history
B^hways, they
d Eaahgaria,

KatCn and Yulduz Highlands.

"West of the TJruratsi defile and of the old Turfan inlet the main range rises
above the snow-line, and takes the name of EatQn, or Eatin. This section, one of
the least known in the system, is probably one of the highest, and undoubtedly
exceeds 16,000 feet. No mention is made by the Chinese writers of any pass over
it, and all the caravan routes skirt it east and west, while the lakes on both sides
of the chain seem to point at extensive snow-fields on the uplands. Regel recently
found vast glaciers about the sources of the Eash, which flows from the EatCkn
highlands westwards to the Eunges and Ili. Here the Tian-shan system develops
into several parallel ridges, while south of the Eatdn runs another chain through
whose gorges the torrents from the main range escape to the plains. West of one
of these gorges, traversed by an affluent of Lake Bogla-nor (Bostan-nor, or
Bagrach-kul), the Tian-shan forms four parallel snowy ridges, known, like the
neighbouring lake, by several different names, and enclosing two vast basins over
7,000 feet high. These so-called "■ stars " (Great and Little Yulduz) are the beds
of old lakes, which now form natural pasture-lands watered by streams flowing to
Lake Bogla-nor. It was in one of these vast cirques that Tamerlane, on his expe-
dition against Eashgaria, assembled five armies from five different points of the
Tian-shan, and ordered them to exterminate all the inhabitants of the land between
Lakes Zaisan and Bogla-nor north and south. The imperial tent stood in the
middle of the plain, and the " Destroyer of the Universe " ascended his golden
throne glittering with gems, and round about were the less sumptuous, but still
gorgeous tents of his emirs. All received rich presents, and the troops were
inflamed with rapture. These grazing grounds are the " Promised Land " of the
nomad pastors, who here find the richest pastures for their flocks, and the finest
climate, free even in summer from flies and mosquitoes. Yet Prejvalsky found this

w««?^>.<mii^ ^^f^v-

ii5i#£gl^^®^^'^~^4

IfiO

AfiUTIO RUSSIA.

magnificent region completely abandoned in 1876. Plundered in 1865 by the
Moslem Zungarians, the 60,000 Yulduz nomads had been driven, some south-east-
wards to Lake Dogla-nor, others north-westwortls to the Hi valley. Left thuw
masters of the wilderness, the wild ruminants have hero become very numerous.
Among them are the Ovi« poli in flocks of thirty to forty, the mountain goat {Capra
Sihirica), the maral, a species of deer.* But neither the Oci» karelini, the Ocin poli,
nor the argali is anywhere met in the Eastern Tian-shan. The wolf, fox, and other
beasts of prey are also numerous in this section of the range, which is the exclusive
home of the white-clawed boar ( Unus kucomjx).

According to their aspect, the mean direction of the winds, and amount of rain-

Fig. 95.— ROUTBH OF EXPLOHBRS IN THE EAaTlUN TlAM-IHAN.
8oaU 1 : 9,070,030.

^•m-m-»^w PrejTsldir, 1870.
— « I I I ' KaropktldD, 1876-7.
.._....._ RaiUlor, 1874.

~~ SoMUwkjr, l87i-4.

'— • Bagal, 1874-0.

«-> OtMtCUneM Hlflnny.

.110 MOM.

fall, the slopes of the Eastern Tian-shan present many striking contrasts. The
southern and generally more abrupt slopes, being unable to retain much moisture,
are nearly all treeless, while the northern are well wooded, the pine flourishing in
some places as high as 8,000 feet, the upper limit of arborescent vegetation. On
the northern slopes of the Narat, or Nara-tau, running north of the Little Yulduz,

* Sieverzov tells us that the young horns of the maral, while still filled with Mood and not yot
hardened, are' highly esteemed by the Chinese, who pay from £6 to £20 the pair for them on the Siberian
frontier. Hence the maral has always been eagerly chased ; and since the wild animal has become rare,
the Cossacks of the Kiakhta district have succeeded in domesticating it. Polakoff has recently stated
that this industry has become widely diffused in Western Siberia, where tame herds of fifty to seventy
head are now to be met. Unfortunately the horns of the domesticated animal have lort many of the
qualities for which they are chiefly valued as an article of trade. — Editor.

jnwTfflifMTiiWM i'aii tf 'r 'liiM i ii i ii i iii Kum iiiri i i Miii ii riHiniii ' Biff iaaafais

1865 by the
le Bouth-eaat-
Left thiiH
ry numerous,
goat {^Capra
the Oeinpoli,
'ox, and other
the exclusive

18a

ASIATIC RU8HIA.

Skmirkchinhk Hkoion.

After bruiK^hing off towardn tho north-wont from tho main range tho northern
Hoction of the Tiun-nhan taken nueecuivoly vuriouH numcH, nuch uh thoao of the
Iren-khubirgun, Horo-khoro, and Talki. North of the Kulja plain, Hcparating it
from tho Tian-nhnn proper, it uniton with other puruUel ridgen in a hilly plateau
furrowo<l by running waters, and forming a pronumtory alK)vo tho plains and
Bteppes of HemirechinHk, tho "Country of tho Seven lliverH." Wostwoi-dH thin
plateau ramifioH into jieninHular chains continued by isolated mosHos, Iwtwccn
which tho streams flow to Luko Ualkhush, or uro lost in the desert. Tho principal
of those masses, which still attain an elevation of over H.OOO foot, rises like a rocky
wall between Semirochinsk and the Hi valley, but is crossetl by several availabUt
passes. Liko tho main range, it runs south-west and north-east, and this is also
the direction of tho Zungarian Ala-tau, which branches from tlio plateau at an
acute angle with tho Iren-khabirgan chain. This range, which is over 180 miles
long, forms the natural frontier of tho Russian and Chinese Empires, and is crossed
only by two serviceable passes, those of Tentek and Lepsa. The system is con-
tinued through Chinese territory eastwards to the Tarbagatai Mountains by the
Barluk range, which is over 6,000 feet high.

Tho space between the Zungarian Ala-t«u arid the Tian-shan proper forms the
Tian-shan-pelu plain, formerly a marine basin, which rises gradually westwards to
the elongated plateau, whose northern and southern escarpments are formed by the
Ala-tau and tho Boro-khoro with the Talki respectively. Lake Sairam, occupying
a depression between wooded heights in this plateau, is scarcely 700 feet from the
Talki Pass, and at the foot of a steep escarpment, formerly followed by the imperial
route from Pekin to Kulja. The lake is slightly brackish, and is 160 square miles
in extent, with an altitude, according to Matveyev, of 6,000 feet. It is very deep,
and exposed to fierce storms, much dreaded by the Mongolians, who call it the
Seri-ob-nor, or " Great Water."

One of the most majestic ranges in the whole Tian-shan system is the Nian-
shan, or Temurlik, rising abruptly above the Kulja plains over against the Boro-
khoro escarpments. It is sharply defined east and west by the rivers Tekes and
Kegen, flowing from the south. The Tekes valley commiinicates with the Issik-kul
basin by the low Santash Pass, on which stands a huge tan-feu, or cairn, traditionally
attributed to the army of Tamerlane. Xorth of this pass the K^^n escapes from
its upper valley through the most formidable gorge yet discovered in the Tian-shan.
This cleft in the rocks has a depth of from 1,000 to 1,600 feet, between walls in many
places rising vertically from the foaming stream. The Kegen is here joined by
three other torrents, the three Merke, also rushing through profound cafions of
crystalline conglomerates. Through the greater part of the gorg^ the main stream,
here known as the Aktogoi, and lower down as the Charin, falls from ledge to ledge
in white masses of foam, while elsewhere its black waters are collected in deep and
apparently motionless pools. From the bottom of this abyss the projecting rocks
completely shut out the heavens, and the explorer seems lost in the bowels of the earth.

ALA-TAU IIIOnLANI).

tho northoni

those of the

M'piiruting it

hilly plut(>iui

^ plaiiiH uiul

('NtwaitlH thin

twoH, l)ctweon

rho principal

a like a rocky

oral avuiluhlo

1(1 thin in altto

plateau at an

vor 180 milcB

and ia crossed

lystom is con-

atains by the

per forms the
westwards to
formed by the
tm, occupying
feet from the
y the imperial
9 square miles
t is very deep,
ho call it the

I is the Nian-
inst the Boro-
ers Tekes and
L the Issik-kul
I, traditionally
1 escapes from
the Tian-shan.
walls in many
lere joined by
md cations of
! main stream,
ledge to ledge
d in deep and
ejecting rocks
Is of the earth.

The Churin, which in the Iar^i<Nt nlHiioiit of th«< Ili, in uccutnimiiicil mi tlut went
by another rivor, the (-hilik, m<|Miriit(<<l from it by tho JulaniiMh pliitoou, a lofty
Hteppe luiid to be 4,000 feet high, and contruntiiig with tlut Hurroiiniliiig iiiountaina
in tho total absonco of trrcn and tho gonorul }K)v(>rty of it.s fuiitiu and tiura.

Al,A-TAU HlOIII.AND.

The two parallel rongps running north of the rHHik-kul bnnin are both known by
the somewhat common Tatar name of Ala-tau, or " Chequcroil MountuiuN," that on
the north l)eing tho Ala-tuu U-yond tho Tli, tho other tho Ala-tau Kungoi. They
really form but one grauito ulgo, int<>rHooti>d longitudinally by u limestone valley,

Fig. 07.-Tm« Aktoooi DiriLi.

BmI* 1 1 »0(MMO.

BBHlllHliffiBSffi

jJIpbII^^IIIP

^pps

nHj

w/l^milBm^i^^lJ^^^B^B^mm

Rp^9w|l

ffM^^m^iStK^^^^^K^^^^^KBI^^A

'^y^,3e^Z^.^I^^^

:*PG.

^^^L^^^is^m

'78'eO'

191

whence flow, on the one hand, the Chilik, on the other the Great Eebin, a main
head-stream of the Chu. Thanks to the neighbourhood of Yemiy, these highlands are
amongst the best known in the whole Tian-shan system. Consisting chiefly of granites,
with some metamorphous schists, limestones, and sandstones, the Northern Ala-tau
is flanked towards the steppe by low porphyry hills strewn with erratic boulders
from the main range. The remains of moraines are still visible in several valleys,
and an enormous glacier formerly filled all the upper cirques whence flows the
Turgen. At presept there is not a single glacier in either of the Ala-tau ranges,
although rising towards the centre above the snow-line, which is here about
11,000 feet above sea-level. Here the pine flourishes between 5,800 and 8,600 feet.
But the apple and other leafy trees have been mostly destroyed by the improvident
Cossacks and other Russiau settlers in this region.

iflKSSSS

184

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Tlie two Ala-tau chains, which have a total length of about 150 miles, are
limited eastwards by the San-tash Pass and the Aktogoi defile, westwards by the
Biiam defile, which is traversed by the river Chu, and which separates them
abruptly from the Alexander Mountains. This gloomy gorge is strewn with
enormous blocks, between which rise fantastic porphyry pillars. But it lacks the
savage grandeur of the Aktogoi gorge. Below the junction of the Great Eebin the
Chu crosses the western continuation of the Northern Ala-tau, after which it receives
the Little Kebin at the head of a broad plain skirted by two detached branches of
the Tian-shan, which merge gradually with the desert. The southernmost of these
chains, another Ala-tau, now more usually known as the Alexander Mountains, is
a snowy range running east and west over 180 miles, and culminating with the
Hamish, or Mount Semyonov of the Russians.

Lake Issik-kul and Western Tian-shan Highlands.

The geographical centre of the whole Tian-shan system is the Great Issik-kul, or
" Hot Lake," as it is called by the natives. It is encircled on all sides by mountains,
on the north by the Ala-tau Kungei, on the south by the Ala-tau Terskei, the vast
amphitheatre forming an oval tract of over 400 miles in circumference. The Issik-
kul is not only the largest lake in the Tian-shan highlands, but the only great
survivor of the numerous reservoirs that formerly filled the basins between the
parallel ridges. But it was at one time far larger than at present, as shown by the
water marks on the hillsides 200 feet above its actual level, and in the Buam defile,
30 miles west of its present limits. Even in the ten years from 1867 to 1877 it has
fallen nearly 7 feet, implying at least a temporary, if not a permanent, drjring up
of the land. The river Chu, which formerly flowed to its western comer, now
reaches it only through the sluggish and intermittent Eutenuddi, which is flooded
only during the freshets and melting of the anows. Av^cording to a Kirghiz
tradition the Eutemaldi was dug by the inhabitants of the country, anxious to get
rid of the Issik-kul, but, owing to a miscalculation, they gave a new afiiuent instead
of an outlet to the lake. Yet, although it has no present outflow, it is about ten
times larger than Lake Geneva, its area being estimated at 2,300 square miles.

It stands some 5,000 feet above sea-level, but never freezes, whence, according
to Sieverzov, its name the " Hot Lake," though this title is more probably due to
the numerous hot springs round its shores. The lake is slightly brackish and teems
with fish, of which, however, not more than four species have been discovered in its
clear blae waters. In 1872 the first boat worthy of the name was launched on its
surface ; yet its desert shores seem to have been formerly thickly peopled. Crania,
bones, and various objects of human industry are occasionally thrown up b3* the
waves, and bits of iron and potsherds have been found by Kolpakovsky at a depth
of 3 or 4 feet.

East of Lake Issik-kul are grouped the Khan-tengri Mountains, which may be
regarded as the dominant mass of the whole Tian-shan system. Although exceeded
in height by the principal Trans- Ala'i peaks, the Ehan-tengri contains the greatest

wmmtm

LAKB ISSIK-KUL.

188

tut 150 miles, are
westwards by the
h separates them
:e is strewn with
But it lacks the
e Great Eebin the
)r which it receives
ached branches of
themmost of these
ider Mountains, is
ninating with the

AMDS.

Great Issik-kul, or
ides by mountains,
u Terskei, the vast
(rence. The Issik-
tut the only great
asins between the
t, as shown by the
n the Buam defile,
L867 to 1877 it has
manent, drying up
jstem comer, now
Li, which is flooded
ing to a Kirghiz
try, anxious to get
lew affluent instead
aw, it is about ten
square miles,
whence, according
re probably due to
t)racki8h and teems
m. discovered in its
iras launched on its
' peopled. Crania,
thrown up bj' the
ikovsky at a depth

lins, which may be
Although exceeded
ntains the greatest

number of snowy crests, glaciers, and streams flowing to the four points of tho
compass, and it is also crossed by the most frequented pass between the northern
and southern slopes, and leading from Eulja to Eastern Turkestan.

The Ehan-tengri forms part of the southern chain, which begins south of the
Great Yulduz basin, and runs under divers names thence westwards. To tho
Kok-teke succeeds the Geshik-hashi, beyond which follow tho Shalik-tau and the
3[uz-art-tau, which last is crossed by the broad but dangerous Muz-art Pass, at a
height, according to Regel, of about 11,600 feet. The passage is easier in winter
than summer, the crevasses being then filled with frozen snow, but although it has
been crossed by Eaulbars, Kostenko, Dilke, Regel, and others, no European traveller
has hitherto continued the journey soutli wards to Eashgaria.

"West of the Muz-art stretches a world of glaciers and lofty crests in a highland
region, of which little is known beyond the fact that several of its glaciers, especially
that at the source of the Sari-jassi, a tributary of the Tarim, are comparable in
length to the Aletsch glacier in the Valais Alps. From the Muz-art-tau to the
western extremity of the Sari-jassin-tau the snowy range maintains for over
60 miles a mean elevation of more than 16,500 feet.' All the peaks overtop Mont
Blanc by at least 3,000 feet, and southwards rises in solitary grandeur the Ehan-
tengri, or Eara-giil-bas.

Beyond a chaos of peaks, whence flow the head-streams of the Tarim and Sir,
the mountains resume their normal direction from east to west. They form with
their parallel chains an enormous mass, no less than 210 miles broad north of
Eashgar. The outer are far more elevated than the central ridges, between which
flows the Narin, the chief affluent of the Sir. Although pierced at intervals by
streams running south-eastwards to Eashgaria, the Eok-shaal, or southern range,
maintains a mean altitude of over 15,000 feet, while several smnmits in the Eok-
kiya section exceed 16,'600 feet. These highlands, whose e8cai*pments slope
towards Chinese Turkestan, are amongst the least-known regions of the continent,
although crossed towards their western extremity by the Turug-art, an easy pass
well known to traders. It is a very barren region, with bare hills and scattered
ridges, between which are the channels of dried-up rivers. The slope is very gentle
even northwards to the Ak-sai plateau and the Chatir-kul. This lake, which is
said to be destitute of fish, is all that remains of an extensive inland sea formerly
flowing between the southern range and the parallel Eubergenti, Ak-bash, and
Eara-koin chains on the north. Although it has no apparent outlet, its waters are
still quite fresh. The hills skirting it northwards are crossed by the Tash-robat.
Pass, which, like the Turug-art, is open all the year round to tho caravans between
Vemiy and Eashgaria.

West of the Turug-art the southern range attains a great elevation, and from
a pass on a parallel chain north of it Osten-Sacken distinguished no less than sixty-
three snowy peaks. It runs at first north-east and south-west, then turning west and
north-west in a line with the extreme spurs of the northern chains, and intersecting
the parallel ridges of the Central Tian-shan in such a way as to intercept their
waters. But the innumerable lakes thus formed have now run dry, mainly through
18

186

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

the defile by which the Narin escapes westwards. Here the Tian-shan system is
completely limited by the Ferghana plains, but at the south-west comer of the
Tian-shan proper yarious offshoots run south-westwards, connecting the main
range with the Alai and the Pamir. But till the Beginning of the tertiary periotl
a large marine strait still connected Ferghana and Kashgaria through the Kog-art,
thuB completely separating the Pamir from the Tian-shan plateau. The whole
Tian-shan system was at that time crossed from north-east to south-west by u

Fig. 98.— WiBTKHN Chains op the Tian-bhait.
Btwle 1 : 9,000,000.

• MOMUm.

chain of inland seas, of which all that now remains is the Issik-kul. Those of
Eulja and Ferghana have long been drained off.

North of the Upper Narin valley the main range is known as the Terskei Ala-tau,
or Ala-tau " of the Shade," in contradistinction to the Eungei Ala-tau, or Ala-tau
"of the Sun," skirting the other side of the Issik-kul. Owing to the greater
moisture of its slopes the former is far better wooded, the pine forests and pastures
at many points reaching the snow-line. It ciUminates with the Ugus-bas, which
attains an elevation of over 16,500 feet. Near the Barskadn Pass, on its southern
slopes, rises the Narin, chief head-stream of the Sir, while other affluents flow from
the southern region of the Ak-shiirak glaciers, south of which rise the farthest sources
of the Eashgarian Ak-su. A large portion of the country comprised between the
Terskei Ala-tau and the Eok-shaal north and south formB an extensive plain, or

iiSi&,3^i^

mmmimmmmm

WESTEEN TIAN-SHAN.

187

n-shan system is
[jst comer of the
icting the main
le tertiary period
ugh theKog-art,
eau. The whole
south-west by a

Akrmf

44?

Kuli|ai>

k-kul. Those of

3 Terskei Ala-tau,
ia-tau, or Ala-tau
g to the greater
"ests and pastures
Ugus-bas, which
8, on its southern
fiuents flow from
le farthest sources
rised between the
ctensive plain, or

hIH, strewn with sandstones, many-coloured marls, gypsum, and saline incrustations,
and studded with tarns, but nearly destitute of vegetation. This bleak region is
exposed to snow-storms even in June and Jxily, md in some years the snow never
melts in the hollows throughout the summer.

The Terskei Ala-tau is continued westwards under divers names, as are all the
parallel chains with which it is connected by transverse ridges. The lacustrine
plains are probably more numerous here than elsewhere in the Tian-shan system.
But of all the formerly flooded basins one only remains, the Son-kul, a fresh-water
lake about the size of Lake Geneva, encircled by steep sides of green porphyry, and

Fig. 99.— ItouTis OP ExpLouHB.iN TRB Wktbhm Tiam-shak.
Soa]el:90oaooa

Foafad Higinnqn.
iJiven Bontm.
ValikhanoT, 18S6.
Oolnber, law.
VenynkoT, 18se-«).
SieTeraoT, ISM-es.
Orten-Soaken, 1887.

, laOUOM..

Beinihal, 1866.
KanllMin, 1869.
KMtenko, 1876.
KaropatUn, 1876-7.
Prejralikr. 1877.
Begcl, 1876-9.
Fwqrtb, 18T4.

draining through a small stream to the Narin. One of the most remarkable of
these dried-up plains is the Kashkar valley, somve of the Eashkar, the main head-
stream of the Chu. It communicates by the Shamsi Pass with the northern plain.
North of Kokan the Tian-shan is continued by the Talas-tau, from 2,500 to
3,000 feet high, which branches o£E in several ridges from the Alexander Mountains,
and falls gradually south-west, west, and north-westwards to the steppes. The
Eara-tau, or " Black Mountain," the last spur of the Tian-shan towards the north-
west, seldom exceeds 6,500 feet in height, but is geographically of great importance,
as forming the water-parting between the Sir and Chu basins. It also abounds
most in coal, iron, copper, and argentiferous lead.

188

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The contrast between the Eastern and "Western Tian-shan highlands is, on the
whole, obvious enough. The former are far more compact, with fewer lateral
ridges and valleys, and presenting more the appearance of a plateau crossed by
lofty parallel chains. Notwithstanding the great age of its rocks, the Tian-shan
has preserved its primitive aspect far better than the Swiss Alps. It is less worn
by rains, snows, and glaciers, and its slopes have been clothed with a broad belt of
forest vegetation rising at least 2,600 feet above the level of the seas, which
formerly washed its base. Hence considerable differences have arisen in the way in
which its flora and faima have been distributed. "Whilst the Alps have been
invaded by the forest species of the surrounding plain after the retreat of the ice,
the lower zone of the Tian-shan has been the point of dispersion for the species
spreading upwards to the higher valleys, and downwards to the surroimding steppes,
according as the waters subsided.

The history of their inhabitants may also be explained by the relief and
geographical position of these highlands. The steppes, or ancient lacustrine basins
encircling them, being mostly incapable of cultivation, are mainly occupied by
nomad pastors, who have even prevented agricultural peoples from settling in the
upland valleys. Hither they resort themselves with their flocks in summer, so that
the whole region has been held by these nomad tribes from time immemorial.
Split up into small communities by their conflicting interests, and constantly at
feud for the possession of the richer pastures, they were unable to unite in compact
masses against the common enemy, and Chinese, Mongolians, and Russians have
thus easily succeeded in successively subduing the Tian-shan highlands. The
Russians took a hundred years to subdue the Caucasus, whereas a few sotnias of
Cossacks overran the valleys of the boundless Tian-shan almost without exchanging
a shot. Historically as well as hydrographically this region belongs to a land-
locked basin.*

* Chief elevations of the Tian-shan system : —

Eattern Tian-ihan.
Kosheti Pass ....
Katiin Mountoins
Little Yulduz Plateau . . .
Great Yulduz „ . . .
Xarat Pass

Tiati'Shan, north of Ku(/a.
Boro-khoro Mountiiins, mean height

Sitirti Pass

TalK ,

Altin-imel Pass ....

Kaptaga'i ., .

Town of Kulja ....

Central Ttan-ikiiH,
8an-ta8h Pass ....
Khan-tengri ....

Muz-art

UguB-bas

B.jr8kau Pass ....
Zaiika „ ....

Feet.

0,100
1-5,660
8,000
6,000
9 960

6,600
6,860
6,360
6,060
4,430
2,100

6,75j
24,000
11,160
17,760
12,000
12,976

Upper Nflrin "Valley .
Talg^r (Ala-tan beyond the Hi)
Almati „ „

Lake Issik-kul
Fort Narin .
Vemiy ,

Feet.

11,660

16,300

14,000

4,380

6,870

3,100

Wettfrn Tian-
Turiig-art Pass .
Kara-bel „ . .
Kog-art „
'I'ash robat .,
Chatir-kul ,
Son-lral „
Shamsi „

Haniish (Alexander Chain)
Kara-bura (Talas-taii) .
Min-jilke (Kara-tau) .
Koknn
'i'ashkend .
Upper limit of trees

than.

11,660

12,940

10,676

13,100

11,130

9,660

12,026

16,660

11,000

7,000

1,310

1,606

9,000 to 10,000

.T'»feB!iCT^KB«rig'~>jss5»'v:-iJTlBJi^»'awa^

TARBAQATAI UIQHLANDS AND BALKHASH BASIN.

189

ids 18, on the
fewer lateral
u crossed by
he Tian-shan
t is less worn
broad belt of
seas, which
in the way in
)s have been
3at of the ice,
)r the species
iding steppes,

le relief and
ustrine basins

occupied by
lettling in the
mmer, so that

immemorial.

constantly at
ite in compact
Russians have
hlands. The
few sotnias of
ut exchanging
igs to a land-

Feet.

11,660

IS,300

14,000

4,380

6,870

3,100

11,660

12,940

tO,67o

13,100

11,130

9,650

12,025

16,650

11,000

7,000

1,310

1,606

9,000 to 10,000

IV.— TARBAGATAI HIGHLANDS AND BiU.KHASH BASIN.

Thk space, about 240 miles broad, separating the extreme Eastern Tian-shan and
the Zungarian Ala-tau from the Altai system, doubtless oifers wide openings
between Mongolia and Asiatic Russia. But apart from these historically impor-
tant routes, the plateaux and mountains are so disposed as to form a sort of
isthmus between the Tian-shan and Altai' highlands. Of this isthmus the cen-
tral mass is the Tarbagatai — that is, the "Tarbagan," or "Marmot " Mountains —
which run mainly east and west, and are about equal to the Pyrenees in length
and elevation, their chief peaks scarcely exceeding the Nethu or Mont Perdu of that
range.

Like the Tian-shan, the Tarbagatai presents two different axes, one running
north-east and south-west, the other north-west and south-east. The first, which
is parallel with the Southern Tian-shan, is followed by the Barluk and Ur-koshar,
forming the southern range, and with some of its crests reaching the region of
perpetual snows. The northern or main chain runs parallel with the Northern
Tian-shan, and both axes converge eastwards, here culminating above the plains
of the Irtish with Mounts Sai^ru and Muz-tau. The ravines of these snowy moun-
tains are filled with glaciers, which at some points descend below the forest zone.
But in all other directions the range rapidly falls, westwards with the volcanic
Muntak, eastwards with the Kara-adir ridges, and northwards offering an easy
passage from the Balkhash slope to that of the Orkhu-nor in Mongolia.

The Tarbagatai proper is separated from the other chains by low depressions,
scarcely more than 3,300 feet above sea-level. Here we ascend the streams flow-
ing from the water-parting almost imperceptibly, and no moimtains are visible
except at a great distance ; but the heaps of stones disposed like moraines bear
evidence of former glacial action. West of these depressions the Tarbagatai rises
gradually, though even here few of its peaks reach the snow-line. On the southern
slope the only snowy crest is the Tas-tau, culminating point of the Marmot system.
Except along the bonks of the torrents the heights are mostly treeless, but
covered with rich Alpine pastures, the common resort of the nomads from both
slopes.

The Tas-tau, which has been ascended several times since the journey of
Schrenck in 1840, ends in two peaks, one of which is known to the Chinese as
the Bannar Mount, from the yearly practice they had of hoisting a flag on its
summit. Both are composed of dolomite and argillaceous schists. Granites and
porphyries also enter largely into the constitution of the Tarbagatai rocks, though
the most extensive formations seem to be carboniferous limestones, schists, and
sandstones. Coal has been discovered on the southern slope near the Chinese
town of Chuguchak, and the Russian explorers have found large masses of native
copper and iron ores in the ravines. In the northern valley of the Ters-airik,
sloping towards Lake Zaisan, about one hundred Chinese gold- washers are employed
in collecting the gold dust here mixed with the old alluvia. Some of the numerous
mounds scattered over the heights and plains, and which have caused the term obo,

100

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

or oha (tomb, cairn), to enter so largely into the local geographical nomenclature,
still contain many gold objects, often collected by the Kirghiz.

The Turbagattti is usually supposed to termiiiate at the Kara-kol Pass, or
farther west, at the hhiSa overlooking the town of Sergiopol. But the system is
still continued westwards by the Denghiz-tau, running north of Lake Balkhash, and
merging with the water-parting between the Aralo-Caspian and Ob basins. To
this system also belong the picturesque Arkat rocks stretching nort^hwards in the
direction of Semipalatinsk. All these mountains are crossed by easy passes, allow-
ing travellers to avoid the higher portion of the range between the plains of the
great liakes Ala-kul and Zaisau. Nevertheless this very section is crossed by

Fig. 100.— SaAbu AMD Tabbaoatai.
Scale 1 : 1,900,000.

80 HUM.

Ihe Ehabar-assu, the most frequented and historically the most important of all
the passes. It runs east of the Tas-tau, and has always been much used by the
Eashgar traders proceeding to the Troitzk, Orenburg, and Irbit fairs, and by the
Tatars and Bussians making their way southwards from the Siberian lowlands.
Factories of Bukhariot merchants were formerly established at Tumen, Tobolsk,
Tara, and Torusk, and a colony of 300 Mohammedans near Tomsk still recalls these
commercial relations. But the progress of this country was arrested in 1745 by
the vexatious measures of the Hussian Government, which established frontier
custom-houses, prohibited the trade in rhubarb under pain of death, and finally
put a stop to all passenger traffic. But trade has since somewhat revived, and a
rich Kirghiz has built a caravanserai on the pass for the convenience of the

SiM

iGBai

LAKE DALKUASII.

101

Harto morchantM, who serve aa ugentit for tho cxchungoa betwoon Uumia uiid
(Jhiim.*

The Puinir uiid Tian-Hhan huvu l)oth uii inland druinn^ castwardH to tho Tarini,
wostwardH tu tho Arulo-CuHpiun ImMin. Tho TarlMi{|;utiii ulono Hcndn ountwanlH a
fow struums to tho IrtUh, thuH bolongin^ partly tu tho Arctic buain. With thia
single exception all the Turkestan highlandn are compriitod in tho Central AHiatio
inland water RyHtoma. Moat of their atreama flow naturally from tho convex aide
of tho vaat croacent of plateaux and mountaina facing the moiat weat wiuda. Ilonce
the largcat rivora flow to the Turkeatan and SeminK-honak plaina, and here alao are
the largoat lukca, aomo of which are vaat enough to deaervo the name of aeoa.
Nevertholeaa thia hydrographic ayatem ia far leaa important even than that of £aat
Ruaaia, whore the Caapian ia fed by the Volga, whercaa hero tho Sir and Oxiu are
loat in the Aral, and the Hi in Lake Balkhaah.

Lake Balkhanh.

But tho geological structure of tho bnd ahowa that it waa formerly far more
abundantly watered. Apart from the aeaa of the tertiary epoch, it ia certain that
even recently the Bulkhaah atretched 240 milea farther eaat and aouth-eost to the
deproaaion of the plateau now partly tilled by the Ebi-nor, and that towarda the
weat it was four timea broader than ut preaent. At that time the Zungariim Alu-
tttu projected like a promontory in tho middle of a continuoua aea, now divided
into a number of distinct lakea and moraaaes. The rogiona formerly under water
are indicated by their argillaceous soil, saline wastes, and shifting sands. Even
within the historic p >riod the Balkhash formed a single sheet of water with the
Saasik-kul, Ala-kid, aad Jalanaeh-kul. In the seventeenth century it ia aaid to
have filled all the cavity aeparating it from the Aral, according to one authority
sending two aflluents to thia baain. But thia atatement ia highly improbable, for
certain apociea of ita fauna imply a long period of isolation.

The Balkhash has still a very large area. The Chinese knew it as the Si-hai,
or " Western Sea," though this name has also been applied to the Aral and the
Caspian. The neighbouring Kirghiz tribes call it either the Denghiz, or " sea "
aimply, as if there were uo other, or the Ak-denghiz or Ala-denghiz, the " White
Sea," or " Motley Sea," probably on account of the islands by which its surface is
diversified. Third in size of the land-locked basins of the contment, it has an
estimated mean area of about 8,700 square miles. But no very exaui measure-
ment can be taken of a lake without well-defined contours or sr/lid banks, whose
Bouthem shores especially shift with the shifting north and south winds. Its limits

* Chief elevations of the Tarbagstai :—

Vtti.

Barluk Mountains, mean height . 4,660

JairskyPass 6,036

Huz-taa ((JaAru) 11,330

Manrsk, highest peaks . 6,000

Chagan-obo Pass 4,766

Khabar-asau „ O/iTi)

Tas-tau »,860

AletPass .
Tarbagatai, mean height

„ snow-line .

Sa&ru, snow-line .
Denghis-taa, mean height
Arkat ....

Beet.
6,000
6,000
0,200
10,066
4,000
2,560

^^s^^^^^i^s^^^sssms^n^^m^mwi^^m^x^^s^^^^^s^^^^imsSf^i

102

ASIATIC BU88IA.

iiro lout in one \thwo in oxtoUHivo inurHhoH iind flatH, in another in forciitit of ro<><lrt
fnnn 12 to 1(( feet high, thu huunt of the wild Inmif und of niyriiulH of wut«r-fowl.
Hut tluf nortiicrn Nhorun, fonntnl by the oM'urpmontH of u plutruu rininff in two
torraocH uIm>v(> thu wat«r, arc moru ithur])ly defined, und urc oven variinl by a fuw
nM;ky heudlundH. Hero the hike in deep, but eliwwhero it iit no nbullow tu to pn^-
m>nt thu apiicarunco rather of a vuHt fliKxlud moruiw. The depth nowhere oxcihhU
70 feet, und im tlie uverugo aooini to be about 30 feet, its volume muy bo eatiniuted
at Homu 200,000,000 of cubic yards, or twice that of Luke Geneva, which i« never-
thelosH thirty-Hix timcH leu extonHive in superficiul area. ltd water, which in
UHUully ice-botind from the end of November to the beginning of April, in cluar,
und uboundH in fiHh, but in bo salt, especially in its southbm division, that it proves
futul to uniraulH driven by thirst to drink it. Of the other reservoirs in this lucus-
trinu region the Alu-kul is the most saline, while the Sussik-kul is scarcely brackish.
The contrast presented by the two shores of the Balkhush is chietly due to the
relative amount of running water discharged into each. Along the whole northern
couHt, which, oven excluding the thousand little inlets, is about 420 miles long, the
lake d(H>8 not receive a single permanent stream. The Tokrun runs completely dry
after pcri(xls of long drought, and the same is the cose with the steppe " wudies "
of the southern shore. Dut the Zunguriun and Trnns-IIian Alu-tuu ulso drain to
these i)luinH, und the streams sent down by them are sufficiently copious to reach
the luke with their alluvia. The vast semicircle of low tracts formed by these
du|K)HitH is u striking witness to the influence these waters have hud iu modifying the
geological aspect of the lund. At no distnnt future the suud und soil brought down
cannot fail to divide the Balkhash into separate basins, such as those of the hicus-
triue Alu-kul group.

Semirechinsk River System — The III

The Hi, chief affluent of the Balkhash, is a large river, at least as regards its
course, which is no loss than 900 miles long. Formed by the junction of the
Tekes and Eunges, it receives through the first the icy waters of the Muz-art and
of a large portion of the Central Tian-shun, while the Eunges brings it the torrents
from the Narat and other chains of the Eastern Tian-shan. In the Eulja plain
the Hi flows in a rapid stream in a bed 200 to 400 yards wide, and from 3 to 20
feet deep, skirted northwards by a high cliff, which is formed by the counterforts
of the Altin-imel chain. It is navigable for small boats for over half its course,
and Iliisk, where it is deflected north-westwards by the outer Tian-shan ridges, is
reached during the floods by larger craft from the lake. At a defile marking the
limit of its middle and lower course certain Buddhist tig^ures and Tibetan inscrip-
tions on the porphyry rocks seem to indicate that the empire of the Dunguns
formerly stopped at this point. Farther down, the stream, already reduced by
evaporation, enters its delta, which during the floods covers a triangular space of
over 5,000 square miles, although at other times the southern branch alone is filled.

Of the other feeders of the Balkhash none are navigable for any considerable
portion of the year, and several are even cut off from the lake by strips of sand

TllH AUALO-CAUi'UN UYDllOUBAI'HIC BYSTKli.

lOB

r«fH of rWHlfl
wutor-fowl.
NJii^ in two
wl by a fow
w aa to pro-
hero oxcihhIm
bo oatiniutiHl
ich M never-
er, which in
)ril, id oluar,
hut it pruvuH
11 thiu lucuH-
oly bruckiHh.
y due to the
tolo northern
iloH long, the
niplotely dry
po '* wttdies "
aim drain to
ious to reach
aed by theHO
nodifying the
iroughi down
of the locus-

as regards its
iction of the

Muz-art and
t the torrents
I Eulja plain
from 3 to 20
) counterforts
ill its course,
lan ridges, is

marking the
jetan inscrip-
the Dunguim
Y reduced by
ular space of
ilone is filled.
' considerable
trips of sand

for sevwrol inonthH together. Tlio Kara-tal, fed by the snows of the Zungn.ian
.\la-tuu, Ih one of the " m>veii riv»>rH," whence the region c«)inprimNl iM'twccii that
range and the HulkhaMh takes the nunie of HeinirechinNkiy Krai, though tlu^ tt-rniH
(!ountry of the Three, Ten, or Twenty Rivers might \w juHtaa appropriate according
to the number of NtreaniH taken into account. The Noven more im|Mirtant are the
Karu-tul and its tributary the Kok-nu, the Jliyeii, Ak-su and Harkan, HaHkan
and Lepsd. The Hi is sometimes added to the nuinlwr, l>ecause the ailminiMtrative
province of SemirechiiiNk also comprises that basin. The Kara-tal, the longest,
though not the most copious, of the seven streams, .leems to have lHH.>n fonnerly
largely utilised for irrigating purposes. The Iie|Mia, which is the largtmt in volume
of the Alu-tuu rivers, unites with the Ak-su at its mouth, and fonns a vast delta of
shifting channels. Its swamps are the most northern haunts of the tiger. The
Aya-gun, sometimes included in the number of the " seven rivers," flows from the
Tarbagutai to the eastern extremity of the lake, to which it carries down some gold
dust. Its now desert banks are strewn with the ruins of ancient Jiuddhist cities.

Lakes 8assik-kul and Ala-kul are also fed by streams frem the Ala-tau, though
the largest affluent of this double basin is the Churtu, Kmil, or Iniil, flowing west-
wards from the Tarbagatai. Notwithstanding the general tendency to subsidence,
these streams occasionally produce the op{M)site phenomenon in the Ala-kul, whose
level, according to the Kirghiz, steadily n)se from the year I860 to 1802. The
districts formerly under water ore usually the most sterile, owing to the sands and
hard clays mixed with saline particles of which they largely consist. The lakes
have thus become deserts, and vegetation has ceased along the shores of the old
lacustrine basin. West of the Balkhash the contours of a dried-up sea, equal in
extent to that lake, may still bo traced north of the Western Tian-shan from the
Alexander Mountains to the advanced spurs of the Eara-tau. This basin is now
replaced by the sands and clays of the Muyun-kum, or Ak-kum steppe.

v.— THE ARAL0-CA8PIAN HYDROGRAPHIC SYSTEM.

Tmi Pi* and Oxvs, ths Abal Sia aitd TaANi-GAiPiAir Disthict.

The wilderness of lakes, swamps, and streams, which run dry in summer, and
which are partly avoided even by the nomads, fonns, at the foot of the wooded
Tian-shan slopes, the approach to the vast region of lowland steppes stretching
thence across the whole of Turkestan, and beyond the river Ural into the heart of
Russia. These steppes present almost everywhere the appearance of boundless and
{)erfectly level arid tracts, though most of them are really rolling lands undulating
as regidarly as a tropical sea under the influence of the trade winds. But the very
uniformity of these waves tends to conceal the intervening troughs, and the
traveller is often startled by the sudden disappearance of horsemen, and even of
whole caravans, in these depressions. The absence of any landmarks, trees, or
buildings which might serve as points of comparison, prevents the eye from
forming any estimate of the heights and hollows, while the refraction of the

104

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

luminous rays in the morning sun tends to magnify the size of every conspicuous
object. Hillf'cks scarcely 200 feet high appear like imposing eminences, an eagle
on the wing revives our reminiscences of the fabulous roc, tiifts of herbage assume
the proportions of forest trees. With the rising sun the heated and mostly
cloudless atmosphere quivers incessantly like the blasts of a furnace, imparting
to everything a waving and shifting form, and when the sky is overcast the dense
clouds of burning sands envelop all objects in a ruddy glamour.

The monotonous appearance of the steppes is intensified in winter, when the
broken surface is smoothed over by the snows. But their diverse aspects are
revealed in the early spring, when the swollen streams and meres have assumed
their normal level, and the nomads have fired the dry brushwood of the pastures.
Now the young plants spring up rapidly, and the arid surface of the land is
clothed as by enchantment with verdure and prairie flowers. The variety is
enhanced by the varying tints of sands, clays, rocks, sweet and saline waters, and
the different character of the soil is clearly reflected in its diversified fauna and flora.

But this springtide splendour and wealth of colour soon disappear. The
extremes of temperature, sultry in the hot season, and Arctic in the cold, allow
but a few species of plants to flourish, and even these are presently burnt up by the
scorching suns. Many grey and dusty tracts then resume their monotonous aspect,
again broken only by a brief revival of vegetation during the few rainy days of
autumn. But this promised return of spring is soon arrested by the keen winter
blasts, nipping the tender herbage and muffling all nature in a snowy mantle. The
absence of running waters and the dryness of the atmosphere tend to increase the
uniformity imparted to the land by the boimdless extent of the plains. The desert
begins within 1 or 2 miles of the river banks, stretching thence beyond the horizon
in a dreary succession of moving sands, reedy tr^ts, saline moors or muddy
swamps, treacherous quagmires in winter, baked hard as the rock in summer. Yet
with endless labour and a careful system of irrigation the Kirghiz contrives to
bring a few strips of land imder cultivation. By a system of low embankments
the land is parcelled into a nimiber of square plots like those of marine salines, and
when these are flooded they are successively drained off by openings in the parting
dykes. The method of cultivation somewhat resembles that practised in Egypt.

The Turkestan Deserts.

The deserts properly so called occupy probably about half of the whole
Turkestan steppe between the Ob basin and the Iranian plateau. In the north the
region limited by the lower course of the Chu and Sari-su is usually known to the
natives as the Bek-pak-dala, and to the Russians as the Golodnaya steppe, or
"Hunger Steppe." South of the Chu stretches the Ak-kum ("White Sands"),
while a large portion of the country, limited by the Sir and Oxus north and south,
is occupied by the Eizil-kum, or " Red Sands." Between the Sir and Ural Rivers
are the Kara-kum, or " Black Sands," but another and far more extensive region
of " Black Sands " occupies most of the triangular space bordered north-west by

every conspicuouR
[ninences, an eagle
)f herbage assume
euted and mostly
himace, imparting
overcast the dense

1 winter, when the
iverse aspects are
teres have assumed
od of the pastures,
ice of the land is
}. The variety is

saline waters, and
Led fauna and flora.
L disappear. The

in the cold, allow
ly burnt up by the
monotonous aspect,
} few rainy days of
by the keen winter
lowy mantle. The
jnd to increase the
plains. The desert
beyond the horizon

moors or muddy
k in summer. Yet
[irghiz contrives to
: low embankments
marine salines, and
ings in the parting
ctised in Egypt.

FLOBA AND FAUNA OF TUBEESTAN.

a96

the Uzboi valley, north-east by the Oxua, south by the oases stretching along the
foot of the Iranian plateau. Several other smaller sandy wastes are scattered over
the rest of Turkestan.

Of these desert regions, which, notwithstanding thoir different names, are all
alike of a greyish colour, few are more dreaded by the £irghi/ than the Bek-pak-
dola, whose limestone or argillaceous bed is here and there crossed by barkham, or
sandy dunes. It is traversed by the road from Tashkend to Akmolinsk, but the
absence of water and fodder obliges the caravans to make long detours. Here the
summer temperature rises iu th« shade of the tent to 97° Fahr., and in the open to
111° and 112°. Even in the cool of the evening the soles of the wayfarer's feet
become scorched, and the dog accompanying him finds no repose till he has
burrowed below the burning surface. Some of the southern deserts are still more
terrible. During the early expeditions against the Tekke Turkomans hundreds were
killed by the heat of the sands, while the mortality of those mounted on camels
was still greater. The "Black Sands" north of the Aral are more easily
accessible, thanks to the parallel depressions running north-west and south-cast
between lines of dunes 25 to 30 feet high. These depressions are covered with a
fine herbage, and even with a few plants, such as the sand osier and the wild olive.
They were formerly cultivated, as appears from the still visible traces of irrigating
canals. The dunes themselves have a flora, consisting of plants whose roots
penetrate deeply into the soil in search of moisture. Springs of pure water, supplied
by the infiltratiop ^* <mow and rain, occur here and there at their feet. In some
places frozen maa^^ ' vt even been discovered beneath the acciunulated sands, bv
which they were p' «. vt d for years from the summer heats.

Many of the argillaceous and salt-strewn steppes are dreaded even far more
than the sandy wastes. Here are the most dangerous quagmires, where the camels
sink in the mud after the slightest shower. Here also the caravans suffer most
from thirst, and although the stages are marked by weUs, it often happens that
the water has been poisoned by the carcasses of animals. The wells are usually
sunk about 12, but occasionally to a depth of 40 feet.

Flora and Fauna of Turkestan.

The feeble Aralo-Caspian flora is limited chiefly to shrubs and thorny plants,
the soil being neither rich nor moist enough to develop a forest vegetation. True
forests occur only in the north-western tracts watered by the Ural and Emba.
The Russians everywhere fell the trees improvidently, while the Kirghiz are
never at their ease till they have cleared the land of its timber. But both races
alike will respect and regard with a sort of veneration the few solitary trees
occurring at intervals in the desert. The branches are often covered with ribbons,
horsehair, medals, and other votive offerings, and in passing every devout Kirghiz
will piously mutter the name of Allah.

While in some respects resembling those of Russia, the Orenburg steppes have
a far less varied flora As we proceed eastwards and southwards in Turkestan the

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

vegetation everywhere becomes poorer, until we reach the foot of the mountains,
whore another zone beginH. In the whole of this region no more than 1,152 species
of plmnorogamic plants have been discovered, and in the open steppe far from the
rivers the flora is reduced to a few typical species, " brown as the camel's hair,"
covering hundreds and thousands of square miles. In certain tracts nothing is met
except a mugwort of a blackish colour ; in others the soil is covered with a blood-red
alkaline vegetation. In the space comprised between the Aral and Caspian east and
west, and stretching from the Emba to the Atrek north and south, there are only
329 species altogether, less than are found in the smallest French canton.

The Turkestan flora, such as it is, is geologically of recent origin. The species
have all advanced from the surrounding regions according as the waters subsided.

Fig. 101.— VaoETATiow or tkb Kuil-kvm.

But in the struggle for the possession of the land the southern have prevailed over
the northern species. Thus the aaksaul (^Anabtuia ammodendron) and the jida, or
wild olive, are constantly advancing from Persia, and driving the poplars back to
their northern homes. It is interesting to observe how all these plants adapt
themselves to the changed conditions of soil and climate in the steppe. To resist
the wind they acquire a more pliant stem, or present a smaller surface to its fury
by dropping their foliage. To diminish the evaporation their bark becomes a
veritable carapace, and their pith is mingled with saline substances. They
clothe themselves with hairs and thorns, distilling gums and oils, whereby the

9ft*cwera!tea3i2s?i^'i

i^^'.«»sii«;-tvja;-pl'V^-iSK^^

FLORA AND FAUNA OF TURKESTAN.

197

e mountains,
1,152 species
far from the
amel's hair,"
othing is met
th a blood-red
pian east and
lere are only
ton. _>

The species
ters subsided.

^^[

prevailed over
d the Jida, or
>plar8 back to

plants adapt
pe. To resist
ice to its fury
rk becomes a
inces. They

whereby the

evaporation is still further reduced. Thus are able to flourish far from running
waters such plants as the Bak8a(^l, which, though perfectly leafless, i)roduce8 both
flowers and fruits. So close is its grain that it sinks in water, and omits sparks
when struck with the axe. The grassy steppes are not covered uniformly with
herbage, as in the western prairies, but produce isolated tufts occupying scarcely a
third of the whole surface. The short period of growth and bloom is utilised by
the plants with remarkable energy. With the first warm days of spring the
Orenburg steppes become covered with tulips, mingled here and there with the lily

Fig. 102. — Ranob of Vbobtation in Turkestan.
Soale 1 : 15,000,000.

Qnmr ArfdliMMiii SiUim
Bteppe. DaaerU. D u e i t t .

Sandi.

ZnndUwa

Flan.
300 MUM.

Khtran
OmIi.

TVweshk

and iris. But in a few weeks the land has resumed its wonted dull grey aspect ;
the plants have withered and been scattered by the winds.

Like its flora, the Turkestan fauna presents a singular uniformity of tyjies through-
out vast spaces. But thanks to the variety of relief between the steppe and the
mountains, the species are relatively more numerous. lu the Aralo-Caspian basin
alone Sieverzov reckons forty-seven species of mammalia and ninety-seven of birds,
while all the crevasses in the ground are alive with snakes, lizai-ds, and scorpions.
The thickets skirting the rivers harbour most of the quadrupeds — tiger, ounce.

jBlM i i i iiBigi i aii'i'in'i Ji'irin i"» i

108

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

wild cat, wolf, fox, wild boar; but on the open plain nothing lives except {j^egariouN
animals, such as the gaeelle and wild ass, which are able rapidly to traverse great
distances in search of food and moisture. The domestic animals are limited by the
nature of the climate to the camel, horse, ass, and sheep. The only settled parts of
the land consist of narrow oases constantly threatened by the sands, and often wasted
by the locust. But the whole country is inhabited, or at least traversed, by the nomads

Fig. 108.— Pbtbot Olaoibr.

Scale 1 : 218,000.

SMilM.

shifting their camping grounds with the seasons, and tending their flocks now in the
open plain, now at the foot of hills and in the neighbourhood of streams and wells.

"Water System — ^The Sir.

The Aralo-Caspian basin is studded with lacustrine spaces, remnants of the old
inland sea of Turkestan. Numerous funnel-shaped cavities also occur, especially
north and north-east of the Aral, many from 80 to 100 feet deep, and filled mostly
with salt or brackish water, while marine shells are embedded in the clays and
sands of their sides. Saline marshes, strewn over the steppe side by side with the
fresh-water lakes and tarns, also contain thick layers formed by the remains of
marine organisms. These shells of the cardium, mytilus, turritella, and others still
common in the Aral, seem to prove that this sea formerly reached nearly to the
present water-parting between the Ob and Aralo-Caspian basins. This is a strong
argument in favour of the theory that the Caspian itself was at one time connected
by a marine inlet with the Arctic Ocean.

Of the former influents of the Aral, the Sir and Oxus alone now reach its shores.
The Sir, or Yaxartes of the ancients, and the Shash, or Sihun of the Arabs, rises in
the heart of the Tian-shan. One of its head-streams flows from a lake in the
Ala-tau Terskei on the Barskaun Pass ; another drains the marshes of the Zanka
Pass. But the most copious torrent escapes from the Petrov glacier, whose crystal-
line mass, some 9 miles long, and scored by five moraines, fills a crevasse of
astonishing regularity in the Ak-shiirak Hills. Another glacier of smaller propor-

mi''}:^!l'?!it'w^^^S^iMM

WATEB SYSTEM— THE SIB.

lUU

)t (p^gariouR
•averse great
mited by the
ttled parts of
often wasted
y the nomads

|4I<

ks now in the
ms and wells.

its of the old
lur, especially
[ filled mostly
lie clays and
side with the
le remains of
id others still
nearly to the
lis is a strong
mo connected

ich its shores.
Lrabs, rises in
I lake in the
of the Zanka
rhose crystal-
I crevasse of
laller propor-

tions, the lir-tash, is remarkable for the shape of its basin, the entrance of which
is blocked by rocks.

In its upper course the Sir changes its name with every fresh tributary. On
leaving the Petrov glacier it is the Yak-tash, then the Taragai to the junction of
the Earasai, and after receiving the Earakol it becomes the Great Narin. Below
the double confluence of the Ulan and Eurmekti the Narin enters the Eapchcgai
defile, which no explorer has yet succeeded in penetrating to survey the falls,
which must here be very fine, for the river descends, in this space of about 46 miles,
altogether from 3,000 to 3,220 feet.

United with the Little Narin, the *'»K- i04.— Lowi» Pakt op the Iiu-tabh Glacibb.
stream flows successively through ' ' '"'"'"■

several of those ancient lacustrine
beds which are so common in the
Western Tian-shan, and then passes
through two other romantio gorges
before emerging from the highlands
on to the Ferghana plains. South
of the town of Namangan it receives
the muddy Eara-daria, at whose con-
fluence it at last takes the name of Sir.

But no sooner does it acquire
majestic proportions than it begins
to be impoverished. Notwithstand-
ing the tributaries still flowing to it
from the mountains skirting it on
the north, its volume is continuously
diminished in the Ferghana plain
and lower down. In the vast amphi-
theatre of plateaux and hills en-
closing Ferghana its affluents are
mostly absorbed in a system of irri-
gation works, which has converted a
large portion of the plain into a
blooming garden. The triangular
space comprised between the Sir and
the Eara-daria is the most fertile

tract in all Turkestan. But most of the streams are absorbed in irrigation works before
reaching the banks of the Sir. The climate of Ferghana, though severe, is subject to
less extremes of heat and cold than the more exposed lowland steppes. Here the pre-
vailing colour is blue " Everything," says M. de Ujfalvy, " assumes a turquoise hue —
sky, rocks, the plumage of raven and blackbird, and even the walls of the buildings."

Above Ehojend the Sir escapes from the old Ferghana lake by skirting the
Choktal Mountains, thence pursuing a north-westerly course parallel with the Oxus
and the Eora-tau range. It seems to flow farther north than formerly, and at one

, eeofcet.

mmmmmmmmnmm

mSIMLJSSH

tiiikmtaP't

200

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

tiino probably travor(«e<l the Tus-kano morasa, which forms a curve of over 120 mil
north of the Nuru-tau MouiitaiiiH, mid which prcHcnts the appearance of a river
bed. It Hconis to have then effected a junction with the (Jxus, near the Sheik-joili
eminence, where traces still remain of an old channel. Like the Chu, its lower courw
at present describes a wide circuit round the basin of an ancient sea, for the Kizil-kuni,
no less than the Ak-kum and the Kara-kum, is u dried-up sea-bed, formerly united
in a single sheet of water with the Aral.

. The Chu, which is the main stream of the Terskei Ala-tauand Alexander range,
no longer reaches the lower course of the Sir. Although very copious in its upper
reaches, it receives no permanent afHuents below Karagati, where it branches off into
several channels, which gradually run dry in the sands. The Talas also, which escapes
from the Tian-shan through the A(ili-ata defile, expands into extensive morasses
before reaching the Chu. But below both of these rivers fresh water is found at u
depth of from 4 to 6 feet, showing that their streams still filter through under-
ground. West of the Chu the Sari-su, known in its upper course as the Yamun-su,
and in its lower as the Yan-su, was also at one time a tributary of the 8ir, but is
now lost in the steppe sands after a course of over 480 miles. It rises north of Lake
Balkhash, on a plateau forming the water-parting between the Ob basin and the region
of inland drainage. Several other rivers rising in the same diptrict become exhausted
before reaching the Sir or the Aral Sea. Amongst them are a number of Kara-su, or
" Black "Waters," flo\dng through peat beds, and noted amongst all the Turkestan
streams for their resistance to the action of frost, apparently never freezing in winter.

Throughout its lower course the Sir has frequently shifted its channel evcTi in
recent times. Sultan Baber, who flourished early in the sixteenth century, tells us
that the Sihun (Sir) at that time ran dry in the sands before reaching any other
body of water. At present the Yani, or Jani-daria, branches off from the main
stream about 7 miles below Fort Perovsky, and disappears intermittently with the
natural changes of the principal current and the irrigation works of the Kirghiz.
After ceasing to flow from 1820 to 1848 it resumed its south-westerly course in the
latter year, without, however, reaching either the Oxus or the Aral, and at present it
is lost in Lake Kukcha-denghiz after a course of some 180 miles. But below this basin
there is abundant evidence that it formerly flowed to Lakes Eungrad and Daft-kara
in the Oxus delta. On the other hand, the present relief of the land is altogether
opposed to the statement of old writers that at one time the Sir even reached the
Caspian. At least, it can have done so only through the Yani-daria and the Oxus.

The main channel of the Sir at present ramifies again a little below the Yani-
daria outlet into two streams, both of which have changed their course and volume.
The southern branch was formerly the more copious, but it has gradually fallen off
to such an extent that it is now known as the Jaman-daria, or "Bad River,"
mostly evaporating in the swamps. The Eara-uzak, or northern branch, at first a
mere irrigation canal, now carries the main stream north-west to the north-east end
of the Aral. The average amoimt of water discharged into this sea is at present
estimated at no more than one-half of its whole volume above the triple ramification
at the head of the delta. Here the discharge at low water seems to be alwut

'-•-"sIc^SIB**

THE OXUS BIVEB SYSTEM.

201

ver 120mflc(i
le of a river
le Sheik-jeili
lower courH<>
lo Kizil-kmn,
merly united

Sander range,
in its upper
nches oif into
which escapoH
sive morusscH
is found at a
rough undcr-
le Yuman-Hu,
he Sir, but in
north of Lake
ind the region
)me exhausted
of Eara>8u, or
the Turkestan
sing in winter,
onnel even in
ntury, tells us
ling any other
Tom the main
»ntly with the
the Kirghiz.
' course in the
d at present it
3low this basin
and Dad-kara
1 is altogether
n reached the
and the Oxus.
low the Yani-
e and volume,
tally fallen oif
'Bad River,"
inch, at first a
lorth-east end
. is at present
ie ramification
3 to be almut

1)1,000 cubic feet per second, and the mean about 90,000 cubic feet. But farther
down a vast amount is lost by evaporation in the channels, false rivers, and extensive
marshes of the delta. This is the paradise of hunters, abounding in wolves, deer,
the wild boar, fox, hare, wild goat, badger, besides the pheasant, heron, ibis, crane,
goose, duck, und a species of flamingo. But the tiger seems to have disappeared
nince the middle of the present century.

The navigation of the I^wer 8ir is at once uncertain and 'dangerous. The
Russian flotilla is seldom able to cross the bar, which at times has scarcely 8 foot of
water. The steamers often run aground on the sand-banks, the stream is blocked
by ice for four months in winter, and infested by dense clouds of midges in summer,
while the rapid current and the wont of fuel increase the obstacles opposed to a regiUar

Fig. 1U6.— Thk Sih Delta.

Snlr 1 : 712,000.

ttoiePMt.

16 Feet und upwards.
— .^ IS Mile*.

system of navigation. The attempts hitherto made have been in tlie interests of war
and conquest rather than of trade, and in the actual conditions the waters of the Sir
are much more capable of being utilised for irrigation than for any other purpose.
By a well-devised system vast tracts might be reclaimed from the desert, and it is
certain that the cultivated land was formerly far more extensive than at present. A
network of canalisation has already been projected, which, if carried out, will draw off
over 2,000 cubic feet per second in order to water about 250,000 acres of waste lands.

The Oxus River System.

he western slope of the Pamir drains entirely to the Amu-daria, or Oxus, whose
head-streams thus occupy a space over 180 miles broad betv/een the Hiudu-Eush and
the Alai' south and north. From this region come all the supplies of the main
U

aoa

ASIATIC BU8SIA.

fltrouin, which for over ono-hulf uf u cuurou oatinuitod altoguthor at abo'it 1,000 iiiilis
d(>oH nut rocct'vo a einiflo tributary.

The chiof nourco of thiH fumoun rivor, known to tho Arobfl as the Jihftn, still
romuinn to bo (lotor"un«d. The rclutivo nizo of itn Pamir houd-NtrouniH huH not yet
boon uHcertainod. When WmA viMitnl Luko Viotoriu (Huri-kul) in 18.'W, ho had
no doubt that he had dinoovorofl tho long-Hought houtoo of thoOxua; but it now
HOoniH more probable that the chief branch is tho Ak-su, or " White River" of thi
Kirjfhiz, which riHos east of tho Great Pamir and of Lake Victoria. This Ak-8ii
may possibly Ixi tho Vak-shu of Hanscrit writor-, which name moy hiivo Ikh-ii
changed to Oxsos (Oxus) by tho Greeks. If so, this plateau must have Ixjeii
froquentod by Kirghiz or other T(^rki nomads long before tho time of Alexander, for
thu name of tho river has no meaning except in their language.

Southernmost of tho Upper Oxus head-streams is the Sarhod, a rivor of the liittle
Pamir, first scientifically explored by the Mirza Suja, in tho service of the ludiuii
Oovomment. It rises in the same depression as the Ak-su, but flows in tho opposite
direction south-wostwards to the main stream at Langar-kisht. Tho Ak-su itself,
known in a portion of its course as the Murgh-ab, rises in Ijoko Gaz-kul, or Oi-kul,
which often disappears under tho avalanches of snow from the Ak-tush and
neighbouring hills. Flowing from this lake, first eastwards, as if to the Tariin
basin, tho Ak-su soon trends northwards, and after receiving a tributary from
Mount Tagharma takes a westerly course, joining the Southern Oxus after it has
traversed the Wakhan, Badakshan, Shignan, and Iloshan highlands. Farther
down the united streams are joined by their last great affluent, tho Surgh-ab,
flowing from tho Trans- Ala'i and Earatoghin Mountains. Beyond this point tho
Oxus, escaping from the gorges of the advanced Pamir plateaux, receives no more
contributions from tho south, and very little on its right bank.

Even the Zarafshan is exhausted before reaching the Oxus. It rises at the foot
of tho Zarafshan glacior, on the slopes of the Ala'i-tagh, which, according lo Mishen-
kov, is 30 miles long. From every snowy cirque of the surrounding moimtains
the Zarafshan receives numerous torrents, besides a considerable tributary which
flows at an elevation of 7,350 feet through the romantic Lake Iskander, so named in
memory of Alexander the Great. This fresh- woter basin, which is encircled by hills
over 3,000 feet high, has a present depth of 200 feet, but the water-marks on the
surroimding slopes show that its former level was over 300 feet higher. After
entering the Samarkand plain the Zarafshan, whose Persian name means the " Gold
Distributor," in reference either to its auriferous sands, or more probably to the
fertilising properties of its waters, is divided into countless irrigation rivulets,
watering over 1,200,000 acres of arable land. Within 60 miles of the Oxus it is
completely exhausted, though the extent to which its natural and artificial channels
are flooded varies considerably with the amount of snow and rain, and even with
the vicissitudes of peace and war, by which agricultural operations are so largely
affected.

South of the Oxus .-.n'-ther large river, the Murgh-ab of Merv, also runs dry long
before reaching the main stream, of which it was formerly an affluent, but from

•--^ vtr J tt«l« * «7 -!;<jfei>'cw«iwi'?i3»»T -r-

It 1 ,/>00 mills

ho Jihftn, Ntill
iiH huH not yet
IHijH, ho hiK
IB ; but it now
River" of tht
This Ak-su
ay huvo Iwoii
UMt have boon
Aloxauder, for

or of the liittlc

of the Indian

in the opposite

Ak-8U itself,

kul, or Oi-kul,

Ak-tash and

to the Tariui

tributary from

us after it ha»

nds. Farther

the Siu-gh-ab,

this point tho

rises at the foot
ling U) Mishen-
Ung mountains
tributary which
ler, so named in
icircled by hills
tr-marks on tho
higher. After
Leans the " Gold
probably to the
gation rivulets,
the Oxus it is
tificial channels
, and even with
1 are so largely

904

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

ultimately losing itself in the sands beyond the Merv oasis. To the same basin also
belongs the Heri-r(id, or river of Herat, whicn pierces the border range of the
Iranian plateau, but rims dry before reaching the Murgh-ab. The sands blowni
about by the wiads north of the irrigation deltas of these two rivers have so
completely effaced the ancient beds that it is no longer possible to tell in which
direction they ran. Judging from the general tilt of the land towards the north-
west, parallel with the Oulistan and Turkmenian Mountains, thej"^ would seem to
have flowed not to the present Oxus, but to the western branch, which at one time
reached the Caspian. The lines of wells across the desert follow the same direction.

Throughout its lower course below Balkh the Amu follows a normal north-
westerly course. At Eilip, where the Russians have commenced its regular
embankment, its bed is narrowed to about 1,000 feet by the last advancing spurs of
the Hissar Mountains. But in the plains it broadens to an average width of over
2,300 feet, with a depth of 20 feet, and a velocity in the flood of from 5,500 to
11,000 yards per hour. In some places it is considerably over a mile wide even at
low water ; but here it is studded with low islands overgrown with willows and tall
grasses. Its banks, eaten away by the current, are nearly everywhere steep, and
before reaching the cultivated districts it even passes a belt of fossiliferous chalk
rocks, pierced by a gorge 1,100 feet wide at Toyu-boyin. The current presses
generally on the right bank, as is the case with the Volga and Siberian rivers, all
being alike affected by the lateral movement pi"oduced by the rotation of the
earth.

The Amu brings down a considerable quantity of alluvia, causing its waters to
be usually of a muddy yellow colour, though not depriving them of their pleasant
taste. Like the Nile, it has its regular risings, caused by the melting of the snow,
and lasting from May to October. During the cold season it is at times completely
ice-bound, and may then be crossed by the caravans proceeding from Merv to
Bokhara. Since 1874 regular measurements have been taken of its discharge,
which at Pitniak, just below Toyu-boyin, is estimated at 125,000 cubic feet per
second. For its total area of drainage, amounting without the Zarafshan and
Murgh-ab to about 120,000 square miles, this would represent an annual rainfall of
about 12 inches per square mile in excess of the quantity lost by evaporation, an
excess mainly due to the abundant snows of the Pamir. The actual discharge is
exceeded in Europe only by the Volga and Danube, and while only one-half that
of the Shat-el-Arab (Euphrates and Tigris), it nearly equals that of the Nile.
During exceptional floods, such as that of 1878, it even surpasses the mean of the
Mississippi. -

At Nukus, where it ramifies into several branches to reach the Aral, it has
already lost half the voltmie discharged at Toyu-boyin, a loss due mainly to the
amoimt diverted from its left bank to water the oasis of Ehiva. During the
ii-rigating season, from the middle of April to the end of July, the cultivated lands
of Eharezm, estimated at about 4,250 square miles, absorb some 250 billion cubic
feet of water, or one-seventh of the entire annual discharge, while the sedimentary
deposits are estimated at 16,660,000 tons, a quantity sufficient to raise the level of

?*P?1

H^IS^^^^S

he same basin also
rder range of the
The sands blown
(vo rivers have so
e to tell in which
towards the north-
liey would seem to
which at one time
the same direction.
3 a normal north-
lenced its regpilar
advancing spurs of
rage width of over
of from 5,500 to
1 mile wide even at
th willows and tall
•ywhere steep, and
fossiliferous chalk
he current presses
Siberian rivers, all
le rotation of the

using its waters to
a of their pleasant
elting of the snow,
it times completely
ing from Merv to
1 of its discharge,

000 cubic feet per
the Zarafshan and

1 annual rainfall of
by evaporation, an
actual discharge is
only one-half that

that of the Nile.
IS the mean of the

h the Aral, it has
due mainly to the
hiva. During the
he cultivated lands
e 250 billion cubic
ile the sedimentary
to raise the level of

l U-ViJU^

THE OXUS EIVER SYSTEM.

206

the land eight-tenths of a millimetre every year. But while the alluviti thus
deposited in the artificial canals are anniially cleared out, never obstructing the froe
circulation in the irrigating rills, the natural bed<n winding towards the Aral
become yearly more and more choked up. Here are formed sand-banks and
shifting bars dangerous to navigation, and imparting to the stream a natural
tendency to overflow into the irrigating works.

Geologically speaking, the Oxus delta consists properly of the alluvial plain
yearly fertilised by its waters. The triangular space comprised between the Aral
and the two exterior branches, Taldik on the west and Yani-su on the east, is a
delta only in appearance, for this tract does not consist of alluvial deposits at all.
They are older formations, through which the stream has cut various fortuitous
channels, and in which the mean slope is much greater than in the true alluvial
plains. From Nukus to the mouths, a distance of over 70 miles in a straight line, the
total fall exceeds 60 feet, whereas from New Orleans to the Gulf of Mexico, a
much greater distance, it amounts to. no more than a few inches at low water. True
deltas are formed only at the mouths of the several branches in the Aral, where
the bars already exclude vessels drawing over 4 feet of water, while farther up the
dense growth of reeds, from 20 to 25 feet high, stops all craft except the skiffs of the
Ehiva fishermen. Nevertheless the steamer Perovsky, drawing rather more than
40 inches, succeeded in 1875 in forcing its way by the Yani-su, Lake Dati-kara, and
the Kuvan-jerma, or " New Cut," up to Nukus, to the great astonishment of the
natives. Since then the navigation of the Lower Oxus has never been interrupted,
notwithstanding the obstacles at the entrance and the swift current, which the
steamers often find great difficulty in surmounting. Formerly the Taldik, or western
branch, was the deepest ; but like the Darialik, lying still farther westwards, it
has been gradually choked up by the natural tendency of the river to be deflected
more and more towards the east.

The great changes that have taken place in the course of the Oxus within the
historic period are amongst the most remarkable physiographic phenomena, com-
parable in recent times only to the periodical displacements of the Hoang-ho. That
the region of the Lower Oxus is not a true delta, and that the river has not yet cut
regular channels through it, is explained by the fact that the Amu has flowed in
this direction only during a recent epoch, or probably for not over three himdred and
fifty years. During the first half of the sixteenth century it was, in fact, an affluent
of the Caspian. But even that was but a temporary phenomenon, the Oxus having
oscillated twice between the Caspian and the Aral since the time of the Greek historians.

In the days of Strabo the Oxus, " largest of all Asiatic rivers except those of
Lidia," flowed to the Caspian, and the trade between the Euxine and India followed
this river, continuing the valley of the Kur eastwards of the Hyrcanian Sea. But
in the time of the fii*st Arab and Turkish writers the Oxus, described by Edrisi as
"superior in volume, depth, and breadth, to all the rivers of the world," had been
diverted northwards to the Aral. In the fourteenth century it had again resumed
its course to the Caspian, towards which there is a relatively steep incline, for the
bifurcation of the present and the old bed below Yani-urgenj is 140 feet above the

imf

206

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

level of the Aral, und 880 feet above that of the Caspiun. The new channel waH
blocked for about two hundre<l years ; but towards the middle of the sixteenth century
the Amu, for the second time during the historic epoch, shifted its course from the
Caspian to the Aral.

Few geographical questions have g^ven rise to more discussion than these
periodical displacements of the Oxus. Some have even denied that it reached the
Caspian in the time of the Greeks, attributing the old bed to prehistoric times.
The dunes and clay eminences here and there obstructing the channel have been
appealed to in proof that the Caspian branch has been dried up for ages, notwith-
standing the unanimous testimony of the natives to the contrary. The difference
in the faunas of the two seas, which have in common only one species of salmon,
have also been referred to in support of the same view. Nevertheless the historic
evidence on the subject is complete, and the docimients quoted by Rawlinson, Yule,
and others place it beyond doubt that the Western peoples were perfectly acquainted

Fig. 107.— Map in thb Catalohmn Atla* or 1375.
Bcdnoed Soal*.

with the "river of Urgenj " — that is, the Oxus — as a tributary of the " Sea of Baku" —
that is, the Caspian. A map in the Catalonian atlas of 1375 even shows the Sir
and Amu as united in one stream, and this is in accordance with contemporary state-
ments. At the same time it is impossible to fix the precise date of the return of the
Oxus to the Aral. In 1559, when Jenkinson visited Turkestan, it had already
ceased to flow to the Caspian, but it still watered the fields west of Eunia-urgenj,
and the traveller himself was able to embark at this city. A little later on Abul-
Ghazi, Khan of Urgenj in the beginning of the sixteenth century, tells us that about
1575 the river, being deflected constantly eastwards, at last abandoned the Urgenj
oasis and discharged all its waters into the Aral.

The old Caspian branch, which has on average width of 1,100 yards, has now
been thoroughly surveyed, and is as well known as if it were still flooded. Its
steep argillaceous banks are cut by the stream to a depth of from 60 to 70 feet ;
the sand-banks rising to the surface and the islands in the midst of the river may
fitiU be recognised, while the deeper depressions arc often filled with long lakes

THE 0XU8 BIVER SYSTEM.

807

channel was
Esnth century
lurse from the

m than these
(it reached tho

listoric times.
|nel have becu

iges, notwith-

?ho difference
;ie8 of saknon,
(b8 the historic

rlinson, Yule,
tly acquainted

ea of Baku" —
shows the Sir
nporary state-
) return of the
t had already
Kunia-urgcnj,
later on Abul-
i us that about
3d the Urgenj

ards, has now
flooded. Its
to 70 feet;
the river may
th long lakes

following the windings of the stream. But the water has mostly become suit, and
the banks arc covered with crystalline deposits. A few fresh- water pools even remain,
often surrounded with poplar and wild olive thickets. The Uzboi, as this branch is
called, was at one time supix>sed to have a second mouth south of the island of
Cholokcn, in the so-called Khiva Buy. But Stebnitzky failed to discover oiiy
traces of this branch, though another, forming the true delta of the Old Anni,
certainly flowed south of the Darju jM^ninsula. The Turkomans still show the
traces of the irrigating rills diverted from the Lower Oxus, which did not end its
course in the plain, but made its way through a defile flanked north and south by the
Great and Little Balkan respectively. The different sections of this abandoned
branch were formerly known by various names — La(idan, Darialik, Eunia-daria,
Uzboi, Engiftnj, De(^dan ; but it is now generally named the Uzboi from the Khiva
country to the Balkan Gidf . It begins east of the Amu delta with three channels, the

Fig. 108 — Vallit of thb Uzboi at tub AtoiK Wrllb.
Scale 1 : 146,240.

SMilM.

Darialik, Def^dan, and Tonu, of which the first two reunite near Lake Sari-kamish.
Beyond this double lake, which was formerly a vast lacustrine basin far more salt
than the sea itself, the Uzboi flows southwards -to turn the Ust-urt escarpments,
after which it trends westwards, piercing the mountain chain which forms a con-
tinuation of the Caucasus east of the Caspian. Beyond this point it joins the Ak-
tam " wady," and falls into the fiord-like Gulf of Balkan in the South Caspian,
after a total course of about 480 miles. The ruins of towns and villages on its
upper course between the Amu delta and Sari-kamish belong evidently to two
epochs answering to the two periods during which it flowed to the Caspian. The
older towns imply a far higher degree of culture and wealth than the more recent,
which differ in no respect from those of the modem khanate of Khiva. Accord-
ing to the natives another channel branched off near Charjui far above the present
delta, and flowed 'due west across the now desert Kara-kum steppes.

MMHkl

„ iii-iai

208

ASIATIC RU88U.

The Aral Sea.

The Balkan Gulf penetrates far inland, and the sandy tracts, saline depressions,
and extensive morasses found along the course of the Uzboi give it rather the appear-
ance of an old marine strait or chain of lakes than of a simple river bed. At some
remote geological epoch, and before serving to carry off the waters of the Oxus, the
Uzboi probably received those of the Aral Sea, which at that time stood at a
higher level than at present, and may have thus communicated directly with the
Caspian. When this region was well wooded, as is expressly stated by Strabo and
repeated by the Arab writers of the tenth century, the Aral basin no doubt
stretched south-westwards to the Ust-urt plateau. Its level was naturally subject
to considerable vicissitudes from century to century, not only according to the
greater or less rainfall, but also in consequence of the changes in the course of the
Oxus. Hence, while some features point at a higher, others imply a lower level

Fig. 100.— Tub Balkav Gulp.
BMOe 1 : 1,760^000.

t.clC.

'^i*

40-

5Q*50'

54'00

aoiIilM.

than at present. It no doubt takes the title of " sea," which it in some respects
deserves, if not for its depth, at least for its extent. Still it depends for its very
existence on its two great feeders, the Oxus and the Sir, and should these shift
their course again to the Caspian, it would disappear in a few years. But the
Oxus has certainly failed to reach it twice in historic times, while one branch of
the Sir has also flowed through the Oxus to the Caspian. Consequently there can
be no reasonable doubt that the Aral has at various times been reduced to the
proportions of a small steppe lake. In 1870 Stebnitzky estimated its area, exclusive
of its four chief islands, at 26,300 square miles. Its deepest part, washing the
eastern cliffs of the Ust-urt plateau, is nowhere more than 225 feet ; in the centre
it falls to 170 feet ; but elsewhere, and especially on its southern and eastern shores,
it is little more than a flooded morass, shifting its limite with the direction of the
winds. Taking iike mean depth at 40 or even 50 feet, its volume cannot exceed

depressions,
;r the appear-
ed. At some
the Oxus, the
e stood at a
ctly with the
•y Strabo and
sin no doubt
irally subject
>rding to the
course of the
a lower level

iiu» «rtiiiiii »iiiiMrtrHy i »ii« iiiiaiaffi«»iMMS«lWi^

THE ARAL SEA.

200

1,233,434,000,000 cubic yarda, or only 1 1 timcn that of Lake Oonevu, which in
nevorthdcM 110 times Htnullor in extent.

The mean diflchurgo of the ( )xuh umounting to .'W,000, and of the Hir to 42,000
cubic feet per second, the quantity contributed by Imth of thcue feeders, inde-
pendently of smaller affluents, which are dry for most of the year, is conMe({uontIy
about 77,000 cubic feet per second. But this is precisely the quantity which
would be lost by a yearly evaporation of 1,020 millimetres. The actual evaporation
is estimated by Schmidt and Dohrandt at 1,150 millimetres, so that even after

Fig. no.— Inunuatiun ov tiie Uxvt in 1878.

Seal* 1 : 3,000,000.

I«ad flooded.

.seMilM.

allowing for the slight rainfall on the basin the evaporation must be in excess of
the inflow. Hence the lake is diminishing in size, and the Gulf of Aibughir, west
of the Oxus delta, which had nearly 4 feet of water in 1848, had been reduced in
1870 to a mere swamp, completely separated from the Aral by an isthmus of mud
and reeds, and in 1872 it had disappeared altogether. It is now partly wooded,
and occasionally flooded from the Oxus. The basin has thus in a few years been
reduced in size by about 1,400 square nailes. A vast extent of sands on the
northern shores forms part of the lake on Gladishev and Muravin's map prepared in
1740, and on the slopes of the western cliffs the old water-marks are visible

THE A UAL SEA.

Iho Kirj^:hiz
nmiiy iniloH
^torn, 1111(1 the

NuilM'»^Ur

SQ*

) TArki name

IS shifted its
lid lose one-
i century the

wntor would hnvo cvorywhcro cliNa|>iM<ur(<d except from five dcproHnioiiH rMluccd to
tho i>n)|M>rtionN of tho other HtcpiM* luk<>H. The (irtrk aiwl llonmii writiTN, who
(Icwrilx) tho ( )xuH iiH iin iitHuont of tho (.'iiNpiuii, iimku no iiu'iition ut all of tlio Aral,
w!»i«'h t hoy could not have iM>HNihly ovorhmked, hud it at that tiimMM>cu|)ii>daiiythiii^
liko NO liir^'o un uroa uh ut prcNcnt. Hut at tho tinu) of tho Arab <-oii(|ui>Mt, whon the
OxuN had af^ain uhundoiH'd t]w CuNpian, tho Aral ih known to contoiii|M)rary writorN,
ono of whom, Khorozmi, u native of tho country, ^ivon it a oircumforciico of alxxit
100 IcuffuoN. Thin iH al)out (mo-third of itH u<!tual |K<r'phory, which, apart from
tho smaller indontutious, muy bo ustimutod at HOO nulus. liut with tho return of

Fig. 113.— Old River Dim or thi Aralo-Canpian Oaiix.
Soain 1 ; 18,900,000.

Old WatoroonnM.

the Oxus to the Caspian the Aral again drops out of sight. Even Marco Polo, who
crossed from the Volga to the Oxus steppes, makes no allusion to its existence.
Hence we may conclude that with the shifting of its affluents the Aral oscillated
between the conditions of a sea and a steppe swamp.

The quantity of salt contained in its waters also depends upon its volume. At
present it is so slightly brackish that wild and domestic animals freely drink it,
and 11 in 1,000 may be taken as the mean proportion of all the salts held
in solution, which is about one-third less than in the Caspian, while it contains
nearly three times the quantity of g3rpsum. Hence the composition of its waters
shows clearly that the Ai'al is not a remnant of an oceanic basin. In its faima,

212

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

which has only recently heen carefully studied, both fresh and salt water species
are represented. The former, however, prevail, although not including the sturgeon
and sterlet of the Caspian. Falk, Pallas, and others have spoken of seals, which
would have a more intimate connection with the Arctic Ocean and the Caspian. But
Maksheyev has shown that this animal is unknown in the Aral, which has altogether
only one-third of all the species found in the Caspian. On the other hand, the
Kcaphirhynchus, a species of fish supposed to have been exclusively American, has
been found both in the Sir and the Oxus.

The shallows, sudden storms, and scanty population of its shores prevent the
navigation of the Aral from acquiring any great expansion. Hitherto it has been
utilised mainly for military purposes ; but a project has been spoken of which woxdd
connect this basin with the inland navigation of Europe by restoring the old course
of the Uzboi as far as the Gulf of Balkan. This project, already entertained by
Peter the Great, has even been partly commenced, and a portion of the Oxus has

Fiij. 113.— Ak-tad and MoBTviY-KtriToit.
Scale 1 : 4,000,000.

eoMUe*.

again been directed towards the Caspian. During the gpreat floods of 1878 the
Uzboi received a discharge of 31,500 cubic feet per second, most of which was lost
in the siin'ounding swamps, a current of 13 feet alone reaching the Sari-kamish
lakes. In 1879 the supply from the canal constructed to the Uzboi scarcely
exceeded 2,100 cubic feet per second, but by means of side dykes the new river was
diverted to the Sari-kamish basins. Nevertheless, these brains being nearly 50 feet
below the level of the Caspian, it would be necessary to flood a space of about 400
square miles before their waters would be raised high enough to flow to the Caspian.
They might doubtless be avoided by means of an artificial canal. But unless the
bars of the Amu are removed, and the course of this river and of the Sir regulated
by embankments, the advantage of restoring the Uzboi is not apparent. In a region
where the few oases are exposed to the advancing sands every drop of water should
be employed for irrigation purposes.

salt water species
ding the sturgeon
m of seals, which
he Caspian. But
ich has altogether
other hand, the
ely American, has

hores prevent the
therto it has been
en of which woxdd
ing the old course
idy entertained by
)n of the Oxus has

EofG.

floods of 1878 the
b of which was lost
g the Sari-kamish
he Uzboi scarcely
I the new river was
}ing nearly 50 feet
space of about 400
ow to the Caspian.
I. But unless the
f the Sir regulated
rent. In a region
op of water should

THE TUfiKOMAN DESEBTS AND HIGHLANDS.

The Turkoman Deserts and Highlands.

218

The Kara-kum, or " Black Sands," a vast triangular space stretching south of the
Aral between the Amu, the Uzboi, the Tekke Turkoman hills, and the Merv oasis.,
might again be changed by the fertilising waters to a productive land. These soli-
tudes, strewn with the ruins of many populous cities, are now scarcely traversed by
a few difficult tracks lined at long intervals with wells, which are often found

Fig. 114. — Entbakcb to tub Kara-hoohaz.
Seale 1 : 91,000.

to 16 Feet.

16 to 88 Feet. 88 Feet anil upwards.

Ij Miles.

empty or too brackish to be potable. Here " every drop of water is a drop of life."
Shifting sands, carefully avoided by the caravans, sweep in a succession of dunes
over vast distances. Elsewhere the argillaceous soil, hard and crevassed, re-echoes
under the horse's hoof, or saline quagmires beguile by their mirages tho unwary
traveller to their treacherous beds. The land is mostly bare, producing little beyond
a few tufts of thistles or dwarfish thorny plants. The saksa(^l thickets are now
rare in the desert south of the Oxus, having been mostly destroyed during the last

r.JAj^"

214

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Fig. 116.— The Tuk-kahaoan Lakes.
Soale 1 : 600,000.

V*1

century. But some of the slopes skirting the wilderness on the south-west are
almost verdant, thanks to the slight rainfall and tho few springs rising at the foot
of these heights. A zone of cultivated lands thus separates the desert from the
Iranian liighlands. These are tho so-culled Atok, the home of tho Tekke Turko-
mans — the Akhal-atok in tho Avest, the Berogez-atok in the centre, and the Kelat-
atok in tho east.

The Great Balkan, north of the old mouth of the Oxus in the Caspian, is tho

chief summit in those uplands, which
might be called the "Turkoman
Caucasus," forming as they do a con-
tinuation of the Great Caucasus east
of the Caspian. North of the Great
Balkan and of its western extension to
the peninsula enclosing the entrance of
the Krasnovodsk Bay, there stretches
a hilly region, which blends in the
so-called "Trans-Caspian territory"
with the Ust-urt plateau. Southwards
the less imposing Little Balkan, clothed
with a few patches of scant vegetation,
forms the extremity of the frontier
chain of the Iranian plateau, which
runs with remarkable uniformity in a
south-easterly direction, and which is
known to the Turkomans on the north,
and the Persians on the south, by
different names. Nearest to the Little
Balkan is the Kuran-dagh, followed
successively by the Kopet (Kopepet-
dagh), or Daman-i-koh, and the
Gulistan Mountains, highest of the
range, and interrupted eastwards by the Ueri-rCld and Murgh-ab valleys.

of Gt

30'

UMUss.

The Atrek and Gurgan Rivers.

Although the Kuran and Eopet-dagh may be regarded as the outer rim of tho
southern uplands, there nevertheless intervenes between them and the plateau
proper a broad valley watered by the river Atrek. Hfire, also, as in the Tiau-shan
system, the crests cross -each other, one running north-west and south-east, the
other taking ncrvrly the line of the meridian, and in the angle formed by these two
ridges is developed an irregular r;id hilly plain sloping towanls the Caspian.
Although over 300 miles long, the Atrek, even near its mouth, is usually but a feeble
stream some 30 feet broad. It has been almost completely exhausted by irrigation
works and evi;|K)ratiou before reaching the Caspian. But during the spring floods

THE UST-UET PLATEAU.

216

iith-wcst arc
at the foot
lert from the
ckke Turko-
d the Kelat-

ispian, is the

ands, which

" Turkoraan

>y do a con-

aucasus east

of the Great

extension to

e entrance of

ere stretches

ends in the

I territory "

Southwards

Ikan, clothed

it vegetation,

the frontier

ateau, which

iormity in a

and which is

on the north,

le south, by

; to the Little

igh, followed

ot (Kopepet-

bi, and the

>;hest of the

sys.

er rim of the
the plateau
he Tian-shan
tuth-east, the
by these two
the Caspian.
Y but a feeble
by irrigation
spring floods

its waters expand to a width of from 6,500 to over 8,000 feet. Farther south
flows a smaller stream, which, however, never runs dry, and which abundantly
waters the Astrabad plains about the south-east corner of the Caspian. This is the
Gurgan (Jorjan, Hurgan, Vehkran), or " Woii River," which aboimds in fish, and
which, although less than 120 miles long, has acquired great historical importance,
and has given its name to the whole r'^gion vaguely known to the ancients as
Hyrcania. At one time the lower course of this river, at another that of the
Atrek, is taken as tlie natural frontier of Persia, and it was by ascending their
valleys that the Russians have been able to turn the Turkoman positions in their
natural strongholds of the Baman-i-koh.

Formerly the passage of the Gurgan was defended by the Kizil-alan, or " Red
Wall," intended to protect the agricultural populations of Persia against the
Turkoman nomads, the accursed Yajug and Majug (''Gog and Magog"), as they
were called by the mediaeval Arab writers. Like most of the ruined structures of

Fig. 116. — Tentiak-bor.
Soile 1 : 770,000.

laOMUea.

Central Asia, this wall was attributed to Alexander the Great, who, according to the
legend, erected it in a few days with the aid of an army of genii. But it seems
rather to have been the work of Khosroes Anurshivan, and when it was built the
level of the Caspian appears to have been lower -than at present, for its western
section advances some miles into the sea. Its ruins may be traced to the sources of
the Gurgan, and even to Bujnurd, in the Upper Atrek valley, so that it must have
been over 310 miles long altogether. Little now remains of it except a line of
mounds 4 to 6 feet high and 30 feet broad, commanded at intervals of 1,000 paces
by ruined towers.

The Fst-urt Platbat;.

Between the Aral and the Caspian a plat«au of limited extent stands like a
rocky island between the marine waters and the low steppes formerly flooded by
the great inland sea of Turkestan. This is the tJst-ui't, or "High Plain," go

916

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Fig, 117.— OauRCHiKSKiY Island.
Scale 1 : 300,000.

named in contradistinction to the Ast-urt, or " Low Plain," of the Kirghiz. It
is a typical tablel nd in its isolation and steep escarpments. The inequalities
of the surface are due chiefly to the snows and rains, which have worn the upper

strata and excavated countless little cavities
with no outlets either to the Aral or the
Caspian. Nearly everywhere the Ust-urt is
limited by a chink, or cliff, which would
render it inaccessible but for the ravines by
which it is pierced at intervals. From its
base spring a number of fresh-water streams
with a slight taste of sidphur. West of
the Aral Sea the chink forms a continuous
wall, in some places over 330 feet high, and
certain mysterious structures in the form
of truncated pyramids occur here and there
along the edge of the cliffs. The plateau
consists entirely of tertiary rocks, thus con-
trasting sharply with the plains stretching
east of the Aral. Its chief eminences attain
an altitude of 660 ieet above the lake,
consequently over 830 feet above the
Mediterranean, besides which the Ak-tau,
or " White Mountain," forms a small rocky
chain running south-east and north-west
beyond the plateau far into the Caspian,
where it forms the Mangishlak peninsula.
Most of the parts hitherto visited by
Russian explorers have been found destitute
of vegetation. But tb"*-; are numerous
pastures in the flats, and the southern
portion of the plateau deserves rather the
title of " Plain of the Gazelie," or of the
" Wild Horse," or of the " Wild Ass,"
than that of Kaflankir, or "Plain of the
Tiger," conferred on it by the Turkomans.
This region is even occupied by a Kirghiz
population, who, however, are obliged con-
stantly to shift their quarters. The shortest
road from the Caspian to the Oxus delta
runs from iLc eastern extremity of the
Mortviy-kultuk Bay north-east across the Ust-urt to Kungrad, a distance in a
straight line of 250 miles. It was utilised by the Russian traders for the first
time in 1878, and was found to present no obstacles to caravans. It is lined at
intervals by twelve wells, sufiicient for two hundred camels. A railway has

to b2 Feet

82 Feet and upwards.
SMUea.

EAST COAST OF THE CASPIAN.

217

! Kirghiz. It
le inequalities
rorn the upper
i little cavities
Aral or the

the Ust-urt is

which would
the ravines by
lis. From its
■water streams
ur. "West of

a continuous
feet high, and

in the form
lere and there
The plateau
cks, thus con-
ins stretching
linences attain
)ve the lake,
it above the
I the Ak-tau,
a small rocky,
ad north-west

the Caspian,
lak peninsula.
visited by
ound destitute
are numerous
the southern
rea rather the
le," or of the
"Wild Ass,"
'Plain of the
le Turkomans.
. by a Kirghiz
B obliged con-

The shortest
le Oxus delta
■emity of the

distance in a
i for the first
It is lined at
k railway has

Fig. 118. — KuLALi Island.
Boale t : 270,000.

recently been projected to connect the Caspian a id Aral by the line of lakes
and saline marshes, which probably represent a strait, at one time nmning between
the Mortviy-kultuk Bay on the Caspian, and the Chemichev inlet on the Aral.

East Coast of the Caspian.

Some of the basins on the east side of the Caspian, penetrating far into the
steppe, may be regarded as distinct lakes, forming the traiisition between that sea
and the saline waters scattered
over the Turkestan desert.
One of those is the Kara-
boghaz, or " Black Abyss,"
which is nearly isolated from
the Caspian, forming an oval
expanse some 6,400 square
miles in extent. Limited
westwards by a slight sand
embankment, it communicates
with the sea only through a
channel from 660 to 2,660
feet broad, and scarcely 4 feet
deep at its entrance. A current
from the Caspian sets steadily
across the strait at the rate of
from 3 to 4 miles an hour.
This dangerous channel is
carefully avoided even by
explorers, and Jerebtzov was
the first to penetrate through
it to survey the shores of the
inner basin. The cause of the
rapid current has been ex-
plained by Baer. Th*^ '"ara-
boghaz has only a mean depth
of from 1,2 to 40 feet, and
is everywhere exposed to the
winds and summer heats, so
that here the evaporation is
excessive, necessitating a con-
stant inflow to repair the loss.

But while evaporating the moisture, the ixiland basin retains the salt from the Caspian,
and thus becomes constantly more saline. It is eaid to be already uninhabitable, and
the fish carried through from the Caspian become blind in five days. Saline incrusta-
tions are beginning to be deposited on the bottom, and the basin is fast becoming
16

to 16 Feet.

16 Feet and i^pwurda.
^»— — 6 Miles.

218

ASIATIC EU8SIA.

a vast salt-pan, drawing from the Caspian a daily supply estimated by Baer at
350,000 tons of salt, or about as much as is consumed in the whole Bussiau Empii-e
in six months.

The other basins on the east coast, and especially about the Mangishlak
peninsula and the Tuk-karagan headland, ofEer every degree of salinity according to
the amount of evaporation and of suit water received from the Caspian, Some,
like the Ashchai-sai, between the Eara-boghaz and the Mangishlak peninsula,
having already ceased to communicate with that sea, have dried up, and their
basins are now filled with salt, in some instances covered by sand.

The Kara-boghaz is connected by a chain of swamps, saline depressions, and
lakelets with the Mortviy-kultuk, another saline reservoir, which is gradually
being cut off from the north-west gulf of the Caspian. It is already little more
than a steppe lake, with a menu depth of less than 7 feet ; it is being constantly
invaded by the sands of the desert, raising its level, and rapidly changing it to a
vast salt marsh. But before it becomes completely detached from the Caspian, the
Kaidak, or KarR-su (" IJlack Water ") channel, stretching south-westwards towards
the Kara-bog I laz, \rAl Itself have been changed to a tdt lake. It fills a long and
deep fissure oo; ijaauded by the steep cliffs, which form a continuation O' the Ust-
urt r'. vik. In *.h>^ sixteenth century, when the steppe tribes were still independent
of JR. , isk. tho f'crtj't international fair was held on the shores of the Eara-su. .\t
that vHti . e bu.; Reparating this fiord from the Mortviy-kultuk could be easily
cross i, Lj.. i.: as now almost inaccessible, and in 1843 the Bussians were obliged
to abu ,ion thcj tortre&c» of Novo-Alexandrovsk, which cuey had erected in 1826 on
the east side of the Kara-su. The Mortviy-kultuk ia already twice as salt as the
Caspian, while the : aliuity of the Kara-su even excaeds that of the Gulf of Suez,
the most intensely salt of all basins communicating directly with the ocean.

The whole region stretching north-east of the Caspian, and connected by a
chain of swamps with the Aral basin, presents the same evidences of transition
from the sea to steppe lakes. Here are nothing but low-lying, marshy, and reedy
tracts, which again become flooded after the prevalence for a few days of the fierce
west winds. Until the year 1879 the Bussian officials were in the habit of
avoiding the swampy and saline region of the Tentiak-sor by skirting its northern
limits, and the Astrakhan and Guryev fishermen hod Vaken advantage of this
negligence to cure their fish .vithout paying the regular tax.

Notwithstanding the vast alluvial deposits brought down by the Volga and
other rivers from the ■'•/tist, this side of the Caspian is still much deeper than the
opposite. Off the Turkoman coast, betwej.^ Era novodsk and Chi3xishlar, depths of
28 fathoms do not occur within distance,^ of from 30 to 45 miles of the shore,
whereas on the European side 330 fathoris 'ire reached at corresponding distances
from the coast. A submerged shore stretches from the Erasnovodsk peninsula to
the coast of Mazenderan, and the long island of Ogurohinskiy, or the " Cucumber,"
as the Russians cull it, is evidently a remnant of that shore. North of the
Mangishlak peninsula the island of Eulali forms a similar sandy dune of the
characteristic crescent shape so common to shifting sands. The Caspian has

INHABITANTS OP THE AHALO-CASPIAN EEOIONS.

219

ted by Baer at
Russiun Empire

.he Mangi8hlak
ity according to
!aspian. Some,
hlak peninsula,
up, and their

Icpressions, and
is gradually
eady little more
eing constantly
changing it to a
;he Caspian, the
stwards towards
fills a long and
ion '■-' the Ust-
ti]l independent
e Eara-su. At
could be easily
ns were obliged
Dted in 1826 on
CO as salt as the
10 Gulf of Suez,
le ocean,
connected by a
es of transition
rshy, and reedy
iys of the fierce
n the habit of
ing its northern
rantage of this

the Volga and
eeper than the
shlar, depths of
8 of the shore,
inding distances
sk peninsula to
e " Cucumber,"
North of the
y dune of the
le Caspian has

evidently been subject to frequent changes of level since its separation from the
Euxine. While the buffri of the Volga delta show that at one time the waters
subsided rapidly, the contours of the Cucumber and Kulali Islands, moulded by the
regular aclii)ii of the waves, are, on the other hand, a proof of a period of upheaval.
The direct observations taken between 1830 and 1863, compared with the marks
scored by Lenz in a rock near Baku, show a subsidence of 46 inches. The two
trigonometrical surveys of the Caucasus made in 1830 and 1860 show almost
identical results, so that in 1860 the Caspian must have been more than 86 feet
below the level of the Euxine.

VI.— INHABITANTC OF THE AIIAI.O-CASPIAN REGIONS.

Although commonly known as Turkestan or Tatary, this part of the Asiatic
continent is not exclusively occupied by peoples of Tdrki stock, and it is even
probable that the original population was Aryan. But however this bo, these
boundless steppo lands are ethnically a region of contrasts. The opposition
presented b3 the wonderful gardens watered by the Amu and the Sir to the
frightfid wildernesses of the " Red " and " Black Sands " reappears in the
inhabitants themselves, some occupied with agriculture and industry, other nomad
pastors sweeping the desert and ever preying on the wealth amassed by their
sedentary neighbours in the fertile oases. Commercial relations are established
from town to town, but between townsfolk and nomads incessant warfare was
fonnerly the normal and natural state. The desert encroaches on the oasis, and the
wandering shepherd threatens the tiller of the soil. Such was the struggle carried
on from the remotest antiquity, interrupted only by foreign conquest, which for a
time associated the Aralo-Caspian basin with other regions, but which aleo swept
away all local civilisa+ion by wholesale slaughter. Nowhere else have the
conflicting elements been more evenly balanced ; nowhere else has even religion
assumed such a decided dualistic character. It wad in the land of the Baktrians —
a paradise of verdure encompassed by a wilderness of sands — that was developed
the Iranian Mazdeism, the worship of the twin and irreconcilable principles of good
and evil engaged in a ceaseless struggle for the ascendiincy. Ormuzd and Ahriman
have each their hosts of spirits who do battle in theieavens, while mankind takes
part in the everlasting conflict on earth.

At the same time the division into a nomad and a settled element is far more
an ethical and traditional than an ethnical distinction. Iran and Turan are
symbolic expressions rather than terms answering to an outward reality. Amongst
the sedentary and cultured races of the Aralo-Caspian regions the Tftrki and even
the Mongol elements are strongly represented, while the Aryans, descendants of
Parthian and Persian, also form a certain section of the wandering population in
the Oxus basin. According to the political vicissitudes, corresponding largely vith
those of the local climate, the cultured agricultural nations and the pastoral steppe
tribes each prevailed in their turn, while now one, now another of the contending

i !

I '

220

ASUTIO liUSSIA.

elemciitH was favoured by the forei^ conquerors — Iranians, Macedonians, ^rabs,
Mongols, IlusHians. Thunks to the Slav preponderance, the Aryans are now once
more ill the ascendancy, but there is room for all in a land whose resources, if
properly utilised, would largely suffice for Iranian and Turanian alike. The actual
population of the whole region, about which the greatest uncertainty still prevails,
is roughly estimated at about 7,000,000, or less than 4 to the square mile. Still
more uncertain arc the attempts at classification according to speech and origin.
All that can be positively assorted is that the " Turanian " element is the strongest,
forming probably over two-thirds of the entire population.

The Turkomans.

Of the Turanians the chief branches are the Kirghiz and the Turkomans, or
Turkmenians, the latter of whom roam over the south-western parts from the
Ust-urt plateau to Balkh, a vast domain of altogether about 200,000 square
miles. Estimated at nearly 1,000,000, they are divided into numerous tribes and
sub-tribes, grouped in hordes, each of which again comprises a number of clans or
families. These are again often further modified by conquest and migrations, but
the main divisions are maintained, and from political causes often acquire a
distinctive character. Since the fall of Geok-tepe and the submission of the Akhal
Tekkes in 1881, the whole of the Turkoman race may be regarded as either directly
or indirectly subject to Russian control. About 200,000 are nominal subjects of
the Khan of Khiva, and these are gradually blending with the sedentary Sartes and
the Uzbegs. Most of the Yomuds are no doubt tributaries of Persia, but for eight
months in the year they camp north of the Atrek, and are then obliged to select a
Khan responsible to the Russian Government. The Ersari recognise the authority
of the Emir of Bokhara, himself dependent on the Muscovites, and the El- Eli owe
an enforced allegiance to the ephemeral nUers of Afghan Turkestan. The Tekkes
and Sariks of Merv still maintain their political independence, but the Salors,
originally also of Merv, and claiming to be the noblest of the race, are now subject
to the Tekkes. The classification of all these tribes is beset with difficidties, and
the greatest discrepancies prevail in the difPeront estimates of travellers and
explorers. According to Petrusevich the chief divisions are as under : —

Tekkes of Merv 60,000 Eibitkas, or 250,000 souls. '

Tekkesof the Atok .... 30,000 ., 160,000 „

Ersari 40,000 „ 200,000 „

Yomuds 20,000 „ 100,000 „

Sariks 20,000 „ 100,000 „

Ooklans 9,000 „ 46,000 „

Chudors 6,000 ,. SO.OOO „

£I-£li 3,000 „ 16,000 .,

Salors 3,000 „ 16,000 „

Most of the Turkomans, especially those on the skirts of the desert between the
Atrek and Oxus, have preserved the characteristic traits of the race — broad brow,
small and piercing oblique eyes, small nose, rather thick lips, ears projecting from
the head, black and scant beard, short thick hair. In the Atrek valley and the

^jsi^c^s^r.iyi^v^-^r."^^:

: ^"i**^^^^ifa^!S^^:&^

THE TUEKOMANS.

221

pdonians, Arabs,
ns arc now once
ose resources, if
ko. The actual
ty still prevails,
uaro mile. Still
oech and origin.
in the strongest,

Turkomans, or
parts from the
200,000 square
lerous tribes and
mber of clans or
migrations, but
often acquire a
ion of the Akhal
18 either directly
ainal subjects of
Qtary Sartes and
lia, but for eight
iligod to select a
ise the authority
I the El-Eli owe
in. The Tekkes
but the Salors,
are now subject
difficulties, and
travellers and
ier: —

) souls. '

lert between the
ie — broad brow,
projecting from
: valley and the

highlands skirting the Iranian plateau there is a largo mixture of rorsian blofxl,
duo to the women carried off iu their constant raids on the frontier. But while
thus partly losing his Tutur expression, the Atrek Turkomaii still retains his
piercing glance, proud and martial bearing, by which ho is distinguished from the
Kirghiz, Uzbegs, Kara-Kalpaks, and other branches of the race. Thoy are mostly

Fig. 119.— TUHKOMAN FiMALB HlAD-DMSS.

il.i

also of tall stature, veiy vigorous and active. Except in Merv and a few other
places, all dwell in the kibitka, or felt tent, and the strength of the tribe is estimated
according to the number of these tents, which are reckoned to contain about five souls
each. Their whole furniture is restricted to a few rugs and couches. The national
dress consists for both sexes of a long silk smock reaching from the shoulders to the
ankles, to which the men add the ehapati, or khalat, somewhat like a European

ttl>.

222

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

droHsing-go\»Ti, and aa hcnd-drosn a Hj^ht fur cup. The women uHuuUy \*^cnr no^'.inpf
but tlio long smock, adding; on Hpeciul uccaaiouN u lur^ hIuiwI, girdle, red or volliw
bootH, b'Ticolots, nocklu(!ON, and ourringa. Thoy will aomotimeH oven imihh ringH
through the cartilage of the noHtrilH, and commonly attach to the brouat little
cuakets of amuleta resembling cartouch boxes, and which accompany their move-
ments with a metallic clink. Coins, coloured gems, true or false, gold and silver
ornaments, deck their head-dress, which occa.sionally asnumes audi proportions that
the face seems to be enframed like a holy imago in its shrine. They do not veil
their features, like other Mohammedan women, for, as they say, " how can we, ^ioov
steppe people, confonn to town usages ? "

The Turkomans of the Daman-i-koh oaaia recognise no chiefs. " We are a
people without a head," thoy say haughtily ; " we are all equal, and each of us is
a king ! "We can endure neither the shade of a tree nor the shadow of a chief,"
Some members of the tribe no doubt twke the title of uh-sahal, or " White Beard,"
hay, bii (Bey), or even Khan. But this is mere make-belief, and no one dreams of
showing them any more deference than to other warriors, unless specially distin-
guished for courage or other virtuea, or unlesa they have secured a following by
the sale of corn on credit. Those known as the " Good " — that is, the wealthy, the
men of experience, the bravest in the field — enjoy great influence in the coimcil,
when weighty matters are under discussion. But they have no judicial authority,
and nobody ever appeals to any one in case of theft, injury, or other wrongs. He
avenges himself as beat ho can, and feuds are thus handed down from generation to
generation, unless the original offence is repaired by a monetary compensation.
The steppe life is mainly regulated by the deb, or unwritten code, which rcqiures
all to respect their peaceful neighbours, to practise hospitality, and to keep their
pledged woid. The Turkomans are distinguished from the surrounding peoples —
Persians, Afghans, Bokhariots — by greater uprightness and less corrupt morals.
In war aloue they give full boat to th^ir innate ferocity, while in the ordinary
relations of life diNtinguishing themselves for their strict honesty. Amongst them
it is the debtor, not the creditor, vA:o keeps the receipts for borrowed money, in
order not to forget the extent of bis obligations. The document is no concern of
the creditor, though it may be feared that the " civilisation " introduced by the
Russians will tend to modify these customs. «

Amongst the Txirkomans the practice of simulated abduction still prevails.
The intended bride, enveloped In a long veil and with a kid or lamb in her arms,
moimts on horseback, gallops off at full speed, and by sudden turns pretends to
escape from the abductor pursuing her at the head of a troop of friends. Two or
three days after the wedding she feigns a fresh escape, remaining a full year with
her parents, in order to give her husband time to go kidnapping, and thus pay her
dowry in captive slaves. Other social events are associated with old sjntubolio
customs. Thus it is not sujBScient to weep for the dead, but every day for a twelve-
mouth the relations and friends are expected to vent their grief in dismal bowlings
at the very hour when the death took place, without, however, for a moment
interrupting their ordinary pursuits. They thus often take to howling in the very

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on puHH riiigN
broast littlo
Y their ujove-
)ld and silvoi-
o|)ortionH thut
y do not veil
f can we, j^jooi'

" Wo are a

each of us is
w of a chief."
VTiito Beard,"
one dreams of
jeciuUy distin-
1 following by
e wealthy, the
n the council,
cial authority,

wrongs. He
1 generation to
compensation,
nrhich requires
I to keep their
iing peoples —
irrupt morals.

the ordinary
Amongst them
wed money, in

no concern of
reduced by the

still prevails,
b in her arms,
as pretends to
ends. Two or
full year with
i thus pay her

old sjoubolio
y for a twelve-
!smal bowlings
for a moment
Qg in the very

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^^ir

THE TUEKOMANS.

228

act of outing, drinking, or smoking, to the grout amazcmont of the uninfonnwl
" stranger within their gates." If the departed was u famous wurrior, u yokna, or
barrow, is ruised over his grave. Every bravo of the tribe contributes at least seven
bushelfuls of earth to the mound, whence those hillocks 25 to 30 feet high dotted
over the steppe.

All the Turkomans spoak closely related varieties of the Jagatai TCkrki language,
and all are Sunnito Mussulmans. The most zealous arc probably those of the
Persian frontier, who find in their pious hatred of the Shiah sectaries a pretext for
their forays and the hard fate they impose upon the captives. They also claim the
right of plundering and murdering the orthodox Khivaus and Bokhariots, but only in

Fig, 120. — ^Tekkb Turkoman Oasis iv tub Atok.
Scale 1 : 4,200,000.

SSj^Kiiil-Arva*

_^ •'Niai

»P«ngii-tap«

■"■■•- Xl^

CO"

E.ofG.

, 60M0M.

virtue of the lex talionia calling upon them to avenge former massacres. So recently
as 1830 they ventured in frail barks on the Caspian, to capture slaves on the Baku
coast, and the Russian naval station of Ashu-rade was founded to check their
incursions. Since then their ships of war have become fishing craft. Certain
Persian districts have become completely depopulated by these raids, and elsewhere
the surviving inhabitants shut themselves up in villages resembling fortresses,
where the scouts watch day and night to give the alarm. In more exposed places
towers are erected at intervals of 100 paces. Yet in spite of all these precautions
the number of Persians captured during one century has been estimatcfl at a
million, and as many as 200,000 slaves were at one time in bondage in
Turkestan.

a. i u. i ".»^w-,w ''';i) yH> B uiM-W I ',WiMt'.j!4lt4'*'

224

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

LdeP

Marauder by profession, the " black " Turkoman devotes himself entirely to
this one pursuit. lie tends and trains his horse, his comrade in toil and danger,
leaving all other work to the women and slaves. In the saddle he " knows neither
father nor mother," and his highest ambition is to bring bat-k captives to the camp.
AVhen ho starts on an alaman, or foray, at midnight— for he loves darkness like the
beast of prey— an inhan, or itinerant dervish, never fails to bless him and beg the
favour of heaven on his noble enterprise. All feeble or decrepit captives are

slaughtered, the rest are chained in

Fig. 121.— Abba OP THE Turkoman Raius South OF gangs and driven away at the point

KiziL-AuvAT. of the spear. The priest alone is spared,

Scale 1 : 3,320,000. , , . „ . , , . .n i i

lest his fate might bring lU-luck on
the freebooters.

Formerly most of the prisoners
were destined to perish miserably in
bondage. But many of their sons, and
often the slaves themselves, gradually
bettered their condition by their tact
or intelligence, mostly far superior to
that of their masters. After being sold
in the Khiva and Bokhara markets,
many Persian cap ives succeeded in
becoming traders, high officials, or
governors of districts. In the still
semi-independent khanates to them are
usually intrusted the more delicate and
best-paid duties. Although originally
Shiah heretics, they soon conform to
the prevalent Sunnite form of worship.
Since the abolition of the slave trade
in the khanates, captures are now made
only with a view to their ransom, a
trade formerly carried on by some of
the Khorassan chiefs themselves, who
often made handsome profits by the sale
of their own subjects.

Of late years the raids have greatly
diminished, owing mainly to the pro-
gress of the Russians on the west, north, and north-east, but also partly to a more
systematic resistance on the side of Persia. Here the Turkomans now find them-
selves opposed by Kurd colonists settled by the Persian Government in the upland
valleys, and who bravely defend their new homes. The Turkomans, seeing them-
selves thus hemmed in on all sides, are gradually obliged to turn from pillage to
farming. The Goklans are already mostly peaceful agriculturists, and cultivate
the silkworm with success. Numerous Tekke hordes also are now settled on the

Forts.

. 60 Maes.

THE KARA-KALPAKS AND KIBGHIZ.

226

iolf entirely to
il and dunger,
knows neither
'8 to the cump.
rkness like the
in and beg the
it captives are
re chained in
f at the point
alone is spared,
ug ill-luck on

the prisoners
miserably in

their sons, and
Ives, gradually

by their tact
:ar superior to
Lfter being sold
khara markets,

succeeded in
:h officials, or
In the still
ites to them are
ore delicate and
ough originally
•on conform to
arm of worship,
the slave trade
!s are now made
;heir ransom, a
on by some of
beraselves, who
ofits by the sale

Is have greatly
ly to the pro-
artly to a more
low find them-
t in the upland
3, seeing them-
rom pillage to
and cultivate
settled on the

land, and enlarging the domain of their oasis by means of irrigating works. Their
moral tone has even improved, and in their interviews with European travellers
they will warmly defend themselves against the charge of brigandage. The
national saying, " If marauders attack thy father's tent, take part in the plunder,"
has lost all significance, and most of the tribes easily pass from the nomad to the
settled state. The cultivation of certain alimentary plants is even consistent with
a semi-nomad existence. To raise the cereal known from them as the Polygonum
Tartaricum (sarrasin), the Tatars fire the surface vegetation, sow and reap within
two or three months, and then betake themselves elsewhere. The herdsmen migrate
regularly with the seasons between the same pastures on the Iranian tableland and
in the plains, and are thus in a transition state between a nomad and settled life.
Hence the Russians expect to reduce the tribes of South Turkestan as they have
already reduced their northern kinsmen, by erecting forts commanding their winter
camping grounds. They have also established depots for provisions at certain
intervals, and are pushing on the line of railway running from the south-east comer
of the Caspian towards Askhabad and Merv.

* The horse and camel, inseparable companions of the nomad Turkoman, must
naturally diminish in numbers, at first through the hopeless struggle with the
Russians, and then through the increasing development of agriculture. Most of
the native camels are of the Baktrian or dromedary species, with one hump only,
smaller and weaker than the Arabian, but more capable of enduring heat. They
can make 24 miles a day under a burden of 400 or even 600 lbs. They move
untrammelled about the tents, and will occasionally return to the steppe for months
at a time. The Turkoman horses, a cross between the Arab and the native breed,
although unshapely, have scarcely their equals for staying power. Instances have
been cited of 600 miles covered in five or six consecutive days ; for, as the proverb
goes, "One brigard's journey is bettei* than two of a merchant." These horses,
highly esteemed by the Russian officers, have longer heads, narrower chests, more
shaggy legs than the pure Arab, but they are less affected by climate, hunger, and
thirst. Brought up with the children in the tent, and caressed by woman's hand,
they are remarkably gentle and intelligent, and carry their heads well. The
Turkoman horse is well cared for, and he may often be seen with a warm felt
housing when the tent is in shreds and the family in rags.

The Kara-Kalpaks and Kirghiz.

The Kara-Kalpaks, or •' Black Caps," form geographically the transition between
the southern Turkomans and northern Kirghiz. Survivors of a powerful nation,
they are still represented in a fragmentary way throughout a vast area — in the
Russian Governments of Astrakhan, Perm, and Orenburg, in the Caucasian province
of Kuban, and in Tobolsk, Siberia. Scattered by forced or voluntary migrations over
these extensive regions, they still claim to belong originally to the Kharezm. A
few small groups are found in the Zaraf shan valley, but the bidk of the race still
forms a compact body in the humid plains of the Lower Oxus, and along the east

220

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

coast of the Aral Sea. Hero they number probably 60,000, and in the whole
RuMHian Empire about 300,000. On the Aral Sea the Black CapH, so named from
their high 8hcep«kiu head-dres8, arc mostly tall and robust, with broad flat face,
large eyes, short uose, prominent chin, broad hands. Yet their women have the
reputation of being the most beautiful in Turkestan. But they can scarcely be
said to present a distinct racial type. Widely diffused as they arc amongst
different peoples, they seem to have been diversely mixed, and in Tatary they
blend imperceptibly with the hybrid Sartes. Of a gentle, peaceful disposition,
and devoted to agriculture, they are generally the butt of their nomad neigh-
bours, who regard them as the dullest of nuinkind. And there are certainly some
grounds for this view, for their expression lacks fire, and they generally look
stolidly on with open mouth and hanging lower lip. In a few generations this
lethargic race will probably have ceased to exist as an independent nationality in
Turkestan. : ': . -^ • ,^ . -

The great Kirghiz nation, numbering perhaps 2,000,000, according to
Krasovsky even 3,000,000 souls, and whose domain, us largo as all European
Russia, stretches from the Lower Volga to the Tarim basin, and from the Oxus
delta to the Irtish river, is numerically the most important nomad race in Asia.
But it has no ethnical cohesion, and is split up into endless subdivisions. The
people compare themselves to the sea-sands, scattered far and near by the winds, but
never diminishing in numbers. The two main divisions of the race answer to
the relief of the land. In the Aralo-Caspian and Ob basins dwell the Kirghiz-
Kazaks, by far the more numerous. In the upland Tian-shan, Alui, and Pumir
valleys roam the Burut, or Kara- Kirghiz (" Black Kirghiz "), called also IHko-
kameunie Kirghiz}, or " Wild Moimtain Kirghiz," the " Block Kirghiz " of
English writers.

The Kirghiz call themselves Kaizaks, or Kazaks, although the term Kirghiz,
or rather Krghiz, is not unknown, and interpreted by them to mean "Forty
Girls," in reference to their legendary descent from forty young women and a
red dog. They are divided into four hordes : the Great Horde (Ulu-Yuz), the
oldest, chiefly south of Lake Balkash and near the Tian-shan ; the Middle Horde
(TJrta-Yuz), mainly in the low hilly region between the Aralo-Caspian and Ob
basins ; the Bukeyevskaya, or Inner Horde, in the Orenburg steppes ; the Little
Horde (Kachi-Yuz), stretching westwards far into European Russia. In spite of
its name this horde is by far the most important in numbers, socially and politi-
cally. As with the Turkomans, the aoyuz, or confederacy, is divided into secondary
groups, and these into clans and families comprising from five to fifteen tents each.
Each of these aula, or little commurities, lives in absolute independence, reluctantly
acknowledging the supreme control of the Russians, but recognising no other
authority except that of the heads of families and the arbitrators chosen by them-
selves to settle their differences. The Russians are satisfied with imposing a tax
of about five shillings per tent ; but they find some difficulty in discovering all
the encampments hid away in the hollows, between sand dunes, amongst the
reedy marshes, or imder cover of the forests, and the camping grounds they come

r> ;• .j^

1 in tho whole
so named from
broud flat fuco,
omen have tlio
cun scurcely be
}y arc amongst
in Tatary they
eful disposition,
r nomad neigh-
certainly some
generally look
ffonerations this
nationality in

), according to
,8 all European
from the Oxus
ad race in Asia.
jdivisions. The
)y the winds, but
3 race answer to
ell the Kirghiz-
Alai, and Pamir
called also DikO'
ik Kirghiz" of

18 term Kirghiz,
to mean "Forty
ig women and a
> (Ulu-Yuz), the
le Middle Horde
Caspian and Ob
sppea ; the Little
ssia. In spite of
cially and politi-
ed into secondary
ifteen tents each,
ience, reluctantly
Rising no other
chosen by them-
h imposing a tax
in discovering all
les, amongst the
■ounds they come

^pfm-^~

'■- ... -V

^*^

■ ■<» ,■■> ! ■, fiwi- i ! i;jui,(HHH U\L ' " 'W m^Wj^*9Mmfy

f-V-'i-iiiZ-^^r^-^ffe-... 5--,^."':r«^> .-

'~-- lii^iiiJi -^ijl^,'' "'^i- ' 4^-' '

TUE KARA-KALPAKS AND KUiGIIlZ.

227

Fig. 122.— A Wealthy Kihqhiz.

upon arc often found abandoned by the tribes mij,'nitin>j to and fro with the
si'iiHonH. Ilenco the official roturns are alwajM under the frutli, altliough frewh
(U'tiiulterH yearly eonio to li^ht. In 18U7, the first yeur of the inipont, 1 o.OOO
IcntM only could be diHcovcred in Orenburfj;, l)ut these hud incrouHcd in 1H4() to
(}7,280, and in 18(W to upMards of 15'>,000. In 1872 tiie firHt census taken in
the provinces of Turgai ond Urulsk returned (JO.'i.OOO nonjiids, and the Huke-
yi^vskayii horde, west of tho Ural llivcr, is variously estimated ut from 100,000 to
over 200,000 souls.

Deing without chiefs, all tho Kirghiz consider theniHch"C8 us more or less
nobles. When two meet together, the first question is, " Who are your seven
ancestors ? " and all, down to tho children eight years old, can repeat in reply
their genealogies to tho seventh generution. Those on whom the Russians huve
conferred certuin privileges, und whom they huve made " sultans," without, how-
ever, exempting them from tho poll tux, are surrounded by a riff- raft of Teleguts,
or refugees, strangers, and slaves, .forming bunds of armed retainers during the
fonuer intestine wars, and who now tend
their masters' fiocks and till his land. This
class is much despised by the free nomads,
und is excluded from uU clanship, living
apart from tho tribe in sepurute cumps with
their masters, who are equaly hated by tho
people. The bm, or " elders," are the judges
elected by the clan, to whom all appeal for
a settlement of their disputes. Each tribe
is distinguished by a particular rallying
cry used by the members in their festive
and hostile gatherings.

The Kirghiz language, which is spoken
with great imifonaity by all the tribes,

is of pure Tftrki stock, unaffected by foreign influences, beyond a few
Mongol, Arab, and Persian words. In the north Russian has already made some
encroachment on its domain, and the Orenburg Ki a'z even converse in this
language. But the Slav colonists have probably borrow d more in their colloquial
speech from the nomads than these have from their conquerors. Of all the
Kirghiz tribes, the Kipchaps of the Middle Horde seem to have best preserved
their original type, ancient usages, and purity of speech. The origin of the race
has been much discussed by ethnologists, some of whom have even regarded them
as Aryan Scythians like those of the Euxine shores. But their most marked
affinities are now with the Mongols and Tatars, with whom they form one
linguistic group. They have squat figures, short thick necks, small and oblique
eyes, scant beard, tawny or dirty brown complexion. Obesity is conmion amongst
the Orenbiirg tribes, and is considered by the nobles as a sort of distinctive mark
enhancing their dignity. They are mostly very robust, but indolent and soft
uncouth, and heavy in their carriage, and slightly bandy-legged from passing

228

ASIATIC IIUHSIA.

half their tiino in tho Middle. Liko the Nogiii TuturH, tlioy nro often dull nnd
morose, and few uiiioiij^Mf tlicin luivo tlic courtoHy, heart ini'HM, mid ^(HHl-hiiinoiir ol
the Itashlvirs, or the di'tiant h)ok of thu TurkoniauH. In their HoiigH the women
celebrate the iiidoloiieu of tlie men and their own IalH>rioiiM life. AeeuMtonied
to rejfular work, they ore generally more grae(>ful than the men, whom they also
HiirpaHH in moral qualitieH. Un feast days they lovo to dock themMelveH in lii^^li
velvet or broeaded capH adorned with plaques of metal, pearln, and embroidery,

und i>rolong their treHtwrn to
Fig. 12a.- A KiiioHiz Woman. the {ground by means of

ribbouH and horsehair. They
UHo rouge and other eosmeticH
oven more freely than Euro-
pean women.

Tho steppo Kirghiz are
essentially nomads, shifting
their quarters on the slightest
pretext, a bad omen, a storm,
and tho liko. In 1820 most
of the Astrakhan trilws left
their camping grounds in
order to return to Asia, on
the simple report that the
Government was preparing
to have their census taken.
Even tho " sultans " have
declined to occupy tho fixed
dwellings erected for them,
and continue to live in tents,
locking up all their valuable
effects in the houses, for all
alike feel that a sedentary
life in settled abodes would
eventually entail loss of freedom. The Kirghiz yurt, like those of the Kalmuks ond
the Turkoman kibitkas, is a simple framework of wood, covered with red cloth for
Bome of the " sultans," with white felt for the wealthy, and with ordinary felt for
the common folk, the very poor substituting for felt bark of trees, reed, or grass
matting. In half an hour a whole adl has vanished, migrating northwards in
summer and southwards in winter.

The Kirghiz-Eazaks lack the warlike spirit of their Turkoman kinsmen.
Nevertheless they long resisted the Slav invaders, and even when accepting the
Czar's supremacy in 1734, they fancied they were merely performing an idle
formality. Hence, when they found that the Russians meant it seriously, the
war was renewed, and lasted intermittently for over a century. A last revolt
took place in 1870, when they destroyed a Russian village and besieged Fort

ro often (lull ami
I ^iHHl-liuinour (li

HOIIJ^H tilt' WOIIK'I
ifo. AcCUMtOllH'd

1, whom thoy also
loiiiMi'lvoH ill \ny;h
I, and fiiihroidcrv,
(^ tlu'ir tresHtm to
(1 by mcaim of
horsehair. They
tid other coHmeticH
freely than Enro-
ll.

'ppo Kirghiz are
numads, shifting
?r8 on the slightest
)ad onion, a storm,
;o. In 1H20 most
raklian trilws left
ping grounds in
etum to Asia, on
I report that the
it was preparing
leir census taken.
" sultans " have
> occupy the fixed
erected for them,
ue to live in tents,
I all their valuable
the houses, for all
that a sedentary
tied abodes would
f the Kalmuksand
with red cloth for
;h ordinary felt for
rees, reed, or grass
ing northwards in

iirkoman kinsmen,
hen accepting the
erforming an idle
it it seriously, the
ry. A last revolt
ihd besieged Fort

^•W"

Tin: KARA-KALPAKS ANf) KIROHIZ.

220

AloxuiiilroVNk. lint they un^ naturally of a {MMict't'itl ti<iii]H'riitii**tit, aiul their
iM'caNiuiial bariintdH, or ariiuKl I'orayH, arc iiMuully rt'NtricttMl tn li(>rN(>-Nf«<aliii^.
Tlu'ir aniiH uro chu'fly umwI in tht> fhnMr, of which tht-y arr t'xccHMivfly f"ii<l,
<>a^i*rly piM-Nuin^ tho Htc|i])(< wolf, and training the falcon, vulture, unci cvon
the royal cap;lc to capture the (|uarry. Hut the cniploynicnt of the cajole in not
uMattcndctI with (huif^er, for when they lone si^ht of the wolf or fox, these hinlH
will HwtMtp down on their nuiHt«>r iuHtead, ntriking him I'rum the Muddle, burying
their talouN in liiH HcHh, and tearing out \m eyoH.

The Ka/akH cull themMolvuH SunnitOH, but are Nueh HtrangerH to idl fanaticiNtn
that they might juHt uh well p«»HH for ShanuuuMtH or pagann. Sonu) will even tell
the in(piiring traveller thut they do not know to what religion they behwig.
They have iMHunne MohumnuHlunH only nince their contact with the ItunNiaiiH,
who have mainly contribute<l to make them foUowcrH of the I'rophet by taking
the fuct for grunte<l. Still the great bulk of the jH-oplo remain what they always
wore, while uccopting the olumouta of tt^rrf r from all tho Hurrounding ndigioiiH.
Their MohammodaniHm consists chiefly in hating ChriNtiauH and the Shiali
hereticH, and in Inilioving thomHolvcH privileged to rob, plunder, and even
Mlaughtor them. Their religious pructicx's have otherwise little to do with tho
precepts of tho Koran. They dread especially tho evil eye, and never fail to
deck tho head of the young camel in party-coloured riblxms in order to protect him
from evil influences. Everything is construed into an omen for g(M)d or evil —
tho full of a thread on a black or whito stone, the red or yellow hue of the flamo
from oil thrown on tho fire, and the like. They endeavour to conjure tho wicked
spirits by sucrificos or tho offering of hair, rugs or ribbons attached to rcuvls,
bushes or stakes fixed iu tho ground. In the mountuins they also suspMul shreds
of garments to tho branches of the trees shading tho medicinal springs. When
setting out on a journey or warlike expedition they sow to tho buck of their hats
one or two little bags containing written prayers, intended ut once to give them
luck ond inspire them with courage.

Of all Mohammedan practices polygamy has been most readily accepted, not
by tho masses, who are too poor to pay numt than onco the ka/im, or price of a
spouse, but by the wealthy owners of hundreds and thousands of live stock. As
amongst most barbarous peoples, the formality of a shuni abduction is still kept up
here and there. But girls are often really carried off as the prize of war. They are
sought especially amongst the Kalmuks of tho Tian-shan, for the Eazaks are by
tradition oxogamous, seeking alliances outside the tribe or race, a circumstance
which sufficiently explains the striking physical resemblance between them and
their Mongolian neighbours. The old customs associated with the burial of the
dead are still maintained in fuU vigour. The mourning rites, including much
wailing and weeping, are renewed on the fortieth, and again on the himdredth day
of the funeral, on the first, and lastly on the ninth anniversory. The relatives beat
their breasts and utter lamentations night and morning before a "lay figure"
(Pressed in the garments of the departed. The funeral moimds on the crests of the
hills, marked by spears with horsehair banners, are objects of great respect. Some

■**»-S •wm v^» r^ *i t:mHfa i

m i mfi<frmm ^i p ^ i l^ ^fl tn il ^ <pijlfriMi ' t nM<y 'i M f% ^H" « W"

280

ASIATIC fiUSSIA.

hills are entirely covered with pyrnmids, turrets, domes, porticos, and other monu-
ments in honour of the deud. These monuments will sometimes take the form of
cradles for infants, or of the tents in which their parents lived. Numerous barrows
occur also on the open steppe, one of which, on the banks of the Turgai, is 10()
feet high and 9G6 feet round. At these places the people make their genuflexions,
offering clothes, provisions, and money to their departed friends. These gifts are
appropriated by the poor wayfarers as presents from the dead; but they are
themselves expected to make some slight offering in return.

Although in the general development of human culture husbandry is regarded
as an advance upon the pastoral state, this is not the case with the Kirghiz.
Amongst them the farm labourer is a person fallen from a better position, who has
lost all the pleasures of life and freedom. Most of them are still nomads, and
those who are compelled, for want of herds, to till the land about the Russian can-
tonments in the second generation relinquish the name of Eazak, dress in the
Russian fashion, and call themselves Christians. Along the outskirts of the
Kirghiz domain the Russian traders get the natives into their power by means of
loans at exorbitant rates of interest, and their example finds faithful imitators in
the interior of the steppe amongst the " khans," or wealthy Kazaks. Some of
these khans are owners of hundreds of camels, thousands of horses, and as many
IS 20,000 sheep. The homed cattle introduced since about 1760 are rather
loss numerous, and ill adapted to the climate. In 1872 the live stock included
altogether 120,000 camels, 1,720,000 horses, 600,000 oxen, 2,000,000 sheep, and
180,000 goats.

Unacclimatized animals perish from the rigoiir of the climate. The attempts
to introduce the Baktrian dromedary have failed, the two-humped camel alone
thriving on these steppes. The sheep, all of the fat-tailed breed, are usually so
strong and tall that the children amuse themselves by mounting them. The flocks
are always guided by a few goats, and at the beginning of winter, before the
streams are frozen hard enough to bear their weight, hundreds sometimes perish
in the attempt to follow their light-foo< "^ leaders. The Kirghiz horse, though of
sorry appearance, does his 50 and even 60 miles a day at a trot, eats what he can
pick up, sleeps on the sands, and resists the extremes of heat and cold. In their
hdigas, or races, the Kirghiz and Kalmuk jockeys easily do 12 miles in half an
hour, and some riders have been known, by relays of horses, to cover 180 miles in
34 hours. The finer breeds, karaba'ir, or " half blood," and arganwk, or " full
blood," have less staying powers.

The Kara-Kirghiz, or Buruts, numbering from 350,000 to 400,000 on both
slopes of the Tian-shan, differ but slightly in tjrpe, speech, and customs from their
steppe kindred. Nevertheless they are evidently more affected by Mongol influ-
ences, and are not to be distinguished physically from the Kalmuks. Most of
their women are regarded by the Russians as very ugly. They do not veil their
features, and on gala days wear a head-dress like that of their Turkoman sisters,
covered with coins and medals, and making a jingling noise at every step. Of
drunken and dirty habits, they never wash, and merely wipe their kitchen utensils

THE TARANCHIS AND DUNOANS.

231

and other monu-
i tuko the form of
S^umerous barrows
tlic Turgai, is 10(5
their genuflexions,
These gifts are
ul; but they arc

andry ia regarded
with the Kirghiz,
position, who has
still nomads, and
t the Russian can-
azak, dress in the

1 outskirts of the
x)wer by means of
lithful imitators in
Kazaks. Some of
»rse8, and as many
; 1750 are rather
live stock included
)00,000 sheep, and

ate. The attempts
rmped camel alone
reed, are usually so
• them. The flocks
winter, before the
is sometimes perish
iz horse, though of
)t, eats what he can
md cold. In their

2 miles in half an
cover 180 miles in
arganyik, or "fidl

400,000 on both
customs from their

1 by Mongol influ-
lalmuks. Most of
sy do not veil their
' Turkoman sisters,
at every step. Of
3ir kitchen utensils

with the finger, for fear of " wilfid waste." The Buruts are altogether ruder and
more ignorant than the steppe Kirghiz, but have the reputation of Iwing moro
honest and open. Notwithstanding their present debased condition they seem to
have been formerly a civilised people, and the Chinese speak of the " Ki-si-li-
tzi " as a powerful industrious nation in commercial relations with distant lands.
But multitudes v/ere swept south and west by the waves of migration, and those
who remained behind were gradually driven to the upland valleys. Then came
fhe Russians, who exterminated all the Siberian steppe Kirghiz east of the
Irtish. Of their old civilisation they have retained several industries, and they
can still build windmills, forge iron, and weave fine materials. Though lacking
the aristocratic vanity of the Kazaks, their manaps, or chiefs, have acquired great
power in some tribes, disposing even of the lives of their subjects. The memory
of their past glories has not quite perished, and their poets and improvisntori still
sing of the heroes {batir) who pierced a thousand men at a spear's thrust, and
raised up the moimtain on which slumbered their bride. Attempts have been
made to discover in these songs the fragments of epic poems, and some of their
invocations breathe a Vedic spirit.

" O, thou on high, Lord of heaven ! thou who causest the verdure to spring
from the ground, and the leaves from the tree ; thou who clothest the bones with
flesh and the head with hair, heaven, who hast given birth to the stars !

" You, rulers sixty, who have given us father, and thou, Pai Ulguen, who hast
given us mother !

" Give us cattle, give us bread, give a chief to the house, give us a blessing ! "

The Kara-Kirghiz are divided into many tribes. Those of the west are
grouped under the collective name of On, or " Right," those of the Tian-shan
slopes forming the Sol, or " Left " branch. The latter are in close contact with
the Tian-shan Kalmuks, partly descended from those who escaped from the
Astrakhan steppes in 1771, and large numbers of whom perished on the route.
Vanquished by the Kirghiz in a battle fought south of Lake Balkhash, the
Kalmidcs took refuge in the Eastern Tian-shan vallej's by the side of their kins-
men, the Torgs, or Torguts, Buddhists like themselves, and of kindred speech.
The Asiatic Kalmuks differ little from their European brethren. They have the
same flat face, narrow oblique eyes, pale lips, sad smile, massive frame. The
women of many tribes dye their- teeth black. The Kalmuks have trained the ox
as a beast of burden and for the saddle. No people have suffered more from the
ravages of small-pox. A family attacked in winter is a family lost, and should
any one enter the tent imguardedly he gets drunk on brandy, while his friends
drive the evil one out of his body with scourges. The Kalmuks pay little heed to
the dead, seldom burying them, and usually leaving the bodies to be devoured by
the camp dogs.

The Taeanchis and Dungans.

In the fertile valley of the Hi the predominant people are the Taranchis, an
agricultural nation of Tftrki stock, but evidently largelj' affected by Aryan elements.

"••i

^i.-«it«imT: ^Hattioi

988

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

They are descended from Eashgarian colonists settled here by the Chinese in tht-
middle of last century. Although nominal Mussulmans, they have little know-
ledge of the precepts of the Koran, and the women never veil their features. All
the inhabitants of the Hi basin except a few Russians came originally from Chineso
territory in the south and east. The best known are the Dungans, who dwell
chiefly in the towns. The Solons, descended from military Tungus coloniatn
settled here in the eighteenth century, are dying out from the effects of opium.
The Sibos, or Shibos, who formed with the Solons an army of eight " banners," were
of pure Manchu stock, but have now become much mixed with native elements.
This region of Eulja has in modem times been the scene of the most frightful
massacres, often ending in the extermination of whole races. In 1758 the Manchus

Fig. 124. — Populations of tkb Ili fiASiM.
'' Bode 1 : 6,000,000.

Ruuiana. Kirghiz-Kasaki. Kalmnki. Knra-Kirgrhiz. Taranchii.

.^— .^.— 60 Miles.

Dungaos. Kashgarians.

are said to have put to death all the Kalmuks of the Ili plain without distinctibn
ol age or sex. Over a million human beings appear to have perished on this occa-
sion. A century afterwards the Taranchis and Dungans, introduced by the
Manchus to replace the Ealmuks, a f mged on their masters the blood they had
caused to flow. A civil War, in wh'ch no prisoner was spared, raged between the
colonists and their rulers, ending in 1865 with the wholesale massacre of the
Manchus, Solons, and Shibos, the young women alone escaping. PopiUous cities
were changed to heaps of ruins, and according to the native accounts nearly
2,000,000 perished altogether. When the Taranchi and Dungan rule succeeded
to the Chinese no more than 130,000 people remained in the formerly populous
valley of the Ili.

• wiiMi tf u rtiu iliW Mi I ii mtfi

10 Chinese in thr

ave little know-

ir features. All

illy from Chinese

gans, who dwell

Tungus colonists

effects of opium.

" banners," were

native elements.

ho most frightful

758 the Manchus

THE UZBEGS.

The Uzbegs.

288

84*

Kiubgariaii*.

'ithout distinction
shed on this ocoa-
itroduced by the
le blood they had
aged between the
massacre of the
Populous cities
I accounts nearly
an ride succeeded
formerly populous

Before the arrival of the Russians in the Sir and Amu basins the political
supremacy in the civilised states belonged to the Uzbegs of Tfirki stock, s^^caking
the Jagatui or Uigur, one of the most polished languages of the Tatar family. But
of the million Uzbegs dwelling in the Aralo-Caspian lands a large portion are
certainly mixed with Iranian elements, as shown by their features, carriage, and
character. From Ferghana to Khiva, and thence to Afghan Turkestan, the contrast
between the different tribes calling themselves Uzbegs is often as great as between
different races. The most striking trait of those crossed with Persians is the full
Iranian beard associated with the flat

features and oblique eyes of the T(irki Fig. 126.— Sahth Type.

race.

The Uzbegs claim descent from the
famous Golden Horde, so named
apparently from the gold leaf covering
the poles of the royal tent. But the
Mongol and Tatar elements had evidently
long l)een intermingled in their race.
The famous Uigurs, from whom they
take their present speech, form probably
the chief Tatar element in the Uzbeg
populations of the present day. The
national name means " freeman," imless
it comes from one of their rulers of the
Jenghis Khan dynasty, by whom they
were converted to Islam early in the
fourteenth century. But such as they
are, the Uzbegs still present a marked
contrast, on the one hand with the
pure nomads of the country, on the

other with the completely sedentary Aryans. Formerly more civilised and
agricultural than at present, they have again partly returned to the nomad
slate, some even passing the whole year in a tent set up in the garden, and
using their house as a granary. Still divided into tribes and clans, some bearing
the same name as those of the Kirghiz, they reckon as part of their nation certain
clans which might equally be claimed by the Kara-Kirghiz. Such are the Turuks, or
Tflrks, of Ferghana, possibly the near kinsmen of those of like name who have risen
to such historical importance farther west. Of all the Uzbeg tribes the Manghits,
to whom belong the Khans of Bokhara, claim to be the oldest and noblest. They
are zealous Sunnites, and nearly all the " saints," as well as the brigands, over
nine-tenthsof the entire population, are Uzbegs. Yet the Mollahs, or sacerdotal class,
are nearly all Tajiks, especially in the Zarafshan district. Although the political
masters of the country for centuries, the Uzbegs have remained honest and upright
16

284

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

compared with the Iranians, who form the bulk of the officials and tax-gatherers.
The contrast between the character of the two races is illustrated by the legend of a
princess, who had promised her hand to whoever of her two suitors should dig an
irrigation canal across the Iick-iM)k-dala steppe. The Uzbeg set to work honestly,
and C(mtinued to dig till he came to a cascade, which is still shown. But ho lacked
the time to finish the work. The Tajik took things more easily. Before the
appointed day he had spread reed matting over the surface of the desert, and when
the princess ascended her tower to see the waters of the canal sparkling in the

Fig. 128. — Population of Fbhohana.

Pcale 1 : 8 000,000.

BuMians.

Sartes.

TTTTT
111!

Tajiks Kara-Kirghiz.

(OalchaB).

Sartea and TnTkomaDs.
Uxbegs.

-_ SWHUei.

KiTghiz-
Kozaka.

distance he showed her his work glittering in the sun. The unsuccessful rival in
despair hurled his spade into the air, and in its fall the instrument cleaved his head
from his body.

The Sarte.s, Tajiks, and Galchas.

The loss of political power will probably tend to bring the Uzbegs into closer
contact Avith the Sartes, and in some places even blend them into one nationality.
The Sartes are a mixed people, in whom the Iranian element prevails. The term,
however, has a social rather than an ethnical meaning, all the settled inhabitants
of the towns and villages except the cultured Tajiks being called Sartes, irre-
spective of their origin. Some writers even include the Tajiks in this class, which
would thus comprise all the civic population of Turkestan. " When a stranger
presents himself and eats your bread call him a Tajik ; when he is gone you may

■ tl l lll lllJ IIIII .L

>•

-. T.y ) MJWt, i j | W » Hl ||i.i MHIH ■I W^WW*— I

s;;raliejij» J^-i-jJJ i l l!aw iM i iJU.i i JM' il ' i' WW *' '' i m' i i l i i i t i il ni' iil i l W

THE SABTES, TAJIKS, AND OALCHAS.

285

call him a Sartc." Such is the local etiquette in the matter. As soon as tho
Kirghiz or Uzbcg noiniid settles in ii town his children l)e(!ome Surtcs. The terra
is also applied to the Muzang or sedentary Gipsies, as ojjiiosed to the liiili, or noniud
Gipsies, and to tho Ktirams of various stock — Uzheg, Kazak, Kara-Kalpak — settled
in tho neighbourhood of Tashkend. Most of the Ferghana people call themselves
Kuram, or " confused," or " mixed," so conscious are they of their varied origin.
The language of the Sartes varies with the locality — Tftrki in Ferghana and Kulja,
I'ersian in Khojend and Samarkand. Representing the mixed element in these
regions, the Sartes are increasing most rapidly, and although now despised by those
of purer race, are destined ultimately

Fig. 127.-A 'Sauk. Mollah.

Or-'cv,^*

^\\

to prevail. Tho Kirghiz, making a play
of words with their name, call them
Sarf-it, or " Yellow Dogs," and would
feel dishonoured by an alliance with
them. They have a general resemblance
to tho Jews in character, and even in
features, and fully deserve their name,
if it really means " broker," although,
according to Lerch, it has simply the
sense of " citizen." Like the Jews, also,
they are fond of instruction, and are
far more enlightened than the Uzbegs.
They are gradually turning to agricul-
ture and reclaiming the uplands, and,
according to Fedchenko, their colonies
thrive best.

The Aryan race is represented in
Turkestan mainly by the Tajiks, kinsmen
of those who, under the name of Tates,
dwell on the opposite side of the Caspian.
The word Tajik, meaning "Crowned,"
seems to show that when so named the race
held the political supremacy. It still
belongs to them from the economic point

of view, for most of the merchants, bankers, and landed proprietors belong to this
class. In several districts they call tliemselves Parsivan — that is, Persians ; and they
are really Iranians, differing but slightly from those of Persia, and even their speech
is but little affected by TArki, Arabic, or Mongol elements. Nevertheless their
frame is somewhat more massive than t hat of the Persian proper, while the type of
features remains much the same. They have a long head and high brow, expressive
eyes shaded by dark eyebrows, finely chiselled nose, florid complexion, full brown
hair and beard. Those of the Upper Oxus valley bear a striking resemblance to
the Kashmirians. The Tajiks form evidently the intellectual aristocracy of
Turkestan, where aU who pride themselves on polite manners endeavour to imitate

286

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

tlioir speech. But beneath the exterior culture are conoiilod many social vices —
avarice, rapacity, painWiiif?, and licentious morals.

The Galchas, ajj^riciiltural highlandors on the western HlopoH of the I'aniir, in
Kohistan, Wakhun, Kuriteghin, Hhignun, Durvaz, and Jiadakshun, arc alHo oi'
Iranian Htoek, but of i purer type than the Tajiks. Their chiefs claim descent from
Alexander, and the people from the armies of the Macedonian king, and they are
note<I especially foT their broad head, the delicacy and beauty of their slightly
arched nose, and firm lips. Do Ujfalvy has met with some closely resembling the
Celtic peasantry of Savoy. Of the five Kohistan tribes four are able to converse
together, while the fifth, the Yagnaubs of the Yagnaub valley, have a distinct
Aryan speech, unintelligible to the others. The Galchas contrast favourably
with the Sartcs and Tajiks in their simple habits and upright character. Amongst
them hospitality is a sacred duty, and every village contains a house reserved for
strangers. Slavery has never existed in any Galcha land, where all are alike free
and in the enjoyment of self-government. Although polygamy is authorised by
their religion, they seldom have more than one wife. Still women are not con-
sidered the equals of the men, and of the inheritance the sons take two-thirds, the
daughters one-third only.

The Tajik Mussulmans of Upper Turkestan have preserved some traces of the
old fire-worship, and it was probably through them that certain practices associated
with this cult have been propagated to the extremities of Siberia. During the feast
of the fire or sun bonfires are kindled like those of the Bal-tinne in Ireland,
supposed, like them, to purify all passing through the flames. The sick make the
round of the fire and pass over it thrice, and when too weak to do this they fix their
gaze on the flames while being exorcised. Amongst most of the Galchas lights must
not be blown out, and torches are kept burning round the cradle of the new-bom and
the couch of the dying. Here and there along the banks of the Panja, or southern
branch of the Upper Oxus, are still to be seen certain towers attributed to the
Zarddshti, or Fire-worshippers.

To the numerous races of this region have recently been added some Great
Russians, Little Russians, Poles, and other Slavs. Though numbering scarcely a
tenth of the population, the political supremacy of their race secures for them an
influence out of all proportion with their numbers. Yet, apart from the military
element, the Russian colonists proper have hitherto played a very subordinate part
in the development of the land. The Cossacks have even become more assimilated
to the Kirghiz than these to their conquerors. In many places they have adopted
the dress and habits of the natives, even dwelling like them in tents.

Nevertheless the Russiflcation of these races has already beg^n at certain points,
usually the farthest removed from Europe. To the Cossack soldiery occupying
isolated stanitzas in the Tian-shon highlands have here and there succeeded free
colonists engaged in reclaiming the land. A peasant from the centre of Russia,
sent in 1865 by his commune to explore the Issik-kid districts, settled there, and
in two years was joined by a hundred others. Since then fresh colonies have been
estiiblished in the Tian-shan valleys, and the work of tho plimdering Cossacks has

!§MW«i|««(«M^

DAKTllIANA, OR AFGHAN TURKESTAN.

207

y Hocial viccs-

tho l*umir, in
un, ure hIho of
iin descent from
<;, uiul they lire

their slightly
rcHombling the
ublc to converne
have a distinct
rust favourably
actor. Amongst
U80 rescrvwl for
ill arc uliko free
is authorised by
on are not con-

two- thirds, the

)mo traces of the
■uctices associated
During the feast
inne in Ireland,
he sick make the
this they fix their
dchas lights must
the new-born and
'anja, or southern
attributed to the

ided some Great
bering scarcely a
sures for them an
from the military
r subordinate part
) more assimilated
hey have adopted
ats.

1 at certain points,
jldiery occupying
ire succeeded free

centre of Russia,
settled there, and
colonies have been
ring Cossacks has

now been replaced by a systematic cultivation of the soil, (i roups of Russian
Hi'ttlors ure spreading regularly l)etween the Irtish and Narin valleys, and this line
,/ill doubtless be soon extendetl through Ferghana towards the Western I'uniir
valleys. The Russians already fonn, from Caueasiu to the Urals and thence to the
Tian-shan, a complete seniieirele round the Turkestan populations, and this zone
grows yearly broader and longer. Kirghiz and Turkomans, Uzbegs, Sartes, and
Tajiks, enclosed within the compass of the advancing Slav {mpulations, nnist sooner
or later undergo the fate of the Kazan Tatars, Chuvashes, and Mordvinians of the
Volga.

' * VII.— STATES OF THE ARALO-CASPIAN BASIN.

I.— BAKTRIANA, OB AFQIIAN TURKESTAN.

The states or provinces of this region can have no well-defined frontiers. A
plateau on the oust, highlands on the south and western deserts form their natural
limits, and these limits advance or recede with the abundance of the snows, the
rich pastures, the progress of irrigation, the encroachments of the sands. F'or a
portion only of its course the Oxus servos as northern frontier to these Turkestan
districts, hero separating them from Bokhara. Of the populations of the Western
I'umir those in the north are regarded us gravitating towards Bokhara, those in the
south towards Afghanistan. But above these minor states there is already cast the
double shadow of the rival powers aiming at the supremacy in Asia. Behind
Bokhara looms Russia, already mistress of that land ; beyond Afghanistan, England
reigns supreme over the Indian peninsula, and the inhabitants of the intermediate
region, although still enjoying a semi-independent status, feel none the less that
their future destiny is involved in the rivalry of these two powers. The diplomatic
negotiations between London and St. Petersburg had in 1872-3 provisionally
arranged that the northern limits of Afghanistan should include north of the
natural frontiers formed by the Hindu-Kush and its western extensions, the districts
of Wakhan, Badakshan, Kunduz, Khulm, Balk, and Maimene. The two states
thus disposed of territories and peoples seldom even visited by European travellers,
and still but partially explored. While seizing the strategic points in Afghanistan
near the Indian frontier, England naturally seeks to extend this state northwards,
and thus so far reduce the future domain of Russia. But Russia herself, pending
the complete conquest and assimilation of the already-acquired possessions, can
afford to wait. Geographically the Upper Oxua and all the northern slope of the
Iranian and Afghan plateau belong to the Aralo-Caspian basin, and the growing
influence of the Slav power cannot fail sooner or later to unite in a single political
group the various parts of this vast region. During several months of the year
Afghan Turkestan is completely cut off from Afghanistan proper, and thus remains
exposed to the free advance of the Russian arms.

The historical importance of this region is well known. Here are, west of the
immense semicircle of highlands and plateaux enclosing the Chinese Empire, the
first depressions affording a passage over the great " divide " between the north and

288

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Houtli of tho continent. Hero punhihI pil^rituN, trudiTM, migratory tril)t'H, und con-
(|uci'tng annit'H. Hero converged tho variouH oiviliHiitionM, with their religions,
cuHtonjH, und pr(Klu(!tH. Here eroHned tho great highwaj'H of tho AHiatiu nations, all
tho inoro important at a time when tho ocean highways were still unavailahU* for
tho eommerco of tho world. Tho routes connecting the Oxiis and Indus valleys
httvo further tho inmiense advantage over those between Turkestan and Persia that
they nearly everywhere traverse cultivated and inhubitod lands, and avoid tho great
waterless deserts. Hence largo und opulent cities could not fail to sjjring up along
tho lino of those main continental routes. Here havo reigned mighty rulers wh«)Ne
estates havo stretched from tho shores of tho Indian Ocean to the Hibcritm plains,
and whoso capitals counted their inhabitants by hundreds of thousands. A rich
harvest of discoveries may bo anticipated iu theso Asiatic lands, destined possibly
to throw light on many doubtful points in tho world's history. And in this centre
of gravity of tho whole continent rather than at Consfamtinoplo may we not expect
to BOO ultimately solved tho great problem of political equilibrium between Europe
and Asia known as tho " Eastern Question ? "

• Wakhan.

In tho Oxus basin tho easternmost state is Wakhan, which is travorsetl by tho
Panja, or Surkad, the southern branch of the Amu, for a distance of 150 miles from
its source on tho Littlo Pamir to tho great bend of Ishkushim. But this extensive
tract is so elevated, cold, and unproductive, that it is tminhabituble except in the
sheltered spots along the river banks. The lowest hamlot is no less than 9,000, and
Surkad, tho highest, 12,000 feet above sea-level. A few scattered dwellings rising
still higher are occupied in summer. The only trees growing in these uplands are
willows and dwarf shrubs, and nothing is cultivated except pulse and barley. Fat-
tailed sheep, however, besides yaks and other homed cattle, are reared, and the
people take pleasure in the pursuit of the wild goat, deer, Oviapoli, and in falconry.

The Wakhi people are of mixed Tajik and Uzbeg stock, speaking both a Tftrki
dialect, which is their mother tongue, and Persian with strangers. Many of them
are of a handsome type, with the delicate features of the Iranians, nor are light hair
and blue eyes by any means rare amongst them. All are devout Shiite Mussulmans,
sending their tithes regularly to their spiritual head at Bombay, though still retaining
traces of tho old fire-worship and of customs distinguishing them from other
Mohammedans. They show greater respect than most Eastern peoples towards
their women, and the wife generally takes charge of the household expenditure.

Forsyth estimates the population at about 3,000, which corresponds with a Russian
document, according to which there are altogether 650 dwellings in Wakhan. The
country is said to have been formerly much more populous, and even recently
Wakhi colonists have settled in Sirakol and Kashgaria. But the importance of
Wakhan is obviously due, not to its inhabitants, but to its geographical position on
the main route between the Aralo-Caspian and Tarim basins. Through this valley
lies the easiest approach to the Pamir, followed of late years by Wood, Forsyth,
Gordon, and others, probably in the footsteps of Marco Polo. Comparatively easy

' " . ' - ' 'jitJS iffBPiSHf f.' t w- 'ffy j^. ' t ) )^ o r^W Baiwi 'W W i ^ - ■^ nt' iW ' ^ iw i

•MiMaHaiiMaiMMMiiM^^

trilR'H, uiid con-
thoir rt'lijfiotiH,
lit it; imtioiiK, all
uiiavtiilablc for
I IiuluH vullcys
und Pcmu that
uvoid the great
spring wp along
ty rulers whose
Siberian ])lainM,
iHuudH. A rich
cstincd possibly
id in this centre
y we not expect
Ixitween Europe

traversed by the
f 150 miles from
at this extensive
le except in the
than 9,000, and
dwellings rising
hcse uplands are
ad barley. Fat-
reared, ond the
and in falconry,
ng both a T(^rki
Many of them
lor are light hair
iite Mussulmans,
gh still retaining
hem from other
peoples towards
expenditure,
ds with a Russian
iWakhan. The
id even recently
he importance of
thical position on
•ough this valley
Wood, Forsyth,
mparatively easy

, used throughout the year by the Kirghiz and native.. Kuul m.uthwanlH a.r«,ss
indu-K.mh to Chitral and Kanjud; that is, to the UpiH-r Indus basin. To

protect the caravan trade from pillage, strongholds have been erected in this desolate
Sarhad valley, and two well-preserved towers are still standing at Kila-panja, or

240

ASUTIC nussiA.

tho " Kivp FortH," u fi>w milfn 1n>1ow tlio junction of tl»o two HtrouiiiN fnnii the
Great iiiul Littli< I'lmiir. Hrro nmidoH tlir Mir of Wiikhmi, who, Kkc ull tho other
fhiefM of thin region, chiiiiiH (low.<oiit iwu\ Ah'xuinlcr the (jlreat. Wlieii VVchmI
viMited the country in IH.'JH it wuh pruuticully indciHMuU'ut of IliKhikHhan, u triliutary
of Afj^IumiMtan. Meforc IH7;J tho yearly trihutc cttUHiHteil of nhivcM,, ^cnerully
obtained l)y horcU'r raidM. Tho conntant warfare renultin)^ from thin HyMteni cxphiinN
thu (h<iH>i>uhition of tlic hind and the mditudo of tho rumir paHturuM, foriuurly much
freiiucuted by tho Kirghii; nomads iu Bummcr.

Uadakshan.

Since IMflf) UadakHhan huH boon dopendunt on Afj^lumiMtan, sending it u yearly
tril)ute of alM)ut £7,200 and 500 horHCs. Jlut its geographical limits are ho clearly
dctiiuHl that this stuto cannot fail to retain a certain {Mditiual importuneu. It is
separated from Chitral and Kafiristan by tho Hindu-Kush, horo crossed by foot
pusses only, at elevations of over 10,000 feet above tho sea. Tho area of liadakshan
is estimatwl at ulx)ut 8,000 sipuire miles, and its jMipulation at 150, 000, concontratetl
mostly in tho lower valleys sloping gently towards tho Oxus. Tho IJudukshani
are nearly all Tajiks, Persian in sixxKsh, luid Sunnites in religion. A few Uzliegs and
other T&rki peoples have settled in tho interior, but on the whole the ruuo has
preserved the purity of its fine Iranian t}^^.

Badakshan is divided naturally into two parts, an eastern Beotion, bordering on
Wakhan and traversed by the Panja, here trending northwards, ond a western,
watered by the Eokcha, or Euchka, i.e. " Green " River, flowing to the Middle Oxus,
Soutliwards runs the crest of the Ilindu-Eush, crossed by the Nuskan Pass (17,000
feet) and the somewhat easier Dora Pass (16,000 feet). The two natural divisions of
tho country are separated by on elevated spur of tho Ilindu-Eush running" northwards
to tho higli plateaux skirted by tho Oxus. This ridge is usually crossed by a
difficult pass over 11,000 feet high, connecting the Eokcha and Panja valleys, often
blocked by snow, and from tho ond of autumn to the middle of spring exposed to
the fierce cast or " Wakhan " wind. The chief centre of population in ♦his region
is the village of Ishkashim, on the south bank of the Panja, where it turns north-
wards to Shignan and Boshan. Ishkashim thus lies at tho intersection of the
natural routes running east and west and north and south, and acquires additional
imiMjrtance from the famous ruby mines situated 19 miles farther down the river.
These gems, the more highly prized of which ore of a fine rose-red tint, were
formerly known as bolos, or bolois rubies, a word derived from Bolokshon, o corrupt
form of Badakshan. The Emir of Eunduz, having acquired possession of the
mines by conquest, and being dissatisfied with the yield, seized all the inhobitonts,
and sold them, to the number of five hundred families, into bondage. When Wood
visited the district it was still almost deserted and the mines abandoned. But the
works have since been resumed for the benefit of the Amir of Afghoniston.

South Badakshan olso possesses mines famous throughout the East, the
turquoise and lapis lazuli deposits in the southern slopes of the Hindu-Eush, near
the sources of the Eokcha, in the Lojurd, or Lazurd district, whence the terms

rraiiiH from tin
ki> till flit* otlicr
W'hoii NVcmmI
liaii, u trilmtary
uvoM, ffctiorully
HyHtcin cxpliiiiiH
, furinurly mucli

ling it tt ytMirly
itM uro BO floarly

mrtuncu. It Ih

croHMxl by f(M)t
ou of ItudukHlian
lOO, conccntratod
Tho liadukHliani

fuw UzlK^gN and
lolo the ruuo hua

on, bordering on
, and a wostom,
ho Middle OxuH.
can ru88 (17,000
tural diviaionis of
ining* northwards
Uy crossed by a
aja valleys, often
priug exposed to
on in ^his region
•e it turns north-
tersection of the
quires additional
r down the river,
se-red tint, were
ikshan, a corrupt
wssession of tho
. the inhabitants,
3. When "Wood
doned. But the
tonistan.

the East, the
iindu-Kush, near
hence the terms

248

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Kokcha basin, one of the most remarkable in Asia for its mineral wealth, is usually
known by the name of Ilamali-kan, or "All Mines," for it also contains rich
cojjper, lead, alum, sulphur, and iron deposits, which have been worked from
the remotest times. Copper and lead are likewise found in the mountains farther
north, and in the IIoja-Mohammed chain, stretching northwards to the great bend
of the Oxus. Several of the mountain torrents also wash down gold dust. Thanks
to these resources and to the influence of the Greek artists of the Hellenic period
in Baktriana, the Badakshani ha^o become the best mefal-workers in the East.

Badakshan is also exceptionally favoured by its healthy climate, the purity of
its waters, its leafy vegetation and fertile valleys. Its apples, peaches, grapes, and
melons are famous in all the surrounding lands. Its horses, too, are highly prized
by the Afghan Government for their strength and sure-footedness, while its sheep

Fig. 130.— Badakshan and Kunduz.

Scale 1 : 8,600,000.

.eoliflei.

supply a portion of the wool used in weaving the wonderful Kashmir shawls.
Herds of swine also abound in the less populous districts; yet with all these
resources the people remain mostly miserably poor, owing largely to the still
prevalent feudal system, the devastating wars, the raids of the Kunduz Uzbegs,
and the heavy taxes of the Amir of Kabul, aggravated by his local vassal. Till
recently these princes were engaged in the slave trade, seizing even travellers
passing through the country. Theoretically " infidels " alone covld be enslaved, but
under this term were included the Shiah heretics, and many good Sunnites were often
compelled by torture to confess themselves followers of Ali. However, the exigencies
of trade relieved the Hindki and Jewish merchants from the risk of capture.

In spite of wars, oppression, and slavery, the Badakshan Tajiks are described
in flattering terras by the few travellers that have visited the land. They are
generally courteous, respectful to their elders, and upright. The women, often of

MUM

BADAKSHAN.

248

voulth, 18 usually
8o contains rich
en worked from
ountains farther
o the great bend
d dust. Thanks
) Hellenic period
in the East,
te, the purity of
ches, grapes, and
re highly prized
i, while its sheep

Kashmir shawls.
it with all these
gely to the still
Kundiiz Uzbegs,
iocal vassal. Till
^ even travellers
i be enslaved, but
innites were often
rer, the exigencies
of capture.
iks are described
land. They are
; women, often of

a very fair type, are attractive, industrious, good housewives, and although
Mohammedans, the poorer, at least, amongst them are not obliged to go about
veiled, and enjoy free intercourse with their friends.

In Wood's time the capital of Badukshun was Jflnn, or Jerm, a gi-oup of
scattered hamlets with over 1,500 inhabitants. Faizabad, the old capital, sonjo
30 miles to the north-west, and also in the Kokcha valley, was then a mere heap of
ruins, with the walls of a fortress
still standing on a bluff on the left ^^«- 131— Bam.an Pass am, Kundvz Route.

. T-i . , 1 1 ^"^ 1 = 2,500,000.

bank of the river. Faizabad has
somewhat revived since it has again
become the capital, yet in 1866 it
had only four hundred houses. The
comitry suffered much from the
invasion of the Kunduzi in 1829,
and in 1832 an earthquake destroyed
most of the villages. Packs of wolves
replaced the population of many
districts, and travellers did not
venture to cross tho land without
escorts.

The site is still unknown of the
city of Badakshan, at one time the
capital of the state, and often
wrongly identified with Faizabad.
It stood, probably, farther east in
the Dasht-i-baharak plain, about the
confluence of the three rivers, Zardeo,
Sarghilan, and A'^ardoj, or Badak-
shan. Here is, at present, a summer
residence of the emir. In the
western division of the country rises
a magnificent peak south of the
town of Meshed, and known as the

*V ''^^^^f^w*S^i^mS^^vm''^^^^^^i^'"

'<V>7 %-;,'-^:^>f~^W^Mf'^'^ ^^VAgHi

' ' jl'^^I^Ss ^^^m

''-^tllv^^'li'-' .^^-'■- d ■r ' k--V'i'-'i*-''''

• ■ " .•"■■•r'j ,'v'"'r_.

EOf G. 68! 69-

i 80 Miles.

Takht-i-Suliman, or " Soliman's

Throne," so called from a king who,

according to the legend, took refuge

here from the scorpions of the plain.

A chain of hands, reaching from the

base to the summit of the moimtain,

passed his food up ; but the scorpions were not to be done, for one of them, concealing

himself in a bunch of grapes, was passed up also, and thus contrived to inflict the

deadly sting.

The present capital lies too much in the heart of the mountains to become
a large trading-place. Rustak, rendezvous of the Hindki, Afghan, and Bokhara

■'*??»!-■

244

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Fig, 132.— Ruins op Balxh ami MAZAR-i-gHsutp.

Scilo 1 : 1,900,000.

mercbuuts, is better situated on the pluiii, some 25 miles east of tbe Kokcha and
Oxus confluence, and at the junction of the Kasbgar, Cbitrol, £alkb, and Hissar
caravan routes. « '■ '.

-^ KUNDUZ AND BaMIAN.

West of Badaksban, tbe region comprised between tbe Oxus and tbe continua-
tion of tbe Ilindu-Eusb depend i3 also on Afghanistan politically, but a sharp
contrast still exists between the populations of both slopes. The comparatively
easy passes connecting the Oxus and Indus basins have ot all times attracted

divers races towards Baktriana.
Through this route tbq Aryan invaders
passed in prehistoric times towards
India. Alexander also crossed the
Paropamisus, or Indian Caucasus, to
annex Sogdiana to bis empire. Tbe
Mongols and kindred races followed
the same road from the north, and in
subsequent times retraced their steps
through these passes from the south.
Hero tbe Afghan Iranians have retained
tbe predominance; but in the north
the Uzbeg Tatars have acquired tbe
political supremacy, and in all the
provinces west of Badaksban they now
form the most numerous element.
Lastly, most of tbe passes, including
that of Bamian, the most important of ,
all, are guarded by the Hazarabs,
Shiah tribes of Mongol stock, but, since
the sixteenth century, of Persian speech.
The Surgh-ab river of Eunduz,
known as the Ak-serai, in its lower
course receives its first waters from tbt
Kob-i-1)aba, or " Father of tbe Moun-
tains." One of its head-streams rises at the Haji-kak Pass, not the lowest, but the
easiest of tbe " Indian Caucasus," and open seven months in the year. East of this
pass, which is better known as tbe " Gate of Bamian," tbe Surgh-ab skirts the
northern foot of tbe Hindu-Kush, and here the valleys of several of its tributaries
also lead to passes over tbe main range. From the comparatively low Kaftak Pass
the Indar-ab flows west to tbe Surgh-ab, and in a distance of about 130 miles between
the Kaftak and Haji-kak Passes, Markham enumerates sixteen others over tbe Hindu-
Eusb. Seen from the depression in which the Indar-ab and Surgh-ab approach each
other, the range appears in all its majesty, from its dark base to its snowy peaks.
The crest has an elevation of 20,000 feet, but with depressions of 6,600 and even

.84 HUM.

--4

mmmmmmmmrm

[ the Kokcha and
Balkh, uud Ilissar

J and the continua-
cally, but a sharii
The comparatively
all times attracted
yards Baktriana.
thQ Aryan invaders
ric times towards
also crossed the
adian Caucasus, to

his empire. The
red races followed
a the north, and in
etraced their steps
les from the south,
anians have retained
but in the north

have acquired the
y, and in all the
Jadakshan they now
numerous element,
le passes, including
le most important of ,

by the Hazarahs,
Qgol stock, but, since
ry, of Persian speech.

river of Kunduz,
:-serai, in its lower
first waters from tht
father of the Moun-
t the lowest, but the
le year. East of this
Surgh-ab skirts the
jral of its tributaries
Fely low Kaftak Pass
)ut 130 miles between
thers over the Hindu-
•gh-ab approach each
e to its snowy peaks,
as of 6,600 and even

-#•

KUNDUZ AND IJAMUN.

246

8,300 feet intemipting the snow-line, which hero runs with remarkable uniformity
at an altitude of about 15,000 feet.

Through the Haji-kak and Irak Passes the town of Bamian commuricates
with the Ilelmand basin as well as with the Kabul highlands, while through the
Chibr Pass it enjoys direct communication with the Gosband valley, forming jjurt
of the Indus basin. Bamian thus commands a great part of Afghanistan, and its
strategic imjx)rtance was at all times understood, as shown by the ruins of fortifica-
tions belonging to different epochs, and succeeding each other on the cliffs and
along the defiles of the valley. This town is supposed to have been the ancient
Paro-Vami, while some, with Carl Ritter, identify it with the Alexandria ad
Caucasum, founded by the Macedonian conqueror. It acquired special importance
in the religious history of the Eastern nations. Amongst the ruins left by the
Mongols after the destruction of the place in 1220 are numerous traces apparently
of temples, as well as of stupas, as those religious monim)ents in the form of
towers are called, which are found in so many regions visited by the Buddhist
missionaries. The place itself has been named But-Bamian, or Bamian " of the
Idols," from two rudely curved himian figures representing the divinity, Silsal
(Sorsal) and Shamama. These rock figures, known also as the Red and White
Idols, stand at a conspicuous point on the great highway of trade, migration, and
conquest, and are so large that the caravans find accommodation in the openings
let into the skirts of their robes. According to Bums they are 120 and 70 feet
high respectively. The Hindus raise their hands in passing them, but others pelt
them with stones, and the lower portions have been partly demolished by cannon
balls. Most of the paintings decorating the figures have disappeared, but the
nimbus round their heads still remains. They are pierced within with stairs and
recesses, and the adjoining rocks are also perforated in every direction. A whole
people could put up in these " twelve thousand " galleries, which occupy the slopes
of the valley for a distance of about 8 miles. Isolated bluffs are pierced with so
many chambers that they look like beehives. iN^otwithstanding the pilfering
going on for generations, coins, rings, and other gold and silver objects are still
found here. Some cuneiform inscriptions have been discovered on the rocks, but most
of the coins and medals, dating from the Mussulman period, bear Kufic legends.
No traces have yet been met with of the recumbent statue of Buddha, 1,000 feet
long, seen here by the Chinese Hwen-T'sang in the seventh century.

Although belonging geographically to Turkestan, Bamian is nevertheless
usually included in Afghanistan proper. It lies on the Surgh-ab, over 3,000 feet
below the Haji-kak Pass, which is itself 12,385 feet above sea-level. The
Ak-robat, or " White Caravanserai " Pass, immediately north of the town, and the
Kara-kotal, or " Black Pass," in the Kara-koh, or " Black Mountains," are both
over 10,000 feet, yet accessible to waggons and even to artillery. Between the two
runs a small but difiRcult ridge known as the Dandan-shikan, or " Teeth-breaker."
North of the Kara-kotal the road following the Khulm River traverses some
formidable defiles, interrupted by pleasant valleys, the rocks skirting one of which
are crowned with ruined forts showing the strategical importance formerly

246

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

attached to this point. Altof»etlior those northern slopes of the Indian Caucasus
arc more inviting and verdant than the rugged heights of Afghanistan. But tli(«
marsliy plains at their feet, especially the low-lying Kunduz, or Ak-scrai valley,
are amongst the most imhealthy in Central Asia. " If you want to die go to the

Kunduz," says the Badakshan pru-

Fig. 133.

-Sakifvl and Shibirkiun Vaixbt.
Scale 1 : 400,000.

verb, and of 100,000 Badakshan i
forcibly removed hither by Murad Beg
in 1830, all but 6,000 are said to have
perished within eight years.

The town of Eunduz itself, although
capital of a state, even in the time of
Murad Beg consisted merely of a few
hundred mud houses, some reed huts,
and Uzbeg tents scattered over gardens,
wheat-fields, and swamps. Talikhau,
lying farther east at the foot of the
range between Eunduz and Badak-
shan, seems to have been a far more
important place. It held out for seven
months against Jenghis Ehan, and
Marco Polo describes it as a large city
and a great corn, fruit, and salt mart.
The salt mountains whence it drew its
supplies lay to the east and south-east,
especially near Ak-bulak in Badak-
shan. Here also is the Lattaband Pass,
followed by the caravans proceeding
from Eunduz to Badakshan and the
Pamir. It commands a view of the
£oh-i-ambar, a remarkably regular
cone rising 2,660 feet above the plains,
which according to the legend was
brought from India, and which is
consequently said to grow none but
Indian plants. The lion haimts the
plains stretching north of these hills,
but he is met nowhere north of the
Oxus.

The population of Eunduz is esti-
mated by the Russian officials at 400,000, or about 36 per square -pile in a total
area of some 11,000 square miles. Though not much for a coUi»: v aboundini? in
fertile and well-watered valleys, this is a vostly higher proportion than prevails in
the Russian possessions, on which account this territ^nry, so conveniently situated at
the gates of the Hindu-Eush, naturally seems to the Muscovites the necessary

, 6 Miles.

'jtitniLi i m

KHULM, BALKII, ANDKHOI.

247

ndiiin CnucosuR
istan. But the
A.k-8erai vullcy,
o die go to the
iudukshan pro-
)0 Baduksbaiii
r by Murad Wv^
ire said to hav(>

oars.

itself, although

in the time of
nerely of a few
some reed huts,
cd over gardens,
ops. Talikhau,
the foot of the
HZ and Badak-
)een a far more
sld out for seven
his Khan, and
t as a large city
, and salt mart,
cnce it drew its
and south-east,
ilak in Badak-
Lattaband Pass,
:an8 proceeding
ikshan and the
I a view of the
irkably regular
ibove the plains,
he legend was
and which is
grow none but
[ion haunts the
I of these hills,
e north of the

Eunduz is esti-
•nile in a total
v aboundina" in
than prevails in
mtly situated at
s the necessary

complement of their Turkestan domain. Travellers speak favourably OHpccially
of the Kunduz women, as excellent housewives, although held by the men in less
considoratiou than their dogs.

Khulm, Balkh, Andkhoi.

Khulm, or Khulum, is not so large, but is relatively as densely peopled, as
Kunduz, although not so well watered as that region. The Kuuduz, or Ak-Hcrai
River, fed by the snows of the Hindu-Kush and the Koh-i-baba, is copious enough
to reach the Oxus, whereas the Khulm River, flowing from advanced spurs of the
Kara-koh, is absorbed by irrigation works on entering the plains. But the
geographical position of Khulm, occupying the centre of the old Baktriana, is one
of vital importance. Here converges the highway of Persia and India over the
Bomian Pass, and here is the natural centre of the vast amphitheatre of highlands

Fig. m.— Thb Maimbme Vallkt.
Soale 1 ! 870,000;

eHflM.

and plateaux stretching from Meshed in Persia to Bokhara. Balkh, " the Mother
of Cities," was formerly the converging point of all the great commercial highways
of this region. But after its destruction by Jengliis Khan in 1220 it ceased to be
the centre of traffic, and before the middle of the present century Khulm was the
most important place in Baktriana. Its Tajik population of 10,000 had a large
trade in skins of dogs, cats, foxes, and lambs. It is encircled by extensive gardens
and orchards, and even the bed of the intermittent stream is periodically converted
into a garden. The present town is a modem place lying about 5 miles from the
ancient Khulm, now a heap of ruins.

Balkh, formerly so famous as an imperial capital and holy place, the city in
which Zoroaster preached, later on a centre of Hellenic culture and of Buddhism,
is now little more than a vast ruin. For a circuit of over 18 miles nothing is
visible except heaps of bricks, enamelled tiles, and other d<5bri8. The marble
templea seen by the pilgrim Hwen-T'sang in all their beauty, and whose ruins were
admired by Marco Polo, have disappeared altogether. Even the few Uzbeg

248

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

encampmc'iitH and Taj ik Immlots scattorcd over (he plain were completely abandonod
after the viHitution of cholera in 1H72, and " when lialkh Hhall rise from its ruins,"
say the natives, "the world will s(Km end." Since lHo8 Takht-i-pul, sonic
12 miles farther east, has been the political centre of Afghan Turkestan. Hut the
urban population, ac^'ording to Grodekov amounting in 1878 to 20,000, hnf
removed to the iu>ighlK)uring sanctuary of Mazar-i-sherif ("Tomb of tlie Sherif "),
famous oven Iwyond the llindu-Kush for the ceaseless miracles hero wrought at
the shrine of the prophet Ali. Mazar-i-sherif, whoso four blue minarets arc
visible in the distance, lies still within the limits of the region watere<l l)y
the llalkh, or Dehas River, Avhoso farthest head-streams rise in the Koh-i-baba
and Sufid-koh. In the lowlands this stream, though still rapid, becomes a mere
embanked canal, the 13cnd-i-burbari, or " Dyko of the Barbarians," which, after a

I 'ni.

Fig. 135.— Ehanatbr op Afghan Tuiikebtan West of tub Oxus.
Soala 1 : 1,780,00a

■se

120Milea.

course of over 180 miles, runs dry in the gardens of Sujagird, north of Balkh.
Whether Sujagird was a suburb of Balkh or an independent city, its ruins still
cover a vast space, some 8 miles long, north and south on the road to the Oxus.

Farther west other streams also flowing through Afghan territory fail to reach
the Oxus, though their waters serve to clothe with verdure the oases around the
towns of Ak-cha, Saripul, Shibirkhan, and Andkhoi, peopled by Iranians, Turko-
mans, and IJzbegs. Thanks to the abundance of its waters, the most flourishing
of these places is said to bo Shibirkhan, whoso melons Marco Polo described as the
finest in the world. When Ferrier visited it in 1845 it had a population of 12,000.
Saripul had 3,000 in 1818, but being pent up by the hills in a cirque subject to
malaria, it is a very unhealthy place. The only trees flourishing in the Saripul
and Shibirkhan valley are the saksaitl and the tamarind, though a few plants have
been recently brought from Bokhara.

mmmmmim

mmmmum mm

mmmmm

KUULM, BALKII, ANDKHOI.

240

toly ubandonod
from itH ruins,"
tht-i-pul, Honic
L'stun. Hut tho
to 25,000, Vny

f fhcShorif"),
lero wrouj^ht at
minurots arc
on wiitorecl by
the Koh-i-baba
boconiCH a more
' which, after a

rs.

north of Balkh.
y, its ruins still

to the Oxus.
cry fail to reach
)a8es around tho
Iranians, Turko-
raost flourishing

described as the
ilation of 12,000.
cirque subject to
r in tho Saripul

few plants have

Next to Mazar-i-sherif tho most populous town in Afghan Turkestan is And-
khoi, which, according to Vambc'ry, luid 1.0,000 inhabitants in 1803. Hut most of
them were living in tents amid the ruins of u city encompassed by the desert.
The Maiuieno, a stream flowing through its gardens, has very little water in its
l)od, und tliis is so brackish that strangers cannot drink it. " Halt water, buniing
Nunds, venomous flics and scorpions, such is Andkhoi, and ""ch is hell," says u
Persion poet quoted by Vambery. Yet its horses, whose g^ dalogy the natives
trace buck to tho steed of the Persian Hercules, Rustem, are renowned throughout
Tutary, os is also tho so-called urr or iiar breed of dromedaries, distinguishinl for
their flowing manes, elegant forms, and great strength. Andkhoi also formerly sent to
Persia those black lambskins known in Europe as "Astrakhans," but sincothe destruc-
tion of the place by the Afghans in 1840 its trade in these articles has not revived.

Maimene, lying amongst the hills, is watered by tho same river Nari, which
nearly runs dry in the gardens of Andkhoi. Its bravo Uzbeg inhabitants long
maintained their independence amidst the rival claims of Persia, Bokhara, and
Afghanistan, but they are now tributary to Kabul, though soon probably destined
to become on advanced outpost of the northern colossus at the threshold of the
Iranian plateau. Here Muimene occupies an important strategical position, and
according to Rawlinson, if Herat is the key to India, Maimene is the key to
Herat. On the other hand, Grodekov asserts from personal knowledge that the
route from Maimene to Herat is too difficult for military purposes. But however
this be, Maimeno is the chief trading station between Herat and Bokhara, and
commands several mountain passes, so that its possession would bo a great prize in
the hands of either of the rival powers contending for the mastery in Asia. In
1863 Vambery gave it a population of from 15,000 to 18,000, which more recent,
hut probably exaggerated, Russian estimates raised to 60,000. But in 1874 it was
besieged by an Afghan army of 10,000 and twenty guns, which had already taken
Saripul and Shibirkhan. The siege lasted six months, ending in tho slaughter of
18,000 of its inhabitants, since when Maimene has remained a decayed village exposed
to Turkoman raids. The population of the whole khanate, estimated by Vambery
at 300,000, is reduced by the Russian officers to 100,000. A brisk trade in horses,
carpets, dried fruits, chiefly in the hands of the Jews, is carried on at the Maimene fairs.

All tho khanates between the Indian Caucasus and tho Oxus are at present
subject to Afghanistan, except that of Andkhoi, which is still semi-independent.
The geographical divisions have remained unaltered, and the village of Gurzivan
and the small centres of the population in the Darzab valley, in the mountains
south and south-west of Saripul, have preserved the title of khanate, though they
have lost their autonomy. The Uzbeg natives are not required to render military
service, their Afghan masters fearing they might use their arms to recover their
independence. But the weight of taxation falls all the more heavily on them.
According to Grodekov they are impatiently awaiting the arrival - f the Russians ;
but they do nothing for their own freedom, and can scarcely defend themselves
from the Turkoman marauders. Thus have a hundred years of oppression broken
the spirit of these Tftrki peoples, formerly so renowned for their bravery.
17

^^^^jji^^^^^^^^^^^m^^^&mMM^MSit^mi^^^^m^ii^?^ W^^-

250

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

II.— MERV— THE SOUTHERN TURKOMANS.

" Tmloj>on(lont Tiitary," which till recently covcrwl Huch u wide area, is now
reduced to ii Ninnfle nurrow otiNiH enc()in{mMHe<l by the mindH, und ulreudy menac(>doii
three Hides by the UuHHiun urniH. One fumuuH HjM)t iilone still lies Ix-'yond the
Afghan frontier, or the territory directly or indirectly subject to Ilussiu. This is
the ancient Merv of the Persians, the Maflr of the Uzbegs, which occupies u
strategic position of Home imi)ortunce, which disputes with Uuikh the title ol'
" Mother of the Cities of Asia," and which formerly called itself '* King of the
Universe" (S/jrtrA-i-JicArtM). In the neighbourhoo<l uro still to be seen the ruins
of Antiochia Murgiunu, or Merv-i-mukan, as it is now called, the ancient Hellenic
city founded by Antiochus Soter. During the Arab ascendancy Merv, like Samar-
kand and Bokhara, became a great centre of learning, and the famous historian
Yakut studicil in its libraries. But the ph*ce fell u prey to the ruthless Mongols
under Jenghis Khan, and its inhabitants, to the number, it is said, of 700,000,
were led out of the city, told off in batches like beasts for the shambles, and all
slaughtered in cold blood. Yet Merv revived from this fearful disaster, ond was
again a populous place in 1795, when Murad, Emir of Bokhara, destroyed the
embankment retaining the waters of the Murgh-ab in an artiBcinl hike, ruined the
town and its gardens, and restored a great part of the country to tho- desert. Some
40,000 of the people, chiefly silk-weavers and other artisans, wero removed to
Bokhara, where their descendants still occupy a separate quarter. Merv passed
subsequently into the bands of the Khan of Khiva, but since 1834 it has been held
by the Tekke Turkomans, and its normal population now consists of 2,000 or
3,000 Uzbegs, while the Tekkcs, Sariks, and Salors have camping grounds in the
neighbourhood. It is the chief rallying-point of the Turkoman nomads, who,
according to Potrusevich, have 50,000 tents in tho Merv oasis. But the views
hitherto entertained regarding its great strategical importance have been consider-
ably modified since the advance of the Russians along the northern face of the
Attok. Mr. Donovan, correspondent of the Dat/i/ News, imprisoned here for some
weeks during the summer of 1881, also found that Merv still remains the
assemblage of wretched mud huts described by ConoUy in 1840. The opinion is
now generally held that in their advance on Herat the Russians can safely leave
Merv on the left until it suits their convenience to occupy it, meantime availing
themselves of the easier and more direct route along the valley of the river
T'ejend. The oasis of cultivated land, which Strabo tells us was sun'ounded by
Antiochus with a wall 186 miles in circumference, stretches 75 miles north and
south, with a mean width of 7 miles. Its fertility is famous throughout the
East, and is maintained by 2,000 Turkoman labourers, who attend throughout
the year to the irrigation works.

Great changes have taken place in the Merv country since the people have
become more independent of the Khivan and Bokhara rulers. The reputation they
formerly enjoyed amongst their neighbours is reflected in the local proverb, " If
you meet a viper and a Mervi, kill the Mervi first, and then crush the viper."

ma^ssssmsassm

iBWIiiMUilffilfUHili

»— - ••■•••li"

lo area, is now
>ttdy mcimcedon
lios beyond the
lluH8iu. ThiH u
hieh occupieM ti
Ikh the title of
f ♦' King of tho

seen the ruins
uncient Hellenic
[erv, like Sumar-
fumous historiiiii
•uthlc88 Mongols
said, of 700,000,
shambles, and all
disaster, and was
a, destroyed tho

li\ke, ruined the
he desert. Some
ivpro removed to
;r. Mcrv passed
[ it has been held
jists of 2,000 or
^ grounds in the
an nomads, who.
But the views
ive been consider-
them face of the
led here for some
still remains tho
. The opinion is

1 can safely leave
neantime availing
ley of the river
as sun'ounded by
> miles north and
18 throughout the
attend throughout

B the people have

he reputation they

local proverb, " If

crush the viper."

THE SOUTUfclliN TUmCoMAM.

Fearing to extend their f irnys to the 0\\\h, now heM b\ he B*,MlriaaM, mmil com-
pelled to come to terms with th(> Persians, I)aman-i-k'>h I- rds, ^nd A*' Hiiis, tho
Merv pen|>l(> have mostly relinquished their marauding fial - ; ptlluge A murder
are no longer held in honour us formerly ; and some nu. liaiug pre Uer^ bu
already ventured to broach

I-ig. 130.

-Mrkv and Rauakh* Oaiis.
Boala 1:UIU,U00.

the doctrine that there is
no glory in slaughtering
one's neighbours. Houses
have Ikjcu built in the oasis,
irrigating rills have l)een
(lug, and tlie zone of cul-
ture extended. Fruit trees
are being brought by the
caravans from Bokhara,
trade has been somewhat
revived, and dealers from
^[eshe<l and Bokhara are
now settled in the district.

Between Merv and
Meshed the Tekkes and

their allies, the Salors, press

hard upon the Persian

stronghold of Sarakhs

(Sharaks), situated in an

oasis watered by the Ilori-

rud, or Tenjen, the river of

Herat. Like Mew and

Maimene, this is one of the

strategical points which, in

the hands of a military

power, may have the most

vital consequences for the

peoples of the Iranian

plateau. The Jews of

Meshed, trading with the

neighbouring Turkomans,

have here erected a few mud

houses ; but till recently the

only dwellings were the so-
called hirghas, wood or reed huts covered with felt. The surrounding oasis is no less

productive than that of Merv, and the two places dispute the honour of having given

birth to the first husbandman.

"West of Sarakhs, for a stretch of over 360 miles, the Turkomans have no towns

properly so called. But some of their camping grounds on the banks of the streams

61'

62*

80 MUea.

E.of&

mmum

252

■f ASIATIC RUSSIA.

arc oncircl(Ml by dcfi'tiNivo wuIIh, ufton vnel<min{f thnuHundH of kilntkiiN. Kif^lu
villu)f(<Huf KmIiuIhuI have oiich ii]M)|)iilutir)n of ulMtiit 2,000, itiul lM>for(' itM <'u|tttirohv
the UuHNiaiiN ill IHHI G(>ok-t(>iM* hull hoiiik 15,000 iiihuhitiiiitH. Of tluMild I'lirthiim
towiiH nothiiifjf now rcinuinH, or at loiiMt thoir niiiiH huvo not yet hcon diwovort'd.
Th(< city of NiNHii, rontainin^ tho toinbN of the I'arthiun kin^n, in miid to have niinnl at
the iHsiu^ of a valley at the foot of the l)aiiiun-i-koh. It may perhajw Iw thepreHont
NiaM, lyiiiff oantof the Turkoman fortreHHof Kizil-urvat.or rather Kizil-robat — that
is, the " lied CaravuiiHerai " — in u district re<;eiitly vi«ited by Daker and (iill,

Sinee the full of Geok-te|>o all the Turkoman tribeH of thin region have
practically accepttKl Ru^Hian Hovercignty. The liinitB of the TranH-f'aHpian
territory have Iwen oxtendwl euHtwanU to Askabad an<l every effort \h lM>ing made
to complete the line of railway from the CuHpian to Jtaini, the new capital of thin
province. In virtue of an imperial ukaae issued in May, 18K1, all the Akhal
Tekke country is now incorporato<l in the Trans-Caspian territory, which is itself
placed under the supremo administration of the Commander-in-Chief of the
Caucasus. It is also stated that in a short time Russia will accept the Protectorate
of the Merv Turkomans, a delegate from whom visited 8t. Petersburg in the
spring of the year 1881. It is obvious that the time is rapidly approaching when
the whole of the Turkoman domain will fonn an integral part of the Russian
Empire, whose southern limits will then stretch nearly in a straigl't lino along the
northern frontiers of Persia and Afghanistan from the south-eu^t end of the
Caspian to the neighbourhood of the Hindu-Kush.

III.- BOKHARA.

Still nominally independent, this state is one of those which must henceforth con-
form their policy to the will of the Czar. "Without being obliged to keep gar-
risons in its fortresses or to pay the salaries of civil administrators, Russia nevertheless
holds the routes leading through Bokhara to the Hindu-Kush. Hence, in advancing
upon Merv or Herat, her armies can now draw their supplies as well from the
Bokhara oasis as from the shores of the Caspian. On the other hand, the Bokhara
Government, protected by its powerful lord paramount, has no longer aught to
fear from Turkoman or Afghan, and whole provinces have even been made over to it
by a stroke of the pen. Thus by the will of Russia several states of the Upper Oxus
— Shignan, Roshan, Darvaz, Earateghin — formerly depending partly on Eunduz
or Badakshan, are now incorporated in Bokhara, and the Russians have thus
become the masters of the Pamir passes. Within its new limits Bokhara occupies
a space about half the size of France, with a population of over 2,000,000.* It lies
nearly altogether on the right bank of the Oxus, whence its old name of Trans-
oxiana, or Maverannahr, a word having precisely the same meaning. The term
Sogdiana is properly limited to the valley of the Sogd, or present Zarafshon,
henceforth shared by the Russian and Bokhara Governments between them.

The upland regions of the Bokhara Pamir, traversed by the Panja, Murgh-ab,
and Surgh-ab, are nearly uninhabitable, or visited only in summer by the Eirghiz
* Area of Bokhara, 95,600 square miles; probable population, 2,180,000.

DAnVAZ AND KARATEOHIN.

868

ilntkiiN. Kif^lii
re itM capturt' 1)\
tli(M)l<l Parthian

H'Cn (liM<>()V<Ti'4l.

to buvo Nt(MHl at

)H Ihj thopri'WMit

izil-rohat- -tlial

r and (iill.

is region have
TrunH-('UNpiaii

t \H Ihuii^ iiia<l<>

V capital of tluN
all tho Aklial

, which is itHolf
in-Chiof of the

the Protectorate
■tcrHburg in the
iprouching when

of tho KuHnian
lit lino along the
iu.->t end uf the

t henceforth con-
yifcd to keep gar-
iiHsia nevertheless
ace, in advancing
38 well from the
ind, the Bokhara
longer aught to
n made over to it
E the Upper Oxus
irtly on Eunduz
jsians have thus
Bokhara occupies
00,000.* It lies
name of Trans-
ling. The term
esent Zarafahan,
Ben them,
'anja, Murgh-ab,
p by the Kirghiz

,000.

nrnnailn. Tji the centre of the Pumir theri> are no villagen alxtvo TaHh-kiirgtin, and
tho Murgh-ah (Ak-tu) may Im* followed for over {'■iO niilen to tho HUow-lino and
tho Ak-taNJi Mountain without meeting a Hingle hamlet.

Jiolow tho iNbkaNhim Uuid in ItadakNban tho Panja, or Harhad, rontinuoH to
flow nortbwardH to the Murgh-ab and other Htreamn of tho WoMteni Pamir, whoMo
junction forms tho Anut-dariu. In this part of tho Oxuh Imsin are the three jM'tty
MtatoM of ShigTum, lloshan, anil Darvaz, which sineo mo<lifo\al tinus have lM>en
visitod l)y no Kuropcttn travellerH. Yet tho (^ommunicationN l)i<twe(>n Hadakshan
and the rp|)er Oxus vidloys are frocpient, and in IH7>') (.'aptain Trotter was ablo to
send his < ,itivo aHNirttant, Abdul Hubhan, to explore tho course of tho Panja for u
distance of iH) miles below tho Ishkashim lK«nd to Wamur, capital of Iloshun. On
tho other hand, the Hindu explorer, Subudar Shah, as(!endod tho Uxus in 1N74 from
Wostom liudakshun to tho Iloshun frontier, leaving but u small and miimiMrtunt
gap between tho two itinera rios.

SUIONAN ANn ROHHAN.

Shignan (Shugnan, Shugdan) and Hoshan, no part of which is p-.obably lower
than 6.600 foot abovo tho sou-level, have received from the lowlands the name of
Zuchan — that is, " Land of Two Lives " — us if tho pure air and water of this region
insured to its inhabitants twice the ovoruge term of life. But there arc few to
enjoy this excellent climate. According to Wood there wore in 188H only JJOO
families in Shignan and 1,000 in Roshan, all Iranians ; but in 187'i the population
increased altogether to 4,700 families, or about 25,000 bouIs. An in Wakhan, the
slave trade was tho cause of the depiction of the land. In IStiV) tho prince still
trafl>ickod in his own subjects, an adult man or woman being alued at from £'12
to £18, which was equivalent to 10 to 15 bulls, 5 to 8 yaks, oi 2 Kirghiz muskets.

At the time of Forsyth's visit the two slates had only one emir, residing at
Wamur (Vamai-), capital of Roshan. Kila-bar-panja, on the left bank of tho river,
consistfl of 1,500 houses. Wamur, like most of the other villages, stands on the
right bank with a western aspect, which is here brighter and warmer than that
facing eastwards.

Darvaz and Karateohin.

Darvaz, bordering on Roshan below the junction of the Panja and Murgh-ab,
is also peopled by Tajiks, speaking Persian and preserving many Mazdean
traditions, although now Sunnite Mussulmans. In Darvaz the Oxus begins to
trend westwards, and on its more sheltered banks the cultivated plants of the
temperate zone, and even cotton, begin to appear. Nib-kumb, Kila-kumb, or
Kaleh-i-kumb, the capital, is sometime? known as the "Prison of Iskander,"
having been traditionally built by Alexander of Macedon to confine the rebels. A
garrison of 5,000 Bokhariots occupies Darvaz, whose inhabitants energetically
resisted the conquest.

Karateghin, separated from Ferghana by the Alai-tagh runge, is a romantic
land of mountains, glaciers, waterfalls, traversed by the Kizil-su, or " Red River,"

MJH

HISSAE—THE IRON GATE.

256

JlliilllUlM

^aksh (Vaksh, or
ground, and the
heir old customs

recalling those of Zoroastrian times, and continue to speak Persian. They are
very industrious, engaged in weaving, metal-working, gold-washing, and rock-salt
mining, while in summer they do a considerable trade with Kokan, Bokhara, and
Kashgaria. But these pursuits are insufficient for the support of the people, all of
whom being proprietors, and reluctant to divide the land indefinitely, many are
obliged to emigrate to the lowlands. All the water-carriers of Tashkend are
natives of Karateghin, and many schoolmasters in Turkestan are from the same
place. Although the country has a mean elevation of 6,600 feet, Fedchenko
estimates the population at upwards of 100,000, occupying over 400 kishlaks,
generally surroundeil by orchards. The prince, another "descendant of Alexander,"
resides in Garm (Harm), a cluster of 350 houses on the right bank of the Surgh-ab.
In the neighbourhood is a copious hot spring of carbonated water.

HissAK — ^The Iron Gate.

The district of Hissar, lying west of Karateghin, was for the first time
accurately surveyed by the Russians, Vishnevsky, Mayev, and Schwarz, in 1875.
We now know that its eastern division is traversed by the Surgh-ab, or Waksh,
flowing to the Oxus below Hazret-imam in Eimduz. West of this river the
country is divided into parallel zones by the broad valleys of the Kafirnahan,
Surkhan, and Shirabad-daria. Below Garm there are no towns except Kurgan-tube
on the right bank of the river. But a little farther down are the ruins of Lakman,
which seems to have been formerly a considerable place, and where are the remains
of a bridge across the Waksh. Opposite the junction of this river with the Oxus
stood Takhta-kuvat, associated with many local legends. Lastly, near the Patta-
hissar Pass, on the caravan route from Bokhara to Mazar-i-sherif, are the ruins of
Termez, which stretched for 15 miles along the Oxus between the river Sarkhan
and the ruins of Muja, another city abandoned in recent times, but still overlooked
by a tall minaret. Termez waa formerly known by the Tajik name of Gul-gula,
the " Noisy," the noise of its bazaars having been heard at Baktra (Balkh),
54 miles o£E ! In the ruins of these cities many gold and silver objects, especially
Greek coins, have been discovered, nearly all of which find their way to India.
Gold-washing is actively carried on along the banks of the Waksh.

All the towns of Hissar — Faizabad, Kafirnahan, Dushambe, Hissar, Karatagh,
Begar, Sari-chus, Yurchi, Denau, Baisim, Shirabad — stand on tributaries of the
Oxus, and most of them near the region of snows and glaciers. The low-lying
riverain tracts are here as unhealthy as on the Kunduz side, and to guard against
the fevers and rheumatism caused by the sudden changes of temperature, the
natives never lay aside their fur robes even in tha height of summer. Hissar,
which gives its name to the whole district, lies 96 miles north of the Oxus, in the
upper valley of the Kafirnahan, and above the fever zone. Its inhabitants,
estimated at 10,000, are chiefly engaged in the. production of arms, knives, and
hardware, exported by the pilgrims to Persia, Turkey, and Arabia. Some of the
damascened blades with chased gold or silver hilts are of exquisite workmanship,
and unequalled even in Europe for the temper of the steel.

vamm

-mmmm

256

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

The original Aryan population of Plissar has been mostly displaced by intruders
of Tftrki stock. The Galchas are still found in some upland villages, and Faizabad,
Eafimahan, and a few more towns are peopled by Tajiks ; but elsewhere the Uzbegs
and Sartes form the chief element. Hence, in Bokhara, Hissar is called Uzbekistan.

West of the Hissar Mountains several broad valleys running in the direction of
the Oxus are watered by streams whose junction forms the Kashka. Here have
been founded some states which have often played an important part in history.
Shehr-i-sebs (Shakh-i-sabz), on a torrent flowing from Mount Hazret-i-Sultan at
the southern issue of a pass over the Samarkand-tau Moimtains, is one of those
capitals which for a time acquired great influence in Turkestan. It consists in
reality of two fortified towns, Eilab above, and Shehr below, formerly enclosed by
one wall, but separated by extensive intervening gardens, whence their common

J"".-

:-^iM\-:V:-A

I Fig. 138. — Shbhr-i-8brb and Kabbui.

Soale 1 : l,aoo,000.

65*50'

66'50'

.MlUlet.

name of Shehr-i-sebs, or " City of Verdure." The larger of the two is Shehr, with
a population of about 20,000 and 90 mosques ; Eilab has some 15,000 inhabitants.
In the beginning of the fourteenth century the village of Eesh, birthplace of
Tamerlane, occupied the site of the present Shehr-i-sebs, The master of Asia,
wishing to make it the capital of his empire, built many edifices here, but soon
recognised the superior advantages of Samarkand, to which he transferred his
residence. Of his palace, the Ak-serai, or " White Castle," one of the " seven
wonders of the world," nothing now remains except some towers and the huge
brick pillars flanking the main entrance. Their walls are still lined with white
and blue porcelain slabs, embellished with arabesques and Persian and Arabic
inscriptions. Tradition points to one of these towers as that from which forty
courtiers sprang spontaneously after a paper which a gust of wind had blown from
the hands of their dread sovereigpi.

ced by intruders
8, and Faizabad,
here the Uzbegs
lied Uzbekistan.

the direction of
ika. Here have

part in history.
azret-i-Sultan at
, is one of those
. It consists in
lerly enclosed by
so their common

«»^

0- Eof G.

iro is Shehr, with
1,000 inhabitants,
sh, birthplace of
master of Asia,
js here, but soon
3 transferred his
le of the " seven
(rs and the huge
lined with white
'sian and Arabic
rom which forty
I had blown from

^"j i! j ' »»'i'VJi-'p?a ' ->;f '' r

#■

TOPOGEAPHY— BOKHARA.

267

* The population of this district consists chiefly of Kenegez, Sunnitc Uzbegs, as
famous for their valour and endurance as the women are for their lieauty. It
required a Russian expedition to reduce Shehr-i-sebs in 1840, and its inhabitants
have never tolerated slavery in their midst. Its gardens, watered by the Kashka,
produce excellent fruits, and its annexation has been of great advantage to
Bokhara, for the valley yields cereals, tobacco, cotton, hemp, fruits, and vegetables
in abundance, while the hills are rich in minerals. The salt mines of Hazar,
south-west of Shehr-i-sebs, supply all the demands of Samarkand, and Plazar is also
a large market for cattle and farm produce.

One of the southern branches of the Eashka rises in a highland district
formerly famous for containing one of the " wonders of the world." This is a
defile 40 to 65 feet broad, and nearly 2 miles long, traversed by the route leading
from Balkh to Samarkand by the Shirabad River, Shehr-i-sebs, and the Samarkand-
tau range. When visited by the pilgrim Hwen-T'sang this defile was closed by
folding gates, strengthened with bolts and adorned with belfries. Eight centuries
afterwards Clavijo, Spanish envoy to the court of Tamerlane, also passed through
the " Iron Gate," but the artificial structure had disappeared, and the place is now
called Buzgola-khana, or the " Goat Hut." But the nearest town retains the
significant name of Derbent, like that of the Caspian " Gate."

Topography — Bokhara.

The important town of Earshi lies in a vast plain nbar the junction of the two
main branches of the Eashka, which receives all the waters of the hills between
Shehr-i-sebs and Derbent. The walls of Earshi have a circuit of over 5 miles,
with a popidation of 25,000. It produces excellent arms and knives, exported to
Persia and Arabia, besides elegant ewers, and copper dishes artistically chased and
embellished with incrustations of silver ; but its chief resource is derived from the
surrounding oasis, in which tobacco especially is grown. The river is skirted by a
fine promenade lined with the silver poplar, and the natives are renowned for their
good taste, wit, and intelligence.

Earshi lies at the converging point of the routes from Bokhara, Samarkand,
Hissar, Balkh, and Maimene, within 60 miles of the Oxus, but separated from it
by the sands in which the Eashka runs dry-. Where crossed by the route to
Andkhoi and Maimene, the river is guarded by the fortified town of Eilif . Here
the Oxus, confined on one side by rocks, is only 1,200 feet broad, but is said at
some points to be 250 and even 330 feet deep. Lower down another ferry is
defended by Earikji Fort on the right, and Eerki on the left bank. All the middle
course from Baktriana to Ehiva has been assigned by Russia to Bokhara, this
state being required to maintain the ferries and keep in good repair the caravan-
serais on both sides. The population on the left bank consists chiefly of Ersari
Turkomans tributary to the emir, and in return protected by him from the other
nomads. After Eerki the only fortified place possessed by Bokhara on the west
bank is Charjui, on the direct route between the capital and Merv, and facing the

g*S?^?KS^Ii^l;^isSSSHSsg»?s*!im&

ifA lif "t'Sir •"« r.ift JCia .vik'Jl'' ,? i -^v^if' S^ * / i^; irV- ■

268

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

P5,

former junction of the Zurafshan. Charjui has become the entrepot of trado
between Bokhara and Khiva.

liy seizing Samarkand and the upper and middle valley of the Zarofshan,
Russia has placed at her mercy the city of Bokhara and all the other towns on the
lower course of the river. The construction of an embankment to retain the
waters of the Zarafshan in a largo reservoir woidd suffice to dry up all the arable
lands of Bokhara proper, and compel the inhabitants to emigrate. The extension
of tillage in the Samarkand district has analogous consequences, u larger quantity of
water being needed for the works of irrigation. Hence, since the Russian occupa-
tion of Samarkand, Bokhara has suffered from a steadily diminishing supply,
resulting in a gradual migration of the people up stream. Thus, apart from her
immeasurably superior military strength, the mere possession of Samarkand insures
for Russia the absolute control of Bokhara.

Bokhara, " the Noble " (Sherif ), as it is called on the coins struck by the emir,
is not one of the fine cities of the East ; nor is it even one of the old cities of
Sogdiana, although traditionally supposed to have been founded by Alexander.
Its narrow, winding, and now nearly deserted streets, its dilapidated and grimy
monuments, the sluggish waters of its canals often running dry altogether, its
dreary and shadeless open spaces, do not recall the days when its emir was the
mightiest ruler in Central Asia. The chief mosque is overlooked by a minaret
160 feet high, whence criminals were precipitated, and to which access was allowed
only to the mollahs and executioners with their victims.

Tho bazaars of Bokha'ra still attract traders from every quarter. At least
two-thirds of the population, reduced from 140,000 in 1830 to 70,000 in 1880, are
Tajiks. Turkomans and IJzbegs, more or less mixed with Iranian elements, are
also numerous, while the Kirghiz pitch their tents in the open spaces as if they
were in the middle of the desert. Russians likewise, and other Europeans in their
wake, begin to show themselves in the streets, and the bazaars are occupied by
many Jews and Hindus, or " Multani," as they are here called, from the city of
Multan, .regarded in Turkestan as the metropolis of India.

Bokhara is especially famous as a centre of learning. " Elsewhere the light
descends from above; in Bokhara it radiates upwards," as Mohammed himself
certified when translated to heaven. At any rate an intense love of letters was
here developed at various epochs between the ninth and fourteenth centuries. As
in Spain, the mingling of Aryan and Arab cultures had the happiest results for
science, and the Iranians of Bokhara converted to Islam, and more or less assimilated
to the Arabs, became the poets, doctors, and shining lights of Transoxiana.
Bokhara, the " City of Temples," as the name means in Mongolian, is still a city of
schools, containing, besides 360 mosques, over 100 medresseh, or colleges, where
the pupils learn to read the Koran. But traditional methods and mere routine
have killed science, and little now is taught beyond empty formulas. The fervid
faith of this " Rome of Islam " has itself degenerated to a system of shams, veiling
corruption and hollowness beneat'a t'le outward forms of worship. The decrees
of the priesthood are faithfully observed ; the people always wear their winding-

... • uSg i. l^^Z^rzSv^

i^^S^it^^Si^u^.'tli^iiiiil^tAtii .

r^^lMfi^liti'^^^ •OTW^»»iS»«*ri.««^.*i

ropot of trado

tho Zarafsbaii,
r towns on the;

to retain tho
) uU tho arabk>

The extension
ger quantity of
U8.sian occupu-
ishing supply,
apart from her
narkand insures

;k by the emir,
le old cities of
by Alexander,
ited and grimy
r altogether, its
:s emir was the
[ by a minaret
«ss was allowed

• ism i fe^x-

arter. At least
000 in 1880, are
an elements, are
paces as ii they
Lropeans in their
are occupied by
Tom the city of

3where the light
lammed himself
re of letters was
li centuries. As
ipiest results for
r less assimilated
of Transoxiana.
, is still a city of
colleges, where
id mere routine
las. The fervid
)f shams, veiling
p. The decrees
: their winding-

^'■V^;'■/.■V•/^''>.^^K'y^-^.• "^y^

TOPUGllAl'HY— BOKHAKA.

260

sheet as a turhnn round the head ; they con tho proscrilx'd prnyors, rc^j^ulurly visit
the shrine of Uahu-cdd;.., ♦''." national wiint of TurkcHtan. Hut incanfimo friond-
ship is iM)iMoncd by treason, espionuj^o has l)oc<mio tlio chief iiiMtninicnt of govern-
ment, and vice in every form is installed at the gates of the niosciiu's.

Although far less flourishing than formerly, the industry of Bokhara is still
considerable, and the ba/aars are stm^kcd with many objects of local prodtice.
Hero are fabricated the beautiful striped cotton goods known by the name of alaja,

Fig. 139.— Dokhaua: Ruim in thi Intkuior or tiu City.

excellent leather for the native boots and slippers, silken tissues " delicate as the
spider's web." Nor has the Russian occupation of Samarkand or the rising com-
mercial importance of Tashkend yet deprived Bokhara of its extensive inter-
national trade. It still remains the great central mart between Nijni-Novgorod
and Peshawar; India and Afghanistan send hither their drugs and dyes, tea,
earthenware, books, and especially the so-called kabnii, or English wares. From
Persia come other woven goods, arms, and books ; from Merv, arms and valuable

260

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

:r^1

horses; from ITorat, fruits, wool, skins; while throuf^h Khiva most of the
maiiufactunHl iirticU'H iiro forwanli'il to tho Voljifu Iwsiu. RusNiiin morchundiso
is nuturully found in thr i^roatost quantity in tho Bokhara Imzuurs, purohuscd
however, hy tho native dealers in Momcow, Nijni-Novf^nKl, or Orenburg, and by
thom brought to tho grer ■ mart of tho Zurafshan. Tho whole of this important
traffic, valuwl at nearly £(),0(>(),()()(), is in the hands of tho Bokhara, Afghan, Hindu,
and Jewish traders. In lH7fl there was only one Russian merchant in the place,
and certain Imumhes of commerce formerly monoiKilized by the Russians huvo now
been appropriatc<l by tho natives.

Ilenco Bokhara is threatened with ruin not by the commercial rivalry of
Samarkand or other towns o(;cupied by tho Russians, but by the gradual loss of
water from tho uplands. Tho shifting dunes are already yearly encroaching on
the oasis, filling tho irrigation canals, and slowly changing tho country to a

4»':

Fig. 140.— Oasis or Bokhaiu.
So«U 1 : 9,000,000.

Yant-hour^sw*'

l(ap«'

64'

65'

EflfS

NUilai.

desert. The dertruction of the saksaill forests resulted in changing the firmly
bound hillocks into moving sands, driven by the winds to the conquest of the
arable tracts. The canals formerly derived from the Sir have also long been
abandoned, and the time when the whole oasis will be restored to the desert is
merely a question of calcrlation. Quite recently the rich Vardandzi territory
has been invaded ; the Romitan district, west of Bokhara; was swallowed up in
1868, when 16,000 families are said to have been compelled to take refuge in
Khiva. Tens of thousands have migrated in the same way to Samarkand and
the Zarafshan valley. The city of Bokhara itself is seriously threatened, the
people awaiting the catastrophe as an immutable dispensation of Allah, and unless
the progress of the dtmes can be arrested their ruin is really inevitable. Thus
in former times have perished Khoju-obo, 24 miles north-west of Bokhara, and
the famous Bai'kimd, 20 miles west of it. Bokhara suffers also from the bad

TOroOUAl'llY— bOKIIAllA.

861

most of thf
n inerchuiulitM^
rH, pitrchuHed
nlmr{7, und by
tliiH important
ifghun, Hindu,
it in the plaeo,
Hiuns buvo now

fial rivalry of
p'udual I0H8 of
encroaching on
country to a

^flffi

^ng the firmly
conquest of the
also long been
to the desert is
landzi territory
(fallowed up in
take refuge in
Samarkand and
threatened, the
llah, and unless
evitable. Thus
i Bokhara, and
) from the bad

quality of its waters, and from itn unhealthy climate. Ulcers of all kinds are
very common, osjMH'iuUy amongHt the women, und in summer one-tenth or oven
one-fourth of the jMHiplo are attuckinl by the Hlaria itirdiupiiHtK, a paranite brod in
the flesh of the feet or arms, und which can scarcely Ih) got rid of except by
excision, a surgicul o})eration skilfully |)erformed by the local barbers.

Besides the capitul sevcrul other towns have been founded in the Zurufshun
valley, and especially in the Miankal district towards the Ilussiun frontier. Here
village succeeds village, und the whole country is a vast garden, still justifying
the saying formerly applied to all the country between Tushkend and Khiva,
that " a cat could pass along the roofs from town to town." The largest places

Pig. 141.— Khit*.

M<»qne». PaUoe of ibe Khan- Sehooli.

OaniTuiMnu.
i_^_ 1.060 Twdt.

■
Gibbet.

in Miankal are Ziyaweddin, Yani-kurgan, and Eermineh, peopled chiefly by
Uzbegs, who are here excellent ^.griculturists.

Below Bokhara the chief station on the route to O^r.rjui is Kara-kul, or " Black
Lake." During the floods the river reaches this point, where a basin still known
as the Denghiz, or " Sea," receives the overflow, which evaporates without cross-
ing the sands to the Oxus. In 1820, when the water must have been far more
abundant than at present, Eara-kul is said to have had a population of 20,000,
a number which woidd now inevitably perish of thirst in a district formerly
irrigated by a network of canals from the Oxus, Zarafshan, and Sir.

The khanate of Bokhara still maintains its local administration and the
outward forms of government. But the substance has vanished, the Emir, or
" Head of the Faithful " and master of the lives of his subjects, having now to

2Q2

ASIATIC IIU8SIA.

rrckon with oiir moro jxiworful than hiiiiM>If — tlio Qovomor-fJoncral of ItiMmaii
TuikcHtaii. Kvni within liin IntrdiTH thi- UuNHian iort of St. (Jt'or^^c wan cnrtiMl
ill iHT'i at Kuhi-ata, to ^uanl tho Ami'i route bvtwct'u TaHhltcnd ami Khiva.
Ilmcofortli ChriNtiaii Nti-anf(«TH havu to fear neither torture nor iniprlHonment,
and even the niuch-abuM-d Jewn now Hnd protection from extortion, while the
slave niarketM are (■h)He<l and the traftie in human flenh at luunt outwardly HUp-
jireHWHl. The treaty of 18711 alM)li^4hin^ the nlavo trade aluo mi-ured to the
KuHHiuuH the free navif^ation of the Oxuh, and the right tu conHtruct quuytt un*i

Fig. 143.— A MiNAHiT IN Khiva.

depots along its banks. All the towns of Bokhara were thrown open to Russian
trade, the subjects of the Czar were authorised to exercise every industry on an
equal footing with the natives, and were allowed to settk' as landowners in the
khanate. A Russian minister was also accredited to the emir's court, intrusted
to watch over the execution of the treaty, while police regulations were framed
to prevent any one from passing from Russian to Bokhara territory without the
formal authorisation of the imperial Government. The police of Russia thus
penetrates farther than her armies into the heart of the continent, and through

-^"suHii

KHIVA.

208

[>rill of UllAHillh

I'm' wiiH cnrtcd

11(1 iiikI Khiva.
iiiipriHoniiu'iit,

■tioii, whilu i\w
niitwurdly mi])-
w«'ur«'<l to the

truct quuyH uiitl

hor voHsul Htuto mIui cun now iimko lierwlf ft>lt on tlic KuMhinir and At'M:lian
frontiofM. Of the foniintrciul udvuutugus Hccurttl to her by tho treaty Hio huH ho
fur Mcarcfly niudu any urn*. .■" -^

Tho H«ikhuru army, now umi'U'hm for military pnrposos, hnn hocom" a mri of
irregular ixdico, com|M)ru<(l of Sarto voliintt>t>rH and Pcrwian froiKlmrn forin^'rly
HoU' by tho TurkonianM in th(> Hokhara niurk(>t. The w<irdn of cotuniand, framed
by the Cossuck desortor I'opov, who bwuuio conununder-in-ehiof, uro delivered iu

Pi|r. 143. — Khiva: Kxtchioh ok a Moiqir.

Russian, but mixed with some English and T(^rki t^rms, and tho uniform of the
troops is a distant imitation of that of the Indian sepoys.

I open to Kussian
ry industry on an
mdowners iu the
J court, intrusted
ions were framed
itory without the
B of Russia thus
ont, and through

IV.-KHIVA.

• Khiva, like Bokhara, is also a vassal state ; but owing to its geographical posi-
tion much more directly dependent on Russia. The right bank of tho Amu,
which separates the khanate from the Russian possessions, is lined with forts
and fortifications, whence the troops of the Czar might in four-and-twenty hours
reduce the whole oasis. Although the official area of the country is stated to be
23,000 square miles, with a popiilation of 700,000, most of the land is a desert,
blending imperceptibly with the irrigated tracts. "Where the canals stop the

mmtm

INMMMMH

264

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

last permanent villages cease, so that the whole settled population is, so to say,
grouped under the guns of the Eussian strongholds. It took the Muscovites
over one hundred and fifty years to finally subdue a region defended on the south,
west, and north-west by almost impassable wastes. On two occasions, in 170!J
and 1740, the khans had declared themselves Russian subjects, but the treaties

Fig. 144. — Krabnotodbk Bay.
Scale l:i»0,( 00.

to 16 Feet.

16 to Sa Feet.

83 Feet and npwaida.
6 Miles.

had remained inoperative, and the people persisted in their hostility to the
foreigner. In 1717 the Kabardian Prince Bekovich Cherkaskiy, sent by Peter
the Great to give a body-guard to the khan, and thus prepare for Russian
supremacy, made a first expedition against the country, which ended in a com-
plete disaster. In 1839 the campaign conducted by Perovskiy, at the head of
20,000 men and a train of 10,000 camels, also ended in failure. But a decisive

tion is, so to say,
k the Muscovites
idcd on the south,
jccasions, in 1703
3, but the treaties

ir hostility to the
skiy, sent by Peter
repare for Russian
h ended in a com-
:iy, at the head of
ire. But a decisive

^sm^smm

-^i-—

KHIVA.

265

invasion took place in 1873, when columns of troops from the Caspian, Orenburg,
the Sir, and Tashkend overran the country from all quarters simultaneously.
Khiva was taken almost without a blow, and the only serious struggles were not
with the inhabitants of the oasis, but with their temporary allies the Turkomans
of the Caspian. Expeditions are still from time to time sent against them to
protect the Lower Oxus districts from their forays.

Of all the cultivated regions in Turkestan, Ehiva best deserves the encomiums
of the Eastern poets. Everywhere water flows in abundance, bordered by jwplars,
(ilms, and other trees ; the fields are encircled by avenues of mulberries ; the white
houses are like bowers buried in foliage and flowers; the nightingale, scarcely
elsewhere known in Tatary, here warbles in every rose-bush. The land, yearly
renewed by the alluvia of the river, is inexhaustibly fertile, producing magnificent
fruits and vegetables. Its melons and pistachio nuts are renowned even in Pekin,
and the Emperors formerly exacted a certain quantity of them from their Kash-
garian tributaries. Compared with that of other Turkestan countries the popula-
tion of Khiva is consequently very dense, and might be doubled, or even tripled,
without overtaxing the resources of the land.

Khiva, capital of this ancient region of Kharezm, or Khovarezm, a term said
to mean " Lowlands," is scarcely more than an aggregate of mud hovels, between
which wind narrow lanes, muddy or dusty according to the seasons. It is enclosed
by a low earth wall lined with pools of slimy water. In the centre another
c "then wall, 26 to 30 feet high, surrounds the citadel, residence of the khan and
al functionaries. Here also are the chief mosques and schools, none of which
r ichitecturally remarkable except the edifice containing the tomb of the
Mussulman saint Polvan, or Pehlivan, patron of Khiva. The western quarter,
laid out in gardens and shady terraces, is a much more pleasant resort. Here the
avenues intermingle with the canals, and above the crenellated walls of the citadel
the dunes and minarets stand out against a backgroimd of blue sky. In the other
quarters there are more cemeteries than gardens, the abodes of the dead here
mingling with those of the living.

Before the expedition of 1873 Khiva was one of the chief slave markets in
Asia. Here the Turkomans sold their gangs of captives taken or purchased on the
Caspian shores, and along the Persian, Herat, and Afghan borders. The most
highly prized as labourers were the Russians ; all belonged mostly to the khan
and other dignitaries, and many often rose to the highest positions in the State.
On the arrival of the Hussian troops in 1873 they revolted in several places,
and plundered their owners' houses. The latter appealed to the Czar's generals,
and presently the bodies of rebel slaves were dangling from gibbets set up in the
very centre of the slave market. The captives were slaughterefl wholesale, and to
prevent the survivors from escaping, the Khivans sliced off their calves or the soles
of their feet, filling the sores with chopped horsehair. The Russian Governor-
General, who had been hailed by these wretched creatures as their liberator, tardilj'
resolved to justify their hopes. The abolition of slavery was proclaimed, and the
emancipated captives, to the number of 37,000, sot out to return to their homes.
18

206

ASTATIC RUSSIA.

But on the routes across the desert thousands fell victims to disease, exhaustion, and
the Turkoman marauders.

At the time of the IluHsian occupation the population of the city of Khiva was
estimated at 4,000 or 5,000 souls, chiefly half-caste Uzbegs and Iranians, bcHidis
Sartes and emancipated Persians, speaking the local Turki dialect. Most of the
Khivans are of disagreeable and even harsh appearance, their features bein}>
generally marked by small-pox, cutaneous eruptions, ophthalmic afPections, tlic
abuse of opium or hashish. The children have a pleasant, expression, but all
vivacity disappears with age, and decrepitude soon sets in. Owing to the high

Fig. H6. — CiiELKKKSJ Island and Michabl Gulf.
Boole 1 : 810,000.

to 16 Feet.

18 to 32 Feet. na Feet anil upward".
____^ 12 Miles.

Persian caps worn all the year round, the ears of the men stand out from the head,
a trait by which they may be recognised at a glance amongst the other inhabitants
of Turkestan. The turban is worn only by the clergy.

The trade and industry of Khiva are unimportant. Some inferior silks and
strong cottons are manufactured; but most of the woven and other goods are
imported from Russia. In the bazaars may also be purchased some English
cottons, and the green tea imported from India through Kabul and Bokhara, The
chief merchants trading with Russia, Persia, and Afghanistan reside, not in Khiva
itself, but in TJrgenj, the largest city of the khanate, 24 miles north-west of the

^rmaii

KHIVA.

267

>xhau8tion, uud

of Khivu wiis
uiiiuns, benidi's
Most of the
finiturcs boiii<4
aifcctions, the
•ession, but all
ig to the liifjfli

it from the head,
other inhabitants

iiferior silks and
other goods are
?d some English
d Bokhara. The
ide, not in Khiva
lorth-west of the

capital, near the left bank of the river. Urgenj ia surrounded by mud walls, and
has a present population of 30,000. It was till recently known as Yuni-urgenj, or
" New Urgenj," to distinguish it from the Kunia-urgeuj, or old town, destroyed by
Tamerlane, and in the sixteenth century utterly ruined, when the Oxus receded
farther east. The famous town of Kungrad, on the Taldik, is threatened by

P'ig. 146.— IIassan-kamh Bat.
Settle I : 800,000.

OtolAFeet

16 Feet and apward*
_— KUea.

a similar fate, since this branch has dwindled to a sluggish stream lost amidst the
reeds. Khojeili, at the head of thr delta proper, over against the fortress of
Nukus, has, on the other hand, acquired some importance through its traffic with the
surrounding nomads. It is said to bo entirely peopled by Hajis, Mecca pilgrims,
here called Moj'a, or Khoja, whence its name.

P^!

268

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Tho Khan of Khiva, like the Emir of Bokhara, is in theory master of the lund
and life of his subjects, and till recently he made terrible use of his power by the
still remembered torture, " bug pits," sword, rope, and stake. But these horrors,
on which custom had always imposed certain limits, are now at an end. The true
master of the land is now the Russian resident, armed with the treaty of 1873, in
which the khan declares himself " the humble servant of the Emperor of all the
Russias." To the Czar's subjects he grants free trade in all his cities, besides the
free navigation of the Oxus, engaging to supply sites for the Russian depots, and
to keep in good repair the artificial works executed by his conquerors along the
course of the river. He recognises the prior claim of all Russian creditors, and
constitutes himself a debtor to tho St. Petersburg Government in tho sum of

Fig. 147. — Abhuh-apbh.
Bottle 1 : 770,000.

to 16 Feet.

16 to .S3 Feet.

82 Feet nnd npwardi.
.. 12 MUes.

2,200,000 roubles, the last instalment of which will be paid off in 1893. If not, the
whole khanate is pledged for the amount. Khiva is, in fact, a Russian province,
though still ungarrisoned.

v.— RUSSIAN TURKESTAN.

The portion of the Aralo-Caspian basin actually annexed to Russia is far more
extensive, though relatively more scantily peopled, than the tributary or less inde-
pendent states. Lying more to the north, it comprises less fertile tracts, while the
regions towards which Slav colonisation is being attracted are the farthest removed
from Russia proper. Steppes 900 miles broad separate these New Russias from
the mother country, and the forts and postal stations connecting the colonies with
the Ural and Volga basins very slowly grow into villages and towns.

Amongst the lands still lacking a sedentary population, the least inhabited is
the vast province stretching from the Caspian to the Aral west and east, and from

t-'wjt^a^wgJwa^y^wstii^^'aBiafe^^

RUSSIAN TURKESTAN.

W^W'

tor of the land

power by t\\v

these horrors,

nd. The true

ity of 1873, ill

Tor of all the

ies, besides tho

iun dep6ts, and

rors along the

creditors, and

in the sum of

^'r-

;of G

93. If not, the
issian province.

the Ural to the Atrek river, north and south. Tliis region, officially known as the
" Trans-Ca.spian Division," depends on the government of Caucasia, and has
hitherto been regarded as little more than a simple coast district over against
Baku, whence troops and supplies are most easily forwarded. The only fixed
establishments are a few fortresses and entrenched camps at the more accessible
points on the coast, or the most convenient as centres of attack against the nomads
of the interior. Some of the forts have already been abandoned, either for want of
water, their unhealthy climate, or utter uselessness. Several fortified stations on
the Manghishlak peninsula ure now a mere heap of ruins ; but the somewhat

Fig. 148. — Vallbis of thi AtuBK and Oi'hocn.

Scale 1 : 2,965,000.

58"

!?3

77?OT1R5»!TC

tofG

54'

56*

to 16 Feet.

16 to 83 Feet.

32 Feet and npwurds.
, 60 Milea.

issia is far more
,ry or less inde-
;ract8, while the
arthest removed
w Russias from
le colonies with
s.

ast inhabited is
1 east, and from

thriving fishing village of Nikolayevsk has sprung up near Fort Alexandrovsk,
imder shelter of the Tuk-kuragan headland.

Of all the coast stations the most important is Kraanovodsk, the old Kizil-su, or
" Red Water," at the head of the peninsida running west of the Balkan Gulf.
The neighbouring pastures, springs, and arable lands, besides the deep water of
the bay, which scarcely ever freezes, insure to Krasnovodsk a lasting importance.
When the harbour works are completed a commercial city may here be rapidly
developed. Although with scarcely 600 inhabitants, Krasnovodsk took rank as
a town in 1877. It has already some stone houses, a club, and a public garden, but
still lacks perfectly fresh water. Pending the construction of an aqueduct, it
depends for its supply on sea-water distilled by condensing apparatus.

HtS#Mf.t'tfei^i'';<»-.-^:'->''i-y^tf ' - '' ^li''!"-''-"''a ' AVia'^^^^

270

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Tho iiiiph<l>ii wcIIh, lit tlio foot of tlio luMj^lilMuiring Little niilkmi ImHh, luivi-
Ikhmi liitluTto littlc! workod, throii^rh ft-iir of tlio nuiraudiii^ TurkonmiiH. IJut over
12,(KK) wcIIh hiivo luHMi Hunk in tho iMlimd of ('holekoii, tit tlio Houthoni outrunoo ol
tlio lliilkiin (iulf. The nuphthu in lioro roinurkubly puro and uhmidant. A miif^lc
woll, oporipd in 1874, yioldo<l 100 tons per day, and the whole iHlaiid maybe Haid to
rest on a vast bituminous lake. KrasnoviMlsk also exports sulplmr from tho soutli
of the Kara-boj^haz, and stdt from the coast lagoons. It is now the chief outjM>rl
of Khiva on the Caspian, havinj? rejilaced Kohnoh-ba/ar, lying farther south on
the so-colled Buy of Khiva. liustly, it may serve us tho base of the military

'J 1'

Fig. 140.— Samauxand.
Boale 1 : 170,000.

. SMOefl.

Ef.i.

operations which will probably ere long be directed from the Caspian towards
Merv, Meshed, or Herat.*

The camp of Chikishlar, near the Bay of Hassan-kaleh, which receives the
waters of the Atrek, is much less favourably situated. Troops can here be landed
only on flat-bottomed boats, and the neighbourhood yields no supplies of any sort.
The desert begins at the very gates of the fort ; yet numerous scattered ruins show
that this region was formerly covered with towns and villages. One emporium
has succeeded another in this south-eastern comer of the Caspian, which is
traversed by a great historical route leading from Western Asia to the Tian-shun

* Yearly movement bntwnon Krasnovodsk nnd Khiva (1874 — 7), 32 curavuus, 5,104 camel-loads.
Mean annual yield of naphtha (1874 — 7), 3,840 tuns.

-'■'KSM

BUSMIAN TiniKESTAN.

271

kail IuIIn, huvc

11118. Itut OVIT

I'll outruiu'o <»l'
ant. A mii^lc
maybe Huid to
from tho Hoiitli
10 chief outiMjrt
irther Houth on
)f tho military

Caspian towards

ich receives the
I here be landed
plies of any sort,
tered ruins show
One emporium
ispian, which is
X) the Tian-shan

18, d,lU4 uauicl-loadB.

and China. Afiiidiiii, whoHO ruinH uru n«»w mari{(>d by tlio (JiiniiMji-f('iM\ or
"Silver ("lilV," bftwwn the HaNHiin-kah-h Hay and tho numth of the (iiirjjfen, was
an important mart in the eleventli and twelfth een'uriew. ItHcU-Htriution i.s mild to
have been caused by a rising of tho Caspian, produced by the inundations of the
( )xuH, when this river had resumed its course to tho Jlulkan Hay. Abuskun was
successively replaced by Nini-mardan, ii few miles south of tho Ourgen, and Alhom,
at the entruuco of tho Hay of Astrabud. A' ^resent An/iur-udr/i, ut the extremity
of tho long peninsula enclosing this buy, would bo tho natural harlHiur of those
waters but for tho oxtromoly unhealthy climate of tho surrounding low-lying
swampy district. North of Chikishlar are Ak-tepc, or tho " White Clilf," aud

Fig. 160. — Samaukand: Appuuacii to riir ('itadii,.

■■^i-::-

"'^M^j'

-:-m

Oettk-tepe, or the '* Yellow Cliff," round which the Yomuds have often pitched
their tents.

In the Ourgen valley ore the ruins of Jordan, the ancient Ilyrcaniapolis, or
" Wolf Town," a name which passed to the whole country and to the Caspian itself,
often called the Hyrcanian Sea. About 70 miles north-east of Chikishlar lies the
ruined city of Mazduran, whose Persian name indicates its position between Iran
and Tm-on. According to the legend an archer endowed with supernatural force
shot an arrow from the banks of the Gurgen, which fell on the site of Mazduran,
and thus determined the limits of the two empires. The former importance of this
place is shown by its extensive ruins, especially tli ise of its aciuoducts, which, at
least in length, were surpassed only by those of the Koman Empire and the Ganges
basin. One of these aqueducts traversed the district between the Atrek and its
tributary the Sumbar, crossed th > latter river, and after watering the plains of
Ma>!duran discharged into the Caspian after a total course of 9-j miles.

-^???Wf'S?^*^Sin'*t'^?Pi.-^l??j%i*'^^'"-""-

272

A8TATI0 RUSfllA.

Fkrohaxa B.vkin — TororjRAPiiY.

In tho RuHHUin poHHWHHioiiH ill TurkcHtaii cunt of tho Oxuh in tho ZurafHlmii
valley. After loavinjf tho luKhlundH thiH river iH dihtrihuted by iniinerouri irrif^a-
tion rillH over the I'eiijukeiit dintrict, beyond which the MyHtoin of eunalH Ih Htill
farther develoj)('<l to the north of Hanuukand and to the Houth-weHt towards
liokluira. 'J'o these fertilising waters of the Sogol, or Zarafshan, the ancient Hogdiann
was indebted for its fertility in the midnt uf u vast Hcuiicircle of auuds, and to the

If'ig. 161.— BAMAUKAMii; Tub Guu-kmih Tumu or Tambhlanb.

.¥ MW-

'-^ ^fyi

}S^g^si&j,\

same cause is due its present population of 30,000, of whom two-thirds are of
Uzbeg stock. According to the Mazdean legend the Sogol is the second Eden,
" created by the word of Ormuzd."

Samarkand, capital of this famous land, lies either on the site or close to the
old city of Marcanda, whence its name, which, however, some refer to the Arab
Samar, who took the place and introduced the Moslem religion in 643. Kesidence
of the Samanides from, the middle of the ninth to the eleventh century, it became
under that dynasty " the asylum of peace and science,'' and one of the largest cities
in Asia. It was defended by 110,000 men against Jenghis Ehan, but after its
overthi )^ by him the population was retluced to '25,000 families. Later on it
became the centre of Tamerlane's vast empire, but it waa again wasted by the

tho Ziirnt'Nlnm

niorouM irrif^a-

caiiulN JH Nti

I- west towards

tciont Sogdianii

ikIh, and to thu

•274

ASIATIC nUHSlA.

,J?

yi"»5»>.

the tiiiic of 'l'aiii*<rluiio aii<l liin Hiicci'NMirN. From ii (liNliiiifc iiic viMilili' itlK)V(' it-
walU till' lui'^c liliio (lotiioH aii<l \\\v niiiiai'ctH of itN moH(|tii>N, its palat'CH and rollc^t"*.
In tho uortii-caHt it ih e()innian<l(>(l by the ('liiipun-ata I'liiincnco, crowmil with
|)iftiin'M|iio riiiuH and tho tonih of a ruiint. At tliu foot of tlii^ hill the ^rcatcanaN
of irri^;ation hrant-h off in all diriH-tionN.

Sinco tho lluHHian (Mu-upation a new ({uartcr haH Nprun^ up wchI of tho citaihi,
rcmilarly laid ont with strootN and avonuoH radiating liko a fan towanlM tho (h-Hori.
Hut wi; inuMt vinit tho labyrinth of narrow lanoH in tho Monloni ([iiartor to roaliw'
what Haniarkand waH in tho (hiyn of itH fj;roatnoHH. Itn niaffnihooiit MduniU, now
flcluM>lM only in nanio, aro unrivulU><l for tho Hplondour of thoir architocturo, tho
dotailN of whioh Initray tho PerHian origin of their Hrnt doHignorM. Mont of tla^
pahuroH dating from tho Timur dynaHty aro now in ruins, though tho fa<,'adoM, toworH,
or doiuoN of u fow aro Htill in giMxl ropair. TIk* chiof public Niptaro, tho IlighiHtan,
in Hankoil on throu Hi(U>H by tho KnoHt oollogon in tho placo, including tho Ulug-bog,
founded in 1420, tho ronownod HoluMd of nmthomaticH and aNtrononiy, which in the
liftoonth century niado Samarkand one of the holy placoM of wionco. Tho most
magniH(;ont mowpio in tho city and in all (Vntrul Ama is tho Shah Zindoli, or
" Living King," ho called from u defender of iHlam, now buried in tho building,
but doHtiued ono (ky to riHC again and reconcpier tho world to tho faith of tlie
Prophet, Tamcrlano rohts under tho crj^it of another mowino, tho Our-emir, on an
cniinenco near tho citadel, and still commundod by a minaret of rare ologaniw. In
tho vicinity aro the tumbs of hia wives, with iuHcriptions commcinurating his
fame.

Tho citadel, compriHing a whole quarter of tho town, and in whi( h tho IluHHiuiis
have sot up thoir administrative and military bureaux, also cotiiaiuN nioMiues,
tombs, and tho old i)alaco of the emir, now a hospital. In a court of tliis palace
stands alargomarblo block, 5 feet high and 10 foot long, said to havo been brought
hy Tumorlano from Drusa, and to have hcen used by him and his successors
as a throne, and on it were also beheaded tho unsuccessful pretenders to tho
sovereignty.

Tho inhabitants of Samarkand, more than half of whom are Tajiks, arc more
zealous " believers " than those of Toshkoud and other places in llu.ssiun Turkestan.
According to the old saying, while Mecca is the " Heart," Samarkand is the " Head
of Islam." At the same time their religious fervour does not prevent the people
from driving a brisk trade with their Russian masters, though the chief traders aro
Jews, Hindus, and Afghans. Almost tho solo industry of the place is agriculture,
which has converted the surrounding plain to a garden in tho wilderness. The
population has risen from about 8,000 in 1834 to over 30,000 in 1880, and, thanks to
its hapi)y situation in the neighbourhood of hills and healthy valleys, Samarkand
cannot fail to become a chief centre of European civilisation iu Turkestan.

Ascending the valley of the Zarafshan by the fortress of Penjakent, the
traveller reaches Eohistan, the romantic land of the Galchas, with its gorges,
cascades, and snowy ranges. Hero are also some remarkable phenomena resembling
those of volcanoes in eruption. The Eunlagh Alouutain contains rich coul beds iu

TOl'OUUAl'UY.

•275

,'iHil)l*> alM)V(< ii>.
•fs and collf^jr-.
•, crowiifd willi
tli<> );rcat cuiial^

Ht of tho ritnrlcl,

vanln thi' (K-kciI.

iiartrr to rcali^r

lit Mch<M)lM, now

in!hit«'ctur(>, the

MohI of till'

fav"<U'Hi towiTN,

, tlii^ IlipfliiHtan,

n^ tho l'liij(-lK';f,

my, which in the

Mico. Tho most

Shah Zin(h>h, or

in tlio l)uil(lin^r,

I tho faitli of thi!

Our-oinir, on un

iro elopfanco. In

nmuiuurutiug his

hi( h tho Russians
otiliiins niosqucH,
irt of this pahico
luvo been hrouf^lit
nd his BUcceHHorH
prot candors to tho

Tajiks, are more
usaian Turkestan,
aud is the " Head
)revent the people
D chief traders are
ice is agriculture,
wilderness. Tho
180, and, thanks to
lUeys, Samarkand
iirkcstan.
if Penjakent, the

with its gorges,
omona resembling
rich eoal beds in

combiiNtlon, (mn'tting dmno vobimen of Nuioko and mcphitic gasoK, and at night
iuMting a lurid light agairiMt tho Mky. In tlu> higher vall<'y-«of tluN n-gion piiMtiiroN,
( ropH, and thickolM fringe the river bankM, or, as at V^ir/aminor, elotlie the Hjiland
alluvial terraces forming the haNins of dried-up lakes. The auriferous sunds of
tho ZarafHhan are now Hcarchinl only by a few wretched gold-waMliers.

Tho most {MtpuhtuM part of tho oasis is that which forms a continuation of tho
Miankal district of liokhara. Hero the villages fonn almost a continuous town
from Katti-kurgun to l'enshandH>, while tho orchards present from a distance tho
appearance of extensive wmidlaiuls. Some 'J4 miles south-east of Samarkand lies
the town of Uryul, note<l for its heroi(! defenc*' against tho Uui'iHians. Farther
south u detile leads over the Samarkaud-tau down to SLehr-i-sebs, while in thu

Fig. 1j3. — Oakiii ok tiih /AUArmiAN.

fiokJn 1 : M1U,U00.

ETofG.

A'" . ■ ■

.Our^eui'. ' ■ i ^ \ \.\

.80 HUM.

north-oaat a large gap in the Kara-tau range is traversed by tho route from
Samarkand to Tasbkend and the little rive. Ti ak. This is the defile of Jilanuti,
or of the " Snakes," so named either fioiu its meandering stream or from the
reptiles gliding amid its rocks. This important pass, guarded on tho north by
tho town of Jizak, or tho " Key," is . ae of the historic highways of Asia, and the
scene of many a sanguinary strnp^lo for the possession of Zarafshan or Sir-daria.
West of it rises to a height of 400 feet a pyramidal slaty rock known as the " Gate
of Tamerlane," thoug'-. the two Persian inscriptions on its face make no allusion
to this conqueror.

The abundance of water flowing from the Tian-sban valleys to Forgbana gives
to this basin a great agricultural value. In the heart of the mountains tho Narin

270

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

flows at too great an elevation above the sea to permit of any large towns springinr;
up on its banks ; but on emerging from the upper gorges and entering the nortli-
east part of the Ferghana basin it soon becomes skirted with towns and villages.
On its left bank stands the town of Uch-kurgan, in the midst of a fertile oawis.
But the valleys watered by the torrents from the Towhktal Moimtains are moro
productive than the lands fringing the northern bank of the main stream. Thoy
are laid out chiefly in gardens and orchards, while the oases on the left side arc
mostly imder cereals. The banks of the Sir between the two zones are occupied
by steppes. Hence the necessity of an exchange of commodities between the
northern valleys and the southern plains.

Namamjan is the chief town of the oasis lying at a distance from the river. It
is a large place, with a bazaar containing one thousand shops, and with a cotton-
spinning industry for the materials worn by the natives. As many as 300,000
sheep fi'om the northern steppes are yearly sold at this place, and here also are
constructed wooden floats on which fruits, skins, and felts are sent down the Sir to
Perovsk and Kazaliusk. In the neighbourhood are rich naphtha springs and coal
beds. Kaamn, lying north-west of Namangan, in a well-cultivated district, claims
to be the oldest town in Ferghana, and its Tajik inhabitants are the finest of their
race in Turkestan. Chust, on a stream flowing from the Choktal Mountains, is a
busy place, producing knives almost as highly prized as those of Hissar. Of the
mineral wealth in the neighbouring hills the salt mines alone have hitherto been
worked. On a steep cliff on the right bank of the Sir stands Ak-si, at one time
capital of £okan, and :tamous for its nielons.

Populous towns are also situated in the valley of the Eara-daria, or " Black
River," whose junction with the Narin below Baiikchi forms the Sir. Vzgheni, at
the issue of the Tian-shan defiles, has become famous from the shrine of Haji
Yusuf, the frequent resort of pilgrims. In this district is the frontier stronghold of
Qulcha, guarding the Terek-davan Pass against the Chinese. Andijan, the chief
town in this basin, though at a distance from the river, receives its waters through
the irrigation canals. It is one of the pleasantest places in Ferghana, thanks to its
shady gardens and deer park in the middle of the town. In the Kugaran valley,
lying to the north-east, are the carbonated and sulphur hot springs of Jalabad-ayup,
much frequented by the Sartes.

Osh, south-east of Andijan, and on the same river Ak-bara, a tributary of the
Kara-su, occupies the issue of a fertile and healthy valley leading to the Alai and
Pamir. Here is the famous Takht-i-Suleiman (" Solomon's Throne "), a moimtain
the theme of so many Eastern legends ; and here, according to some, the wise king
summoned the genii to execute his mandates, while according to others it was here
that he was assassinated. The rock, which is much frequented by pilgrims, com-
mands a superb view of the surrounding highlands.

Several important towns are scattered over the Ferghana basin west of the Ak-
bara valley. Naukat, Aravdn, and Asaakeh stand on a stream flowing to the plain
south of Andijan. Farther on are Sharikhan, now much reduced, and Marghilan,
in the midst of extensive gardens, at the point where the Shah-i-mardan River,

'"?rf'

TOPOGEAPHY.

fit:

towns springiiiff
cring the nortli-
wns and villages,
f tt fertile ousis.
untuins are moro
a stream. Thoy
the left side aro
mes are occupied
ities between the

om the river. It
id with a cotton-
many as 300,000
md here also are
it down the Sir to
a springs and coal
«d district, claims
the finest of their
il Mountains, is a
f Hissar. Of the
lave hitherto been
Ak-si, at one time

i-daria, or " Black
3 Sir. Uzghent, at
he shrine of Haji
ntier stronghold of
Andijan, the chief
its waters through
hana, thanks to its
le Kugaran valley,
;s of Jalabad-ayup,

a tributary of the

ng to the Alai and

one"), a mountain

ome, the wise king

others it was here

by pilgrims, com-

in west of the Ak-
)wing to the plain
mI, and Marghihn,
h-i-iuardan Biver,

flowing from the Alai glaciers, ramifies into a number of irrigating rills. Owing
to its healthy climate Marghilan has been chosen for the capital of Ferghana,
although the new Russian town springing up here lies some 9 miles from the old
Sarte town. Besides gardening the chief industry of the local Sartes is camel-hair,
wool, and silk weaving.

South-west of Marghilan is the picturesque valley of the Isfairan, the entrance

Fig. 164.— Fkom Kokan to Mahohilan.
Scale 1 : 1,000,000.

41'

ikehi

4«manjan
Baltk

41'

^Mi'PMKt

iKokM

LDfG.

-ZL.

7l'5QL,

ISIOlea.

to which is guarded by the small town of Uch-kurgan. Farther south is Vadil, a
pleasant summer retreat on the Shah-i-mardan River, leading to the town of like
name, one of the most frequented places of pilgrimage in Ferghana, thanks to the
tomb of Ali, which it claims to possess in common with so many other Moslem
towns.

278

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

The route from Vudil to Kohan, or rather Khukand, runs north-west by the foot
of the mountains to Rishtan, where it enters the plain, here watered by innuraorul)l(>
rills from the river Sokh. Kokan, formerly capital of the state of like name, which
has now become the Russian province of Ferghana, is still the chief place in the
country in population, trade, and social culture. It was founded about one hundred
and fifty years ago, and is well laid out with broad, regular, and tolerably clean
streets, with extensive gardens in some quarters. Its Tajik inhabitants speak a
remarkably pure Persian dialect. They are skilled artisans, largely engaged in
paper-making, weaving, minting, gold and silver work, and other industries. The
coin most generally current in Turkestan, and oven beyond the Tian-shan, is i\v'
kohnn, worth about sixpence, and struck, as stated in the legend, in " Kokan the
Delightful " {^Khokandi Latif). The inhabitants suffer much from goitre, and it
was owing to this malady that the Bussians removed the seat of Government from
Kokan. Its bazaar is nevertheless still the best stocked in Russian Turkestan,
containing, besides the local produce, English, Russian, Persian, and Indian wares,
antique jewellery, and genuine works of art. The chief monimients are some
mosques and the old palace of the khans, all in good style and in far better
preservation than those of Samarkand.

Khojend, the nearest town on the Sir to Ferghana, and the outlet for the
produce of that province, has already become a double city. The Mohammedan
quarters, occupied almost exclusively by Tajiks, stretch southwards along both
banks of the Iloja-bakargan, flowing from the Alai range. In the north the
steadily increasing Russian quarter occupies the space between the old town and
the loft bank of the Sir. In summer the heat is intense, the solar rays being
reflected on the town from the white cliffs of the Mogol-tau, near the north bank
of the river, while the atmosphere is charged with the dust from the surrounding
steppe. The Hoja-bakargan often runs dry, and then the women have to fetch the
water frdm the steep banks of the Sir. Khojent is one of the oldest places in
Turkestan, and till recently occupied an important strategical position near the old
frontier, over against the fortress of Makhram, and not far from the point where the
Sir bends north-westward to the Aral. South-west of it stands Irjar, scene of the
decisive battle which in 1866 rendered the Russians masters of the land. Another
pi are frequently mentioned in the records of the local wars is the fortified town of
Ura-tepe, on the route between Samarkand and Jizak.

Yani-chwnz, or New Ohinaz, at the junction of the Chirchik and Sir, is a mere
hamlet, which the Russians hoped to i ike a flourishing city at the head of the
navigation of the ri^ '^r. But this project was defeated by the diflicidties encountered
in this part of the stream, and Eski-chinaz, or Old Chinaz, some distance off, still
remains the more populous of the two. On the other hand, Eski-tashkend, lying to
the north-east on the same route, has been abandoned altogether for the new Tashkend,
the present capital of Russian Turkestan, and one of the first cities in the empire.
Covering a space as large as Paris, nearly 8 miles long and over 4 broad, Tashkend, or
the " Stone Castle," consists mostly of low houses buried amidst a dense vegetation,
• in which the poplars, willows, and other trees lining the canals are topped only by

west by the foot

by innuraerublc

iko name, whidi

ief place in the

out one hundred

tolerably clean

ibitants speak a

yely engaged in

industries. The

'ian-shan, is thrr

in "Kokan the

m goitre, and it

ovemment from

ssian Turkestan,

id Indian wares,

iments are some

ad in far better

le outlet for the
he Mohammedan
'^ards along both
n the north the
;hc old town and

solar rays being
T the north bank
I the surrounding
have to fetch the
e oldest places in
ition near the old
e point where the
rjar, scene of the
le land. Another

fortified t«wn of

ind Sir, is a mere
b the head of the
ulties encountered
distance off, still
ioshkend, lying to
the new Tashkemf,
ies in the empire,
■oad, Tashkend, or
, dense vegetation,
pe topped only by

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

which is abimdnntly supplied with wuter from the snows of tho Ala-Tau and the
torrents from the Choktal Mountains. It occupies the centre of the irrigated and
arable lands stretching from Samarkand to the valleys of the " Seven Rivers, "
while communicating by easy routes with the upper valleys of the Sir, Talas, and
Chu. After its easy capture by Chemaiev nimierous adventurers were attracted to
tho new city, which in 18G5 had become the centre of Russian authority in
Turkestan. The Moscow and St. Petersburg traders thought they had discovered
a new Eldorado, and rapid fortunes were at first made by wars and commerce. Hut
the good times of wild speculation soon passed ; most of the Russians now resident
here are the Government officials and the military, and trade has again fallen mainly

Fig. 156. — Khojekd and Neiohiiouuhood.

Boale 1 : 460,000. i

UVObb.

into the hands of the native Series and Jews. Immigrants from every part of
Central Asia are met in the streets of Tashkend, and there is even a considerable
Nogai Tatar community from Caucasia. In 1871 — 5 the population was estimated
at 82,986, composed of the following heterogeneous elements : — Sartes, 75,176 ;
Russians in the Asiatic quarter, 1,289; Rus^i.ins in the European quarter, 4,860 ;
Uzbegs, 708; Kirghiz, 375; Jews, 293; Germans, 110; Hindus, 93 ; Afghans, 25;
Chinese, 3 ; Nogais and others, 64. Now the population exceeds 100,000.

The broad dusty streets lined with trees and white houses in the Russian
quarter form a striking contrast with the low flat-roofed buildings of the Sarte
districts. The roofs ara generally composed of willow branches and reeds, covered

■■•^

TOPOGRAPHY.

281

Ua-Tuu and tlu'
le irrigated niul
' Seven Rivers,"
B Sir, TaliiH, and
(vcre attracted to
m authority in
y had disco vohmI
commerce. Hut
ans now resident
iiin fallen mainly

B9-50-

)m every part of
en a considerable
ion was estimated
— Sartes, 75,176;
m quarter, 4,860 ;
3a ; Afghans, 26 ;
100,000.

8 in the Russian
ings of the Sarte
md reeds, covered

with a layer of earth laid out in grass-plots or flower botls. In the diy season
this answers very well, but during the heavy rains the whole framework is apt to
collapse, burying the inmates in its ruins. The houses have generally one story only,
high buildings, such as palaces and mosques, running great risks from the frequent
earthquakes. In summer the Russians retire to Zangi-ata and ether pleasant
retreats, whore they camp out like the Uzbegs in the midst of sylvan scenery,
pure air, fragrant flowers, purling streams, and warbling songsters.

The growth of Tashkend has outstripped that of its industries, which are still
mainly restricted to silk-weaving, tanning, the manufacture of china {chini), felt,

Fig. 167.— Plain of Tashkend.
Scale 1 : 800,000.

eufg:

6&°50'

69?a0'

ISHflea.

and camel-hair goods. But the local artisans are no longer able to compete with
the products imported from Russia, consisting chiefly of cottons, silks, hardware,
wood and leather ware, and colonial produce. In return Tashkend exports raw
cotton and silk, and its yearly increasing exchanges now amount to about £4;000,000.
Its trade was represented in 1873 by 82,600 camel-loads, 4,296 horse-loads, and
3,648 waggon-loads. Great efforts have been made by the Government to establish
an international fair at Tashkend, such as those of Nijni-Novgorod and Irbit. But
although recourse was even had to fines and other coercive measures, the commercial
stream refused lo enter the new bed prepared for it, and the site of the fair, about
19

q^m

282

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

5 miles from tho rcgiJur bazaar, opened in 1870, hud been completely abandoned
four years afterwards.

Tushkcnd boasts of a club with a library of 10,000 volumes, an observatory,
a school of sericulture, a normal school, and an Official Gazette containing useful
documents on Turkestan and the surrounding lands. In 187U a branch of the
Ilussian Geographical Society was established here. But of the two other scientitii-
bodies one was killed by official patronage, the other by official oppression.

Cliinkcnt, north of the capital, occupies an analogous position in a well-watered
district, and is a place of some commercial and strategic importance, standing in the
western issue of the broad opening between the Kara-tuu and the Alexander range

Fig. 168. — A Stribt rtt Tariikexd,

1^*1

which connects the Sir and Balkhash, basins. The kumis prepared by the Kirghiz
in the neighbourhood is said to be the best in Turkestan.

Following the postal route from Tashkend to Orenburg along the southern foot
of the metalliferous Kara-tau range, the traveller reaches the old city of Tasi,
where Timur founded a famous mosque in 1397 in honour of Hazret Yasavi, special
patron of the Kirghiz. This mosque, which has suffered both from earthquakes
and the Russian guns in 1864, was left unfinished by its Persian architect. Yet,
such as it is, this vast ruin, the most sacred spot in Central Asia, still produces an
imposing effect, especially when seen from the steppe, towering with its square
masses above the ruined walls of the town. This region of Tatary is a land of

TOPOGRAPHY.

288

>tely abandoned

un obscrvutnrv,
mtaining useful

branch of th(^
othor scientitif
rcssion.

a well- watered
, standing in \ho
A.lcxander range

ed by the Kirghiz

the southern foot
old city of Tasi,
;ret Yasavi, special
from earthquakes
,n architect. Yet,
I, still produces an
ig with its square
itary is a land of

ruins. Numerous fortresses, formerly defending the fords of the Sir, are now
abandoned, and the plains are strewn with kurgans. Otrar, on the Sir south of
Turkestan (Yasi) witnessed the death of Timur in 1405, and the site of Suran, or
Savrun, another ruined city west of the same place, was till recently marked by
two elegant minarets.

The ancient Ak-meched, or " White Mosque," on the Lower Sir, takes its present
name of Pcrovsk from the Russian General Pcrovsky, who captured it in 1853,
and made it a military station, round which a now town has sprung up. Standing
at the head of the old delta near the Yani-daria branch, it lies on the direct route
from Persia through Khiva to Siberia, and is doubtless destined one day to become
a great commercial emporium. Meantime its trade is less active than that of
Kazalinsk, on the main branch of the Sir. This town, formerly known as Fort
No. 1, succeeded in 1855 to Raim, at the mouth of the river, as the military station
of this district. It lies in a cultivated and well-watered tract at the intersection
of the main routes from Orenburg .to Tashkend, and from Herat through Khiva to
Yekaterinburg, and has already become a thriving trading-place.

On the Lower Oxus there are nothing but military posts such as Petro-
Alexandrovsk and Nukus, commanding the banks of the river, or villages such
as Chambai, mostly deserted in summer, in winter often crowded by thousands
of Kara-Kalpak nomads. The now desert tract between the Sir and Oxus, for-
merly watered by the Yani-daria, was at one time dotted with numerous towns,
of which Yani-kend, or " Newcastle," was still standing when Gladishev passed
this way in 1742.

In the Kirghiz steppes stretching north of the Aral Sea Turgai and Irghiz
are small towns, deriving some importance from their position as centres of
administration. They are stations gladly hailed by the traveller after his long and
weary journey across the sands and steppes.

Along the northern foot of the Tian-shan there stretches a zone of cultivated
lands comparable to that of the western slope, but containing no large towns
since the massacres that have changed most of the Hi basin to a wilderness.
Aftli-ata, on the Talas, the first post occupied by the Russians east of the Kara-
tau, although not yet ranking as a town, does a brisk trade in wheat and cattle.
About 9 miles farther north are the ruins of Tumkent, also on the Talas, and
30 miles higher up are the far more remarkable ruins of a vast structure, whose •
blocks of red sandstone, 6 or 7 feet long, cover a space of nearly 8 acres. They are
said to have been hewn for a Buddhist monastery, though the Chinese traveller
Chang-Chun, who visited the place in 1221, speaks of a " red stone town." He
also mentions the great tumuli " disposed like the stars of the Great Bear," and known
to the Kirghiz as the " Seven Mounds," although there are sixteen altogether.

The region stretching east of Aiili-ata along the northern slope of the
Alexander range is the country of the " Thousand Springs " mentioned by the
Chinese pilgrim Hwen-T'sang, and where was established the kingdom of Kara-
kitai, or " Black China," by many supposed to have been one of those kingdoms
of "Prester John," long sought for in Abyssinia, Caucasia, and Central xitsia.

'«^B«as«!a«*««

tmmtmtmm

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

IMr

Hero ruiiH tho grout InHtoricnl route botweon China uiul the "NVpnI ; but the cities
founded along this route by one conijueror were overthrown by another, and
nothing now remains but ruiuN. Such is Tokmok, the old capital of the Ki{K-hak
state, 10 miles above the new Tokmak, centre of the chief Ilussian colony in
the valley on tl)e route loading through the Koslek Vam to Verniy. This place,
now capital of the province of the " Seven Rivers," is the old Ahnati, dutinir
as a Russian town only from 18(57. Consisting of separate (piarters gradually
approaching each other, it presents quite u Siberian aspect with its broad streets,
low wo(m1 or brick houses, and Russian sign-lniards. Yet the population is far
from being exclusively Russian, including representatives of nearly all the Central
and Northern Asiatic races, besides Afghans, Mordvinians, Chuvashes, and Chcro-
raissians. Trade is mostly in the hands of the Chinese, who have several indus-
trial establishments licre. Verniy is the depot of the copper utensils of Russian
manufacture used by all the i.. habitants of Central Asia as far us the confines of
Tibet. North of it are the village and fort of Iliisk, guarding the passage of
the river and the routes to Kulja and the territory of the " Seven Rivers."

In the latter region the most populous place is the city of Kopat, at tlie
northern foot of the Zungurian Ala-tuu, and on the river Kopul, which is lost
in the swamps some 60 miles south of Lake Balkhash. Lcpsinak, chief town of
the Lepsu valley, is a thriving place, and Vjarskat/n, beyond the Sussik-kul und
Alu-kid Lukes, does a considerable trade with the nomads. Sergiopoly the old
Aya-guz of the Tatars, is conveniently situated on the Aya-guz, flowing to the
east end of Luke Balkhash. Lastly, in the heart of the Tian-shan the centre of
Russian civilisation is Karakol, nearly 10 miles from the custem extremity of
Luke Issik-kul.

So long us the Slav population of the coimtry was limited to Cossack detach-
ments settled here as military colonists, every Russian village was the scene of
drunkenness and excesses of every sort. Instead of cultivating their own gardens
the Cossacks plundered those of their neighbours, cutting down their orchards for
fuel. So far from civilising the Ealmuks, they gradually became assimilated to
those nomads, not in their honesty, but in the rudeness of their manners. To
give themselves grand airs they spoke Mongolian like them, as if their Slav
origin were a mark of inferiority. But the free immigration of the Russian
peasantry has entirely changed the system of colonisation, which is now making
rapid progress. The mir, or communal system, has penetrated into these fertile
valleys, where Russian is replacing Mongolian culture, though many years must
pass before the land can be as extensively cultivated and peopled as formerly.
Everywhere are visible the remains of towns and Buddhist monuments, the truces
of canals, fimeral momids, many of which contain gold vases incrustated with
precious stones.

KuiJA Basin — Topography.

East of Verniy the river Hi waters the fertile province of Kulja, which before
the terrible events of 1869 is said ,to have had a population of 2,600,000. But

KITLJA BASIN— TOl'OORAI'UY.

; but the cities
[v anotluT, anil
lof tho Kipchak
iNNiun colony in
liy. Thin place,

Alinuti, (latinj,^
[irters f^nidually

8 broad streois,
[opulation is far
jy all the Central
fhcH, and Choro-
'0 several indus-
nisils of RuMHian
IS the confines of

the passage of
Rivers."

f Kopa/, at tlie
al, which is lost
ak, chief town of
e 8assik-kul and
^ei'ijiopol, the old
z, flowing to the
han the centre of
em extremity of

D Cossack detach-
was the scene of
their own gardens
their orchards for
me assimilated to
leir manners. To
as if their Slav
1 of the Russian
;h is now making
into these fertile
many years must
»pled as formerly,
uments, the traces
incrustated with

ulja, which before
■ 2,600,000. But

after the massacres the country was changed to a vast necroiKjlis. On all siden
nothing is visible but canals choked or changed to swamps, abandoned fields,
wasted forests, towns and villages in ruins. Ascending the Hi valley lu'yond
the fort of liorokhud/ir and the forest of dwarf elms planted by the (Chinese,
])ile8 of stone mark in succession the sites of the towns of Turgcn, Jar-kend,
Ak-kend, Khorgos, Alim-ta. The walls and towers of some old fortresses arc
still standing, but through the

breeches nothing is visible except Fig. IfiO— Kvua and Nriohhouhimo Minks.

heaps of ruins half concealed *»!" ' = i,8oo,ooo.

beneath the rank vegetation and
roots of trees. The city, founded
by the Chinese in 1764 as the
capital of the province under the
various names of Hi, New Kulja,
Manchu Kulja, Hoi-yuan, pre-
sents a woeful spectacle. The walls
of the fortress are still standing ;
here and there is seen a dilapi-
dated tower ; sculptured gateways
and walls covered with frescoes
contrast with the confused masses
of debris; while in some places the
ground is strewn with bleached
bones. After the Taranchi but-
chers had done their work the
streets of Hi were choked with
80,000 bodies of their victims,
and even in 1876 the only symp-
ton ^ of revival were two or
three houses occupied by Dun-
gans. Bayand>n, farther east,
said to have had 150,000 souls,
has now nothing but a few frag-
ments of walls ; but the little town
of Snidun, lying north of it, is still
inhabited.

OUI Kulja, known also as
Tatar Eiilja, Nin-yuon and Ku-

ren, standing like Hi on the right bank, is the present capital ; but it enjoyed this
position before Hi itself. Like all the towns built by the Chinese, it forms a
regular square surrounded by a high crenellated wall, broad enough on top to serve
as a carriage drive. Two main streets leading to the four gates intersect each other
at right angles, thus forming four smaller squares of equal size, and themselves
subdivided into others by streets and lanes. But although laid out by the Chinese,

1 Lead.

Copper.

Coal Bed.

1 8UT«r.

^ A

Cool Kine.

Iron Ore.

•• MarMe.
h. Graphite.

Abandoned Iron

Foundry.
Abindoned Qold-

wuchlng.

21 Milei.

Manganese
Coal-flelda.

HilBaBiiii

280

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Kulju retains tbo uppouranco of ii TurkcHtun city in tho architocturo of itn inonu-
inontM, and in itH bakod-ourth honpoH covorcdwith (?luy r<M»fM liko thoH(U)f tho Uzbeks
and SartcH of Central A»<ia. Tho DunganH and ( 'hinow f)f tliis phicc do u oonHidcrabIc
trade, and even posNCHH nouie industrial cstabliHhments, niilln, and the like. But the
niarbloH, iron, sulphur, coal, and other minerals of tho neighbourinj^ hills are littlr
worked. The inhabitants are mostly Mohammedans, and amidst tho numerous
mostjues there are but two Buddhist temples besides u Roman Catholic chapel,
serve<l by French missionaries, uud, since tho Muscuvito occuputiuu, some llussian
chur(^hes.

The Russian Government having occupied Kulja only pending tho pocificatioii
of the country by tho Chinese, tho Slav colonists have not been authorised to settle
in the country. A few soldiers, traders, and travellers have been the only Europeans

Fig. ICO. DupuTRD Tbrbitohy in Kulja.

Boalt 1 ! 0,000,000. I

lauMilM.

in the Hi valley, in the midst of its Tatar, Kalmuk, Taranchi, Dungan, and
Chinese inhabitants. After tedious diplomatic negotiations a treaty was at last
ratified in August, 1881, in virtue of which Russia restores to China the Kulja
territory as far as the river Khorgos, but retains a strip of land for the settlement
of those who may become Russian subjects within the year. The threatened war
having thus been averted, it is probable that other settlers from the West will
now also begin to make their appearance in the fertile valleys watered by the
affluents of the Upper Ili. On the streams in this part of the Tian-shan high-
lands there are no more towns or villages, but the numerous rivers show that
the country was formerly well peopled. In the valley of the Tekes, south-east of
Kulja, are the ruins of an ancient capital of the Mongol khans, now known to the
Kirghiz as the Ak-kurgan, or " White Mound." Buildings belonging to diverse
civilisations still give evidence of the struggles formerly engaged in for the

ADMINISTRATION OF TURKESTAN.

\v of I'fH innini-

41 of tho lJi!b<'^;s

oil coiiNuhTabli'

like. Hut till'

hilU uro littlt'

tho numcruuH

!)utholic oliupol,

|i, some ItuHhiu)!

I tho pucificatioii
loriscd to scttlu
I only Europeans

^gf

142

li, Dungan, and
eaty was at last
^hina the Eulja
ir the settlement
I threatened war
a the West will
watered by the
Tian-shan high-
ivers show that
es, south-east of
3W known to the
aging to diverse
ged in for the

possession of this magnitietMit region. In tho valley of tho KuNh nro seen miiny
idols and blocks bearing Tibotan iiiHcriptionM, and near Khorgos, oust of Kiilja,
stands u most^ue, in its style resembling those of Sumurkund.

AdMIMSTRAIION or TrUKESTAN.

Most of Russian Turkestan conNistH t>f pasturoH, doHort, and other wiisto lands, tho
arable space being cstinmtcd at present ut no more than ono-fiftceuth of the whole
area. But altliough the water supply is less abundant than formerly, the rivers now
Howing to saline basins or unhealthy marshes might be utilised in reclaiming vast
tracts from tho desert. Estimating such tracts at alK)ut one-sixth of the whole
Aralo-Caspian region, this would still represent an urea larger than France, and
suiHcient to support 40,000,000 pitople. Most of the ro(piire<l irrigation works
would also consist of restorations
of older systems. The banks of tho Fig. lfll.-Ciu.NE.B Tvpk, Ktu*.

8ir north and west of Bokhara, and
nearly all the space between the two
main arteries, were formerly under
cultivation, and the steppe of " Hun-
ger " has borne this name only since
the sands have invaded mo arlh,
by which it was at one time fur-
rowed in all directions, and which it
is now proposed to repair.

Tho lands brought under irriga-
tion give excellent results, even
under the rude system practised by
the natives. All tho oases laid out
as gardens support one or more
towns, and it is by gardening rather
than by ordinary tillage that the
people chiefly live. In the Bok-
hara plains the gardens ar*^ seven

times more extensive than the land under crops, which occupy large spaces only
on the slopes of the hills.

The cotton crop, which has considerably increased of late years, is valued at
50,000 tons, of which two-thirds come from Bokhara. This plant grows us far as
Eazalinsk, on the Lower Sir, but the Asiatic 'fibre is much inferior to the American,
iikd is also prepared in such a slovenly way as to exclude it altogether from the West
European market. The quantity exported to Russia rose from 677,000 roubles in
1868 to 5,513,000 in 1867. Silk has made still more rapid progress, the export to
Russia having increased from 69,000 to 1,273,900 roubles between the same years.
The Bokhara crop alone now amounts to about 2,500,000 lbs. In some districts
the mulberry is the ordinary tree everywhere lining the hedges and fields. The
native wool is very coarse, and so badly sorted and washed that it is useless except

288

• ASIATIC WU8SIA.

for \vi'uviii)< inferior cloth. Yet non»o of tho curjK'tM uri» rcniurkaWlo for thi'ir
HtrcMf^tl), and i>N|H>cially for tlio iMMuity aii'l ori^:iiiality of tli«>ir dcMi^iiN. Thoy ar<'
woven by the Turkoman women under the ^uidanee of u matre'i. who trucer« the
(h'Mi^n on the wind, conntM the nmnlM>r of threa<li*, und .;;{'• ^-^ ^hv cdourn an.i
HhudeH. Tlie ctiniel-hair fahricH, also very mdid, have roplao^ i \\ir--i ''ir oiekin^f,
HohlierH' l)loum^H, and other ])iir|M)NeN.

Hut tlie j'hief wealth of the eountry in itn livo Htoek, vahie<l altr etlier al
l()(),(H)0,0(H) rouhh'H. The fat-tuilinl Hheep NUpply n hir^e quantity of the talluw
recpiired for h)cul couHuniption. The Kirj^hiz yearly exjMirt to UuNNiu ttlM)ut
500,000 rouhloH* worth of w«mi1, while the mile of the animals theniHelveM all uh)n^
the line lu'tween Troitzk and SomipalatinHk amountH to .'{,.'jOO,000 roid)leH. The
Kirghiz derive an annual revenue of over 5,000,000 rouhleH from their horwH, and
altogether the "balance o\' trade" in in favour of thcNe iiomadH an agaiiiHt their
IluHHian nuiNters. Yet the live Ht(K'k in diminiNhing from the effectM «)f cold, NturniH,
diNeaH(>, and other cnuHCH. Tlu* importation of corn into the HteppcN Iuih also fallen olf,
owing to the increamng poverty of the ntmiuds. In the province of Turgai the cuttlu
are said to have Iwcn reduced in the winter of 1870-80 from 8(50,000 to 50,000.

In theory the Hoil of Turkestan cannot bo hehl absolutely, the right of poMHcs-
Hion existing only ho long uh it Ih kept under cultivation. If allowed to lie fallow
for three years it reverts to the State, which again disposes of it to whoever is
willing to pay the tax. The land incapable of tillage may be said to bo conunon
property, all having unrestricted right to its pastures and timber. The cultivated
land is inherited from father to sou without tho intervention of the State, except
where it is enjoyed in usufruct, as with the vaku/ lands, whoso revenues belong to
religious or educational bodies. The State allows the owners tho right to a certain
quantity of water for irrigation purposes, but may regulate the rotation of tho
crops according to the greater or less abundance of tho supply.

Comjjrising so many desert tracts and so few inhabitants and towns, the adminis-
tration of Russian Turkestan presents special difHcultios. Owing to tho absence
of any common centre, tho people easily escape from tho direct control of the autho-
rities, and till recently many were able to maintain their indei)eudencc, thanks to
thoir nomad life and the vast regions over which they roamed. Tho sedentary
populations also occupy the territories farthest removed from the centre of the
empire, and if loft to themselves they would soon form new political groups without
much regretting thoir release from the Slav yoke. Tho annexation of these lands
to Russia is a question of brute force, and has its justification neither in the
sympathy of the people for their conquerors, nor in any resemblance in origin,
speech, culture, habits, or customs. In every respect the racial antagonism is
complete. But for the ultimate goal of India, and, perhaps, China, tho Russians
would never have cared to penetrate much beyond the banks of the Ural and tho
shores of the Caspian.

Central Asia is meantime held in military tenure. Hence the necessity of con-
necting this region with European Russia by means of good highways. Tho
small trade and resources of the Aralo-Caspian provinces are far from sufficing to

n AIL WAY I'llOJKCTS.

luibic for fh<'ir

imiH. Tlwy MIC

wlin trii«"(th the

'•'■ (-tlourM ati.i

i«' 'if on'kiii^,

<1 alti ;(<tlior at

ty of tlio lullow

) UuNNJa alMiiit

iiHclvuM all ulon^

roublcH. Tho

heir Iioi'nch, and

aH a^aiiiHt their

t of cold, NtoniiH,

an alw) fullon oil',

Turffai the cuttk'

00 to 50,000.

right of poHMcs-

wc'«l to lio faUow

it to wh(K«vt'r is

(1 to bo cotiunon

The cultivated

the State, except

k'enues belong to

riglit to a certain

3 rotation of the

wns, the udininis-
^ to the absence
trol of the autho-
idence, thanks to
The sedentary
bo centre of the
il groups without
>n of these lands
a neither in the
blance in origin,
il antagonism is
ina, the Russians
the Ural and the

necessity of con-
highways. The
from sufficing to

jMiy till' (■«)Nt iind niaintcnaiice of a gnnit liin' of railway, and tln> n>i|uir<>men(M(<v<>n
f«ir a gn-utly intn-am'*! (raflic wiuild .still lie met by fho caravan Kcrvicc acnmn tint
natural routcH of tin- Mtrp|M' and d»'M«'rt. T\w new lincH nttw pnijccti'd art> acc(»rd-
ingly mainly intended to eonnert Tatary with lluNnia, and Muiro the abMoluto
am!endttm'y of the Czar in Central An'm. l-'or miuIi a piir|tow> the rivers and houh
of the land are of littl«« u^e. The Oxuh no longer tlown to the CaHpian, while the
Aral and itH atllnentH arc navigable only for liglil «'raft and for a pnrt of the
year. The cont of thiw navigation already far cxcectU tlie military and <•■ tnim icial
advantages to Ik* derivinl from it. Ilentie the project of a trunk line lo coiine«t
Tashkend, Samarkand, and llokhara with the European railway system. This liuo

Fiff. 162.— Phujrctii) Railway LiNrH in Wmtrhn Aria.

HoaId 1 : flO.miO.OOO.

Open

•«— •— — InPrcgnn.

Riiuian Projeeii

.. Enffliib Projeofi

. 0<)0 Mile*.

has already by anticipation been named the " Great Central Asiatic," and hopes
are entertained that somo day the trade of India may be attracted this way.

But this question of the future trimk lino to India is affected by political
rivalries. The Russians on the one hand, the English on the other, have a
national interest in looking at things from different points of view ; and the lino
oscillates between north and south according to the nationality of the engineers.
To tho projects of Lesseps and Baranovsky, favoured by Russia, are opposed those
of Hochstetter and Rawlinson, more convenient for Austro- Hungary and England.
But viewing the question from the higher standpoint of the general interest of
mankind, apart from the political balance of the states struggling for exclusive sway

290 ASIATIC EUSSU.

in Asia, it must be confessed that the best route is that which follows the most
direct lino from the great centres of trade and population in Europe to the Ganges
basin. This line is obviously that which, starting from Calais and Ostend, will ere
long connect the Atlantic seaboard with Constantinople, and Constantinople
ultimately with India through Kandahar and Eurachi. To this line the Caucasian
might be connected by a junction or branch line. With the north Russia will also
possess one of the great highways of the world's trade, running from the Volga to
the Hoang-ho basin by the historic route through the Zimgarian depression. Thus
the projected Turkestan lines must always remain subordinate as connecting links
between the two great trunk lines from Europe to India and from Russia to China.*

However useful it may prove from the commercial point of view, the Turkestan
line will at all events have no great physical difficulties to overcome. The chief
obstacle occurs at Orenburg itself ,1 its western terminus, where the Ural River will
have to be crossed by a bridge over 1,330 feet long. The " Black Sands " north of
the Aral will not prove so difficult as was formerly supposed, the dunes being here
separated from each other by level tracts nmning south-eastwards right in the
direction of the line. Another route crossing the Emba morass follows the Ust-urt
depressions and the plains of Khiva, ascending the Oxus valley towards Afghan
Turkestan and the passes in the Indian iCaucasus. Other projects consist in turn-
ing the Kara-kum desert on the north, with a junction to the future Siberian
system vi& Tro'itzk and Yekaterinburg. The section from Orenburg to Tashkend
might probably be laid down for £8,000,000. But beyond that point towards the
Indian frontier many serious difficulties present themselves, nor have any prelimi-
nary surveys yet determined the best route through Baktriana and over the Hindu-
Kush.

The government of Turkestan is purely military. The Governor-General,
known to the natives as the " Yarin-padishah," or " Half King," disposes of royal
powers over his subjects. He is at once the head of the administration, commander-
in-chief of the military forces, plenipotentiary of the Czar in all diplomatic relations
with the neighbouring lands. His salary is fixed by no regulations, depending
entirely on the will of the Czar. In order to increase his power the Siberian
provinces of Semirechinsk, Turgai, Akmolinsk, and Semipalatinsk have been attached
to Turkestan, which is now nearly as extensive as the whole of European Russia.

The various provinces are administered on the model of the Russian govern-
ments, with such modifications as are occasioned by the preponderance of the
military element. The governors of the provinces are named by the Minister
of War, and assisted by a provincial council chosen by the Governor-General. At

* Respective length of the projected lines of railways and navigation between London aud
Oalcatta :—

Uiln.

By Calais, Constantinople, and Eandahar 5,470

„ Ostend, Warsaw, Baku, and Teheran 6,880

i> ., Orenburg, and Tashkend .... 6,480

„ Brindisi, Alexandretta, and Bassorah 0,88.5

„ .. Suez, and Bombay 7,200

„ thfc Cape of Good Hope ,12 870

follows the most
ipe to the Ganges
[d Ostend, will ere
id Constantinople
line the Caucasian
;h Russia will also
[from the Volga to
depression. Thus
s connecting links
Russia to China.*
lew, the Turkestan
Ircome. The chief
le Ural River will
Sands " north of
3 dunes being here
ards right in the
bllows the Ust-urt
y towards Afghan
cts consist in tum-
le future Siberian
iburg to Tashkend
point towards the
have any prelimi-
id over the Hindu-

Govemor-General,
" disposes of royal
•ation, commander-
iplomatic relations
lations, depending
ower the Siberian
have been attached
luropean Russia.
I Russian govem-
jonderance of the
1 by the Minister
mor-General. At

between London and

Miles.
6,470
6,880
6.480
C,88.5
7,200
12,870

FINANCE.

the head of the " circles " is a prefect, who is responsible for the taxes and the
maintenance of peace. At the same time the autonomy of the tribes is not
altogether ignored, and their usages are respected so far as is compatible with le
general interests. The Kirghiz, grouped in au/a of from one hundred to two
hundred families, and in larger communities known by the Russian name of rolost,
or " bailiwick," choose their own elders and judges for all tribal affairs. The
Uzbegs, Sartes, and Tajiks of the towns also appoint their akmkal, or " white
beards ; " but this privilege depends on the will of the Governor-General, who may
set aside any of the elected magistrates. Hence the urban elections have mostly
become a mere formality, and all the military, administrative, and judicial functions
may be said to be practically in the hands of the Russian officer of highest
rank in the Turkestan cities. Freedom of worship is absolute, and the absence of
persecution has had much to do with the diminished zeal of the Mussulmans.
Public instruction is still but slightly appreciated by the people, and in thb whole
of Turkestan there are scarcely more than 6,000 Moslem children receiving
a regular education. Secondary instruction is represented by the medresse/i, or
" colleges," where little is learnt except the reading of the Koran. In some of
the primary schools the Russian language is already taught.

The chief source of expense is the army, which averages 30,000 men,
but which, as in 1880, may be raised to 80,000. All supplies have to be
drawn from Russia, a distance of 2,400 miles, and the consequence is that the
Turkestan budget always shows a yearly deficit of from 2,000,000 to 10,000,000
roubles. The expenditure is about four times the income, and three-fourths of this
expenditure are absorbed by the army. The land tax, which gives rise to great
waste, produces about 1,275,000 roubles, and the whole revenue scarcely exceeds
2,600,000 roubles, while the expenditure averages 8,000,000 roubles. The income
of the khanate of Kokan alone amounted, before the Russian conquest, to 2,290,000
roubles.

■LJi^.-.l.i-- ,-....L^^.ij^..-:..^i.^.^'.... ^ ..^...t^. .^... ■^■ ^ . Y "i i ' i fi ■

CHAPTER IV.

SIBERIA.

I.— SIBERIA.

IBERIA is emphatically the " Land of the North." Its name has hy
some etymologists been identified with " Severia," a term formerly
applied to various northern regions of European Russia. The city
of Sibir, which has given its name to the whole of North Asia, was
so called only by the Russians, its native name being Isker. The
Cossacks, coming from the south and centre of Russia, may have naturally regarded
as pre-eminently the " Northern Land " those cold regions of the Ob basin lying
beyond the snowy mountains which form the " girdle of the world."

Long before the conquest of Sibir by the Cossacks, this region was known to
the Arab traders and missionaries. The Tatars of Sibir were Mohammedans, and
this town was the centre of a great fur trade. The Russians themselves had
constant relations with the inhabitants of the Asiatic slopes of the Urals, and the
Novgorodians were acquainted with the regions stretching " beyond the portages."
Early in the sixteenth century the Moscow Czars, heirs of the Novgorod power,
called themselves lords of Obdoria and Kondinia ; that is, of all the Lower Ob basin
between the Konda and Irtish confluence, a, .d the station of Obdorsk, under the
Arctic Circle. Their possessions — that is, t^ie hunting grounds visited by the Russian
agents of the Strogonov family— consequently skirted the great river for a distance
of 600 miles. But the Slav power was destined soon to be consolidated by
conquest, and such is the respect inspired by force that the successful expedition of
a Cossack brigand, on whose head a price had been set, was supposed to have led to
the discovery of Siberia, although really preceded by many visits of a peaceful
character. Even still the conquering Yermak is often regarded as a sort of
explorer of the lards beyond the Urals. But he merely established himself as a
master where the Strogoi.ov traders had been received as guests. Maps of the Ob
and of the Ostiak country hud already been published by Sebastian Munst^r and by
Herberstein a generation before the Cossacks entered Sibir. The very name of this
town is marked on Munster's map.

rEOGEESS OF CONQUEST AND DISCOVEEY.

Proorkss of Conqttest and Discovery.

name has by
erm formerly
The city
rth Asia, was

Isker. The
•ally regarded
b basin lying

ras known to
nmedans, and
emselves had
Jrals, and the
lie portages."
gorod power,
►wer Ob basin
sk, under the
y the Bussian
for a distance
isolidated by
expedition of
to have led to
>f a peaceful
18 a sort of
himself as a
ps of the Ob
mster and by
name of this

In 1579 Yermak began the second plundering expedition, which in two
years resulted in the capture of the capital of the Tatar kingdom. When the
conquerors entered Sibir they had been reduced from over 800 to about 400
men. But this handful represented the power of the Czars, and Yermak could
sue for pardon, with the offer of a kingdom as his ransom. Before the close

Fig. 163.— Webt Sibbbu, accoedino to Hebberstein.

IVH1\.A.

of the sixteenth century the land had been finally subdued. Sibir itself, which
stood on a high bluff on the right bank of the Irtish, exists no more, having
probably been swept away by the erosions of the stream. But 10 miles farther
down another capital, Tobolsk, arose, also on the right bank, and the whole of the
north was gradually added to the Czar's dominions. The fur trappers, more even
than the soldiers, were the real conquerors of Siberia. Nevertheless, many battles
had to be fought down to the middle of the seventeenth century. The Buriats of
the Angora basin, the Koriaks, and other tribes long held out ; but most of the

894

ASIATIC EIjSSIA.

ym^

land was peacefully acquired, and permanently secured by the forts erected by the
Cossacks at the junctions of the rivers, at the entrance of the mountain passes, and
other strategic points. History records no other instance of such a vast dominion
so rapidly acquired, and with such sltnder means, by a handful of men acting mostly
on their own impiUse, without chiefs or instructions from the centre of authority.

Even China allowed the Cossacks to settle on the banks of the Amur, though
the treaty of Nerchinsk required the Russians to withdraw from that basin in 1689,
But during the present century they have been again attracted to this region, and
the Government of St. Petersburg is now fully alivei to the advantages of a free access
by a large navigable stream to the Pacific seaboard. Hence in 1851 Muraviov
established the factory of Nikolaievsk, near the mouth of the Amur, and those of
Mariinsk and Alexandrovsk at either end of the portage connecting that river with
the Bay of Castries. During the Crimean war its left bank was definitely secured
by a line of fortified posts, and in 1859 a ukase confirmed the possession of a terri-
tory torn from China in time of peace. Lastly, in 1860, while the Anglo-French
forces were entering Pekin, Bussia obtained without a blow the cession of the
region south of the Amur and east of the Ussuri, stretching along the coast to the
Corean frontier.

And thus was completed the reduction of the whole of North Asia, a territory
of itself alone far more extensive than the European continent. In other respects
there is, of course, no point of comparison between these two regions. This
Siberian world, where vast wildernesses still remain to be explored, has a foreign
trade surpassed by that of many a third-rate European seaport, such as Dover or
Boulogne. Embracing a thirteenth part of the dry land on the surface of the
globe, its population falls short of that of London alone ; it is even more sparsely
peopled than Caucasia and Turkestan, having little over one inhabitant to 1,000
acres.

Accurate surveys of the physical features and fron*''9r-lines are still far from
complete. Only quite recently the first cirr- .navigation of the Old World round
the northern shores of Siberia has been ^ scomplished by the Swedish explorer,
Nordenskjold. The early attempts made by Wiiloughby, Chancellor, and Burrough
failed even to reach the Siberian coast. Hoping later on to reach China by
ascending the Ob to the imaginary Lake Kitai — that is, Kathay, or China — the
English renewed their efforts to discover the " north-east passage," and in 1580
two vessels, commanded by Arthur Ket and Charles Jackman, sailed for the Arctic
Ocean ; but they never got beyond the Kara Sea. The Dutch succeeded no better,
none of the voyages undertaken by Barents and others between 1594 and 1597
reaching farther than the Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya waters. Nor were
these limits exceeded by Hendrich Hudson in 1608. This was the last attempt
made by the navigators of West Europe ; but the Russian traders and fishers of the
White Sea were familiar with the routes to the Ob and Yenisei Gulfs, as is evident
from a map published in 1600 by Boris Godunov. However, sixteen years after-
wards the navigation of these waters was interdicted under paiu of death, lest
foreigners should discover the way to the Siberian coast.

PROOEESS OF CONQUEST AND DISCOVERY.

cted by the

passes, and

st dominion

ting mostly

authority.

ur, though
sin in 1689.
region, and
a free access
1 Muraviov
nd those of
|at river with
tely secured
an of a terri-
nglo-French
ission of the
coast to the

a, a territory
ther respects
jgions. This
has a foreign
I as Dover or
^ace of the
more sparsely
itant to 1,000

still far from
World round
lish explorer,
ind Burrough
ch China by
ir China — the
' and in 1580
For the Arctic
led no better,
594 and 1597
9. Nor were
3 last attempt
fishers of the
us is evident
tt years after-
)f death, lest

The exploration of this seaboard b id thus to be prosecuted in Siberia itself by
means of vessels built for the river navigation. In 1648 the Cossack Dejncv
sailed with a flotilla of small craft from the Kolima round the north-oast extremity
of Asia, passing long before the birth of Bering through the strait which now bears
the name of that navigator. Stadukhin also explored these eastern seas in search
of the islands full of fossil ivory, of which he had heard from the natives. In 1735
Pronchishchev and Lasinius embarked at Yakutsk and sailed down the Lena, explor-
ing its delta and neighbouring

coasts. Pronchishchev reached a Fig. 1 64.— Sakhalin, accohdino to La PfiRousE.
point east of the Taimir penin- Soaioi:ii,uo,ooo.

sula, but fpiled to double the
headlands between the Lena and
Yenisei estuaries. The expedition
begun by Laptiev in 1739, after
suffering shipwreck, was continued
overland, resulting in the explora-
tion of the Taimir peninsula and
the discovery of the North Cape
of the Old World, Pliny's Tabin,
and the Cheluskin of modem
maps, so named from the pilot
who accompanied Pronchishchev
and Laptiev. The western sea-
board between the Yenisei and
Ob estuaries had already been
surveyed by Ovtzin and Minin in
1737_9.

But the problem was already
being attacked from the side of the
Pacific Ocean. In 172S ihe Danish
navigator Bering, ir. the service
of Russia, crossed Hib(?ria overland
to th . I'acific, whence he sailed
thnwgh the strait now named
from him, and by him first re-
vealed to the West, though

known to the Siberian Cossacks eighty years previously. Even Bering himself,
hugging the Asiatic coast, had not descri.^ the oppopfte shores of America, and was
uncertain as to the exact position of the strait. This point was not cleared up till
Cook's voyage of 1778, and even after that the Sakhalin, Yesso, and Kurile waters
still remained to be explored. The shores of the mainland and islands were first
traced by La P^rouse, who determined the insular character of Sakhalin, and
ascertained the existence of a strait connecting the Japanese Sea with that of
Okhotsk. This completed the general survey of the whole Siberian seaboard.

iflOMilM.

The scientific exploration of the interior began in the eighteenth century with
Messerschmidt, followed by Gmelin, MiiUer, and Delisle de la Croyere, who

WATEE HIGHWAYS— FOETAOES— HIGHLANDS.

297

century with
[^royere, who

determined many important physical points between the years 173'3 and 1742. The
region stretching beyond Lake Baikal was explored by Pallas and his associates in
1770 — 3. The expeditions, interrupted by the great wars following on the French
devolution, were resimied in 1828 by the Norwegian Hansteen, whose memorable
expedition in company with Ennan had such important results for the study of
terrestrial magnetism. While Hansteen and Erman were still prosecuting their
labours in every branch of natiiral science, Alexander von Humboldt, Ehrenberg,
and Gustav Rose made a short visit to Siberia, which, however, remaiuod one of
the most important in the history of science. Middendcrff 'g journeys to North and
East Siberia had also some very valuable results, and were soon followed, in 1854, by
the " expedition to Siberia " undertaken by Schwartz, Schmidt, Glehn, Usoltzev,
and associates, extending over the whole region of the Transbaikal to the Lena and
northern tributaries of the Amur. Thus began the uninterrupted series of modem
journeys, which are now being systematically continued in every part of Siberia,
and which promise soon to leave no blanks on the chart of that region.

The work of geographical discovery, properly so called, may be said to have
been brought to a close by Nordenskj old's recent determination of the north-east
passage, vainly attempted by Willoughby, Burrough, and so many other illustrious
navigators. ^

Water Highways — Portages — Highlands.

A large portion of Asiatic Russia is no less uniform than Russia in Europe
itself in the general features of its relief. East and west of the Urals alike there
stretch vast plains or rolling prairi°s offering no obstacles to free migration. To
traverse Siberia from end to end the sole difficulties man had had to contend with
were the boimdless distances themselves, the severity of the climate, dense forests, and
swampy wastes. Instead of arresting their progress, the great streams were the
natural highways by which the Cossacks were enabled to overrun these solitudes
as far as the Pacific seaboard. Owing to the slight elevation of the land the main
river basins merge imperceptibly with each other, and Cossacks and natives alike
generally followed these routes in their migratory movements, warlike or peaceful
expeditions. Hamlets, villages, towns, have thus sprung up along the river banks
wherever productive lands invited colonisation. From the Ural to Yakutsk, a
distance of about 6,000 miles, the continuous water highway is broken only by two
portages, the first between the Ob and Yenisei basins, the second between the latter
and that of the Lena.

On leaving the Ural valleys the chief navigable route follows successively the
course of the Tura, Tobol, Irtish, Ob, Ket, Yenisei, Upper Tunguska or Angara,
Lena, and Aldan. Farther north other rivers, also connected by portages, lay
open to the conquerors of Siberia ; but between the Middle Lena and Amur basios
many Cossack expeditions were defeated by the obstacles presented by the reefs
and rapids, dense woodlands, morasses, and the unproductive character of this region.
Their plans were often badly conceived, and in their search for the " White
Fountain " or the " Land of Gold," they often proceeded in the wrong direction.
20

298

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

ThuH Tiiiko Huikul was long sought for, not in the YoiiiHci basin, hut east of the
J,ena lowards the Pacific Ocean. Poyarkov, the first Russian who in 1673 reached
the Amur valley, ascended the river Aldan, and then crossing the Stanovoi range,
iollowed the southern course of the Zieya; hut he lost one- third of his 130 men
on the road, and the survivors had to live on their dead comrades or on the natives
slain in hattle.

The journeys hy water, which rendered the conquest of Siberia so oasj', can
scarcely lie made except in the middle region running east and west. Southwards
the river basins are separated from each other by plateaux, highlands, and mountain
ranges; farther north the main streams have already received all their chief
affluents, so that here there are no more available water byways, while in any
case these frozen wastes are too inhospitable to be easily traversed by the most
daring adventurers. East of the Yenisei, again, the lowlands change their character.

Fig. 166. — Watrr Hiohwayb and Fortaoes acroab Sibehia.

Scale 1 : 85,000,000.

eOOMUea.

II'

''mi's

the low-lying, fertile, or lacustrine tracts, swamps, and trembling prairies being here
succeeded by hilly and gravelly lands, here and there crossed by rocky ridges, and
rising even to groups of eminences difficult of access. The Yenisei and Lena basins
are, in fact, separated by a real plateau of palaeozoic rocks, compelling the traveller
to turn southwards. Hence the administrative division of the land into "West and
East Siberia is fully justified by the physical contrast between the two regions, a
contrast extending t-o their flora, fauna, and inhabitants.

Even in the extreme north the monotony of the plains is sometimes interrupted
by clusters of elevated hills. MiddendorfE has given the name of " moimtains " to
the Siverma chain ruiming west of the Yenisei within the Arctic Circle, and to
the Birranga range, which occupies the northern part of the continent between the
Yenisei and the Khatanga, and which forms the double Taimir peninsula projecting
far into the Frozen Ocean. Some of the summits on the east coast of this peninsula

•mmf^tmn

WATER I1I0HWAY8-P0RTA0ES— IliailLANDS

299

t oast of tlic
167!J reached
novoi ratipc,
his 130 men
»u the natives

so easy, can
Southwards
and mountain
I their chief
while in any

by the most
leir character,

eo'

iries being here
sky ridges, and
nd Lena basins
ig the traveller
into West and
two regions, a

nes interrupted,
mountains " to
! Circle, and to
jnt between the
isula projecting
f this peninsula

are said to have an elevation of no less thun 3,000 feet. Still Siherin may, on tlio
whole, be describtnl us u plain sloj^ing uniformly in a north-westerly direction. A
distinct wuter-partinjj; between the rivers flowing, on the one liand, northwards to
the Arctic, on the other to the inland basins of Central Mongolia and to the Pacific,
is formed by the great orographic system comprising the Tian-shan and Zungarian
Ala-tau, the Tarbagutai and Altai, the Sayan Mountains, the Baikal highlands, the
Vitim plateau, the parallel YaWonoi ranges, and the north-east section of the
Stanovoi, or " Dorsal Chain," running towards Bering Strait.

This vast system is itself composed of distinct sections, dearly separated one
from the other. North of the Tian-shan is the Zungarian depression, where at
one time flowed a marine struit. The Upper Irtish valley, between the Tarbagatai
and Altai ranges, also forms a broad opening connecting the Kirghiz and Mongolian
domains west and cast. Between the Altai and Sayan Mountains the northern and
southern basins are connected by similar depressions, while farther east, about the
sources of the Yenisei and its western affluents, uplands with a mean elevation of
from 7,000 to 10,000 feet form the frontier chain skirting the Mongolian plateaux,
every stream hero affording easy access from Siberia to the Chinese Empire.
Transbaikal is itself a hilly plateau, limited south-west by two eminences — the
Earaar-daban, at the extremity of the lake, and the Sokhondo, commanding one of
the main ridges of the Yablonoi system, on the Mongolian frontier. From this
plateau the ascent is almost imperceptible to the hills from 3,500 to 4,000 feet
high, which lead from the Selenga to the Amur ; that is, from the Arctic to the
Pacific basin. North-eastwards the water-partings diminish in height, and beyond
the Sokhondo none of the Yablonoi or Stanovoi summits would appear to reach
9,500 feet, which is about the elevation of that mountain. North of the Amur and
Ud basins the lofty ranges figuring on the maps as portions of the " Great Divide "
are often in reality little more than marshy tracts with imdecided inclination. But
the whole of Eastern Siberia skirting the Sea of Okhotsk north-eastwards to the
Bering Sea is mountainous, or at least very diversified, and here the land every-
where rises highest near the sea-coast.

South of the Stanovoi highlands the region watered by the Amur and its
affluents may, on the whole, be regarded as a mere continuation of the Mongolian
plateau. The land slopes towards the Pacific in a series of terraces intersected by
a number of nearly parallel ridges, including the Great Ehingan, the Little
Khingan, and the coast range running north of the Corean peninsula. These
Eastern Asiatic river and coast ranges are regularly disposed in curves, with their
convex sides facing east and south-east, and often describing perfectly equal seg-
ments of a circle. Some are connected at their extremities in a series of continuous
chains festooned at uniform intervals; others are disposed in parallel concentric
arcs, while the more important are rooted at one end with different systems. Thus
the Kamchatka peninsula and Kurile Archipelago (the most geometrical of all)
are connected with the hills of the Chukchi country. This prevailing uniformity
in the disposition of the North-eastern Asiatic mountain systems must be largely
due to volcanic agencies. While old sedimentary formations prevail in the South

800

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Silwriau highland rangos Iwrdcring on tho Munfj^liun ph't'* u. tJio Sikhotu-ulin,
an well as various Muni^hurian inouutuins, in former tinus ejcriiid lava streaniN,
and stil'-activo volcanoes fringe th(» east roust of Kamchatka. These Kainchulkii
mountains are, however, totally distinct from the East Silx?rian systems, and are the
most elevated in Asiatic Russia next to the Tian-shon. One of tho volcanoes in
the peninsula is nearly us high as Mont Blanc.

River Systems.

The rivers rising in the glaciers and perpetual snows of fh-- Altoi and Sayan,
or on tho slopes of tho less elevated ranges falling short of the snow-line, arc
remarkable for tho great uniformity of their windings. Owing to tho general tilt
of the land they flow mainly north and north-west in the whole of Siberia,
limited southwards by the ranges stretching from the Tian-sliun to the Stanovoi.
Not only the three main streams, Ob, Yenisei, and Lena, but nearly all the other

Fig. 107. — Duration op thk Fnoar and Thaw on thb Ybnibii and Lkna.

La1<tud«

.4m

Jtejr _

MtiJL

NMnhh

[...Jitt^l ',

Uodt

■"Til I 'I I' 11 f || [■■■■'- J - ■ ■ ' i^l "■fflpVwA^

0'tpr4« Kropotki*

Thuw on the Yenisei
Yenlaei. loe-bounl.

Thaw on tho Lens
Lena. loe-bound.

rivers, follow the lino of the meridian in their northerly course. The Lena, how-
ever, so far contrails with its two western rivals that it is deflected a long way
eastwards by the palax)zoio rocks of Central Siberia before resuming its northern
course parallel with the neighbouring Olonek and Tana.

These great arteries rank with the largest rivers on the globe, both in volume ond
tho extent of their basins. In these respects the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena surpass all
the European streams. Yet the mean annual rainfall in all the Siberian lands
draining northwards scarcely exceeds 8 inches. But the ground being frozen to
within a few inches of the surface, there is no loss by infiltration, so that wherever
the land slopes ever so slightly every drop of water from the rains or melting
snows must necessarily find its way to the affluents of the Arctic Ocean. Else-
where it remains in flats, marshes, or shallow lakes, which form a labyrinth of
land and water, constantly shifting its outlines with the abimdance of the rains
and intensity of the evaporation. The Taimir peninsula has thus become a lacus-
trine region of stagnant waters.

Estimating at about half of the anniial snow and rain fall the quantity discharged

niVEB SYSTEMS.

801

Sikhotu-ulin,
avii HtrcuiiiM,
Kaincbutkii
s, uH(i are the
) volcanoes in

)

ai und Sayan,
inow-line, are
10 general tilt
e of Siberia,

the Stanovoi.

all the other

KNA.

Vars

/wlitt

Stfifnoir*
Octotr0

Orcemtrr

lie Lena, how-
ted a long way
Qg its northern

li in volume and
jena surpass all

Siberian lands
being frozen to
3 that wherever
lins or melting
5 Ocean. Else-

a labyrinth of
ce of the rains
become a lacus-

itity discharged

by the three main streams, the mean volume of each muMt bo at least c({ual to
350,000 cubi(! foot jwr second, or four tinum that of the llhino or llhono. Hut the
diH(;hurge in very unevenly distributi'd over the year, Inung much rcduciMl in the
ice-lK)und bedH of the streams in winter, when the Hnuiller rivers are frozen to
the l)<>ttom, and the largo streams and lakes to a depth of from 4 to 7 f(H>t. Kxcopt
those fed by underground rivulets frcmi the groat lakes, all the rivers rising within
the Arctic ('ircle thus cease to flow in winter. Hut with the nx'Uing of the
snows the river beds are soon tilled again, oft^ni overflowing their bunks to grout
distances.

In winter the water flowing l)oneath its thick icy covering is said gruduuUy to
" die," and the fish are no longer uble to live in the vitiated atmosphere ut these
depths. Towards the end of autumn they escape in multitudes either to the lakes
and d( op pools or to the estuaries. Tln-n they may be easily taken in large quantities
by simply breaking the ice wherever the water has remained " alive." Immediately

Fig. 168.— DawT Ici un thh Bank* or thh Yimiui.

SSOTard*.

after the thaw they ascend the streams in vast shoals, and spread over the flooded
plains and forests. Here also they are captured in great numbers by means of the
system of weirs set up at the mouths of the affluents.

The flow of the Siberian rivers along the line of the meridian causes the break-
up of the ice to assume a special character. In the extreme south, or at the base of
the Altai, they are ice-bound for from three tc five months only ; but this period is
extended as they flow northwards, and the estuaries "between the 72nd und 75th
parallels are free only for periods varying from sixty to one hundred days in the
year. Free navigation can, in fact, be depended upon only from about the end of
July to the middle of September. Middendorff has calcidated that for every degree
of latitude between the 56th and 72nd, the ice-bound period increases on an average
rather more than nine days. But farther south the increase is not quite seven
days, this discrepancy being largely due to the absence of springs in the north.

In spring, when the current begins to resume its course and break through its

802

AHIATIC UUaSlA.

wintry fottorH, it mnm Ho<m1h lx)th itit ImnkH, thim forming tv tnhcretji, or latenil
chuiiMolH, whilo tho main Ntnuiin i^ Ntill fro/en on tht> Hiirfr .'. ll(>ro tint 'wv then
bcyfinH gnidiially to an*li npwiinlN until it l>r(>akN into hu' J irrcguliir fruginvnt.x,
wliii'h aro Hwopt along l)y the continually riMing Ntrruni. Thcw fragini'iitH torn
from tho river bunkH carry with them mud, clay, gravel, and oven largo bouIdorN,
which in their northward courHe noou nu>etwit)i ntill unbroken inaNHeNNtrong enough
to reuiHt their prcMHure. Tho moving niaNNeH aro ulm> ut timcH retarded by the

Fiff. 160.- 81IOHM Uir THI YiNIIII WORN BY UlACIAL ACTION.

"■:^^-

^^i^:

•iSS*f -'•

'^^-^'

^<i^'-.'^'

f*-'.. if.

fierce polar winds, and perhaps lodged at the foot of some projecting bluff.
Here the blocks are piled one on the other, damming up the river, and causing it to
rise 3 or 4 feet in a few hours. Finding no escape, ice and water spread laterally,
dashing against the banks, sweeping away the shingle, in one place forming fresh
dams, in another scoring the ground with deep furrows. Thus a . vuy river banks
yearly modified by glacial action.

Even more than the rivers of European Russia, those of Siberia, flowing nearer

ir<ji, or Itttoni!
V tlm i<'e thfii
liir frupfinciitx,
riif^incntH torn
lur^o InmldiTN,
Htron^ enough
iturdwl by the

projecting bluff.
, and causing it to
r spread laterally,
ace forming fresh

I . v*iy nver

banks

ria, flowing nearer

■'f-' ..'■■

. .3

-f

.\-<^4f^f^^'^

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TEST TARGET (MT-3)

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Series.

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Collection de
microfiches.

C«M<H*n IratKuM for HMorical MlcroMproductloM / liwtftut e*n«ii«i <!• mlororeprodiietlOM hinoriquM

HilWUMi ■mill

NORTHERN SEABOARD.

808

to the pole, present the remarkable phenomenon of a normal lateral pressure on
their right banks. This side thus becomes continually sapped and corroded, while
the left bank, covered with alluvia, and here and there furrowed by old channels, is
steadily abandoned by the receding waters. Hence the contrast presented by the
relief of both bauku. The left, still swept by the current and gradually formed by
alluvial deposits, is flat, and generally at the level of high water. The right,
constantly eroded by the lateral pressure of the stream, and representing the
original soil, rises in hills or steep cliffs along the course of the river. So universal
is this feature that even before sighting a river the natives will speak by anticipa-
tion of its " high bank " and " low bank." As in Russia, the towns are usually
erected on the " high," or right bank, which is leas exposed to inundations. But
this advantage is dearly purchased, and several recently founded towns, such as
Tobolsk, Semipalatinsk, and Narim, have already had to be partially reconstructed.

Northern Seaboard.

The northern seaboard of Siberia, though washed by colder waters, is less
indented by fiords than those of Norway and Scotland. The inlets resemble those
of Scandinavia only between the Kara and Yenisei mouths. The Kara Sea, the Ob
and Taz estuaries, the Gulf of Yenisei, and their various indentations ; lastly, the
lakes, at one time marine bays, but now separated from the sea, give a Norwegian
aspect to this region. But east of the Yenisei the coast-line becomes far more
uniform, broken by rare inlets, few of which penetrate far inland. This dearth of
fiords is due to the slight inclination of the mainland and of its submarine con-
tinuations, precluding the formation of true glaciers on the coast, the action
of which might have prevented the original indentation from being gradually
effaced.

The present seaboard itself is an old marine bed gradually upheaved above the
Arctic waters. The old coast-line has been traced by Erman, Middendorff, and
others over 120 miles inland, and upwards of 330 feet above the present sea-level.
Quantities of drift-wood, the so-called " Adam's " or " Noah's wood," have been
foimd at great distances from the ocean. Here also have been met numerous bays
which have become lakes, or quite dried up, besides perfectly preserved frozen banks
of shell-fish in no respect differing from the species n6w inhabiting the Arctic seas.
Headlands have even been recognised which were islands when seen by earlier
explorers. Several phenomena of a like character were recently observed by Bove,
of the Nordenskjold expedition, near Bering Strait. The disappearance of the
whale has by some been attributed to the upheaval of the sea-bed, while Erman,
with others, has suggested that the remains of trees occurring on the coast represent
the forests that flourished on the spot at a time when the climate was much warmer
than at present. But the condition in which this " Adam's wood " is found shows
that it is really so much drift-wood, barked and otherwise affected by glacial action.
It consists of conifers like those which are still floated down the great Siberian
rivers. In the course of ages " mountains of timber " have thus been accimiulated

804

ASIATIC EU8SIA.

■

almost everywhere along the shores of the Frozen Ocean and around the coasts of
New Siberia, Novaya Zemlya, Franz-Joseph Land, and Spitzbergen.

The current of the Siberian rivers is strong enough perceptibly to affect the
normal marine currents. On entering the sea the streams have naturally an
eastward tendency, derived from the rotation of the earth on its axis. But this is
also the direction of the waters from the tropical seas, which, after rounding
Scandinavia and Novuya Zemlya, continue to flow slowly eastwards along the
Siberian seaboard. This tendency is doubtless preserved by the action of the fluvial
currents, for near the coast the water is far less salt than in the Atlantic. Between

Fig. 170. — Bamu or thi Yuiibii: Icb-puhmbu Ijitbb.

the Khatanga Fiord and the Lena estuary the proportion of salt is only as 1 to 100,
or about one-third of the normal quantity. On these shores the sea is so shallow
that two-thirds of its volume are probably of fluvial origin.

Pacific Seaboard — Transbaikalia.

Along the shores of the Okhotsk and Bering Seas the slope is too short to allow
of any large rivers. Here the ranges forming the water-parting run near the
Pacific seaboard, and some head-streams of the Lena rise actually within 60 miles
of the Sea of Okhotsk. The only important river north of the Amur draining to

■m

CLIMATE.

808

ho coasts of

3 affect the
aturally an
But this 18
tr rouudiug
8 along the
f the fluvial
,c. Between

the Pacific is the Anadir, which falls into the gulf of like name between Bering
Strait and Kamchatka. But south of the Sea of Okhotsk the Amur, draining all
the lacustrine basins which fonnerly covered the plateaux of Da(^ria and Mongolia,
escapes through a gap in the coast range to the Pacific.

The middle course of this river, forming the frontier-line between Russia and
China, is free of ice for six or seven months in the year. But the lower reaches
flowing north-east and north present the same phenomena as the rivers of North
Siberia. The annual breuk-up is retarded down stream ; the ice forming temporary
dams on the reefs uud ledges arrests the floods, causing them to overflow and break
down their banks, uproot the forests, and cover the land with mud and stones.

The plateaux separating the Lena and Amur basins seem of all the Siberian
lands to have best preserved the aspect of the country after the glacial period.
Hero every cavity is still flUed with a lake or a marsh ; the riviUets ond rivers are
mere links in a chain of lacustrine basins of all sizes ; pine-covered moraines here
and there, cleared by the action of water, recall the presence of ancient glaciers : and
there is altogether something unfinished in the general aspect of the land, as if the
transition were not yet completed from one geological epoch to another. The rivers
have not yet scooped out their valleys or regulated the fall of their beds. In all
these respects the Siberian plateaux resemble those of Finland and Scandinavia,
which, like them, are mainly composed of granites, schists, and other crystalline
rockiS.

Most of the myriad lakes and lakelets of these tablelands have already
disappeared, either drained off by the rivers or filled in by their alluvia. But Lake
Baikal, one of the largest, still remains. This great inland sea, occupying two
continuous cavities in the plateau between the Yenisei, Lena, and Amur basins, stood
formerly at a far higher level than at present. It drains now through the Angara
to the Yenisei. But it is nevertheless geographically distinct from that basin. Its
valley runs nearly at right angles with the Angara, and its bed sinks several
hundred yards below sea-level. Its outlet merely carries off the surface waters.

as 1 to 100,
is so shallow

hort to allow
im near the
hin 60 miles
r di-aining to

Climate.

Such a vast region as Siberia, affected in the west by Ai^-otic, in the east by
Pacific influences, and stretching north and south across 2b' of latitude, must
obviously present great diversities of climate. Even this bleak land has its temperate
zones, which the Slav colonists of the north are fond of calling their " Italics."
Nevertheless, as compared with Europe, Siberia may, on the whole, be regarded as a
country of extreme temperatures — relatively great heats, and, above all, intense
colds. The very term " Siberian " has justly become synonymous with a land of
winds, frosts, and snows. The mean annual temperature in this region comprised
between the rivers Anabara and Indigirka is 20° Fahr. below freezing point. The
pole of cold, oscillating diversely with the force of the lateral pressure from
Yakutsk to the Lena estuary, is the meteorological centre round which the
atmosphere revolves. Here are to a large extent prepared the elements of the

806 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

■

climate of Went Europe. Owing to the general movements of the atmosphere,
ultornating hetween north-east and south-west, and bt>tween south-west and north-
east, constant relations are maintained k^tween the Kuroi)eon seaboord and Siberia,
the former exchanging its moisture and mild temperature for the cold and bright
skies of the latter.

In Northern Siberio the thermometer remains in winter below 20° Fahr., and
even falls at times to 55" Fahr. On December Jilst, 1871, the glass marked —69°
Fahr. at Yeniseisk. During the three summer months the average is 69° Fahr.,

Fig. 17 !• — Climati or Yakuthk.
__.-^

f .■ \ --" ' ""•, / -^ \

/ / '-' \'' .J. ^'v ^N \ \

'' / / .■'\ .-'■' ' ---. / ■-, ^, \ N

' ' t ■ ^ .' ' - ^1 ^^ ^.. » \

; ; ; ; i' ; b<i^f^/^< ^ • X \ ' - ' 1 'i-i

\ \ \ \ N K \ V'-. I ,.< / r\ I I I I
\ \ \ \ ^'^ A \ \/ ~"T- V/ / f/^J ! I I

X^ v.- -—---• '- .>: /

~~"Vufy""

often exceeding 86° and occasionally lOl"^ at Yakutsk, a greater heat than usually
prevails some 2,000 miles nearer the equator. As in Lapland, the baked surface of
the tundras is so hot as to be almost imendurable to pedestrians. Altogether
the climate of Yakutsk, or rather of the Lower Lena basin, is the most typical on
the globe of extreme or continental temperature.

Altitude compensating for latitude, the South Siberian highlands might at first
sight be supposed to be as cold as the northern tundras. But such is not the case,
and it has been shown that the higher we ascend towards the southern ranges the
warmer it becomes. Thus up to a certain still undetermined point the tempera-

CLIMATE.

807

iitnioNphcre,
and north-

und Siberia,
and brig)it

' Fahr., ond

irked -6^

69° Fubr..

><Mr/>

;han usually

d surface of

Altogether

it typical on

light at first
lot the case,
1 ranges the
le tempera-

ture rises with the elevation of the land. Siniilur observationa have been made in
the Alps and Pyroncefl ; but what is the exception in Kuroiio is thu normal (condi-
tion in Kant Siberia, whcro it iH cauned by the brightness and culnutoHs of thu
atmosphere. The hot air radiates into space, while the cold und denHor atmo-
spheric strata sink with their weight to the surface of the earth. Thus all the
meteorological conditions here combine to raise the temiwrature of the liigher and
diminish that of the lower strata. Relatively warm currents of air prevail in the
upper regions above the cold air resting on the lowland plains, iind on Mount
Alibert (7,400 feet) the wind in winter stits steadily fronj the comparatively warm
north-west, south-west, und west quarters. Such, combined with the dry climate,
are the causes which prevent the formation of glaciers on the Dut^riun, Alduu,
and Stanovoi highlands. Even the mountains 2,000 to 3,000 feet high on the
north coast, east of the Taimir peninsula, have but few snow- fields, and Nor-
denskjold could not positively determine the presence of any real glaciers. These
eminences fall short even of the snow-line, and in summer are quite free of snow,
except perhaps where it is lodged in the deep ravines.

Travellers speak of the Siberian winters with mingled feelings of terror and
rapture. An infinite silence broods over the land — all is buried in deep sleep ; the
animals hibernate in their dens, the streams have ceased to flow, disappearing
beneath the ice and snow ; the earth, of a dazzling whiten>)8s in the centre of the
landscape, but grey in the distance, nowhere offers a single object to arrest the
gaze. The monotony of endless space is broken by no abrupt lines or vivid tints.
The only contrast with the dull expanse of land is the everlasting azure sky,
along which the sun creeps at a few degrees only above the horizon. In these
intensely cold latitudes it rises and sets with hard outlines, unsof tened by the ruddy
haze elsewhere encircling it on the edge of the horizon. Yet such is the strength
of its rays that the snow melts on the housetop exposed to its glare, while in the
shade the temperature is 40° to 50° below freezing point. At night, when
the firmament is not aglow with the many- tinted lights and silent coruscations of
the aurora borealis, the zodiacal light and the stars still shine with intense bright-
ness. Probably no other region of the globe is so favourably circumstanced for
astronomic observation. Here the atmosphere is absolutely pure, unsullied except
perhaps on the river banks, whence, rises a dense fog charged with icy particles,
or in the neighbourhood of the vast herds shrouded in their vapoury exhalations.
And man dares to face these tremendous frosts, while animals seek shelter in their
lairs. The raven alone risks the open uir with a feeble and slow flight, its wake
marked by a slender hazy streak. Yet these Siberian winters are less unendur-
able than strangers might suppose. If well nourished, warmly clad, and wrapped
in furs, they have nought to fear, for few climates are more healthy than that of
East Siberia, with its perfectly dry, still, and pure atmosphere. No case of con-
sumption has ever occurred at Chita, in the bleak Transbaikal province, where the
mercury remains frozen for weeks together.

To this severe winter, which fissures the surface and rends the rocks of the
rivers into regular basalt-like columns, there succeeds a sudden and delightful

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

I
I

Mprin^. So inHtantitnooiiH it f'.M' clian^fl that natiiro ncciiih an if tiikon hy RurpriNo
and nidi'ly iiwakoiUHl. The dcliciitt' f^rt't'ii of t\w o|m>iii ^ loaf, tho fra^raiicu of
thu huddiii^ HowcrN, tlio int4>xi('atiii^ Iwlni of tho utinoHphoro, tlio radiant bright-
noun of th(* hcavcuH, all I'otnhiiio to impart to inrro oxiiitcnoo u voliiptuouH gladnctw.
To SilNM'ianM viNiting tho tcMniK<rato cliinoH of WoMtoni Kurojw Npring mi'Mim to Ut
unknown lu'vond thoir landn. Hut thow) HrHt dayn of now lifo aro foUowwl hy a
chill, K"^^V> <ii>d changoful intorval, arining from tho utnioHphoric dixturlmnooH
cauHod hy th(< thawing of tho vaMt Hnowy waHtoH. A rolapHO in then cxiicrioncod
nnalogouH to that too often produced in Knglund by lute eaHt windH. Tho upplo
bloHHonx in now nipped by the night froHta falling in tho latter |mrt of May. Honee
no apploH can l>o had in KuHt Siberia, although the summer hoatn uro othorwiHo
amply Hutticiont for the riiMjrung of fruitH. After tho fleeting Rummor winter
weather again soon HctH in. It will often freezo at night in the middle of July ;
after tho 10th of AuguHt the Hear leaf begins to fall, and in a few days all are
gone, except i)erhap8 the foliage of the larch. The anew will even sometimos settle
early in August on tho still leafy branches, bending and breaking them with its
weight.

Delow tho surface of the ground winter reigns uninterrupted even by the
hottest summers. About the middle of the last century Omelin revealed to science
the astonishing fact that from about 6 or 7 feet from the surface to a depth of
over 30 yards tho ground remains permanently frozen. But this phenomenon was
in seeming opposition to the normal increase of teriestrial temperature downwards,
and it was asked how the frozen soil of Yakutsk could grow plants and ripen
cereals. Hence Gmelin's statement was at first rejected ; but it has since been
fully confirmed by the observntions of Erman and Middendorff. A boring of
385 feet deep through the sandstone of Yakutsk failed to penetrate beyond the
congealed strata, and had to be abandoned before water could be reached. But
the assertion that the ground in North Siberia is uniformly frozen to depths of
from 450 to 500 feet cannot be accepted without more exhaustive observations. In
some places, possibly from the presence of springs and other local causes, the
uncongealed soil has been reached at depths of even 3 to 4 feet.

In winter the atmosphere is usually still in the zone of intensest cold ; but
not so in the surrounding regions. From the Urals to the Yenisei, and from the
Sayan highlands to the Arctic Ocean, the south and especially the south-west
winds prevail in winter, while farther south the Kirghiz and Astrakhan steppes are
swept by polar winds. East and west of the Urals the atmospheric currents from
the tropics and Arctic zone meet midway ; but east of the Yenisei, and especially
in the Lena basin, the direction is in winter generally from the north-west
towards the Pacific. The Sea of Okhotsk is then lashed by fierce storms for months
together. At Udskoi, near the coast, these furious monsoons blow steadily from the
north-west from September to April, preventing all access to the Stanovoi high-
lands, and at sea deflecting the Euro-sivo current and causing vessels to alter
their course between the two continents. The same glacial north-wes^ wind pre-
vails also in the Amur basin and on the Mongolian plateaux, compelling travellers

i>lii>liiiiiin»i>iiii

III liiiiV ''iii'tiliiirtiiMMiiatiii'liiiiB.iil iUiilil|iiriiilliilii»iti— n

CLIMATE.

ROO

I by ■urprinr
fraffruiu'o of
limit hriKht-
OUH (^ludncHH.
; MHMIIH to Ih)

oUowwl by u
(liKturbunooH
I exi)cri«nctHl
, Tho apple
Muy. Ilonce
uro othorwiMo
iminor winter
idle of July;
' days all are
motiinos aottlo
them with its

even by tho
lied to science
to a depth of
enomonon wa*
re downwords,
ints and ripen
las since boon

A boring of
te beyond the
reached. Btit
to depths of
ervations. In
ml causes, the

and oondurtorn of rarnvann ^oiu)^ wontwiird to prot«'ct their fiic(>i« with felt tnuMkft
from itH fury. During tho winter of 1H7H.|> NonlfiiMkjold and his aMHociiitoM
found thut it blow uhnoHt unintorruptodly along tho Nhoron of tho Arotio Ocoan,
though not HO violently nn cIiM<whoro. In Numnicr aim) tho pohir wiiuU ar«> attraotod
to the MilM'rian noalMmrd by tho rarofaotion of tho atnioNphoro on tho hoat<<d
tundruN. Hut in tho ouHt tho eontinont in during thin NoaNou viNitod hy eant
and wtuth-oaMt breezoH from tho l*u<'iH<', which are often felt an far inland an the
Baikal luisin, where they bring an abundant nupply of nioiNture. Tho rthoroH of
tho Sea of Okhotsk are then conNtuntly overtaMt, and tho Kurilo waterH onvelopi'd
for weeks together in denHO fogn. Hero tho mean annual rainfall oxcioedH 40 inohos,
while in many places in the interior it scarcely amounts to 10 inches. In
certain parts of 8outh Siberia, and especially in tho Transbaikalia, whole winters
pass without any snowfall. Elsewhere, as in the Krasnoyarsk district, tho plains

Fig. 17^. — NoHTHiHN Limit hit Fohmt Vboitation.
B«al« 1 s 80,000,000.

, flOOlUlM.

jest cold; but

and from the

he south-west

lon steppes are

currents from

and especially

le north-west

•ms for months

adily from the

itanovoi high-

essels to alter

ves*- wind pre-

ling traveUers

are swept of their snows by the storms, and the autumn-sown com dispersed by the
winds.*

Under the action of the regular monsoons the snow is often disposed in parallel
dunes succeeding each other like the ocean waves. During the long winter
nights the Ghukchis are able to guide themselves as with a compass by the direc-
tion of these zastrugi, which, however, have to be yearly renewed after their
dispersion by the storms. The most dreaded of these storms are the buram, which
rage in the midst of the plains like tropical hiirricanes, sweeping with them snow,
ice, gravel, branches, debris of every sort, and often man himself.

* Annual rainfall in Siberia : —

Aryan (Sea of Okhotsk) .

Yakutsk

EiakhU

InehM.

BemaOl

Nerohinskiy-cuvod
Tobolsk .

-.■■of-^W''

810

ASIATIC EU8SIA.

, ^ . :' : , Flora.

With its vast extent and varied climate Siberia naturally embraces several
vegetable zones, differing more from each other even than those of Europe. The
southern steppes have a characteristic and well-marked flora, forming a continua-
tion of that of the Aral, Caspian, and Volga plains. The treeless northern tundras
also constitute a vegetable domain as sharply defined as the desert itself, while
between these two zones of steppe and tundra the forest region of Europe stretches.

Fig. 173.— Tkailino Larch 160 Tbaks old: Quartbh or the natvrai. Sizb.

i '

with many subdivisions, west and east right across the continent. Of these sub-
divisions the chief are those of the Ob, Yenisei, Lena, and Amur basins.

The northern limit of forest vegetation is generally drawn at too great a
distance from the Frozen Ocean. In Siberia the tree line, everywhere formed
by the larch (^Larix Daurica Sibirica), so far from running east and west along the
same parallel of latitude, is deflected northwards mainly with the coast-line. Thus
it coincides in the Ob basin nearly with the Arctic Circle, crosses the Yenisei about
70° N. lat., and in the Taimir peninsula inclines along the banks of the Ehatanga
170 miles still farther north. East of this point it gradually falls again towards
the Polar Circle, so that the whole of the Bering peninsula is excluded from the
forest zone. But long before reaching its extreme limits forest vegetation every-
where becomes dwarfed. Beyond the 60th parallel no trees occur with stems more
than 4 feet thick, and beyond the 61st they scarcely average 12 or 14 inches, and
near the tundra shrink to half a foot. From a distance the forests two or three
hundred years old, consisting of such slender trees, look like fresh plantations.

mmmittmm i mjmvmm

FLORA.

811

►races several
Europe. The
ig a continua-
thern tundras
t itself, while
rope stretches,

SiZB.

Of these sub-
lins.

it too great a
jTwhere formed
west along the
ist-line. Thus
Yenisei about
the Ehatanga
again towards
uded from the
getation every-
ith stems more
14 inches, and
B two or three
\ab plantations.

The ground being frozen to within a short distance of the surface, prevents the
roots from penetrating vertically in search of moisture, while for a great part of
the year the superincumbent snows deprive the branches of all communication
with the atmosphere. In winter trunk and roots alike remain completely frozen,
hibernating, so to say, like the wild beasts, till the first warm days of spring. Its
slow growth imparts to the fibre an extraordinary hardness, but the timber thus
becomes leas elastic and more brittle. The last struggling larches are unable to
put forth true branches, throwing off nothing but a few hard, almost thorny, limbs
and shoots. In this incessant struggle between life and death most of the few
trees that approach the timdra soon lose all their sap. Moss-covered and branch-
less, they look like aged and dead trunks. Yet beyond these larches, which still
stand erect, there come others which trail along the groimd half hidden by their
mossy mantles. Within 60 miles of the forest line these rampant species are met,
which in one hundred and fifty years have scarcely grown 4 feet, and which look
more like exposed roots than veritable trees.

Throughout North Siberia, as well as on the slopes of the southern highlands,
abundant traces occur of a former forest zone reaching far beyond the present
limits of timber. In some parts of the north the tteee have retreated from 12
to 15 miles, a fact attributed rather to frequent summer frosts than to an increased
intensity of cold in winter. Hence trees thrive perfectly well in the Lena
basin, where the winter is most severe, but the summer less exposed to frosts.
Still the climate of North Siberia, like that of other Arctic regions, has certainly
increased in severity during the last few hundred years.

Beyond the forest zone stretch the timdras, where the only vegetation is
herbage, mosses, and lichens. The tundra is not composed exclusively of low
plains, but also comprises hilly districts, and on the whole is rather a rolling
land, in which eminences rising 300 feet above the plains follow each other
beyond the horizon like the ocean waves. Although of different origin, the
tundra in many respects resembles the steppe. The latter is produced by lack
of moisture, the former by lack of heat. But both alike have the same cheerless
aspect, and pi^duce the same mournful impression on the mind. The species of
plants growing along the Arctic seaboard are found also on the shores of the
Ural Sea, 30° farther south. In the peninsula of Taimir alone there are no
less than ten genera and twenty-one species of phanerogamous plants. Still
the mosses prevail, and for vast spaces seem to occupy the field to the exclu-
sion of all other types. Where the polytrichum predominates the tundras are of
a dirty yellow ; where the reindeer moss forms tlie chief element they assume a
faded white hue. The monotony of these dull white or yellow expanses is broken
only here and there by a patdh of green herbage, marking the site of some
abandoned Samoyede camp, or the lair of an Arctic fox. A few " trembling "
pasture lands also occur, but as a rule only near running waters.

Between the northern timdras and southern steppes by far the greatest space
is occupied by the forest zone. From the Urals to Kamchatka the dense taiga, or
woodlands, are interrupted only by the streams, a few natural glades, and some

■ '^^.T,',

FLORA.

&1«

hf-

K>^:^«''

)r all lands
e moist and
he mart, or

peat bogs, and marshes alternate with the padi, or narrow ravines. The miners
call by this name the wooded mountains where ihey go in search of auriferous
sands. But everywhere the taiga is the same dreary forest, without grass, birds,
or insects, gloomy and lifeless, and noiseless but for the soughing of the wind and
crackling of the branches.

The conifers are the prevailing trees, and these comprise all the species common
to Europe, besides the Pimts picfita, peculiar to East Siberia. This species is very
tall and slender, about 90 feet high, and seldom over 10 inches in diameter, with

Fig. 176. — Banob or Animal Svecies in Nouiii Asia.
Aooordfii(r ^o Severtiov. Scale 1 : 4VS0,000.

•^

cofg 701

ISO*

IT.

rn. Tin.

'a ■■lllllIII' MMM MmM ^m

I. Akcnc Zovi.— NoRTmBit Zomk. Rtgiotit: n. North-Enropean ; Iir. Uralo-Siberi>in ; IV. East Siberian ; V. Iiiter-
madiate.— Middle Zone. Begintu : VI. Uralo-Barabian ; VII. Daikrian ; vm. Intennediate. — Uidkbt Zoini.
StgUnu! IX. Weat Aaiatic; X. Central Aaiatio; XI. Intennediate.— Skrio Zorb. Hffioiu: XII. North China;
Xul. Japan.

—.iii.— __^^_ 600 Miles.

smooth bark, and in the large central forests noted for its bluish-green foliage.
Though a noble plant, it is of but slight economic value, being too fragile for
building purposes, and not very useful even as fuel. The so-called " Siberian Cedar "
(Pmas cembra^ is in every respect the best and most used for furniture, wearing
well, and never rotting unless exposed to sudden changes of temperature.

The most common tree in the taiga is the larch, which best resists the winter
frost and summer chills. The various species range from the extreme limits of
forest vegetation to the Tipper Tlssuri basin, in South Siberia. But the Siberian
21

814

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

woodlands also include most of the trees common to temperate Europe — the linden,
alder, juniper, service, willow, aspen, poplar, birch, cherry, apricot — whose areas are
regulated according to the nature of the soil, the elevation or aspect of the land.
Towards the south-east, on the Chinese frontier, the birch is encroaching on the
indigenous species, and the natives regard this as a sure prognostic of the approach-
ing rule of the " white Czar."

Conflagrations are very frequent in the Siberian forests, caused either by light-
ning, the woodmen, or hunters, and sometimes spreading over vast spaces till
arrested by rivers, lakes, or morasses. One of the pleasures of Siberian travelling
is the faint odour of the woods burning in the distance.

The native flora is extremely rich in berries of every kind, supplying food for
men and animals. Collected in vast quantities in the neighbourhood of the towns,
they are used in the preparation of preserves and liqueiirs, which partly replace
fruits in the native diet. Poisonous plants are rare, and disappear altogether in
the north. Some cultivated species have been introduced even into the tundra
and all the camping grounds along the Arctic seaboard. The soil of this region
spontaneously produces various anti-scorbutics, and the so-called " water plums,"
an edible gelatinous substance, may be collected in abimdance in all fresh-water
basins. Thus, as Yon Baer remarks, in the tropics man gathers his food from the
trees, in the temperate zone from the soil, in the polar regions from the water.

Fauna.

The natural limits of the land faima coincide with those of forest vegetation in
the neighbourhood of the Arctic Ocean. Still the mouse and other rodents, preyed
on by the white bear in summer, reach beyond the tree line into the tundra. South
of this line stretches the zone of the European species, gradually modified as they
proceed eastwards. The steppes and the Da(irian highlands occupy the southern
region, while towards the south-east a portion of the Amur basin and all Russian
Manchuria belong already to the Chinese domain.

Within a recent geological epoch Siberia was still inhabited by a large species
of rhinoceros, and by the mammoth, an elephant larger and stronger than any now
existing. These monsters also roamed over the plains and forests of Europe, where,
as in Siberia, they were the contemporaries of man. But in Europe they are
now represented only by fragments of their skeletons, whereas in North Asia their
very carcasses have been found still covered with the flesh and hides. In 1771
Pallas assisted at the removal of a rhinoceros from the banks of the Lower Yilin,
west of Yakutsk. Portions of the head and feet are still preserved in St. Petersburg,
together with similar remains found in 1877 on the Bitantai, near the Yana. In
1799 a frozen mass floating down the Lena groimded near the mouth of the river
where it released the body of a mammoth as it gradually melted from summer to
summer. When found by the naturalist Adams the native Tunguses had already
carried off the tusks, but the eyes, brain, and much of the flesh still remained, and
the skeleton is now in the St. PetersVjrg Museum. A second mammoth, now in

^wi--,.-..--,.-A..-.

mmm

FAUNA.

316

•e — the linden,
vhose areas are
;t of the land.
)aching on the
the approach-

ither by light-
ast spaces till
irian travelling

plying food for
i of the towns,
partly replace
r altogether in
ito the tundra
of this region
' water plums,"
all fresh-water
9 food from the
the water.

it vegetation in
rodents, preyed
tundra. South
lodifiedas they
)y the southern
mdall Russian

a large species
r than any now
Europe, where,
urope they are
orth Asia their
des. In 1771
e Lower Vilin,
St. Petersburg,
the Yana. In
th of the river
rom summer to
aes had already
1 remained, and
immoth, now in

the Moscow Museum, was discovered in 1839, and a third was brought to light in
1866 by Schmidt near the estuary of the Taz. The " ivory hunters " have long
been in t ■ habit of visiting the Arctic seaboard and the archipelago of New Siberia
in search of mammoths, and such was formerly the abundance of these animals that
the annual yield of fossil ivory amounted to 40,000 lbs. In 1840 Middendoi-fiE
calculated that up to that time the remains of about 20,000 mammoths had been
discovered about the Siberian river banks.

Whether the climate of the country was warmer when these animals flourished
than at present is a moot question with geologists. Being covered with long hair,
the mammoth could certainly endure the rigours of a Siberian winter. But in the
tundras and along the shores of the Frozen Ocean, now strewn with his tusks, he
coidd not have found the foliage necessary for his sustenance. Are we then to
conclude that the country was at that time wooded, or rather that the real home of
the mammoth was South Siberia, whence his remains drifted with the streams
northwards P Various traditions associated with these animals have been diffused
throughout Siberia and China. In the Chinese annals mention is made of the
mamentoca, a rat as large as an elephant, burrowing tmderground, and suddenly
killed by contact with the air. The Samoyedes say that the mammoth still exists,
haunting the streams and coast, and living on the dead bodies cast up by the
waves. They speak of the rhinoceros as a gigantic bird, whose talons were the
tusks purchased by the ivory hunters. Their legends also describe the terrific
combats that formerly took place between their forefathers and these birds. A
microscopic examination of the vegetable remains adhering to the molars of the
rhinoceros in the Irkutsk Museum has revealed the fibres of the larch, birch,
willow, closely allied to, if not identical with, the species still growing in northern
latitudes. The opinion is thus confirmed that these pachydermata lived in the
middle zone, south of fhe extreme limits of the northern regions where their
remains are now found.

These remains are often found associated with those of the horse, ox, and
sheep ; but the same gradual evolution has taken place in Siberia as in Europe,
and all these species have been similarly modified. The extreme eastern regions of
the Amur basin and Russian Manchuria, being warmer, more humid and fertile,
also abound more in animal life than the other parts of Asiatic Russia. On the
o!;her hand, the Siberian bear, deer, roebuck, hare, squirrel, marmot, and mole are
about one-third larger, and often half as heavy again as their European congeners.
This is doubtless due partly to the greater abundance of nourishment along the
rivers and shores of Siberia, and partly to the fact that for ages the western
species have been more preyed upon by man, living in a constant state of fear,
and mostly perishing before attaining their full development.

The Arctic Seas abound probably as much as the Pacific Ocean with marine
animals. Nordenskjold found the Siberian waters very rich in molluscs and other
lower org^anisms, implying a corresponding abundance of larger animals. Hence
fishing, perhaps more than navigation, will be the future industry of the Siberian
coast populations. Cetacea, fishes, molluscs, and other marine organisms are cast up

»#

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

in such quantities along both sides of Bering Strait that the bears and other
omnivorous creatures have here become very choice as to their food. But on some
parts of the coast in the Chukchi country whales are never stranded, and since the
arrival of the Russians certain species threaten to disappear altogether. The
Rhytina stelleri, a species of walrus formerly frequenting Bering Strait in millions,
was completely exterminated between the years 1741 — 68. Many of the fur-
bearing animals, which attracted the Cossacks from the Urals to the Sea of Okhotsk,
and which were the true cause of the conquest of Siberia, have become extremely
rare. Their skins are distinguished, above all others, for their great softness,
warmth, lightness, and bright coloxirs. The more Alpine or continental the climate,
the more beautiful and highly prized become the furs, which diminish in gloss
towards the coast and in West Siberia, where the south-west winds prevail. The
sables of the North Urals are of small value, while those of the Upper Lena, 15°
farther south, are worth a king's ransom. Many species assume a white coat in
winter, whereby they are difficult to be distinguished from the surrounding snows.
Amongst these are the polar hare and fox, the ermine, the campagnol, often even
the wolf and reindeer, besides the owl, yellow-hammer, and some other birds.
Those which retain their brown or black colour are mostly such as do not show
themselves in winter. The fur of the squirrels also varies with the surroimding
foliage, those of the pine forests being ruddy, those of the cedar, taiga, and firs
inclining to brown, and all varying in intensity of colour with that of the

vegetation.

Other species besides the peltry-bearing animals have diminished in numbers
since the arrival of the Russian hunters. The reindeer, which frequented the South
, Siberian highlands, and whose domain encroached on that of the camel, is now
found only in the domestic state amongst the Soyotes of the Upper Yenisei, and is
met with in the wild state only in the dwarf forests and tundras of the far north.
The argali has withdrawn to Mongolia from the Siberian mountains and plains,
where he was still very common at the end of the last century. On the other hand,
cold and want of food yearly drive great numbers of antelopes and wild horses
from the Gobi steppes towards the Siberian lowlands, tigers, wolves, and other
beasts of prey following in their track, and returning with them in the early
spring. Brute creation seems well acquainted with the political frontiers of the
two regions, and many birds, which in Siberia start at the least soimd, allow them-
selves to be approached without betraying any sjrmptoms of fear in Mongolia.
This is specially the case with water-fowl, which the Mongolian nomads never dare
to attack in the " sacred element." For the universal belief prevails that " should
the blood of a bird mingle with the pure stream, it becomes fatal to all the flock
drinking of it."

Hitherto the hand of man seems to have made no impression on certain sociable
animals nimierous in various parts of South Siberia. The Irtish, Yenisei, and
Transbaikal steppes are honey-combed with galleries expanding to underground
cities, wherever the soil is at once sandy and consistent enough to resist sudden
changes of temperature. Such districts are peopled by the burrowing tribes, and

tt.

':-^sbmmitmjm*tiisiat:im

■^'

INHABITANT8-THE OHUDES.

817

irs and other
But on some
and since the
gether. The
it in millions,
y of the fur-
}aof Okhotsk,
ime extremely
;reat softness,
il the climate,
inish in gloss
prevail. The
iper Lena, 15°
white coat in
iinding snows,
lol, often even
) other birds,
do not show
e surrounding
taiga, and firs
I that of the

the surface is often covered for miles with regular mounds thrown up by millions
of troglodytes from their endless subterranean labyrinths. Here it is the Tarbagan
marmot (^Arctomt/a bohac), there the whistling hare {^Lagomys agostonans), elsewhere
the mole or other creatures with similar habits. In the cool of the evening every
hillock is occupied by some little rodent erect on its hind legs, surveying the
surrounding landscape, suddenly disappearing at the least noise, and as suddenly
reappearing to ascertain the cause of its fright. The lines of tarbagans mounting
guard at their palace gates sometimes stretch beyond the horizon, like the sentinels
of a countless army. Colonies of these marmots also people some of the treeless
Kamchatka, Baikal, and Yitim highlands beyond the forest zone, having probably
crossed the intervening wooded tracts before they were covered with timber.

Several new species of animals have been introduced by man, and modified by
crossings in the domestic state. In the north the Samoyedes, Chukchis, and Eam-
chadales have the reindeer and dog, while the horse and ox are everywhere the
companions of man in the peopled regions of Siberia. The yak has been tamed by
the Soyotes of the Upper Yenisei, and the camel, typical of a distinctly Eastern
civilisation, follows the nomads of the Kirghiz and Mongolian steppes. All these
domesticated animals seem to have acquired special qualities and habits from the
various indigenous or Russian peoples of Siberia. The Samoyede dog differs as
much from the Cossack as the latter does from the Manchu species.

id in numbers
ted the South

camel, is now
enisei, and is
the far north.
13 and plains,
le other hand,
d wild horses
es, and otlier

in the early
ontiers of the
1, allow them-

in Mongolia,
ads never dare

that " should
all the flock

ertain sociable

, Yenisei, and

underground

resist sudden

ag tribes, and

Inhabitants — The ChCdes.

All the local traditions, confirmed by many objects found in the old biirial-
places, speak of civilised peoples formerly occupying Siberia, and collectively
known as ChMes, whether of Aryan, T(^rki, Finnish, or Mongol stock. Their
kurgans, or barrows, abound on the eastern slopes of the Urals, in the Altai valleys,
on the banks of the Yenisei, and especially in the Minusinsk district. In the
mineral regions abandoned excavations are usually known as " ChMe mines." On
the western spurs of the Altai certain stone landmarks about 5 or 6 feet high,
and inscribed with still undeciphered characters, are regarded by the present
inhabitants as the " limits " of the ChMes ; and on the banks of a sacred lake
in the Altai highlands are to be ■ seen two rudely carved g^ranite horsemen,
supposed to be the "gods" of the same mysterious people. Yarious objects,
and «8pecially arms and copper armour, found under the peat and along the rivers
where gold was formerly washed, show that they were possessed both of taste and
great skill in metal-working. The remains of canals several miles long, the
foundations of sluices and windmills, bespeak a really advanced state of civilisation,
which cultivated fruit trees that have since perished, and which reared an excellent
breed of swine still bearing the name of " Ch(lde," emd traditionally attributed to
these ancient possessors of the land. The chief centre of their civilisation seems to
have been in the highlands about the Yenisei, where the richest and most artistic
objects have been found. The implements and arms occurring in the kurgans of
the Western Altai and Irtish valley are of a rude type and less original in design.

mMBB

818

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

On the other hand, the " Chfide " antiquities of the Altai betray a great resem-
blance to many " Scythian " objects from the Dnieper and £uxine districts. The
civilised Ch fides, who are generally believed to have been of Finnish stock, were
in all probability exterminated during the long wars which preceded the barbaric
migrations. The Mongols, uy whom they have been replaced, recognise their
own foreign origin — when asked whence they came, pointing invariably to the
south-east.

But althdugh the Chftdes as a nation have vanished, they still doubtless survive,
intermingled with the indigenous semi-barbarous populations, themselves destined
either to merge with or disappear before the Russians. Although their dialects
enable us still to group the various Siberian peoples, there can be no doubt that
there has been a great mixture of races in this region. From the Urals to the
Corean frontier a gradual transition of types may be traced, while isolated groups
everywhere occur, which may be regarded as representing Mongol or Tilrki tribes
dwelling 'thousands of miles off. The Mongol type is most pronounced in the
women. Even in North-west Siberia we frequently see young girls with almost
Chinese features. Intermixture has been much promoted by the usages of the
Siberian nomads. Enforced displacements of whole tribes often remove them from
the parent stock, and bring Ihem into contact with other races. In their long
journeys across large tracts of the continent the Yakut or Buriat traders purchase
their wives, now in one, now in another tribe, and not unfrequently maintain
separate " establishments " in the various countries visited by them. The wives
are also let out on hire, the children sold to strangers, orphans adopted by strange
tribes or by the Russian settlers and traders. Although the Slav type, especially
amongst the Little Russians and Raskolniks, has been perfectly preserved in some
settlements, a general fusion of all the Siberian peoples is gradually taking place.
While the Russian emigrants become assimilated to the Yakuts, many Tunguses
are being slowly Russified. According to the relative importance of the elements
in contact, the features and habits of one or other approach the prevailing type.
Thus the Finns and Turks of the west have acquired a European appearance, while
in the east preserving their Asiatic features.

Throughout Siberia proper, from the Urals to the Pacific, the Russians, either
pure or sprung of Cossack alliances with the native women, have already become the
most important element both numerically and socially. The Siberian Slavs niunber
over 3,000,000, and those of the Ural districts over 4,000,000, while the scattered
native tribes cannot be estimated at much more than 700,000, exclusive of the
Kirghiz, whose steppes are now administratively included in " Central Asia." Some
groups occupying a domain larger than France consist only of a few nomad families
receding before the foreign settlers. The Russians hold in compact masses the
eastern slopes of the Urals, and the Tobol, Irtish, and Upper Ob basins. They are
also predominant in the Yenisei and Angarb valleys and in Transbaikalia, and
have occupied all the arable tracts along the river banks. Since 1865 they have been
spreading over the fertile Altai valleys, which were in that year thrown open to
free immigration.

wmmimKt

■hH

a great rosem-
(listricts. The
ish stock, were
ed the barbaric
recognise their
variably to the

ubtlees survive,
Lselves destined
li their dialects

no doubt that
le Urals to the
isolated groups
or Tdrki tribes
[lounced in the
rls with almost

usages of the
aove them from

In their long
raders purchase
lently maintain
m. The wives
pted by strange
type, especially
^served in some
y taking place,
nany Tunguses
oi the elements
prevailing type,
tpearance, while

Russians, either
eady become the
n Slavs number
ile the scattered
ixclusive of the
al Asia." Some
nomad families
pact masses the
sins. They are
msbaikalia, and
) they have been
thrown open to

■•immmmm mtaa s j i aMim mmtiilmmmmmmtii

THE ALTAI HIQULANDS.

818

II.—THE ALTAI HIGHLANDS.

The " Gold Mountainn," on tho nome probably means, from the 3Iongol Ai-tin,
Bynonymous with the Chinese Gin-shan, comprise tho whole system of higlilunds
rising north of the Zungarian depressions, and forming an oastwani continuation of
tho Tian-shan and Pamir. Although far less extensive and olovutcd than the
Tian-shan, the Altai still bears comparison with the European Alps, if not in the
height of its peaks, diversity of its forms, abundance of its snow or rich vegetation,
at least in the development of its ranges and length of its valleys. The Alta'i
proper doubtless comprises, on Russian territory, the snowy region alone, which is
limited on the west by tho valley of the Black Irtish, and eastwards by tho 8(^ok
Pass. But this much-frequented pass, on the Russo-Chinose frontier, is a purely
conventional limit, for the system still strotchcs eastward, under tho name of the
Sayan range, as far as the Yenisei, and beyond it to tho Baikal uplands. In the
direction of China tho Alta'i is continued in a system of little-known chains and
spurs far south of the sources of the Yenisei and to a considerable distance into the
Mongolian plateaux. At the same time the term is employed somewhat vaguely in
Siberia, being often applied not only to the hills, but also to the plains at their feet,
and in fact to the whole region depending administratively on Bamai^l, Biisk, and
£uznetzk.

When the Alta'i is approached by the great South Siberian route from the Urals,
nothing is visible except irregular hills, baro and forbidding as the steppe itself.
Beyond the scattered forests and lakes of the plains little is met but groy and
arid tracts, the horizon being limited south and oast by a sky-line of low and
formless mountains, concealing from view the more elevated summits on the
Chinese frontier. Tho prevailing nakedness of the rocks is relieved by a few
verdant crests, but in the Western Alta'i regions the landscape is mostly of an
extremely desolate character. The south-west winds, bearing moisture across
Europe to the Urals and western slopes of the Tian-shan, are completely exhausted
before reaching the Alta'i. Their humidity comes altogether with the cold horth-
ea«t winds, which in many places clothe them with rich pastures. In the Urgudei
valley, north of the Sayan, few days- pass without rain or snow falling according to
the season.

In these moist regions the running streams and woodlands impart to the
mountain scenery quite a different character from that of the bleak western
highlands. Wherever the crags and rugged heights assume large proportions,
the landscape recalls that of the European Alps. A gorge of the Upper Chuya,
leading towarda the S(iok Pass between Biisk and Mongolia, is a sort of " Via Mala "
in the contrast of the upper vegetation with the gloomy abyss at the bottom of
which rushes the foaming torrent. But in the heart of the highlands the upper
basin of the Chuya is a bare steppe seldom watered by the rains, and where the
light winter snows are soon brushed aside by the winds. In several districts the
Alpine region is sharply defined by the crest forming the dividing line between

820

ASIATIC UU8SIA.

Russia and China. On either side of this line the contrast is complete, the northern
slopes being clothed with forests of conifers, whUe southwards the rocky wilderness
stretches beyond the horizon. The waters escape on both sides in opposite directions,

MM*

TOE AI/fAl IIIOULANDS.

821

und thr inhnhitimtH Im'Ioii^ to diNtinrt othnirul j^roupn — Monj^oU on tho Cbinoae,
Tnlmif^utn or KiilmukH on tho IluNNiim MlopcH.

Tho Altiii «y«tom con«iHtH of niiinorouH nhninn running? mainly woRt-north-wrst
and eoNt-Houth-oaAt parallel with tho Tarbagatui and many othor Central Aniatic

I'lg. 177.— Lak* Tilntzkoyr.

Seal* 1 : iOO.aoO.

SlfUea.

I, the northern
ky wilderness
site directions,

ridges. Tkese Byelki, or " Alps," are connected by irregular transverise ridges and
plateaux, forming collectively a winding north-easterly watershed between the Ob
basin «ad the Gobi desert. The Altai, however, does not form a complete water-
parting, for the Ulungur, a head-stream of the Irtish, rises in the Gobi, making its

822

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

way thence north-nards round the western highlands. The whole system, including
the intermediate valleys and southern plateaux, has a mean elevation of scarcely
more than from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, though the chief crests rise to from 6,000 to
9,000 feet. The Ulan-dnbas, forming the central nucleus, whence flow northwards
several affluents of the Eatun, westwards the Bukhtarma, southwards the Oigur,
a tributary of the Ike-eral, is intersected by a pass which, according to Miroshni-
chenko, is no less than 9,400 feet high.. North-west of this formidable pass the
Altai system cidminates with the Bielukha, or " White ** Mountain, whose two peaks
are each about 11,100 feet high. The highland mass commanded by this mountain
is completely severed from the rest of the Altai on the south, west, and north by
the Eatun, or Eatuniya, which is the true Upper Ob. It receives numerous head-
streams, one of whichj the Eok-su, flows eastwards through the narrow fissure of
the Eorgon plateau, about 6,500 feet high. The Bielukha or Eatun Mountains
have the best claim to the title of the " Great Altai," usually given to the still
little-known region of the Mongolian Altai. The "Great ^Jtai" of most
geographers is called the " Little Altai " by Venyukov. It forms the western
frontier chain of the Eobdo plateau, whose escarpments slope south-westwards to
the Ulungur and Black Irtish valleys. Several of its summits rise above the line
of perpetual snow.

East of the Russian Altai, whose various sections are usually named from their
chief rivers or nearest villages, the Tannu-ola range runs in Mongolia between the
Yenisei head-streams and the waters flowing towards the Ubsa-nor. Farther north
the wooded Sayan Mountains sweep in a bold curve towards the Yenisei, above
which they terminate with the Shabin-dabag. The lower Euznetzkiy Ala-tau
ridges, forming the water-parting between the Ob and the Yenisei basins, still
maintain an elevation of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. Several small lakes are dotted
over the highland region where the Altai and Sayan converge. But the largest
and finest lacustrine basin in the Altai regions is Lake Teletzkoye, fed by the
Chulishman, and draining through the Biya westwards to the Ob. In the beauty
of its scenery this basin rebembles Lake Geneva, and, like it, consists of two divisions,
but more abruptly disposed. It stands at an altitude of 1,600 feet, and has an
area of 110 square miles, with a depth of about 140 fathoms. At its southern
extremity rises the snowy Altin-tau, or " Gold Mountain," a sacred spot in the eyes
of the Ealmuks, who call it the " Father of the Mountains and Lake," and pretend
that it has always punished with death the profane adventurers who have dared to
scale its heights. .

The Bielukha also, as indicated by its name, rises above the snow-line, and even
develops a glacier about 2,800 yards long, whence flow the first head-streams of
the Eatun. A few limited snow-fields descend from the neighbouring mountains,
remnants of the extensive glaciers that formerly covered these highlands. The
snow-line on the slopes of the Altin-tau, recently fixed at about 7,500 feet, has
now been raised to 8,600 feet ; yet it still remains at a lower elevation than the
corresponding line on the Alps and Pyrenees.

The heights below the snow-line are partly covered with marshy tracts strewn

mmm

FLOEA AND FAUNA OF THE ALTAI.

em, including
n of scarcely
from 6,000 to
)w northwards
rds the Oigur,
to Miroshni-
lable pass the
hose two peaks
this mountain
and north by
umerous head-
rrow fissure of
tun Mountains
yen to the still
Itm" of most
as the western
li-westwards to
above the line

med from their
[ia between the

Farther north
I Yenisei, above
letzkiy Ala-tau,
sei basins, still
akes are dotted
But the largest
Dye, fed by the

In the beauty
>f two divisions,
set, and has an
At its southern
spot in the eyes
:e," and pretend
lO have dared to

(v-line, and even
head-streams of
ring mountains,
lighlands. The
; 7,500 feet, has
oration than the

hy tracts strewn

with granite boulders. These heights, flattened on top, but with very steep sides,
are separated by deep valleys, which seem to have been hollowed out by erosion in
the softer schistose rocks embedded in the granite masses, of which the Altai
system is mainly composed. Some porphyries and serpentines have here and there
intruded in the crystalline and schist formations ; but there are nowhere any
evidences of volcanic action. The Altai is evidently a very ancient system, without
any of the dyassic, triassic, Jurassic, chalk, or tertiary strata. Since the formation
of the palsDOizoio rocks, its crests have always been raised above the seas and lower
steppes. The coal-fields discovered in the Euznetzk Moimtains, on the banks of the
Tom, and the rich metalliferous veins, which have given such economic importance
to thd Altai region, date from these geological epochs.

Flora and Fauna of the Altai'.

Compared with that of the surrounding steppes, the flora of the Altai is
extremely rich, though still inferior to that of Central Europe in the number of its
species. Ledebour, who has collected about 1,600 flowering plants in this region,
estimates at about four-sevenths of the species indigenous in Germany those
composing the wild flora of the Altai, which lies imder the same latitude as the
Bohemian highlands, and is exposed to the same alternating south-west and north-
east winds. All the families, except those growing on the shores of salt lakes, are
represented in the Altai by fewer species than in Central Europe. The maple is
wanting altogether, the lime-tree occurs only in isolated clusters, and the alder is
very rare. On the other hand, there are some peculiar species, such as the hedge
cherry {^Lonicem Tatarica) and the pea-tree {^Caragana arborcacena), whose whitish
and acacia-like foliage is seen on most of the less productive slopes.

The steppe flora encroaches on the Altai flora proper to a height of about
1,000 feet along the advancing spurs. It is very poor, especially in the saline
tracts, and imparts a grey or yellowish tone to the landscape, here and there
relieved by pale green tints. Grassy lands occur only oh the well-watered low-
lying flats, and this tall herbage, heaving like the waves under the action of the
winds, ia said to produce something like the effect of sea-sickness on the natives
accustomed to the sombre motionlcjiM aspect of the bare steppe. Along the river
banks the steppe flora is interrupted by arborescent vegetation, including the bihsh
and other rapidly g^rowing species, and occasionally the pine, where it has not
escaped the conflagrations it is exposed to in the neighbourhood of human
habitations. Of the poplars and willows, abounding most in the rivers rising
in the Altai, some species seem to have originated in the Upper Ob basin.

The black birch and medlar reach an altitude of 6,800 feet, whereas the forest
zone proper is comprised between 4,300 and 6,600 feet. But in all the inhabited
districts it has been considerably encroached upon by the woodman's axe, and in
some places nothing but saplings are met for hundreds of square miles. In the
valleys sheltered from the dry south-west winds, and at a distance from the mining
districts, the pine " taig^ " are still met, and higher up forests of firs and other

Kommemm

HVMMI

ii:*!

824

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

coniferu finer than those of Europe, owing to the richness and variety of the
undergrowth. The Alpine plants, reaching from the forest zone to the snow-line,
are noted for their hright colours and pungent odour. They are intermingled first
with the last stunted growth of dwarf trees, and then with the mosses and lichens,
which finally disappear under the snows.

The mountain fauna, like the flora, is relatively very rich, and the Ealmuk
sings, " The White Altai, with its four valleys and six, of sixty birds is the home,
and of countless deer." In the section explored by him, Ledebour collected
twenty-one species of mammals, sixty-four of birds, twenty-eight of amphibia, but
seven only of fish. On the Chinese frontier there are some animals belonging to the
Central Asiatic fauna ; but on the whole the species are the same as those of the
Tian-shan and Siberia. The stu£Fed tigers in the BamaM Museum were intruders
from a foreign domain, and do not seem to have been here indigenous. Some
animals, formerly very common, have either disappeared or become very scarce.
Such are the beaver, now found only on the Black Irtish, and the elk, so numerous
in the time of Pallas that the tribute was often paid with its skins, valued at about
half a rouble each. But while some havr been exterminated by the hunter, others
have been introduced by the Russian and Tatar peasants. The Hussians of the
Bukhtarma valley have succeeded in taming, and thus preserving, the marali, which
has elsewhere been nearly extirpated by the leas provident settlers. This ruminant
is more valued than the horse, because of its greater docility, and because it
consumes less hay, if supplied with plenty of salt. The horns of the male are sawn
in spring, yielding on an average about £8 worth of the gelatinous substance
so highly prized by the Chinese. The skin and flesh have also a g^reat economic
value.

' The bee, said by Ledebour to have been introduced by the Russians towards the
close of last century, seems to be indigenous, at least in the region of Lake
Teletzkoye, where it is found in the wild state, and has a native name. In any
case agriculture has become one of the g^reat industries of the Altai, and as many
as 2,000 hives are grouped aroimd some farmsteads. In several villages the
annual yield amounts to 125,000 lbs. of honey, and 500,000 lbs. of honey and
825,000 lbs. of wax are yearly exported from the Bukhtarma valley. This highly
perfumed honey is largely constmied in the Altai regions, where, as in Russia, it is
eaten with candied fruits and cucumbers.

Inhabitants — The Kalmuks, Tatars, and Russians.

The prehistoric races of the Altai have left traces of their civilisation, and the
local mines had from the remotest times been worked by one of those mysterious
races known as " ChCkdes." The hills and plains are strewn with their barrows,
generally surrounded with stones and gooseberry thickets. When the Russians
discovered the rich mineral treasures of the Altai, they found that mines had
everywhere been opened, and Pallas tells us that in one of them the skeleton was
found of one of those prehistoric miners, with a leather sack full of ores by hia side.

MOW

MHH

SasssKssmimBtM

-w^

INHABITANTS— THE KALMUKS, TATABS, AND RUSSIA VS.

825

iety of the
e snow-line,
lingled first
and lichens,

he Ealmuk
is the home,
iir collected
nphibia, but
nging to the
those of the
ire intruders
nous. Some
very scarce,
so numerous
ued at about
unter, others
Bsians of the
narali, which
his ruminant
d because it
lale are sawn
)us substance
■eat economic

B towards the
;ion of Lake
ime. In any
ind as many

villages the
)f honey and

This highly
1 Russia, it is

tion, and the
36 mysterious
leir barrows,
the Russians
at mines had
skeleton was
} by bis side.

In many places the honey-combed ground has given way, forming large basins, now
partly filled with water. In the agricultural districts also human skeletons have
been found beneath the " black earth," assjciated with the remains of horses, and
delicately wrought gold, silver, copper, and iron objects. These ancient miners of
the Altai and Yenisei, as well as those of the Urals, were amongst the ancestors of
the debased populations occupying the Altai valleys at the time of the arrival of the
Russians, and who belonged to the Ural-Altaic stock. Owing to the common
tendency to seek the cradle of races in highland regions, the terms Ural and Altai,
like that of the Caucasus, have been employed to designate the various Tatar,
Finnish, and even Mongolian nations of North Asia.

The Mongols occupy all the southern slopes of the Altai and surrounding
plateaux. But they have also crossed the frontier, and dwell in the midst of the
Russians and Tatars of the northern valleys, though they are here chiefly repre-
sented by the Ealmuks, variously estimated at from 12,000 to 20,000. These
communities, who call themselves Telingit, or Telengut, and some of whom are
even ignorant of the name of Ealmuk, are described as " the most honest of Asiatic
peoples." The Teletzes of the Chulishman valley, from whom Lake Teletzkoye takes
its name, form a "family of brothers," far superior to their more "civilised"
conquerors in simplicity, uprightness, and hospitality. Till recently they were
subjects both of China and Russia, knowing no political frontier, and paying
tribute to two masters. But since 1869 their allegiance has been confined to the
White Czar. They formerly occupied a far niore extensive territory, stretching
even beyond the Irtish ; but they are now limited to the Biisk and Euznetzk
districts of the Eastern Altai. Although of Mongol stock, they now speak a T{krki
dialect, abounding in Mongolian terms.

The Altai Ealmuks are pure Shamanists, freely practising their rites, and on
grand occasions sacrificing animals. Their idols or symbolic images consist of
blocks of wood or bark representing men with outstretched arms, not unlike the
votive offerings often lining the walls of churches in the south of Europe. These
many-coloured images represent the good and bad spirits, who dwell between
heaven and earth, in the moimtains and at the bottom of the lakes. Hare-skins,
regarded by the Orthodox Russians as impure, are sacred objects in the eyes of the
Ealmuks, who spread them o^or wooden crosses, also revered as holy symbols.
The ghosts of their forefathers are represented by party-coloured ribbons attached
to the branches or streaming from poles, and every Ealmuk knows his ribbon by
the name of one of his ancestors. He understands the lang^uage of the wind,
listens to its advice, but never reveals to strangers what the voice from beyond the
grave has told him. Nevertheless thousands of these Shamanist Ealmuks are
officially classed as Christians. The harsh treatment of their wives is said to be
one of the chief causes of the conversions amongst the frontier populations. To
escape from the blows of their husbands these women take refugpe with the
missionary, and allow themselves to be baptized. Then the husbands come forward
and cause themselves also to be baptized, in order to recover possession of their
spouses, and thus two souls are gained to the " true faith." Most of the Tatars in

826

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

the Russian valleys are also baptized and officially regarded as Christians, although
they are really Shamanists, and have often forgotten their Christian names, still
calling themselves "Dog," "Wolf," "Raven," "Vulture," after the national
fashion. The chief missionary station in the Altai regions is Ulula, a village in the
Upper Katun valley, some 60 miles above Biisk. Here is a curious collection of
native documents, religious works published in Tatar, and popular songs collected
by Radlov and Chivalkov.

Of all the non-Slav races the Tatars are, on the whole, those who offer the g^reatest
inert resistance to the progress of Russian civilising influences. Yet of many
Tatar tribes little now survives beyond their names. The Kirghiz of the Upper
Katun valley, completely isolated from their kinsmen of the western steppes, have
become Russians in their agricultural habits, though still speaking TCkrki or the
Mongolian dialect of their Kalmuk neighbours. The Teleuts of the Biya valley,
and the Kumandes, besides varioiis groups of " Black " Tatars, are also being
gradually Russified. Helmersen and Radlov think the Teleuts are of Finnish race,
although now speaking a T(irki dialect resembling that of the Telenguts.

Over nine-tenths of the population in the Altai regions are Russians, descended
from traders, ofiicials, Cossacks, miners, soldiers, and exiles. Till 1865 the
Russian peasantry were not permitted to colonise these highlands, which were the
special domain of the Czar, reserved for the mining industry. Still the valleys
are so fertile, and the demand for agricultural produce so urgent, that thousands
settled here even before that year. The Raskolniks especially possess several large
villages, surrounded by flourishing farms, and they already form about one-fifteenth
part of the entire population. At present colonisation is making rapid strides,
and numerous new communes have been founded in the Biisk district, and even in
the Kalmuk territory. Some of the better class of villages belong to the descend-
ants of fugitives said to have been criminals, but who must have mostly been
Bezpopovtzi Raskolniks, all the inhabitants now belonging to that sect of Old
Believers. They retreated before the advance of the miners, and formerly lived
Jike savages in the more inaccessible valleys, some penetrating even into the
Mongolian steppes, where they are believed still to survive. These were the so-called
Kamenshiki, or " Rock People," most of whom accepted the Czar's authority in
1791, and built regular villages, where their descendants now lead honest, sober, and
industrious lives. But in 1862 about fifty of them quitted the country in search
of the mysterious " White Water," probably the Lob-nor, where Prjevalsky heard
of an independent Russian community during his recent travels.

Formerly the only advantage derived by the Russians from the Altai regions
was due to the mines, all of which were discovered on the site of old " ChMe "
works. Since the beginning of the eighteenth century the Russians have sought
for gold in the auriferous sands of the Altai rivers ; in 1725 the first foundry was
opened, and in 1736 the argentiferous lead mines were discovered, which proved to
be the most productive in the world during the latter half of the eighteenth century.
The German miners, invited about 1750 to these regions in order to instruct the
Crown serfs in the various branches of the industry, have become completely

otssass

TOPOGBAPHT.

327

18, although
names, still
he national
Ulage in the
collection of
ga collected

the g^reatest
at of many
f the Upper
teppes, have
rdrki or the
Biya valley,
) also heing
i'innish race,
ts.

Ls, descended
1 1865 the
ich were the
[ the valleys
Ett thousands
several large
one-fifteenth
apid strides,

and even in
the descend*
mostly been

sect of Old
rmerly lived

en into the
the so-called

authority in
st, sober, and
ry in search

ralsky heard

lltai regions
ld"ChMe"
have sought
'oundry was
ch proved to
mth century,
instruct the
completely

absorbed in the Slav population, and are now recognised only by a few German
technical expressions current in the local dialect.

The Chinese slopes of the mountains are not worked, nor are there any mines
in the Eastern Altai districts, where crystalline rocks are of less frequent occurrence.
Most of the ores in the west and north are found in the paloDOzoic rocks, associated
with granites, porphyries, diorites, or serpentines. The most abundant metals are
silver and copper, besides gold, lead, zinc, iron, and in one place tellurium. Gold,
silver, copper, nickel, and iron alone are at present extracted, but since the abolition
of serfdom and the substitution of paid labour in 1861, the expenses, formerly less
than half the profits, have gone on increasing at such a rate that several of the
deepei* mines have already had to be abandoned. The importance of the Altai as a
mineral region will probably continue to decline, at least until the coal-fields of
the Upper Tom basin are opened and connected by rail with the metal works.
Meanwhile, agriculture and stock-breeding must be regarded as the chief resources
of the Altai. In 1804 the course of. the Irtish was first utilised for forwarding the
metals to Russia. But craft of 32 tons, which reach Ust-Kamenogorsk from the
port of the Yerkniy-pristen mines in one day, take three days and often a week to
return, so that during the open season a boat can at most make nine or ten trips.
Of the land routes between the Ob basin and Mongolia, the most important is that
between Biisk and Eobdo through the Chuya valley and Sdok Fuss. Yet Ugodai,
the last permanent Russian station on this historic route, is a mere hamlet of
twenty huts, some 130 miles from the simimit of the pass. Even the Russian
encampment in the Upper Chuya valley is left in charge of the Ealmuks during
winter.

Topography.

Although the Altai region is very sparsely peopled even in the neighbourhood
of the mines, still the Russian towns and villages are comparatively large. Barnaul,
capital of all the Altai colonies, is one of the gayest and most flourishing towns in
Siberia. Its industries are second in importance only to those of Irkutsk, west of
the Ural provinces. As indicated by its name, it was a mere Kirghiz a(kl when
Demidov founded his mining village on the left bank of the Ob, and in 1771 it
became the capital of all the mineral region in the Altai. The great imperial
foundry stands on an embankment damming the waters of the BamaCklka, above
its junction with the Ob. But the works have been frequently at a standstill since the
produce of the mines has fallen off. Here are also some free industries, such as
tanneries, leather dressing, bullet casting, and other establishments. The town also
possesses a meteorological and magnetic observatory, and a public museum of natural
history and antiquities. In the district is the copper foundry of Suzunskiy-zavod,
on a small affluent of the Ob, producing about 540 tons of metal yearly.

Zme'inogorak, or " Snake Mount," formerly the rival of Bama(^l, is now much
reduced, its population having fallen from about 20,000 to 10,000. Standing on a
bare hill 1,100 feet above the Korbalikha torrent, which flows through the Alei to
the Ob, Zmeinogorsk was long the chief centre of the Altai mining industry. About

^fsmmmtm

828

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

half of tho silver produced in this region down to the middle of the nineteenth
century came from the neighbouring mines, most of which are now half full of
water. These mines were finally abandoned in 1869, and the large smelting works
are now supplied with ores from the Upper Altai valleys farther south.

At present the most active mining town is Ziri/ano'iak, at the foot of the
" Eagle Mountains," in tho heart of the Altai, in the unhealthy valley of the
Beryozovka, a tributary of tho Bukhtarma. Hitherto Ziryanovsk has produced
about one-fourth of all the silver extracted from the Altai,* and with the village of
BukuUiiuiueik it in mIbo the cUief oentte of bee-farming in this region. Riddersk,
so named from Ridder, who first surveyed its argentiferous lead deposits, lies mid-
way between Zmeinogorsk and Zirj'^anovsk, about the sources of the Ulba and Uba,

Fig. 178.— ZmkInooorsk.
Soala 1 : 70,000.

8,380 Yard*.

and is the richest lead-producing district of the Ural. Near it is the famous g^nite
peak of Ivanovskiy-belok, 6,730 feet high. Loklevakiy, at the chief bend of the
Alei, west of Zmeinogorsk, is a busy place, which formerly employed 1,200 free
hands and over 27,000 serfs, and which about 1860 annually produced on an
average 12,800 lbs. of silver and 600,000 lbs. of lead.

North-west of Barnaul, between the Ob and the Tom, are the numerous
argentiferous mines of Salair, whose annual yield averages about £8,000. The
coal and iron wealth of Kuznetsk, on the Tom, is very little worked. But, besides
its metal ores, the Altai is rich in valuable rocks, some of which are wor! c^ up in

* Yield of the Ziryanovsk mines from 1796 to 1864 :—

Silver 1,026,000 lbs., value 21,860,000 roubles.

Lead . . ... 86,000,000 „ „ 2,162,100 „

» . W i «Jte ^ i i at.. p

' ..f^j v ? ; " !/!.' ! ^ * ju- L* w. .ij mgrair — ".asw

-•-

OB BASIN.

829

nineteenth
tall fuU of
[ting works

foot of the
illey of the
IS produced
le village of
Rid'Jerak,
ts, lies mid-
ba and Uba,

the Government works of Kolivan, 19 miles north-west of Zmoinogorsk. Ilero are
prepared some magnificent blocks of brown and smoked jaspar, marble, quartz,
porphyry, and serpentine. But, as in most of the Government works, the expenses
greatly exceed the income.

The chief trading-place in the Eastern Altai and Sayan highlands is Bmk, on
the right bank of the Birza, near its jimction with the Katun, the main head-stream
of the Ob. It is thus conveniently situated for carrying on trading relations with
BamaCil and the steppe on the one hand, and on the other with the Altai valleys,
and through the SCkok Pass with Mongolia. Its merchants meet the Chinese
dealers every year in a camping groimd in the middle of the swamps of the Chuya
steppe, where they obtain their rrpplies of furs, cattle, and horses. But the
exchanges, which in 1865 amounted to 200,000 roubles, have been g^reatly reduced
since Eashgaria has lost its independence.

Kuznetzk, or the " Blacksmith's Town," lying in the Upper Tom basin, opposite
the confluence of the Eondora, has gradually lost its former importance. But sinco
it has become the chief town of a district its locksmith and hardware industries and
general prosperity have somewhat revived. Its coal-fields, still unworked, have an
estimated area of 2,000 square miles.

Of the summer retreats and towns devoted to pleasure the most important is
Altaiakaya sianitza, the Eoton-karagai of the Ealmuks, founded in 1871 in the
Upper Bukhtarma valley, 3,520 feet above the sea. Notwithstanding its great
elevation, wheat, hemp, and flax are grown in the surrounding district, while oats
and barley yield returns up to 4,000 feet.

III.— THE OB BASIN.

imous granite

bend of the

d 1,200 free

duced on an

;he numerous
8,000. The
But, besides
wor'c^ up in

GOTBBNMKNTS OF AXMOLINBX, SbMIPALATINSK, ToMBK, TiiBOLBK — EaSTBBN DlSTBICTt OF THB

OOYBRMMINTS OF FbHM AMD OrBNBVUO.

The vast basin of the Ob, embracing an area of over 1,400,000 square miles,
comprises all West Siberia, half of th» Eirghiz domain, and even stretches south
of the Altai into Chinese territory. But the northern portion of this immense
region, seven times larger than France, is still little more than a frozen solitude.
The population, concentrated chiefly on the Asiatic slope of the Urals, and in the
central zone between the southern steppes and northern tundras, is so sparse that, if
evenly distributed, it would give scarcely two inhabitants to the square mile.

Few of the streams flowing through the Ob to the Arctic Ocean have their
sources in the snowy valleys of the uplands. In the east the watershed between
the Ob and Yenisei is in many places imperceptible, the timdra discharging its
surface waters in both directions without any distinct parting-line. The inter-
mediate zone is often occupied even by swamps draining either way, according to
the direction of the winds on the local rainfall. Farther south the watershed between
the Aralo-Caspian and Ob basins is irregularly indicated by rolling tracts or even
hills. But this water-parting is diversely interrupted, and here also there occur
23

880

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

marshy tracts, whose drainage has taken a northern or a southern course under the
slightest oscillations of the land. The hydrography of the Ob is, in fact, clearly
defined only towards the west by the Ural range, and south-eastwards by the Altai
highlands and plateaux. It is in these uplands on the Chinese frontier that we meet
with the Belukha glacier, the only one occurring in the Ob basin.

The Irtish Basin.

The true head-stream of the main river is not the Upper Ob, which rises in the
Russian Altai, but the Irtish, fed by the waters of the Chinese Altai. The Irtish

Fig. 179.— Laki ZAisAN.
SmO* 1 : i,aoo,ooo.

MHOm.

itself, the correct Mongol form of which is Erchis, is only an affluent of a partly
imderground river, which rises on the Eobdo plateau, and sweeps round the advanced
spurs of the Altai north-westwards towards the g^eat Lake Ultmgur, one of the
largest in Asia. A small chain of hills runs between the east side of this lake and
the Irtish ; but the hills gradually disappear northwards, and near an isthmus,
where the stream is within 2 miles of the lake, there is seen the dry bed of an
outlet, said to be filled every spring with the rising of the Ulungur. Beneath this
superficial bed a hidden stream certainly flows, as shown by the comparative
observations made on the discharge of the Irtish above and below the intermittent
outlet. Some 12 miles higher up the volume of the Irtish is about 635 cubic feet
per second, whereas farther down it is three times greater without having received

ummm

-♦-

THE IETI8II BASIN.

881

B under the
'act, clearly
>y the Altai
hat we meet

risea iu the
The Irtish

any visible fresh affluent. This great increase must evidently be duo to an imder-
ground tributary, which forms a continuation of the Upper Uluugur River by
flowing from the lake of the same name.

The Irtish, or " Black Irtish," which ought to bo called the Ulungur, is already
a considerable stream before entering Russian territory, ond oven before receiving
the overflow of the Alpine Lake Marka through the Ealjir. Its mean depth is
nearly 10 feet, with a breadth of from 300 to 560 feet, and a iw discharge of
about 13,000 cubic foot per second. After its junction with the ii.aljir it enters
Russian territory, here forming several marshy branches, which slowly make their
way to Lake Zaisan, a still larger sheet of water ihan the Ulungur. This lake is about
60 miles long, at least during the floods, with a mean area of 730 square miles. But
though three times larger, it is far shallower than Luke Geneva, averaging little

ii'ig. 180.— Thi Urt-Kahinooohsx Divilr.
Scale 1 : DSO.OOa

ISMilM.

nt of a partly
I tlie advanced
ur, one of the

this lake and
r an isthmus,
ry bed of an

Beneath this
e comparative
le intermittent
635 cubic feet
aving received

over 25 feet deep. The Zaisan is not an Alpine, but rather a vast steppe lake,
although the snowy crests of the Alt^i and SaClru ranges are visible through the
poplars, willows, and aspens fringing its shores. It teems with fish to such an
extent that the hauls of the Kirghiz or Cossack fishermen seem like " miraculous
draughts " to the stranger. Besides the species common to the lacustrine waters of
Europe, it contains the nyelnta, an excellent salmon, and carps much finer than
those of the West. The annual yield of fish amounts altogether to about 1 ,625,000 lbs.,
and its present name of Zaisan, or " Noble," is said to have been conferred on
this lake by the Ealmuks, whom the superabundant supply of fish saved from
starvation in 1650. Water-fowl also frequent it in midtitudes, but its shores are
almost destitute of inhabitants. A steamer ascended the Irtish in 1864, to explore
its waters and penetrate up the Black Irtish to the station of Ak-tubeh, on the
Chinese frontier, and in 1880 the project was discussed of establishing a regular

^^s^issm

882

ASIATIC BU881A.

Btcnm Horvico betwoon Tumen, the Ziiiwin, ond Block Irtish, a distance by water of
about 0(>0 tniloH.

At an flovation of I.-'IJJO foet the " White" Irtish issues from the north side ol'
the hike in u shiw i-urront, but after its junction with the Kurehum, the Nurini,
ond Ihikhtunno it beiiomes more rapid, and soon enters one of the wiUlest and most
romantic ^orjfes in the world, the Ust-Kamenogorsk defile, beyond which it
assumes its normal north-westerly course. At this iwint, which formerly morkwl
the southern limit of the Ob basin, it is about 1,100 feet obovo seo-level, and below
Ust-Kamenogorsk the stream ramiiioB into several branches, enclosing grassy
islands from 10 to 40 square miles in extent. During its lower course from the
Altai defile to its confluence with the Ob, the Irtish receives over one thousand

Fig. 181.— liAKM Chakt AMD Sartlam m 1870.
BoOa 1 : t,M)O,00O.

XM.

, 8,880 THd»

affluents of all sizes, although himdreds of streams which formerly reached its
banks are now lost in the swamps of the salt and arid steppes.

A large portion of the level tract comprised between the Ob on the east, the
Irtish and Om on the west and north, is known as the Baraba steppe, although
rarely presenting the aspect of a true steppe. Not a rock is anywhere to be seen,
and the surface is pleasantly diversified with groves and clusters of pine and birch,
disposed as if by the hand of an artist in picturesque disorder. This natural park
presents an endless variety of landscapes, and yet the only elements in the scene
are its pines, birches, grass, and prairie flowers. In some places, however, this
region assumes the appearance of a true steppe, with salt and marshy tracts,
crossed by the g^reat Siberian military route for a distance of 400 miles, from Omsk
to Kolivan. But even here the cultivated lands are gradually encroaching on the
steppe, and numerous colonists from Voronej, Simbirsk, and Samara have .already
settled in this " birch steppe," whose fertility is justly extolled, although the soil

~m!msisi^mff^^3;mmm«i^i'*!Fnm'»i?^ms!S^^^msssmBmmmi

THE IRTISH DA8IN.

888

by water of

lorth Mv of
the Nuriiu,
mt uud luoat
1(1 which it
orly marked
I, uud below
sing grassy
36 from the
•ne thotuttud

r reached its

the east, the
)pe, although
e to be seen,
ae and birch,
natural park
I in the scene
lowever, this
arshy tracts,
3, from Omsk
ching on the
have .already
>ugh the soil

consiHta only of a thin layer of black lonni, rcHting on ii
micaceous schistH. Since the niiddh) of tho century the Baruliu
moisture, and some districts arc already b(>ginning to suffer (i<
tho depressions arc still covered with extensive sluiUow lakes. '

of <f *(rintcgri»l<Hl

"^ lo»* much ' •' its

'liNnijjIil Yet

' liese the gest

is Lake Chany, which bus un area of 1,200 Mptarc miles, but is nowhere . ver
20 feet deep, and though teeming with fish when visitiHl by Pallas, is now alinnst
uninhabited. Tho deepest is Hartlam, which in some places is over '{O feet, and all
present forms anulogtms to those of Sweden and Fiidand. Thus tho (!hany is
dividcfl into stHJondury basins by long parallel [)oninsulus with several islands, all
disposed in tho same north-easterly and south-westerly direction. The rivers
flowing to Luke Chony, tho marshes, and the low ridges separating tho rivor basins
also follow tho same line. This remarkable uniformity may possibly ho duo to a
great marine current, formerly setting towards tho Aral Sea, though «)mo
geologists arc inclined to attribute it to tho action of the glaciers, Avhich may at
ono time have reached these plains from tho Urals and Altai, here producing the
same effects as have been observed in Finland and tho Russian governments of
Olonetz and Archangelsk.

Lake Chany, like most of the lacustrine basins in tho Baraba steppe, has no
visible outflow to the Irtish, and, us the evaporation is greater than tho rainfall,
some saline reservoirs have been formed here and thei-e. Tlie water is still fresh
in the south, where the rivers Kargat and Chulim join the lake ; but in the centre
it has become brackish, and in the western extremity quite salt. Yet there must
be an underground outflow to the Irtish, either from the Chany or from some other
neighbouring lakes, for near the village of Jelyezimskaya, on the right bank of the
river, there are copious springs, by which the volume of the Irtish is sensibly
increased.

After its junction with the Om the Irtish describes a long curve towards the
east, and then resumes its north-west course to its confluence with the lahim and
Tobol. Of these great tributaries the longest is the Ishim, the Isel of the
Kirghiz, which has a course of about 1,000 miles. The region through which it
flows has greatly diminished in moisture, as is evident from the numerous dried-up
lakes and marshes, much reduced in size, which formerly drained to the Ishim.
Although inferior to the Irtish in vohime, the Tobol might be regarded as the real
main stream of the Ob basin, the general direction of its valley being tho same as
those both of the Irtish and the Ob itself, below its confluence. Throughout its
course it skirts the eastern slopes of the Urals, and it thus receives the larger
streams flowing eastwards from this water-parting between the Ob and Volga
basins. One of these streams is the Tura, whose course was followed by the first
invaders of Siberia, and which, since the time of Yermak, has remained the chief
historical highway between European and Asiatic Russia. Formerly the Tobol
joined the Irtish opposite the high cliff on which stands Tobolsk. But the rock
being constantly undermined by the current, this city was threatened sooner or later
with the fate of the old town of Sibir, which also stood on the " high " — that is, the
right — ^bank of the Irtish. To avoid this danger Governor Gagarin, in 1716,

884

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

omploypd the Swwlidh prinonerii of war ponfinod there to dig a conol about 2 milen
long, which removed the mouth of the Tobol farther down, and thu« onable<l th(<
engincem HuccoMfully to protect the base of the Tobolsk escarpraentn from tho
erosive action of tho stream.

Course op twk Ob.

The Upper Ob, which rises in the Altai, joins the Irtish 300 miles below
Tobolsk. Its chief head-stream, tho Katun, or " Queen," flows from tho glaciers in tho
highest part of the range, but the main stream docs not take the name of Ob till
the confluence of tho Kutun and Uiya,i}90 miles below the Bielukha glacier. After

Fig. 182.— DuiD-vp Stmams in tub Bauma^l Dirtmiot.
Seate 1 ! a,110filO.

aoiOlM

emerging from the highlands, and at its junction with the BamaOlka, opposite
Bamadl, capital of the Altai regions, it is little over 300 feet above the level of the
sea. Here the steppe is already so level that, as in the Irtish valley, many streams
expand into lakes and swamps before reaching the Ob. But it ia probable that in
former times, and under a more humid climate, the more copious rivers, now repre-
sented only by chains of small lakes, possessed more regular channels. The course of
many of them towards the Ob is, so to say, little more than faintly traced, varying
in length and distinctness with the greater or less abundance of moisture from
year to year.

Owing to its slight incline, the Ob itself assumes in many places a lacustrine

kbnut 2 tnilcfl
H onoblwl the
ntfl from the

COURSE OP THE OB.

886

character, ramifyinj? into numeroun branchon, und widening into iwrmannnt inland'
Rtudded expansoH. It« mcun breadth vuriea from 'iiflOO foot to nearly 2 miloH, und
in the spring floods from 20 to 25 miles, now ossuming the projwrtions of a groat
inland sea, iis at Kolivan, whore the opposite banks are invisible, Below the
junction of the Tom and Chulim it ramifies into a groat numl)er of branches,
forming a continually shifting labyrinth of channels, covering the whole plain.
During the five or six winter months these low-lying watt^rs are dividoil by the ice
into a number of separate basins, which cease to flow and Ijccome stagnant lakes
unfit for huiniin use, and cut off from all communication with each other like the
Burfaoe taniH oft*«n loft on the steppes by driod-up rivers.

The Ket, hich joins the Ob above Narim, though not one of its groat
tributaries, is nevertheless navigable for nearly 000 miles, thus affording the best
natural highway between the Ob and Yenisei basins. During the first invosion of
Siberia the Cossacks followed this rout«, and in the beginning of the seventeenth

Fig. 183.— PHOjicritD Caxal« Birwnit thb Ob and Yinhki.
Sokle 1 : 7,400,000.

iiimovshei*

aoHiiM.

century the Russians erected two forts, one at its mouth, and the other at the head
of its navigation, to protect their peltry stations from the attacks of the natives.
Between the upper station and the Yenisei below Yeniseisk there is only a portage
62 miles long, and this is the only break in the vast network of navigable channels
connecting the Ural rivers with the Baikal basin across 50° of the meridian, or
nearly one-sixth of the circumference of the globe. The project of bridging over
this gap is now being entertained, and since 1872 the scientific exploration has
been resumed of all the rivers in the district enclosed by the Ob and Yenisei, where
their courses approach nearest to each other. Careful surveys have already been
made of the Chulim, which is navigable for steamboats as far as Achinsk, north-
west of Erasnoyark, on the Yenisei, and of the Tim and Yakh, by which the two
afRuents of the Yenisei, the Sim and Yelogui, may be respectively reached. The
Ket still seems to afford the greatest facilities for effecting a junction between the
two main streams. But instead of ascending it to Makovskoye, near its source, it

886

ASIATIC fiUSSIA.

is proposed to utilise the little Yazeva affluent, passing thence by a canal across a
level marshy tract to the Kas, u tributary of the Yenisei. Here the portage is only
4,220 yards long, between two lakes standing at the same elevation above the sea.
A junction canal, 4 feet deep and 50 feet wide, would give access to boats of about
30 tons burden, and the incline either way is so slight that no locks would be needed.
The only obstacles to the navigation would be the so-called lorn, or snags, which
form dams at the windings of the stream, but which might easily be removed, as
all of them rest on mud beds. When this canal is completed there will be a great
reduction in the freights, amounting possibly to as much as 5 roubles per tea-chest.
In 1825, when all the tea brought from Kiatkha to Nijni-Novgorod was conveyed

Fig. 181.— Nbtwobk of 8tbkams at thb Ob and Ket Jvmctiok.
SMde 1 : 2,000,000.

.SOUilMk

by the rivers and portages, the merchandise passing by the village of Makovskoye
was estimated at over 10,000,000 roubles.

Below the Narim the Ob, after receiving the Tim, Vakh, and others scarcely
less important than the Eet, continues its sluggish course first north-west and then
west to the Irtish, which it joins through a network of intricate channels, whose
navigation demands the most skilful piloting. After their junction the two rivers,
each about equal to the Danube in volume, again divide, as if a common bed were
insufficient to cot 'ain this moving sea. The two streams, now respectively called
the Great and Little Ob, continue their winding course to the estuary at distances,
in some places, of from 20 to 25 miles, but everywhere connected by countless inter-

"mmmm>'

'SSSSiSSL

BwB Bra i EB BB ff^^ KjS^-^

C0UE8E OF THE OB.

887

canal across a
)ortage is only
ibove the sea.
boats of about
uld be needed.

snags, which
)e removed, as
ivill be a great

per tea-chest.

was conveyed

of Makdvskoye

others scarcely
L-west and then
shannels, whose
the two rivers,
nmon bed were
)ectively called
ry at distances,
countless inter-

mediate channels. The Little Ob, which is the left stream, is the narrowest and
shallowest, but owing to its less rapid current is preferred by craft ascending
inland. The navigation of the Great Ob, used chiefly by boats going seawards, is
at times endangered by the north wind raising high waves against the down
current. The confluence of the Ob and Irtish lies beyond the zone of cereals ; but
the Lower Ob remains to its mouth within the limits of foiest vegetation, its banks
being fringed throughout with pines, firs, the larch, birch, and willow. Although
less brilliant and varied in colour than those of North America, the autumnal tints
of the Ob forests are still brighter than the foliage on the European seaboard.

The banks of the Lower Ob everywhere consist of clays and sands, which are
being constantly undermined by the current. Those of the Little Ob are very
low, and often concealed by a dense growth of reeds, carex, and other aquatic plants.
But those of the Great Ob rise in some places 200 feet above the stream, and are
'pierced at intervals by ravines through which the scrub descends to the water's

Fig. 185. — LowiR CovKRE akd Mouth or tub Ob.
Seale 1 : 1,160,000.

■ aoaiiiM.

edge. Trunks of trees strewn along the foot of the cliff mark the limits of the
last floods, while heaps of stones, granites, syenites, porphyries, schists, and
conglomerates are yearly deposited by the ice, to be again swept farther on
the following year when already embedded in the banks..

The Ob enters its vast estuary through a single mouth nearly 2 miles wide,
oQd from 30 to 90 feet deep. The section of the gulf running west and east
is often regarded as still belonging to the river itself; but in this bay, some
30 miles wide, the normal current has entirely ceased. Other minor inlets
are formed at the mouth of every influent. But the vast fiord of the Ob, stretching
for over 480 miles towards the pole, as well as that of the Taz joining its east
side, is still but partially explored, although formerly visited by the Eholmogori
fishers from the Petchora, and again surveyed in recent times. In 1877 Dahl
penetrated from the Kara Sea round the Talmal peninsula, and through the
gulf into the rivdr. The commercial route to the Ob basin was thus thrown open.

,.aS5S8SBW*»

888

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

and its cereals, wool, tallow, hides, and furs may henceforth be shipped direct for
the ports of West Europe. The river itself is navigable throughout nearly the
whole of its course, which, including the Ulungur as its farthest head-stream, may
be estimated at about 3,400 miles in length.* But the navigable waterway is far
more extensive. In summer all the large, and during the spring floods most of the
secondary, afiluents give access to flat-bottomed craft and steamers, affording a
navigable highway of not less than 9,000 miles. Since 1844, when the first
steamer was launched on the Tura, the steam fleet has gone on yearly increasing,
and in 1877 numbered 34 vessels of 2,655 horse-power. On the other hand, none
of the various schemes of canalisation between the Ob and Volga basins, and between
the Ob and Kara Sea, have proved feasible. But Struve thinks the Fetchora
and Ob basins might be connected by a canal 50 miles long between the Kokpela
and Yo'ikai tributaries of the two nuiin streams respectively. It would be still
easier to connect the Taz and the Yenisei by a canal running along ^he 66th
parallel from the hamlet of Tazovka to Turukhansk.

Inhabitants of the Ob Basin — ^The Voguls.

About half of the population of Siberia is concentrated in the southern regions
of the Ob basin, in an irregular zone stretching along both sides of the old historic
highway and its modem continuation eastwards. This population consists exclu-
sively of Slav elements, forming an Asiatic Russia in speech, manners, and culture.
Here the Russians' have completely replaced the Tatars, formerly the dominant
race, but now scattered in detached groups over the steppes far from the towns and
river banks. Some of these more or less Russified Tatar communities are still met
in the neighbourhood of Tobolsk, west of the Irtish, near the seat of their former
empire. On the Irtish itself there also dwell certain Russian peasantry traditionally
said to be of Tatar origin, but also resembling their ancestors only in the traits of
their features. East of the Ob the Chulim valley is occupied by the Eizil, or
" Red " Tatars, so called to distinguish them from the Kara, or " Black " Tatars
of Biisk. Their speech, one of the purest of TQrki dialects in its structure, is
largely affected by Mongol elements, and has recently adopted many Russian terms.
But, like the Telengut dialect, it is distinguished from most other idioms of Ti^rki
stock by a complete absence of Arabic or Persian words. Never having adopted
the faith of Islam, these Red Tatar Shamanists, who have now become orthodox
Christians, have never had any relations with the Mussulmans of the south, and
have thus remained free from all Mohammedan influences. On the other hand, the
Eazaks or Kirghiz in the southern parts of the Ob basin and about the sources
of the Irtish form an ethnical g^up with the Kirghiz hordes of the Aralo-Caspian

Coune of the Ulungur ....
Black Trtish to Lake Zwaan .
Irtish from Lake Zaiun to the Ob
Ob from the Irtish junction of the Gulf

TotM

HUes.

300 (P)

360 (P)
2,000

760

3,410 mil^.

tmmnss^m

INHABITANTS OF THE OB BASIN— THE VOGULS.

889

ed direct for
it nearly the
-stream, may
terway is far
8 most of the
, affording a
len the first
y increasing,
ir hand, none
, and between
the Petchora
the Kokpela
rould be still
Qg ^he 66th

hem regions

) old historic

msists exclu-

. and culture.

he dominant

le towns and

are still met

their former

traditionally

the traits of

the Eizil, or

lack " Tatars

structure, is

ussian terms.

>m8 of T(^rki

ring adopted

me orthodox

le south, and

ler hand, the

t the sources

ralo-Caspian

region. Many of these nomad tribes have pastures and camping grounds in both
basins, though the administrative divisions here coincide on the whole with
the ethnical limits. Thus the territory of the Kirghiz, even where it encroaches
on the Irtish valley, is assign* i to the general government of Central Asia,
while the Bashkirs of the Asiatic Ural districts are included, with their kinsmen of
the western slopes, in the European governments of Orenburg and Perm.

In the northern division of the Ob basin all the aborigines, whether Voguls,
Ostiaks, or Samoyodes, belong not to the T(irki, but to the Finnish stock. Since
they have been driven east by the Russians the Voguls have dwelt chiefly on the
Siberian slopes of the Urals north of Yekaterinburg, and especially in the valley of
the Eonda, a tributary of the Irtish. A few families reside on the European side of
the moimtains, but most of those who are here met are hunters in pursuit of game from
the east. The Voguls are of the same branch of the Finnish race as the Ostiaks,
and both were till re<'«ntly collectively known by the common name of Manzi.
The former still retain the small oblique eyes characteristic of the race, but most
of them have become Russified in dress, habits, and pursuits. Hence the difficulty
of ascertaining their real nimiber, which is officially stated to be 4,500, but is by
different observers variously estimated at 18,000 to 30,000.

The Vogul himters have best preserved the customs of the tribes which Yermak
had to overcome on his way to the kingdom of Sibir. With their thick furs and
hoods adorned with the ears of animals, they look at a distaL.<«^ like wild beasts of
the forest. But they are really a harmless and even timid race, whose mild expres-
sion is increased by their shaven faces, which would else in winter be changed by
their frozen breath to one mass of ice. They are never known to rebel against the
orders of the traders by whom they are employed, and treated as genuine serfs.
They spontaneously pay the taxes to the civil authorities, and bind themselves
beforehand to do all that may be required of them. Hence they naturally accepted
Christianity, at least in appearance, when ordered to do so in 1722. But every
family still cherishes its household gods, represented either by quadrupeds with
scaly tails, or by the masked figure of a man with a tall head-dress. These rude
figures are attached to the bark of a pine, fir, or birch tree, whence the Russian
term Shaitanka, or Shaitanskaya (" Satanstead "), applied to so many forest clear-
ances. The Voguls also worship a great national idol, doubtless the " Old Woman
of Gold " mentioned by Herberstein. Its sanctuary, say the hunters, is found in
the midst of swamps and gloomy forests in some upper valley of the Urals. Women
passing near the hallowed site dare not even look upwards to the trees shading the
deity, for a single glance would cost them their lives. During the night of the
feast the men gather rou d the idol and kindle a scaffolding of stakes, which bums
like a huge torch. On the return of darkness a member of the tribe approaches a
horse tethered to a tree, and strikes him with a pointed knife. The blood is
received in a sacred goblet, of which every Vogul drinks. The rite is supposed to
have failed should the horse die at once, or before all have had their share of the
blood. The Vog^s are also said to worship the sun, invoking it for fine weather
either directly or through their Shamanist priest, in whom they have great confi-

840

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

iHt

dence. " Our Hhamans," they say, " are better than the popes. The popes foretell
the things of death, the shamans those of life."

Like so many other Finnish peoples, the Voguls have their family totems
tattooed on their heads, arms, and legs. These figures, mostly representing bows
and arrows, squares, circles, or arabesques, are not merely ornamental, but possess
a sacred chamctcr, symbolizing the family traditions and genealogies from genera-
tion to generation. In the forest the Vogul carves his totem on the trees to
indicate his passage to those who may pass by after him. He also attaches it to
the religious or civil documents presented to him by the priests or Government
officials, and he endeavours to cure sores and ulcers by tattooing the skin close to
the part afEected. But, in spite of all these symbolic tattooings, the Voguls are
probably the least sociable of the Siberian aborigines. In summer they live in
isolated families, each pursuing the forest game ; in winter they pitch their tents
or build their huts at considerable distances one from the other, being nowhere
grouped together in villages. Even the family spirit seems but slightly developed.
The hunter may have one or more wives according to his means, but the least dis-
turbance dissolves the union, and the husband will then often live quite alone,
accompanied only by his reindeer and dog. Most of the old men thus forsaken
by their wives die a solitary death, victims generally either of hunger or cold.
Hence burials also are attended with little ceremony. A grave is dug on the spot
where the body is found, and with it are buried the arms of the departed together,
with a supply of tobacco and brandy, but no salt, which is imknown in the Vogul
cuisine.

The Ostiaks.

The chief nation in North-west Siberia is that of the Ostiaks of Bussian and other
European writers, but who call themselves £ondi-Ehu (" People of the Ehonda
River "), As-Khu, As- Yak (" People of the Ob "), or simply Manzi— that is, " Men."
To As- Yak some tface the term Ostiak, which others identify with the Tatar
TJshtiak, or " Stranger," or to the Hussian " Chftd," which has the same sense, and
which is generally applied by the Slavs to the ancient races of Siberia. According
to the ethnographic charts the Ostiaks would appear to occupy a vast domain
stretching from the Ob estimry to the middle course of the Irtish, and from the
Urals to Nijnyaya Timguska. But this region, of some 400,000 square miles, is
mostly a solitude, in which the Ostiaks, according to the latest estimates, number
scarcely 25,000 souls' altogether. The names of many tribes mentioned at the
beginning of the present century seem to have vanished with the tribes themseh es.
The important memoirs of Castren and Radlov on the languages of these peoples
are all the more precious that they all seem destined to rapid extinction as inde-
pendent ethnical groups. Several Ostiak communities near the Russian settlements
have already lost their national speech, and are known only by tradition to have
belonged to the old stock. The Russified Ostiaks are said to be generally of
smaller stature, but more prolific, than those who have preserved their racial purity.

When the Cossacks conquered Siberia the Ostiaks, who opposed them with

popes foretell

family totems
ssenting bows
il, but possess

from genora-
. the trees to
attaches it to
r Government
I skin close to
le Voguls are
• they live in
ch their tents
eing nowhere
tly developed.

the least dis-
3 quite alone,
thus forsaken
nger or cold.
g on the spot
rted together,

in the Vogul

nan and other
the Ehonda
at is, " Men."
th the Tatar
me sense, and
According
vast domain
md from the
iiare miles, is
tates, number
ioned at the
IS themsel \ os.
these peoples
Jtion as inde-
n settlements
[tion to have
generally of
racial purity.
1 them with

s»

THE OPTIAKS.

841

H'-

%^z£*-

numerous armies, had a complete national organization, and dwelt in regularly built
towns. In the single expedition of 1501 the Russians destroyed forty-one of thoMo
fortified places, the ruins of some of which are still to bo seen in the Obdorsk
district. Now the Ostiaks have become more hunters and fishers, dwelling in
wretched ho' els, abjectly submissive to their Russian masters, und only too glad to
pay their taxes whenever they are not prevented by their extreme poverty. So
rapid is the decrease of the race in some districts that it has been attributed not
only to famine, but to the sterility of the women and mortality of the children, two-
thirds of whom perish in their first year. The births are also diminished, on the one
hand, by polygamy, on the other by celibacy, occasioned by the diflUculty of paying
the kalim. Yet hunger and misery would alone suffice to explain the decay of tho
race. The tribute exacted by the Russian Government had formerly to be paid in
peltry. But the fur-bearing animals disappear with the destruction of the forests,
and the Ostiaks are now bound to pay in specie. Being thus unable to refund the
advances made for com, their winter supplies are often stopped, and then whole
families perish of famine fever. The extinction of the race is also accelerated by
their love of drink, and the condition of some tribes is altogether so deplorable,
and their approaching extinction so inevitable, that it has been proposed to
distribute the children amongst the Russian families and leave the adults to their
fate.

Although on the old maps their territory bears the name of Yugria, the present
Ostiaks cannot be regarded as the pure representatives of the Ugrian family, of
which the Hungarian Magyars are a branch. No pure Ostiaks are found south of
the 60th parallel, where the crania present different types, dthough all are more
or less brachycephalic, some approaching the Mongol, others the Lapp form. The
Ostiak dialects also, which of all the Finnish idioms most resemble the Magyar,
show obvious relations, on the one hand, to the Tatar, on the other to the Mongolian.
Relying on this twofold relationship, Castren assigns to the race an Altaic origin,
for in the Alta'i highlands alone they coidd have come in contact both with Tatars
and Mongols. Like other Finnish dialects, the Ostiak language is very harmonious.
Its phonetics include a sibilant analogous to the English th, but the letter / is
wanting.

The Ostiaks are physically rather smaller, but when well fed quite as robust as
the Russians. They have round features, arched forehead, prominent cheek bones,
short and round chin, black and slightly oblique, but very sparkling eyes. Tho
hair is block and pliant, and the beard very thin, as amongst most Asiatics. As
with other Finnish peoples, the type of the young women approaches far nearer to
the Mongolian than does that of the adults.

The district of Obdorsk, chief centre of the Ostiak tribes, represents, both
ethnically and geographically, the conditions which prevailed in Europe during tho
reindeer period. Like the Europeans of that epoch, the Ostiaks eat both carnivorous
and graminivorous animals, the fox and allied species being their favourite food.
They devour the raw flesh, as did the troglodytes of the Weser valley, always
beginning with the intestines, which are regarded as the tit-bits. Stone, horn, and

842

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

r-r;'

bono are still chiefly used in the fabrication of their implements, which are exactly
like those of the old Euroijcun cave men. The bear's tooth is their amulet, the
symbol of their pledged word, the remedy for most complaints. The mats plaited
by the Ostiak women resemble those of the Swiss luke dwellers quite as much as they
do those of the modem Eamchudale tribes, just as the instruments used by them in
weaving their yams are identical with those still found in North Russia, and which
certainly date from prehistoric times.

Political oppression and usury have destroyed the national unity and civilisa-
tion of the Ostiaks, and caused them to abandon their old towns. Still many large
communities have retained the old spirit of solidarity, the members regarding
themselves as relatives, and mutually aiding each other. Thus the successful
hunter shares the spoils of the chase with those who return empty-handed. Owing
to their strict honesty, differences are rare between members of the federation ; but
when they arise appeal is made to an elder, whose decision is final. In the
neighbourhood of Obdorsk family quarrels are settled by the prince descended in
direct line from the chief appointed by Catherine II. The prince and elders receive
no subsidy from the people, but neither they nor the shamans are above accepting
presents from their subjects.

From time immemorial every Ostiak federation has had its special gods, protectors
of the race, guarded by the shamans, who are at once the priests, prophets, doctors
and wizards of the tribe. The sacred groves contain hundreds of these deities,
rudely carved figures of divers forms, of cen resembling the Polynesian idols. Each
family has also its gods, cut, like the others, out of wooden blocks, and mostly
dressed in red garments, with tin heads, and often armed with swords and coats of
mail. But above all these tribal and family divinities the great god is throned in
the " seventh world," clothed in the light of dawn, and speaking with the voice
of thunder and the storm. This is Turm, or Turum, whose name recalls that of
the Scandinavian Tor, or the Taraun of the Gauls. No one dare invoke him,
for he hears not even the shaman's prayer, and is (piided only by the immutable
laws of justice or of destiny. Hence no offerings are mode to him, and to his sons
and other inferior deities, including the St. Nicholas of the Russians, are reserved
the sacrifices of reindeer and sheep (sometimes immolated in the church itself), the
presents of furs, antlers, and other precious objects. At the same time the shaman
alone can render these offerings acceptable ; he alone can nuike his voice reach the
ears of the gods in his chants and beating of the drum. A ribbon at the end of a
pole held before the idol's mouth indicates by its flutterings the divine will. The
shamans also are alone authorised to work miracles, which are regarded as such not
only by the natives, but by the Russians themselves. For them the "block
religion " is no less efficacious than their own, although it acts in virtue of the evil
spirit. Amongst most of the Siberian populations the shamans are a sort of half-
divine beings, controlling the hidden forces of natiu'e, conjuring the elements,
healing maladies, detecting the secrets of the futxre, holding familiar converse with
the good and evil spirits of heaven and earth. " To the hero brute force, but to
the shaman the words that give strength ; to the hero bow and arrow, but to the

THE OSTIAKS.

848

. are exactly
amulet, the
mats plaited
nuch as they
[ by them in
1, and which

and civilistt-
many large
'8 regarding
D successful
[ed. Owing
aration; but
lal. In the
lescended in
Iders receive
ve accepting

Is, protectors

bets, doctors

hese deities,

idols. Each

, and mostly

and coats of

is throned in

th the voice

lialls that of

invoke him,

i immutable

i to his sons

are reserved

h itself), the

the shaman

ce reach the

the end of a

Bwill. The

1 OS such not

the "black

e of the evil

sort of half-

le elements,

on verse with

'orce, but to

, but to the

shaman the power in virtue of which the arrow hits or misses the mark, the wound
kills or not. To the hero noise and clatter, what we see and what we hear, but to
the shaman what we neither hear nor see, silent wisdom, the science of causes and
the knowledge of things." Wrangell himself admits that he could never look on a
shaman without a sort of awe. But this superhuman power is not hereditary, nor
does the shaman select his disciples from his own family. If he observes in the tribe
a young man, thin, pale, and haggard, subject to sudden paroxysms of fury or
epilepsy, fond of solitude, holding nightly vigils, him he chooses as his successor.
He first strives to regulate his fits by magic i-emedies, then subjects him to a period
of novitiate, and teaches him the art of working wonders. The shaman's magic is
a veritable science, in so far as it imparts an understanding of certain physiological
phenomena with a view to profit.

Occasionally the gods of one family or tribe pay a visit to tbose of another.
Then take place the gpreat ceremonies, warlike dances that have lost their meaning,
mimicry of hunting scenes, much playing on the dombra, a stringed instrument like
the tombora, borrowed by the Magyars from the Southern Slavs. Dancing ends with
a banquet, of which the gods partake, and at which the shamans smear their faces
with blood. But the deity must show his g^titude for the offering ; its value is
discussed with him, and he is sometimes induced to be more moderate in his
demands, more generous in his dealings. There are also wicked gods, such as the
water god, who is sometimes appeased by drowning a reindeer in the river. Ideas
of sanctity or magic are associated with everything in nature distinguished by its
strength, size, or solitary grandeur. The cedar towering above the forext pines is
a sacred object, as is also the bear, " son of Turum," and representative of justice
on earth. When he is slain in the chase the hunter implores forgiveness, for five
days afterwards performing divers ceremonies in presence of the body, intermingled
in some tribes with blows and insults. No oath is so sacred as that taken " by the
jaw of the bear," for he sees everything, knows all things, whether alive or dead.
Like most of the Finnish tribes, the Ostiaks pay great respect to their departed
brethren, taking care to provide them with everything they needed on earth —
sleigh, javelin, harpoon, axe, knife, hearth-stone, fuel, and at least a semblance of
food. Parents also keep a figure of the dead, dressing and undressing it, placing
it at the table and putting it to bed. But after three years they regard the death
as a settled point, for the body is now decomposed, and the puppet buried with the
remains in a grave decked with reindeer horns, carved images, tinkling bells, and
streaming ribbons. In the " third world " there are no more ailments, no more
Russian officials, no more' taxes to pay. Unfortunately the Ostiaks never enter
this heaven, but remain in the " second world," which lies beyond the Gulf of the
Ob, at the other side of the ocean.

The Ostiak wife is purchased like an ox, and always regarded as impure. She
is even nameless, and, as with the Samoyedes, she is excluded from the part of the
tent reserved for the provisions. In some tribes the husband and her own children
are even accustomed to fumigate the place she has occupied. She never inherits
anything, but herself forms part of the family inheritance. Nevertheless the mild

mam

mtm

yy: - ' '!■ « •

844

ASIATIC RUS6IA.

character of the raeo protects her from all violence, and for the gonial good-humour
and kindlinoHft of the huHbandH many Ostiuk fumilicH might servo as models to their
IluHsiun neighbours. In the south and along the Ob, whoro Tatar influences
prweded those of tho Slavs, the v^omcn are obliged to go veiled, or else to turn
aside in tho presence of tho men. In other respects all tho Ostiaks rusemblo tho
Hamoycdos in their habits, dross, and speech, and, like them, live on their reindo(>r
herds.

Tho Sumoyedos of the Ob and Tnz estuaries and Lower Yenisei valley belong to
tho Yurak stock, and arc consequently allied to those of North-oast Europe. They
are tho same small, timid, moody, and hospitable race, though they still practise
tho religion of blood, and force bits of raw flesh between the teeth of their idols.
Tho Eastern Samoyedes, met here and there south of the Toimir peninsula as far as
tho Khatanga Fiord, form another group, that of the Tavgi, of toner known to the
Russians us tho Bikaya Orda, or " Savago Horde," not becausa less civilised, but
because they have not yet boon baptized, and have remained more independent
than the other Samoyedes. They keep aloof from the Russian traders, priests, and
officials ; but in theii progress northwards, beyond the Slavs, Tunguses, and Yakuts,
they have nowhere reached the sea. The coast region they regard as belonging by
right to tho " white bear people," and seriously relate how their frequent attempts
to conquer that territory were defeated by the bears, who always unfairly pitted
twelve of their men against eight Samoyede warriors.

Some few tribes are scattered much farther south in the Upper Yenisei basin
beyond the districts settled by the Russians. These are the Eamasses, or Eamas-
sintzes, who occupy the banks of the Kan and Mona, south-east of Krasnoyarsk.
Castrcn regards them as the purest of the race, being those who have remained
in their primitive homes near the Altai Mountains. Several of the surrounding
Tatarized or Mongolized tribes state that their forefathers spoke a different
language from their present speech, and Castren assumes that this must have been
of Same or Finnish stock. Driven by the Tatars from their native valleys, the
Samoyodes followed the Yenisei and Ob north and north-west, leaving colonies
here and there in the regions less exposed to attack, but obliged in many places
to change their name, language, and usages, accoi-ding to the populations with
whom they came in contact. Thus during the Tatar rule most of them became
absorbed in the Tiaiki element. On the right bank of the Ob and in the valleys
of its eastern tributaries, the Chulim, Ket, and Tim, there are about 4,000
Samoyedes, usually grouped with the Ostiaks, and who will probably ere long come
to be regarded as Russians.

The Ural Mining DisTKicmj.

The Slav element is relatively very dense in the portion of the government of
Perm comprised in the Ob basin, and which has already & population of about one
million. While naturally benefiting by the advantages derived from its proximity
to Europe, this region still relies on its own resources for its relative importance in

"■qiismMWBMinp

THE URAL ICNINO DISTIUCTS.

846

l^ood-humour
xloU to their
ir influoncoM
el8e to turn
roftemblo the
heir reindeer

ley belong to
irope. They
still practise
f their idols,
sula as far as
known to the
civilised, but
I independent
i, priests, and
I, and Yakuts,
belonging by
uent attempts
nfuirly pitted

Yenisei basin

es, or Eamas-

Erasnoyarsk.

ave remained

surrounding

a different

list have been

e valleys, the

viug colonies

many places
ulations with
them became
in the valleys

about 4,000
ere long come

the empire. The Central Urals are the chief mining country in Russia, yielding
the precious metals, iron, coal, and salt in abundance. As on the Kuropoau slupcs,
the crystalline rocks, and the Silurian, Devonian, and triassio formations of the
higher ridges and lateral spurs, have been partially disintegrated and strewn along
the eastern foot of the mountains, and amongst these muBses of dtn)riH are found
the valuable minerals by which the Slavs have been attracted to this region. Fiscal
reasons have induced the Government to group in one administrative province the

Fig. IM.— Laxbi akd MxiuHBt is thi I»t BAinr.

SmU* 1 : 456,000.

ei'SOr

OJIOm.

ovemment of
of about one
its proximity

importance in

mining districts of both slopes, whereas the natural limits ought to follow either
the water-parting between the Ob, Petchora, and Volga basins, or else the depres-
sion of the Irtish, coinciding with the ancient maritime strait between the
Caspian and Arctic Ocean. The actual administrative frontiers between the two
continents have been traced almost at haphazard, obliquely crossing the rivers,
and intersecting without any geographical system the region of lakes, swamps,
forests, and uncertain slopes which stretch east of the Ural range.

846

ASIATIC aussu.

About the beginning of the oightoentb century the mineral wealth of thin
country lH>gan firnt to t)o utiliHtHl by the eHtubliNhmcnt of Nmolting worka on
tbo HitoM of the old "rh6do" niincN. The growing importance of th<< diNtrict, the
large revenue dorivwl by the Govonuncnt from itn rcHourcea, and cM|H>cially the
colossal fortunes rapidly made by a few lucky spoculutors, soon drew attention to
those highlands, which have since become one of the classic lands of geology. As
many as 100,000 hands have here been empl6yc<l at a time ; but since the discovery
of the Califomion and Australian " El Dorados " the relative importance of the
Urals as a mineral-producing land bos been greatly reduced. Still, although the
copper orcH of the Yekaterinburg district cannot comf>ete in the European market
with those of Australia, Chili, or Bolivia, the iron ores of the Urals, equalling
in value the best found in Sweden, must always retain their value for Russia,
while for its beautiful malachites and other rocks the Ural range still holds the
first place. The railway now connecting the two chief towns of the province,
Perm and Yekaterinburg, will aid in the more rapid development of these treasures,
which have scarcely been hitherto utilised except for royal residences and some
privileged museums. The malachite deposits are conveniently situated near the
railway station, which bears the name of " Asia," as if to remind the European
traveller that he has entered another continent. At Nijne-Tagilsk, already noted
for its gold, platinum, and iron, a pure block of magnificent malachite weighing over
300 tons has boon found at a depth of 300 feet from the surface. The Visiikaya-
gora Hill, which has supplied the furnaces of Thgilsk and Neviansk since 1720,
consists of a huge mass of iron, containing at least 6,000,000,000 cwt. of ores, about
two-thirds of which are pure metal.

Topography of West Siberia.

The old capital of this mining district is Verkho-Tutie, so called from its position
in the valley of the Upper Tura. It was founded in 1598 on the site of Nerom-
kura, the Oorodiahche of the Chiides or Yoguls, and remained for over one hundred
and fifty years the commercial centre of all the mining districts. Here is the oldest
monastery in Asiatic Russia. But it lost all its importance when, in 1763, the new
route was opened much farther south between Perm and Yekaterinburg. From the
same cause its neighbour Pelim, on the Tavda, was soon reduced to an obscure hamlet.
All the mines and metal works of the Upper Tura basin constitute the Goro-
Blagodat district. The mountain of this name is a mass of magnetic iron, 1,560
feet high, on the frontier of Europe and Asia. According to the legend this
remarkable lodestone mountain was revealed to the Russians by a Yogul, who
was burnt alive by his countrymen, for having thus attracted the foreigners into
the land. Strong native magnets are now seldom found here, the best specimens
coming from Mount Eashkanar (2,800 feet), overlooking the town of Nijne-
Turinsk. ^

The valley of the Tagil, which joins the Tura within the limits of the Perm
government, is richer in metal works even than the Upper Tura basin ; but the

"W*^!**''"

TOroORArUY OF WEST 8IBEUIA.

847

alth of thiK
g works on
' (liHtrict, tho
quMnally the
' attention to
feolojfjr. As
the (liHCOvery
ptance of tho
although the
ipean market
lis, equalling
) for Russia,
till holds the
the province,
leso treasures,
ces and some
ited near the
the European
already noted
ireighing over
["he Visokaya-
Ic since 1720,
of ores, about

am its position
ite of Nerom-

one hundred
•e is the oldest

763, the new
From the
)scure hamlet,
ate the Goro-
ic iron, 1,560
legend this
Vogul, who
oreigners into
lest specimens
wn of Nijne-

of the Perm
lasin; but the

mining industry has al* » bcon oxtondt'd t«» tho valhiy of tho Uppi'r Joiva, whioh
rises a little east of tho suuruo of the Tagil in the Munii> uplundrt. Hero iiro tht>
famous NeviniiHk, or Neivinsk works, ostubliMhcd in UM). In 1702 IVtor thoUrcut
secured thoni in " jMJrpt^tuity " to tho minor Doniidov, including in tho grunt u
tract of 3,212,000 acres. Like Pisa, Neviunsk boasts of its luuuiug towor, a heavy
pile lacking tho elegance of tho Italian structure.

A/apai/irni; oast of Neviansk and on tho sumo river Noiva, is also an active
mining centre, its iron and copper works employing thousands uf smelters and
miners. Tho chief entrepot of all thoso highland towns and villages is Irbif, at
the junction of the rivers Irbit and Nitza. Originally a mere Tatar nlohoda
surrounded by waste tracts and wixHllunds, Irbit took rank as u city in 1775, in
recompense fur its loyalty to Catherine II. during the insurrection of I'ugachov.
Since then it has not greatly increaHc<l in si/o, but during the month of February
it becomes every year tho Nijni-Novgorod of Asiatic Russia. Its empty houses
are now filled with visitors from every part of tho empire, numbering, according to
the state of trade, from 12,000 to 20,000. Since tho beginning of tho century its
trade has increased more than tenfold, and its exchanges amounted in 1870
altogether to 09,263,000 roubles. Irbit has gradually become the great provision
market for tho whole of Siberia, and through it European Russia supplies its
inhabitants as far as the Pacific seaboard with all their requirements, receiving in
exchange chiefly furs and hides. But the fair onco over, Irbit sinks to the position
of a dull provincial town. The neighbouring iron mines have lost much of their
former importance, though the " Irbitskiy-zavod " smelting works, 40 miles south-
west of the town, still produce about 12,000 tons of iron yearly.

After watering the Turinsk district and recoiling the Nitza, the Tura flows
north-east towards Tunifiii, one of tho great cities of Siberia. This place was
already famous before the arrival of the Russians, and its old walls figure on
Herberstein's map of 1549. The Siberian Tatars still know it by the name of
Jenghiz-tora, or " City of Jenghis," attributing its foundation to the Mongolian
conqueror. Situated at the converging point of numerous routes, at the western
extremity of the chief water highway in Siberia, and forming the eastern terminus
of the great birch avenue planted by Catherine II. from Nijni-Novgorod to the
Ural mining districts, Tumen has become one of the chief trading-places in the
Ob basin. Like Irbit, it has its yearly fairs, at which the exchanges in tea and other
merchandise amount to upwai^ds of a million roubles. But it is chiefly a manu-
facturing town, growing yearly in importance, and already claiming to be the
" Manchester of Siberia." It produces most of the carpets sold in Russia, and
amongst its numerous factories are steam-engine works, a tannery in which hides
are prepared to the yearly value of about a million roubles, and building yards for
the steam fleet of the Ob basin. The surroimding towns and villages also produce
quantities of wooden wares, household utensils, and boxes of all sorts, and about
50,000 sleighs and carts are annually made in the district. Tumen is the chief
dep6t of the steamers plying on the Ob, although connected with the river naviga-
tion only during the spring floods. In summer the boats are seldom able to ascend

84S

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

kw.

Fig. 187. — Yekatehinhuho and Bbbbzotsktv.

Scale 1 : 480,000.

the Tura, and usually stop at Artomonora, on the Tohol, midway between Tumen
and Tobolsk.

Still less advantageously situated for fluvial navigation is Yekaterinhur/j, lying
at ihe eastern foot of the Urals, which, however, here rise scarcely more than
650 feet above* the town. But it is conveniently placed for overland communica-
tion, and forms at present the Asiatic terminus of the European railway system.
It also occupies a central position between the northern and southern mining
districts of the Urals, 6 miles south-west of Bcryozov, or Beresovshiy-zaroii, which
till recently derived much importance from its gold and platinum mines, discovered

in 1820. The metal works of Verkh-
Isetskiy, fonning a north-western
suburb of the city, and those of Nijne-
Isetskiy a little south-east of it, have
also acquired considerable importance,
especially from their blast furnaces.
Yekaterinburg, which is one of the
finest cities in the empire, occupies a
gentle slope on the banks of the Iset,
which here broadens to a navigable
lake fringed with verdure. Lofty
white houses, with green sheet-iron
roofs resembling slabs of malachite,
rise above the picturesque wood cot-
tages, and are themselves overlooked
by the domes and belfries of the
churches, from which a view may be
had of the Urals in the distance.
Founded in 1722, Yekaterinburg soon
rose to importance as the centre of an
extensive mining district. It is the
residence of the inspectors of mines,
forming a sort of government apart,
and its stone polishers forward to
Europe poiphyry vases, malachite and
rhodonite tables, and a thousand objects in topaz, jaspar, and rock crystal,
all admirably cut, but betraying little variety of design. The Government
mint, where copper and even gold and platinum coins were struck, has
been abandoned ; but its loss has been compensated by large machinery and other
private works. Here are a meteorological observatory, and' the Society of
the "Naturalists of the Urals," which publishes interesting memoirs on the
geology, flora, faima, and ethnology of these highlands. The society was founded
in 1872, and in 1876 it had already nearly seventy stations in various parts of the
Urals, whose comparative tables are of great use in acquiring a knowledge of
the local climate. In the neighbourhood are many objects of interest, such as the

elliles.

iHMtlJI l

f:»^:-*H<w'

)etween Tumen

terinbut'fj, lying
ely more than
nd communica-
railway system,
uthem mining
•iy-zaro'i, which
lines, discovered
orks of Verkh-

north-westem
those of Nijne-
east of it, have
Me importance,
bkst furnaces,
is one of the
)ire, occupies a
ks of the Iset,
to a navigable
irdure. Lofty
reen sheet-iron

of malachite,
isque wood cot-
ilves overlooked
belfries of the
a view may be
n the distance,
aterinburg soon
he centre of an
rict. It is the
Mitors of mines,
vemment apart,
ers forward to
s, malachite and
id rock crystal,
he Government
ere struck, has
inery and other
the Society of
nemoirs on the
iety was founded
ious parts of the
a knowledge of
rest, such as the

iP-

TOPOGRAPHY OF WEST SIBERIA.

849

numerous blocks of stratified granite between 2 and 3 miles south of Lake Shartash,
and from their form known as " stone tents," One of the rocks on the river
Pishma bears inscriptions in an unknown language, and in a character far more
elegant than those in use amongst the Altai and Yenisei peoples.

The other towns east of Yekaterinburg in the Perm government are Kamiahlov
on the Pishma, Dalmatov and Shadrimk on the Iset. In the south the most
important place is Troitzk, conveniently situated on the Orenburg-Omsk route at
the junction of two fertile valleys, and on the edge of the steppe. But since the
Orenburg-Tashkend route has become the main highway between Europe and
Turkestan, Troitzk has lost much of its former importance. In the Shadrinsk
district is the small town of Krestoroye, whose fair, next to that of Irbit, is the best
attended on the Asiatic slope of the Urals. Its exchanges amounted in 1875 to
8,350,000 roubles.

Kurgan, on the left bank of the Tobol, but beyond the limits of the Perm
government, recalls the former existence of a royal burial-place 560 feet in circum-
ference, and surrounded by a wall and ditch. After extracting a quantity of gold
and silver objects the Bussians converted the moimd into a fortress, which,
however, they were obliged to abandon, owing to the erosions of the Tobol. The
military colony was then removed 5 miles farther down, and gradually developed
into a flourishing trading-place. Yalutorotsk, also on the left bank of the Tobol,
was foimded in 1641 on the ruins of an old Tatar city, and is a busy place during
the horse fair. The surrounding district, the most densely peopled in Siberia, is
very nroductive in com, cattle, tallow, and hides.

Oc '*« Ishim, which flows parallel with the Tobol to the Irtish, are several
impc' aces. Akmolinak, capital of a district near the sources of the river, is

much ^.^uented by the surrounding Kirghiz tribes. Farther west is the old
Cossack stanitza of Atbaaar, at the junction of the Ishim and Atbasar. Petropavloak,
on the right bank of the Ishim, although beyond the Kirghiz territory, is the
centre <^ a large trade with the nottiads, over 3,000 of whom have here settled
down in sedentary communities. Inhim, about midway between Petropavlovsk
and the mouth of the river, is visited by over 10,000 strangers during the
December fair, at which the exchanges amount to 5,000,000 roubles. In the
surroimding lacustrine steppe there are over 300 basins, which are alternately lakes
well stocked with fish and rich meadow lands. They were dry in 1841, began to be
flooded in 1859, and in 1864 the water had everywhere resumed its normal level.

The first place on the Irtish deserving the name of town is Ust-Kamenogorsk,
situated, as indicated by its name, at the " issue of the mountain gorge," near the
mining region. The copper mines of Bieh- Udovtkiy, in the valley of the Olubokaya
to the north-east, employ about 1,000 hands. Lower down, Semipalatinsk, capital
of a government, stands on the left bank of the river, but has often had to change
its site, owing to the erosive action of the stream and the encroachment of the sand
dunes. Its Biissian name of Semi-Palat, or " Seven Buildings," is due to the seven
neighbouring heaps of ruins, formerly used as temples by the surrounding
Kalmuks. In the adjoining Ablaikit valley are the ruins of another Buddhist

SBSS

8fi0

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

temple. The large trade formerly carried on by Semipalatinsk with the Chinese
town of Chugucbak has been almost completely suppressed by the recent troubles
in Kashgaria. Its commercial relations are now chiefly with Tashkend and Bokhara.

Below Semipalatinsk there are no towns till we reach Omsk, which occupies
both banks of the Om at its junction with the Irtish, and on the main Siberian
highway in the zone of Russian colonisation, between the Southern Kirghiz and
Northern Tatar populations. Omsk is the present capital of West Siberia, and its
old fortress has become the residence of the civil and military administrators. Here
are a military gymnasium with 350 students, a museum of natural history, and
since 1877 a branch of the Russian Geographical Society.

East of Omsk the main route ascends the Om valley to Kainak, midway between
the Irtish and Ob, and in the centre of the Baraba steppe. Amongst its inha-
bitants are several hundred Jews, banished to this part of Siberia for Bmuggling.
For a distance of 600 miles along the Irtish between Omsk and Tobolsk the only
town is Tara, standing on the left bank, opposite the confluence of the river Tara.
It is a much older place than Omsk, and was formerly the head-quarters of the
military expeditions organized to reduce the Kirghiz. Peter the Great caused
700 of its Raskolnik inhabitants to be butchered for refusing to take the oath of
allegiance, and since then Tara, lying beyond the great Siberian highway, has
remained nearly stationary.

Tobolsk, former capital of all Asiatic Russia, and still the chief town of a
government, is also a decayed place, taking for population the sixth rank only
amongst Siberian cities. Yet it occupies a position of vital importance at the
confluence of the Irtish and Tobol, in the very centre of the West Siberian fluvial
navigation. But it lies beyond the dSth parallel, near the limits of cereal
vegetation, and has ceased to be a station on the main Siberian highway, which
was formerly deflected northwards to pass by the governor's palace, and which now
runs from Tumen, through Yalutorovsk and Ishim, straight to Omsk. But it still
remains the rallying-place of the Russians banished to Siberia, and the seat of the
" administration of the exiles." When visited by Falk in 1772 it had a population
of 15,000, which has since then remained nearly stationary. All its old Tatar
and early Russian monuments have disappeared, destroyed either by the Cossacks
or by the two fires which wasted the place in the eighteenth century. But with
its painted domes and kreml, or citadel, commanding the lower quarters on the
banks of the Irtish, Tobolsk still remains one of the most imposing cities in
Siberia. Its fish market is one of tbo best supplied in the world, annually drawing
about 8,900 tons from the Lower Ob, for which the Ostiak fishers receive probably
no more than 10,000 roubles, but which realise on the spot at least 1,000,000
roubles.

Below Tobolsk there are no towns on the Irtish; but Samaroca, on a hill
commanding the alluvial plains of the Irtish and Ob, which are lower down con-
nected by a network of canals, is a noted place, occupying the site of a former
Ostiak capital. But the aborigines have long been replaced by the Russian
Tamshchiki, or " conductors," engaged in the transport trade.

•MMMMpp

the Chinese
:ent troubles
nd Bokhara,
lich occupies
lain Siberian
Kirghiz and.
)eria, and its
rators. Here
history, and

way between
^st its inha-
* smuggling,
jlsk the only
B river Tara.
arters of the
i^reat caused
) the oath of
ighway, has

if town of a
h rank only
tance at the
)erian fluvial
ts of cereal
hway, which
i which now
But it still
e seat of the
a population
ts old Tatar
the Cossacks
^ But with
rters on the
ag cities in
ally drawing
ive probably
St 1,000,000

a, on a hill
r down con-
of a former
the Russian

wmS^ ^m^^^'

mmmmmmmm

TOPOGRAPHY OP 'YLST 8IBEEL .

861

Vhk

North of the Altai and the BarnaAl plainn there are no large towns on the
banks of the Ob. KoUmn has acquired some importance as a fishing station and
market for fami produce. But the centre of trade in this region is Tonmk, near the
right bank of the Tom, some 600 miles above its junction with the Ob. Of all
the Siberian cities Tomsk probably most resembles a Russian town in the archi-
teotiiro of its houses, the splendour of its shops, and its general commercial activity.
The Cossacks of Tomsk have been the true conquerors of Siberia, and their services
were recognised in the seventeenth century by the title of "Sons of Boyards," con-
ferred on them by the Czar. Some hundreds of gold miners find profitable
employment in the auriferous districts of the south and south-east, which, though
less rich than those of East Siberia, can be worked at less expense. In population
Tomsk ranks with the four largest cities in Siberia, and is destined soon to become
the intellectual centre of Asiatic Russia as the scat of a university. Although
over fifty years ago richly endowed by private munificence, the first stono of this
institution was not laid till 1880. ' To it will be attached a botanic ^ den on
extensive grounds g^ven for the purpose by a citizen of the place. Like all
Siberian towns, Tomsk covers a vast space, its straggling suburbs spreading for
miles in all directions. In 1876 the landing-place for steamers was over 4 miles
from the centre of the city.

East of Tomsk the two towns of Mariimk and Achinsk, in the Chulim basin,
have some importance as stations on the g^reat Siberian highway. But for hundreds
of miles down the Ob the so-called towns are little more than groups of huts.
Between Tomsk and the Irtish confluence, a distance of over 060 miles, nothing
occurs except the two wretched towns of Narim — that is, " swamp " in Ostiak — below
the Ket delta, and Surgut at the mouth of the little affluent of like name. About
420 miles still farther down stands Berozov, the northernmost town in the Ob
basin. It lies on the Sosva, a tributary of the Little Ob from the Urals, and has
become famous as a place of banishment. Here died Menshikov, Ostermann, and
the two Dolgorukiy, besides hundreds of less known, though no less generous
patriots, doomed to a slow death in this glacial land, far from friend and foe alike,
torn from all the joys of life and fierce struggles for freedom. Berozov is en the
verge of the habitable world, producing nothing but a few hardy vegetables, yet
deriving some importance from its trade in furs, though even these are now chiefly
restricted to squirrel skins. Farther north there are only a few fishing stations, of
which the best known is Obdorak, consisting of about sixty houses and a chapel, at
the mouth of the Ob. In this Arctic region the climate is too severe for working
the gold, platinimi, and iron mines of the surrounding hills. In sununer the
surface thaws only to a depth of from 8 to 12 inches, and in winter the glass falls
to — 12° and even — 16° Fahr. The Obdorsk fair, where the Ostiaks and Samoyedes
formerly sold their furs, is much less frequented than formerly. The natives now
prefer to trade with Turukhansk, on the Yenisei, where the} run less risk of losing
the produce of a year's chase for a few quarts of brandy.

Mangazeya, founded by the Cossack hunters farther east on the Taz, has ceased
to exist, and has been succeeded by the haiiiet of Tazorka.

l l l iUl i W I IMlU I

mum

tarn

882

ASIATIC BUS8U.

ill

IV.— YENISEI-HAIKAL BASIN.

The waters flowing through the Yenisei to the Arctic Ocean belong, like those
of the Oh, to two different basinN. The Ulungur and lUack Irtish are properly
Mongolian rivers, ^vhich have been enabled to drain northwards through a brcuk
in the surrounding mountains. In the same way the Selcnga rises in the uplands
fringing the Gobi desert, and pursues a winding coarse through a depression of
the hilly plateau, whent^o flow east and north-east various head-streams both of
the Lena and Amur. The Selonga falls into the great transverse trough now
filled by Lake Baikal, and through a depression lying at an angle with this vast
lacustrine Iwsin the Angara also escapes to the Yenisei. The emissary flows at
first parallel with the Lena, and these two rivers were probably at one time con-
nected through a lateral broach. But the Angara is now deflected ^rthwards,
descending in a series of rapids through a still imperfectly excavated channel.
After receiving the Oka and other tributaries it takes the name of the Upper
Tunguska, as if it were really a different stream, and after describing a great
curve towards the north and west, it flows in a gentle current to the Yenisei.

The Yenisei itself rises in a mountain cirque east of the Altai range, escaping
from its upper basin through a succession of defiles in the parallel Sayan ridges,
and flowing thence regularly northwards to the Arctic Oceon, uninterrupted by
the nunierous geological breaks obstructing the course of its great affluent from
the oast. Hence it rightly retains the same name from its entrance into Russian
territory to its estuary, and it thus resembles the main trunk of a tree, which
throws off a side branch longer, stronger, and more ramified than itself.* In
the history of their inhabitants the two basins of the Western Yenisei and
of the Baikal also differ from each other, and require to be studied apart.

BASIN OF THE WESTERN YENISEI.

The Yenisei receives its first waters from the Chinese district comprised
between the Sayan and Tannu-ola ranges north and south, and bordered east-
wards by the lacustrine plateau where rise the farthest head-streams of the
Selenga. None of the rivers rising in this district, which has a mean elevation
of 4,000 feet above the sea, have received from the natives the name of Yenisei. But
the true main stream seems to be the Bei-Eem, which is the " Great Yeniitei " of
some writers, and which is fed by numerous brooks from the Eastern Sayan, better
known as the Ergik-targak taiga. The Ehua-kem, or "Little Yenisei," rises
farther south on the heights near the great Lake Eoso-gol, and receives on its left
the waters flowing from the Tannu-ola valleys. The united stream, which now
takes the name of TTlu-kem, forms the real Yenisei, which soon receives the
Eemchik from the converging point of the Altai, Tannu, and Sayan ranges.
Although there seem to be no glaciers in these highlands, some of the crests rise

* Probable length of the Western Yenisei, 2,680 miles; probable length of the Selengm- Angara-
Yenisei, 3,300 miles. Probable area of drainage, 1,180,000 square milec.

BASIN OF THE WESTEBN YENISEI.

868

f, like those
irc properly
ugh a brciik
the uplands
epresiiion of
iras both of
trough now
ith this vast
lary flows ot
le time con-
jrthwnrds,
»d channel.
: the Upper
ing a great
onisei.

ge, escaping
ayan ridges,
errupt«d by
iffluent from
nto Russian
tree, which
itself.* In
Yenisei and
rt.

t comprised
rdered east-
earns of the
lan elevation
enisei. But
Yenisei " of
$ayan, better
misei," rises
es on its left
, which now
receives the
lyan ranges,
te crests rise

ielenga-Angara-

hero and there above the unnw-lino, while most of them are snow-clnd for oight
mnnthn in tho year. Those of the Krgik-lar^uk arc cortuinly 10,000 f«x>t hij^li, und
passes loading over this choin from UuHsia to ( !hina arc at clovatioriN of 7,400 foct.
With its northern incline the rpj)cr Yonisoi Imsin really forms part of Sil)oria
in its climate, flora, fauna, and general as{)ort, but not in its inhaliitants, who are
exclusively of Mongol stock. Tho slopes are covered with forests of the Silwrian
cedar and larch, beyond which stretch thickofs of tho rhododendron and other
Alpine plants, while the rivers and lakes are fringed with poplars and willows.

lif. 1M.~Uppi« TiNiiiai Bamn and Minuiimm Sivras.

1 1 ! 0,400,000.

.<0

The deer is chased in the upland forests, and the grassy plains are huney-combed
with the underground dwellings of the tarbagan. Still the transition from climate
to climate may be observed in many places, and especially in the east, where the
uncertain water-parting between the Yenisei and Selenga is strewn with lacustrine
basins, some filled with salt water, others containing magnesia and mineral sub-
stances in divers proportions.

About half a mile below its junction with the Eemchik in Russian territory,
the " Great River " — for such appears to be the meaning of the Tungus word
Yoanesi, whence the Russian Yenisei — ^passes in a bom, or narrow defile, through a

■MP

mmm

f.i<llilliiMui,i.iiMmr«a,i.i

854

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

flerien of piirollcl ridpfon, ninning M)uth*wo«t ond north-eoJit on tho Royon plutonu.
Almut 10 milf»« fn)in thr frontier the Rtrcum enters a j<«»rf?c scarcely 100 feet wide
and 3«)0 ynnU lon^f, thniu^h which a liiko was draine<l which formerly filled the
whole upiHtr Iwrnn. Here the current is so rapid that it scorcely over freezes,
though u little lower down usually ice-lmund for over five months in the year.
Further on tho stream in interrupted by other rapids in its passage through the
parallel chains, which are all separated from each other by deep valleys formerly
filled with woter. Of those rapids, none of which entirely obstruct the navigation,
tho most dangerous is tho " Great Rapid " below the junction of the Us. Beyond
the Haynn highlands the scone changes abruptly, grassy steppes succeeding to moun-
tain crags. Dotwecn Krasnoyarsk and Yeniseisk some reefs and rapids also cover
tho surface with foam, and cause a din that drowns the boatmen's voices. The
longest of these is nearly 7 miles in length, and is traversed by boats descending
the stream in about half an hour. But on the whcile throughout its middle and
lower course tho Yenisei is a placid stream, with a fall scarcely exceeding that of
tho Ob. At Krasnoyarsk, over 1,800 miles from its mouth, its mean elevation is
only 530 feet above the sea, and at Yeniseisk, below the rapids, 230 feet.

Like the Ob, the Yenisei traverses some tracts dry enough to bo regarded as
steppes. Here the Tatars pitch their tents as on the Turkestan plains. Thus
the Abakan steppe stretches for over 30 miles along tho left bank above
Minusinsk, while west of the same place the Kachinskaya steppe comprises most
of the plain skirted southwards by the river Abakan. But these dried- up tracts
are the exception in the Yenisei basin, where tho nmin stream is swollen by
numerous affluents, especially from the east, making it one of tho great rivers of
Asia even before its junction with the. Upper Tung^ska. Here its mean breadth
varies from 5,000 to 6,500 feet, expanding to 4 miles during the spring floods,
when it increases in depth from about 40 to 82 feet. Its volume, apparently about
equal to that of the Danube, is more than doubled by it« union with the Upper
Tunguska, and under the pressure of this current the main stream is deflected
westwards. For several miles the turbid and yellow waters of the Yenisei flow
in the same bed side by side with the d&rk blue Tunguska, gradually merging in
a conomon alluvial stream. The fauna of the two rivers also differs, the sturgeons
and sterlets of the Tunguska having black backs, while those of the Upper and
Lower Yenisei are of a greyish colour.

Below the confluence the Yenisei, like most Siberian rivers, flows between a
low bank on the left and a steep cliff on the right. But below the Sini junction
both sides are high, and the stream is here obstructed by a rocky barrier, causing
it to expand to a basin about 10 miles in circumference, and studded with over
fifty islets. This is the only obstacle presented to the navigation of large steamers
throughout its lower course, which in many places is over 130 feet deep.

In the forest region below the Great Tunguska the Yenisei is joined by two
other Tunguskas, the Podkamenyaya, or "Highland," and the Nijnyaya, or
" Low," besides the Bakhta, Yelogui, Kureika, and other affluents scarcely inferior
in volume. The Nijnyaya is about 1,620 miles long, and over half a mile wide at

mmm

INHABITANTS— TU]<; CHCDEA.

8S8

ynn platrnu.

00 fwt widt'
rly filled tho
Dvcr freezes,
in the year.

through the
eys formerly
e navigation,
Jb. Beyond
ing to moun-
ds alao cover
voices. The
:8 descending
s middle and
ding that of

1 elevation is
Det.

I regarded as
)Iains. Thus

bank above
emprises most
ied-up tracts
B swollen by
reat rivers of
mean breadth
ipring floods,
arently about
th the Upper
is deflected

Yenisei flow
Y merging in
the sturgeons
le Upper and

A's between u
3ini junction
nier, causing
Bd with over
irge steamers
p.

>ined by two
Nijnyaya, or
rcely inferior
k mile wide at

its mouth. In a warmer lutitudo it would form a niagnififciit water highway
l)etwcH)n the Ypni«c>i and Lena businH. Vnr it rinon near the liittor riviT, with
which it at first riuiN parulld, upprnaohing it, noar KiriMink, tn within [•') niiirn,
but then turning abruptly north-west to the YcnJHoi. The Taimura, ono of its
nfilucntN, travorHOH a region abounding in cool bods, one of which has been oon-
Humc<l by underground firon.

In its lower course through the glacial zone of thn tundrnm the Yenisei
receives no more affluents. But hero it partaken more of the character of a
marine estuary, the stream being at times nrrcNted by llio joint action of the
tide and north wind HOO miles from its mouth, and exp inding over a Hpaco 30
and oven 40 miles wide. In this vast frosh-wator fiord, Htuddod with low isluiuU
and exposed to the full violence of the fierce winds sweeping over the tundra, the
navigation is very dangerous for the ordinary flut-bottomod fiNhing-smucks, which
seldom venture fur from the banks. But before reaching the sea the stream
again contracts, and is only 12 or 14 miles wide at its mouth. During severe
seasons it is open for navigation only alraut fifty days, from July lOth to the end
of August. Its waters are less rich in fish than the C)b, although certau portions,
especially of the cxtuary, abound in animal life, inc 'udin'^ multitude of tench,
lote, perch, taken chiefly as food for the dogs, besidcc «turg"on, sa' non, and other
more valuable species. Nearly all the river population are fishtrs, agriculture
and stock-breeding being but slightly develojied except in the J^finusinsk stepprt.
Henco the navigation of the Yenisei has hitherto been of little use c ;-)pt for
transporting the produce of the fisheries. Yet the region traversed \r 'I uuounds
in minerals, forests, and game, whilst the southern districts might piixiuco foo<^
enough for the sustenance of millions. The navigable watorv^yj vhich, excluB''vo
of the Baikal, cannot he estimated at less than 5,000 milej, was used so late as
1876 only by a flotilla of four steamers and two sailing vessels under 50 tons
burden. Most of the other craft consisted merely of flat-bottomed boats, rafts, and
pontoons taken in tow by the tugs. After bringing down com and other produce
from the south most of these craft are taken to pieces, and the timber used as fuel
or for building purposes. But since Nordenskjold has found the way from Europe
to the mouth of the Yenisei, and discovered the excellent harbour of Dicksonhavn
on its right bank, at the entrance of the estuary, trade cannot fail to be developed
on this great artery of Central Siberia. Some experimental trips have even already
been mode by English, Scandinavian, and Siberia^ traders.

Inhabftants — ^The ChCdes.

Doubtless the Yenisei basin, more mountituious in the south, deficient in " black
loam," lying at a g^-eater distance from E.iropean Russia, and stretching less towards
the south, can scarcely ever sustain so large a population as that of the Ob. At
the same time all the region e. mprised between the Sayan highlands and the con-
fluence of the Yenisei and Angara has already been almost exclusively settled by
Russian communities, scattered in groups along the river banks and the great

M0tS^yi^&KlllKtK^piSliJ9l*^^fi^^

866

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Siberian overland route. The antiquities found in this country show that it
formerly possessed a considerable population. When visited by Gmelin in 1735
the gold, silver, and copper objee found in the graves were numerous enough to
be met with in every household. In the Abakan steppe, on both banks of the river
of like name, and along the Yenisei for 120 miles below Abakansk, the barrows are
grouped in hundreds and thousands, especially in the fertile tracts. Certain parts
of the steppe are like vast cities of the dead, where the mounds are so crowded
together as to look at a distance like herds of gigantic animals. Amongst them are
some of recent origin, which are still being erected on the occasion of great religious
ceremonies, not for the purpose of depositing in them the remains of renowned
heroes, but only as receptacles of coats of mail, stone axes, copper implements,
coins, and other objects dating from heroic times. Most of them, however, are
ancient kurgans 26 to 30 feet high, containing either chiefs with their arms and
horses, or entire families, or heaps of human remains thrown in, doubtless, after
some great battle. These are the so-called "black" kurgans. But the most
remarkable tombs are those enclosed by circles of stones, some of which are carved
in the form of men, women, and children. These sculptured stones are by the
Russians called baba, the same name that they give to the nude figures surmounting
the kurgans of South Russia. But most of the figures have disappeared, and,
judging from what remains, they would seem to represent men of Mongol race, and
the camels that accompanied them on their expeditions. The populations whose
remains were consigned to these tumidi were in other respects more civilised than
the Europeans of the corresponding bronze epoch. Amongst their jewellery have
been found genuine works of art in beaten gold, besides porcelain and bronze vases
embellished with bas-reliefs of animals, such as the argali, deer, eagle, wolf, and
winged monsters like griffins or flying dragons. Numerous metal mirrors occur,
resembling those still used by the Buriats and Mongolians in their Buddhist rites ;
but iron objects are found only in the barrows of recent origin. Figures of the
duck, an animal worshipped by the ancient Finns, are common. According to the
general tradition the men buried in these tombs are " ChMes," who consigned
themselves alive to the grave on the appearance of the birch, emblem of Russian
dominion, in their woodlands.

The Soyots and Earaoassks.

The indigenous population of the Upper Yenisei basii^ both in China and Siberia,
consists of Mongols, Finns, Tatars, diversely intermingled, and confounded one
with the other by nearly all travellers. Most of the peoples living in the Ob basin
are also met in various parts of the Yenisei region. Thus the Tatars stretch east-
wards to the gates uf Minusinsk, Eausk, and Erasnoyarsk. The Ostiaks roam over
the forests on both banks of the river north of the Angara confluence, while the
Samoyedes pitch their tents in the timdras about the estuary. Some Samoyede
families are even found on the northern slope of the Ergik-targak, in the valleys of
the upper affluents, who are supposed to have remained in their primeval homes

■ill

THE S0T0T3 AND KARAGASSES.

85?

y show that it
Grmelin in 1735
jrous enough to
inks of tho river
the barrows are
Certain parts

are so crowded
nongst them are
f great religious
as of renowned
)er implements,
m, however, are
their arms and

doubtless, after

But the most
^hich are carved
mes are by tho
pes surmounting
isappeared, and,
[ongol race, and
pulations whose
pe civilised than

jewellery have
nd bronze vases
eagle, woU, and
I mirrors occur,
Buddhist rites ;

Figvires of the
Lccording to the

who consigned
)lem of Bussian

lina and Siberia,
confounded one
in the Ob basin
ars stretch east-
3tiaks roam over
lence, while the
Some Samoyede
in the valleys of
primeval homes

after their kinsmen had migrated northwards. At the time of Castren's visit in
1847 these representatives of an ancient race, known in the country as Motors, and
calling themselves Tubalars, seemed to be dying out. Small-pox had made great
ravages amongst them, and most of the survivors had migrated to Chinese territory.
Others have been absorbed in the surrounding Tatars and Soyots, and the old
Samoyede dialect had perished even before the race itself.

The Soyots, said to number from 7,000 to 8,000, are Finns like the Motors,
and speak a dialect resembling that of the Samoyodes. They are divided into
several distinct tribes, occupying two or three valleys in Russian territory ; but they
are far more numerous in the Kem and Selenga basins within the Chinese frontier.
Having had formerly to pay their tribute of .furs to both Governments, they have
obviated the inconvenience by withdrawing farther from the borders, and leaving a
wide unoccupied space between. The Soyots, who seem to have become mixed with
the Tatar race, have mostly regular features, with straight nose, small and very
slightly oblique piercing eyes, broad forehead, pointed chin, an intelligent, resolute,
and thoughtful expression. They practise several industries with very great skill,
notwithstanding their primitive implements. They extract iron from the ore,
casting it into bars or bxillets, make their own powder, and repair their rifles. They
also navigate the lakes and rivers on' rafts, but occupy themselves rarely with
agriculture, being mostly nomads, whose chief wealth consists in their sheep, cattle,
yaks, and horses. The latter are very shapely and much valued by the Minusinsk
dealers. Milk, cheese, butter, and kumiss form their chief diet, but they are
unfortunately much too fond of atrak, a strongly intoxicating fermented drink.

More nimierous than the Soyots are the Uriankhs, who call themselves Donva,
and who are supposed to be of TArki stock. They resemble this race in features,
and most of them speak Tatar dialects, but, unlike most T{irki people, they are
Buddhists in religfion. Their tribes intermingle with the Soyots, though the bulk
of them dwell farther east in the Bei-kem valley, on the shores of Lake Eoso-gol,
and about the head-streams of tho Selenga and Angara. Some are hunters, but
most of them are stock-breeders, living, like the Soyots, mailily on a milk diet. But
they excel them as agriculturists, cultivating barley and millet, and irrigating their
fields with canals over a mile long, skilfully traced along the mountain slopes. But
under a feudal system the race haq become impoverished. The dainan, or chief,
and the aristocrats own herds of several hundred and even a thousand cattle, while
all the rest are nearly destitute and reduced to a state of serfdom. Every lord is
surrounded by retainers, who attend slavishly tc all his personal wants, and the
nation has thus become divided xnta two hostile political factions. The poor are
drawn by their interests towards the Russians, whereas the nobles and lamas,
belonging mostly to the same families, and enjoying the same privileges, look for
support from the Chinese and Mongol officials. Hence Russion explorers are very
badly received by the dainan, and Mongol influence is still paramount throughout
his territory. The Darkhats, or " Freemen," who dwell farther south and belong
to the same ethnical group, have been assimilated even in speech to the Mongolians.
On the west and south-west are the Soyons, of the same stock, but more or less

'^ ^1 Vi l imi^^^-Si^^^ a ^S ' &^ ^^

MHh

868

ASIATIC EUS8IA.

mixed with Kirghiz blood, and also assimilated in speech and habits to the Mon-
golians. The Shamanist practices of the " Yellow " Soyons, who dwell together
in Mongolia, are being gradually adapted to the orthodox Buddhist rite, and
monasteries of lamas are already springing up in the midst of these nomads.
Amongst the Darkhats there are no less than 1,400 monks in a total population of
7,000. The old customs have been better preserved by the " Black " Soyons, who
live nearer to the Russian frontier, and who, like the Soyots and Ealmuks, prefer
the ox to the horse for riding, and even hunting. On these beasts they are said to
hold their own against the best horsemen.

A district occupied exclusively by Russian colonists separates the Soyot and
Uriankh territory from the Yenisei T^tar domain. The Karagasses of the Northern
Sayan slopes have already dwindled to a few hundred, and their women are even said
to be no longer fruitful. The Sagai, Kachines, and other Tatar peoples, who occupy
the basin of the Abakan to the number of 14,000 or 15,000, are being gradually
Russified. Most of those living in the steppes west of the Yenisei are very com-
fortable, many of them counting their cattle not by heads, but by herds, of which
some possess as many as seventy, averaging fifty head each. The Yenisei Tatars
belong mostly to the Orthodox Greek Church ; but beneath this outward show the
primitive ideas continue to flourish, and the evil spirit is still worshipped.

The Tunouses,

North of the Russians and Yenisei Tatars the dominant people are the Tungusep,
already mentioned by the Dutch writer Massa in 1612, and who now occupy nearly
all the region limited westwards by the Yenisei, but especially the basins of the
three rivers Tunguska named from them, and most of the Amur valley. Kinsmen
of the Manchus, and, like thom, originally from the Amur basin, they gradually
stretched eastwards to the Yenisei and northwards to the Frozen Ocean. The
Samoyedes call them Aiya, or " Young Brothers," a term pointing to their recent
arrival and peaceful relations with the old inhabitants of the land. About the
middle of its course they have crossed the Yenisei, advancing along the left bank
into the Ostiak domain. But towards the centre of their territory, between Lake
Baikal and the Lena, they are hemmed in on the north by the Yakuts, southwards
by the Buriats and Russians. Being mostly nomads, the Tunguses number probably
not more than 60,000 or 70,000 in the whole of Siberia, but their courage, activity,
and ready wit give them a decided moral pre-eminence over the other natives.
The most general national name is Donki, whi i, like that of Boye, one of their
chief tribes, means " Men." The Russian form Tungus is either a Tatar word
meaning " Lake People," oi more probably from the Chinese Timghu, " Eastern
Barbarians."

According to their pursuits and mode of life the Russians have divided them
into " Horse," " Cattle," " Reindeer," " Dog," " Steppe," and " Forest " Timguses.
Some families who have become settled have adopted Russian ways, and, thanks to
their superior intelligence, make better husbandmen than the other aborigines.

ts to the Mon-
iwell together
hist rite, and
these nomads,
population of
" Soyons, who
ilmuks, prefer
ley are said to

ihe Soyot and
: the Northern
1 are even said
8, who occupy
ling gradually
are very com-
Brds, of which
iTenisei Tatars
rard show the
jped.

the Tungrusep,
occupy nearly
basins of the
;y. Kinsmen
icy gradually
Ocean. The
o their recent
.. About the
the left bank
between Lake
;s, southwards
nber probably
rage, activity,
)ther natives.
, one of their
a Tatar word
hu, " Eastern

divided them
t " Timguses.
nd, thanks to
>r aborigines.

Mi »» l rtw,.il B)

■MmiWivxtgtMmai- "muma/mmtnam^

'^f*?T'!??W?r

s -^fj^*;--^ - ,'fv:,,^

■^tw M i ^ i^ i yey

THE TUNQUSE8.

859

But most of tlie nation are still in the hunting state, roaming through the woods
without tents, and seeking temporary shelter in caves or the hollow trunks of trees.
A little sleigh carries all their c£Fect8, and with this they will journey for thousands
of miles, from the Chinese frontier to the Frozen Ocean, olways retracing their
steps with unerring certainty over hills, plains, rivers, and steppes. The least
mark left by the hunter on his track is recognised and respected by his kinsmen.
A broken branch will suffice to indicate the route to follow, while a stick thrown
across the path bars farther progress in that direction. Arrows suspended in
divers ways speak a language intelligible to the nomad ; but nature also addresses
him in a multitude of ways, which he interprets with astonishing sagacity. Signs
meaningless for the European point to the presence of game, the neighbourhood of
a glade or running water, while their auperstition sees in many trifling phenomena
omens for good or evil, for luck or failure in the chase. Breaches of the tra-
ditional code must be avoided. In difficult moimtain or marshy paths silence is
religiously observed, and libations must be offered to the evil spirits, should the
offering cost them their last drop of brandy. The woman in labour flees to the
forest and is confined unaided, at the risk of perishing in the snow or rain. The
new-bom infant receives the name of the first stranger, man or woman, crossing a
burning brand at the threshold. Usage immemorial also requires that bodies be
not buried, but exposed on the branches of trees, with the head always turned
towards the west.

Of Mongol appearance, the Tunguses, with their round features, high cheek
bones, and ^mall oblique eyes, are distinguished especially by the square form of
the head. Owing to their active habits and extreme sobriety they are generally
thin and wiry even in old age, gliding swiftly along on their snow-shoes, and pass-
ing like a flash over the thin ice, where the heavy Ostiak would not dare to venture.
They are fond of racing, wrestling, and other physical exercises, and their
impromptu songs are always accompanied by animated gesture. They also indulge
in the dance with such vigour, and even frenzy, that spectators of other races are
often carried away by the enthusiasm of the moment to take part in the whirling
motion. Then the clownish Ostiak, bounding round with bearish step, presents
a sorry sight by the side of the nimble Timgus, with his graceful and noble car-
riage. These nomads are also noted, amongst all Siberians for their tasteful and
elegant attire. Those of the Tunguska especially wear a costume of admirable
g^race and lavish splendour, at once bold in design and displaying an astonishing
perfection in the details of its embroidery and fringes. Yet any other native
would look ridiculous in such a garb. Surprising resemblances in the designs of
the materials seem to show that the Tunguses must at one time have maintained
constant intercourse with Japan. The practice of wearing armour and bucklers,
formerly so conunon throughout Siberia, has fallen into disuse, and the ordinary
weapon is now the palca, a long shaft terminating with a sharp blade, on which
the htmter leans in guiding his sleigh. The tattoo patterns seen on many faces
caimot compare in the happy disposition of the lines with those of most Polynesians.
Amongst the women the chief design consists of four parallel curves traced on both

HJ i LMLUl &j

~rrt8a!ianmiE<iiB i (aMMii»— I

860

ASIATIC EUS8IA.

cheeks from the corner of the eyo to the side of the mouth, with transverse lines
outside the curves, hearing a vague resemblance to little butterflies with folded
wings.

Since the time of Brand, who visited Siberia towards the close of the seventeenth
century, all travellers have been loud in their praise of the mental qualities of the
Tunguscs. Full of animation and native impulse, always cheerful even in the deepest
misery, holding themselves and others in like respect, of gentle manners and poetic
speech, obliging without servility, unaffectedly proud, scorning falsehood, and
indifferent to suffering and death, the Tunguses are unquestionably an heroic people.
They neither exact the price of blood, nor do they practise the vendetta, like most
barbarous tribes. But in accordance with the code of chivalry they challenge each
other to mortal combat, and their meetings are regulated with a scrupulous cere-
monial. Dwelling in the same climate as the cimning Yakut, the dull Buriat and
profoundly silent Samoyede, the Tunguses afford a striking instance of the per-
sistence of racial traits under the most diverse surroundings. For their manner of
life has been little modified by contact with the Russians. Christians in appear-
ance, they have preserved their religious practices, usages, and rude freedom.
" Our faith bids us live and die in the woods," they say ; and so, content with little
and extremely temperate, they can suffer hunger and thirst for days together
imcomplainingly, and even endure the privations of their long winters with
unabated cheerfulness. For their wants one animal, the reindeer, one tree, the birch,
amply suffice. The reindeer gives them his flesh in food, his skin in dress, his
sinews and entrails as thongs and cords, his bones to carve into implements of all
sorts. From the birch comes the bark wherewith to make their boxes, baskets,
cradles, and tents. If at times they accompany the Russian explorers for days and
weeks, and regularly partake of their meals, in this they do but comply with the
national custom, which makes hospitality the first of duties, and permits all to share
alike in the food of each. Amongst them there were formerly neither rich nor
poor, although the senue of property, consisting in the exclusive right to hunt in
certain districts, hod already been fully developed. But now each family has its
herd of reindeer, and its credit, or rather debt, account with the Russian or Yakut
trader.

Notwithstanding their buoyant character and innate force of resistance, the
Timguses, hemmed in, so to say, between the Russians and Yakuts, are threatened
with extinction as an independent nationality. Although their numerous offspring
are well cared for, the rate of mortality is very high, and whole families are at
times swept away by small-pox, measles, scarlatina, and especially famine, their
most formidable foe. Always exposed to this danger, they speak of death by hunger
with remarkable indifference, as if such an evil were quite in the natural order.
Of the former camping grounds in many forests nothing is now to be seen except
the remains of cabins and biers suspended between two boughs a few yards from the
ground. The Tungus tribe, which opposed the longest resistance to the Russians,
has entirely disappeared, leoving nothing behind except its name, given to the
village of Taseievskoye, on the river UsoUca, north of Eansk.

' .mij..

mmimmu

w?^

runsverse lines
38 with folded

he seventeenth
[ualities of the
1 in the deepest
lers and poetic
falsehood, and
I heroic people,
ietta, like most
challenge each
}rupulou8 cere-
all Biiriat and
ce of tho per-
heir manner of
uns in appear-
rude freedom.
Ltent with little
days together
' winters with
tree, the birch,
n in dress, his
plements of all
boxes, baskets,
rs for days and
)mply with the
lite all to share
either rich nor
ght to hunt in
family has its
ssian or Yakut

resistance, the
are threatened
erous offspring
families are at
famine, their
sath by hunger
natural order,
be seen except
yards from the
} the Russians,
i, given to the

TOPOGEAPHY.

Topography.

861

Their geographicfll position, relatively mild climate, and fertile soil must secure
for some of the Yenisei regions an important future. But meantime there are in
this basin but few towns, and, with the exception of three or four, even these are
little more than villages. MinuHinsk, lying farthest south, and centre of a con-
siderable trade between the Upper Yenisei and Mongolia, had 4,000 inhabitants in
1863, and during the ten following years this number had not increased by .000.
It is well situated on the right bank of the Yenisei, in one of the richest mineral
districts in Siberia. Since 1835 the tributary streams have been worked for gold,

Fig. 189. — Bock Ik8ciui>tiom om tuk Bamkb or tui Yimuu.

of which about 8,776,000 roubles' wwth was collected between 1846 and 1869, the
present mean annual yield being about 600,000 roubles. The lead and copper
mines of the neighbouring mountains have not been utilised since the abolition of
forced labour, the attention of the free miners being directed mainly to the preciouis
metal. Nor have the coal beds any present value, owing to the abundance of wood,
the few industries, and lack of easy communication. The salt lakes near Minu-
sinsk are used for the local supply alone, and the iron ores are worked only by the
Soyots, the produce of the Urals being amply sufficient for the present demands of the
Russians of the Yenisei. But in certain parts of these highlands there is not a

single mountain but affords ample evidence of the activity of the ancient native
84

v'iiiPiaHMRiiRnnmimcMnm'vmnt^'t^ff^

862

ASIATIO BUSSIA.

miners. In the Uba valley, north-east of Minusinsk, there occurs a block of native
iron weighing over 1,700 lbs., which Pullas believes to be of meteoric origin.

The village of Abakansk, 48 miles below Minusinsk, was an important strong-
hold during the last century, before the foundation of Minusinsk. Here the cliffs
on the left bank are covered with well-preserved inscriptions, two in Tatar, and all
the rest in Mongolian. Hundreds of stone tombs disposed in twos occupy a large
space in the neighbourhood. Lower down another rock, near the village of Novo-

Fig. 100. — RcaioN or thb Ybniibi Qold Minii.
8Mkla 1 : 1,000,000.

|y|ll^piRKi|B^^pg^

i^m^i

fi^HP

iiBS^^S

'iP^HlbH^HlP^slM

^^Ph

^^P

nK^y^^H

SO'

^^^^m

BHtrflil^^^^^WMwiwHB?

HJHMJBBM^I^M

HHfi

IhS

iffi^B^ 1

Kpb^B|^whB

^^^Mm

KH^s^

J^^MS^'^MyJiHwIiHl

te^^^^H

H^^^H

nA<

^^^

^KhmSi

scr

H^^^9

i^Mjii^aK^

^HB^Vvll^^^^^lBiifEQRiAl^Ewx **^dI^P^^^

^r\^' iWiBfci

i^^^P^^v*

gg.

94* t. OTG

, 90 UUm.

selovo, also bears ancient writings, and a cliff on the banks of the Sizim is inscribed
with hieroglyphics representing birds, wild beasts, and horsemen. Another rock
on the Yenisei, near Krasnoyarsk, is covered with figures of men painted in red.

Krasnoyarsk, or the " Red Cliff," capital of the Yenisei government, stands at
the foot of the red Afontova escarpments, on a peninsida formed by the junction of
the Yenisei and Kacha. Standing on a navigable river where it is crossed by the
great Siberian highway, and forming the administrative centre of a vast province,
Krasnoyarsk has hod a rapid development, its population having more than doubled

^WT'

■WMP

block of native
ic ori(^n.
portunt strong^
Here the cliffs
1 Tatur, and all
occupy a large
illage of Novo-

:.^\

rim is inscribed
Another rock

inted in red.

tnent, stands at

the junction of
crossed by the
vast province,

e than doubled

TOPOOBAPUY.

868

since the middle of the century. It is the largest place between Tomsk and
Irkutsk, but, owing to its bleak climate, is avoided by travollors in winter. Although
the neighbouring coal beds are not worked, it is the chief troding-pluco for all the
surrounding mineral districts. In the vicinity are some iron and sulphur springs
on the banks of the Kachu.

YfiiUeink, though taking the name of the river, ranks only as the second place
on its banks. It stands on the left side, below the Upper Tunguska junction. But
this advantageous position is neutralised by the fact that it lies almost beyond the
zone of Russian population, in the midst of lakes and swumps, on u low ground
often covered with water and ice during the thaw. More than once it has been
threatened with complete destruction. During the last century, when goods were
forwarded mostly bj' water, Yeniseisk had one of the most important fairs in
Siberia ; but the current of trade has been diverted southwards by the opening of
the g^oat overland route. Yeniseisk stands in a rich iron district, and fat thcf north

Fig. 101.— From Kuahnoyahbk to Kansk.
SoUe 1 : 1,800,000.

the stream flowing to the Yenisei between the Upper and Mountain Tunguska are
worked for gold. Here are collected over two-thirds of all the gold found in the
Yeniseisk government, though the yield of late years has fallen off.* Over one-
fourth of the wretched gold-washers are invalids, and of the 16,000 hands usually
employed about 1,000 yearly attempt to escape. The districts of Kansk and Nijne-
Udinsk, watered by the various streams flowing irom. the highlands between the
Yenisei and the Angara, are also auriferous, and the salt springs north of Kansk
yield from eleven to twelve parts pure salt.

North of Yeniseisk we enter the wilderness, in which the few wretched hamlet«
fringing the river banks become rarer and rarer as we proceed northwards. Never-
theless Turukhamk, one of these villages, ranks as a town, wheret he officials,
famished almost as much as ^q unhappy exiles themselves, administer the a£Eair8
of the nomad Tungus, Ostiak, Samoyede, and Yakut tribes, and the few settled
traders and fishers of the district. Turukhanak, capital of a territory with scarcely

" Yield of gold in the YeniseiBk gOTernment (187fi), 4,960,000 loubles; hands employed, 16,460.

»«brIMK-:j?V-«

86 i

A8IATI0 RUSSIA.

2,'200 Hottlwl inhahituntH, in u Hpuco throe tiinoH the hizo of Franco, contuinH of itielf
alone over ono-tifth of the entire ])opuIation. ItM little houses arc scattered over an
iHhtnd ut the conHuenco of the Turukhan and Yenisei, hero connnunicatinf^ with
vast tuiidrn hikes. A harlmur, a few stores and sheds, await the trade that must
some day bo deveh)jKHl l)etween Kuro|)e and Siberia by the Yenisei ostuory. Mean-
while a jjoltry fair attracts the Nunioyedes and Oatiaksuf the cxtronio north lietween
the Ob and Ticna. The severity of the clinmto and tho frozen surface have hitherto
prevented the workin)^ of tho vast deposits of graphite discovered east of Turu-
khansk, liotween tho rivers Turyoika and Nijnyaya Tunguska. Ono alone of these
bods is said to contain at least 200,000 tons of (graphite, which at tho London
exhibition of 1851 was recognised as tho best in tho world.

Near the small port of Dundinka, on the Lower Yenisei, recently visited by
Nordonskjold, thero is a colony of skoptzi, banished from Russia, and all of Finnish
origin.

THE BAIKAL.ANOARA BASIN.

The Selonga, main head-stream of the Upper Angara basin, rises, like the Irtish
and Yenisei, on the southern slope of tho mountains skirting the Siberian plains on
the south, and, like them, it escapes northwards through a gap in those highlands.
But tho Yenisei falls regularly from its source to its mouth without forming any
lacustrine reservoir, and tho Irtish expands only in the shallow depression of Lake
Zaisan, whereas the Self nga plunges into the deep trough of the Baikal, which is
completely encircled by mountains. Moreover, the Angara, forming the outlet of
this lake, is probably of comparatively recent origin, and does not constitute a
direct continuation of the Selenga. As an inland Hja Lake Baikal completely
separates the Siberian basin which drains northwards from the southern region,
which has received the name of Transbaikalia.

The mountains rising west of the great lake, and which throw o£f the head-
streams of the Selenga southwards, and those of the Angara northwards, belong to
the Sayan system, itself a continuation of the Altai'. The Ergik-targak chain,
forming the Russo-Chinese frontier-line, is attached to the Baikal highlands by a
group of lofty summits, which rise above the line of perpetual snow, but which
were none the loss unknown till recently. In 1832 Carl Ritter was unaware of
their existence, and although the chain is mentioned by Humboldt under the
Mongolian name of Mondorgon-ula, it is by him confused with other groups, and
reduced to one-third of its true elevation. It was ascended for the first time by the
naturalist Radde in 1859. Here the Munku-sardik, or " Silver Mount," is covered
with everlasting snows and ice, whereas all the other crests are bare in summer — a
fact that can only be explained by the presence of a warm atmospheric current
blowing from the west towards these uplands. The Mongolians never ascend the
Silver Mount, always stopping at the place of worship Ipng at the foot of the
southern glacier. Here they bathe their temples in the -rivulet trickling from
the glacier, make their obeisance several times before the invisible genius of the

imma i

•^"mmrnmrn

THE BAIKAI.-ANOABA BASIN

mtainii of itself
attcrcd over on
iniicntiii)^ with
rudo that must
Htuary. Moan-

nurth l)ctween
D have hitherto

cu»t of Turu-
) alono of these
at the London

ntly visited by
loll of Finnish

, like the Irtish
icrian plains on
lose highlands,
ut forming any
ression of Lake
aikal, which is
g the outlet of
ot constitute a
kal completely
uthem region,

' o£f the head-
ards, belong to
>targak chain,
lighlands by a
ow, but which
vas unaware of
)ldt under the
er groups, and
rst time by the
nt," is covered
in summer — a
pheric current
ver ascend the
he foot of the
trickling from
genius of the

M
r.
o

a«

■a
a
H

)A81N. 866

■■■■■■■iV.'.

w^m.

i. 1"

4'<

si,,"

f., i'; ■

iHli^HBw

■ 1

J, u[i

* rAv

" 6)Si

/■ f.^

wm*^.

H^^.' V''^ '

y ^■••v ,.

mountain, murmur the prescribed orisons, and throw a few drops of brandy towards
tihe four cardinal points. This glacier, the only one on the Mongolian side of the

iyii!ip.'v»«!ft. Ill"

860

ASIATIC BUStilA.

mountain, cnvom an area nf atmut 4 nquaro milon. Hut lui tho HilH*rian nr northern
aide tliuro In u double glacier of much larger Hize, which HcndH itn advanced nioraineii
2| niilcH from the crcHt, damming up the waters tlowing frcmi the blue and icy
Lake Yokhoi. From the narrow extremity of the Munku-mirdik tho view stretohoj
west, north, and eant over a world '<f nrostii, cragN, and w(K)dlan(' , v the rraxo
in lout southwards in tho bound leiw region of tho dcHcrt, blending .. M.'i »??'«tanoe
with the sky. Tho blue waters of the great Lake Kosio (KoNo-gol), tho large
forosttt (m tho lower hIojh) of the mountain, contrast with tho bright rc<l tints of t* o
bare escarpments and the snowy peaks. In tho middle of tho lake, which stretches
southwards for a distance of about 70 miles over an area estimated at 1,320 square
miles, the eye is arrested by the white rocks of tho Dalai-kui, or " Navel of tho
Sea," an island sacred in tho eyes of all liuddhists.

Tho pyramidal Munku-sardik forms an important water-parting. On tho
south-west rise various streams which, from afHuont to affluent, ultimately find
thi'ir way to tho Ycfuisoi. In the north-west tho river Oka, whoso first waters ore
collected in Lake Yekhoi, skirts the foot of tho Ergik-targak range, thence trend-
ing north and north-eastwards to the Angara, and forming with it tho Upper
Tunguska. In tho east the Liack and White Irkut also rise in tho neighbourhood
of tho sacred Mount Nuku-daban, whither the natives bring their offerings of furs,
bits of cloth, gun flints, and old coins. Lastly, in the south tho head-streams of the
Solenga are collected in the great reservoir of Lake Eoso-gol. But the streams
flowing in these various directions differ greatly in volume, the annual snow and
rain fall varying considerably according to the aspect of tho hills and the atmospheric
currents. Thanks to the deposits of graphite discovered by Alibert about 1850, and
lying above the zone of forest vegetation, meteorological observations have been regu-
larly taken on one of the highest points of these highlands. Alibert's mine con-
tains many thousand tons of excellent graphite, already well known to artists, and now
the property of a large pencil manufacturer near Nuremberg. Unfortimately the
severity of the climate has occasioned the temporary abandonment of the works.

The Tuxka Highlands.

To the same orographic system belong tho mountains stretching eastwards from
the Munku-sardik, and which slope down to the banks of the Irkut near the
western extremity of Lake Baikal. These are the Qoltzi, or " Treeless Books " of
Tunka, north of which other parallel chains are developed between the Oka and
Angara valleys. The Ooltzi range presents a striking contrast to the Sayan
highlands. The jagged peaks of the Goltzi rise pyramid above pyramid north of
the intervening Irkut valley, south of which tho Sayan range is developed in long
rounded crests. Yet both are composed of the same crystalline and palsoozoio
rocks, and lava streams have been discharged from each. Lava beds skirt a great
part of the Irkut valley, and though there may be no true volcanic cones in this
region, molten rocks have been erupted in the Tunka valley near Lake Baikal, as
well as on the banks of the Selenga in Transbaikalia. I^eceived as to the character
of certain so-called trachyte rocks, many travellers have exaggerated the impor-

^■Wi

TIIK TUNKA IIIOULANDS.

1 or northern
cod niorniiioM
hluo uiid icy
riow stri'tchcj
/;'.)' the «mj5o
hit »??i»»rinco
>i..! tho large
d tints of >'
lich Htrotchofl
1.320 square
Navol of the

ig. On the
timately find
rnt waters are
thonco trond-
it the Upper
}ighbourhood
•rings of furs,
treams of the
t the streams
ual snow and
B atmospherio
)ut 1850, and
vo hoen regu-
t's mine con-
tists, and now
rtunately the
:he works.

ttiiicc of volcanic action in thin |mrt of RilKTin, thoiip;}i it in rctniirkiihlo enough that
any ignoouN phenomena nhoul(l have (K-curred m fur from tlm Mca-foiiMf, n«>ur tlio
groat fronh-watcr huMinHof KakcH Haikiil and KoHo-gui. The only undoiihttMl cniterH
that have hero \yot>n dincoverwl aro the two "cuim" in the Hayun hi 'lilandn alMmt
the noun!OH of the Jun-buluk, a U>ft tril)utary of the Oku near the ChiiieM) frontier.
Itining 415 feet uIn>vo a plateau itHolf alM)ut (i,('OU feet abovo the; Nca-level, these
heights scorn to bo of nlight ini|M)rtance in the midst of thv Hurrouiiding numntainn ;
but the lava ntrouni that has flowinl from tho chief crater in no Ichm than 12 :iiilos
long. Hugo blocks of grunito rurit on tho bod, which seom to hIiow that it dates
from the pro-glacial iwriod. Earthquakes occur most fro({ucntly, and with tho
greatest violence, in tho region of tho Irkut, Angara, liuikal, and Muuku-sardik,

Fig. 193.— MvNKU-tAHDIK ANU KaMAU-UAUAN.
B«a« 1 : 8,000,000.

.eoHiiM.

stwards from
mt near the
w Books " of
;he Oka and
the Sayan
mid north of
oped in long
ad paloeozoio
skirt a great
cones in this
ke Baikal, as
the character
1 the impor-

and Irkutsk itself lies in the chief centre of seismic action in Siberia, as Khojend
does in that of Turkestan. Great subsidence of the groimd has also taken place in
the Selenga and Angara valleys.

The Tunka highlands are clothed by the same forest vegetation as the Sayan,
and both systems are inhabited by the some animal species. But the lower range
skirting the Irkut valley on the south differs in its forest-clad crests, and in some
features of its geology and zoology, from the Sayan. With it begins the system of
the Baikal, which develops at the south-west comer of the lake into the Kamar-
daban, highest of all the mountains on the shores of the Baikal. It has an eleva-
tion of 7,100 feet, and is covered in winter with vast quantities of snow.*

* Various altitudes in the Munku-sardik system, according to iiadde :—

Feet
Culminating point . . 11,000 Alibert Mine

Base of the SouUiem ghicier 10,7fiO Nuku-daban

Upper limit of flowering plants . 10,660 - Lake Koso-gol

Upper limit of forests 7,400

Feet.
7,460
7,200
4,470

868

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Lake Baikal.

The heights encircling Lake Baikal have a mean altitude of not more than
from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. Although presenting from the surface of the water the
appearance of distinct parallel chains, they must be regarded rather as forming
part of the hilly plateau whose ridges stretch south-west and north-east between
the Lena and Argun basins. The lake itself partly fills two cavities in the plateau.
For it really forms a double lake, whose two nearly equal basins were formerly
separated from each other by a chain, of which the large island of Olkhon on the
west side, and the " Holyhead " promontory on the east, are surviving fragments.
The great subsidence of the land that has here taken place is shown by sheer cliffs
continued in a vertical line to a vast depth below the surface. Most savants

Pig. 194. — Tm "Cup" at thb Source op the Oka.

^3;;^^

f?>' -'^■\

^^^^

formerly regarded the formation of the lake as due to a crevasse of volcanic origin.
But a geological study of its shores has proved that igneous eruptions have had
but a slight effect in modifying its outlines. No lava streams have been discovered
except in the plain at the western extremity of the lake, north-west of the Kamar-
daban. Nearly all the hills overlooking its waters are composed, like those of the
southern plateau, of coarse-grained granites, syenites, crystalline schists, and
porphyries, alternating here and there with old chalks, sandstonas, and very thick
beds of conglomerates.

Lake Baikal, whose name is probably derived from the Yakut Bai-khai, " Rich"
or " Fortunate Sea," is known to the Mongolians by the name of Dalai-nor, or
" Holy Sea," and the Russian oettlers themselves give it the same title (Sv'atoi/e
More), pretending that no Christian ha& ever perished in it except in a state of
mortal sin. But all alike, Mongols, Uriankhs, Buriats, and Rusoians, are indig-

LAKE BAIKAL.

869

not more than

i the water the

her as forming

th-east between

3 in the plateau.

were formerly

Olkhon on the

ring fragments.

a by sheer cliffs

Most savants

volcanic origin.
}tions have had
been discovered

of the Kamar-
ike those of the
le schists, and

and very thick

u-khai,"Rich"
)f Dalai-nor, or
e title (^Sv'atoye
)t in a state of
itaoB, are indig-

nant at hearing it being called a lake. For them it ia a fresh-water sea, equal
almost in majesty to the salt ocean itself. The fishermen formerly assured Gmelin
that it was very angry at being called " lake," and they were themselves always
carefid to speak of it in terms of marked respect. Thus it is that everywhere
barbarous peoples, helpless in the presence of the unbridled forces of nature, have
learned to fear and worship them. A number of dangerous reefs are regarded as
sacred, and when the wind was favourable for landing, the natives were formerly
wont to come and offer their sacrifices. One of these holy rocks is the throne of
the " White God," near the outlet of the Angara. But the most hallowed spot is
the headland projecting from the east coast, and terminating with the cliffs of Cape
Shaman, rising in the form of columns or rudely fashioned statues some 150 feet
above the surface. In the eyes of the Tunguses these rocks are gods, rulers of the
waters that bathe their feet, protectors of the birds hovering in the vast cavity of
their mouths.

But whether sea or lake, the Baikal is the largest fresh- water basin in Asia, and
in most of the popular geographies in Bussia it still ranks as the first lake in the
world, as if the great inland seas of North America and Central Africa had not yet
been discovered. But though yielding in extent to these vast lacustrine basins, it
surpasses most of them in volume,* for it is of prodigious depth, its lowest cavities
reaching far below the level of the sea. Even close in shore, at the foot of the sheer
cliffs, it is over 330 feet deep, while the mean is estimated at upwards of 850 feet, and
the extreme, as determined by Dibowski and Godlewski in 1876, at no less than
4,550. For distances of several miles there stretch uniform plains 3,950, 4,000, and
4,050 feet below the surface, and the soimdings have recently revealed a rocky
ridge over 3,300 feet high, running parallel to the Irkutsk and Transbaikal shores,
in the centre of the basin, which is thus divided into two secondary depressions.
Navigators had often spoken of elevated grounds where they had even been able to
cast anchor in bad weather. But no credence was attached to these reports till
Dibowski and Godlewski showed that the tradition rested on actual facts, and that
there is a depth of only 200 feet above the sub-lacustrine ridge. Near the great
cavities rise the highest coast mountains, so that here, as in the ocean, the depth of
water corresponds, as a rule, with the elevation of the shores. The water is
shallowest and the land least abrupt in the part of the basin to the north of the
island of Olkhon and of the " Holyhead " promontory, and the depth is little over
200 feet in the " Little Sea," as the gulf is called, which is formed by the island of

* ComparatiTe table of the greut fresh^water lakes : —

Ana.

Extreme Depth.

HeuiDeptti.

Anproximate
Volame.

BqlUlM.

VMt.

Feet.

CnUo KU.

Baikal .

14,000

«,6/S0

860

8,743

Victoria Nyaoza

33,000

—

Tanganyika .

16,000

—

Superior .

32,000

1,030

600

17,820

Michigan .

23,000

860

800

6,130

Huron .

22,000

700

230

3,900

Erie

9,000

200

369

Ontario .

6,600

600

400 (i)

1,944

Gkneya .

S80

1,100

600

ippm

U il Miib-tMuKMMNWJLManu

870

ASIATIC EUSSU.

Olkhon and the mainland. Thanks to its enormous volume, the temperatura of the
lake is very uniform, varying at the surface no more than 17° Fahr. throughout
the year.

Notwithstanding its vast size and volume, the present lake is merely a remnant
of a far larger basin. The steep sides and more sloping beach everywhere show
traces of former and higher levels. The shingly strand that occurs at intervals all
round the coast and in the valleys of the influents shows that even recently the
lake was ut least 20 feet higher than at present. But in still more remote times it
was much larger, communicating with the old lake of the Irkut valley through a
channel distinct from the fissure through which the Angara now flows to the
Yenisei. The portion of this emissary comprised between the Baikal and its con-
fluence with the Irkut was formerly a mere rivulet flowing to the Irkut, and
Beparated by a sandstone barrier from the great lake. But while the work of
erosion was going on north of this barrier, the pressure of the waters of the basin
was acting on the south, till a time came when an opening was 'effected in the
rocks, through which the lake made its way, and converted the Angara into one of

Fig. 195. — Depths or thb Westbbm Baikal.

6Hnea. -it ,18 MM

The deptiu are represented in decuplei of tbeir real proportlona.

the great rivers of the world. The very word Angara is said to mean in Tungus
" water escape," and may possibly recall the sudden outburst through the fissure
in the northern edge of the lake. The channel was gradually enlarged and
deepened, and the lake thus reduced by the outflow to more narrow limits. The
difference between the summer end winter levels scarcely now exceeds 3 or 4 feet,
though in exceptional years the floods produced by the melting snows cause a rising
in summer of from 6 to 7 feet. These slight va.iations of level, as compared with
those of Maggiore and other Alpine lakes, are due to the fact that the inundations
of the Selenga, Barguzin, Upper Angara, and a hundred other influents have time
to subside before reaching the common reservoir, while they receive less sedi-
mentary matter than the Alpine lakes. Hence the water is far more transparent
than that of Maggiore or Geneva. The smallest pebble is perfectly visible 3Jj feet
below the surface, while the largo rockti tiisappear from sight only at depths of 50
or 52 feet. Even after heavy rains the water remains clear near the strand and
the rivulets.

To the samo absence of alluvia from the surrounding granitic valleys is due the
sharpness of outline presented by the angles and crests of the coast hills. The

erature of the
r. throughout

ely a remnant
ry^here show
,t intervals all
. recently the
emote times it
ley through a
■ flows to the
il and its con-
xe Irkut, and
» the work of
's of the basin
fEected in the
ira into one of

»an in Tungus
gh the fissure
enlarged and
V limits. The
ds 3 or 4 feet,
cause a rising
ompared with
le inundations
»nts have time
sive less sedi-
re transparent
visible 3'H feet
depths of 60
he strand and

eys is due the
St hills. The

LAKE BAIKAL.

871

shores still seem to preserve their original architecture, and the view of the steep
cliffs, for unknown ages resisting the erosive action of the water, seems to carry us
back thousands of centuries to a stil! more primitive state. Yet there is no absolute
lack of recent formations, especially towards the shallow northern extremity of the
basin. Here the Upper Angara and some neighbouring streams unite in a common
marshy delta, separated from the open water by lines of dunes from 6 to 30 feet
high, and mostly overgrown vith thickets of trailing pines and other timber. In
the southern basin the Selenga delta also breaks the old coast-line by its alluvial
deposits.

The clifEs assume their grandest and most picturesque appearance along the
western shores, and especially between the island of Olkhon and the outlet of the
Angara. Here the irregular tower-shaped headlands rise from 700 to 1,000 feet
above the surface, clothed here and there with pines and shrubs. Between these
wave-beaten and grottoed headlands the strata of the softer formations have partly
fallen in, revealing through their openings the amphitheatre of the riverain ranges
towering above the terraced plateaux. But, in spite of their majesty, these land-
scapes seldom fail to produce a depressing effect on the traveller. No dwellings,
no cultivated lands, nothing is anywhere visible except savage nature and the
wilderness. As we skirt its desolate shores the aspect of the hills undergoes little
change, headland succeeding headland, rocky inlet to rocky inlet, in endless mono-
tony, the scene changing so slightly that ive seem to be still in the same place.
The forests covering the slopes and narrow strips of shore consist exclusively of
pines, firs, the larch, and other Siberian species. Nowhere do we meet the ash,
the elm, or oak, whose abimdant foliage, varied tints, and majestic forms impart
such a charm to the scenery in the "West. The dull and monotonous green of the
pine becomes in the end as depressing as the blackish crags themselves, rusted in
the distance by the red blossom and brown stems of the rhododendron. The poplar
bahamifera alone, with its green branches resembling those of the walnut, recalls
the leafy trees of Europe.

Lake Baikal is too vast to be perceptibly affected by its tributaries ; hence the
surface waters drift from shore to shore entirely according to the direction of the
atmospheric currents. The general movement towards the south-west, spoken of by
Hess, lasts only d iring the prevalence of the polar wind, which, in the southern
part of the lake, is called barguzin, because it seemB to come from the bay to
which the river Barguzin flows. The contrary wind, blowing from the west and
south-west, takes the name of kuUuk, from the village standing at the western
angle of the lake. Besides these more prevalent winds, sudden squalls and storms
sweep down through the valleys and side gorges, frequently changing the direction
of the waves, or raising streaks of surface foam across the heavy ground swell.

Lake Baikal freezes regularly in winter from about the end of November to the
month of May. , But fierce gales often break its icy fetters. Even when frozen
throughout to the normal thickness of from 4 to 5 feet, and crossed without danger
by swift postal sleighs, the crust never ceases to heave with the liquid mass sup-
porting it. The traveller hears the mufQed sound of the waters rolling beneath

872

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

their solid roof, and producing a slow wavy motion. At times a sudden shock
causes the ice to vibrate with a metallic sound, or to break into long narrow fissures
cleared by the trained horses at a bovid. It is probably through these temporary
rents that the air penetrates to the deep, enabling the fishes and seals to live
through the long winter in the ice-bound waters.

To the winter frosts succeed the fogs of spring and summer. When the cold
water, liberated by the storms from the crust separating it from the air, begins
freely to diffuse its vapours throughout space, the lake immediately becomes like a
vast seething caldron. Every morning in spring it is covered by a dense haze,
which, in the afternoon, is dissipated with the increased temperature of the surface
waters. For the same reason the atmosphere again becomes bright about the
end of summer and beginning of autumn, when the temperature of the waters
approaches, and at last even surpasses, that of the air.

The Baikal fauna is relatively poor in distinct species. The lack of alluvial
lands on the coast, and the rapid fall of the cliflj into depths of several himdred
yards, have prevented the development of Crustacea and other in-shore animals.
Aquatic birds are consequently also somewhat rare. Few birds arc seen in summer
besides the fishing cormorants and flocks of mews, one species of which is elsewhere
imknown except in Iceland and West Europe. But in spring and autumn the
surrounding woodlands are temporarily enlivened by flights of birds of passage
migrating to and fro between Central Asia and Siberia. The lake abounds chiefly
in varieties of the sturgeon and salmon, especially the so-called omul species. But
the myriads of fishes spoken of by Pallas and other early travellers as ascending
from the lake have disappeared, and so great is the destruction of spawn by the
fishermen that whole species are threatened with extinction, unless measures be
taken for their preservation. Some have already disappeared at some unknown
period, and are now found only in the Little Frolika, or " Trout Lake," the Dava-
chanda amut of the Tunguses, situated near the northern extremity of the great
basin. This reservoir is extremely deep, and aboimds in trout, which have not yet
been found either in Lake Baikal or in any of its tributarus, and in its fauna are
included many other peculiar species of fish, xuo seals are not evenly distributed
over the whole of Lake Baikal, being mainly confined to the west coast. In summer
they are met chiefly on the east side of Olkhon Isleud, whereas in autumn they
frequent the southern shores between the Barguzin and Selenga Rivers. Whether
belonging to the oceanic fauna or altogether to a peculiar species, they are tmdis-
tinguishable from the Phoca foetida of Spitzbergen. Being eagerly pursued for
their skins, sold at large profits to the Chinese traders, they seldom show themselves
above the surface, nor do they swarm on the beach like those of the polar seas, but
bring forth their young on ice floes.

An inland sea, where fishing is decajring, where there are no villages or any
centres of industry, is naturally but li/tle navigated. The first steamer seen in
Siberia was no doubt launched on its waters in 1844, but only for the local service
between the Irkutsk coast and the Selenga delta. All the trade of the lake is
concentrated in this comer, through which travellers and mei'chandise are

sudden shock
narrow fissures
lese temporary
d seals to live

When the cold
the air, begins
becomes like a
' a dense haze,
! of the surface
ght about the
of the waters

ack of alluvial
(veral hundred
-shore animals,
leen in summer
ch is elsewhere
id autumn the
rds of passage
ibounds chiefly
' species. But
*s as ascending
: spawn by the
38 measures be
K>me unknown
ke,'' the Data-
y of the great
ih have not yet
n its f atma are
nly distributed
t. In summer
n autimin they
ers. Whether
;hey are imdis*
ly pursued for
low themselves
polar seas, but

irillageB or any
earner seen in
le local service
of the lake is
ji'chandise are

THP ANGAEA WATEE SYSTEM.

978

forwarded from Siberia to China and the Amur basin. Before the introduction
of steam, the sailing vessels, buffeted by the winds or lost in the fogs, often took
over a fortnight to make the passage of about 60 miles across the lake. During
the time intervening between the open navigation and sleighing the traders follow
the land route roimd the western extremity of the lake, along the foot of the
Eamar-daban range.

Lake Baikal drains a region estimated at about 128,000 square miles, of which
the Selenga basin in Mongolia and Transbaikalia comprises at least two- thirds.
The semicircle formed by the contour of this basin, a vast plain covered with a
brown and porous poi-phyry resembling lava in appearance, is no less than 1,530
miles in circumference. Here the main stream, which rises in Lake Koso-gol, at the
foot of the Munku-sardik, and which, after receiving various names, at last takes that
of the Selenga, describes a large curve some 660 miles long. This river is navigable
for flat-bottomed boats throughout its lower course below the junction of the
Orkhon, and the Eiakhta dealers make use of it to forward their teas. Thus from
the Chinese frontier to the Arctic Ocean, for a distance of over 2,700 miles, an
uninterrupted navigable waterway may be followed from the Selenga to Lake
Baikal, and thence through the Angara and Yenisei to the sea. The Selenga
receives some large tributaries, notably the Ijda from Transbaikalia, whose broad
valley, descending from the Stanovoi range, begins at a short distance from the
Amur. The alluvial plain formed by the Selenga at its mouth skirts the shores
of the lake for a distance of over 18 miles, and here the river ramifies into eight
or ten branches, varying in relative importance according to the erosions and
floods. Recently the surface of the delta subsided over a considerable space.

TiiE Angara Water System.

The Selenga, the Barguzin, and the Yerkhnaya Angara, traversing the moun-
tainous country of the Timguses, jointly with other smaller affluents and the rains,
discharge an excess of water into the lake, which is carried off by the Angara,
one of the great rivers of Asia, with a volume of certainly not less than 105,000
cubic feet per second. Emerging fr(>m *i wide bay; whose shores are covered
with larch groves, its seething waters encircle tLe "Shaman Rock," and flow
rapidly thro .;•, i a bed falling from 20 to 3''i inches in the mile, beyond which ihey
are joined by the Irkut, Euda, Eitoi, and Bieleya, without appearing to be greatly
swollen by these affluents. So swift is the curreiit that its deep blue and almost
black waters sweep by the cliffs of Irkutsk after its tributaries have been covered
with a thick crust of ice. Long after the iutenseiy cold winter has sot in the
stream remains free from floes, but is wrapped in a densi. fog almost concealing
the liurface from view. The Angara begins to freeze only after the glass has
stood at — 20" Fahr. for several days ; but then it becomes ice-bound so rapidly that
it may be safely crossed in twelve hours after the appearance of the first crystals.
At the break-up the floating masses are dashed violently against the still frozen
crust of the more placid stream lower down, and are accumulated at the entrance

874

ASIATIC BU8SIA.

I I

of tlie gorges, where they are ut times heaped up over 130 feet above the surface.
"When these masses give way they are carried down, together with fragments of
rock torn from the clifis along the banks of the river.

mm"^

INHABITANTS-TEE BUEIATS.

876

Fig.

197> — Rapidb of the A>oaba.
Soale 1 ; 870,000.

ove the surface,
th fragments of

Of the defiles the most famous is that in which the stream descends in rapids,
and even forms amidst the reefs veritable falls avoided by ordinary craft. For a
space of over 40 miles below the Oka confluence the Angara, henceforth known
as the Yerkhnaya Tung^ska, rushes between
itn granite and syenite walls over a
series of nine rapids. Here the continu-
ous uproar produced by the waves dash-
ing against the rocky islets is heard at a
distance of several miles. Yet these rapids
are safely run by the steamers, the fury and
din of the angry waters merely causing a
passing feeling of excitement amongst the
passengers. Below the confluence of the
Him the , Angara flows through another
gorge, whose serpentine and basalt, sides
rise some 600 feet above the surface. These
are its last escarpments, although beyond
them the stream, unable to pierce the
1 orthem plateau, is deflected westwards to
its junction with the Yenisei. Not far from
the confluence it receives the large river
Chuna, which drains a vast basin watered by
the auriferous torrents f rojm the Sayan high-
lands. Amongst the tributaries of the An-
gara are also some " salt " rivers, orA even
in one of its islands, about 40 miles below
the Irkutsk, several salt springs flow from
rock-j everywhere surrounded by fresh water.
Many coal-fields are also embedded in its
rocky sides, forming a reserve of future
wealth for this region.

Inhabitants — The Buriats. ■

As on the Yenisei, the Russians are the
dominant element in the Selenga valley, on
Lake Baikal, and along the banks of the
Angara. But many forest tracts are still exclusively occupied by the Buriats and
Txmguses, from the latter of whom the Angara takes one of its names.

These two indigenous peoples present a remarkable contrast to each other.
The Timgus is brave, cheerful, modest, respectful, and upright, whereas the Buriat
is generally timid, peevish, rude, impassive, treacherous, and especially lazy, more
80 even than the tarbagan, from which animal he steals in winter its store of
roots concealed in its burrows. His broad features, with their high cheek bones, '

ao Miles.

87(1

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

are aeldoin lit up with a bright open expresflion. He rarely opens wide his small,
slant eyes, while his thick lips protrude beyond a broad snub nose. Most of the
Buriata arc robust and broad-shouldered, but inclined to stoutness, awkward, and of
heavy carriage, like their Mongolian kinsmen. Their besetting sin is intemperance,
and, as they are unable to resist the action of alcohols so well as the Eussians,
a glass even of the weakest brandy, or a few draughts of fermented milk, suffice
to completely upset them. AVhen not compelled by poverty to dispense with all
household comforts, and dress in rags or the rude skins bequeathed to him by his
elders, the Buriat is fond of display. Hugs are spread on the floor, or hung on
the walls of his hut ; he decks himself in a silken robe fastened by a girdle, in
which he sticks his pipe and teacup. His wives and children wear embroidered
garments, adorned with metal, and the horsehair tufts hanging on the breast are
interlaced with mother-of-pearl beads, gold coins, bits of malachite, and silver
fringes.

Like their Kalmuk brethren, of Mongol stock, and near the Chinese frontier
entirely assimilated to the Mongolian nomads, the Hunm, or " Men," as the
Buriats call themselves, speak various Mongolian dialects, and their civilisation,
such as it is, has evidently come, and still comes, from the south. The men shave
thoir heads and wear the Chinese pig-tail. The lettered classes have various
religious books translated from Tibetan, Mongolian, and Tangut, and their
religious practices differ in no respect from those of the Buddhists beyond the
frontier. They have also their lamas dressed in red robes, with yellow head-
dresses and party-coloured girdles, and they are fond of processions, musical fdtes,
and frequent ceremonial gatherings. There is scarcely a single Buriat family in
Transbaikalia without at least one priest, and, as a rule, every third son " enters
the church." On the shores of Lake Baikal, and especially in the neighbourhood
of Irkutsk, the Buriats have become Russified, and thousands of them have even
accepted baptism. The two races have also become to some extent intermingled,
so that while the Buriats were becoming Russians, the opposite process was also
going on. In many villages it is diffictilt to trace the true origin of the people,
especially as both Cossacks and Buriats speak both langiiages. In the villages
the peasantry are proud of speaking Mongolian, just as in the towns the civilised
Russian parades his knowledge of French. In the Baikal basin the Buriats are
found in the purest state probably in the island of Olkhon, where they are seldom
visited by travellers or traders.

The Tungus is a hunter, whereas the Buriat, coming from the Mongolian
steppes, is above all a stock-breeder, though also a fisher on the shores of the lakes.
Like the £almuk, he uses the ox for riding, but, imlike him, prefers the horse, and
the animals of this race are perhaps the most remarkable in Siberia, not for their
beauty, but for their marvellous powers of abstinence and endurance. The Buriat
horses cover 30 or even 60 miles at a trot, without eating or drinking, and at the
end of the journey seem still fresh. In winter it is usual to expose the horse
during the night in a perfectly open court, and thus accustom him to intense cold,
which would soon destroy horses of any other breed. The Buriats highly value

Mil

I wide his small,
le. Most of the
awkward, and of
is intemperance,
as the Russians,
tied milk, suffice
dispense with all
ed to him by his
loor, or hung on
1 by a girdle, in
'ear embroidered
a the breast are
ohite, and silver

Chinese frontier
"Men," as the
;heir civilisation.
The men shave
ses have various
agut, and their
bists beyond the
th yellow head-
as, musical fStes,
Buriat family in
bird son " enters
le neighbourhood
them have even
nt intermingled,
process was also
in of the people.
In the villages
wns the civilised
the Buriats are
they are seldom

the Mongolian
ores of the lakes,
rs the horse, and
ria, not for their
ice. The Buriat
king, and at the
jxpose the horse
a to intense cold,
iats highly value

INHABITANTS-THB BURIATS.

877

these inseparable companions, which bear them so swiftly over the steppe and
through the forest, and from long-established usage they never kill and
eat the saddle horse, but those only which have never been used as moimts.
According to religious tradition the riding horse must accompany his master on
his long journey beyond the tomb. But care is taken to cheat the Deity by sub-
stituting an old broken-down hack, or tethering a young steed to the grave with
a slight string easily broken. Thus the terrified animal easily snaps his bonds
and trots off to join the herd. " We have given him to God ; God has given him
back to us !" is the excuse for the pious fraud. In some districts the Buriats have
also learnt from the Russians the art of hay-making and tilling the land, and in the
government of Irkutsk they have even become more skilful husbandmen than their
teachers. They manure and irrigate the land more regularly, and own more live
stock. In industrious habits they are surpassed only by the Raskolnik colonists, the
most intelligent and laborious of all the inhabitants of Siberia.

In the direction of the Tunguses the. territory occupied by the Buriats is sharply
defined. To the Tunguses belongs the northern extremity of Lake Baikal, whereas
the rest of the lake, from Olkhon Island and the Sacred Headland to the Gulf of
Eultuk, is Buriat domain. The Buriats are divided into tribes, named mostly from
the district occupied by them, and subdivided into aimaks, each with its prince
(tahha) and elders, forming and governing itself according to its own usages.
Some of the aimaks have formed confederacies, which hold assemblies in the forest
glades, or on the shores of the lakes, to discuss their conunon interests. The Govern-
ment abstains from interfering in their local affairs and differences, except in the
case of disputes between the tribal chiefs. No recruits have hitherto been raised
amongst them, and although strips of the vast domain ceded to them by
Catherine II. " for ever " are from time to time appropriated for the benefit of the
Russian settlers, there still remains more than they can cultivate.

Proceeding from north to south, the Buriat Shamanism merges by imperceptible
stages in Buddhism. The influence of Russian orthodoxy has also made itself felt,
especially by the introduction into the Buriat pantheon of the legendary St. Nicholas,
whose myth corresponds exactly with that of the Mongolian Tsagan Ubukgun, or
" Old Man in White." Hence the image of the latter is worshipped by the Rus-
sians themselves, just as the Buriats bring their offerings for St. Nicholas to the
Russian churches. Although very religious, the Northern Buriats have but a small
nimaber of shamans, being too poor to support them ; but they do not fail them-
selves to perform all the prescribed rites before their household gods woven in
camel-hair, and before the divinities of the headlands and sacred rocks on the lakes,
streams, and springs, conciliating the good and evil genii by offerings of furs,
ribbons, mirrors, or horsehair. In the world in which they live every object seems
alive, looking down on them, listening to their prayers, animated by friendly or
hostile feelings towards them. Hence the Buriat passes with a sort of awe by
these formidable rocks, springs, or woodlands. For at times a single word or any
unseemly laughter was sufficient to rouse their anger and stir up the sleeping

storm.

nil*"

^^I

I ;

876

A8UTI0 RUSSIA.

The BuriiitH woro long known by fho numo of HriitNkiyo, or " Brotherly,"
givon to thoni by tho Sil)oriiin coloni.stH, doubtloMH through un uniutcntionul phiy of
wordH. Tho fort nuHod for their reduction ut tho coiifluoiico of iho Angurii und
Oku, und which bus Hinco bocoinu a suiull town, Htill beurin tlio numo of HratNkiy-
ostrog. But for tho luHt two conturioH the Buriutn, who nuinl)er iiltogethtu" alM>ut
250,000 (114,000 in IrkutHk, and 130,000 in Transbuikulia), liuvo given up all
idea of revolting, and aro now rckoned amongst tho mont peaceful Hubjocts of the
Czar. They had at one time even to endure a police admini§tration of extreme
rigour. In virtue of the conventions Higncd betw(!en China and HuHsia limiting
tho frontiers of the two empires in 1727 and 1708, the grea^.nf precautions had
been taken to prevent the migration of tho nomads from ono tenf'i.jiy to the other.
It thus happened that the regulations had to be most strictly enforced in the
Buriat and Mon(X()l districts, in consequence of the commercial relations carried on
across the frontier of Maimachin. Tho intermediate neutral zone varied in width
from 6 to .36 miles according to tho niihiro of tho country, and pillars were set up
as landmarks all along the lino. This lino had to be daily visited by tho resjicctivo
frontier guards, and wherever any truces of trespassers were detected tho sjwt was
carefully surrounded by stones or sods, in order to presorvo this pnjof of guilt until
the culprits woro denounced and punished. Wherever tho frontier was croosed by-
streams, atukos were planted on either side, between which were stretched horsehair
ropes from bank to bank. Thus no one could cross tho line under pretence that he
had not perceived it. These regulations wore strictly observed till 1852, but since
then tho ropes have been neglected, tho imperial seal attached to the posts has been
broken, and most of the landmarks have disappeared. Twice a year some Cossack
horsemen still ride up to the Mongolian stations, with their passports consisting of
tablets which correspond exuctly mth other bits of wood taken by the Mongolians
from the same block. The two pieces are fitted together, and, when all is found to
be right, Cossacks and Mongols salute each other, and with mutual blessings drink
copious libations to the glory of their respective sovereigns.

Topography.

The city which guards the frontier in the Selenga basin has long enjoyed a
monopoly of the trade with China. In 1728, after the conclusion of a treaty of
peace between the two empires, the two factories of the Bussiau and Chinese traders
were founded at a distance of G50 feet from each other. In the south was Mai-mei-
chen (MaimacMn), or the " Chinese Mart ; " in the north Kiakhta, commanded by
the fortified Cossaok station. Between the two, although both are built of wood,
the contrast is complete, and it would be elsewhere difficult to find a more striking
instance of diversity in tho appearance of two neighbouring towns. Eiakhta
resembles the elegant quarter of a European city, and its principal church, sur-
mounted by a bright dome, is one of the richest in Siberia. Maimachin looks inore
like a suburb of Pekrn, but much better kept than the other towns in the northern
provinces of China. The doors are covered with carvings, and strips of red paper

?<!m.

or "Brothorly,"
tcutiunul piny of
*'io An^rti uiul
lino of MratHkiy-
iiltogothor alM)ut
vo jrivou up ull
1 Hubjocta of tho
itiou of oxtromo

Hussiu limitin}^;

precautions hud
'jty to the other.

enforced in tho
ationa carried on

varied in width
Ihirs were sot up
l)y the respective
;t(^d the 8|)ot was
M)i of f^uilt until
r was croosod by
•etched horsehair

pretence that ho
1 1852, but since
lie posts has been
)ar some Cossack
)rt8 consisting of

the Mongolians
m all is found to
1 blessings drink

long enjoyed a
<n of a treaty of
1 Chinese traders
ith was Mai-mei-
, commanded by
e built of wood,

a more striking
:owns. Eiakhta
pal church, sur-
ichin looks inore

in the northern
ips of red paper

TOPOOBArUY.

879

arc pnstcil on the wuUn. Singing birds are kept in ull tho houscN, and little 1m>1Ih
chiming in the wind hung frr)m tho upturno<l corners of thi< roof. In thi» inter-
vening space between the two towns the Chinese have (IiMi)<>Hed large planks in tho
form of a screen, to protect their dwellings from the luiluful influences of the Ilus-
siun atmosphere, and on this screen was formerly painted tho churacter meaning
" good luck." Thus every noxious breath from Kiakhta ond every profane expres-
sion uttered by the Russians was stopped half-way, and driven back to the dosort.
A " pigeon " trading jargon, which is neither Chinese nor Russian, has sprung up
in this frontier emporium between the Chinoso, or Nikoudzi, and the Russians, or
0-lo-lo-seh.

The prosperity of Eiakhta and Muimachin has greatly varied with the political
vicissitudes. All trade has at times been interrupted for years, but tho enonnous
profits of tho monopoly enabled the Kiukhta dealers soon to recover their former
opulence. China, which sells to Russia much more than it buys, exported ut first
nothing but gold, silver, rhuburb, and silks. Rut tea gradually Wumo tho staple
of her export trade, and the Russians long boasted of enjoying the best tea in tho
world, thanks to tho " Eiakhta Caravan," which took eighteen months to reach the
Nijni-Novgorod fair from the Chinese frontier. '"lie first-class teas brought to
Eiakhta, and which the high officials and guc the dealers are privileged to

taste, have undoubtedly uu exquisite flavour. Tin , come directly from tho planta-
tions where the very best crops are raised, and these plantations are owned by tho
Ruspon dealers themselves. But adulteration g^es on all along tho line of tho
great overland route, at first at Irkutsk, then at Tomsk and Nijni-Novgorod, and
lastly at Moscow. The treaty of Tien-tsin of 1858, in any case, put an end to the
commercial monopoly of Eiakhta, and at the Nijni-Novgorod fair in 1880 the tea
from that quarter represented no more than one-tenth of the whole amount disposed
of. At present Russia receives by sea and from foreign countries most of the pro-
duce she formerly imported directly from China through Maimaohin. Other routes
have also been opened towards Pekin and the Yang-tse-kiang at various points of
the frontier, and especially through Eobdo, so that the trade is no longer obliged to
stop before the mystic screen of Maimachin. Yet, though the exchanges of Eiakhta
have consequently considerably fallen off, it still does a large trade of a miscel-
laneous character, and the fairs of the " white month " — that is, of February — are
much frequented by the Chinese and Mongolians. Including the neighbouring
town of Tro'itzko-savsk, lying over a mile to the north, and the residence of most
of the officials, Eiakhta is the most populous place in Transbaikalia, and the richest
in all East Siberia. On the Selenga is its port of Ust- Kiakhta, or "Eiakhta
Mouth," so named from the rivulet which here joins the main stream.*

The two towns of Seknginak, " Old " and " New," lying at a short distance
from each other, have not the importance which might be supposed to attach to the
central towns of such a large basin as that of the Selenga. But the surrounding
d^jtricts are unproductive except along the banks of the auriferous Chikoi. Vast

• Average yearly trade of Kiakhta:— 1824— 30, 13,680,460 roubles; 1880— 49, 13,313,410 roubles;
1849—69, 13,313,410 rouble*. Trade of Eiakhta and the Amur district in 1872, 10,840,000 roubles.

aMfeW!M:.'-U i w

A8IATI0 RUSSIA.

inu'.tH conHiHt of nandy und solino Htoppon, nomo of whose lukoa uro ovon brackish.
Houth-wPHt of hktlengiiiMk, lu'ur the south Hide of the Ho-called " Oo«"kj I^uke," stands
the chief tonipU* of the Buriuts, in which resides the Khunilw uia, with us inany
an two hundre<l monks, under the direct authority of a pries' f Urga. Klephunt
tusks, huge shells from the Indian Ocean used us holy-wuter fonts, tiger and leopard
skins, beur evidence to the constant relations formerly maintained between the
Ikikul lumas and Huddhists of India through Tilwt.

Next to Kittkhta the chief town in Transbaikalia is Verkhnye-UJimk, at the
confluence of the Uda und Selenga, navigable for steamers to this point. It« port
on Lake Buikul is the village of Potohkoye, whose houses cluster round a wealthy
monastery west of the river mouths. None of the villages on the shores of Lake
Baikal have yet been raised to the rank of a town. Litttenichnaya, on the gulf at
the Angara outlet, is a landing station for the pcoj 1'> of Irkutsk ; Kultuk, at the
western extremity of the lake, is a small fishing ha\ i>'a ; und Dush-kachan, at the
north end, is another little \Ktrt, where the Tungusos come to pay their tribute in
peltry. Turka, on the east coast over aguiiist Olkhon Island, is a mere thermal
station with sulphur and iron springs, utilised by a few invalids from Irkutsk.
Baryuzin, lying on the river of like name and at some distance from the east coast,
is important only as the capital of a district. Tuiika, in the valley of the Irkut, is
a largo straggling village, whose houses are scattered over a vast space in the midst
of fields and meadows.

Irkutsk, capital of East Siberia, and probably tho largest city in Asiatic Russia
north of Tashkend, does not stand on the river Irkut, as its name might imply.
No doubt a peltry ' \ctory was established on the Angara at the junction of the
Irkut in 1652, nine years after the &<Bcovery of the former river. But in 1669 the
trading station was removed to the other side, at the mouth of the Ushakovka
rivulet, and here was rapi-lly devi loped , o'ty which now covers a space of several
square miles. When Gmelin vtau t! it v' 1735 Irkutsk had already a population
of 6,500, composed, however, n^ •-':M:y of officials, soldiers, traders, servants, with
scarcely any wome^. Hence ; > imilies could be founded, and the population had
to be constantly recruited with iresh elements. The mortality has at all times been
higher than the birth . te, but in winter the place is crowded with thousands of
gold-seekers from the surrounding upland valleys.*

The town, with its broad straight streets lined by old houses, has no remarkable
monuments. It boasts of possessing the oldest building in all Siberia, but this is
merely the fragment of a fort on which is legible the date 1661. On a triumphal
arch erected in 1858 after the conclusion of the treaty of Aigun is inscribed the
haughty legend, " Road to the Great Ocean " — words, however, justified by conquest.
A section of the Russian Geographical Society, founded here in 1869, publishes
important memoirs ; but some of its most precious documents have perished in a
recent fire, which at the same time destroyed a large part of the town. Irkutsk is

• Population of Irkutsk in 1838, 16,669; in 1867, 23,989. Ezc«aa of mortality botr- ^—67,

1,426. Immigntion lame period, 8,846. Population in 1876, 3!i,614, of whom 12,870 were ofitvialt, loldierB,
priests, monks, conTicto, and servants.

I L<von bnickuh.
K) I^ke," itanda
a, with us inony
Jrgn. Klepbunt
igor and loupard
>od betwoon the

e-Ut/iiuk, at the

point. It« port

■ound a woalthy

shores of Lake

, on the gulf at

; Kultuk, at the

ih-kachan, at the

their tribute in

a mere thermal

I from Irkutsk.

1 the east coast,

of the Irkut, is

ooe in the midst

1 Asiatic Russia
le might imply,
junction of the
But in 1669 the
the TJshakovka
space of several
Ay a population
, servants, vrith
population hod
it all times been
th thousands of

s no remarkable
teria, but this is
On a triumphal
is inscribed the
ied by conquest.
1860, publishes
e perished in a
wa. Irkutsk is

3re ofitiiialt, wldiert,

Mtawsfa

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Hiotograi^c

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Corporalion

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WIBSTIR,N.Y. USM

(716)872-4S03

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CIHM/ICMH
Collection de
microfiches.

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Canadian Inttituta for Historical Microraproductions / Institut Canadian da microraproductions liistoriquas

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TOPOGRAPHY.

881

an industrial centre, and the number of its factories, amongst which distilleries, as
in the rest of the empire, hold a prominent position, has been rapidly augmented.
A porcelain and faience manufactory, supplied with clays of excellent quality, has
been established in the district, and its products are exported to Transbaikalia.
Various smaller induslries, started by Polish exiles, have largely contributed to the
progress of Irkutsk and East Siberia. But the city is distinguished especially as
an intellectual centre above all other Siberian towns. Its inhabitants .study much.

Fig. 198.— POFVLATIOMB OV THK IbKUTSK OoTEBNHBNT.
Aooofding to ChiidoTikr. Scale 1 : U,70(^00a

Bnaiaiu. Tkknta. Bnriata. Tnngaaw. KangaoM.

discuss the current events and ideas, and at times betray symptoms of opposition
with which the Government will have to reckon. Here is published the only
independent periodical in Siberia.

So thinly peopled is the country that for 900 miles below Irkutsk there are no-
towns on the Angara, although the village of Balagansk is dignified with the
name. The only town in the whole basin at a distance from the main stream is
N\jne- Udinsk, on the Uda and on the great route to Moscow, in the centre of a

i||Kl/.ii»(H]|W«

882

ASIATIC KUSSIA.

gold-washing and iron-mining region, of which it is the entrepot. More than half
of the province is still altogether uninhabited, and elsewhere the various ethnical
groups of Russians, Buriats, Tunguses, Tatars, and Earagasses are scattered in
isolated communities over the land. Goitre is a very prevalent affection in certain
parts of the Irkutsk government, especially those watered by the Lena. Compared
with the whole population, the sufferers represent scarcely more than 1 per cent, of
the inhabitants, but iix some districts the proportion is as high as one-tenth, while
in certain villages it rises to a third and even one-half of the peasantry. All these
cretins are of Russian descent, the non-Slav native elements never being attacked.
The cause of this immunity must be attributed, not to any ethnical privilege, but to
the care taken by the Buriats and Tunguses to avoid the districts where the
malady is endemic. Even in the neighbourhood of Irkutsk a magnificent valley,
one of the most fertile and best sheltered from cold winds in the whole province,
the Russians were surprised to find completely deserted, and hastened to settle in it.
llcnce all the villages here bear Russian names, and form, so to say, a sort of
linguistic as well as a pathological enclave in the midst of the surrounding popula-
tions. Hero goitre is very common.

v.— BASIN OF TttE LENA— SHORES OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN.

East of the Yenisei several important rivers take their rise in the uplands limited
northwards by the basin of the Nijnyaya Tunguska, and flow thence in a winding
course through the tundra solitudes to large estuaries on the Frozen Ocean, These
streams, and the lakes traversed by them, are as yet known only in their main
features, although they have been visited for over two hundred and fifty years by
hunters and the officials to whom Ostiaks, Samoyedes, Tunguses, and Yakuts are
obliged to pay their tribute of peltries. The few natives of the country are
designated mainly by the names of these rivers, whose frozen surfaces are used by
them as highways during the winter season. Hence the frequent recurrence of the
Pyasina or Pyasida, Taimira, Balakhna, Anabara, Khatanga, and its tributary, the
Boganida, in early Siberian records. But although many of these rivers are over
600 miles long, their economic value may be regarded as of no account. The
official returns give less than 500 inhabitants to the vast basins of the Pyasina and
Ehatanga, belonging to the Yenisei government, and the Russian " vnllages "
figuring on the maps are merely clusters of two or three zimoviije, or winter cabins,
with an average of from five to ten occupants each. Khatangskoye, on the
Ehatanga, capital of all this region, consisted in 1865 of a chapel and five cabins,
inhabited by nine persons. Ehculd navigation ever be developed on the Arctic sea-
board, some new centres of population will certainly spring up on the banks of the
Ehatanga, whose fiord, 180 miles long, offers an excellent haven, in which the first
explorers of the polar seas found refuge. A comparison of the earlier charts with
that drawn up by Bove, of the Nordenskjold ex^)edition, shows how little was known
of the Taimir region, notwithstanding Middendorff's survey and the voyages of the
peltry traders. The different charts show discrepancies of several degrees.

BASIN OP THE LENA— SHORES OF THE AECTIC OCEAN.

888

are thun half
iou8 ethnical
scattered in
on in certain
. Compared
I per cent, of
-tenth, while
y. All these
ing attacked,
vilege, but to
ts where the
ificent valley,
lole province,
to settle in it.
Hiy, a sort of
iding popula-

OCEAN.

plands limited
5 in a winding
Dcean. These
in their main
fifty years by
d Yakuts are
e country are
ee are used by
:urrence of the
tributary, the
rivers are over
tccount. The
le Pyasina and
an " villages "
winter cabins,
skoyc, on the
nd five cabins,
the Arctic sea-
e banks of the
which the first
ier charts with
ttle was known
voyages of the
egrees.

The Olenyok, whose lower course flows for over 5° of latitude jjurallel with the
Lena, is one of the largest rivers in Siberia next to the Ob, Yoni«ei, Lena, and
Amii With its windings it is no less than 1,200 miles long, and empties into the
sea through a mouth 6 miles wide, and from 20 to 24 feet deep, offering a good

>; ;' J Kg. 199. — Coast ok the Taimib Peninsula.

, Soale 1 : 6,1100,000.

OldCoiut-liiie.

Cout anrrered by Palander.

Bciate of the Vrga and T.»iut.
Probable Coatt-Une.

120 Miles.

harbour immediately west of the low-lying peninsula formed by the alluvia of the
Lena. Explored throughout most of its course by Czekanowski and Miiller in
1874, this river is not merely a waterway traversing the tundra, and fringed here
and there by dwarf shrubs. For it rises in the middle of a forest region, and it

ASIATIC EU8SIA.

carries seawards numbers of trees, which are stranded on the shores of the large
islands and mainland. Besides timber the Olcnyok valley also abounds in mineral
wealth, as well as naphtha springs and fishes in great variety. The camping grounds
of fishers and hunters are more numerous on its banks than on the western rivers
flowing through the frozen peninsula of Taimir. There is even a true villogo, that
of Bolkalak, or Ust-Olenskoye, on its estuary. Here were found, in 186!], sixty-
two half-castes descended from Yakut women and Russian exiles, who had
completely forgotten their Slav mother tongue. On the right 1»»>nk, over against
Bolkalak, Anjou found, in 1822, the traces of the encampment where the membero
of the Pronchishchev expedition passed the winter of 1737, and the graves where
most of them were buried. The observations made by MuUer on terrestrial

Fig. 200.— Old Lakb travekbbd by thb Vitim.
AocordioR 4o KropotUn. Scale 1 : 1,666,000.

S4MUN.

magnetism during his Olenyok expedition have shown that the pole of magnetic
intensity lies approximately between the 64th and 6dth parallels, and about 114°
east longitude between the Olenyok and Vilfii.

The Lena and its Inhabitants.

The Lena, rival of the Ob and Yenisei in volume, and the most copious river in
East Siberia, belongs entirely to the basin of the Arctic Ocean. It does not rise,
like the Irtish, Yenisei, and Selenga, south of the ranges bordering the Mongolian
plateau ; hence it has no deep defiles to pass through in order to reach the Siberian
plains. Its basin is connected with that of the Angara by a depression which
seems to have been formerly traversed by a large river. But at present its first
head-streams rise at a relatively slight elevation above the sea, the highest crests of
the Baikal coast range whence they flow having an altitude of no more than from
3,000 to 4,000 feet. Nevertheless the banks of the Upper Lena are very picturesque.
Its narrow stream here flows at first between schist formations, succeeded at

■MVM

•mr

of tho large
Is in mineral
ping grounds
restem rivers
i village, that
186;i, sixty-
BB, who had
, over against
the membero
graves where
m terrestrial

le of magnetic
ttd about 114°

iopious river in
; does not rise,
the Mongolian
ch the Siberian
spression which
)re8ent its first
ighest crests of
aore than from
3ry picturesque.
I, succeeded at

THE LENA AND ITS INHABITANTS. Mf

Kachuga by red sandstones, belonging probably to the Permian system. The
steep rocks rise from 200 to 300 feet above the current, tenninating in jagged and
crenellated crests. Those cliffs seem at first sight to be the advanced Hpurs of a
lofty range, but when ascended they are found to form merely the edge of an
almost level plateau. While those on the left bank are almost destitute of vegeta-
tion, the recesses and terraces of those on the opposite side are overgrown with leafy
trees and conifers. Between these steep and rocky walls the stream flows rapidly,
but is everywhere navigable below the village of Kachuga, some 96 miles from its
source. North of the sandstone fonnations begins the so-called " Cheek Defile,"
where the swift current of the Lena is commanded by chalk cliffs 100 feet high,
and pierced with grottoes. Here the river is no less than 70 feet deep, but navi-
gation is endangered by its abrupt windings, reefs, and rapid flow. One of the
rocks in this defile is the chief divinity of the surrounding Buriats.

Farther down the volume of the Lena is doubled, and its width increased to
1,400 feet by its junction with the Vitim. Of the two rivers the latter is, in fact,
the larger, both in length and volume, flowing as it does from a region more
exposed to the moist monsoons of the Pacific* But its course being more irregular
and less suited for navigation, the Lena was naturally regarded by the riverain
population as the main branch. The Yitim rises east of Lake Baikal, in the hilly
plateau stretching from this lake to the Yablonoi highlands, and crossed by parallel
ridges nmning north-east and south-west. The river and its numerous head-
streams flow at first in the depressions of the plateau, and then unite in a common
stream through fissures opened transversely between the intervening ridges. Even
where the Vitim has assumed the aspect of a large river the main valley and those
of its affluents alternately follow the normal' direction of the plateau from south-
west to north-east, while the side valleys run south-east and north-west. Owing to
its sharp windings and swift current, the Yitim remains imnavigable till it has
passed the falls by which its course is interrupted, about 340 miles above its con-
fluence with the Lena. The depressions which it traverses were formerly filled by
terraced lakes, most of which have been successively replaced by alluvial plains.
Some, however, still remain, notably the great T^ake Oron, connected with the Vitim
by a short emissary. West of the main < ' \am travellers have had to cross
extensive lava beds stretching in the direction c ' Lake Baikal, and one of which is
no less than 70 miles long.

Below the peninsula formed by their confluence the united streams flow between
low banks, here and there still interrupted by sandstone and chalk cliffs, rising in
some places 160 feet and upwards, and reflecting their hanging branches in the
stream. The most romantic scenery in this section is noted for the so-called
" Colonnades of the Lena," resembling ruined castles, whose ramparts and towers
stretch for several miles along the right bank. Here the Lena is swollen by the

* Length of the Lena from aource to the Yitim junction

„ Yitim

„ Lena- Yitim to the Arctic Ocean .

4rea of drainage . . , .

876 miles.
1,280 „
3,280 „
1,000,000 aquare mfles.

■^KW

8H(J

ASIATIC RUS8IA.

ropiouN Olokinii aflliu'iit, wIioho rapid curront ih felt 18 inili'M Im>1<)W tlio confiiu'iico.
Fui'tluT down it is led by «till liirffor (ril)utarit'« — the Aldan on it8 rif^ht, and the
Vilfti on itM Ifft bank, inarklnjf t\w liniitH of itn middle courHO. Henceftirth coasini^
to wind i-astwardM round tlir plateaux of Central Siln'ria, it pursuoH itsnomud north-
wcHtorly courMO to the Arcti(! Ocean in an iHland-Htuddnl channel, with a mean width
of from 4 to niileH, an<l in Momo pluecH expanding to broad inland seaH. At tho
Aldan junction it is over 12 niiloH wide from bank to bunk. Tho valley of the
Vilui may, in a j^eneral way, Ik) re„ irded tin forming an easterly continuati(m of thot
of the Nijnyaya Tunjj;uMka, and as extended towards the PaciHc by tho busin of
the Aldan. The course of the Lena is (lonsequontly hero croHHe<l by a transverse
deiiression, which ut uU times uilurded un important highway of local migration

• •••' V KiR. 201.— Lena Delta.

Accordinir to NordenikjOld. According to Wrongell and Anjon.

Boalo 1 : 4.480,000.

eOlUlei.

and commercial intercourse, and which now presents certain advantages to the
Russians, the valley of the Aldan offering the shortest route from tho Lena basin
to the Pacific seaboard. Under a milder climate such a geographical position must
have given rise to a first-class political or trading capital.

After the Aldan and Vilfti the great river of East Siberia has acquired its full
bulk, being henceforth joined only by insignificant afiluents. The forest vegetation
along its bankn also becomes gradually stunted and inipoverished in species until
they are at lust succeeded by the lichens and mosses of the tundra. The islands
grow nothing but scrub, though the Titari, or " Larch Island," the last of them,
contains, besides the lurch whence it is named, a little park of firs, birches, and
poplars. Below this plot of verdure begins the vast delto of the Lena, comprising
an area of about 8,800 square miles. But aU this watery region is not formed

TUE LENA AND ITS INUAIHTANTS.

confluence,
•ht, and tbo

rth coiislnj^
nniil north-
moan width
118. At the
iilloy of the
lit ion of that
ho bunin of
a transvorHe
il niigmtion

f^/At

itages to the
e Lena basin
position must

[uired its full
sst vegetation

species until
The islands

last of them,
, birches, and
a, comprising
s not formed

entirely by alluvial deposits. In the n()rth-w(>st the Khangaliit distriet, limited on
one side by the wst flank of the (U'ltu, on the other by a braneh of the river, in an
uneven tract strewn with lakes and hills. This in, in fact, an ancient marine island,
or group of islands, wliieli have been gradually connected with the mainland partly
by the alluvia of the river, partly also by the upheaval of the land. Hence the
sedimentary matter brought down by the stream no longer finds a free passage to
the sea in the direction of the north-west, the rocky escarjjments of the Hil)erian
coast and the Khangalat uplands hero forming a natural limit to the delta.
Consequently the chief branches of the Lena, with their alluvia, have boon deflecited
eastwards, and it is hero that the outlines of the islands, the winding and ramifica-
tions of tho fluvial channels, are most frequently modified. Off the estuary the
water ia but slightly brackish, but very dangerous to nuvigatin i, averaging no more
than from HO to 45 feet deep. The form of tho delta is being changed from year
to year by tho alluvial deixjsits, drift-wood, storms, and especially by the floating
ice, which at tho break-up sweeps whole islands bodily seawards. The charts j)re-
parod at various periods from mord or loss hasty coast surveys offer discrepancies
far too serious to bo regarded as the personal errors of the cartographers. But
since the Russians have been acquainted with tho delta tho chief channel of naviga-
tion is that which flows round the eastern headland of tho continent, opening
towards the south-east on tho south side of a triangular peninsula. Under pressure
of the in-shore current setting west and east in continuation of the warm current
from the Atlantic, the whole of tho peninsula formed by tho alluvia of tho Leno
has been deflected eastwards, thus diverting tho fluA^al waters to tho eastern sea-
board. North of the delta the Tumaskiy branch, though much obstructed with sand-
banks, has maintained its channel near a landmark set up by Laptyev on its bunks in
1739. The channel at the western extremity of the delta regfion is recognised by
mariners by tho Ice Cape, a headland so named from tho snow and floes which
here persist throughout the year at the foot of the cli£fs unexposed to the solar
rays.

The vast basin of the Lena has only been brought into water communication
with Europe two hundred and fifty years after its occupation by the Bussians. In
1878 the steamer Lena, commanded by the Norwegian Johonnsen, penetrated the river
and ascended as far as Yakutsk. The way has now been opened, and it is hoped may
be occasionally used, notwithstanding tho serious obstacles opposed to the naviga-
tion by the floating ice round the Taimir peninsula, and even at the entrance of tho
Lena mouths. In the delta branches the thaw does not set in till the end of June,
or even the beginning of July, and the floes massed together and driven inland by
the polar winds are said to completely block the entrance sometimes throughout
the whole simimer. Hence no regular navigation can be established between the
Lena and "West Europe until tlie circumpolar observatories proposed by Wey-
precht have been established, and the general movement of the ice in the Arctic
Ocean duly signalled to the western ports. The Lena is far less accessible to
shipping than the Ob or Yenisei ; but although it can never have the same
importance for intenu^tional trade, it none the less offers certain facilities for

RAR

ASTATIC RUSSIA.

vtTiH'tiiiff oxchatif^im with thu iiitoriur, whoru i(» bunin offorn a nuvigublo waterway
of iiltopfother not Iohh than ({,000 miles.*

Tlio imtural ronourccn of thin iMiHin, whoito ontiro population ncarcrly cxcoodn
I'lOO.OOO, rival thow of Wimt Sil)eriu. The river itself ubuundH in tiMh no Iom
than the Oh, while itn foroHts are more extenHivo. It in uIho Nkirtixl by fertile
plains and ]>Iuteaux affording excellent pasture. The auriferous sands of the
Vitim and C)Ioknia are the richest in all Asia ; argentiforoun lead, copper, and
in)n ores are met in various places, although no systematic Hurvey has yet been
made of these treasures. Halt in superabundance is yieldinl by many lakes, solino
springs, and whole mountains of chloride of sixlium. Sulphur springs rise along
the river banks, and are lost in the stream. I^astly, coul bods belonging to the
same formation as those of the Nijnyaya Tunguska basin crop out along the
banks of the Vil(^i, and skirt the Lena almost uninterruptedly for over 000 miles
below the " Colonnades." Some of those coal-fields, kindled by the forest fires,
have been burning for years, and the smoke rising from the eminences have
given occasion to the local traditions regarding the existence of volcanoes in North
Siberia.

The Yana, Eoi.ima, and Indioirka Rivers — The Arctic Islands —
' '1 New Siberia.

The KhuruQlakh Hills, raising their snowy, or at least snow-streaked, crests here
and there to a height of 1,300 feet, separate the Lower Lena from the Yana,
which flows directly to the north, and enters the Arctic Ocean through a vast
delta over 90 miles broud east and west. The southern entremity of the KharaC^-
lakh Hills is connected by the Yerkho-Yansk range eastwards with the Stanovoi
plateau along the northern edge of the Aldan valley. The route from Yakutsk to
Nijne-Eolimsk, on the Lower Eolima, crosses this range by a pass 2,160 feet high,
commanded by crests rising to an elevation of from 830 to 1,000 feet. The road
to Yerkho-Yansk, on the Upper Yana, also follows a pass 4,660 feet high, winding
through a defile 660 feet deep. The Indigirka and the Eolima, which, like the
Yana, rise on the northern slopes of the Yerkho-Yansk range, bear a striking
resemblance to this river in the length and direction of their course, the volume
of their stream, the rapids formed in their upper reaches, and the islands oi their
deltas. AH rise in the same wooded highlands, and flow northwards through the
level plain of the tundras ; but, although navigable, none of them are frequented
except by the fishing craft of the Yakuts, Yukaghirs, and a few Russian settlers.

" Navigable conrae of the Lena , . . . . 2,920

n II Vitim . . i . . . Si5

It I, Olokma 600

M It Aldan 900

M II Amga 300

„ „ Maya 800

» „ VUOi 728

Total . . 6,086 MUea.

■«B«rt

mVEBS— lUE ABCTIO ISLANDS— NEW HIUEUIA.

B wutorwoy

ply oxooodn
iHh no loM
i by fertile
ndn of tho
joppcr, and
in yet boon
akcH, saline
I riao along
png to the
along the
;r 000 miles
forest fire«,
icnces have
)e8 in North

AND8 —

1, crests here
1 the Yana,
ough a vast
the Kharaft-
the Stanovoi
1 Yakutsk to
50 feet high,
t. The road
igh, winding
lich, like the
ir a striking
the volume
Einds oi their
through the
re frequented
asian settlers.

The most abundant in animal life is tho Knllnia, which, like the two Any(^i
joining its ount Imnk in u eommon delta, tei>mN with HmIu<h of vurioiiH kiiids.

A few of the iHlunds off tho neighl)uuring ('oust have In'on known from tiint)
immemorial to tho natives, and by them p«)inte<i out to the early UiiHNian explorers.
Huch are tho •' IJour iHlundH," north of tho Koltma ostuury, otiiiupied during tho
lust century by numerouH winter HMhing huts. The so-callod " Four I'illars," one
of this group, forms u conspicuous landmark with its four detached basalt columns,
almost as regular as if they had boon carved by tho hand of man. The sailors of
tho Nordenskjold expedition took them for lighthouses erected by tho Russian
Government for tho guidance of explorers in tho polar waters. Another of the
Bear Islands abounds in tho remains of mammoths to such an extent that when
seen from the southern mainland it soomed composed entirely of the tusks of those

Fig. i'03.— AuciiirBLAOu or Niw Hiniuu. ' ^

BoUa 1 : 4,110,000.

.flMilM.

UilM.

pachydermata. Some of the larger polar islands said to have been discovered in
the last century, or even more recently, would also seem to have been visited by
the natives. Thus the so-called "Near" or "First" Island of the Lyakhov
Archipelago (New Siberia) cannot have been completely unknown, as the magni-
ficent basalt columns forming the Eiselyak headland and Moimt Keptagai, several
hundred yards high, are only 45 miles from Cape Svyatoi, and are consequently, in
clear weather, always visible to the piercing gaze of the Tunguses and Yukaghirs.
The wild reindeer, as well as the white bear and other animals, including even the
smaller rodents, visit it across the ico from the mainland, and the hunters had only
to follow in their wake to discover " Near Island." From this point to " Second
Island " the passage is also very easy ; but the " Third," or Kotyelniy Ostrov,
besides several others lying farther west, must have remained long unknown,
although in one of them a Russian g^'ave was discovered in 1811. Hedenstrom

^mm

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

!■-,

here foxind a Yukaghir sleigh and a stone knife, pointing to a remote period, for
the Yukaghirs have long used iron knives, which they procure from the Russians.
Kotyeluiy Ostrov is a very large island, with an area estimated by Anjou at 8,000,
and by Hedenstrom at no less than 24,000 square miles. It is generally connected
by a barrier of reefs and extensive sand-banks with the island of Faddeyev
(ThaddoDUs], lying farther east, with an intervening channel 660 feet wide, through

.^ ... Fig. 203.— Routes op Anjou and Wbanobll.

Soale 1 : 666,000.

72-

: «

(mJtetiifulMud ^

.lSOUfla&

which the tides rush to and fro with great velocity. During stormy weather the
connecting sand-bank is washed by the waves.

The most recently discovered, or rather rediscovered, land in these waters is
the island known as New Siberia, a name frequently applied to the whole group
of islands on the north coast between the mouths of the Lena and Indigirka. It
was first sighted by the trader Sirovatsky in 1806, and was carefully explored
in 1809-10 by Hedenstrom, Sannikov, and Kojevin. It was again visited in
1820 — 3 during the Wrangell expedition, and since then hunters have never
ceased to pass the winter there in the huts built for the purpose by Sannikov.
Like the neighbouring islands. New Siberia is tolerably rich in animal species,
thanks to the bridge of ice by which it is yearly connected with the mainland.

!■ II iiiilii

e period, for
he Russians,
jou at 8,000,
ly connected
)f Faddeyev
iride, through

Z'"^^

les

I7S»

y weather the

these waters is
le whole group
Indigirka. It
(fully explored
fain visited in
rs have never
) by Sannikov.
Einimal species,
. the mainland.

mVEBS— THE AKCTIC ISLANDS— NEW SIBERIA. 801

Its fauna comprises the white bear, reindeer, Arctic fox, glutton, some small

rodents, and numerous species of birds. Here the hunters also find the remains of
extinct animals, mammoth and rhinoceros ivoiy, buffalo horns, horse hoofs, and

mdkMnHc

iS«ifeSi™«iw£aJi(

wMJatiillaC'

892

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

Hedenstrdm picked up an axe made of a mammoth's tusk. The beach is strewn
with the stems of the larch and poplar stranded bgokthe waves, but the great
curiosity of the island is a row of hills fringing the south coast for a distance of
over 3 miles, whose sandstone and gravel formations contain considerable masses
of carbonised timber, referred by some to the Jurassic epoch, but regarded by others
merely as drift-wood of recent date. Although these " Wood Hills " are only from
100 to 200 feet above sea-level, the mirage sometimes renders them visible from the
Siberian coast, 168 miles o£F.

During his nimierous exploring expeditions east of New Siberia, Wrangell had
his mind steadily fixed on a northern land of which the natives had spoken, and
towards which he saw the birds of passage directing their flight. A chart also,
preserved amongst the foreign archives of Moscow, figured an island in these
northern latitudes. During his three trips across the Siberian ice he was arrested
by a polinia, or " clearing," such as all other Arctic navigators have found, and
which have caused the name of Polynia to be given to the open sea met by Hayes
in the American polar seas north of Smith Sound. The ice at the edge of the
polinia was too weak to carry sleighs farther north, and the sea was distinctly felt
surging in long billows underneath. Wrangell's explorations only ended in a
negative result, or in the conclusion that the sought-for land could have no exist-
ence. Nevertheless it has been found in the very place where its outlines had
been drawn by Wrangell on the reports of the natives. The large island, which
has been named " Wrangell Land " in posthumous honour of the illustrious
navigator, rises high above the water to the north of the Chukchi country, near the
northern entrance to Bering Strait. Discovered for the first time by Kellett in
1849, and sighted by the whaio fisher Long in 1867, this land is still only faintly
traced on the charts. How far it may stretch northwards is still undetermined,
nor is it known whether it forms part of the land again seen by Eellett in
1867. Mount Long, at its southernmost extremity, has an elevation of 2,500 feet,
and its regular conic form has caused it to be classed with the extinct volcanoes.
Nordenskjold and Palander were prevented by the ice from visiting these islands.

The whole space stretching north of New Siberia and Wrangell Land, and
between Franz- Joseph Land and the American polar archipelagos, remains to be
explored, nor is it yet known whether it is partly occupied by any northern exten-
sion of Greenland, as Petermann supposed, or whether these waters encircle islands
or archipelagos alone. In any case no erratic boulders are found on the northern
seaboard of Siberia, from which Nordenskjold concludes that there are no exten-
sive lands in the Siberian polar seas, or rather that the icebergs carry scarcely any
rocky detritus with them, as indeed has hitherto been admitted by most geographers.
North-west of the Taimir peninsula the Norwegpum navigator Johannsen discovered,
in 1878, an island to which he gave the fully justified name of Ensomheden, or " Lone
Land/' This dreary ice-bound land has an area of about 80 square miles, terminating
westwards with high cliffs, above which rises a peak 510 feet high. The sands of
the low-lying east shore are strewn with drift- wood stranded here by the current.
This island was probably sighted by Laptyev in 1741.

THE YAKUTS, YTJKAGHIBS, AND CHUVANTZES.

393

ch is strewn
it the great
i distance of
rable masses
Led by others
,re only from
ble from the

rrangell had
spoken, and
A. chart also,
md in these
was arrested
e foimd, and
let by Hayes
I edge of the
listinctly felt
' ended in a
ave no exist-
outlines had
island, which
le illustrious
itry, near the
by Kellett in
I only faintly
Lndetermined,
y Kellett in
of 2,500 feet,
xct volcanoes,
hese islands,
all Land, and
•emains to be
rthem exten-
icircle islands
L the northern
are no exten-
T scarcely any
; geographers,
en discovered,
den, or "Lone
la, terminating
The sands of
y the current.

Inhabitants — The Yakuts, Yukaohirs, and Chuvantzes.

The Buriats are very numerous in the southern parts of the Lena basin. Of
all the natives of Siberia they have best preserved the forms of the old commune,
greatly to the surprise of the Bussian peasantry, amongst whom the influence of
the rnir is far less felt in private life. The poorest Buriat claims the right of bed
and board with the rich, and when an animal goes to the shambles all share alike
in the feast, only the owner helps himself last. Even the iron ornaments worn
by the damsels in their hair are taken without ceremony from the communal smith,
who sells his wares only to strangers. The com harvest is made for the benefit of
all, and all help themselves freely from the common grwaary. Every five or six
years the Buriats of the district join in a common hunting party. Chiefs for the
occasion are chosen, and they form groups of twenty or so to beat the forest ; but
the produce is shared equally amongst all the members of the aba.

But the dominant race in the Lena basin are the Yakuts, whose territory, at
least twice the size of France, comprises a large portion of the Middle Lena basin,
the. banks of this river along its northern course, and the Arctic seaboard between
the Ehatanga Fiord and the Lena delta. They also dwell farther east on the banks
of the Yana, Indigirka, and Eolima, and are found here and there in isolated
groups himdreds of miles from their domain proper. Thus a few Yakut families
reside as far west as the Yenisei below Turukhansk, and their camping grounds
are met in the south-east, even in the Amur basin. Still these northern regions of
Siberia are not their primeval home. They occupied the country about Lake
Baikal when the pressure of the Buriats compelled them to migrate northwards,
and adapt themselves to the rigours of an Arctic climate. Many Tatar names in
the Baikal district still recall their presence there. About the beginning of the
seventeenth century they had to confront other enemies, and the Russian adven-
turers soon forced them to continue their northern movement towards the Frozen
Ocean. In the middle of the eighteenth century they made their appearance for
the first time in the Taimir peninsula, and during the present century they have
reached the banks of the Upper Eolhna. During these migrations, which were
spread over several hundred years, the Yakuts had not only to acclimatize them-
selves, but even to modify their social habits. Formerly a race of pastors and
horsemen, like their Kirghiz kinsmen, they have also had to become fishers, himters,
and reindeer keepers. A few words in their language serve to illustrate the
difference that exists between their old and modem usages.

However, the present Yakuts are not a pure race, and since their first migra*
tions from the shores of Lake Baikal they have become largely intermingled with
the other peoples whom they met in their new homes. They have crossed espe-
cially with the Tunguses, who in many places frequent the same hunting grounds,
and with whom they have constant trading relations. Custom, and even religious
prescription, oblige them to choose their wives outside the family, and in certain
cases even outside the clan. These exogamous habits have thus changed many
Yakut feonilies to genuine Mongolians, while in the Aldan highlands south-east of

mmm

'*MMtHi>.wM wNuwnijiiliHfiMMip

894

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

I&.

Yakutsk they have become Tunguses in features and aspect. Elsewhere they have
been Russified, though the reverse process is of most frequent occurrence, the
Russians who marry Yakut wives gradually becoming assimilated to that race. In
many camping grounds hunters arc met of Slav origin, but of Yakut appearance
and habits. In this case the Tatar prevails over the Russian culture.

According to MiddendorfF the full-blood Yakut has an oval face, with straight
nose, slightly prominent cheek bones, on the whole resembling a Kirghiz much
more than a Mongolian. In height he holds a middle position between the Russian
and Tungus,* and his costume scarcely differs from that of his northern neighbours,
except for a kind of high head-dress like the kalpak of the Kirghiz and Ehivans.
This shaggy covering is evidently modelled on that worn by his ancestors before
separating from their southern kinsmen.

The Yakut language, which has been studied by Bohtlingk, Vamb^ry, and
others, also bears evidence to the relationship of this nation with the different
peoples of TArki or Tatar stock. The Frisian of North Hanover and the Transyl-
vanian Saxon would have greater difficulty in understanding each other than woidd
the Yakut of the Lena and the Osmauli of Anatolia or Constantinople. Doubtless
the Tatars and Yakuts might have some trouble in holding converse together, but
a slight knowledge of the respective grammars would make intercourse easy enough.
The Yakut geographical terminology differs somewhat from that of the Turkestan
people, but the family relationship is unmistakable, and in many cases the nomen-
clature is much alike from the Bosporus to the Lena delta. Ydkutish is extremely
rich in terms denoting the various forms of mountains, forests, watercourses, and
all the features of the earth's surface. The great nimiber of almost synonymous
expressions is even one of the chief difficulties which the Russian finds in learning
this language. Nevertheless many Russians and Tunguses employ Yakutish more
commonly than their mother tongue, and even in Yakutsk, capital of the Russian
rule in the Lena basin, the native speech was twenty years ago the language of
conversation in the salons of many Russian officials. It has no doubt adopted
many Slav terms connected with the bureaucracy and modem technical arts, but
Russian has borrowed even more freely from Yakutish. Thus in speech as well as
in other respects the Yakuts have prevailed over the Slavs, and cases are mentioned
even of the fanlilies of Russian priests who have become Tatarized in language and
usages, retaining nothing of their nationality except their Slav names and religious
practices.

The Yakuts have been called the " Jews of Siberia." They have a genius for
trade, and the Tungus, through his improvidence, has become their prey. The
Yakut is the real owner of the Tungus reindeers, and claims in advance the martens
trapped by the Tungus hunter. But the specidative spirit of the Yakut gets the
bettor not only of the natives, but even of the Cossacks, and several local proverbs
throw ridicule on the absurd attempts of the Russian to drive a bargain with the

^ Mean height of the Rnuiaiu at Yakutak ...... fi-B inches.

„ Yakut* „ fi-7 „

„ Tunguses „ «•* ,.

THE YAKUTS, YUKAOHIES, AND CHUVANTZES.

896

ere they hove
scurrence, the
;hat race. In
it appearance

with straight
Kirghiz much
u the Russian
■n neighbours,

and Khivans.
icestora before

ramb^ry, and
the different
I the Transyl-
ler than would
le. Doubtless
) together, but
io easy enough,
the Turkestan
jes the nomen-
h is extremely
tercourses, and
it synonymous
ids in learning
Yakutish more
of the Bussian
he language of
doubt adopted
inical arts, but
eech as well as
are mentioned
1 language and
s and religious

ye a genius for
sir prey. The
tee the martens
Yakut g^ts the
I local proverbs
irgain with the

6*0 inches.

e-7 „

6-4 .,

Yakut. " Let him be ever so knowing, he is cheated at last," says Uvarovskiy.
Full of confidence in his genius, the Yakut finds no rival in the art of trickery
until he meets the Chinese Dafirians of Transbaikalia. The latter are fully his equals
in caution, cunning, knowledge of mankind, feigned simplicity, skill in touching the
secret springs of vanity, while surpassing him in temperance, love of order, and
thrift. In fact, the Yakut, satisiied with the triumph of the moment, is heedless
of the future, repeating the local saying, " Eat well and grow fat ; you can do no
better ! " While compelled to work he will apply himself with the same diligence
as the Jew or Chinese, enduring hunger and toil vith the resignation of a Tungus,
frightened by no danger, disheartened by no difficulty. But when the time comes
to unbend he lapses into lazy ways with a sottish indifference, indulging especially
in reckless gambling, and risking the fruits of the year, and even of his life, on the
hazard of the die. Ruined by an unlucky throw, he again becomes the skilful
hunter or shrewd dealer, and resumes his wandering life of toil and hardship.

In spite of his shortcomings, the Yakut is the most progressive of all the
inhabitants of Siberia, thanks mainly to his remarkable powers of assimilation. He
adapts himself readily to the surrounding physical conditions and populations.
During the long Arctic nights he sleeps away the time like the white bear buried
in the snows ; but as long as the summer sun shines above the horizon he toils
incessantly. He makes himself as comfortable in the Samoyede tent as in the
Russian hut formed of logs piled one above the other in successive horizontal rows.
Sedentary or nomad according to the exigencies of the situation, he is always ready
to turn to whatever work is required of him. "With the Samoyede or Tungus he
becomes a Samoyede or Tungus, while still preserving in this evolution a natural
genius in virtue of which he takes the foremost place amongst his new associates.
With the Russian he also becomes a Russian, and accommodat«8 himself to bureau-
cratic routine and practices with astonishing facility. In the struggle for existence
this race has not hitherto run any danger of disappearing before the Slav. In
many villages the Yakuts are the most prosperous, and owners of the best-kept
houses, the young Russians gladly coming to them in search of wives. Although
thousands have be'-ome Russified, yet their numbers have more than doubled, if not
increased fourfold, since the begiiming of the century. At that time they are said
to have numbered only 60,000, whereas all recent statistics estimate them at over
200,000. Outside the towns they have preserved their administrative independence,
still living under their toyon, or princes, who are supported by " voluntary contri-
butions."

Under the rude climate of North Siberia the Yakuts cannot everywhere occupy
themselves with agricultural pursuits, but as stock-breeders they have succeeded in
doing what the Russians have not hitherto attempted. They have contrived to
keep their cattle and horses alive in their dwellings beyond the Polar Circle, and do
not fear to go in search of fodder hundreds of miles off. They have even suc-
ceeded in developing a special breed of " milch mares," which yield as much milk
as the cows, and may be milked several times a day. The small breed of horses
they sell to the gold- washers are highly esteemed for their strength and powers of

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

;■

endurance. The Yakuts are flesli-eaters, preferring horse to beef, but are very sparing
of their animals, never killing them except on state occasions. As craftsmen they
are almost imrivalled, and succeed well in all trades. Their manual skill enables
them with the most primitive implements to make all kinds of utensils, and even gold
and silver plated wares and jewellery. They smelt the iron ores, and with the
metal manufacture better instruments than those of the Russian dealers. In Yakutsk
all the artisans, carpenters, joiners, painters, even carvers, are Yakuts. They make
samovars and rifles, and can imitate anything, but with an original faculty. One of
the curiosities of their industry is a species of basket made of osiers, with all the
meshes filled in with clay, and then dipped in cold water to g^ve it a transparent
coating of ice. For more than half the year this basket has thus the appearance of
a crystal vase.

Most of the Yakuts, baptized at least in form, have Russian, Polish, or German
names, though so disguised as to be unrecognisable. The formerly prevalent
female infanticide has disappeared, though the old shamanistic rites have not yet
been quite abandoned. The Yakuts still believe in witchcraft, invoke the good and
conjure the evil spirits. Great changes have doubtless taken place in their habits
since the time of Gmelin's visit in the first half of the eighteenth century, but their
religion has remained substantially the same. The mountain passes are the scene
of the most imposing ceremonies, and here the shaman speaks most earnestly to
the air and water gods, to the " little ancestral stream, the ancient of ages," to the
" mountain grandmother," to the " dwarfs sought on the right in the eight valleys,
and who are suddenly found on the left in the nine mountains." Then he appeals
to the wicked genius : " And thou, Shandai, old as the rocks, do not let us be lag-
gards, strike not our youth, do not wink at us, do not turn thy looks against us,
and hold thy tongue ! " Then the shaman throws spoonfuls of melted butter in
the air in thanksgiving to the gods and to appease the demons, and he ties horse-
hair round the trunks of the trees or to stakes set up on the cliffs. To all their
gods the Yakuts have given Russian names, especially that of St. Nicholas, and to
their demons those of the Russian devils, and thus their pantheon and pandemonium
have become enriched. They also speak of a one God, universal father of all, but
he is too high and too far off to be worshipped by them. He it was who made the
earth, at first small and level, then the evil spirit came and scratched the surface,
tearing it up like a dog, and thus were formed the hills and valleys. The earth
constantly growing in size, the valleys became the beds of rivers and seas, and " the
continents rose amid the waters."

The Dolgana, a few hundred of whom dwell in the forests and northern tundras
between the Pyasina and Ehatanga Rivers, are frequently classed with the Tunguses.
Yet their tjrpe and dialect show that they are Yakuts, like those of the Lena basin,
though diversely intermingled with Tunguses, Samoyedes, and Russians. Owing
to the intervening distance they have long ceased to hold any intercourse with the
other Yakuts, from whom small-pox and typhus seem to have formerly separated
them.

"With the Yakuts Gmelin classes the Tukaghira, whose tents are grouped in a

-i^

THE YAKUTS, YUKAOIIIES, AND CHUVANTZES.

897

( very sparing
'aftsmen they
skill enables
md even gold
and with the
In Yakutsk
They make
alty. One of
with all the
a transparent
appearance of

h, or German
rly prevalent

have not yet

the good and
n their habits
ury, but their

are the scene
t earnestly to
: ages," to the

eight valleys,
Len he appeals

let us be lag-
>ks against us,
sited butter in

he ties horse-
To all their
icholas, and to
pandemonium
;her of all, but
who made the
ed the surface,
rs. The earth
seas, and '* the

rthem tundras
the Tunguses.
he Lena basin,
nans. Owing
iourse with the
lerly separated

) grouped in a

few hamlets in the tundras watered by the rivers Yana, Indigirka, and Kolima ;
but Billings and Middendorff affiliate them to the Tunguses, while Schiefner
regards them as constituting a distinct stock in the midst of the Siberian popula-
tions. Their speech is radically different from all other native idioms, but they are
obviously a very mixed race, and even now readily intenningle with their Siberian

Fig. 206.— Yakutsk.
Aoooiding to Hlddendorff. Soale 1 : 1{I0,000.

SUUcM.

and Russian neighbours. Formerly numerous " as the stars of a clear night," they
are certainly disappearing, and soon nothing will be left of them except their
barrows and the ruins of their log forts. Venyukov estimates them at about 1,600,
other authorities at still less, and the old language is said now to be spoken by no
more than a dozen Yukaghirs. The Chuvantzes, another neighbouring nation,
also very powerful, were reduced in 1860 to 267 souls.

808

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Topography.

Tho scanty population of the Lena basin and northern tundras is almost every-
where scattercfl in villages and hamlets at great distances from each other. With
the exception of Yakutsk, none of these places bearing the name of towns would be
regarded even as villages in more thickly peopled countries. Yet they often occupy
a considerable space, owing to their broad streets, largo squares, courts, and gardens.
But except on feait and market days they are silent and lifeless, and almost
disappear altogether, or become blended in the surrounding scenery, when groimd,
plants, and ^louses are alike burie<l in snow.

Verkho-Lemk, whoso name indicates its position on the Upper Lena, is one of
those administrative villages which have taken the name of town. Inhabited by a
few hundred Russians, and surroiinded by Buriat and Tungus encampments, it is
important only as the first trading station between Irkutsk and Yakutsk, at the
head of the navigation of the Lena. Kireusk, at the confluence of the Kirenga and
Lena, also enjoys some commercial advantage from its position near the portage
connecting the Lena with tho Nijnyaya Tunguska basin. Olokmimk, which in the
moraine deposits of the district possesses the richest auriferous fields in all Siberia,
is even a smaller place than the two preceding " towns." Yet it stands at the issue
of the long valley of the Olokma, which leads by the shortest route from Yakutsk
to the northern bend of the Amur. The distance from this group of eighty huts
to Yakutsk, the nearest town, is 374 miles, and throughout this long waterway
there are nothing but fishing hamlets and inns frequented by the boatmen.

Yakutsk, the " city of the Yakuts," well situated near the left bank of the Lena,
at the point where it approaches nearest to the Pacific Ocean, and not far from tho
Aldan and VilAi junctions, has grown into a real town, especially if account be
taken of the hard struggle man has hero to make with the climate. Doubtless the
two more populous towns of Archangel and Trondhjem lie nearer to the pole, but
the cold is far less intense, nor is the ground constantly frozen in their districts.
With the exception of Verkho-Yansk, Yakutsk is the coldest town in the world,*
with a mean temperature about the same as on the top of Mont Blanc. Yet 6,000
people are permuiently settled here, and thousands of hunters and traders are
temporarily attracted to the place by its fair, at which exchanges in peltries and
provisions are effected to the yearly value of over 1,000,000 roubles. Many of tho
residents, however, such as soldiers, officials, and exiles, remain here against their

* Up to tho present time Yakutsk, in North-east Siberia, has been cited as the place of our earth
where the winter is coldest, while the minima observed during Arctic expeditions are believed to be the
lowest known. Neither the one nor the other is true. Jn Maak's book, '* Olekminski Okrug," I find
many data which prove that the coldest winter as well as tho lowest well-authenticated minima were
observed at Verkho-Yansk, to the north-east of Yakutsk. I give below the minima and mean at some places
cited by Maak : —

Minima (Fohi.)- Mean.

Serdze-Kamen (Nordenskjold) —60-3 f

Yakutsk (Maak) -77-3 12-2

Wiljuisk (Maak) -76-3 f

Werkhojansk (Maak) -810 43

A. Woeikof in A'alme, March 10th, 1881, p. 487.

J li .-t.tiJM L

vMtnni

Imost overy-

thcr. With
vna would be
often occupy
and gardens,
and almost
t^hen ground,

Bna, is one of
ihabited by a
pments, it is
kutsk, at the
Eironga and

the portage
which in the
n all Siberia,
8 at the issue
Tom Yakutsk

eighty huts
ng waterway
inien.

I of the Lena,
; far from the
if account be
Doubtless the
the pole, but
;heir districts.
in the world,*
3. Yet 5,000
d traders arc
1 peltries and
Many of tho
against their

lace of our earth
lelieved to be the
d Okrug," I find
ted minima were
3an at gome places

Mean.
f
12-2
f

4-3
), 1881, p. 487.

BEaiNO PENINSULA, BASIN OP THE ANADIB, AND KAMCHATKA. 809

will. During the reig^ of Nicholas this was one of the chief placcH of baniHhmont
for political oifonders, but since then religious criminals have Ixjcn nioHtly interned
licro.

Vilftisk, the chief place in tho groat valley of the Vilfti, to whicih tho famous
political economist Chemichevsky was banished; Vcrkho-Yamk, on tho Yunu;
Hredne-KoliiDHk, on the Eolima; and iV//«<'-Ab////MA-, foundotl in 1044, on tho sumo
river, are also officially classed as towns. But Biiliin, port of tho Lower Lena, has
not yet been promoted to this rank, while the Oovemmont has deprived of tho title
Jigamk, on the Lena, midway between Yakutsk and Bulun.

VI.— BERING PENINSULA, BASIN OF THE ANADIR, AND

KAMCHATKA.

North-east Siberia and tho Kamchatka peninsula lie in some respects beyond the
Asiatic mainland. These lands are turned towards America, and some of their
inlets are even better known to, and more frequented by, American than by Russian
craft. Various points of the coast about Bering Strait bear English names, given
to them by the New England and Califomian whalers. Some of the local tribes
seem also to be connected rather with the American than tho Asiatic aborigines.
Notwithstanding its political subjection to Russia, this region has remained more
foreign to the Slav world than any other part of Siberia.

The crest of the continental " backbone " is connected only by irregular ridges
and ill-defined plateaux with the highlands of the Chukchi and Kamchadale
territories. The range which best presents the aspect of a regular chain runs east
and west to the south of the Polar Circle, separating the northern affluents of the
Anadir from the Arctic Ocean, and apparently rising in some places to an altitude
of 6,000 feet. The hilly plateau comprised between the two border ranges of
Stanovoi and Verkho- Yansk may, in a general way, be said to terminate west of the
Anadir basin in a sort of elongated ridge with a mean elevation of 2,000 feet, and
with peaks about 3,000 feet high. This is the extreme link in the continental
orographic system, beyond which the heights begin to assiwie an isolated character.
The fiords indenting th9 eastern pprtion of Bering peninsula may be regarded as
tht> remains of straits formerly separating the islands from the mainland. Thus
the Bering peninsula, properly so called, is divided into two secondary peninsulas,
rooted to the continent at a point only 60 miles broad. But the relief of the
whole of this peninsular region is extremely irregular. The Serdze-Kamen, the last
headland on the coast facing northwards, is over 1,000 feet high, while East Cape,
at the northern entrance of Bering Strait, rises to an elevation of 2,350 feet. The
Chukotskoi Nos, projecting into the Pacific over against St. Lawrence Island, has an
altitude of 2,760 feet, and other headlands are stiU higher, culminating with Mount
Makachinga, 8,900 feet, at the northern extremity of Etelkuyum Bay, north side
of the Gulf of Anadir. This is the loftiest eminence in the Old or New World
under the Polar Circle.

mmit

400

ASUTIO RUSSIA.

The mountains connecting the Kumchutku peninsula with the mainland also
form a distinct orographic system. Thoir general direction seems to run parallel
with the last spurs of the Htanovoi ; that is to say, south-west and north-eust. Thus
the range beginning on the west coast in the broadest part of the peninsula skirts
the coast of the Boring Sea us far us the entrance of the Oulf of Anadir. Still this
range should bo regarded mainly ua the border chain of a hilly plateau forming a

c: '

Fig. 206 — VoLCANOM AT Cam Potohotkoii, Sovth of Atacha Bay.
Aooording to the EngUih Admiraltjr Chart, Bm1« 1 : 57lk,000.

^^/^~

eMilra.

western continuation of that of the Upper Anadir, and in many places presenting
the aspect of a veritable steppe. Here are the simimer pasture lands of the
numerous reindeer herds belonging to the Eoriaks. In the Kamchatka peninsula
itself the western highlands commanding the Sea of Okhotsk are more elevated
than those of the east side washed by the Pacific Ocean. But these granite,
porphyry, and palaeozoic schistose crests, forming the ancient backbone of the
peninsula, have been joined by more recent volcanic formations, trachytes, basalts,

• — — ■wwiiimiii

BERINO PENINSUT.A, BASIN OF THE ANADIR. AND KAMCHATKA. 401

lainland also
run purallol
)-cuHt. Thus
linsula Hkirta
r. Still this
lu forming a

368 presenting
lands of the
tka peninsula
more elevated
these granite,
kbone of the
hytes, basalts,

lavas, and scorito, rining to a fur greater elovatii)n than tho other mountains.
Thfso modem cones have indented the east coast with capes and inlets by the lava
streams they have discharged into the sea. Hence, while the coast-line of the
peninsula facing westwards is remarkably uniform, the opposite side is variiMl with
numerous boys and creeks. One of these inlets near the southern extremity of
Kamchatka, the famous Bay of Avaoha, ranks with those of Ilio do Janeiro and
San Francisco as one of the " best harbours in the world."

The Kamchatka volcanoes form a northern continuation of the curved chain of
the Kurile Archipelago, whose convex side, like the similarly disposed chains of
the Philippines, Liu-Khieu, Japan, and the Aleutian group, is turned towards the
Pacific Ocean. Towards the middle of the east coast of Kamchatka two arcs of a
circle converge at a point where are situated the highest and most active volcanoes
of the peninsula. Nearly forty mountains in Kamchatka are of volcanic origin, as
is evident from their conic form, the craters on their crests or flanks, the lava
streams that have been discharged from their crevasses. But of these not more
than twelve still vomit scoriaD, ashes, and vapours.* They culminate with Mount
Kly&chevskoi, which rises near the sea, immediately south of the large valley
traversed by the river Kamchatka. Several rows of terraces and secondary
summits cluster round its base, which is no less than 200 miles in circumference.
The crest, which is fissured in every direction, constantly emits smoke and ashes,
sometimes as often as two or three times a year, and dense volumes of dust have
occasionally been wafted 180 miles over the land. An eruption mentioned by
Krasheninnikov lasted four years, from 1727 to 1731, and that of 1737, which was
far more violent, discharged vast lava streams, melting the glaciers and sweeping
avalanches of ice and water into the surroimding valleys. Another disturbance
took place in 1854 ; but these events, however grand in themselves, being witnessed
only by a few natives or Russian officials, awaken but little attention in the West.

Kamchatka and the neighbouring seas are often agitated by violent earthquakes.
In 1737 a shock is said to have raised the waves to a height of 200 (?) feet, flood-
ing the coast, sweeping away the tents of the natives, and laying bare the bed of
the sea. The northern part of the peninsula, lying beyond the focus formed by the
junction of the curve of the Kuriles with that of the Aleutian Islands, seems to have
suffered much less than the southern districts from these convidsions. But there
are numerous hot springs, both here and in the Bering peninsula, where they form
little rivulets in the centre of the isthmus.

The Anadir is the only river of North-east Siberia comparable in the extent of
its drainage and the length of its course with the larger streams of West Europe.
But flowing partly under the Polar Circle near the verge of forest vegetation, the

* Elevation of the Eamohatka Tolcaiioea : —

ThA.

Klyflchevskoi (sctiTe) 1S,«10

Eor>'akonkiy „ 11,120

Uahkin (extinct) 10,890

Bhevelynch (aotive) . 10,446

Kroaota (extinct) 9,860

Feet.

Kreatov (extinct) 8,770

JupanoT (active) 8,410

Avacha „ 8,210

Great Tolbacha (active) 7,730

Viluohinakiy , 6,990

i«aii*

iiPi^

409

ASIATIC BUSfllA.

land truvorwMl hy it i« mainly a nolitudo. Tho mnall fort of Anadimk, orcctwl at
tho iH'jfinniuK of tho «<ight«M'nth crntiiry um a di>iK)t for tho jH'llry trndo, hud to bo
alNindonotl hy itn RuHMiun ffiirrinon, uftor which it wiin hurnt by tho ('hukchiH. It
{h now roplaccil by four mnull villuf^'H, with a totui |M)pulation of about 200 houIm,
ChuvuntzoN, YukughirH, und CoHMuckN, all N|K<akinK HuNitian, but all living in a
half-mivu^ Htat«. Liko nioHt other rivorH in tho Chukchi and Kunichadulo
tcrritorioH, the Anadir ulN)und8 in finh at tho timo of )uf(h water to nuch un extent
that it MoouiH ono livinfi^ maHM. When tho shoalH of wdnion oocond the utrcamn, they
drive tho water before them liko a moving wall, and they are packed ho cloHoly
toother that they may bo taken by the hand. At times tho water oven ceases to Iw
potable, owing to tho intolerable stonoh and tosto imparted to it from millions of
animals in decomimsition.

Tho river Kamchatka, which gives its name to the peninsula, is less than half
tho length of the Anadir. But flowing much further south through naturally
fertile plains, still more enriched by volcanic debris, it waters some cultivated
tracts, und nearly twenty Eamchudule and Russian villages have sprung up along
its bunks. This is the true Bolchatja Ryeka, or " Greot River" of Euniohutku,
ulthough this title hus been g^von by the Russiuu settlers tu unothor stream, which
flows west to the Sea of Okhotsk, near the extremity of the peuinsula.

Bering Strait and Sea.

The seas which bathe the shores of the north-eastern peninsulas of Siberia are
not deep. If tho coast is here broken into fragments by fiords, struggling, so to
Huy, to become straits, the bed of tho sea is, on the other band, so near the surface
that it may be regarded as almost forming part of the mainland. The shallows
skirting the northern seaboard of Siberia, from the Taimir headlands to Wrongell
Land, are continued to the extremity of Bering peninsula, and beyond the strait
along the coast of North America. The Chidcchis themselves are quite aware that
the two continents are connected by submarine banks, even asserting that they ivere
formerly joined by an isthmus. Two native himters related to Neumann how the
land subsided during a terrific fight between a warrior and a white bear. The
greatest depth reached by the plummet between the two extreme peninsulas of the
Old and New World is less than 32 fathoms, while the mean result of the soundings
in all the Asiatic and American waters comprised between the strait, St. Lawrence
Island, and the Yukon delta falls short of 22 fathoms. The true ocean, with its
profound abysses, begins, on the one hand, north of Wrangell Land ; on the other,
off the Kamchatka coast, between the peninsula and the Aleutian Islands, where a
depression occurs of over 270 fathoms. Still farther south, off the Japanese coast,
the sounding-line plunges into the greatest ascertained depth on the surface of the
globe. Here it registers 27,860 fathoms, whereas in the almost land-locked basin
of tho Sea of Okhotsk it nowhere shows more than 350 fathoms.

Although a mere scratch on the earth's surface, Bering Strait has acquired a
paramount interest in the history of discovery. Yet the first voyage of Dyejnyev

.J Mii i ji. J i Duun -uaa^rHi. ...^

^mmmmm»m0i

BERING STBAIT AND SEA.

orcctod at
[>, hud to Im)
lukchiH. It
t 200 m)u1n,

living iit a
Kuiiiohudulo
oh un extent
troamn, they
cd Ml ch)Hely
I ceases to tw

millions of

DBS than half
gh naturally
le cultivated
ng up along
Kaniuhatku,
ream, which

{ Siberia are
ggling, so to
r the surface
rhe shallows
to Wrangell
•nd the strait
» aware that
»at they i^ere
urn how the
B bear. The
isulas of the
be soundings
it. Lawrence
ean, with its
r)n the other,
ids, where a
panese coast,
rface of the
locked basin

IS acquired a
of Dyejnyev

mmm

l«»ng rriimiiKMl forgotten, and <'lghty yoarn pn^mHl iM'foro now iittrniptH wore nuido
in thiH direction under the iidviee of LeilmitTi. Hering now (MiiiMted tlie |M'ninMulu
named from him, fnmi the (lulf of Anudir to the H(>rdt/e-Kiunen, and in 1741 iigitin
viNittnl th(<Me wutei-N for the pur|M)m) of exploring the American Mcultoard. Ihit on
hiH return he wan 4ti)iwreukeil, and iHtriHhedtm the largcNt iNland of the group from
him naiiKKl the ('wmniduder'M Archi|K)lugo. liiM grave may Mtill \w wrn on Hering
Island, a long ridgt^' n{ high luvn rockH, evidently forming the wcHtern huttrcNH of
the curved bridge of tJie Aloutiuu ihain, thrown by the Alanku volcanocM acnmNthn
water ti> the gr< :>> burning iiMmntain of KlydchevHkoi, in Kamcliatka, CcMtk uIho
nnvigute<i the Horing Seu, and Hurv( ywl all the northern entrance of the Mtrait, but
without pouotratiug to Wrungell Lund. Thc^ waters wore soon after visited by

Fig, 207.— BritiNfl Rba.

to 480
VaUioiiM.

480 town
Fathoms.

980 to 1,440
Fatboou.

1,440 to 1,010
Fathonu.

- aoDMilM.

l,eSO Fatbomt
and npwatdi.

Liitke, Eotzebue, and other illustrious explorers, and later on as many as four
hundred whalers have assembled in these seas. Lastly, MacClure, after traverning
Bering Strait, completed in 1850 the circumnavigation of America, and in 1879
Nordenskjold doubled East Cape, thus showing that by the aid of steam the long-
sought-for " North-East Passage " is practicable.

Forming the central gap in the vast, semicircle stretching for a distance of 24,000
miles, from the Cape of Good Hope to Cape Horn, Bering Strait is naturally one of the
most important oceanic regions in regulating the winds and currents. The winds
arrested on the Asiatic and American continents by plateaux and mountain raug-^s
find a free passage through the strait. The masses of hot air resting on the Pacific,
and the cold atmospheric currents from the pole, here move in opposite directions,
contending for the upper hand. Opposite currents are produced, which, owing

404

ASTATIC RUSSIA.

to their different density, become regularly superimposed, like the draughts felt
on opening the doors between two rooms of different temperature. During the
winter of 1879, passed by him near the northern entrance of Bering Strait,
Nordenskjold ascertained that a glacial wind from the north-west set steadily
along the surface of the water from the Frozen Ocean to the Pacific, while

; ;? J; V.;;;Y Fig. 208.— Bbrino Stkait.

Aooording to Bore. Soale 1 : 1,200,000.

to 10 Fathoms.

10 to in.

90 to ao. 30 Fithonw and npinurda.
ISl

higher up the clouds drifting incessantly northwards p^ved the existence of
an opposite atmospheric current. In the same way two oceanic streams here
meet, though they are imable freely to develop in the confined and shallow
space separating the two continents. The mass of tropical waters flowing from the
South Seas to the North Pacific sets steadily from the Japanese waters towards
Bering Sea, through the numerous openings between the Aleutian Islands. But

■MWt

BEBING STRAIT AND SEA.

400

iraugbts felt
During the

ering Strait,
set steadily

acific, while

being arrested by the submarine banks connecting Asia and America, this stream is
almost entirely again deflected southwards along the North American seaboard.
The cold waters from the Frozen Ocean are also collected at the northern entrance
of the strait, where, in consequence of the rotation of the globe, they deviate towards
the right, following mainly the Asiatic coast above the trough of deeper waters
passing between Bering peninsula and St. I'awrence Island. In another direction

70-

}

mida.

existence of
streams here
and shallow
viag from the
aters towards
[slands. But

mtm

Fig. 209. — CUHBBNTS OF THI BiBINO WaTBHS.
Bokle 1:8,800,000.

Black Flow ftom north to MmUi.

Btrcam flowinv northwarda.
aoOMilea.

some of the tepid water impelled towards the Aleutian Archipelago by the Euro-sivo,
or " Black Stream " of the Japanese, flows northwards through the strait. Thus
Onatzevich detected a smaU current of relatively warm water nmning from East
Cape to the Serdtze-Eamen. Hence, during the short summer which breaks up
the crust between the two worlds, long lines of floating ice are seen drifting south-
wards along the Asiatic coast, whilst smaller masses are carried in the opposite
direction northwards to the American side. None of these floes, however, deserve

-,<;

*"-V«>*C*»*'#*'^»i^**F«<>'^,W«J**«^-«W'i^

" i'i"i'j^!s^«K"^^i'L fijJT- ,'.

400

ASUTIC EUSSIA.

the name of icebergs. The portion below the Burface being on an average seven
times thicker than the portion above it, masses rising more than 16 feet above sea-
level are nccossurily arrested by the submarine banks before reaching the strait.
In the nearly land-locked basins of the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan the waters flow
in a similar manner, every current from the south having its counter-current from
the north.

Climate — Fauna and Flora.

The difference in the climate is reflected in the appearance of the vegetation on
both sides of the strait. While the American coast is wooded to a considerabliB
distance north of Prince of Wales Cape, nothing grows on the Asiatic coast except
mosses and lichens, and in the sheltered nooks a few stunted shrubs. Seen from a
distance, this coast seems quite bare. Here the treeless zone comprises all the
Bering peninsula, the shores of the Gulf of Anadir, and the land as far south as
the neck of the Kamchatka peninsula. But this peninsula itself, although lying
almost entirely bej'ond the isothermal of freezing point, is very wooded, and even
supplies timber for the navy. Its flora includes most of the Siberian trees, larch,
various species of conifers, birch, sorb, poplar, and willow. In the underwood are
several species of berries contributing to the sustenance of the inhabitants, who also
dig for roots and tubers, from some of which they prepare intoxicating drinks. A
pecidiar article of diet is the green bark of the birch mixed with caviar. In some
of the fertile valleys, especially in Kamchatka, the hay often grows 6 or 6 feet
high, and is sometimes mown three times a year by the Russian settlers. But the
irepeated attempts to grow cereals have mostly failed. Although the climate is
equable enough, thanks to the surrounding seas, the fogs and hoar frosts coinciding
with the flowering time have nearly always killed the plants. Oats succeed best,
and some hemp is also cultivated, though not in sufficient quantities to dispense
with the thistle used in the preparation of the Kamchadale nets. Gardening has
succeeded better than the raising of crops, and the cabbage, potato, beet, turnip,
carrot, and other vegetables introduced from Russia in the eighteenth century are
now cultivated in thousands of native gardens. Yet all these sources suppl}' but
a small portion of the food reqwred by the Kamchadales and their dogs, without
which they could scarcely leave their huts in winter. During the four summer
months they have to lay up their stock of dried fish for the rest of the year. Fish
is the regular winter food of the dogs, six of which, forming the usual team of a
sleigh, will consume over one hundred thousand herrings in the cold season. The
family has also to be provided for, and in hard times, when the chase and fishing fail
to supply sufficient store for winter, many perish inevitably. Winter and want are
synonymous terms for most of the natives.

The fauna of North-east Siberia is richer than that of the Arctic regions farther
west. This is probably due to the form of the continent, which, by contracting
towards Bering Strait, brings the animals migrating from the west in contact with
those coming from the south. To these have been added some American species,
such as birds and qitadrupeds crossing the strait on the iqe. The most numerous

Ml" '-1-i.l.

^■f^mmmimmmmmmi

CLIMATE— FAUNA AND FLOEA.

407

verage seven
at above sea-
g the strait,
waters flow
iurrent from

egetation on

considerable

coast except

Seen from a

irises all the

far south as

hough lying

.ed, and even

I trees, larch,

iderwood are

nts, who also

; drinks. A

ar. In some

5 or 6 feet

irs. But the

be climate is

its coinciding

succeed best,

is to dispense

ardening has

beet, turnip,

ii century are

SB supply but

logs, without

four summer

) year. Fish

lal team of a

season. The

id fishing fail

and want are

)gions farther
Y contracting
contact with
rican species,
ost numerous

mammal is the Alpine hare, \^hich will even approach the tents notwithstanding
the haU-famished dogs prowling about. The bear, marmot, weasel, and otter are
also common, and the wild reindeer roams in herds of thousands in the hilly regions
of the Upper Anadir basin. Snakes, frogs, and toads are nowhere met, but the
fauna includes the lizard, which was formerly regarded as an animal of ill omen, and
as the spy of the evil spirits. When seen they were always set upon and cut to
pieces to prevent them from reporting on whom their evil eye had fallen.

Thanks to the relative advantages of its climate, Kamchatka naturally abounds
far more in animal species than the Bering peninsula and the Anadir basin. The
lenmiings {^Myodea torquatim) and other small rodents swarm in coimtless millions,
their hosts crossing rivers, lakes, and even inlets of the sea in straight lines, and
are decimated on the route by shoals of voracious fish. At certain points travellers
have been arrested for hours while these vast armies were marching past. Their
migrations last several months, covering distances of over 600 miles. Thus the
Kamchatka lemmings set out in spring, and after skirting the Gulf of Penjina,
north of the Sea of Okhotsk, reach their summer camping g^unds on the west
coast about the middle of July, and generally get back to Kamchatka in October.
However, the nug^tions are not regular, and, according to Bove, the lemmings of
the Chukchi coast are sedentary and non-gregarious. The Kamchadales are greatly
rejoiced when the animals make no preparations for quitting their winter quarters
at the usual time, anticipating from this symptom a good season and abundance of
everything. The industrious and provident lemmings store up their supplies of
com and roots in large underground depots, which they are said to cover with
poisonous herbs when setting out, in order to protect them from the depredations
of other species of rodents. Such, at least, is the statement of Krasheuiuuikov,
who, however, does not vouch for its truth. In hard times the Kamchadales draw
from these storehouses, but never fail to replace what they have taken with caviar
or fish, in order not to drive these beneficent purveyors to despair.

Many animal species have been reduced in numbers since the Russian hunters
have begun the systematic work of extermination in these regions. The bearers of
valuable furs, sables, ermines, gluttons, foxes, are now seldom met, and many hunt-
ing stations have been abandoned since the disappearance of the game. But in
Kamchatka from 6,000 to 9,000 sables are yearly taken and exported to Russia by
American traders settled at Petropavlosk and on the Okhotsk coast. The various
species of foxes were so plentiful in the eighteenth century that though driven
from the Kamchadale tents with blows of sticks, they would still return to share
the meal with the dogs. But now they have become very scarce, and the costly
blue species is said to have been replaced by one bearing a white fur of little value.

The work of extermination has been even more thorough in the seas, from which
some species have disappeared altogether. Till the middle of the present century
the whales were met in most abundance in the Bering waters, which were visited by
hundreds of American whalers, especially from New Bedford and other New Eng-
land ports. But these waters, like those of Spitzbergen and other parts of the Atlantic,
are now frequented only by a few stray specimens, and none at all arc said to be

mmm

-- — " '-"i-r' i - i i^^r , '-*'^r'-tf» i TT^iii r r i mliti ' i n n i ji u i m ii' M i

408

ASIATIC EUS8IA.

found west of Serdtze-Kamen. The Bea-otters, whose fur is very valuable, are no
longer met on the shores of Bering Island, where Steller and his associates killed
700 of these animals during the eight months of their residence there. The sea-
lion ( Otaria SMleri), formidable in appearance, but really a timid creature, is only
met here and there on a few isolated spots, though formerly abounding in these
waters. The great sea-cow also, which bore a striking resemblance to the lamentin
of the Caribbean Sea, and which was so called by certain naturalists, has been
completely exterminated. Seen for the first time by Steller in 1741, the last
specimens are supposed to have been killed about 1780. In the middle of the
eighteenth century this huge monster, 28 to 30 feet long and weighing over 3 tons,
was abundant enough to supply food for all the inhabitants of Kamchatka ; but its
range was limited by the Commander's Archipelago, where the bed of the sea was
covered with forests of algae growing 80 to 100 feet high, and forming their chief
grazing grounds. Being thus confined to a restricted area, the whole species was
destroyed in less than half a century.

The sea-bear (^Otaria uraina) was also threatened with speedy extinction, when
an American Company owning the Pribilov Islands obtained from the Russian
Government the exclusive right to hunt this animal in the Bering waters for a tax
of two roubles for each capture. A village of 300 Aleutians from Atcha Island
has been built by the company on the north-west side of Bering Island, which was
uninhabited till then. Reared in herds almost Uke domestic animals, and protected
from indiscriminate slaughter, the sea-bears have multiplied prodigioiisly during
the last twenty years, and whereas formerly the hunt never yielded more than
3,200 in the whole of the Aleutian and Commander's Archipelagos, from 12,000
to 13,000 are now annually killed in Bering Island alone. These animals have the
sense of property developed to a remarkable degree. Each head of a family, con-
sisting of from 100 to 150 members, selects some camping ground on the rocks,
and immediately attacks the first stranger who attempts to encroach in his
domain. Spectators assemble from all quarters, and generally end by taking part
in the fight, which thus often rages over spaces several hundred yards in extent.
The male is very tender and watchfid, but also very irritable, and should a female
let her little one fall, he bangs bar against the rocks and knocks her about immerci-
fully. But the quarrel is soon over, and followed by much mutual weeping.

Inhabitants — ^The Chukchis.

Being almost exclusively fishers, hunters, or pastors, all the inhabitants of the
Bering peninsula, of Kamchatka and neighbouring islands, regulate their pursuit
entirely according to the climatic conditions, almost everywhere changp!ng their
dress, diet, dwellings, and camping grounds with the seasons. The Chukchis, or
Chailktus — that is to say, " Men " * — who are the most numerous nation in north-
east Siberia, follow their reindeer herds over the whole of the Bering peninsula, the

* But Hooper (" Ten Months among the Tents of the Toski ") says that their real name is nuki;
that is, •' Brothers," or " ConfiBdeiates.

fsasssfp?

jwmf-

•-,.' Xi^K^'MmS!,:^

luable, are no
sociatca killed
ire. The sea-
tature, is only
ding in these
> the lamentin
ists, has been
741, the last
middle of the
igover 3 tons,
latka ; but its
){ the sea was
ng their chief
le species was

inction, when
1 the Russian
iters for a tax
Atcha Island
id, which was
and protected
^oiisly during
Bd more than
, from 12,000
mals have the
a family, con-
on the rocks,
croauh in his
»y taking part
rds in extent,
lould a female
bout immerci-
eeping.

bitants of the
their pursuit
lang^g their
I ChuKchis, or
tion in north-
peninsula, the

1 nameia Tiuki;

-~4t-

THE CHUKCHT8.

409

Anadir busin, and beyond the last spurs of the Stanovoi, in the tundras watered by
the rivers Eolima and Indigirka. The limits of their territory south of the
Yukaghir country were fixed in 1869 by an imperial decree. But although their
domain thua comprises altogether about 320,000 square miles, it contains a popula-
tion of not more than 12,000. Bove, of the Nordenskjold expedition, estimates the
Chukchis themselves at from 3,000 to 6,000 only ; but he made no extensive incur-
sions into the interior, and was acquainted with the coast tribes alone. lie traces
them originally to the Amur basin, while Neunmnn brings them from the northern
parts of the New World.

The Chukchi type is that of the round-headed Mongolian, with broad, fiat
features and high cheek bones. The nose is often so deeply embedded between the
puffed cheeks that a ruler might be placed across the face without touching it.
The lips are thick, and the black hair falling over a low brow renders it still lower
in appearance The Chukchis have a strong neck, vigorous muscles, fine and
delicate extremities, and are mostly of low size, though some of tall stature are met.
They have, on the whole, a decided physical resemblance to the American Eskimo,
and by means of these two nations the transition is imperceptibly effected between
the aborigines of the Old and New World. From the Red Skins to the Yakuts
and Buriats, constant interminglings have produced all the intermediate links,
bringing the relationship closer and closer, although the languages still present
fundamental differences. Some of the Chukchis perfectly resemble the Dakotah
Indians, while the obvious analogy of type between them and the Eskimo, their
common usages and implements like those of the stone age in Europe and America,
have induced some anthropologists to suppose that these two sub- Arctic peoples are
the survivors of a prehistoric race, gradually driven northwards by pressure from
the south. Thus their ancestors would have to be sought not in their present
domain, but in the southern regions where the vestiges are still found of arts and
industries analogous to their own.

However this may be, the present Chukchis do not look like a people in decay,
but hold their own well amongst the other natives of the Siberian seaboard. Their
relations with the Slavs are of too slight a character to make the Russian rule much
felt, and many of them are even unaware of the existence of the " White Czar,"
who is spoken of with such awe and respect by the Mongolians of the Chinese
frontier. Owing to their contact with the American whalers they are better
acquainted with the United States than with Russia, and many English words have
been introduced into their language. They pay the yataak in fox or other skins,
and understand that this tax passes from hand to hand to the feet of a great
potentate enthroned in Irkutsk; but they do not know that this chief is the
servant of one more powerful still.

The Chukchi nation^ is naturally divided into two distinct groups, the inland
and the coast people, differing not only in habits and pursuits, but even in speech.
Those of the tundras, living on the flesh and milk of their reindeer, are generally
more comfortable than the fishing tribes, although even amongst the latter great
disparity of fortunes often prevails. According to Bove there are still herds of

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

from 20,000 to 30,000 bclonf^ing to ono person, while Krasheninnikov speaks of
Koriuk <!liiofH owners of us inuny ns 100,000 reindeer. The reindeer pastors are
conNtuntly on the move, migrating across the tundras for hundreds of miles between
the rivers Kolima and Anadir. From these roaming habits they have developed a
remarkable talent for tracing charts of the country on the ground. Many travellers
speak with admiration of these plans, by the help of which they have often been
enabled to traverse the wilderness with perfect confidence. The herdsmen have
olso the faculty of gaining the attachment of their herds. They gononiUy despise
the fishing tribes, who are more sedentary, less brave and careful of their personal
appearance, and also much poorer than the reindeer Chukchis, from whom they
are obliged to beg for hides to make their tents and garments. The two g^eat
divisions may possibly even belong to distinct races, for they differ both in typo
and speech. The fisher is more exposed to the risk of hunger during winter, and
is compelled to be more provident in laying in supplies. lie dries the fish, and
collects the sprouts of the dwarf willow ond of several other plants, which, after
being fermented and then frozen, supply him with a winter salad ond soup. He
also digs for various roots and tubers, and the old women remove from the stomach
of the reindeer the still undigested green stuff, which, as with the Eskimo, forms
one of their most keenly relished dishes. But the staple of their food is fish. The
smell of the seal oil used for heating and lighting purposes contributes to render
life amongst them almost intolerable to Europeans.

The Chukchis were formerly a warlike and conquering people. They fought
valiantly against the Russians, and when they at last consented to enter into com-
mercial relations with them, they presented their wares on the point of the spear.
Even recently the Onkilon nation, dwelling on the coast about Cape North, has been
expelled by the Chukchis. Nordenskjold saw an abandoned villag^e belonging to
the vanquished tribe, the survivors from which hod fled to the south of Bering
Strait, near the Anadir delta, and ore known to most Russian writers under the
name of Ankoli or NamoUo. They are distinguished by their agglutinant
language from the surrounding Chukchi tribes, who, according to Bove, speak a
dialect of Mongolian orig^. The Chukchis wore cuirasses of whole-skin or other
armour of wood and ivory like that of the Japanese, but have laid all this aside
with their warlike habits. At present they are the most peaceful people in the
world, devotedly attached to each other, full of kindly feeling and good-humour
under all their trials, and extremely gentle in their fomily relotions. They no
longer kill off the old people, as formerly required by filial devotion, in order thus
to spare them the inevitable struggle with cold and hunger. According to
Onatzevich most of the old men now make away with themselves to relieve their
children from the pain of having to give the fatal blow. In 1848 Hooper met a
young man who hod just dispatched his mother at her own request, and whose
obedience had been approved by all.

Having become Christians and "civilised" by their intercourse with the
American whalers, the Chukchis have given up some of their old rites ; but they
still bum their dead, or expose them on platforms to bo devoured by the ravens.

"im !P<i|!y>jn!»

mm mm§j,! ?n '

■ SLlLAk

» iMimmmmmmi

mmnimMmm'

THE OHUKCHIS.

411

kov speaks of
or pastors are
miles between
■c developed a
any travellers
ve often been
erdsmen have
icrally despise
their personal
n whom they
'he two great
both in typo
ig winter, and
) the fish, and
I, which, after
ud Boup. He
n the stomach
Eskimo, forms
1 is fish. The
utes to render

They fought

ater into com-

; of the spear.

orth, has been

belonging to

ith of Bering

tors under the

r agglutinant

Bove, speak a

s-skin or other

all this aside

people in the

good-humour

>ns. They no

, in order thus

According to

to relieve their

Hooper met a

est, and whose

arse with the
•ites ; but they
by the ravens.

They also sacrifice animals to the genii of the hills, rivers, and hot springs, and
purchase two or more wives when rich enough in reindeer to justify this exj)enHive
luxury. Thanks to the women, who set up the tnnts, drcHs the food, span the
reindeer, the men are able to devote themselves cxcluHivcly to fishing, hunting, and
trade. But although apparently slaves, the women are the real musters. The
children are treated with great kindness, are earn" ' about by father and mother
alternately, and never allowed to suffer from cold or ..unger. They are so wrapped
in skins as to resemble a round ball crossed by a bar, their outstretchcU arms being
unable to hang down the sides of their packing-cases.

The Chukchis seem to have been influenced by the Tunguses more than by any
other Siberian people. The costume of both is alike in cut and ornamental details,
and many Chukchi women are tattooed in Tungus fashion with two black-blue
convex lines running from the eye to the chin, and serving as a stem for a rich
floriated design ramifying towards nose and mouth. Amongst others the pattern
is reversed, the primary lines from temple to chin following the anterior swelling
of the cheek, with circles and other curves branching to the lobe of the ear. Since
they have been baptized some of the men have the chin painted with a Latin cross
in black, which replaces the tooth of the sea-horse thrust by their forefathers
through the cheek, and regarded as the most highly prized ornament by the
warriors. A rude representation of fighting or hunting exploits is also tattooed on
the breast. The search made by Nordenskjold and his associates amongst the old
kitchen refuse of the Chukchis has led to the discovery of ornaments and utensils
of stone, bone, or fish and mammoth teeth. The resemblance between most of these
objects and those in use amongst the Oreenlanders is complete, the coincidence
being too great to be accounted for by the like surroundings. Hence they must be
regarded as the result of commercial relations carried on from tribe to tribe from
the Bering peninsula through the Eskimo country to Ijabrador and Greenland. In
the same way the TArki word for boat or skiff has passed imder the form of kayak,
on the one hand, from the Yakuts to the Chukchis, and so on to the Eskimo and
Greenlander ; on the other, through the Osmanli Turks, to the elegant caique of the
Bosporus, whence it has been transmitted under Spanish influence to the cayuco of
the American aborigines.

As forming the mediiun of trade between Siberia and America, the Chukchis
seem to have been formerly very powerful on the coasts of Bering Strait. They
held the foremost position amongst the Eskimo and other traders, who met for
barter especially in one of the Diomede or Ovozdeva group, in the middle of the
strait. But the commercial supremacy has now passed to the Americans, who
have supplied the Chukchis with iron instruments to replace those of stone or bone,
and who have brought them into relation with the industrial world. American
implements and fishing gear, revolvers and breech-loaders, have already found their
way to the strait, accompanied, unfortunately, by the fatal brandy, for a small gloss
of which adulterated stuff the Chukchis will eagerly exchange all the produce of
the chase and fisheries. But when sober they scarcely yield to their Yakut neigh-
bours in driving a bargain.

-r^ammyr.

412

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Since the almvo wa8 pas8od throuf^h the press Mr. W. )i. Dull, of the United
Stiitos CouHt Hurvoy, has communicutcd a letter to the Proceetlingn of the Royal
Gfograp/iical Socu'ti/ for September, 1H81, in which he nrgucs aji^uinst Lieutenant
Nordqvist, of the Vcfin expedition, that the Chukchis arc simply a branch of the
Koriak race. The Chukchi peuiuHulu, ho writes, " is inhabited by two races who
live in intimate commercial union, but who {mssess radically different languages,
who do not intermarry, and whoso modes of life are for the most part perfectly
distiiK't. They communicuto with each other, and with the whalers ond traders, by
means of an ungrummutical jargon composed of words of both languages, and this
jargon, being written down by travellers as the real language of the people, has l)een
the main agent in producing the present confusion." The two races in question are
the Eskimo and the Koriaks. The Eskimo, settled exclusively on the coast, are
comparatively recent arrivals from the opposite shores of America, and call them-
selves Yuit — that is, " People " — a contracted form of the American Eskimo word
Innuit. ' They occupy a far more extensive strip of territory than is usually sup-
posed. " The supposition that the Innuit race are only found west and south of

Cape Chukotski is erroneous The East Cape village is essentially an Innuit

settlement, though it may contain some Eorak (Koriak) residents. I suspect that
they extend much farther to the westward on the North Siberian coast, but of this
I have only the evidence of intelligent whalers and troders, fi!{ch as Captains Rad-
fiold, Owen, Smith, and Herendeon, who have had ten or liftoen years' experience
with them, and who all clearly recognise the racial distinctions."

The rest of the seaboard and all the interior are peopled with " roving bands
belonging to different branches of the Eorak, or Eoriak nation, who are distin-
guished by different names, as Deer Koraks, Dog Eoraks, Chukches, Keindeer
Men, Wandering Chukches, &c. They all speak dialects of the Eorak

TONGUE, and chiefly depend upon the reindeer f >i their subsistence It being

remembered that the Eorak people inhabit the whole of the interior, that some of
them are almost always present in the Innuit villages on commercial or other busi-
ness, and accompany the parties of Innuit who board the whnlers and traders for
barter, that each locality has both a Eorak and Innuit name, and that the jargon
of both languages is the means of commimication, it will be realised how great the
difficulty is for a transient visitor to disentangle.

" We learn from Erman that the so-called ' Chukchis ' in the west of the penin-
Bula call themselves Tsau-chu. At Plover Bay I ascertained that those in that
vicinity call themselves Taau-t/tt (plural, Tmu-ya-at). According to Stimpson,
those of Semavini Strait call themselves Tsau- (or Tbu\ ^«tn, whence the word
Chukche might easily be derived. Those of St. Lawrence Bay call themselves
Taau-ga ; and on the north coast, according to Nordqvist, they call themselves
' Chau-chau ' (plural -ate), which I suspect to be merely a rendering of the term
given by Erman." To this it may bo added that, according to Hooper,* the true
form of the word is Tuiiki, which means " Brothers," or " Confederates."

• " Ten Montha among the TenU of the Toaki."

SnWBtlBMMM

ssrmmsam

THE KORIAKS AND K

IADALES.

413

f tho United
of the Royal
it Lioutonant
3ranch of tho
ivo races who
nt languagcn,
lurt porfpctly
id tiwlerH, by
if^H, and thia
>ple, baa l>een
1 question are
the coast, are
id call them-
Eskimo word

I usually Bup-
and south of
illy an Innuit
[ suspect that
)t, but of this
'aptains Rod-
pa' exjwrionce

roving bands
bo are distin-
ties, Reindeer

THE KoRAK

. . . It being
that some of
or other buai-
id traders for
at the jargon
low great the

of the penin-
those in that
to Stimpson.
ace the word

II themselves
U themselves
^ of the term
per,* the true

Thk Koriaka and Kam 'r\m>i.iHi.

Tho Chukchi ethnical domain seems to strclcli 'vond the> ait to the Aincricnn
mainland, while, on the other hand, some EHkinio criininuuiii. < m-i m <l on the
Asiatic side, at least if the Ankali or NamoUos belong, as is goncrnl]} ^ ikisocI. N .
this stock. Tho Koriaks, who dwell south of tho Anadir basin, iilxm ho neck •> f
tho Kamchatka peninsula, in the Ponjina valley, and on tho north- <;t coaHi <«i
the 8ca of Okhotsk, seem to bo related to the Chukchis, and speak a 'lialcet clo^ety
resembling theirs. Estimated at over 5,000, they are divided, like the Chukchis,
into settled fishing tribes and nomad reindeer keepers and hunters. The southern
limit of their territory in Kamchatka is the village of Tigil, on tho river Syedonka,
where they go once a year to barter with the Kamchadales and Russians. Tigil is
the commercial centre of the west coast of the peninsula.

Travellers do not speak very highly of the sedentary Koriaks, who live mostly
on the northern bays of the Sed of Okhotsk. Ooscendcd from ruined nomads
deprived of their reindeer herds, their only resource is fishing and ' trade with
foreign sailors and Russian dealers. From the former they have acquired drunken
and dissipated habits, from the latter lying and thievish propensities. They are
eaten up by vice and squalor, and are probably the most degraded of all Siberian
tribes. But the Koriak nomads, still owning numerous reindeer herds, accustomed
to a free and independent life, and with the full consciousness of their equality, do
not yield to the Tunguses in intelligence, uprightness, natural dignity, and manly
bearing. They recognise neither government nor outward laws, the owner of even
a dozen reindeer being a master and " law unto himself." Tho families are gene-
rally associated in groups of sixes or nnvens, forming small commonwealths, in
which all have an equal voice, and join or leave at pleasure. The Layon, as the
wealthiest member of the community is usually called, is generally consulterl by the
rest on the choice of a camping ground, or on the best time for breaking up, but he has
no personal authority. In other respects the Koriak nomads are the most obliging
and hospitable of Siberians, and in their domestic relations the best of husbands
and fathers. During two years and a half's residence amongst them Kennan
never saw a Koriak nomad beat any of his family. They also treat their animals
very gently, and so attached are they to their herds that they will refuse to soil a
live reindeer to strangers at any price. Even for their own use they abstain from
killing them except under severe pressure, and they are consequently, in a relative
sense, the largest owners of reindeer in Siberia.

In their habits the Koriaks naturally show points of contact with the Chukchis
and Kamchadales, between whom they live, and with whom they have frequent
trading relations. They have also great confidence in their shamans, able conjurers
who perform the most surprising tricks in the open air. The Koriaks offer sacri-
fices to the evil spirits, considering it useless to propitiate the favourable deities.
The heads of the victims are stuck on stones facing the rising sun. Like fhe
Kamchadales, they are obliged to earn their wives by working one or more years
under the father-in-law's roof. Till the wedding-day, brought about by a feigned

imm

414

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

nlMluctioii, tho l)otroth«l in guanhnl by vigilant duonnan, wh<» drivo off the too
imjM)rtuimto suitor with tliongH, whipn, and Mtickn. Tho ciwtom ntill prt^vuiU of
killing tho ugwl and wickly in order to Hpuro thoni protrac^tinl Hutforingn. All
KoriakH regard tlwH kind of doath m tho natural ond of their cxiMtenee, and when
the tinio neeniHat hand they prem!ril)c tho manner in which thoy dewire thin Muprcmo
proof of filial affliction to Ihj carrie<l out. Homo prefer stoning, while others ch«x)no
the axe or knife. All young Koriakft practim) tho art of giving the fatal blow in
Hueh a way an to inflict tho least puin on the vii^tim. Immediately after death tho
body is burnt, no tliat the spirit may escupo into tho air. At the time of Krashenin-
nikov's viHit infanticide was common, and of twins ono was always sacrifice<l.

A number of the Koriaks have hitherto contrived to completely maintain their
independence, and do not oven jwy tho tribute to tho Ilussiau officials. No other
Hilwrian iMJople have struggled ho manfully to preserve their freedom from the llus-
sians. In their warfare with tho Cossacks they always proved tho most fonnidable
of adversaries, because they had really " made u bargain with death." When they
found themselves surrounded by enemies too numerous and too well anned to bo
overcome, thoy took an oath to " lose tho sun," slaughtered their women and chil-
dren to save them from slavery or torture, bunit all thoy jwssossod, then rushed
into tho midst of tho carnage. No (me thought of flying, all fighting to tho last,
and falling side by side amidst heaps of tho slain.

The Kamchadalos, or Itelmen, by tho Koriaks called Koichalo, probably owe
their Russian name to that of the river Kamchatka, which has also become that of
tho whole peninsula. They are quite distinct, both from tho Chukchis and
Koriaks, and evidently belong to another stock, although under like climatic
conditions all these peoples have adopted analogous habits. They are generally
smaller than the Koriaks, whom they otherwise resemble in their round, broad
features, prominent cheek bones, small deep-set eyes, flat nose, black hair, swarthy
complexion. Their language, which is very guttural, differs in its syntax from
that of the Koriaks, and is composed of unchangeable roots, whose senfle is modified
by prefixes. But this pecidiar idiom is rapidly disappearing, like the race itself.
In certain places, and especially in the valley of the Kamchatka River, the popula-
tion has become almost thoroughly Russified, and the old speech is here no longer
current. Having become " orthodox " Christians, and diversely intermingled by
marriage with the Russian settlers, the Kamohadales are becoming gradually
absorbed in their masters, and the national type has even been effaced. The
Kuriles, as those of the south are called, have not yet entirely lost their native
speech, and those of the Penjina valley are the least Slavonized of the native tribes,
their language having adopted but few Russian elements.

The number of still remaining full-blood Kamchadales is estimated at about
3,000. They are mostly of a remarkably gentle disposition, and very honest,
except in the villages, where, by dint of cheating them, the Russians have taught
them deceitful habits. Their house is open winter and summer to all comers, they
never weary of being usefid, and soon forget injuries, preserving an astonishing
equanimity of temperament in the midjst of much suffering and ill-treatment.

'Wmsmm

iiei

iMiliiil

TIIK K0RIAK8 AND KAMCIIADALES.

418

off the too
provuiU of
•riiif^H. All
», imd when
liJH Huprcme
thors ohtmHO
itul blow in
)r dooth tho
KntHheiun>
ficcd,

iutuin their
No other
)m the IluH*
. fonniduble
When they
tnned to be
on and chiU
then rusbod
' to tho luHt,

robably owe
oino that of
lukcbis and
ke climatic
re generally
ound, brood
air, swarthy
lyntax from
) is modified
race itself,
the popula-
te no longer
■mingled by
^ gradually
aced. The
their native
lotive tribes,

Before tho arrival of the IluHNiuuN they were their own muNterN, but the oppri'MMion
of the HrHt eonciuerorn drove them to rvM in ll'M and 1740. Hinee then,
however, they have ubundoued ull thoughtri of reMiNtance, iin<l the luuiilileNt
reproHentative of authority {h now reeeivinl with a renjM'ct lM)rd«>riiig t)n veneration.
I'l'e-umiueutly connervative in all their wuyH, they never al>undou a truck onoo laid

Fi|. 'iio.— AvAciu B4T.
§tii» I I tw,ooo^

OtoSFatboaM. 6 to 18 Vktbonu. 18 VkthanM and «pinui4«.

ed at about
rery honest,
have taught
iomers, they
astonishing
1-treatment.

down by their fathers until it has been trodden into an absolutely impassable rut.
There is nothing of the heroic temperament of the Eoriaks about them, and the
burden of their plaintive songs, which seem to have been inspired by the moumfid
cry of certain sea-birds, is not the warlike deeds of their forefathers, but the
humbler themes of love, labour, sleighing trips, hunting and .fishing expeditions.
In their imitative dances they mimic the movements of animals with wonderful

ssst

416

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

skill, bounding like the reindeer, trotting off like the fox, and even plunging into
the water and swimming like the seal. Their old religions practices have been
discontinued, though the report is still occasionally heard of a dog sacrificed here
and there to the evil spirits, who scare away the fish and the game. Many
ceremonies, which were formerly religious acts, have gradually become dramatic
entertainments, and their superstitions are scarcely any longer to be distinguished
from those of the Slav, Finn, Manchu, or other inhabitants of Siberia.

But for their dogs, the life of the Kamchadales would have to b ^ completely
modified during the eight winter months. These animals, which are wolfish in
appearance, size, fur, and even voice, seek their food in simimer along the river
banks and in the forests. But with the first snow-flakes they return faithfully to
their master's balngan. In courage and power of enduring hardships and hunger
they are surpassed by no other animal. They have been known at times to drag
the sleigh for forty-eight hours at a stretch without any food beyond the bits of
leather torn from their harness. A team of eleven dogs will generally make from
36 to 48 miles a day, yoked to a sleigh carrying one man and a load of 450 lbs.,
and some have covered twice and even thrice the distance in the same time.
During the long winter months, when the rivers are ice-bound and the sea wrapped
in fogs or tossed by storms, social intercourse between the Kamchadale villages is
kept up entirely by the dogs. But for them almost every family group would find
itself blocked up in its underground dwelling during that season.

Topography.

In the vast region comprising the Chukchi and Kamchatka peninsulas no large
centres of population have been developed. Nevertheless, Petropavlovsk, although
no larger than a small European town, had recently taken rank as an important
stronghold. Lying on the east coast of the magnificent Avacha Bay, this capital
is completely sheltered from all winds, and large vessels may lie at anchor close in
shore. In more favourable latitudes, and near populous lands, it might become one
of the great emporiums of the world. But since the whale fisheries of the
surrounding seas have lost their importance, and the peltry trade has been mono-
polijied by a few dealers, Petropavlovsk has been greatly reduced, its population
rapidly falling from about 1,000 to 500. The skins of the sea-bear taken in the
Commander's Archipelago are forwarded by the American Company from this
port to San Francisco, where they are dressed for the market. This capital of
Kamchatka is proud of its monimients, erected to the two illustrious navigators,
Bering and La Perouse, whose names still survive, one in that of the strait flowing
between the two worlds, the other in that of the channel connecting the Seas of
Okhotsk and Japan. The old fortifications of Petropavlovsk, now laid out in
grass-^jlots and flower beds, recall the defeat of the Anglo- French, who during
the Crimean war attacked this Kamchadale village at the extremity of the Old
World.

)lunging into
;8 have been
icrificed here
ame. Many
me dramatic
listing^shed

> completely
'e wolfish in
ag the river
faithfully to
i and hunger
mes to drag
1 the bits of
y make from
of 460 lbs.,
same time,
sea wrapped
Le villages is
p would find

lias no large
sk, although
m important
, this capital
hor close in
i become one
eries of the
been mono-
s population
aken in the
y from this
lis capital of
3 navigators,
trait flowing
the Seas of
laid out in
who during
r of the Old

mmmmmmmmm

STANOVOI HIGHLANDS, AMUB BASIN, EUSSIAN MANCHUKIA. 417

VII.— STANOVOI HIGHLANDS, AMUR BASIN, RUSSIAN MANCHURIA.

Of all the geograpL .cal divisions of Siberia, that of the Amur basin and neighbour-
ing coast lands seems destined to the greatest political future. Washed by the
Sea of Japan, projecting southwards between China and Corea, and bordering on
China itself in the neighbourhood of the " Great Wall " formerly raised as a
barrier against the northern barbarians, the valleys of the Amur and of its southern
affluents, together with the coast of Russian Manchuria, represent in the extreme
east the military strength of a nation of 100,000,000 soids. Here also is the only
strip of vast Russian seaboard bordering on a sea which is freely open for nearly
the whole year to the oceanic waters. The vessels sailing from the Manchurian
ports have no Bosporus or Sund to pass through, nor are they ice-bound, like
those of Archangel, for some ijight months in the year. Although lying under the
same parallels as the Provence and Catalonian shores, the inner bays of Possiet and
Peter the Great are doubtless blocked by ice in the heart of winter. But this
circiunstance scarcely impairs the aggressive power of their fleets, which in any
case might winter in some friendly port farther south. What Russian Manchuria
wants before it can acquire the political ascendancy claimed for it by Russia is a
civilised population, enriched by agriculture, trade, and industry. Meanwhile
these regions have not increased in population a^ rapidly as Russian patriotism had
expected ; highways of communication are still lacking — distance has not yet been
overcome. The line connecting Vladivostok with Eronstadt exists rather in theory
than in reality, for the chain of Russian towns and cultivated lands intended one
day to connect them is still interrupted by broad gaps throughout its eastern
section. Nor is it likely to be rapidly completed, for most of the Amur basin is
occupied with rugged highlands, lakes, and swamps, and here there are even many
tracts still altogether imexplored. la Asia the Czar may still be said to possess
little more than the framework of an empire.

The heights, hills, mountains, and plateaux limiting the Amur basin on the
north form collectively one of those little-known regions which are still vaguely
figured on our maps by the process of connecting together the already explored
sections by means of shadowy crests sketched at random. The winding range
traced from the Transbaikal plateau to the Chukchi peninsula for a distance of over
2,400 miles is in reality nothing more than a " Great Divide." Hence Middendorff
proposes to call it the Stanovoi Vodorazdyel, or " Main Water-parting," instead
of the Stanovoi Khrebet, or "Dorsal Chain," as it has hitherto been wrongly
named. We know how greatly the watersheds may differ from mountain ranges,
which in many places are crossed by them at right angles. A slight protuberance,
the mere shifting of a rock, the damming up of a morass with decayed vegetation,
or a dense growth of reeds will at times suffice to change the dividing line between
two areas of drainage, whereas the direction of the main ranges is laid down for
ages by the great disturbances, foldings, fractures, or upheavals that have taken
place in past geological epochs on the earth's crust. These ranges themselves are
doubtless modified from age to age under the action of the various terrestrial and

418

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

atmospheric agencies ; but their axis remains none the less imchangcd. It reveals
it«elf by the underground rocks wherever the mountain has disappeared ; it is con-
tinued beneath the watercourses crossing it from side to side ; its presence is even
conjectured under brood marine inlets. According to Nycrchinsk, the conventional
frontier between China and Russian Siberia was intended to run along the crest of
the Btanovoi ; but this was never anything more than a fictitious limit. Natural
frontiers are not formed by hypsometrical lines, but by distinct climatic, animal,
and vegetable zones. On the southern slopes of the Stanovoi, as well as in the

Fig. 211. — Platbaux ikND IIiohlandb or Eabt 8iBUtu.
fSwle 1 : 81,800,000.

□

Lowland*

above
(SOOFeet.

Plaiiuftoiii LowPlateav, High Flutean,
BOO to 9Jimto abore

1,000 Feet 8,000 Feet. 8,000 Feet.

•>—— >.^^— aooiUka.

Border
Bengca.

Aipiaa

Lena basin, the hillsides and the low-lying tracts are alike covered with conifers,
mosses, and lichens. Hence this properly forms part of the reindeer domain.
Notwithstanding the treaties the "Reindeer Tunguses" roamed south of the
Stanovoi to the neighbourhood of the Amur, ot least 4° beyond the conventional
frontier. On the other hand, the valleys of the Zieya, Bureya, and other effluents
of the main stream offer vast pasture lands far more suited for horse-breeding than
for reindeer herding. Habits and culture are here accordingly modified. In these
grazing grounds live the " Horse Tunguses," a sedentary people averse to the visits
of their nomad kinsmen, and who formerly paid the tribute regularly to the

THE STANOVOI UPLANDS- THE TABLONOI EANOE.

419

It reveals
I ; it is con-
Bnce is even
conventional
the crest of
t. Natural
itic, animal,
1 as in the

th conifers,
let domain,
luth of the
onventional
ler affluents
)eding than
. In these
to the visits
irly to the

Chinese authorities. But the Chinese Government had set up the frontier land-
marks, not in the forests of the Stanovoi uplands, but at the confluence of the rivers
about the natural limits of the prairie region between the Ilorso and Heindccr
Tuug^ses.

The Stanovoi Uplands — The Yablonoi Range.

The explorations of Middendorff, Schwartz, Ustoltzev, Eropotkin, and others
have clearly shown that the Stanovoi does not follow the winding course given to
it by the early travellers. The highland masses forming the " backbone " of East
Siberia consist rather of a broad tableland intersected by ridges running parallel
in some places, in others at slightly converging angles. The whole of the Mongo-
lian plateau, from the Eoso-gol to the Great Eingan, forms the common base above
which rise the various crests conventionally grouped on the maps as more or less
winding mountain ranges. These uplands run mainly towards the north-east, in
which direction they gradually contract. The rivers, also, which rise between the
various ridges of the plateau rim at first in the same general direction from the
south-west to the north-east, or from the north-east to the south-west, and then
make their way through the mountain gorges either towards the Lena and Amur,
or else directly to the Arctic Ocean and Sea of Okhotsk. The chains rising east of
the Stanovoi transversely to the Amur, and still farther east along the Pacific
seaboard, belong to the same orog^raphic system, and follow the same general north-
eastei'ly direction.

The highland region stretching south of Lake Baikal is limited towards the
Chinese frontier by the highest section of the Stanovoi, known to the inhabitants
of Dafiria as the Tablonocoi Khrebet, or " Apple Mountains," probably from their
crab-apple groves. They form a continuation of the Eentei of the Mongolians,
but are in reality 'merely the edge of a plateau, and present the appearance of
mountains only on their east side, above the Ingoda and Chilka. The western route,
connecting Lake Baikal with Chita, rises to the summit of the Tablonovoi by an easy
ascent, along which a railway might be constructed, and which terminates east-
wards in lakes and swamps. The upper portion of the frontier range consists of
granitic and palaeozoic rocks covered with conifers, and strewn on their summit
with chaotic masses of granite boulders. The rain, which falls abundantly on the
summits, immediately disappears between these blocks, flowing under the rocks and
the roots of the trees to the foot of the hills, where the imderground rivulets
reappear and expand into broad morasses, rendering the approach to the uplands
very difficult for travellers. These Tablonovoi crests are developed with great
uniformity, nowhere presenting the romantic aspect of limestone ranges. Their
vegetation is also equally monotonous, the sombre foliage of the pine forests being
varied only by the lighter tints of the birch.

The Sokhondo, or Chokhondo range, rising south of the Tablonovoi, near the
Mongolian frontier, is commanded by the culminating point of the whole system.
This granite mass raises its double-crested summit above a terrace strewn with
huge boulders, and containing two lakes in which are collected the melting snows.

■m

420

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

In summer a few patches of snow still lodge on the upper slopes of the Sokhondo ;
but the loftiest peak, although 12,000 feet high, does not reach the snow-line.
None even of the northernmost Stanovoi crests are covered throughout the
summer, although the Sokhondo receives a great quantity of snow in winter, and
is nearly always enveloped in mists. The Tunguses and Buriats regard it as a
formidable divinity, doubtless because of its generally cloud-capped and threatening
aspect. Few of their hunters even venture io approach its stormy slopes.

The Da6rian Plateau.

The range beginning with the Sokhondo nms, like the Yablonovoi, north-east-
wards to the plateau of the Yitim, while the chains follow the same direction
towards the confluence of the Shilka and Argun. The Adon-cholon, one of these
chains, which rises from the foggy plains as if from the midst of the deep, is
limited at its southern base by a region which may be regarded as a fragment of
the Gobi in Russian territory. This is the plateau known to the Slav colonists as
the " Da(lrian Steppes : " not that they bear any resemblance to the lowland plains
of the Dnieper and Aralo-Caspian basin, but because of their barren slopes and
brackish waters. They were formerly crossed from the Stanovoi to the Khingan
by an earthen rampart, the remains of which are still visible here and there. It is
said to have been raised by Jenghis Ehan to protect the settled populations from
the incursions of the nomads. This steppe region, which has a mean elevation of
from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, is separated from the river Onon, the main branch of the
Shilka, by vast pine forests, which arrest the moist winds. Hence the steppe itself
is extremely dry, in many places lacking sufiicie;i.t moisture to support the peonies,
aconites, and lilies which impart such a charm to the Nyerchinsk steppe. In some
districts water occurs only at intervals of 9 or 10 miles, and all the lakes on the
plateau are brackish, with here and there incrustations of salt or magnesia, which
looks like recently fallen snow around their shores. The Torei, one of these basins,
is usually figured on the maps as a double lake with an intervening strip of land.
But the larger of these two reservoirs, although some 400 square miles in extent,
is frequently dry, as when visited by Pallas in 1772, and again by Radde in 1856.
An old channel connecting the two lakes, and the water-marks still visible round
the shores of the numerous islands, are evidence of the far greater abundance of
water in this basin in former times. At present the Dzun-tarei, the smaller of the
two reservoirs, which is thoroughly saturated with salt and surrounded by a growth
of reddish plants, is much reduced in size, while the Barun-tard, the larger of the
two, is merely a collection of stagnant pools, beds of salt, and vast reedy tracts,
whence the Mongolian name of the Russian station Ehulussutai (Ulussutai), or
" Reed Town."

The surface of the Da(^rian steppes is in several places thickly strewn with
small pebbles of white quartz, jaspar, or agate, coming from the disintegration of
the neighbouring rocks. Still there is a scant growth of grass sufficient to attract
flocks of a few species of gregarious animals. This is the only part of Daiiria

PdHH

HMK

mmm

Sokhondo ;

snow-lino,
ighout the
winter, and
ard it as a
threatening

north-east-
le direction
me of these
the deep, is
Fragment of
colonists as
rland plains

slopes and
be Ehingau
here. It is
lations from
elevation of
■anch of the
jteppe itself
the peonies,
i. In some
akes on the
lesia, which
hese basins,
rip of land.
)s in extent,
de in 1856.
isible round
)undance of
laller of the
)y a growth
irger of the
eedy tracts,

ussutai), or

strewn with

tegration of

t to attract

of DaClria

TFE DAtTEIAN PLATEAU.

421

where the antelope guituroaa is met, and this country is also visited by the tiger,
and by numerous herds of the jaggetai, or wild horse, no doubt allied to the Equus
Prjetahky, a new species recently discovered and killed by hunters sent from
Zaisan.* The Cossacks have hitherto failed to tame these magnificent animals, as
the Chinese of the Hoang-ho have done. But tlie natives eagerly hunt them for
their flesh and for their skin, and especially their tails, which are sold to the Mon-
golians, and by them used as a universal remedy for all the diseases to which their
domestic animals are subject. Wild beasts are constantly migrating northwards
across the Da(^rian steppes, which accounts for the quantities of game here annually
met by the hunter. On the other side of the Amur analogous movements take
place, also caused by the changes of climate. The wild goats are always able to
foresee severe winters, and especially heavy falls of snow, when they migrate in
great numbers to the right bank of the Amur. In 1867, when the forests of
Bureya were suddenly buried under large quantities of snow, they passed into
Manchuria at a time when the Amur was already full of floating ice. Taking
refuge on these floes, the animals, exhausted by fatigue, fell an easy prey to the
inhabitants of the stanitzas. From the skins of these wild goats are made the
dakha, or pelisses, imiversally worn in Siberia, always with the hairy side out, as a
protection against the cold, and especially the wind.

The Daftrian ranges skirting the desert are destitute of vegetation on their
southern slopes, in this respect resembling the Altai, the Tian-shan, and even some
regions of the Caucasus. The moisture necessary for forest vegetation is m* 'ntained
better on the shaded than on the sunny sid( of these ranges. The fires kindled by
the graziers in the spring of the year are also much more destructive on the escarp-
ments facing southwards, where the dry grasses and brushwood bum to the top
unhindered by the snows. But north of Bafiria and the Shilka ravine the Stanovoi
crests are equally wooded on both sides. Here the humidity is everywhere suffi-
cient to support almost impenetrable forests, thanks to the fens and quagmires,
the remains of old lakes which formerly washed the foot of these moimtains. But
above the forest zone there rise greyish g^nite crests, furrowed here and there by
deep fissures. These are the bare ridges which have caused the Cossacks to apply
the name of Qoltzi, or " Naked Rocks," to the Stanovoi and all the East Siberian
highlands.

North of the Amur the chief sections of the Stanovoi rise between the Zyeya
and Aldan basins. Here several peaks are over 2,300 feet high, although none of
them attain the elevation of the Sokhondo. Copious streams and rivers flow from
their flanks towards the Amur, the Lena, and various direct affluents of the Pacific.
Beyond the marshy plateau separating the Aldan and Ud basins, the ridg^, which is
much steeper on the side facing the Sea of Okhotsk than on that turned landwards,
takes the name of Aldan or Jugjur, but none of iU crests are much more than
3,250 feet. Tet, notwithstanding this slight elevation, this section of the main

* The tknll and ikin of one of thete animali, now in the St. Fetenbnrg Academy of Boienoea, have been
examined by M. Poliakoff, who, in a memoir pnblished in Match, 1881, by the St. Petenburg Qeo-
gnphioal Society, dieonaMa the idalioni of thia new apecica to the domeatic hoiae.

''''"'^"•"^':-';'^''i^'£ d ^^^'K''^>'^i?*^'f*t t*^:'^-i^:y' ^"^''^"■W'^rr ''

422

ASUTIO BUSSU.

range is one of the ricbest in geological formationa, granites, gneiss, and porphyries
being here covered with old schists, und in some places even by Jurassic rocks.
Towards the north, where it approaches the recent Verkho-.Yunsk formations, the
Aldun range aboimds in coal-fields, while basalts and trachytes occur in the neigh-
bourhood of the Sea of Okhotsk, over against the volcanic peninsula of Kamchatka.
The lead, iron, gold, and silver ores that have here been discovered could not fail
to develop a large mining industry but for the severity of the climate.

West of Okhotsk and north of the depression, followed by the route from
Yakutsk to the coast, is situated Mount Kapitan, so called by the Tunguses cither
in honour of some Russian captain, or possibly as the " Captain " of all this high-
land region. It marks the northern limits of the larch, and the beginning of the
zone of lichens and reindeer moss. Yet there are no glaciers, and the crests are
oven completely iree of snow, although these Stanovoi Moimtains overlook valleys
which are entirely filled with permanent ice. This remarkable contrast between
the uplands and lowlands affords a striking illustration of the great difference in
atmospheric pressure, snow and rain fall, and direction of the winds prevailing in
Europe and Asia. The snows swept by the winds from neighbouring heights are
banked up at the foot of the " Captain " in crevasses seldom lit up by the sun,
where they are gradually converted into extensive ice-fields. Even the streams
and rivulets of the neighbouring valleys freeze as they flow over their crystalline
surface. These low-lying ice-covered tracts are the natural resort of the reindeer,
which here find a refuge from the mosquitoes.

East of the Stanovoi another chain rising in Manchu terntory, and variously
named by Chinese, Mongolians, Golds, and Russians, runs south-west and south-
east, terminating south of the Sea of Okhotsk in headlands indented by deep inlets,
and continued seawards by the Shantar Archipelago. This Da(is8-alin range has
received from Middendorff the name of the Bureya Mountains, from the large
affluent of the Amur which flows westwards parallel with the ridge. The Russians
usually call it the "Little Ehingan." The forests covering its slopes belong to a
different vegetable domain from that of the rest of Siberia. The oak, unknown in.
the Lena and Yenesei valleys, prevails in many parts of the Bureya highlands, and
on the whole deciduous trees are more common than the evergreen conifers. Here
also begins the domain of the tiger, which haunts the thickets, and is known to the
natives as the " lordly beast."

All the region bounded on the west by the Usuri and Lower Amur is occupied
as far as the coast by hills and mountains, usually known collectively as the
" Manchu Highlands." It forms a plateau divided into innumerable sections, and '
rising eastwards to a coast range, which presents its steepest sides to the Sea of
Japan. Like the Aldan lidge, which it resembles in its elevation, bare crests, wooded
slopes, and general north-easterly direction, the Manchu or Sikhota-alin system is
crossed by but few pa{>se8, while the swamps and forests of the western slopes
g^reatly impede the communications between the IJsuri valley and the sea-coast.
But in the south a large depression, in which the rain-waters are collected, enables
the great Lake Ehanka to communicate with the Sai'f (in coast stream, north of the

THE AMUB RIVEE SYSTEM.

4S8

. porphyriei
rusaic rocks,
nations, the
i the neigh-
Kamchatka,
uld not fail

route from
guses either
il this high-
ning of the
le crests are
look valleys
ast between
lifference in
revailing in
heights are
by the sun,
the streams
r crystalline
he reindeer,

id variously
and south-
deep inlets,
n range has
n the large
le Russians
belong to a
mknown in
:hlauds, and
lers. Here
Down to the

is occupied
vely as the
eotions, and

the Sea of
ests, wooded
in system is
tstem slopes
le sea-coast,
ted, enables
lorth of the

Gulf of Peter the Great. The Sikhota-ulin has often been rcproscntcd as partially
of volcanic origin, and basalt streamN have been described an having flowed from
the assumed craters of the range down to the Struit of Tatary, hero forming steep
headlands from 400 to 600 feet above the sea. Rut the volcanoes supposed to
have been seen near Costiies Bay seem to bo nothing but sedentary sandstone
rocks.*

The Amvr River Svhtem

Of the four great Siberian rivers the Amur, although draining the smallest
area, promises one day to become the most important water highway. In this
respect, however, it is still far inferior to the rivers uf the Ob basin, where all the
riverain towns already communicate with each other by means of a regular and
frequent steam service. While the Ob, Yenesei, and Lena flow south and north
across the line of migration from east to west, and discharge their waters into the
Frozen Ocean, the Amur winds mainly west and east, in the direction of the great
historic routes, and disembogues in a sea open to navigation for the greater part of
the year. Few other rivers have to traverse a greater number of rocky barriers in
their gradual descent seawards. Rising on the Daiirian plateau, it has first to pierce
the eastern escarpments of this region in order to reach the plains of its middle
course, which ara still about 2,000 feet above sea-lovel. It then flows through a gap
in the Little Ehingan rang^ down to the lower plains separated by the Sikhota-alin
hills from the sea. Even after forcing its way through this barrier to the ocean it
is still confronted by the island of Sakhalin, dividing its channel into two branches,
one of which flows round the north end of the island, while the other penetrates south-
wards into the Gulf of Tatary. Equal in volume to the three other great rivers
of North Siberia, the Amur at all times occupied a position of paramount impor-
tance as an historic highway. It was the route followed by the Mongolians,
Manchus, and all migrating peoples from the east of Asia, and it has now become
the continuation of the South Siberian overland route, pursued in an opposite
direction by the Russian conquerors and colonists. The lower course of the Amur
thus completes the natural highway, which begins some 6,000 miles farther west,
at the mouth of the Neva. The regions traversed by it have the further advantage
of lying in a more temperate climate than the rest of Siberia. Some of its southern
affluents even rise in the Chinese Empire under the 40th parallel, and consequently
much nearer to the equator than to the pole.

More than half of the Amur basin being comprised in the still imperfectly

explored regions of Mongolia and Manchuria, it is impossible to form a correct

estimate of the area of the lands draining through this channel to the Pacific.

They are roughly estimated at from 800,000 to 820,000 square miles, or about four

times the surface of France. If the Eerulen, or Eurulun, be included in this

* Chief elevatioiia of the Stanovoi, Bureyn, and Manohn highlands : —

Feet. TMt.

Sokhondo (Msoording to Radde) . . , . 8,170 Kapitan FkM 4,175

StanoToi, between the Aldan and Zyeya . 6,810 L«gar-a<kl (Bnreya range) 3,32ft

Mean height of the Aldan ridge. . . , 2,915 Mean height of the Silchota-alin . . . 2,016

Mount Kiipi: an 4,200 Mount Oaloya, its higheit peak . . . . 5,690

; '■:

424

ASIATIC BU88IA.

baflin, to which, however, it belongs intermittently, the Amur, from its farthest
Hourco to the im, will have a totol length of 3,000 miles. The Kurulun riues on
the southern h1oi)c»' of the Kcntoi Muuntuins, a Mongolian continuation of the
" Apple " range, and after skirting on the north one of the terraces of the Gobi
(lest'rt, discharges '?'to the Dalai. This " Holy Sea " — for such is the meaning of
the word — also receives the Ursdn, an emissary of Lake Biiir-nor. But these
affluents from the desert contribute but a small quantity of water, most of which is
lost by evaporation in the lacustrine reservoir. Ilento the turbid and sluggish
Dalai-gol, the outlet of the lake, is a narrow stream, which, however, is soon
enlarged by the rapid Khailar, the true head-stream of the Argun. During the
spring freshets of this torrent, which rises in the upper valleys of the Great
Khin^lMttdttiK"' '^ portion of its waters flows back to the Dalai-gol, and through it
to I^akc Dalai, whence large shoals of flsh penetrate through the Argun into
Russian territory. Thus, although the " Holy Sea " is situated in Mongolia, the
Russian 'ishcrs indirectly benefit by the abundance of its animal life, of which the
Mongoliuns themselves make no use.

After its junction with the Dalai-gol the Khailar takes the name of Argun, and
flows north-east parallel with the various Stanovoi ridges, and along the political
frontier of China and Russia to its confluence with the Shilka. The latter river
lies mostly within Russian territory, although the Onon, which, with the Ing^oda,
is itH chief aflluent, rises in Mongolia, and enters Russian DaAria after skirting the
southern base of the Sokhondo. The united Argun and Shilka form the Amur
[)roper, but it is not easy to say which should be regarded as the main head-stream.
The Argun has the lor'^er course, while the Shilka, flowing through a moister
region, has probably a larger volume, and its waters are less charged with sedi-
mentary matter. Historically also the Shilka is the more important of the two, for
on it the Cossacks embarked in their repeated attempts to obtain a footing on the
banks of the Amur, or maintain their settlement in this valley previous to its final
conquest by Muraviov in 1853. In the south the Mongols, ever in the saddle, take
the road across the ringing steppe, while the Russians ascend and descend the water
highways, and the Shilka, navigable throughout its lower course, offered them a
direct route eastwards beyond the Ehingan Mountains. The Tunguses of the
Shilka also apply this .lame to all the lower stream below the confluence of the
Argtm. The name Amur itself is of unknown origin, being derived by some from
the Giliak words Ya-mur — that is, " Great River " — ^while ^thers regard it as a
modification of Mamu, the name current amongst the natives along its lower course.
Others, again, suppose that the first Russian invaders, encamped at Albazin on the
little river Emuri, gradually extended the name of Emur or Amur to the whole
region, and to the river watered by it. However this may be, each of the nations
settled in its valley gives it a different name. For the Golds it is the Mango ; for
the Yakuts the Kara-turan, or " Black River ; " for the Manchus the Sakhalin-ula,
or " Blackwater ; " for the Chinese the Helong-kiang, or '/ River of the Black
Dragon," doubtless in reference to the dark colour of its waters.

At the Stryelka ferry, where the two head-streams meet, the Amur is already

mmsgrnmimm

THE SUNOABI AND U8UEI RIVERS.

425

its farthest
lun riHeii on
tion of the
f the Gobi
meaning of
But these
of which is
nd sluggish
for, is soon
During the
I the Great
[ through it
Argun into
ongolia, the
if which the

Argun, and
the political
s latter river
the Ingoda,
skirting the
n the Amur
bead-stream,
h a moister
i with sedi-
the two, for
)ting on the
18 to its final
saddle, take
ad the water
jred them a
puses of the
lence of the
y some from
ipard it as a
ower course.
)azin on the
the whole
the nations
Mango; for
akhalin-ula,
the Black

T is already

from 20 to 24 feet deep, with a breadth of nearly 540 yards. Narrowing between
the spurs of the Grout Khingun and the Hide ridges of the Stuiiovoi, it trends
eastwards through a series of defiloH, beyond which it flows to the Houth-oust along
the base of the volcanic Ilkuri-ulin range. Lower down oxtensivo pluiits, comjmrod
by Middondorff to the pruiries of the New World, stretch along both its bunks, but
especially on the left between the Zyeya and Buityu affluents. But inNtnud of
being covered with grasses, they are clotbeil for vust distances with thickets of
dwarf ouks, hazels, and other bushy growths. Like the American prairies, they
yield excellent crops wherever cleared.

Like those of the other great Siberian rivers, the right bank of the Amur has
normally a higher mean elevation than the left. After receiving the Bureya the
Amur pierces the Little Khingan range through a defile 100 miles long, and
grander than that of the Rhine between Bingen and Coblentz, though lacking the
charm imparted by riverain towns, cultivated slopes, and craggy heights covered
with ruined or restored castles. No regular highway has yet been laid down
through this ravine, where the beaten path is under water during the floods.
Hence horsemen wishing to cross the Bureya range are obliged to turn aside from
the Amur and make their way through the forest", in order to avoid the headlands,
often several hundred yawls high, projecting into the deep waters of the river.
Beyond the defile, which runs north and south, the Amur ag^in turns eastwards,
and then north-eastwards, thus following the impulse given to it by the great
Sungari or Euen-tong affluent, which the Chinese regard as the main stream. Like
the Ob-Irtish, the Yenisei- Angara and the Argun-Shilka, or Amur, the Sungari is
formed by the junction of two rivers nearly equal in volume, the Upper Sungari
and the Nonyi.

The Sungari and Usuri Rivrrs.

The Simgari is really the main branch of this fluvial system, if not in length
and volume, at least in the direction of its valley, which runs parallel to the
Ehingon, the Manchu Mountains, and generally to the axis of all North-east Asia.
At the confluence the turbid waters of the Sungpari, now of a greenish, now of a
milky hue, occupy about two-thirds of the common bed. Above the confluence the
Amur and its tributaries are subject to great vicissitudes, and fall rapidly in
Bununer, a circumstance which shows tiiat t^.; highlands of the upper basin are not
elevated enough to bear any larg^ qimiitities of perpetiud snow. The streams from
the melting snow-fields are insufficiejit to maintain the normal level of the river
during the dry season, so that at this time the navigation is much endangered by
the rapids. The mountains enclosing the Sungari basin are not sufficiently known
to estimate the importance of the contributions from their melting snows. But it
is probable that the Shan-alin, or " White Mountains," forming the eastern limit
of the basin, reach the line of perpetual snow, as is indeed indicated by their name,
and thus contribute to increase the annual inundations. But the floodings of the
Sungari and other East Siberian streams are due mainly to the rains brought by
the summer monsoons, which blow from the north-east towards the Mongolian

iWBJi- «■

426

ASIATIC BUSSU.

plutoaux. Hclow tho confluence tho Amur then aMumo* the aspect of an inland
80U. Itn iHlunilM (iiNipi)Ottr, and all itH runiifiuationit fur u diHtunco of 10 or 12 miles
are blondod in u Hin^lu Htreum. VilluguH ure Hwept away, with the very bunks on
which th(<y nUnA, and whole forests ure upr(M)tcd und curried along with the
current. Hinco tho colonisation of the Lower Amur by tho Ilussiuus it bus boon

found necessary frequently to shift the sites of the stanitzos to higher ground, less
exposed to the action of the stream.

Nevertheless the question of a more systematic settlement of the Amur regions,
chiefly by communities of Slav origin, is now engag^g the serious attention of the
authorities. Since the ratification of the treaty with China, settling the Eidja
frontier, the Amur basin has naturally acquired fresh importance, and the Russian
Government, it is expected, will soon bring forward a comprehensive scheme of
colonisation in a country which holds out far brighter prospects to the peasantry
than many of the bleak and arid steppe lands of European Russia. Projects havo

THE 8UN0AB1 AND ITStJRl BIVERS.

427

if ail inland

or 12 milot

ry banka on

ig with the

it bus boon

• Vs.

ground, lesd

mur regions,
sntion of the
g the Eulja
the Bussiim
re scheme of
he peasantry
'rojocts havo

already boon didcuMod and partly adopted, which arc culouluttHl to ouc()uri.gu whole-
sale immigration by the promine of |)ecuniary aid and free gruntn of good land
along the fertile bunlcH of the Amur and its numorouH tributarivM.

Flowing entirely within Chinese territory, the Hunguri InilongH hiHtorically nnd
socially to a very ditferent world from that of the Amur. Wliilo the latter HowchI
till recently beyond the domain of cultured natiouH, und until the llusHian conquest
Wis navigated only by the boats of the Tungusos and Golds, the Hungari waters u
basin studded with numerous cities, traversed in various dirt>ctionN by regular
highways of communication, and covered with extensive cultivated tracts. The
basin of the Amur proper throughout its course is little more than an unex-
plored wilderness, while dense populations are crowded in the districts above Hian-
sin, on the Middle Hungari. Although forming part of the same hydrographio
basin, the valleys of the Amur and Sungari have diilerent and oven hostile centres
of attraction. On the Amur the current of migration and trade flows west and
east from Irkutsk to Ehabarovka and the I'acific seaboard, whereas the teeming
populations of the Sungari turn southwards towards Mukden, I'ekin, und the
Yellow Sea. There is littlo communication between the Chinese Sungari and the
Russian possessions, and it was with difficulty that Maximovich, Usoltzev, Kro-
potkin, and Ehilkovskiy penetrated from that river into the Celestial Empire.

But the Usuri, which next to the Sungari is the chief affluent of the Lower
Amur, belongs henceforth to the Russian world. Chosen in 1860 os the limit
between the two empires, this river flows south-west and north-east between the
two parallel crests of the Shan-alin and Sikhota-alin, and its valley bus become the
military and trade route leading from the Amur to the southern ports of Russian
Manchuria. The Usuri takes this name only in its middle course below all the
upper tributaries. One of these, the Sungucha, flows from Hn " inland sea," for
such is the meaning of the Chinese word Ehan-kai (Han-hai), which has been
modified by the Russians to Ehanka, or Ehinka. This great lake, whoso mean area
exceeds 1,200 square miles, must, notwithstanding its name, be regarded as merely
a permanent flooding, for its depth seems nowhere to be more than 32 feet, while
in many places there are scarcely 12 inches of water at half a mile from the shore.
But during the summer monsoons, which bring such a quantity of moisture to the
Lower Amur region, the Ehanka overflows far and wide, flooding the surroimding
low-lying tracts, and for the time becoming a veritable " inland sea." In its
normal state it is divided into two parts, the " Great " and the " Little " Lake,
separated from each other by a perfectly regular strip of sand, which is rounded off
towards the north in such a way us to form an exact continuation of the curve of
the shore running east and west. This geometrical formation, which resembles so
many others of analogous form on the Pacific seaboard, is a rare phenomenon in
inland basins of small extent, which are mostly sheltered from the winds, while the
winds themselves seldom blow regularly from the same quarter. But Lake Ehanka
is completely exposed to the southern winds, which prevail during a g^reat part of
the year. Thus is formed on the surface of the basin a regular swell setting north-
wards, and developing the curved outline of the shore. Lake Ehanka abounds in

428

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

fish. During the early years of the Russian occupation the TJsuri also was rich in
every sort of fish, especially carp, sterlet, and salmon. In fording the channels by
which it communicates with the lake, travellers took them with the hand by the
dozen, and in some places they were so numerous that the dull murmur of their fins
WPS heard from the shore.

The Lower Amur and its Delta.

After receiving the TJsuri the Amur flows altogether in Bussian territory. It
is still joined on both sides by important tributaries, which, however, seem to add
iiitio to its volume. Ramifying into various branches enclosing grassy islands, it
winds along its broad valley, at intervals impinging against the foot of the hills
which skirt its right bank. Its course is fringed by lakes and extensive miu-shes,

Fig. 213.— Isthmus of Eizi.
Scale 1 : 900,00a

to 10 Fathoms.

10 Fatlioiiia and npwardi.
— ^^— - 84 Miles.

especially on its left side, and these serve to receive its overflow during the floods.
The Kizi, one of these lakes, occupies east of the river a great part of a transverse
depression which runs in the direction of the Gulf of Castries. Heie the valley of
the Lower Amur resembles in its form that of the Lower Danube, which runs
towards the Isthmus of Kustenje, as if to fall directly into the Black Sea, but which,
nevertheless, takes a siidden bend at right angles to the west, and then to the north
round the peninsula of the Dobruja. In the same way the Amur, although half
filling the Isthmus of Kizi by a lateral discharge, deflects its main channel north-
wards to a point where it at laot finds an opening to the Pacific. Lake Kizi itself
is only 2 feet deep in winter at low water, rising during the summer floods to
nearly 10 feet. A low ridge 10 miles broad separates the lake from the coaat ; but
the native canoes are able to utilise the small river Taba flowing from this ridge,
whereby the portage between the two slopes is reduced to little over a mile. Since

THE LOWER AMUE AND ITS DELTA.

429

was rich in

i channels hy

hand by the

r of their fins

territory. It
, seem to add
Bsy islands, it
it of the hills
isive marshes,

1857 the engineer Bomanov has been surveying this portage with a view to the
construction of a railway 30 miles long, by which travellers would be enabled to
avoid a detour of 300 miles by the dangerous mouth of the Amur. But such an
undertaking will be of little use so long as the local Russian settlements remain in
their present undeveloped state. In 1878 there was not oven a good carriage road
across the isthmus.

After being deflected northwards the Amur still communicates right and left
with several lakes, which recall an epoch when the river sought a more direct
outlet seawards. In this part of its course the Amur is, so to say, still incomplete.
Its waters forma labyrinth of swift currents, sluggish channels and lakes, constituting
a sort of debatable ground between the river and the sea. Here the large river
Amgun, flowing from the Bureya Moim tains, joins it in a sort of inner delta, whero

Fi^. 214. — MnvTHB OF TRB Amuh.

AfleanUqg to the Admiraly Chut, 1868.

Soale 1 : 740,000.

OtoSiFatboms.

ag the floods.

a transverse

the valley of

which runs

a, but which,

to the north

Ithough half

lannel north-

ce Kizi itself

ner floods to

le coast ; but

m this ridge,

mile. Since

S| Fathonut and upwaids.
ISHJlm.

the currents are displaced with every freshet, thus incessantly changing the fonn
of the islands and sand-banks. Near the Giliak village of Tir, over against this
delta of the .Amgun, there stands a cliff on the right bank, on which have been
erected throe columns of marble, porphyry, and granite, covered with Mongolian
inscriptions. They mark the limits of the empire under the Yoan dynasty, when
China was subject to the Mongolians, towards the end of the thirteenth and. during
the fourteenth century. On Remozov's chart, published in the seventeenth cen-
tury, a town is indicated at this spot as marking the limits of Alexander the Great's
conquests, who " buried his arms and left a tower here." Such was at that time
the tradition of the Cossacks. In any case the cliff of T!r is well situated as the
frontier landmark of an empire, for immediately below it the Amur bends towards
the north-east, and then eastwards, in search of the gap through which it discharges

.j ! fliiiL>i"m

■■•N

L forms the

THE MANCHURIAN SEABOABD.

481

I is occupied
I with every

storm, and through which the pilots thread their way sounding-lino in hand. These
difBcidties at the entrance, combined with the annual frosts which close the mouth
of the Amur for six months, are the groat obstacles to trade, and partly neutralise
the advantages presented by the river and its affluents, which have a total navigable
woterwoy estimated ot upwards of 6,000 miles. In the lacustrine labyrinth of the
lower course, which is still but little known, the navigation is extremely dangerous
in rough weather. In a single storm over forty Russian craft laden with com were
wrecked, and most of the supplies for Nikolayevsk and the posts on the Usuri
swallowed up.

The Manchuriax Seaboard.

North of the Amur lagoon a few streams, rising in the hilly region bounded
north-west by the Stanovoi and south-east by the continuation of the Bureya
Moimtains, flow to the fiords of the Sea of Okhotsk. Facing these inlets are the
numerous islands of the mountainous Shantar Archipelago. In another climate, or
in the neighbourhood of well-peopled coast lands, these islands would have a great
commercial and strategic importance, as sheltering the inner bays and their innu-
merable creeks. But amid the cold fogs of the Sea of Okhotsk all these excellent
havens are utilised only by a few local fishermen. On the more favoured southern
seaboard stretching south of the Amur the Russians must seek for harbours capable
of entering into commercial relations with the whole world. This is the secret of
the diplomatic activity displayed by. them to obtain in 1868 a joint right with the
Chinese to all the coast region between the Amur and Corea, and then to acquire
its exclusive possession in 1860.

Even the rocky seaboard facing Sakhalin possesses a few good ports, which
might have a certain commercial utility were the surrounding regions colonised,
and easy means of communication opened up across the coast range and forests.
Thus the Bay of Castries, first visited by LaP^rouse in 1787, and so named by him,
might accommodate a large number of vessels of light draught. Its position in the
neighbourhood of the Amur must sooner or later render it an important place.
Farther south, Stark Bay, the Imperial Port, the Gulf of Plastun, and those of
Vladimir and Olga, follow successively along the coast, which the Chinese and Rus-
sian traders have already learnt to frequent, notwithstanding the fogs and storms
prevailing in this dangerous Sea of Japan. Here the staple export is the " sea-
cabbage," a species of seaweed forwarded to China and Japan, where it forms an
article of food for the poor, and is used in the manufacture of glue.

The Vladimir and Olga coasts have been compared to those of Finland, owing
to their indentations, the granite reefs surrounding them, and the evident traces
of upheaval that have here been observed. The old beach may still be seen at
various elevations above the present sea-level. But whether or not it lies within
the zone of slow upheaval, the portion of the coast bending due west to the neck
of the Corean peninsula presents the aspect of those Finland or Scandinavian shores,
which are cut up and indented with endless g^fs, bays, and creaks, and varied
with innumerable groups of islands, islets, and reefs. One of these inlets, 120

_k^i, H

"""■Mi

im-:^-

48S

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

miles broad east and west, forms the gulf named after Queen Victoria by tbe
English, but which the Russians have dedicated to Peter the Oreat. It forms
quite an inhind sea, in which the conquerors had an embarrassing choice of sites
for a good naval and trading station. In the east lies America Bay, which receives
the waters of the Su-chan, a navigable river whose two branches form the two
convenient ports of Wrangell and Nukhodka. In the centre are the Gulfs of Usuri
and Amur ( UsurUkiy and Amurakiy), between which projects the peninsula on
which stands Vladivostok. Lastly, in the west are the winding bays of Possiet,
better defended even than the harbour of Toulon by rocky peninsulas, tongues of

Fig. 210.— Bat op Castbiu.
Soale 1 : IST.OOO.

to 18 Feet.

16 to S8 Feet.

n to 04 Feet. M Feet end apmuds.
aUOee.

land, and strips of sand curved like the claws of a crab. This military station,
with its guns always turned southwards, forms the present limit of the Russian
Empire towards China and Japan.

Climate of Manchuria.

Even in the southernmost part of Russian Manchuria, the Mrinter climate is very
severe. Although the Gulf of Peter the Great is never frozen at a certain distance
from the shore, all the creeks penetrating inland are ice-bound from December to
March, and for Qver one hundred days the port of Vladivostok is blocked. At this

•ria by the
It forms
ice of sites
ich receives
m the two
Ifs of Usuri
tninsula on
of Possiet,
tongues of

ry station,
e Russian

ite is very

a. distance

cember to

At this

mmmm

VICTORIA BAY OR GULF OF

i : — r —

NEW -YORK, D. APPL;

MMMMMK

mtmm

BAY OR GULF OF PETER THE GREAT.

^^j^aoftn^^TTX

SOftSiktP UtMoiktt l3Om$O0tmt MOOAttSitrind

Seal«.li3e6.000.

i : 1 ■ ik«

NEW -yO-RK. D. APPLETON 8c C9

•;

}mmitaim:«i^->immim^-''^i^mi9i^ffifif?iimm9mmfi^^ -^i

" ^mmmmmmmmmmmmfimm

wmmummmmm

CUMATE OP MANOIIUKIA.

488

place the annual tomperaturo is more than 17° lower than under the some parallel
in West Europe.* For five months Lake Khnnka is covered with ice, which at
times acquires a thickness of over 3 feet. In the Amur buHin the glass not unf re-
quently falls to 38*^ Fuhr., and at the Nyerchinsk works it has fuUcn even as lf)w as
46° Fahr. On the other hand, the summer heats are almost tropical, even on the

Fig. 'x... — Harbour or Oloa.
Bode 1 i 166,000.

to 16 net. 16 to sa Fmt. SS Feet and npfwud*.

sea-coast the temperature rising, as at the port of Olga, to 96° or 97° Fahr. Although
bordering on the Pacific, this part of Siberia is still included in the continental
olimate, a circumstance due to the mean direction of the atmospheric and marine

* Mean tomperature of VlMlivoetok (43° Oo' north latitude), 40^ Fahr. ; of Maneillei ^43' 17' 60" north
latitude), 58° Fahr.

3!PiEai*i»*""i«P«^

484

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

curronts. Tlio wnrm wators of tho Piieific Ocean flowing along the on«t count of
JajMiu are doHcctiKl to tho iinrth-ciiNt, thuN avoiding Hakhaliu and tho Kurilo
TNhindH, and returning southwardH along tho Hhores of Vancouver, Oregon, and
California, Henco tho Asiatic neulMMird M deprivj-d of tho infliK'neo of the wuriii
currents from tho south, whilo tho ico accuniuluting iu winter in tho 8ca of
Okhotnk and Oulf of Tutary tends to lower tho tenii)oraturo of tho maritinio
regions lliroughout tho season. In winter also the prevailing winds blow from tho
north, in summer from tho south, so that tho nonnal temjjcroturo of both seasons
bt<comes intensified, producing those oxtromos of heut and cold which uro evory-
whero characteristic of the true continental climuto. Tho chief contrast between
the inland regions of tho Upper Amur basin and tho cn'\8t districts of tho Lower
Anuir and Manchuria rises from tho action of tho Centiai Asiatic plateaux and of
tho I'acifio waters on tho atmospheric currents. In tho UpiK?r Amur region tho
north-west polar winds and tho south-west trado winds prevail regiUarly ii» winter
and summer respectively, whereas the atmospheric currents of tho oastorn seaboard
blow from tlie north-west and south-east during tho corresixmding seasons. Wo
know what vast quantities of moisturo aro brought by these south-easterly
monsoons to tho Amur basin, and to the shores of tho Aryan and Okhotsk. During
their ijrevalenco tho storm-tossed waters of tho Soa of Okhotsk aro wrapped in
dense fogs, through which tho solar rays seldom penetrate.

But while tho climate of East Siberia is thus distinguished by its extremes of
heat and cold, of dryness and humidity, it has at least tho advantage of a great
regularity in its annual changes, and is entirely froo from those sudden transitions
of temporAturo which are observed in West Siberia. Tho dry colds of winter, tho
moist summer heats, prevail throughout those seasons without any violent change.
In February, the driest month in the year, tho snow or rain fall at Nyerchinskiy
Zavod is Bfty-eight times less than the rainfall of tho wet season. At Vladivostok
tho differouco between the winter snows and summer rains is even still greater, the
former being about eight hundred and forty times less than the latter. In 1858,
Venyukov experienced forty-five days of incessant rains in the Usuri valley. In
this district, and along the south bank of .tho Amur, these annual downpours rot
tho crops of tho Cossacks, who have not yot learnt to imitate the Chinese iu adapt-
ing their agricultural system to the climatic conditions.

Manchurian Fauna and Flora.

With tho phenomena of the peculiar East Siberian climate naturally correspond
certain s^Kicial features of its flora and fauna. Tho forests of the Amur basin are
not uniformly composed of the sumo species of conifers, like the taiga of the regions
draining to the Frozen Ocean. There is a great diversity of forms, but little variety
in their distribution, pines, firs, cedars, and larches mingling freely, not only with
tho Russian birch, but also with such deciduous plants as tlie oak, elm, hombeum,
ash, maple, linden, as^wn ; and amongst these forest trees there are some which
grow to a height of 100 feet, with stems nearly 4 feet thick. In the southern

■mmm

MANCIIUBIAN FAUNA AND FLORA.

495

cant co(iMt of

(1 tho Kurilo
', Oregon, und
} of tho warm
n tho Sou uf

tho nmritiino

blow from tho

both HouHons

ich uro ovory-

itrast botwoon

of tho Lower
itouux and of
lur roffion tho
iirly ill wintor
(torn aoubourd
BoasoiiH. Wo
south-oantorly
atsk. During

wrapped in

1 extremes of
fo of a grout
oil tranHitioua
)f winter, tho
iolont change.
Nyerchinskiy
t Vludivostok
11 greater, the
or. In 1858,
■i valley. In
lownpours rot
lese in adapt-

partH of tho llHuri plaiuH, and on the nlopoH of thu Hikhota-iilin, tho leufy H|M<<;i(>N
prevail over the i-vcrgrcon coniforH. In tho foroHtn of tho Amur tho wihl vino
twinoH itH tendrilH round tho i>inc8, and brings itH fruit to niutiirity, ulthough tho
domoHtic vino hu« not yet l)oon protitubiy cultivutud. On the Up|M'r I'Nuri tho
ChinoHO have plan tutiouH of tlu- ginseng (/V«rtJ' giiiHonif), that vultiiil)li' plant whoHo
root, "a Hpifitie against all di^torderH," fetches its weight in gold. The walnut,
poach, and wild jioar interlace their brunches in the wcmmIs, und the attempts
already made at horticulture round ubout tho villuges show that the Usuri region
might become one of the finest fruit-growing countries in the world. Altogether
the Horu of the Amur upproacbos thut of ('hina, and oven of Indo-Chiua, while

Fig. 218.— HiHiiAOBoui Vbohation on tub ItLANM or THi Amur.

^^^^Hi^^^^l

p.:

■r-> •■;■ . •;<?- , T,:, ,

' / ■ V ■'

^ ■ ■ , •

-V'

J'
>

• -

lly correspond

lur basin are

)f the regions

little variety

aot only with

n, hombeum,

some which

the southern

many of its species form a connecting link between the vegetation of the Old and
New World. But the pride of East Siberia are tho thickets of herbaceous plants
growing in the alluvial lands, along the banks and on the islands of the Amur and
its great tributaries. Here the umbellifers, mugwort, reeds, and various species of
cereals intertwine to a height of 10 feet their stalks, bloom, and fruits, and are
often still further interlaced by the manifold coils of tall croeperei. There ure
many densely covered tracts impenetrable except with the axe in hand, and those
who venture into these thickets have usually to follow the tracks opened through
them by tho wild beasts, for the wild boar, doer, and wild goat fuid a better
cover in those tall grasses even than in the forest itself. The woodlands of the
Usuri are also haunted by the tigor, fierce as the royal beast of the Bengal jungles,

■WIP^

MBMMI

smr-

A8IATK; RUSSIA.

und hi' Is horo aHMM-iutinl with tho panther, In^nr, and Hublo. TIiuh uro tho noiith^ m
ty|icH intvnninglod witli thoHu uf thu north iu tho rich animal kiugiluni uf thin
ro^ion, which is ulliod ut unco tu thow) of Hiboriu and uf China.

iNiiAniTAirrH — Tiik Qoi.m axd oniEn Tunouh Tribkh.

Etliiiicully npoakinff, tho Amur is still a Tungun river. Apart from the
civilisud ('hinoMo und llustNiann, all tho riverain iM)pulution, from the Argun and
Hhilka (lonHuonco to tho IJNuri junction, conniHtH of Tungus ulumontn. Hut tho
Lower Amur an<l count regions belong to tho Uiliuks, a people of u ditforent race,
allicil to thu KuriloH und Kumchadules.

Thu TungUNcs of the Amur are divided into several dintinot tribes, some of
whicli muintuin few relations, except of a hostile character, with each other. The
liUinuts, who occupy tho west coast of the 8ca of Okhotsk, are for the others simply
thu " People of the Sea." Tho Oroches, or Orochons, who had dwindled to about
2((U in 1875, form a few family groups on the bunks of tho Shilka and Upper
Amur. From tho Munogrs, their eastorn neighbours, they are distinguished only
by the traditional custom of using the reindeer as mounts. Doth tho Orochos and
Manegrs, although mostly baptized, none the less preserve their shamans und
domestic idols, as well as tho teeth and claws of unimals used as amulets. Hitherto
the (Jhinese have had greater influence over thom than tho Russians. Their dress
and ornaments are evidently copied from southern models, while their features are
clearly the result of uUiuuces between the Tungus women and Chinese colonists.
This process of assimilation, which is gradually transforming the native tribes, in
seen, especially on the right or Chinese bunk of the Amur, in thu neighbourhood
of tho town of A'igiin, which is the civilising centre of the whole country. Tlie
Da6rB, descendants of nomads of like name, who formerly lived farther west in the
present Daftria, have become sedentary and ag^cultural. Most of their houses
are built in the Chinese style, with vegetable gardens, orchards, well-tilled fields,
and their religious rites are chiefly boirowed from the Buddhist syHtems. They
regard as inferiors the Birars — that is, the " River " Tung^ses — horse and cattle
brueders, who still dwell north of the Amur, over against the Duilr settlements.

The Qolds, another Tungus people, residing chiefly ou the right bank of the
Amur, and along the Sungari and Usuri Rivers, also occupy a few villages on the
left or Russian side, between the ford of the Usuri and the junction of the Oorin.
They are a timid race, who generally shrink from all contact with the Chinese,
Munchus, and Russians. Yet they have already borrowed some of the usages of
their civilised neighbours, and, like the Chinese, shave the hair, leaving nothing but
a " pigtail " on tho top of the head. The Golds live almost exclusively on the fish
which abounds in the streams of their territory. They are excellent boatmen, and live
on tho water as on the land. When the river is rough they use large vessels with
square bows, and in calm weather light craft made of birch bark. They never till the
soil, and have but few vegetables, but occasionally barter their sable furs with the
Manchus for rice and honey. They are very fond of animals, and surround their

mm^mmmi

ho noiith^m
jm uf tliio

from tbo
A.rgun and
. But tho
ijront raoo,

OH, some of
thor. Tho
jorH Mimply
Dd to ubout
tind Upper
UHlied only
rochos und
inians and

Hitherto
rheir droHs
mtures nre
Q colonists.
3 tribes, is
hbourhood
itry. Tho
vest in the
cir houses
lied fields,
tns. They
and cattle
!ments.
nk of the
[es on the
the Qorin.

Chinese,
usages of
>thing but
m the fish,
n, and live
issols with
rer till the
with the
>und their

g6u> TTPB8 AND COSTITIIIS.

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mtmrn^p

--''-riwiiiiiiiifiTiUnniiii

iMiMlliHiliii

t1"

■■|P^ii m iiiiiiilW>i^—

I ) , I Willl j i tf i|l f. l i l'l> " i

»«^i " i i (! M il I i i> i| I'" "

f^^p^mmmmmm

#■"

THE TAZi, MANDZI, GILIAKS, AND EUSSIANS.

487

'h-9

mmmm

dwellings with multitudes of dogs and swine, which live, like themselves, on a fish
diet. They also keep menageries of hears, wolves, and foxes, as well as aviaries
of geese, wild duck, and eagles. Various religious superstitions associated with the
last-mentioned birds of prey have even earned for them the title of " Eaglets,"
conferred on this tribe by the Manchus. In the peninsular region, comprised
between the Sungari, Amur, and Usuri, the tiger makes frequent visits to their
villages, nor do they always venture to resist the " lord," who, they suppose,
represents a royal tribe, ruled over by the " Spirit of the Mountains," the Shan-
shen of the Manchurian Chinese. A traveller relates that during the winter of
1857-8 a tiger came every night for his meal, consisting of two dogs, which the
Golds tied up to a tree outside the village. But when they had no more victims
for their terrible visitor, they were making preparations to sacrifice their own
children, when some Cossacks happening to pass that way rescued them from their
impoiiiunate guest.

North of the Golds are other Tungus tribes, the Manguns, Samagirs, Ngatkons,
Nigidals, and others settled on the banks of the Lower Amur and Amgun. The
Manguns resemble the Golds in speech, religion, habits, and fondness for caged
eagles and other animals. But they are more cultured, thanks to the influence of
the Manchus, now succeeded by that of the Russians. The little houses erected
by them on the graves of the dead are adorned with curious carvings in exquisite
taste. The Nigidals, who dwell quite apart on a tributary of the Amgun, seem to
be descended from a people who were formerly far more civilised than at present.
The men of this tribe are perhaps the most honest and trustworthy of the noble
Timgus race. In order to keep aloof as far as possible from the Yakut, Russian,
and Manchu traders, they have been obliged to withdraw to regions of difl&cult
access. Possessing a large quantity of precious objects and of textile fabrics
embroidered in the Chinese taste, and testifying to the influence formerly exerted
over them by that race, they refuse to part with these highly valued articles, with
which they are accustomed to array the bride and their dead.

The stone age still survived till quite recently in this region, and even much
farther south on the Manchurian seaboard, where it was continued down to the
beginning of the present era. Some of the Usuri tribes were accustomed to send
hundreds of thousands of arrows to the Ooreans, doubtless in consequence of the
excellent quality of the stone supplied by their quarries for the manufacture of arms.

The Tazi, Mandzi, Giliaks, and Russians.

The Tunguses of the coast between the Amur and the Gulf of Peter the Great,
branches of the Oroches and Golds, are by the Chinese called Yu-pi-ta-tz' ; that is,
" Fish-skin-clad People," a name which the Russians have shortened to Tazi. Those
who have preserved the old fashions still wear garments of salmon skin, adorned
with very elegant designs. But in the hills and on the west slope of the Sikhota-
alin the Tazi no longer deserve their Chinese appellat''on, for they now dress
like the other Tunguses, either in the skins of animals or in Russian and Chinese

mmmmg^ssm

M^S»S3

488

ASUTIO EUSSIA.

M I

clothes. The Tazi are honest and upright, and, like most of the Tunguses, very
hospitable. But they have not succeeded in preserving their independence, having
for the most part fallen into the hands of the Mandzi. These Mandzi, or Mant-zi',
are Chinese immigrants who have in an economic sense become the masters of the
land, and who till recently had a separate government, which, to the great relief of
the people, has now been abolished. The chiefs claimed the privilege of inflicting
barbarous punishments on their subjects, cropping their ears or even burying them
olive for real or imaginary offences. They have no doubt taught the Tazi a good
method of agricxdture, but they take care to profit by them as money-lenders and
traders. They are also the owners of the mines and the outfitters of the fishing-
smacks, and in their interest the sands of the streams are washed for gold, and the
" sea-cabbage " and trepang collected for export. The Tazi are required by usage
to obtain their marriage licenses from the Mandzi trader, who sells at a high figure
the oflUcial yellow paper. He also presides at burials, and " for a consideration "
embellishes the Tazi dwelling with tapestries representing the god Buddha.
Crushed by this oppressive system, the Tazi are rapidly diminishing. In 1874
they had been reduced to 250 souls, and, as the Mandzi all take native wives, the
Tazi will have probably ceased to exist as a distinct nationality in a single genera-
tion. All the Tunguses of South-east Siberia are variously estimated at from
10,000 to 13,000.

Travellers and Government officials calculated that in 1873 there were from
3,000 to upwards of 7,000 Chinese on the Russian seaboard. But this element is
rapidly increasing, and tens, if not himdreds of thousands, of " Celestials " would
flock to thiB region under a free system of migration. In the sixteenth century
the country was occupied by numerous colonies of Chinese, who possessed towns
and forts in many places. But in 1605 — 7 they were five times attacked by the
Manchus, who burnt their cities and villages, slaughtered most of the inhabitants,
and carried off the rest into slavery. There remained but a few fugitives hidden in
the woods and marshes, afterwards joined by fresh immigrants attracted by the
cultivation of the ginseng and tho gold-washings. It is the descendants of these
Chinese intruders who at present occupy the country under the name of Mandzi —
that is, " Free Men " — although Palladius regards this name as a term of reproach
given by the Chinese to their expatriated feUow-countrymen. The Mandzi call
themselves Pao-tui-tz' ; that is, " Walkers," or " Runners." In 1861, after the
cession of the maritime region to Russia, the Chinese Government forbade its subjects
to migrate with their wives and fam. ies to this region. The richest amongst those
already settled lu>ro returned to China; the poor alone remained, and were after-
wards joined by vagrants and brigands from Manchuria. Such are the chief elements
of the Chinese population in the maritime province. Some Corean immigrants
have also found refuge in Russian territory, notwithstanding the sentence of death
issued against them. In 1868 thej' already numbered over 1,400, all industrious
husbandmen. But the inundations of the following year having driven multitudes
of victims to seek an asylum in Russia, the Corean immigration was temporarily
interdicted. Some of the fugitives were even sent back, and beheaded on their

THE TAZl, MANDZI, GILIAKS, AND RUSSIANS.

489

ung^uses, very
denco, having
i, or Mant-zi',
losters of the
jreat relief of
) of inflicting
burying them
e Tazi a good
jr-lenders and
I the fishing-
^Id, and the
red by usage
a high figure
nsideration "
^od Buddha,
g. In 1874
ve wives, the
nglo genera-
ted at from

•e were from
is element is
tials " would
3nth century
lessed towns
eked by the
inhabitants,
es hidden in
icted by the
nts of these
)f Maudzi —
of reproach
Mandzi call
I, after the
! its subjects
longst those
were af ter-
ief elements
immigrants
ce of death
industrious
multitudes
©mporarily
sd on their

return, while others were banished to the ports on the Giilf of Tatary and to the
banks of the Amur. In 1873 the Coreans settled in the maritime province nimi-
bered altogether about 3,500, over half of whom had allowed themselves to. be
baptized.

Before the arrival of the Russians the inhabitants of the Lower Amur were the
Gi!' ■i.^t. or Eil^, kinsmen of those living in the island of Sakhalin, and allied to
thosf" laysterious Ainos who are the subject of so much discussion amongst ethno-
logists. They lack the open and bright expression of most of the Tungus tribes,
and their small eyes sparkle with a dull glitter. They have a flat nose, thick lips,
prominent cheek bones, black hair, and tolerably fidl beard. Dwelling farther
from the Manchus than do the Tunguses of the Amur, they are also far more savage,
although amongst them are found blacksmiths, mechanics, and even skilful carvers.
The travellers who have come in contact with them are not eloquent in their praise,
describing them as false, thievish, and vindictive. But the Giliaks have at least
a highly developed sense of freedom, recognising no masters, and governing them-
selves according to usage alone. Tradition regulates their feasts, marriages, funerals,
and ceremonies observed when setting out for the chase and on other important
occasions. The betrothed, purchased by her father-in-law in her fourth or fifth
yeor, is brought up with her future husband till her majority. In some commu-
nities the dead are burnt ; in others the coffins are suspended to the trees, or placed
on platforms near their cabins. The soul of the departed takes refuge in the body
of his favourite dog, which is consequently fattened up and immolated on the grave
of Its master.

Fire is held in no less respect by the Giliaks than by the Tajiks of the Pamir.
No consideration in the world would induce them to remove the live coal from one
hut to another, for the fire once kindled must never leave the hearth which it has
consecrated. The l-ohr, or bear, representing the £ur, or lord of the heavens, is
one of their chief divinities, whom, however, circumstances occasionally compel
them to devour. They trap it in winter in its lair, and, after securing it with a
leather noose, drag it along with shouts and cries intended to stupefy their half-
awakened but still formidable victim. It is then kept in confinement, nourished
and fattened on fish, and at last slain on its feast-day, after a fight in which the
assembled miiltitude attack it .without arms. With this may be compared what
Miss Isabella Bird tells us regarding a similar practice amongst the Ainos of Yezo :
"The peculiarity which distinguishes this rude mythology is the ' worship ' of the bear,
the Yezo bear being one of the finest of his species. But it is impossible to under-
stand the feelings by which it is prompted, for they worship it after their fashion,
and. set up its head in their villages, yet they trap it, kill it, eat it, and sell its skin.
There is no doubt that this wild beast inspires more of the feeling which prompts
worship than the inanimate forces of nature, and the Ainos may be distinguished
as bear- worshippers, and their greatest religious festival, or Saturnalia, as the Festival
of the Bear. Gentle and peaceful as they are, they have a great admiration for
fierceness and courage, and the bear, which is the strongest, fiercest, and most
courageous animal known to them, has probably in all ages inspired them with

mmmm

■MP

MMMN

440

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

( I

veneration. Some of their rude chants are in praise of the bear, and their highest,
eulogy on a man is to compare him to a bear." * Like the Golds, the Oiliaks keep
eagles in cages, giving them the same food as the bears. But they do not hunt the
wolf, to which they ascribe baneful influences.

Golds and Giliaks, Oroches and Manegrs, are all alike destined to disappear
before the RuHsians. No doubt colonisation, properly so called, is proceeding very
slowly, and many settlements, unfavourably placed in the neighbourhood of marshes
or thickets too difficult to be cleared, have had to be abandoned. Nevertheless the
military posts, fishing stations, and provision depots afford solid rallying-points to
the Slav populations. The seaports and reclaimed lands are so many " New Rus-
sias," which are inch by inch absorbing all the sun'ounding region. The prairies
of the Amur and the southern districts watered by the Usuri are amongst the
countries where the Russian element is increasing and flourishing, while the Cos-
sacks, stationed on the Lower Usuri in colonies at intervals of from 15 to 20 miles,
have fallen into the most abject poverty. They have neither com nor cattle, and
in 1867 every " soul " had less than an acre of land under cultivation. Some Fin-
nish families, which had received grants of lands from the Government on the
Upper Usuri, have been obliged to abandon them and take refuge in Vladivostok.
A few Bohemians had also offered to colonise the Usuri valley and the Manchurian
maritime districts, but on condition of enjoying free municipal institutions. How-
ever, the Russian Government rejected these offers as too dangerous, and, speaking
generally, the colonies of the Amur basin must so far be pronounced a failure. In
order at any cost to occupy the whole " line " from Transbaikalia to Vladivostok in
two vears, military posts had been founded at regular intervals, but all the sites
thus chosen did not prove suitable for agricultural settlements. As a rule, the
colonies flourish in proportion as they are more freely developed and removed from
the meddlesome interference of the authorities. A large number of the Russian
villages in the Amur basin have been named after the travellers who have distin-
gruished themselves by their explorations in Siberia.

^ The Eamenshiki.

Recently, also, some of the " Old Believers " have found their way from the
Altai' highlands to the Amur basin. An interesting account of these little-known
Siberian " Eamenshiki " has been communicated by M. Printz to Mr. E. D. Morgan,
and by him published in his English edition of Prjevalsky's " Journey to the Lob-
Nor." After the year 1747, when the Government took over from Demidoff the
Altai mines, many new settlements were founded in the mountains, and a chain of
forts was erected to protect the works from ihe inroads of the Zungarian Ealmuks.
But many of the miners and settlers from various quarters soon crossed the frontier,
so that in 1764 a second line had to be formed towards the south-east. In order to
secure themselves from the Tatars and Ealmuks the new settlers foimded their first
stations in the impenetrable forests of Euznetsk, where the Old Believers made for

* " Unbeaten Traotd in Japun," ii. p. 73.

_Z" "11' "in —

-«r'

THE KAMENSHIEI.

441

. their highest
) Giliaks keep
) not hunt the

[ to disappear

oceeding very

od of marshes

vertheless the

^ing-points to

Y " New Ru8-

The prairies

amongst the

rhile the Cos-

5 to 20 miles,

or cattle, and

Some Fin-

iment on the

Vladivostok.

3 Manchurian

tions. How-

md, speaking

I failure. In

Todivostok in

i all the sites

.8 a rule, the

emoved from

the Russian

have distin-

ay from the

little-known

D. Morgan,

to the Lob-

)emidoff the

d a chain of

in Ealmuks.

the frontier.

In order to

sd their first

rs made for

themselves caves (skiti) and hermitages, which later on became villages, subject to
taxation and liable to furnish hands for the mines. To escape from these exactions
the settlers again moved farther towards the Chinese frontier, where they were
joined by others who belonged to no particular sect; but were mostly runaway
miners and others anxious to avoid labour and taxation.

To this day there are ravines in the Altai called " Eamen " (rock), and their
inhabitants are spoken of as living " in the rock," or " beyond the rock," whence
their name of Kametuhiki, or " Rock People." The first Eamenshiki lived for a
time in the secluded Bukhtarma hills, where their holiness and humility, real or
feigned, soon began to attract the other inhabitants towards them. Many of the
serfs were also iaduced to join them, obtaining leave to go on hunting expeditions,
and then staying away altogether. They lived peaceably together, observing strictly
the rites of their religion, tilling the land, and enriching themselves by the sale of
costly furs. In the hunting districts they passed the uinter in rude huts, occupied
exclusively in trapping fur-belaring animals. The huts were often completely
buried in snow-drifts several yards deep, with a small opening for the entrance.
The only signs of life in these snowy wastes and dense forests were the stack of
fire-wood, the black bath, and the sairaf or larder, supported on four trees, and about
15 feet from the ground. They also visited the Narim, a tributary of the Irtish,
where they caught the sturgeon and sterlet, which they dried or jerked in the sun.

The Government, although aware of the colony of " outlaws " in the Bukh-
tarma district, was unable to take effectual measures against them, owing to the
inaccessible nature of the country. But in 1791 they voluntarily submitted and
received the imperial pardon, and were then made liable to a small poll-tax, changed
later on to a tribute in kind. In the early stage of their existence their lives were
patriarchal in the extreme, and being cut off from the world, and imited by a com-
mon lot, they formed a religious brotherhood, living together in peace and har-
mony. Disputes were referred to the " Best Men," those who possessed the general
confidence, and were disting^shed for their moral qualities. But after they were
joined by outcasts and runaways of all sorts, every kind of imbridled license
broke out amongst them. Robbery, rape, and murder became rife, and the prepon-
derance of the men over the other sex led to much discord and vice. Some of their
number, caught red-handed, were condemned in 1788 to an extraordinary punish-
ment : two of the criminals were boimd to small rafts and set adrift in the rapid
Bukhtarma River, each with a pole to save himself from drowning, and a loaf of bread
for food. One was drowned, and the other washed to the bank and pardoned.

After their submission to the authorities in 1791 they abandoned their
" rocks," and removed to places suited for tillage, stock-breeding, and industrial
pursuits. When visited in 1863 by Printz, they were a thriving community, with
numerous herds and flocks, and much land under tillage. They are daring hunters,
and have been known single-handed to attack and dispatch the bear, armed only
with an axe. They claim to belong to the old priestless sect — Whence have no
"popes " of their own. Nothing but necessity drives them to the Orthodox Church
before marriage, wh^i they are obliged to sign, a. written engagement never to
29

mKPM""

■••

442

ASIATIC EUSSU.

rotiuTi to the " ruskol." This, however, they do not observe, on the ground that it
was obtained on compulsion, nor do they over bring their children to bo baptized, or
comply with any of the observances of the orthodox faith.

The volost, a district of Bukhturma, bus a present population of 1,438, living in
eight villages in an extremely fertile district. In 18G6 a party of sixty left the
community in search of the "promised land" of which their traditions speak.
But after two years of fruitless wanderings on the llusso-Chinese border nearly all
returned to their homes. Since then another party was met by Prjevalsky on
the desolato shores of Lob-nor, and others are now migrating to the more inviting
region of the Amur basin.

Topography.

The few Russian towns scattered over the country of the Tunguses and Giliaks
on the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, Gulf of Tatury, and Sea of Japan are still
in their infancy. Scarcely more than two or three of them would be regarded as
anything more than simple villages, were they suddenly transix)rted to the populous
regions of European Russia. Still they derive a certain historic importance from
their very position us the advanced outposts of the empire on the Facilio seaboard
over against the New World.

The town of Okftotd; which gives its name to the great land-locked Sea of
Okhotsk, has never had more than a few himdred inhabitants. Yet its incon-
venient harbour, situated on a lagoon at the junction of the Okhota, and Kiikhtuya,
enjoys a certain amount of trade. Previous to the year 1807, when a ship was
sent directly from Russia round the Cape of Good Uopo to Okhotsk, all the pro-
visions and other supplies for the Russian fleet in the Pacific had to be forwarded
overland from Yakutsk. The Government and the trading company of Russian
America employed every year 13,000 horses in this carrying trade over the Aldan
Mountains. In 1844 the " American " fishing and peltry company removed its
factories and docks from Okhotsk to the port of Apan, more favourably situated on
the same coast, and 3° farther south, in a less severe, though not a less humid and
boisterous climate. Udskoj/ Oatrog, one of the oldest Cossack stations in this region,
and situated near the south-west comer of the Sea of Okhotsk, also ranks as a town,
though consisting only of a few dozen houses. Other so-called " towns " are 0^'iga,
or CHjiginnk, and Penjina, or Penjinak, mere groups of huts, standing at the
northern extremity of the Sea of Okhotsk, each on one of the inlets terminating
this inland sea.

The Russian towns of the Amur bosin, although founded long after Okhotsk,
have nevertheless outstripped the ancient city, which at one time enjoyed a
monopoly of the Russian trade on the Pacific. Chita, capital of Transbaikalia, has
the administrative importance imparted to it by its rank and position as a central
station on the route between Lake Baikal and the Amur. But the Ingoda, which
below Chita plunges into a deep gorge, is navigable only during the spring floods,
when it sends do^vn the flotilla of l)oats laden with com, salt, preser\'ed meat, and
manufactured goods for all the settlements in the Amur basin as far as Niko-

ground that it
bo baptized, or

,438, living in
! sixty loft the
iditions speak.
>rdor nearly all
Prjevolsky on
) more inviting

)C8 and Giliaks
Japan arc still
be regarded as
X) the populous
portance from
aciiio seaboard

locked Sea of
STot its incon-
md £ukhtuya,
Bn a ship was
jk, all the pro-
) be forwarded
ny of Russian
tver the Aldan
y removed its
>ly situated on
ess humid and
in this region,
nks as a town,
18 " are Gifiga,
mding at the
ts terminating

ifter Okhotsk,
ne enjoyed a
isbaikalia, has
n as a central
[ngoda, which
spring floods,
rod meat, and
far as Niko-

i
i

»iV\m ■ "III «^"ll* n||jii I I , ,,,„ 1,1^^,.

II I lill..li>«p|h|ll«MMp>

........■-...:.-.. ...::^..^Sl:3'iiB

IIP

'r^-mmnmilillllm

TorooRArnr.

^m^

loyovsk. Tho boats used in this sorvico are built iu tho vust fc.rosts Htrctching
olong tho river above Chitu. Nycchimk no longer slunds on the banks of a
navigable river, tho inundations of 1812 having caused it to be removed to tho
north of tho Nyercha, over 2 miles from tho Shilka, which, though fonned by tho
junction of the Onon and Ingoda, is accessible only to light craft. Tho true head
of the navigation is some 90 miles farther down at Stretemk, a flourishing village
which possesses some warehouses and workshops. Hero most of tho Russian boats
on tho Amur put up for tho winter. Nyerchinsk is a trading-place, which has
iMXJorae the emporium for tho whole region, whoso future prosperity and impor-
tance are insured by its numerous argentiferous load, quicksilver, copper, iron, tin,
and zinc mines, its gold-washings, precious stones, coal-fields, and mineral waters.
Historically tho nomo of Nyerchinsk recalls the treaty Wi-xt was here concluded in
1689 between Russia and China to the advantage of tho latter power. It also
recalls the sufferings of the numerous political exiles condemned to work in the
neighbouring mines. Tho chief penal settlement of the district is situated at tho
gold-washings of Kara, on tho Shilka, some 60 miles below Stretcnsk. Over 2,000
persons, including a certain number of political convicts, are here condemned to
hard labour. These gold-woshings, like all those of tho Argun and Shilka valleys,
are often known by the name of NycrehwHkiye Prmki* ond the term Nyerchinsk
is also current in the meteorological works of Nyerchimkiy Zaeod, a silver
foundry, situated 175 miles oast of the town on o smoU affluent of tho Argun.
Here were made the important observations which have supplied the principal dato
for the study of tho climate of East Siberia. It is a pleasant little place, surrounded
by metolliirgic establishments.

Since the first incursions of the Russians the banks of the Amur already boast
of their ruined cities. Such is Albazin, founded in 1651 by tho Cossack chief
Ehabarov, and which tho Chinese armies had to besiege and capture three times
before the Russians finally ceded it in tho* treaty of Nyerchinsk. A modem
stanitza has sprung up at the foot of the ruined fortress, which is now overgrown
with trees and shrubs. The present capital of the reconquered Russian territory
on the Middle Amur is Blagoryenhchtmk, which was founded in 1856 on the
peninsular terrace formed by the junction of the Amur and Zyeya, 18 miles above
the confluence. The brand-new Russian town» with its governor's pakce, broad
streets, low red-roofed houses, all built by the soldiers on one plan, contrasts
unfavourably with the populous Chinese town of Aigftn, lying on the banks of the
river some 20 miles farther down. But it does a brisk trade with Manchuria,
which even in 1869 was already estimated at nearly 500,000 roubles yearly. Even
within the Russian frontier there reside over 10,000 Chinese subjects, who pay
thoir taxes to the officials on the right bank. The Blagovyeshchensk district is
destined to become the future granary of tho Amur region. Most of the Slav
squatters, belonging to the sect of the Dttkhabortzi, or " Spiritual Wrestlers," are
free colonists, having selected the sites of their villages on the Zyeya and Zavitaya

• Yield of gold in the Amur basin in 1878, 2,076,000 roubleB; hands employed, 39,250, of whom
1,936 escaped.

IIP

a WM^ j MWej K ttW j M WSiWi fB

- I
m

ASIATIC IIUSSIA.
without the intervontion of the military authorities. First came the young men in

the spring, provided with supplies, and accompanied with their horses, which they
bartered with the Manchus for working oxen. On tiie arrival of the families a

I«.^I«-a;w^-^ M^^^^CT-^J^Tfl

mmmmtmmmmm

TOPOORAPHY.

tho young men in

f I'

pses, which they
f the families a

few months later on, the cuhinn were already built, and long yokea of eighteen or
twenty cattle hod already cleariHl tho thickctn of dwarf ouIcn. T\um) villagoN ure
now flourishing, and with their cheerful aHpcct preHent a ntriking coiitruHt to tho
wretched iiettlomentH established by order of tho uuthoritiuM in the njicUt of scrub,
rocks, and swamp*. One of the most thriving colonics Ih that of Mikhatlo-
8emyonoc»k, situated ut the issue of the gorge of the Duroyu Uivor.

Tlie present capital of all the Lower Amur region ond of the maritime province
is Khaharvvka, thus named in honour of the daring Cossack who first jlescended
the Amur nearly to its mouth. Built on the steep side of a hill overlooking tho
right bank of the Amur at its confluence with the Usuri, Khabarovku consisted till

Fig. 2J0.— NiKOLATITSK.

floiOci '.t/tfioa.

0to82F*«t.

81 Feet and upwiuda.
8,160 Tarda.

recently of little more than a few barracks and stores. But its happy position at
the diverging point of the three great waterways of the Middle and Lower Amur
and Usuri, and under one of the least rigorous climates in Siberia, seems to insure
for this place a prosperous commercial future. About 20,000 sable skins are
annually brought to this market. But the surrounding marshes and woodlands
present g^reat obstacles to the progress of agriculture.

Of all the Russian colonies in Siberia those of the Lower Amur are the most
backward. Some of them have even had to be abandoned, the hopes of tho Slav
peasantry having been completely baffled by the rainy climate, thankless soil,,
swampy lowlands, and rocky or wooded slopes. Sofiisk and Mariinak derive some

'^'mammmmmm

it L iiW* MUBtaw^id—W

448

ASIATIC nUS8IA.

iniimrtimco from flu'ir ixwition on tlic Atimr, iit tlio ontrunco of the doprcMion
loading to the (iulf of CuMtrio*. Nlkohiyvrnk, the old Ch««rl)ukh of the UUiuks, doo«
Hoinc tnido (luring; thuKiio jh^umou hh the pott of entry to tlir river. Soino Ainorieun
dealers ure w'ttled here, but inoHt of the population c. jjc.-'; * »if -u>luior»i and offioiuU.
I'lven the free townMfolk consider theni8<*lveH as exiles, i *•".'■ * i' t'ln wttlc here
pornmnuntly. The women uru in u lurgo minority in thi^^oi^-hut eottlemont. The

Fig. 231.— Amirica Day.
Bi»U 1 : 180,000.

to 39 Feet.

8S to W Feet. 80 Feet and npwordi.

difBoultios presented by the bar and inconvenient roadstead, the five months' block
during the winter season, and the absolute interruption of all relations with the
rest of the world even in spring and autumn, prevent Nikolayevsk from benefiting
by its advantages as the port of entry of the great East Siberian river. Its
wi'etched climate also renders it one of the most uninviting places of residence on
the globe. The sun shines for months together behind the clouds; the air is

■^ffww

TOrOOllAPIIY.

411

dcprcuion
UUiuks, doe*
r« Amprieiin
and offioiuU.
11 !M)ttlv here
?mont. The

constantly ohnrgcd witli drizzling miMtH, iicroinpunic*! by drnso tof^n, nnd in winter
Hrrco Nnow-HtorniH alin<mt completely iiiterrtipt till eouuniiiiicution from house to
houHO. Owinjj to thuHO eiiuHOH Nikoluyuvuk hu» Lllen into decuy, uud the cupitui
huH l)cen romovctl to Khahiirovka.

The jK)i-tH on the Mancliurian nealMiard have Ix^nefited by the dirtadvantugeH of
Nik»)layovHk, and many emigrantN from the Lower i\mur hiive Hetthnl in Port
ItHpriidl, Vladimir, and 0/f/r/, in the ports on the (lulf of IVter the Oroaf, and
oHi)ocially in Vltulivimtok, t(» whieh the military CHtabliHhmontH of Nikcdayevsk huvo
l)oon removed. The very name of Vladivontok, whieh meann " Ruler of the Kant,"
and whieh recallH Vladikavkaz, " Uuler of the Cam^aHUH," at the other extremity of
Awa, iK'trayH the future aHpirations of thone who founded tliiH utation in IH<)0,
The Btrait connecting the Gulf ol the Amur with that of the llHuri has lH>en nameil

Fig. 222.-TUR PoaiiiiT Imlbti.
Bool* 1 : aoofiOfO.

OtolOFcet.

16to89Feet.

inths' block
IS with the
a benefiting
river. Its
'osidence on
: the air is

89 Feet and npwwd*.
I G MilM.

the " Eastern Bosporus," and the harbour, which forms a semicircular inlet at the
extremity of the Muraviov Amurskiy peninsula, boars the title of the " Golden
Horn." Vladivostok is thus intended to become a second Constantinople. But
whether such aspirations be realised or not, it is beyond doubt already the chief
city of all Asiatic Russia east of Yakutsk, and must maintain this position until the
Russians shall have occupied other ports in more southern latitudes. The idea has
also been entertained of making it a winter station for the foreign merchants from
Shaug-hae and Ning-po. In 1880 the strained relations with China rendered it
for a time the most animated naval station in the extreme cast, and, thanks to its
armaments, Russia found herself for the first time more powerful than Great
Britain in the Chinese and Japanese waters. But the importance of Vladivostok is
far more of a military than a commercial character, and the outlay for all the great
works undertaken on the shores of the " Golden Horn " — spiers, docks, arsenals —

iiiiiani

«p

44S

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

has been defrayed, not by private enterprise, but by the imperial exchequer. Half
of the population is composed of soldiers, officials, liberated convicts, and the other
half of Mandzi, Chinese, and Coreans, whose junks, wooden houses, sheds, and
other surroundings impart a very different aspect to the place from that of most
Slav cities. The free Russian element is scarcely represented except by a few
artisans, and very few women are met in the streets. Vladivostok is still little
more than an encampment, in which the normal family life is the exception. Its
small export trade in hartshorn, trepang, mushrooms, and other fungi used in
tanning, is entirely monopolized by the Chinese, and amounted in 1879 to little
over 104,000 roubles. Some of the ports on the Manchu coast, especially those of
America Bay and of the Possiet Sounds east and west, might easily develop a greater
commercial activity. The latter exported in 1866 as much as 400,000 roubles'
worth of sea-cabbages alone. Vladivostok is still unconnected by any go,od high-
ways of communication with the inland districts. In summer all the traffic -with
the TJsuri valley is carried on by the Bay of the Amur and the Sr.ifun waterway,
which is navigable for small steamers for a distance of over ?0 miles. But in
winter the " Bosponis " is blocked with ice, although the waters of the gulf itself
remain open throughout the year. Vladivostok promises one day to become the
Pacific terminus of the great trunk line across the eastern hemisphere, as it has
long been that, of the " Danish " telegraphic system, whose central point is in
Copenhagen, and whose ramifications already stretch over half the globe.

A writer in a recent number of the North China Herald recommends Vladivostok
as a sort of sanitarium or summer retreat for English residents in China. He
states that the summer temperature is about 65° Fahr., with invigorating moimtain
breezes, splendid scenery, and extensive oak, beech, and pine forests in the district.
From Nagasaki, in Japan, the route lies along the Japanese coast, close to the
lovely islands of Hirado, Ikutski, and Iki. From Iki it runs about 230 miles east
of Tsu-shima to Dagelet in the full strength of the £uro-sivo oceanic current-
Dagelet is a picturesque island, wooded to the very summit of its highest peak,
4,000 feet above sea-level. From Dagelet the coursd is due north for 340 miles to
the island of Skryplef, within 6 miles of Vladivostok. The soil of this part of
Russian Manchuria he describes as extremely productive, with abundance of the
very finest forest trees, besides gold, iron, coal, and other minerals. The surround-
ing waters also teem with fish, while the reefs are covered with edible seaweed.
Between Arkold and St. Vladimir Bay there are several fairly good harbours, some
of them quite sheltered. The climate is healthy and bracing, but too severe for a
winter residence.

VIII.-SAKHALIN.

This island, although one of the larg^t in the world, with an area of about
25,000 square miles, has remained almost unknown to Europeans till within the
last hundred years. The Dutch navigator, Martin Gerrits, of Vries, had coasted
its eastern seaboard in 1645, and cast anchor in the Gulf of Patience ; but he

mmmmmim

^*r-

SAKHALIN.

449

chequer. Half
», and the other
«)8, sheds, and
m that of most
ecpt by a few
k is still little
axception. Its
fungi used in
1879 to little
Bcially those of
velop a greater
0,000 roubles'
my good high-
he traffic -with
fun waterway,
miles. But in
the gulf itself
t» become the
here, as it has
al point is in
obe.

Is Vladivostok
a China. He
ting moimtain
in the district.
, close to the
230 miles east
eanic current,
highest peak,
340 miles to
of this part of
mdanoe of the
rhe Burround-
iible seaweed,
larbours, some
> severe for a

trea of about
ill within the
I, had coasted
ence; but he

supposed that he was following the coast-lino of the Japanese land of Yezo. Even
on Cook's chart, published in London in 1784, Sakhalin figures .nerely as a small
island near the Gulf of the Amur. Buache alone had succeeded in tracing its
northern outlines with some approach to accuracy, but even he attributed nioie than
half of the whole island to Yezo. The very name of Sakhalin betrays the ignorance
till quite recently prevailing in regard of this terra incognita. It is a contracted
form of the Manchu term, Sakhalan anda Eanda, or " Rock of the Amur Estuary,"
applied originally to an islet at the mouth of this river, and not to the extensive

Fig. 223.— La PfiKocaa Strait.
1 1 : 1,600,000.

OtolflOFeet.

UOtoSMFeet. 9S0 Uset and npttudi.

insular region stretching along the Manchu seaboard for a distance of 570 miles
north and soutih. The Japanese and Ainos of tht: Kurile Archipelago gave, aud
still give, to this island the name of Erafto, Earaftu, or Karafutu, which it ought to
have retained. Mamia Rinzo simply calls it Kita Yezo, or " North Yezo," while
such terms as Tarakai, Choca, and Sisam seem to refer only to portions of the land,
or to its inhabitants.

So far back as 1787, La P^rouse, while navigating the strait bearing his name
and separating Yezo from Sakhalin, had penetrated into the Gulf of Tatary and
surveyed all the coasts of island and mainland as far as the Bay of Castries. But

460 ASIATIC EU8SIA.

although Sakhalin seemed to be obviously an island, the reports of the natives

u
a

jr.

■<

regarding a portage, over which they carried their sleighs, referred, according to
some geographers, to an isthmus connecting Sakhalin with the continent. For at

■n

msmmmmmm

SAKHALIN.

461

f the natives

that time tho existence was still unknown of the Kizi bank, lying between the
Amur and Gulf of Castries. These reports might also, ])erhap8, have referred to
the bridge of ice by which Sakhalin is every year connected with the mainland.
In 1797 Broughton, after visiting the west coast, and in 1805 Krusenstem, after
doublino; the northern extremity of the island, still supposed that it might be

Fig. 225.— Mamia Hinzo Sthait.
Soale 1 : 300,000.

OtolOFest. 16 to 80 Feet. 60 Feet and npwarda.

_^_^^_______ 6 Miles.

cording to
t. For at

joined to the continent by a sand-bank. Till about the middle of the present
century most of the European charts represented Sakhalin as a peninsula, although
the Japanese pilot, Mamia Rinzo, had already, a few years after the voyage of
Krusenstem, explored the Gulf of Tatary, and penetrated by this route into the
Amur estuary. At last the hydrographic labours of Nevelskoi during the years
1849—62 revealed the correct outlines of the shores of Sakhalin and the Mamia

462

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

Rinzo Strait. Vessels drawing 16 feet of water have room to tack about between
the sand-bonks in the^j waters. At the same time this passage is completely
ice-bound for four months in the year, and it is obstructed by floes till the month of
June.

Since 1875 the whole island has belonged to Russia as far as La Pdrouse Strait,
the southern portion having been ceded by Japan to that power in exchange for the
Kurile Archipelago. But its thorough survey had already been commenced by
Voshnyak, Orlov, Rudanovskiy, Schrenck, Schmidt, Glehn, Brilkin, and others,
who carefully explored its shores, and studied its relief, climate, inhabitants, mines,
and harbours. Russian geographical terms are already supplanting the native
Aino and Giliak names, and several French appellations g^ven by La Pdrouse to
capes, islands, bays, and coast ranges have been either distorted or forgotten.

Highlands.

In its relief Sakhalin resembles the mainland of Manchuria. Were the land
suddenly to subside a few hmidred yards, the Sikhota-alin chain would also
become an insular region, with a crest running across several parallels of latitude.
On the other hand, were the bed of the sea to be upheaved, Sakhalin would be
converted into a long escarpment of the continent. Its hills and mountains, which
seem on the whole to be of more recent formation than those of the mainland, are
disposed in long ridges running parallel with the meridian. The western chain,
which skirts the whole coast from north to south, and which is by for the most
elevated, rises here and there to heights of from 3,000 to nearly 6,000 feet. But
in some places it sinks as low as 580 feet, and is here crossed without the slightest
difficulty. East of this main range, consisting of cretaceous and tertiary rocks,
there stretch other parallel chains, or fragments of chains, with a mean elevation of
scarcely more than 640 feet, and with gently roimded crests, few of which deserve
the name of mountain. The Tiara '^^'^ne, culminating point of the eastern ridgpe,
which terminates in a long peninsuln east of the Gulf of Patience, is an imposing
peak, comparable to those of the weste/n range. The Sakhalin Mountains nowhere
reach the snow-line, but several rise above the limits of vegetation, blending their
bare greyish crags with the watery clouds of those latitudes.*

The chains running north and south are separated by intervening plains or
valleys disposed in the same direction, and watered by ntreams flowing either
northwards or southwards. Thus the Poronai, or Plii, the great river of Sakhalin,
after winding through a broad plain at the foot of the western range, falls into the
GuU of Patience, and in the same depression rise the head-streams of the river

* Chief elevations of the Sakhalin HounUinB, according to Schmidt and Glehn : —

Mean height of the west coast nmge (Schmidt) 2,930

La Martiniire or Kt6nspal Peak, centre of the tsnga (Olehn) . . . 4,8M

Bemiset, south end of the island ((Hebn) . 3,MW

Arkai-pal, east of Du{ (Qlehn) 880

IHara, east range (Glehn) 1,940

Pass between Knsunai and Maaiie ........ 780

"fPfSfWT

«pi

CLIMATE, FAUNA, PLOEA.

about between
is completely
the month of

;*^rou8e Strait,
ihange for the
ommenced by
Q, and others,
ntants, mines,
ig the native
ja P^rouse to
rgotten.

i^ere the land
a would also
Is of latitude,
ilin would be
ntains, which
nainland, are
estem chain,
tar the most
10 feet. But
the slightest
irtiary rocks,
1 elevation of
hich deserve
astern ridge,
an imposing
tins nowhere
ending their

ag plains or
wing either
of Sakhalin,
alls into the
of the river

Itet.
2,920
4,86S
3,890

680
1,940

780

Fig. 226.— Sakhalin.
SoOe 1 : 1,750,000.

Tim, which runs northwards to the Sea of Okhotsk. In these intervening

depressions are also found the lakes and the regxdar curves of the gulfs and bays,

which are limited right and left by the headlands of the ranges running north and

south. As on the shores of Lake Ehanka,

the constant action of the surf under the

influence of the prevailing south winds has

perceptibly modified the coast of Sakhalin.

Thus the sandy beach forming a perfect

orescent round the Gulf of Patience has

separated from the sea several lakes and

marshes which recall the previous outlines

of the coast, and in which are discharged

the waters of the Poronai. The formation

of the coast-line has probably beeniacilitated

by the upheaval of the land, for quantities

of marine remains have been found in places

which are at present from 8 to 10 feet above

the level of the sea.

Climate, Fauna, Floba.

From its position Sakhalin naturally
partakes of the East Siberian climate.
Broken masses of ice have been known to
remain heaped up round the eastern head-
lands till the month of July, and during the
month of April sleighs arc still able to make
their way along the shores of the Qxdf of
Patience. Hera tTie thermometer often
remains 66*^ below freezing point in January,
tyhpreas on the west coast, which is well
sheltered by tlie neighbouring range running
north and south, the tempcmtuio is fully
20° warmer. But whatever bo it« relative
advantages, even on this coast the climate
is very severe. Although the southern
extremity of the island lieik under the
46th parallel of latitude, or about the
same distance from the pole as the Lombard
towns nestling at the foot of the Alps,

its temperature is about the same as that of Archangel or Haparauda, at the head
of the Baltic. The station of Kusunai, situated in 48° N. lat., on the Gulf of
Tatary, is crossed, according to Dobrotvorskiy, by the isothermal of 2° 23. In
other words, ? n mean temperature is lower than that of the Norwegian town of

, ISOUilea.

. TV
It ■

h *'

v; ■■

454

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Tromso, which lies some 22° nearer to the polo. In July, the warmest month in
the year, the mean temperature of Kusunai is only from 60° to 02° Fahr., and in the
hottest seasons the glass never rises beyond 77° Fahr. Even the shores of Aniva
Bay, notwithstanding their sunny aspect, have a very severe climate, owing to the
northern winds, which sweep through the broad depressions between the mountain
ranges. The disagreeable character of the climatic conditions is intensified by the
extreme humidity, fogs, rains, and snows of those northern skies. At Eusunai,
which enjoys on exceptionally favourable position, thanks to the continental winds,

Fig. 227.— AiNo GiEi..

by which its atmosphere is frequently cleared of clouds, the rainy or foggy days
average 253, so thfit fine weather does rot prevail for a third of a year. On
the east coast the liroponion of bright days Is far less considerable. Throughout
its vast empire, where the St. Peti j ,burg Government has discovered so many
dreary pkces of exU( , there are scarcely any more terrible than those of Sakhalin,
exiwsed as they are to icy rains and raging snow-storms for a great part of the year!
The flora of this Siberian island naturally resembles that of the Manchurian
coast lands, from which it is separated only by the narrow Mamia Rinzo Channel.
Most of the extensive forests covering the mountain slopes belong to the Siberian

INHABITANTS— THE AINOS AND OROKS.

45A

meat month in
ihr., and in the
lores of Aniva
0, owing to the
the mountain
ensified by the
At Kusunai,
tinental winds,

and Manchurian flora. But some species have also found their way into tlio island
from the Japanese Archipehigo, and there even occurs a sort of hmnhoo (^Arutidiuaria
Ktiriiensin) covering whole mountains, and growing to man's height on the uplands
side by side with the dwarf birch of Kamchatka. Some American species are also
intermingled with the Asiatic vegetation of the island, and according to Schmidt,
Sakhalin formed part of the New World during the miocene epoch. Thus it is
that plants from the most opposite portions of the r^nhe become associated together
in masses of a strikingly original vegetation. Of seven hundred flowering species
scarcely twenty are peculiar to the island. The forest trees and undcr-growths,
which flourish at the foot of the hills, form a continuation of those of the mainland.
Higher up, the vegetable zone, as far as 1,600 or 1,600 feet, consists mainly of
conifers, while a third and still more elevated zone is chiefly composed of birches
and willows, beyond which comes a dense growth of trailing species of an almost
blackish hue, and reaching nearly to the summit.

The animals frequenting these woodlands are the same as on the neighbouring
mainland. On both sides of the strait the bear, wild reindeer, and sable are hunted,
and the tiger often visits the northern extremity of the island, which ho reaches
across the ice-bound Mamia Rinzo Strait in winter. But he has never been seen in
the southern districts, ond before the arrival of the Russians the Ainos are said not
to have known him even by name.

r foggy days
year. On
Throughout
Jd so many
of Sakhalin,
of the year.
Manchurian
go Channel,
ho Siberian

Inhabitants — ^The Ainos and Oboks.

The population of Sakhalin, estimated altogether at scarcely more than 15,000
souls, or considerably less than 1 to 2 square miles, consists exclusively of immigrants
from the continent and neighbouring islands. ITie Giliaks, who occupy all the
northern districts to the number of about 2,000, in no way differ from their kins-
men of the Lower Amur. The Oroks of the east coast ars Tiinguses of the same
stock as the Orochons and Maaguns of the Amur, and call themselves by the same
name of Olcha. The Ainos, a boarded and gentle race, who are supposed to have
been the aborigines of the Kurile and Japanese Archipelago, are new restricted
to the southern districts of Sakhalin. But the Aino geographical terms occurring
even in the extreme north show that this race fonnerly occupied a inuch wider
range. They have been driven south by the Giliaks and Oroks, and since the
middle of the present century some of their villages have been completely wasted
by small-pox. The slavery to which all the Ainos have been reduced by the Japa-
nese fishers has also contributed to diminish their numbers as well as to increase
their moral debasement.

The civilised element is represented by the Japanese and Russians. The former
are engaged chiefly in the fishing industry, and have founded settlements and fac-
tories at intervals along the coast, where few are met except as temporary immigrants
unaccompanied by their families. The Russians, whether military ofiicials, police,
or exiles, have all arrived against theii- will in this inhospitable land of rains, snows,
and fogs, whore they have to be supported by the Goveriunent, the resources of the

466 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

island being totally insufBcient for thoir wants. The Ainos and Oiliaks aro able

to live on the produce of their fishories, but the Russians need many other things
to render existence possible, especially in such a dismal region as this. In any

TOPOORAPHT.

467

alcH aro able

I.';'

other things
tiis. In any

case oven the marine animals have greatly diminished in these waters, and Seal
Island, a vast bank in the south-oast of the Gulf of Patience, is no longer covered,
as formerly, by multitudes of cetacea, thousands of which fell a prey to a few seal-
hunters on every expedition. The cultivation of cereals and vegetables and stock-
breeding has not yet made much progress, nor is it likely over to succeed except in
a few of the more sheltered valleys. Hence the flour required by the inhabitants
bus still to be brought from the mainland, and even from Russia itself. No doubt
Sakhalin possesses considerable latent resources in its numerous coal-fields, which
are being constantly more and more developed by the Russian convicts, and which

Fig. 229.— Port op Muratiov.
floUe 1 : i<n.ooo.

rnder 10 Vert. .

lOtoSOFeet

SO fact and npwardt.
_ 3 HUM.

are highly appreciated by seafarers in the Pacific. But this coal costs more than
that of Japati and Australia, and the yearly output does not even yet suffice for the
local demand. The mortality of the immig^nts greatly exceeds the birth rate,
and Sakhalin, which has not yet been constituted a colony, remains for the Russians
a mere prison or place of banishment.

Topography.

The Russian stations are all situated on the coast. Du'i, near La Jouquiere Bay,
about the middle of the west side, is the most important village. Its quarries and
coal mines, the first opened in the island, employ 2,000 < onvicts, hired out by the
80

ASUTIC liUSSIA.

Oovorninont to tho owners at the rate of from 1 « to ^h. G<1. a duy. Tho hurbour
of this convict Htntion is forinod by u j^i'iitlc curvv in tlu 'iind, with a Inthl capo at
each extremity ; and the shore is lined by U)fty cliffs of ironstone and limestone,
with HCfims of coal at an an^'lo of al)out -'JO". Kiminai and Matme have the
advantage of being connected together by tho route which crosses the island
at its narrowest point, and this circumstance greatly facilitates their exchanges.
Farther south some 700 Chinese, under tho control of u few Japanese, are engaged
in tho Maiika Cove, on tho oust coast, in tho trepang and sea-cabbage fisheries. '^

Some interesting information regarding Mauku. (Jove, on the oast coast, has
been recently communicated to tho British IFy'!'. /graphic Office by Captain
Anderson, of tho steamer Appin. Mauka Cove (47" 3' N., H'i" 0' K.) is tho
head-tjuarters of a company, which has acquired from tho Russian Government tho
right to collect along the sea-coast seaweed, bficho de mer, fish, &c., for a term of
ten years. The cove is about two cables in length, cast and west, and has the
reputution of affording tho safest anchorage in this part of the island. The
population consists of 3 Europeans, a small guard of 7 Russian soldiers, and
about 700 coolies, chiefly Ainos, Coreans, and Chinese. The Ainos are said to
bo excellent hunters, and a quiet, good-natured, hardy race. Although cold, tho
climate is very fine, the summer temperature not exceeding 60° Fahr., and fulling in
winter at times to 24° below zero. Fine weather prevails from May to tho autumn
equinox : when the storms set in, June and July are very foggy months, with
occasional east and south-east winds, which bring rain from the uplands. But
even then there is often a clear /one along the coast free from fogs, extending
4 or 5 miles ofic shore. There is an abundance of fine timber in the valleys — yellow
pine, cedar, sprune, ash, oak. Coal crops out about a mile inland from the cove,
and there arn also evident indications of the presence of iron. Bears, hares,
grouse, and m winter sables and fine-furred foxes are numerous, and the herring,
cod, salmon, front, and flounders abound on the coast. Communication with the
ea8l side of tae island is maintained by means of dog-sledges, which the Ainos are
expert in driving. South of Mauka Cove there are about a dozen trading stations
along the coast, each with its mountain stream and settlement of Coreans and
Ainos, who are employed by the European traders.

On Aniva Bay, at the other side of the peninsula, are situated the bar-
racks of Korsakov, military capital of the island. Here there is a garrison of about
500 men. Muraviov, another military station, facing the Japanese waters, lies
near the same coast, on a lake which communicates by a narrow channel with Aniva
Bay. Notwithstanding the difficulties of its bar, this post is perhaps the least
inconvenient in the island. But along its entire coast-line of about 1,200 miles
Sakhalin has not a single thoroughly sheltered harbour. Nevertheless this island
promises to be a valuable acquisition to the Russians, owing to its abimd&nt and
varied resources, including excellent timber, coal, iron, seaweed, whales and seals,
sablei), and other fur-bearing animals. The soil also in some of the most favoured
spots, is extremely fertile, and capable of g^wing all the useful plants of the
temperate zone.

•V WmfiiclWW^'*"'

mHifmmmm

SOCIAL ELEMENTS— THE EXILES AND OUTLiVWS.

Tlio liurbour
ti bold capo at
ind limestone,
nur huvo the
<C8 the iNlaiul
oir oxchan^en.
3, uro cngujj;cd
I tiHhories.
east couat, has

by Captain
' G' K.) is the
ovcrnment the

for u term of
, and has the

island. The

soldiers, and
)8 are said to
ough cold, the
and falling in
to the autumn

months, \<rith
uplands. But
)g8, extending
iiUeys — yellow
from the cove,

Bears, hares,

1 the herring,
ntion with the

the Ainos are
'ading stations
: Coreans and

ated the bar-
'rison of about
i waters, lies
el with Aniva
haps the least
ut 1,200 miles
less this island
abundant and
ales and seals,
most favoured
plants of the

IX.— MATERIAL CONDITION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SIBERIA.

FuK upwards of a hundred years the UuHsiuns have formed by far the most
considerable clement of the Siberiun population. Those who cluiin tu be Russiuni
and are really Slavs, either by direct descent or by crossings and a gradual process
of aNsimilution in manners or speech, rcproseut altogether about seven-eighths of
the inhabitants, and the proportion is rapidly increasing to their advantage not
only by their natural expansion, but also by the disappearance or Russiticution of
the native elements. Amongst the ruling people, of whom the Great Russians
form the vast majority, the distinction of Russians proper, Lithuanians, Esthonians,
Germans of the Baltic Provinces, and others have already almost entirely disap-
peared, so that they may be regarded as far more homogeneous even than the
population of European Russia. Slavs of every branch except the Poles are all
Russians alike in the eyes of Yakuts and Tunguses, as are also the Germans and
Finns, most of whom now speak the language of the Muscovite.

The origin of the first Siberian immigrants is well known. The eorly traders
were hunters, or promMtlanii/r . from the Novgorod settlements in the north of
Russia. Yermuk was accom od by Cossacks in his conquest of Sibir, but very
few cither of the traders . ,?«ick8 brought their families with them, and when

they settled in the country they generally married native women. The vast majority
of the subsequent arrivals down to the middle of the nineteenth century were
colonists against their will, either soldiers and officials or exiles, and of these the
latter element was perhaps the most niunerous. But the death rate was much
higher amongst them than amongst the other inhabitants of the country, and most
of them perished before they could become founders of families. Taking an average
only of those returned by the official documents as exiles, or say from 8,000 to
9,000 a year, it is beyond doubt that more than 1,000,000 of hu'.nan beings have
been banished to Siberia during the last two himdred and fifty years, exclusive of those
simply interned in this region.* With the exception of a few isolated, the first groups
of free colonists were the peasantry who migrated to the Lower Amur immediately
after the annexation of North Manchuria to the Russian Empire. No free immigration
had been possible until the abolition of serfdom. The Crown and landowners kept their
peasants for the cultivation of the land, only sending to Siberia the unfortunate
wretches whom they wished to get rid of. At the same time, these exiles, ceasing
to be serfs, soon acquired a greater degree of comfort thou they over knew in their
native land.

Social Elements — ^The Exiles and Outlaws.

The North Asiatic regions were peopled by Russian settlers in the same way

that the governments of Viatka, Perm, and Orenburg had been peopled. But to

criminals, habitual vagrants, " loafers," and outcasts of every sort the Government

here superadded schismatics and rebels. The hardships of the journey — epidemics,

scurvy, the rigours of the climate, the horrors of bondage, and enforced domicile,

* ExiliBiy^m 1823 to 1858: Men, 238,482; womttn, 42,844 ; women and childrau following the heads
of families, 23,286. Total, 304,618.

"■PB

ASUnO BUS8U.

cnmbinoil witli u continual inquiHiluriul r<^giino and tho voarinoM of homo aioknoM —
■ufficiently account for the oxcomivo mortality of ' o oxiloH, whilu the nnall pro-
portion of tho women accompanying them pru^ itn tho rapid ro-CHtabliHlimont of
domestic circloH. No doubt tho IluHHiun {M)pula( n of Siberia ban Wm more than
trebled during the lust hundred yearn. But compared with certain other colonial
■ettlementH Asiatic RuHsia ban been very slowly peopled during the three centuries
which have elapsinl since the conquest. If the returns can bo trusted, some districts
would even seem to have occasionally lost ground. Thus, while the government
of Tomsk shows a yearly increase of over 20,000 by tho natural excess of tho birth

Fig. SSO.—Dbniitt or thi SiniiiiAN Popui.ation.

NoaU I ! T0,0OO.OnO.

J'/

^c^';

P^^

60*

TlfG

rjcr

Inl»Utaiita to the SqiMn If ile.

CtoS.

Sto4.

4toS0.

SO to 4a

WtoSO.

SO to ISO.

110 to lao.

VnlnlMUtcd.
eooHUei.

rate, that of Irkutsk would appear to liave had 12,000 less inhabitants in 1873
than twelve years previously, the numbers having fallen, according to the Buasische
Heme, from 370,455 in 1861 to 358,700 in 1873. In most of the towns the popu-
lation would decrease were it not kept up by constant immigration, but in the rural
districts there is a steady normal increase. It is evident that on the whole the
expansion of the Slav element has largely compensated for the retrog^rade move-
ment amongst the indigenous peoples, all of whom, except the Yakuts, have fallen
off in many Siberian regions. The proportion of men is np' ly greater than
that of women, because Siberia is at once a land of exile and of immigration. Yet
the disparity of the sexes is much less than in Australia and in the lands of the far

mmm

■J4

lorae aiRknem —
J tbo nnall pro-
HtubliNhniunt of
been moro thuii
t other colonial
three centuries
I, Hoine cliHtrictd
ho government
)88 of the birth

loO*

tlSO.

ants in 1873
the JRuaaische
ms the popu-
t in the rural
he whole the
)grade move-
i, have fallen
greater than
ration. Yet
ids of the far

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

ISBlSiiUfilMTiii ill

PhotDgra[iiic

Sciences

Corporalion

<,w.*aw«»s»w»

CIHM/ICMH

Microfiche

Series.

CIHIVI/ICIVIH
Collection de
microfiches.

CaiMcUan Inttltun for Historical MIcroroproductioiw / Imtitut canadion do microroproductlons hlatoriquoa

SOCIAL ELEMENTS— THE EXILES AND OUTLAWS.

461

West, and at least in East Siberia males and females stand in the average propor-
tion of 10 to 9.

The name of Siberia has become synonjTnous with a " land of exile." Each
successive stage in the progress of Russian dominion in Asia has been marked by a
lino of penal settlements. At every fresh annexation transported convicts, dragging
their chains through steppe and forest, carried to the extreme limits of the empire
the proofs of the Czar's omnipotence. Under the shadow of every fortlet and
convent erected in the vast Siberian domain there were opened dungeons for the
reception of the exiled. At their very birth the colonies of Pelim, Beryozov,
Selenginsk, and Albazin were already marked off as convict stations, and on the
report of every fresh discovery at St. Petersburg, a gang of banished victims was
immediately marched to the spot. The history of the land is inseparably asso-
ciated with the mournful history of transportation.

The first decree of banishment struck the church bell of Uglich guilty of
having summoned, the people to arms at the time of the murder of Dimitri by Boris
Gudonov in 1591. It was condemned to "lose its tongue and ear," like ordinary
criminals, and to be transported to Pelim, whither it was soon followed by many
citizens of the same place, and later on by everybody suspected by Boris. During
the first century of Russian colonisation the exiles consisted almost exclusively of
State prisoners. But towards the end of the seventeenth century the conquered
Little Russians of Ukrania had to follow in the footsteps of the exiles from Great
Russia. These Little Russians, having been sent away in numerous batches, have
best preserved the customs of the mother country. Then the nimibers were
. swollen by the unhappy Raskolnik dissenters, many of whom perished on the road
of hardships, hunger, and torture, re-echoing the words of " Father " Avvakimi in
his memoirs, " The rafts are wearily stemmed against the current ; the headmen
are relentless, their sticks are heavy, their knouts cut the skin, and our food is the
carrion rejected by the wolf ! " " And must these sufferings last long ? " asked the
wife of the " pope," as she fell worn out with fatigue. " Unto death," gently
answered Father Avvakum. " Be it so, father," she said, taking fresh courage.
Amongst these Raskolniks of Siberia there were men whose first trial, on entering
the community, was to endure the torture of burning coals in the ear.

The Stryeltzi, also dissenters, were banished by Peter the Great to mount
guard in the remotest fortresses of the empire, as far as Okhotsk and Kamchatka.
Their direct descendants are still met in the settlements along the banks of the
Lena. After Peter's death the palace intrigues sent other unwilling exiles to
Siberia — the Menshikovs, Dolgorukis, Birons, Miinichs, Tolstois, Buturlins, and
other great names. " Fare thee well, and if for ever, still for ever fare thee well,"
were words in their hearts, if not on their lips, for they knew that, like all doomed
to Siberia, they would soon be forgotten. Some perished without leaving a trace
behind them, and when a turn in fortune's wheel brought their friends back to
power the wretched victims were sought for in vain amidst the forests and wastes
of the tundra. Soimonov, one of the few who were discovered, was immediately
installed as Governor of Siberia.

462

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

In 1658 began the transportation of the Poles, but the wholesale banishments
from tliis hmd date only from the time of Catherine II., with the confederates of
Bar and the associates of Kosciuzko. Of the Poles Avho had taken service under
Napoleon, nine hundred were sent to Siberia, and these were followed by numerous
convoys, especially after the revolution of ISfiO, and the various insurrections
which have taken place in Poland since that time.* These Polish exilps have taken
a larj^e share in the progress of the country. Thej' have improved the manage-
ment of the mines, created several local industries, taught horticulture, arid
developed family instruction.

The exiles whose memory awakens most sympathy amongst the Russians are
the so-called " Dekabrists," or " Decembrists," who reached Siberia in 182G. At
first they had much to suffer, but their condition was gradually improved, thanks to
the self-sacrifice of the women, who resolved to share the lot of their husbands —
thanks also to the influence of the Decembrists themselves, or their gaolers, and to
the spirit of association which they developed. They were all grouped in a com-
munal system organized in such a way that none could be reduced to want, and all
alike were provided with books, periodicals, and some of the comforts of civilised
existence. Their influence is even still felt in some of the towns of East Siberia.
Since then other political victims have been added to the Siberian population ; but
none of tliem have aroused the same feelings of sympathy u < did the Dekabrists.
They move about on foot like the ordinary convicts, and, like them, work in the
prisons, mines, and Government establishments. They are allowed neither to read,
associate together, nor select the work most suited to their own taste.

Formerly the gangs of convicts, whether condemned by common law or for
political causes, were joined together by a long iron bar, and in this way were
obliged to traverse on foot the 3,500 miles that separate the Bussian prisons from
Transbaikalia. The journey generally lusted about two years. They are still
marched from Tomsk to Chita on foot. On entering a village they intone, if
permitted, the mournful chant, or rather long wail, of the Misericordia (^Milo-
serdiiyaya^, and then the peasantry bring their offerings to the "unfortunates"
{iiyeschasMyc), as the exiles are called by all the Siberians, who refuse to regard
them as criminals. Even the katorjniye, or convicts condemned for crimes against
society, are everj'where well received, and their reconciliation with the commimity
is much facilitated by a certain feeling of esteem entertained for them, as for men
of resolution. But ihe j^oseleneiz, or ordinary petty thief, is usually regarded with
contempt, so that in Bussia it is almost better to be " hanged for a sheep than for a
lamb." Attempts at escape might easily be made, but there is a traditional code
of honour amongst the exiles, in accordance with which the attempt must not be
made en route, lest their comrades suffer in their place. Even on the march they
group themselves in communes and appoint their ovra. starosta.

* In 1863 alone as many as 18,023 Poles vrere banisbed to Siberia.

THE SIBERLiN RUSSIANS— THE COMMUNE.

4C3

banishments
fcderiitcs of
jrvice under
by numerous
insurrections
8 have taken
10 manage-
eulturc, an'd

lussians are
1826. At
•d, thanks to
husbands —
olers, and to
id in a corn-
rant, and uU
of civilised
last Siberia.
Illation; but
Dekabrists.
(vork in the
ther to read,

I law or for
:s way were
prisons from
ey are still
y intone, if
yrdia (Milo-
fortunates "
B to regard
mes against
community
as for men
farded with
) than for a
itional code
lust not be
narch they

The SiuERiAN Russians — The Commune.

The Siberians, being recruited at once from the best and worst classes of
Russian society, naturally present great contrasts in many respects to the inlui-
bitants of the mother country. Their inherited qualities, dcveloiied under new
conditions, necessarily tended to constitute them a special grouj) in the grcuit family
of the Russian Slavs. Their natural intelligence, though seldom quickened by
education, is perhaps even more acute than that of the European Russians. The
pleasure of " interviewing " strangers has much to do with the welcome recepticm
all receive in their izbas, which arc generally both spacious and cleanly, and with
better- furnished tables than many of those of the poverty-stricken Western Mujiks.
Never having endured serfdom, except perhaps in the mines and factories, enjoying
more room than Russian peasantry, and generally more exempt from official inter-
meddling of all sorts, the " Sibiryaks " have developed a keener sense of freedom.
But although there is nothing cringing in their voice or manners, they lack the
natural gentleness and genuine kindliness of the Western Slavs. They are, on the
whole, inferior to the Russians proper in morals, no less than in natural disposition
and industrial habits. Their great defect is apathy. Shrewd calculators, they yield
neither to the impulses of religious zeal nor to political theories ; hence scarcely
any poets or musicians are found amongst them. They are inquisitive without
taking the trouble to learn ; they are fond of comfort, but shrink from the labour
necessary to procure it ; they call themselves the equals of all, but never dream of
striking for freedom. Nevertheless, the example of the sublime acts of self-
sacrifice with which the history of the Siberian exiles is full has not been lost, and,
like the veins of gold in the crumbling rock, noble types are here and there
revealed in the midst of the prevailing mediocrity. Should Siberia ever acquire
any great importance in the civilised world, as may bo expected from the natural
resources of a large portion of her territory, she will not fail to make her influence
felt in the cause of local self-government and political freedom. .' '

As in European Russia, the bulk of the people are grouped in communes. The
whole of the land, with the exception of a few properties conceded under special
conditions, still belongs to the State, so that the communes enjoy its usufruct only.
Thus in the government of Krasnoyarsk there is only one landed estate, whose
privileges date from the reign of Catherine II. But properties are already being
indirectly created by the concession of long leases of eighty years and upwards, aa
in England.

In Siberia as in Russia the tnir, as a whole, is responsible to the Government for
the taxes, and distributes the land according to the number of " soids " — that is, of
able adults — who in their turn become boimd to the commune for the family taxes.
The Siberian mir is usually composed of several villages, each with its allotment of
lands, answering more or less to the number of its inhabitants. Thus each " soul "
has the use of about 14 acres, an extent of land which, if well cultivated, would
amply suffice for the support of several families. But the prevailing system is
ruinous to the land itself The Siberian peasant never manures his farm, when

I I

^^i^»me^mi^s^^^f4'^^0^-i}A:jmmmmm£mf5V3a'

464

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

exhausted simply allowing the soil to lie fallow. Ilenco he scarcely utilises more
than a third of iho land, and when he has raised three or four crops in succession
in one place ho passes on to another. Under this system the arable land cannot
he redistributed except at long intervals of time, or when the census is taken,
whereas the tracts under grass, producing hay unintermittently, are parcelled out
every year. The forest remains common property, although every peasant is free
to settle there, clear a certain extent of land, and sow his crops. But even then ho
does not become the owner, and the State removes him at pleasure, merely granting
him a few roubles per acre as compensation for disturbance.

The commune is bound to receive into its organization all the exiles that become
colonists after the expiration of their sentence. They obtain a site for their house,
an acre and a quarter for their garden, and their due proportion of the fields and
meadows. But many remain outcasts, receiving neither lands nor rights. This
floating element constitutes tho hrodyngi, or vagrant class, whose number is, of
course, unknown to tho census takers, but who are supposed to average about one-
fourth of those condemned to hard labour. In 1848 and 1849 as many as 3,104
prisoners escaped from Nyerchinsk alone. These outcasts thus avoid the hardships
of mining and tho monotonous life of the cantonments, but in so doing they
voluntarily adopt a career which would be intolerable to any but the condemned
convict. Nor does the pleasure of being their own masters last very long, for
during the hard winter season the only resource in most cases left them is to allow
themselves to bo confined, imder a false name, in some prison far from that whence
they have escapctl.

To prevent such evasions, the Russian authorities of Transbaikalia and the other
Siberian countries were formerly accustomed to destroy tho cartilage of the nostrils
of all tho condemned. Until 1864 they were branded on tho forehead and both
cheeks with letters burnt into the flesh ; but at present tho authorities limit them-
selves to declaring all those as outlaws who escape from the mines, thus giving
every one, even Timguses and Buriats, the right to shoot them down with impunity.
This has rendered the natives themselves more cruel, and human life is now held
in little account in those regions. Tho crack of the rifle is soon lost in the silence
of tho forest. " The antelope," says the Buriat, " yields but one skin ; but the
chaldon (outlaw) yields three — his pelisse, his coat, ai^fl his shirt." Yet there is no
lack of vagrants even in these districts. They learn to avoid tho dangerous places,
they take the right direction through the virgin forest by instinct, and they
quickly recognise the marks left by the Tunguses, or by other outlaws who have
preceded them. From one end of Siberia to the other all the brodyagi have thus
covered the land with signs unintelligible, or even invisible to others, but perfectly
clear to themselves. They are, moreover, protected by the villagers, who derive a
profit by employing them on their farms, in return for their food alone. In
isolated houses the outlaw always finds bread, milk, salt, rude garments, left here
by the peasantry for their unhappy countrymen. There are many villages where
they may reside without fear, and even cultivate the land and found a family,
confidently relying on the connivance of all the inhabitants. They have even

AGBICULTUBE— THE CHASE AND FISHEEIES.

405

utilises more
in succession
land cannot
ms is taken,
parcelled out
msant is free
even then ho
ely granting

that become
their house,
le fields and
ights. This
umber is, of

about ono-
ny as 3,104
10 hardships

doing they
» condemned
ry long, for

1 is to allow
that whence

id the other

the nostrils .
ad and both
limit them-
thus giving
li impunity,
is now held

the silence
a ; but the
; there is no
fous places,
. and they
I who have

have thus
t perfectly
to derive a
alone. In
3, left here
ges where

a family,
have even

formed villages nil to themselves, and in unforcsocn circumstances, requiring an
exltu amount of labour, the authorities tlu'iusclves have uppeulod to the vagrants,
on iiio tacit understanding of "asking no questions," or demanding their passports.
On such occasions hundreds of persons mysteriously emerge from the surrounding
forests and undertake the required work. According to the official statistics, the
proportion of centenarians will seem to be far greater in Siberia than in European
Russia, although the average death rate is lower in the latter country.* Wut it
may bo asked whether those pretended Siberian centenarians are not simply outlaws
who have been substituted for defunct peasants in the commune. The homeless
fugitive, " Ivan the Nameless," or " Michael Know-nothing," has received the
papers which, in the eyes of all, constitute him the official representative of a known
family. What can it matter if these documents add some twenty or thirty years
to his age P

Religious Sects — The Stranniki.

The brodyagi, who have escaped from prison or from their place of internment,
are not the only " vagabonds " in the land. In these boundless regions immensity
itself has its attractions. Thus the sect of the Stranniki, or " Wanderers," has
many representatives in Siberia, where they arc ceaselessly roaming over woodlands
and highlands in search of that " White Water " which cleanses from all sin, and
at the same time insures them everlasting bliss. In most of the towns and
villages they find friends, who, though really members of tho sect, lead a
sedentary life, and outwardly conform to the orthodox religion. Their sole mission
is to give hospitality to their " wandering " brethren, and screen them from the
police. When they are discovered and thrown into prison, tho Stranniki thank tho
Lord for the trial which has overtaken them, and which must purify their faith.
But as a rule tho " raskol," or " dissent," finds a less propitious soil in Siberia than
in European Bussia, and the indifference of the Sibiryaks in religious matters has
ended by reacting on the Raskolniks themselves. Except in tho valleys of the
Altai and the colonies of the Amur, founded by the Dukhobortzi, the great
majority of the Slav population consists of Orthodox Greeks. In all Siberia there
are only five Protestant churches, and according to the official returns the Siberian
Protestants number altogether only 6,990 from Tobolsk to Vladivostok. A
missionary establishment founded at Irkutsk is engaged in converting the natives
to the orthodox religion.

Agriculture — The Chase and Fisheries.

Still in a rudimentary state, the agriculture of Siberia scarcely suffices for the
wants of the population. Yet in the southern regions there are excellent lauds,
which might be made to yield in abundance all the products of the temperate zone
in Europe. In a description of Russia translated from the Chinese by Klaproth,
the writer expresses his amazement that although they know how to sow, the
Russians " do not understand the art of weeding their fields." This remark of the
* One centenarian to 805 inhabitants in Siberia ; one to 2,702 in Bussia.

400

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Chinese observer holds gowl now, nnd the Siberians still repent tho sn}'ing quoted
by Gnu'iin, " All thiit work yields is bud, for it conies not of (umI." No d(»ubt
some llussian Raskolniks und Chinese or Coreun inimigrunts in tho nmritimo
province have set tho exuniplo of systematic tillugo, but they huvo found few
imitators amongst tho Siberian peasantry. Almost everywhere the fields and
gardens have a neglected look. But tho grassy lands are naturally very fine,
abounding in savoury herbs, and supporting large herds of cattle. Tho horses,
although ill-cared for and living in herds almost in u wild state, are also very
numerous in Siberia, where they reckon nearly one horse to every inhabitant. Tho
"Siberian ])lugue," which makes grout ravages amongst the herds, is said to have
originated in the Uaraba steppe.

Tho chase, which has hero an historic interest, having led to the discovery and
Bettlement of Siberia, has remained one of the chief industries of Asiatic Itussia.

Fig. 231.— PiiODvoB OF East Sibbiuan Sablb Hu.vtino i'Hom 1850 to 1866.

Boole 1 : 26,000,000.

1 to 3 Feet.

Sablei per Trappor.

8 to 6 Fleet. 6 to 40 Feet. 40 Feet and apwarda.

_^.ii_^^ 300 Miles.

The Yakuts and Tunguses still continue, as they did two bundred years ago, to
yield to their conquerors that tribute of peltries which has been the source of so
many atrocities and infamous speculations. Nevertheless, this industry is still
followed by entire villages of promishloniye, who are the noblest, most upright, and
daring hunters in Siberia. Nearly fifty different species of animals are trapped
for their furs, and they perish by the million during the hunting season. The
yearly export of peltries from Siberia, exclusive of those taken from marine
animals, represents a gross value of from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 roubles. The
standard price of all the Siberian skins is regulated by that of the sable, which
averages from 8 to 10 roubles, though the finest, of a very deep colour, and
sprinkled with white hairs, fetch as much as 80 roubles even on the spot. But
the sablo is a very little animal, smaller than the European marten, and, as the skin
of the back alone is used in the preparation of costly pelisses, as many as eighty
skins are required for one robe alone, which thus comes to cost nearly 5,000

MINING INDUSTRIES.

407

Rnying quoted

il." No (l()ul)t

tho iimritimo

lave found few

tho fields and

•ully very fine,

Tho liorses,

L", arc also veiy

ihubitant. Tho

is Muid to have

R discovery and
Asiatic llussia.

1855.

roubles. Tho fur of tho black fox is oven more highly prized than tluif of tho
siihle, and some of the finer speciniens have been sold htr over •Mi) roubles. Tho
skins of tho sfjuirrel ah)no furnish ulK)ut a third part of tho revenue of Siberia from
this source, and from ten to twelve, and even fifteen millions of these rfKleiils have
been killed in a single year during their migrations. Through Kiakhta, China
receives u considerable portion of these jieltrics, but a fur larger (piantity is purchased
by Kuropo. At tho Irbit fair tho Russian, Polish, and (jiernian dealers compete for
these costly spoils, whoso value is increased tenfold before it reaches the consumer.*
Several species, especially of tho more highly esteemed fur-bearing animals, are
known to havo considerably decreased since tho taiga, or Siberian woodlands, have
boon brought within tho influence of tho Kuropeun markets. Nevertheless, none
of the land species pursued by the Siberian trappers havo entirely disappeared.
The forest offers them better sboltor than tho marine animals find on tho shores of
the ocean.

The Siberian fisheries potoess an economic value of the first imiwrtance, for
they supply their chief support to entire popidations, not only amongst the natives,
but oven in many communities of Russian origin. But the capture of largo species
has considerably fallen off, at least in Lake Baikal. Nor do tho Russians any
longer follow the whalo in tho Arctic waters, while in the pursuit of tho smaller
cetacea they have been succeeded by the Americans in the North Pacific, and in
the Kara Sea by the Norwegians. Hence, apart from tho local consumption,
which is enormous, the yield of the Siberian fisheries for the export trade is
■insignificant. In this respect Siberia, with its thousands of miles of coast-lino, its
great lakes and countless rivers, is of less importance than the basins of the Kuban,
Terek, and Kur alone, on both sides of the Caucasus.

L;.

MiNiNO Industries.

1 years ago, to

s source of so

dustry is still

It upright, and

is are trapped

season. The

from marine

roubles. The

e sable, which

p colour, and

10 spot. But

id, as the skin

any as eighty

nearly 5,000

The mining industry has also fallen off considerably since the middle of the
present century. But the extent of her metalliferous deposits none tho less insures
to Siberia a high position amongst the co i .tries producing the precious mctuls.
On an average tho Russian Empire supplies to trade the eighth part of the annual
gold yield of the whole world, and three-fourths of this quantity, or about the
eleventh part of the total production, comes from Siberia. The first gold- washings
occurred about the beginning of this century in the torrents of the Siberian TJrals,
and the mines of the Altai had already become profitable to their owner, the Czar.
But the period of prosperity set in about 1825, and lasted till the middle of the
century. Since that time the number of mines and gold-washings has no doubt
increased, but the profits of these undertakings have greatly diminished. The

• Peltries brought to the Irbit

market in 1876:-

- a:' ■. .■ '\' . i -

Skini.

Bkins.

Squirrels (small grey) .

. 5,000,000

Martens of divers species

750,000

Ermine

216,000

Sables

12,000

HHres

300.000

Suudiits

200,000

Foxes of divers species

82,000

r"^

408

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

mnnnp'ors of tho varioun works gonornlly lack the noccHWiry instriK'tion, and are
fvt'ii i^norunt of tho imtiiro of t\w rovkn which prcnluco the aiirifcroUH muikIh.
ThcHc wiikIh have boconio inipovcriNhwl in n)o«t of th<' rivorn, since thouHanfU of
gohl-scckcrH have Im'^iui to work thcni. ThuN ho moan proportion of metal in tho
aiiriforouH Munds of the Yonisoi ^ovornmont has gnuhtully docroaHod fnmi tho
throc-tliouHi'.ndth part f^old to ono-ttfth or ono-tonth of that quantity. Moreover,
tho owners of minoH have lost tho monopoly which fonnorly enriched them, and
they no lonj^er connnand the Hervices of thoumtnds of serfH jifiven to them by tho
Crown. LalKdir is now free, and whilo tho value of gold is gradually diminish-
ing in tho market compared with that of provisions and industrial pnKluce, tho
wages of tho miners are increasing. Yet tho wretched condition of tho latter hus
scarcely improved. Working in tho half-frozen water of tho streams, oxpose<l to
tho iuclomoncy of an oxcossively scvoro climate, devoured by mosquitoes, obliged to

Fig. 232.— QoLD- WASH iNos m tub Amur Damn.

acale 1 : 10,000,000i >

120Hfle«.

pass the night in foul outhouses, they are supplied with insufficient food, washed
down with pernicious alcoholic drinks, which they are compelled to purchase at
three or four times their value in the booths of their employers. At the end of the
season, when the sands again become hardened by the frost, most of them ore no
better off than when they set out for the mine, and those who have managed to
save a little money immediately squander it in the taverns of " London," " Paris,"
and the other neighbouring villages of the Olokminsk district. There are altogether
about a thousand gold- washings, yielding 80 lbs. of gold, or perhaps 100 lbs. includ-
ing the metal concealed from the fiscal officers in order to avoid paying the tax.
Since 1726, when the Siberian gold-fields first began to be worked, the total yield
connot be estimatetl at less than £120,000,000.* Next to the Urals and Altai, the
most productive auriferous regions are those of the Upper Yenisei, Angara, Vitim,

* Yield of gold in European and Asiatic Russia from 1720 to 1876, 3,128,680 lbs., valued at
£176,800,000. Gold-seekers in East Siberia in 1877, '^1,272.

i4>n. 'f^vm9 ■•

mHfmmmm

-r

MANUFACTUUES— TRADK.

400

iction, niid aro
iriforouM kuikIh.
['o thoiiNandN of
of metal in tho
'a8i><I from tho
ty. Moreover,
:hcd them, and
to them by tho
lully diniiniHh-
il pr<Mlu{!e, tho
tho luttor has
ms, oxpoHc<l to
toes, obliged to

food, washed
> purchase at
;he end of the
' them are no
3 managed to
•n," " Paris,"
ire altogether
'0 lbs. includ-
ying the tax,
le total yield
nd Altai, tho
igara, Vitim,

Iba., valued at

and Oh)kma basins. The present annual yield of gold in Silwria is valued at
i;i,2()(>,0()0.

Tho yield ol silver is proiM)rtionaU>ly far less conNideriibht. Nevertheless the
mines of TranMi)aikalia, whieh are tho most important, and whieh have be«'n worke<l
since the iM'ginniiig of the eighteenth century, have produced argent it'erous lead
ores, from which have lu'en extractefl over 7,'0O(l,O()O lbs, (tf nilvt'r, valued at u]>wanls
of £'^0,000,000, The present, yearly averagt is alM)ut il'iOO, ()()(), C.'opp«'r mining has
also ae(|uired 8(mie importance in the Ural and Altai regions, but the great metalliirgio
intluNtry is that of iron. The first works were founded on the Siberian slopes of the
Urals two hundred and lifty years ago, and nearly 100,000 hands are now employed
in the various factories of the Yekaterinburg mining district, which yields some of
the finest iron in the world, Tho annual production of the Ural regi<jn has b<'en
trebled since the l)eginning of the present century. At the same time tho increase
during tho same period in most eiviliscHl countries has been far more ctmsiderable,*
Gra])hite is also mined in the Urals, as it was till recently in Mount Alib<rt, near
Irkutsk. 8il)eriu draws from her salt lakes, rivers, and mines sufticient of that
article for tho local demand, while she also possesses extensive coul monsurcs in tho
Kusnetzk district, in tbe Lena and Amur basins, and in Hakhalin, But all these
resources have hitherto been but little utilised. Such vast accumulations of fuel
necessarily lie idlo in u country without iudustrios, and almost dcstituto of inha-
bitants.

Manufactures — Tradk.

Manufacturea, such as those which flourish in Europe, could naturally he deve-
loped only in tho southern regions of Siberia, where the Russian population has
been concentrated. But even here they are far from numerous, and their total
yield still represents but a very small portion of the various manufactured wares
required to meet the annual local demand. The enterprising members of the com-
munity prefer the chance of rich " finds " in the gold-fields to steady manual labour,
and most of the available money of small capitalists is absorbed in these ventures.
Hence the wants of the inhabitants still continue to be supplied from abroad.
Hardware comes from the Urals ; china, woven goods, and leathers from European
Bussia ; genuine or sham fancy wares from the far West. The people of East Siberia
eagerly purchase the most trumpery objects of this class in the markets lying to
the west of the Irtish and Tobol Rivers.

Most of the local factories formerly commanded the labour of the convicts, and,
having thus no wages to pay, they were able to compete in tho production of certain
articles with their foreign rivals. But at present manual labour is quite as dear in
Siberia as elsewhere in the Russian Empire, and even in the Yenisei and Amur
basins the rate of wages is higher than in European Russia. The only really
important local manufacturing industry is the distilleries. In Asia, as in Europe,

* Annual yield of iron in tbe Urals and Siberia from 1707 to 1857, 169,000 tons ; from 1867 to 1877,
492,000 tons.

l*J»«iJ,&'***!«*Sa^^S*'-

470

ASIATIC mrnsiA.

lar^o (|iiiiiititi(>N of ^riiin iiiitl potutoon ar« con i't«>U into iilroliolif driiilcN, wliich
uro rctiiilctl in iiiiiiniicnihlo tavcriiN. V'ft tlrinikciuuMH in ]M<rhu|m Ichm proviilctit
ill Silxria than in UiiNNia ])ro|H>r. Including; thi-Ntt (liHtiH«>rii>M, tlio nutnlM>r of
indiiNtriai cNtiiMiNliinrntN iH'twccn tlic Ol) and tht> Amur anioiinttKi in |H7(t,
atcordin^ to Snltlxitin, to 1, 100, i>inplo\ n^ 4,0()0 InindN, and producinf; nianii-
fa«tuic<l ):(\»m\h valufd at 8,000,000 roubk-s, or ucurly 2 ruublus pur Lead of tho
pttpidation.

Itut indiiMtry tniiNt n(>(-ONNarily remain in a rudimentary Ntato in a country almoNt
duMtitutu of towuN, the natural murketH for lalxiur of all HortN, aH well iw the true
nurseries of Htudy, refinement, and soeial amenitieN. Kven including the mining (Uh-
trietsof the Kastern TralH, tlie whole of Siberia, a region larf^er than the ecmtinent of
Europe, contains no more than Heventirn towuH with a |H)pulation of upwards of .'5,000.
In other words, there is, on tho average, unly ono ftueh town to a npaco uh largo ua
Franco and Italy combined. And uvon thcHO tuwnH uro nioro like largo villagoH,
most of tho hoUMOH lH>ing const riu'ted of wood. So rare aro Mtono buildings in
Siberia that in lH7o more than half tho towns, or IH in Ml, were destitute of u single
Btructuro of this material, and where sucli did exist they rarely amountinl to more
than ten or twelve. In some parts of Kast Siberia the fear of earthquakes would
appear to have u certain influence in keeping up tho practi<;o of erecting exclusively
wooden houses, but this method of building is undoubtedly duo nniinly to tho rudi-
mentary state of Siberian civilisation. In any case it is not a littlo remarkable
that tho towns in this region increase very slowly in ]K)puIati(m, tho actual growth
in this respect being mostly limited to tho rural districts. Such expansion as does
tak(! place is duo in the towns far more to tho arrival of liuHuiun settlors thuu to
tho natural excess of tho birth rate.

Important fairs nro still held in tho opon country, and certain clearings along
the banks of tho Amur and Lena become at definite times of tho year u rendezvous
for thousands of Yakuts, Tunguses, and Ru sians. J^von the famous fair of Irbit
was originidly nothing but a great " camp meeting " in tho midst of tho forest.
The Siberian dealers aro nearly all Russians, either hawkers from Vladimir, who
visit in succession all the markets as fur as tho Yakut and Buriat territories, or else
shopkoopors or clerks from North Russia, who have been hired out, or rather sold
by their families while still mere children. Tho town of Cherdin alone, in the
government of Perm, annually supplies to this traffic from twenty to forty chil-
dren, whom the corriors cart away at a fixed price to the Irbit fair, and who are
then engaged as unpaid apprentices for a term of tHree years by some remote
master tradesmen, proprietors, or merchants.

Siberia naturally does a considerable trade with European Russia, as most of the
manufactured goods and fancy articles arrive from beyond the Urals. But the annual
exchanges Avith China are still relatively of slight importance, and have even dimi-
nished when compared with the general movement of the empire, although the two
states have a common frontier of some thousands of miles in extent. The exchanges,
such as they are, are greatly in favour of China, which is chiefly an exporting
coimtry. But the quantity of teu forwarded through the Siberian custom-houses

<• (IriiikH, wliich

I l«'8H |ir(>Vllll>l|t

li«> niniilN>r of
lilted ill IM7({,
<)<liin'ii^ iiiiiiiit-
•cr hfud of tlio

counfryalnioHt
rt'c'll UN (ho fru(»
(li(> mining (liH-

K' continent of
•wiinlHof fj.OOO.
Muro iiM Iiirffo ufl

lurjifo villaj^oH,
lo buildjiif^M in i
tutoof It Hinglo
ountwl to more
hqujikt'H would
ing cxoluHivcIy
ily to the nidi-
tlo ronmrkablo
lu'tuul jjfpowth
)anHion ua dooa
Kittlurs thuu to

jloaringH along
r u rcndezvouH
18 fuir of libit

of the forest.
Vladimir, who
itories, or else
or rather sold

alone, in the *
to forty chil-
', and who are

some remote

as most of the
5ut the annual
ve even dimi-
ough the two
lie exchanges,
an exporting
ustom-houses

IIKIUWAVH OF coMMirNK'ATION— TIIK TUAKT-IIAILWAY I'UOJKCTS. 171

incrniw'N very nlowly, owing to the conHtantiy iiicreaNiag coiiiiN-titioii of thi' mou
route through the Suex Cuiiul with the overhind eomniereiul liighwiiyM. On tliO
other hand, the priKluctN of the UuHHian and SilM>riun fuctorieH are more mtited to
tlie tiiNte of the Kirghiz and MoiigolianM than to that of the ChineNe, who are
more diHieult to pleiiNe, and wlio in any cane receive thniugh their Nea|KirtN all the
Kiiropean wiircn wliicii tliey i'i'«|iiire. No doubt the UiiNNiaii iiiaritinie provinces wiip-
plicM " Hea-cal»l»ag«'," ticpaiig, and (ImIi to tlie Muridundiiig ('liiiicMe diNtriitn. Hut
this iiiteruatioiial trade can liavi< but a Hiiglit economic ini|H)rtaiice ho long m Uun«
aian Manchuria reinaiiiN uninhabited except by u few Hcattered comniunitieH.* The
abacnco of commercial relati(mH between Siberia and the neighl)ouritig caHtern
regions is iN'trayed by the Htnall nuinlM>r of telegraphic dispatclicH traiiHiiiitted from
lluNNia to China and Japan, which in 1H7K itiiountcd altogether only to 1,1 10. t The
moMMiigeH forwarded in transit iM'tween West Kurop(> and China and Japan viii
VludivoHtuk are far uturu uumeruuH thuu thuse of UusHiu itttelf.t

TIioiiWAYH OF Communication — ^Thk Tiukt — Railway PRojEfrrs.

With the gradual development of her means of communication the trade and
population of Siberia cannot fail to increase. The trakf, as the great highway from
Perm to Kiakhta is usually callwl, has already done more for the civilisation of
these regions than the waterways themselves. The i?ili.ibitants have become con-
centrated in groups along this route, and at certain distances from Iwth sides of it.
It is traversed by long lines of waggons and sleighs while the fairs are being held,
and, although sinking here and there in the quagmires, the carts will cover from
45 to 60 miles u day. The horses, which are of u special breed, feed en route
from u crib attached to the preceding cart, and exposed to the weather, so that the
oats often get mixed with the snow. At the head of the convoy is the head-man's
waggon, decorated with a small shrine, a sort of ambulatory chapel containing a
sacred image. This izvoa, or rarriago traffic, has caused thriving villages to spring
up by the roadside, generally consisting of a single line of houses from 1 to IJ
miles long. These two-storied houses, with their cheerful balconies, present a rcraark-
oble contrast to the wretched izbas of Central Idissia. Some of the stages occurring
at longer intervals along the trakt have grown into towns, of which those on the
banks of rivers, and consequently at the converging point o ' several routes, are natu-
rally the most important. On the other hand, the windings of the trakt itself have
caused the decay of other towns, which have thus become abandoned in favour of

• Trade of Russia with China, according to (^ubbotin : —

Average from 1fli27 to 1831

„ 1842 to 1846

„ 1864 to 1868

Year 1876 . . .

t To China 69/), to Japan 616.

X Diaputches in transit vift Vladivostok, 246,332 words, or about 20,000 meaaagea.

Exports.
1,200,000

Imports.
2iiO,OUO

Total.
1,400,000

Proportion to the
totnl 'I'mde of
the Kmpirc.
1 percent.

6,500.000

6,600.000

13,000,000

6,800,000

4,600,000

10,300,00t

26 „

2,600,000

14,100,000

16,600,000

2 ..

umi'i i ui i m i J iK t-n :j ;. i ij » ». ! nn i jj iii . . . i , ii i! i |»jii i « l »i i i ii[r .» i r -

47S

ASIATIC EU8SIA.

more convenient sites, and fresh centres of population have in this way sprung up
in the midst of the steppe or forest.

The future railways, with their various side branches, will have analogous results,
but their construction must be long delayed by the very immensity of the distances
and the sparse population of the regions to be traversed by them. No doubt a line
has already crossed the Urals, on either side of which are two stations, respectively
known as "Europe" and "Asia." But this line is not yet connected with the
European system. The branch ultimately destined to unite the European and
Central Asiatic with the great trunk line from Yekaterinburg to Pekin will probably
pass through Orenburg. The distance from the Urals to the capital of China is
estimated by Bogdanovich at about 3,480 miles, of which rather more than 660
lie within the Chinese frontier.

The first section of this main line between Yekaterinburg and Tumen has
already been begun, and although only 225 miles long, it is expected to cost about
25,000,000 roubles. The capital required to construct the whole line from the Urals
to the Pacific seaboard cannot be estimated at less than £80,000,000. Siberia has
hitherto remained beyond the influence of international movement, but when it has
become the direct and necessary line of passage for most travellers between Europe
and the extreme east a genuine revolution will have been accomplished in the his-
tory of mankind. China cannot be easily brought within the sphere of a universal
international railway system except through Siberian territory. The southern and
western frontiers of the " Middle Empire " are fringed by plateaux and highlands
rising above the line of perpetual snow. But towards the north broad gaps and
regularly sloping depressions give access at several points from the Irtish and Amur
basins to that of the Hoang-ho. The highway of the ancient military migrations of
Huns and Mongols might easily be reopened, to be henceforth traversed rather by
locomotives and express trains then by conquering hosts. What nations and races
are destined most to benefit by this future highway crossing the eastern hemisphere
is one of the most serious problems still awaiting solution.

Education — ^Administration.

The Siberian people are not preparing themselves by a solid system of educa-
tion for their high destinies in the civilised world. This region is still far below
Europe in the relative number of its schools and scholars. In some towns there
are scarcely ten children receiving regular instruction, and in 1870 the whole of
East Siberia had only 283 schools, attended by 8,610 pupils, in a total population of
1,500,000. In many districts the Russian colonists, lost amidst the surrounding
Yakut peoples, have even forgotten their mother tongue and national usages, and
they now purchase their wives by paying the kalim like the other natives. Never-
theless several Siberians have already distinguished, themselves by their scientific
attainments and literary labours. Among contemporary Russian savants and men
of letters there are some even with Buriat and Yakut blood in their veins, and
their works have already penetrated to the masses. But the young men of Asiatic

EDUCATION— ADMINISTRATION— POLITICAL LIFE,

478

ray sprung up

logous results,
' the distances
o doubt a line
}, respectively
cted with the
European and
will probably
il of China is
ore than 660

d Tumen has
to cost about
rom the Urals
Siberia has
it when it has
tween Europe
3d in the his-
of a universal
southern and
md highlands
oad gaps and
ish and Amur
migrations of
'sed rather by
Ions and races
n hemisphere

»m of educa-
itill far below
e towns there
the whole of
population of
I surrounding
1 usages, and
ves. Never-
beir scientific
mts and men
jir veins, and
en of Asiatic

Russia, anxious to prosecute their studies, are still obliged to proceed to Europe.
The university so long expected, and which was endowed by anticipation some fifty
years ago, is only just beginning to rise above its foundations. Its erection was not
definitely decided on by the Council of State and approved of by the late Czor,
Alexander II., till the year 1878. In the same year throughout the whole of
Siberia, with a population of 4,000,000 scattered over an area larger than all

' ' Fig. 2J3. — Vladivostok amd the Eastbbn Bospobub.

SoUel :86,000. ,

Otol6Feet. 16to90F«et. 80 Feet and opwardi.

-— .— .1— _ 2,160 Tarda.

Europe, there were only two periodicals, one weekly ana one monthly, apart from
the official notices published in each of the provincial capitals.

Siberia comprises two great governments, that of West Siberia, with Omsk for
its capital, and East Siberia, whose capital is Irkutsk. Each of these main divi-
sions is subdivided into governments and provinces, which are again distributed
into districts and circles. The province of the Amur, whose administration par-
takes more Qf a military character than any other part of this vast domain, is divided
81

•MMMBi

474

ASIATIC EUSSIA.

into Cossack " regiments " and " battalions." But on the whole the Government
of Siberia may bo said to bo modelled on that of European Russia. Municipal,
judicial, religious institutions are all based on the same uniform plan, and the dif-
ferences arising out of the vastness of the distances and the local customs are being
gradually effaced. Formerly the true masters of the land beyond the urban
districts were the dealers, who, through their monopoly of the peltry trade,
disposed of the very lives of entire populations. But although they have still
great power, their authority is now, at all events, second to that of the commanding
officers and higher Government functionaries. Practically the representatives of
the Czar possess almost absolute control, and their will or caprice is implicitly
obeyed. A region of banishment and prisons, peopled by convicts and the children
of exiles, far too few in numbers and too scattered to form communities capable of
combined resistance, Siberia has never yet thought of asserting its autonomy.
Even were she one day to assert her independence, her inhabitants are too closely
allied to the European Russians by the ties of a common origin and civilisation to
allow the future of both countries ever to be separated. From the Danube to the
Amur, Russia and Siberia have the same political destinies, and the same social
spirit must continue to animate both nations, even though one autocrat may some
day cease to control the aggressive forces of each.

SiBEBTAN Political Life.

The people of Siberia, as Kolb well observed, has hitherto led a life of its own,
troubling itself little about the rrmote centres of government in St. Petersburg or
Moscow. A Polish exile wrote some thirty years ago, " This country will soon
cease to be a region of terror and captivity, for it possesses all the means (with
the exception of its being a very cold country) of becoming in time a land of pros-
perity and freedom. Siberia has no nobility, no peculiarly privileged classes, very
few officials, and a population which has never been in bondage, and knows how to
govern itself." Another circumstance has since been added, viz. the powerful,
ever-increasing influence of the neighbouring country of North America and its
republican institutions, which reach as far as Bering Strait, since the sale of the
Russo- American colony. Among the admirers and advocates of these institu-
tions are those Poles who were sent to Siberia by tens of thousands after the last
insurrection, and who find here more freedom and liberty than in any other part of
Europe. The communication between Novo-Nikolayevsk and the rapidly growing
city of Francisco constantly increases. Professor Eachenusky, of Charkov, has
remarked that " the further we advance towards the east the freer and more
independent do we find life and opinions among us. The principle of independ-
ence is infinitely farther advanced in Moscow than in St. Petersburg, but most of
all in ill-fated Siberia."

tho Government
iia. Municipal,
an, and the dif-
tstoms are being
'•ond the urban
le peltry trade,

they have still
he commanding
presentatives of
ce is implicitly
md the children
lities capable of

its autonomy.
8 are too closely
i civilisation to
i Danube to the
the same social
)crat may some

life of its own,
Petersburg or
iintry will soon
le means (with
a land of pros-
ed classes, very
i knows how to
. the powerful,
Lmerica and its
the sale of the
these institu-
I after the last
y other part of
ipidly growing
E Charkov, has
'eer and more
e of independ-
g, but most of

QEOWTH OF THE EUS3IAN EMPIBE. 475

GROWTH OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.

Our account of European and Asiatic Russia may be fittingly concluded with a
brief retrospect of the steps by which the empire has gradually acquired its
present enormous expansion. Its colossal growth, remarks Kolb, began in 1581,
in which year the Cossack Hetman Yermak Temogefev surrendered to Czar
Ivan II. the vast regions of West Siberia, which he had overrun with amazing
rapidity. But it was not till the time of Peter the Great that Russia began to be
held in any regard by the more civilised states of Christendom. In 1707 Peter
took possession of the recently discovered peninsula of Kamchatka, and, what was
of far more importance, by the Peace of Nystadt, in 1721, Russia wrenched from
Sweden parts of Finland, Ingria, Karelia, Esthonia, and Livonia. Azov, which
was taken from the Turks in 1699, was again lost in 1711. But, on the other
hand, the Czar took from the Persians Daghestan, Shirv&n, Ghil&n, and Derbent,
large portions of which were, however, restored to the Shah in 1732 and 1736.

The Kirghiz Kasaks were subdued in 1730, and the Ossetes of the Central
Caucasus in 1742. The easternmost portion of Siberia, the Aleutian Islands, and
the Bering Archipelago were also incorporated in the same year. The Finnish
province of Kymenegard was secured by the treaty of Abo in 1743. Then
followed the three partitions of Poland, under Catherine II., in 1772, 1793, and
1795, Russia thereby acquiring nearly two-thirds of this once powerful monarchy.

By the Peace of Kuchuk-Kainarji, July 22nd, 1774, the Turks finally surrendered
Azov, part of the Crimea, and Kabardia in Caucasia. The rest of the Crimea
followed in 1783, and by the Peace of Yassy, January 9th, 1792, Oczakov was
absorbed. Georgia also came under the protection of the Czar in 1783, and
Kurland and Leni in 1793.

In 1793 also followed the conquest of Persian territory as far as the river Kur,
while the formal annexation of Georgia was effected in 1801. Although worsted
in the war of 1807 by the French, Russia nevertheless acquired by the I'eace of
Tilsit, July 7th, the province of Byalistok, which had been taken from her ally,
Prussia. The Peace of Vienna, October 14th, 1809, transferred the Circle of
Turnopol and part of East Galicia from Austria to Russia. The Peace of
Friedrichshaven, November 17th, 1809, deprived Sweden of what remained to her
of Finland ; the Peace of Bucharest, May 28th, 1812, took Bessarabia from the
Turks ; that of Tiflis, in 1813, robbed Persia of parts of the Caucasus ; and two
years later the Congress of Vienna gave Poland to her ancient rival.

After fresh wars the Persians lost the provinces of Erivan and Nakhichevan
(now called Russian Armenia) by the Peace of Turkmansheir, February 22nd, 1828 ;
and the following year, by the Peace of Adrianople, the Turks surrendered Anapa,
Poti, Akhaltzik, and Akhalkalaka. The desire to precipitate the dissolution of the
Ottoman Empire led to the Crimean war of 1853, in which England and France
joined in 1854, and Sardinia in 1855, and which ended in the Peace of Paris,
March 31st, 1866. The Russians were now compelled, for the first time for over a

»a«M<gig»8e»Kfea M »,fe iE;, V>=TgJtKffr'.~'ia;r-;S h'^BS

470

ASIATIC BUSSIA.

century, to agree to a cession of territory, restoring to Rumania the left bank of
the Danube in Bessarabia, in which tract were included Ismail and Kiala.

The final subjection of the whole of Caucasia was effected in 1859 and 1864,
when the Circassian people migrated in a body to Turkey. Then followed, by
agreement with China, the annexation of Manchuria as far as the left bank of the
Amur. A ukase of February 29th, 1868, extinguished the last spark of Polish
political life. The khanates of Western Turkestan (Bokhara, Khiva, and Kokhan)
were subdued in the next few yeors, and, while a semblance of freedom was left to
Bokhara and Ehiva, Kokhan was completely absorbed under its old name of
Feighanu. On the other hand, Russia withdrew from the New World in 1867,
when Russian America (Alaska) was sold to the United States. This vast region,
however, had never been formally incorporated, having been rather the property of
a chartered trading company.

The late Russo-Turkish war brought the Czar's forces to the gates of
Constantinople, and although British intervention prevented the occupation of that
famous capital, the ensuing Congress of Berlin, July, 1878, awarded to Russia fresh
territory in Asia — Batdm, on the Euxine, and the fortress and district of Kars,
besides restoring to her the portion of Bessarabia she had been forced to surrender
to Rumania after the Crimean war.

Lastly, after reiMjated failures, the Czar's troops triumphed early in the year
1881 over the Tekko Turkomans of the Daman-i-koh, and the Turkoman country,
from the Caspian nearly to the Herat district, was in the same year incorporated in
the newly organized Trans-Caspian territory, dependent on the Government of the
Caucasus. This makes Russia absolute mistress of all Western Turkestan, the
Mery oasis alone excepted. The changes caused by these movements have
necessitated a rectification of the Russo-Persian frontier between the Caspian and
Afghanistan. The Boundary Commission charged to lay down the new line has
not yet concluded its labours, but the British Government is not represented on
this commission, which, it is understood, will award to Russia all the northern
slopes of the Kuren-dagh, including the fertile Dera-goz district, and the Persian
town of Askabad, if not Sarakhs, bringing the Russian frontier close to Herat.
Thus disappear the vast spaces which certain British statesmen, till quite
recently, supposed woidd continue to intervene between the Russian and British
dominions in the East.

Meantime, it may not be out of place to recall the warning words of Arminius
Vamb^ry, written at a time when Russia had not yet advanced beyond the Aral and
Caspian Seas, and while the Turkestan khanates and the Turkoman country were still
independent : — " The drama of a collision of the two great colossi in Central Asia, which
political dreamers imagined years ago, continues still far from actual performance.
The question moves, it is true, slowly, but still always in a forward direction. Let
me, following the natural course of events, without imdue warmth, endeavoiir to
acquaint the reader with the motives that influence me when I disapprove of the
indifference of the English to the Russian policy in Central Asia

" The real progress of the Russian designs is beyond all doubt. As I before

GROWTH OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.

the left bank of

Kiala.

1859 and 1864,
len followed, by
left bank of the
spark of Polish

i, and Kokhan)

lorn was left to
Its old name of
orld in 1867,
'his vast region,
the property of

the gates of
cupation of that
to Russia fresh
istrict of Kars,
ed to surrender

rly in the year
koman country,
incorporated in
emment of the
Turkestan, the
ovements have
he Caspian and
i new line has
represented on
I the northern
nd the Persian
lose to Herat,
len, till quite
1 and British

' of Arminius
the Aral and
atry were still
al Asia, which
performance,
rection. Let
endeavour to
•prove of the

As I before

477

said, the interests of civilisation make us wish the most entire success to the
llussian army ; but still the remote consequences of an acquisition once made
suggest a highly important and complicated inquiry. The question whether
Hussia will content herself even with Bokhara, or will allow the Oxus to become
the final boundary of her influence and of her designs, is difficult to answer.
Without plunging into any deep considerations of policy, I may remark that it
seems very probable that the court of St. Petersburg, in return for her persevering
policy of sacrifices pursued across the deserts for years and years, at great expensu
and labour, will seek some richer compensation than is to be found in the oases of
Turkestan. I should like, indeed, to see the politician who would venture to aflirm
that Russia, once in possession of Turkestan, would be able to withstand the temp-
tation of advancing, either personally or by her representatives, into Afghanistan
and Northern India, where political intrigues are said to find alw'ays a fruitful soil.
At the time when the Russian columns, imder the orders of Peroffsky, threw their
ominous shadow from the west shore of the Aral Sea as far as Kabul — at the
time when the spectre of Vitkovich* appeared in that city and in Kandahar,
the possibility of such complications as those alluded to was foreseen. And cannot
that which has once occurred, when the necessity arises, occur a second timePt

" Without, therefore, lending to the question the foid colouring of envy or
jealousy, I consider myself justified in disapproving of England's indifference to
the plans of Russia in Central Asia. Such is my humble opinion ; but whether
the British Lion is to come into direct hostile collision with the Russian Bear in
those regions, or in brotherly fashion they are to share and share alike, is a question
which I will not venture nearer to approach." +

The foregoing rapid sketch of the continuous growth of the Russian Empire
during the last three centuries may be summed up in the subjoined table : —

Banian Empire under

IMS.

Ar«a in Square Miln.

Ivan Vasilivich I.

1462

382,000

Vasili IvsnoTich

1606

510,000

Ivan Vasilivich II.

1684

1,630,000

Alexis Michaelovich

1660

6,039,000

Petor the Great .

1689

5,963.000

Anne .

1730

0,888,000

Catherine II.

1776 . .

. 7,122,770

Alexander II.

1868

7,866,000

Alexander III. .

1881

7,960,000

Incrkasb of

POPUL*TIO».

1722 .

. 14.000,000

1829 .

. 60,500,000

1742 .

10,000,000

1838 .

. r)9,000,000

1762 .

19,000.000

1851 .

. 5.000,000

1782 .

27,600,000

1870 .

. 78,000,000

1793 .

34.000,000

1877 .

. 80,260,000

1803 .

36,000,000

1878 .

. 87.722.600

1811 .

42,000,000

1881 .

. 88,600,000

1815 .

46,000.00

* This 'was the name of the Russian agent sent hy the court of St. Petersburg to Afghanistan in
1838, with large sums of money to be employed in intrigues against England.

t These prophetic words were fully verified in 1878 by the arrival of a Uussian mission in Ktfbul,
an evont which brought about the late war between the British and the unfortunate Amir of Afghanistan,
Khtr Ali.
■ { " Travels in Central Asia," 1804, p. 440.

478

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The three districts directly affected by the recent annexations in Turkestan are
Mcrv, tlio Persian frontier territory of Dera-goz, and the Akhal Tekke country on
its border. Regarding all three interesting and valuable information has been
received during the present year, and is hero subjoined.

Mekv.

During the summer of 1881 Mr. O'Donovan was detained a prisoner in this
oasis, respecting the present state of which Colonel E. C. Stewart also collected
some particuhirs in 1880-1, while residing in the Dera-gtiz.

" Meru, or Merv," writes Colonel Stewart, " the city on the Murghab, is men-
tioned in the earliest records of the Aryan race. Balkh, Merv, and Seistan were
the places where Iranian history begins. The country, watered by the Murghab
and lojeud Rivers, was known to the Greeks as Margiana, and it was visited by
Alexander the Great, and Antiochus Nicator ruled on the Murghab. Merv was
the seat of a Christian Archbishop of the Nestorian Church during the reigns of
the Sassanian dynasty of Zoroastrian £ings of Persia, as was also Toos, near
Meshed in Khorasan.

" The Arabs captured Merv about a.d. 666, and found it a very rich city. Until
this period it had a Christian Archbishop. At the time of the Arab conquest the
Salor and Saluk tribes of Turkomans were in the country. The lieutenants of
the Khalifs of Bagdad ruled Khorasan, with Merv as their capital.

" On the 25th of February, 1221, Merv was besieged by a Mogid army under
Tulin, a son of Jenghiz Khan ; the place was captured and the population put to
death with very few exceptions. It is said by Ibn-ul-Ether that 700,000 dead
bodies were counted. This is probably an exaggeration, but it shows how large a
city Merv must have been that a writer could suggest that 700,000 persons were put
to death in it. The Moguls had a curious and methodical way of numbering the
slain. WR8n a thousand dead had been completed, they placed one body with its
head buried in the ground and its feet upwards, so that the thousands might bo
conveniently counted.

•• The last Merv was the city so bravely held by Bairam Ali Khan Kajar. A
branch of the Kajar family who now rule Persia hud been placed in Merv by Shah
Tamasp to defend this outlying province, as they were renowned for their courage.
During the troubles that followed the death of Nadir Shah, Merv was attacked and
captured from the Persians by Begge Jan, called also Amir M&sum, the Amir of
Bokhara, in 1784. Bairam Ali Khan was slain outside the town, and his son,
Mahomed Hussein Khan, who made a glorious defence — even the women joining
in it — was carried captive, with the popidation that were spared, to Bokhara. Since
that date there has properly been no such town as Merv. The Merv country still
exists, but there is nothing worthy the name of town there. The Amir of Bokhara
broke down the great dam on the Murghab, which filled the mmierous canals and
fertilised the whole country, in the hope of rendering it a desert inaccessible to
Persia.

MEBV.

479

[iirkcstan are

country on

Jfl has beea

loner in this
fso collected

lb, is men-
•cistan wore
le Murghab
visited by
Merv was
to reigns of
Toos, near

city. JJntU.
onquest the
sutenants of

anny under
ition put to
0,000 dead
low large a
IS were put
ibering the
4y with its
might bo

^ajar. A
y by Shah
r courage,
acked and
» Amir of
his son,
a joining
ra. Since
ntry still
Bokhara
tnals and
issible to

"After 1784 it belonged to Bokhara for some years, and the Salor and Suruk
Turkomans encampcfl on it. It was subsequently taken from the Amir of Bokhara
by the Khan of Khiva, whoso ofKcials were found hero living in a poor villugo
called Merv when the place was visited by Abbott early in 1840. Tliis place,
which was a possession of the Saruk tribe, and which is described by Al)l)ott as
consisting of about one hundred mud huts, has been destroyed by the Tckko Turko-
mans, who began to settle in this country about 1830, and finally drove the Saruks
further up the Murghab to Yulutan and Panj Deh. I have not been able to dis-
cover the date of the destruction of this last and most wretched of places which
have borno the name of Merv, but it was probably about 1856.

" This deserted place was occupied by Persian armies in 1857, under Sultan
Murad Mirza Hissam-i-Sultunut, and again in 1860 by Ilamza Mirssa Ilashmat-
ud-Dowlah, whose army was disastrously defeated in an attack on Kala Kaushid
Khan, then only just commenced and in a very rudimentary state.

" The Tekke Turkomans have possessed themselves of the best part of the country.
They have built a large fort on the eastern bank of the most westerly branch of the
Murghab. It is situated 25 miles below tho great band, or dam, which divides the
Murghab into many canals or branches. The place where the great band is situated
is called Allahsha, where there is a ferry over the Murghab, which is used for a few
weeks in tho spring when the river is in high flood. At other times there are
wooden bridges.

" The fort of Kaushid Khan, which is very strong indeed, is protected by the
Murghab River on two sides, being built in the loop of the river. It is about
2^ miles long and I-J- wide. The Tekkc have most wonderful confidence in the
strength of the place, which will contain, they say, 50,000 alajaks, or Turkoman
tents. It is called Kala Kaushid Khan from tho name of its founder, Kaushid
Khan, the chief of the Beg clan of the Tekke tribe. It was commenced in 1860,
and the Tekke have worked at it by fits and starts ever since.

" When the Persians now speak of Maur, or Merv, they mean Kala Kaushid Khan.
Turkomans themselves never speak of Maur as a town ; when they use the term at
all they mean the district where Merv was formerly situated. The fact of the
Persians speaking of Merv as a town, and as a place captured by their armies, has
led to endless confusion. There are no signs of a town about Kala Kaushid Khan.
There aro about 6,000 tents of the Beg tribe generally pitched near it, and each
chief man has a guest-house of mud or simburnt brick, but they themselves live
either in felt tents, or in places wh6re reeds are plentiful, in reed or mat-huts, which
can be carried away on oiimels.

" Near Kala Kaushid Khan there is a hoys* school, with five or six houses for the
moUahs, or priests, who teach in it, belonging to MoUah Turah, the chief mollah of
the Beg tribe. A market is held on the river bank near the fort, and here the Jew
traders who frequent the place, each trader being under the protection of some
powerful Turkoman, have built small open enclosures, without any roofs, where
they expose their goods for sale on the two days in a week when a market is held.
" When Persians speak of the bazaar of Merv they mean this open mai*ket-place.

HMMtdiHMSI

^"rs^^firEraar-^"*?: '.• ^

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

InHido tho fort somo alajahs aro pitched, and tho family of KuuHhid Kljan havo a
guest-house there. Tho fort, however, is kept more as a phi('(> of refuge than as an
ordinary habitation. From what I could gather the portion of tho country lit for
cultivation is about 90 miles long, and extends to about 1 1 miles on each side of
the river. Tho ground is very fertile, ond produces melons and water-melons in
plenty and of great excellence. Melons constitute one of tho exports to Dera-gtiz,
both fresh and dried. Even at Meshed the melons of Merv arc much liked, and
are sent by ritih people as presents to one another.

" General Abbott, who visited this country in 1840, says, ' Tho profusion of
water renders tho soil productive, but it has not strength to bear any but the
poorer sorts of grain.' In a previous paragraph he says, ' During tho misrule
and anarchy of the past sixty years the ancient dam of the Murghab was neglected
and carried away. The dam ia again set up, and the lands aro brought under culture.'
I gather from this that tho dam had not long been repaired when Abbott saw it.

" From the Tejend River, to whore the first canal from the Murghab is reached,
a space of some 85 miles has to be passed over either without water at all, or on
some of the roads there are wells of brackish water at about 66 miles after passing
the Tojend. The only easy road to the Merv country without constructing a
canal is from Herat and up the Kushk stream to its junction with the Murghab.
In former days Herat as well as Merv belonged to Persia, and this road was much
used. Also in former days canals from the Tejend near Sarakhs ran out a long
way into the desert, and made the journey by Sarakhs a comparatively easy one,
which it certainly is not now. There are still water reservoirs and caravanserais
in ruins on the road, showing where the old road to Merv ran.

" A canal which formerly existed, and which led from the Tejend River near
Sarakhs to Eacha Eum (within 20 miles of the Merv oasis), could bo easily
reconstructed. Kacha can be still traced from the Tejend to this place, and in 1860
Hamza Mirza Ilashmat-ud-Dowlat, the Persian general, employed his army for a
few days in damming up the Tejend and turning it into the bed of the old canal.
His e£forts were successful, and the water ran for many miles in the bed of the old
canal and supplied his army for several days. The water did not reach so far as
it formerly did, but only to a place called Kurk Tepe, or the Wolf's Mound. StiU
this was an immense assistance. A little more time and a little more engineering
skill would no doubt have sent the water as far as it formerly went, to Eacha Eum,
from whence it is only about 20 miles across the desert to the first canal from the
Murghab." *

It thus appears that Merv has been living on its reputation since the year 1784,
when it was destroyed by the Amir of Bokhara. Since then it has absolutely
ceased to exist as a centre of population, ^nd although it has been succeeded by a
strong fort, both the fort and the oasis have lost all strategic importance since tho
advance of the Russians in the spring of 1881 along the Daman-i-koh frontier of
Ehorasan. The railway in their newly organized Trans-Caspian territory was
completed in September of the same year as far as Eizil-Arvat, and the -vi^hole

* H-oceeditiffs of the Royal Geographical Society, September, 1881.

THE DEBA-OOZ.

481

llian havo a

thuii as un

|ntry fit for

ttch HJdo of

|-niclonH in

Ihra-giiz,

liked, und

'ofusion of
ny but the
misrule
neglected
or culture.'
t saw it.
is reached,
all, or on
er passing
tructing a
Murghab.
was much
»ut a long
' easy one,
avanserois

liver near
bo easily
d in 1860
nny for a
old canal.
>f the old
so far as
id. StiU
fineering
iha £um>
Prom the

sar 1784,
)solutely
led by a
ince the
»ntier of
)ry was
i whole

country as far as Sarnkhs, on the Perso-Af ghan frontier, isliicing rapidly reduord to
order. From this extreme point the natural route to the interior of AfgliiiniNtan
lies through the Tejend and lluri-rud River valley as far an Herat, and thence in u
direct line across the Ilelmand to Kandahar, and ho on over the Khojnk and (iwaja
Passes of the Khoja Amran range to the Pishin valley, whi(rh is now HritiNh
territory. There is another, though far more difficult, route from the Oxus through
Balkh and over the Damiun Pass of the Ilindu-Kush down to the Kubul Uiver
volley. IJut the Tejend is a long way west, the liamian a long way enHt of JMerv,
so that Merv lies, not on the mute, but between the routes leading from lluNsiun
Turkestan to Afghanistan and India.

In any case, Merv, or rather the fort of Eala Kaushid Khan, could easily bo
either masked or occupied whenever that step may seem expedient to the rulers of
the Arulo-Cospian basin. What the Persians did twice in this century the
Russians will not fail to do when it Buits their convenience. By nearly flooding the
old canal from the Tejend they can arrive within 20 miles, or a day's march, of the
oasis. Hence nothing now remains of any moment between the two great Asiatic
powers, whoso frontiers are practically conterminous all along the line from Herat
to the Hindu-Kush.

The consequences of these altered conditions are thoroughly understood and
already openly discussed in Russia. A writer in the Novoye Vremya recently
observed significantly that " the annexation of the Turkoman country occurs
opportunely with the cession of Kulja to China. The advantages to be derived from
our new acquisition are principally strategical. The importance which the new
territory possesses is threefold, as affecting the routes leading into Central Asia,
the pacification of the Trans-Caspian region, and, lastly, our new relations to the
neighbouring Asiatic States on our extended southern frontier. It is well ascertained
that the route along the river Atrek, and up the Tejend valley to Herat and
Kandahar, is by far the best, if not the only one, in the event of a Russian expedi-
tion against British India. The occupation of a strong base on this route is of
vast importance in a military sense, and must naturally influence the friendly dis-
position of England towards Bussia. The mOre resolutely M'e take up an advanced
position on the road to India, the more yielding becomes England's policy in the
Eastern Question. Hence the occupation of the Daman- i-Eoh by the Russians has
been followed by the withdrawal of the British from Kandahar."

The Dera-goz.

In view of its probable peaceful acquisition by Russia, the reader may bo glad
to have the subjoined brief account of this little-known tract by Colonel V.
Baker, one of the few Europeans who have visited it in recent times : —

" The Dera-goz instead of being a town, as marked on all old maps, is a province
containing more than a hundred villages, the chief town being Mohamedabad,
nine miles' distance from Chepishli ; this town, together with Nowhandan and
many villages, lies on a plain at the foot of ihe main range, surrounded by small

482

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

mnuntainH which Ropnmto it from the dosort ; aiul l)oyond thotto mniintuinn, ond on
th(> vor^o of tho (l(<m<rt, lio iin])<)rtant fortH, Niich un Khtmrubad, Nuniii, iind iiiuny
othorH. In tho iniddlo of tho phiin thcro ia u Nprinfi;, hut tho main wutor Hupply in
di'i'ivcHl from ii rapid rivor wliicn dcHconds from the Kur(>n-I)aKh ranf^o noar
Diirin^a, and then waturn Rovoral villagon and alno tho townn on tho plainn. In
tracing PcrNian rivers on the map thoHtudont muMt over romomln'r that, through tho
water heinj^ taken for irrigati(m, they unually l)ecomo loss and less after they leave
the moiintiiins, and arc eventually so exptMidwl.

"Dora-goz certainly has a more verdant well-to-do aspect than any Persian
province that I have seen except Ghilan and Mazandaran, where nature has done
everything, but man nothing. Even tho face of tho mountain has a freshness not
seen from tho southern side. The people are Kurds, they havo Iwen ruled by tho
samo family for 150 years, and there is a manliness about them, combined with
a degree of order and cleanliness, that is quite unusual in Persia. In case of
emergency Dcra-gdz cim turn out about a thousand mounted men, and about three
thousand armed infantry mountaineers could bo assembled from the different villages,
liut infantry are never considered in these countries, whore cavalry only are
thought of any importance." *

The Dera-goz was again visited in 1881 by Colonel E. C.Stewart, who travelled
through Persia, disguised as an Armenian horse-dealer, from Calcutta. He reached
it from the Moshcd-Kucban valley, by the Maidan-Kuni and Allaho-Akhbar Passes
over the Ilazar-Masjid Mountains, which here culminate in a peak 10,500 feet high.
Tho Maidan-Kuni, or " Bloody Plateau," is so named from the number of people
who perish here in the winter when trying to cross over during tho heavy
snow. . " This is the easiest road into the district of Dera-goz, but for weeks in the
winter, when there is snow, there is no communication between Dera-goz and the
rest of Khorasan. As soon as the Maidan-Kuni is passed, there is a sharp de.>"fir>f,
and then there are three small villages of the name of Derbendi, the commence-
ment of the Dera-goz district. From Derbendi I continued to Mahomcdabad,
the capital, crossing the Allaho-Akhbar Pass en route. The AUaho-Akbbar is lower
than the Maidan-Kuni Pass, being only 4,200 feet high, and it can almost always
bo crossed without difficulty, even in winter. Several low ranges of hills cross the
Dera-goz plain, but no mountain ranges, while beyond the Turkoman plain is seen
extending away to the blue horizon. In every direction villoges and cultivation
are seen, showing it to be a fertile land ; ond every one soys, ' If we had only
peace we should indeed be rich.' But in every direction the plain is dotted with
towers, as refuges from the formerly dreaded Turkoman.

" After descending the plain the flourishing village of Chapashli is passed. Cha-
pashli is surrounded by vineyards, which are famed all over the country. Grapes
are so plentiful that 45 lbs. of the finest can be purchased for ninepence.

" Near the village of Hakwerdi, a little further on, the refuge towers are very
close together, every square of 150 yards of the fields having one. In other parts
of Khorasan I had seen a few of these towers, but here the whole country is so

* " Clouds in the East," p. 220.

mmm^

THE AKHAL TEKKR COUNTRY.

UuiiiH, mifl on
[•". iind iiuuiy

riui«'«( iu.,,1. _ .
t^ pluinH. In

through tho
lor thoy loavo

any I»orHmn
re I1H8 done
froshnoHs not
ruled by tho
mbinod with
In case of
i about throe
•rent villages,
ry only are

''ho travollod

He reached
khbar Passes
'00 feet high.
>er of people

tho heavy
tveeks in the
goz and the
arp de.>"iPTit^

comijience-
homedubad,
bar is lower
nost always
Is cross the
lain is seen
cultivation
J had only
lotted with

sed, Cha-
• Grapes

I are very
ther parts
itry is so

thlikly dottcfl with them us to l(K)k like u choHH-lKJard covered with choMSinen,
Tho towers aro small round buildings, built of unbakiMl clay, alN)ut 1'.^ f(*i>t high ;
they are roofed over, and have no o{)eniug whatever except u sniuU round liolo at
tho bottom, through which u not too stout person niuy wriggle himm>lf in like a
snako. If surprised by Turkomans, tho cultivator or traveller creeps through this
hole, and closes it with two lorge stones, which are there for the purpost;. Even
if these stones aro wanting, tho occupant is safe, as it would iiide<Hl l»o a daring
Turkoman who would try and force himself througli the bole, with the certainty of
having his brains l)eaten out with a stono while struggling to get through, even
supiMming tho person inside had no better weapon ; but almost every one here goes
armed.

" The defence towers aro higher and larger, and have a parapet at the top, with
loopholes to firo through, an4 a ladder for ascending to the top. Each viiu^yurd or
orchanl bus its one or more towers.

" Tho ])era-g()2! district has a length of some 65 miles and a breadth of about 40.
There is a governor appointed by the 8hah, though the ajipointment is hereditary
in ono family. He bears tho title of Begler Begi, and the ])Coplo H})eak of him
familiarly as tho Khan. His name is Muhomed Ali Khau. He is of Turk origin,
as arc a largo portion of his subjects." *

It may bo added that the Trans-Caspion railwoy running from tho south-east
sido of the Caspian along tho northern foot of tho Kuren-dagh in the direction of
tho Tojend River and Herat was completed us far as Kizil-Arvut in September, 1881.
Kizil-Arvat lies about 180 miles from Mikhailovsk, the terminus on tho Caspian,
and about the samo distance from Mohamedabad, in the heart of tho Dera-goz,
which will probably form tho next stage on the road to Herat.

The Akhal Tekke Country.

Beyond Dera-goz lies the Akhal Tekke country, stretching along the Daman-i-
koh, or " Skirts of the Hills," incorporated in the year 1881 in the new Russian
Trans-Caspian province. It consists of a narrow strip of fertile land intervening
between the Euren-dagh. range and the Turkestan desert. Although not very
productive, it is still far from being tho arid waste that it has been described.
From the northern slopes of the mountains a considerable number of streams flow
down to the plain, where they are all absorbed for irrigation purposes before
reaching the sands of the desert. The productive tract extends from Kizil-Arvat
to Gawars, and the Russian railway, as already stated, is now completed from the
Caspian to Kizil-Arvat.

For the new capital of the Trans- Caspian territory the Russians have chosen
Bami, in the Akhal Tekke country, and to this point the railway is to be continued
at once. The district through which it runs is rich and productive enough to
support a population estimated at 25,000 tents, or 125,000 souls, besides a large
number of horses of excellent breed and numerous flocks of sheep. The now

* Proetedingi of tkt Royal Gtogruphieal Society, September, 1881.

t ini'ii]MMiiii<»'>'.»iu iim ii I) in-iii>ir<M>

*»W3WfaP,»llU. Jl •m«^.«!ur ;

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

province hn* iilw) nnotlicr mmrco of wculth in tho fiMhoriod of Hturg<»on nnd other
Huh on tho CuNpiun c<mMt, which uro very pnxlucti und yield (•onMi(h<i-uhlu
(|iiautitieN uf niviiir. Itut ii Ntill uioru vuluuhh) coniniod' '« |H>trol(>uni, of whi(;h
viiMt HtorcH iiro known to cxiMt in this region, which lM>lon^H m'oloj^iciilly to tho
Hunw forniutioM hh tho Haku diNtrict, on tho opponito Hide of tho f'uNpiun. In tho
inhind <if Chclckcn, nour MikhaihiVHk, uro found, k'NidcH petroleum, largo (piuntitien
of mineral wax, which in a very valuuhlo HubHtanoo.

To these roMoureeH muNt Iw added tho induHtrien of tho Turkoman triln'H, of
which C'olonel Htewurt Hpoakn vory highly. "They munufucturo enrpetH that
cannot bo nurpasNiHl or e(pialled in I'erHia, and uro Himilur to tho ancient I'oraiun
curiM'tH, wlii(!h fetch ho largo a price, ond cannot now Im? n>ade in PerHia. Thoy
have |M)wder millH worked by water-power which turn out very gootl gimpowder,
and they are clever in manufacturing false Persian money, with which they flcxxl
the Ixizaur in Mahomodabad. Their felts and tho rough cloths thoy manufacture
from shcop'a wool are fur superior to any miulo in Persia ; and they also make
a stuff that looks something like alpaca, only thicker, which fetches a high price.
Aniline dyes, which arc ruining tho Persian carpets, have not yet reached the
Turkomans, and as tho materials thoy use are good, tho carpets last almost for
ever. In fact, everything tho Turkomans make, except their money, is thoroughly

gO(Ml."

This trovoller estimates tho strength of the Tekko and other Turkomun tribes in
this district and the still independent territory of Merv as under : —

** Akhnl Tokico, in Uamnn-i-kuh. now bolonffinK to Ru(«ia
Morv Tokko, on Murghab, and a fow on Tcjcnd Uivor .

Kalor, in Morv Tokke oasis

Soruk, at Yulutan, and Punj-Dch on tho Murghab Rivoi-

Toua . .

TenU.

2S,000

4(>,000
«,000
0,000

76,000

" The number of inhabitants per tent may be taken at five. This will give for
the Daman-i-kuh and Morv country u population of 380,000, and I do not think
this is an excessive estimate."

Of these the Akhul Tekkc are now Russian subjects, and the others are
expected soon to accept the Hussiau proteotorate.

iiijiwUllilil

486

and nthnr
|oiiMi(I(.iul)|i,
I'l <»f wliich
lally to tlio
III. In tho
p <luuntitieH

I frilM'H, of
irpftH thut
»nt Porsiun
Mill. Thoy
<iifi powder,

mnufucture
uIno make
high price,
cached the
ahnost for
thoroughly

an triboH in

Penta.
d.OOO
(>,000
5,000
B.OOO
li.OOO

ill give for
not think

others are

THE RACES OF ASTATIC lUTSSTA OROrPKD ACrORDINO TO THEIR

AFFINITIES AND RELKIIONS.*

Am, llie |M>(ipUiit of Asiatic RuMNiii Ix'jong othnitMlIy to thrco diHtinct ly|M>H — the
CaucaHic, Mofi^ol. and Sob- Vntic. The ('aucaMic, or Fair <yiM>, in n>preM(>nted chifHy
hythc Uii^^iaii Slavs, by the Ariu^^nian, KurdiMh.and iVr^ian IranianN; i)y tbe<lt>wiN)i
and Arab iSiiii u^h; and by ^bo numemuH tribcHof tboCaitcaHUH, wboare taken an tli(>
ty])ical inend)erM of the family. Tbc Mongcd, or YeUow tyiM*, itt repremMited mainly
by the Turkoman, UMlf4'}{. Kara-Kalpak, Noffai, Yakut, and Kirghiz Tatarn; by tbu
Kalmuk and Huriat MongoliauH ; by the Soyot, ONtiak, and Samoyi>de FinuN; by
the TungUMCH, I^amutH, Golds, and otherH . if Manchu stock ; and by the Chinem^ and
CoreauH of the Amur baNin. The 8ub-Arcti<! tyjH\ whoH i ixiHition and I'ftiniticM
proHent many ditKcult probloms, comprises provisionally the Oiliaks, Koriaks,
and a few other nomad tribes in the extreme north-east of the continent.

The prevailing religions are the Buddhist, diversely nuxlified, professeil chiefly
by the Kalmuks, Buriats, Chinese, and Corcans ; the MohumnuMlan, adopted by
nearly all the Tatar peoples, as well as by the Kurdish and Persian Iranians ; Chris-
tianity, restricted mainly to the Slavs, Armenians, and Georgians of the Caucasus ;
Paganism and Shamanism, still practised by some Caucasian tribes, by the Samoy-
edcs, Ostiaks, and other nomads of Siberia, and by nearly all the Sub-Arctic peopl(<s.

Far more numerous are the languages, of which there are probably not less
than a dozen fundamentally distinct stocks. But most of these are concentrated
in the Caucasus and the extreme north-east. The dialects elsewhere current are
all reducible to two great families — the Aryon and the Ural-Altaic or Finno-
Tatoric. Of the Aryan four branches are represented in Asiatic Russia — the
Slavonic, Iranic, Golcha,t and Teutonic. Of the Urol-Altaic all the four main
divisions are represented, as shown in the subjoined scheme. Of the other distinct
stock languages the principal are the Georgian, Cherkcss, and Chcchonz of the
Caucasus ; the Yukaghir, Koriak, and Aino of the north-eastern logions, besides
the Semitic and Chinese.

I.— CAUCA8I0 EACES.
CAUCASIANS.

Karttbu
Family

Wmt

Cavcasvi

Georp^Iana .
Imentiaiu .
Minp^relians
Qarians . .
Lases . ,
Svana . .
Rachiana
Khevsura .

kPahiiva . .

< Chcrkeaaea .

I Abkhaaiana

(Kabarda

Orthodox and Latin Chriatiana

Sunnitea

, Nominal Christiana

860,000

Sunnitea

Sunnitoa } 138,000

Orthodox Chriatiana

* It ia right to atate that the Editoi alone ia reHponaible for the aubjoined cluaaiflcationa, which dopart
in aome reapecta from thoae generally adopted by the Author.

t The Oalchaa, whom M. Ch. da Ujfalvy calla " Highland Tajika," are commonly claaaed with the
Iraniana. But they aeem rather to hold an intermediate poaition between the Iranio and Indio branchea
of the Aryan family.

■««ilf

48G

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

East

Caucasus

(Daghcstan)

Ibanuns

Slavs

Galchas

Teutons

r Avars; Kurini • .■, ^

T-fiSffhinna J Kazi-Knmyksh . . I AllSunnites except the Dido, said I .,-„»«

l^sghians . . • Andi; Udo; Dido .) to be " Devil- worshippers " . .) ^'^-"''^

Chechonzes

Ohscs (Iron)
A rmoniuns .
Kurds . .
Tnlyshcs .
'I'ats . . .
'I'ajiks . .
Sartcs . .

! Groat Russians
Little liussians
, Poles . .
IMaghians .
Kshtuts
Fiilffliars .
Mnchas . .
Fans . . .
Yn,!?nol)s .
Kamtt'chins
Germans .

Arabs
Jews.

/ to be " Devil-worshippers " . . (

(Avars ; Kurini .
!
Dnrgo ; Duodez ,
f Infruish . . i

I Kisr' ' * /**"nnito8 mostly ^ 166,000

iTfish ; .' ,'J J

ARYANS. -'.-_;.:.. :\:"' ' ' I U<:'':::

Nominal Christians 110,000

Christians, Gregorian rite 722,000

Sunuitos 16,000

Shiahs | i20,0im

SunnitoB mostly 2.000,000

I Orthodox Church

Orthodox and Reman Catholic

)

9,000,000

Sminites, Pagans, and Fire-worshippers \ 250,000

Lutherans

SEMITES.

Sunuitos .
Judaism .

60,000

?
30,000

Mixed
Tataks

II.— MONGOLIC EACES.
TURKI OR TATAR FAMILY.

XTZBEGB

Kumuks ' .

Nogais . .

Telents . .

Ilashkirs .

/ Kara-Nogai
I Kalafls-Sabla

Kalaus-Jembuluk

JvumandcM .
Tatars of Siberia
/

Chaudors . .

/ Tangaur . .

. I Karagai-Kipchak

( Bursian . . .

Turkomans j g^^^

Erssri

Ali-EU

Kara

Salor

Tekke .
Ooklan .

Yomud .

I Kung^d
Naiman .

' Kiprhak
Jalair .
Andijani

(" Red " and " Black
r Abdal ; Bozagi
J Igdyr; Burunjuk

■ \ Essenlu ; tShcikh
I Kara-Chaudor

SunniteB

60,000
36,000

Hunnites

)

Christians . , ,
") Mostly Christians ,

I 760,

000

' Sunnites

• \ 60,000

} 1,000,000

t Yalavaj . . .
, ' Kuraman . .

(Ana Biilegi

r Khorasanli . .

j Biraj ; Hcrzegi
■ j Sokhti . . .

' Alasha . . .

(Akhal ; Otamish
Merv; Toktainish
. Chakir ; licgdlli
j Kayi; Karabalkan
1 Kyryk; Bajindir
I Gerkez ; Y'andak
I Atabay ; Yafer
( Sherei Ju:^ .
( Oguijali . .

^Sunnites )3,000,000

}

i ,9MK - i>im>t!»smmms J iism-'!'!i0m tf .m!; -'

uiit0miiM i iiii.itUM)iimim'!ML ' • •■

MONGOLIC RACES.

"•^l 617,
1

000

166,000

110,000

722,000

lO.OUU

I 120,01(0
2.000,000

9,000,000

. 250,000

60,000

P
30,000

60,000
36,000

I 760,

000

• I 60,000

) 1,000,000

]

3,000,000

Kaba-
Kaivaks

Baymakle . .

Khandelki . .

Terstomgali .

Achamayli .

Kaychih-Kitai . [^ Sunnites .

Ingakli . . .

Kenetloz . .

Tomboyun . .

Shakii ■ • •

Ontonturuk . .-

Great Horde (Ulu- I

KlROHIZ-

Kasaks

Tulatai .
Sargam .
Arfjhyiio
Caiman .

300,000

450,01)0

rAt;

Kaha-

KlMOHIZ

(Burutfl)

Yuz)

Middle Hordo,

(Urta-Yuz) . . \ \^m}^^,\. :.
^ LUvak-Ghirei

-- , I Alimuly .
Little Horde )„^iu,y . .

(Kachi-Yuz) . I jetir-tlrug
Inner Horde . . Bukeyevskaya
rBogu; Sultu
Son Bagish
8arv Bagish -
On ("Right") Sec-) CVierik; Jadigar
tion . . . .isayak: Tungatar
1 Baasmz .
1 Monandyr
lAdygina
f Kokcba .
Sol ("Left") Sec- jSoru,
tion

Nominal Sunnites, with Shaman and J 1,100,000
Pagan observances

\ Sunnites and Shamans

„ fKashcarians .

E.TURKKSTAN j rj^yruks . . .

AND Fbk- ' Kummas . .

GHANA 1 AT AK8 L Sarte-Kipchaks

Yakuts . . ■

Dolgans • •

. ^ MunduB .
iKitai. .

SunnitcB . . . •

Nominal ChriBtians
Shamans . . . •

MONGOLIAN FAMILY.

Kalmuks

(^Zungars
Torguts .

J Khoshods
Turbets .
Chorasses
Teletzes.

r Kudara .

BuRiATS j Selengha

(Eastbranih) ] Khonnsk

L Barguzin

I Tunka

Buddhists and Shamanists

BWBIATS

(Westbranch)

TOHOCBBS

Samotidw

Verkho-Lensk .

Olkhon . . . •

Kuda; Ida . .

Balagansk . . ..

AlarSt . . . •

Lamuts . . . •

Orochos . . • •

Golds . . . •

Chapoghirs . •

Maiiegrs . • •

Mangnns . • •

Samag^rs . . •

Nuatkons . • •
Nigidals ; Negda
LTazi; Olenes .

f Chfldes (extinct)

Yuraks . . •

Tagurs . . •

Abators . . •

I Koibalg . . •

j Boyots . . .

Motors . . .

Karagnsses .

I Kamasses . ■

iTagvis . . .

Shamans, Buddhists, and ChristianB.

MANCHU FAMILY.

. Shamans and Nominal Christians

FINNISH FAMILY.

Shamans and Nominal Chrirtiaas

1 1,000,

,000
200,000

400,000

. . ) 100,000

200,000
1,000

20,000

I 260,000

> 80,000

20,000

'-'' p mmmmm

wEsibwB. :*Mm»0tHKItl»

488

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Mixed

FlSNO-

Tataus

UoniAN
Finns

Darkhuts
Soyons .
Assan ,

I Arinzi .

l Kottish .

( Ostiakfl .

I Vogulg .

■ I Buddhists "i 15^,

. I Shumans . . " ;' 1

.) - . . .j

. Shamans 25 OOO

. Nominal Christians • • • „-,'-.

000

6,000

15,000
20,0U0

K0KIAK8

Of doubtfcl
Affinities

III.— SUB-ARCTIC EACE8.
UNCLASSIFIED.

Sundries

{Koriaks proper .
Chiikchis . . .
. Chuvantzcs . .

Yukaghirs . . .
I Kamchadalos . .
I Onkilon.orAnkah
~; Giliaks . . . .
I Ainos . . . .

Chuklukmut
I Eskimos . .

Chinese . . .

Coreans . . .

Manchurians .

Japanese . .

Europeans . .

Hindus . . .

Gipsies . . .

Shamans

Pagans and Nominal Christians

I Shamans

Nominal Christians , . .

Pagans

I Pagans

Buddhists

Christians

lirahmans and Sunnitos
Pagans

6.000

12,0U0

Extinct

1,600

3,000

6,000
2,600

600

10,000
7,000

400

15,000

6,000

25,000
20,0U0

6.000

12,000

Extinct

1,600

3,000

6,000
2,500

600

10,000
7,000

400

APPENDIX.

STATISTICAL TABLES.

Provinces.

I. — OOVEUNMENT OF StAVBOPOL .

II._Pkovimcb or the Tbbbk

III.— Pbovinci ok Kvbah .

IV.— CiBCLi! OP THS Black Sea

v.— D.VI810N OF SUKUNI . . .

CAUCASIA.

Dtstrictv, ClrcleB. and Capttlncleg,

Iforth, or dteawatia,

, District of Sta^Topol

I „ Alexandrovskaya . .

I „ Novo-Origoryevskiy .

J „ Medviejlnskiy . . .

Detached town of 8viatoi-KreBt .

Territory of the Nomad Kalmuks .

Territory of the Turkomans and

others

Total

( Circle of Vladikavkaz
„ Argun
„ Vedeno
„ Khnsav-Yurt
„ Kizlar
„ Grozniy
„ PatiKorsk
Town of Mozdok
„ Georgyevsk

Total . . .

District of Yekaterinodar
„ Yeisk
TemrAk
Zakubanskiy
Maikop . ■
Hatalpashinsk

^ „ • Kavkazskaya

Total ....

!■::

OlBCAUCASIA

South, or Tranreaueasia

ropulation.

92,619

83,333

99,301

106,433

3,786

88,606
473,976

137,027
22,620
22,002
65,700
24,972

120,596

136,280
8,iJ7»

3,346

630,980

171,731
121,064
100,034
38,-^93
147,408
127,462
137.316

643,807
1,848,263

16,736
74,442

4.90

APPENDIX.

Caucakia— cntitinued.

Frovinoes.

Diatriota, Cirolea, and Cuptuiuoioi.

VI. — GoVEIlNMEXT OK Kl'TAIS —

(Iiiicriii, Miiifrrt'liii, Svania,
liiicha, IitThgiiin, (Juriit,
iSuumrzakuu)

District of Kutai'g

„ O/.urL'cti

„ Shiiropan

„ Itacha

,, Zii!>:(li(li and Hudont-

knl.h

„ S(>naki

„ Lcchgum aud Svania .
k Town of Poti

Total

District of Tiflis

Signakh

VII.— GoVEIINMENT or TiFMS —

( Karthalia, Kakhutia, Oiisetia,
Sukhet, Moskhia) . . .

VIII.— CiucLB OP Zakataua

IX.— GoVEKNMENT OF EuiTAN .

X.— GOVBHNMENT OF TbLIZAVBTPOL

XT.— GOVEMNMENT OF BaKU-

(Shirvan, &c.} . .

XII.— Daouestah

XIII.— Pkovincb of BatOm.
XIV Province of Eabs .

Tolav
Tionoti . .
Oori . . .
Diishot . .
Akhaltzik .
Akhulkalaki

Total

^ District of Erivan

„ Nakhichevan . . .
„ Alexandrapol . . .
„ Novo-Bayazid . .
„ (■^chmiadziii . , .

„ Surmuliu . . . .

„ hharruro-Daralagoz

Detached town of Urdubtit . .

Total

!• District of YelizHvetpol
., Ntikha . .

Areshki
Shu-'ha .
Jevanshir
Jobrai'l .
Zangeziir
Kazakh .

Total

District of Baku ....
„ Shemakha . . .
„ Kuba . . . .
„ Lenkoran . . .
„ Jevat and Salyan
„ Giik-thai . . .

^Islands

Total

Transcaucasia (without Kara and
Btttttm)

Town and Captaincy of Derbend .
Circle of Temir-Khan-Shura . .

„ Gunib

„ Kazi-Kumukh ....

„ Andi

„ Avnria

District of KaliHgo-Tabasaran . .

» Dargo

„ Kurinskiy

„ Saniur

Town and I'ort of Petrovsk . . .

Total

I District of Bat&m ....
I „ Artvia ....
I „ Ajara ....
I „ Childir ....
) „ Kars

Aroi in
Squtire MUea,

Total of Caucasia .

2,023
1,317
1,830
3,170

1,768
1,008
1,387

12,493

6,538
3,730
1,468
2,922
3,91)8
2,360
1,614
1.681

Fopulation.

141033
64,191

109.086
60,641

89,296

86.7(J9

35,160

3,1 1 26

670,601

24,281

2,388

1,870
2,668
2,300
3,694
2,200
2,160
1,800

16,691

5,731
2,242
1,927
3,036
2,666
1,876
4,636
4,160

221,042
81,328
62,412
32,404

124,829
57,558
43,377
49,909_

662,869

68,839

95,163
6n,776
109,690
76,061
84,303
69,2;i0
62,066
3,525

26,176

2,362
4,670
4,302
3,230
6,717
2,106
24

23,410

110,613

166
3,658
2,224
1,242
2,086

912
1,764

9S8
1,920
2,200

d48,'.^93

98,687
94,336
38,776
105,466
49,(;06
41,329
88,b>fi
77.601

593,784

60,164
09,986
148,268
97,244
73,691
61,050

17,148

16,964

176,953

639,383

307,342

16,562
68,110
47,916
36,056
41,168
3K,!)10
42.7ti8
05,450
60.482
59,819
„ 3,883^
481,414

184,300

6,826,606

'.r i TaintiTinn':'»i"i ii .nw ii n ^Bgs^wi«i^)imm»iimipa»>

APPENDIX.

491

80,206

8(i,7(J9

3o,lG0

»,ii26

fi7U,691

221,042
81,328
62,412
32,404

124,829
57,oi8
43,377
49,909_

662,859

68,839

95,163
6n,776
109,690
76,(i6l
84,303
69,2;iO
62,965
3,;)2o

648,'^93

98,687
9^,336
38,776
106,466
49,(;05
41,329
88,b>fi
77.6C1

593,784

69,164
99,086
148,268
07,244
73,691
61,060

639,383

307,342

16,552
68,110
47,916
36,056
41,168
38,!) 10
42.7ti8
66,460
60.482
69,819
„ 3,883^
481,414

184,300

5,826,506

mmmm

Towns in the

Cavcasia— <»w<»»««rf.
KuRA Basin and Eastbun Thans.aucasia with over 6.000 Inhahitants in 1874.

Ardutian

Tiflis .
Akhaltzik
8i)<nakh
Teluv .
Gori

Baku

lUteiil Coiiqueitt.
Goirnimeiit of Tiflit.

Government of Baku,

I Salyani .
5^000 I Mushtugi

104,750

13,260

9,250

7,026

6,000

Tali .
14,676 I Belokani

Oovemment of YMzavetpol.

Shusha

Nukha

Yolizavetpol

Circle of Zakatali.

9,050
6,075

24,650
20,900
18,600

5,950
6,560

Towns of tmb Kcma and Terek Basins with over 5,000 Inhabitants.

Government of Stavroppl.

Patifforsk (1875)
Praskoveya
Aloxandrovskaya
BlaKodanio'io . •
Otkaznoio

13,650
8,000
7,400
6,050

Territory of the Terek.

Vladikavkaz (1876)
KLzl«r(1876)
Grozniy .

Mozdok
6,160 1 Urus-Martan
Ak-sai .

20,000
9,176
8,450
8,380
6,900
6,000

Towns and VitLAOES op

Eastern Caucasia with over 4,000 Inhabitaotb in 1876.

Daghf»tan.

Derbcnd
. Gubdon

13,775
6,500

Tarki

Temir-Khan-Shura

Government of Baku.

Vr?.™ 6,650 Kuba

^^i'',«h • : : : . . moo l khz

Kazaniah

4,100
6,100

11,300
4,800

Towns of ths Araxis Basin tvith a Pophlation or over 6,000 Inhabitants.

TT . 10,000 i Kiivan and suburbs . . • ■
^"1;«^nn 6,000 j Nakhichevan . . . • ■

I?-"'. •; ; : ; : SSS I SSTuVr ^' : : : :

Towns, Stanitzas, and Villages of Western Caucasia with over 6,000 Inhabitants in

Province of the Kuban

Yekaterinodar

Ye'isk

Maikop .

Temrvlk .

Novo-Petrovskaya .

Pashkovskaya

Novo-Michn8tovskaya

Staro-Alinskaya

Ladovskaya .

Novo-Troitzkaya .

Petrovskaya .

Ivanovskaya .

Staro-Shcherbinovskaya

Umanskaya .

Uspenskaya .

Temirgoyevskaya

Ilyinskaya

Batalpashinskaya

32,600
28,600
22,56()
11,160
7,000
6,600
6,660
6,250
6.175
6,160
6,050
6,950
5,900
6,H60
5,600
6,420
6,400
5,320

Grigoropolisskaya
Bekeshevskaya

Anapa

Cirek of the Black Sea,

Government of Stavropol.

Stavropol
Belaglina
Bezopazno'ie .
Kriisnapolana .
Ladovskaya Bnlka .
Novo-Dmitrevskoie
Ponskoie

Novo-Georgyevskoie
Sredne-Yogorlikskoio
Kugulta .

Peschanookopskoie .
Sandata .
Medvej'ie

12,600
6,900
5,360
3,600

1874.

6,300
6,100

5,200

29,600
11,220
6,850
6,600
6,200
6,800
6,775
5,000
6,450
5,400
5,3ll0
6,200
6,150

! }JjF l M I|ll ll llll i] l iH ii » -

402

APPENDIX.

TURKESTAN.

PaiiVINCEB ANI> DlsTHIOTB OF Rl'SSIAN TURKKSTA.V, INCLl'DINO THF TkAN«-Ca8PIAV DisTUICT, TH>
'rEUHlTllUY OF (JkAI.i-K KART OF TIIK UllAl,, ANll THE XoKTIIEIl!* DlBTIllCTH OF CeNTHAL AglA,
N W A1>MINIKTRIiril 1IY TUB CiOVKllNO«-lJ KNKUAI,.

riuTJncei,

DistrioU

Area.
8<i. MUcs.

f » iiy of 'rnBhkoiiil .

I District of Kunima

„ A&li iita

PboVINCB op SlU-nAHIA (1870)

Chimkont . . .
Turkestan , . .
I'orovsk . . .
Kiixfilinsk . . .
Khojend and Jizak

i'opula'ion.
18BU-77.

Total

ClBCLE OF THE AmU-DARIA

CtucLE OF Zahafshan (1871)

{

fistrict of Penjakent . ,
„ Katti-kurnan .

„ Samarkand

Total

PuoTixcB OP Fekghana

Protincb of Semiuecuinsk (1869) . <

District of Sergfiopol
„ Kopal .

„ Vcmiy .

„ Tokmak

„ Issikkul

Total . . .

EULJA.

Thanb>Ca8Pian Teubitoiiy (1877)

.,*•»*<■■

PhoVINCB OF IjBALhK, EAST OP
UllAI, RiVEK

THE I

Bailiwick of Turkomans . . .

„ MangiHhlak. . .

„ Dusachi ....

„ Tuk-Karagan . .

District of Krasnovodsk ...

Now Akhal Tokko District

(Daman-i.koh), 1881 . . .

Total

Part of the District of Uralsk .
„ ., Gurzev .

„ „ Kalmikov

(.District of Embinsk ....

Total

PuovmcB OF TxjBOAi (exclusive of f I>»«t«ct of Turffai
the Nikolayevsk Dibtnct) • • • 1 " JJ. hlL

Total . .

Provincb op Akmolinsk

District of Sari-Suisk .
Orand Total . ,

17,700

27,481)
24,730
32,320
43,750
25,480
10.47"

181,99o"

70,063

195,685

103,835 •

176,205

I 115,852

1 1011,090

61,790

1 12-.M90

951,700

41,400

107.200

6,680

i.ono

2.170

70,760

96,4(56

121,726

9,840

287,950

34,.'?00

729,690

31,630
43,550
30,350
34,090
17,230

100,952
106,474
160,631
128,000
43,443

15U,850

63!),500

26,000

139,680

130,820

4,000
10,000
16;780

1,500
107,400

15,000 F

260,000

146,820

389,680

19,7201
20,640 !
23,710 (
66,510 J

276,000 f

119,480 1

64.6301
23,660 ^
62,420 J

200,000 P

160,700

92,400

150.000 P

943,780

3,520,400

Population op the Chief Towns in Bvmsian Turkestan exclvsite op Fxuohana and the

Province of Sir-daria.

Tashkend (1874) .
., (^880) .
Khojend (1879)
Ura-tepe and suburbs
Jizak
Pangas .
Turkestan (Yasi)
Chimkent
Pskent
Ash .
Perovsk .

Samahkand D strict.
Aaii-ata .

86,260

100,000

29,000

15,000

7,000

6,000

6,600

6,400

6,000

6,00..

3,400

Kazalinsk

Provinee ; ' Amu Juri".
Chimbai (in bummer) . . .

Semireehittsk,

Vemiy (1879)

Sepsinsk

Kopal

Karakol

Kttlja.
Old Kulja and suburbs .
Suidum

3,300
2,960

TOO

14,860
3,000
2.700
2,275

'6,000
4,000

APPENDIX.

498

*N DliTBICT, THB
OF CbNTHAL A8IA,

cs.

i'opula'ion.
18UU-77.

)
)

70,063
t9o,68.i
103,835
170,206
1 16,862
100,090

61,790
122,190

i)
)

961,700
107.200

70,760
96,406
J2I,726

287,950

729,690

100,952
106,474
160,631
128,000
43,443

}

63!),500
139,080

4,000
10,000
16;780

1,500
107,400

250,000

389,680

275,000 P

200,000 P

150.000 P

I 3,620,400

DHANA AND TBB
3,300

2,950

r»'/.

700

. 14,860
3,000
2,700
2,276

. -.6,000
4,000

ESiiu-ij -t WW

ProvlnceB.
Siniirechinsk
Sir-dariii
Kt'rglmna
ZiirafHliHU
Aniutl'iriu

TUKKESTAN— CO/lfiMlwrf.
AORlCUtTTHAL DoMA.N o. UlHH.AN TuKKESTAN IN AcHE«.

Pftnture. Ue»eit iind Wiute.

6(l,0UU,00U o0,0i.0,000

50,000,000 68,612,(100

8,250,000 8,526,000

3625,000 2,407,000

3,626,000 19,040,000

V'udev Cultivation.

•J,;i60,U00

084, 00>)

1 ,650,0011

026,000

120,000

LnE Stock ok Russian TinKBhTAN.

Provinoet.
HomirechinsV
8ir-drtria
Zaratshan
Forghana
Amu-darin

Total

Camela.
«7,4I2

242,130

1,248

38,294

11,267

norneii.
892,007
306,66»

61,991
21i«,7«0

48,000

Cattle.
6.'3,200
29 1,660

84,463
220,717

38,070

TotJil.

I02,.156,000

110,406,010

18,4?6,000

0,781,000

23 090,000

Bheep.
6.200,000
3,183,000

•28:t,000
1,260.000

32!>.000

^^^ l,60V,3ll 1,100,000 U,35l,0U0

Population of Afghan T«rke«tan, accohd.no to Ghoi.bkov.

Wnkhnn
Badakshan
Kunduz
Ualkh .
Andkhoi

3,(100

168,0(»(>

400,000

04,0110

60,000

Shibirkhan \

Ak-clia

Saripul

Maiinene

Gurzivan

Darzab

Total

270,000

5,000
060,000

KUIVA.

Oasis .
Sti'ppos, Ac.

Totul

Area in
Square Milei.
5,400
17.700

23,100

Fopalntion.
300,000
400,000

700,000

1. «r.„ ^v Pl.ROUANA. WITH THEIR ESTIMATED POPULATIONS IN 1876-7

Chief Towns of the Province or Ffrouana, with _^^^

Kokan .

Namangan

Marghilan

Andijan

Osh

Nadknt .

Kasaan .

60,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
20,000
15,000
10,000

Chust (Tus)
Uzghent .
Assakch .
Sharikhan
Balikchi .
Isfara
Vadil .

7,500
0,000
5.000
6,000
5,000
6,000
3,000

Tashkond
8ani!irkand
Khojend
Ura-tepo
Jizak .

Schools in Tdhkbbtan (1879).
Schools.
118
80

• • • 20

• • • 13

• • • 7

Fupili.

2,360

1.600

400

280

140

SIBERIA.

_ . _ Dirtiiots Circles, and Captaincies
ProTinces. .

~' " ' ~~iMrict» attributed to Europe.

f Vtrkho-Turie

j Yekaterinburg

Ahatic Slope OF THE Government ^Irbh^^ . • • • • ; ;
OF PER-: 6 Districts . . • • ' K^'^^ ;

I Total

rTroi'tzk

„ Chelabinsk

AmATIC portion OF THE G<)VEENMBXT ^ Qrsk

OF ORBSBruo: 4 Distncts . . ■ ^ Verkhnjo-L'ralsk

L Total

uptil'ition in
1870—77.

189,615
318.317
122.135
214,797
260,.'i97

1,105,301

103,363
277.561
113,362
132.834

"627,120

404

ArrENDix.

8inf.mA— continued.

rrovinoea.

Distrioti, CiroleH, and Captainoiei.

OoVEUNMENT Of TrKOAI

GovnnNMRNT OF Akmdi.inrk
4 DiHtricts

Central Atia {Ob Bat in).
Kikolayevsk

TAkmoIinsk
I KokohotttV .
<[ Omsk . .
I Potropavlovgk
t- Total . .

GOVEKNMBNT OV SeMIPALATINSK I

■1 Districts

SninipHliitinsk
Kiii'kiiralinak
Kokbokti . .
i'uvlodnr , .

OOVEIINHENT OP ToBOLHK ;

(Okrug,)

lOCirclos

fVeit Siberia,
'Tobolsk ....
UtTyozov )
Surgut J • • • .

Ishiiii

Kurffiin

<, Tukalinsk (Omsk) . .

Tnra

Turinsk

Tuinen

Yalutorovsk ....

Total

OoTBRNMBNT OF ToMBK : 6 Circles

(■Tomsk

Barnaul .
I Uiisk . .
^ Kainsk
I Kiizrictzk
I Maiiiusk .

*- Total .

£att Siberia,
" , r Krasnoyarsk . . .
' I Yeniseisk ....

I Kansk

QovERNMENT OF YiNiiiBiSK : 6 Circles ^ Achinsk

Minusinsk ....
Turukhansk ....

Total

GOVEKMMBMT OF luKLTSK : 6 CirclcS «

f Irkutsk . .
Balugansk
Nijne-Udinsk
Verkho- Lonsk
Kironsk . .

L Total . .

Pkovincb op Yakutsk : 5 Circles

Yakutsk

Olokminsk .

Vilui . . .

^ Verkho- Yansk

Kolima . .

Total . .

Provinceof Transbaikalia: 6 Circles <

Province of the Amur

rChita

Nyerchinsk . . .
Nyerchinakiy-Zavod
Vorkhnye-Udinsk .

1 Selenginsk . . .

I Barguzin ....

L Total ....

Area in Square
MileR,

33,000

50,300
2h,!»90
I8,(i80
27,740

150,700

20.000
80,000
30,000
46,000

194,000

48,530

404,250

10,450

0,300

26,530

32,030

34,780

7,760

8,970

688,b60

119,500
51,210
74,950
30,580
30,170
20,610

344,957r

8,190

181,630

33,220

23,200

42,560

730,060

1,028,640

31,940
17,470
48,610
37,230
187.040

322,290

346,750
144,660
435,160
321,966
304,910

1,553,430

11,430
10,630
14,420
16,680
15,560
17,180

85,800
112,840

ropiiliition lu
lWo-77.

90,000 P

232,000 P

5 1 0,000 P

1 10,208

23,763

7,348

200,049

106,880

110,064

113,479

65,463

94,389

16(1,136

1,086,818^

175,820
1H6,9I2
187,127
100,067
113,<)a3

09,907

838,766

84,473
69,107
64,688
70,H10
110,288
7.427

396,783

116,608
108,341
41. 784
65,851
3rt.065

o58,629

140,435
13,817
61,212
31,802

__ ^'^IL
236,067

72,981
28,841
130,372
100,026
70,144
10.416

430,780
28,689

«i

IB l fi i UMI^ ' MMUfljIiJ^I^

API'FINDLX.

40S

KinRiiTA — roiiiiiiHtd.

huore ropuintion in
'• ' 1W0-.7T,

PrnvlncCT.

Diitriotm Clrclpi, nnd ruptaliirirx.

"T.

Arm In Hniiiiii'
MileM.

BOO

llOO
l»0
1)80
U{)

ruo

poo

too

Joo

30
.50

•')()

liO I
M)

m
so I

30 I
JO

90,000 p

ii32,000 P

o 1 0,000 P

U 0.208
'A 763
7,348
200,049
1U6,889
110,004
113,479
Co,4l!3
94,389
16(1, 1 ;i6

1,086,818

17o,820
1H5,9I2
187,127
100,057
U3,!)33
_0'<,907

838,76«~"

84,473
69,197
64,d88
70,810
110,288
7.427

396,783

116.598
108,341
41. 784
55,851
3H,065

^58,629

140,43«
13,817
61,212
31,802

6.8il_

236,067

72,981

28.841

130,372

109,026

70,144

_[MI6_

430,780 "
28.«89

f Nikoliivcvik

j SolliHk'

UakitimbPuovince: Circles . • <( oli^Xu'?""!' '. \ ' \ \

OiiiKiKxk

Li;d

f TTgnri

I Siufun

Teuuitouy op tub Ukuhi ; 6 Circlca ■{ Klmnkii

{ Avviikiimov

^Sut'liun

Tutal (Maritime Pnv. and Usuri)

ArPllOXIMATB PUPULATION OF HUIEUIA, ACCOIiniNd TO RaCE8 (1880).

VokuIh .

Kiinioycdcg . ' .
OHtiiticB .

Soyots

4,501)

Finnish

26,000

Stock

25,0(10

8,000

r 'lunguiicB

25,000

Biiriiits .

250,(100

Mongol

KalmukH

20,000

Stock ^

ChincHu and Manchus

10,000

Cori'ans .

3,000

, Yukaghirs

1,600

Turki
Stock

Yiikiita

I DoIgiinM
( Tatiirs
( Chukchiii
Koriaks

a„_ j_. - J Kiinichadalog
Sundries <j j.j,;^^^

I AinoH .
(.Gipsies
Slavs ....

YiBLD OP TUB AltaI Mines prom 1745 to 1860.

3,568,760 lbs., valued at £10,000,000.

-J

Prouvct of tub Altai Mines in 1876.

Silver 25,260 lbs.

Gold 2,666 „

Copper l,3Mi,000 „

Nickel 04,050 „

Pig and Cast Iron 1,730.750 „

Total Value 2,000,000 roubles.

Chief Towns in tub AltaT Distkuts (1873).

BamaAI .
Bisk

Zmcinogorsk .
Suzunskiv-zaxod
liOktcvskia-zavod

Pop.
13,626
6,360
6,000
6,400
5,000

Ziryanovsk
Kuziietzk
Salair
Kiddersk

Abba and Population of the Om Basin.

Government of Tobolskv

„ Tomsk

„ Semipalatinsk

AMiatio portion of the Perm and Orenburg Governments
Portion of the Ob Ba^in in the Turgai and Akmolinsk Oovmts.
District of Achinsk. Government of Ytniaeisk
Basin of the Black Irtish in Mongolia

Total

1,405.560

Towns in the Yenesbi-Aicoaua IUsin.

xatittx*

Krasnoyarsk (1873)
Yeniseisk „

Minusinsk „

Knnsk „

Turukhansk „

Pop.

14,160

7,180

4,440

2,270

216

Angara.

I'lipiiliitiim to
1K7I> 77.

0.031
8.-.H7
6,846
4.608
6.001
1,454

6,779
1,106
4,779
1,173
H50

60,610

200,000

500

80,000

12,001)

5,000

3,000

6.000

3,000

5,000

4,500,000

Fop*

4,500
3,250
3,000
2,600

AreninSq.MUes.

top. 187.1.

551,100

1,1188,8.50

340,870

838,750

196,000

510,100

60,900

1.360,000

274,400

321,8."0

23,290

70,810

40.000 P

100,000

4,280,400

i§"5

( Kiiikhta and suburbs (1873) .
I Verkhnye-l/dinsk „

( Novo-Selunginfk „

i!.-S (Irkutsk (1876) .
91 \Nijne-TJdinsk(1876)

Pop.
9,050
3,475
1,050
32,520
3,820

AITKNDIX.

YnkiitMk (|87;<) .
yi;il<h<i.|,()ni)k(1873).
Kiri'iiHk ,, ,

Hi'<Mliio-Koliiiisk „ .

fitnttMA— font iiiiinl.

Towns in th« Dasinh »»• Lena ami Eaktbhn Rivrrs.
P(ip.
. 4.830 Olokmimk (1873)

070 i ViiaiHk

820 j Virkhn-Vaniik „

flOO I Nyiiu.KoHniik{1873)

ToWNH IN THR AmUII BawN AND OK TIIH EakT CoAM OK HllllHIA.

Amur JIaiiii.

Nyorchiimk (II

N.V('rrhitiHkiy-ZHVo(l

Chilli

Itluf^nvycNlirhnnsk

Nikiiliiycvsk

Khubitruvka

r iiasm.

Pl.p.

^73) .

3,700

•1 •

3,100

»l •

2,750

f> •

3,000

If •

6,300

ff •

770

Maritime llittrict.

Okhiitik (1873)
Ayiin „

fJiJiffinsk „ .
Vladivostok (1878)

1^.
AOO
300
330
2U0

Top.

210

200

8,860

flilinka

AinoB

Orochca

Population of Sakhalin.

2,000

2,600

400

Jiipancse .
ChiuHsc .
Kiisgians .

400

700
6,000

Population op Kiiibria at vahtouh Epoch*, bxclihivb op thb Asiatic Slopes op tub Uhals.

1796
1816
1800

1,193,145
1,540,424
3,327,627

1870-73

18K0 . . . .

1880, with tho Urali

3.340,362
3,000,000 P
6,200,000 P

Public Inrthuction in Sibbria, bxclusivb op thb Easteun Si-opes op thb Uralh.

Elementary Schools, 1876:-600. Attflndanco, 16,200, of whom 14,000 boys. 2,M00 girla.

Higher Schools, UO. AtteaUauoe, 3,800.

■,-/*■■

■"^^

mmmmi'^mmmmmim

ii -W -' . WW— Bi

^•^mmm^^mmm^

•n^MHMqi^qa

Ittp.
fiUO
300

a3o

•iOO

Pop.

210

200

8,860

♦ •

INDEX.

400

700
fi.ouo

AbaVnn River, 364

Stei>iM>. 3A4, 3fiO
Abakiiniik, 3o0, 362
Alikhiwiang, 67
Abltiikit Kivor, 340
Almiu, Uko, 30
Abftl. Mount, 101, 102, 130
Abuskun, 271
AchinRk, 351

Adai-kokli, Mount, 42, 64
AtliKbuh, 6o
Aili»h, Mount, 04

AdlorFort, 61 . ^, ...

Administration of tho CftUCMUi, 160
'f urkegtan, 287 '
Siberia, 472
Afghan Turkestan, 237
Afontova Mountains, Abi
Aghish-tau, Mount, 36
Agralihan Bay, 79
Auri-Jagh, 133
Agvania, 126
Aibughir Oulf, 200
Aigcr-giil, 1-akc, 136
Aigun, 380, 443
AinoB, 466
Airi-chai River, 40
Airivansk, 147
ATya,368
Ajara Mountains, 00

River, 95
Ak-bara Uivw, 276
Ak-baital River, 171
Ak-bush, Mount, 186
Ak-bulak, 246
Ak-cha, 248
Ak-dengh«, Lake, 191
Akcro River, 138
Akhal-atok, 214, 262
Akhalkalaki, 101, lil
Akhal Tekke, 478, 483
Akhaltzik, 121, lo4
Ak-hissar. 121
Akhtari Liman, 52
Akhti, 88
Akiska, 121
Ak-ktnd,285
Ak-kum, 193, 194
Ak-kurgan, 286
Ak-mochod, 283
Ak-Meiid, 164
Akroolinsk, 349

Ak-robat, '-'45

Ak-sai, 78

riateau, 186
Akscrai liivcr, 244, 247
Ak-shiirak, 180, 1»0
Ak-si, 276
Ak-su. 202

River, 193, 202
Ak-tash, 263, 264
Ak-t tu, 202
Ak-tupo, 271
Aktogoi River, 182
Ak-tuboh, 331
Akuli-i, 140
Akusha, 85

Ala denghijs. Lake, 101
Ala.goj-„Moui.t, 41. 46, 130, 136

Alai Mountains, 108, Id

Aliii-tagh Mountains, l7o, 202

Ala-kul, Lake, 100 _

Alakhftn-dagh, 78, < 9

Alupayevsk, 347

Alapolarim, 137-8

Alaska, 7

Alat, Cape. 109

Altt-tHU Mountains, 182, 18.1

Kungei Mountains, !»•», i»*
Terskei Mountains, 184

Alazan River, 78, 102

Albai.ia, 126

Albazin, 443

Aldan Mountains, 420

RivCT, 386, 420

Alet Pass, 191
Aleutian Islands, 401

Alexander Mountains, 176, l»»
Alexandrapol, 146
Alexandrovsk, 269 •
Alexandrovskaya, 7a

Alhom, 271 ^

Alibert, Mount, 460
Alim-tu, 286
Allaho-Akhbar, 482
Almati, Mount, 188

Town, 284
Altai Mountains, 310

Great, 322

Little, 322
Altaiskaya, 320
Altio-imol Pass, 188
Altin tau Mountains, ali
America Bay, 446

Amga River, 3S8
Anigun River, 428
Aum-diiria River, 202
Amur Oulf, 432

Hivtr, 422
Anabiira Uivrr. 306, 382
Anadir Gulf, 31)9

Hivor, 401
Anadirsk, 402

AnaiMi, 6*' ^^ , ,„
Andaman Islands, 10
Andi Mountains, 79
Andijan, 270
Andlihoi, 248, 249
Angara Basin, 3 .4

River, 3.V2, 370, 373

Ani, 140
Aniva Bay, 464
rtnkuli, 410

Anti-Caucasus Mountains, 34
Apsheron Peninsula, 97, 106
Arabs, 220
Aragova River, 102
Aral Sea, 208
Aralo-Caapian Basin, 103
Ararat, Mount, 130, 1 2
Aravan, 276

Araxis River, 100, 104, 139
Ardahan, 120, 140
Ardanfij, 100
Ardimot-Kaghak, 147
Ar-don River, 64, 68
Argun River, 410, 423
Arguri, 134
Arjevan, Mount, 102
Ar'kat .Mountain, 100, 101
Armavir, 147
Aitnenia, 140

Russian, 130
Armenians, i40
Arpa-chai River. 140
Arsiani Mountains, 01
Artomonova, 318
Artaxates, 148
Artvin, 100
^Vrvans, 20 _
Ashur-adoh. 271
Asia Station, 346
Assakeh, 276
Astara, 130
Astrabad, 216
Ast-urt, 216

mmm

INDKX.

AlKuMir, !l4n

AtiHli-Kiih. l(M>

Atok, ..Ml

Alrrk ItiviT. 'iM

Auli'iitii, '.'Mi

Aviicliit lliiy, 400, iU ^'

Mount, tUl
Aviirn, .';t

y\vii-Kii>! lUvor, 103
Ayiiii, 142

Miili/i'iliiuh, "H
IWiikxIiuii, nn

Hiv.r, -M.T

'I'own, il.'l
IlailiikhHhiini, 'HO
lliiKiii'iiHh-kiil, I'D
lliiKiliiil l-'i>rt. im
Ituikiil, l^itkf, :;U8
MiOkiiiKl, WO
lliiiHiiri, 'i't^i
lliikhtii River, .3/14
ItiikNii KiviT, OH
II <kti'iiiiiii, 1(1(1, 237
ll:ikii, 12!)
HaliiKiiiiHk, IIHl
lliilitklmn, KM), 111
lliilakhiiii KiviT, 382
llulkaii Oiilf, 207
lliilkitiiH, ;«, 214
ititikh, 247

Hivi r, 24S
lliilkliiisli, Liikr, 101
Maliii'hiHtiiii, 2
Itaiiii, -.'.v.', 4.-i3
Haiitiaii, '.')'>
ll.tiinar .Mount. 180
JIarabii .Sti.pjie, 332
llarda, 12(1

Harxu/in Uivor, 370, 373
bHrkiii, 178

Moiinlaina, 170
Ilarluk Moiintuias, 182, 180
li.irnafl!, 327
llnrnadlka Uivor, 334
liarxkuAn l'ait», 186, 188
itush-Alai, 17'> ',

HaHli-Karni, 147
liaiihkira, 330
Haskiin Kivor, 193
Hatalpaghinskaya, 64
IJatum, 90
Hayandui, 285
Buzardidz, Mount, 78
Mcar Island, 380
Bosh'tau, Mount, fi6
Uei-kom Kiver, 3.52
liok'pak dala Steppe, 104
Itolnya Hivor, 4U
UoIiy-KIilch, 124
Uond-i-barbari Kivor, 248
Kerda, 160

UeresovBkiy-zavod, 348
Uergushot Itiver, 138
Bering Island, 408

Peiiii)8itla, 390

Sua, 402

Strait, 402
Berozov, 348, 351
Beryozov, 348
Bervozovka River, 328
Besh-tau, 65
Bielo-Udovskiy, 340
Bielukha, Mount, 322
Biisk, 320
Hingol-dagh, 139
Birza Uiver, 329

Biv»» Uivpr, 3S4

Hiv n Kivir. 103
lllai(iiiliirii(iii', 75
lllaitcivviHlii'lii nik. 443
ItiiKijci .MiiuiitainN, 17H
It Ifla nor. I7U
Itoklmra, 2'i2

City, 2.^8
Doll hava Kvi'ka Kivir, 402
Boikalak. ;IH|
Uoliii^, I.'i5

llolor .MoiintaiiiN, I, 1(15
Itorliulo, Mount ';i
llorjoni. Kill, 121
Koro-klioro .Mountainn, \Hi
l<orok)iui|/.ir, 285
ItoNkal, l(i;

HuNporuN, Kantcrn, 473
lloNtan-nor, liU
Hragiiiii, 83
llrahinaputra llivi<r, 13
llratitkiy-oHtrdg, 378
Krianiik, 78

Hujnurd. 215 |

llukhtarniiuHk, 328
llulun, 3<JU
llurcva Mountuini, 422

Itivcr.
lluriatM, 375, 303 ,-

llurutH. 324
Bzll) Kivur, 61

Canpian Hoa, 2 1 7

Castrifii Hay, 2'J6, 431

CaucaHia, 33

Cnui'HsianH. 40

(laiicaitni) Mouiitiiina, 337

Chabdara, Mnunt, 175

Chagan-obo, 101

IhagoR Bank, 8

Chaino,

Chani, Lako, !132-3

('harin Kiver, 182

Cliarjui, 207,257

Chasash, 155

(.'Imtir kul, 185, 188

('horhonztg, "0

Chekhatiii, Mount, 00

Chuleken Island, 207, 270, 484

('holuskin, CH|ie, 205

Chepishli, 481

Cherdin, 470

Chcrek Kivor, 68

CheromissiunB, 164

Cherkt'sses, 64

Chernishev Bay, 217

Chiber Pass. 245

(.'hiehiklik Mountains, 169

Chikishlar, 218, 270

Chikoi River, 37»

Childir, Uke, M

Childir-dagh, 13U

Chilik River, 183

Chimkcnt, 282

Chindagatin River, 320

Chingil, Mount, 131

Chirchik River, 279

Chita, 307, 442

Chitral, 244

Choktol Mountains, 100, 279

Chon-su Kivor, 171

Chorukh River, 91, 96

Chu River, 184, "200

Chades, 317, 356

Chudors, 220

Chugiichak. 189, 360

Chukchis, 408

niiilintsknl Nos, Tapfl, S0»
Cliitliui UiviT, 333
I huitii Kivir, IU3
CliuHt (Tun), 27(1
( hnvant/.i'ii, 30(1
Cliuvaitlii'it, I(i4
Cliuya itivcr, 327
Cliniate of Aitia, 8

( !aui'ai«uii, 40

Oi'orgia, too

Mancliuria, 432

MiiuriOia, Ul

I'aniir, 1(12 ■,

Sakhalin, 453

SiJN'ria, MO'i

Turki'Stiin. 213
(.'(H'hin l^hina, H
l.'olchiH, 33, HN, 06 '

Coinedi'S, KiU

Cuniiujindi'r's An.'hiiMjIaifo, 408
Coniinunc, 4(i3
('orcans, 438
('oSMaiiks, 60
CuouinW Island, 210

naghodtan, 78

lulai. Uki', 421

Dalai kui Island, 360

Dalai- nor, 3(18

Dalinatov, 349

Danian-i-kuh, 216

Dandan-Hhikan, 245

DapsauK ^lountains, 2

Uarial (■< :;e, 42

Darja I'eui >suln, 207

Darjo, 83

DrirkhatH, 367

Darvaz, 252, 253

Dasht-i-Bakara,

Dail-kara, I.aki', 200

DaQria 41!)

DaArs, 43(1

Da&HS-alin, 422

Dt'haH Kivor, 248

Dekabrists, 462

Dulijan, 147

Denau, 2.i6

Donghiz-tau, 190. 101

Dera-guz, 476, 481

Derbend, 86, 100

Derbendi, 482

Di'rogez-ntok, 214

Dovdoraki Glacier, 42, 476

Dicksonshavu, 365

Dido, 84

Digoiin, 71 i

Dikh-tau, 36, 64

Diklos-mta, Mount, 70

Diomede Island, 411

Diri-dagh, 130

Discovery, progress of, in Asia, 26

Dolgans, 306

Donva, 367

Dora Pass, 240

DuY, 466-7

Dukhobortzi, 466

Dundinka, 864

Dungan, 232

Du^•hambe, 265

I )u8h-kachan, 380

Dzirilla River, 96

Dzuu-tarei, Lake, 420

" Eagle " Mountains, 328
East Cape, 403
Ebi-nor, 191
Kchmiadzin, 147

' ..■.wy.M.«y«,.o/v.v^Ti«>^^tJrf)^^w»-»»(»^,f^yf^<^^r ^y^^.;fA^ ■^-^.^^.^;7-^■^•^'^'.■^■i*?M-':3a^^'j^»*i^l■i

190. 101

,481

I(i0

214

laor, 42, 476
, 3dd

[ount, 70

id, 411

>gre8s of, in Asia, 26

466
I

380
, 96
nke, 420

intains, 328
i

Flhm* Mountiiinn, Sft, 04

Kl-Kli. 2'^"

Ktnl-ii Mur.h. W)

F.mil liiv. r, Ulll

Kinliiki, Mount, lOi

Kiiwiiiihctliii IhIiiihI, 1102

Kr^ik-tiiiKiik Mimnluius, H'i, 300

Kriviin, 117

Kri>viiiitiiK' ""il, \ irt

Kroviiiitiinh:!)!, 1 Vi

Kruikri, HO

Vm\wUm[, Vfil

y^hvk Miiiiluri rufit, 1-7

F*ki-thiim2, 'i'H

Kttlkiiym,i K' y, 300

Kiiphrutt'H, 1

KMri'Mt, Muuiit, 3

l':xiUm, 403

iMiililoyiv Iiilnnri, 300
l'"nuiiii of thii t'limiiHii*, 46
Mimr t'liuciwiiH, 01
M. I'hiiriu, 434
I'likiiiilin, 4ft'J
Hihrriii, 314
'riirkutitBii, 10)
Fiii/iit'iid, Budttkitlmn, 243

Itiikham, 255
FtTuhunii, 100
KiiiK-don Uivor, 08
Finno-TiitHre, 10
Finn*, 3.56
Fiithi)ri«'», 406
Floro of AmieniH, 136
Aain, 14
I'liucnHiiN, 43
FjiMt '.'iiucaiius, 91
MaiK'huria, 41)4
Kiikhiilin, 4o3
Siberia, 310
Turkestun, 196
Franz-Josoph Archipfllago, 304,
392

Gnatii Fort. 61
ORlclmg, 236, 484
Oainigh, Mount, 138
Giingeii, 13
Gnnja, 126

Oarji>tar Mountains, 2 i3
Gate of Hamian Fass, 244
(^auri8nnka^ Mount, 3
Garibolo Mountains, 41
Garni, 148. 255
Gaz kul, 202
Geok-tepe, 164, 252, 271
Geology of Asia, 6
Georgia. 100

Georgians, 111

Goorgyevsk, 76

Germans, 119

Geshik-hashi, Mount, 186

Ghimri, 86

Giiiainsk, 442

Giliaks, 439

Giriisi, 149

Godorebi, Mount, 102

Gog and Miigog, 216

Gok thai. Lake, 136
Plateau, 147

G'ik-gol, liako, 127

Goklans, 220

Golden Horn Bay, 430

Golds, 436

Gold-washings. 46S

Golodnnya Steppe, 194
Goltzi tfiountains, 366, 420

INDEX.

(lori. 123

Our<i-lllago(liit, 316
UiiiiMlishihi', 340
(iiiit/l. 40
Uroxnaya, 81
(irii/iiiy. 77
(irusiitns, 112 ,

Ciilrha, 270
UuliNliin, 214
(iCtiiili, M uiit, H5
(turgari llivir, 215, 271
I iiii'iiin. 1 12
(luruMiili, 172
(luml-diin Kiver, 6H
(iToxdi'VU Islands. 411

ilai. Ilaik., HO
llaji-kak I'ass, 244
llaji-Ktnd, 127
llukwinli. 482
Ifaiiiah-kaii, 242 ,

lliimi, 178

Mountains, 179
llaniisli. Mount, 184
llan-hai, 8, 176
Harm, 255
llH»iwin-d«gh, 6
IhiKiutn-kalrh. 270
llavasdan. 140
llaicar, 256

Hazar-Masiid Mountains, 482
Jlazroti-Sultan, Mount, 176
iliiWondorf, 127
lloUrnt^s, 21
lltilmand Hivor, 6
H«long-ki»ng Uivor, 424
llorat, 481

llori-iud Uiver, 204, 261
tlimalava Mountains, 2
llindu-kush, 170, 244
lliH.'«ar. 255
Hoang-hai, II
Hoang'ho, 11
Huang-tu, 11
Hoi-yuan, 285
Uoja-bakargan, 278
Hoia-Mohammed Mountains, 242
IhVidilk Lakes, 67
" Hunger" Steppe, 194
Ilunns, 376
Huns, 23
Hyroania, 215

Sea of, 206, 271
Hyrcanopolis, 271

Iberians,. 46
Idokopaz, 60
lir-tash Glacier, 199
Ike-cral Kivor, 322
Hi. 285

Kivcr, 192. 284
Iliisk, 192
Imaus, 165
Imeria, 94
Imerians, 94
Indar-ab River, 244
Indigirka River, 388
Indus, 13
Industries of the Caucasus, 164

Siberia, 467
Ingoda River, 442
Ingiir River, 88
Ingushes, 83

Inhabitants of Armenia, 140
Asia, 18
Caucasus, 46
East Caucasus, 70

409

Inhabitiintiiof Georgia, Ul
KiiMu'hiitka, i\>V
Lii/ixlNti, t>2
l.i'ua Itiiitiu, 3N4
Mam liiinii, 436
>Hltlialiii, 456
Silxi'ia, 317
'ruikiKtHn, 220
Went ( 'aM< iixiiK. 54
Wr xt Sil). ria, 33H
\f\u iM'i Kasin, 355
IraU I'awt, 205
I run, 103
jtanians, 10, 220
I man, 2
libit lliv.-r, 347
Town. 317
Fmn-khNbirgan, 182
Irjar, 278

Irkut RiviT, 366, 373
Irkutsk, 380
Iron, 71

h' sh llnsin, 3:10
Irtinh, Hlack, Uiv. i, 331

White, 332
Iset Uivir, 345, MO
Isfairani, 171, "-il
Ishkanbii.' ''lO
Ishikli, Mount. 138
Uhim. 340
Ukander-kul. 202
iHsik-kul, Ukc, 184
Itelniun, 414
Ivanovskaya, 401

.lahfl-Shovi, 93
Jabeshi. NH
.Fagatai, Ts.i
.IairHk> \'mbs. 101
Jaluuii^^h, 183, 101

Jarim.-daria. 2i,0

Jam ilariu, 200

.InpiiicS' , 458 -' '

.111: komi, 286

.Itilosnovoilsk, 74

.lorm, 243

Jews, 2811

Jigansk. :i09

Jihttn River, 202

Jizak, 275

River, 275

.lonquiere Hay, 450

.lufa. 149

JugjuT Slountitins, 420

Jiilun Mountains, 173
Juman-tau, 42. 60
Jun-bulak, 367

Kabadian, 166
Kabarda, 69
Kabards, 60
Kabul, 477
Kacha Rivir, 363
Kacha-kum, 480
Kachal dagh. 138
Kachines, 358
Kachu, Mount, 79
Kachuga, 386
Kaiirnahan, 256
Kaflankir, 216

Kaghizmun, 146

Kaidak, 218

Kalnsk, J50

Kaltago-Tabasseran, 84

Kakhctia, 113

Kaktietians, 112

Kala Kaushid Khan, 479

800

INDEX.

Knlniis River, 66-7
Kaljir Kivcr, 331
Kiil'ch i-kuinb, 263
Kiiliiiuks, 325
Kiiltber, Mount, 42 \

KHninr-Uttban, 367 ■"''

Kiimassos, 3-44
Kiimoiishiki, 326, 440
Kiimishlov, 319
Kumchadalea, 413
Kamchatka, 401

River, 401, 402
KandahHr, 477
Kanii Pass. 1U2
Kansk, 363
Kiipchegai, 199
Kaiiitaii, Mount, 421
Kaptagal, Mount, 188
Kapujish, Mount, 138
Kara-adir MoiintaiuH. 189
Karabagh Mountains, 1 38

Steppes, 106
Kara-boghHZ, Lake, 212, 217
Karabura, Ii[ount, 188
Kara-daria Rivor, 199, 276
KiirigMBses, 368
Kiiragati River. 333
Karagiil-bas, Mount, 185
Karii-lrtich River, 331
KaraKaloh, 146
Kara-Kalpaks, 225
Kiira-Uazik, 176 .;. i ,..;

Kara-Kirghiz, 226
Kara-koh, 247
Kara-koin Mountains, 186
Karakordin Mountains, 2
Kara-kotal Pass, 2j5
Kara-Kuban River, 62
Kara-kul, 175

Lake, 171
Kara-kum Desert, 16>, 212

Steppe, 196
Karasai River, 199
Karn-su, 218

River, 300 -■
Kara Sea, 303
Karn-uzflk River, 201
KiinitHgh, 266
Kara-tul River. 193
KaiH-tau Mountains, 173, 187, 188
Kiirateghin, 173, 262, 263
Karikji, 267
Kami-chiii, 14 7
Kars, 115

Kars-chiii Ri.-er, 145
Kaithvelian, 111
Kas Kiver, 336
Kashan-tau, 36, 64
Kiishgar, 187
Kashgarians, 232
Kashka Rivor, 266
Karshi, 267
Kassia Mountains, 16
KathoHcos, 143
Katti kurgan, 275
KatOn Mountains, 1 79, 322

liiver, '22, 326. 334
Kauffmann I'enk, 171
Kaushid Khan, 479
Kavuk, 176
Kazuks, 226
Kazalinsk. 276, 283
Kazangul-dagh, 138
Kazbek, Caucasus, 36
Kobin, Great, River, 183

liittle. River, 184
Kedabek, 166

Kcgiirt, 147

KcKon Rivor, 182

K'ilat-Htok, 214

Koinchik Kiver, 352

Kentei Mountains, 423

Keptagai Mountains, 389

Kei'ch Peninsula, 36

Korgash, 147

Reiki, 267

ivoi-ulen Uivcr, 422

Ket River, 336

Khabur-Hssu, 190

Khabarovka, 4i7, 444 ^ .

Khiiliir River, 423

Khamil, 178 .,,,;.'

Khangalat, 387 :

Khiiiii River, 96

Khanka, Luke, 421, 425

Khan-tengri, Mountains, 176, 184

Khiiranlakh Hills, 388

Klwrezm, '.04

Khat'tnga River, 382

Khazars, 59

Khevsarw, 116

Khingan Mountains, 421, 424

Khinzirak, 149

Khiva, 263

City, 265
Khojend, 200, 278
Khoju-oba, 260
Kholmogori, 337
Khoni, 97
Khorasan, 478
Khorgos, 286
Khosheti-davan, 178
Khosrabad, 482
Khotur-tau, 173
Khua-kem Kiver, 362
Khulm, 247

Hiver, 245
Khulussutai, 419
Khunzak, 86
Kiakht I, 376
Kicbi-Ala'i, 17i
Kila-bar-panja, 253
Kila-kumb, 253
Kila-panja, 239
Kilch, 439
Kilif, 267
Kihp, 204
Kipchak, 227
Ki-pin, 167
Kirechii-dagh, 130
Kirenga River, 398
Kirensk, 366, 398
Kirghiz, 226
Kirghiz-Kazaks, 226
Kistin, 83
Kists, 81
Kitoi Kiver, 373
Kizi, Lake, 428
Kizil-agach Gulf, 156
Ki^il-alan, 216
Kizil-art Mountains, 171

Fa88, 176
Kizil-arvat, 252, 480, 483
Kizil-dagh, 131
Kizil-gyaduk, Mount, 102
Kizil-Kaya, Mount, 78-8
Kizil-kum Steppe, 194-6
Kizil-robat, 252
Kizil-BU, 269

River. 172, 254
Kizil-yart, 4
Kizlar, 78

Klyilchevskoi, Mount, 401
Kobdo, 327

Kobdo Plateau, 322, 330
Kodor River, 51
Kof-dagh, 34
Kog-art-ta\i, 171, 186
Koh-i-amber, 246
Koh-i-baba, 214
Koh-i-Nuh, 133
Kuhistan. 274
Kojor Pass, 102

Town, 124
Kokan, 278
Kokcha River, 240
Kok-kiya, 185
Kok-shaal, Mount, 186
Kok-su River, 193, 322
Kok-tuke Mountains, 185
Kolima River, 388
Kolivan, 329, 361
Kolota, 45
Konchalo, 414
Konda River, 339
Kondora River, 329
Konyam Bay, 391
Kopal, 284
Kopot-dagh, 214
Koriaks, 413
Koriss, 149
Kuraakov, 458
Kosheti-davan, 178
Kosio, Lake, 366
Koao-gol, Lake, 362, 367
Kospeti Pass, 188
Kotatission, 97
Koton-karagai, 329
Kotyelnly Ostrov, 389
Koyeretin-dagb, 102
Krafto Island, 449
Krusnovodsk, 218, 269

PlaiM, 269
Krasnoyarsk, 354, 362
Krestovaya Gora, 65
Krostovoye, 349
Krunotz, Mount, 401
Kuba, 88
Kuban Basin, 50

River. 61
Kubergenti Mountains, 186
Kubichi, 84
Kuchka, 240
Kuda River, 373
Kuda-ko, 6»
Kuen-liin Mountains, 2
Kugaran River. 276
Kukcha-denghiz, 200
Kukhtu\a River, 442
Kulali Island, 217, 218
Kulaahi, 97
Kulja, 284

New, 286

Old, 285
Kul-kalian, 167
Kulpi, Mount, 132
Kultuk Gulf, 377

Town, 380
Kuma River, 64-6, 67
Kumani Island, 109
Kumans, 23. 69
Kumskiy Proran, 67
Kunduz, 244

River, 247

Town, 246
Kungei Ala-tau, 186
Kunges liiver, 192
Kungrad, 216

Lake, 200
Kunia-urgenj, 206
Kur or Kura River, 100

INDEX.

501

oau, 322, 330
)r, 61
11

I, 171, 186
T, 240
, '244
, 133
!74
, 102
124
I

i^er, 240
1H5

Mount, 185
'er, 193, 322
[ountains, 185
lOT, 388
!9, 351

(14

er, 339
iver, 329
iy, 391

1,214
3

458

mn, 178
0, 3(i(i

juke, 352, 357
9S, 188
,97

igai, 329
Dstrov, 389
dagb, 102
nd, 449
)k, 218, 269

269
k, 364, 362

Gora, 65
, 349
[ount, 401

in. 60
51
Moantains, 185

, 373
»

tIountain8, 2
iver, 276
nghiz, 200
Itiver, 442
id, 217, 218

:86
15

167

int, 132
If, 377
380

r, 64-6, 67
and, 109
1.69

roran, 67
4

247
246

-tau, 186
'er, 192
16
!00

nj, 206
u River, 100

Kuram, 236
Kuran-dngh, 214
Kunihum Kiver, 332 ■

Kurdistan, 2
KuidB, 482, 485
Kiireika River, 3i4
Kuren-dagh, 476, 483
Kurgan, 349
Kurgan tube, 255
Kurilfis Islands, 18, 401
Kurk-tepe. 480
Kurmckti River, 199
Kuro-sivo Stream, 448
Kurush, 4IJ
Kuruluih River, 4':2
Kusunai, 453
Kushk River, 480
Kutai'a, 96
Kutomaldi, 184
Kuvan-jerma, 206
Kuznetzk, 319, 322, 329
Kuznetzkiy Alatau, 322
Kvirila River, 96

Laba River, 40

Lacha, 107

Ladovskaya, 64

Lajurd, 240

1^'khva River, 45

Lamuts, 436

Lxngir-kisht, 202

La TerouBe Strait, 449 ,

Lazes, 95

Lazistan, 90

Lekhi. 83

Lena River, 300, 382, 384

I^nkoran, 107, 130

Lcnkorud, 130

Lepsa, 182, 193

Lepsinsk, 284

Lc'zghians, 83

Li-hai, 10

Listvenichnaya, 380

Lob-nor, In

Loktevskiy Zavod, 32<}

Long, Mount, 392

Lozi Island, 109

Luli, 236

Lyakhov Archipelago, 389

Magyars, 23 _

Maidan-Kuni, 482

Maikop, 64

Maimachin, 378

Maimene, 247, 249

Majxri, 75

Miijuj, 215

Makachinga, Mount, 399

Makhntm, 278

Malays, 20

Malavsia, 1

Malka River, 68

Mamia Rinzo Strait, 461

MamiBBon Pass, 36, 65

Manchuria, 417

Mandzi, 438

Mnnegrs, 436

Mangiizsya, 361

Manghishlak Peninsula, 216, 269

Manghits, 233

Munglix, 124

Mango River, 424

Manguna, 437

Mani'h River, 67

Manigonians, 147

Manrap, Mount, 101

Manuo, 468

Marcaiida, 272

Mard-ab, 130

Margbilan, 270 ' '

Murgiana, 478

Maiiiiisk, 351, 446

Marka-kul, 331

Markiin-BU River, 171

Marukh, Mount, 60

Mashtagi, 130

Miisis, Mount, 132

Miiskovskoye, 3«6

Mauka Cove, 46H

Maverantmhr, 262

Maya River, 388

Muzaii^, 235

ilazar-i-shortf, 24.S

Mazduran, 271

Mejuda River, 122

Mekran, 6

MekhitaristB, 147

Merke River, 182

Me-khong Ifiver, 13

Melchihi River, 69

Meru, 478

Merv, 260, 476, 478

Meshed, 480

Mesk MonntainB, 86

Miankal. 261

Michish River, 61

Migrations, As ati'-, 13

Migri, 149

Mikhai o-SemyonovoBk, 445

Mikhailovsk, 483
Miiigilke, Mount, 188
Mingrelians, 94
Mining Industries, 467
l^Iinuxinsk, 363, 362
Mir, 463
Mipjeghi, 80
Mkinvari, Mount, 64
Mogol-tau, 278
Mohamedabad, 481

MolokaneB, 120

Mongols, 23, 326

Mortviy-kultuk, 212, 218

Motors, 367

Mozdok, 64, 76

Mtzkhet, 112, 123

Mugan, 105

Muja), 88

Muk-su River, 173

Munku-Bardik, Mount, 364, 367

Murad, 131

Miiraviov, 467-8

Murgh-ab, Merv, 203, 260
Pamir. 202

Muyun-kum, 193

Muz-art Pm88, 186, 188

Muz-art-tau, 185

Muztagh-ata, Mount, 169

Muz-iau, Mount, 189

Mztmta River, 61

NHJebo, Mount, 90
Kakhichevan, 149
Namangan, 270
Namollo, 410
Narat Mountains, 181
Nara-tau, 181
Nargiri Isliinii, 108
Nari River, 249
Narim, 332, 336, 361
Narin Fort, 188

River, 185, 199
NarinkMleh, 87
Narzau, 74

NMilkat, 276
Neiva River, 347
Nopia-tzkaro, Mount, 90
Neiom-kura, 346
Neriinla, 148
Neviansk, 34fi. 347 -
N«w Siberia, 389
Nian-shan Slountains, 182
Niiis. 262

Nib-kiimb, 263 ,*

Nigidals, 437
Niine-Tagilsk, 340
Nijne-Udinsk, 363, 381
Nijiiyayii-Tunguskii, 364, 364
Nikobar Island, 18
Nikolaya, 44

Amur, 440-7
Nikolayevskaya, 04
Nini-ilardan. 271
Nin-yuan, 286
Nissa, 262
Nitza River, 347
Nogui Tatars, 73
Nohwandan, 481
Nomin mingin-gobi. 179
Novaya Zemlya, 304
Nov.'-AlexandrnvBk, 218
Bayazet, 491
Dmitryevskoie, 491
Georgyevcko'ie, 491
Nikolayevsk, 474
Roxsiisk, 39, 61
Troiizkaya, 491
Nukha, 128

Nukii-daban, Mount, 367
Nukus, 2U4, 283
Nura-tau, 173, 200
Nuskan Pass, 240
Nyerchinsk, 443
Steppe, 420
Nyerchinskiy Zavod, 443

Ob Basin, 329

River, 300, 329, 334
Obdorsk, 361

Ogurchinskiy Island, 216, 218
Oigur River, 322
Oi-kul, 202
Oka River, 362, 368
Okhota River, 442
Okhotsk, 442

Mountains, 7
Sea, 431

Olenyok River, 383

Olga, 447

Gulf, 431, 433

Olkhon Island, 368

Oloknia River. 386, 388

Olokminsk, 398, 468

Olti, 100

River, 91

Om River, 333

Omsk, 360

" Onion " MountainB, 4

Onkilnn, 410

Onon River, 420

Ordubat, 138, 149

Orkhon River, 419

Orkhu-nor, 189

Oioches, 436

Oroks, 466

Orpiri, 97

Osh, 276

Oahtek, Mount, 41, 60

Oshten, 4t

Osses, 67

Ostiakii, 340

602

INDEX.

Otkaznoio, 7/>
Uxus Uiver, 202

rakaran, UG
Pnlasostom, Luke, 90

Panibak, Mount, 137

Pamir, 165

Panja Kiver, 240 '

Panj Deh, 479

Pito-tui-tze, 4J8

Partav, 12S

PassanaAr, 6o

PassiB-mta, Mount, 89

Patience, Gulf of, 448

Ptttigorsk, 7 a

Pechonoghs, 23

r.-chora Hivor, 338

Pelim, 346, 461

PcninsuluB of Asia, 16

Penjiikent, 272

Penjina, 442

Gulf, 407 i

Penshambe, 275

Porli-dagh, 131

Perm, 1

Perovsky, Fort, 200
Persians, 234
Petro-Alexandrovsk, 283
Petropavlovsk, 349, 416
Petrov Glacier, 198
Potrovsk, 86
Phiwis liivtfr, 68
Pishan, 178
Piiniak, 204
Piizuuda, 51, 61
Plaalun Gulf, 431
Plateaux of Asia, 1
Podkuinok River, 76
Poronai River, 452
Posolskoye, 380
Possiet Bay, 417, 447-8
Poti, 98-9
Port Imperial, 447
Praskoveya, 75
Pribilov Islands, 408
Protok River, 62
Pshavs, 116
Pskhuv, Mount, 51
Pyasina River, 382

Racha, 94
Rachiaiis, 94
Railway Priijoct.9, 472
Raira, 283
Rainfall of Asia, 14,

Caucasus, 40
Bang-kul, 169
Rani Mountains, 138
Redout-Kaleh, 98
Regar, 255
Reshd, 156
Riddersk, 328
Rion ]{iver, 96
River Systems of Armenia, 139

Asia, 12

Central Caucasus, 65

East Caucasus, 79

Georgia, 101

Kulja, 192

Manchuria, 422

Siberia, 300, 330, 334, 352, 373,
384, 388 '

Turkestan, 193

West Caucasus, 60
Roshan, 202, 253

River, 263
Russians, 120, 236, 818, 326, 440

Sagai, 368

Sagalatlo, Mount, 90
8aglik, 165
Sairam Lake, 182
Sakhalin Islumi, 448
Salai'r Mountains, 328
Salor, 220
Salyani, 13n
Samagirs, 437
Samarkand, 272
Samarkand-tau, 257
Samarova, 350
tSainoyedes, 344
Samsar Volcano, 101
Sannir River, 79
i^ancharo, 60
Santash Pass, 182
Sarakhs, 251, 480 :

Sarapaues, 90 U

i^ardarabad, 140
Sarghilan River, 243
Sari-dagh, 78 ^

Sarijassi River, 186
Sari-JHSsi-tau, 186
Sari-kamiBh, 207, 212
Sariks, 220
Siirikul, 202-3
Saripul, 246, 248
Sari-su River, 194, 200
Sarkad, 238

River, 238-0
Sarkan Ri\er, 193, 265
Sajics, 234
Sartlnm, Lake, 332
Sassik-kul, 192
Saudal, 176
Sailru, Mount, 189
Savan Mountains, 322, 364, 366
Sefenga River, 362, 364
Selenginsk, 379
Sel-su River, 174
Semipalatinsk, &49
Semirechinsk, 182, 192
Semirechinskiy Krai, 193
Semonovka, 147
Semur River, 79
Semyonov, Mount, 184
Serdze-Kamen, 3U9
Sorebrakovskaya, 67
Sergiopol, 284
Seri-ob-nor, 182
Severia, 293

Shabin-dabag, Mount, 322
fehadrinsk, 349
Shah-dagh, 78
Shah-i-mardan River, 276
Shalbuz-dagh, 78
Sh«lik-tau, 185
Shamakhi, 129
Shamkhor Column, 124
Shamsi Pass, 1 88
Shan-alin Mountains, 426
Shantar Archipelago, 431
Sharikhan, 276
Sharojwn, 96
Shartash, Lake, 349
Shash Uiver, 199
Shchurovskiy Glacier, 173
Shehr-i-sobs, 256
Sheik jeili. Mount, 200
Shelveli, Mount, 176
Shemakha, 107, 109, 129
Shevelynch Volcano, 401
Shialis, 156
ShiWrkhan, 246, 248
Shibo, 232
Shignan, 169, 202, 263

Shikov, Cape, 109
Shilka River, 420
•Shirabad, 256
Shirabad-daria River, 266
Shirikum, 105
Shusha, 128

Mountains, 138

Siborin, 2y t

New, Island, 388

Siberians, 4U3

Sibir, 293

Sibiryaks, 463

Siuos, 232

Signakh, 128

8i-hai, L»Vo, 191

Sihun River, 2(i0

Sikhota alin Muu tains, 422

Sim River, 334, 354

Sir-daria Rivor, 198

Sirikol, 167

Sitirti Pass, 188

Sizim River, 362

Slav-, U»

SoSisk, 446

Sogd River, 212, 262

Sogdiana, 252

Soghanli-dagh, 130

Soglik, 125

Sogol River, 272

Sokhondo Mountains, 419, 423

Solons, 232

Somkhet Mountains, 137

Son-kul, 187

Soyons, 358

Soyots, 3o6

Sredne-Kolimsk, 399

Sredne-Yegorlik River, 64

Stanovoi Mountains, 399, 417

Stark Bay, 431

Stavropol, 64

Stretensk, 443

Sufld-koh, 248

Sulfdn River, 422

Suiagird, 248

Sukhum-Kaleh, 39, 60

Sulak River, ^h~Q

Sunga River, 68

Sungacha River, 427

Sungari River, 425

Sunnites, 156

Surakhan, 109

Suram, 122

Mountains, 42
Surghab Kiver, 172, 202, 244
Surgut, 351
Sus?ik kul, 171
Svania, 92
Svans, 92-3

Tagharma Mountains, 4, 169

Ta^l River, 346
'J'aimir Pi

I'aimir Peninsula, 299, 382
Taimira River, 382
Taimura River, 366
Tajiks, 234
Takhta-kuvat, 255
Takht-i-pul, 248
Takht i-Suliman, 243, 276
Talas-tau, 187
Taldik River, 206
Talgar, Mount, 176, 188
Tali khan, 246
Talish Mount4«in8, 107

Town, 146
Talisbes, 119
Talki Mountains, 182
Tamon, 62

IJape, 109

iver, 420

, 266

•daria Kiver, 266

, 109

ntains, 138
yt

Island, 388
, 403

,463

128

it", 191

er, 200

liii Mnu tains, 422

, 334, 354

Kiver, 198

s, 188

it, 362

r, 212, 262

262

lagh, 130

r, 272

Mountains, 419, 423

[ounlains, 137

*7
8

timsk, 399
jorlik River, 64
lountains, 399, 417
431
34
143
248

;r, 422
18

tleh, 39, 60
•, 7^-9
r, 68
tiver, 427
'er, 425
16
09

lino, 42

iver, 172, 202, 244

171

Fountains, 4, 169
346

asula, 299, 382
er, 382
'er, 366

it, 266
248

man, 243, 276
7

•, 206

nt, 176, 188
5

tAins, 107
16

tins, 182

Taman Poninaula, 60, 63
'I'liniiu-ola Mountains, 362
Turn, 330
I iiragni Itivor, 199
'I'lininchi, 232
I'lirbagatai Mountains, 189
Tnrei, Luko. 4;!0
Tiiriin Hiver, 10, 167
Tarki, 86
Ta-eiovskoyo. 360
'I'lishkond, 278
Trtsh-kiirf,'.!', 26, 166
Tash-r bat, 18S
Tii8-tau Mountains, 189
Tataw, 19, 56, 119, 326, 338, 356
Kumik, 93, 86
Nogai, 485
Tatary v^trait, 434, 449
I'ats, 86
Taurus. 3
Tavda Rver, 346
Tavgi, ;<44
Taz Kiver, 337, 361
Tazi, 437
Tazovka, 361
Tebulo8-mta, 77, 78
Tekesltiver, 1H2, 192
Tekke, 220, 476
Teletzkoyo, Lake, 322
Telev, 127-8
Temir-Khan-Shura, 86
Temurlik Moiiniains, 182
Temnlk, 62, 61
Tenjcn River 251
Ten'tek I'ass, 1>2
'i'entiak 8or, 215
Tepli Mountains, 64
Terek River, 68
Terek-da van, 175, 276
Termez, 256
Ters-agar, 176
Ters-airik River, 189
Terskei Ala-tau, 187
Terter River. l:m
Tian-shan Mountains, 2, 176
Tiani, Mount, 452
Tibet, 2
Tibetans, 20
Tiflis, 123
Tigris River, 13
Tim River, 453
Tir, 429

Titari Island, 386
Tkhfan-dagh, 78
Tobol Kiver, 333
Tobolsk, 333, 350
Tokmak, 284
T'okran River, 192
Tolbaeha, Mount, 401
Tom River, 361
Tomsk, 361
Ton-kin, 8
Tonu River, 207
Topography, Altai", 327
Rering Peninsula, 416
Bokhara, 267
Cintral Caucasus, 73
East Caucasus, 80
Georgia, 120
Kulja, 284
I^iia Basin, 398
lilanchuria, 442
Rion Basin, 96
Russian Armenia, 146
Sakhalin, 457
Turkestan, 272
West Caucasus, 00

INDEX.

Topography, West Siberia, 316

Yenisei Basin, 378
Toporovan, I^ako, lOi
Tortum River, 90
'I orusk, 190 V.

Toyu-boyin, •-'04
Trade of the Caucasus, 164

Siberia, 409
Trnkt, 471

Trans- Alai'Mouutiiins, 108, 175
Transbaikalia, 301. : 64
TVans-Ciispian Territory, 4S0-1
Transcaucasia, 34
Trialetes Mountains, 101 *

Troitzk, 349
Troitzko-savsk, 379
Truibor, Mount, 8S
Tsung-ling Mountains, 4
Tubnlars, 357
Tak-kanigan, 218
Tumatskiy River, 387
Tumen, 347
Tumkent, 283
T'unguses, 358,375,436
Tunguska River, 354
Tunka, 366, 380"
Tura River, 333, 347
Turan, 163
Turmiiins 220
Turfan, 178
Turgen River, 183

Town, 2.S6
T'urinsk 347
Turka, 380
Turkestin, 161

Afghan, 16). 237

Russian, 160, 268

Town, 283
Turkey. 233
TOrki Race, 19
Turkmansheir. 475
Turkmeninns, 220
Turkomans, 73, 220
Turug-art, 188
Turukhan River, 364
Turukhansk, 363
Turuks. 233
Turyeika River, 364
Tdshes, 116
Tuskane, 200
Tuz-i.ltin dara River, 173
Twapse, 61
Tzea-kokh Mountains, 64

TJba River, S>8, 362
Ubsa-nor River, 322
Ueh-kurgan, 276-7
Ud River, 421
Uda River, 381
Udskoy Ostrog, 442
Ugodai, 327
Uglich, 461
Uffus-bas, Mount, 186
Uigurs, 233
Ujarskaya, 284
Ukhbukanos, 84
Ulan River, 199
Ulba River. 328
ITliasutai, 41
Ulu-kem River, 362
Ulungur, Like, 330

River, 321, 331
University, 473
Ura-tepe, 278

Mountains, 173
Urals, 469

SOB

Urgenj, 205

Uiiankhs, 367

Ur-koshar Mountains, 189

Urs-kokh, Mount, 64

Urukh River, 68

Urumtsi, 178

Urus-Martan, 78
: Us Uiver, 35+
; Ushba, Mount, 36

Usolka River, 360
I Ust-Kamenrgorsk, 327, 332, 340
' Ust-Kiakhta, 379

Ust-Olunskoie, 384

Ust-urt, I'lateau 20^, 216

UsuriOulf, 43i
River, 427

Uzbegs, 233

Uz bel Pass, 175

Uzboi liivcr, 207

I zghent, 276

Vadil, 277
Vagarshabad, 147
Vakh, 324
Vakhsh River, 254
Vak-shu River, 202
Vardandzi, 260
Vardoj River. 243
Varzaminor, 276
Vedeno, 86

Vcrkhnaya Tunguska, 376
Verkhnye-Udinsk, 380
Veskhniy-pristen, 327
Verkho-Lensk, 3i>2
Turie, 346
Yansk, 15, 398-9
Mountains, 388

Vemiy, 284

Victoria Gulf, 432
Lake, 202

Viliii River, 384, 386

Viiaisk, 399

Vitim River, 385
Plateau, 385

Vitziri, Mount, 78

Vladikavkaz, 76

Vladimir, 447
Gulf, 431

Vladivostok, 447

Voguls, 338

Voikar River, 338

WakhHn, 238
Wakhi, 238
Waksli River, 254
Wamur, 263
Wi-tagh. 169
Wrangell L>ind, 392

Yablonoi Mountains, 419

Y'agnaubs, 236

Yajiij, 216

Yakuts, 393

Yakutsk. 398

Yak-tash Mountains, 199

River, 199
Yalmal Peninsula, 337
Y..lutorovsk, 349-60
Yaman-su River. 200
Y'ana River, 388
Yanp-tso-kiang, 13
Yani-chinaz, 278
Yani- daria River, 200
Yani-su Kiver, 206
Yaniurgeuj, 206, 267

y^i

604

YHshil-kni, 109
Yiisi, 282
Yhsscs, 59
YnxHit()f(,ltivpr, 199
Yazova Hiver, 33rt
Yegorlik, f>4
YolfHterinliiirff, 348
Yokatoi inodiir, 64
YekaterinogrMd, 76
Yeisk, H5
Yokhoi, I^iko, 3G0

Hivor, 334
Yelizavetpol, 126
Yeloffui, 364
Yenisei Kiver, 300, 362

INDEX.

Yenigoisk, 363
Yosontuki, 74
Yozid B, 146
Yomuds, 220
Yom Kivor, 101
Yuknghirs, 396
Yuldtiz Ijakcs, 179
Mountains, 179
Yulutan, 479
Yu-pi-to-tz', 437
Ytiraks, 344
Yiirehi, 256

Zaisnn, 331

Lake, 179,331

Zanga Rivor, 147
ZiinniH Kiver, 181
Zarafshan Glacit-r, 202

Kiver, 202, 272
Ziirdeo Kivnr. 243
Ziiiiku M lint, 188
Zavitaya Kiver, 443
Zelupchiik River, 40
Zilga-kokh Mountains, 64-6
Zikiiri Moiintiiins, 36, 64-6
Ziryanovsk, 328
Zinoinogorsk, 327
Zuchan. 253
Zungaria, 165
Zyeya Kiver, 421,424

"V. -., , y

■•.'::V; %:

END OF VOL. I.

\5"N\

"Wj-'ilj l ;^ . I . '• ■ " ■^■^I'l

(?a Rivor, 147

tiiH Wiver, 181

ifshnn GlHcitT, 202

Kivor, 202, 272

leo Kivnr. 243

<a M lint, 188

taya Kiver, 443

ichuk River, 40

i-kokh Mountains, 04-5

ri Moiintiiins, 30, 64-&

tnovsk, 328

inogorsk, 327

an. 253

raria, 1(0)

a Itiver, 421,4^6